Journal of Asian Ornithology & Number 30 (2014)
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Natural History Museum Library
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Forktail 30(2014)
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Cover picture: White-naped Tit Parus nuchalis, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India, September 2010
by Sharad Agrawal
ISSN 0950-1746
© Oriental Bird Club 2014
The Oriental Bird Club is a Registered Charity No. 297242
FORKTAIL
Number 30, 2014
CONTENTS
SATISH KUMAR SHARMA & VIJAY KUMAR KOLI
Population and nesting characteristics of the Vulnerable White-naped Tit Parus nuchalis at Sajjangarh Wildlife Sanctuary,
Rajasthan, India . 1
C. M. POOLE, G. W. H. DAVISON & S. RAJATHURAI
Marine surveys to study the movements of seabirds through the Singapore Strait 2010-201 3 . 5
ANDREW HART REEVE, TRI HARYOKO, MICHAEL K0IE POULSEN, PIERRE-HENRI FABRE & KNUD ANDREAS J0NSSON
New ornithological records from Buru and Seram, south Maluku, Indonesia, 1 995-2012 . 1 0
N. J. COLLAR &S.J. MARSDEN
The subspecies of Yellow-crested Cockatoo Cacatua sulphurea . 23
PHILIP D. ROUND, SOMCHAI NIMNUAN, DUANGRAT PHOTHIENG & KASEM CHUNKAO
Moult in the Asian Pied Starling Sturnus contra floweri population of Thailand . 28
SUSHANT DEY, SUBHASIS DEY, SUNIL K. CHOUDHARY & NACHIKET KELKAR
An annotated bird checklist of the Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India, with an
assessment of threats to bird conservation . 34
YUAN-HSUN SUN, MING-CHIH CHIU, CHING-FENG LI, MARK LIU, HSIN-JU WU & PO-JEN CHIANG
The seasonal home range and movements of Mandarin Ducks Aix galericulata on tributaries of the Tachia River,
central Taiwan . 41
ZHU LEI, YANG XIAO-NONG, HAO GUANG, HUANG QIN, LIU TIAN-TIAN, DAI ZI-YUE, WEI QIAN, RICHARD W. LEWTHWAITE
&SUN YUE-HUA
A review of the distribution of Black Eagle Ictinaetus malaiensis in mainland China . 45
PAUL M. THOMPSON, SAYAM U. CHOWDHURY, ENAM UL HAQUE, M. MONIRUL H. KHAN & RONALD HALDER
Notable bird records from Bangladesh from July 2002 to July 2013 . 50
THOMAS N. E. GRAY, EDWARD H. B. POLLARD, THOMAS D. EVANS, FREDERIC GOES, MARK GRINDLEY, KEO OMALISS,
PAUL H. NIELSEN, ORN SAMBOVANNAK, PHAN CHANNA & SANH SOPHOAN
Birds of Mondulkiri, Cambodia: distribution, status and conservation . 66
DAVID J. STANTON, BENA R. SMITH & KATHERINE K. S. LEUNG
Status and roosting characteristics of Collared Crow Corvus torquatus at the Mai Po Nature Reserve, Hong Kong . 79
SAYAM U. CHOWDHURY, MOHAMMAD FOYSAL, JOHN SHARPE & OMAR SHAHADAT
A survey for Black-bellied Tern Sterna acuticauda and other riverine birds on the Jamuna and Padma rivers in Bangladesh . 84
WONG SOON HUAT FELIX
The spread and relative abundance of the non-native White-crested Laughingthrush Garrulax leucolophus and
Lineated Barbet Megalaima lineata in Singapore . 90
GUO-JING WENG, HUI-SHAN LIN, YUAN-HSUN SUN & BRUNO A. WALTHER
Molecular sexing and stable isotope analyses reveal incomplete sexual dimorphism and potential breeding range
of Siberian Rubythroats Luscinia calliope captured in Taiwan . 96
ZHANG GUO-GANG, LIU DONG-PING, HOU YUN-QIU, JIANG HONG-XING, DAI MING, QIAN FA-WEN, LU JUN, MA TIAN,
CHEN LI-XIA, XING ZHI & LI FENG-SHAN
Migration routes and stopover sites of Pallas's Gulls Larus ichthyaetus breeding at Qinghai Lake, China, determined
by satellite tracking . 104
PHILIP D. ROUND, ENAM UL HAQUE, NICK DYMOND, ANDREW J. PIERCE & PAUL M. THOMPSON
Ringing and ornithological exploration in north-east Bangladesh wetlands . 109
AIWU JIANG, FANG ZHOU & NAIFA LIU
Significant recent ornithological records from the limestone area of south-west Guangxi, south China, 2004-201 2 . 1 22
NATURAL HISTORY
MUSEUM LIB ' a RY
05 JAN 2015
Forktail 30(2014)
Short Notes
JOHN C. MITTERMEIER, RYAN C. BURNER, CARL H. OLIVEROS, DEWI M. PRAWIRADILAGA, MOHAMMAD IRHAM, TRI HARYOKO
& ROBERT G. MOYLE
Vocalisations and display behaviour of Javan Woodcock Scolopax sat u rat a support its status as a distinct species . 1 30
SHAOBIN LI & WEIJUN PENG
Nest-site selection by Isabelline Wheatears Oenanthe isabellina on the Tibet plateau . 1 32
GABRIEL A. JAMIE & GEHAN de SILVA WIJEYERATNE
Similarity of the calls of juvenile Pied Cuckoo Clamator jacobinus and its Sri Lankan host species, Yellow-billed Babbler
Turdoides affinis . 133
V. J. ZACHARIAS & NATHAN H. RICE
The occurrence of the Willow Warbler Phylloscopus trochilus in the Indian subcontinent: notes from museum
specimen records . 134
N. J. COLLAR & R. P. PRYS-JONES
Lophura ignita macartneyi revisited . 1 35
ARTUR GOLAWSKI, ZBIGNIEW KASPRZYKOWSKI, CEZARY MITRUS & TOMASZ STANSKI
Observations of waterbirds on migration along two rivers in northern China during August 2010 . 138
MD. SHARIF HOSSAIN SOURAV
Black Francolin Francotinus francolinus in Bangladesh: breeding biology, status, threats and conservation . 142
JOHN A. TROCHET, MOHAMMAD IRHAM, ALAN T. HITCH, TRI HARYOKO, HIDAYAT ASHARI, DADANG DWI PUTRA
& ANDREW ENGILIS JR.
Range expansion of Lemon-bellied White-eye Zosterops chloris and Sooty-headed Bulbul Pycnonotus aurigaster
to south-east Sulawesi, Indonesia . 143
ASHWIN VISWANATHAN & ROHIT NANIWADEKAR
Diet and foraging behaviour of Purple Cochoa Cochoa purpurea in Namdapha National Park, India . 145
Guidelines for contributors
inside back cover
FORKTAIL 30 (2014): 1-4
Population and nesting characteristics of the
Vulnerable White-naped Tit Parus nuchalis
at Sajjangarh Wildlife Sanctuary, Rajasthan, India
SATIS H KUMAR SHARMA & VIJAY KUMAR KOLI
The White-naped Tit Parus nuchalis is endemic to India and found in two disjunct areas. It is classified Vulnerable by BirdLife International,
mainly due to its restricted distribution and declining population, which is attributed to habitat degradation. We studied the population,
distribution and nesting behaviour of the species between January 2007 and December 2009 at Sajjangarh Wildlife Sanctuary, Udaipur,
Rajasthan, India, where it was recently discovered. The species was seen throughout the year, but its habitat use changed with the seasons.
In summer, sightings were common in the lower-elevation thorny zone, while during the monsoon season birds used the upper-elevation
zone, dominated by the salai tree, Boswellia serrata. Sightings in winter were few, probably because the population mostly moved to
surrounding areas. The species is a secondary cavity nester with nests confined to the salai zone. A total of 12 nests were found in this zone,
all on B. serrata trees.
INTRODUCTION
White-naped Tit Parus nuchalis is an Indian endemic, restricted
to the west and south of the country in two disjunct localities. In
the west, its presence has been recorded in northern Gujarat,
particularly from Kutch (Tiwari & Rahmani 1996) and
Banaskantha districts (Trivedi 2009), while in Rajasthan it has been
recorded from Ajmer, Jalore, Nagore, Jaipur, Pali, Jodhpur, Jhalawar
(Tiwari 2001, Tehsin etal. 2005, Ali & Ripley 2007), Sikar (Sharma
2004), Udaipur (Sharma 2004, Mehra 2004) and Bikaner (Dookia
2007) districts. Ecological and behavioural studies in Gujarat have
been carried out mainly in scrub forest (Tiwari & Rahmani 1996),
dry deciduous and thorny forests (Joshua etal. 2007, Trivedi 2009).
The species is classified as Vulnerable (BirdLife International 200 1 ,
2014) due to its restricted range and population decline because of
deforestation, invasion by exotic plant species (Tiwari 2001), low
availability of tree cavities for nesting (Tiwari & Rahmani 1996)
and changing land-use patterns (Joshua et al. 2007), including
encroachment on natural habitat, overgrazing, lopping of trees for
domestic fuel, and habitat fragmentation (Tiwari 2001). The
ecology and ethology of this scarce species is little known and after
its discovery in Sajjangarh Wildlife Sanctuary, Udaipur district,
Rajasthan (Sharma 2004), this project was planned to study the
population and nesting characteristics in the recently regenerated
forest of this area.
STUDY AREA
Sajjangarh Wildlife Sanctuary, only 5.19 km2 in area, is the smallest
sanctuary in Rajasthan. It is located on and around Bansdahara
Hill, part of the Aravalli mountain range, about 5 km from the
centre of Udaipur city (24.58°N 73.68°E), at an altitude of 630
to 936 m. Prior to the middle of the last century, the area was
thickly forested and wild animals were abundant. However,
exploitation of the natural resources beyond sustainable limits
has left it in a precarious condition, but in 1987 its strategic
location and aesthetic, environmental and ecological
importance were recognised and it was made a wildlife sanctuary.
Effective protection and scientific management by the forest
department have resulted in progressive recovery of denuded areas
first to scrubland, and subsequently to woodland during the past
25 years. At the time of this study, young shrubs and trees were
growing throughout the area, particularly in the lower part.
Regeneration could be seen in upper reaches along with a few
remnants patches of older forest.
The forest is categorised as tropical dry forest (Champion &
Seth 1968) and today there are two distinct zones (Plate 1). Above
about 750 m the forest is dominated by the salai tree Boswellia
serrata and associated species such as Lannea coromandelica ,
Sterculia urens, Ficus arnottiana , Euphorbia caducifolia and
Anogeissus latifolia, while below this altitude the major species
include Acacia Senegal , Ziziphus nummularia , Z. mauritiana.
Plate 1. Two different vegetation zones of Sajjangarh Wildlife
Sanctuary: (a) upper salai zone, dominated by Boswellia serrata, ( b )
lower thorny zone, dominated by kumtha Acacia Senegal, 14 June 2007.
VIJAY KUMAR KOLI
2
SATISH KUMAR SHARMA & VIJAY KUMAR KOLI
Forktail 30 (2014)
Dichrostachys cinerea, Grewia tenax, G. villosa, G.flavescem , Prosopis
juliflora and Acacia nilotica. Euphorbia caducifolia is also seen in
few patches. For the purpose of the study, forest above 750 m is
described as ‘salai zone’ (about 25% of the area) and below it as
‘thorny zone’ (about 75% of the area).
The climate of the area is characterised by three seasons —
summer (March-June), monsoon (July-October) and winter
(November-February); June and July are the transitional months
between summer and monsoon. The maximum daily temperature
varies from 45°C in May to 25°C in January, and the minimum
night temperature from 26°C in July to 5°C in January. The average
annual rainfall in 2007-2009 was 577 mm.
METHODS
The study was carried out from January 2007 to December 2009.
As the habitat was open and uniform the line transect method was
used (Sutherland etal. 2005). Transects were laid on each aspect of
the hill i.e. east, west, north and south, to maximise coverage. Because
the forest is divided into two zones, four transects were placed in
the thorny zone, starting from the periphery (lower slopes) to the
mid-heights of the hill, while four were placed in the salai zone, from
mid-height to summit. Surveys were made on 8 days (one day for
one transect) each month between 06h00 and 19h00. The order of
completion of transects was selected randomly each month; each
was surveyed only once per month. Birds were located by visual
encounter or by means of their distinctive musical call (Tiwari &
Rahmani 1996, Trivedi 2009). When the species was encountered,
the habitat and the number of birds seen were recorded: solitary, in
pairs or in parties. Birds were also followed to locate their nests.
To estimate the change in habitat characteristics with altitude,
the reserve was divided into seven horizontal planar sections at
634 m, 684 m, 734 m, 784 m, 834 m, 884 m and 925 m altitude. In
each section, five 10x10 m plots were laid out at random on the
contour line and the type and number of the plant species in each
plot recorded. A minimum 100 m distance was maintained between
any two plots. At the end of the survey, the top six species, based
on relative abundance, were used to characterise changes in
vegetation with altitude.
A nest was considered to be occupied if an adult tit was found
entering the nest-hole repeatedly or nestlings were present at any
time during the study. The following nesting tree parameters were
recorded: species, height, number of main branches, girth at breast
height, basal area, distance to next tree, distance to nearest road,
path or trail traversed at least daily by vehicles or pedestrians, branch
diameter at cavity entrance, nest height above ground, nest opening
diameter, cavity type (primary or secondary) and cavity location (on
main tree trunk, primary branch, secondary branch or tertiary
branch) (Rivera et al. 2012).
To estimate cavity availability, cavity sampling was carried out
during the summer (non-breeding) season between March and June
every year (2007-2009), when most trees are leafless. Transect lines,
each 350 m long, were set up in the seven sections and all cavities
within 10 m on either side of each line were recorded. There are few
nesting data on P. nuchalis in the literature; we used a minimum
4 cm diameter cavity opening as an indication of a potential
nest site.
Manly’s selection index (Manly et al. 1993, Krebs 1999) was
used to determine nest-site selection in relation to availability in
the different habitats each year. Coefficients greater than 1.0
indicate preference, while values less than 1.0 indicate avoidance.
Selection coefficients were calculated using the following formula:
where w, was the selection coefficient for cavity category i, o, was
the ratio of the number of cavities occupied in category i to the
total number of cavities occupied, and p, was the ratio of the number
of cavities in category i located in the habitat to the total number
of cavities. SPSS version 17.0 was used for all statistical analysis.
RESULTS
Using the habitat characterisation plots it was shown that the upper
zone (above about 750 m) was dominated by salai Boswellia serrata
(38%), while the lower thorny zone was dominated by kumtha
Acacia Senegal (37%). The relative frequency of the 10 commonest
plant species is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Relative frequency of 1 IXWM Acacia Senegal
top 10 plant species at various 2 1KASM Acacia leucoohloea
altitudinal levels of Sajjangarh 3 1=1 Prosopis iuliflora
Wildlife Sanctuary 4 qjjjj Cassia fe,u/a
5 1 1 II I II Holoptelea integrifolia
6 K/4M Boswellia serrata
7 133AM Lartnea coromandelica
Parus nuchalis was seen more or less throughout the year in the
sanctuary ( Table 1 ) : birds were seen on 1 66 occasions — single birds
on 57 occasions, two pairs (sex identified), 43 presumed pairs (but
sex not identified) and four times in small parties. All the parties
were seen in 2009, groups of five birds were seen on 21 May, 15
June and 16 September and a group of four birds was seen on 12
September. The overall encounter rate was 1.72/km. A total of 90
sightings were recorded in the salai zone and 76 in thorny zone.
Numbers changed with season: 1 1 in winter, 65 in summer and 90
in the monsoon. No meaningful conclusions could be drawn from
the winter sightings, but during the summer 74% were recorded in
Table 1. Season-wise sight records of Parus nuchalis in Sajjangarh
Wildlife Sanctuary, Rajasthan, from 2007 to 2009. *pair including male
and female; 5 pairs but sex unidentified
Forktail 30(2014)
White-naped Tit Parus nuchalis at Sajjangarh Wildlife Sanctuary, Rajasthan, India
3
Table 2. Main characteristics (mean ± s.d.) of the twelve Boswellia
serrata trees used by Parus nuchalis in Sajjangarh Wildlife Sanctuary
the thorny zone, whereas in the monsoon season 78% were in the
salai zone.
The White-naped Tit is a secondary cavity nester — twelve
different nests were found, two in 2007 (on 23 & 25 July), six in
2008 (on 10 June, two on 8 July, two on 9 July and one on 27 July)
and four in 2009 (on 17 & 20 June and two on 27 July). The two
nests found in 2007 were re-used in 2008 and five nests found in
2008 were re-used in 2009. Cavities were available in the salai zone
and provided by two tree species: Boswellia serrata and Lannea
coromandelica. All observations of nesting were in the salai zone in
B. serrata trees. No suitable cavities were seen in trees in the thorny
zone. Cavity selection coefficient (w,) values for A. serrata were 0.5
in 2007, 1 .25 in 2008 and 1.0 in 2009. Characteristics of the nesting
trees are shown in Table 2. All nesting trees were young to middle-
aged trees and 1 1 nests were in green branches with one, found in
2007, in the dried butt of a branch. Birds nested in the monsoon
season and at this time they are very vocal. The highest nest was at
920 m near the Monsoon Palace. Four nests were located less than
50 m from a water source, while eight were more than 100 m from
water. At Gorella view point, on 27 July 2008, a male and female
were watched for nearly an hour from about 1 1 hOO, as they pulled
and collected threads for their nest from a piece of gunney bag lying
on the road — the nest tree was located about 25 m away. Evidently
fibres were being used for lining the nest cavity. Tourist vehicles on
the road did not disturb their activities. During summer 2008, three
P. nuchalis nest sites were occupied by Chestnut-shouldered
Petronias Petronia xanthocollis and two nests by Brahminy Starling
Sturnus pagodarum. Frequently these birds were seen clinging to
and entering holes in the area.
DISCUSSION
The study shows that the sanctuary appears to support a healthy
population of P. nuchalis, which can be seen throughout the year
but which shows a preference for different habitats during different
seasons. Tiwari & Rahmani (1999) observed that P. nuchalis
preferred scrub forest in Kutch, which is dominated by Acacia
leucophloea,A. nilotica, Prosopis cineraria, Ziziphus jujuba , Capparis
aphylla, Salvadora oleoides, S.persica and Grewia tenax. In the same
district, Joshua et al. (2007) reported that the species was sighted
mainly in large Acacia, Prosopis and Salvadora patches along dry
riverbeds. In Jessore Sloth Bear Sanctuary, Gujarat, thorny forests
are the typical habitat for A nuchalis (Trivedi 2009). Hussain et al.
( 1 992) made similar observations in Kutch. Some studies (Uttangi
1995, Lott & Lott 1999) in southern India also support its
preference for dry thorny scrub forest. Dookia (2007) reported its
presence in the Thar Desert; massive planting of Acacia tortilis in
the Indira Gandhi Canal Command Area has produced thorny-
xeric vegetation, which has attracted many new bird species in these
areas, including A nuchalis.
The overall encounter rate (1.72/km) in this study is higher
than previously found. White-naped Tit is present in Kutch (Joshua
et al. 2007) and Banaskantha (Trivedi 2009), Gujarat, but encounter
frequencies are low: 0.18/km in Jessore Sanctuary (Trivedi 2009),
while Joshua et al. (2007) encountered only 18 individuals in
Narayan Sarovar Sanctuary; Tiwari & Rahmani (1996) recorded
41 individuals in their four-year study period in Kutch. Hussain et
al. (1992) observed 43 individuals (27 sightings) in the same area
between 1976 and 1991- Some studies (Tiwari 2001, Chhangani
2002, Sharma 2004, Tehsin et al. 2005, Dookia 2007, Sangha
2008, Kala201 1) in Rajasthan have also confirmed its scarcity and
patchy distribution in the state but did not determine a clear
population trend. In southern India there is little information
apart from some reports of its occurrence (Uttangi 1995, Lott &
Lott 1999).
Our observations of 12 nests add substantially to the known
information about nesting behaviour of this species. Tiwari &
Rahmani (1996) identified a single nest of P. nuchalis in a 5 m tall
old Salvadora persica tree and recognised its association with this
tree species in Kutch, where it provides holes for nesting and
roosting. We observed a difference in encounter frequency between
the two forest types that might be associated with nesting during
the monsoon season (May-August). The sanctuary forests are
regenerating and lack large, old or dead and decaying trees, and the
young regenerating thorny forest provides almost no nesting sites.
However, in the salai zone trees with soft and smooth wood, such
as B. serrata and L. coromandelica, are used by many wood-boring
species such as Rufous Woodpecker Micropternus brachyurus.
Yellow- fronted Pied Woodpecker Dendrocopos mahrattensis. Lesser
Golden-backed Woodpecker Dinopium benghalense and
Coppersmith Barbct Megalaima haemacephala (Sharma 1998).
Cavity development begins when branches are broken by the wind
or Hanuman Langurs Semnopithecus entellus and subsequently,
during the rainy season, rainwater enters and rotting is started by
wood fungi. Although L. coromandelica is common in the upper
reaches and holes are also available in their trunks and branches,
not a single hole was occupied by P. nuchalis, even though these
holes are occupied by Petronia xanthocollis during the summer.
During the rainy season, hollows in L. coromandelica are filled with
a dirty, white, highly viscous and gummy secretion which may make
them unsuitable for the tits. In contrast, the hollows in B. serrata
are all-weather hollows’ that can be used in all three seasons. This
may be a major reason why P. nuchalis selects only B. serrata for
nesting in the study area. The smooth surfaces of the trunks of this
species also restrict access of predators such as snakes.
After the end of the breeding season winter starts and there are
few sightings of P. nuchalis in either forest zone of the sanctuary.
