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Journal of Asian

i

No. 27 August 201 1

Uu

THE NATURAL

HISTORY MUSEUM

3 0 AUG 2011

PURCHASED

TRING LIBRARY

Forktail 27 (2011)

OBC Council

Stephen Browne (Co-Chairman, Conservation Committee)

David Buckingham (Co-Chairman, Conservation Committee)

Nigel Collar (Chairman, Publications Committee)

Mike Edgecombe (Promotions)

John Gregory (Treasurer)

Tim Loseby (Art and Photographic Editor)

Steve Rowland

Tony Sawbridge (Secretary)

Graeme Spinks

Brian Sykes (Chairman)

Margaret Sykes (Membership Secretary)

Jo Thomas (Promotions)

Richard Thomas (Advertising)

Alan Wilkinson (Internet)

Publications Committee

Stuart Butchart, Nigel Collar, Tim Loseby, Rene Pop, Nigel Redman, Simon

Roddis, Brian Sykes, Richard Thomas

Conservation Committee

Nick Brickie, Stephen Browne, Dave Buckingham, Francis Buner, Mike

Crosby, John Fellowes, Jim Wardill, Simon Wotton

The Oriental Bird Club has been established for ornithologists

throughout the world, both amateur and professional, who share

a common interest in the region's birds and wish to assist in their

conservation.

The Club aims to:

• Promote interest in the birds of the Oriental Region and their

conservation

• Liaise with, and promote the work of, existing regional

organisations

• Collate and publish material on Oriental birds

OBC Representatives

Susan Myers (Australia)

Paul Thompson (Bangladesh)

Filip Verbelen (Belgium)

Keo Omaliss (Cambodia)

Tony Gaston (Canada)

Ding Chang-qing (China)

Jiri Mlikovsky (Czech Republic)

Klaus Mailing Olsen (Denmark)

Hannu Jannes (Finland)

Axel Braunlich (Austria and Germany)

Paul Leader (Hong Kong)

Janos Olah (Hungary)

Asad Rahmani and Vishnu Singh (India)

Ria Saryanthi (Indonesia)

Chris Murphy (Ireland)

Carlo Violani (Italy)

Akira Hibi (Japan)

Jin-Young Park (Korea)

Mike Chong, Ooi Chin Hock and Anthony Wong (Malaysia)

Charles Anderson (Maldives)

Nyambayar Batbayar (Mongolia)

Tony Htin Hla (Myanmar [Burma])

Yub Raj Basnet (Nepal)

Jelle Scharringa and Bas van Balen (Netherlands)

Jan 0ve Gjershaug (Norway)

Aleem Ahmed Khan (Pakistan)

Carmela Espanola and Arne Jensen (Philippines)

Ray Tipper (Portugal)

Fang Woei-horng (Taiwan)

Lim Kim Seng (Singapore)

Adam Riley (South Africa)

Sarath Kotagama and Upali Ekanayake (Sri Lanka)

Jonas Nordin (Sweden)

Beat Wartmann (Switzerland)

Philip Round and Pajaree Intravooth (Thailand)

Robert Kennedy (USA)

Jonathan Eames and Nguyen Cu (Vietnam)

Membership of OBC

Ordinary Member £15p.a.

Family Member £20 p.a.

Reduced Rate Member £10 p.a.

For Oriental nationals resident in the region.

We encourage all members to pay the full

rate if they can afford it

Supporting Member £25 p.a.

Funding one Oriental member in addition

to Ordinary membership

Libraries and Academic Institutions £25 p.a.

Business Supporter £45 p.a.

The Oriental Bird Club is a Registered Charity No. 297242

For further information please write to:

Oriental Bird Club, P.O. Box 324, Bedford MK42 OWG, U.K.

OBC email address OBC website

mail@orientalbirdclub.org http://www.orientalbirdclub.org/

The presentation of material in this publication and the geographical designations employed do not imply the expression of

any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Oriental Bird Club concerning the legal status of any country, territory or area, or

concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

Cover picture: Amur Falcon Falco amurensis, north-east China, May 2010

by Martin Hale

ISSN 0950-1746

© Oriental Bird Club 201 1

FORKTAIL

Number 27, 201 1

Acting Editor

N. J. Collar

the natural

history museum

3 0 AUG 2011

PURCHASED

TRING library

Associate Editors

Jeremy Bird, David Buckingham, Stuart Butchart, Will Duckworth, Eben Goodale, John Pilgrim and Jack Tordoff

CONTENTS

RISHAD NAOROJI

Breeding of the Red-headed Falcon Falco chicquera in Saurashtra, Gujarat, India . 1

VINAYA KUMAR SETHI, DINESH BHATT, AMIT KUMAR & ARCHANA BHATT NAITHANI

The hatching success of ground- and roof-nesting Red-wattled Lapwing Vanellus indicus in Haridwar, India . 7

J. W. DUCKWORTH, P. D. ROUND & R. J.TIZARD

The Yellow-throated Fulvetta Alcippe cinerea in Indochina . 1 1

LISA MARIE J. PAGUNTALAN, PHILIP GODFREY JAKOSALEM, MARKUS LAGERQVIST, JONAS NORDIN, GEORGINA FERNANDEZ,

MICHAEL DE LA CRUZ & AGATON BAYSA

Bird observations on the Zamboanga Peninsula, Mindanao, Philippines . 1 5

JAMES A. FITZSIMONS, JANELLE L. THOMAS & MARC ARGELOO

Occurrence and distribution of established and new introduced bird species in north Sulawesi, Indonesia . 23

N.J. COLLAR

Species limits in some Philippine birds including the Greater Flameback Chrysocolaptes lucidus . 29

I. A. WOXVOLD & R. A. NOSKE

Birds of kerangas, converted lands, mixed dipterocarp and riparian forests in Central and East Kalimantan, Indonesia . 39

BEN WIELSTRA, TJALLE BOORSMA, SANDER M. PIETERSE & HANS H. de IONGH

The use of avian feeding guilds to detect small-scale forest disturbance: a case study in East Kalimantan, Borneo . 55

COLIN R. TRAINOR

The waterbirds and coastal seabirds of Timor-Leste: new site records clarifying residence status, distribution

and taxonomy . 63

MARTJAN LAMMERTINK

Group roosting in the Grey-and-buff Woodpecker Hemicircus concretus involving large numbers of shallow cavities . 74

ABNER A. BUCOL, LEONARDO T. AVERIA, ANGEL C. ALCALA & LIRIO CORDOVA

New records of birds for the Gigantes Islands, Iloilo Province, Philippines . 78

Short Notes

FANGYUAN HUA, WILLIAM MARTHY, DAVID LEE & MUHAMMAD NAZRI JANRA

Globally threatened Sunda Blue Flycatcher Cyornis caerulatus: synthesis of global records and recent records

from Sumatra . 83

SAYAM U. CHOWDHURY

Some significant avifaunal records from Bangladesh, including first record of Black-headed Bunting

Emberiza melanocephala . 85

ANDREW DIXON, NYAMBAYAR BATBAYAR & GANKHUYAG PUREV-OCHIR

Autumn migration of an Amur Falcon Falco amurensis from Mongolia to the Indian Ocean tracked by satellite . 86

CHANG-YONG CHOI, JONG-GIL PARK, NIAL MOORES, EUN-MI KIM, CHANG-WAN KANG, HYUN-YOUNG NAM & SEOG-MIN KIM

The recent increase of the Red-billed Starling Sturnus sericeus in the Republic of Korea . 89

S. (BAS) van BALEN & H. H. (ERIK) EGGENKAMP

First record of Red-rumped Swallow Hirundo daurica in Wallacea

91

Forktail 27(2011)

IMAM TAUFIQURRAHMAN

Nesting record of Blood-breasted Flowerpecker Dicaeum sanguinolentum in Gunung Merapi National Park,

Yogyakarta, Indonesia . 92

MASAYOSHI KAMIOKI, NORITOMO KAWAJI, KIMIKO KAWAJI & KEISUKE UEDA

A predation attempt by an Oriental Cuckoo Cuculus optatus on Asian Stubtail Urosphena squameiceps nestlings . 93

COLIN R. TRAINOR, IMANUDDIN & JON WALKER

Heuglin's Gull Larus heuglini on Wetar Island, Banda Sea: the first Indonesian record . 95

THARMALINGAM RAMESH, KALYANASUNDARAM SANKAR & QAMAR QURESHI

Status of vultures in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Western Ghats, India . 96

K. S. GOPI SUNDAR

Farmland foods: Black-necked Stork Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus prey items in an agricultural landscape . 98

N.J. COLLAR

Taxonomic notes on some Asian babblers (Timaliidae) . 1 00

DING LI YONG

Eating aliens: diet of the Grey-headed Fish-eagle Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus in Singapore . 1 02

ALEXANDER C. LEES, JEREMY P. BIRD, SAYAM U. CHOWDHURY & ROBERT W. MARTIN

Status of Red-throated Pipit Anthus cervinus in Bangladesh . 1 04

ROSEMARY LOW

What is Psittacus borneus? . ^05

ROBERT DeCANDIDO, CHATUPHON SAWASDEE, DAMIAN SMITH, CHUKIAT NUALSRI & DEBORAH ALLEN

Observations on the 2009 southbound migration of three bee-eater species at Radar Hill, Thailand . 1 06

TIZIANO LONDEI

Podoces ground-jays and roads: observations from the Taklimakan Desert, China . 1 09

ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY

Records of Black-breasted Parrotbill Paradoxornis flavirostris from Manas National Park, Assam, in north-east India . 1 1 1

J. DEL HOYO& N.J. COLLAR

Acrobatic copulatory display in the Black-crowned Barwing Aetinodura sodangorum . 1 1 2

LE MANH HUNG, MARK B. ROBBINS, NATHAN H. RICE, ERICK A. GARCIA-TREJO, STEVEN M. ROELS & SARAH A. BODBYL-ROELS

Preliminary survey of the avifauna at Dong Nai Culture and Nature Reserves, Dong Nai province, Vietnam . 1 1 4

TSHERING CHOKI, JIGME TSHERING, TSHEWANG NORBU, UTE STENKEWITZ & JAN F. KAMLER

Predation by leopards of Black-necked Cranes Grus nigricollis in Bhutan . ] 1 7

XIN LU & JOCHEN MARTENS

Nesting notes of the White-browed Tit Parus superciliosus in alpine scrub habitats in Qinghai and Tibet, China . 1 1 9

Guidelines for contributors

inside back cover

Forktail 27(2011)

Editorial notes

The growing number of contributions to Forktail, combined with

the need to keep the postage costs to a minimum, led to a decision

this year to restyle the journal and reduce the space occupied by

each contribution. As it happens, the number of main contributions

this year dropped slightly, leaving us with a somewhat thinner-

than-usual issue. However, we are henceforth able to publish more

_ material within the page lengths typical of recent issues, and on

behalf of all associated with OBC I thank Peter Creed for the carefully

thought-through and very elegant new design on show here.

One new 'design' of our own is the use of capital letters for the

family names of authors in their addresses at the end of each paper.

This applies to all authors but it particularly aims to distinguish the

family names of Asian authors for citation purposes. In many cases

Asian authors place their family name first, but in more westernised

cultures (e.g. Hong Kong, Singapore) this tradition is often dropped.

The resulting confusion can be considerable, with the same author

cited under different names. In Forktail 27, we have lead authors

Ding Li Yong, Le Manh Hung and Xin Lu, and it is important for

consistency and clarity that readers wishing to cite their papers

know how to do so. The answers can be found where you find their

email addresses. (This is not to pretend that the system is foolproof,

and we are aware that confusion may continue in cases where names

involve patronymics, as in Mongolia.)

In 2009 I became 'Acting Editor' of Forktail, but only in my

capacityasChairmanofOBC's Publications Committee. The position

of Editor remains vacant, and applications are invited. Meanwhile,

to help with the task of processing material I have extended the

associate editorship to seven members, Jez Bird, Dave Buckingham,

Stuart Butchart, Will Duckworth, Eben Goodale, John Pilgrim and

Jack Tordoff, and I must place on record my sincere thanks to all of

them for their solid support, without which this issue would not

have appeared; the same goes for Brian and Margaret Sykes, who

have played their usual vital, selfless, behind-the-scenes role in the

production of Forktail 27.

This year Forktail has been 'indexed' as a peer-reviewed journal

by the Institutefor Scientific Information (ISI), which uses the number

of times papers are cited in other such journals to assess overall

value to the scientific community ('impact'). With an impact factor

of 0.842, Forktail has achieved a ranking above several much longer

established and better known international ornithological journals.

This may have the effect of attracting more academic papers with

stronger scientific components; but, welcome as such a

development might be, I should reaffirm that the scope of Forktail

remains as broad as it was when the journal was founded, and it will

keep its doors open to contributions from anyone with valuable

original material on the subject of Asian birds. It is perhaps worth

noting, however, that first national records of species and other

material of that type are now largely being carried by the OBC sibling

publication BirdingASIA, especially when these are accompanied

by photographs.

N. J. Collar

FORKTAIL 27 (2011): 1-6

Breeding of the Red-headed Falcon Falco chicquera

in Saurashtra, Gujarat, India

RISHADNAOROJI

Two nests of Red-headed Falcon Falco chicquera were studied in 1 988 near Jasdan in Gujarat, India. The nests were in trees in areas of dense

human population. One nest with one young was followed intensively. Activity of the male partner was influenced by the (much more frequent)

vocalisations of the larger female. Prey at both nests was almost entirely birds, from the size of pigeons down to sparrows. Hunting patterns,

prey delivery, caching, roosting and brooding behaviour are described, along with activity and development of the nestling. Territorial aggression

was high within 25 m of the nest, mostly directed against House Crows Corvussplendens, and increased with nestling age. The nestling was fed

almost exclusively by the female, roughly 4-5 times daily, mainly before 1 2h00 and (to a lesser degree) after 1 5h00; it fledged at 48 days, an

apparently late date perhaps related to the lateness of the season (end of May, a month later than previously recorded in India).

INTRODUCTION

Little is known about the Red-headed Falcon Falco chicquera in

India. Although widely distributed, it is uncommon throughout

the subcontinent and a rare resident in the north-east (Naoroji

2006). Breeding biology and ecology are little known except for a

few published observations by Dharmakumarsinhji (1954), Dharap

(1974), Gole (1980), Ingalhallikar (1988) and Subramanya (1982,

1985). The African subspecies — recently suggested as distinct at

the species level (Wink & Sauer-Gtirth 1980) — has been studied in

more detail by Colebrook-Robjent & Osborne (1974) and Osborne

(1981). The species is not easy to detect owing to its small size,

crepuscular habits and penchant for perching in foliage. It frequents

open habitat interspersed with groves of trees, cultivation and

villages, avoiding dense forest (Dharmakumarsinhji 1954, Ali &

Ripley 1978, Cade & Digby 1982, Naoroji 2006). Here I describe

aspects ofbehaviour during the nestlingperiod based on observations

at two nests in Gujarat, one located on 23 April 1988 at Gundala

with two three-day-old young (the smaller died soon after hatching),

the other located on 28 April 1988 at Alan Baug with three almost

fledged young.

STUDY AREA

Both nests were close to Jasdan town, in the Saurashtra peninsula

of Gujarat. Gundala village is a bustlingcattle camp (necessitated in

1 988 by a third consecutive year of drought), approximately 300 m

from the Bileshwar temple grove. The Alan Baug complex is a mixed,

degraded and disturbed planted grove of 4 ha within the environs

of a sheep-rearing station adjacent to the Alan Sagar reservoir,

adjoining the village of Bhakhalvad. Gundala and Alan Baug are

about 26 km and 5 km respectively from Jasdan, and 19 km apart.

The open habitat, interspersed with groves of trees, cultivation,

reservoirs and villages, ideally suits the species. Frequent dust storms

accompanied by strong winds in April/May occasionally uproot

trees and blow down nests. Temperatures of up to 49°C were

recorded in May 1988.

METHODS

The Gundala nest was observed from a 14 m high hide built around

an amli T amarindus indicus for support (referred to hereafter as the

hide tree) for a total of 126 hours, from 27 April to 14 June 1988,

when the young fledged. Daily observations commenced on the

eleventh day from 06h00 to 1 2h00 and sometimes up to 1 4h00 and

even 18h00. Dawn-to-dusk observations were not possible owing

to lack of transport and accommodation, and dependence on my

host at Jasdan for facilities. All nest-related activities are therefore

given as frequency rate per hour. Roosting and evening observations

were made from the ground during the late nestling period.

Fledglings from both nests were ringed and measured. The rather

inaccessible Gundala nest was not regularly examined to avoid

disturbance, so growth rate of the young was not determined. Prey

brought to both nests were visually identified whenever possible,

and prey remains intermittently collected from both nests were

identified. Post-nestling stage observations were made mostly at

the Alan Baug nest site.

RESULTS

Previously unreported nesting behaviour linked to calls, hunting,

feeds, prey, territory, interspecific and intraspecific encounters are

described. Although extremely shy in Africa (Osborne 1981), both

pairs I observed were confiding and approachable to 5 - 10 m. The

larger, dominant female influenced the male’s activities. She brooded

and fed the nestling. Prey was frequently cached, even overnight.

The male was occasionally repulsed by the female when he attempted

to take cached prey from the nest, and was once fed by the female for

1 1 minutes. The nest-dependency periodwasaminimumof48 days,

compared to an average of 36 days (range 34-37 days) in Zambia

(Osborne 1981). From plotting sigh tings at Gundala a core territory

comprising a radius of a minimum of 1.5 km around the nest-site

was estimated. An average distance of 2 km between nearest pairs,

i.e. 5.6 kmr per pair, has been estimated amongeight pairs in Zambia

(Colebrook-Robjent & Osborne 1974). Calls associated with specific

behaviour are described, as auditory signals are widely used by raptors.

Nest sites

Both nests were located amidst dense human habitation, originally

built by House Crow Corvus splendens and Shikra Accip iter badi us.

Nests were on alateral crotch on an overhanging branch at the edge

of the main leafy canopy, away from the trunk and three-quarters

up the nest-tree, partially concealed from below and completely

from above.

The Gundala nest was 1 3- 14 m high in an amli tree. The nest-

tree had been severely lopped for fodder but the nest was almost

concealed among newly sprouting stems and leaves. The Alan Baug

nest was 7.5 m high in a mango tree Mangif era indica within a mixed

(mainly mango) planted grove. Nesting elsewhere has been reported

in a Casuarina equisetifolia 24 m high in Bangalore (Subramanya

1982), and over many years on the market square tower in Pune

(Gole 1980). Nests only 3.5-5 m high in stunted trees have been

found in arid areas in Kutch (S. Malik pers. comm.).

2

RISHAD NAOROJI

Forktail 27 (2011)

Vocalisations

The female to some extent influenced the male’s activities through

calls. Harsh high persistent calls, 12-18 in quick succession and

culminating in a crescendo thwee-twee {zn&ingvj\t\\ a metallic ring),

often prompted a sometimes reluctant male to hunt. A repeated

harsh chrrp induced the male to relinquish prey. During the entire

observation period 90% of vocalisation was by the female (n= 133),

reaching the highest frequency during the early to mid-nestling stage

(Fig. 1). Her calls had greater tonal variation, intensity and volume

than the male’s, which were softer, more evenly toned and without

extreme modulation in pitch. Calls by the female usually heralded

the male’s arrival with prey. Both adults vocalised during prey

transfers. The pair warned off intruding conspecifics and mobbing

crows through calls. The highest incidence of calls occurred from

dawn till lOhOO, decreasing from 12h00 to 15h00 during the hot

hours, increasing after 15h00 but much reduced compared to

mornings. The frequency of calls by the male was highest during the

first 16 days, and by the female over days 17-32 of the nestling

period (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Sexual differentiation in levels of vocalisation in a breeding

pair of Red-headed Falcons: male (broken line) and female (continuous

line).

Prey and drinking

Prey from both nests consisted almost entirely of birds. At Gundala,

only birds (mainly doves) averaging 28-130 gm were brought to

the nest. A greater variety of bird species and a bat were recorded

from Alan Baug.

The followingprey species were identified from both nests: Rock

Pigeon Columba livia, European Collared Dove Streptopelia

decaocto , Little Brown Dove S. senegalensis , Indian Cuckoo Cuculus

micropterus, Crested Lark Galerida cristata, myna Acridotheres and

House Sparrow Passer domesticus. Unidentified species of quail,

robin, babbler and a large insect were also recorded. Additionally a

Spotted Crake P. porzana and a large bat (identified from forearm

remains), most likely of genus Rbinopoma , Taphozaus or possibly

Cotophilus , were collected from the Alan Baug nest. Rock Pigeon,

though plentiful, was evidently too large to be regularly taken. A

variety of prey species (mainly birds) has been recorded for the

African race (Brown & Amadon 1968, Osborne 1981, Brown etal.

1982, Cade &c Digby 1982, Steyn 1982).

Between 15h00 to 18h00, mostly 15h00-16h00, the pair

together or singly drank daily from a puddle created by a crack in the

waterpipe below the nest, and sometimes from a trough for cattle.

The species has often been reported drinking at waterholes in the

Namib (Willoughby & Cade 1967).

Hunting, prey delivery and caching

Hunting strategies are described by Dharmakumarsinhji (1954),

Ali & Ripley (1978), Brown et al. (1982), Cade & Digby (1982),

Subramanya (1985) and Naoroji (2006).

After the Alan Baug young fledged, the adults’ hunting

activities became increasingly crepuscular. At Gundala the frequency

of hunts was highest during the mornings, lowest in the afternoon

and intermediate in the evenings. The male hunted as early as 05h00

and as late as 1 9h45 during the dusk. When unsuccessful in the nest

vicinity, he hunted further afield. Of hunts recorded (n=92), the

male hunted alone for 40%, female alone 30%, and the pair together

30% (Figure 2). The duration of hunts could be short (0.5-1

minute), the male returning in 1-5 minutes, but up to 43 minutes

when hunting further afield. After an unsuccessful hunt the male

immediately returned to a favourite lookout perch in the nest

vicinity. No extended chases were observed. Birds were caught in

flight and sometimes close to the ground.

The brooding female at times hunted with the male in the nest

vicinity, both flying off together as if on cue. Usually the male would

fly off followed seconds later by the female. Successful or not she

would abruptly return within 1-2 minutes to brood or nest-watch,

never strayingbeyond 150-250 m from the nest site. Two successful

hunts 1 00- 1 50 m from the nest were witnessed. The male hunted

further afield, well beyond 500 m from the nest mostly in the

direction of Hingolgadh and the Bileshwar grove. After 2 1 days the

female occasionally hunted alone in the nest vicinity and more

frequently with the male. The male would bring partly eaten prey

to the nest, while the female brought prey directly to the nest and

plucked it there. During the late nestling stage her hunting frequency

increased (Figure 2).

Up to 1 lh30, 25-30 hunting sorties singly or cooperatively by

the pair resulted in 3-4 morning feeds. Before the female resumed

hunting average feeds till 12h00 were 2. The female invariably

brooded during the hot hours, when the male occasionally hunted.

The pair mostly hunted in concert during the late nestling stage

from 36 to 48 days.

Attacks were launched from exposed lookout perches on the

hide-tree, hide poles, the nest itself and nearby trees, the birds

scanning for prey, bending low with jerky, vertical bobbing of the

head. These perches also served as feeding posts. Most aerial prey

transfers were within 100 m of the nest.

With visibility considerably reduced during a dust storm the

female hunted much higher in the air than usual. Inclement weather

Figure 2. Changes in the proport ion of time spent hunting by a breeding

pair of Red-headed Falcons: male (broken line) and female (continuous

line).

Forktail 27 (2011)

Breeding of the Red-headed Falcon Falco chicquera in Saurashtra, Gujarat, India

3

(rain or gusty storms) delayed hunting, the first feed occurring at

12h00 using cached prey.

Prey visits averaged 4-5 daily, with highest frequency in the

mornings, a lull between 12h00 and I6h00, and less frequently

during the evenings as late as 19h30. The male would alight with

prey on his feeding post on the hide-tree (rarely at the nest),

whereupon the brooding female would leave the nest to snatch it

from him. After 38 days prey deliveries were irregular. The frequency

of prey brought to the nest was highest till the late nestling period,

tapering off as the nestling fledged (Figure 3).

Whole and partly eaten prey were cached in at least four different

trees (includingthe hide-tree) 5-15 m from the nest, sometimes up

to 150 m away, secured in sharp to right-angled crotches in trees.

Prey was never left in the nest and was either entirely devoured or

carried away by adults. Osborne (1981) and Steyn (1982) reported

excess prey always being cached in nests with young. Caching was

observed as late as 19h48.

Roosting

The pair roosted after 19h00, usually 19h30-20h00. Until the

nestling was almost fledged (37 days) the female invariably roosted

on the nest. The male roosted on either the hide or nest-trees, a

jamun Syzygium cuminii and an amli 18 m and 3.5 m respectively

from the nest. At 38 days he roosted once on an arduso Ailantlms

excelsa 55 m from the nest, and thereafter (39th day onwards)

invariably with the female on another amli 34 m from the nest.

Territorial aggression and nest defence

Perching prominently served primarily for lookout purposes for

hunting and secondarily as territorial advertisement. In a small sample

of 1 4 nest defences, the female did 9, the male 4, both birds 1 . A 25 m

radius around the nest was vigorously defended mostly against crows

(see below). The overall territory protected extended up to a radius

of 70 m from the nest. Most territorial aggression occurred during

mornings and evenings, with increased frequency after the nestling

was 24 days old (Figure 4). When the fledgling began its first flights,

it was escorted and closely guarded by the female from frequent attacks

by crows — hence her elevated aggression at this time.

Brooding

Of 59 hours on the nest, 48 were spent brooding by the female. Pier

average brooding duration was 1 14 minutes. Of total time on the

nest, female brooding constituted 77%, feeding 9% and perching

14%. As the nestling matured, she brooded less (Figure 5). Brooding

terminated at 43 days, six days before the young left the nest.

Tight brooding usually commenced by 07h30, occasionally

earlier subject to weather and the nestling’s age. The female would

half-squat, position herself and settle lightly over the young with

wings partially spread. During the hottest hours, 12h00-l6h00,

during May/June, with temperatures 45-49°C, the nestling was

constantly brooded. Brooding position frequently shifted, always

facing away from the sun.

In May, frequent high gusts of wind (1-3 minutes’ duration)

necessitated constant brooding from 06h30. The brooding female

was often unsettled, making visible efforts to maintain balance.

Mobbing by crows interrupted brooding, once for 30 minutes. The

male briefly relieved the female (3-5 minutes) on three occasions

between 15h00 and 17h00. During one such absence the female

was observed drinking.

The nestling was first left alone at 1 9 days and subsequently for

varyingperiods up to 1 1 7 minutes, despite strongwinds. The female

occasionally brooded but mostly perched 7-9 m from the nest.

During the middle nestling stage, brooding was synchronised with

the hot hours, the female standing or crouching over the nestling.

From 29 days she discouraged it from settling under her; thereafter

it kept in her shadow.

Figure 4. Sexual differentiation in levels of aggression in a breeding

pair of Red-headed Falcons: male (broken line) and female (continuous

line).

Figure 5. Proportions of activities by female over the nestling period.

4

RISHAD NAOROJI

Forktail 27 (201 1)

After 3 1 days brooding tapered off. On the 40th day the female

was absent from the nest but perched nearby. The next day she

brooded from 1 2h30 to 1 5h30. At 42 days she brooded for the last

time, from 13h00 to 13h30.

Feeding the nestling

The female almost invariably fed the young; the male did so just

once, for only two minutes. Feeds averaged 4-5 daily depending

on hunting success. Deliveries were observed as early as 05h30 and

as late as 19h45. Unsuccessful hunting delayed the first feed till

09hll and once till 12h00. The nestling was fed manageable fleshy

morsels; the bones, tarsus and toes of birds up to dove size were

swallowed whole by the adults.

Frequency of feeds was highest 05h30- 1 lhOO, lowest 12h00-

15h00, with a slight increase 15h00-19h30. Not all prey were

brought to the nest. Until the nestling was 19 days old the female

mostly fed at the nest. Thereafter she also fed off the nest. The total

number of kills exceeded the food deliveries to the nest.

Duration of feeds largely reflected prey size and varied unusually

from 1 up to 22 minutes, usually 3- 17 minutes, averaging 10 minutes

per feed (n=44) at the nest (female and young combined), and 8. 14

minutes (n=4l) for young alone. During feeds the nestling

attempted to swallow the tarsi of birds which were withdrawn from

its gape and swallowed by the female, although she continued to

offer tarsi. After 35 days the nestling fed independently, the female

increasingly just dropping in prey (Figure 6). She mostly fed off the

nest, feeding first before delivering prey to the nest. After the young

fed she retrieved the prey remains. The 45-day-old fledgling was

given the first feed of the day by the female after its first flight at

09h50.

The Alan Baug female transferred prey to the free-flying

fledglings on the nest-tree and nearby trees. Increasingly the adults’

deliveries became crepuscular.

A delayed prey transfer by the male (plucking prey or feeding)

often resulted in the female snatching the prey. She twice repeatedly

repulsed the male, who was attempting to seize the prey, by mantling

it and vocalising.

O

Figure 6. Activities of the nestling from hatching to fledging.

Female feeding male

At one point towards the end of the nesting cycle, the male

approached the feeding female and solicited her, incessantly calling

and posturing like a nestling. After 10 minutes she fed him for 1 1

minutes. The young throughout was vociferously begging for

food. This unusual behaviour was observed once. Subramanya

(1985) reported a male being fed by a female during the incubation

stage.

Interspecific encounters

At Alan Baug a Shikra pair drove the independent fledglings from

the nest-tree. However, most interspecific interactions were with

House Crows. Both the Gundala and Alan Baug pairs aggressively

repelled crows within a radius of 16 m from the nest. Crows were

prevented from landing on the furthest roosting trees at Gundala.

The more aggressive female often interrupted brooding to chase off

crows, usually leading the male in the pursuit. The falcons often

made contact, cornering individuals and forcing them into low trees,

hedges or bushes for cover. Crows generally avoided the immediate

nesting area. The falcons’ superior manoeuvrability and speed usually

deterred crows in groups up to three. The Gundala nest was

occasionally mobbed by 8- 1 0 persistent crows, once for 30 minutes.

Crows were attracted to the nest during feeds, especially when the

fledgling fed on its own. On its first flight the Gundala fledgling was

severely mobbed by a pair of crows when it alighted on their nesting

tree and was rescued by villagers roused by the clamour of cawing

crows. Fledged, nest-independent juveniles at Alan Baug were

frequently mobbed by crows.

Conspecifics are not tolerated near the nest. The Alan Baug

pair drove an intruding adult away a considerable distance from the

nest vicinity. The Gundala nest-tree hosted a dove’s nest, but the

adult doves and nestlings were ignored although doves were

frequently hunted.

Activity and development of nestling

Changes in nestling activity over time are shown in Fig. 5. The

nestling defecated into the nest throughout the nestling stage. At

37 days it once defecated over the nest-rim. By 20 days it often wing-

stretched, the frequency and duration increasingtill it fledged. When

perched, it wing-stretched with the tail spread and cocked at the

same angle and direction as the extended wing and leg. Wing-exercise

started at 29 days, increasing till fledged. At 37 days this activity

lasted 2-3 seconds, occasionally up to 1 1 seconds in wind, the

intensity and duration of gusts greatly determining the duration

and frequency of this activity. From 12 days the nestling preened

with increasing frequency, and was occasionally preened by the

female. By 19 days it regularly preened at varying intervals during

the day, for 8-20 minutes.

The nestling cheeped in anticipation of a feed. As it developed,

the frequency of calls sharply increased. At 20 days the cheeps were

more frequent and extended, modulating to a quick staccato when

prey was brought. By 29 days the nestling was overall more vocal,

especially when feeds were delayed or on seeing the adults, which

often responded to its persistent calls (a sharp, high-pitched che cbe

chwee ) by hunting or delivering cached prey.

By 37 days the frequency, variation and volume of calls had

increased. Its calls were indicators of the adult’s proximity to the

nest. Calls were continuous when adults (even without prey) were

in view. Irregular prey visits or adults feeding first would result in

monotonous, continuous calls twee twee twee..., a softer, similar-

pitched version of the female’s, rising to a crescendo after 8-9 single

notes. Prey delivered after a long delay was greeted with a rapid

succession of urgent, progressively higher-pitched staccato notes

terminating in a strident whine.

Feeds

Begging by pecking the bill of an adult resulted in a feed. At 1 0 days

the nestling unsuccessfully attempted to swallow tarsi and feet of

birds. By 2 1 days it was swallowinglarge chunks of flesh and feathers,

and once the tarsus of a lark-sized passerine. At 29 days it was fed a

Crested Lark but swallowed the tarsi and feet only with an effort.

Subsequently it swallowed the legs and feet of a House Sparrow.

At 35 days till independence it increasingly fed itself. When prey

visits were delayed it grabbed and tugged at the female’s bill (with

foot braced on her side for leverage) and pecked her breast, causing

Forktail 27 (2011)

Breeding of the Red-headed Falcon Folco chicquero in Saurashtra, Gujarat, India

5

her to fly off. At 40 days it fed itself on a babbler-sized bird for 38

minutes. Subsequently average feeding duration was 10 minutes

(n=10). From 42 days the increasingly nest-independent fledgling

visited the nest primarily to feed. It first fed away from the nest at 48

days. Thereafter its dependence on the nest for feeds decreased.

Nestling period and fledging

Two newly hatched nestlings were observed in the Gundala nest on

27 April 1988, the first probably having hatched 2-3 days earlier.

On 7 May the nest contained one chick which fledged successfully

on 14 June, thus giving the minimum nestling period of 48 days

(although it first moved outside the nest at 42 days). Until its full

independence at 55 days this fledgling was fed mainly away from

the nest, but roosted in the nest at night.

The fledglings at Alan Baugwere nest-independent within 15

days of their preliminary forays from the nest. Trees in the nest

vicinity (including the nest-tree) were frequented, but mainly a large

peepal Ficus religiosa. Feeding was decidedly crepuscular, the birds

mostly perching in foliage throughout the day. The nest-tree was

decreasingly used for perching and feeding. Eighteen days after nest-

independence, the juveniles travelled beyond the nesting grove.

First flight was at 45 days. At 06h25 the female flew to the nest

and ruffled the juvenile; then, between 06h30 and 08h30, the latter

sluggishly flew a distance of over 200 m. It did not fly the next day

but the day after at 05h55 it flew about 200 m, followed by two

short flights until 07h06. At 09hl5 it flew twice and perched

alongside the male 45 m from the nest. On most flights it was

escorted by the adults, mainly the female. Thereafter it flew

frequently, decreasingly using the nest for feeds but mainly for

roosting, till fully nest-independent at 55 days.

DISCUSSION

The Red-headed Falcon is unspecialised in its choice of nest-trees.

I agree with Ali & Ripley (1978) and Dharmakumarsinhji (1954)

that it prefers breeding in large and small densely foliaged trees, e.g.

mango, neem Azadiracbta indica and Ficus in disused, concealed

nests of mainly House Crow and Shikra. In India the species seldom

breeds in Palmyra palms Borassus. In Africa it breeds mainly in

Borassus , its distribution closely linked with that of the palm,

although it also uses nests of corvids in Acacia. Also it is not generally

associated with human habitation (Brown & Amadon 1968, Brown

1 970, Colebrook-Robjent & Osborne 1 974, Osborne 1981, Brown

et al. 1982, Steyn 1982), whereas the Indian subspecies often nests

in close proximity to villages and in densely populated cities like

Bangalore and Pune (Dharap 1974, Govindakrishnan et al. 1978,

Gole 1980, Subramanya 1982). The distribution of corvid and

Shikra nests, together with the territorial behaviour of the species

itself, probably determines nest-spacing in this falcon, as with the

Greater Kestrel Falco rupicoloides (Hustler 1983).

The minimum nestling period was 48 days, compared to 36 days

reportedfortheAfricansubspecies(Colebrook-Robjent& Osborne

1 974, Osborne 198 1 ). Drought conditions and delayed nesting (after

the optimal period) perhaps retarded the nestling’s growth. As the

species’s range encompasses mainly arid, drought-prone areas,

comparative data are required on the fledging period and nesting

success of pairs over favourable and unfavourable years in relation to

number of young fledged per nest.

The female was clearly the dominant of the pair, reversed sexual

dimorphism (RSD) being pronounced, and she greatly influenced

the frequency of the male’s hunting activity and prey-delivery. Both

pairs reverted to a crepuscular routine during the post-fledgingperiod.

The Alan Baug pair fledged three young by the end of April, the

Gundala pair one young by the end of May. Dharmakumarsinhji

(1954) reports nesting from December- April, Ali & Ripley (1978)

and Subramanya (1982) January-March. In light of this, the

Gundalapair nested exceptionally late. By breedingearly the species

can avoid the storms and high winds of May/June which pose a

threat to trees and nests. Also, early nesters can avail themselves of

migrant passerines coinciding with the early nestling period.

Furthermore the varied habitat at Alan Baug supported a more

diverse prey-base than Gundala. Study may illuminate the causes

and extent to which breeding schedules vary in relation to

fluctuations in the climate and environment, and the effects of

climate on clutch and brood size.

The role of calls in regulating social behaviour and dominance

through courtship, communication, bonding among pairs and nest

defence cannot be underrated. Among most raptors, the larger

females (especially when RSD is pronounced) exert dominance over

males through behavioural and vocal means (Amadon 1975, Cade

& Digby 1982). The Gundala female undoubtedly controlled the

male’s activities to agreat extent through vocalisations by summoning

him with prey, forcing prey transfers and inducing him to hunt.

Through contact and territorial/aggression calls, she was able to

induce the desired responses from the male.

The Red-headed Falcon nests in disturbed village groves and in

avenues lining roads. Loss of cover within its range limits the choice

for suitable nest-sites as trees are cur or lopped for fuel and fodder,

exposingnests to pilfering by village boys andpredators. The smallest

Alan Baugfledglingwas captured by village urchins and subsequently

died. In arid regions where trees are scarce and stunted, excessive

cutting and lopping can disastrously affect nesting success. Two

exposed nests on lopped trees not more than 4 m high, at the edge of

the Little Rann of Kutch, were deserted due to human disturbance

(S. Malik pers. comm.). In drought-affected Saurashtra, stall feeding

of cattle proved immensely successful. Ifwillingly implemented with

government support, the overgrazed land would recover over aperiod

of time, benefiting the villagers, livestock and wildlife. Lopping must

be controlled near known nest sites.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This paper is dedicated to the memory of the late Shivrajkumar Khachar who

located the Gundala nest, promptly informed me, and provided hospitality

and facilities to make this study possible. Godrej A. Dastoor computerised the

data input. The late Dr Ravi Sankaran reviewed the final draft. Dr Ajith Kumar

advised and streamlined the data analysis. S. M. Satheesan and Manoj Muni at

BNHS, and Peter Colston at the British Museum, helped identify the prey

remains. Mansuk Bhai neglected his construction job to help erect the machan.

Shabir Malik provided information on his observations of the species. Special

thanks to the two referees, Lloyd Kiff and the other anonymous, for their

detailed comments and suggestions.

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1 978) Handbookofthe birds of India & Pakistan, 1 . Second

edition. Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Amadon, D. (1975) Why are female birds of prey larger than males? Raptor

Research 9: 1-1 1.

Baker, S. (1 935) Nidification of birds of Indian Empire. London Taylor & Francis.

Brown, L. FI. & Amadon, D. (1968) Eagles, hawks and falcons of the world.

Middlesex, U.K.: Flamlyn.

Brown, L. H. (1970) African birds of prey. London: Collins.

Brown, L. FI. (1974) Data required for effective study of raptor populations.

In Management of raptors. Vermillion, S.D.: Raptor Research Report, 2.

Brown, L. H„ Urban, E. K. & Newman, K. (1982) The birds of Africa, 2. London:

Academic Press.

Cade, T. J. & Digby, R. D. (1982) The falcons of the world. London: William

Collins & Co.

6

RISHAD NAOROJI

Forktail 27 (2011)

Colebrook-Robjent, J. F. R & Osborne, T. O (1974) High density breeding of

the Red-necked Falcon Falco chicquera in Zambia. Bull. Brit. Orn. Club 94:

172-176.

Dharap, R. N. (1 974) Redheaded Merlin nesting in densely populated area.

Newsletter for Birdwatchers 17(10): 1 1-12.

Dharmakumarsinhji, K. S. (1954) Birds of Saurashtra. Dil Bahar, Saurashtra:

published by author.

Gole, P. (1 980) A March bird count in Poona J. Bombay Nat. Hist. 5oc. 77:49-

55.

Govindakrishnan, P. M., Verghese, A. & Chakra varthy, A. K. (1 978) Occurrence

of Red-headed Falcon F. chicquera in Bangalore, Karnataka. J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 75:487.

Hustler, K. (1983) Breeding biology of the Greater Kestrel. Ostrich 54: 1 29-

MO.

Ingalhallikar, S. (1988) Birds of prey around Pune. J. Ecol. Soc. 1 : 59-65.

Johnson, D. R. (1981) The study of raptor populations. University Press of

Idaho.

Khan, M. A. R. (1978) Notes on the ecology and behaviour of the Redheaded

Merlin Falco chiquera chiquera Daudin from Bangladesh J. Asiatic Soc.

Bangladesh (Sc.) 4(1&2): 9-14.

Naoroji, R. K. (2006) Birds of prey of the Indian Subcontinent. London:

Christopher Helm.

Newton, I. (1979) Population ecology of raptors. Berkhamsted, UK:T.& A. D.

Poyser.

Osborne, T. O. (1981) Ecology of the Red-necked Falcon Falco chiquera in

Zambia. Ibis 123: 289-297.

Roberts, T. J. (1991 ) Birds of Pakistan, 1. Karachi: Oxford University Press.

Steyn, P. (1982) Birds of prey of southern Africa: their identification and life

histories. Cape Town: David Philip.

Subramanya, S. (1982) Nesting of Redheaded Merlin Falco chicquera in

Bangalore, Karnataka. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 79: 41 2.

Subramanya, S. ( 1 985) Hunting and feeding habits of the Red headed Merlin,

Falco chicquera. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 25 (1&2): 4-8.

Willoughby, E. J. & Cade, T. J. (1967) Drinking habits of birds in the Central

Namib Desert of South West Africa. Sci. Pap. Namib Desert Research

Station 31.

Wink, M. & Sauer-Gurth, H. (2000) Advances in the molecular systematic of

African raptors. Pp.1 35-147 in R. D. Chancellor & B.-U. Meyburg, eds.

Raptors at risk. Berlin & Blaine, WA: World Working Group on Birds of

Prey/Hancock House.

Rishad NAOROJI, Godrej Bhavan, 5th Floor, 4A Home Street, Fort,

Mumbai 400001, India. Email: rishadn@gmail.com.

FORKTAIL 27 (201 1 ): 7-10

The hatching success of ground- and roof-nesting

Red-wattled Lapwing Vanellus indicus in Haridwar, India

VINAYA KUMAR SETHI, DINESH BHATT, AMIT KUMAR & ARCHANA BHATT NAITHANI

We studied hatching success of Red-wattied Lapwing Vanellus indicus in ground- and roof-nests during 2006-07 in rural and suburban

habitats of district Haridwar (29°55'N 78°08'E), Uttarakhand state, India. The mean number of eggs that hatched successfully per nest in roof-

nests (2.2±1.2) was significantly higher than in the ground-nests (1.0±1.5). This was because the number of egg losses in roof-nests was

significantly lower than in ground-nests, not because of a difference in clutch size between nest-types. Hatching success as computed by the

Mayfield method was 0.30 (n = 70) and 0.67 (n = 25) in ground- and roof-nests respectively. Different factors, namely predation, nest damage

and hatching failure, were responsible for egg loss in both nest-types. However, egg loss due to predation was significantly higher in ground-

nests (59.21%) than those on the roofs (1 5.38%). In spite of common threats operating on both nest-types, results clearly revealed that roof-

nests had more successful hatch-rates than ground-nests.

INTRODUCTION

The Red-wattled Lapwing Vanellus indicus is currently classified as

Least Concern according to the IUCN Red List (Birdlife

International 2009) and is a common and widespread wading bird

of the Indian Subcontinent. The species, in common with other

Charadriidae, lays 3-4 eggs on the ground, in a small natural

depression or scrape. Typical nestinghabitat includes open country,

grazing land, fallow fields, dry beds of village tanks, and islets in

rivers (Ali & Ripley 1998). The incubation period ranges from 28

to 30 days and both sexes perform incubation duties (Desai &

Malhotra 1976, Ali & Ripley 1998). Eggs are lost to an array of

predators (e.g. mongooses, crows, kites, dogs), to human activities

(e.g. ploughing) and to trampling by grazing animals (Naik et al.

1961). Desai & Malhotra (1976) studied the nesting success of

ground-nesting Red-wattled Lapwing and observed that out of 74

eggs laid 39 (52.70%) hatched successfully, and ultimately 30 young

fledged, leading to an overall nesting success of 40.54%.

Additionally, this species has occasionally been observed to nest

on flat pebbled roofs in urban environments (Gole & Mundkur

1980, Patnaik 1 980, Tehsin&Lokhandwala 1982, Mundkur 1985,

Grimmett etal. 1998). Roof-nestinghas been observed in a number

of ground-nesting avian species in other parts of the world such as

the United States, Canada and South Africa (Goodnight 1 957, Fisk

1978, Blokpoel & Smith 1988, Gore & Kinnison 1991, Dwyer etal.

1996, Crawford & Dyer 2000). In some countries populations of

roof-nesting birds (e.g. terns and gulls) have significantly increased

or even outnumbered those on the ground (Ludwig 1974, Hovis &

Robson 1 989, Vermeer 1 992). Use of flat roofs for nesting has been

suggested as an adaptive response of ground-nesting birds to the

loss of traditional nest sites and habitats subjected to rapid

urbanisation (Fisk 1978, Toland 1992, Baumann 2006).

Additionally, roofs have been suggested to be more protected from

humans, most mammalian predators and grazing animals when

compared to open ground (Douglass et al. 2001).

Loss of natural habitat has been suggested as a possible reason

for roof-nesting by Red-wattled Lapwing (Mundkur 1985).

However, no studies have so far been conducted to ascertain the

reasons causing such a shift in the species’s nesting habitat. This

paper aims to study productivity of roof-nests of Red-wattled

Lapwing relative to those on the ground through comparing

hatching success between nest-types.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study was undertaken in April-June 2006 and 2007, which

coincides with the peak breeding season ofthe Red-wattled Lapwing.

Observations were made using 10x50 binoculars and field scope

(75 x) in rural and urban habitats of district Haridwar (29°55,N

78°08'E), Uttarakhand state, India.

Ground-nests were located by notingtypical breedingbehaviour

such as nest building, incubating birds or alarm calling. Roof-nests

were searched for by climbing to a vantage point and scanning the

roofs of nearby buildings. Field observations reveal that Red- wattled

Lapwings are generally not present on roofs outside the breeding

season. Thus, frequent sightings ofbird(s) on a building during the

breeding period were suggestive of the presence of a breeding pair

there.

Most observations were made during midday hours when, due

to high temperatures, nests were never left unattended and at least

one of the birds was incubating. Searches for nests were done

systematically and we were equally likely to find nests regardless of

location, i.e. all parts of the study area were searched thoroughly

and repeatedly during the breeding season. The incubation period

of Red-wattled Lapwing lasts 28-30 days (Desai & Malhotra 1976,

Ali & Ripley 1998). Thus, nests found prior to clutch completion

were inspected every 2-5 days followed by more frequent visits

during the expected date of hatching. Nests found after clutch

completion were nearly always inspected on alternate days. In

addition, local inhabitants such as children, farmers and building

owners were regularly quizzed regarding the occurrence of nest(s)

of Red-wattled Lapwing on their premises or in nearby areas.

To relocate nests quickly and reduce the chance of attracting

predators (see Salek & Smilauer 2002), nests were marked by a stone

placed on a brick within 1.5 m. To minimise disturbance we did not

spend more than 1 0 seconds near the nest during inspection. When

a nest was found empty, the contents were carefully scrutinised and

recorded. Nests were recorded as successful when at least one of the

following criteria was apparent: small fragments of eggshell were

present in the nest lining; at least one chick was seen; behaviour of

the adults indicated presence of a brood. A nest was classed as

successful if at least one egg hatched. A nest was assumed to have

failed if it was found to be empty before the expected hatch date

( and did not comply with the above criteria) , or if there was evidence

of predation (i.e. large egg fragments, disturbed nest lining, etc.)

(Galbraith 1988).

Duringeach visit, nests, eggs and chicks were counted and sorted

by nest-type (ground or roof). In a number of nests, asynchronous

hatching was observed, i.e. all eggs did not hatch simultaneously

and it took 20-43 hours until the complete clutch hatched. In those

nests, the young started moving out of nests within a couple ol

hours and concealed themselves in nearby vegetative cover. Such

nests were observed at either midday or dawn because parents were

8

VINAYA KUMAR SETHI etai

Forktail 27 (2011)

always observed sitting over the eggs andyoungduring these periods.

Along with two local inhabitants, we observed individual nests for

longer continuous periods (up to four hours) from a hide or vehicle

in order to spot fleeing chicks, and we searched vegetation for hiding

chicks. Roofs provided less cover for chicks than ground sites, thus

offering better opportunities to locate the chicks. In both nest-types

we observed most chicks before they left the nest.

Hatching success was calculated with the Mayfield method

(Mayfield 1975) as well as with the traditional method (% of eggs

that hatched successfully out of total eggs laid). Numbers of eggs

and chicks that hatched in ground- and roof-nests were compared

using two-tailed t-test (Zar 1 984) . The mean values were presented

with the standard deviation (±SD).

RESULTS

A total of 40 (29 on ground and 1 1 on roof) and 55 (41 on ground

and 14 on roof) nests of Red-wattled Lapwing were found in 2006

and 2007 respectively. In both nest-types (ground and roof) the

clutch size and mean number of eggs hatched per nest did not differ

significantly between years and thus the data from both years were

pooled (Table 1). Average clutch sizes for ground- and roof-nests

were nearly identical (3.6±0.6 SD and 3.6±0.4 SD respectively; t-

test: t = 0.02, df= 59, P = 0.982).

Usingthe Mayfield method, the mortality rate for the incubation

period of Red-wattled Lapwing was 0.039 (45 failures/ 1,134 nest-

days) and 0.013 (5 failures/374.5 nest-days) failures per nest-day

for ground- and roof-nests respectively. The probability of survival

wasO.961 ( 1-0.039) and 0.987 (1-0.013) per nest-day for ground-

and roof-nests respectively. Hence, with an incubation period of 30

days, the probability of survival of a nest with young was 0.30

(0.96 130) and0.67 (0.98730) forground- androof-nests respectively.

The mean number of eggs that hatched successfully in roof-nests

was significantly greater than those from ground-nests (2.2±1.2

and 1.0±1.5 respectively; t = 3.95, df = 50, P = 0.0002).

On comparing the hatching success between nest-types with

the traditional method, the proportion of eggs that hatched in roof-

nests (62.6%) was higher than in ground-nests (28.6%) (Table 2).

Loss of eggs was greater in ground-nests (71.3%) than those on the

roofs (37.3%). Different factors, namely predation, nest damage

and hatching failure, affected hatching success in both the nest-

types, but with different loss rate in each group (Table 2). Only

1 5.3% of roof-nest eggs were predated compared to 59.2% of ground-

nest eggs. Roof-nests may primarily have been predated by aerial

predators, ground-nests by both terrestrial and aerial predators.

Grazing animals caused nest damage in ground-nests leading to a

9.8% loss of eggs, whereas roof-nests were damaged mostly by

intentional and unintentional human interference during building

construction, renovation or cleaning, resulting in an egg loss of

1 9.7%. Individual eggs remained unhatched in both nest-types. Loss

of eggs due to hatching failure was almost equal in ground- (2.3%)

and roof-nests (2.1%).

DISCUSSION

Nest survival and hatching success of Red-wattled Lapwings were

higher on roofs than in typical habitat on the ground. The main

dilference in hatching success between nest-types was mainly due

to higher predation rate on the ground than on roofs. Those nests

on the ground were susceptible to a greater array of predators such

as domestic dogs, pigs, snake, mongoose, House Crow Corvus

splendens, Jungle Crow C. macrorhyncbos, GreaterCoucal Centropus

sinensis , Black Kite Milvus migrans and Shikra Accipiter badius,

whereas nests located on roofs were susceptible to a smaller range of

primarily aerial predators such as crows and raptors (no terrestrial

predators were noticed on the roofs). Similar differences in nesting

success between roof- and ground-nests have been reported in other

ground-nesting species (Fisk 1978, Gore & Kinnison 1991). These

differences have been partly attributable to the different types of

predators that ground- and roof-nests are exposed to (Fisk 1978,

Massey & Fancher 1989, Gore & Kinnison 1991).

Apart from predation, ground-nesting Red-wattled Lapwings

faced the risk of nest damage by grazing animals. In two instances

we witnessed a herd of grazing sheep trampling the eggs of ground¬

nesting Red-wattled Lapwings. Also, on a number of occasions

ground-nestingparentswereobservedaggressivelyattackinggrazing

animals near their nests. Damage to eggs in ground-nests by grazing

animals has been reported by other workers also (Beintema &

Muskens 1987, Hart et al. 2002).

Unlike ground-nests, losses in roof-nests were more frequently

caused by human activities (Table 2). Most of the property owners

were unaware of the presence of nests of Red-wattled Lapwing on

their roofs, and thus nearly all damage to nests occurred

unintentionally during the unloading of building material like

cement, bricks and wood on the roofs. In two cases, property owners

were observed trying to protect nests of Red-wattled Lapwing from

direct sunlight by providing artificial shade. In another instance,

the property owner relocated the nest (with four eggs and stone

pebbles) of a Red-wattled Lapwing 6 m from its original position as

it was disturbing construction. It was interesting to note that the

Table 1. Clutch size and average number of eggs hatched in Red-wattled Lapwing Vanellus indicus between study years (2006 vs 2007) and nest-

types (ground vs roof).

Forktail 27 (2011)

Hatching success of Red-wattled Lapwing Vanellus indicus in Haridwar, India

9

bird initially arranged the stone pebbles and later incubated the

eggs in its new position and that all the eggs hatched successfully.

Dwyer et al. (1996) have reported the loss of 50% roof-nesting

colonies of gull species due to human activities, but contrary to our

study, they were all subjected to an intentional roof-nesting removal

programme.

We observed instances of hatching failure of individual eggs in

both nest-types at almost the same rate. Hatching failure due to

infertility or embryo mortality is an important cause of reduced

breeding success in birds and has commonly been reported for a

number of avian species (Gonzalez 1996, Seixas & Mourao 2002).

There are reports indicating that roof-nesting by colonies of

ground-nesting birds may cause economic, safety and health problems

for the property owners, through (i) noise caused by their calls and

footsteps, (ii) mess and fouling caused by their droppings, (iii)

blockage of gas flues and gutters by nesting materials, (iv) holding

moisture by nesting materials, and (v) diving and swooping on pets

and people, etc. (Blokpoel&Scharf 1991,Belant 1993), and various

techniques have been trialled to reduce or eliminate these factors

(Blokpoel & Tessier 1992). In the present study, however, nesting

by Red-wattled Lapwings on roofs did not cause any trouble to

property owners because the species does not breed in colonies and

in only one instance did we find two active nests on a single roof

(area: 230 m2). Most property owners were merely aware of the

presence of Red-wattled Lapwing pairs but not of their nests on

their roofs. These observations also suggest that the distribution and

extent of roof-nests of Red-wattled Lapwing in our study area is not '

as great as reported for other ground-nesting birds in other countries.

In spite of common threats operating on both nest-types, it is

clear from the results that roof-nests had higher hatching success

than ground-nests. The intensity of predation on adult birds and

their nests has been presumed to be one of the determining forces

for the evolution of avian reproductive strategies (Lack 1968,

Ricklefs 1 969) . It has also been suggested that if prey cannot defend

itself against predators there should be selection for predator

avoidance adaptations, for instance, concealment of the nest and its

contents, nesting at lower densities and breeding in inaccessible

sites or in safer habitats (e.g. Lack 1968, Collias & Collias 1984).

It is worth mentioning here that in one of our studies carried

out in the same study area, we found the Spotted Munia Loncbura

punctulata occurring in urban habitat solely during the breeding

period and nesting significantly more successfully in this urban

habitat than in forest, owing to reduced predation rate on the urban

nests (Sharma et al. 2004). It could be argued that roof-nesting by

Red-wattled Lapwings is also a strategy to increase breeding output

by minimising predation pressure. Alternatively, roof-nesting by

Red-wattled Lapwing may also be a response in a locally increasing

population to loss of traditional habitat and to the abundance of

gravel roofs in the study area. Although roof-nesting appears to give

Red-wattled Lapwings a selective advantage of higher hatching

success, chick survival could be constrained on roofs due to restricted

food supply, lack of cover, and falls. Further investigations are needed

on ringed individuals over consecutive years to ascertain causes and

consequences of roof-nesting.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank Head, Department of Zoology and Environmental

Science, Gurukula Kangri University, Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India, for

providing infrastructural facilities to carry out this work. We thank Mr

Shivchand Arora, Mr Sachin Turaiha and Mr Vikas Saini for their assistance

during field visits. The kind cooperation of Swami Shivanand Ji (Matri Sadan

Ashram, Jagjeetpur, India) to allow us to work in his premises is gratefully

acknowledged. We are grateful to Dr Robert D. Sheldon, the Royal Society for

the Protection of Birds, Scotland, for his invaluable remarks and helpful

suggestions in the editing of this manuscript. We thank also an anonymous

referee for constructive comments.

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VINAYA KUMAR SETHI etal.

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Vinaya Kumar SETHI', Dinesh BHATT2, Amit KUMAR and Archana

Bhatt NAITHANI, Department of Zoology and Environmental Science,

Gurukula Kangri University, Haridwar 249 404, Uttarakhand, India.

E-mails: 'vinayaksethi@yahoo.co.in;2dineshharidwar@gmait.com

FORKTAIL 27 (201 1 ): 11-14

The Yellow-throated Fulvetta Alcippe cinerea in Indochina

J. W. DUCKWORTH, P. D. ROUND & R. J. TIZARD

While the Yellow-throated Fulvetta Alcippe cinerea is rather common in Kachin state in northern Myanmar, in South-East Asia it is otherwise

known with certainty only from a highly disjunct cluster of four localities in rugged mountains on the international border between Laos and

Vietnam: Phou Kabo, Ban Muang-Ngat and Phou San (all in the Xiangkhouang highlands), Laos, and Pu Mat Nature Reserve (northern

Annamite mountains), Vietnam. There is no obvious biogeographic explanation of this distributional pattern, which is most unlikely to be

an artefact of fieldwork bias. Improved conservation status of forest within the range of the species is desirable.

INTRODUCTION RECORDS

The Yellow-throated Fulvetta Alcippe cinerea is primarily an eastern

Himalayan species, occurring from Sikkim and Bhutan east through

most of the north-east Indian hill states to small parts of southern

China and adjacent northern Myanmar (Collar & Robson 2007,

where called Pseudominla cinerea) . The first South-East Asian record

was from northern Myanmar on 1 April 1933 (Stanford ArTicehurst

1935) and the next was the listingfor the northern highlands of Laos

in David-Beaulieu ( 1 939), at least 1,100 km to the south-east. Despite

the upsurge in bird survey in South-East Asia since the late 1980s,

there remain remarkably few records in South-East Asia away from

Kachin state, Myanmar, resulting in a separation exceeding 800 km

between the main Himalayan range and records elsewhere in South-

East Asia. This note assembles these latter records, and draws

attention to the peculiar distribution, and regional conservation

concern, of the bird. Figure 1 shows the South-East Asian localities

mentioned in the text.

Laos

David-Beaulieu (1939) simply listed this fulvetta for Tranninh (an

areasimilarto today’s Xiangkhouangprovince, but also includingsome

of today’s northern Vientiane province), later stating (David-Beaulieu

1 944) that it was first recorded there by Delacour & Greenway ( 1 940).

These latter (in fact, probably F.Edmond-Blanc:Edmond-Blanc 1944)

collected five skins on Phou (= Mount) Kabo ( as Phou Kobo; 1 9° 1 6' N

103°25,E), evidently during December 1938 and/or February 1939

(Hennache & Dickinson 2000). David-Beaulieu (1944) himself,

despite collecting widely in the Tranninh highlands, found it only at

two sites, Phou Kabo (his main collecting area, then a well-forested

mountain rising to 2,155 m), where he observed big flocks but found

them only rarely, and around Ban (= village of) Muang-Ngat (as

Muong-Ngat; 19°06'N 104°03,E), where it was common and readily

found. The latter lay amid partly wooded hilly grassland at 1,150m,

but within 3 km the hills rise to 1,748 m; Phou Muang-Nhat, 8 km to

Figure 1. Lao and Vietnamese

locality records of Yellow-throated

F u Ivetta Alcippe cinerea, and other

South-East Asian localities

mentioned in the text. Individual

recordsfor Kachin state, Myanmar,

have not been collated and are not

mapped, but none lies south of the

Chinese record marked. The main

range of the species is in Kachin

state and in the regions of India

and other countries to the west of

it. Locality records (stars): 1, Phou

Kabo; 2, Ban Muang-Ngat; 3, Phou

San; 4, Pu Mat NR; 5, latitude of

southernmost Chinese record.

Other localities mentioned in the

text (dots): A, Fan Si Pan; B, Phou

Xaylaileng; C, Nam Xam NPA; D,

Nam Et-Phou Louey NPA; E, Nam

Ha NPA; F, Phou Dendin NPA; G,

Nakai-NamTheun NPA; H, Nape; I,

Phou Gnouan; J, Nam Chouan

proposed NPA.

12

J. W. DUCKWORTH, P. D. ROUND & R. J. TIZARD

Forktail 27 (201 1)

the north, peaks at 2,406 m. He collected nine specimens, of which

he sent one (from Phou Kabo, 26 April 1 940) to Bourret ( 1 943). Six

others are now in Yale Peabody Museum, New Haven, USA (YPM

19634-19639): four are from Phou Kabo (one on 7 May 1939 and

three on 26 April 1 940), and singles came from Ban Muang-Ngat on

14 and 13 January 1940 respectively; none has a specific altitude

recorded (K. Zyskowski in litt. 2007). The David-Beaulieu collection

in Chulalongkorn University Zoological Museum, Bangkok,

Thailand (see Dickinson 1970) contains none (E. C. Dickinson in

litt. 2009) ; many David-Beaulieu specimens are held at the Museum

National d'HistoireNaturelle, Paris, France but we have not checked

whether any are of this species.

The only other Lao record is from these same highlands, from

Phou San (19°39,N 103°23T; rising to 2,218 m): two were found

foraging at 2-3 m above ground in dense bamboo beside a small

stream amid logged forest at 1,850 m on 8 June 2009. The forest on

Phou San is mostly on fairly gentle terrain, and is rich in epiphytes,

with bamboo common; within 1 km of the sighting lie some unlogged

stands of magnificent tall (30-35 m) trees and such forest was

presumably extensive prior to logging. However, persistent thick mist

meant only two days were spent in the forest of Phou San, so it is

unclear how common the species is there (Duckworth in press, JWD).

Vietnam

This fulvetta is known only from Pu Mat Nature Reserve (NR),

which lies in the northern Annamite mountains. Single birds were

seen at two different locations at c. 1 ,400- 1 ,500 m (perhaps as high

as 1,600 m) near ‘Camp 4’ (19°01'N 104°31'E), on the slopes of

Pu (= Mount) Mat itself, in the understorey (broad-leaved plants)

on 24 April 1999 and in dense low ground herbage the next day.

Here the forest was typically montane with many epiphytes and

much bamboo. The first sighting was within good-quality tall forest

on steep slopes, the second on a ridge-top. Six observer-days were

spent in this area, between 1,200 and 1,841 m (SFNC 2000, PDR).

The species was listed, with no text discussion, in a January -

March 1995 baseline survey for part of Vietnam’s tallest mountain,

Fan Si Pan (c.22°18'N 103°46'E), in the Hoang Lien Nature

Reserve (Appendix 7 in Kemp et al. 1995). In the ‘notes’ column is

‘ ? ?’, indicating (presumably) a great degree of uncertainty: the species

was not illustrated in any field guide to South-East Asian birds then

available, and the authors seem not to have checked skins. The report’s

section 10 makes it clear that the authors were evolving their bird

identification skills for the region, and the species is not mentioned

in their discussion ofglobally threatened and near-threatened species

(it then fell in the latter category: Collar etal. 1994) recorded by the

survey. Because this area has been subject to fairly high survey

combininghistorical and recent efforts (see below) without any other

records, and despite the acceptance of the record by Tordoff et al.

(1999), we consider there to be at high chance of an error being

involved.

Myanmar

Yellow-throated Fulvetta is evidently common and widespread in

northern Kachin state, which is fundamentally contiguous with its

main Himalayan range (Stanford & Ticehurst 1935, 1938-1939,

Stanford & Mayr 1940-1941, Smythies 1949, King et al. 2001,

Smythies 200 1 , Renner & Rappole 2011, Eames & Steinheimer in

prep., Than Zaw verbally 2005 [many photographs examined by

JWD and RJT], JWD and RJT own observations 2007-2010). It

has not yet been found in any other state or division of the country.

DISCUSSION

The Yellow-throated Fulvetta’ s distribution in northern Myanmar

is almost the eastern extremity of its Himalayan range: it continues

into the north-western part (Gongshan) ofYunnan (Cheng 1987)

and is otherwise known in China only in south-east Xizang

Autonomous Region (Cheng 1987, Collar & Robson 2007). The

Lao and Vietnamese records are highly disjunct from this main range:

although J. Hornskov (in litt. 2009) has found it somewhat south

of the Gaoligongshan range given by Cheng (1987),atc.25°N, there

is no known connection in range from northern Myanmar to Laos

via Yunnan or Thailand. This is despite heavy survey and birding

focus on the latter’s northern montane avifauna in recent decades,

although there is no published compilation more recent than

Deignan ( 1 945), King ( 1 966), Round (1988) and Lekagul & Round

(1991).

It is implausible that the bird has been widely overlooked in

South-East Asia. Although Delacour & Greenway (1940)

considered it difficult to see and obtain, they seem alone in this

stance. It is particularly conspicuous during the cold season, when

it is ‘a beautiful sight to watch a large flock cascading down a hillside,

every bird in incessant movement, darting in and out of the

undergrowth and bustling to and fro’ (Stanford & Mayr 1940-

1941: 77). Although its attachment to dense understorey and

ceaseless movement made it, before the use of mist-nets, difficult to

collect (Stanford & Mayr 1940-1941, David-Beaulieu 1944), the

same behaviour makes it easy to find (at least in the cold season) in

Kachin state, Myanmar (Stanford & Mayr 1940-1941, YJmgetal.

2001, JWD and RJT). Umesh Srinivasan (in litt. 2009) agrees that,

ifpresent, it is ‘extremely easy’ to find (and one of the most commonly

seen birds) in both western and eastern Arunachal Pradesh

(Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary and Namdapha Tiger Reserve:

Srinivasan et al. 2010), where it occurs from 600 to 2,100 m, with

abundance peaking around 1,500 m. It is in the cold season that

much survey and recreational birding takes place on Thailand’s

mountains, and not withstanding the occasional finding new for

Thailand of resident passerines in these forests (e.g. Round &

Pattanavibool 2003, Treesucon 2007), it is unlikely that such a

conspicuous species has been overlooked.

The Lao and Vietnamese records come from one area of rugged

highlands spanning the international border. Ban Muang-Ngat, the

only Indochinese locality where it has been called common, is on

the Nam (= River) Mo, amid, for Laos, a large tract exceeding

2,000 m; hills to the west exceed 2,400 m, whilst to the east, Phou

Xaylaileng (19°12'N 104°1 1 E), on the Vietnam border, rises to

2,71 1 m. Pu Mat NR abuts the Lao-Vietnam border, extending

north to 19°12'N although diverging from the border some way

south of this, such that the highest terrain along the border is

excluded from the protected area: the massif itself rises only to

1,841 m and 90% of the reserve lies below 1,000 m (SFNC 2000).

Phou Kabo and Phou San are two of the many peaks that lie north¬

west of the Nam Mo headwaters. Surveys of montane forest in Laos

even further north and west (Nam Xam National Protected Area

[NPA] : Showier etal. 1998; Nam Et-Phou Louey NPA: Davidson

1998, 1999; Nam HaNPA: Tizard etal. 1997; PhouDendin NPA:

Fuchs etal. 2007) have not found the species, and, whilst it would

be rash to assert its absence from any given area, the combined lack

of records implies that it is highly localised in Laos’s northern

highlands. In Vietnam there has also been recent extensive survey

and hobby birdwatching in the highland forests around Fan Si Pan

(rising to 3,148 m) and to a lesser extent elsewhere (Tordoff et al.

1999 and references therein, Tordoff etal. 2000, Swan & O’Reilly

2004a, b, Vogel et al. 2003), without any credible records of the

bird. However, the western border areas north of Pu Mat NR remain

poorly covered Q. C. Eames in litt. 2010).

There is no evidence that Yellow- throated Fulvetta extends from

Pu Mat NR southwards along the Annamite spine (Eames et al.

2001), although various areas rise higher than Pu Mat and retain

large tracts of little-degraded forest. However, R. J. Timmins (in

litt. 2009) cautions that on his surveys ofNakai-Nam Theun NPA,

Forktail 27 (2011)

The Yellow-throated Fulvetta Alcippe cinerea in Indochina

13

which yielded many montane passerines new for Laos and even

more for Central Laos (Evans & Timmins 1998), he focused on

getting as high as possible and the altitude band around 1,500 m

(which included taller forests than he surveyed) was poorly covered,

and so might hold additional species.

The known distribution in Laos and Vietnam does not strongly

resemble that of any other bird species. That of Rufous-vented

Laughingthrush Garrulax gularis is perhaps the most similar: in

Vietnam, this species is also recorded only from North Annam

(Robson 2008), and in Laos most records come From Xiangkhouang

province, with one From Nam Et-Phou Louey NPA and, perhaps,

another From Ban Nape, although the basis for this latter seems not

to have been clarified (Duckworth etal. 1999); a Further parallel is

that this species is also known from North Myanmar (essentially,

Kachin state plus the land directly to its west) but not elsewhere in

that country or From Thailand (Robson 2008).

The Yellow-throated Fulvetta’s Lao and Vietnamese

distribution is not readily explained by any obvious biogeographic

or physiographic feature or biological, vegetational or physical

constraint suspected to be a determinant of Indochinese bird

distribution. The Pu Mat NR records, especially because they Fall

plausibly during the breeding season, indicate that the species is not

simply ahigher montane specialist. Were this so, it should be present,

and have been found, in Vietnam’s northern highlands, notably

around Fan Si Pan. Also, it seems unlikely to be restricted to (near)

pristine forest, given the precise observation spot on Phou San and

David-Beaulieu’s ( 1 944) description of habitat around Ban Muang-

Ngat, and repeated reference from elsewhere in its range to the use

oF bamboos, glades, streamsides and other edge habitats (e.g. Collar

& Robson 2007). It was evidently localised within the Tranninh

highlands even in the 1 940s, meaning that the lack of records (surely

indicating genuine absence) from the only other recently relatively

well-surveyed mountain in these highlands, Phou Gnouan

(Duckworth etal. 2002, Duckworth in press), is unlikely to be due

simply to the area’s retaining only a small forest patch. Without

further precise locality records of this fulvetta in Indochina and/or

ecological study at its few known sites, meaningful speculation on

the reasons governing its peculiar distribution is not possible. The

same is true For the various other species in South-East Asia with

strangely localised distributions that cannot easily be Fitted into

multi-species patterns, such as Rufous-vented Laughingthrush and

Black-bibbed Tit P. ( palustris ) hypermelaena.

Close examination of the records available across the species’s

much wider range in the Indian subcontinent also suggests that it

may be absent From some fairly large blocks of adequately surveyed

suitable habitat (T. P. Inskipp in litt. 2009) and in China it is ‘rare’

(precise meaning ambiguous) (Cheng 1987: 723).

This Fulvetta was listed (with no discussion) as globally Near

Threatened by Collar & Andrew (1988), but this status was

rescinded by BirdLife International (2000), since when the species

has been considered Least Concern (BirdLife International 2009).

While there is no reason to question this at the global level, the

disjunct Indochina population may warrant local-level conservation

attention because its known range is so small, and maintenance oF

a species throughout its recent range is a generally accepted

conservation aim. The bird is far too small to be a hunting target,

but habitat status is of great concern. The Xiangkhouang highlands

retain only small relicts of forest above 1,500 m (R. J. Timmins in

litt. 2009, from examination of satellite images). Even these are

subject to ongoing destruction and degradation: the small patch on

Phou Gnouan profiled in Duckworth et al. (2002) had, by 2009,

been internally fragmented by a network of mining exploration

tracks and lost most of its large trees (Duckworth in press). Pu Mat

NR, by contrast, has probably suffered little, if any, habitat

conversion at altitudes over 1,000 m in the last decade (B. Long

verbally 2009). Most of this general area oF Laos, namely the swathe

of highlands from Phou Kabo south-east to Phou Xaylaileng, felt

reasonably likely to hold the species but is as yet unexplored for

birds, holds insurgents and is not open for surveys or site-based

conservation projects. Within Laos, where the bird is not known

from any NPA, Phou San — recently declared aprovincial protected

area but not under any active management — may therefore be a

conservation priority. It is quite plausible that, because it holds such

a localised bird species, it also supports herpetofauna, plants,

invertebrates and perhaps other birds of high conservation

significance.

The eastern Nam Mo headwaters form the northern part of the

Nam Chouan proposed NPA (pNPA) (Berkmuller et al. 1995),

and Ban Muang-Ngat lies only 5 km west of the proposed border.

Nam Chouan pNPA extends south along the international border

(contiguous with Pu Mat NR) to abut the Nam Theun Extension

pNPA, and was identified during the 1990s as a high priority for

wildlife survey; Follow-up has been impossible and no information

is available on its avifauna. The likely presence of Yellow-throated

Fulvetta suggests other special species may occur; and the lack of

very high land in Pu Mat NR suggests that Nam Chouan pNPA

would be found to hold many additional species and would not

simply be biologically equivalent to the Vietnamese protected area.

No subspecies oF Yellow-throated Fulvetta are recognised: the

sole synonym for the species, A. delacouri (as used by David-Beaulieu

1939, 1944), was proposed by Yen (1935, reiterated in Yen 1936)

as a nom. nov. for Minla cinerea Blyth, 1847, which he believed to

be preoccupied, once the species was transferred to Alcippe, by

Alcippe cinerea Blyth, 1844, used for Scaly-crowned Babbler

Malacopteron cinereum. But the 1844 name is not available, so the

1847 name does not need to be replaced (Stanford & Mayr 1940-

1941). Given the Yellow-throated Fulvetta’s highly disjunct

distribution it would be instructive to compare the genetic structure

of Indochinese with Himalayan birds, and there seems to be no

inFormation to suggest that any modern morphological reassessment

has been attempted.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Geoff Carey, Aparajita Datta, Edward Dickinson, Jonathan Eames,

Jesper Hornskov, Tim Inskipp, Barney Long, John Pilgrim, Craig Robson,

Umesh Srinivasan, Than Zaw, Rob Timmins, Jack Tordoff and Kristof

Zyskowski for informative discussion on specimens, the species and its habitats,

Perawit Insuan for preparing the map, and BirdLife International Indochina

Programme for photocopies of Kemp etal. (1995) and Tordoff etal. (1999).

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FORKTAIL 27 (2011): 15-22

Bird observations on the Zamboanga Peninsula,

Mindanao, Philippines

LISA MARIE J. PAGUNTALAN, PHILIP GODFREY JAKOSALEM, MARKUS LAGERQVIST, JONAS NORDIN,

GEORGINA FERNANDEZ, MICHAEL DE LA CRUZ & AGATON BAYSA

Bird observations were conducted in Pasonanca Natural Park, Zamboanga City, Zamboanga del Sur, Philippines on 17-21 February 2008 and

29-31 May 2008 and in Lituban-Quipit watershed, Baliguian, Zamboanga del Norte, Philippines on 26-28 May 2008. Observations were also

conducted in Lake Maragang-Mt. Timolan, Zamboanga del Norte, 26-28 May 2009. A total of 1 42 bird species were encountered of which

68 (47%) were Philippine endemics, seven (5%) were migrants and 13 were globally threatened endemics including the Critically Endangered

Philippine Eagle Pithecophaga jefferyi, the first nesting record of the eagle in Zamboanga Peninsula since the early 1 950s. The remaining

forest cover in northern Zamboanga Peninsula is threatened with mining, illegal logging and subsistence agriculture. A listing of the birds

recorded in the Zamboanga Peninsula is also presented.

INTRODUCTION

The Philippines ranks second in terms of number of threatened

endemic birds in the world (Stattersfield et al. 1998, Collar et al.

1999, Mallari et al. 2001). Many of these endemic and threatened

birds are restricted to one island or a group of islands. Among the

islands where a number ofendemic birds are threatened is Mindanao.

Mindanao was once part ol the Greater Mindanao Pleistocene Island

some 20,000 years ago, when the sea-level dropped up to llO m

below its current levels, thereby connecting the islands ol Bohol,

Leyte, Samar, Dinagat, Siargao, Mindanao and Basilan (Heaney 1 993,

Heaney et al. 1998,2000). Interestingly, however, the western part

of Mindanao, the Zamboanga Peninsula, differs from the rest of the

island by havingan endemic species of its own: the Zamboanga Bulbul

Ixosrufigularis. Despite the importance olthe Zamboanga Peninsula

in terms of presence of restricted-range and endemic species, very

few studies have been conducted in the area. Most ol the available

inlormation on avifauna is derived from museum records (Dickinson

et al. 1991, Lambert 1996, Collar et al. 1999, Kennedy et al. 2000,

Brooks 2002) and trip reports ol visiting birdwatchers.

Zamboanga Peninsula is politically divided into three provinces:

Zamboanga Sibugay, Zamboanga del Norte and Zamboanga del

Sur. Among the three provinces, Zamboanga del Sur has the most

number of key conservation sites or Important Bird Areas (IBAs)

as identified by BirdLife International and the Haribon Foundation

(Collar et al. 1999, Mallari etal. 2001), two ofwhich are shared by

Table 1. Summary of ornithological expeditions conducted in

Zamboanga Peninsula, based on evidence in Dickinson etal. (1991)

and Collar etal. (1999).

Zamboanga del Norte. In the north-eastern part ol Zamboanga del

Sur lie Mt Dapiak and Mt Paraya (IBA PH 108) where nine

threatened birds are reported. A total of eight threatened birds are

known to occur on Mt Sugarloaf (IBA PH 109) in the northern

portion of the peninsula. South ol Mt Sugarloal is Mt Timolan

Protected Landscape (IBA PHI 10) with five reported threatened

species (Collar etal. 1999, Mallari etal. 2001). In 2008 we visited

the Pasonanca Natural Park (IBA PH 1 12) and the Lituban-Quipit

Watersheds (IBA PHI 11), and in 2009 Lake Maragang-Mt

Timolan Protected Landscape. This study presents a list ol bird

species and information on the conservation status of the remaining

lorests and threatened birds in these areas.

Previous ornithological fieldwork

Bird collections in Zamboanga Peninsula were conducted by a

number olexpeditions from Sonnerat in 1771 up to the expeditions

of Rabor in 1969 (see Table 1).

SITES SURVEYED IN 2008-2009

Lituban-Quipit Watershed

The Lituban-Quipit Watershed covers the municipalities olSiocon,

Baliguian and Gutalac with the highest elevation of 1,047 m. This

IBA was formerly logged by at least four large companies: TIMES,

CURUAN Timber, Zamboanga Wood Products and JOLAR.

Currently only DACON Timber Company operates in the area.

Toronto Ventures Inc. mines gold and copper a few kilometres east.

We visited the remaining forest patches in Sitio Lutongan

(7°48.867'N 122°13.102'E, 418 m), Barangay Linay, in Baliguian,

in the north-eastern part of Zamboanga Peninsula, on 28-29 May

2008. Linay is an inland barangay ol Baliguian bordering Zamboanga

del Norte and Zamboanga Sibugay. There are still patches of

secondary forest, averaging less than 100 ha in size. The secondary

forests are confined to gullies and steep slopes interspersed with corn

farms and forest clearings. Cleared areas are dominated by Imperata

cylindricawhile agricultural areas are mainly planted with rice. Some

portions of the forest are planted with Acacia mangium , Swietenia

macrophylla, Gmelina arborea and other exotic species. These tree

plantations are part of the reforestation programmes initiated by the

government to rehabilitate the forests, mainly through Integrated

Forest Management (IFMA) programmes and Integrated Social

Forestry (ISF) projects. Elevations are 380-750 m.

Pasonanca Natural Park

Pasonanca Natural Park (PNP) covers 17,414 ha comprising a

12,107 ha watershed and a buffer zone of 5 ,307 ha. The park is 7 km

16

LISA MARIE J. PAGUNTALAN et al.

Forktail 27 (2011)

from the city proper of Zamboanga and located at the tip of the

Zamboanga Peninsula. Approximately 90% of the area is still covered

with secondary and old growth dipterocarp forest (PASA Report

1997). The most dominant trees areShorea contorta, S. negrosensis ,

S. polysperma, S. palosapis, S. almon and Parashorea melaanonan.

Emergent trees reach 40 m in height while forest canopy reaches

18-25 m. The forest understorey is dominated by tree seedlings,

rattan, woody vines, palms and different species of herbs, ferns and

ground orchids. Exotic species like mahogany. Acacia mangium,

Gmelina arborea and Albizia have been planted within the park.

Mosses and liverworts are also common in Barangay Cabonegro

and Barangay Nancy as elevation reaches almost 1,000 m.

A total of four sites were visited in PNP on 17-21 February

2008. These were Barangay Canucutan (6°58.663,N 122°4.09 1 E,

103 m), Barangay Baluno (7°1.338'N 122°1.897'E, 757 m), and

Barangay Nancy (890 m) in La Paz and Barangay Cabonegro

(820 m) in Tolosa (two days being spent at Baluno, one day at the

other three sites). Baluno was visited again on 29-30 May 2008

while Intake Dam in Canucutan was visited on 31 May 2008. Of

the areas visited, only barangays Nancy and Cabonegro contain

mature secondary forests while barangays Baluno and Canucutan

are composed of secondary forest mixed with tree plantations. The

general terrain is rough to steep, with very steep slopes, and elevation

ranges from 70 m to 1,300 m.

The management of PNP is shared between the Zamboanga City

Water District (ZCWD) and the Department of Environment and

Natural Resources (DENR) Region IX. ZCWD has reforested

300 ha with the support of the Local Water Utility Agency while the

DENR Community Environment and Natural Resources Office

(CENRO) in Zamboanga City has rehabilitated about 7 5 ha. ZCWD

and DENR forged a Memorandum of Agreement (MOA)

authorising ZCWD to conduct regular monitoring and patrol in

the area.

Lake Maragang Protected Landscape

The Lake Maragang Protected Landscape (7°47'56"N

123°16,2”E; 763 m) lies adjacent to Mt Timolan Protected

Landscape in Zamboanga del Sur. The area is accessible through

Barangay Limas, Tigbao, along an old logging trail that leads to the

lake and to an overgrown trail that connects to the secondary lowland

forest in Mt Timolan Protected Landscape.

We visited the lake on 26-28 May 2009. It is surrounded by

patches of secondary lowland dipterocarp forest mixed with

established tree plantations mostly made up of exotic species, e.g.

Gmelina arborea and Swietenia macrophylla. Less than half the

immediate surroundings of the lake are secondary forest and most

is confined to steep slopes and ridges. Gullies and areas closer to Mt

Timolan are also made up of mature secondary lowland and mid-

montane forest dominated by dipterocarp trees Shorea. Some

portions on steep slopes closer to the barangays have been cleared

for subsistence agriculture (mostly corn and sweet potatoes), rubber

and abacca plantations. There are no permanent structures or

establishments evident in the areas close to the lake except for an

old watch-tower and floating raft. The lake is visited by local tourists

during weekends and holidays.

METHODS

W e spent a total of 1 1 0 observation hours in all sites visited where

20 observation hours were spent in Lituban-Quipit Watershed

and 30 at Lake Maragang. Intensive all-day standard field

observations from dawn to dusk were conducted using 10x42

binoculars. ‘Playback’ of sound recordings was used to

confirm/determine presence and absence of species. Calls and

songs were also recorded for future reference using a Microtrack

digital recorder and K6 Sennheiser unidirectional microphone.

Fruiting and flowering trees were located and revisited to detect

fruit- and nectar-eating bird species. Watches from breaks in the

canopy and the hillsides enabled us to observe larger above-canopy

species (raptors and parrots). Night surveys were also conducted

along trails.

We spent a total of 60 observation hours in PNP by following

five 2-km line transects from 06h00 to 08h00 and 16h00 to 18h00

for two hours to identify and record the avifauna. All trails were

located inside lowland to mid-montane forests. Bird observations

continued during the day and at dusk were focused on finding

threatened and endemic species, particularly Mindanao endemics.

In the analysis of the results, we calculate relative abundance per

species per site by adding the total number of individuals per species

observed per site divided by the total observation hours spent for

each site.

Information on land use, exploitation for cagebirds and hunting

activities was also obtained from direct observations and from

discussion with local people. We also visited households keeping

captive native birds and conducted informal interviews in an attempt

to document information on where captive birds were collected.

Systematic order, common names and taxonomic treatment

follow Inskipp etal. (1996) with the exceptions ofMindanao Brown

Dove Phapitreron brunneiceps where it follows Collar etal. (1999).

Scientific names are in Appendix 1.

RESULTS

A total of 142 species of birds were recorded in all survey sites, of

which 106 were found in Pasonanca Natural Park, 93 in the Lake

Maragang-Mt Timolan area and 71 in rhe Lituban-Quipit

Watershed (Appendix 1). Of the 142 birds observed, 16 (11%)

were Mindanao endemics and 68 (47%) were Philippine endemics.

We also recorded a total of 15 species of captive birds.

The most frequently encountered species in all sites was

Zamboanga Bulbul (see Appendix 1; endemic species) followed by

Orange-bellied Flowerpecker, White-eared Tailorbird (endemic

species) and Coppersmith Barbet. These birds were easily observed

as they are conspicuous and give distinct calls. The majority of species

were encountered fewer than 10 times during the survey. Other

species found include the V ulnerable Little Slaty Flycatcher and Blue-

capped Kingfisher and the Near Threatened Rufous Hornbill,

Writhed Elornbill, McGregor’s Cuckooshrike and Blue-naped

Parrot. A particularly significant survey record was an active nest of

the Critically Endangered Philippine Eagle.

Threatened, near-threatened and endemic species

A total of 20 threatened bird species were observed of which 11 are

restricted to Mindanao faunal region. Of these 1 1, five were observed

in Lituban-Quipit Watershed and seven in PasonancaNatural Park

(Appendix 1 ) . In the accounts below of some of these species, IUCN

threat status after species names is taken from Collar et al. (1999)

and abbreviated as: CR= Critically Endangered, VU = Vulnerable,

NT = Near Threatened; while RR = restricted range, as defined in

Stattersfield et al. (1998).

Philippine Eagle (CR) is distributed in the islands of Luzon,

Samar, Leyte and Mindanao (Collar et al. 1999). In the 1990s a

Philippine Eagle was retrieved by Protected Areas and Wildlife

Bureau (PAWB) from Zamboanga. In 2003, anorherwas retrieved

in Siocon and placed in the Philippine Eagle Center. Tail and wing

feathers of this species were also retrieved by the ZCWD and DENR

Region 9 Eagle Watch Team in Pasonanca Natural Park in 2004,

2007 and most recently on 19 January 2008. Soon afterwards, an

active nest was located by locals and monitored by the DENRRegion

9 Eagle Watch Team in Barangay Linay, in the town of Baliguian,

Forktail 27 (201 1 )

Bird observations on the Zamboanga Peninsula, Mindanao, Philippines

17

Zamboanga del Norte. The nest was on a branch of a dipterocarp

located in a forest patch of about 1 00 ha surrounded by patches of

secondary forest mostly concentrated on ravines and gorges. About

300 m from the nest was a forest clearing with a house. The roughly

six-month-old eaglet was seen in the nest while both parents were

observed within 50 m of it during the survey. Photographs were

taken of both the parents and the eaglet in the nest. This is the first

confirmed nesting record of the species in Zamboanga Peninsula

since the 1950s.

Philippine Duck (VU) was observed in ricefields in Siocon,

Zamboanga del Norte, and in Lake Maragang, Zamboanga del Sur.

A total of five individuals were observed moving from the rice paddies

together with Little Egrets, Cattle Egrets, Javan Pond-heron and

Cinnamon Bittern in Siocon on 26 May 2008. At Lake Maragang,

42 adults accompanied by 24 immatures were observed on the lake

on 26-27 May 2009.

Mindanao Brown Dove (VU) is known from Mindanao and

Basilan but was historically not recorded from the Zamboanga

Peninsula (Collar et al. 1999). However, a single individual was

observed by the team on the trail in secondary forest along one of

the ridges in Lituban-Quipit Watershed at around 680 m. The

individual was heard calling about 10 m away before it flew to trees

on the lower slopes and disappeared. The call was similar to that of

a White-eared Brown Dove but was deep and shorter: hoot-hoot-

hoot-boot-boot. The bird was distinctive: brown with iridescent

purple collar, reddish-orange eyes, brownish-black naked periorbital

skin and no white line below the eye (seen in e.g. Amethyst B^own

Dove).

Mindanao Bleeding-heart (VU) is recorded from six

Philippine islands, with old records from Zamboanga in 1887 and

1898 (Collar etal. 1999). Locals reported it in the Lituban-Quipit

Watershed. We did not encounter it in the wild but found two

caged individuals in one household in Barangay San Jose, Siocon.

They had been in captivity for two months, having reportedly been

poached by a local hunter and sold for Php700 (US$ 16) each.

Philippine Eagle Owl (VU) is known from six Philippine

islands, and was recorded historically on Mindanao from only three

sites. One individual was heard calling repeatedly a low, deep hoo-

hoo-hoo-hoo in a forest patch in Lituban-Quipit Watershed, close

to where the Philippine Eagle nest was found. Using playback, the

bird responded and perched on a branch about 20 m from where we

were standing.

Silvery Kingfisher (VU) is distributed across seven Philippine

islands and is historically recorded from six sites in Zamboanga

Peninsula, with four specimens taken in the nineteenth century

from Zamboanga City (Collar etal. 1 999) . We observed this species

in the Cabonegro and Canucutan areas in PNP. One bird was seen

at a bridge crossing en route to Nancy on 19 February 2008 and

another was heard calling at Cabonegro on 20 February 2008. At

T umaga River in Canucutan, we encountered two more individuals

(adult and juvenile). The adult brought food items to the juvenile

at least four, times. One prey item was a grasshopper and one was a

freshwater fish.

Philippine Dwarf Kingfisher (VU) ranges through the

Philippines except Mindoro, Palawan and West Visayas. Two

individuals were observed at Intake dam in Sitio Canucutan, PNP,

and one individual was observed in the Lake Maragang-Mt Timolan

area.

Mindanao Broadbill (VU) occurs in Dinagat, Siargao,

Mindanao and Basilan. A total of 28 birds were collected from four

sites on the Zamboanga Peninsula between 1887 and 1993 (Collar

etal. 1999). Lambert (1996) reported the species as absent from the

western part of southern Mindanao, but we saw and photographed

it in Cabonegro, PNP: a group of six individuals (four males, two

females) in a mixed-species feeding flock. Two individuals were also

encountered in Lake Maragang (26 May 2009).

Philippine Leafbird (VU) has the same range as Philippine

Dwarf Kingfisher. It was recorded on Mt Sugarloaf in 1969 where

six individuals were collected (Collar etal. 1 999). We observed it at

Baluno and Cabonegro, PNP. In Cabonegro, two birds were seen

feeding on fruits in a forest subcanopy. This is the first record of the

species from Zamboanga del Sur.

White-eared Tailorbird (RR) was observed in PNP, Lituban-

Quipit Watershed and Lake Maragang. Two were seen in

Canucutan, PNP, moving in shrubs and ferns in the forest

understorey looking for insects. The species is easily detected as it

makes a distinctive call when its territory is approached.

Slaty-backed Jungle Flycatcher (RR) occurs on Leyte, Samar,

Siargao, Mindanao and Basilan. We observed one in Nancy, PNP,

flycatching in the understorey as it moved with a mixed-species

flock.

Little Slaty Flycatcher (RR) occurs on Mindanao. A pair was

seen and photographed moving through dense vegetation in Intake,

PNP, Canucutan, Zamboanga City. One individual in a different

location was also heard calling.

Species and habitat conservation issues

Huntingofwildlife either for meat or for the pet trade was rampant

in the Lituban-Quipit Watershed. A number of locals were also

engaged in hunting Long-tailed Macaque Macaca fascicularis ,

Philippine Warty Pig Sus philippensis, Philippine Deer Cervus

mariannus and larger species of birds. The total number of birds

kept in cages amounted to 44 individuals of 16 species, namely

Philippine Hawk Eagle (1), Amethyst Brown Dove (2), White¬

eared Brown Dove ( 1 3), Mindanao Brown Dove (2), Black-chinned

Fruit Dove (1), Green Imperial Pigeon (2), Mindanao Bleeding-

heart (2), Emerald Dove (1), Blue-naped Parrot (2), Blue-crowned

Racquet-tail (1), Colasisi (12), Mindanao Hornbill (l), Rufous

Hornbill (1), Coleto (1), Red-striped Flowerpecker (1) and Java

Sparrow (1).

Timber poaching for commercial and household use was

rampant in the Lituban-Quipit W atershed. In addition, re-opening

of abandoned farms and clearing regenerating secondary forests for

subsistence agriculture were also observed. These practices have

profound effects on the avifauna of the area includingthe Philippine

Eagle, the nest of which was located in the middle of an abandoned

farm while the three other alternative nests were all in clumps of

trees in the middle of forest clearings and corn farms.

Efforts to rehabilitate the area were mostly focused on planting

fruit trees and exotic tree species, e.g. mahogany Swietenia

macrophylla , Acacia mangium , Gmelina arborea and other fast¬

growing species. Many of these were planted even within forest

clearings, around water sources and in slopes and gullies close to

existing forest patches. DENR has organised local households into

cooperatives and peoples’ organisations to implement Integrated

Social Forestry (ISF) projects, and has awarded ‘Industrial Tree

Plantation Certificates’ to private corporations and individuals to

rehabilitate portions of the watershed.