The insect population decreases in winter and the P. nuchalis
population disperses to nearby thorny areas or probably towards
warmer areas where insect availability is better. Most trees flower
and fruit during the summer in India’s tropical deciduous forests
(Singh & Kushwaha 2006), including the study area. At the end of
winter, Acacia leucophloea fruit ripen while A. Senegal fruit ripen in
summer. Heavy infestation by the larvae of some (unidentified)
insects is seen in the fruit pods of these trees. These are an important
source of food for A nuchalis. Since these plant species are abundant
in the lower thorny zone (figure 1), the tit congregates in this zone
in the summer to feed on the larvae.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to the forest department, Rajasthan, and officials of
Sajjangarh Wildlife Sanctuary for supporting this study. Technical support
4
SATIS H KUMAR SHARMA & VIJAY KUMAR KOLI
Forktail 30 (2014)
by Ramchandra Meghwal was very helpful in preparing the final version of
the paper, as were the comments of two anonymous reviewers.
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for Birdwatchers 38 (2): 25-27.
Sharma, S. K. (2004) New sight records of Pied Tit Parus nuchalis \n Rajasthan.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 101: 162-163.
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Satish Kumar SHARMA, Assistant Conservator of Forests,
Wildlife Sanctuary Jaisamand, Jaismand Post, Udaipur 3 1 3 905,
Rajasthan, India.
Email: sksharma56@gamil.com
Vijay Kumar KOLI, Wildlife Research Laboratory, Department
of Zoology, University College of Science, Mohanlal Sukhadia
University, Udaipur 31 3 001, Rajasthan, India.
Email: vijaykoli87@yahoo.in
FORKTAIL 30 (2014): 5-9
Marine surveys to study the movements of seabirds
through the Singapore Strait 201 0-201 3
C. M. POOLE, G. W. H. DAVISON & S. RAJATHURAI
Until October 2010 there had been little concerted work and nothing published on the movements of seabirds through the sea area known
as the Singapore Strait, which lies between the Strait of Malacca to the west and the South China Sea to the east. This paper details the
results of regular monthly surveys in the period from October 2010 to November 201 1 and eight follow-up surveys in 201 2 and 201 3. These
surveys confirmed that the Singapore Strait is a key passage area for Aleutian Tern Onychoprion aleuticus and the NearThreatened Swinhoe's
Storm-petrel Hydrobates monorhis — with over 500 of the latter being recorded in a few hours on a single day on 17 September 201 1 . Pomarine
Skua Stercorarius pomarinus and Long-tailed Skua S. longicaudus were recorded on several occasions. Short-tailed Shearwater Ardenna
tenuirostris on spring passage, and significant numbers of Bridled Terns O.anaethetus in autumn. The skuas. Red-footed Booby Sulasula and
Short-tailed Shearwater had not previously been recorded in the area. Based on the data gathered, the Singapore Strait is a marine migratory
bottleneck as defined by BirdLife International and should qualify as an Important Bird Area.
INTRODUCTION
The Singapore Strait (hereafter the Strait) is the 105 km long,
16 km wide area of sea between the Strait ol Malacca in the west
and the South China Sea in the east. Singapore is on the north of
the channel and the Indonesian Riau archipelago on the south. It
is one of the busiest commercial shipping lanes in the world.
Until the 1980s observations of seabirds in these waters were
largely incidental. They were mainly odd records of Swinhoe’s
Storm-petrels Hydrobates monorhis observed or collected from ships
or the Horsburgh Lighthouse, Singapore (1.330°N 104.407°E) —
specimens are now held in the Raffles Museum of Biodiversity
Research (Wells 1 999, Wang & Hails 2007, Lim 2009). In the 1980s
and 1990s Richard Ollington and others, including SR, began using
ferries operating between Singapore and the Indonesian Riau
archipelago to collect data on passing seabirds (Ollington & Loh
1996a), and on 13 October 1996 a vessel was specifically chartered
for such a survey. It was in this period that Swinhoe’s Storm-petrel
was first found to pass through the area in significant numbers (Lim
1989, Ollington 1993, Rajathurai 1996), and Aleutian Tern
Onychoprion aleuticus was first recorded as a passage and winter
visitor (Kennerley & Ollington 1998). However, by the late 1990s
interest in seabirds had waned and there was no further focused
effort to observe birds at sea until October 2010.
On 2 October 2010 CMP, GWHD, SR and a group of
Singapore resident birdwatchers chartered a sport-fishing boat and
travelled east along the Strait between Singapore and Batam island,
Riau Archipelago, Indonesia (Figure 1), searching primarily for
Swinhoe’s Storm-petrel (Foley 201 1, Poole etal. 2011). The success
of this charter generated such interest that monthly surveys
continued for the next year with funding from the Singapore
National Parks Board as part of the government’s Comprehensive
Marine Biodiversity Survey of Singapore, and have continued
subsequently by the same group and others, some with the support
of Nature Society (Singapore).
METHODS
The surveys were carried out using a chartered 30-ft sport-fishing
boat; the boat normally left the marina on the south-east tip of
Sentosa Island at about 06h00, clearing Singapore immigration just
west of the Sisters’ Islands (1.213°N 103.830°E), and surveys began
between 07h00 and 07h30 (first light 06h45-07h00). The surveys
followed the same route, first crossing the main shipping lane at
the Strait’s narrowest point south of St John’s Island and heading
east, north of Batam island on the southern edge of the shipping
lane to a yellow buoy off the north coast of Batam (1.217°N
103.995°E) about 19 km to the east. From that point the route
changed depending on birds and weather, but usually headed north
and east towards Pengerang, Johor, Malaysia, and then returned
along the northern side of the shipping lane to Sisters’ Islands
immigration point, checking buoys along the way for roosting terns
(Figure 1).
Sea conditions were usually calm with good light and visibility,
and observations were made from the open stern or upper deck of
the boat by 1 0 observers. When possible, interesting sightings were
pursued and photographic records obtained. Chumming was tried
on three occasions but without noticeable success and was
discontinued. Once the surveys funded by the Singaporean
National Parks Board had been completed in November 2011,
follow-up trips observed the same timetable and route. The only
Figure 1. Map of Singapore Strait
showing the usual survey route.
6
C. M. POOLE, G. W. H. DAVISON & S. RAJATHURAI
Forktail 30 (2014)
exceptions were one exploratory trip to the west in March 2012
and three trips to Horsburgh Lighthouse (also known as Pedra
Blanca), a small rock island marking Singapore’s most easterly
territory (1.330°N 104.408°E) on 20 August 2011, 16 June 2012
and 28 July 2013; these three visits were primarily focused on
assessing the status of nesting terns.
The route taken travelled through Singaporean, Indonesian
and Malaysian waters. GPS data were recorded for all sightings,
but due to the confusion over exact territorial limits for bird
recording purposes in the area, and the fact that many of the
sightings were potentially recorded in all three countries, no specific
attempt has been made here to locate records to specific geo¬
political level.
RESULTS
The results of 22 surveys carried out between 2 October 2010 and
15 September 2013 are shown in the Appendix.
Swinhoe's Storm-petrel Hydrobates monorhis
Strong eastward spring passage in May and westward autumn passage
in September recorded, particularly the latter. The maximum
numbers recorded were 96 passing east on 5 May 2012 and 510
passing west on 17 September 2011. Two birds on 18 June 2011
may have been very late passage migrants or possibly over-summering
birds. The latest autumn record was of two on 13 November 2010
(Tan Kok Hui pers. comm.). Birds usually exhibited strong
migratory behaviour, flying low over the sea, quickly and
determinedly, so that the boat could not keep pace with them.
However, occasionally they were found on the water resting or
feeding, often in pairs, and sometimes allowed close approach (Foley
2011, Poole et al. 2011). Autumn passage was much stronger and
over a longer period (September to November) than spring passage
(May). Ail birds seen at close range in the autumn period appeared
to be adult, the plumage often heavily worn, although none was seen
in active moult. In contrast birds seen in May, and specimens
collected in May examined by CMP in the Raffles Museum of
Biodiversity Research, Singapore, were all fresh, confirming that they
moult in the Indian Ocean during the winter (Flood & Fisher 2011).
The species is a passage migrant through the Strait between its
north-east Asian breeding grounds and Indian Ocean non-breeding
grounds (Flood & Fisher 201 1, BirdLife International 2014). First
recorded from the Strait in May 1913 (Wells 1999), birds have since
been recorded in spring and autumn, usually from ferry trips
between Singapore and Indonesia (Lim 1989, Ollington & Loh
1996a). Highest previous counts were more than 100 between
Batam, Bintan and Singapore on 28 September 1991 (Rajathurai
1996), an estimate of T,000 birds per hour’ observed from the
Batam Island to Singapore ferry on 5 September 1993 (Ollington
1993), 360+ from the ferry between Bintan Island and Singapore
on 3 October 1996 (SR pers. obs.) and 138 recorded from a boat
charter to Horsburgh Lighthouse on 13 October 1996 (SR pers.
obs.). The 1993 estimate was based on an extrapolation of the
number of birds seen passing the ferry across a 3 km wide part of
the Strait; unfortunately the observer does not state how many birds
were actually counted (Ollington 1993).
Wells (1999) states:
The migrant stream has not been followed out of Singapore
waters but must turn south as only one autumn bird has
been recorded in the Melaka Straits: collected at One-
Fathom Bank lighthouse, latitude 2°5 1 2 N, on 7 November
1918. Sightings at the NW entrance of the Java Sea accord
and birds have been seen and collected on appropriate dates
in the Sunda Straits, which is perhaps this populations route
to the Indian Ocean...
It would seem unlikely that having passed west through the
Strait birds then turned back south-south-west along the east coast
of Sumatra and through the islands of the Riau archipelago to reach
the Sunda Strait. Instead we consider it far more likely that all the
birds we saw continued north up the Malacca Strait to the Indian
Ocean. Recent spring and autumn records from exploratory marine
surveys off the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia from Parit Jawar
in Johor, Port Dickson in Negri Sembilan and Tanjung Dawai in
Kedah (Bird i-witness 2014), as well as an additional historical
record further north (Lewin 1960), add weight to the theory that
birds migrate through the Strait and then continue north through
the Malacca Strait into the Indian Ocean.
It is not clear why the numbers of birds recorded in the Strait are
much higher in autumn than spring, or why as yet only worn adults
have been recorded in the autumn passages. Perhaps birds of different
ages use different routes at different times ? There are no winter records
from the Strait, despite historical specimen records in December and
January from Borneo and Java (Wells 1999, Mann 2008).
BirdLife International (2014a) estimates a global population
of 260,000 mature individuals, and recently revised the species’s
conservation status to Near Threatened on the basis that the
population is expected to undergo a moderately rapid decline over
the next three generations, owing primarily to the impact of
introduced species (rodents and plants) on the breeding grounds
in Russia, Japan and South Korea.
Short-tailed Shearwater Ardenna tenuirostris
Small eastward spring passage with eight on 14 May 2011 seen well
enough to identify to species; not recorded in autumn. Several other
records of ‘small dark shearwater sp.’ similarly moving east in early/
mid May 2012 and May 2013 were assumed to be this species. Not
previously recorded from the Strait (Wells 1999, Wang & Hails
2007, Lim 2009), also apparently not previously recorded from
Indonesian waters (N. Brickie pers. comm.). These records match
the timing of recent sightings from the west coast of Peninsular
Malaysia and Thailand (Wells 1999, Bakewell & Tan 2010) and
Hong Kong (Welch & Yu 2010). However, contra to what is
suggested by Bakewell & Tan (2010), the timing and direction of
the Singapore Strait records suggest that some birds are moving
from the Indian Ocean south-west through the Malacca Strait into
the South China Sea via the Singapore Strait before travelling north
past Hong Kong and into the Pacific.
A possible record of a bird photographed on a flooded field at
Woodlands, Singapore, after a storm in June 1998 (Lim 2009) was
in fact, based on a copy of the photograph, a Wedge-tailed
Shearwater A. pacifica (Wang & Hails 2007, Wells 2007 and pers.
comm., CMP pers. obs.).
Lesser Frigatebird Fregata ariel
Two immature birds were recorded en route to and at Horsburgh
Lighthouse on 20 August 2011. There are a few previous records
from Singapore, including Horsburgh Lighthouse (Wang & Hails
2007, Lim 2009), however, it is known to roost in numbers on
Rengis, an island off Pulau Tioman, Pahang, Malaysia, only 170
km to the north (Wells 1999).
Christmas island Frigatebird Fregata an drew si
One immature flew east through the Strait on 4 May 2013 and
photographs and video footage were obtained (http://
ibc.lynxeds.com/video/christmas-frigatebird-fregata-andrewsi/
immaturefemale-flying- alongside-boat- fish-bill) . There are very few
earlier records from the Strait (Wells 1999, Wang & Hails 2007,
Lim 2009). The species is Critically Endangered with a global
population of 2,400 4,800 mature individuals (BirdLife
International 2014b) and breeding is confined to Christmas Island
over 1,300 km to the south of Singapore. However, a regular non-
Forktail 30 (2014) Marine surveys to study the movements of seabirds through the Singapore Strait 201 0-201 3
7
breeding population of over 200 birds has recently been
documented from Jakarta Bay, Indonesia, 870 km to the south-east
(Noni 2012), and satellite-tracking data show that significant
numbers of birds move north through the Sunda Strait between
Java and Sumatra and into the Java Sea. It is also recorded from the
Pahang-Johor archipelago where Wells (1999) states ‘they roost
together with the more numerous Lesser Frigatebirds on Rengis’;
therefore its occurrence in the Strait should be expected.
Red-footed Booby Sula sula
An immature at the east end of the Strait close to Malaysia on 13
May 2012 was photographed by Francis Yap. Not previously
recorded from the Strait (Wells 1999, Wang & Hails 2007, Lim
2009); there is a record from the Riau archipelago to the south in
August 1984 (Rajathurai 1996, Wells 1999), and a recent record
of a bird photographed perched in a tree in north-west Singapore
in February 2011 (Chan et al. 2013). The nearest currently
documented breeding colonies are on Christmas Island over 1,300
km to the south, and in the Flores and Banda Seas, Indonesia, over
1 ,900 km to the south-east (de Jong 20 1 1, N. Brickie pers. comm.).
Aleutian Tern Onychoprion aleuticus
Recorded regularly between August and November, numbers
peaked annually in mid-September with maximum counts of at least
20 on 17 September 2011, 24 on 15 September 2012 and at least
30 moving west on 15 September 20 13. At least one, possibly three,
in the western Strait on 12 March 2012 may have been on early
return passage. Two immature (first-summer and second-summer)
birds recorded on 20 August 2011 suggest oversummering by young
birds in the area. Birds were regularly found resting on flotsam, but
were never seen using the buoys favoured by the larger terns.
First recorded in the Strait in September 1994 (Kennerley &
Ollington 1998), the main wintering areas are little known, but are
believed to be coastal throughout Indonesia (Hill & Bishop 1999,
Goldstein etal. 2014). It is surprising that the species was not recorded
in the winter months, especially as the wintering site at Tanjong Balai,
Pulau Karimun, Indonesia, documented in the 1990s by Kennerley
& Ollington (1998) is only 50 km to the south-west across the Strait.
However, Ollington & Loh ( 1 996b) also only recorded it in the Strait
on passage and not in winter, so it may be that the wintering range off
Pulau Karimun is very restricted for some reason. For logistical reasons
this specific area was not visited during surveys and the status of birds
at this site should be followed up as a priority.
This species breeds in the north Pacific Ocean on the coasts of
Sakhalin and Kamchatka, Russia, on the Bering and Pacific coasts
of Alaska and on the Aleutian Islands, USA (BirdLife International
2014c), with a previously estimated global population of 30, GOO-
35, 000 individuals (Delany & Scott 2006). However, recent work
in Alaska indicates that the species is in steep decline, with an
estimated 95% decrease over the past three generations and a current
estimated Alaskan population of just 4,000-7,000 breeding
individuals (Renner et al. 2014).
Bridled Tern Onychoprion anaethetus
Previously confirmed breeding at Horsburgh Lighthouse between
2003 and 2008 with a maximum of over 200 individuals estimated
to be present (Yong D. L. in litt.) and as a significant eastward
passage migrant through the Strait in autumn with ‘Daily totals
....above 300 through September,...’ (Wells 1999). Recorded on
passage in small numbers westward in May and large numbers
eastward from August to November, peaking in September, with a
maximum of 609 moving east on 17 September 2011, compared
to only 40 west on 13 May 2012. Not recorded during the winter
or early spring. About 100, including recently fledged juveniles,
recorded around Horsburgh Lighthouse on 20 August 2011 and
similar numbers, again including juveniles, on 28 July 2013.
Little Tern Sternula albifrons
A common breeding resident in Singapore (Wang & Hails 2007,
Lim 2009). Recorded in small numbers, usually closer to shore,
between March and November. Wells (1999) mentions a post¬
breeding passage from August to at least early December and a
spring passage from late February to early May. However, on 10
March 20 12 over 150 birds were recorded flying east in the western
Strait; these were presumably not part of a local population.
White-winged Tern Chlidonias leucopterus
An uncommon passage migrant and winter visitor to Singapore,
with numbers declining recently (Wang & Hails 2007, Lim 2009).
Recorded early in spring and late in autumn with a maximum of 8 1
on 19 March 2011.
Black-naped Tern Sterna sumatrana
Recorded in small numbers, usually closer inshore between March
and November. Eight birds (adults and immatures) perched on rocks
in suitable breeding habitat at Horsburgh Lighthouse on 20 August
2011 and 18 there on 16 June 2012, indicate they may breed there.
Also regularly recorded close to the rocks of Pulau Anak Sambu on
the very northern tip ofBatam in the summer months, indicating it
may also breed there, and five pairs recorded around small islands
in the western Strait on 10 March 2012. An uncommon resident in
Singapore, with only one recent documented breeding locality in
the north-east at Loyang (Wang & Hails 2007, Lim 2009). Recorded
between 2003 and 2008 as a non-breeding visitor to Horsburgh
Lighthouse, with 200-300 birds counted but no summer records
and no confirmation of breeding (Yong D. L. in litt.).
Common Tern Sterna hirundo
An uncommon passage migrant and winter visitor to Singapore
(Wang & Hails 2007, Lim 2009). This species was recorded in small
numbers, maximum four birds, in spring and autumn, with summer-
plumage adults of both tibetana and longipennis subspecies noted
(based on bill colour). Seen resting on and foraging around flotsam
along with Aleutian Tern (see above).
Lesser Crested Tern Thalasseus bengalensis
Recorded throughout the year, except in July and August, with a
maximum of 47 on 19 November 2011; often found roosting on
large buoys with Greater Crested Terns T. bergii — probably under¬
recorded as distant terns were unidentified due to possible confusion
with the latter species. Fifteen birds in non-breeding plumage were
in the Strait on 14 May 201 1, one on 18 June 2011 and a further six
with large numbers of Greater Crested Terns at Horsburgh
Lighthouse on 16 June 2012, indicating the regular presence of
oversummering (first-year?) birds in the area. Although known to
be a common winter visitor to Singapore, these records may represent
some of the largest numbers recorded in the area and the first recent
midsummer records (Wang & Hails 2007, Lim 2009).
Greater Crested Tern Thalasseus bergii
Known as a common winter visitor to Singapore, with few previous
midsummer records (Wang & Hails 2007, Lim 2009). Recorded
throughout the year, except in April and May. Often found roosting
in mixed flocks on large buoys (see above). The maximum number
recorded in the Strait was 44 on 1 5 October 2011 with an indication
of eastward passage in autumn. On 16 June 2012, 108 in non¬
breeding plumage, and showing no sign of nesting behaviour, were
counted at Horsburgh Lighthouse. However, a juvenile-plumaged
bird actively food-begging from adults on a buoy close to the
Singapore shore off Bedok on 19 November 2011 may indicate that
some birds breed closer than the current nearest known breeding
colonies, on Layang-Layang in the South China Sea 1,300 km to
the north-east (Poole 1994), or in coastal Myanmar (Wells 1999).
8
C. M. POOLE, G. W. H. DAVISON & S. RAJATHURAI
Forktail 30 (2014)
Long-tailed Skua Stercorarius longicaudus
One immature on 2 October 2010, one non-breeding adult on 20
August 2011, and another non-breeding adult moving west with
migrating Bridled Terns on 13 May 2012, all photographed. Dates
and behaviour indicate the species is perhaps a passage migrant
(Wells 1 999, Wang & Hails 2007, Lim 2009); this is the commonest
of the three skua species recorded in recent years off the north¬
west coast of Peninsular Malaysia (D. Bakewell pers. comm.).
Arctic Skua Stercorarius parasiticus
One immature on 15 January 2011 (Foley 201 1, Poole eta/. 2011),
one immature 16 April 2011 and two immatures on 15 October
2011 were all photographed in the same eastern area of the Strait
between north-east Batam, Changi and Johor. Two subsequently
seen and photographed by Francis Yap and others from the Nature
Society (Singapore) on 20 December 2011 between Batam and
Changi appear from comparison of photographs to be the same
two immature birds we saw in the same area two months previously
(CMP pers. obs.), indicating possible overwintering in the area.
There is only one previous published record from Singapore, off
the north-west coast in September 1988 (Wells 1999, Lim 2009).
Pomarine Skua Stercorarius pomarinus
One immature on 13 November 2010 and another on 19 March
2011 (Foley 201 1 & Poole et al. 2011) were harassing terns in the
east of the Strait between Batam, Indonesia, Changi, Singapore and
Johor, Malaysia. Not previously recorded from the Strait (Wells
1999, Wang & Hails 2007, Lim 2009).
DISCUSSION
These surveys have confirmed that the Strait is a key passage area
for migrating Swinhoe’s Storm-petrel — with over 500 being
recorded in a few hours on 17 September 2011 and 470 on
15 September 2012 — and Aleutian Tern, which is commoner
in the Strait than Common Tern, in contrast to areas further
north in Peninsular Malaysia (Wells 1999). In addition there
were summer records of Swinhoe’s Storm-petrel and Aleutian
Tern, indicating possible oversummering of both species.
Pomarine, Arctic and Long-tailed Skua were all recorded on several
occasions during passage and in winter, none of which had
previously been photographed in the Strait. Short-tailed
Shearwater, similarly previously unrecorded in the Strait, was
confirmed on spring passage, and significant numbers of Bridled
Terns were documented moving east in spring and west in autumn.
In addition Red-footed Booby was recorded for the first time in
the Strait. These surveys have greatly increased our knowledge of
the status of pelagic birds in the Strait and, as highlighted by Poole
et al. (2011), have shown how much is still to be understood about
seabirds in South-East Asia and what could be learned by similar
efforts in other areas.