DISCUSSION

Our surveys generated the first comprehensive list ofbirds occurring

in the southern portion of the Zamboanga Peninsula and provide

preliminary information on threatened birds and the status of three

key conservation sites. The total number of resident forest birds

recorded during the survey represents around 62% of the forest

species occurring in Mindanao. W e encountered most of the lowland

threatened and endemic species of Mindanao except for Celestial

Monarch Hypothymis coelestis and Miniature Tit Babbler

Micromacronus leytensis. In the Lituban-Quipit Watershed the

larger species of pigeons, e.g. imperial pigeons, were also not

18

LISA MARIE J. PAGUNTALAN etal.

Forktail 27 (201 1)

encountered. However, a larger patch of lowland secondary forest

within Siocon Resource Reserve may provide a suitable habitat for

some of the lowland forest birds we did not record.

The Philippine Eagle is a lowland forest resident bird that may

venture into forest edges and agricultural clearings close to forest

habitats (Dickinson etal. 1991, Collar etal. 1999). The presence of

a breeding pair in Lituban-Quipit increases the conservation

importance ol the area. The Philippine Eagle Foundation Inc. (PEFI)

and the Regional DENR 9 Eagle Watch Team have been

instrumental in raising conservation awareness in the local

communities and the local governments of Baliguian and Siocon.

Consequently, these communities and governments were aware of

the significance of the Philippine Eagle and felt proud of its presence

in their area. This was taken by DENR 9 as an opportunity to declare

the area as a Critical Habitat under the Philippines Wildlife

Protection Act (Republic Act 9147). However, practical and

efficient conservation programmes that address the habitat

degradation, wildlife and forest protection and the needs of the

local communities are still badly needed. Local communities need

to understand that areas around all the alternative nest trees should

be immediately protected and freed from all forms of human

development.

Species conservation initiatives are currently focused on the

Philippine Eagle and little attention is being given to the other

threatened endemic species, especially in the Lituban-Quipit

Watershed. Hunting of wildlife is rampant and local people are

unaware of the Philippine Wildlife Act (RA 9147). About 60% of

bird-keeping locals said they liked birds as pets, 1 0% trade them and

30% hunt birds for meat. The species that appear most vulnerable

are hornbills, parrots and doves. Many resident forest species may

become locally extirpated if the current rate of habitat destruction

and unregulated extraction of natural resources continues. Local

hunting of Long-tailed Macaques may pose a significant impact on

the diet of the Philippine Eagle.

PNP forest appears to be more efficiently protected than that in

the Lituban-Quipit W atershed. Regular monitoringand patrolling

by the ZCWD forest guards greatly contribute to the protection of

the forest and its wildlife. As an indicator, the majority of the endemic

and threatened avifauna species were recorded in PNP by the survey

team. More thorough survey in Nancy and Cabonegro might even

reveal the presence of a breeding pair of Philippine Eagle.

Conservation survey needs

There is a need to conduct more field research and surveys in the

remaining forest patches of the Zamboanga Peninsula. Research

studies should also focus on a wider number of equally important

threatened and endemic species and across different taxa. Many of

the threatened and endemic birds we observed in both areas are

poorly known and most were mainly surviving in forests below

800 m. Prioritised research areas and focus species include:

■ Mt Sugarloaf and Mt Timolan: focus on a number of endemic

and threatened birds that have been recorded historically

including the Philippine Eagle, Celestial Monarch, Mindanao

Broadbill, Little Slaty Flycatcher and Silvery Kingfisher;

■ Siocon Resource Reserve: a patch of secondary mature lowland

(300-500 m) forest close to the town of Siocon potentially

harbours several Mindanao threatened endemic species;

■ Mt Dapiak and Mt Paraya (east of Mt Malindang in north¬

eastern Zamboanga del Sur): Mt Dapiak (980 m) is reportedly

mostly denuded but 80% of Mt Paraya (1,186 m) still retains

lowland and mid-montane forest cover (Mallari et al. 2001),

and Philippine Eagle, Silvery Kingfisher, Philippine Dwarf

Kingfisher, Little Slaty Flycatcher and Azure-breasted Pittahave

been historically recorded on both mountains (Collar etal. 1 999,

Mallari et al. 200 1 ).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Club 300 Foundation for Bird Protection-Sweden for providing

support for the February 2008 survey. We are grateful to the Protected Areas,

Wildlife and Coastal Zone Management Service (PAWCZMS) ofthe DENR

9 for facilitating the field surveys in May 2008 and May 2009; in particular the

Wildlife Section Chief Mussaenda Tee and Forester Dario Mendija of

CENRO-Siocon for organising the trip in Baliguian. We also thank the

Barangay Captain of Linay, in particular Mr Regin Geografia and former

Barangay Chairman Mr Dioniosio Geografia, for arranging logistics while in

Baliguian; Engineer Archiles Braulio ofZCWD for facilitatingthe PNP survey;

EufemiaTorribio and Mario Runolo for Lake Maragang-Mt Timolan survey.

The Oriental Bird Club Representative (OBC) Philippines Mr Arne Jensen

and Desmond Allen kindly reviewed and provided comments contributing to

the finalisation of the field survey manuscript. Two anonymous referees

improved the manuscript.

REFERENCES

Brooks, T. (2002) Birds collected in the Philippines by the Noona Dan

Expedition, August to December 1961. Steenstrupia 27: 29-46.

Brooks, T. & Dutson, G. (1 997) Twenty-nine new island records of birds from

the Philippines. Bull. Brit. Orn. Club 1 1 7: 32-37.

Collar, N. J., Mallari, N.A.D. & Tabaranza, B. R. (1999) Threatened birds ofthe

Philippines. Manila: Bookmark.

Dickinson, E. C., Kennedy, R. S. & Parkes, K. C. (1991) An annotated checklist

ofthe birds ofthe Philippines. London: British Ornithologists' Union.

Heaney, L. R. (1 993) Biodiversity patterns and the conservation of mammals

in the Philippines, Asia. Life Sciences 2: 261-274.

Heaney, L. R„ Balete, D. S., Dolar, M. L., Alcala, A. C., Dans, A. T. L„ Gonzales,

P. C., Ingle, N. R., Lepiten, M. V., Oliver, W. L. R., Ong, P. S., Rickart, E. A.,

Tabaranza, B.R.&Utzurrum, R.C.B. (1998) A synopsis of the mammalian

fauna ofthe Philippine Islands. Fieldiana Zool. 88.

Heaney L. R., Walker, E. K., Tabaranza, B. R. & Ingle, N. R. (2000) Mammalian

diversity in the Philippines: an assessment ofthe adequacy of current

data. Sylvatrop 1 0: 6-27.

Kennedy, R. S., Gonzales, P. C., Dickinson, E. C., Miranda, H. C. & Fisher, T. H.

(2000) A guide to the birds ofthe Philippines. Oxford: Oxford University

Press.

Lambert, F. (1996) Pittas, broadbills and asities. Robertsbridge, East Sussex:

Pica Press.

Mallari, N. A. D„ Tabaranza, B. R. & Crosby, M. J. (2001) Key conservation sites

in the Philippines. Manila: Bookmark.

PASA Report = Protected Area Suitability Assessment of Pasonanca

Watershed (1997) Report Submitted to DENR Region 9.

Stattersfield, A. J., Crosby, M. J., Long, A. J. & Wege, D. C. (1998) Endemic Bird

Areas of the world: priorities for biodiversity conservation. Cambridge, U.K.:

Bi rd Life International.

Lisa Marie J. PAGUNTALAN and Philip Godfrey JAKOSALEM, Cebu

Biodiversity Conservation Foundation Inc., 18 Diamond St.,

Gemsville Subd., Lahug, Cebu City, Philippines. E-mail:

iisa.paguntaian@cebubiodiversity.org

Markus LAGERQVIST and Jonas NORDIN, Club 300 Foundation for

Bird Protection, Fijortgatan 16 A SE-223 50 Lund, Sweden

Georgina FERNANDEZ, Protected Areas Wildlife Coastal Zone

Management Service - Department of Environment and Natural

Resources - Region 9, Pagadian City, Zamboanga del Sur, Philippines

Michael de la CRUZ and Agaton BAYSA, Protected Area

Superintendent Office, Pasonanca Natural Park, Lantawan,

Pasonanca, Zamboanga City, Philippines

Forktail 27 (2011)

Bird observations on the Zamboanga Peninsula, Mindanao, Philippines

19

1

20

LISA MARIE J. PAGUNTALAN et at.

Forktail 27 (2011)

Javan Pond Heron

Malayan Night Heron

Black-crowned Night Heron

Cattle Egret

Cinnamon Bittern

Pink-necked Green Pigeon

Red-bellied Pitta

Hooded Pitta

Mindanao Broadbill

Philippine Leafbird

Philippine Fairy-bluebird

Pied Triller

Black-and-white Triller

Ardeola speciosa

Qorsachius melanolophus

Nycticorax nycticorax

Bubulcus ibis

Ixobrychus cinnamomeus

Treron vermins

Pitta erythrogaster

Pitta sordida

Sarcophanops steer ii

Chioropsis flavipennis

Irena cyanogastra

Lalage nigra

Lalagemelanoleuca

Pachycephala philippinensis

49(2.45)

1 (0.03)

1 (0.03)

44(1.47)

1 (0.03)

5(0.17)

6(0.20)

2 (0.07)

2 (0.07)

2 (0.07)

4(0.13)

16(0.53)

24(0.80)

4(0.20)

1 (0.05)

1 (0.05)

1 (0.05)

4(0.22)

2(0.11)

2(0.11)

2(0.11)

7(0.39)

6(0.38)

2(0.13)

1 (0.08)

1 (0.08)

1 (0.08)

I (0.07)

7(0.44) 2(0.17) 16

Yellow-bellied Whistler

4

Forktail 27 (201 1 )

Bird observations on the Zamboanga Peninsula, Mindanao, Philippines

21

NoonaDan Lake Maragang- Lituban— Quipit Pasonanca Natural Park

22

LISA MARIE J. PAGUNTALAN et al.

Forktail 27 (2011)

/*■

FORKTAIL 27 (2011): 23-28

Occurrence and distribution of established and new

introduced bird species in north Sulawesi, Indonesia

JAMES A. FITZSIMONS, JANELLE L. THOMAS & MARC ARGELOO

Distributional and habitat information on eight introduced bird species in north Sulawesi, Indonesia, is presented. The accounts are based

on our observations as well as being gathered from published sources and unpublished trip reports. Three species (Sulphur-crested Cockatoo

Cacatua galerita, Sooty-headed Bulbul Pycnonotus aurigaster and Red-collared Dove Steptopelia tranquebarica ) have not previously been

reported in north Sulawesi in the published literature, while the continued presence and status of Java Sparrow Padda oryzivora, Zebra Dove

Geopelia striata and Rock Dove Columba livia was considered uncertain in the published literature. Further work is required systematically

to document the distribution, status and spread of introduced species in the north and other parts of Sulawesi — an imperative from both an

economic and conservation perspective.

INTRODUCTION

The distribution of introduced bird species often receives less

attention than native and particularly rare or endemic species

(White & Bruce 1986, Eguchi & Amano 2004, Yap & Sodhi 2004,

Antos et al. 200 6). However, introduced species can potentially

have a range of negative ecological impacts (e.g. competition, etc.),

and recording changes in known distribution can indicate rates or

means of establishment or spread (Long 1981, Brook 2004, Lever

2005). Here we provide further distributional information for eight

species of introduced birds on the Minahassa Peninsula, north

Sulawesi, Indonesia. The Minahassa Peninsula is the longest of

Sulawesi’s four peninsulas that contribute to the island’s distinctive

shape (Ligure 1). This distributional information is based on our

observations and on comparisons with major recent published works

for the island (White & Bruce 1986, Holmes & Phillipps 1996,

Coates & Bishop 1 997, Strange 2001), monographs (e.g. Handbook

of the birds of the world series), published journal articles and

unpublished trip reports. Our observations were made between 1 990

and 2010 (MA) while travelling extensively in north Sulawesi

(roughly between Manado and Gorontalo) and 12-23 July 2009

(JAP and JLT) while travelling between sites on the northern

peninsula of Sulawesi including Manado, Tangkoko Duasudara

Nature Reserve, Tomohon and surrounds, Bogani Nani Wartabone

National Park and Bunaken Island. The locations of place names

used in this paper are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Locations in Sulawesi described in this paper (protected areas are represented by grey shading: NR = nature reserve; NP = national park).

ffc,

Bahowo _ 1 F^Kinunang

village.' , .//Pulisan

Bunaken Island*'/ ,

~ 4"- Airport V Tangkoko

Molasf * Dyasudara NR

Manado ?

Bitung

GunUTig Mahawu y

® Manembonembo NR

Nimanga RKter •

Tomohon

Lake Tondapo

Amurang

^oigar

jf

Kotamobagi), Guriun Ambang NR

i

Bogani Nani _

Wartabone NP 1tynb“'?

Pinogu • n . ‘manduX-Mokintop

_ Doloduo.* — Kosio ,, ,

JpUuv/an Matamdoi

MalavangatT1'

Milongodaa

( 1

Donggala^Tawaeli

, p1, Ta-®

1 Lore Lindu NP

Ujung Pandarig

(Makassarf

45

I .

90

I

180 Kilometers

j I

24

JAMES A. FITZSIMONS, JANELLE L. THOMAS & MARC ARGELOO

Forktail 27 (201 1 )

SPECIES ACCOUNTS

Species not previously recorded in north Sulawesi

in the published literature

Sooty-headed Bulbul Pycnonotus aurigaster

Sooty-headed Bulbul is native to China, Burma, Indochina,

Thailand, Java and Bali, but has been introduced to a number of

islands in Indonesia, thought to be the result of escaped cagebirds

(e.g. Coates &: Bishop 1997, Strange 2001), although Yap & Sodhi

(2004) suggest the mode of colonisation for this species in South-

East Asia is unknown.

Coates & Bishop (1997: 406) stated that this species occurs in

south Sulawesi, north to Enrekanga (at the northern end ol the

southern peninsula). Strange (2001) listed the species as occurring

in ‘south Sulawesi’ and maps its distribution in the southern

peninsula. Holmes & Phillipps (1996: 52) noted that the Sooty-

headed Bulbul and Yellow-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus goiavier ‘have

been introduced into South Sulawesi where they occur widely’, while

MacKinnon & Phillipps (1993) also suggested their introduction

has been restricted to the south of the island. White & Bruce (1986)

cited Coomans de Ruiter & Maurenbrecher’s ( 1 948) assessment of

this species becoming a ‘well established urban dweller at Ujung

Pandang’ in the south, but cite no other records. Fishpool & Tobias

(2005), in the most recent review of the entire distribution of the

species, stated its presence in Sulawesi was restricted to the south.

MA believes this species to have been present in north Sulawesi

from at least 1 990 (at least in parts of Manado) . Specific observations

include several tens at Bahowo village (coast north of Manado) on

30 July 2006, up to three at Pulisan between 12 and 14 August 2006

and several tens at the same location on 14 March 2008, several tens

at Hotel Santika, Tongkeina (Manado), on 8 March 2008, three at

TanjungMariri, north coast, 12kmeastofInobonto,on l4March

2008, and several tens on the track up to Gunung Mahawu on 25

June 2008. In February 2010, birds were observed collecting nest

material (grasses) on a daily basis in Manado, and a single bird was

observed between Manado and T omohon. In March 2010 specific

attention was paid to the occurrence of this species along the north

coast between T umpaan and Inobonto. Birds were observed 20 and

7 km east of Poigar (one, 1 9 March), near T anjungMariri (three, 1 9

March) and nearby in Nonapan Baru (one, 27 March). Additional

observations inland were made at the Nimanga River near Munte

(one, 27 March), and 1 km south of Manado airport (three,

28 March). No observations were made further west at Kotamobagu,

or further west to Gorontalo despite more than 20 trips there.

JAF and JET observed small groups of this species in at least

four separate localities on the Minahassa Peninsula of north

Sulawesi — in central Manado on 12 July 2009, Tangkoko

Duasudara N ature Reserve on 1 5 July 2009, near the north eastern

edge of Fake Tondano on 15 July 2009' and outskirts of Manado

near the Sam Ratulangi International Airport on 23 July 2009.

In addition to our observations, Sooty-headed Bulbul has been

recorded in the Minahassa Peninsula in a number of unpublished

trip reports, it seems as far back as 1997, specifically at Manado (e.g.

Fuijendijk 1997, Farrow 2006, Morris & Demeulemeester 2007,

J. W. Duckworth in Robson 2007), Tangkoko Duasudara Nature

Reserve (e.g. Ahlman 1999, Gregory & Maher 2000, Myers 2001,

Cooper & Cooper 2002, Morris & Demeulemeester 2007, Farrow

2008), and between Manado and Bogani Nani Wartabone National

Park (Cooper & Cooper 2002).

It would thus appear this species is almost certainly established

in parts of the Minahassa Peninsula and could be locally common

(see also Farrow 2010). The lack of records from cental Sulawesi

suggests it is likely that these north Sulawesi populations are the

result of locally escaped birds rather than a spread from the south of

the island. However, observations from areas between the western

Minahassa Peninsula and the south-west of the island are required

to determine the occurrence (or lack thereof) of intervening

populations; for example, Cooper & Cooper (2002) also found

Sooty-headed Bulbul between Palu and Fore Findu National Park.

Sulphur-crested Cockatoo Cacatua galerita

Two Sulphur-crested Cockatoos Cacatua galerita were seen by JAF,

JET and a guide perched quietly in trees in lowland rainforest in

Tangkoko Duasudara Nature Reserve at 1 lhOO on 14 July 2009.

The pair was observed for a couple of minutes before flying and

calling. One bird was located a few minutes later about 1 00 m away

and was observed through binoculars and photographed in the mid¬

upper canopy (~20 m up) for five minutes before flying off.

The cockatoos were identified from the closely related Critically

Endangered native Yellow-crested Cockatoo C. sulphurea by their

large size, relative size of the crest, and lack ofyellow ear-coverts (see

Coates & Bishop 1 997, Rowley 1 997, Forshaw 2006) . The cockatoos

had a clearly visible pale blue eye-ring, suggesting they were most

likely of the subspecies eleonora (but possibly also triton). Both

observers are familiar with this species from Australia.

The nearest native population of Sulphur-crested Cockatoos

are in Papua (subsp. triton ) and the Aru Islands (subsp. eleonara),

some 650 km and 1,250 km away, respectively. None of the major

texts (White & Bruce 1986, Holmes & Phillipps 1996, Coates &

Bishop 1997, Rowley 1997, Strange 2001, Forshaw 200 6) notes

Sulphur-crested Cockatoo as occurring on Sulawesi. Coates &

Bishop (1997) considered that where Sulphur-crested Cockatoos

have been recorded elsewhere in Wallacea they have been

introduced. The subspecies eleonora (and possibly triton) has been

recorded on Ambon, Seram Taut Islands (Manawoka, Gorong) and

Kai Island, where it is ‘recently introduced [and] possibly established’

(Coates & Bishop 1 997 : 337). Feral birds or escapes are occasionally

observed elsewhere in Wallacea but their status is considered

unknown (Coates & Bishop 1997).

Sulphur-crested Cockatoos are an illegally but commonly traded

species in Indonesia (White & Bruce 1986, Shepherd 2005, 2006,

ProFauna Indonesia 2008), with trade between Papua and the

Philippines. North Sulawesi, and particularly the coastal port of

Bitung near Tangkoko Duasudara Nature Reserve, is part of this

smuggling/trade route (I. Hunowu and J. Tasirin, Wildlife

Conservation Society, pers. comm. 2009). It is thus highly likely the

cockatoos observed in Tangkoko are escaped or released cagebirds,

as (it is suspected) are records of an Eclectus Parrot Eclectus roratus

at Tangkoko in 2003, a species native to the Moluccas (I. Hunowu

pers. comm. 2009) and reports from rangers of a White Cockatoo

Cacatua alba in the same reserve (P. Gregory pers. comm. 2010).

Rowley (1997) stated that Sulphur-crested Cockatoos released

from captivity can rapidly establish populations. If this species were

to establish itself in Tangkoko or other parts of Sulawesi it raises a

number of interesting questions. The ecological similarity between

C. galerita and C. sulphera means there is potential for competition

if they overlap — indeed Schliebusch & Schliebusch (2001) suggest

they are conspecific. However, while Yellow-crested Cockatoos

formerly occurred across Sulawesi, they are now believed to be close

to extinction (Rowley 1997, Snyder et al. 2000) and most likely

extinct in T angkoko and other parts of the north (Coates & Bishop

1997, BirdFife International 2001). Indeed rangers at Tangkoko

were very excited on observing and/ or viewing the photographs of

the pair, with one suggesting he had not seen a cockatoo in seven

years of working in the reserve. Thus there is potential for

Sulphur-crested Cockatoos to take over the ecological niche vacated

by the massive declines and local extinctions of Yellow-crested

Cockatoos.

Interestingly, there have also been a number of recent reports of

Yellow-crested Cockatoos in Tangkoko (Farrow & Robson 2009,

Hutchinson 2009a, 2009b, Gregory 2010), including one seen at

close quarters (P. Gregory pers. comm. 2010), although Farrow

Forktail 27 (2011)

Established and new introduced bird species in north Sulawesi, Indonesia

25

(2010) reassigned his 2009 observation to Sulphur-crested based on

closer observations of a pair in 2010 and the presence of pale blue

eye-rings on these birds. Considering the presence of a number of

species of obviously introduced parrots, the origin of these recently

observed Yellow-crested Cockatoos is unclear but could also be the

result of cage escapes/release. On viewing photographs of the

cockatoo we had observed, the observers above agreed that it was a

Sulphur-crested Cockatoo, and thus visitors to the reserve should be

mindful of the potential presence of a number of similar cockatoo

species.

Red-collared Dove Steptopelia tranquebarica

Red-collared Dove was first found in Sulawesi in 1978 (Escott &

Holmes 1980), and according to Coates & Bishop (1997: 313) is

known only in north-central Sulawesi ‘from the Palu Valley and

north to the vicinity of Tawaeli, and also near Parigi’. Holmes &

Phillipps (1996) and White & Bruce (1986) both suggested that

the occurrence of this species is restricted to the central region of

Sulawesi. However, more recent reports suggest the range of this

species may be expanding. For example. Bishop (1999) has since

observed four birds between Moutong and Gorontalo on the

Minahassa Peninsula, Lagerqvist (2006) found two birds between

Doloduo and Tambun, De Win (2010) found them not only near

Lore Lindu but en route to Manado, while Hutchinson (2010)

observed them in ricefields between Manado and Kotamobagu.

Small numbers have also recently been observed around fishponds

in Makassar on the south of the island (Farrow 2007, 2008, 2010,

Morris & Demeulemeester 2007). Interestingly, in the information

centre of Tangkoko Duasudara Nature Reserve the species is

illustrated as occurring in that reserve.

Species whose status was previously considered

uncertain in north Sulawesi

Java Sparrow Padda oryzivora

Although Java Sparrows Padda oryzivora have for some years been

considered Vulnerable in their native Java (BirdLife International

200 1 ), escapes have established feralpopulations in a number South-

East Asian countries where they have become pests of rice crops

(Yap & Sodhi 2004), includingparts of southern Sulawesi (Whitten

et al. 2002).

Meyer & Wiglesworth (1898: 543) found Java Sparrow to be

‘common near Macassa, but rare in the north, where it has only been

found by Meyer near Manado’. These observations from the late

nineteenth century contradict the statements in Whitten

et al. (2002: 585) that the species ‘was probably introduced into

Sulawesi in the last couple of decades’ and in Lever (2005: 247) that

‘Java Sparrows seem to have been first reported on Sulawesi, on the

southern peninsula and on the eastern end of the northern

Minahassa Peninsula, by Stresemann (1936)...’. White & Bruce

(1986) cited Meyer & Wiglesworth’s (1898) observation near

Manado but provide no other records from north Sulawesi, as did

Stresemann & Heinrich (1941). Coates & Bishop (1997: 499)

suggested the species is ‘uncommon and local in the south, but locally

common, north to Parepare and the head of T eluk Bone’. They also

stated it is ‘also recorded [in] Menado’ but that its status in this

region is unknown. It is not clear whether Coates & Bishop’s (1997)

reference to the Manado record(s) is sourced from White & Bruce

(1986) and ultimately Meyer & Wiglesworth (1898). Holmes &

Phillipps (1996: 67) stated the species has been ‘introduced into

south Sulawesi, but it is now rare’. Andrew & Holmes (1990) did

not report any records ofthis species from the north. Strange (200 1 )

reports the Java Sparrow to be introduced but generally scarce on

Sulawesi (and a number of other Indonesian islands) but does not

provide any more specific location information.

MA observed asinglejava Sparrowon 23 October 1 990 at Molas

(Nusantara Dive Centre, north of Manado), a single bird at

Purworedjo (some 15 km south-east of Kotamobagu) on 21

September 1993, and a single bird at Gorontalo on 16 July 2000.

Approximately seven J ava Sparrows were observed byj AF at around

08h30 on 12July 2009 on building scaffolding about 15 m high on

a newly constructed building on Jl. Piere Tendean, on the coastal

strip of central Manado.

Our observations, combined with sightings by Gregory & Ford

(2006) of a flock of at least 1 50 in the paddies at Posko, by Farrow

(2008) of a ‘couple ofbirds’ at Amurang (possibly the same location

ofobservations in Hutchinson [2008a, 20 1 0] and Farrow& Robson

[2009]), by Hutchinson (2009b) of ‘flocks’ on locations between

Manado and Kotamabagu, byDe Win (2010) of two birds en route

to GunungAmbang, and by Hutchinson (2008b) ofseveral ‘nesting

under the eves of a roadside house’ between T angkoko and Manado

Airport, indicate that small resident populations exist near human

settlements in north Sulawesi, although the absence of sightings

from most ‘trip reports’ suggests they are not common.

Zebra Dove Geopelia striata

Coates & Bishop (1997: 317) stated that the Zebra Dove Geopelia

striata is ‘apparently feral on Sulawesi’ but provided no further

distributional information. Strange (200 1 ) suggested that the species

is introduced to Sulawesi, although he did not map its distribution

on the island as he had for other introduced species to Sulawesi.

Holmes & Phillipps (1996) provided little detail except to note

that Zebra Dove is present on Sulawesi and does not appear to be

v restricted to any particular region. Meyer & Wiglesworth’s (1898:

648) historical account of this species’s distribution provides more

information when stating it is ‘very common in flocks on the fields

in South Celebes; in the North of the island it is unknown’. Escott

& Holmes (1980) were apparently the first to document the species’s

presence in the north (at Gorontalo), suggesting it had previously

only been recorded in the south and south-central regions. Intriguing

and somewhat contradictory is the statement by Gibbs et al. (2001:

313) that it is ‘local in Sulawesi (mostly in the north) ’ although they

mapped the species as occurring across the entire island.

MA observed a single Zebra Dove on 28 July 1991 at Imana,

some 20 km east of Kwandangon the north coast. Few records of

Zebra Dove appear in recent trip reports, indicating the species is

uncommon and not widespread in north Sulawesi (although see

Milton’s [2008] record from Manado and a record by Hutchinson

[2009b], location not specified). Gregory (2010) found ‘amazingly

few, just singles near T angkoko and T oraut’, and in the information

centre at Tangkoko Duasudara Nature Reserve the species is

illustrated as occurring there.

Rock Dove Coiumba livia

Rock Dove is one of the most successful introduced species in the

world. Coates & Bishop (1997: 312) suggested that it is ‘present in

most towns in Wallacea’ but ‘only recently established as a feral

species’. White & Bruce (1986) noted Rock Dove as occurring in

south Sulawesi but that ‘White had no records of feral birds for

Wallacea’. White & Bruce (1986: 186) further stated: ‘There area

few recent observations from South Sulawesi (McKean 1982, J

Klapste [pers. comm.])’ and that ‘These pigeons are often seen in

towns throughout Wallacea (cfW atling 1983), but the distribution

of feral birds is poorly understood, as with other introduced species’.

Holmes & Phillipps (1996) also indicated this species as having

been recorded only in the south of Sulawesi.

JAF and JLT recorded a single bird in Manado flying to a building

ledge on 12July2009 and three birds on the roofofa shed in paddy

fields north ofLake Tondano on 15 July 2009.

Elsewhere, Morris & Demeulemeester (2007) found Rock Doves

in several towns and suggested many were kept as pets. This somewhat

corresponds with Watling’s (1983: 253) observations from mostly

central Sulawesi of the species ‘kept in a semi-domesticated form in

26

JAMES A. FITZSIMONS, JANELLE L. THOMAS & MARC ARGELOO

Forktail 27 (201 1)

many villages’, but that no wild nesting populations were observed.

However, Gregory & Maher (2000) and Gregory (2010) observed

‘presumed feral birds’ at Kotamobagu, Lagerqvist (2006) saw Rock

Doves ‘in small to moderate numbers in most populated areas’ in

Sulawesi, while Farrow (2006) also recorded them several times. In

the information centre of T angkoko Duasudara Nature Reserve the

species is illustrated as occurring in that reserve.

Species well known to be established

Spotted Dove Streptopelia chinensis

Thought to be introduced to Sulawesi in 1835, Spotted Dove is

now widespread in Wallacea, where it appears to be expanding its

range (Coates & Bishop 1 997). Strange (200 1 ) mapped its Sulawesi

range as the entire island. Holmes & Phillipps ( 1 996) considered it

common and widely distributed in open country. White & Bruce

(1986) cited Meyer (1879) as giving the date of introduction as

1839, although this changed to 1835 in Meyer & Wiglesworth

(1898). That White & Bruce (1986) also stated the species to be

‘recently recorded from Central and SE Sulawesi’ (citing Holmes &

Wood 1980, McKean 1982, Watling 1983) suggests that the north

was where the species first became established on the island. This is

supported by Meyer & Wiglesworth ( 1 898), who found the species

to be common (at least in the north) and Riley ( 1 924), who reported

a ‘good series of both sexes’ from a number of localities in the north

and central regions between 1914 and 1918.

MA records Spotted Dove as being widespread and relatively

common in north Sulawesi, particularly in rural areas and towns

but not in the forest. Specific localities recorded include Matayangan

(two on 2 December 1990), Tambun village (six on 7 December

1990), the Pinogu enclave of Bogani Nani Wartabone National

Park (six on 22 July 1991), Molibagu (one on 7 August 2006),

Tambun (three on 9 August 2006), and Kinunang (Pulisan) (two

on 12 August 2006).

Recent trip reports often mention small numbers of Spotted

Doves seen in open habitats (Gregory & Maher 2000, Farrow 2006,

2007, 2008, 2010, Gregory 2010), especially in the Manado/

T angkoko areas (Morris & Demeulemeester 2007), although Bishop

(1999) suggested they are common in dry, coastal scrub, farmland,

edge of rice-fields and areas near human habitation throughout

Sulawesi.

Spotted Doves have also been recorded in agricultural land and

secondary forest in a number of protected areas, e.g.

Manembonembo, Panua, Gunun Ambang and Tangkoko

Duasudara Nature Reserves and Bogani N ani W artabone National

Park (Rozendaal & Dekker 1989, Bororing et al. 2000, Riley &

Mole 2001, Riley et al. 2003, Lagerqvist 2006).

Eurasian Tree Sparrow Passer montanus

Coates & Bishop (1997) suggested that Eurasian Tree Sparrow has

only relatively recently become established in north and north-

central Sulawesi (in 1979) following Escott & Holmes’s (1980)

statement that the ‘spread of the introduced T ree Sparrow around

Sulawesi is to be expected and it is now known from Menado in

North Sulawesi and Donggala, the port of Palu, in Central Sulawesi’.

White & Bruce (1986) suggested it is now found in various parts of

north, central, and south Sulawesi. Holmes & Phillipps (1996)

suspected that the Eurasian Tree Sparrow arrived on Sulawesi via

ships and, with Strange (2001), stated that it is now common in

many towns and settlements. Summers-Smith (2009) showed the

distribution of this species as the entire island of Sulawesi, but did

not suggest it is introduced.

Rozendaal & Dekker (1989) noted that the observation of a

single bird at Doloduo on 9 December 1985 was the only record on

the west side of the Dumoga Valley at the time and that the species

was common in Manado, Tomohon and Kotamobagu. However,

MA’s observations clearly show the spread of the Eurasian Tree

Sparrow in a westerly direction into the Dumoga Valley (Kosio,

Uuwan, Imandi, Mokintop), and even along the south coast

(Milongodaa, Mataindo), while Sutton (1997) found them to be

‘common around Dumoga Bone N.P.’. MA made the following

observations: 22 October 1990, Manado, ‘very common’;

5 November 1990, Kosio, Dumoga Valley (numbers not

recorded); 15 November 1990, between Duloduo and Molibagu,

village Uuwan, 10, probably more; 19 November 1990, Manado,

‘daily’, no numbers; 4 December 1990, Imandi, Dumoga Valley,

one juvenile, roadkill, c.3 weeks old; 1 7 April 1991, Mokintop, near

Tambun, one adult caught and eaten by Purple-winged Roller

Coracias temminckii (see Argeloo & Fitzsimons 20 1 1); 22-23 July

1991, Pinogu enclave, no Tree Sparrows observed; 3 August 1991,

‘tens’ at Milongodaa (south coast national park); 9 March 2007,

tens at Santika Hotel, Manado, breeding in holes of palms and

cottages in February 20 1 0; and several tens along the south coast in

Mataindo (20 March 2010). JAF and JLT found the species to be

common in most areas of human habitation and agricultural areas

in July 2009 (e.g. Manado, Tangkoko, Lake Tondano, Bunaken

Island).

Riley et al. (2003) recorded the species in agricultural land in

Panua Nature Reserve, while Bororing et al. (2000) found it in

villages within Manembonembo N ature Reserve. Most trip reports

do not specifically list localities for Eurasian T ree Sparrow although

the summary by Bishop (1999) — ‘ubiquitous except within

forest’ — provides a representative summary of records from this

forum.

DISCUSSION

This paper documents the distribution and occurrence of

introduced bird species (a) that have not previously been recorded

as occurring in north Sulawesi in the published literature, (b) whose

status was previously considered uncertain and (c) already known

to be well established. Of the birds in the first two categories, two

were already known to be established in the south of the island

(Sooty-headed Bulbul, Java Sparrow) and another probably so

(Zebra Dove), while one is established in central Sulawesi (Red-

collared Dove). All are kept as cagebirds and it is likely that local

escapes/ releases were the source of these northern populations rather

than northward spread (except perhaps in the case of the Red-

collared Dove, whose northern record was closer to the central

Sulawesi population). The discovery of the Sulphur-crested

Cockatoos in T angkoko is most likely to be the result of a deliberate

release or escapes of pets or smuggled animals.

One introduced species, Yellow-vented Bulbul, is known to be

established in the south of Sulawesi but not yet in the north. As this

species most likely became established through cage escapes or

releases it is feasible it could establish itself in the north through

similar means. Elsewhere, in the Buton Islands in south Sulawesi,

Catterall ( 1 997 ) suggested another species, the Island Collared Dove

Streptopelia bitorquata, could have also been introduced to Siumpu

Island.

A lack of past records from Sulawesi (e.g. for much of the first

seven decades of the twentieth century) may in part be due to a lack

ofvisitingornithologists and birdwatchers. However, even in recent

times as north Sulawesi becomes increasing popular and accessible

to birdwatchers, introduced species may be less recorded in ‘trip

reports’ than native species, as they are often of less interest to

birdwatchers, while birdwatching tours are more focused to finding

native and particularly endemic species. Thus some of the species

may be more common than current reports suggest. Further work

is required to document the distribution, status and spread of

introduced species in the north and other parts of Sulawesi —

an imperative both from an economic and conservation perspective.

Forktai! 27 (201 1 )

Established and new introduced bird species in north Sulawesi, Indonesia

27

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks to John Tasirin, Iwan Hunowu, Nick Brickie, Filip Verbelen, Dave

Farrow, Rob Hutchinson, Phil Gregory and the guides and rangers at T angkoko

DuasudaraNature Reserve for offering opinions and information on the identity

of the cockatoo. Thanks to Guy Dutson, Jez Bird and an anonymous reviewer

for comments on a draft and Stu Sheppard for provision of mapping data.

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FORKTAIL 27 (201 1): 29-38

Species limits in some Philippine birds including the

Greater Flameback Chrysocolaptes lucidus

N.J. COLLAR

Philippine bird taxonomy is relatively conservative and in need of re-examination. A number of well-marked subspecies were selected and

subjected to a simple system of scoring (Tobias et al. 2010 Ibis 152: 724-746) that grades morphological and vocal differences between

allopatric taxa (exceptional character 4, major 3, medium 2, minor 1 ; minimum score 7 for species status). This results in the recognition or

confirmation of species status for (inverted commas where a new English name is proposed) 'Philippine Collared Dove' Streptopella(bitorquatus)

dusumieri, 'Philippine Green Pigeon' Treron (pompadora) axillaris and 'Burn Green Pigeon' T. (p.) aromatica, Luzon Racquet-tail Prioniturus

montanus, Mindanao Racquet-tail P. waterstradti, Blue-winged Raquet-tail P. verticalis, Blue-headed Raquet-tail P. platenae, Yellow-breasted

Racquet-tail P. flavicans, White-throated Kingfisher Halcyon ( smyrnensis ) gularis (with White-breasted Kingfisher applying to H. smyrnensis),

'Northern Silvery Kingfisher' Alcedo ( argentata ) flumenicola, 'Rufous-crowned Bee-eater' Merops ( viridis ) americanus, 'Spot-throated Flameback'

Dinopium (javense) everetti, 'Luzon Flameback' Chrysocolaptes ( lucidus ) haematribon, 'Buff-spotted Flameback' C. (/.) lucidus, 'Yellow-faced

Flameback' C. (/.) xanthocephalus, 'Red-headed Flameback' C. (/.) erythrocephalus, 'Javan Flameback' C. (/.) strictus, Greater Flameback C. (/.)

guttacristatus,' Sri Lankan Flameback' (Crimson-backed Flameback) Chrysocolaptes (l.)stricklandi, 'Southern Sooty Woodpecker' Mulleripicus

( funebris ) fuliginosus, Visayan Wattled Broadbill Eurylaimus ( steerii ) samarensis, White-lored Oriole Oriolus (steerii) albiloris, Tablas Drongo

Dicrurus ( hottentottus ) menagei, Grand or Long-billed Rhabdornis Rhabdornis ( inornatus ) grandis, 'Visayan Rhabdornis' Rhabdornis (/.) rabori,

and 'Visayan Shama' Copsychus ( luzoniensis ) superciliaris. Flowever, Phapitreron leucotis nigrorum and P. /. brevirostris, P. amethystina

maculipectus, Ceyxmelanurus mindanensis, Orthotomus castaneiceps frontalis and Phylloscopus trivirgatus nigrorum do not quite make species

statusandrequirefurthervocalorotherevidencejandSuluorBlack-billedHangingParrotLor/cu/usbonaporte/andCamiguinFlangingParrot

L. camiguinensis are here considered to remain part of Philippine Flanging Parrot L. philippensis.

INTRODUCTION

The Philippine Archipelago is notable both for its high biological

endemism (Myers 1990, Stattersfield et al. 1998) and for the high

levels of threat to this endemism (Stattersfield & Capper 2000,

Myers et al. 2000, Mallari et al. 2001). Recently, Peterson (2006)

sought to increase the country’s complement ol avian endemism by

producing a list of ‘populations’ which he regarded as species, and

while his methods and conclusions were questioned (Collar 2007)

his paper was a signal of the need to reassess the more distinctive

taxa currently treated as subspecies in the Philippine avifauna in

quest of greater consistency in species-level treatments. This need

was given further impetus by Lohman et al. (2010), who used

molecular evidence to contend that higher levels of taxonomic

dillerentiation exist in the archipelago than are currently recognised.

Species-limits issues are particularly vexing in the Philippines

owing to the large number of islands and mountains on which

ancestrally related forms have evolved in allopatry. The introduction

to Collar et al. (1999: 39-41) sought to indicate conservationist

sensitivity to this problem; indeed, that publication took upon itself

to split, with written justification, two Sulu endemics, Tawi-tawi

Brown-dove Phapitreron cinereiceps and Sulu Woodpecker Picoides

ramsayi, where the specimen evidence appeared to be overwhelming

and the conservation need pressing. However, Dickinson et al.

(1991) listed no fewer than 631 subspecies ol breeding bird in the

Philippines (Collar 2007), and it would be a major research

undertaking to assess all of these for their distinctiveness. What

follows is merely a review of certain salient cases where relatively

straightforward and rapid evaluations might be made using the

criteria proposed by Tobiases/. (20 10), along with a consideration

of a few others where species-level status has already been proposed.

METHODS

Objective criteria for delineating species when closely related taxa

occur in allopatry have not been easy to find. Helbig et al. (2002)

proposed a system which required a taxon to exhibit unique

characters, but which accepted as lew as two such characters

irrespective of their strength. A higher threshold, trialled by Collar

(2006), involved a quantitative scoring system for assessing degree

ol phenotypic difference between allopatric taxa. In this system —

modilied and developed by Tobias et al. (2010) — an exceptional

ditference (a radically dilferent coloration or pattern) scores 4, a

major character (apronounced and strikingdiflerence in the colour

or pattern of a body part, or in a measurement or vocalisation) 3, a

medium character (a clear diflerence reflected, e.g., by a distinct hue

rather than different colour) 2, and a minor character (a weak

difference, e.g. a change in shade) 1; a threshold of 7 is set to allow

species status, species status cannot be triggered by minor characters

alone, and only three plumage characters, two vocal characters, two

biometric characters (assessed tor effect size using Cohen’s d where

0.2-2 is minor, 2-5 medium, 5-10 major and >10 exceptional) and

one behavioural or ecological character may be counted (Tobias et

al. 2010).

Subspecies ol Philippine bird mentioned or illustrated as well

marked in Kennedy et al. (2000) were placed on a preliminary list

for further investigation involving museum skins, as were the

‘populations’ listed in the appendix of Peterson (2006), along with

a number ol taxa deemed worthy of investigation by D. N. S. Allen

{in litt. 2007). These were then subjectively filtered for strength

and number of characters to produce a much shorter list of stronger

candidates for priority investigation. I then examined specimens

held at the American Museum of Natural History, New York

(AMNH), Natural History Museum, Tring, UK (BMNH),

Delaware Museum of Natural History, Wilmington (DMNH),

Museum National d’HistoireNaturelle, Paris (MNHN), Philippine

National Museum, Manila (PNM) and National Museum of

Natural History, Washington DC (USNM). Where appropriate,

I attempted to measure a sample ofl 0 individuals of a taxon, seeking

a balance between the sexes. Bill was measured from tip to skull,

wing curved, tail from tip to point of insertion, with all measurements

in millimetres. Means are presented with standard deviation (±).

An online calculator (http://www.uccs.edu/~faculty/lbecker/) was

used to determine Cohen’s d effect sizes (symbol o) in cases where

mensural evidence suggested a strong difference.

30

N. J. COLLAR

Forktail 27 (2011)

I list all perceptible differences for each taxon, but as only the

three highest-scoring plumage characters can be counted (usually

with these characters in topographic rather than magnitude

sequence) I note the remainder with the letter ‘u’ for ‘unscored’ but

add the score I believe would be appropriate after it in square brackets,

in order to give more weight to the profile of the taxon in question.

In some cases for lack of adequate sample or time I have not taken

measurements of evidently different-sized characters, and therefore

do not offer a score, but in all cases I anticipate a score of 1 or 2. In

three cases I take the liberty ofprovidinga score of2 for size difference

without supporting evidence from Cohen’s d\ Sulawesi’s Yellow¬

breasted Racquet-tail Prioniturus flavicans and Ashy Woodpecker

Mulleripicus fulvus , for which in reality the only contentious point

here is whether that score should in fact be 3, and Chrysocolaptes

lucidus guttacristatus, based on evidence from a secondary source.

RESULTS

1 . Suggested and supported changes

Streptopelia ( bitorquatus ) dusumieri

The form dusumieri of the Philippines (with populations introduced

to the Marianas and apparently northern Borneo) is strikingly

disjunct from nominotypical bitorquatus (Island Collared Dove),

which ranges from Java to Timor (Baptista etal. 1997, Gibbs etal.

2001). The two taxa are distinct on a suite of characters, none

particularly strong, the tail pattern being most obvious.

In the nominotypical the outer vane of the outermost rectrix

(upperside) is pale grey, not contrastingwith the inner vane of the

same feather, with the distal half of each feather shadingprogressively

darker towards the central feathers, whereas in dusumieri the outer

vane of the outermost rectrix is white along its length, the inner

vane black basally and mid-grey distally, while the other feathers are

also mid-grey, so that the contrast of the white outer vane is striking

(2). In the nominotypical the undertail is blackish basally, whitish-

grey distally, the separation occurring in a sharp line at mid-shaft,

whereas in dusumieri the undertail is blackish shading to dull mid¬

grey on the last 20%, the contrast only being supplied by the white

outer vane of the outermost rectrix (2). The form dusumieri is a

paler, weaker greyish-pink below, with the throat and belly to vent

much whiter ( 1 ). These are the three strongest plumage differences,

but it is worth noting that dorsally dusumieri is also paler greyish-

brown, but the grey of the lesser, median and greater coverts is darker

and less contrasting than in the nominotypical; the grey hindneck-

patch is paler but sometimes with whitish centres to the feathers,

creating a mild scaly effect, and with much less or none of the white

upper and lower edging; the entire head of dusumieri, including the

nape, is pink-tinged whitish-grey, paler towards the frontal area,

whereas the nominotypical has a purer grey crown (palest frontally)

but a slightly rusty-tinged greyish-pink face (malar to ear-coverts

and postocular area) and nape; in both taxa the respective colours

of the breast continue around the lower hind-neck, below the neck-

patch onto the mantle, but this band of colour is twice as wide in the

nominotypical as in dusumieri. The bill of bitorquatus averages longer

than that of dusumieri ( bitorquatus22.%0 ± 0.79, n = 10; dusumieri

20.90 ± 0.88, n= 10; a2.28) (2).

S. de Kort {in litt. 2010) has kindly forwarded recordings of

‘perch coos’ of the two forms that suggest their strong divergence.

Javan bitorquatus has a three-note songwith a thick rolling throaty

quality: rra P.4RRRR ru (two songs in five seconds; first note

highest, second lower and longest, third lowest and shortest) ; Luzon

dusumieri has a brisker three-note WA wu-WAA , with a different

stress and pure quality with no guttural tone (two songs in four

seconds; first note highest, second lowest and shortest, third longest

and slightly lower than first); Figure 1 shows these differences. A

wider sample of recordings to confirm them is needed before these

vocalisations can be considered taxon-specific, but in any case a

total score of 7 is achieved even without vocal analysis.

The name ‘Philippine Collared Dove’ seems appropriate for S.

dusumieri.

Treron (pompadora) axillaris and T. (p.) aromatica

Rasmussen & Anderton (2005) treated Pompador Green Pigeon

T. pompadora as at least four species, and this view seems likely to

prevail. However, they did not consider the form axillaris (along

with amadoni , canescens and everetti) of the Philippines or indeed

aromatica of Burn, although they remarked on the probable specific

status of both.

The Philippine taxa are distinct from phayrei (Himalayas to

Vietnam) and affinis (India) on account of their red cere or base of

bill (2), much larger (deeper and longer) bill (not measured), bluish-

grey (not reddish-pink) legs and feet (3), blackish-grey carpal area

(u [2]) and white (not creamy-brown) undertail-coverts (3), in

addition to which they lack the orange-yellow breast-patch (u [2])

and maroon (not chestnut) back (u [2]) of phayrei , and the much

less distinctly yellow throat (u [2]) of affinis (note some of the

foregoing differences are male-only characters). The voice is reported

to be different from other forms in the pompadora complex (R. O.

Hutchinson verbally 2010). A total score of 8, likely to increase

when sufficient data are available to score bill size and voice, indicates

species status for axillaris (‘Philippine Green Pigeon’).

H owever, axillaris must also be compared to T. {p. ) aromatica

of Buru, apparently the taxon closest in plumage to the four

subspecies that make up axillaris. The form aromatica , whose

distinctiveness was pointed out by Rheindt & Hutchinson (2007),

differs in having no red cere (2), a deeper-shaded but much less

extensive maroon back (2), much more yellow in the wing-coverts

and on remex edges (u [1]), grey of crown somewhat bluer, more

clear-cut and extending more round the back of the ear-coverts to

give fuller coverage of nape (u [2]), reddish-purple legs and feet (3)

and a>smaller bill (unmeasured). This gives a total score of 7 and

accords aromatica (‘Buru Green Pigeon’) species status.

16-

12-

08

0.4

& t

Ml

* 0S&

1 2 3 4 5

Time (sec)

* — H —

1.6-

1 2-

i - 1 - 1 - r

12 3 4

Time (sec)

Figure 1. A waveform (top) and

spectrogram of two perch coos

each of Streptopelia ( bitorquatus )

bitorquatus from Java (left) and

S. (b.) dusumieri from Luzon (right).

Spectrogram parameters:

FFT size = 512, Window =

Hamming, Bandwidth = 10 Hz.

Figures provided by S. de Kort

based on recordings in his

possession.

Forktail 27 (201 1) Species limits in some Philippine birds including the Greater Flameback Chrysocolaptes lucidus

31

Some Prioniturus parrots

Forshaw (1989) treated Luzon Racquet-tail/5. montanus (Luzon),

Mindanao Racquet-tail P. waterstradti (Mindanao) and Blue¬

winged Racquet-tail/-’, verticalis (Sulu Islands) as one species, while

Dickinson etal. (199 1 ), Inskipp etal. (1996), Kennedy etal. (2000)

and Dickinson (2003) considered P. montanus and P. waterstradti

as conspecific but allowed verticalis species status (a strange

arrangement, given that in plumage at least verticalis is closer to

geographically distant montanus than to geographically adjacent

waterstradti). Sibley & Monroe (1990), Collar etal. (1994, 1999,

2001), Collar (1997a), King (1997), Juniper & Parr (1998),

Stattersfield & Capper (2000), and Clements (2007) treated all

three taxa as species, and although there seems little doubt that the

three are closely related — despite the assertion in Sibley & Monroe

( 1 990) that verticalis is actually more closely related to Blue-crowned

Racquet-tail/5, discurus (forwhich see further below) — they can be

separated as follows:

• waterstradti differs from montanus and verticalis in the absence

of a red crown-patch (3), absence of blue surrounding the red crown-

patch (perhaps co-variable with the red crown-patch, hence: u [2] ),

no blue in the uppertail (2), somewhat smaller size (some mensural

overlap in Forshaw 1989), score so far 5, plus (from montanus) lack

of turquoise-blue on the face and head-sides (2; total score 7), and

(from verticalis ) smaller bill with virtually no overlap (data in

Forshaw 1989), lack of pale turquoise tone to rear head-sides and

nape (u [1]), strong yellowish mantle sharply delineated From nape

(2) and paler yellow-green underparts (u [l]; total score 7);

• montanus differs from verticalis in redistribution of blue on

head, with turquoise-blue on face and head-sides but no turquoise

tone to rear head-sides and nape (3), no strong yellowish mantle

sharply defined from nape (2), paler yellow-green underparts (1),

paler blue in the uppertail (u [ 1 ] ), plus smaller bill and shorter wing

(male bills 18-21 [19.8] vs 21-22 [21.6], male wings 161-171

[164.8] vs 163-185 [174.6] in Forshaw 1989) (at least 1) (total

score 7).

Ostensibly greater difficulty in deploying these numerical criteria

arises when comparing verticalis with the Yellow-breasted (Red-

spotted) Racquet-tail P.flavicans of Sulawesi. These two forms are

considerably closer in plumage than verticalis is to montanus , but

are separated by the substantially larger size of flavicans (2; see final

sentence of Methods), redistributed head colours with richer blue

crown and greener, less turquoise-tinged head-sides (2), lack ofblue

in tail (2) and stronger mustard-yellow tones on mantle and breast

(1), total score 7. On the other hand, Inskipp etal. (1996) followed

the view, no longer current, that flavicans is a subspecies of P. discurus.

In this case, flavicans can be separated from discurus on its much

larger size (2; see final sentence of Methods), presence of a red crown-

patch (3), mustard-yellow tones on mantle and breast (2) and lack

ofblue in tail (2), total score 9. For reference on size (mm), Forshaw

(1989) gives male verticalis bill 21-22 (21.6), tarsus 18-20 (18.9),

wing 163-185 (174.6), tail 125-146 (136.0) (n=7), male flavicans

bill 22-25 (23.4), tarsus 19-21 (19.9), wing 176-194 (184.4), tail

150-181 (164.7) (n=ll); mal c discurus mindorensis (largest race)

bill 1 9-22 (21.1), tarsus 1 6-20 ( 1 8.2), wing 161 - 174 ( 1 67.7), tail

124-144(131.8) (n=l 1) (nooverlap atall in tail bcxwtenflavicans

and the other two species).

Prioniturus discurus differs from montanus in the absence of a

red crown-patch (3), lack of turquoise-blue on face and head-sides

(1) and brighter green underparts (1), but is in any case sympatric

with it; from waterstradti by absence of major area ofblue on crown

(2) , presence ofblue in the uppertail (2) and duller green nape and

neck-sides (1), but is again sympatric; and from the allopatric

verticalis by the absence of a red crown-patch (3), greener, less

turquoise-tinged head-sides and underparts (2), absence of strong

yellowish mantle sharply defined from nape (2), and duller blue in

primaries and tail feathers (u [ 1 ]), total score 7. Since Forshaw (1989)

considered Palawan’s platenae conspecific with discurus , it may be

worth noting thiciplatenae differs from discurus in having the entire

head blue and of a more turquoise-tinged colour (3), upperparts

greyish-green (2) and underparts pale green-blue with yellower

undertail-coverts (2), total score 7.

Halcyon ( smyrnensis ) gularis

The Philippine form gularis ofWhite-throated Kingfisher, a species

that extends from T urkey to T aiwan, is highly distinctive, owing to

the absence of white on the breast and belly, restricting it to the

throat (3); a much larger and darker wing-patch involving elongated

median coverts, and consisting of (a) black rather than brownish-

sooty coloration, (b) black rather than chestnut-brown lesser wing-

coverts, (c) black rather than dull blue tips to the median coverts,

and (d) elongate median coverts so that the feature is three-quarters

the length of the folded wing (3); black rather than blackish-grey

tips to primaries (l); and by comparison with H. s.fokiensis (the

nearest population geographically) a shorter tail ( fokiensis mean

88.8 ± 1.1, n = 1 0 ; gularis mean 81.4 ± 1.4, n = 10; O = 5.73) (3);

total score 10.

It would be more appropriate for the Philippine species to retain

the name White-throated Kingfisher and for the remaining

populations to be known, as they often are, as White-breasted

Kingfisher. Otherwise Brown-breasted Kingfisher might be applied

to H. gularis.

Alcedo (argentata) flumenieola

Silvery Kingfisher is endemic to the Philippines with two subspecies:

argentata in Mindanao, Basilan, Dinagat and Siargao, and

flumenieola in Samar, Leyte and Bohol (Dickinson etal. 1991, Collar

et al. 1999). The form flumenieola differs from the nominotypical

in having buff (not white) lores, ear-covert flash and chin to throat

(but the upper breast and separate belly-patch remain white as in

argentata ) (3); rich royal blue lower breast and flanks (not shading

rapidly to greenish-blue on upper belly and flanks as in argentata)

(2); and an overall smaller size ( argentata mean wing 60.6 ± 1.9, n

= 10; flumenieola 55.7 ± 1.89, n = 10; O = 2.59) (2).

The two species could be renamed Northern ( flumenieola ) and

Southern ( argentata ) Silvery Kingfisher.

Merops (viridis) americanus

Blue-throated Bee-eater Al. viridis ranges from southern China and

South-East Asia to the Greater Sundas (all nominotypical viridis )

and the Philippines (race americanus ) (Dickinson et al. 1991).

Philippine birds differ from nominotypical in having the blue of

the throat and upper breast reduced to a slight tinge spreading from

the malar area, so that the underparts appear virtually all green (2);

crown to mantle rich rufous rather than dark chestnut (2); wing

feathers and wing-coverts with little or no metallic mid-blue

coloration (u [1]); much broader and unfraying vanes to central

rectrices, with (a) their shafts remainingblack (rather than shading

to white), (b) the vanes retaining the intense blue of the rest of the

tail (rather than shading to pale greenish or fraying to nothing) and

(c) broadly and squarely tipped with black (rather than tapering to

two pale bare points) (three characters combining irt one feature to

render it highly distinctive, hence 3). Morphometric differences are

not obvious: americanus may average slightly larger, but my sample

at BMNPd indicated overlap in lengths of bill, wing, tail and tail

extension. Marks et al. (2007) reported a 3.8% genetic divergence

in americanus from Bornean viridis but made no suggestion that

the two should be separated as species. FFowever, ascore of7 produces

such a split; a possible name would be Rufous-crowned Bee-eater.

Dinopium (javense) everetti

The Common Flameback D. javense consists of six subspecies of

which (despite the great disjunction of the form malabaricum) only

32

N.J. COLLAR

Forktail 27 (201 1)

one, the Philippine endemic everetti , is ever described as distinctive

(e.g. in Short 1982, Winkler etal. 1995, Winkler & Christie 2002).

The three strongest plumage differences between everetti (which

is confined to Palawan, Balabac, Busuanga and Culion) and D. j.

raveni (the closest neighbour of everetti in north-eastern Borneo)

are its virtually plain brown breast (in raveni the underpart scaling

is boldest of all taxa in D. javense ) (2); greatly reduced white

postocular superciliary stripe (broad in raveni ), the product of a

rather broader black postocular eyestripe and of the red of the crown

extending more onto the headside and behind the ear-coverts (2);

and (in the female) a matt-black crown with slightly paler (essentially

invisible) shaft-streaks (occasionallywith tiny white spots) andwith

a red nape, whereas lemale raveni has a glossy black crown and nape,

with bold white spotting (3). Apart from these features, the

underpart scaling below the breast is subtly different in pattern,

each feather having in everetti a dark centre and very broad pale

outer area (sometimes with a very narrow dark edge), and in raveni

an entirely pale centre and a fairly broad dark edge, so that everetti

appears rather more mottled (or even semi-barred) than heavily

scaled (u [1]); everetti has central throat and chin lightly peppered

black, whereas raveni has this area white except for a string ol bold

black streaks usually forming a near-continuous black mesial line (u

[l]); male everetti has a vague reddish stain on a relatively poorly

marked dark submoustachial area (none in male raveni , in which

the submoustachial area is a bolder blackish line) (u [1]).

In these comparisons raveni is effectively typical of all non-

Philippine javense. There may be other minor differences: male

everetti seems to have a brighter red crown and marginally more

golden mantle than male raveni , lor example, but these are not

significant. Short (1982) reported that ‘the tail of everetti is

proportionately (to wings) shorter than in other races of the species’,

but checks on several representatives of everetti and raveni did not

immediately confirm this. The illustration of male and female everetti

in Winkler etal. (1995) shows the black eyestripe connecting to the

black lateral neck-stripe (where in other forms the neck-stripe

connects with the moustachial stripe), but this seems to be a slip.

However, a score of 7, based on the above, lifts everetti to species

level, for which D. N. S. Allen [in litt. 2008) proposes the name

‘Spot-throated Flameback’.

The Chrysocolaptes lucidus complex

‘The species Chrysocolaptes lucidus comprises many very distinct

forms’, wrote W inkier etal. (1995:8), ‘some ofwhich may be shown

by future research to be full species’. Mees (1986, 1996) sought to

split the Javan form strictus and South-East Asiznguttacristatusbut

either these papers were overlooked or their lack of morphological

analysis was considered an obstacle to the acceptance of his views.

Meanwhile, concern over the conservation status of several of these

forms in the Philippines — where, incidentally, all taxa differ from

all others elsewhere in Asiain lackingthe bold clear white postocular

stripe (present in both sexes) and in having red eyes — triggered a

minor degree ofpublic hand-wringing (Collar 1997b, 2003, Collar

et al. 1999:40), and Winkler & Christie (2002) reaffirmed that

taxonomic revision was urgently needed because of the possibility

that newly determined species might be at risk. Rasmussen &

Anderton (2005) also took the view that Chrysocolaptes luciduswus

‘substantially overlumped’, but, because dealing with South Asia,

they only separated out one form, ‘Crimson-backed Flameback’ C.

stricklandi of Sri Lanka. This process can now be advanced, taking

each of the 13 taxa accepted by Winkler & Christie (2002) in turn.

In this review where I have not been able to review taxa for myself

I indicate the differences in question by reference to the relevant

literature.

C. /. haematribon differs from the nominotypical in having the

ground colour of the female’s head black, not dirty yellow (score 3,

based on 2 for black background + 1 for smaller and whiter spotting

on it), blackish ear-coverts and rear neck-sides (2), no extensive

broad buff spotting on the underparts but instead more densely

spotted with smaller spots on the throat (2), changing sharply to a

very weakly marked dirty yellowish-tinged buff from mid-breast to

vent with obsolete, blurry-edged scaling or barring (u [1]), and

slightly more crimson (less scarlet) crown (male) and upperparts (u

[1] ); total score 7.

C. /. rufopunctatus differs from the nominotypical in having

rather clear pinkish-brown spotting on the crown and supercilium

(lemale) (2), a pink wash to the submoustachial stripe (1) and a

more strongly red back (2); total score 5.

C. /. montanus differs from the nominotypical in having the

back entirely or almost entirely golden rather than reddish-golden

(2) .

C. 1. xanthocephalus differs from haematribon in its all-yellow

face (both sexes) (3), yellow crown (female) (3), brighter red crown

(male), back and wings ( 1 ), less dense and contrasting spotting on

the throat (u [ 1 ] ), pale (dirty flesh-coloured) legs (u [1]) and almost

plain dull yellow underparts (u [1]); total score 7. It differs from the

nominotypical in the first two characters (yellow face and female

crown) (6), plain yellow belly (2) and pale legs ( u [ 1 ] ) ; total score 8.

C. 1. erythrocephalus differs from haematribon in its golden back

(3), red head-sides (3),yellow-and-olive-flecked crown (female) (3),

yellowish bill (u [2]), blackish ear-covert spot (u [1]), pinkish chin

(u [1]), and underpart pattern like the nominotypical (u [2 +1, on

the basis of the scoring above for haematribon ]); total score 9. It

differs from the nominotypical in five of the six first characters

listed above (not the golden back, but allowing 2 for yellowish bill)

(total allowable 8), plus ayellow-and-olive-flecked crown (female)

(u [2]); total score 8. It differs from xanthocephalus in its golden

back (3), red head-sides (3), yellowish bill (2), blackish ear-covert

spot (u [1]), pinkish chin (u [1]), yellow-and-olive-flecked crown

(female) (u [1]) and underpart pattern like the nominotypical (u

[2] ); total score 8.

C. /. strictus most closely resembles C. /. haematribon and C. /.

montanus but differs from both in the broad white supercilium (2)

and broader black postocular stripe through ear-coverts to hindneck

(3) , brighter yellow crown with a few irregular black streaks rather

than any close spotting (female) (2 for montanus ; u [2] for

haematribon ), brighter red crown (male) (u [1]), greatly reduced

red on the rump (u [ 1 ]),plus (compared to haematribon ) yellowish-

golden upperparts (3) and an underpart pattern like the

nominotypical (u [2 + 1]), total score 8, and (compared to

the nominotypical) brighter and yellower upperparts (u [1]), total

score 7.

C. /. kangeanensis differs from strictus in a series of evidently

very minor features (Winkler & Christie 2002).

C. /. guttacristatus differs from strictus in being substantially

larger (2; see final sentence of Methods) — Winkler et al. (1995:

378) give a bill size of 50-64 mm where no other form measured

exceeds 46 mm, and a weight of 150-233 g where no other form

measured exceeds 164 g — and having a white-spotted black head

(female) ( 3) , much fuller complement of red on the rump (extending

up the back) (2), stronger golden upperparts ( 1 ), bolder moustachial,

malar and mesial stripes (u [ 1 ] ) and bolder-patterned underparts (u

[1]), total score 8.

C. /. chersonesus (called indomalayicus by Mees 1986, 1996) is

slightly smaller than C. /. guttacristatus (1). Measurements of

chersonesus , which is the smallest of the subspecies of the proposed

new C. guttacristatus below, show that while bill length is only

marginally longer than strictus wing length is decidedly longer (on

a small sample of four males of each taxon in BMNH, chersonesus

has bill 47, wing 153.25; strictus bill 44.75, wing 141; with bill 39,

wing 143.7 in 28 xanthocephalus for comparison), in which case a

score of 1 would clearly apply to guttacristatus with its three

subspecies below and reduce its total score vs strictus to 7.

Forktail 27 (201 1 ) Species limits in some Philippine birds including the Greater Flameback Chrysocolaptes lucidus

33

C. 1. socialis , slightly larger than chersonesus , differs in a few minor

characters (score perhaps only 2) from guttacristatus (Winkler &

Christie 2002), although it is worth noting that Rasmussen &

Anderton (2005) reported ‘extraordinarily different acoustic signals’

that mean that, in their view, even this form is ‘probably better

created as a full species’.

C. 1. andrewsi is similar to but slightly larger than chersonesus

but [fide Amadon 1943) has underpart feathers fringed brownish

or brownish-black instead of black and with centres washed

brownish (1).

C. 1. stricklandi differs from guttacristatus in having crimson

(not golden) upperparts (3), a yellow (not black) bill (2), a much

weaker postocular superciliary stripe (reduced to spots) (2) and a

weaker supramoustachial line (u [ 1 ] ), total score 7.

Always accepting that new insights may result as and when vocal

and other evidence is assembled, it meanwhile seems reasonable to

propose that this complex be broken into seven species, in the

following arrangement (English names suggested for simplicity of

reference).

Luzon Flameback Chrysocolaptes haematrihon

Luzon, Polillo, Marinduque, Catanduanes

Buff-spotted Flameback Chrysocolaptes lucidus

C. 1. rufopunctatus Samar, Biliran, Leyte, Calicoan, Bohol,

Panaon

C. /. lucidus Basilan, W Mindanao

C. /. montanus C&E Mindanao, Samal

Yellow-faced Flameback Chrysocolaptes xanthocephalus

Ticao, Masbate, Panay, Guimaras, Negros

Red-headed Flameback Chrysocolaptes erythrocephalus

Balabac, Palawan, Calamian group

Javan Flameback Chrysocolaptes str ictus

C. s. strictus SW, C&E Java, Bali

C. 5. kangeanensis Kangean Islands

Greater Flameback Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus.

C. g. socialis W coast of India

C. g. guttacristatus NW India to S China, Indochina and

Thailand

C. g. chersonesus Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, coastal

NW Java

C. g. andrewsi coastal NE Borneo

Sri Lankan Flameback Chrysocolaptes stricklandi

Sri Lanka

Mulleripicus (funebris) fuliginosus

Fide Dickinson etal. (1991), it was Delacour & Mayr (1945) who

were responsible for uniting the form fuliginosus with Sooty

Woodpecker M. funebris, and, although Peters (1948) kept them

separate, all subsequent lists and treatments have accepted the

lumpingof the two. Nevertheless, southern fuliginosus (Samar, Leyte

and Mindanao) differs from northern nominotypical funebris, mayri

and parkesi (Luzon, Polillo Islands, Catanduanes and Marinduque)

in being distinctly paler in body plumage (2), with the red on the

male’s face confined to the submoustachial streak (2) but much

brighter (scarlet rather than burgundy) (2), larger white spots on

chin, throat, upper neck, neck-sides and hind-crown (u [1]), and

overall slightly smaller in body size but with the tail significantly

shorter funebris mean 127 ± 6.8, n = 21 -fuliginosus 103 ± 6.5, n =

2 1 ; O = 3.6) (2) and, for some curious reason, with the vanes in the

rectrices almost invariably frayed and ragged. The difference between

shades of red on the head of fuliginosus is not mentioned or illustrated

in Winkler et al. (1995) or in Winkler & Christie (2002), while it

is illustrated but not mentioned in Short (1982). The late T. H.

Fisher (verbally 2009) reported that funebris on Luzon has a piping

call like a soccer referee’s whistle which he never heard from

fuliginosus on Mindanao, but this difference cannot be scored until

detailed studies confirm it. Nevertheless, a score of 8 returns

fuliginosus to the status accepted by Peters; but to emphasise their

similarity the two species might be called Northern Sooty and

Southern Sooty Woodpecker.

It is important to consider here also Ashy Woodpecker

Mulleripicus fulvus from Sulawesi. Although no-one has suggested

its conspecificity with its Philippines congeners, this bird does greatly

resemble Northern Sooty in shape and head pattern and Southern

Sooty in shade of red on the head. Flowever, Ashy is uniformly buff

below includingon the chin (3), with an all-black bill (2), and is very

considerably larger (such that Cohen’s d effect size would be at least

2; see final sentence ofMethods), Winkler etal. (1995) giving wing

of fulvus 17 6-192 vs funebris 147-171, suggesting no overlap.

Eurylaimus ( steerii ) samarensis

Inskipp etal. ( 1 996) (a) pointed out that Delacour & Mayr ( 1 945)

lumpedA. steerii andir. samarensis ‘despite noting that they differed

“clearly in size and color’”, (b) observed that Lambert (1996) treated

the taxa as separate species for the same reasons, and (c) opted to

treat them as separate species, as subsequently did BirdLife

International (Collar etal. 1 999, 200 1 , Stattersfield & Capper 2000)

and Bruce (2003). Dekker & Dickinson (2000) curiously remarked

that Delacour & Mayr’s (1945) treatment had been ‘universally

followed since’ before proceeding to discuss Lambert’s (1996)

alternative treatment, and concluding that ‘the distinctions

summarized by them for samarensis and steerii are not convincingly

demonstrative of specific differentiation’. This position has fed

through to Kennedy etal. (2000) and Dickinson (2003), where the

species is known as Wattled Broadbill.

The form samarensis differs from steerii in its all purplish-pink

(not slaty-grey) mantle, back and scapulars (3), mottled grey not

white collar (2), lilac-pink not yellow edges to the white bar on the

outer secondaries (2), and distinctly smaller size, most strongly

expressed in its notably shorter tail ( steerii mean 62 ± 2, n = 16;

samarensis 52 ± 2.5, n = 13; O = 4.5) (2), total score 9.

Oriolus ( steerii ) albiloris

Collar (1998) rehearsed the evidence supporting specific status for

White-lored Oriole Oriolus albiloris, but in a way that could easily

be missed. Kennedy etal. (2000) and Dickinson (2003) continued

to treat it as part of Philippine Oriole O. steerii, and Dickinson

(2004) maintained that ‘the facial markings on albiloris are

characteristic, but it is hard to see these as of specific importance

given the closer overall resemblance to steerii and the sustained if

rather faint streaking of the underparts’. Walther & Jones (2008)

evidently agreed.

None of these authors takes account of the considerably shorter,

smaller bill of albiloris in relation to all other subspecies of steerii ,

although this was hinted at in Collar (1998). Unfortunately at present

a good sample has not been assembled owing to specimen diaspora

and number of subspecies, but if preliminary findings may be taken

as indicative, albiloris has a mean bill length of 2 1 .8 mm (range 21-

22, n=4) while four other subspecies of steerii taken together have

one of 25.8 mm (range 23-28, n=19). In plumage, albiloris differs

from all other forms of steerii in having yellow underparts with very

faint streaking (only on flanks) as against various combinations of

grey, grey-on-white streakingand black-on-white streaking (4) , white

lores and chin (a striking feature representing a major difference: 3),

and more uniform andpaler yellowish-olive on crown and upperparts

(1) ; one does not even require the addition of a score for the bill size

for this to establish species status for albiloris.

Somewhat surprisingly, a recent study has found that albiloris

is genetically so close to Isabela Oriole O. isabellae that they should

‘perhaps. . . be treated as asingle taxonomic unit’ (Jonsson etal. 2010).

However, the notion of their conspecificity cannot be seriously

entertained, given their sympatry in at least two areas of Luzon

(Bataan and Cagayan; Kennedy et al. 2000), which precludes a

34

N.J. COLLAR

Forktail 27 (2011)

scoring exercise, and given their considerable morphological

differences (broad white lores and small reddish bill in albiloris ,

narrow yellowish lores and large grey-blue bill in isabellae , among

other things: Collar 1998).

Dicrurus (hottentottus) menagei

The form menagei , whose taxonomic and conservation status have

been highlighted belore (Collar 1997b, 2003, 2007, Allen 2006),

was elevated to species level from Hair-crested Drongo D.

hottentottus by Rocamora & Yeatman-Berthelot (2009), although

in their introductory material (p. 173) they admit that such a move

‘will require further corroboration’. The characters that distinguish

menagei (measurements taken from D. h. cuyensis and D. h.

palawanensis as the two geographically closest forms) are its

• notably elongate outertail feathers with a strong terminal

twisting ( menagei mean 176.4 ± 10.6, n = 20; cuyensis 135

± 4. 1 8, n = 9; palawanensis 1 3 1 ± 5.42, n = 1 0; effect size vs

cuyensis = 5-14 and vs palawanensis 5.32) (3);

• curiously frayed and degenerate wing and tail feathers, the

latter distinctly narrower than in other hottentottus (2);

• loss of gloss on flight and body plumage, leaving the

underparts, mantle, back and scapulars matt blackish-

brown (2).

Allen (2006) suggested that in their reduced quantity as well as in

their quality the vocalisations of menagei might be distinguishable

from other geographically close forms, but considerable study is

needed to determine the true distinctiveness of these traits; decline

in frequency of singing and calling might simply be a cultural

response to the scarcity of neighbours, as reported in a Myadestes

thrush (see Collar 2005: 561). Meanwhile, a score of 7 produces a

species-level split.

Rhabdornis (inornatus) grandis and R. (/.) rabori

The status as a full species of what Kennedy et al. (2000) called the

‘Grand Rhabdornis’ R. grandis (‘Long-billed Rhabdornis’ in Sibley

& Monroe 1990, Dickinson et al. 1991, Inskipp et al. 1996, King

1997, Clements 2007) has been questioned by Dickinson (2003),

who ‘believes this to be simply a large subspecies’.

Compared to other taxa in the R. inornatus complex, the form

grandis — albeit on a tiny sample size, owing to the great scarcity of

specimens — has a massive bill (on the basis of two PNM specimens

measuring 24 and no other inornatus taxon having a mean greater

than 19.5, 1 score this 3), and is much blacker on the mask (lores to

ear-coverts) and in the primaries (2), greyer on the crown ( 1 ), whiter

on the underparts ( 1 ) and darker brown on the back, wing-coverts,

tertials and inner secondaries (u [1]), although in other mensural

characters, contrary to the evidence (a small sample size) in the

original description (Salomonsen 1952), it is extremely similar to

inornatus and thus only merits the nam e grandis in view of its bill.

The first suggestion that the form rabori, which is not even

illustrated in Kennedy etal. (2000), might merit specific status came

from Peterson (2006), who correctly distinguished between the

more broadly light grey throat and stronger streaking of Negros

‘populations’ (=P. i. rabori) and the more restricted grey throat and

weaker streaking of other taxa in the inornatus complex. In

proportions rabori is actually rather larger than all other subspecies

of inornatus (including, with the exception of the bill, grandis), and

has a proportionately much longer tail ( rabori mean 63.9±2.1,n =

15; P. i. alaris 54.8 ± 2.31, n = 15; C = 4.1) (2); facially it is also

distinctive, with a pale brownish-grey (not brownish-black) mask,

more diffuse, broken-up supercilium and a paler, greyer crown,

altogether making for a rather featureless head (3), browner-grey

throat (1) and black blotches on lower hindneck (2). This yields

‘Visayan Rhabdornis’ a score of 8. The other three taxa ( inornatus ,

leytensis and alaris ) belong together and it is fairly hard to see the

basis on which they merit even subspecific recognition.

Copsychus (luzoniensis) superciliaris

All recent treatments have retained the West Visayan form

superciliaris of White-browed Shama C. luzoniensis as conspecific.

Collar (2005), noting the lack of both rufous rump and white wing-

patch, commented: 'morphologically distinctive; if found to be

equally distinctive vocally, may perhaps better be treated as aseparate

species’. Peterson (2006) picked out the same characters. However,

closer inspection and measurement of specimens reveal that there

are another three characters which further distinguish male

superciliaris from luzoniensis-. (a) purer whitish flanks ( luzoniensis

has the flanks tinged buffy-rufous, which only show as a very slight

buffy-grey discoloration in superciliaris), (b) absence or only vestigial

presence of the prominent white tail-tips, and (c) distinctly shorter

tail despite a very slightly larger size overall, and longer legs (in my

samples only males were measured). On this basis superciliaris can

be scored on all-dark rump (3), all-dark wings and tail (wings and

tail seem best combined) (3), shorter tail with reduced white tips

( luzoniensis mean 82.4 ± 2.69, n = 15; superciliaris 69 + 2.94, n =

14; O = 4.75) (2), longer legs ( luzoniensis mean 26.3 ± 1.1, n = 15;

superciliaris 29. 2 ± 1.07,n= 13; 0 = 2.71) (2) and whiter underparts

( u [ 1 ] ) - Thus without the need for vocal evidence — which may not

in fact be greatly informative, since both luzoniensis andsuperciliaris

are inveterate mimics (D. N. S. Allen in litt. 2008) — a total score of

10 carries ‘Visayan Shama’ to species level.

This split has already been promoted on molecular evidence

(Lim et al. 2010).

2. Taxonomic challenges requiring further

documentation

Phapitreron leucotis nigrorum and P. /. brevirostris

The central Philippine form nigrorum (Calagna-an, Cebu,

Guimaras, Masbate, Negros, Panay, Sibuyan, Tablas, Ticao:

Dickinson et al. 1991) differs from nominotypical White-eared

Brown Dove P. leucotis (Alabat, Catanduanes, Lubang, Luzon,

Marinduque, Mindoro, Verde) in havingabuffy (not vinous-russet)

throat (2), buffy (not white) subcilial streak (2), brownish-grey (not

pale grey) forecrown shading to greenish (not bronzy-russet)

hindcrown and greener, less pinkish mantle and neck-sides (2), and

a distinctly shorter wing ( leucotis mean 1 28 ± 3.27, n = 1 0; nigrorum

122 ± 2.24, n = 9; G 2.02) (2); total score 8.

It differs from the form P. (/. ) brevirostris (Biliran, Bohol,

Calicoan, Camiguin Sur, Dinagat, Leyte, Mindanao, Samar, Siargao,

Siquijor, with occipitalis on Basilan andjolo) in havingabuffy (not

buffy-whitish) throat (1), buffy (not white subcilial) streak (2),

brownish-grey (not strong buffy-white) forecrown shading to

greenish (not pinkish) hindcrown and greener, much less pinkish

mantle and neck-sides, weaker metallic blue centre to mantle (2),

and a longer tail ( nigrorum mean 89.4 ± 3, n = 9; brevirostris 83.7

± 3.23, n = 10; O 1.84) (1); total score 6.

The form brevirostris differs from the nominotypical in having

a buffy-whitish (not vinous-russet) throat (u [1]), strong buffy-

white (not pale grey) forecrown (2), strongpink (not bronzy-russet)

hindneck, pinker tinge on neck-sides and breast ( 1 ), stronger metallic

blue centre to mantle (1), and shorter bill ( leucotis mean 20.5

± 0.53, n = 10; brevirostris 18.6 ± 0.7, n = 10; O 3.07) (2); total

score 6.

With scores of 6 the forms brevirostris and nigrorum almost

achieve species status from leucotis. Clearly, vocal and other evidence

will be decisive in these cases.

Phapitreron amethystina maculipectus

The form maculipectus of Amethyst Brown Dove Phapitreron

amethystina seems never to have been regarded as more than a

subspecies, at least in the past 70 years (Peters 1 937, Goodwin 1 970,

Sibley & Monroe 1990, Dickinson etal. 1991, Inskipp etal. 1996,

Baptista et al. 1997, King 1997, Kennedy et al. 2000, Gibbs et al.

Forktail 27 (201 1 ) Species limits in some Philippine birds including the Greater Flameback Chrysocolaptes lucidus

35

2001, Dickinson 2003). However, it differs relatively strongly from

typica \amethystina in having the underparts (malar area spreading

to breast including breast-sides and belly) pale grey rather than

greyish-tinged purplish-brown (2) , chin and undertail-coverts more

whitish than pale rufous (1), breast marked with darkish grey bars

(1), and on average a larger size, most notably in tail length

(, maculipectus mean 116 + 5.47, n = 25; amethystina 105 ± 4.08, n

= 23; O 2.3) (2); score 6.

Again, vocal evidence will be crucial in determining the specific

status of this form.

Ceyx melanurus mindanensis

Philippine Dwarf Kingfisher is endemic to the Philippines with

three subspecies: melanurus on Luzon, Polillo and Catanduanes,

samarensis on Samar and Leyte, and mindanensis on Mindanao and

Basilan (Dickinson et al. 1991, Collar et al. 1999). There is

insufficient detail in recent reviews of the form mindanensis. Fryer

al. (1992) and Woodall (2001) indicated that it differs from the

nominotypical (and also samarensis ) by lacking the blue neck-spot

and having the wings fringed with chestnut (but indicating that

mindanensis and samarensis are similar in size), while Kennedy etal.

(2000) simply diagnosed mindanensis on the lack of the blue neck-

spot, but also indicated melanurus as the ‘smallest’. In reality,

nominate melanurus and samarensis are very similar in appearance

although samarensis is larger. Meanwhile mindanensis differs from

both in its lack of a blue neck-patch (2); lack of blue starring on the

wing-coverts (2) ; strong lilac iridescence on the rear submoustachial

area, postocular superciliary area, mantle and back and, as strong

spangling, from mid-crown to nape (2); dull rufous tips to wing-

coverts and edges to secondaries (u [1]); and slightly larger size

(sample size for intermediate-sized samarensis too small to test

against mindanensis') . A score of 6, with evidence oflarger size, leaves

mindanensis close to species rank, but more work evidently needs to

be done, especially as the molecular findings of Marks & Willard

(2005) do not tend to support a split.

Orthotomus castaneiceps frontalis

(and the relationships of O. derbianus)

Dickinson etal. (1991) and Kennedy etal. (2000) treated the taxon

frontalis (and the closely related race mearnsi) as conspecific with

Philippine Tailorbird Orthotomus castaneiceps (with races

chloronotus and rabori), although the latter remarked simply that

the two forms are sometimes treated as two species. In a footnote

Dickinson (2003) explained that in taking this approach these

authors were ‘awaiting good acoustic evidence of all the races before

considering a split’. Inskipp etal. ( 1 996) accepted this arrangement.

Madge (2006), however, proceeded with the split, establishing

the Rufous-fronted Tailorbird O. frontalis (with race mearnsi )

because it (a) 'differ [s] in vocalizations’ (although in the Voice

section of Madge’s entry on the species this becomes a more tentative

‘appears to differ’) and (b) ‘differs from O. castaneiceps principally

in having a grey hood, with rufous restricted to frontal mask’, while

the morphometries are given as 1 3 cm and 7 g for castaneiceps and

Table 1 . Morphometries of Orthotomus frontalis/mearnsi (Group A) and

O. castaneiceps! chloronotus! cobod (Group B). * Sample size different

from that given is indicated in brackets after the mean, t 'Hind-claw'

includes hind-toe.

12 cm and 7 g for frontalis. These latter data are, however,

insufficient to indicate the degree of difference in size between the

two. Race mearnsi s slightly more smudged mask and slightly brown-

tinged grey crown in no way offer an intermediate to the all-rufous

crown of castaneiceps , and the differences of (a) frontalis /mearnsi

from (b) castaneiceps / chloronotus / rabori are as follows: rufous mask

and grey crown vs rufous crown (3), less extensive white-on-slate

streaking on breast of respective males (1), disjunction in size (o =

>2 for all variables; see Table 1) (2). Clearly with a score of 6 the

vocal evidence is crucial.

Parkes (1971) made the case for Grey-backed Tailorbird O.

derbianus of southern Luzon to be treated as specifically distinct

from O. castaneiceps owing to its overlap with O. castaneiceps

chloronotus in central Luzon, and this has been widely accepted

(Dickinson etal. 1991, Kennedy etal. 2000, Madge 2006) (although

it would be good to have further confirmation of this circumstance

and evidence of how the birds sing and segregate ecologically in the

zone of overlap). However, this arrangement leaves the anomalous

situation in which Luzon’s chloronotus continues to be assigned to

O. castaneiceps (nominotypical race on Bantayan, Guimaras,

Masbate, Panay and Ticao, possibly also Calagna-an and Pan de

Azucar, with rabori on Negros and Cebu: Dickinson etal. 1 99 1 ), in

a distribution which leapfrogs O. derbianus. This is all the stranger

when in morphological terms derbianus is closer to castaneiceps and

rabori for its possession of a grey mantle and back (albeit stronger

and continuing to the uppertail-coverts). It might therefore be more

appropriate for chloronotus to be given monotypic species status

under the English name ‘Green-backed Tailorbird’, and for

derbianus to be united, still under the name Grey-backed T ailorbird,

with castaneiceps and rabori ( derbianus being the oldest name).

However, further study incorporating vocal evidence of the

whole Orthotomus complex is clearly needed, and it seems safer to

leave any rearrangement until vocal and molecular evidence can be

assembled and assessed.

Phylloscopus trivirgatus nigrorum

Philippine populations of Mountain Leaf Warbler lack the bright

yellow median crown-stripe (score 2) and broad blackish lateral

crown-stripe (score 3) ofotherpopulations (except for the Bornean

subspecies kinabaluensis which, being a distinctive greyish form of

trivirgatus. has agreyish-white median crown-stripe), replacingthem

instead with a plain brownish-olive cap. Moreover, they (at least on

Luzon, Mindoro and Negros, i.e. benguetensis and nigrorum, which

are the only taxa in BMNH) are paler yellow on the throat and

breast (1) (but brighter than kinabaluensis with its washed-out

yellowish-grey breast), and have a distinctive slight mottling or

barring on the submoustachial area which is echoed more weakly

on the cheeks and across the throat; total score 6.

As Parkes ( 1971 ) noted (himself quotingE. Mayr), the situation

is further complicated by the intra-Philippine variability of

populations (which includes vocal variability: Kennedy etal. 2000),

so that only an extensive review by ‘some brave soul’ of all relevant

evidence, morphological, acoustic and genetic, will be likely to

produce a coherent arrangement. This seems likely to take

considerable time, especially given the existence of three as-yet

undescribed races in the Philippine archipelago (Kennedy etal. 2000:

272),butF.E. Rheindt {in litt. 201 1), when mentioning that genetic

and acoustic data are particularly important in determining species

limits in Phylloscopus , reports that research in this area is in hand.

3. Unsupported splits

Loriculus philippensis bonapartei and L p. camiguinensis

Philippine H anging Parrot L. philippensis is a polytypic Philippine

endemic forwhichForshaw( 1989) recognised 1 1 subspecies, Collar

( 1 997a) 1 0 and Juniper & Parr ( 1 998) nine, the last-named authors

granting species status to one form, bonapartei of the Sulu Islands

36

N. J. COLLAR

Forktail 27 (2011)

(Sulu or Black-billed Hanging Parrot). Later Tello et al. (2006)

realised that birds from Camiguin Sur, previously allocated to the

Mindanao race apicalis, represent a taxon, indeed one in their view

so morphologically distinct as to merit species status under the name

Loriculus camiguinensis (Camiguin Hanging Parrot).

Although bonapartei is ostensibly the most distinctive of the

Philippine hanging parrots by virtue of having a blackish or dark

red (but not bright red) bill (score 2) and dull greyish (not orange)

legs (score 3), there is arguably nothing else that distinguishes the

form from the suite of other races in pbilippensis. Juniper & Parr

(1998) contended that apicalis (Mindanao) and dohertyi (Basilan)

have 'much redder-orange napes and a strong orange suffusion on

the mantle’, but BMNH material does not wholly support this

diagnosis: one specimen of bonapartei (91.12.17.2) has a crown

identical in coloration and pattern (bright red shading to orange on

the nape) to one of apicalis (1905.1 1.26.143) (hence no score), and

the mantle suffusion on this latter is weak; but in any case other

races of pbilippensis also lack a mantle suffusion, so that its absence

in bonapartei is not an overall diagnostic feature (again no score).

Hence the bill and legcolours are the only consistent morphological

difference from other taxain the species, and in the absence of other

evidence these are not enough to raise bonapartei to species level.

The form camiguinensis is intriguing. Unlike other taxa in the

species, it shows no sexual dimorphism, with no distinct male

plumage. According to Tello et al. (2006), Camiguin birds most

resemble females of L. p. worcesteri from Bohol, Leyte and Samar

and L. p. apicalis from Mindanao, but differ as follows:

( 1 ) The scarlet of the crown... does not extend as far onto

the bright olive green nape as it does in both males and

females of L.p. apicalis and L.p. worcesteri... (2) The width

of the scarlet crown narrows at the rear edge instead of

being rounded as in all other populations. (3) The scarlet

(sometimes orange) throat patch that is typical of males in

L. pbilippensis is lacking. (4) The face... is extensively

turquoise blue and differs from that of females of L.

pbilippensis subspecies in that the blue.. . is darker and more

extensive, extending over the eye and onto the throat. (5)

The turquoise blue in the thighs... is darker than that ofT.

pbilippensis populations. (6) The blue in the inner edges

of the rectrices above and throughout below is darker...

(7) Mean wing chord and tail length of males and tail length

of females... are significantly longer than those of nearby

L. pbilippensis subspecies. (8) The overall green plumage

is a darker shade with less of a yellowish tinge, especially

on the back (Tello et al. 2006).

Part of the difficulty in contemplating this case is that comparisons

were in part limited to the populations geographically closest to

Camiguin Sur. But is this entirely appropriate? Certainly if we

broaden the review to include all other taxa in the species (some of

them almost as close), the results look less clear-cut.

Thus concerning point (1) in the diagnosis above, it is to be

noted that the scarlet of the crown is also less extensive in

nominotypical pbilippensis , mindorensis , bournsi , regains, cbrysonotus

and siquijorensis, so this feature is very hard to interpret. As for (2),

this is a variable character in material in AMNH and BMNH; for

example, BMNH 96.6.6.1045 (a male worcesteri horn Leyte) shows

a decidedly tapering scarlet crown width of the type reported for

camiguinensis. Point (3) is incontrovertible. Using the photographs

in Arndt (2006) it is possible to see that point (4) is likely to be valid

in terms of colour shade; however, at least two specimens in BMNH

possess as extensive facial blue as in camiguinensis , a nominotypical

from Marinduque (96.6.6.1023) and an apicalis from Mindanao

(1905.1 1.26.147). The shade ofblue on the thighs and tail (points

5 and 6) is extremely hard to gauge and seems to be a rather variable

feature on otherpopulations and taxa. Wing and tail size differences

(point 7) may be significant but still involve considerable overlap,

and comparison was made with only three other taxa; reference to

Forshaw (1989) shows that the forms cbrysonotus and siquijorensis

appear to rival and perhaps match camiguinensis on wing and tail

length. Overall plumage shade (point 8) seems dubious: it is not

obvious in Arndt’s (2006) photographs, and if the comparison was

only made with apicalis, which has a slightly yellow-tinged mantle

(see above), apossible distortion may have occurred since most other

taxa lack yellow tinges in this area.

Therefore it seems that the case for species status rests on two

unequivocal characters, namely the absence of sexual dimorphism

(score 3) and a richer (but not more extensive) blue face (score 1),

total score 4. It is worth noting, moreover, that the circumstance of

sexual monomorphism in an otherwise sexually dimorphic species

(or vice versa) has not normally, in itself, been considered a trigger

of species status, e.g. Anas platyrhyncbos diazi , Falco tinnunculus

neglectus , Alisterus amboinensis sulaensis, Brachypteryx montana

goodfellowi, Pachycepbalapectoralisfeminina and P.p. xantboprocta,

Petroica macrocephala dannefaerdi, Malurus alboscapulatus aida,

AL a. kutubu and M. a. moretoni, Oriolus cruentus vulneratus,

Pbrygilus unicolor inca.

DISCUSSION

In total, 26 avian taxa that either were almost always (15, of which

12 are in the Philippines) or are still often (11, with 9 in the

Philippines) regarded as subspecies are here given support as species

using quantitative criteria as outlined in Tobias et al. (2010).

Moreover, six near-splits involving Philippine endemics are outlined

without reaching a conclusion, and two proposed splits are

considered to be unwarranted on the basis of the same criteria.

Of course the taxonomic treatment of allopatric forms represents

a series of hypotheses that are always open to new evidence, and no

method for the evaluation of such forms is without its limitations.

This contribution is by no means a comprehensive revision of the

Philippine avifauna; it is merely an attempt to support a process

that is likely to gather momentum over the next decade or so. In due

course, a considerable number of further taxa may be scrutinised

with the additional use ofvocal data, which have largely been absent

in this review; fieldworkers and birdwatchers are strongly

encouraged to step up their efforts to document the voices of the

Philippine avifauna. It is now 15 years, for example, since Morris

(1996) reported on a population of White-browed Shortwings

Brachypteryx montana identified entirely by their different voice,

but many other such cases may await discovery.

Moreover, because of the very serious levels of habitat destruction

in the Philippines, plus the concomitant problems of hunting, there

is a real urgency to scrutinise the country’s avifauna in more depth,

in terms not only of taxonomy but also of conservation biology.

Thus while it is clearly vital to compile data on the conservation

status of the species established in this paper in order to determine

their IUCN Red List category, it is equally important that, with an

avifauna as complex and taxonomically unsettled as the that of

Philippines, distinctive populations of all taxa are documented in

greater detail, since some and perhaps many will in due course also

be elevated to species level.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am very grateful to Des Allen, who furnished a candidate list of potential

splits based on his great experience of Philippine birds, and Paul Sweet

(AMNH), Robert Prys-Jones (BMNH), Jean Woods (DMNH), Lourdes

Alvarez (PNM) andjames Dean (USNM), who allowed me access to the bird

specimens in their care. John Croxall, Martin Fowlie, Josep del Hoyo, James

Lowen, Fabio Olmos, Joe Tobias and David Wells nominated monomorphic

Forktail 27 (2011) Species limits in some Philippine birds including the Greater Flameback Chrysocolaptes lucidus

37

caxa within sexually dimorphic species. Selvino de Kort very generously sent

recordings and spectograms of Streptopelia perch coos. The late Tim Fisher

gave me several very helpful items ofinformation duringconversations. Robert

Prys-Jones and Frank Rheindt provided extremely valuable commentaries as

referees, and Stuart Butchart made equally useful comments as editor of this

paper.