Based on the data gathered on the numbers of the Near
Threatened Swinhoe’s Storm-petrel passing through the Strait during
these surveys the area qualifies as an Important Bird Area (IBA) under
Category A4ii and iv Congregations (BirdLife International 2010).
It is particularly important as it captures one of the four major parts
of a seabird lifecycle, qualifying under the BirdLife International
(2010) marine IBA definition ofa migratory bottleneck: ‘sites whose
geographic position means that seabirds fly over or round in the course
of regular migration. These sites are normally determined by
topographic features, such as headlands and straits’.
The majority of the birds observed during the surveys appeared
to favour the centre or south side of the Strait, with few birds
observed close to the Singapore side particularly among the high
shipping use and ship mooring areas. This potentially fits with the
findings of Schwemmer et al. (201 1), who in a study of the impact
of commercial shipping on loons ( Gavia sp.) and sea-ducks in
Europe found that birds ‘showed strong behavioral responses and,
possibly more importantly, altered distribution pattern in response
to ship traffic’. If this were the case, continuing port development
in northern Batam could potentially make the southern part of the
Singapore Strait less favourable to seabirds in the future, restricting
passage to an even narrower corridor.
According to the US Energy Information Administration
(2012) over 60,000 vessels transit the Strait of Malacca annually
and they identified the area as ‘the key chokepoint in Asia’ for oil
transportation, stating ‘at its narrowest point in the Phillips
Channel of the Singapore Strait, Malacca is only 1.7 miles wide
creating a natural bottleneck, as well as potential for collisions,
grounding, or oil spills’. In early 2014 three small spill incidents
were reported in the space of two weeks (Environment News
Service 2014). The threat of any pollution incident in this mid¬
channel area where most ol the birds are moving, particularly in
the months of May and August-October, could have a severe
impact on certain migratory seabird populations, especially so for
potentially significant percentages of the global population of
Swinhoe’s Storm-petrel and Aleutian Tern.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Con Foley, Lau Jia Sheng, Lau Weng Thor and Tan Kok Hui deserve special
thanks as regular participants. Special thanks also go to Con Foley for providing
an amazingphotographic record of almost everythingwe saw. Howard Banwell,
Richard Carden, Alfred Chia, Simon Cockayne, Martin Kennewell, George
Kinman, John Kinman, Benjamin Lee, David Li, Lim Kim Chuah, Lim Kim
Seng, Low Bing Wen, Nature Society (Singapore) Bird Group, Ng Bee Choo,
Alan O wyong, Timothy Pwee, Frank Rheindt, Gloria Seow, Hiroyuki Shimizu,
Serin Subaraj, Robert Tizard, Francis Yap, Alex Yip and Yong Ding Li all took
part in or assisted with the surveys. Thanks go to Summit Marine Systems Ltd
for organising the boat and assisting in many ways.
David Bakewell, Nick Brickie, Bob Flood, Steve Howell, Phil Round and
David Wells all provided useful comments and discussion on status and
identification issues regarding the region’s seabirds.
Finally we would like especially to thank the National Parks Board of
Singapore, and particularly Lena Chan, Linda Goh and Jonathan Ngiam, for
their support of many of these surveys.
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BirdLife International (2010) Marine Important Bird Areas toolkit:
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of seabirds at sea. Cambridge UK: BirdLife International. Version 1.2:
February 201 1.
BirdLife International (2014a) Species factsheet: Oceanodroma monorhis.
Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 17/02/2014.
BirdLife International (2014b) Species factsheet: Fregata andrewsi.
Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 19/02/2014.
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Appendix.
Birds seen on 22 surveys carried out between 2 October 2010 and 1 5 September 201 3 in the Singapore Strait.
recorded but not counted
FORKTAIL 30 (2014): 10-22
New ornithological records from Buru and Seram,
south Maluku, Indonesia, 1995-2012
ANDREW HART REEVE, TRI HARYOKO, MICHAEL K0IE POULSEN, PIERRE-HENRI FABRE & KNUD ANDREAS J0NSSON
Although the islands of Buru and Seram in eastern Indonesia support unique avifaunas with many endemic and near-endemic species,
these have been little studied and are poorly known. Basic data on the distribution, abundance and habitat use of these species are urgently
needed to better understand their ecology and conservation needs. Here we present new information obtained during three ornithological
expeditions to Buru (October-December 1 995, May-June 1 996, January-February 201 1 ) and one to Seram (January-February 2012). Our
records extend the known altitudinal ranges of 32 species, including rare or threatened endemics such as Salmon-crested Cockatoo Cacatua
moluccensis, Purple-naped Lory Lorius domicella and Seram Thrush Zoothera joiceyi, and distinctive endemic subspecies of Variable Kingfisher
Ceyx lepidus and Red-bellied Pitta Pitta erythrogaster. Notes are included on all species encountered that are endemic to south Maluku or
have a designated IUCN threat category of Near Threatened or higher, including a new observation of the Endangered, rarely recorded
Rufous-throated White-eye Madanga ruficollis. Although our records significantly improve understanding of the distribution of Buru and
Seram's birds, they also highlight the need for further fieldwork on the upper slopes of the islands' highest mountains, particularly the
unexplored high plateau of Buru's Gn Kapalat Mada.
INTRODUCTION
The large Maluku islands of Buru, area 9,505 km2, maximum
altitude 2,735 m, and Seram, area 18,410 km2, maximum altitude
3,027 m, lie within the biogeographical region of Wallacea, the
transition zone between faunas of Asian and Australian origin,
which is a well known hotspot of avian endemism (Wallace 1869,
White & Bruce 1986, Coates & Bishop 1997). Both islands are
designated Endemic Bird Areas (Stattersfield et al. 1998), with
avifaunas characterised by a high proportion of range-restricted
species including 10 endemics on Buru and 14 on Seram and its
small satellite islands (Stattersfield et al. 1998). Recent work
indicates that some endemic subspecies should be raised to species
level (Rheindt & Hutchinson 2007b, Andersen et al. 2013, Collar
et al. 2013, Irestedt et al. 2013) and a new species of owl has been
described from Seram (Jonsson et al. 2013).
Despite the obvious ornithological interest of these islands,
knowledge about the distribution and status of their birds remains
very incomplete. Data obtained from the ornithological exploration
of Buru and Seram up to the 1980s were summarised by White &
Bruce (1986). In the following years, the Operation Raleigh
Expedition visited Seram from July to September 1987 (Bowler &
Taylor 1989, Bowler 2009), carrying out fieldwork in Manusela
National Park including Gn Kobipoto and Gn Binaiya — reaching
2,850 m on the latter. In November 1989-January 1990 the
Manchester Indonesia Islands Expedition carried out fieldwork on
both islands (Marsden 1992, Jepson 1993, Marsden et al. 1997,
Marsden & Fielding 1999, Jones et al. 2001, 2003). On Buru work
was carried out on the north coast and inland to Danau Rana (770
m) in the centre of the island, and surveys were done up to 1,200
m. Data gathered by these expeditions were a major source of the
information on Buru and Seram in Coates & Bishop (1997), the
key ornithological reference for the region. From the mid-1990s to
the present, we are aware of two large-scale projects on the islands.
In 1995-1996, BirdLife International’s Indonesia Programme
surveyed Buru, working at both coastal and inland forest sites, and
reaching 1,760 m on Gn Kapalat Mada (Poulsen & Tambert 2000).
Their records broadened the known altitudinal ranges of many
species. Cambridge University’s Wae Bula Expedition to north-east
Seram in July-September 1996 carried out the first major
ornithological survey outside Manusela National Park (Isherwood
et al. 1997, 1998, Ekstrom & Isherwood 2000). More recently,
Rheindt & Hutchinson (2007a, b), Arndt & Persulessy (2010) and
Lansley et al. (2011) have made shorter visits to both islands, as
have birdwatching tour groups, notably recording the endemic
Black-lored Parrot Tanygnathus gramineus on Buru (Robson 2013,
2014).
Our observations from expeditions to Buru and Seram made
between 1995 and 2012 are reviewed here, including data from
fieldwork on Buru with BirdLife International’s Indonesia
Programme in 1995-1996 not previously reported in Poulsen &
Lambert (2000) or Robson (1996, 1997). In January-February
201 1, a team from the Natural History Museum of Denmark and
the Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense, Indonesia, conducted
fieldwork on Buru, inland from Waikeka on Gn Kapalat Mada
(2,729 m). This was a collecting expedition aimed primarily at
obtaining tissue samples and skins for biogeographic studies (e.g.
Fabre et al. 2014, Jonsson et al. 2014). The team returned to visit
Seram in January-March 2012, with the same main objectives as
in 201 1, but with additional focus on collecting bird community
structure data. Work was carried out on Gn Binaiya (3,027 m) in
Manusela National Park and at a site on the north coast. We report
many new altitudinal records, some of which significantly change
the understanding of species distribution on Buru and Seram,
together with notes pertaining to all southern Maluku endemic and
threatened species encountered in order to address the currently
limited knowledge of these islands’ unique avifaunas.
STUDY SITES AND METHODS
Buru: 1995-1996
Yan Persulessy (YP), David Purmiasa (DP) and MKP participated
in the British Ornithologists’ Union/BirdLife International 1 994—
1996 Maluku Expedition to identify potential protected areas,
making three visits to Buru in 1995 and 1996. In October-
November 1995 the island was circumnavigated, mostly by canoe,
and ornithological surveys carried out from 0-1,340 m, usingpoint
counts and mist-nets around three forest camps inland from Fogi
village (03.336°S 126.043°E) in the foothills of Gn Kapalat Mada.
Trapped birds were photographed and released. Altitude was
measured with a Garmin GPS, as on all subsequent expeditions to
Buru and Seram. Surveys covered an altitudinal range of a few
hundred metres at each site: Camp I (03.331°S 126.055°E) in
logged forest at 570 m (13-20 October) about 4 km inland from
the west coast; Camp II (03.328°S 126.071°E) in logged forest at
670 m (21-23 October) about 2 km north-east of Camp I; Camp
III (03.320°S 1 26.080°E) the boundary of logged forest and primary
Forktail 30 (2014)
New ornithological records from Buru and Seram, south Maluku, Indonesia, 1 995-2012
11
4
• 28
Figure 1. Map of Buru and Seram
showing localities mentioned in
the text.
montane forest at 950 m (24-30 October ) about 1.5 km north¬
east of Camp II. The team returned to Gn Kapalat Mada (22
November- 13 December 1995) and worked at four forest camps
inland from Waikeka village (03.148°S 126.058°E) on the north¬
west coast 20 km north of Fogi. Surveys from 0-1,760 m again
used point counts and mist-nets: Camp IV (03.192°S 126.081°E)
in logged forest at 300 m (26-28 November ), about 5.5 km south¬
east of Waikeka; Camp V (03.207°S 126.077°E) in logged forest at
680 m (29 November-2 December) 2 km south-west of Camp IV;
Camp VI (03.217°S 126.078°E) in primary montane forest at 1,100
m (3-5 December) about 1 km south of Camp V; Camp VII
(03.230°S 126.082°E) in primary montane forest at 1,460 m (6-8
December) 1.5 km south o'f Camp VI. A base in Waikeka (10-12
December) was used to survey secondary forest and cultivated areas
(0-100 m). Survey work during the third visit to Buru, from 28
May to 10 June 1996, focused on mangrove habitat and Melaleuca-
dominated monsoon forest in the east of the island. Figure 1 shows
important sites visited on our expeditions.
Buru: 26 January- 1 6 February 2011
KAJ, TH, PHF and MKP participated in this collecting expedition,
during which birds captured in mist-nets were photographed,
measured and prepared as study skins, with tissue samples being
taken; specimens are held at Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense
(Indonesia) and the Natural History Museum of Denmark. This
protocol was repeated during the 2012 Seram expedition (see
below). During the visit, precipitation was relatively light, with
irregular showers and heavy rain on only a few occasions. From
Waikeka, the 1995 expedition route up the north-west slopes of
Gn Kapalat Mada was followed closely and mist-nets were set near
four camp sites: Camp A (03.192°S 126.078°E) an old logging camp
in secondary growth with many palm trees at 230 m (30-31
January) — secondary growth gave way to primary forest between
Camps A and B, and the remaining fieldwork was carried out in
undisturbed habitat; Camp B (03.192°S 126.078°E) at 690 m (2-
3 February) about 1.5 km south of Camp A; Camp C (03.2 17°S
126.075°E) at 1,100 m (4-7 February) 1 km south of Camp B;
Camp D (03.226°S 126.079°E) in cloud forest with heavy moss
cover on the trees at 1,440 m (7-14 February) about 1 km south¬
east of Camp C. Attempts to reach the high plateau above 2,000 m
failed, as steep cliffs impeded further progress and to the best of
our knowledge this area remains unexplored.
Seram: 30 January-23 February 2012
All authors participated in the 2012 expedition during north
Seram’s rainy season with the main focus on collecting skins and
tissue samples, although AHR carried out surveys each morning
and afternoon at Camps I and II. From 31 January to 3 February,
mist-nets were set up between 50-200 m in the hills behind Sawai
village (02.96l°S 129.20 1°E) on the north coast of central Seram.
This area, lying close to the boundary of Manusela National Park,
consisted of disturbed forest, interspersed with gardens planted
with fruit trees, mostly durian; but many native tree species
remained, with dense canopy cover in some places.
The second field site, Camp I (03.138°S 129.482°E) at 1,000 m
in Manusela National Park on the lower slopes of Gn Binaiva, was
12
ANDREW HART REEVE etoi
Forktail 30 (2014)
reached via the villages of Huahulu, Roho and Kanikeh. It is an
area of primary forest crossed by many streams — some wide and
deep — several km south of Kanikeh. Between 6 and 11 February,
mist-nets were set up between 950-1,050 m and between 1,300-
l, 350 m. Surveys were made in a 1 km2 area south of Camp I, mostly
at 800-1,000 m, Irom February 7- 1 1. KAJ and MKP departed on
12 February, leading to reduced mist-netting effort at Camp II
(03.145°S 129.474°E)at 1,350 m, about 1.5 km south-west of Camp
1(13-17 February). The weather was cool and very wet, with heavy
rainfall every day. Surveys and mist-netting were concentrated on
a single main trail from the camp to the summit, mostly below 1,630
m, with a few visits and very limited mist-netting up to about 1,900
m. The terrain here is steep, and covered by primary montane forest.
Access to 3,000 m is possible on Gn Binaiya, but to our knowledge
no extensive surveys have been undertaken above 2,000 m.
RESULTS
The following notes include all species encountered in the field
that are endemic to south Maluku or have a designated IUCN
threat category of Near Threatened or higher, as well as other species
for which novel data was collected. The present threat status as
evaluated by BirdLife International (2014) is given next to the
relevant species name. Subspecies are named (where known) for
polytypic species, as many are highly distinctive; subspecies-level
taxonomy follows del Hoyo et al. (1992-2011). The following
records expand the known altitudinal ranges of the birds of Buru
and Seram, contribute to knowledge of historical population trends,
regional movements, and the occurrence of scarce species, document
unusually high counts oi some species, describe little-known
plumage variations and report the establishment of introduced
species.
Buru species accounts
Moluccan Megapode Eulipoa wallacei (Vulnerable)
Near-endemic to Maluku. On 23-24 November 1995, MKP was
shown 1 5 newly collected eggs at nesting grounds on sandy beaches
at Air Buaya (see Figure 1). The collectors claimed to take 10-20
eggs daily and local people in Wamlana also reported collecting
eggs. These localities were not visited in 2011, and no further
observations were made.
Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis coromandus
In 1995, two were recorded in Fogi village on 13 October; one in
Waikeka on 25 November and two between Wae Apu and Mako
on 13 December. In 1996, 20 were observed at Wae Apu on 6 June
and five at Mako on 9 June. The species was not seen in 20 1 1 , but
little time was spent in suitable habitat. The Manchester Indonesia
Islands Expedition recorded more than 20 birds at two sites in
December 1989 (Jepson 1993); the only previous record is a note
that it was collected by Denin on 30 October 1913 (Siebers 1930).
The paucity of old records may indicate that this species has
increased in the past century.
Lesser Frigatebird Fregata ariei arie!
Large flocks flew east past Leksula (3.78 1°S 126.563°E) on 10 and
11 October 1995 — about 1,000 birds were counted each day,
passing mainly between 16h30 and 18h45. About 75% were adult
males and flocks included about 20 Great Frigatebirds F. minor. In
1921 Toxopeus recorded large numbers of Lesser Frigatebirds
passing Leksula heading for a roost on Nusa Eglaten, a small island
just east of Leksula, and was informed by local people that birds
had previously roosted on Batu Kabal, another small island nearby
(Siebers 1930). It appears that the species continued to roost in
large numbers on islands east of Leksula, at least up to 1995.
Eagle sp. Hieraaetus or Lophotriorchis sp.
In 1 995 unidentified eagles were seen inland from Fogi (four days),
and inland from Waikeka (two days). All these birds were very
similar in appearance to adult light-phase Booted Eagle Hieraaetus
pennatus, a species unknown from Wallacea. The 1989 Manchester
Expedition also recorded an unidentified eagle on Buru (Jepson
1993), which was probably the same species — in this case, juvenile
Rufous-bellied Eagle Lophotriorchis kienerii was suggested. Small
eagles seen on Halmaherain 1989 and 1994, and on Seram in 1996,
have been identified as Little Eagle Hieraaetus morphnoides (King
1990, Coates & Bishop 1997). The Little Eagle subspecies weiskei
found in New Guinea and Maluku is now considered to be a
separate species — Pygmy Eagle Aquila (Hieraaetus) weiskei
(Gjershaug et al. 2009). All the above records from Halmahera,
Seram and Buru are likely to be of Pygmy Eagle.
Great Cuckoo Dove Reinwardtoena reinwardtii reinwardtii
A single individual was photographed on 8 February 2011 above
Waikeka at 1 ,430 m — the only record. The previous highest record
on Buru was 1,300 m (Poulsen & Lambert 2000).
Pompadour Green Pigeon Treron pompadora aromatica
The distinctive subspecies aromatica , endemic to Buru, may merit
treatment as a full species (Rasmussen & Anderton 2005, Rheindt
& Hutchinson 2007b, Collar 2011). The status and habitat
requirements of this taxon are not well understood. Although it is
considered to be moderately common on Buru (Coates & Bishop
1997), we never observed it in the wet forests of west Buru. Our
only record, a single bird, was near sea-level at Wae Apu in west
Buru, 4 June 1996.
Long-tailed Mountain Pigeon Gymnophaps mada mada
Endemic to Buru and Seram, this species occurs on Buru from the
lowlands to 2,060 m (Coates & Bishop 1997), although it is doubtful
whether any ornithologists have reached this altitude on Buru. In
October 1995, 33 birds were seen inland from Fogi from 750-1,250
m; 1 1 were in a single tree. In November and December 1995, 75
birds were seen inland from Waikeka between 650-1,760 m. In
2011, five birds were seen near Waikeka, between 100-1,100 m.
Blue-fronted Lorikeet Charmosyna toxopei
(Critically Endangered)
This Buru endemic was not found, despite interviewing many local
people and conducting full-day searches for it at Air Buaya (24
November 1995) and Waikeka (1 1 December 1995). Both sites
are within 25 km of Teluk Bara, where a few observations had been
reported in November and December 1989 (Jepson 1993,Marsden
et al. 1997, BirdLife International 2001). No dedicated searches
were made for the bird in 201 1, and it was not observed. The only
confirmed records of the species are the seven birds brought to
Toxopeus in 1921-1922 (Siebers 1930). This species appears to be
very rare.
Red- cheeked Parrot Geoffroyus geoffroyi rhodops
Common below 1,000 m in 2011; seen twice at 1,440 m inland
from Waikeka — two on 12 February and five on 13 February —
well above 900 m, the highest previous record for Buru (Coates &
Bishop 1997).
Black-lored Parrot Tanygnathus gramineus (Vulnerable)
This little-known and rarely recorded Buru endemic has been
thought to be one of the world’s very few nocturnal parrots (Siebers
1930). In 1995, calls in the night that were believed to be this species
were heard inland from Waikeka (see Rudyanto 1996, BirdLife
International 2001, Collar 2006). Unidentified flight calls thought
to be those of parrots were heard on several nights until three hours
Forktail 30 (2014)
New ornithological records from Buru and Seram, south Maluku, Indonesia, 1 995-2012
13
after sunset in 2011, inland from Waikeka at 1,100-1,500 m.
However, recent daytime observations of this species by other
visitors (Robson 2013, 2014) call into question its supposed
nocturnality.
Buru Racquet-tail Prioniturus mada
Endemic to Buru. In 1995, 57 birds were recorded between 250-
1,300 m in logged and primary forest inland from Fogi, and nearly
100 birds were seen from 0-1,750 m inland from Waikeka, where
the species was also recorded in cultivation near the village. Birds
were usually seen singly or in small flocks, the largest containing
16 birds. In 201 1 there was only one observation — two birds inland
from Waikeka at 1,100-1,450 m. We attribute the difference
between 1995 and 2011 to a seasonal reduction in the local
availability of preferred fruits rather than a population decline;
there were noticeably fewer trees fruiting here in 2011, and
consequently fewer feeding aggregations of pigeons and parrots.
Common Paradise-kingfisher Tanysiptera galatea ads
In 201 1, a juvenile perched at 1,100 m inland from Waikeka on 5
February was the only observation — well above 500 m, the highest
previous record (Coates & Bishop 1997).
Variable Kingfisher Ceyx lepidus cajeli
Andersen et al. (2013) suggest that subspecies cajeli , endemic to
Buru, should be treated as a full species. Many of the 2011 records
were above ‘920+ m’ the highest previous record for Buru (Coates
& Bishop 1997). Nineteen birds were mist-netted inland from
Waikeka between 3-1 1 February (1 at 700 m, 12 at 1,100 m, 6 at
1,440 m).
Red-bellied Pitta Pitta erythrogaster rubrinucha
Irestedt et al. (2013) propose that subspecies rubrinucha , endemic
to Bum, should be treated as a full species. One to three birds were
calling inland from Fogi in primary forest at 200- 1 , 000 m on most
days between 14 and 30 October 1995; the call is similar to
subspecies piroensis on Seram. One bird was caught on 25 October.
Up to three birds were calling almost every night between 1-8
December 1995, inland from Waikeka in primary forest at 680-
l, 500 m. From 8 to 14 February 2011, two or three birds called
every afternoon/evening at about 1,440 m, inland from Waikeka,
and a single bird was caught here on 1 1 February.
Black-faced Friarbird Philemon moluccensis
This south Maluku endemic was encountered very frequently on
Buru. In 1995-1996 it was found from sea-level to at least 1,760
m, in all wooded areas including mangroves, and 598 individuals
were recorded during 166 point counts, including eight mist-netted.
Birds carrying nesting material were seen on 19 and 30 October
1995. In 2011, the species was common almost everywhere from
sea-level to 1,500 m.
Buru Honeyeater Lichmera deningeri
Buru endemic; in 1995, six were recorded, on 3 and 5 December in
primary montane forest inland from Waikeka at 1,240-1,500 m.
Between 1 1-14 February 2011 one or two birds could be seen at
any given time visiting the flowers of a climbing vine inland from
Waikeka at 1,450 m. We estimated that about 10 individuals were
present each day. The only other 2011 record was a bird mist-netted
about 100 m from the flowering vine on 13 February (Plate 1).
Wakolo Myzomela Myzomela wakoloensis wakoloensis
Formerly considered conspecific with Scarlet Honeyeater M.
sanguinolenta , this primarily montane honeyeater is endemic to
Buru and Seram (Coates & Bishop 1997). In 1995, it was only seen
inland from Fogi, where it was uncommon — two were recorded
on 18 October at 680 m, one on 25 October at about 1,000 m, and
one on 30 October at 1,200 m. In 201 1, 2-3 birds were seen daily
from 1 1-13 February at the same flowering vine frequented by Buru
Honeyeater (see above).
Buru Cuckooshrike Coradna fortis (Near Threatened)
A little-known Buru endemic (Coates & Bishop 1997). Nine birds
were recorded inland from Fogi between 500-1,340 m, from 17-
28 October 1995, but it was only recorded once inland from
Waikeka, when YP saw two near sea-level on 10 December 1995.
In 2011, six birds were recorded inland from Waikeka at 1,100-
1,440 m, between 5-14 February.
Drab Whistler Pachycephala griseonota examinata
In 1989, Marsden et al. (1997) found this Maluku and Sula Islands
endemic to be at least moderately common in northern Buru.
However, in 1995, only four birds were seen, although more were
probably heard, so the species may have a patchy distribution across
the island. Drab Whistler was not recorded in 2011. All 1995
records were from logged and primary forest inland from Fogi and
Waikeka, where it was seen from 800-1,100 m, and probably heard
from sea-level to 1,420 m. It is described as uncommon on Buru
with an altitudinal range between about 500-1,300 m (Coates &
Bishop 1997).
Black-eared Oriole Oriolus bouroensis bouroensis
Endemic to Buru and Tanimbar. Described as ‘common on Buru
where usually mistaken for the less numerous Black-faced Friarbird
(Wallace 1863)’ by Coates & Bishop ( 1997). This was not thecase
during our visits — the oriole was common but well outnumbered
by the friarbird here. However, separating these species in the field
can be confusing, which may explain why the Manchester Indonesia
Islands Expedition failed to record any orioles on Buru in 1989
(Jepson 1993). In 1995, the species was recorded inland from Fogi,
but its abundance there could not be assessed as team members
were still learning to separate it from the friarbird. Later in 1995,
Black-eared Oriole was found to be rather common inland from
Waikeka in secondary, logged and primary forest from sea-level to
1,460 m. In 1996, five were recorded from Wae Apu on 4 June, and
several more near Metar in dry forest dominated by Melaleuca
leucadendra — one on 7 June, 18 on 8 June, and seven on 9 June. In
2011, twelve were seen and several photographed inland from
Waikeka between 220-1,430 m.
Tawny-backed Fantasl Rhipidura superfine
Buru endemic. In 1995, 20 birds were seen and another four mist-
netted, all in primary montane forest inland from Fogi and Waikeka
between 950-1,750 m. About 20 birds were observed in 2011
inland from Waikeka (including three mist-netted) at 1,400-1,450
m between 8-14 February.
White-naped Monarch Monarcha pileatus buruensis
Although described as moderately common on Buru (Coates &
Bishop 1997), only four birds were seen in 1995, in logged and
primary forest inland from Fogi and Waikeka from 160-900 m. It
was unexpectedly recorded near Metar in dry forest dominated by
Melaleuca leucadendra on 8 June 1 996. No observations were made
in 2011.
Black-tipped Monarch Monarcha loricatus
Buru endemic. In 1995, four birds were mist-netted and another
25 seen in secondary, logged and primary forest inland from Fogi
and Waikeka between 0-1,270 m. In 2011, three were seen and
another eight mist-netted inland from Waikeka at 700-1,440 m
between 3—7 February (Plate 2). This is the highest altitude at
which the species has been recorded.
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ANDREW HART REEVE etal.
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Dark-grey Flycatcher Myiagra galeata buruensis
This Maluku endemic is uncommon on Bum between 0-800 m
(Coates & Bishop 1997). In 1995, 16 were seen and another 18heard
from 0-900 m, mostly in secondary forest near Waikeka, but also in
logged forest inland from Fogi and Waikeka. In 1996 there were
records from Metar, in dry forest dominated by Melaleuca leucadendra
(a habitat typical of eastern Burn), including eight on 7 June, 19 on 8
June, and five on 9 June. A few more were recorded in mangroves at
KajeliBayinMayandJune 1996. In 201 1, six were seen and one caught
inland from Waikeka in 20 1 1 between 0- 1 ,450 m, the highest altitude
at which the species has been observed on Buru.
Golden Bulbul Alophoixus affinis mysticalis
Collar et al. (2013) suggested that the Buru subspecies mysticalis
should be treated as a full species. This is supported by our molecular
data which suggests a relatively long period of isolation between the
Buru and Seram forms, with individuals from the two islands
showing 1 1.1 % uncorrected pairwise distances in the mitochondrial
gene ND2. In 1995-1996, it was common up to 1,750 m (Poulsen
& Lambert 2000). In 201 1, it was fairly common in both degraded
and primary forest inland from Waikeka (0- 1 ,450 m), where at least
25 individuals were seen between 30 January-17 February.
Chestnut-backed Bush Warbler Bradypterus castaneus
disturbans
Although the species is described as being not uncommon on Buru
(Coates & Bishop 1997) it was seldom recorded, with no
observations in 1995-1996 and only three in 201 1 — two sightings
and one bird mist-netted inland from Waikeka between 9—14
February, all in primary forest at 1,430-1,450 m.
Mountain White-eye Zosterops montanus montanus
In 20 1 1 on 1 February, a most unexpected observation was a foraging
flock of about 150 Mountain White-eyes moving quickly through
the canopy of secondary forest at only 480 m, inland from Waikeka.
The birds’ abdomens were grey-coloured, sometimes showing a
yellow central stripe, precluding confusion with Buru Yellow White-
eye Z. buruensis , which has yellow underparts. Apparently, this
common and widespread species has not previously been recorded
below 500 m anywhere in its broad range (Coates & Bishop 1997,
van Balen 2008). The species’s altitudinal range on Buru is 1,200-
2,000 m (Coates & Bishop 1997) and all other observations of
Mountain White-eye in 20 1 1 were between 1 , 1 00- 1 ,440 m.
Buru Yellow White-eye Zosterops buruensis
Buru endemic. More than 200 birds were recorded during 1995, in
logged and primary forest inland from Fogi and Waikeka between
100-1,750 m. In 2011, about 50 were seen inland from Waikeka
between 1,100-1,450 m. Birds were generally observed in small
flocks.
Rufous-throated White-eye Madanga ruficollis
(Endangered)
This species is the sole representative of the genus Madanga,
endemic to Buru. On 7 December 1995, DP and MKP saw two
birds in a mixed-species feeding flock in montane forest ( 1 ,460 m)
inland from Waikeka (Robson 1996, Poulsen & Lambert 2000,
BirdLife International 2001) — the first record of the species since
it was described in 1 923- One bird was climbing up and down mossy
tree trunks in a nuthatch-like manner. On 1 1 February 201 1, PHF
photographed a bird inland from Waikeka at 1,430 m, again
behaving in a nuthatch-like manner in a mixed-species flock. The
only other records we are aware of since 1995 are two birds
photographed by Rheindt & Hutchinson (2007a) above Memboli
in central Buru at 1,750 m on 31 August 2006. They observed the
same nuthatch-like behaviour and noted that ‘the birds seemed to
be restricted to a peculiar type of montane forest that is
characterised by strong epiphytic growth and stunted tree growth’.
This corresponds exactly with our observations. However, we
disagree with their suggestion that the species is probably common
in this habitat type, as a total of 1 1 field days spent in appropriate
habitat in 1 995 and 2011 yielded sightings of only three individuals.
It is probably not safe to say very much about the overall abundance
of this montane species as the higher altitudes of Buru remain
unexplored. Rheindt & Hutchinson (2007a) mentioned another
sight record from the 1990s, citing C. Robson (in litt. 2006), but
this refers to the 7 December 1995 sighting by DP and MKP.
Buru Thrush Zoothera dumasi (Near Threatened)
This Buru endemic montane species is found from 600-1,520 m
(Coates & Bishop 1997, Poulsen & Lambert 2000). It was not
recorded with certainty in 1995-1996, but in 2011 six were mist-
netted in dense primary montane forest inland from Waikeka —
three caught at 1,100 m on 6-7 February (Plate 12), and three at
l, 440 m on 9-13 February.
Streaky-breasted Jungle Flycatcher Rhinomyias additus
(Near Threatened)
This Buru endemic was described in 1900, and then went
unrecorded from 1921 (Siebers 1930) to 1995 (Robson 1996). In
1995 it was rather common in logged and primary forest inland
from Fogi at altitudes from 470-1,100 m; here it was seen almost
daily with a total of nearly 40 birds recorded. Birds in the previously
unknown juvenile plumage were also caught here (Plate 3). It was
less common inland from Waikeka, where five birds were observed
in 1995 at 680-1,460 m. In 201 1, ten were seen and another four
mist-netted inland from Waikeka; the birds were caught at 1,100
m (one on 5 February) and 1,440 m (three on 13 February). All
records were from primary forest. This species sits upright on bare
branches, sallying out to catch passing insects, or hunts through
foliage after prey. Birds frequently follow mixed-species feeding
flocks. The songpost is often a bare branch in the forest mid-storey
and the species only occasionally descends into the undergrowth.
Cinnamon-chested Flycatcher Ficedula buruensis buruensis
In 1995, this southern Maluku endemic was recorded at 900-1,500
m, with five caught inland from Fogi between 25-28 October, and
four caught inland from Waikeka between 2-7 December. Similar
numbers were seen in both areas. In 201 1, one bird was seen and a
total of eight were caught in mist-nets inland from Waikeka at 480-
1,430 m.
Little Pied Flycatcher Ficedula westermanni
The first records of this montane flycatcher on Buru were made
inland from Fogi at 1,340 m in 1995 (Robson 1996). Vocalisations
that were judged to be this species were tape-recorded in 1995
inland from Waikeka at 1,460 m, and on 14 February 2011 it was
photographed in the same area at 1,450 m.
Records of widespread, mostly migratory species
from Buru
Here we summarise observations of six globally widespread (and
primarily migrant) species that are infrequently recorded from
south Maluku, made on Buru in 1995, 1996 and 2011; these may
help to clarify their status and movements within the region:
Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus: rare migrant/resident— one
at Namlea, 27 January 2011.
Common Tern Sterna hirundo: 'migrant; movements in Maluku
poorly known — 14 at Leksula, 10 October 1995; 10 at Wamlana,
1 November 1995-
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New ornithological records from Buru and Seram, south Maluku, Indonesia, 1 995-201 2
15
Sooty Tern Sterna fuscata : record high counts for Buru — 650-
700 between Waipandan and Fogi, 12 October 1995, and 70 near
Air Buaya, 23 November 1995.
White-winged Tern Chlidonias leucopterus: few records from
Buru — 30 near Leksula, 10 October 1995; 29 between Leksula and
Fogi, 12 October 1995; 20 near Wamlana, 1 November 1995; 5 at
Savanajaya, 1 June 1996; and 3 at Mako, 4 June 1996.
Fork-tailed Swift Apus pacificus. migrant, movements in Maluku
poorly known — 8 near Leksula, 10-11 October 1995, 25 Waikeka
10-11 December 1995,4 Namlea 27 January 2011.
Chestnut Munia Lonchura atricapilla : about 30, Namlea 27
January 2011; second record lor Buru, probably introduced.
Seram species accounts
Southern Cassowary Casuarius casuarius (Vulnerable)
This species was probably introduced to Seram from New Guinea
(White 1975). On 21 February 2012, in Huahulu village we met a
villager carrying a live medium-sized juvenile bird, captured in the
surrounding forest. This was the only evidence we obtained of its
presence here. Bowler & Taylor (1989) also found it rare in
Manusela National Park, but it may be more common in east Seram
(Isherwood et al. 1998).
Moiuccan Megapode Eulipoa wallacei (Vulnerable)
One was caught in a mist-net at 1 ,000 m on the lower slopes of Gn
Binaiya on 8 February 2012 (Plate 4), slightly above the previous
highest record (900 m) for Seram (Coates & Bishop 1997).
Megapodes were flushed on three occasions when we were working
at 1,000 m, but Orange-footed Megapode Megapodius reinwar dt
cannot be excluded due to the poor views obtained.
Pacific Baza Aviceda subcristata reinwardtii
Observed on three occasions in lowland forest in 20 1 2, including a
group of four seen at Roho ( 100 m) on 4 February. On 8 February,
a single bird was seen in flight at 1,000 m on Gn Binaiya,
significantly above the previous highest record (200 m) for Seram
(Coates & Bishop 1997). Elsewhere in Maluku, it is known to occur
to 450 m on Halmahera (Coates & Bishop 1997) and 730 m on
Buru (Poulsen & Lambert 2000).
Rufous-necked Sparrowhawk Accipiter erythrauchen
ceramensis
Maluku endemic. In 2012, the only definite record was on 15
February when an adult bird flew to a branch in the forest mid¬
storey at 1 ,450 m on Gn Binaiya. This is slightly above the previous
highest record (1,370 m) for Seram (Coates & Bishop 1997).
Gurney's Eagle Aquila gurneyi (Near Threatened)
In 2012, this species was identified on two occasions from among
the more numerous Indian Black Eagles Ictinaetus malayensis near
Kanikeh village. An immature bird was soaring over forest at about
750 m on 18 February, and a different immature individual was
being harried by a Brahminy Kite Haliastur Indus at about 600 m
on 19 February.
White-throated Pigeon Columba vitiensis halmaheira
Coates & Bishop (1997) give no information about the altitudinal
range of this species on Seram. In 2012, it was fairly common
between 1,350-1,610 m on Gn Binaiya, where several observations
were made daily between 13-17 February. It was particularly
vocal in the early morning, calling WOOM woom , the first note
loud and forceful, the second much quieter and slightly lower in
pitch.
Brown Cuckoo Dove Macropygia amboinensis amboinensis
In 20 1 2, this species was common in the lowlands, but less frequent
to 1 ,000 m, the upper altitudinal limit for Seram (Coates & Bishop
1997). Fdowever on 14 February, a single calling bird was seen at
1,510 m on Gn Binaiya.
Great Cuckoo Dove Reinwardtoena reinwardtii reinwardtii
Rheindt & Hutchinson (2007a) reported this species at 1,600 m
on Gn Binaiya, in contrast to the published highest record of
‘1,000+ m’ (Coates & Bishop 1997). In 2012, also on Gn Binaiya,
we recorded one or more individuals most days from 8-17 February,
between 900-1,600 m, but mostly above 1,300 m.
White-bibbed Fruit Dove Ptilinopus rivoli prasinorrhous
In 2012, the species was recorded regularly on Gn Binaiya up
to 1,525 m, the highest reported altitude for Seram (Coates &
Bishop 1997). However, a single bird was calling at 1,630 m on 14
February.
Long-tailed Mountain Pigeon Gymnophaps mada stalkeri
Coates & Bishop (1997) give the altitudinal range of this species
as 400-2,250 m on Seram. In 20 1 2, seven birds were observed near
Roho at 100 m on 4 February (Bowler [2009] erroneously gives
the altitude of Roho as 300 m). The species was frequently recorded
from this altitude upwards, and was found to be particularly
common between 1,300-1,700 m. Large flocks were regularly
encountered at these altitudes; a flock of about 50 birds was counted
on 10 February 2012 at 1,350 m. The pigeon’s display flight was
observed on the afternoon of 16 February at 1,500 m, with two
birds performing amongst a resting group of about 15. This
resembled the impressive display of Papuan Mountain Pigeon G.
albertisii , which flies almost vertically upwards before plummeting
back down. However, the flight paths of the birds on Seram were
neither as high nor as steep as those of Papuan Mountain Pigeons
observed by AHR in Papua New Guinea, and the birds continued
on a forward flight path after dropping from the stall, rather than
making an immediate return descent to the original perch.
Red-breasted Pygmy Parrot Micropsitta bruijnii pileata
Although Coates & Bishop (1997) give the species’s altitudinal
range as 700-900 m on Seram, Bowler (2009) describes a probable
sighting at 1,500 m, and local people reported that it occurs up to
the treeline on Gn Binaiya at 2,700 m (Arndt & Persulessy 2010).
The few records from 2012, 11 birds in total, extend its known
altitudinal range only marginally. It was observed on five occasions
between 6-9 February, from 900-970 m on the lower slopes of
Gn Binaiya. Arndt & Persulessy (2010) found that these parrots
frequently occur in large flocks of up to 100 during the wet season
in Seram, but we observed only small groups of up to five birds.
Salmon-crested Cockatoo Cacatua moluccensis
(Vulnerable)
Endemic to Seram and its satellite islands. In 2012, this vocal
and conspicuous species was observed in both disturbed and
mature lowland forest below 800 m, with two additional records
at and above 1,000 m, which is given as its upper altitudinal limit
(Coates & Bishop 1997). We observed nine above Sawai (31
January-2 February), five at Roho (4 February), 15 between
Roho and Kanikeh (5 February), 14 near and above Kanikeh (6
February), and heard one calling at 1,370 m on Gn Binaiya (10
February); we also recorded one bird resting at 1,000 m on Gn
Binaiya (12 February), six between Camp I and Roho (12
February), two between Roho and Huahulu (13 February), four
between Camp I and Kanikeh (19 February), 10 between Kanikeh
and Roho (20 February) and one between Roho and Huahulu (21
February).
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ANDREW HART REEVE etal.
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Red Lory Eos bomea bornea
Maluku endemic. Coates & Bishop (1997) state that it occurs from
sea-level to about 750 m, occasionally to 1 ,220 m on Seram, but our
observations in 20 1 2 contradict this assessment. Although common
at lower altitudes, it was one of the most frequently encountered
species on the lower slopes ol Gn Binaiya, from 800 to 1,150 m (7-
1 1 February). Higher up the mountain, a perched pair were calling
at 1,300 m (12 February), and birds were recorded flying overhead
in small numbers on three occasions between 1,370 and about 1,500
m. Our highest record was at 1,630 m (14 February), when a single
bird was perched in close proximity and seen well, precluding
confusion with Blue-eared Lory E. semilarvata. Red Lory was
probably slightly under-recorded at higher altitudes, as it was not
always possible to identify overflying lories (see below).
Blue-eared Lory Eos semilarvata
In 2012, this Seram endemic was recorded quite commonly above
about 1,350 m on Gn Binaiya, but also observed at 950 m on one
occasion on 18 February, when we found a mixed group of about
7-8 Red Lories and 7-8 Blue-eared Lories foraging in a flowering
tree. The altitudinal replacement of Red Lory by Blue-eared Lory
is gradual, occurring over at least 700 m. Identification in the area
of overlap can be problematic, as views are usually of backlit birds
flying rapidly overhead. The best means of identification in such
cases is by voice: although this is variable in both species, the calls
of Blue-eared Lory are typically less harsh and grating.
Purple-naped Lory Lorius domicella (Endangered)
Between 6-11 February 2012, this Seram endemic was found to
be fairly common in primary forest from 800-1,000 m above
Kanikeh, with daily observations of 5-15 individuals — largest
groups 2-3 birds. This slightly increases the highest altitude at
which this species is known to occur from 900 m (Coates & Bishop
1 997). The species was not recorded close to Kanikeh, possibly due
to trapping pressure or habitat disturbance; much of the forest here
had been cleared for gardens or appeared to be secondary re-growth.
Trapping is evidently ongoing — we heard captive Purple-naped
Lories calling from houses in Roho and Kanikeh, and met a villager
walking from Kanikeh towards Roho carrying a single live bird.
Moluccan King Parrot Alisterus amboinensis amboinensis
On Seram this species is reported up to '1,400+ m’ (Coates &
Bishop 1997); we recorded it a few times from the lowlands up to
this elevation and a single raucously calling bird was observed in
flight at 1,510 m on Gn Binaiya on 14 February 2012.
Channel-billed Cuckoo Scythrops novaehollandiae
There are confirmed breeding records of this species for a few
Wallacean islands, including Buru, but its status remains poorly
known in the region. Other records from Maluku have been during
the southern winter (early April-November) and are thought to
be winter visitors from Australia (Mason & Forrester 1996, Coates
& Bishop 1997). Marsden (1998) recorded this species on Seram
during surveys in December 1989 and January 1990. Between 30
January and 3 February 2012, we observed small numbers around
Sawai on most days. The situation on Seram is similar to New
Guinea, where Channel-billed Cuckoo has been observed during
all months of the year, but breeding has never been confirmed
(Coates 1985).