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FORKTAIL 27 (2011): 39-54

Birds of kerangas, converted lands, mixed dipterocarp and

riparian forests in Central and East Kalimantan, Indonesia

I. A.WOXVOLD&R. A. NOSKE

We present the results of bird surveys conducted in 2000 and 2006 at 13 sites in the interior lowlands and foothills (<400 masl) of Central and

East Kalimantan, Indonesia. The study area spans c.l 70 km east-west between the middle and upper reaches of the Barito and Mahakam

Rivers, and more than 100 km north-south from the foothills of the Muller Range. Habitats surveyed include mixed dipterocarp forest, heath

forest (kerangas), riparian forest and con verted lands on a variety of substrates. A total of 226 species was recorded, including five Vulnerable

species (Crestless Fireback Lophura erythrophthalma, Large Green Pigeon Treron capellei, Lesser Adjutant Leptoptilos javanicus, Hook-billed

Bulbul Setornis criniger and Bornean Wren Babbler Ptilocichla leucogrammica ) and 59 Near Threatened species. Habitat, land use and soil

quality varied widely across the study area. The north-west section of the study area boasts large tracts of intact, continuous-canopy dipterocarp

and heath forest and is likely to support viable populations of a variety of rare and threatened species. The influence of logging disturbance

is briefly discussed, and the bird communities of dipterocarp and heath forests are broadly compared.

INTRODUCTION

Sundaland, comprised of the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Bali

and Borneo, is among the most biologically diverse and endemically

rich regions on earth (Myers eta/. 2000). In recent decades, Sundaic

forests have been seriously depleted by multiple large-scale pressures,

including legal and illegal logging, conversion to commercial

agriculture, smallholder farming, forest fire and unsustainable

mining (Siegert eta/. 2001, Holmes 2002, Fuller eta/. 2004, Sodhi

et al. 2004, Gibbs etal. 2010). Most of the forest loss has occurred

in the biodiversity-rich lowlands, with remaining habitat

being converted at a rate that ranks among the highest in the

world (Achard et al. 2002, FWI/GFW 2002, MacKinnon 2005,

Hansen etal. 2008). As a result, much of the island’s lowland biota

is severely depleted and increasingly fragmented, and 109 (c.26%)

ofBorneo’s resident bird species are listed by the International Union

for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as threatened or 'Near

Threatened’ with extinction (IUCN 2010) (hereafter ‘IUCN

priority species’).

Until recently, Kalimantan’s interior forests have been among

the last to resist major conversion pressures (Holmes 2002, FWI/

GFW 2002, Fuller et al. 2004), owing in part to their relative

remoteness and the nutrient-poor soils that characterise much of

the territory (MacKinnon et al. 1996). Indeed, despite the high

rates of destruction observed over much of the island, these areas

still support the largest tracts of lowland forest remaining in

Sundaland, and are therefore capable of playing a critical role in

maintaining biodiversity within the region. However, temporary

isolation does not amount to immunity, and the majority of

Kalimantan’s interior low-elevation forests are presently under

licence for timber harvesting, palm oil production, mineral

exploration and other development projects (FWI/GFW 2002).

Despite the high conservation value ofBorneo’s forests, relatively

little is known of the status and distribution of fauna across much of

115°0’E

116’0'E

Figure 1. Map showing location

survey sites.

of

40

I. A. WOXVOLD & R. A. NOSKE

Forktail 27 (2011)

the island. T o date, the majority of ornithological research has focused

on the Malaysian states of Sarawak and Sabah and the near-coastal

forests ol Kalimantan (Mann 2008). Among the relatively few recent

surveys conducted in Kalimantan’s vast interior, most have focused

on sub/montane habitats (e.g. Nurwatha 1996, van Balen 1997,

Brickie et al. 2010) or wetlands (e.g. van Balen 1996, Gonner 2000,

Budiono et al. 2006). Consequently, the distribution of avifauna

throughout much of the interior lowlands is still poorly understood.

In this paper we present the results of three rapid-assessment

ornithological surveys conducted in 2000 and 2006 between the

Barito and Mahakam Rivers in the interior lowlands and hills of

Central and East Kalimantan (Figure 1). Prior knowledge of the

avifauna of this region comes largely from collections acquired during

the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (e.g. C. Schwaner 1 843-

Table 1 . Survey dates, base coordinates and survey effort summaries

for each survey site.

1 'Observation hours' includes formal, active search time only and excludes periods of opportunistic

birding (e.g. sightings from camp, deploying and retrieving mist-nets, reconnaissance drives, etc.).

Table 2. Habitats encountered at each survey site.

MDFand riparian forest: 1 = primary, 2 = lightly logged/disturbed, 3 = moderately logged/disturbed,

4 = heavily logged: Kerangas: 5 = tall (25-30 m), 6 = moderate-height (15-25 m), 7 = short (12—

15 m), 8= stunted (<6 m); Converted lands: 9= rubber/fruitkef>tf/?andpost-M7r?<? secondary forest,

10=active/adangandotheragriculturallands, 11 =/<jdflng regrowth and post-burn scrub. Substrate/

soils: “brown clay, b orange/yellow clay, ‘sandy orange/yellow clay, d white sands, e brown loam,

1 volcanics, ’waterlogged, periodically inundated (sandy) clays, h permanent swamp.

48, G. Fischer 1 870s and Carl Fumholtz 1 9 1 5- 1 6; see summary and

references in Mann 2008). Recent formal inventories have focused

largely on the Middle Mahakam Wetlands to the east of our study

area (e.g. Gonner 2000, Budiono et al. 2006), and the lowland and

submontane forests of Barito Ulu, some 90 km to the west (Dutson

et al. 1991, Wilkinson et al. 1991, McConkey and Chivers 2004).

We examine patterns ofbird community composition in relation

to geographic and habitat factors, and discuss records of a number of

species that are of conservation concern. Although limited by

temporal and logistic constraints common to rapid-assessment

surveys, it is hoped that the results presented here will encourage

further studies and help inform sustainable land use management

practices and government land use planning agencies during the

development and operation ofvarious projects planned for the region.

Study area and habitat

The study area spans c.105 km south to north from Muara Tuhup

on the Barito River to the foothills of the Muller Mountains, and

1 7 0 km west to east from the village of Baloi to Empakuq and Melak

on the Mahakam River (Figure 1 ) . The area is subject to an equatorial

climate that is warm and humid throughout the year. The mean

annual rainfall of 2,750-3,500 mm is weakly seasonal, with most

rain falling November-May (Wilkinson et al. 1991).

Surveys were conducted from 13 sites in three phases. Phase I

surveys (2000) were conducted by RAN in the north-west section

of the study area. Phase II and III surveys (2006) were conducted by

IAW in all sections of the study area. Table 1 lists the survey dates,

base coordinates, elevation and survey effort for each site. All surveys

were conducted below 400 m above sea level.

Four broad habitat classes were encountered in the study area:

mixed dipterocarp forest (MDF), heath forest ( kerangas ), riparian

forest and converted lands (urban areas, crops, gardens, scrub and

early-stage secondary forest). Within each category we surveyed a

variety ofsubhabitats that were defined by variations in topography,

soils, drainage and degree of anthropogenic disturbance (Table 2).

D ifferences in the extent and accessibility ofvarious vegetation types

meant that not all habitats were surveyed equally.

The study area was divided into three regions, within each of

which the variety of habitats was broadly consistent across all sites.

North-west: Sites 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6

This area is situated less than 100 km south-east of the Ulu Barito

Important Bird Area. The topography was characterised by

undulating to occasionally steep hills (200-400 m) traversed by

numerous streams and small rivers. The soils were dominated by

infertile sands and yellow clays. Despite the gentle topography, much

of the region was remote and difficult to access; all survey sites were

more than 20 km from the nearest village, and the logging road that

connects the area with Muara Tuhup to the south terminates prior

to reaching the northernmost sites (1 and 2). Surveys were conducted

from three established camps in the southern sector (Sites 3, 4 and

6) and from temporary forest camps at Sites 1 and 2.,

Vegetation near Sites 3, 4 and 6 was mostly undisturbed tall

(25-30 m) to moderate height ( 1 5-25 m) kerangas interspersed with

moderately to heavily logged MDF. T ransition between these forest

types was often gradual, with MDF in valleys and slopes grading

into kerangas on the upper slopes, ridges and plateaus. Forest stature

decreased from the valleys to the ridges, such that tall kerangas on

the middle to upper slopes included floristic elements of MDF (Paoli

2006). Also surveyed were riparian forest on limited-width

(generally <20 m) flats alongside the Fampunut River, (Site 6) and

mature, lightly logged MDF on more fertile loams south-east of

Site 6. There were multiple forest clearings of <0.5 ha to >2 ha at

these sites.

Sites 1 and 2 were situated in State Protection Forest {Hutan

Lmdung ) on the western rim ’of the Mahakam River catchment

Forktail 27 (2011)

Birds of kerangas, converted lands, mixed dipterocarp and riparian forests in Kalimantan

41

(East Kalimantan). The steep, hilly topography supported largely

undisturbed MDF on yellow clays, and an area of kerangas c. 1 km

west of the Site 2 camp.

Central West: Sites 7, 8, 9, 1 0 and 1 2

Surveys of the central western section were conducted from an

established camp at Site 7, Baloi village (Site 9) and a temporary

forest camp (Site 12) located nearaloggingcampc.5 km south-west

of Intu Lingau village. Areas around Sites 8 and 10 were accessed

from Sites 7 and 9.

Legal and illegal logging were active across this region, including

in areas of Protection Forest around Sites 8, 9 and 10. Most of the

habitat consisted of lightly to heavily logged MDF. Closed-canopy

forest was less common than in the north-west, although extensive

areas of lightly logged forest still occurred on the steep clays between

Sites 7 and 8. Sites 1 0 and 1 2 were characterised by undulating hills

traversed by streams and small rivers, with lightly to heavily logged

MDF on sandy clays. At the time of the surveys, forest at Site 1 2 was

subject to illegal manual logging following initial and legitimate

mechanised logging. Areas east of Site 8 and around Site 9 were flat

with fertile volcanic soils and had been heavily logged in preparation

for oil palm Elaeis guineensis. Also surveyed were riparian forest on

limited-width riverine flats at Site 7, and an isolated patch of kerangas

on poorly drained, infertile soils west of Site 8. Cultivated land

predominated at Baloi village (rubber/fruit kebun [gardens] and

active ladang [agricultural fields]).

Tuhup and the East: Sites 5, 1 1 and 1 3

Surveys of this sector were conducted from three sites situated on

major rivers: Muara Tuhup village (Site 5) on the Barito River,

Empakuq village (Site 11) on the Mahakam River and Dempar

village (Site 1 3) on the Nyuatan River, a major Mahakam tributary.

These areas are well populated, and non-riparian habitats were

characterised by a matrix of converted lands associated with shifting

cultivation (active ladang and regrowth, rubber/fruit kebun,

secondary forest) interspersed with remnantpatchesofMDF.MDF

remnants were typically infrequent and small (<50 ha), and often

located on ridges, steep slopes or on poorly drained soils presumably

unsuitable for agriculture. These habitats were surveyed along the

5 km section of road leading north from Site 5, in lands west of the

Nyuatan River accessed from three landing sites located 1-3 km

downstream from Site 1 3, and in an area south-west of the Mahakam

River that ran some 4 km south from Site 1 1 . Birds were also surveyed

in stunted (<6 m high), heavily fragmented kerangas protected

within the Kersik Luway Nature Reserve (c.5,000 ha). Riparian

habitats were surveyed along the Barito and Nyuatan Rivers and in

undisturbed backwater swamp forest behind the eastern banks of

the Mahakam River near Empakuq.

METHODS

Survey methods

Birds were formally surveyed using a combination of active searches

and mist-netting. Active surveys were conducted along logging roads

and vehicular tracks, along walking trails in closed forest and along

the banks of rivers and creeks, and by boat along the Nyuatan and

Mahakam Rivers and in undisturbed swamp forest near Empakuq.

Care was taken to avoid double-counting of mobile species (e.g.

aerial foragers, raptors) during active surveys, and cumulative counts

were avoided where trails were walked more than once. Active

surveys were preferentially conducted early to mid-morning

(05h30- 1 OhOO, Central Kalimantan time) and from late afternoon

to shortly after dusk ( 15h00- 18h30) to cover active periods of both

diurnal and nocturnal birds. Opportunistic observations were also

recorded from camps and during reconnaissance drives.

Birds were identified visually and by call. Unfamiliar calls and

periods of peak birdsong activity (e.g. dawn chorus, noisy feeding

flocks) were routinely recorded by IAW in 2006 usinga Sony HiMD

minidisc recorder and Sennheiser ME64 cardioid microphone.

Unfamiliar calls were matched against an extensive database of

South-East Asian birdcalls (Scharringa2005; www.xeno-canto.org/

asia/ ; www.hkbws.org.hk; personal records). At selected sites calls

were played aloud using a Toa 15-watt megaphone in an effort to

elucidate a response from cryptic species (e.g. night birds, pheasants,

partridges and babblers).

Between 2 and 11 mist-nets (6-14 m, 31 mm mesh) were

deployed at most sites for a total of more than 42,000 diurnal net-

metre hours (Table 1). Most nets were erected close to the ground

(all <7 m high) and checked hourly by the authors or trained

assistants. Nets were furled duringperiods of heavy rain and at night.

Direct observational data were supplemented with records

provided by local villagers from Baloi, Intu Lingau, Dempar and

Muara Tuhup. During interviews, villagers who displayed a

particular knowledge oflocal avifauna were shown images ofselected

birds in MacKinnon & Phillipps ( 1 999) . A conservative approach

was adopted when interpretinginformation from local informants;

the opinions reported here are provided with relevant context and

concern only those species that are likely to be snared by hunters

and/or are kept as pets.

Birds were censused using point counts in 2006, the results of

which are to appear elsewhere. Estimates of abundance are provided

" in the text for IUCN priority species.

Taxonomy, status and statistical methods

Sequence and nomenclature (common and scientific names) follow

Inskipp et al. (1996). The global conservation status of all species

was taken from IUCN (2010). The list of species protected under

Indonesian law was obtained from Noerdjito & Maryanto (2001).

We used species accumulation curves and a cluster analysis to

explore the data and help to illustrate inventory completeness and

patterns of bird community composition across the landscape.

Survey sites were clustered according to similarity in species

composition by means of a hierarchical (agglomerative) cluster

analysis using the SPSS version 12.0 statistical package. A

dendrogram was generated from presence/absence data using the

centroid method and Jaccard’s similarity index.

RESULTS

A total of 226 species from 41 families was directly recorded

(excluding information from local informants) (Appendix 1),

including five species listed as threatened by IUCN (Crestless

Fireback Lopbura erythrophthalma. Large Green Pigeon Treron

capellei , Lesser Adjutant Leptoptilosjavanicus, Hook-billed Bulbul

Setornis criniger and Bornean Wren Babbler Ptilocichla

leucogrammica), 59 Near Threatened species, and 43 species that

are protected under Indonesian law. Ninety-seven species are

endemic to the Sunda subregion, two are restricted to the Greater

Sunda islands and eight are Bornean endemics.

Species discovery curves for each of the nine sites surveyed in

2006 are shown in Figure 2. Species totals (excluding provisional

records) were highest at Sites 4 (131) and 2 (113), and lowest at

Sites 10 (51), 3 (76) and 12(78). Variation in survey time influenced

the completeness of inventories amongsites. Shorter surveys at Sites

9, 10, 12 and 13 yielded lists that fall well short of a full census.

However, despite more extensive surveys at other locations, by the

end of each survey new bird species were still being recorded daily,

and none of the curves in Figure 2 approaches a clear asymptote.

A total of 440 birds from 67 species were captured in mist-nets

(Appendix 1). At most sites multiple species were captured that

42

I. A. WOXVOLD & R. A. NOSKE

Forktail 27 (201 1 )

Survey Effort (hrs)

Figure 2. Species discovery curves (mist-net records excluded) for each

of the 1 1 sites surveyed in 2006. Figures show site codes.

r

Northwest <

Central west <

v

1

3

4

11

13

5

9

12

7

8

10

Figure 3. Dendrogram showing similarity between survey sites based

on bird species composition. The dotted line indicates the point at

which three broadly recognisable avifaunal sectors (as discussed in the

text) were separated. Figures show site codes.

were not detected by sight or sound. Across the study area, five

species were confirmed present by trapping only: Rufous-chested

Flycatcher Ficedula dumetoria, Chestnut-naped Forktail Enicurus

ruficapillus , Grey-breasted Babbler Malacopteron albogulare, Striped

Wren Babbler Kenopia striata and Grey-headed Babbler Stachyris

poliocephala.

Four species (Crested Fireback Lophura ignita, Bulwer’s

Pheasant L. bulweri, Bornean Peacock Pheasant Polyplectron

schleiermacheri and Bornean Ground Cuckoo Carpococcyx radiatus )

were not recorded directly but are provisionally included in

Appendix 1 based on information provided by local residents or

field assistants.

A comparison of species composition between study sites

showed that locations clustered broadly according to geographic

proximity (Figures 1 and 3). Thus the five sites within each of the

north-west and central west regions of the study area formed separate

clusters. In the north-west, bird communities at Sites 2 and 6 were

most similar, while those of Sites 3 and 4 were also similar, although

themselves rather distinct from the former site-pair. In the central

west the bird communities at Sites 7 and 8 were most similar.

Together with Site 5, the two easternmost sites (1 1 and 13) formed

a third cluster.

Selected species accounts

Species accounts are provided for globally threatened taxa and/or

species rarely recorded in Kalimantan according to Mann (2008).

Unless otherwise stated, numbers of individuals recorded in specific

habitats (described in the text or shown as figures in brackets) are

taken from 2006 survey data. Relative abundance does not accurately

reflect a preference for various habitats as not all habitats were

surveyed equally.

Crestless Fireback Lophura erythrophthalma (Vulnerable)

In 2006 individual males were captured in gully kerangas at 260 m

near Site 6, and in a sloping gully in lightly disturbed MDF at 300

m at Site 2. Two small, dark, female Lophura observed briefly near

Site 4 in 2006 were also considered most likely this species. From

c.50 m the birds were flushed from beneath felled trees on the edge

of a c. 1 ha regenerating clearing and flew some 15m away from the

observer into tall kerangas on a steep slope. Lophura are commonly

snared by local hunters and the genus was recognised during all

interviews. There is much potential for confusion, however, and

some interviewees regarded male Crested L. ignita and Crestless

Firebacks as separate sexes of the same species, suggesting both may

occur in at least some areas. An experienced hunter interviewed at

Dempar (Site 1 3) claimed to have eaten this or a Crested Fireback

earlier the same day. Considered scarce in Borneo (BirdLife

International 2001, Madge & McGowan 2002, Mann 2008);

recorded at Barito Ulu (Wilkinson et al. 1991).

[Bulwer's Pheasant Lophura bulweri (Vulnerable)

A scarce resident of (mostly) hill and montane forests, this species

was the most commonly recorded Lophura at Barito Ulu in 1989,

where it was encountered between 150 and 250 m (W ilkinson etal.

1991). In 2006 a field assistant (Pandam Nugroho) saw a white¬

tailed pheasant from close range at c.27 5 m at Site 2. In addition, the

hunter at Dempar claimed to know Bulwer’s Pheasant from forest

around Intu Lingau, but said it was no longer present in areas that

had been logged.]

[Bornean Peacock Pheasant Polyplectron schleiermacheri

(Endangered)

A rare Bornean endemic with most recent records coming from

Kalimantan (Madge & McGowan 2002, Mann 2008). The hunter

at Dempar recognised this species and, unprompted, correctly

pointed out the twin leg spurs unique among the island’s pheasants.

He reported that it was formerly present in hunting grounds around

Intu Lingau but he had not seen it after the area was logged. Not

recorded at Barito Ulu (Wilkinson etal. 1991).]

Grey Nightjar Caprimulgus indicus

The distinctive song of this species was heard for extended periods

(c. 20 minutes) shortly after dusk, and occasionally during the night,

over two consecutive nights ( 1 3 and 1 4 March 2006) from an area

of disturbed forest adjacent to a small river at Site 2. Previously

recorded in small numbers as a winter visitor to Malaysian Borneo

and Brunei (C. i.jotaka) (Mann 2008), Brickie et al. (2010) note

that their recent record from the Menyapa Mountains in East

Kalimantan is the only other traceable record from Indonesian

Borneo. Migratory races are typically less vocal on their wintering

grounds, where they ‘occasionally sing briefly’ (Cleere 1998: 230).

The presence of breedinghirds cannot be ruled out.

Forktail 27 (2011)

Birds of kerangas, converted lands, mixed dipterocarp and riparian forests in Kalimantan

43

Large Green Pigeon Treron capellei (Vulnerable)

A sparsely distributed inhabitant mostly ofprimary lowland Sundaic

forests (BirdLife International 2001, Mann 2008). In 2006 agroup

of 10 birds was seen leaving a remnant patch of mature MDF in

agricultural land near Site 5. Smaller numbers were recorded in

logged MDF on volcanic soils near Sites 8 (3) and 9(1). Its

dependence on large figs suggests that this species is likely to be less

common in kerangas and other low productivity forests, and it was

not recorded in the relatively intact low-nutrient forests in the north¬

west of the study area.

Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybridus

Occurs as a winter visitor and passage migrant throughout the year,

with birds in breeding plumage suggesting the species may breed

in Borneo, although this is yet to be confirmed (Mann 2008).

On 22 May 2006, six birds in breeding dress were observed along

the Mahakam River on the southern outskirts of Melak, a short

distance upstream from Empakuq (Site 13). Birds were observed

movingoverland between the river and an unknown location to the

west.

Blyth's/Wallace's Hawk Eagle Spizaetus alboniger/nanus (/

Vulnerable)

In 2006 a juvenile, long-crested hawk eagle was observed perched in

a tree along the main road at Site 12. Blyth’s and Wallace’s Hawk

Eagles, particularly juveniles, can be difficult to separate in the field

(BirdLife International 2001, Ferguson-Lees & Christie 2005).

Although the low elevation (95 m) is often considered more suitable

for the Vulnerable Wallace’s Hawk Eagle (Ferguson-Lees & Christie

2005), Blyth’s Hawk Eagle has been reported from comparable

altitudes in some localities (e.g. 130 m, Barito Ulu, Wilkinson eta/.

1991).

Lesser Adjutant Leptoptilos javanicus (Vulnerable)

I n Kalimantan this species occurs mostly along the Mahakam River

(especially the Mahakam Lakes: Conner 2000) and in scattered

localities near the south coast including near Banjarmasin and along

the Negara River (BirdLife International 200 1 , Budiono etal. 2006).

In 2006 two Lesser Adjutants were recorded over heavily logged

forest c.3 km north-east of Site 9. The birds were observed from a

distance of c. 1 km and rose on a thermal for over a minute before

headingsouth. The habitat there included numerous small marshes

created when the construction of a logging track interrupted

drainage by a series of streams. Lesser Adjutants wander extensively

(Mann 2008), and individuals may visit these areas as they travel

between strongholds elsewhere. Discussions with local villagers

suggest that the species does not occur frequently in the local area;

it was not recognised by hunters from nearby Baloi, and a villager at

Intu Lingau knew of this species only from the Mahakam Lakes.

Narcissus Flycatcher Ficedula narcissina

An uncommon winter visitor and passage migrant, mostly to

northern Borneo. In 2006 a male was seen singing on the edge of tall

kerangas near Site 4. This is the second record for Central

Kalimantan (Mann 2008).

White-vented Myna Acridotheres cinereus

White-vented (Javan) Mynas, believed to be of captive origin, were

first recorded in Borneo around Banjarmasin and Kuching in the

1 970s and 1 980s, and have since become established there. In 2006

two White-vented Mynas were observed in wet grazingland adjacent

to the Mahakam River between Melak and Empakuq village. The

birds rested on cattle, foraged on the ground and flew to cover in

nearby fruit trees and secondary growth. This is the first record of

this species from interior Borneo and the first confirmed record for

East Kalimantan, although Smythies ( 1 999) suggested that a record

of Crested Myna Acridotheres cristatellus from Rasamala on the

lower Mahakam may in fact refer to this species.

Hook-billed Bulbul Setornis criniger (Vulnerable)

Endemic to the islands of Borneo, Sumatra and Bangka in the

Greater Sundas. While generally regarded a specialist resident of

kerangas and peat-swamp forests (Dutson et al. 1991, BirdLife

International 2001), it has also been recorded in submontane

(Dutson etal. 1991) and degraded mixed dipterocarp habitats (IAW

pers. obs.). In 2000 a single bird was observed in kerangas at Site 2.

It was not recorded in 2006. At nearby Barito Ulu it was recorded

at several localities across a range of altitudes (120-1, 000m), where

it showed a marked preference for kerangas (Dutson et al. 1991,

Wilkinson etal. 1991).

Oriental/Everett's White-eye Zosterops palpebrosus/everetti

In 2006 three Zosterops were observed foraging in the canopy of a

fruiting tree in moderately logged MDF at Site 7 and two were seen

in similar habitat at Site 10. All birds showed grey flanks aside a

yellow ventral line, though views were insufficient to distinguish

between Oriental and Everett’s White-eye. There are no records of

Oriental White-eye from Central Kalimantan and Everett’s White-

eye is known from that province only at Barito Ulu (Wilkinson et

al. 1991, Mann 2008).

Bornean Wren Babbler Ptilocichlaleucogrammica (Vulnerable)

"■ A scarce Bornean endemic of lowland primary evergreen forests

and, less commonly, peat-swamp and logged forests (Lambert 1992,

BirdLife International 200 1 ). In 2006 at least three individuals were

heard in lightly logged MDF at Site 2, and a single bird was heard in

a large, mixed-species feeding flock in a ‘belt’ of MDF surrounded

predominantly by kerangas at Site 6. Not recorded in 2000.

[Eyebrowed Wren Babbler Napothera epilepidota

In Borneo a scarce resident of hill and montane forest (Mann 2008).

In 2006 a song attributed to this species was heard from close range

at c.27 5 m in lightly logged gully MDF at Site 4. The bird was calling

from sparse undergrowth alongside a rocky stream in steep, terraced,

gully forest. The bird was not observed. However, the repeated thin,

clear, falling whistles immediately recalled and proved

indistinguishable from the characteristic song of this species (a pre¬

recording being immediately on hand for comparison). There was

no response to call playback the following morning. In Central

Kalimantan this species has been recorded previously only at Barito

LUu (800-900 m, Wilkinson et al. 1991). Although it occurs at

comparable altitudes in mainland South-East Asia, if confirmed,

this is the lowest reported Sundaic elevation for this species.]

DISCUSSION

These surveys reveal that the study area currently supports a rich

bird assemblage which varies in community composition across the

landscape. Of the 226 species recorded, nearly half (43.8%) are of

global and/or national conservation significance, and more than

one quarter (28.3%) are IUCNpriority species. The high proportion

oflUCN priority species recorded here is consistent with the results

of bird surveys conducted elsewhere in lowland Borneo (e.g. Eames

2005), and reflects the extreme pressure placed on Indonesia’s biota

by the wholesale destruction of lowland forest and the high degree

of international concern it has evoked (BirdLife International 200 1 ,

Holmes 2002, Sodhi et al. 2004).

Temporal and logistic constraints limited survey completeness

at individual sites, and many more species will no doubt be recorded

from the study area given additional survey time. Nevertheless, the

combined list for all sites includes nearly three-quarters of

44

I. A.WOXVOLD&R. A. NOSKE

Forktail 27 (2011)

Kalimantan’s resident lowland forest bird species (c. 210/295,

excludingwaterbirds and migrants), and provides a useful base upon

which to discuss how changes in habitat and land use influence avian

community structure, and conservation value, at the landscape level.

A cluster analysis grouped bird communities into three broadly

distinguishable avifaunal 'regions’. Sites within regions shared

similar habitat features (see Methods) and in most cases sites

clustered according to geographic proximity.

Tuhup and the east

As is the pattern in many developing regions (e.g. Tatem & Hay

2004), settlement in Borneo is most intensive in coastal areas and

along its major roads and rivers. Sites 5, 1 1 and 13 were situated on

the largest and only truly navigable watercourses visited during these

surveys, and accordingly were the most densely populated. The

distinctiveness of their avifauna was largely due to the dominant

presence of converted lands and extensive riparian habitats along

the Barito, Mahakam and Nyuatan Rivers.

Of 23 species recorded only at these sites, nine (39.1%) are

residents of agricultural lands, urban areas and heavily disturbed

forests (Blue-throated Bee-eater Merops viridis. Rock Pigeon

Columba Uvia, nightjar sp. (probably Savanna/Large-tailed), Black¬

thighed Falconet Microhierax fringillarius. White-breasted

Woodswallow Artamus leucorynchus. Common Iora Aegithina

tiphia, White-vented Myna, Scarlet-backed FlowerpeckerD/oreww

cruentatum , Olive-backed Sunbird Nectarinia jugularis), four

(17.4%) are found almost exclusively in wetlands (Stork-billed

Kingfisher Halcyon capensis, Whiskered Tern, White-breasted

Waterhen Amaurornis phoenicurus. Grey-headed Fish Eagle

Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus) , and four are predominantly riparian and

secondary forest species that were recorded only in the Mahakam

swamps (Cinnamon-headed Green Pigeon Treron fulvicollis ,

Oriental Pied Hornbill Antbracoceros albirostris , Black-and-red

Broadbill Cymbirhynchus macrorhynchos , Malaysian Blue Flycatcher

Cyornis turcosus).

The value of riparian forest to wildlife and humans alike,

particularly in converted landscapes, has been a topic of some focus

(e.g. Darveau et al. 1995, de Lima & Gascon 1999, Lees & Peres

2008). In the present study, 20 Near Threatened bird species were

recorded in riparian forest at these sites. The majority of these were

recorded more widely across the study area and in a variety of forest

habitats. Riparian forest is of more direct importance to species

such as Cinnamon-headed Green Pigeon, Malaysian Blue Flycatcher

(at least on Borneo) and especially Grey-headed Fish Eagle.

Thirteen Near Threatened species were recorded in converted

habitats at these sites (Buff-necked Woodpecker Meiglyptes tukki ,

Red-crowned Barbet Megalaima rafflesii , Red-throated Barbet M.

mystacophanos , Lesser Green Leafbird Chloropsis cyanopogon , Green

Iora Aegithina viridissima , Black-and-white Bulbul Pycnonotus

melanoleucos , Puff-backed Bulbul P. eutilotus. Buff-vented Bulbul

Ioleolivacea, Short-tailed P>2ddo\crMalacocincla malaccensis , Rufous-

crowned Babbler Malacopteron magnum. Fluffy-backed Tit-Babbler

Macronous ptilosus , Brown Fulvetta Alcippe brunneicauda. Scarlet¬

breasted Flowerpecker Prionochilus thoracicus). All are Sundaic

endemics and most occur predominantly or solely below c.800 m.

Most of these species were recorded in secondary forest ( vis-a-vis

active ladang, gardens, regrowth scrub, urban areas). The role of

secondary forests in preserving biodiversity is emerging as a key issue

in tropical conservation biology (Wright & Muller-Landau 2006,

Chazdon et al. 2009). While there are extensive records of the

occurrence of Bornean birds in converted habitats (summarised in

Mann 2008), most are based on informal observations (cf. e.g. Koh

2008, Edwards et al. 2010), and there is a growing need for detailed

studies into the value of such habitats. In particular, future studies

should examine the potential for secondary habitats to support forest¬

dwelling Sundaic birds in relation to a variety of geographic and

ecologicalparameters, includingthe size, shape and degree ofisolation

(from primary forest) of individual habitat patches, stage of

regeneration, and floristic, structural and edaphic characteristics.

In a national context, converted lands supported a variety of

passerines protected under Indonesian law, including the Pied

Fantail Rhipidura javanica, numerous sunbirds and the Little

Spiderhunter Arachnothera longirostra. This situation reflects the

current legislative focus on culturally significant species rather than

on those forest-dependent birds that have suffered most from the

destruction of Sundaic forests.

Anthropogenic landscapes also included small areas (often <5

ha) of remnant primary and/ or moderately disturbed MDF within

the dominant agricultural matrix. In these fragments a number of

Near Threatened passerines were recorded, including Black-and-

yellow Broadbill Eurylaimus ochromalus, Lesser Green Leafbird,

Green Iora, Rufous-tailed Shama Trichixospyrropyga , and a variety

of bulbuls and babblers. They also provided a source of fruiting

trees for mobile frugivores such as hornbills and barbers. While

forest fragments do not match continuous forest in avian diversity

and abundance (Edwards et al. 2010), depending on their size,

condition and proximity to remnant habitats, and, especially in

relation to larger species such as hornbills, on the prevalence of

hunting, these remnant forest patches may be important for the

persistence of local or regional populations of some (but not all)

species from a variety of guilds (Kinnaird & O’Brien 2007, Edwards

et al. 2010).

The north-west and central west forests

Larger areas of forest were surveyed in the north-west and central

west sections of the study area. The structure, condition and soil

profile of these forests were highly variable. Noticeable differences

in habitat between these regions included: (1) extensive,

predominantly intact kerangas present in the north-west; (2) the

presence of rich, volcanic soils near Sites 8 and 9; and (3) continuing

intensive logging near Sites 9, 10 and 12.

The north-west section is situated within an increasingly rare

example of a large expanse of relatively intact Indonesian lowland

and hill forest which stretches far west and north across the Murung

Raya district. This area is likely to support viable populations of at

least three Vulnerable species recorded during the surveys: Crestless

Fireback, Hook-billed Bulbul and Bornean Wren Babbler. Further

surveys may reveal/confirm the presence of additional threatened

taxasuch as Black Partridge Melanoperdix nigra, Bulwer’s Pheasant,

Bornean Peacock Pheasant, Bonaparte’s Nightjar Caprimulgus

concretus. Large Green Pigeon and Blue-headed Pitta Pitta baudii.

Of these species all but the Bornean Peacock Pheasant and

Bonaparte’s Nightjar are known from Barito Ulu (Wilkinson et al.

1991).

The structural integrity of kerangas was high in comparison to

most MDF surveyed. These low-productivity forests are of limited

interest to loggers or farmers, and comparatively few logging roads

were traversed while surveying this habitat. Kerangas supports a

handful of (near-)specialist species such as the Grey-breasted Babbler

and Hook-billed Bulbul, both of which were found only in the north¬

west, but have also been found further west in Barito Ulu (Wilkinson

et al. 1991). In 2006 a further 22 species were recorded only in the

north-west, most of which may also be expected to occur within the

study area in forests to the south.

Much of the forest surveyed in the central west was already

heavily disturbed. Forest on the rich volcanic plains around Sites 8

and 9 had been very heavily logged and few emergent trees remained.

Nevertheless, these sites did support a relatively rich bird

community, with 1 1 7species recorded (including34IUCN priority

species) over a relatively short survey period (Fig. 2). If left alone,

forest on these soils can be expected to make a rapid recovery relative

to logged forest in less fertile areas. Unfortunately it is these fertile

Forktail 27 (201 1 )

Birds of kerangas, converted lands, mixed dipterocarp and riparian forests in Kalimantan

45

lowland forests on gentle terrain that are targeted most heavily by

developers seeking to plant crops such as oil palm.

Following intensive logging, forest on less fertile soils at Site 12

was of a similar structure to that observed at Sites 8 and 9. Many

forest birds common at other locations in the central west were scarce

at Site 12, and a number of vocal species were not recorded during

the brief survey (e.g. Red-throated Barbet, Yellow-crowned Barbet

Megalaima henricii , Greater Green Leafbird Chloropsis sonnerati,

Blue-winged Leafbird C. cochinchinensis, Grey-headed Canary

Flycatcher Culicicapa ceylonensis. Yellow-bellied Bulbul Alophoixus

pbaeocephalus. Moustached Babbler Malacopteron magnirostre and

Sooty-capped Babbler M. affine). Although barbets vocalise less at

certain periods (Wells 1999), both the Red-throated and Yellow-

crowned Barbets were heard at Site 13 immediately after the Site 12

survey, suggesting their silence at Site 12 was not merely seasonal.

Species richness was clearly lower at Site 12 than on the more fertile

soils at Sites 8 and 9 (Fig. 2), but this was not formally quantified.

Logged forests play a critical role in preserving biodiversity within

Sundaic landscapes (Berry et al. 2010, Edwards et al. 2011). The

influence ofsoil quality on the conservation value of degraded Sundaic

forest habitats may be a worthwhile direction of inquiry.

Studies of rainforest bird communities have often shown that

terrestrial and understorey insectivores are sensitive to logging and

habitat fragmentation (Johns 1996, Lambert 1992, Thiollay 1997,

Lambert & Collar 2002, Peh et al. 2005, Edwards et al. 2009). In

addition to habitat loss and degradation, hunting pressure is likely

to be high in the vicinity of logging camps (e.g. Bennett etal. 2000),

such as those active at the time of survey near Sites 8, 9 and 1 2, with

pheasants and partridges actively targeted by snaring. During our

surveys a number of terrestrial taxa such as pheasants and wren

babblers were scarce or absent from the logged forests of the central

west. A notable exception was a Crested Partridge Rollulus rouloul

heard calling in moderately logged forest at Site 1 0. By contrast, the

Crestless Fireback, Great Argus Argusianus argus , Bornean Wren

Babbler, Striped Wren Babbler Kenopia striata and Eyebrowed

W ren Babbler were only recorded in the less disturbed forests of the

north-west.

Woodpecker diversity and abundance were also lower in the

heavily logged forests around Sites 8, 9 and 10 where few large trees

remained. Lambert (1992) reported a similar pattern among

woodpeckers in logged compared with primary forests of lowland

Sabah, while Lammertink (2004) reported no change in species

richness over increasing levels of forest disturbance in West

Kalimantan. As with many other taxa, the relationship between

woodpeckers andloggingdisturbance is complex, with various studies

indicating a variety of responses both within and between species

(Meijaard etal. 2005).

Community structure in dipterocarp forest

and kerangas

Soil quality in the north-west was generally poor; kerangas was

common and unlogged MDF was of a smaller stature than at Sites

7 and 10 and many other regions of lowland Kalimantan (Paoli

2006). The low-nutrient, acidic soils of this region supported

relatively few fruiting trees. Accordingly, a number of frugivorous

guilds were poorly represented in kerangas , with many species of

hornbill, pigeons and doves, bulbuls, partridges and pheasants

(insectivore/frugivores) apparently scarce or absent. Low hornbill

abundance has also been reported in the nutrient-poor forests of

Barito Ulu (McConkey & Chivers 2004). A notable exception was

the Crestless Fireback: three of the four individuals encountered in

2006 were encountered in kerangas.

Compared to MDF, a number of insectivores were also poorly

represented in kerangas. Many terrestrial insectivores recorded in

MDF were not recorded in kerangas (e.g. wren babblers, White¬

chested Babbler Trichastoma rostratum), and muscicapid flycatchers.

cuckoos and cuckooshrikes were relatively scarce and species-poor.

In addition, some woodpeckers that were common in MDF were

either not recorded inker angas (Crimson-winged WoodpeckerRicws

puniceus , Great Slaty Woodpecker Mulleripicus pulverulentus) or

were present in relatively low numbers (Buff-rumped Woodpecker

Meiglyptes tristis). The diversity and abundance of invertebrates is

reportedly lower in kerangas , a pattern attributed to the relatively

low floristic and structural diversity present in this habitat

(MacKinnon et al. 1996, Robinson & Tuck 1996). As well as a

reduced availability of larval and non-flying insects, the relative

scarcity of large trees may have rendered heath forests within the

study area less suitable for many woodpecker species.

Final remarks

These surveys help to provide a basic understanding of avian

community composition and the habitat preferences ofvarious taxa

within the study area. Flowever, our data are insufficient to allow a

detailed assessment of the distribution and status of many rare and

threatened species that have been recorded or are likely to occur.

Nevertheless, it appears likely that the western portion of our study

area does support viable populations of at least four globally

threatened bird species (Crestless Fireback, Large Green Pigeon,

Hook-billed Bulbul, Bornean Wren Babbler), and that further

surveys may confirm the presence of additional priority taxa. The

occurrence of these species meets the criteria set by BirdLife

International (2009) for this region to be nominated a global

' Important Bird Area (IBA).

Processes threatening forest in the present study area include

unsustainable logging, agro-industrial plantations (oil palm) and,

in the north-west and immediate surrounds, small-scale mining, in

particular those miningleases issued by local government. A number

of mineral and resource companies have been actively commissioning

biological surveys in the vicinity of our study area.

In a broader context, with much of Kalimantan’s interior still

unsurveyed, further work will be essential to provide the basic

information that is normally required to prioritise areas for

conservation. Unfortunately, much of Kalimantan’s forests are

converted without prior knowledge of the wildlife they contain.

This increases both the urgency of additional surveys in, and the

inherent conservation value of, remaining tracts of relatively intact

and continuous canopy forest.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank all members of the 2000 and 2006 biodiversity survey

teams for their assistance and support in the field: Gary Paoli, Darrell Kitchener,

Rob Stuebing, Greg Richards, Djoko Iskandar, Ibnu Maryanto, Umilaela, Tan

Heok Hui, Daisy Wowor, Raymond Goh and Pandam Nugroho. For their

role in planning and organising the 2006 surveys we are grateful to Francis

Crome and staff at Coffey Natural Systems. Many thanks to those local residents

who generously assisted us in the field and for their willingness to share valuable

local knowledge: Paulus, Lieu, Bangsawan, Edimanto, Ryan Rika, Sarjono,

Hongi, Suria Atmajah, Aspuri, Harno and Watmiardi. Special thanks to Gary

Paoli for sharinghis detailed knowledge of the flora and habitats ofKalimantan.

Many thanks also to Bas van Balen, Jelle Scharringa and Martjan Lammertink

for their help in identifying unfamiliar bird sounds recorded by IAW in 2006,

and to David Edwards, Nigel Collar and an anonymous referee for providing

helpful comments to improve this manuscript.

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lain A. WOXVOLD, Department of Zoology, University of Melbourne,

Victoria 3010, Australia. Email: iwoxvold@unimelb.edu.au

Richard A. NOSKE, School of Environmental and Life Sciences,

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Richard.Noske@cdu.edu.au

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1 Square brackets indicate species provisionally identified by the authors or species reported only by local informants. Of seven provisionally identified species, four were clearly of additional birdsforthe study

(Japanese Sparrowhawk, Edible-/Black-nest Swiftlet, White-tailed Flycatcher, Oriental/Everett's White-eye). The remaining three may have been confused with other birds recorded due to uncertainty about

calls (Barred Eagle/Brown Wood Owl, Ochraceous/e.g. Grey-cheeked Bulbul) or differences in juvenile plumage (Blyth's/Wallace's Hawk Eagle).

2 Figures in brackets indicate the number of individuals captured in mist-nets.

5 International threat category and legal status in Indonesia. IUCN (2010) Red List categories: EN - Endangered, VU - Vulnerable, NT - Near Threatened. P - Protected under Indonesian law.

4 Seasonal status based on Mann (2008): R - Resident, W - Northern hemisphere winter visitor, Ws - Southern hemisphere winter visitor, P - Passage migrant, Mb - Breeding migrant.

5 Numeric site codes follow Figure 1 and Table 1 . (L) - Denotes species reported present, or formerly present (L*), by local informants. Square brackets indicate provisional records.

6 Habitat codes follow categories described in Table 2. MDF - Mixed dipterocarp forest, Ker - Kerangas (heath forest), Rip - Riparian forest, cl - Converted lands.

Appendix 2

Species accounts: Near Threatened taxa

Unless otherwise stated, numbers of individuals recorded in specific habitats (described in the text or shown as figures in brackets) are taken from 2006

survey data.

Crested Partridge Rollulus rouloul

One recorded at Site 1 in 2000, another heard in moderately logged MDF at

site 7b in 2006. The 'Siaw' (pron. See-ow) was well known to Dayak villagers

throughout the study area, a number of whom suggested numbers may be

falling in the area.

[Crested Fireback Lophura ignita

Not recorded directly during these surveys, Crested Fireback has been

recorded previously at Barito Ulu (Wilkinson etal. 1991) and south ofTuhup

(Voous 1 961 ), and was recognised by villagers as occurring in the vicinity of

Baloi.Tumehand Dempar. A number of interviewees regarded male Crested

and Crestless Firebacks as separate sexes of the same species.]

Great Argus Argusianus argus

The most commonly recorded pheasant due to its conspicuous and far-

carrying call. Singles recorded at Sites 1 and 4 in 2000, and at least four

individuals heard in MDF at Site 2 and near Site 4 in 2006. It was well known

to hunters, who reported it present throughout most of the study area.

However, birds were directly encountered only in the relatively intact and

inaccessible forests of the north-west section.

Malaysian Honeyguide Indicator archipelagicus

A single bird mist-netted in disturbed riparian forest atTuhup, with another

remaining close by until its release. This is the second record from Central

Kalimantan (Mann 2008).

Buff-necked Woodpecker Meiglyptes tukki

Five in 2006, including a pair captured in MDF at Site 4, a single captured in

dense 3m ladang regrowth near Empakuq, and singles observed in

undisturbed swamp forest near Empakuq and heavily logged forest at Site

1 2. A single bird was netted at Site 1 in 2000.

Red-crowned Barbet Megalaima rafflesi

Recorded at most sites and in a variety of habitats, including kerangas (9),

logged MDF (16)andisolatedfruitingtreesinsettledareas(e.g.MuaraTuhup).

Red-throated Barbet Megalaima mystacophanos

Recorded at most sites in the central west and eastern sections of the study

area and atTuhup, although scarce orabsentfrom much ofthe north-west.

Recorded in all habitat types but commonest in MDF (1 5). Only one was

heard in kerangas (Site 6), and none was heard in heavily logged MDF on

low-nutrient soils at Site 1 2, suggesting this species may rely on more fertile

soils for a higher density of fruiting trees than the Red-crowned Barbet, at

least at the time of survey. Elsewhere somewhat tolerant of habitat

disturbance, with birds heard in logged MDF, mature secondary forestand

remnant MDF fragments.

Yellow-crowned Barbet Megalaima henricii

Recorded in MDF (24) at most sites (cf. Site 1 2). Tolerant of some habitat

disturbance, with birds present in logged forest and remnant MDF patches

adjacent to converted lands. A single heard in tall kerangas at Site 4.

Black Hornbill Anthracoceros malayanus

Recorded in moderately to heavily logged forests at Sites 9, 1 0 and 1 2, and

in MDF and riparian forest at all sites in the north-west. A group of four

observed in unlogged MDF at Site 2. Not detected in kerangas.

Rhinoceros Hornbill Buceros rhinoceros

Recorded in MDF (23) and riparian forest (l)atallsites except Site 10. Tolerant

of some habitat disturbance, with birds recorded in remnant MDF fragments

and emergent fruiting trees in logged forest and converted lands.

Helmeted Hornbill Buceros vigil

Singles recorded at Sites 1 and 4 in 2000. Eight recorded in 2006 in remnant

MDF and emergent fruiting trees in logged forest at Sites 8, 9, 10 and at

Dempar.

White-crowned Hornbill Aceros comatus

Heard in moderately logged MDF at Sites 7 and 1 2, and in a remnant MDF

fragment in converted lands near Tuhup.

Wrinkled Hornbill Aceros corrugatus

Pairs seen flying over heavily logged forest at Site 8, and converted rural

lands near Empakuq. Pairs of this species or Wreathed Hornbill A. undulatus

seen flying over converted rural lands near Baloi and Dempar.

Red-naped Trogon Harpactes kasumba

Three in lightly logged forest at Site 1 and one at Site 2 in 2000. In 2006, a

trogon heard briefly in logged forest at Site 8 was provisionally identified as

this species.