Seram Masked OwS Tyto almae
There is one previous record of a Tyto owl on Seram: a bird observed
and photographed by Rudi Badil and Sukianto Lusli in Manusela
National Park during the 1987 Operation Raleigh Expedition,
which was identified as Lesser Masked Owl T. sororcula by Coates
& Bishop (1997: 358). Uncertainty regarding this identification
was expressed, however, by Bruce (1999) and BirdLife International
(2001), and K. D. Bishop {in litt. 2000) suggested that the
photographed bird may be closer to Taliabu Masked Owl T.
nigrobrunnea. On 1 0 February 20 1 2 we caught a single Tyto owl in
a net at 1 ,350 m on Gn Binaiya (Plate 5). Subsequent DNA analysis
on tissue collected from this specimen revealed that the Seram bird
diverged from the lineage that gave rise to its closest living relatives
around 1.7 million years ago and it has been described as a new
species, Seram Masked Owl Tyto almae , in Jonsson et al. (2013),
where habitat details and conservation status are discussed.
MoSuccan Scops Owl Otus magicus magicus
Coates & Bishop (1997) provide no information about this species’s
altitudinal range on Seram, but Rheindt & Hutchinson (2007a)
describe an encounter at 1,000 m on Gn Binaiya. We recorded it at
sea-level in degraded forest at Sawai, where at least three were heard
calling on 31 January 2012. All other records were from Gn Binaiya:
three birds caught around 1,000 m on 6 and 7 February 2012; one
bird caught at 1,370 m on 19 February 2012; and two birds heard
calling nightly at 1,350 m from 12-17 February 2012. The highest
was at 1,630 m, where a male was caught on 17 February 2012 in
primary forest on Gn Binaiya.
Lazuli Kingfisher Todiramphus lazuli (Near Threatened)
Endemic to Seram, Ambon and Haruku. Records from 1996 are
documented in Poulsen (2004). In 20 12 only one bird was recorded,
at 100 m on 12 February, at Roho, a known site (Poulsen 2004).
Variable Kingfisher Ceyx lepidus lepidus
Andersen etal. (2013) suggest that subspecies lepidus, endemic to
Seram, Ambon, and nearby small islands, should be treated as a
full species. Coates & Bishop (1997) give the species’s altitudinal
range on Seram as 0-640 m, but in 2012, apart front two birds at
about 100 m (Plate 6), all our other observations were above 900
m on Gn Binaiya: one at 900-1,000 m on 10 February, three mist-
netted at 1,000 m between 7-10 February, and two caught at 1,350
m on 14 and 16 February.
Papuan Hornbill Acetos plicatus
In 2012 this species was most common in the lowlands, becoming
increasingly scarce at higher altitudes. Nevertheless, based on
observations from Gn Binaiya, its altitudinal range appears to
extend significantly higher than 1,200 m (Coates & Bishop 1997).
On 16 February, a small group was seen at about 1,340 m, and a
single bird was calling at 1,510 m. Another single bird was flying
over forest at 1,900 m on 17 February.
Red-bellied Pitta Pitta erythrogaster piroensis
Irestedt et al. (2013) suggest that subspecies piroensis, endemic to
Seram, should be treated as a full species. Described as uncommon,
with an altitudinal range of 0-750 m (Coates & Bishop 1997), it
is infrequently reported from the island. In 1996, there were five
records at altitudes up to 950 nr during an expedition to Wae Bula
(Isherwood et al. 1997). In 2012, our observations (Plate 7) were
at considerably higher altitudes (1,350-1,600 m) on Gn Binaiya,
where it was fairly common and very vocal in the morning and late
afternoon, with small numbers recorded daily (13-17 February).
It is possible that earlier visitors to Gn Binaiya failed to record this
species due to the seasonal nature of its vocal activity.
Grey-necked Friarbird Philemon subcorniculatus
In 20 1 2, this Seram endemic was common from sea-level up to 1 , 1 00
m, the highest altitude at which it was previously reported (Coates
& Bishop 1997). Three records were made above this elevation: two
were calling at 1,350 m on 13 February; another two were calling at
1,500 m on 16 February; and one was calling at 1,540 m on 15
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New ornithological records from Buru and Seram, south Maluku, Indonesia, 1 995-2012
17
February. Although none of these birds was seen, we are confident
that the loud, familiar calls were not given by Grey-collared Oriole
Oriolus forsteni — known to produce vocalisations very similar to the
friarbird’s. While the triarbird was one of the most common and
conspicuous species from 800-1,100 m, where we had ample
opportunity to learn its calls, only a single oriole was recorded this
high, probably being commoner in the lowlands (see below).
Seram Honeyeater Lichmera monticola
This Seram endemic was one of the commonest species at higher
altitudes in 2012; although not always easily seen, it was highly
vocal and thus easy to detect. More than 20 birds were observed
daily on Gn Binaiyafrom 1,350-1,650 m (13-17 February). It was
recorded only twice below 1,000 m, on the lower slopes of Gn
Binaiya: one at about 920 m (7 February) and one at 870 m (9
February).
Drab Myzomela Myzomela blasii
Endemic to Seram, Boano and Ambon, this species is
inconspicuous, uncommon and poorly known (Coates & Bishop
1997). Three brief observations of four individuals were made in
2012 on the lower slopes of Gn Binaiya from 800-900 m, the first
being of one bird in the company of a Seram Honeyeater (9
February), followed by two (10 February), and one (1 1 February).
Wakolo Myzomela Myzomela wakoloensis elisabethae
South Maluku endemic. The altitudinal range on Seram is 600-
1,400 m (Coates & Bishop 1997). However, Rheindt &
Hutchinson (2007a) found it from 2,000-2,300 m, the highest it
is known to occur. In 2012, we found it to be common on Gn
Binaiya (13-17 February) with groups of up to 10 birds from
1,350-1,550 m, where all our records were made.
Golden Whistler Pachyeephala peetoralis macrorhyncha
In 20 1 2, this species was seen frequently at sea-level, caught in large
numbers above 900 m and common on Gn Binaiya up to at least
1,630 m, where four were caught (15 February). According to
Coates & Bishop (1997) it occurs no higher than 1,430 m on Seram.
Grey-collared Oriole Oriolus forsteni
Seram endemic. Seen only twice in 2012 — a group of three near
Sawai at 1 50 m (2 February) and one at 870 m on the lower slopes
of Gn Binaiya (9 February). This species’s visual and vocal mimicry
of Grey-necked Friarbird and the identification problems this
presents were noted by Diamond (1982) andEkstrom & Isherwood
(2000). We found that, despite the similarity in appearance, they
can be confidently differentiated when seen reasonably well. The
friarbird is typically vocal, conspicuous and active, and the body is
often held horizontal. It has a strong, down-curved bill, and the
bare skin of the head is often visible through a thin layer of feathers.
In contrast, the Grey-collared Oriole was quiet, still and
inconspicuous with a well-feathered head and straighten shorter
bill. We sometimes heard distinctively oriole-like liquid-sounding
calls in the forest near Sawai, and once saw Grey-collared Oriole
producing them — these calls were not heard elsewhere.
Streaky-breasted FantaH Rhipidura dedemi
A common and conspicuous Seram endemic, this species was
observed frequently in 2012 above 150 m. Records included up to
20 birds daily at 800-1,100 m (7-1 1 February), and 10-15 daily
at 1,350-1,700 m (13-17 February).
Spectacled Monarch Monarcha trivirgatus nigrimentum
In 2012, we were surprised to find that on Seram this species occurs
in two conspicuously different plumages. One resembled the
illustration in Coates & Bishop (1997), with a black eye-mask and
throat-patch (Plate 8). These typical ‘spectacled’ birds were
observed near Sawai, at 0-200 m; a total of 1 1 were seen (1 and 2
February), and another two were caught at 100 m on 1 February.
The second type completely lacked any black colouration on the
head and throat — these feathers were the same shade of grey as the
crown (Plate 9). Such ‘non-spectacled’ birds were otherwise
identical to spectacled birds. This second plumage type on Seram
was noted by Rheindt & Hutchinson (2007b), who seem to have
observed only non-spectacled birds on the island. We found these
to be common at locations further inland. A total of 15 were
recorded during surveys on Gn Binaiya at 800-1,000 m (7-11
February), and nine (including adult males and females) were mist-
netted between 950-1,050 m (7-8 February). These records are
above the previous highest altitudinal record for Seram of 950 m
(Coates & Bishop 1997). Non-spectacled birds were also recorded
at lower altitudes, including at least three between Roho and
Kanikeh at about 600 m (5 February), and two (one at 210 m and
another at 140 m) between Roho and Huahulu (21 February).
Further investigation revealed that morphological
measurements of spectacled and non-spectacled birds were virtually
identical and comparison of the mitochondrial gene ND2 from
both types revealed no difference between them. It is curious that
the two types were never recorded from the same locations, and
that intermediate forms seem to be mostly absent — although
Rheindt & Hutchinson (2007b) report non-spectacled birds with
a ‘tiny black chin-spot’. Bogor Zoological Museum holds \~LM. t.
nigrimentum specimens, collected from Ambon in the 1950s; these
include nine non-spectacled birds, three spectacled birds, and one
intermediate, sexed as a male, with a relatively small but distinct
black throat-patch, and a dark grey eye-mask.
Slender-billed Crow Corvus enea violaceus
In 2012 fairly common up to 1,000 m — the highest altitudinal
record for Seram (Coates & Bishop 1997). However, we
encountered a calling bird on Gn Binaiya at about 1 ,400 m, which,
although it was not seen, was identified confidently based on its
familiar, distinctive vocalisations.
Golden Bulbul Alophoixus affinis affinis
Collar et al. (2013) suggested that the Seram subspecies affinis ,
together with the Ambon subspecies flavicaudus, should be split
from the Golden Bulbul complex as Alophoixus affinis-, our molecular
data supports the split from at least the Buru form (see above). This
taxon was common on Seram in 2012 with the largest numbers
found in the lowlands near Sawai, where up to 20 birds were recorded
daily from 0-200 m (31 January-3 February). It was also noted
regularly on the lower slopes of Gn Binaiya, with about five seen
daily between 800-1,000 m (6-11 February). A single female
caught at 1,000 m (8 February) was marginally higher than the
previous highest record (950 m) for Seram (Coates & Bishop 1997).
Chestnut-backed Bush Warbler
Sradypterus castaneus musculus
Bowler & Taylor (1989) found this skulking species common from
1,000-1,750 m in July-August on Gn Binaiya. In 2012, we
recorded it only three times on Gn Binaiya, from 1,370-1,510 m,
including two netted birds. It was not heard calling, and it seems
likely that our low number of observations can be attributed at least
in part to a seasonal drop-off in vocal activity.
Seram White-eye Zosterops stalkeri
Seram endemic. We observed this species singly or in twos, usually
in mixed-species feeding flocks, on four occasions between 8-11
February 2012, at 870-970 m on the lower slopes of Gn Binaiya.
The highest altitudinal record reported in Coates & Bishop (1997)
is 900 m.
MICHAEL K0IEPOULSEN PIERRE-HENRI FABRE KNUD J0NSSON
18
ANDREW HART REEVE etal.
Forktail 30 (2014)
Plate 1. Buru Honeyeater Lichmera deningeri caught at 1,440 m inland
from Waikeka, Buru, 1 3 February 2011.
Plate 2. Black-tipped Monarch Monarcha loricatus caught at 700 m
inland from Waikeka, Buru, 3 February 201 1.
Plate 3. Streaky-breasted Jungle Flycatcher Rhinomyias additus
juvenile caught inland from Fogi, Buru, October 1995.
Plate 4. Moluccan Megapode Eulipoa wallacei caught at 1,000 m on
Gn Binaiya, Seram, 8 February 2012.
Plate 5. Seram Masked Owl Tytoalmae caught at 1,350 m on Gn Binaiya,
Seram, 10 February 2012.
Plate 6. Variable Kingfisher Ceyx lepidus lepidus caught at 1 50 m near
Sawai, Seram, 31 January 201 2.
PIERRE-HENRI FABRE PIERRE-HENRI FABRE PIERRE-HENRI FABRE
PIERRE-HENRI FABRE KNUD J0NSSON PIERRE-HENRI FABRE
Forktail 30 (2014)
New ornithological records from Buru and Seram, south Maluku, Indonesia, 1 995-2012
19
Plate 7. Red-bellied Pitta Pitta erythrogaster piroensis caught at 1,370
on Gn Binaiya, Seram, 15 February 2012.
Plate 10. Grey-hooded White-eye Lophozosterops pinaiae caught at
1,370 m on Gn Binaiya, Seram, 14 February 2012.
Plate 8. 'Spectacled' type Spectacled Monarch Monarcha trivirgatus
nigrimentum caught at 1 00 m near Sawai, Seram, 1 February 2012.
Plate 9. 'Non-spectacled' type Spectacled Monarch Monarcha
trivirgatus nigrimentum caught at 1,000 m on Gn Binaiya, Seram, 7
February 2012. Apparent difference in upperparts colouration from
bird in Plate 8 is due to lighting.
Plate 11. Seram Thrush Zoothera joiceyi female caught at 1,600 m on
Gn Binaiya, Seram, 1 5 February 201 2. Note the lack of an eye-ring, the
scaled pattern created by the white-edged black feathers of the sides
and flanks, the all-black ear-coverts, and the gradation in colour from
the rufous-brown crown to the sooty olive-brown mantle, all of which
distinguish this species from Buru Thrush (Plate 1 2). This individual is
moulting its white-tipped median wing-coverts, so the single wing-
bar pattern formed by these is somewhat obscured.
Plate 12. Buru Thrush Zoothera dumasi male caught at 1,100 m inland
from Waikeka, Buru, 6 February 2011. The pale eye-ring, brown
colouration on the sides and flanks and the partially brown ear-coverts
distinguish this species from Seram Thrush Zoothera joiceyi (Plate 1 1 ).
KNUD J0NSSON PIERRE-HENRI FABRE PIERRE-HENRI FABRE
20
ANDREW HART REEVE etal.
Forktail 30(2014)
BicoEoured White-eye Tephrozosterops stalkeri
Seram endemic. In 2012, eight birds in groups of 2-3 were seen
near Kanikeh on the path from Roho, at about 600 m, on 5
February. Another individual was seen at 870 m on the lower slopes
of Gn Binaiya on 9 February. All were in mixed-species feeding
flocks in primary forest.
Grey-hooded White-eye Lophozosterops pinaiae
Seram endemic (Plate 10). In 2012, this species was moderately
common at higher altitudes. At least 20 birds were observed
between 1,370-1,630 m on Gn Binaiya (13-17 February).
Long-crested Myna Basilornis corythaix
Seram endemic. In 2012, 2-6 individuals were seen daily at Roho
(100 m) on 3, 4, 12, 13 and 20 February. One bird was seen on the
trail between Roho and Kanikeh (about 200 m) on 4 February.
According to Coates & Bishop (1997), the species occurs mostly
between 200-900 m, and we attribute our paucity of records
primarily to the short time we spent in this altitudinal range.
Seram Thrush Zoothera joiceyi (Near Threatened)
In 2012, a single adult female caught in the lowest section of a
mist-net at 1,600 m on Gn Binaiya (15 February) was our only
definite record (Plate 11). This rarely seen endemic had
previously been recorded from 800-1,280 m (Bowler & Taylor
1989, Ekstrom & Isherwood 2000). Our net was placed near the
edge of a fairly extensive, very open level area — unusual in the
otherwise steeply-sloping terrain — surrounded by tall moss-
covered trees which formed a canopy over it; the vegetation
consisted of small saplings and larger tree-ferns. We are not sure if
the clearing was created by a flood or human disturbance. The
conditions at this site correspond well with past observations made
in similar isolated flat areas in montane forest; it has been
hypothesised that the species is reliant on deep leaf-litter, which
accumulates in such areas (Collar 2004). Although there were large
deposits of leaf-litter where the bird was caught, there were similar
accumulations on the surrounding slopes, where the uneven terrain
caused it to collect.
Seram Thrush has recently been split from the closely related
Buru Thrush Z. dumasi following Collar (2004); ten diagnostic
morphological characters were found to differentiate between the
two, but as only one specimen of Seram Thrush existed at the time
of the study, it was not known if these differences were consistent
across individuals. We can confirm that our female specimen clearly
shows nine of the ten diagnostic traits, including ‘the progressive
loss of dull rufous from mantle to tail’, ‘the possession of only a
single row of wing-spots’ and the lack of an eye-ring. Only the
colouration of the feet and tarsi of the specimens we collected do
not exactly match Collar’s description (we found these to be greyish-
pink in live birds of both species). As the Seram Thrush specimen
examined by Collar (2004) was unsexed, and ours is a female, there
is a possibility that the male shows different plumage characteristics;
this is unlikely, however, as both sexes of Buru Thrush appear
identical, and because sexual dimorphism does not appear in other
Indonesian Zoothera thrushes (Collar 2004). Our molecular data
further support this split; uncorrected pairwise distances in the
mitochondrial gene ND2 between individuals from Buru and
Seram are 7. 1 %, suggesting isolation over a relatively long time. In
2011, six Buru Thrushes were caught on Buru (see above), which
supports the contention that Seram Thrush is the rarer taxon
(Coates & Bishop 1997).
Island Thrush Turdus poliocephalus deningeri
In 20 1 2 there were many observations of this species on Gn Binaiya
below 1,800 m, the lowest altitude it had previously been recorded
on Seram (Bowler & Taylor 1989, Coates & Bishop 1997). Our
lowest record was a single bird foraging and calling at 1,500 m on
16 February, but the species was seen daily in small numbers from
this point to 1,660 m (13-17 February) and was notably commoner
above 1,800 m. Two birds were mist-netted at 1,600 m on 16 and
17 February.
Cinnamon-chested Flycatcher Ficedula buruensis ceramensis
The altitudinal range of this south Maluku endemic on Seram was
reported to be 650-900 m (Coates & Bishop 1997), but Rheindt
& Hutchinson (2007a) found the species up to 1,250 m on Gn
Kobipoto. Between 6 andl 1 February 2012 it was fairly common
but inconspicuous on the lower slopes of Gn Binaiya and more were
caught than seen: six were netted between 950-1,050 m, and four
were seen between 800-1,000 m.
Island Flycatcher Eumyias panayensis harterti
In 2012 there were three observations on Gn Binaiya; two were
above the previous highest altitudinal record ( 1,150 m) for Seram
(Coates & Bishop 1997). One was seen at 1,100 m on 9 February,
at least two were in a mixed-species feeding flock at 1,510 m on 13
February, and a single bird was caught at 1,300 m on 18 February.
Ashy Flowerpecker Dicaeum vuineratum
This south Maluku endemic was common from sea level at Sawai
up to the lower slopes of Gn Binaiya at 1,000 m, with up to 10
records daily between 31 January- 1 1 February 2012, and on 19
February 2012.
Black Sunbird Nectarinia aspasia aspasioides
On 1 1 February 2012 a male and at least one female were seen in a
mixed feeding flock at 970 m above Kanikeh on Gn Binaiya. The
previous highest record lor Seram was 700 m (Coates & Bishop
1997).
Eurasian Tree Sparrow Passer montanus
An introduced species in Wallacea, we have found no previous
records in the literature (e.g. Coates & Bishop 1997) lor Seram.
The species was very common in the coastal towns of Masohi (30
January 2012) and Amahai (22 and 23 February 2012) and has
presumably been overlooked by ornithologists visiting the island
in recent years.
Blue-faced Parrotfinch Erythrura triehroa pinaiae
This species is apparently rare and local throughout most of its
Wallacean range (Coates & Bishop 1997). A single bird was
recorded on Gn Binaiya at 1,320 m on 11 February 2012.
Black-faced Munia Lonehura moiucca molucca
On Seram Bowler & Taylor (1989) found this species to be
‘apparently absent from gardens in the hills’ and Coates &
Bishop (1997) noted that it occurs in ‘lowlands only’. Our only
observation, a group of lour birds in cleared garden land below
Kanikeh at 560 m on 19 February 2012, may be a new altitudinal
record for Seram.
DISCUSSION
The above observations extend the known altitudinal ranges of 32
species occurring on Buru and Seram. Many species’s altitudinal
distributions were no doubt previously underestimated due to the
islands being understudied, particularly at higher elevations. Some
birds, such as Red-bellied Pitta, appear to be seasonally vocal, which
presumably led to their being overlooked by earlier visitors. In
addition, the importance of concerted mist-netting eflorts was
underscored on these expeditions, as inconspicuous species such
Forktail 30(2014)
New ornithological records from Buru and Seram, south Maluku, Indonesia, 1 995-2012
21
as Seram Masked Owl, Buru and Seram Thrushes, and Variable
Kingfisher would otherwise have frequently gone undetected. Both
Buru and Seram have now received reasonable coverage by
ornithologists from sea level to about 1,800 m, but there remains a
severe lack of distributional data for certain rare endemic species
which occur at these altitudes, particularly Black-lored Parrot, Blue-
fronted Lorikeet, and Rufous-throated White-eye on Buru, and
Seram Masked Owl on Seram. In addition, bird distributions on
the highest elevations of Buru and Seram remain poorly known.
Intensive surveying from 1,800 m to the 3,027 m peak of Gn Binaiya
would most probably yield a number of range extensions, but the
most glaring knowledge gaps undoubtedly exist on Buru. Burus
eastern highlands remain unexplored by ornithologists; so too does
the extensive high plataeu area above 2,000 m in the west. While
difficult to access, this plateau is of considerable interest, not least
because surveying work here would help to clarify the distributional
limits of Rufous-throated White-eye.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Expeditions to Buru in 1995-1996 were implemented by BirdLife International
and Indonesian counterpart institutions, and supported by the British
Ornithologists’ Union (Indonesia Expedition). MKP was funded by the British
Ornithologists’ Union. Further financial support was provided through the
Keidranren Nature Conservation Fund and the British Birdwatching Fair. MKP
thanks BirdLife Indonesia staff in Ambon and Bogor and the Indonesian
counterpart organisations, in particular Perlindungan Hutan dan Pelestarian
Alam (PHPA). For the 201 1-2012 fieldwork, thanks go the State Ministry of
Research and Technology (RISTEK); the Ministry of Forestry, Republic of
Indonesia; the Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences
(RCB-LIPI); and the Bogor Zoological Museum for providing permits to carry
out fieldwork in Seram. We thank Manusela National Park for permitting and
facilitating our fieldwork within the park. We thank Pak Hendra, head of
Kanikeh village, for permission to work on the Gn Binaiya trail. We acknowledge
the Danish National Research Foundation for support to the Center for
Macroecology, Evolution and Climate. Finally, KAJ acknowledges a National
Geographic Research and Exploration Grant (8853-10), and the Dybron Hoffs
Foundation and the Corrit Foundation for supplementary funding of the 2011
and 2012 expeditions.
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Tri HARYOKO, Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense, Research
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Michael K. POULSEN, Nordic Agency for Development and
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Pierre-Henri FABRE, Center for Macroecology Evolution and
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FORKTAIL 30 (2014): 23-27
The subspecies of Yellow-crested Cockatoo Cacatua sulphured
N.J. COLLAR & 5. J.MARSDEN
Given its increasingly serious conservation status, there is a need to clarify the taxonomy of the Yellow-crested Cockatoo Cacatua sulphured
of Indonesia and East Timor, especially to enable subspecies to be identified with confidence for any future captive-breeding endeavours.
Modern treatments recognise four subspecies: nominotypical sulphurea from Sulawesi and associated islands, abbotti on Masalembu Besar,
parvula from Lombok to Timor, and citrinocristata on Sumba. We compared morphometric data (lengths of upper mandible, wing, tail and
crest; colour and size of ear-covert patch) from 1 36 sexed museum specimens from across the range of the species. There were significant
differences in wing and tail lengths across taxa and sexes, with abbotti and citrinocristata being particularly distinctive. Mandible sizes
differed markedly between sexes, while there were also across-taxon differences In wing-tail ratios. Our analyses result in the reinstatement
of the subspecies occidentalis (Lombok to Alor, leaving parvula confined to Timor) and djampeana (Tanahjampea Islands) and in the
recognition of paulandrewi subsp. nov. (see p.26) on theTukangbesi Islands. The race citrinocristata comes very close to species status, and
further evidence on behaviour and juvenile colouration may clinch this. The form abbotti is also distinctive but may represent a population
that rapidly evolved large size in response to its small-island circumstances. Each taxon needs as far as possible to be managed in the wild
and in captivity as a separate unit of conservation concern.
INTRODUCTION
The Yellow-crested Cockatoo Cacatua sulphurea occupies an
ostensibly large range from the Masalembu Islands south of Borneo
and from Nusa Penida (by report formerly Bali) and Lombok
eastwards through Sulawesi and the Lesser Sundas in Indonesia as
far as East Timor, thus being virtually confined to the
biogeographical region known as Wallacea (White & Bruce 1986,
BirdLife International 2001). However, as a result of relentless and
pervasive trapping for the cagebird trade the species has been
dramatically reduced in numbers, such that since 1988 it has been
on the IUCN Red List, and was classified as Critically Endangered
at the start of the present century (Stattersfield & Capper 2000).
The situation of the species in recent years has become so serious
that moves to conserve it may now require captive (conservation)
breeding, at least as a precautionary measure (Collar et al. 2012,
Collar & Butchart 2014).
However, the species breaks down into a number of subspecies,
with most recent treatments recognising four: nominotypical
sulphurea from Sulawesi and certain associated islands, abbotti on
Masalembu Besar (midway between southernmost Borneo and
Madura, off north-east Java; well west of Wallaces hint), parvula
from Nusa Penida (technically just west of Wallace s Line) and
Lombok to Timor, and citrinocristata on Sumba (White & Bruce
1986, Forshaw 1989, Rowley 1997, Clements 2000, BirdLife
International 2001, Dickinson 2003, Dickinson & Remsen 2013).
In addition, however, Hartert (1897, 1898) described two further
taxa, djampeana (for birds from the Tanahjampea and Tukangbesi
islands south and south-east of Sulawesi respectively) and
occidentalis (for all birds in the Lesser Sundas except Timor and
Sumba). Given that (a) it is desirable to avoid cross-breeding
between subspecies where possible, but that (b) the captive stock
available for breeding almost invariably has no certain provenance,
conservationists attempting to use existing captive birds to establish
one or more ex situ flocks of Yellow-crested Cockatoos, whether as
a long-term reserve or as a source population for reintroductions,
need to know, as far as the evidence allows, which taxa are valid
and how to discriminate them.
For two of them there ought to be no difficulty. The race
citrinocristata is highly distinctive owing to its strong orange-apricot
rather than lemon-yellow crest, while the race abbotti is such a large
bird that it could not be confused except perhaps with the smaller
races of Sulphur-crested Cockatoo Cacatua galerita from New
Guinea. For completeness and interest, however, both abbotti and
citrinocristata are included in the following analysis, not least as a
means of testing species limits within the complex. The situation
is, however, aggravated by sexual dimorphism in morphometries,
so sex is taken into account in the analyses.
METHODS
Preserved specimens of Yellow-crested Cockatoos were examined
in: the American Museum of Natural History, New York, USA
(AMNH); Natural History Museum, Tring, UK (NHMUK);
Naturalis, Leiden, Netherlands (RMNH); Staatliches Museum fur
Tierkunde, Dresden (SMTD); National Museum of Natural
History, Washington DC, USA (USNM); Zoologisches Museum,
Berlin, Germany (ZMB); with data provided for one specimen in
the Academy ofNatural Sciences of Philadelphia (ANSP). Unsexed
specimens were excluded from analysis, as were specimens without
indication of provenance with the exception of those of the
distinctive citrinocristata, resulting in a total of 136 specimens
contributing data for analysis (see breakdown by taxon, sex and
museum in Table 1).
Each specimen was measured (by NJC) for length of ( 1 ) upper
mandible (from edge of nareal skin to tip), (2) wing (curved), (3)
tail (tip to point of insertion) and (4) crest (from edge of nareal
skin to tip, retaining its natural curve). The colour of the ear-covert
patch was recorded subjectively (i.e. without recourse to a colour
Table 1 . Numbers (males+females) of provenance-labelled specimens
of Cacatua sulphurea used in the morphometric analysis, broken down
by taxon and museum. (NB There are other provenance-labelled
specimens of the species in ANSP, but measurements of just the one
specimen were requested, to boost the sample size for parvula.)
24
N. J. COLLAR &S.J. MARSDEN
Forktail 30 (2014)
chart, which in any case would not be helpful in many cases where
two colours, one tingeing the other, were present), and its size
measured crudely with calipers (usually left side of head, but varying
with condition of specimen), laterally for maximum length and
vertically for maximum height, with the median of these two values
being logged.
From these collections the numbers of specimens measured by
island and taxon (in modern spelling, sometimes slightly different
from specimen labels) were: Sulawesi 46 (17 males, 29 females),
Buton 5 (3 m, 2 f), Muna 2 (1 m, 1 f) ( sulphurea ); Masalembu
Besar 8 (6 m, 2 f) (, abbotti ); Wanci (on label; main town on the
island of Wangiwangi) 1 ( 1 m), Tomea 3 ( 1 m, 2 f ) and Binongko 2
( 1 m, 1 f ) in the Tukangbesi (‘Wakatobi’) group, plus Kayuadi 2 (2
m), Tanahjampea2 (2 f), Kalaotoa 5 (5 f ) and Madu 1 (1 m) in the
Tanahjampea group ( djampeana ); Nusa Penida 7 (5 m, 2 f),
Lombok 10 (4 m, 6 f ), Flores 7 (3 m, 4 f), Pantar 3 (2 m, 1 f), Alor
3 ( 1 m, 2 f ) ( occidentalis ); Timor 11 (4 m, 7 f ) [parvula ); and Sumba
18(11 m, 7 f ) ( citrinocristata ).
Differences in wing length, tail length, upper mandible size,
and wing-to-tail ratio were explored using parametric ANOVAs
with sex and taxon as groupings and the interaction between sex
and taxon considered. Pair-wise differences between biometrics of
individual taxawere then tested usingTukey-Kramer post hoc tests.
In anticipation that the distinctive C. s. citrinocristata might be
considered for species status, its degree of phenotypic
differentiation was scored against other taxa using the system
outlined in Tobias et al. (2010). A major character (pronounced
difference in body part colour or pattern, measurement or
vocalisation) scores 3, medium character (clear difference, e.g. a
distinct hue rather than different colour) 2, and minor character
(weak difference, e.g. a change in shade) 1; a threshold of 7 is set to
allow species status, species status cannot be triggered by minor
characters alone, and only three plumage characters, two vocal
characters, two biometric characters (assessed for effect size using
Cohens d where 0.2-2 is minor, 2-5 medium and 5-10 major)
and one behavioural or ecological character (allowed 1) may be
counted.
RESULTS
For each described taxon means of the five variables measured (bill,
crest, ear-covert patch, wing and tail) are given for males in Table 2
and for females in Table 3, while colours of the ear-covert patch are
listed in Table 4. There are degrees of overlap in morphometries,
but overall a distinct pattern emerges of consistent if small
differences between each described taxon.
There were significant differences in wing length measurements
for different taxa (/( 123 = 65.6, p < 0.001) and sexes (/( 123 = 9.00, p
< 0.001), but there was no interaction between sex and taxon (75,123
= 0.20, p = 0.96; Figure la). Post hoc tests showed abbotti and
citrinocristata to be different from each other and all other taxa,
and sulphurea to be different from djampeana and occidentalis. Tail
length measurements also differed significantly across taxa (/5J24 =
136. 3, p < 0.001), but not for sexes (/J,12 4 = 0.001 ,p = 0.97) or the
interaction between sex and taxon = 0.45, p = 0.21; Figure
lb) ; on this variable the subspecies abbotti and citrinocristata were
very different from all taxa but only marginally different from each
other (p = 0.038); and parvula was greatly different from all taxa.
For upper mandible measurements, the greatest differences were
between the sexes (/jai6 = 80.0,7? < 0.001; Figure lc). Taxa also
differed significantly (/( 116 = 27.9, p < 0.001) with no interaction.
Post hoc tests showed sulphurea to be different from all other taxa,
and citrinocristata , abbotti and occidentalis no different from each
other. As well as in size, there were also differences in body structure,
with wing-to-tail ratios varying between taxa = 27.7, p <
Table 2. Means and standard deviations of five mensural variables in
male Cacatua sulphurea described taxa. ' = sample size reduced by 1 ;
2 = sample size reduced by 2. Note djampeana proves to be composed
of two taxa (see Discussion).
Table 3. Means and standard deviations of five mensural variables in
female Cacatua sulphurea described taxa. 1 = sample size reduced by
1; 2 = sample size reduced by 2; 4 = sample size reduced by 4. Note
djampeana proves to be composed of two taxa (see Discussion).
Table 4. Ear-covert patch colour and size in Cacatua sulphurea (sexes
combined; commonest colour in bold italics). Under 'size', 6 = largest
and 1 = smallest. Note djampeana proves to be composed of two taxa.
0.001) and sex (/^il22 = 7.16, p = 0.009) with no interaction
(Figure Id).
There were also differences in ear-covert colour and size (Table
4). As a consequence, each taxon proves to have characters that
appear (at least in combination) to be diagnostic, as follows:
C. s. sulphurea — largest bill, and consistently largest and richest
lemon-yellow ear-covert patch (Plate 1);
C. s. abbotti — longest crest, wings and tail, mid-sized bill and
small (if present) and brownish ear-covert patch;
C. s. occidentalis — large bill, short wings and tail, and relatively
small, usually pale to very pale lemon-yellow ear-covert patch
(Plate 1);
C. s. parvula — smallest bill and ear-covert patch, longer tail than
all except abbotti and citrinocristata , and relatively small,
consistently very pale lemon-yellow ear-covert patch (Plate 1);
C. s. djampeana — size like occidentalis but smaller bill and
consistently larger, mostly more colourful ear-covert patch (Plate
1) — but see Discussion for the taxonomic implications of
differences between populations;
Forktail 30 (2014)
The subspecies of Yellow-crested Cockatoo Cacatua sulphured
25
Figure 1. Means ±95% confidence intervals of a. wing length, b.tail length, c. upper mandible length, and, d. wing-to-tail ratio in different sexes
and taxa within Cacatua sulphured. Note that they-axis does not start at zero. Note djampeana proves to be composed of two taxa.
a.
b.
abbotti citrinocristata djampeana occidentalis parvula sulphurea
C.
abbotti citrinocristata djampeana occidentalis
HlFemale
OMale
parvula sulphurea
d
2. On
abbotti citrinocristata djampeana occidentalis parvula
sulphurea
H Female
OMale
Plate 1 . Specimens (all female except that from Sumba, for which sex
unknown) representing five taxa of Cacatua sulphurea, left to right:
citrinocristata Sumba (ZMB 30/3030); parvula, Timor (ZMB 56/288);
occidentalis, Flores (ZMB 30/1091 Y, djampeana, Kaiaotoa (ZMB 28/755);
and nominotypical sulphurea, Gorontalo, Sulawesi (ZMB 2000/20881 ).
C. s. citrinocristata — large bill, long (and orange-apricot) crest,
long wings and tail, and mostly pale orange-tinged lemon-yellow
ear-covert patch (Plate l).
Against the criteria established by Tobias etal. (2010) the form
citrinocristata differs from all other taxa in the complex by its
orange-apricot vs lemon-yellow crest (score 3). It differs from all
other taxa except abbotti in its larger size, best expressed in the
length of the tail (effect size for males 5.65 vs occidentalis , 7.25 vs
sulphurea, 5.99 vs djampeana) (score 3 — but see below for parvula).
It differs from abbotti by males having a larger bill (effect size 1.53)
(score 1) but smaller other proportions (effect size for male wing
2.75) (score 2). It apparently differs from other taxa observed in
captivity (this comparison probably refers to sulphurea and
occidentalis only, as abbotti, djampeana and parvula are almost
certainly not held in captivity) by its much livelier, noisier
disposition (S. Bruslund verbally 2012) (assuming all yellow-crested
taxa are similar, score 1 ). On this basis citrinocristata achieves species
status through a score of 7 against all taxa with the exception of
parvula. Unfortunately the sample size for male parvula is
particularly low (n = 4), but in any case neither male nor female
parvula achieves an effect size based on morphometric differences
from citrinocristata for the required major score (effect size for male
tail 3.27, female tail 2.14; score only 2). Consequently, by virtue of
the relatively long tail of parvula (by comparison with occidentalis,
sulphurea and djampeana), in this analysis citrinocristata fails to
reach species status under the Tobias criteria.
DISCUSSION
We opted not to subject the morphometric data to a principal
components analysis (PC A) as is often done in taxonomic studies.
We consider that the ‘devil is in the detail’ in individual
measurements and ratios among the cockatoos, and that the
differences would have been lost in the generality of a PCA. We
used ANOVAs instead and found several important morphometric
differences across taxa and sexes. These differences were quite
complex: wing length differed across both taxon and sex; tail length
differed across taxon but not sex; and the main differences in
mandible size were across sex rather than taxon (with the otherwise
‘average’ sulphurea having a particularly large bill). Analysis ol body
structure also revealed important differences. With a larger sample
size, associated environmental data from the islands, and perhaps
genetic data illuminating branch lengths, it might be possible to
pursue an explanation of what has driven these differences, but this
would obviously carry the study to a new level of intensity.
While the distinctiveness of the forms sulphurea, abbotti and
citrinocristata is obvious, that of the other three taxa is much less
so, albeit still enough to reinstate occidentalis and djampeana as valid
subspecies. Both of these were established on the basis of bill size
by Ernst Hartert, who separated out djampeana first, on account
of the smaller bills of birds from the Tanahjampea Islands than those
26
N. J. COLLAR &S.J. MARSDEN
Forktail 30 (2014)
of birds on Sulawesi ( sulphured ) (Hartert 1897). Later, however,
he found that males from the Tukangbesi Islands possess the same¬
sized bills as those from Sulawesi while females from these islands
have bills the same size as Tanahjampea birds, so he merged
djampeana back into sulphured (Hartert 1903). This was an
inexplicable move on two counts: first, there is no particular reason
why birds on one group of islands south-east of Sulawesi should
annul the taxonomic distinctiveness of birds on another group of
islands south of Sulawesi, and second because — using the same small
sample that Hartert examined — the bills of males from the
Tukangbesi group are in reality considerably smaller (mean 33.2, n
= 3) than those from Sulawesi (38.3, n — 19) and closer to those
from Tanahjampea (mean 33.0, n — 3). It is, however, intriguing
that the birds from these two small island groups, which are
separated by 250 km of open sea, should have the same taxonomic
identity, and this bears further scrutiny.
Tukangbesi birds possess slightly smaller bills and decidedly
smaller ear-covert patches than Tanahjampea birds, although their
crests, wings and tails are fractionally longer (Table 5). The
differences in size of bill and ear-covert patch are considerably more
exaggerated between Tukangbesi and Sulawesi birds (compare
males in Tables 2 and 5), even though Buton is only some 30 km
distant from the nearest Tukangbesi island (Figure 2). The ear-
covert patches of Tukangbesi birds are also paler than in
Tanahjampea birds: combining the sexes, three are ‘lemon-yellow’,
one ‘pale lemon-yellow’ and two have the area discoloured, possibly
stained by fruit, whereas those from Tanahjampea are ‘strong lemon-
yellow’ (eight), ‘lemon-yellow’ (one) and ‘orange-tinged lemon-
yellow’ (one). Again, Sulawesi birds are still more divergent from
those on Tukangbesi (compare data on sulphured in Table 4 with
the preceding information). Always acknowledging that the sample
sizes involved are very small, we nonetheless judge that the
consistency of these minor distinctions in combination amount to
a subspecific difference worthy of recognition.
Cacatua sulphured paulandrewi , subsp. nov.
This form is diagnosed from C. s. djampeana by its smaller bill
and ear-covert patch (Table 5) and by the paler colouration of the
latter (all these characters visible on Plate 2). We name it in honour
of Paul Andrew, author among many other things of the first
checklist of Indonesian birds (Andrew 1992), and designate as the
type specimen AMNH 619651, a male taken at Wanci
(Wangiwangi Island) on 3 December 1901 by H. Kuhn.
The case of occidentalis is mildly more complicated. White &
Bruce (1986), unaware of the consistently longer tails of Timor
birds, merged it with parvula in the belief that bill size increases
clinally westward from Timor. This is mistaken: measurements of
bills of males ranging from Timor westward are: Timor 33.5 (n —
4), Alor 37.1 (n = 1), Pantar 37.3 [n - 2), Flores 37.1 [n = 3),
Lombok 36.8 (n = 2) and Nusa Penida 36.7 (n = 5) — the non-
Timorian sample thus being remarkably consistent. White & Bruce
(1986) also mentioned that Meise (1930) ‘considered birds from
Pantar and Alor identical with those of Tanahjampea and Kalao,
relying on the size of the bill’, but this too is mistaken: Pantar and
Table 5. Mean sizes of male and female Cacatua sulphurea from the
Tanahjampea and Tukangbesi Islands. 1 = sample size reduced by 1 .
Plate 2. Males of three geographically adjacent taxa of Cacatua
sulphurea : top C. s. sulphurea (AMNH 153742 — old USNM number
visible on label; Kwandang, Sulawesi); middle C. s. djampeana (AMNH
266486; Kayuadi, Tanahjampea); bottom C. s. paulandrewi (AMNH
619651; Wanci, Tukangbesi) type specimen.
Alor birds have not only marginally larger bills than djampeana in
its newly restricted sense (males 37.2, n — 3,vs 35.0, n — 3; females
33.3, n — 3, vs 31.6, n — 7) but also considerably smaller (and
markedly paler) ear-covert patches (males 22.2, n = 3, vs 28.3, n -
3; females 22.2, n = 3,vs 24.1, n — 7).
The proximity of Sumba’s citrinocristata to species status
indicates that further studies of the taxon are in order. There are
suggestions that its juveniles differ from those of other taxa in the
sulphurea complex in the darkness of the bill and down (P. Jorgensen
and R. Wirth in litt. 2013), and these and other characters merit
investigation. Confirmation of its livelier behaviour, mentioned
above, is also desirable. It is, however, a significant obstacle that
comparisons with all remaining taxa in the complex will in some
cases be virtually or entirely impossible owing to their extreme rarity
in the wild and their absence in captivity.
The distinctiveness of abbotti , in terms of its large size yet
relatively small bill, is also of interest. It is something of a
biogeographical mystery that the notably remote Masalembu
Islands should possess a population of cockatoos in the first place,
since these — c.350 km north-west of Lombok and c.250 km west
of Wallace’s Line — are not included in Wallacea (White & Bruce
Figure 2. Distribution of the subspecies of Yellow-crested Cockatoo
Cacatua sulphurea in Wallacea and adjacent islands.
I abbotti
occidentalis
, sulphurea
- - - - - ' \ \ paulandrewi
, - , djampeana
parvula
citrinocristata
MATTHEW SHANLEY, AMNH.
Forktail 30 (2014)
The subspecies of Yellow-crested Cockatoo Cocatua sulphured
27
1986). In each of the eight known specimens of abbotti, all in
USNM, the bases of the lesser and/or median under-primary
coverts are discoloured a dirty mid-brown, and on three, including
the type, short segments of the inner vanes of some primaries are
similarly discoloured, asymmetrically. The significance of this is not
clear, but it perhaps reflects a degree of inbreeding. Mensural
increase in populations on remote islands is an established
evolutionary condition (the ‘island rule’: Lomolino 2005), and
certainly the Masalembu Islands are the most isolated of all
populations of Cacatua sulphured-, but whether the population of
abbotti is an ancient or a recent one can only be determined by
genetic study.
The great disparity in bill size between the sexes and between
taxa (see Tables 2 & 3) might confound attempts to identify
unsexed captive birds to subspecies, but laboratories can now sex
birds cheaply with just a feather sample. Moreover, Hartert (1903)
reported that Kuhn found the irides of males to be blackish-brown
and those of females to be bright red to dark vermilion, so this
character may also help aviculturists to establish taxonomically
appropriate pairs.