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53

Diard's Trogon Harpactes diardii

Singles recorded in lightly logged forest at Site 2 in 2000, and in 2006 in

logged MDF at Sites 7, 8 and 12 and in secondary forest near the Mahakam

River downstream from Empakuq.

Scarlet-rumped Trogon Harpactes duvaucelii

The most commonly encountered trogon. Present throughout the study

area in primary and logged MDF (18), and recorded in kerangas (4) at Sites

3, 4 and 6.

Moustached Hawk Cuckoo Hierococcyx vagans

Singles heard in heavily logged MDF at Site 8 and from a distance in

agricultural/secondary forest/ MDF mosaic near Dempar.

Black-bellied Malkoha Phaenicophaeus diardi

In 2006 singles seen in kerangas at Site 6 and on the edge of moderately

logged MDF at Site 7, and a pair observed in lightly logged MDF at Site 2.

Chestnut-bellied Malkoha Phaenicophaeus sumatranus

In 2006 recorded in kerangas at Site 6 (group of 4), moderately logged MDF

at Site 6 (1) and undisturbed swamp forest near Empakuq (1). In 2000

recorded three times in kerangas at Site 3 and once at Site 4.

[Bornean Ground Cuckoo Carpococcyx radiatus

A hunter interviewed at Dempar claimed this species occurs in remnant

forest downstream and west of the Nyuatan River. Not recorded directly.]

Blue-rumped Parrot Psittinus cyanurus

Recorded in all sections of the study area (north-west, central west and

east). Common near Site 8 with at least 18 birds observed in moderately

logged MDF (12) and kerangas (6). Kept as pets by residents at Dempar.

Large Frogmouth Batrachostomus auritus

A Large Frogmouth responded to a call playback from a forested hill

alongside a tributary oftheLampu nut River south of Site 4. This is the second

record from Central Kalimantan (Mann 2008).

Gould's Frogmouth Batrachostomus stellatus

A Gould's Frogmouth was heard over two nights in lightly logged MDF

adjacent to the campsite at Site 2. This is the second record from East

Kalimantan (Mann 2008).

Cinnamon-headed Green Pigeon Treron fulvicollis

At least eight observed with a similar number of Thick-billed Green Pigeons

T.curvirostra feeding in the canopy of a fruiting tree at 16h00 in undisturbed

swamp forest near Empakuq.

Jambu Fruit Dove Ptilinopus jambu

Singles in kerangas at Sites 3 and 4 in 2000. Not recorded in 2006, but

recognised by villagers from Intu Lingau. Normally silent, it may be

commoner than these numbers suggest. Mann (2008) listed no records

from Central Kalimantan though it was recorded in low numbers at Barito

Ulu (Wilkinson etal. 1991).

Grey-headed Fish Eagle Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus

One circling over the Nyuatan River downstream from Dempar in 2006.

Black-and-yellow Broadbill Eurylaimus ochromalus

Common throughout the study area, predominantly in lightly to heavily logged

MDF (30+), though also recorded in riparian forest (4) and kerangas (3).

Green Broadbill Calyptomena viridis

Seen or heard at most sites (but not recorded in 2000) where it was most

common in (lightly to heavily logged) MDF (12).

t

Lesser Green Leafbird Chloropsis cyanopogon

Common throughout the study area, predominantly in logged MDF (23),

although also recorded in riparian forest (2), kerangas (6) and early stage

secondary growth (5).

Crested Jay Platylophus galericulatus

Single birds recorded in primary MDF at Site 2 and in heavily logged MDF

at Site 8. Provisional records in MDF at Site 1 and a bird heard in kerangas at

Site 6.

Black Magpie Platysmurus leucopterus

Common throughout the study area and recorded in a range of forest types,

including lightly to heavily logged MDF (18), kerangas (4) and riparian forest (1).

Bornean Bristlehead Pityriasis gymnocephala

In 2000 two groups of four birds observed in kerangas at Site 3, and another

group of four at Site 4. In 2006 two groups of at least four birds observed on

the edge of heavily logged MDF at Sites 4 and 8, and two birds heard in

lightly logged MDF at Site 2.

Dark-throated Oriole Oriolus xanthonotus

Recorded at most sites in lightly to heavily logged MDF (8), and once in a

small area of kerangas within MDF matrix near Site 8 in 2006.

Fiery Minivet Pericrocotus igneus

In 2000 recorded at Sites 3 and 4, and in Casuarina trees in lightly logged

MDF at Site 2. Not recorded in 2006.

Green lora Aegithina viridissima

Seen or heard almost daily and at all sites. Recorded in primary and logged

MDF (43) riparian forest (3), kerangas (3) and ladang regrowth (2).

Maroon-breasted Philentoma Philentoma velatum

A single male observed in kerangas at Site 4 in 2000.

Grey-chested Jungle Flycatcher Rhinomyias umbratilis

Common in less disturbed forests throughout the study area. Recorded in

lightly to moderately logged MDF (12), kerangas (5) and riparian forest (3).

Rufous-chested Flycatcher Ficedula dumetoria

A male was mist-netted in moderately logged MDF at Site 9.

Malaysian Blue Flycatcher Cyornis turcosus

A male seen in undisturbed swamp forest near Empakuq in 2006.

Rufous-tailed Shama Trichixos pyrropyga

Present at most sites and in a variety of habitats, including kerangas (3),

riparian forest (1 ) and lightly to moderately logged MDF (12).

Chestnut-naped Forktail Enicurus ruficapillus

One netted in streamside kerangas at Site 6 in 2006.

Black-and-white Bulbul Pycnonotus melanoleucos

Singles at Sites 2 and 4 in 2000. In 2006 recorded near Tuhup and at sites in

the north-west and central west sections in logged MDF (5), kerangas (5)

and secondary forest (1 ).

Grey-bellied Bulbul Pycnonotus cyaniventris

Recorded in primary and heavily logged MDF ( 10) at most sites in the north¬

west section and at Sites 7 and 9.

Puff-backed Bulbul Pycnonotus eutiiotus

Present throughout the study area in a range of habitats, including logged

MDF (23), riparian forest (2), kerangas (2) and secondary forest (5).

Finsch's Bulbul Alophoixus finschii

At Site 4, four birds seen and one netted in 2000 and two seen on the edge

of moderately logged MDF in 2006. Two pairs netted in lightly logged MDF

at Site 7 in 2006.

Buff-vented Bulbul lole olivacea

In 2006 recorded in moderately to heavily logged MDF (3) at Sites 7 and 8,

in kerangas (1) near Site 8 in 2006, and in ladang regrowth near Tuhup (1).

Pairs observed twice in moderately logged MDF at Site 4 in 2000.

Streaked Bulbul Ixos malaccensis

Pairs twice at Site 3 and three times at Site 4 in 2000. In 2006 a single seen

in tall kerangas near Site 4 and a pair observed in moderately logged MDF

at Site 1 0.

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Forktail 27(2011)

White-chested Babbler Trichastoma rostratum

Common throughout the study area wherever waterside vegetation persists,

including riparian forest (24) lining the larger rivers and swamps, and lightly

to heavily logged MDF (13) around the smaller streams and marshes. Not

recorded in kerangas.

Short-tailed Babbler Malacocincla malaccensis

Fairly common throughout the study area. In 2000 two mist-netted in MDF

at Site 1 , four at Site 2 and two in kerangas at Site 4. in 2006 recorded mostly

in lightly to moderately logged MDF (10) and riparian forest (7), with singles

in tall kerangas at Site 4 and secondary forest planted with rubber near

Tuhup.

Sooty-capped Babbler Malacopteron affine

Recorded at scattered localities in all sections of the study area, with the

highest numbers at Sites 7 (4) and 8 (5) in the central west. In 2006 found in

lightly logged MDF (6) and moderately to heavily logged MDF on volcanic

soils (8). One in tall kerangas at Site 4 in 2000.

Rufous-crowned Babbler Malacopteron magnum

The most commonly recorded tree-babbler. Found at all sites and in a variety

of habitats, including lightly to heavily logged MDF (40), riparian forest (2),

moderate-height and tall kerangas (7) and secondary forest (2).

Grey-breasted Babbler Malacopteron albogulare

Consistent with a preference for intact, low-productivity forest (Sheldon

1987, Holmes & Wall 1989, Dutson et al. 1991), this species was recorded

only in the north-west section of the study area where it was found at all

sites. Located by mist-netting only and often captured in pairs or groups. At

Site 2, five birds (2, 2, 1 ) captured in lightly logged MDF in 2000, and one in

2006. In kerangas at Sites 3 and 4, five birds (3 and 2 respectively) captured

in 2000, and one in 2006. One bird captured at Site 1 in logged MDF in 2000;

and in kerangas at Site 6, three birds captured together in 2006.

Striped Wren Babbler Kenopia striata

One mist-netted in riverine forest at Site 1 in 2000. Not recorded in 2006.

Black-throated Wren Babbler Napothera atrigularis

In 2006 a single bird was heard and taped in riparian forest near Tuhup. This

is the first from Central Kalimantan (Mann 2008).

Black-throated Babbler Stachyris nigricollis

In 2000 mist-netted in kerangas (3) and lightly logged MDF (7). In 2006

recorded in unlogged riparian swamp forest near Empakuq (2), and in lightly

logged (3) and moderately logged MDF (2), and in heavily disturbed MDF

on waterlogged soils (7).

Chestnut-rumped Babbler Stachyris maculata

Present at most sites throughout the study area. In 2006 recorded in riparian

forest (1), moderate-height and tall kerangas (6), lightly logged (6),

moderately logged (9) and heavily logged MDF (11) and secondary

growth (6).

Fluffy-backed Tit Babbler Macronous ptilosus

Recorded at most sites and tolerant of disturbed habitats. In 2006 recorded

in riparian forest (2), lightly to moderately logged (6) and heavily logged

MDF (6), and ladang regrowth, early successional regenerating MDF and

secondary forest (1 1). In 2000 birds mist-netted in roadside coral ferns at

Site 3 (2) and noted <2 m from creekside vegetation at Site 2. Not recorded

in kerangas.

Brown Fulvetta Alcippe brunneicauda

Recorded at all sites. Tolerant of moderate habitat disturbance but most

numerous in less disturbed forests. In 2006 recorded in riparian forest (7),

moderate-height and tall kerangas (5), secondary forest (1 ) and lightly to

moderately logged (30) and heavily logged MDF (1 2). In 2000 most abundant

at Sites 2 and 4.

Scarlet-breasted Flowerpecker Prionochilus thoracicus

Uncommon outside the north-west section where it was recorded at

most sites in both years. In 2006 recorded in kerangas (5), lightly to

moderately logged MDF (2), ladang regrowth (1) and rubber kebun /

secondary forest (2).

Brown-backed Flowerpecker Dicaeum everetti

In 2006 a single observed at Site 7 taking fruit from Melastoma polyanthum

shrubs growing on the banks of a small river adjacent to the main camp

clearing. Intact riparian forest and lightly logged MDF dominated the steep

slope on the opposite bank. This is the first record from Central Kalimantan

(Mann 2008).

FORKTAIL 27 (2011): 55-62

The use of avian feeding guilds to detect small-scale forest

disturbance: a case study in East Kalimantan, Borneo

BEN WIELSTRAJJALLE BOORSMA, SANDER M. PIETERSE & HANS H. de IONGH

Finding suitable indicators to monitor the state of disturbance of tropical forests is a challenge. Avian feeding guilds are a promising

candidate and we test their practical usefulness. We use checklists compiled during short surveys. The observed species are classified into

avian feeding guilds based on a combination of diet and foraging layer. We compare avian feeding guild structure of two forests exploited

on a small scale (traditional community forest or hutan adat) with an undisturbed control area. Fieldwork was conducted in duplicate (in two

rounds, by different observers) in East Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo). Four avian feeding guilds were found to show differences in species

numbers between the disturbed and control sites: terrestrial insectivores and arboreal nectarivores are more numerous, whereas understorey

insectivores and arboreal insectivores are less numerous in terms of number of species. Of these four, understorey insectivores were considered

to be the most informative, as understorey species are surveyed most effectively and as the guild contains a relatively large number of

species. Standardised monitoring of avian feeding guilds yields valuable information on the state of disturbance of forests, and species

checklists based on short surveys are a suitable method to obtain the required data. We recommend including avian feeding guilds in

standardised monitoring programmes and discuss possible improvements for a study in a larger framework.

INTRODUCTION

Tropical forests contain the majority of the planet’s biota. The

persistence of the world’s tropical forests is crucial to the

conservation of global biodiversity, but these forests are facingever-

increasing anthropogenic pressure (Hansen et al. 2010).

Fundamental to the management of forests is to understand the

state of disturbance they experience. Monitoring should yield

scientifically sound information on the condition of the forests’

biodiversity and potential changes therein (Noss 1999). However,

developing a clear and practical monitoring system is challenging.

Monitoring all components and interactions of an ecosystem is

impossible. Instead, indicators are used: a selection of taxa for which

the response (to a certain input, such as disturbance) is expected to

reflect the state of the ecosystem as a whole (e.g. Caro & O’Doherty

1999). Habitat degradation can be an insidious process, slowly

erodingbiodiversity. In order to function as an early warningsystem,

indicators must be sensitive enough to detect the first signs ofoverall

ecosystem deterioration.

Avian feeding guilds have previously been suggested as a suitable

indicator (e.g. Ghazoul & Hellier 2000). A feeding guild can be

defined as ‘a group of species that exploits the same class of

environmental resources in the same way’ (Root 1967). Such a

clustering of individual species into groups is not susceptible to

change due to e.g. taxonomic progress or improved insight into

population size, which is the case for other criteria such as endemism

and Red List status. Birds are particularly suitable, as they are

relatively easy to survey and their ecology is relatively well understood

(Bibby et al. 2000, Gray et al. 2006).

The objective of this study is to find an indicator which is

sensitive enough to register slight levels of disturbance and for which

the required data can be collected against relatively low costs and

effort. We assess the potential of avian feeding guild data, by

comparing the avifaunal composition of forest disturbed on a small

scale with an undisturbed control site.

Study area «

We present a case study from Borneo. Fieldwork was carried out in

two lowland rainforest areas in East Kalimantan (Indonesian

Borneo): Gunung Lumut Protection Forest (GLPF) and Sungai

Wain Protection Forest (SWPF) (see Figure 1).

Hutan adat is the Indonesian term for forest claimed by

customary right, where access and control over forest resources are

governed by the local community (van der Ploeg& Persoon 2007).

Hutan adat is subject to extraction of non-timber forest products

and selective logging for personal use. In theory, hutan adat is

protected from large-scale exploitation, because its sustainable use

is in the best interest of the villagers. However, in practice short-

- term benefits might entice villagers to e.g. convert hutan adat to

shifting cultivation ( ladang ).

The selected study sites at GLPF are the hutan adatoi the villages

Mului and Pinang Jatus. The hutan adat of Mului is situated in

GLPF, whereas the hutan adat of Pinang Jatus partially overlaps

with GLPF. Hutan adat of both Mului and Pinangjatus is subject

to selective logging (for personal use), hunting, rattan and bamboo

harvesting, bird trapping and the gathering of fruit, honey and

firewood (Pieterse&Wielstra 2005, van der Ploeg& Persoon 2007).

This disturbance has not been quantified. We consider the hutan

adat of Mului and Pinangjatus to represent forest disturbed on a

small scale (Pieterse & Wielstra 2005).

Although part of SWPF has suffered from 1998 forest fires and

encroachment, its 4,000 ha core has remained intact (Fredriksson

& Nijman 2004). This core, consistingof pristine rainforest, is only

accessible to researchers and therefore considered virtually

undisturbed. SWPF was chosen as a control site, because there are

no known undisturbed tracts of rainforest in GLPF (or elsewhere

Figure 1 . Geographical location of the study areas in East Kalimantan.

SWPF = Sungai Wain Protection Forest; GLPF = Gunung Lumut

Protection Forest.

56

BEN WIELSTRA et al.

Forktail 27 (201 1)

in SE Kalimantan, for that matter). This study design potentially

introduces other factors, besides disturbance, varying between test

and control sites. However, given the logistical constraints, SWPF

was the most suitable control site available.

Bird surveys have previously been carried out in SWPF (e.g. Slik

& van Balen 2006). All records collected during these surveys

(including the present study) have been combined into a checklist

(G. Fredriksson in litt.). This checklist is here regarded as

approaching the total avifauna present in SWPF, and is referred to

as the ‘total checklist’. As opposed to SWPF, the avifauna in GFPF

had never previously been surveyed (Wielstra & Pieterse 2009).

METHODS

Surveys of the three study sites were conducted in two rounds by

different observers, in order to assess repeatability of results. We

refer to the individual surveys as Visits’. During the six visits (mean

15 ±4.7 days) we made interim species checklists. These checklists

were based on data collected duringpoint- transect and line-transect

counts, complemented by random observations. All fieldwork was

carried out between February andMay in 2005 (Pieterse & Wielstra

2005) and 2007 (Boorsma 2008). We did not have any previous

field experience with the region’s birds. To avoid negative effects of

a learning curve, the following precautions were taken:

■ In order to train bird identification skills, literature and sound

recordings were studied before commencing fieldwork and a

seven-day learningperiod was spent in the fieldprior to collecting

data.

■ Sound recordings were made, so unknown sounds could be

identified at a later time (Parker 1991; Bibby et al. 2000).

■ Study sites were visited in opposite order: GFPF Pinangjatus-

GFPF Mului-SWPF by Pieterse & Wielstra (2005) and vice

versa bv Boorsma (2008).

Species were assigned to avian feeding guild based on a

combination ofpreferred diet and foraginglayer. Birds were classified

as: nectarivore, insectivore, carnivore (raptor/piscivore), frugivore

or a combination of these. Foraging layers were: terrestrial,

understorey (0-10 m) or arboreal (>10 m). Our analysis only

included resident, forest-dependent species. Species preferringopen

areas were excluded because they were expected to respond positively

to disturbance, despite belonging to the same avian feeding guild

(Fambert & Collar, 2002). Aerial feeders, raptors and nocturnal

species were also excluded, as these require separate survey methods

(Bibby etal. 2000, Slik & van Balen 2006). Winteringmigrants were

excluded in order to prevent a seasonal bias. Assigning ecological

traits to species was based on Fambert (1992), Thiollay (1995),

Smythies & Davison (1999), Fambert & Collar (2002) and Slik &

van Balen (2006).

The comparability among the three sites was evaluated based

on ( 1 ) number of species recorded during individual visits and (2)

number of species recorded per study site (combining both visits).

The efficiency of our visits was assessed by determining the overlap

in species recorded between (1) visits per study site, and (2) the

total checklist of SWPF versus the data derived from our own visits.

Differences in avian feedingguild structure were analysed, based on

a comparison of the data from the disturbed area (the two sites in

GLPF) and the undisturbed control area (SWPF).

RESULTS

The complete list of forest-dependent resident lowland species

recorded with certainty, and their division into avian feeding guilds,

can be found in the appendix. The number of species recorded during

the individual visits and the cumulative number of the two visits

per site is provided in Table 1. On average, 1 12.3±5.1 species were

observed during individual visits and 154.3±2.1 species were

observed per study site. The species overlap between the two visits

per study site is c.70% (Table 1). Similarly, the species overlap

between pairs of study sites is c.70% (Table 2).

Table 1 . Overlap of the number of species recorded during the two

visits per study site. SWPF = Sungai Wain Protection Forest; GLPF =

Gunung Lumut Protection Forest; PJ = Pinang Jatus; M = Mului; visit I

= data from Pieterse & Wielstra (2005); visit II = data from Boorsma

(2008); cumulative = the total number of species recorded for both

visits combined; overlap = the species shared between visits, with the

percentage of the cumulative number in parenthesis.

Table 2. Overlap in the number of species recorded at the different

study sites. See Table 1 for explanation of abbreviations and terms.

Forktail 27 (2011) Use of avian feeding guilds to detect small-scale forest disturbance: East Kalimantan, Borneo

57

Table 4. The avian feeding guild structure of the survey data for the different study sites. See Table 1 for explanation of site abbreviations and

terms, and Table 3 for guild abbreviations. For each visit, the percentage of the cumulative number of species is stated in parenthesis. See the

appendix for the assignment of species to ecological partition.

Avian

at foraging layers, it becomes apparent that understorey species were

relatively better covered than arboreal and terrestrial species (i.e. a

higher percentage of the total number of species present was

recorded). When looking at avian feeding guild structure, arboreal

nectarivores and terrestrial insectivores were noticeably poorly

covered.

Differences in avian feeding guild structure between visits and

sites are presented in T able 4. U nderstorey insectivores and arboreal

insectivores in particular showed a lower number of species in

disturbed forest, whereas numbers of species of arboreal nectarivore

and terrestrial insectivore were higher in disturbed forest.

DISCUSSION

Comparability and efficiency of surveys

We did not collect a dataset of sufficient size to test our results

statistically (this would require more disturbed and control sites to

be visited). We thus provide aqualitative interpretation of our data.

The number of species observed at the different study sites is similar.

This applies to both the individual visits and their cumulative

number. Furthermore, the study sites all share a large proportion of

their species and no site is more similar to one than to the other. We

argue this allows us to make comparisons among the study sites.

The overlap in species recorded during the two visits per study

site is substantial, meaning that different observers can converge on

the same results in a short time-span. Furthermore, comparing our

survey data with a total checklist reveals that the majority of species

present is recorded during short surveys. We conclude that short

surveys are efficient and reproducible.

Response of avian feeding guilds

to small-scale disturbance

When taking ecological preferences into account, differences

between the disturbed sites and the undisturbed control site come

to light. Most avian feeding guilds do not show a clear difference,

but some guilds respond to disturbance in a consistent fashion. The

number of understorey insectivores and, less clearly, arboreal

insectivore species is lower in the 'disturbed sites than in the

undisturbed site. For arboreal nectarivores and, less clearly, terrestrial

insectivores, the opposite is true.

We argue that the smaller the number of species included in a

particular avian feeding guild is, the larger the effect of missing one

or two species by chance would be. Therefore results for small avian

feeding guilds would be less reliable. Understorey and arboreal

insectivores are by far the most speciose avian feeding guilds.

Understorey species in general are covered well during short surveys,

while arboreal and terrestrial species are relatively poorly covered.

Higher conspicuousness of understorey species owing to factors

such as behaviour, distance to observer, and level of concealment by

vegetation may explain this (e.g. Bibby eta/. 2000). Therefore, of

the four avian feeding guilds which show differences between the

disturbed and undisturbed sites, understorey insectivores appear to

yield the most reliable information for monitoring purposes.

Comparison with previous studies

This study particularly focuses on the effects of small-scale

disturbance. It is the first to compare traditional forests or butan

adat with undisturbed forest. Previous studies have looked at the

effects of several kinds oflarge-scale disturbance, i.e. fragmentation,

forest fires and logging. We compare such studies conducted in

Asia with our own results to determine the similarities and

differences in the responses shown by birds.

Fragmentation seems to affect virtually all species negatively.

Forest fragments, even relatively large patches, lose a significant

number of species over time (Lambert & Collar 2002). Van Balen

(1999) found that forest interior species are more dependent on

larger forest patches for survival than forest-edge, open-area and urban

species. Hunting particularly affects large birds such as hornbills,

doves and pheasants (MeijaardcT^/. 2005), whereas the trapping of

birds for the pet industry focuses on songbirds (Jepson & Ladle 2005) .

Forest fires were found to have a positive effect on understorey

insectivores, a result contrary to previous studies and perhaps

explicable in part by differences in sampling method, forest recovery

time and distance to unburned forest (Slik & van Balen 2006).

Logging affects insectivores in general (Gray et al. 2006), and

understorey (delongheta/. 2007) and terrestrial ( Cleary etal. 2007,

de Iongh etal. 2007) insectivores in particular. In the case of arboreal

and understorey insectivores, our results point in the same direction,

but terrestrial insectivores actually show a slight increase in disturbed

forest in our dataset. However, care should be taken when

interpreting this result, as this guild contains few species (mainly

pittas and wren-babblers) . Stimulation of flowering by disturbance

(e.g. through increased sunlight due to canopy opening) can lead to

a temporary increase in nectarivores (Ghazoul & Hellier 2000,

Lambert & Collar 2002, Slik & van Balen 2006). Our data suggest

an increase of arboreal nectarivores under disturbance, but do not

show a difference for understorey nectarivores. Frugivores show

varying responses to disturbance (Ghazoul & Hellier 2000, Gray et

al. 2006), but our data do not show a clear response at all.

The different types of forest disturbance should not be seen

independently ofeach other (Lambert & Collar 2002). For example.

58

BEN WIELSTRAefa/.

Forktail 27 (201 1 )

logging can cause fragmentation and makes forest areas more

susceptible to fire. Moreover, logging makes the forest more

accessible, which in turn could produce an increase in hunting.

A major difference among the studies reviewed in this paper

concerns the partitioning of the recorded avifauna into groups. This

makes comparing studies difficult. Some studies (e.g. Lambert 1 992)

discuss specific taxonomic groups, such as woodpeckers, or even

more specific, such as ‘wren-babblers’. In our study, species belonging

to these groups are classified into broader feeding guilds (e.g.

woodpeckers are classified as either understorey or arboreal

insectivore). Even when data are divided into feeding guilds, there

are major differences amongstudies in how this is to be accomplished

(Simberloff& Dayan 1991). For example, some studies also include

foraging method or body mass. This signifies a trade-off: while it

could be informative to partition a dataset into more classes,

increasing the number of classes does reduce the number of species

in each class.

Conversely, some studies do not distinguish between open-area

and forest-dependent species. Although forest-dependent species

respond negatively to forest disturbance, open-area species

respond positively. We would argue that this distinction should be

explicitly taken into account. The increase in understorey

insectivores reported by Cleary etal. (2007) probably relates to an

increase of open-area species (such as tailorbirds). Comparability of

future studies will benefit if a standardised partitioning method is

used.

Considerations

The results of this study are promising and we recommend the use

of avian feeding guilds to be tested in a larger framework. There are,

however, some issues to address. The major weakness of the current

study is that we surveyed only two disturbed sites and one control

site. As a result, statistical power is diminutive. With a larger number

of study sites, quantitative instead of merely qualitative

interpretations would be possible. The required effort can be divided

over multiple observers, without yielding personally biased results.

In order to compare survey data adequately, the method of surveying

should be maximally standardised (e.g. time of day, time of year,

time spent in the field, etc.). The time spent effectively in the field

in this study varied due to logistical constraints (most importantly

transportation and weather). As long as the number of species

recorded appears to have reached a plateau (although not explicitly

tested, expected to have occurred during our visits), this should not

be a significant problem (Soberon & Llorente 1993).

SWPF and GLPF differ in the sense that the former area is

relatively flat coastal rainforest, whereas the latter is located further

inland and covers a wider altitudinal range. This could introduce

differences other than the level of disturbance and thus potentially

invalidate our results. Indeed there are floristic differences between

the areas, but still SWPF and GLPF are considered to belong to the

same floristic region (Slik etal. 2003, 2007). We have argued that

the disturbed sites and the control site, despite beingpart of different

forest tracts, are reasonably comparable in terms of their avifaunal

composition. However, we recommend that in future research, as

far as is logistically possible, study sites located in the same forest

area be used.

It could be argued that increased ecosystem dynamics due to

forest degradation could lead to an increase in species richness

(Ghazoul & Hellier 2000). At the same time, however, population

density within species would decrease. By including a relative

abundance measure per avian feeding guild (e.g. the number of

‘contacts’), a potentially clearer picture of community change can

be revealed. Similarly, it would be useful to quantify the level of

disturbance per study site. Comparing sites with different degrees

of disturbance would provide insights in the resilience of individual

avian feeding guilds.

Implementation

There is a clear need for practical monitoring tools, for example to

test the effect of different management strategies. The preliminary

results in this study indicate that analysing avian feeding guild

structure is sensitive enough to detect even the presence of small-

scale disturbance. Moreover, short surveys are a suitable method to

obtain the required data. We used a horizontal approach, i.e.

comparing affected areas to a ‘yard-stick’. The method could just as

well be applied to a vertical approach, i.e. monitoring a particular

area over time. We recommend that avian feedingguilds are included

in standardised monitoring programmes.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was financially supported by the J. J. ter Pelkwijk and Pluspunt

Individu funds, and via Delta and LUSTRA scholarships of Leiden University.

We thank T ropenbos International and the T ropenbos Indonesia Program for

logistic support. Special thanks to the people of Pinangjatus and Mului and the

staff of Sungai Wain Management Board for their hospitality. Gabriella

Fredriksson provided the total checklist of Sungai Wain Protection Forest, Bas

van Balen aided with bird identification, and Rene Dekker provided comments

on the set-up of the research. Two anonymous reviewers provided useful

suggestions.

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Appendix

List of bird species included in the analysis and their division into avian feeding guilds

Sequence and taxonomy closely follow Dickinson (2003) and Gill & Wright (2006). SWPF = Sungai Wain Protection Forest; GLPF = Gunung Lumut

Protection Forest; PJ = Pinang Jatus; M = Mului; Visit I = data from Pieterse & Wielstra (2005); Visit II = data from Boorsma (2008). Avian feeding

guild is a combination of foraging layer (A = arboreal; U = understorey; T = terrestrial) and diet (F = frugivore; I = insectivore; C = carnivore; N =

nectarivore; combinations possible).

GLPF M GLPF M

visit I visit II

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x x

x

x

60

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Forktail 27 (2011) Use of avian feeding guilds to detect small-scale forest disturbance: East Kalimantan, Borneo

61

62

BEN WIELSTRA et al.

Forktail 27 (2011)

FORKTAIL 27 (201 1): 63-72

The waterbirds and coastal seabirds of Timor-Leste:

new site records clarifying residence status,

distribution and taxonomy

COLIN R.TRAINOR

The status of waterbirds and coastal seabirds in Timor-Leste is refined based on surveys during 2005-201 0. A total of 2,036 records of 82

waterbird and coastal seabirds were collected during 272 visits to 57 Timor-Leste sites, and in addition a small number of significant records

from Indonesian West Timor, many by colleagues, are included. More than 200 new species by Timor-Leste site records were collected. Key

results were the addition of three waterbirds to the Timor Island list (Red-legged Crake Rallina fasciata, vagrant Masked Lapwing Vanellus

miles and recent colonist and Near Threatened Javan Plover Charadrius javanicus) and the first records in Timor-Leste for three irregular

visitors: Australian White Ibis Threskiornismolucca, Ruff P/u'/omac/u/spugnaxand NearThreatened Eurasian Curlew Numeniusarquata. Records

of two subspecies of Gull-billed Tern Gelochelidon nilotica, including the first confirmed records outside Australia of G. n. macrotarsa, were

also of note.

INTRODUCTION

Timor Island lies at the interface of continental South-East Asia and

Australia and consequently its resident waterbird and coastal seabird

avifauna is biogeographically mixed. Some of the most notable

findings of a Timor-Leste field survey during 2002-2004 were the

discovery of resident breedingpopulations of the essentially Australian

Red-capped Plover Charadrius ruficapillus, and the first island records

of two rails (Spotless Crake Porzana tahuensis and Red-necked Crake

P. fusca) at the limits of their Australian and South-East Asian

distributions respectively (Trainor 2005a). A total of ten new

waterbird and coastal seabirds including three ducks, three rails,

painted snipe, two migrant waders, a tern and a night-heron were

added to the island list (Trainor 2005a). For many species there was

still limited information to determine their residence status, and

taxonomic status, particularly subspecific identity. Three wetlands

were identified as of high national significance, with Lake Iralalaro

on the Fuiloro plateau one of the most notable wetlands in W allacea.

Here I provide new information on the status and distribution

of waterbirds in Timor-Leste, and Timor generally, based on field

surveys from J anuary 2005 to October 2010 and, where appropriate,

the incorporation of previous data. It marks the culmination of a

number of field projects in Timor-Leste, including an Important

Bird Areas programme and a doctoral study (Trainor et al. 2007a,

Trainor 2010). The residence status and nomenclature for some

species listed in a fieldguide (Trainor etal. 2007b) and recent review

(Trainor et al. 2008) are clarified. Three new island records are

-documented and substantial new ecological data on distribution

and habitat use are included. Errors and omissions in Trainor

(2005a) are also corrected or updated.

METHODS

W aterbirds and coastal seabirds were recorded in T imor-Leste during

visits to 57 wetland sites, including 1 9 newsites not covered in T rainor

(2005a), during 1 1 April 2005 to 26 September 2010 (Table 1).

A few significant observations ofwaterbirds and coastal seabirds

from Indonesian West Timor are also noted from the following

locations. Three sites in Kupang Bay sites were visited: Olio River

and adjacent fishponds on 1 5 December 2004 (data omitted from

Trainor 2005a), 4 January 2005, 6 January 2005 and 5 January

20 1 0, and Kuka-Pariti and Bipolo-Panmuti were visited on 5 January

2005. Extensive mangrove-lined lagoons at Tuadale (10°19,30"S

Table 1 . Summary of the 1 9 newly surveyed Timor-Leste sites additional to the 74 sites listed in Trainor (2005a) (and numbered 1-74 in Appendix

2, and shown on Figure 1 of Trainor 2005a).

64

COLIN R. TRAINOR

Forktail 27 (2011)

1 24° 1 3,27ffE), c. 1 5 km south of Kupang, were visited on 6 January

2005, and a dam near Nenas village (9°36'39"S 124°13,27"E) at

1,760 m, in the foothills of Mount Mutis (see Noske in Jepson &

Ounsted 1997) was visited on 5 January 2010.

Taxonomy and nomenclature follows Oriental Bird Club

(OBC) (http://www.orientalbirdclub.org/publications/checlclist)

except Australasian Darter Anhinga novaehollandiae which is

recognised here as a species following Christidis & Boles (2008).

Global threat status follows IUCN (wcvw.redlist.org). A small

number of significant observations made by colleagues in Timor-

Leste, and also West Timor are included. The results focus on the

interpretation of residence status ofwaterbirds and coastal seabirds

based on their abundance, seasonality and direct or indirect breeding

observations. Information on abundance (maximum counts) and

habitat use, including new elevation limits, are also summarised

where it differs from published information.

Correction and update

Appendix 2 of Trainor (2005a) numbers two wetlands (Lake Seloi

and Lake Tasitolu) as site number 13. Lake Tasitolu is site 13, and

Lake Seloi should be site number 14. This correction is important

to enable correct interpretation of the occurrence of waterbird and

coastal seabirds by sites in Appendix 1 of Trainor (2005a).

A total of 43 videos of Timor-Leste waterbirds and coastal

shorebirds shot during 2003-2005 were uploaded to Youtube

(http://www.youtube.com/user/TheCRTrainor). This includes

the first Timor Island records of Masked Lapwing Vanellus miles ,

Pectoral Sandpiper Calidris melanotos and Spotted Redshank

Tringa erythropus.

The specimen of Ruddy-breasted Crake Porzana fusca

mentioned in Trainor (2005a) was a female, and was lodged at the

Australian Museum as specimen: 0.72283 (tissuenumberis46545:

W. Boles, in litt. 2010).

RESULTS

A total of 2,036 records of 82 waterbird and coastal seabird species

were obtained in Timor-Leste during 283 visits to 57 wetland sites

over 185 field days. This included a total of 227 new species by site

records (Appendix 1). Two additional species (Asian Dowitcher

Limnodromus semipalmatus and Kentish Plover Charadrius

alexandrinus ) were only reported in Timor-Leste by colleagues.

Records were not collected evenly, with greater effort in the late dry

season (September-November) and few records during January,

February, July and August (Figure 1). A set of breeding records of

species not covered in the annotated list is given in Table 2. The

annotated list documents 44 waterbird and coastal seabirds for

Figure 1 . Monthly survey effort for waterbird and coastal seabirds in

Timor-Leste (number of records) during the two survey periods.

which new records or new data are available on distribution,

seasonality (months and extreme dates) and breeding for Timor-

Leste or Timor Island. Accounts where data are contributed solely

by colleagues or where the bird remains unconfirmed for Timor are

included within square brackets.

Wandering Whistling Duck Dendroeygna arcuata

Large flocks of this breeding resident included 200 birds at Lake

Modo Mahut on 12 June 2005, 300 at Loes River estuary on 10

September 2005 and 250 at Olio River on 15 December 2004.

Previously the largest flocks recorded in Timor-Leste were the 120

birds at Lake Iralalaro (Trainor 2005a). At Chaiperi lagoon there

were sets of eight and 10 chicks on 28 May 2004.

Green Pygmy-goose Nettapus pulchellus

Two birds were recorded at Lake Modo Mahut on 12 June 2005,

otherwise allTimor-Leste records are from the Fuiloro plateau where

the species was thought to be a visitor from Australia (Trainor

2005a). This duck is usually observed in pairs and is presumably a

breeding resident in Timor-Leste, perhaps with occasional influxes

of visitors from Australia, but confirmation is needed.

Pacific Black Duck Anas superciliosa

The six birds noted at a dam at 2,100 m at Queorema on 30 April

2005 comprised the highest elevation record in Wallacea (Coates &

Bishop 1997). Additional breeding records included: two eggs

(56.5x41.2 and 56x40.2 mm) at the edge of Lake Laga on 9 May

2005: two eggs found at Lake Iralalaro on 13January 2004; one bird

with five fledglings, and another with two fledglings at Lake Eraulu

on 17 April 2005.

Table 2. Direct and indirect breeding records not mentioned in Trainor (2005a) or the main text. Refer to Trainor (2005a) for site details.

Forktail 27 (2011)

The waterbirds and coastal seabirds of Timor-Leste: new site records

65

Sunda Tea! Anas gibberifrons

The commonest duck on saline wetlands and estuaries with a highest

count of c.500 birds at Lake Be Malae on 18 June 2005. Four adult

birds with six recently fledged juveniles at Tasitolu on 18 February

2006 confirms breeding on Timor. Sunda Teal is easily confused

with Grey Teal A. gracilis because ‘females and juveniles of nominate

gibberifrons do not have the high forehead of the drakes’ (Mees 2006) .

There were two unconfirmed reports of Grey T eal from W est Timor,

but photographs taken by J. Eaton of birds identified as Grey Teal

have been confirmed as juvenile Sunda T eal (J. Davies in. lift. 2010).

The only published Lesser Sunda record of Grey Teal is from Komodo

(Bishop 1992), but there is no description given, and this record

should also be considered as unconfirmed (Mees 2006).

Hardhead Aythya australis

Previously considered as an Australian visitor, but with up to 100

birds at Lake Iralalaro (Trainor 2005a) and birds occasionally seen

in pairs, it may be a breeding resident. N ow known from sea level to

1,150 m; previously recorded to 340 m (Trainor 2005a).

[Red-legged Crake Rallina fasciata

The first island records were of a pair of adult birds with two well-

feathered chicks observed at Bipolo, West Timor, on 5 February

2009, and an adult bird seen at Camplong, West Timor, on 9

February 2009 (Dymond 2011); subsequently an adult bird was

seen independently by three observers at Bipolo on 17 March 2010

(N. Brickie in lift. 2010). Red-legged Crake is known from the Lesser

Sunda Islands ot Flores, Alor and Kisar (White & Bruce 1986). On

Flores it is a breeding resident, but it is thought to have resident,

migratory and dispersive populations throughout its South-East

Asian range (T aylor & van Perlo 1 998) . Although it might possibly

have been overlooked in the past, it is probably more likely to be a

wet-season breeding visitor to Timor (N. Brickie in litt. 2010).]

White-breasted Waterhem Amaurornis phoenicurus

The widespread Wallacean subspecies (Sulawesi, parts of Maluku

and Lesser Sundas) is leucomelanus , but the Timor/Nusa Tenggara

bird has much more extensive grey on the flanks with white restricted

to a central area of the chest, and more extensive grey on the head and

cheek (compared to birds elsewhere). Plates in fieldguides (Coates

&Bishop 1997, Trainor etal. 2007b) show the Sulawesi bird which,

although currently included with the Timor/Lesser Sunda

subspecies, appears closer in appearance to populations on Java.

Hartert (1904) clarified subspecific differences for Indonesian

populations and included Sulawesi and west Nusa Tenggara

populations up to Sumbawaas phoenicurus, v/ith.leucomelanus\\ste6.

only for Flores, Timor, Wetar, Romang and Tukangbesi Islands.

This taxonomic treatment by Idartert (1904) does appear to better

represent plumage variation. Breeding records include: adult birds

with two chicks at a dam nearNenas on 14 March 2010 (N. Brickie

in litt. 2010); a fledgling at Irasequiro bridge on 18 April 2003, and

also on 30 May 2005, and a fledgling videoed at Anartutu-Atauro

Island (650 m), feeding on drying corn on 21 April 2005. Other

high-elevation records were at Mount Legumau ( 1,000 m) andNenas

(W est T imor) at 1,760 m (recorded to 2,000 m in south-west India:

Taylor & van Perlo 1998). <

[Baiiion's Crake Porzana pusilla

One bird was observed briefly at the edge of Lake Welenas on 14

June 2005. It had agreyish chest andbrownupperparts and its identity

was confirmed from plates in field guides, but no other details were

noted down at the time of the observation. The broad colour

patterning and small size does not fit with other rails known from

Timor. Regionally it is known from Bali (first island record on 31

March 1995), Flores, Sumbawa (first record on 25 October 1996),

Seram and Sulawesi (Mason 1996, Coates & Bishop 1997, Trainor

et al. 2006). An immature bird recorded from North Sulawesi in

June was moulting flight feathers and was assumed to have bred

locally (White & Bruce 1986). The Flores population is probably

the migrant subspecies pusilla , as assumed for other Indonesian

records based on dates and a few specimens (Taylor & van Perlo

1998, Mees 2006). The date of the Timor observations indicates

that it is likely to be resident, although migrant birds in the Malay

Peninsula remain until late May or June (White & Bruce 1986). A

Timor population would comprise either pusilla , or the Australasian

palustris , which occurs widely in Australia and eastern New Guinea

(Taylor & van Perlo 1998).]

[Spotless Crake Porzana tabuensis

The bird killed by hunters mentioned in Trainor (2005a) had the

following measurements (in mm) : bill 18, tarsus 30, wing7 1.5, body

(excluding tail) 1 17. The wing length is substantially smaller than

male or female birds from Australia, and from New Guinea, but the

bill fits within the range of Australian birds (16.2-22.2 mm), but is

smaller or slightly larger than New Guinea subspecies {et dwardi—

19-22 mm, richardsoni = 15-17: Taylor & van Perlo 1998).

Previously, this crake was known only from the Fuiloro plateau (340-

420 m) in Timor-Leste (Trainor 2005 a) , but it has nowbeen recorded

from 35-420 m.]

Common Coot Fulica atm

v. Previously this bird was considered as a ‘rare vagrant’ (Coates &

Bishop 1997) to Wallacea, or as a regular visitor to Timor-Leste

(T rainor 2005a) but there is a resident breedingpopulation in T imor-

Leste. An adult with three juveniles was seen along the Irasequiro

River on 3 October 2004, and seven juveniles were seen at the same

site on 8 October 2004. The subspecies is presumably australis.

Godwits Limosa spp.

A high count of 100-150 godwits were observed at Olio River on

26 September 2010, dominated (c.95%) by Bar-tailed Godwit

Limosa lapponica, with at least one Near Threatened Black-tailed

Godwit L. limosa noted. Up to 188 Black-tailed Godwit were

observed at the same site by Andrew ( 1 986) on 30 September 1985.

Although data are sparse, there appears to have been a substantial

decline of this bird, and other waders such as Curlew Sandpiper

Calidris ferruginea at this site.

Little Curlew Numenius minutus

Three recent records only duringSeptember and November confirm

that this bird stages in small numbers in Timor-Leste for briefperiods

while on passage. The highest count was seven birds at Secal estuary

on 19 November 2006. One was observed at Laga on 15 November

2005 (A. Black in litt. 2010). At Olio River, 24 birds were

photographed on 26 September 2010. Other recent Wallacean

records include observations of larger groups at airfields: 40 on Kai

Besar (Mauro 1999), 40 on Yamdenain Oct 2008 (van Biers 2008)

and 50-70 at the airport at Kai Besar in October 2010 (B.

Demeulemeester in litt. 2010).

Eurasian Curlew Numenius arquata

Near Threatened. The first record from Timor-Leste was of one

bird at Tibar aquaculture on 5 April 2008. It was separated from

F ar Eastern Curlew N. madagascariensis by its white rump and lower

back, which was readily seen when the bird flew off. Far Eastern

Curlew is regular at this site, but has a brown rump and lower back.

The first Timor Island records were of one and two birds in Kupang

Bay during September and October (Andrew 1986). Only eight

Wallacean records were reviewed recently (Schellekens 2009) with

the omission of a record of two birds on the Gili islands off Lombok

(Boon 1996). There is one confirmed Australian record

(www.tonypalliser.com/barc/summaries/SUMM545-htm).

66

COLIN R. TRAINOR

Forktail 27 (2011)

Terek Sandpiper Xenus cinereus

Previous Timor-Leste records were during southward migration

(September-November) but recent records (up to 1 1 birds) in

January, February, March and May indicate that small numbers

overwinter, with a particularly late record (23 May at Tibar

aquaculture) either a bird on return migration or oversummering.

During 2002-2004 all Timor-Leste records were from the period

of southward migration (Trainor 2005a) but they have been

recorded in Wallacea during all months (Coates & Bishop 1997).

At Kupang Bay, 28 birds were noted on 15 December 2004, and

about 15 birds were present on 26 September 2010.

[Asian Dowitcher Limnodromus semipalmatus

Near Threatened. There have been two recent records of this rare

visitor. Colleagues observed one at Tasitolu on 1 1 and l4September

2005 (A. Black in lift. 2009), and one bird was seen on the beach

south of Iliomar, Lautem district (8°45r 1 9r,S 126049,43”E) on 14

December 2005 (P. Leitao ,in. litt. 2010). These are theseventhand

eighth Wallacean records (Trainor 2005a, Tebb et al. 2008,

Schellekens 2009).]

Great Knot Calidris tenuirostris

Vulnerable. There were eight records of either one or two birds

from September to 29 March, including two birds (presumably

always the same) at T asitolu from 3- 1 6 November 2006. N ine Great

Knot were present at Lake Tasitolu on 23 September 2010 (J. D.

Pilgrim in litt. 2010), confirming the relative rarity of this bird on

Timor. A photograph of a bird at Vero River estuary on 22 October

2006 is published in Trainor et al. (2007b:50).

Red-necked Stint Calidris ruficollis

A bird observed at Lake Tasitolu on 7 May 2005 (in breeding

plumage) , with an orange flagon the left tarsus, was originally banded

in Westernport Bay, Victoria, 3,812 km to the south (C. Minton,

Australasian W ader Studies Group, in litt. 2010). Recent high counts

at Kupang Bay include 252 birds on 12 June 2004 and 350 on 15

December 2004. A total of about 550 birds were counted at Bipolo-

Panmuti (West Timor) on 6 September 2010 (C. Robson in litt.

2010).

Sharp-tailed Sandpiper Calidris acuminata

The 112 birds observed at Bipolo-Panmuti on 6 September 20 1 0 is

the highest recent count for Timor (C. Robson in litt. 2010). Up to

25 birds have been recorded in Timor-Leste (Trainor 2005a).

Curlew Sandpiper Calidris ferruginea

An uncommon passage migrant in Timor-Leste with up to four

birds on coastal wetlands. Records of 29 birds at Kupang Bay on 1 2

June 2004 (T rainor 2005 a), and of one bird at Lake Lagaon 1 6 June

2006, indicate that small numbers occasionally oversummer.