The fact that the Yellow-crested Cockatoo proves to possess
no fewer than seven diagnosable forms represents a considerable
challenge to conservation, since each taxon ought as far as possible
to be managed as a separate unit of concern. Already Critically
Endangered at the start of the century, recent reports from a variety
of sources cited by BirdLife International (2013) indicate the
increasingly desperate plight of the species in all its taxa and
populations: sulphured perhaps 200 birds in 2012 including ‘a few
individuals’ on Kadatua west of Buton (and one confirmed pair in
the southern half of Buton itself: T. E. Martin in lift. 2014 )\ abbotti
13 in 2011 (for which see Waugh 2013); occidentalis virtually or
actually gone from Lombok and Pantar, 107 on Sumbawa, 500 on
Komodo but with a decline of 60% in the years 2000-2005, 40-
70 on Flores, 18 on Alor; parvula 20-50 on West Timor, 200-300
on East Timor; djampeana ‘a few individuals’; paulandrewi ‘tiny
populations’, including 3 on Oroho (alternatively Kampanaune)
Island off Wangiwangi as recently as July 2013, 3-4 on Binongko,
May 2013, 1 caged bird, Kaledupa, July 2013, and at least 1, Lintea
Selatan, offTomea, September 2005 (D. J. Kelly, S. B. A. Kelly, N.
M. Marples, T. E. Martin and H. A. Singer per D. J. Kelly in litt.
2014); and citrinocristata a total of 563 in 2013. Although the
accuracy and contemporaneity of these BirdLife datazone figures
may be open to question, it is clearly desirable that every population
of every taxon is improved through effective conservation measures.
Where possible, conservation breeding to maintain strong blood¬
lines of those taxa already in captivity will also be of considerable
precautionary value, and we hope perhaps now a little easier
following this review of the characters that distinguish them.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Paul Sweet (AMNH), Robert Prys-Jones (NHMUK), Steven van
der Mije (RMNH), Martin Packert (SMTD), Chris Milensky and Brian
Schmidt (USNM) and Sylke Frahnert (ZMB) for access to specimens in their
care, Nate Rice for measuring a male Timor specimen in ANSP, Edward
Dickinson on advice on how to mention new taxa in abstracts, Matthew
Shanley (AMNH) for taking Plate 2, Mark Balman for making the map, David
Kelly and Tom Martin for help with recent records from Wakatobi and Buton,
and two referees (Thomas Arndt and Colin Trainor) for very helpful
comments on the original submission.
REFERENCES
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Indonesian Ornithological Society.
BirdLife International (2001) Threatened birds of Asia: the BirdLife
International Red Data Book. Cambridge UK: BirdLife International.
BirdLife International (2013) Species factsheet: Cacatua sulphurea. Accessed
from http://www.birdlife.org on 15/12/2013.
Clement's, J. F. (2000) Birds of the world: a checklist. Fifth edition.
Robertsbridge, UK: Pica Press.
Collar, N. J. & Butchart, S. H. M. (2014) Conservation breeding and avian
diversity: chances and challenges. Internatn. Zoo Yearbook 48: 7-28.
Collar, N. J., Gardner, L., Jeggo, D. F., Marcordes, B., Owen, A., Pagel, T„ Pes,
T., Vaidl, A., Wilkinson, R. & Wirth, R. (2012) Captive breeding and the
most threatened birds in Asia. BirdingASIA 1 8: 50-57.
Dickinson, E. C., ed. (2003) The Howard & Moore complete checklist of the
birds of the world. Third edition. London: Christopher Helm.
Dickinson, E. C. & Remsen Jr, J. V., eds. (201 3) The Howard & Moore complete
checklist of the birds of the world, 1. Fourth edition. Eastbourne: Aves
Press.
Forshaw, J. M. (1989) Parrots of the world. Third (revised) edition. London:
Blandford Press.
Fraser, L. (1844) ['Three new species of birds.'] Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1 844:
37-38.
Hartert, E. (1897) Mr William Doherty's bird-collections from Celebes. Novit.
Zool. 4: 153-166.
Hartert, E. (1898) List of birds collected in Timor by Mr Alfred Everett. Novit.
Zool. 5:111-136.
Hartert, E. (1 903) On the birds collected on theTukang-besi Islands and Buton,
south-east of Celebes by Mr. Heinrich Kuhn. Novit. Zool. 1 0: 1 8-38.
Lomolino, M.V. (2005) Body size evolution in insular vertebrates: generality
of the island rule. J. Biogeogr. 32: 1683-1699.
Meise, W. (1930) Die Vogel von Djampea und benachbarten Inseln nach
einer Sammlung Baron Plessens. II. J. Orn. 78: 180-213.
Rowley, I. (1997) Family Cacatuidae (cockatoos). Pp. 246-279 in J. del Hoyo,
A. Elliott & J. Sargatal, eds. Handbook of the birds of the world, 4.
Barcelona: Lynx Edicions.
Stattersfield, A. J. & Capper, D. R„ eds. (2000) Threatened birds of the world.
Cambridge UK & Barcelona: BirdLife International & Lynx Edicions.
Waugh, D. (2013) Schutz des Gelbwangenkakadus auf Sulawesi und
Masakambing. Papageien 4/201 3: 1 30-1 34.
White, C. M. N. & Bruce, M. D. (1986) The birds ofWallacea (Sulawesi, the
Moluccas and Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia): an annotated check-list.
London: British Ornithologists' Union (Check-list 7).
N. J. COLLAR, BirdLife International, Wellbrook Court, Girton
Road, Cambridge CB3 ON A, UK; and Bird Group, Department of
Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, Akeman St, Tring, Herts
HP 23 6AP, UK.
Email: nigel.collar@birdlife.org
S. J. MARSDEN, Division of Biology & Conservation Ecology,
School of Science & the Environment, Manchester Metropolitan
University, Chester Street, Manchester Ml 5GD, UK.
Email: s.marsden@mmu.ac.uk
FORKTAIL 30 (2014): 28-33
Moult in the Asian Pied Starling Sturnus contra floweri
population of Thailand
PHILIP D. ROUND, SOMCHAI NIMNUAN, DUANGRAT PHOTHIENG & KASEM CHUNKAO
The study of moult, a major event in the annual cycles of birds, is important in understanding avian seasonality. In Thailand, adult Asian
Pied Starlings Sturnus contra floweri begin their post-nuptial moult in mid-May (mean starting date 8 June ± 1 4 days) and complete it by late
September (estimated duration of moult 1 1 0 days). Juveniles undergo a complete post-juvenile moult, the earliest moulting juveniles from
presumed first broods commencing moult on average 23 days earlier than adults (mean starting date 1 6 May ± 22 days) with an estimated
duration of 147 days. The less synchronised moult in juveniles, with presumed later fledging birds from second or replacement broods
commencing moult later than birds from first broods, prevented a more precise estimate of the duration of post-juvenile moult. The timing
of moult in a wider range of tropical birds can easily be investigated by bird-ringers and will improve knowledge of life histories and annual
cycles relevant to species conservation in rapidly changing human-impacted environments.
INTRODUCTION
There is much interest in the seasonality of tropical birds: how
activities with high metabolic demand — breeding and moult, plus
migration in species where that applies — are seasonally distributed
in an annual cycle that is subject to a less fluctuating food supply
than is normal for birds in temperate areas. Studies have nevertheless
established that breeding in tropical environments remains strongly
seasonal and, as in temperate zones, is correlated with food supply
(Skutch 1950, Fogden 1972, Leighton & Leighton 1983, Poulin et
al. 1992, Steward & Pierce 2011, Steward et al. 2013). In general,
most wholly or partly insectivorous birds breed during the late dry
season and the early wet season, when arthropods are more
abundant. However, patterns of nesting throughout the tropics are
very variable and the preceding statement oversimplifies what is,
in reality, a complex picture.
Moult provides a measurable window on avian breeding and
seasonality as it can be easily recorded among samples of birds
caught for ringing (Newton 2009). It is therefore important to
understand moult patterns among a range of birds, both lorest and
non-forest species. Moult and breeding are typically mutually
exclusive activities, a complete moult usually taking place after the
conclusion of breeding. Most South-East Asian insectivorous
landbirds usually breed during the first half of the year, between
January and July. Moult follows thereafter, mainly takingplace from
April or May to October or November (Ward 1 969, Fogden 1 972,
Round 1982, Round et al. 2006, Wells 2007, Pierce 2009). Some
individuals within a population can be expected to be still breeding
when others have commenced their moult. There is also evidence
of limited temporal overlap in breeding and moult within
individuals among both temperate and tropical bird species (Foster
1975, Franklin et al. 1999, Hemberg 1999).
Although some of the earliest and most significant studies of
seasonality in South-East Asian birds (Ward 1969, Wells 1969)
examined non-forest species, most subsequent studies have
focused on forest birds. How does seasonality vary between birds
in forest habitats and non-forest or human-modified habitats ? On
the one hand, tropical non-forest habitats may be subject to greater
seasonal extremes (e.g. periodic droughts, lower and higher
temperatures) than forest habitats. On the other, human influence
in non-forest habitats (particularly the extensive use of irrigation
for agriculture) through artificially reducing the extremes of wet /
dry seasonality could, at least in theory, enable open country birds
to extend their breeding seasons compared to those inhabiting
forest. Additionally, over a longer period, human-induced climatic
change may be expected further to influence patterns of avian
seasonality.
We present here the results of an opportunistic study of moult
in Asian Pied Starling Sturnus contra , a resident bird of well -watered
open areas. The species ranges from the Indian subcontinent
eastwards throughout Indochina, but is absent from southern
Peninsular Thailand and Malaysia before reappearing in Sumatra,
Java and Bali. The taxon studied here, S. c. floweri, ranges from east
Myanmar to south China, north-west Laos, Cambodia and
Thailand (Dickinson 2003). It was formerly common and widely
distributed throughout Thailand to about 12°N (Deignan 1963),
but was apparently already declining around Bangkok when
Aagaard (1930) recorded his observations, as the city became
progressively urbanised. While still fairly abundant in marshy and
open grassy areas of Thailand’s central plains, particularly in coastal
areas, the Asian Pied Starling has since undergone a major decline
and range contraction nationwide (Round & Gardner 2008),
possibly due to the reduction in pasture used for grazing livestock.
It is less of a dietary generalist than most other largely ground¬
feeding starlings and mynas, probing more in short vegetation and
pasture to take proportionately more soft-bodied, non-insect
invertebrates (Tunhikorn 1990).
METHODS
Study area
The study was conducted at H.M. The King’s Royally Initiated
Laem Phak Bia Environmental Research and Development Project,
Phetchaburi province, Thailand (13.050°N 100.083°E). The site
is about 1 km from the sea, between a roughly 500 m wide belt of
dense, secondary, Avicennia- dominated mangroves, and salt-pans
and aquaculture ponds further inland. It receives nutrient-rich
municipal waste-water which is treated by filtering through muddy,
brackish water, lagoons planted with widely spaced small mangrove
trees, and by grass filter-beds in which various species of G ramineae
and Typba angustifolia are planted (Round et al. 2009).
Data collection and analysis
Asian Pied Starlings were caught in mist-nets as they emerged after
dawn from a communal mangrove roost shared with White-vented
Mynas Acridotberes grandis and smaller numbers of other starlings.
Occasionally birds fed in the project area and were caught around
the margins of grass filter-beds, used for water purification,
especially when the beds were being replanted and bare earth was
exposed.
Birds were caught during routine ringing activities at weekends,
year-round, from September 2000 to November 2012. Mist-nets
were usually opened at 05h30 and netting continued until late
P. D. ROUND
Forktail 30 (2014)
Moult in the Asian Pied Starling Sturnus contra floweri population of Thailand
29
morning or midday, depending on conditions. All birds were
measured, weighed, aged, examined for moult and marked with
numbered metal rings supplied by the Department of National
Parks, Wildlife and Plants Conservation, Bangkok, Thailand.
The stage of primary moult was recorded on the right wing
using the well-established method in which a moult score of 0 is
assigned to an old, unmoulted feather, 5 to a new, full-grown feather,
with moult scores 1 (missing/fully in pin), and 2-4 representing
feathers in intermediate stages (Ginn & Melville 1983). Since
starlings and mynas have a tiny, vestigial outermost primary (plO),
only pp 1-9 were scored for moult, so that a bird with nine fully
grown long primaries (moult score 45) was considered to have
completed primary moult. The stage of moult in actively moulting
birds was recorded on British Trust for Ornithology-format
moult cards.
Duration and timing of moult were estimated using the models
developed by Underhill & Zucchini (1988) and Underhill et al.
(1990), hereafter 'UZ models’: a likelihood based on the observed
moult index or ‘proportion feather mass grown’ (PFMG) is
constructed, and maximised with respect to the parameters mean
and standard deviation of start of moult and duration of moult.
The PFMG index is subjected to a power transformation because
the index used must increase linearly with time. The likelihood or
probability of observing a certain moult index value is based on
the assumption that start date is normally distributed, but the
programme is not a regression model which would necessitate other
assumptions. Further details are given in Erni et al. (2013).
Feather masses of individual primaries were obtained from a
fresh roadside carcass of a full-grown juvenile Asian Pied Starling,
weighed in the laboratory to the nearest 0.001 g. Primary moult
scores were converted to PFMG using the conversion formula given
by Underhill & Zucchini (1988) and Underhill & Summers (1993)
to give a range of values 0.00-1.00, where 0 indicates moult not
yet started and 1 indicates moult completed. The combined mean
body mass (adults and juveniles) of the Asian Pied Starling was 68.5
g ± SD 6.52 g, (n = 457, authors’ own data).
We were interested to estimate the duration and timing of moult
in adult starlings and compare the progress of moult between adults
and juveniles. Younger juveniles could be easily aged by their
browner, but unweathered, upperparts, dusky brown cheeks and
all-blackish crown (Plate 1). Additionally, the youngest juveniles
had a pale grey-brown iris (compared with whitish in adults)
although the transition to an adult-coloured iris was very rapid,
and was almost always attained long before the moult into adult
plumage was completed.
Plate 1. Young juvenile Asian Pied Starling Sturnus contra floweri,
Phetchaburi province, Thailand, 9 July 2005.
Adults were recognisable by their white cheeks, usually brighter
orange orbital ring and base to the bill, and more worn flight
feathers. Additionally, a characteristic of adult floweri — an
extensively white fore-crown — is formed by the pointed white tips
(‘hackles’) to the feathers of the crown. These break off due to wear
so that the crown becomes more extensively black towards the end
of the breeding season, making adults and juveniles superficially
harder to distinguish (Plates 2 & 3).
Since juveniles undergo a complete post-juvenile moult (and
adults a complete post-nuptial moult) we could not easily
distinguish between age classes among birds that were in the final
stages of moulf or which had already completed moult. We
therefore selected the UZ Type 5 model, which incorporates data
from birds that have not yet commenced moult and those that are
undergoing active moult, but which excludes those in which moult
has been completed (Underhill & Zucchini 1988, Underhill et al.
1990). Additionally the UZType 2 model, which considers all birds
(those not yet started, those in active moult and those that have
completed moult), was used to illustrate the progress of moult in
the population as a whole, including birds in which the age was
undetermined (Figure 1).
Analysis was restricted to those birds caught from 1 April to 30
November, extending from approximately one month before any
birds were first recorded in active moult to one month after the
Plate 2. Freshly moulted adult Asian Pied Starling showing white-
tipped hackles on forecrown, Phetchaburi province, Thailand, 20
September 2009.
Plate 3. Worn adult Asian Pied Starling with white-tipped hackles on
crown having broken off, Phetchaburi province, Thailand, 12 August
2007.
aNnoa’crd QNnoaad
30
PHILIP D. ROUND et al.
Forktail 30 (2014)
Figure 1. Progress of moult in the
entire population as indicated by
the UZ Type 2 model. Dashed lines
indicate 95% confidence interval.
Solid lines link recaptures of the
same individuals during a single
season. The bold rectangles in
lower left corner indicate Cohort J1
data points — early moulting
juveniles — see text. (IND indicates
age undetermined.)
last bird was recorded in moult. Data from a small number of
moulting individuals that were re traps of birds ringed earlier were
treated in the dataset as if from new individuals, following the
practice of Rothery & Newton (2002) and Newton & Rothery
(2005). Additionally, data from nine individuals caught elsewhere
during the study period in central Thailand, three at Khao Sam
Roi Yot National Park, Kuiburi district, Prachuap Khiri Khan
province (12.133°N 99.983°E) and six from Huai Krajao, Krajao
district, Kanchanaburi (14.333°N 99.650°E), were also
incorporated. The analysis was performed in R (R Development
Core Team 2008) using the package moult (Erni et al. 2013).
RESULTS
Of a total of 457 handlings of Asian Pied Starlings, 306 were
examined for moult and moult score was recorded. The total
comprised 99 adults, 149 juveniles and 58 classified as ‘age
undetermined’ (Figure 1).
Moult in adults
The average duration of primary moult in adult Asian Pied Starlings
was estimated from the UZ Type 5 model as 1 10.2 days, with a
mean start date of 8 June ± SD 13.6 days, corresponding to a
completion date of 26 September (Table 1). The earliest adult in
active primary moult was caught on 31 May, and all adults caught
between early July and mid-September were moulting. The earliest
adult known to have completed moult (a retrapped individual) was
caught on 20 September (day 173 in Figure 1) and the latest
Table 1. Estimates of moult onset and duration for adult and juvenile
Asian Pied Starlings using Underhill-Zucchini models for Type 5 data
and Type 2 data (* all age classes combined).
identifiable still-moulting adult was caught on 9 October (day 192
in Figure 1).
If the start-of-moult date for individuals of known moult score
is estimated using the mean duration of moult obtained from the
UZ model, then the earliest moulting adults started moult during
11-20 May, with most adults commencing moult during the period
21 May-20 June. The distribution of start-of-moult dates was
normal and unimodal (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Distribution of estimated start-of-moult dates for adult and
juvenile Asian Pied Starlings by ten-day period.
adults
2 5 —
juveniles
25 -
Forktail 30(2014)
Moult in the Asian Pied Starling Sturnus contra floweri population of Thailand
31
Moult in juveniles
The earliest recorded moulting juvenile was 1 0 May, and thereafter
until 1 0 October most juveniles caught were in active primary moult
(Figure 1). The earliest completion date for juveniles could not be
judged from captures since no undoubted, identifiable juveniles that
had completed moult were retrapped during the same season. Five
presumably late-fledging juveniles caught between 7 August and 1
September had yet to commence moult.
Application of the UZ Type 5 model, repeated for the entire
sample of juveniles, yielded an unrealistically long estimate of the
duration of moult of 174 days, with a mean start date of 28 May ±
45 days (Table 1). The much greater standard deviation reflects a
wider scatter of moult commencement dates in juveniles, which
violates the assumption of normality for the starting date, and
invalidates the estimate of duration. It can immediately be seen
(Figure 1) that moult in juveniles was much less synchronised than
that of adults. One cohort of juveniles (Jl) trapped around days
50-60 had moult scores of up to 0.40 at that time, while other
much later moulting juveniles in the sample had similar moult scores
at around days 120-160. This wide scatter of moult scores is
presumed to correspond to juveniles from first broods (early-
moulting birds, Jl) and those that originated from later nesting
attempts, either as second or replacement broods.
Therefore, in order to refine the estimate of moult duration for
juveniles, we treated the early moulters (cohort Jl), i.e. those up to
and including day 65 (4 June) separately. These could be easily
identified from Figure 1. We then ran the UZ Type 5 model for
this group. This yielded an estimated duration of 147 days, with a
mean start date of 16 May ± SD 21.8 (Table 1). This is not ideal
because it is estimating duration from many fewer individuals (n ~
58) from only the first part of the moult cycle, but there is no
obvious alternative. If we assume that the rate of moult is similar in
both early and later moulting juveniles we may then use the value
of duration obtained from cohort J 1 to estimate the start-of-moult
dates for all juveniles (Figure 2). This indicates that start-of-moult
peaked among birds from first broods from the last ten days of April
to the last ten days of May. There was then a long tail of birds starting
moult up to the last days of August, with a slight suggestion of a
second peak in mid-August (Figure 2). Fully 35% of juveniles
handled (44 birds out of a total of 119 for which start-of-moult
date was estimated) started moult after 1 June. This would suggest
that later fledging among Asian Pied Starlings through either re¬
nesting or double -brooding, and therefore later onset of post¬
juvenile moult, is a frequent occurrence.
Progress of moult
The incremental increase in proportional feather mass from known
actively moulting birds (caught after moult had already started, then
later retrapped while still in moult) ranged from 0.84% to 1.39%
per day in three adults, and 0.68% and 1.37% per day in two
juveniles (Table 2). Data from three further juveniles and another
Table 2. Daily proportion feather mass grown based on recaptures of
four moulting adults and five juveniles (*moult score 0 on first capture,
so precise onset of moult unknown).
adult (Table 2) are omitted from consideration here. Since the birds
had not yet started to moult at the time of first capture, and moult
starting date was not known, any assessment of daily rate of increase
would necessarily be an underestimate in those cases.
Moult of the vestigial p 1 0 was usually completed before that of
p9. Moult of secondaries typically commenced when primary moult
was approaching one-third completion (moult score 15) and the
last secondary (p6) was often still growing when moult of primaries
was already complete. Tail moult started after the secondaries,
typically when the primary moult score was 20-30, though a few
birds apparently started renewing tail feathers before primary moult
started. As in most birds, tail-moult started with the central pair of
rectrices and proceeded outwards, more or less symmetrically.
DISCUSSION
This study presents the first description of the seasonality and
duration of moult in the Asian Pied Starling — both post-nuptial
moult in adults and the complete post-juvenile moult. Moult
followed breeding, but within the population there was overlap
between these activities. Occupied nests of Asian Pied Starlings in
and around the study area were encountered as early as February,
with the earliest recorded full-grown fledged juveniles appearing
at least as early as 1 0 April. However, the fact that moult in a few
juveniles apparently started in the first 10 days of that month
indicates that some juveniles had fledged even earlier than this.
Some starlings were still nest-building in mid-May (Round &
Gardner 2008), so that the later-nesting birds would have still been
incubating at a time when other adults were already beginning to
moult.