Wallacean records range from August- April, and June (Coates &

Bishop 1997) but there are few records outside the period of

southward migration. A recent high count of 80 birds was observed

at Bipolo-Panmuti on 6 September 2010 (C. Robson in litt. 2010),

where up to450 birds were recorded in the 1980s (Andrew 1986).

Broad-billed Sandpiper Limicola falcinellus

Single birds only at Lake Tasitolu on 20 December 2005 (P. Leitao

in litt. 2010), 22 September 2006 and 3 November 2006 confirm

that this is one of the rarest migrants visiting Timor-Leste. The 36

birds observed at Kuka-Panmuti on 5 January 2005 is the highest

Timor count (Trainor 2005a). One bird was observed at Bipolo-

Panmuti on 6 September 2010 (C. Robson in litt.).

Ruff Philomachus pugnax

The first Timor-Leste records were at Lake T asitolu from 28 August

2006 (an adult male) through to l4November 2006, with one record

at the former Dili FFelicopter pad (now developed into the offices

of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation). There were

further Lake Tasitolu records: one bird on 19 November 2005 at

Tasitolu (A. Black in litt. 2009) and three on 20 December 2005 (P.

Leitao in litt. 2010). Ruff is a rare but regular visitor to the region

(Verbelen 1995, Mauro 1999, Schellekens 2009).

Greater Painted-snipe Rostratula benghalensis

The only recent record (2005-2010) was of a female flushed from

an irrigated ricefield at Secal on 20 September 2005. Since 2002, all

seven records have occurred during the typical migrant season

(August-April) except the one bird flushed at Irasequiro River on

24 May, which is relatively late. It might indicate that some birds

oversummer, or that there is a resident population on Timor. Based

on distribution this bird has been assumed to be the Asian taxon, but

photos or a specimen would be valuable to confirm that it is not the

recently recognised Australian Painted-snipe R. australis (Baker et

al. 2007).

Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus

The previous report of breeding at Kupang Bay, West Timor

(Trainor 2005a), omitted any detail. This observation was of two

brown-winged fledglings on 12 June 2004 with light cream nape.

Juvenile birds had been previously noted nearby (Verbelen 1996).

Records of juveniles were highly seasonal between September and

January (Figure 2a), and these have either bred locally on Timor

(there was also unconfirmed evidence of breedingat Lake Be Malae

and Lake Iralalaro) or neighbouring islands. In northern Australia

this species breeds after the wet season, and there is no information

that birds fly north. The Australasian form leucocephalus occurs as

a breeding bird (?visitor) as far west as Sumatra (Iqbal 2008).

Grey Plover Pluvialis squatarola

The c.350 birds roosting at Olio River on 6 January 2005 is the

largest recent count for Timor island.

[Kentish Plover Charadrius alexandrinus

The firstTimor-Leste record was of one bird observed and sketched

at Tasitolu on 20 September 2005 (A. Black in litt. 2009,

corroborated by J. Cox in litt. 2009) and the second Timor record

following an observation at Kupang Bay (McCrie 1995).]

Javan Plover Charadrius javanicus

Near Threatened, new island record. At Tibar Aquaculture, one

and three birds were observed on 19 and 21 September 2009, and

at least one adult male and one adult female was present on 4 and

9 May 2010 (Plate 1). At least four birds were present at Tibar on

Plate 1 .A male Javan Plover Charadrius javanicus in breeding plumage

at Tibar aquaculture on 9 May 201 0. Photo: C. R. Trainor

Forktail 27 (2011)

The waterbirds and coastal seabirds of Timor-Leste: new site records

67

Plate 2. A juvenile Javan Plover Charadrius javanicus at Tibar

aquaculture on 31 July 201 0. Note downy feathers on nape; in life this

bird showed a light rufous wash on the 'collar'. Photo: C. R. Trainor

3 1 July 2010, including a recently fledged bird with downy feathers

still visible on the nape (Plate 2). Substantial new distributional

information has been collected on this species, formerly often

included with Kentish Plover C. alexandrinus. There are breeding

populations on Sumbawa (under Kentish Plover: Coates & Bishop

1997), Sumba and Sulawesi, and new distributional records for

Sumatra, Flores and Lombok (Tebb et al. 2008, J Eaton, I. Londo

and M. Schellekens in litt. 2010, CRT unpubl. data). The Timor-

Leste birds appear to be recent colonists, and are unlikely to been

have overlooked since 2002.

Red-capped Plover Charadrius ruficapillus

One bird was rescued from a leg snare (used by local boys to catch

Spotted Dove Stigmatopelia chinensis ) at Tasitolu on 6 November

2003 . Red-capped Plover breed throughout most of theyear, perhaps

particularly in the dry season (Figure 2b). Birds breed successfully

at T asitolu, but many nests are destroyed (Olsen & T rainor 2005).

Two days (6 September 2005) after a nest with two eggs was found

at Lake T asitolu, there was no trace of the eggs and presumably they

had been eaten by pigs or other predators.

tasked Lapwing Vanellus miles

New Island Record. In 2005, there were five Timor-Leste records

including photos and video and two West Timor records of 2-13

birds duringjune, August, September and October, indicating that

there are occasional dry season visitors from Australia to Timor and

as far as Flores (Trainor et al. 2009).

Oriental Pratincole Glareola maldivarum

There are only three recent records, but this includes observations

of about 100 birds hawking over the Baucau plateau on 1 8 November

2005 (A. Black in litt. 2009) and 10 December 2005 (P. Leitao in

litt. 2010), providing further evidence of the importance of

Wallacean islands as stopover sites for this Palearctic migrant

(Trainor 2005a).

Australian Pratincole Stiltia isabella

A regular visitor with highest counts of 150 birds at Lake Laga (24

May 2005) and 100 birds at Loes River estuary (21 May 2005).

About 3,000-5,000 are crudely estimated to visit Timor-Leste

duringmostyears, and an estimated 10,000 birds have been recorded

at Kupang Bay, West Timor. The number of birds declines steadily

through the dry season (Figure 2c).

Gull-billed Tern Gelochelidon nilotica

Gull-billed T ern was first recorded for T imor at Secal estuary on 28

October 1973, but without comment on subspecific identity

(McKean etal. 1975). At KupangBay,64of82 birds were in breeding

plumage on 1 October 1985, and these were ‘presumably visitors

from Australia’ (Andrew 1986). Recent publications have

highlighted the differences between the Australian resident

subspecies macrotarsa and Asian migrant affinis (Rogers 2004,

Rogers etal. 2005). These are probably distinct at the species level,

but genetic work has not yet been done (D. Rogers in litt. 20 1 0). At

Olio River, KupangBay, on 26 September 20 1 0 about si xmacrotarsa

(Plate 3) and at least one affinis {Vizit 4) were present. The very pale

upperparts and long bill with negligible gonydeal angle characterises

these birds as macrotarsa rather than affinis (D . Rogers in litt. 2010).

These are the first confirmed records for macrotarsa outside

Australia. The Asian subspecies affinis showed a tiny black spot

behind the eye {macrotarsa shows extensive black behind and in

front of the eye in non-breeding plumage), and a rather different

bill shape, shorter and straighter than macrotarsa (Plate 4) with a

stronger gonydeal angle. They are also smaller than macrotarsa. with

subtly darker upperparts. The macrotarsa at Olio River were in

breeding plumage and performed displays with fish in their bills,

* suggesting that they may breed at the site. Observations and photos

Plate 3. A Gull-billed Tern Gelochelidon nilotica subspecies macrotarsa

in breeding plumage, at Kupang Bay on 27 September 2010.

Plate 4. A Gull-billed Tern Gelochelidon nilotica subspecies affinis, at

Kupang Bay on 27 September 2010. Both photos: C .R. Trainor

68

COLIN R. TRAINOR

Forktail 27 (201 1 )

of straight-billed Gull-billed Terns in Timor-Leste during 2009

were ajjinis (D. Cook in lift. 2010), and this subspecies was also

photographed near the coast at Bipolo-Pariti, West Timor, in July

2010 (J. Eaton in litt. 2010). About 40 Gull-billed Terns were

present at a roost at Olio River on 6 January 2005, and a total of 6-

15 birds have been recorded at Bipolo-Panmuti during August-

September visits in 2007, 2008, 2009 and 20 1 0 (C. Robson in litt.

20 1 0) . A bird collected from nearby Luang Island was affinis (White

& Bruce 1986) as was a bird photographed by CRT at nearby Leti

Island on 25 September 2008 (M. Carter in litt. 2010). Timor

records span June to January (Figure 2d).

Little Tern Sterna aibifrons

A cosmopolitan tern which is represented by subspecies sinensis in

South-East Asia and Australasia. There were 27 breeding records

from 21 May to 5 November (12 records oi breeding birds in May

and June) at estuaries and saline mudflats along the north coast of

Timor, with breeding from June to November at Lake Laga (Figure

2e) . The only December record was of a bird feeding over coral reefs

at Atauro Island (Trainor & Leitao 2007) . However, they are clearly

not resident at any location and their status on Timor is unclear.

Australian Little Tern breed during the austral summer, so

presumably the Timor birds are breeding visitors from Asia. Two

specimens collected on Timor by Muller in 1829 are listed as

migratory S. a. pusilla (van den Hoek Ostende et al. 1997), which

is usually included with subspecies sinensis. Little Tern was recorded

up to 400 m at inland wetlands in Timor-Leste.

White-winged Tern Chlidonias leueopterus

Since 2002 there have been only seven records (of 1 -6 birds) of this

migratory tern from 1 1 October to 1 1 November, with a record of

abird in breedingplumage at T asitolu on 22 May 2005. It is probably

frequently overlooked.

Little Grebe Taehybaptus ruficollis

Appears to breed throughout the year (Fig. 2e). A bird sat on a nest

(on top of reeds) with a single egg at Lake Veihoorana on 25 April

2005. Observed from sea level to 2,100 m in Timor-Leste.

Australasian Grebe Taehybaptus novaehollandiae

The subspecies is presumably novaehollandiae. Two birds at Lake

Eraulo (1,190 m) on 24 September 2005 (R. Safford verbally 20 10)

and one bird at Lake Iralalaro on 26 October 2006 were the only

recent records in Timor-Leste. Seemingly rare, but a spotting scope

is needed on larger lakes to discriminate the yellow-eyed T.

novaehollandiae from the much commoner dark-eyed Little Grebe

MAMJJASOND

Figure 2. Seasonal patterns of

abundance or breeding among

selected waterbirds and coastal

seabirds with records pooled for

months since 2002.

(a) Seasonal records of adult and

immature-plumaged Black¬

winged Stilt Himantopus

himantopus when both recorded

together.

(b) Reproductive pattern (nests,

and runners and fledglings

combined) of Red-capped Plover

Charadrius ruficapillus.

(c) Seasonal patterns in the

abundance of Australian

Pratincole Stiltia isabella

throughout Timor-Leste.

(d) Records and total number of

individuals of Gull-billed Tern

Gelochelidon nilotica recorded in

Timor-Leste and West Timor.

(e) Incidence of Little Tern Sterna

aibifrons at Lake Laga during 47

visits since 2002.

(f) Mean counts of Palearctic

shorebird migrants at Tasitolu

pooled over month for the two

survey periods.

Forktail 27 (201 1 )

The waterbirds and coastal seabirds of Timor-Leste: new site records

69

T. ruficollis. There was an additional record of one bird at Lake

Tilong, near Kupang (W est Timor), on 9 June 20 1 0 (M. Schellekens

in litt. 2010) and new island records for the neighbouring islands of

Sermata (4 November 20 1 0) and Leti (an adult bird with four chicks

on 13 November 2010) (CRT unpubl. data).

Australasian Darter Anhinga novaehollandiae

This bird is often treated as a subspecies within the globally Near

Threatened Darter A. melanogaster (del Hoyo et al. 1992, OBC

2010). In recent Timor literature darter was recognised as a

subspecies of the Near Threatened melanogaster (Trainor 2005a),

or as the Oriental Darter A. melanogaster (Trainor et. al. 2007b)

but is clearly the Least Concern Australian species as in Trainor et

al. (2008). In W allacea, melanogaster has been recorded on Sulawesi,

Banggai and Sumbawa, while novaehollandiae was listed for Babar,

Timor, and probably Seram and Halmahera (Coates & Bishop

1997). The estimate of 200 birds at Lake Modo Mahut on 12 June

2005 is the highest count for Wallacea.

Little Pied Cormorant Phalacrocorax melanoleucos

A pair of birds sat on a stick nest at Lake Iralalaro on 29 March

2003, and about 100 immature birds were photographed loafing

next to Lake Iralalaro at the same time. Previously at this site, locals

reported 500-1,000 nests during episodic flooding at Iralalaro

( 1 999-2002). At this time Estuarine Crocodiles Crocodylusporosus

fed on fallen chicks, and local men entered the water to climb trees

and collect eggs and chicks.

Pied Heron Egretta picata

An uncommon Australian vagrant or visitor with records from sea

level to 330 m. Immature birds with white head and neck were

observed 3 km west of Lautem onl6June2006,andat Lake T asitolu

on 22 June 2006.

Purple Heron Ardea purpurea

Records ofsixindividuals by CRT attributed to this heron in the far

east of Timor-Leste are now considered most likely to have been

misidentified Great-billed Heron Ardea sumatrana (perhaps

immature birds). There are two records from Kupang Bay (T rainor

2005a), and this heron is likely in lowland wetlands of Timor-

Leste — but not in sea caves along the coast as reported in Trainor

(2005a) — these would certainly refer only to Great-billed Heron.

Yellow Bittern Ixobrychus sinensis

Observed at four lakes and swamps on 13 April, 30 May, 10-

1 3 June, 2 and 24 August, confirming that it is resident rather than

a northern migrant. It was recorded in July 20 1 0 on Sumba (J. Eaton

in litt. 2010). A bird was also seen adjacent to Ngurah Rai

international airport, Bali, on 29 May 2006, suggesting that it is also

resident on Bali although previously it has been thought a winter

migrant (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993).

[Von Schrenck's Bittern Ixobrychus eurhythmus

A bird observed in flight at Laka Farapata on 28 April 2006 with

‘rufous back and grey wings’ was thought to be Von Schrenck’s

Bittern rather than Yellow Bittern/, sinensis, which typically shows

blackish primaries and yellowish-brown back. There were several

further unconfirmed observations of bitterns flushed at O’Swamp

with patterning that appeared more like Von Schrenck’s Bittern,

but perhaps these were confused with Yellow Bittern. There are

records ofV on Schrenck’s Bittern from T alaud, Siau and north and

east Sulawesi, where it is thought to be a ‘scarce but regular winter

visitor’ but possibly breeds on Sulawesi (Coates & Bishop 1997).

Ixobrychus bitterns are poorly known on Timor: most observations

have been of flushed birds, observed in flight for less than 1 second,

making identification difficult.]

Cinnamon Bittern Ixobrychus cinnamomeus

This was considered a breeding resident in Trainor (2005 a) without

supporting evidence. The first island record was on 9 December

1995 and it was considered a likely vagrant from northern Asia

(Noske & Ueda 1 996). Of the 29 records since 2002, four have been

between 24 May and 2 August (2004, 2005, 2008), which suggests

that this bird is more likely to be a resident breeder than a northern

migrant.

Australian White Ibis Threskiornis molucca

The first record for Timor-Leste was the two adult birds feeding

along the Loes River near the estuary on 1 8 September 2009. The

only previous Timor record was of one bird at Kupang Bay on 7

August 1998 (R. Drijvers in Trainor et al. 2006). An adult and

immature were recorded from Babar Island (200 km east of Timor-

Leste) during August and September 1905 (Hartert 1906).

Australian birds are strongly migratory (Marchant & Higgins 1993),

and appear to reach Timor as rare Austral winter vagrants. There is

a resident breeding population on Seram, but otherwise it is

infrequently recorded in Wallacea (Coates & Bishop 1997).

Royal Spoonbill Platalea regia

Large flocks were observed along the north coast particularly during

the dry season at Kuka-Pariti (19 birds on 5 January 2005), Lifao

River estuary (at least 18 birds in non-breeding plumage on 15

„ September 2009), Lake Be Malae (75 birds on 18 June 2005) and

Secal estuary (13 birds on 20 September 2005) which suggests the

species is probably an austral visitor rather than a local breeder. One

bird at Lake T asitolu on 7 February 2003 was in breeding plumage

(white nape-plume). The date of the two specimens collected in

Dili mentioned in Trainor (2005a) should have been 17 April 1932,

rather than 1931.

Australian Pelican Pelecanus conspicillatus

The 123 birds counted at Lake Tasitolu on 21 September 2010

(J. D. Pilgrim in litt. 2010) is the highest count for Timor Island.

Up to 150-200 birds have been reported from nearby Roti Island

(Trainor 2005b). It was considered as an ‘irregular visitor’ to

Wallacea from Australia (Coates & Bishop 1997), but is present

year round on Timor.

DISCUSSION

Species status

At least 90 waterbird and coastal seabirds have now been recorded

on Timor Island including an unusual mix of typical Asian and

Australian forms. Combined with previous data (2002-2004) a

total of 86 waterbird and coastal seabirds (5,645 records) have now

been recorded in Timor-Leste from 93 sites. This comprises c.99%

of geo-coded records available for waterbird and coastal seabirds in

the new nation, and could be used as abaseline for broad monitoring

of wetlands and associated bird populations.

Some of the most surprising recent Timor Island observations

include the discovery of breeding populations of Red-capped

Plover, Javan Plover and Red-legged Crake, and the first records

outside Australia of the Australian race macrotarsa of Gull-billed

Tern. Of the listed species only vagrant White-headed Shelduck

Tadorna radjah and Caspian Tern Sterna caspia have not been

recorded since 2002. All waterbirds and coastal seabirds listed for

the island have been recorded in Timor-Leste with the exception of

Red-legged Crake and Purple Heron. Of the migrant shorebirds

listed for Wallacea, only the vagrant Nearctic Lesser Yellowlegs

Tringa flavipes (Schellekens 2006) and Pin-tailed Snipe Gallinago

stenura are yet to be recorded — or confirmed — for Timor (Coates

& Bishop 1997).

70

COLIN R. TRAINOR

Forktail 27 (2011)

Five threatened or Near Threatened Palearctic migrants (Black¬

tailed Godwit, Eurasian Curlew, Eastern Curlew, Asian Dowitcher

and Great Knot) have been recorded in Timor-Leste. None of

these is represented by internationally significant counts, and only

Eastern Curlew occurs regularly. Three Near Threatened resident

waterbirds were listed in Trainor (2005a). Now ignoring darter,

Timor-Leste retains good populations of Near Threatened

Malaysian Plover Charadrius peronii and Beach Thick-knee Esacus

magnirostris. Both these species are restricted to beach habitat which

is highly limited in area, and in Timor-Leste is in great demand for

a variety of development projects and livelihood activities. V illages

also line much of the coastal strip of the country. The status of the

Near Threatened Javan Plover is poorly known, but it presumably

prefers saline lake and aquaculture pond habitat, which in Timor-

Leste is threatened by development projects (e.g. planned luxury

hotel development at Lake Tasitolu).

Key sites

Three sites (Lake Iralalaro, Lake Tasitolu and Lake Laga) were

previously highlighted as significant sites for waterbirds and coastal

seabirds in Timor-Leste (Trainor 2005a). Kupang Bay (West

Timor) remains the single most important site on the island for

migratory waders, although wader and tern numbers have clearly

declined substantially since the survey by Andrew (1986).

■ Lake Iralalaro is best considered as part of a large wetland

complex of international significance. The previous review

(Trainor 2005a) included 16 wetland sites (of a total of 74) on

the Fuiloro plateau (c.440 km2): this high rainfall (1,800-3,600

mm/yr) closed catchment has substantial populations of ducks,

rails, darter, egrets, herons and night-herons, and seasonally hosts

good numbers ofvisiting terns and migrant waders, most notably

staging Oriental Pratincole and Oriental Plover. In the late dry

season up to 4,000-6,000 individual waterbirds and coastal

seabirds are present.

9 Five sites in the Sungai Clere Important Bird Area (Lake Modo

Mahut, Lake Wailenas, Lake Wailada,Sahen River channel and

the Lake Naan Kuro lagoon) have now been surveyed, albeit

briefly. This extensive complex (422 km2: Trainor etal. 2007a)

appears to have nationally significant populations of ducks, rails,

darter, probably bitterns and night-herons, but further survey

work is essential.

H Lake Tasitolu has been visited on more than on 163 occasions

since 2002. This is the most important saline lake for migrant

shorebirds in Timor-Leste. Combined with data from colleagues

a total of 60 waterbird and coastal seabirds have been recorded

including30 Palearctic migratory shorebird species. The highest

single Palaearctic migratory shorebird count has been only 345

birds in December 2003, but more than 1 00 individual birds are

usually present in the migrant season (Figure 2f) , with very high

turnover.

■ The Lifao, Loes and Secal estuaries are the most extensive along

Timor-Leste’s north coast, and are important sites for migrant

shorebirds, resident ducks, breeding Little Tern, Beach Thick-

knee, Malaysian Plover and Royal Spoonbill.

Suggestions for further study

More detailed surveys are needed for Lake Iralalaro and the

Fuiloro plateau complex, and in the Sungai Clere region of

Timor-Leste. The Kupang Bay area in West Timor also needs

further attention. The taxonomic and residence status remains

poorly known or unclear for many species. Further study of the

taxonomic status of the following bird species or bird groups would

be valuable: Yellow Bittern, Red-capped Plover, Greater Painted-

snipe and Gallinago snipes. Gull-billed Tern, and Little Tern; and

further study of the residence status of the following species would

be of value: Royal Spoonbill, Cinnamon Bittern, Yellow Bittern,

Javan Plover, rails in general (but particularly Red-legged Crake,

Spotless Crake and Baillon’s Crake), Greater Painted-snipe and

Little Tern.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to thank Charles Darwin University for providing a PhD scholarship

and office space. Additional funding was come from BirdLife International

which has received support for work in Timor-Leste from Vogelbescherming

Nederland (BirdLife Partner in the Netherlands), Keidanren Nature

Conservation Fund and the Darwin Initiative. Specific acknowledgements

for administrative and field support are listed in Trainor (2005a). Thanks to

Andrew Black, Walter Boles, Nick Brickie, Mike Carter, Bram

Demeulemeester, Rohan Clarke, Damian Cook, John Cox, James Eaton, David

Fisher, Richard Grimmett, Pedro Leitao, Iwan Londo, Richard Noske, John

Pilgrim, Craig Robson, Danny Rogers, Roger Safford and Mark Schellekens

for providing records, identifications and/or clarifications ofwaterbird status.

Thanks to Roger Safford and an anonymous reviewer who provided edits and

suggestions, which improved the manuscript.

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Sulawesi, Moluccas & Lesser Sundas. Unpublished report.

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recorded from Timor. Emu 75: 62-64.

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Colin Ft. TRAINOR, Faculty of Environment and Life Sciences, Charles

Darwin University 0909, Northern Territory, Australia. Email:

colin.trainor@cdu.edu.au

Appendix 1

72

COLIN R. TRAINOR

Forktail 27 (2011)

FORKTAIL 27 (2011): 74-77

Group roosting in the Grey-and-buff Woodpecker

Hemicircus concretus involving large numbers

of shallow cavities

MARTJAN LAMMERTINK

The Grey-and-buff Woodpecker Hemicircus concretus is a small, short-tailed picid endemic to the Sundaic region, and one of two species in

the genus Hemicircus which is sister to all other genera in the true woodpeckers (Picinae). I report the unusual roosting behaviour of Grey-

and-buff Woodpeckers observed at two roost sites in Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo. Stable groups of three and four woodpeckers roosted

individually in nearby cavities, with respectively 34 and 17 cavities per group, the adult males frequently working on excavation of additional

cavities. The cavities were stacked above one another in series of up to 1 8 in one branch, and were clustered in adjacent dead branches or

dead trees. Individual woodpeckers typically switched cavities within a cluster every night. The cavities were only about 2.5 cm deep below

the entrance, and the woodpeckers roosted on the floors of these shallow cavities. In contrast, other woodpecker species typically sleep

vertically against the wall of a deep cavity that is often an old nest cavity, rarely roost socially, have only a small number of roost cavities, and

use the same cavity during prolonged series of nights. I speculate that Grey-and-buff Woodpeckers (1 ) roost on cavity floors because they

are unable to prop themselves with their short tails against vertical cavity walls, (2) mitigate elevated predation risk in shallow cavities by

roosting in groups, and (3) make shallow cavities to discourage cavity usurpers. Large numbers of cavities combined with frequent cavity

switching, may allow evasion of predators and of feather and skin parasites.

INTRODUCTION

All woodpeckers, piculets and wrynecks roost overnight in holes

during most if not all nights of their lives (Winkler & Christie

2002). Roost cavities offer protection against inclement weather

and predators. Typically, roost cavities of woodpeckers are old nest

holes, but occasionally woodpeckers excavate roost holes that are

much like nest holes in shape and depth. Natural decay cavities in

trees and next boxes are sometimes used as roosts as well. Most

woodpeckers roost in the vertical position while perched against

the interior wall of the roost cavity, propped by their specialised

climbing tail, the head and bill tucked into the feathers of the upper

body (Blume 1968, Villard 1999, pers. obs.). The majority of

woodpecker species roost solitarily, but some group-living species

roost with several individuals in a shared cavity, or individually in

acluster of cavities in the same tree or nearby trees. Most woodpecker

individuals use the same roost cavity for prolonged series of nights

(Short 1982, Winkler et al. 1995, Winkler & Christie 2002).

The Grey-and-buffW oodpcckcr Hemicircus concretus is a small

woodpecker of c.30 g and c.14 cm length, endemic to the Sundaic

region from southern Myanmar to Borneo and Java. It has a very

short tail that does not offer much support in vertical perching.

Instead this woodpecker often perches sideways on trunks and

branches, or on the undersides of branches, like a nuthatch Sitta sp.

It is an active forager, moving rapidly between substrates, and it

hammers frequently and powerfully. It can be found foraging

solitarily, in small groups, and in mixed-species flocks. Almost

nothinghas been documented about its nestingand roosting habits

(Winkler et al. 1995, Wells 1999).

In West Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo, in 2000 I observed a

group of Grey-and-buffW oodpeckers with roosting behaviour that

was rather exceptional in many respects, including their excavating

of a large number of cavities, the construction of these cavities

specifically for use as roosts, the specialised shape of the cavities, the

roosting posture of the birds, and the frequent switching of cavities

within the cavity cluster by individuals. Whereas the exceptional

roosting of this one group could be considered a fluke, in 2004 I

observed another group of Grey-and-buff Woodpeckers in East

Kalimantan with much the same roosting situation and behaviour,

and brief observations have been reported that support the notion

that these roosting sites and behaviours are typical for the species

„ (Chasen 1939, Short 1973, Wells 1999). I report on observations

made at Grey-and-buff Woodpecker group roost trees and discuss

factors that may drive their exceptional roosting behaviour.

METHODS

While working for several years in Kalimantan on ecology and

loggingresponsesofwoodpeckercommunities(Lammertink 2004a,

2004b, 2007, Lammertinker^/. 2009), two chance finds of roosting

sites of Grey- and-buffWoodpecker were reported to me. One roost

site was found by Eka, the teenage son of my chief field assistant Pak

Nan, just outside the boundaries of Gunung Palung National Park,

West Kalimantan, near the settlement of Semanai at 0 1°1 8’5 1 "S

1 1 0°04'35 "E, elevation 1 0 m. At this site I made observations on 25

late afternoons between 13 July and 28 October 2000, on several

days accompanied by Eka, U. Setiorini, D. Prawiradilaga or R. Otto.

I made observations from ground blinds and later from tower blinds

8 and 11m off the ground, 4.5 m from the roost trees, built by Pak

Nan and his team to allow observations and photography at eye

level. I entered blinds c. 2 hours before sunset and left in total darkness

c.50 minutes after the last woodpecker had settled for the night. I

took photographs with a Leitz Telyt 6.8/400 mm lens and Nikon

F3 camera on Kodachrome 200 slide film. For sound recordings I

used a Sony TCD-D7 DAT Walkman and Telinga Classic

microphone.

The second roost site was found in Sungai Wain Protected

Forest, East Kalimantan, in July 2004 by G. Usher, a birder then

residing in Samarinda. Accompanied by G. Usher, G- Fredriksson

and U. Setiorini, I made observations at this roost on 7 and 8 August

2004, and digiscoped photos with a Leitz Telyt 6.8/400 mm with

custom-built prism and eyepiece and Nikon Coolpix 990 camera.

The roost site was located along the main trail in the reserve at

approximately 1°06'00"S 1 16°49'38"E, elevation c.95 m.

At the West Kalimantan roost site I collected one branch with

four cavities. I used the mean dimensions of the cavity entrances of

this branch as a scale to measure diameters of other cavity branches

in digital photos, using the ruler tool in Photoshop CS3 software

(Adobe, San Jose, California). I estimated height of cavities and of

trees in the field by counting in steps of an estimated 2 m up tree

trunks. I obtained local sunset times from http:/ / aa.usno.navy.mil/

74

MARTJAN LAMMERTINK

Forktail 27(2011)

data/docs/RS_OneYear.php and ran a Mann-Whitney U test at

http://elegans.swmed.edu/~leon/stats/utest.html to contrast

group sizes of Grey- and-buff Woodpeckers at roosts with group

sizes encountered during daytime foraging. These latter figures

derived from 21 occasions in West and East Kalimantan, between

21 February 1998 and 1 1 October 2000, from a transect effort of

1,529 km in 373 observer days by six observers (Lammertink2007).

Means are given ± SD.

RESULTS

At the West Kalimantan site, roost cavities of one group of Grey-

and-buffW oodpeckers were in two dead trees that stood 30 m apart.

The roost trees were the only remaining trees in a flat open area with

bare soil and ferns that had been burned repeatedly in previous

years for clearing of agricultural land. The roost trees were c.150 m

from a forest edge that formed the boundary of Gunung Palung

National Park, with tall, lightly logged dipterocarp rainforest at the

edge (Plate 3). Both roost trees were long dead with most of their

bark missing, bleached white and dried out, with the base of the

trees burned. One cavity tree was 9.0 m tall, 15 cm in diameter at

breast height (DBH), andc.l 1 cm in diameter at cavity height. The

tree had six completed cavities and one old, partly completed cavity.

The cavities were between 6.8 and 8.0 m above the ground. The

second nearby roost tree was 13.0 m tall, 21 cm DBH, 8-9 cm

diameter at cavity height, with cavities between 10.5 and 12.0 m

height. This tree had seven cavities in one branch and one cavity

(later increasing to four cavities) in another branch. Thus the total

number of completed cavities of this group was 17, divided between

two trees and three branches.

All cavities had oval entrances, taller than wide. In one collected

branch, four cavity entrances measured 7. 8x3. 9, 7.4x4.5, 7. 2x3. 7

and 7. 7x3. 8 cm. From the lower lip of the cavity entrance to the

bottom of the holes the depths were 2.5, 3. 1, 2.0 and 2.6 cm, i.e. they

were shallow. From the postures and visibility of the woodpeckers

after they entered the other cavities it was clear that all of the cavities

were similarly shallow.

In these cavity trees roosted a group of four Grey-and-buff

Woodpeckers, composed of an adult male with a red crest, a juvenile

male with an orange crest, and two females of unknown age (Plate

1). By 16 October the crest of the juvenile male was changing in

colour, the tip of the crest turning red, the forehead still orange.

The group arrived at the roost trees 29 ± 9 minutes ( n = 23) before

sunset, coming in with kik flight calls, and uttering long chi-chi-chi¬

chi-chi calls and descending keyeew calls while perched on the trees

(a recording of these individuals is available at http://

macaulaylibrary.org/audio/164240). Often the group called c. 1 5

minutes before arrival from 1 50 to 350 m away. Once on the roost

trees, on two days the birds immediately entered cavities, but

Plate 1 . A group of four Grey-and-buff Woodpeckers at a roosting tree.

Juvenile male perched outside, adult male looking from uppermost

cavity, and bills of females visible in lower cavity entrances. Semanai,

West Kalimantan, Indonesia, September/October 2000 (M.Lammertink).

Plate 2. Grey-and-buff Woodpeckers at roost cavities. Male perched

outside lower cavity, female perched inside upper hole on the bottom

of a shallow roost cavity. Semanai, West Kalimantan, Indonesia, October

2000 (M. Lammertink).

Forktail 27 (201 1)

Group roosting in the Grey-and-buff Woodpecker Hemicircus concretus

75

Plate 3. Wide-angle view from elevated blind showing two roost trees of a group of Grey-and-buff Woodpeckers. On the left roost tree four Grey-

and-buff Woodpeckers are perched outside. On the right is a second roost tree also used by this group of woodpeckers, with a second elevated

blind. In the background is the forest edge of Gun ung Pa lung National Park. Semanai, West Kalimantan, Indonesia, October 2000 (M. Lammertink).

typically they spent c. 1 1 minutes (up to 3 1 minutes) climbing and

flying around between the many cavities, entering and leaving

cavities, and occasionally fighting over cavities with bill pecks and

aerial clashes. On six of the 25 observation days, birds excavated at

several of the cavities for a total of 74 minutes, with most of the

work done by the adult male, and for three minutes by a female.

Between 24J uly and 1 7 August two newly completed holes and one

half- finished hole were made in one of the branches. After entering

the roost holes, the Grey-and-buff Woodpeckers sat on the bottom

of the shallow roost cavities, their upper body and head visible in

Plate 4. Branch with 1 8 cavities in an active roost tree of Grey-and-buff

Woodpecker. Sungai Wain Protected Forest, East Kalimantan, Indonesia,

8 August 2004 (G. Usher).

the cavity entrance, facing outside (Plate 2). Occasionally they

preened for several minutes in the cavities, and then tucked their

heads in for the night, remainingvisible in the cavity entrances until

dark. The last individual to enter a cavity was usually the adult male.

When the last individual entered it was 16 ± 7 minutes (n = 16)

before sunset on days with dry weather, whereas on two days with

heavy rain birds were in their roosts 40 and 60 minutes before sunset.

One day with a dark thunderstorm the group arrived 112 minutes

before sunset and sat out the storm and rain in cavities, then after

the storm, 35 minutes later, came out again and spent the next hour

chasing around the cavities and excavating. On three days, single

birds (two females, one unidentified) visited the roost trees

respectively 18, 8, and 35 minutes in advance of the arrival of the

group. Individual woodpeckers rarely used the same cavity on

consecutive nights but instead switched around all the time, and

most of the 17 cavities were used during the observation period.

Sometimes the four birds slept in cavities close together, all in a row

of cavities in one branch (Plate 1), while at other times they were

spread out over the two trees and three branches with cavities.

The roosting site in East Kalimantan had a total of 34 cavities

spread out over five branches in the crown of a very large (105 cm

DBH) standing dead bangkirai Shorea laevis. The tree was on a

ridge in primary lowland forest, the cavity branches emergingin the

canopy. All cavity branches had been dead for some time, with no

leaves or twigs remaining, but still mostly covered in bark. One

branch with a diameter of 18 cm had a row of 18 cavities (Plate 4)

and was slanting at 40° angle from vertical, the cavity entrances

facingthe forest floor 28 m below. Three other branches respectively

1 3, 1 1 and 17 cm in diameter had four, two and five cavities located

between 31 and 34 m above ground, and were near vertical in the

portions with cavities. The final fifth branch that was the active

76

MARTIAN LAMMERTINK

Forktail 27 (2011)

Plate 5. Group of three Grey-and-buff Woodpeckers at roost cavities in

the same tree as the branch of Plate 4. Sungai Wain Protected Forest,

East Kalimantan, Indonesia, 8 August 2004 (M. Lammertink).

roost branch at the time of observation was 25 cm diameter and had

five cavities 34 m up in a near-vertical orientation. In this branch

roosted a group of three Grey-and-buff Woodpeckers composed of

an adult male and two females (Plate 5). We observed this roost on

7 and 8 August 2004, and found the group arrived 39 and 47 minutes

before sunset and settled in 19 and 23 minutes before sunset. On

the two days the individuals settled in different holes among the

five in a branch, and the adult male excavated for a few minutes at

one hole on 8 August. The five cavities in this branch were shallow,

as the woodpeckers remained visible in the cavity entrances when

they slept. W e surmised that most of the 34 cavities in this tree were

shallow roost holes, as many were distributed in closely stacked

rows (Plate 4) which left little space for deep excavations to be

possible. G. Usher (pers: comm.) observed three Grey-and-buff

Woodpeckers roosting in these branches on several days 2-3 weeks

before my visit.

The group sizes of foraging Grey-and-buff Woodpeckers that

my team encountered on 21 occasions during fieldwork in

Kalimantan consisted of solitary birds on nine occasions, two

individuals on ten occasions (two of the duos were in mixed species

flocks), and three individuals on two occasions. These group sizes of

Grey-and-buff Woodpeckers encountered during daytime were

significantly smaller than the two described roostinggroups (Mann-

Whitney U=41, z = 2.2, n t =21, n =2, P = 0.03).

DISCUSSION

The roost cavities and roosting behaviour of Grey-and-buff

W oodpecker observed were rather different from other woodpecker

species. Grey-and-buff Woodpeckers roosted perched on the

bottom of shallow holes instead of against the wall of a deep hole as

in most other woodpeckers (Figure 1 ). They roosted in groups, and

made many more holes than apparently necessary for the size of the

groups. They habitually returned to a roost site, but frequently

switched cavities within the cavity cluster at a roost site.

The perching at cavity bottoms by roosting Grey-and-buff

W oodpeckers is probably explained by their short tails, as extended

overnight perching against a vertical wall may not be possible without

a tail prop. Potential advantages of shallow cavities are that

they may ( 1 ) offer better ventilation in a warm and humid climate,

(2) be less prone to becoming usurped by secondary cavity users,

and (3) take less effort to excavate. However, other woodpecker

species use deep roost cavities despite the potential advantages of

shallow roosts. Predation risk is probably higher in shallow cavities,

but in the Grey-and-buff Woodpecker that risk might be offset by

the extra vigilance and defence offered by group roosting. It is not

clear why these woodpeckers make such large numbers of roost

cavities at each roosting site; possible explanations include display

behaviour, group bonding, and visual territory demarcation. Alarge

number of cavities combined with frequent cavity switching

probably results in reduced predictability for predators, and also in

less accumulation and reduced survival of feather and skin parasites

that infest cavities.

It is uncertain whether the groups of Grey-and-buff

W oodpeckers seen at roosts spend the daytime together foraging as

a group, or break up during daytime to reunite again near the roost

sites. Group sizes encountered during daytime were significantly

smaller than the two roosting groups, and this leads me to believe

Figure 1. Schematic cross section through roost trees showing two

woodpecker roost situations. A typical woodpecker (left) roosts

solitarily, perched vertically against the wall of a deep cavity. Grey-and-

buff Woodpeckers (right) roost in small groups, in clusters of large

numbers of nearby cavities, perched on the bottoms of shallow roost

cavities (E. Hernandez Fernandez).

Forktail 27 (2011)

Group roosting in the Grey-and-buff Woodpecker Hemicircus concretus

77

that roost groups may break up during daytime. This would also

explain the three occasions when I observed solitary birds visiting

roost trees 8-35 minutes in advance of the arrival of the group.

Often groups can be heard calling several hundred metres from

roost sites c.15 minutes before arriving, and perhaps that is where

and when group reunite before returning to the roost sites. When

Grey-and-buff Woodpeckers arrived to roost they were always with

the full group.

Grey-and-buff Woodpeckers have been reported by other

observers with rows of cavities similar to these roost sites. Chasen

(1939) cited a note received from A. T. Edgar who observed two

Grey-and-buff Woodpeckers exiting from two different cavities in

a row of four near the top of a dead stump c.lOm tall. Short (1973)

observed on one occasion a group of three Grey-and-buff

Woodpeckers, a male and two females, at a row of four cavities, the

male excavating for several minutes at the upper cavity, in the top of

a 30-m dead tree in Peninsular Malaysia. Wells (1999) observed a

pair at a row of eight holes, the male excavating on two days. None

of these reports mentions the time of day of the observations. The

occurrence of rows of cavities at all sites indicates these may have

been group roosts, and demonstrates that cavity rows are common

in this species. I have not been able to find any information about the

roosting behaviour of the Heart-spotted Woodpecker Hemicircus

canente , the only other species in the genus. Photos of Heart-spotted

Woodpeckers at nests (http://orientalbirdimages.org) show oval

cavity entrances similar in shape and size to those of Grey-and-buff

Woodpecker.

Group roosting, either in cavity clusters or in a shared cavity, is

rare among woodpecker species. It is found both in cooperative

breeders such as Acorn 'Woodpecker Melanerpesformicivorus (shared

cavities) and Red-cockaded Woodpecker Picoides borealis (cavity

clusters) as well as in monogamous breeders with their offspring

(Winkler & Christie 2002). For instance, Magellanic Woodpecker

CampephiLus magellanicus groups are composed of pairs with

offspring from several years and these groups often roost in shared

cavities (Chazarreta & Ojeda 2011). In Asia, Greater Flameback

Chrysocolaptes lucidus roosts in groups of up to five individuals spread

individually over rows of cavities, in trees with up to seven deep

cavities (Short 1973). Grey-and-buff Woodpecker is distinguished

from other known group roosters by the large numbers of its roosts,

its frequent changes of roost holes, and the shape of the cavities. The

shallow holes it makes are probably exclusively roost holes, as nest

holes in this species probably need to be deeper to accommodate eggs

and young, although this remains to be confirmed. A nest hole of the

related Heart-spotted Woodpecker was 17 cm deep below the

entrance (Wells 1999).

The exceptional roosting behaviour of the Grey-and-buff

Woodpecker is of note in light of a recent molecular phylogeny

which included one specimen of H. canente (Fuchs etal. 2007). The

study indicated that Hemicircus is sister group of all other genera of

true woodpeckers (Picinae, i.e. the Picidae without wrynecks and

piculets). Molecular clock estimates suggest Hemicircus has been

evolving independently from other woodpeckers for c.14 million

years (Fuchs et al. 2007).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

f thank Eka and Graham Usher for finding and reporting the two roost sites,

and Pak Nan and his team for constructing blind towers. Utami Setiorini,

Dewi M. Prawiradilaga, Gabriella Fredriksson, Graham Usher and Roger Otto

joined woodpecker watches. Evaristo Hernandez Fernandez prepared Figure

1 at short notice. Raman Kumar and Julio Perez-Canestro commented on the

manuscript. The project in Kalimantan was supported by the Netherlands

Science Foundation (NWO) Biodiversity in Disturbed Ecosystems programme

and by Universiteit van Amsterdam.

REFERENCES

Blume. D. (1968) Die Buntspechte. Wittenberg Lutherstadt: A.

Ziemsen Verlag.

Chasen, F. N. ( 1 939). The birds of the Malaysian Peninsula, 4. London:

H. F.&G. Witherby.

Chazarreta, M. L. & Ojeda, V. (2011) Magellanic Woodpecker

( Campephilus magellanicus). Neotropical Birds Online (T. S.

Schulenberg, editor). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology.

Fuchs, J.,Ohlson,J.I., Ericson,P.G.P.&Pasquet, E. (2007) Synchronous

intercontinental splits between assemblages of woodpeckers

suggested by molecular data. Zoologica Scripta 36: 1 1 -25.

Lammertink, M. (2004a) A multiple-site comparison of woodpecker

communities in Bornean lowland and hill forests. Conserv. Biol.

18:746-757.

Lammertink, M. (2004b) Grouping and cooperative breeding in the

Great Slaty Woodpecker. Condor 106: 309-319.

Lammertink, M. (2007) Community ecology and logging responses

of Southeast Asian woodpeckers (Picidae, Aves). PhD thesis,

Universiteit van Amsterdam.

Lammertink, M„ Prawiradilaga, D. M., Setiorini, U., Zaw Naing, T.,

Duckworth, J. W. & Menken, S. B. J. (2009) Global population

decline of the Great Slaty Woodpecker (Mulleripicus

pulverulentus). Biol. Conserv. 142: 166-179.

Short, L. L. (1 973) Habits of some Asian woodpeckers (Aves, Picidae).

Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 1 52: 253-364.

Short, L. L. (1982) Woodpeckers of the world. Greenville: Delaware

Museum of Natural History.

Villard, P. (1999) The Guadeloupe Woodpecker. Brunoy, France:

Societe d'Etudes Ornithologiques de France (SOEF).

Wells, D. R. (1999) The birds of the Thai-Malay Pen insula A. Non¬

passerines. London: Academic Press.

Winkler, H., Christie, D. A. & Nurney, D. (1 995) Woodpeckers — a guide

to the woodpeckers, piculets and wrynecks of the world.

Robertsbridge, Sussex, UK: Pica Press.

Winkler, H. & Christie, D. A. (2002) Family Picidae (woodpeckers).

Pp.296-555 in J. del Hoyo, A. Elliott & J.Sargatal.eds. Handbook

of the birds of the world, 7. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions.

Martjan LAMMERTINK, Cornell Labof Ornithology, Cornell University,

159 Sapsucker Woods Road, Ithaca, NY 14850, U.S.A. Email:

jml243@cornell.edu Website: www.pbase.com/PicidPics

FORKTAIL 27 (2011): 78-82

New records of birds for the Gigantes Islands,

Iloilo Province, Philippines

ABNER A. BUCOL, LEONARDO T. AVERIA, ANGEL C. ALCALA & LIRIO CORDOVA

From December 2009 to May 2010 we visited the Gigantes Islands, Philippines, and associated islets to conduct a thorough survey of the

vertebrates including the avifauna. Of the 77 bird species thus far known in the Gigantes, 52 are residents (seven Philippine endemics) and

25 are migrants. Seventy-two bird species were recorded during our visits, 42 of which are new records for the Gigantes.

INTRODUCTION

The Gigantes Islands off north-eastern Panay in the western V isayan

Sea primarily consist of karst islands formed by volcanic activities,

and serve as a land-bridge between the Pleistocene islands of Panay,

Cebu, Negros and Masbate (Brown & Alcala 2000).

Early collections and studies primarily focused on the

amphibians and reptiles (Brown & Alcala 1970, 1978, 1980, Brown

& Alcala 2000, Ferner etal. 2000, Alcala & Alcala 2005 ) . Birds have

been mainly collected by Silliman University biologists (specimens

deposited in Silliman University-Rodolfo B. Gonzales Museum

of Natural Fdistory in Dumaguete City, Negros Oriental). Among

the earliest accounts known to us are Rabor (1938) and Alcala

& Sanguila (1969), and the information in them was incorporated

in Dickinson et al. (1991) and Kennedy et al. (2000). Other

groups, including birdwatchers, may have visited the islands but

reports are either unavailable or not published in peer-reviewed

journals (e.g. FFI 2006). Thus we relied on Kennedy etal. (2000) as

a baseline.

Gigante Sur (48 1 ha; population 6,096) is composed primarily

of karst forests on the east with patches of ipil-ipil Leucaena

leucocephala. The rest of the island is cogonal with a few areas of

scrub and agricultural areas planted with fruit trees and coconuts.

In the north is an extensive fishpond, a large portion of which used

to be an extensive mangrove forest. This island was visited on the

following dates: 13-19December2009; 13-20 January 2010; 21-

28 February 2010; 14 April 2010; and 15 May 2010.

Islets associated with Gigante Sur were also visited on the dates

indicated below: Bantigui (2 ha; population 5-10) on 15 January

2010; Cabugao Dako ( 1 0 ha; transient population c. 5) and Cabugao

Gamay (c. 7-8 ha) on 1 6 January 2010; Balabagon (5-6 ha; transient

population c. 15) and Pulupandan on 15-16 January 2010.

Gigante Norte (599 ha; population 6,919) was visited on the

following dates: 16-21 December 2009; 21-24 February 2010; 1

March 20 10; and 13-l6May2010.Theisletsof Gigantillo (< 1 ha)

and Gigantuna (< 1 ha), located about 0.7 km east of Asluman,

Gigante Norte, and north of Bulubadiang islet (c. 1.5 ha; transient

population c. 10) and UayDahon Islet (2 ha; population c. 5, resort

workers) were visited on 17 January 2010.

Birds were identified and counted with the aid of binoculars

and Kennedy et al. (2000). Online databases such as those of the

Oriental Bird Club (www.orientalbirdimages.org) and the Internet

Bird Collection (ibc.lynxeds.com) were also visited for further

confirmation.

Mist-nets (6x4 m and 6x 12 m) were also used to capture birds

during our first survey in December 2009. Fiowever, mist-netting

in small, degraded forests was not found to be productive, and was

also risky in steep karst terrain, so we decided to focus on direct

observations. Netted birds that are new island records are indicated

in the species list.

Most of our records are based on sightings, supplemented with

photographs where possible. In addition, audio recordings were

made using digital and tape recorders to document some species.

H owever, a detailed analysis ofvocalisations cannot be presented at

this time.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Thus far, a total of 77 species of bird are known in the Gigantes

and associated islets. During our surveys in 2009 and 2010, 72

species of bird were recorded, 42 of which are new records for

the Gigantes, while 35 species were listed earlier by Kennedy et al.

(2000). We did not encounter five species listed by Kennedy

et al. (2000) for the Gigantes, namely: Blue-breasted Quail

Coturnix chinensis , Philippine Pygmy Woodpecker Dendrocopus

maculatus , Mangrove Blue Flycatcher Cyornis rufigastra. White-

vented 'y/\\\st\eiPachycephala homey eri and Grey Wagtail Motacilla

cinerea.

The remaining forests of the Gigantes are found on karst and

are partly degraded owing to harvesting of firewood and charcoal

production, especially in accessible areas. Scrub habitats in non¬

karst areas are now converted to agriculture. It is therefore desirable

to take conservation measures in this group of islands, which are the

home not just of the birds listed here but also of the endemic and

globally Vulnerable Gigante Narrow-disked Gecko Gekko gigante

and the Critically Endangered Island Forest Frog Platymantis

insulatus (Alcala & Alcala 2005; IUCN 2010).

In the following accounts, GN = Gigante Norte, GS = Gigante

Sur.

DETAILS OF NEW ISLAND RECORDS

Streaked Shearwater Calonectris leucomelas

A single bird was captured by a fisherman a few metres off Uay

Dahon Islet, near GN on 1 3 December 2009 and another was seen

flying between GN and GS on 20 December 2009. Distinguished

from other shearwaters by a streaked head and neck, greyish-horn

bill with black tip and feet flesh-pinkish in colour.

Yellow Bittern Ixobrychus sinensis

Seen in mangroves near a fishpond in Gabi Bay, GS, on 1 3 December

2009, 24 February 2010 and 1 5 May 20 1 0.

Cinnamon Bittern Ixobrychus cinnamomeus

A male (upperparts cinnamon, lacking mottling on the scapulars)

was flushed by AB and LA near a fishpond and Rhizophora

mangroves at Gabi, GS, on 15 May 2010.

Striated Heron Butorides striata

Seen in the mangroves and mudflats at Gabi Bay, GS, on 13-16

December 2009, 13 January 2010, and 22-24 February, 1 March

2010 and 15 May 2010.

Forktail 27 (201 1 )

New records of birds for the Gigantes Islands, Iloilo Province, Philippines

79

Pond-heron Ardeola sp.

A maximum of five non-breeding birds were observed and

photographed by AB in a rice field at Gabi Bay, GS, on 1 3 December

2009, 24 February and 1 March 2010 in a fishpond at Gabi.

Identification to species level was not possible due to the similarity

of immatures of A. bacchus andH. speciosa in the field.

Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis

Flocks of 3-8 birds were consistently seen in the grassland and

mudflats of Gabi, GS, on 13-16 December 2009, 13-16 January

2010, 14April2010and 15 May 2010. Photosofbothbreedingand

non-breeding birds were taken by AB in the grassland plain at Gabi

on 15 May 2010.

Little Egret Egretta garzetta

Observed on both islands, usually gleaning on the mudflats on 1 6-

20 December 2009 in Asluman, GN, and 13-15 January 2010 and

15 May 2010 in Gabi Bay, GS.

Pacific Reef Egret Egretta sacra

Two pairs were seen on the mudflats of Asluman, GN, on 1 6 and 1 9

December 2009, all dark morphs.

Great Frigatebird Fregata minor

A juvenile frigatebird was observed flying over Uay Dahon on 17

January 2010. It was distinguished by its whitish head, brownish

breast-band, elliptical/ egg-shaped white belly-patch, lack of axillary

spurs, and narrow brown-buff alar bars, confirming identification

as this species (James 2004).

Brahminy Kite Haliastur indus

A single adult bird (easily distinguished by its white head, upper

back, throat and upper belly but rufous lower belly, undertail and

underwing-coverts) was seen over Lantangan, GS, on 13 January

2010.

Barred Rail Gallirallus torquatus

Recorded throughout the survey period (13-21 December 2009,

13-20 January, 21 February 20 10, 1 March 20 10 and 15 May 20 10)

in both GS and GN. It was also heard calling on Bantigui on 15

January 2010 and seen on Balabagon on 16 January 2010.

White-browed Crake Porzana cinerea

Seen three times among grasses on the edge of a fishpond in Gabi,

GS, on 22-24 February 2010 and 15 May 2010.

Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus

Seen foraging in fishponds at Gabi Bay, GS, on 13-16 December

2009, 13 january 2010, 23-24 February 2010 and 14 April

2010.

Pacific Golden Plover Pluvialis fulva

A single bird was observed by AB and LTA near a fishpond at Gabi

Bay, GS, on 13 January 2010.

Little Ringed Plover Charadrius dubius

Five non-breeding birds were seen on an exposed sand-bar near

Bantigui on 1 5 J anuary 2010. Another bird was observed in a dried

portion of a fishpond at Gabi Bay, GS, between 22-25 February

2010. The bill was not observed in detail but appeared uniformly

dark. Together with the white forehead of both birds, this suggests

that they were of the subspecies curonicus.

Snipe Gallinago sp.

Seen by LA in a small stream near karst with grasses in the late

afternoon of 15 December 2009 in Gabi, GS. Because views were

poor, and bearing in mind the difficulty in separating G. hardwickii ,

G. stenura and G. megala in the field, we only list the genus.

Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus

Observed on exposed intertidals and mangroves from 13-21

December 2009 and 13-20 January 2010 on both GS and Norte,

and once on the small islet of Pulupandan near Balabagon on 16

January 2010.

Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola

Two birds were observed by AB on exposed sand in a fishpond in

Gabi, GS, on 24 February 2010.

Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos

Three birds were seen at Asluman beach, GN, on 16 December 2009.

The species was also observed on 1 3- 1 5 December 2009 at Gabi Bay,

GS, and on 1 5 January 20 1 0 at Antonia, GS, and on Bantigui Islet.

Grey-tailed Tattler Heteroscelus brevipes

A single bird was photographed by AB on the side of a fishpond at

Gabi Bay, GS, on 14 December 2009 and a group of four birds were

feedingon a muddy intertidal adjacent to the mangroves at Asluman

on 18 December 2009.

Great Crested Tern Sterna bergii

„ Three individuals were seen on 15January2010probablyinbreeding

plumage as the crown appeared black but not streaked with white

as described by Kennedy etal. (2000). Other features noted include

forked tail, yellow bill, white forehead and face including rest of

underparts and grey upperparts except the tips of primaries, which

were darker.

Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybrida

About 10-20 individuals were seen off Lantangan, GS, on 13-20

January 2010.

Spotted Dove Streptopelia chinensis

Common on hillsides and areas planted with fruit trees in GS and

Norte on 13-21 December 2009, and 13-20 January, 22-25

February, 1 March and 15 May 2010.

Emerald Dove Chalcophaps indica

Observed three times; near Lapus-lapus cave in Asluman, GN, on

18 December 2009, on Balabagon on 15 January 2010 and on GS

on 15 May 2010.

Pied Imperial-pigeon Ducula bicolor

Two birds were seen by LA and five more members of the team in

Lantangan, GS on 16 December 2009.

Grass Owl Tyto capensis

A single bird was flushed by AB from cogon-dominated grassland

on Lantangan, GS, on 28 February 2010.

Philippine Hawk-owl Ninox philippensis

Heard once near Pawikan cave on 14 April 2010 at about 20h30

hours by AB and others. The call was a series of distinctive bo-cow-

cow-cow. An owl probably belonging to the same species was heard

calling at night on two occasions (17 and 19 January 2010) from a

steep karst cliff at Granada, GN. The unrecorded call was a low-

toned, slightly harsh bow-cow-cow repeated up to 3-4 times, typical

of the species.

Philippine Nightjar Caprimulgus manillensis

Two birds were flushed from scrub on I4january2010 at Lantangan

GS. Another bird was flushed at night (19h00) from the entrance

80

ABNER A. BUCOLefa/.

Forktail 27 (2011)

wall of Langub cave on GN on 17 January 2010. A pair was also

flushed from a dry slope with ipil-ipil plantation in Antonia, Gabi,

GS, on 01 March 2010 at about 09h00. While in flight, the white

round spots on each tail-tip were observed.

Edible-nest Swiftlet Collocalia fuciphaga

Seen flying near karst in GS and GN between 13-16 December

2009 and 1 3- 1 7 January 20 1 0. A pair was also captured in a coastal

cave in Antonia, Gabi, GS, on 15 January 2010. On 15 May 2010,

14 nests with one or two hatchlings each were found by AB and

others in another coastal cave (Looc cave) in Lantangan, GS. This

species was distinguished from Uniform Swiftlet Collocalia

vanikorensis in having a light rump contrasting with generally dark

upperparts (Kennedy et al. 2000).

Five abandoned nests (half-cupped) were found attached to walls

in the same cave, while 1 4 nests with hatchlings were seen in Santos-

santos cave on Lantangan, GS. The nesting materials consisted of

pure saliva, hardened in some abandoned nests. Those of Uniform

Swiftlet consist of both saliva and soft plant materials and often

remain wet.

Dollarbird Eurystomus orientalis

Seen at Lantangan, GS, on 24 February 2010 and 1 March 2010.

Common Kingfisher Alcedo atthis

Observed in mangroves at Gabi Bay, GS, on 1 3- 17 December 2009

and on 13 January 2010. In a fishpond at Gabi, a single bird was

observed by AB feedingon cultured tilapia Oreochrom is niloticus on

24 February 2010.

Ruddy Kingfisher Halcyon coromanda

Seen once by LA in a karst forest at Asluman, GN, on 1 9 December

2009.

Golden-bellied Flyeater Gerygone sulphured

Commonly heard in mangroves (13-20 December 2009, 13-20

January 2010 and 1 6 May 20 1 0) on both islands. Calls were recorded

by AB in mangrove forest at Gabi Bay, GS, on 14 January 2010.

Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica

Seen twice at Lantangan, GS, on 2 1 February 20 1 0 and three times

at Gabi, GS, on 22-24 February 2010. Relatively larger than H.

tahitica, with generally white underparts and a long forked tail.

Striated Swallow Hirundo striolata

Seen by AB and others on 15 May 2010 at Lantangan, GS.

Brown Shrike Lanius cristatus

Commonly seen on 13-21 December 2009, 13-20 January 2010,

24 February- 1 March 2010 and 1 5 May 20 1 0 on both GS and GN.

A single bird was mist-netted in Gabi Bay, GS, on 15 December

2009. Calls were recorded by AB on 1 March 2010.

Pied Fantail Rhipidura javanica

Observed on both islands during the entire duration of the study

(13-20 December 2009 and 13-20 January 2010). Seen also on

Balabagon on 15 January 2010. Calls were recorded byAB on 14

December 2009 and 13 January 2010.

Bright-capped Cisticola Cisticola exilis

Seen by AB in the cogon-dominated grassland in Lantangan, GS,

on 1 Mar 2010.

Arctic Warbler Phylloscopus borealis

Seen in mangrove forest dominated by Avicennia marina in Gabi

Bay, GS, on 23 February 2010 and 1 March 2010.

Blue Rockthrush Monticola solitarius

A male (distinguished by blue upperparts including throat and breast

with chestnut belly and undertail-coverts) was photographed in a

Sonneratia alba tree on 14 December 2009 at Gabi Bay, GS. At

Lantangan, GS, another individual was photographed on a

galvanised roof on 16 January 2010. The latter bird appeared

intermediate between male and female, so was probably an immature

male: it had dark shaft-streaks, especially on the breast and belly,

but the lower belly appeared light chestnut. Another male was also

observed at Barangay Granada, GN, on 17 January 2010 amongst

rocks and cliffs.

Eurasian Tree Sparrow Passer montanus

Common in areas of human settlement and agricultural areas of the

two islands on 13-20 December 2009, 13-20 January 2010, 24

February-1 March 2010, and 14-16 May 2010. This species has

probably arrived via boat from adjacent islands.

Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava

Two birds were observed on a pond near a rice paddy in Gabi, GS,

on 13 December 2009.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Foundation for the Philippine Environment ( FPE) funded our surveys in

the Gigantes Islands under the Natural Resource Assessment Project

administered by PROGRESO Inc. We are also thankful to the Protected Area,

Wildlife and Coastal Zone Management Section (PAWCZMS) of the

Department of Environment and Natural Resources in Region VI (DENR-

VI) for facilitating research and collection permits necessary for this study.

The assistance of PROGRESO staff and volunteers during the fieldwork at

Gigantes is deeply appreciated. Desmond Allen and two anonymous reviewers

greatly helped in clarifying species identification and improving an earlier

version of this manuscript. The Municipal Government of Carles through the

Honorable Mayor Arnold C. Betita (also the Chairman of PROGRESO Board

of Directors) and the Barangay officials of Lantangan, Gabi, Asluman and

Granada warmly accommodated us throughout the study.

REFERENCES

Alcala, A. C. & Sanguila, W. M. (1969) The birds of small islands off the

eastern coast of Panay. Silliman J. 1 6: 375-383.

Alcala, E. L. & Alcala, A. C. (2005) Aspects of ecology and threats to the

habitats of three endemic herpetofaunal species on Negros and the

Gigante Islands, Philippines. Silliman J. 46: 1 69-1 94.

Brown, W. C. & Alcala, A. C. (1 970) A new species ofthe genus Platymantis

(Ranidae) with a list ofthe amphibians known from South Gigante

Island, Philippines. Occas. Pap. California Acad. Sci. 84: 1 -7.

Brown, W. C. & Alcala, A.C. (1978) Philippine lizards ofthe family

Gekkonidae. Dumaguete City, Philippines: Silliman University Press

(Silliman University Natural Sciences Series No. 1).

Brown, W. C. & Alcala, A. C. ( 1 980) Philippine lizards ofthe family Scincidae.

Dumaguete City, Philippines: Silliman University Press (Silliman

University Natural Sciences Series No. 2).

Brown, R. M. & Alcala, A. C. (2000) Geckos, cave-frogs and small land-

bridge islands of the Visayan, Sea. Haring Ibon 2: 1 9-22.

Dickinson, E.C., Kennedy, R.S.&Parkes, K.C.(1 991 ) The birds of the Philippines.

Tring, UK: British Ornithologists' Union (Check-list No. 12).

Ferner, J. W., Brown, R. M., Sison, R. V. & Kennedy, R. S. (2000) The

amphibians and reptiles of Panay Island, Philippines. Asiatic

Herpetological Res. 9: 1-37.

FFI (2006) An assessment ofthe native flora and fauna of Sicogon Island,

Panay, Philippines: a consolidated report. Unpublished report to

Fauna & Flora International.

Forktail 27 (2011)

New records of birds for the Gigantes Islands, Iloilo Province, Philippines

81

Philippine Nightjar Caprimulgusmanillensis PE

X

82

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Forktail 27 (201 1 )

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83

Globally threatened Sunda Blue Flycatcher Cyornis caerulatus :

synthesis of global records and recent records from Sumatra

FANGYUAN HUA, WILLIAM MARTHY, DAVID LEE & MUHAMMAD NAZRI JANRA

The Sunda Blue Flycatcher (or Large-billed Blue Flycatcher) Cyornis

caerulatus is endemic to Borneo and Sumatra and classified as globally

Vulnerable (BirdLife International 2011). Its ecology remains poorly

known, although it is characterised as an insectivorous lowland

rainforest specialist occupying the mid-strata, usually recorded up

to 500 m asl (BirdLife International 2001, Myers 2009). There are also

suggestions that it is generally uncommon, rather patchily

distributed, with a strong preference for primary forest habitat and

highly sensitive to forest disturbance such as logging and

fragmentation (Lambert 1 992, BirdLife International 2001 , Slik& van

Balen 2005). Current records are heavily clustered in Borneo

(particularly north Borneo), with only six published records from

Sumatra, of which onlytwoarepost-1 930 (BirdLife International 2001).

Here we synthesise records of the Sumatran subspecies C. c. albiventer,

including field reports from conservation/forestry organisations and

birdwatchers, as well as records from museum collections. We also

report on six recent records of this species from fieldwork in southern

Sumatra.

Fieldwork was conducted in the Harapan Rainforest ecosystem

restoration site, which spans the border between Jambi and South

Sumatra provinces. Itisthefirst ecosystem restoration concession in

Indonesia and covers 98,554 ha of post-logging secondary lowland

rainforest (Burung Indonesia, Royal Society for Protection of Birds

and BirdLife International 201 0). Previous logging activities have left

a mosaic of secondary forest habitats in different stages of

regeneration.

Surveys took place in 2008 and 2010, and focused on recording

birds of different secondary forest habitats within Harapan. Surveys

were conducted using point counts and mist-netting, and followed

standard protocols for these methods (Bibby etal. 2000, Buckland et

at. 2001). Between June and August 2008, 165 mist-netting hours

(over 1 5 days) with 200 metres of nets, plus 1 20 points along transects,

were used to sample birds across three locations. Between March

and November 201 0,231 points along transects were surveyed across

anotherthree locations (some points were revisited, resulting in 387

total point counts). In December 201 0, 1 98 mist-netting hours (over

1 8 days) with 360 metres of nets were completed across two locations.

While some of these survey locations were near each other, none

overlapped. In all cases, points along transects were spaced at least

200 m apart, mist-nets were set up in a continuous line, and any

parallel net lines were spaced at least 130 m apart. Captured birds

were ringed and measured according to standard procedures

(Redfern & Clark 2001 ).

The vegetation structure of points along transects and mist-

netting locations was measured according to established protocols

(BBIRD 2008). Vegetation measurements were recorded in 5 m radius

circular plots centred on each transect point and mist-net pole

location. The following measurements were taken: canopy height

and cover; understorey density (measured as the percentage of a 50

x50cm plate held 2 m vertically above the ground at the plot centre

that was covered by understorey vegetation, as observed from four

directions 1 0 m away); leaf-litter depth; ground cover (measured as

the percentage of ground covered by vegetation at 0-50 cm above

ground); and the number of trees in four size classes (diameter at

breast height [dbh] < 8 cm, 8-23 cm, 23-38 cm, and > 38 cm) within

10 m of the plot centre.

A search for published, unpublished and museum specimen

records of C. caerulatus resulted in many records from Borneo (data

not shown). The vast majority of these came from the Malaysian state

of Sabah in north Borneo, particularly Danum Valley Conservation

Area and neighbouring areas. However, we could find only 1 1 records

of the subspecies albiventer, which is restricted to Sumatra (Table 1).

These include five museum records (on seven specimens) collected

before 1920, out of more than 70 specimens of C. caerulatus collected

in many museums; and six observation records, with only one record

out of 40 birdwatching trip reports from Sumatra. Additionally, this

Table 1 . Records of Sunda Blue Flycatcher Cyornis caerulatus from Sumatra. IBA = Important Bird Area; ZMA = Zoological Museum Amsterdam.

84

SHORT NOTES

Forktail 27 (2011)

Table 2. Details of C. caerulatus captured in mist-nets at Harapan Rainforest.

subspecies also appears in the species list of six forest sites (national

parks, forest reserves and/or Important Bird Areas), which may or

may not be redundant with existing museum/observation records

(Table 1).

We obtained six records of C. c. albiventer during our fieldwork in

Harapan: two were from point count surveys, three were mist-netted,

and one was a casual observation. All records were in forest that was

regenerating following selective logging. One bird was heard but

not seen at a transect point on 1 8 July 2008 at 95 m asl (2°1 1 '26.2"S

103°09'43.4"E). On 19 April 2010, another calling bird, a male, was

seen at a point count station on flat ground at 51 m elevation

(2°09'1 5. 1 "S 1 03°21 '24.7"E). This bird was perched 7 m above the

ground and about 14 m from a 5 m-wide stream. The individual

casually observed was a female on 1 May 2008, perching about 3 m

above the ground, 30 m from a 3 m-wide stream.

Two male birds were mist-netted from one location in July 2008,

out of a total of 454 captures over the field season (0.4% of total

capture). The first individual was caught about 40 m from a 3 m-wide

forest stream. A third male bird was netted from a different location

in December 2010, out of a total of 223 captures (again 0.4% of total

capture). This bird was captured about 25 m from a tiny forest stream.

Further details of captured birds are given in Table 2.

Together, our records suggest that the species may have an

affinity with forest near streams, although it was previously suggested

it may be avoiding forest along rivers (del Hoyo etal. 2006). Areas

where C. caerulatus was recorded had last been commercially logged

about 30 years ago, but were being disturbed by illegal small-scale

logging activities. The resulting habitat was early-regeneration

secondary forest characterised by a low closed canopy (typically IQ-

15 m, mean = 12.0m), a dense understorey (75%), and a predominance

of young saplings (mean of 26.3 trees of dbh < 8 cm; 7.4 of 8 > dbh

< 23cm; 0.9 of 23 > dbh < 38cm; and 0.1 of dbh > 38cm).

The vast majority of records of C. caerulatus come from Borneo,

notably a handful of 'hotspot' locations in the Malaysian state of Sabah.

It has previously been suggested that this pattern may be due to a

patchyand low-densitydistributionofthespeciesin Kalimantanand

Sumatra (Bird Life International 2001). However, we think it likely that

the pattern is at least partly due to field survey and birdwatching

effort, which is much higher in suitable lowland habitat in Borneo,

particularly in DanumValley.Oursurveysandothers(Slik&van Balen

2005, Ansell etal. 2010) suggest that C. caerulatus occurs at relatively

low densities, even in undisturbed forest. However, one mist-netting

study found it to be reasonably frequent in primary forest in Sabah

(10 birds out of 406 total bird captures: Lambert 1992).

Ansell etal. (2010) showed reduced capture rates of the species

in regenerating forests following selective logging (1.1% in naturally

regenerating forest, 0.7% in rehabilitated regenerating forest, and

1 .9% in primary forest), and noted that this species is among the top

ten that contributed to avian community differences between

unlogged and regenerating forest. Our mist-net capture rates, in heavily

disturbed forest, were even lower. Lambert (1992) did not find this

species in selectively logged forest, and Slik& van Balen (2005) found

the same for fire-disturbed forest in Borneo. Most other records we

found were from primary forest. However, it is worth noting that 1 9 of

41 capture records of C. caerulatus by Ansell et al. (2010) came from

regenerating forest (about 20 years after intensive selective logging),

while all six records from ourfieldwork were from early to middle-stage

regenerating forest. To our knowledge, these are the only records so

far from disturbed forest. This may be due to the nearby presence of

small, unlogged oradvanced secondary forest patches acting as refuges

(Lambert 1992). Alternatively, this species may be able to persist in

disturbed forest habitats, albeit at relatively low densities. More data

are needed before wecan safely establish the toleranceofthisglobally

threatened species to habitat disturbances.

It is believed that C. caerulatus has undergone a steep population

decline in Sumatra during the past few decades owing to habitat

degradation and destruction, which is likely to continue given the

huge pressures lowland Sumatran and Bornean forests are facing

(BirdLife International 2001, FWI/GFW 2002, Sodhi et al. 2004).

Conservation of this globally threatened species requires reliable

estimates of population and greater information on its ecology —

particularly its ability to persist in degraded habitats. More field data

are sorely needed, particularly for Sumatra and southern Borneo.

Researchers and birdwatchers should be encouraged to contribute

their findings.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Indonesian Ministry of Research and Technology

(RISTEK) and the Ministry of Forestry for approving our field research. We

thank the Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) for overseeing our mist-

netting efforts and providing standard bird rings, Burung Indonesia for

sponsoring our research, and the management authorities of Harapan for

critical logistical support. We are grateful for the assistance from the following

colleagues: Bas van Balen, Nick Brickie, Kathryn E. Sieving, Dewi Prawiradilaga,

Wilson Novarino, Mohammad Irham and Hultera. We also thank our field

team members for arduous fieldwork: Emma Yustikasari, Belry Zetra and

Simba Chan. Last but not least, we thank James Eaton, an anonymous

reviewer, and in particular John Pilgrim for insightful comments and

meticulous editing that enabled us to improve the manuscript.

References

Ansell, F. A., Edwards, D. P.& Hamer, K.C.(2010) Rehabilitation of logged rain

forests: avifaunal composition, habitat structure, and implications for

biodiversity-friendly REDD + . Biotroplca DOI: 1 0.1 1 1 1/j.l 744-

7429.201 0.00725.x (early view online).

BBIRD (2008) Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit. <http://

www.umt.edu/bbird/protocol/veg.htm> Accessed in November 2009.

Bibby, C J., Burgess, N.D., Hill, D. A. &Mustoe,S. (2000) Bird census techniques.

Second edition. London: Academic Press.

BirdLife International (2001 )ThreatenedbirdsofAsia:theBirdLife International

Red Data Book. Cambridge, U.K.: BirdLife International.

BirdLife International (201 1) Species factsheet: Cyornis caerulatus. <http://

www.birdlife.org> Accessed in February 201 1.

Buckland, S. T., Anderson, D. R., Burnham, K. P., Laake, J. L., Borchers, D. L. &

Thomas, L. (2001) Introduction to distance sampling: estimating

abundance of biological populations. New York: Oxford University Press.

Burung Indonesia, Royal Society for Protection of Birds and BirdLife

International (201 0) Harapan Rainforest, <www.harapanrainforest.org>

Accessed in November 2010.

Burung Indonesia (2011a) IBA factsheet: SID 39 Bukit Bahar-Tajau Pecah

(Jambi). <http://www.burung.org/detail_iba.php?id=39&op=iba>

Accessed in February 201 1.

Forktail 27 (201 1)

SHORT NOTES

85

Burung Indonesia (201 1 b) IBA factsheet: SID 14 Bukit Baling (Riau). < http:/

/www.burung.org/detail_iba.php?id = 1 4&op=iba> Accessed in

February 201 1.

Burung Indonesia (2011c) IBA factsheet: SID 23 Kerinci Seblat

(Jambi, Sumatera Barat, Sumatera) <http://www.burung.org/

detail_iba.php?id=23&op=iba> Accessed in February 201 1 .

Burung Indonesia (201 Id) IBA factsheet: SID 09 Malampah Alahan

Panjang (Sumatera Barat) <http://www.burung.org/

detail_iba.php?id=9&op=iba> Accessed in February 2011.

del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A. & Christie, D. A. (2006) Handbook of the birds of the

world, 1 1 . Barcelona, Spain: Lynx Edicions.

FWI/GFW (2002) The state of the forest: Indonesia. Bogor, Indonesia

and Washington DC: Forest Watch Indonesia and Global Forest

Watch.

Hutchinson, R. (2006) Sumatra and West Java, Indonesia, July 29th-

August 20th 2006 trip report, <http://www.birdtourasia.com/

Birdtour%20Asia%20Sumatra%20tour%202006.pdf> Accessed in

February 2011.

Kemp, N. (2008) List of birds recorded during the PT AMTHCVF Assessment,

Sumatra Barat, Indonesia, 26th July - 4th Aug 2008. Internal report to

Andalas Merapi Timber Logging Concession.

Lambert, F. R. (1992) The consequences of selective logging for Bornean

lowland forest birds. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London B 335: 443-457.

Myers, S. (2009) Birds of Borneo: Brunei, Sabah, Sarawak, and Kalimantan.

Princeton, U.S.A.: Princeton University Press.

Redfern, C. P. F. & Clark, J. A. (2001 ) Ringer's manual. Thetford, U.K.: British

Trust for Ornithology.

Slik, J. W. F. & van Balen, S. (2005) Bird community changes in response to

single and repeated fires in a lowland tropical rainforest of eastern

Borneo. Biodiversity and Conservation 1 5: 4425-4451.

Sodhi, N. S., Koh, L. P., Brook, B. W. & Ng, P. K. L (2004) Southeast Asian

biodiversity: an impending disaster. Trends Ecol. Evol. 1 9: 654-660.

Tropical Forest Conservation Action (2011) Factsheet on forest site Batang

Toru. <http://tfcasumatera.org/grant-scheme/priority-areas/batang-

toru/> Accessed in February 2011.

Wetlands International (2011) Factsheet on Way Kambas National Park.

<http://www.wetlands.or.id/wdb/siteinfo.php?SITE_COD=SUM51>

Accessed in February 201 1.

ZMA (2011) Zoological Museum Amsterdam bird collection. < http://

nlbif.eti.uva.nl/zma3d/detail.php?id=399&sort=alphabet&type=family>

Accessed in February 2011.

Fangyuan HU A, 110, Newins-Ziegler Hall, University of Florida,

Gainesville, FL 326 1 1, USA. Email: huamay@ufl.edu

William MARTHY, Jalan Dadali No. 32, Bogor 16161, West Java,

Indonesia. Email: serambirds@yahoo.com

David LEE, The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, The Lodge,

Sandy, Beds., SG192DL, UK. Email: David.Lee@rspb.org.uk

Muhammad Nazri JANRA, Andalas University, Jin. Kampus Unand

- Limau Manis, Padang, West Sumatra 25163, Indonesia. Email:

mnjanra@gmail.com

Some significant avifaunal records from Bangladesh,

including first record of Black-headed Bunting Emberiza melanocephala

SAYAM U. CHOWDHURY

Bangladeshisornithologicallyoneofthe least well studied countries

in Asia. This short note presents some noteworthy observations

from Bangladesh between March 2008 and December 2009,

including one new speciesfor the country. These observations came

from a number of surveys and opportunistic birdwatching trips to

different parts of Bangladesh.

Black Francolin Francolinus francolinus

Dilip Das and I observed a total of 1 0 individuals and found one nest

of Black Francolin during 14-15 September 2009 in Kazipara

(26°29'21 ,04"N 88°20'1 0.77"E),Tetulia, Panchagarh, in the far north¬

west of Bangladesh, along the international border with India. The

habitat used by this population in Tetulia is chiefly cultivated land:

a combination of maize, sugarcane and sesame fields, grasslands

and patches of scrub dotted with small bamboo patches, along

with tea gardens and their environs. The national status of this bird

is Critically Endangered (IUCN Bangladesh 2000). Records away from

this Tetulia population are limited to a female found in Modhupur

forest in January 1 999 and one in Sangu valley in 2006 (Thompson

& Johnson 2003, Siddiqui etal. 2008). Presently, Kazipara in Tetulia

probably holds the largest population of the species in Bangladesh.

Woolly-necked Stork Ciconia episcopus

One Woolly-necked Stork was observed (and photographed) flying

south-east over Jamtala Khal, Katka, Sundarbans East Wildlife

Sanctuary (21 °51 7.01 "N 89°46'27.39"E) ata height of c.200 m at 1 4h28

on 10 October 2009 by Enam Talukdar, Gertrud Denzau, Helmut

Denzau, Monirul Khan, Ronald Haider, Sirajul Hossain, Zamiruddin

Faisal and myself. The most recent confirmed record of this stork

from Bangladesh was in 1888 in Sylhet division (Siddiqui etal. 2008).

Sight records reported by Sharif Khan from Bagerhat in 1970 and

Satkhira in 1989 (M. M. H. Khan in litt. 2011) were discounted as

unreliable.

Spot-bellied Eagle Owl Bubo nipalensis

Farhad Pavel and I observed a Spot-bellied Eagle Owl at 1 7h1 5 on

7 August 2008 in the north-eastern part (24°1 9'37. 1 4"N

91°47'33.02"E) of Lawachara National Park, Srimangal, Moulvibazar.

The bird's large size, deep black bars on pale white breast, and light

yellow bill were the key field marks used to identify this species,

which is a rare resident in Bangladesh (Siddiqui etal. 2008).

Black-headed Bunting Emberiza melanocephala

Three Black-headed Buntings were located on 1 0 October 2009 at

Katka, Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary (21o51'13.20"N

89°46'55.45"E), by Ronald Haider, Zamiruddin Faisaland myself.The

three birds were observed perching on a Phyllanthusemblica tree at

Katka meadow for five minutes (1 7h00— 1 7h05), using 10x42

binoculars. In addition, photographs were taken by each observer.

The birds exhibited a distinctive bunting profile, with longer

tails and stubby, conical bills, and were immediately identified as

an Emberiza species. Absence of a submoustachial stripe and

streaking on breast, breast-sides and flanks separated the birds from

the four Emberiza species hitherto recorded in Bangladesh — Yellow¬

breasted Bunting E. oureo/a, Chestnut-eared Bunting E. fucata, Little

Bunting £. pusilla and Black-faced Bunting E. spodocephala (Rashid

1 967, Husain 1 979, Khan 1 982, Harvey 1 990, Thompson et at. 1 993,

Grimmett etal. 1998, IUCN Bangladesh 2000, Grewal etal. 2002,

Thompson & Johnson 2003, Khan 2008, Siddiqui et al. 2008).

Separation of non-breeding and female plumages of Black-headed

Bunting and Red-headed Bunting E. bruniceps is difficult but the

observers are confident that the birds were Black-headed Buntings

86

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Forktail 27 (2011)

because they showed: a relatively long, conical bill; heavily chestnut-

tinged uppertail-covertsand rump; and a darkcrown. All three birds

were aged as immature on account of their pale yellow undertail-

coverts,fawn underparts and worn yellowish flanks. Earlier published

checklists for Bangladesh list four Emberiza species (see above), but

none mentions E. melanocephala; hence it can be considered a new

species for Bangladesh.

Black-headed Bunting breedsinthewesternPalaearcticand Iran.

It winters mainly in cultivated fields in southern Pakistan, west and

central India and infrequently eastern Nepal and eastern India, with

a few recent records from Jalpaiguri, West Bengal (S. Sen pers.comm.

2011). It has a known tendency to vagrancy further east with records

from South-East Asia in north-west, central and southern Thailand,

Singapore, northern Laos, northern Vietnam (Byers et at. 1995,

Rasmussen & Anderton 2005, Robson 2008), southern China, Japan

and northern Borneo (Dymond 1999).

Acknowledgements

I am extremely thankful to Paul Thompson, Nick Dymond and Alex Lees for

their comments on the Black-headed Bunting photos to confirm

identification and for their comments on the draft of this paper. I am also

thankful to Sumit Sen for providing current information on West Bengal

and Assam. I am grateful to Farhad Pavel, M. Abdullah Abu Diyan, Ronald

Haider, Shimanto Dipu, Zamiruddin Faisal, Samiul Mohsanin, Saniar Rahul,

Enam Talukder, Shama Hoque, Enam Ul Haque, Mayeen Uddin, Sirajul

Hossain, Monirul Khan and Dilip Das for their wonderful company in the

field. Special thanks are due to all my colleagues at Bangladesh Bird Club

and Wildlife Trust of Bangladesh for their support and encouragement.

References

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together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka. Second

edition. Delhi: Oxford University Press.

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Press.

Dymond, N. (1999) Two records of Black-headed Bunting Emberiza

melanocephala in Sabah: the first definite occurrence in Malaysia and

Borneo. Forktail 1 5: 1 02-1 03.

Grewal, B., Harvey, B. & Pfister, O. (2002) Birds of India including Nepal, Sri

Lanka, the Maldives, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Bhutan. London:

Christopher Helm.

Grimmett, R., Inskipp, C.& Inski pp, T. (1 998) Birds of the Indian Subcontinent.

London: Christopher Helm.

Harvey, W. G. (1990) Birds in Bangladesh. Dhaka: University Press.

Husain, K.Z. (1979) Birds of Bangladesh. Dhaka: Government of Bangladesh.

IUCN Bangladesh (2000) Red book of threatened birds of Bangladesh. Dhaka:

IUCN.

Khan, M. A. R. (1982) Wildlife of Bangladesh: a checklist. Dhaka: University of

Dhaka.

Khan, M. M. H.(2008) Protected areas of Bangladesh: a guide to wildlife. Dhaka:

Nishorgo Program, Bangladesh Forest Department.

Rashid, H. (1967) Systematic list of the birds of East Pakistan. Publication no.

20. Dacca: Asiatic Society of Pakistan.

Rasmussen, P. C. & Anderton, J. C. (2005) Birds of South Asia: the Ripleyguide.

Washington, D.C. and Barcelona, Spain: Smithsonian Institute and Lynx

Edicions.

Robson C. (2008) Birds of South-East Asia. London: New Holland Publishers,

Ltd.

Siddiqui, K. U., Islam, M. A., Kabir, S. M. H., Ahmed, A. T. A., Rahman, A. K. A.,

Haque, E. U., Ahmed, Z. U., Begum, Z. N. T., Hassan, M. A., Khondker, M.

& Rahman, M. M., eds. (2008) Encyclopedia of flora and fauna of

Bangladesh, Vol. 26. Birds. Dhaka: Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.

Thompson, P. M., Harvey, W. G., Johnson, D. L., Millin, D. J., Rashid, S. M. A.,

Scott, D. A., Stanford, C. & Woolner, J. D. (1993) Recent notable bird

records from Bangladesh. Forktail 9: 1 2-44.

Thompson, P. M. & Johnson, D. L. (2003) Further notable bird records from

Bangladesh. Forktail 19: 85-102.

Sayam U. CHOWDHURY, House- 1 (B-3), Road-7, Sector-4, Uttora,

Dhaka-1 230, Bangladesh. Email: sayam_uc@yahoo.com

Autumn migration of an Amur Falcon Falco amurensis from Mongolia

to the Indian Ocean tracked by satellite

ANDREW DIXON, NYAMBAYAR BATBAYAR & GANKHUYAG PUREV-OCHIR

Introduction

Amur Falcons Falco amurensis breed in the Eastern Palearctic from

Transbaikalia, Russia, and central Mongolia east to Ussuriland (south¬

eastern Russian Far East) and south to the Qinling Mountain range in

central China (Ferguson-Lees & Christie 2001). This small falcon

undertakes one of the most notable migrations of any bird of prey,

migrating between its east Asian breeding range and its southern

African wintering range. Amur Falcons depart their breeding areas in

late August and September and form large migratory flocks, moving

south through China skirting the eastern edge ofthe Himalaya to reach

north-east India and Bangladesh, wherethey settle temporarily tofatten

before embarking on the latter stage ofthe migration through the

Indian subcontinent and across the Indian Ocean to equatorial Africa

(Clement & Holman 2001, Bildstein 2006). The journey of 3,000 km

across the Indian Ocean typically takes place in late November and

December, aided by the prevailing easterly winds (Bildstein 2006,

Anderson 2009).

The Amur Falcon is not uncommon across most of its breeding

range, although detailed information on its population status and

trends is lacking (Ferguson-Lees & Christie 2001). It is a common

breeding species in the major river valleys ofthe forest steppe zone

of central and eastern Mongolia, where it typically occupies old nests

of Eurasian Magpies Pica pica for breeding. Currently there are no

major conservation concerns for the species, although it is known to

be harvested for food during autumn passage through north-east

India (Naoroji 2006). Satellite telemetry allows the routes of migrating

raptors to be mapped (Meyberg & Fuller 2007), whilst the recent

development of lightweight transmitters (<9.5 g) has enabled the

technology to be applied to small migratory falcons such as Eleonora's

Falcon F. eleonorae (Gschweng etal. 2009, Lopez-Lopez etal. 2009)

and Hobby F.subbuteo(Meyburgetal. 201 1). In this paper we describe

the autumn migration pathway of a single Amur Falcon fitted with a

satellite transmitter at its breeding site in central Mongolia as part of

a pilotstudyforimplementingtheactivitieslisted intheConvention

on Migratory Species (CMS) African-Eurasian Migratory Birds of Prey

Memorandum of Understanding.

Methods

An adult female Amur Falcon was trapped on 21 July 2009 at its

nesting site (47°39'43.0"N 105°51'53.8"E, altitude 1,378 m) in the

Khustayn Nuruu National Park, Tov Province, central Mongolia. We

fitted a 9.5 g solar-powered satellite transmitter (PTT-1 00, Microwave

Telemetry Inc., Columbia, MD, USA) by means of a Teflon ribbon

harness (Kenward 2001 ). The duty cycle ofthe satellite transmitter

was programmed for 1 0 hours on and 48 hours off. The total weight

of the PTT and harness was 1 1 g. The bird weighed 199 g when

Forktail 27 (2011)

SHORT NOTES

87

trapped, so the PTT and harness represented c.5.5% of its body

weight. Its wing length was 228 mm (maximum chord), tarsus 30.9

mm, tail length 1 1 9 mm, wingspan 690 mm, and total body length

282 mm.

After release at the capture site, the bird made several circles

overhead and landed on a hill opposite from where we were

standing. After resting and making an apparent effort to get rid of

the transmitter for about five minutes, ittookoff and flew towards

its nest site.

Satellite data was provided in DIAG format by Argos, extracted

using the MTI Data Parser and plotted in Google Earth.

Results

The coverage period for our satellite tracking lasted 131 days from

the date of deployment on 21 July to the last transmission on 28

November 2009. During this time, we received 58 locations on 29

days (selected data in Table 1 ). The accuracy of the location data,

based on Argos location classes, was generally low (Table 2). Despite

the low frequency and quality of location data, we were able to plot

the migration pathway of the bird from Mongolia to the Indian Ocean

(Figure 1).

Location data came from within the breeding area in the

Khustayn Nuruu National Park until late August, when the bird

shifted some 65 km north, between 21 and 31 August. It remained

in this post-breeding settlement area until at least 1 2 September. It

was located 350 km south-east in Dundgovi Province by 14

September and the next location came from Inner Mongolia, China,

on 22 September. The bird remained inthis part of Inner Mongolia

until at least 1 1 October before being located 680 km SSE in Henan,

central China, on 180ctober.

There were no further location data received from the PTT until

1 November, by which time the bird was near Hanoi, Vietnam, 1 ,650

km SSW of its location two weeks earlier. Three days later it was

located 960 km W near Mandalay in central Myanmar. By 9

November, it had crossed the plains of the Irrawaddy and Chind win

River systems to reach the Chin Hills and crossed the Indian border

into Manipur by 1 1 November. It remained in north-east India until

21 November, from where it headed south-west to the Bay of Bengal

Table 1. Location, timing, distance and direction of female Amur Falcon

movements tracked by satellite from 1 2 September to 28 November

2009.

and along the eastern seaboard of India to reach Andhra Pradesh

by 26 November. The final location data received for this bird came

some 63 hours later on 28 November, after it had travelled a further

1 ,780 km WSW. It was last located above the Indian Ocean 1,1 80 km

off the coast of Goa. In total, the bird was tracked along a pathway

of 8,1 45 km over a period of 78 days (1 2 September to 28 November),

hence moving an average of 1 04 km a day.

Kazakhstan

> 12 Sep

Mongolia

Uzbekistan

Kyrgyzstan

V:-,

L - - -C'V--

\

14 Sep

\

iSL- ■-

Turkmenistan

Afghanistan

rajlWstan„

-

• 22 Sep -11 Oct

% '-T v

1

China

> , ,

i~- - A; ,•

L/nited Arab

Emvates

Bhutan >•' - v yfa'- ~f

31Not „v

_ 11 Nov

India

• IS Oct

26 Nov

28 Nov

01 Nov

ljvwn’lvuj

Thailand Vietnam

Cambodia

Hong Kong

Philippine

Figure 1. Autumn migration

pathway of adult female Amur

Falcon tracked from its breeding

territory in central Mongolia to the

Indian Ocean from 12 September

to 28 November 2009.

safe

Malaysia

88

SHORT NOTES

Forktail 27 (2011)

The movement from the post-breeding settlement area in

central Mongolia to north-east India covered a pathway of 4,585 km

and took 60 days. During this first stage of the autumn migration

the bird utilised at least one stopover site in Inner Mongolia, where

it remained for 1 7-32 days. It arrived in north-east India sometime

between4and 1 1 Novemberand leftthe region between 21 and 23

November. On leaving north-east India from 21 to 28 November, it

travelled 3,470 km in 1 76 hours (average 473 km/day). At this stage,

it was also migrating at night, with location data obtained during a

flight over the sea in the Bay of Bengal from 02h49 to 08h20 (local

time UTC + 7 hrs) on 24 November, when the bird was c.140 km

offshore. Over a period of 60 hrs from 26 to 28 November, the Amur

Falcon covered a distance of 1 ,785 km, travelling at an average speed

of 30 km/h.

Discussion

Prior to embarking on its autumn migration this satellite-tagged

Amur Falcon shifted from its breeding territory to a post-breeding

settlement area in late August, where it remained for at least two

weeks, before embarking on its south-bound journey after 12

September. The early stages of migration through China were slow

with at least one prolonged stopover in Inner Mongolia. Amur

Falcons feed mainly on insects, especially grasshoppers, which are

often extremely abundant on the grazed steppe grasslands of

Mongolia and northern China (Le& Yonling 2008). The slow rate of

passage in the early phase of migration suggests that much of the

time the bird was foraging to build up energy reserves. This slow

progress was unlikely to be related to moulting patterns as Amur

Falcons completely moult their flight feathers in their African

wintering grounds (Symes & Wood borne 201 0), although some may

begin moult in their breeding areas (Schafer 2003). In the Lesser

Kestrel Falco naumanni, a related species that also migrates from

Mongolia to Africa, moult begins in the breeding area, is suspended

during migration and recommences two weeks after arrival in the

wintering grounds (McCann 1994).

Information on the migratory behaviour of Amur Falcons has

previously come from observations of migrating flocks, which have

provided a fairly well-described migration pathway, despite the fact

that the migration routes of the species occur in remote and poorly

watched areas of South-East Asia. Tordoff (2002) reviewed autumn

records in South-East Asia, reporting movements through northern

Laos in October, Chiang Mai province, northern Thai land, in October

and November and northern Vietnam in October, including over

1,400 passing through the Hoang Lien Nature Reserve in Lao Cao

province from 13-24 October 1997. Claims of wintering Amur

Falcons in Yunnan, China (Li 2004), could possibly be attributed to

passage birds in this province during November. These

observational records suggest that Amur Falcons migrate on a broad

front, perhaps extending c.1,000 km from the Hengduan Shan to

the Gulf of Tonkin, although some birds may cross the Himalayas in

central Nepal (Bildstein 2006) and further west in Uttarakhand

province, India (Naoroji 2006).

The female Amur Falcon in our study made a detour not just

around the eastern edgeoftheTibetan Plateau, but also around the

extensive north-south mountain chains of western Yunnan. By