In addition to the estimate of moult duration in adult Asian
Pied Starlings and a less reliable, apparently longer, estimate of
moult duration in early-hatching juveniles, it was notable that the
earliest onset of post-juvenile moult was roughly one month earlier
than the earliest onset of post-nuptial moult in adults. The
difference in mean starting dates between the two groups was 23
days (Table 1). In Asian Pied Starling, as in some other species of
resident (both open country and forest-living) birds in which
juveniles have a complete moult, the first juveniles begin moult of
flight feathers well before any adults have commenced moulting
(pers. obs.). A later onset of moult in adults may be an adaptation
to increase productivity, enabling adults to undertake a longer
period of post-fledging parental care and also grant an opportunity
for multiple brooding, or re-laying if the first brood is lost. Double-
brooding is referred to by Feare & Craig (1998) for Asian Pied
Starling. Multiple brooding may be relatively frequent among
tropical birds, e.g. in the non-forest Pied Fantail Rhipidura javanica
(Herbert 1923, Wells 2007, Round & Gardner 2008) and in forest
or forest-edge birds such as Abbott’s Babbler Malacocincla abbotti
(Pierce et al. 2004), Puff-throated Bulbul Alophoixus pallidus and
White-rumped Shama Copsychus malabaricus (A. J. Pierce pers.
comm.). Additionally, since many starlings are polygynous (Feare
& Craig 1998), there is also a possibility that successive polygyny
might contribute to the prolongation of nesting of the Asian Pied
Starling.
Uneven sampling during the study period, in which relatively
few juveniles were caught in the key mid-June to mid- August period,
prevented a more detailed examination of age-related differences
in moult patterns between adults and juveniles.
Among birds generally a partial post-juvenile moult involving
(mainly) contour feathers is more usual in temperate zone species,
although the Common Starling Sturnus vulgaris is well known for
having a complete post-juvenile moult (Bahrmann 1964). Among
starlings and mynas generally both partial and complete post¬
juvenile moults occur, depending on species (Feare & Craig 1998).
32
PHILIP D. ROUND eto/.
Forktail 30 (2014)
In South-East Asia, where seasonality is less pronounced, a complete
post-juvenile moult appears to be the most frequent pattern among
resident birds (Wells 2007, Round & Gardner 2008, Pierce 2009).
Among birds having a partial post-juvenile moult, it is well known
that the timing and extent of moult are influenced by hatching date.
Great Tits Parus major from first broods started their post-juvenile
moult earlier, and replaced a greater proportion of their feathers,
than those from later broods (Rymkevich & Bojarinova 1996). So
far as we could discern, all later-moulting Asian Pied Starlings went
on to complete post-juvenile moult, with none arresting moult and
retaining unmoulted juvenile feathers. This suggests that food
availability is not a major constraint on the completion of moult in
the relatively benign, well-watered environment of central Thailand.
Dawson (1994) showed that the rate of moult in actively
moulting Common Starlings could be experimentally manipulated,
and that the rate of feather growth increased in response to a
decrease in day length. This suggests that later-hatching juvenile
Asian Pied Starlings might possibly adjust their moult duration and
rate in response to environmental cues, so that our assumption of a
similar rate of moult among earlier- and later-moulting juveniles
might not necessarily apply. A better understanding of post-juvenile
moult patterns could be achieved through tracking the progress of
moult of frequently recaptured, individually marked juveniles.
Studying the progress of moult in captive individuals might be more
practicable, however, and would allow for further study of the
flexibility of moult patterns through experimental manipulation.
Nevertheless, there is still much to learn about avian seasonality,
and bird ringers can continue to make major contributions by
opportunistically collecting moult data for a much wider range of
open-country, wetland and forest species.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank the many persons who have assisted us in ringing birds at Laem
Phak Bia at various times. Jonathan Murray, Suthep Muangmai, Pinit
Saengkaew, Pornkamol Singkham, Kaset Sutasha, Wasana Thammapon and
Thanyarat Tatuwan deserve special thanks for their contributions. Birgit Erni
kindly explained some of the intricacies of the R Moult package and offered
advice on analysis, while both Wichyanan Limparungpatthanakij and
Supatchaya Techachoochert also assisted. Andrew Pierce and Dave
Buckingham commented on versions of this manuscript and improved it with
their helpful suggestions. Nick Upton found the intact Asian Pied Starling
carcass from which primary feather mass was obtained. We are grateful to the
staff of H.M. The King’s Royally Initiated Laem Phak Bia Environmental
Research and Development Project for their continued hospitality and
assistance over many years. Philip Round is supported by The Wetland Trust
(UK).
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Black.
Philip D. ROUND, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science,
Mahidol University, Rama 6 Road, Bangkok 10400, Thailand.
Email: philip. rou@mahidoiac.th
Somchai NIMNUAN, Beung Boraphet Wildlife Research Station,
Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plants
Conservation, Nakhon Sawan 60000, Thailand.
Email win_259@yahoo.com
Duangrat PHOTHIENG, Senior Biologist, Wildlife Conservation
Bureau, Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plants
Conservation, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand.
Email: pothieng@hotmail.com
Kasem CHUNKAO, H.M. The King's Royally Initiated Laem
Phak Bia Environmental Research and Development
Project/Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of
Environment, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900.
Email Prof.kasemc@gmail.com
FORKTAIL 30 (2014): 34-40
An annotated bird checklist of the Vikramshila Gangetic
Dolphin Sanctuary, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India, with an
assessment of threats to bird conservation
5USHANT DEY, SUBHA5IS DEY, SUNIL K. CHOUDHARY& NACHIKET KELKAR
The rivers, wetlands and floodplain regions of the eastern Gangetic Plain in Bihar state, India, support a rich resident and migrant aquatic
avifauna. These systems are also highly human-dominated, with millions of people dependent on them for their basic needs, livelihoods
and commerce. Given this situation, protection of avian diversity becomes a difficult challenge, as even existing freshwater protected areas
and bird sanctuaries are under severe pressures from resource extraction and disturbance. Here we report major threats to bird conservation
in an important freshwater protected area and Important Bird Area in the eastern Gangetic Plain: the Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary,
Bhagalpur, Bihar. Poaching and illegal hunting, along with changing agricultural practices and erratic flow releases from upstream dams,
are the major threats to birdlife within the sanctuary. Based on our biodiversity monitoring between 1999 and 2014, we present a
comprehensive annotated checklist, together with observed long-term trends of species occurrence in the sanctuary. We also provide
specific notes on the status of threatened bird species such as the Greater Adjutant Leptoptilos dubius, White-rumped Vulture Gyps
benghalensis, Indian Skimmer Rynchops albicollis, Black-bellied Tern Sterna acuticauda and River Tern Sterna aurantia.
INTRODUCTION
River ecosystems and biodiversity worldwide are under serious threat
from human activities: widespread habitat degradation, damming
and associated flow alterations and severe human population
pressures leading to overexploitation of resources (Dudgeon 2000,
Collen et al. 2010). In the Gangetic floodplain of the Indian
subcontinent, millions of people are dependent on rivers for their
basic needs, livelihood and commerce. This region also supports a
remarkable diversity of freshwater wildlife, including unique
charismatic and endangered species such as the Ganges River
Dolphin Platanista gangetica , Gharial Gavialis gangeticus. Marsh
Crocodile Crocodylus palustris , Smooth-coated Otter Lutrogale
perspicillata and several species of freshwater turtles, fishes and birds
(Dudgeon 2000). The Ganga (Ganges) River floodplain (basin area
861 ,404 km2) is the most productive and fertile region of India, aptly
described as the nation’s ‘lifeline’, for mankind and biodiversity
strongly dependent on riverine ecosystem services (Prasad etal. 2002,
Islam & Rahmani 2004).
The rivers, wetlands and floodplain regions of the eastern Gangetic
Plain in Bihar, India, are perhaps among the relatively neglected areas
in terms of protection and conservation efforts of aquatic wildlife
(Prasad etal. 2002, Sinha 2007). Few protected areas contributing to
effective wildlife conservation exist in this region, for a number of
reasons (IUCN & UNEP-WCMC 2007): in particular, it is difficult
to afford complete protection to active river channels (Saunders etal.
2010). First, these floodplain river-wetland systems are very dynamic
and subject to major habitat change after the monsoonal flood pulse
(Singh et al. 2007), making it difficult to define use rights and
boundaries of protected areas clearly ( Kelkar & Krishnaswamy 2010).
Second, due to the open- access, intensive and often unregulated use
of these floodplain ecosystems, designation and management of
freshwater protected areas is often problematic and conflicts with
human economic activity. Therefore, wherever riverine protected areas
exist in such regions, they typically occur as multiple-use riverscapes
rather than as strictly protected, inviolate river reaches (Kelkar et al.
2010, Saunders et al. 2010). In these cases it is critical to ensure that
regular monitoring of biodiversity is carried out to identify threats
and pressures specifically caused by intensive human use of such areas.
The eastern Gangetic Plain also supports a very rich resident and
migrant aquatic avifauna, but little is known about the local status of
bird species and their conservation requirements (Sinha 2007). The
Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary (hereafter Dolphin
Sanctuary) in Bhagalpur, Bihar, is the only specifically riverine
protected area (rather than wetland bird sanctuaries) in the eastern
Gangetic Plain. The Dolphin Sanctuary was designated especially for
the protection of the endangered Ganges River Dolphin (Choudhary
etal. 2006). It has also been identified as an Important Bird Area (IBA)
(Islam & Rahmani 2004, BirdLife International 2013).
Despite having protected status, the Dolphin Sanctuary has
been under pressure due to the long-term, near-complete
dependence of local communities on farming and fishing (Ara
1954), motorised river traffic, pollution, altered dry-season flows
due to upstream dams and historical decline of fisheries due to the
construction of the Farakka barrage downstream (Banerjee 1999,
Choudhary et al. 2006, Kelkar et al. 2010). Civil society initiatives
such as the Vikramshila Biodiversity Research and Education
Centre (VBREC) in Bhagalpur have carried out extensive
monitoring, conservation and research work in the Dolphin
Sanctuary (Choudhary et al. 2006), informing and educating the
local communities about conservation issues.
Monitoring effort can enable assessments of the local status of
endangered and vulnerable bird species to be made, and help
prioritise measures to mitigate significant threats (Hussain 1987,
Dudgeon 2000). Given the conservation importance of Gangetic
rivers and wetlands, developing baselines of avian diversity for
important freshwater protected areas such as the Dolphin
Sanctuary is essential (Sinha 2007). The main objectives of this
paper are to provide a comprehensive bird checklist for an
important freshwater protected area and to update the currently
limited knowledge of bird diversity in and threats to the eastern
Gangetic Plain, Bihar. Based on monitoring bird diversity in the
Dolphin Sanctuary area for the last 14 years, we discuss specific
threats to species of conservation significance, and larger, landscape-
level challenges in conserving biodiversity in human-dominated
riverine floodplains of the Gangetic basin.
METHODS
The Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary is located in the
Bhagalpur district of Bihar, India. It is a 65-km stretch of the Ganga
River between the towns of Sultanganj (25.254°N 86.738°E) and
Kahalgaon (25-282°N 87.229°E), and part of the Ganga-Kosi
interfluve. The geomorphology of the main river channel is
characterised by meanders, wide straight channels, alluvial islands,
Forktall 30 (2014) An annotated bird checklist of the Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India
35
point and spit bars, rocky mid-channel islands and deep
countercurrent pools (Singh et al. 2007). The water depth ranges
from 0.2 to 40 m, the channel width varies between 150 m and up
to 3 km. However, in very wide channels water depths are shallow
and there are many islands in the channels. Temperatures vary from
a recorded minimum of about 5-8°C in winter (December-
January) up to a maximum of 45°C in high summer (May-June).
During water-borne monthly monitoring surveys carried out
regularly in the Dolphin Sanctuary between 1999 and 2014, two
observers dedicated to spotting birds made direct observations of
bird flocks on banks and in the water. Birds were also recorded
opportunistically during boat surveys for river dolphins. Boat
surveys were operated in three seasons — summer (March-April),
pre-monsoon (May-July) and post-monsoon/ winter (December-
February). Observations were also made from a few fixed locations
spread across the Dolphin Sanctuary throughout the year, including
the monsoon flood season. All observations were made with
binoculars. On sighting distant bird flocks, the boat was steered
closer in order to record species composition and numbers. Mid¬
channel islands and sand spits/ point-bars in the river were surveyed
on foot to record breeding species. Birds were also opportunistically
recorded from the agricultural areas of the river floodplains.
Observations were made in daytime, at least five days a month,
usually from 07h00 to 17h00 but occasionally at night to look for
nocturnal birds. In all, by boat and on foot, we covered more than
8,000 km during repeated replicate surveys in the Dolphin
Sanctuary and surrounding areas. Birds were photographed
whenever possible, detailed notes were taken, and species identity
was confirmed using field guides (Ali & Ripley 1971,1983,
Grimmett et al. 1998, Kazmierczak & van Perlo 2000).
During the surveys we also regularly recorded information from
interviews with local fishermen, farmers and other key informants
about local threats to birds by trapping, killing, hunting, poaching
or other disturbances. We regularly collected and maintained
photographic evidence on bird sightings and threats. Traps or hides
found were destroyed whenever possible; trapped birds were
confiscated from poachers and rehabilitated back to the wild. Over
the last two years, we have formally set up an informer network
with the help of local boatmen and traditional fishermen, from
which data on any threats to biodiversity continue to be collected,
and these have been included in this article (Table 1).
RESULTS
A total of 198 bird species was recorded in the Dolphin Sanctuary
and surrounding areas (see Appendix). Sequence follows del Hoyo
& Collar (2014) for non-passerines and BirdLife International
(2014) for passerines.
Significant records: threatened species
Marbled Teal Marmaronetta angustirostris
Vulnerable. A single bird seen only once in December 1999. This
bird was seen in a side-channel of the Ganga River near Bhagalpur
town, with a small flock of Lesser Whistling-ducks Dendrocygna
javanica. The channel had some floating vegetation ( Hydrilla sp.).
The species was identified clearly based on the distinct white spots
on the buff back and flanks.
Ferruginous Duck Aythya nyroca
Near Threatened. Rare winter visitor seen irregularly between 2004
and 2008, but no reports before or after. Reported also by
Choudhary & Mishra (2006).
Falcated Duck Mareca fakata
Near Threatened. No records in the study period, but one male
bird was seen near Bhagalpur in a side-channel in 1996-97 by SD
(in litt.).
Greater Adjutant Leptoptilos dubius
Endangered. The only known breeding population in peninsular
India is in the Ganga Kosi interfluve around the Dolphin Sanctuary
riverscape. Seen feeding on a human carcass in 2003. About 45 pairs
breed on the Kosi River floodplains near villages north of National
Highway NH-31. Regularly uses the main river channel in spring
and summer (Choudhary & Ghosh 2004, Choudhary eta/. 2004,
Choudhary 2007, Mishra & Mandal 2010, K. K. Sharma verbally,
authors’ pers. obs.). Population largely stable or even potentially
increasing in the area. Last seen in June 2014 on the Jamuna side-
channel near Bhagalpur town.
Lesser Adjutant Leptoptilos javanicus
Vulnerable. Common, a breeding resident widely distributed in the
region. Several breeding pairs have been recorded from both the
north and south banks of the Ganga River stretch within the
Dolphin Sanctuary, as well as from nearby floodplain wetlands,
villages and scrubland (Choudhary 2007).
Painted Stork Mycteria leucocephala
Near Threatened. Non-breeding summer visitor in low numbers
(about 40-50) but recorded consistently in the Dolphin Sanctuary
in May and June each year. Seen on alluvial sandy floodplain islands
near water around Lodipur and Bhagalpur. Fourteen birds seen in
June 2014.
Asian Woollyneck Ciconia episcopus
Vulnerable. Resident in the study area throughout the period
(1999-2014). A few pairs (8-10) have been regularly seen
Table 1. Description of threats to bird species' groups in the Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary riverscape.
36
SUSHANT DEY et al.
Forktail 30 (2014)
throughout the year along river banks. Breeding never observed
but juveniles seen occasionally in post-monsoon season.
Black-necked Stork Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus
Near Threatened. Juveniles seen occasionally in monsoon season
( July- September), and tvvo pairs regularly seen throughout the year
in the Dolphin Sanctuary. Not abundant in the area. Breeding
storks have been recorded in this region (Maheswaran et al. 2004,
Choudhary et al. 2010). Possible breeding of one pair near Jagatpur
wetland (Kumar & Choudhary 201 1). Breeds also in neighbouring
stretches and in the Kosi floodplains (authors’ pers. obs.).
Black-headed Ibis Threskiornis melanocephalus
Near Threatened. Local migrant and summer visitor. Numbers
generally low and have possibly declined.
Dalmatian Pelican Pelecanus crispus
Vulnerable. Four birds recorded in January 2008 near Sultanganj.
Spot-billed Pelican Pelecanus philippensis
Near Threatened. Sporadic summer visitor. A single, possibly
vagrant, bird seen on a river island at Lodipur in June 2012. Also
seen and photographed in May 2013.
Oriental Darter Anhinga melanogaster
Near Threatened. Rarely seen in the river channel, but fairly
common in nearby wetlands.
River Lapwing Vanellus duvaucelii
Near Threatened. Common resident recorded every year
throughout the period (1999-2014). Breeding in May on sand
banks; seen almost every year. Possible decline in abundance in the
last 2 years, as fewer birds seen, but difficult to quantify as the species
is still common.
Eurasian Curlew Numenius arquata
Near Threatened. Regular winter visitor seen every year in flocks of
10-15 birds. No major change in abundance noted over the years.
Black-tailed Godwit Limosa iimosa
Near Threatened. Common but declining winter visitor; has been
seen every year on side-channels and wetlands in moderate-sized
flocks (50-100 birds).
Indian Skimmer Rynchops albicollis
Vulnerable. Seen frequently in summer until 2008, since when there
has been only one sighting of just two birds in May 2011. Breeding
was recorded on two occasions in 2004-2005 near Barari,
Bhagalpur, but not reported since. This species is critically affected
by loss of alluvial island habitats by river flood erosion, erratic
releases and changing agricultural practices such as cultivation of
cucurbits.
River Tern Sterna aurantia
Near Threatened. Frequently sighted every year and common in
the dry-season, but possible decline in breeding over the years.
Groups of 10-20 birds seen regularly. Uses riverine wetlands and
mid-channel islands for breeding in summer (April-May).
Black-bellied Tern Sterna acuticauda
Endangered. Summer visitor, seen every year in the spring
and summer months, in flocks of 15-20 birds. Also observed
during the spring and summer of 2014 in flocks of Little Terns,
when approximately 30-40 birds were recorded over a 50 km
stretch of river. Breeding of the species has never been observed on
this stretch.
White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis
Critically Endangered. Over 30 birds seen on a carcass in Khagaria
district in 2004, and nesting has been reported from the adjoining
Khagaria district that lies to the north (Choudhary et al. 2005).
FFowever, this remains the only record in the vicinity of the Dolphin
Sanctuary and there have been no records since then.
Indian Spotted Eagle Oanga hastata
Vulnerable. Generally rare, seldom seen in summer; formerly
frequent sightings in winter. No recent records — last recorded in
the study area in December 2006. Distinguished from Greater
Spotted Eagle by smaller size and considerably lighter colour of
and spotting on wings.
Greater Spotted Eagle Oanga clanga
Vulnerable. Rare summer visitor. One juvenile seen near Sultanganj
in April 2003 and one juvenile seen and photographed in May 2014.
Eastern Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca
Vulnerable. A single subadult seen in April 2008 near Kajjalban,
3 km trom Sultanganj.
Pallas's Fish Eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus
Vulnerable. Recorded only once near Kahalgaon in 2001. A pair
was sighted in the nearby LMhuwa wetland bird sanctuary,
Rajmahal, Jharkhand (Ghosh et al. 1993).
Red-headed Falcon PaSco chicquera
Near Threatened. One pair regularly seen around Bhagalpur town,
in addition to a few other sightings elsewhere between 1999 and
2014. No change has been noted in their occurrence; breeding has
not been observed but the Bhagalpur pair is resident.
Significant records: rare species and other
interesting records
Many records of ducks and waders are interesting because of stray
winter migrants. The Gandak and Kosi river fans in north Bihar
seem to be a transition zone for such migrants en route to the
Tibetan plateau. Central Asia and Siberia, and this seems to reflect
in the occasional stopover records of some rare coastal species (Inglis
1946, George 1964, Ali & Ripley 1983, Choudhary & Mishra
2006).
Fulvous Whistling-duck Dendrocygna bicolor
Irregular winter visitor. Flock of approximately 200 individuals seen
on rocky mid-channel islands near Kahalgaon in November 2000.
A flock ot about 50 birds seen in May 2014 at Bhagalpur.
Common Shelduck Tadorna tadorna
Winter visitor occasionally seen in small groups (10-12) between
1999 and 2008, but no sightings after this period. Regularly
recorded in the past (Bucknill 1926, Harman &Munns 1943, Inglis
1946).
Red-crested Pochard Netts rufina
Regular winter visitor, some stragglers staying until June. The
species has declined steadily over the years and today only a few
birds are seen each year.
Mallard Anas platyrhynchos
Serious declines in numbers from this region over the past 1 5 years.
Common winter visitor in the 1990s.
Black Stork Ciconia nigra
Winter visitor in small numbers. About 6-10 birds recorded
sporadically in the low-water season.
Forktail 30 (2014) An annotated bird checklist of the Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India
37
White Stork Ciconia ciconia
Rare winter migrant. Four birds seen only once in January 2008
near Kajjalban, Sultanganj, with a flock of Asian Openbills
Anastomus oscitans.
Black-crowned Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax
Long established heronries on rocky islands in the Ganga River
at Kahalgaon, about 35-40 nests with Little Cormorants (30-40
nests).
Great White Pelican Pelecanus onocrotalus
Few (4-5) birds seen regularly in winter every year near Sultanganj.
Pied Avocet Reeurvirostra avosetta
Regular wintering migrant in January / February. Seen at Sultanganj
and Bhagalpur, in flocks of usually less than 20 birds. One bird seen
in the Kosi River in March 2014.
Pacific Golden Plover Pluvialis fulva
Uncommon winter visitor, seen on a few occasions between 2001
and 2004 in groups of less than 6-8 birds.
Terek Sandpiper Xenus cinereus
Vagrant recorded once near Lodipur island (floodplain region) in
January 2001.
Slender-billed Gull Larus genei
One bird seen in the Ganga River between Sultanganj and Munger
on 2 April 2014.
Sooty Tern Onychoprion fuscatus
One bird seen in 2001-2002 and two sightings in summer 2008
(single bird in flock of about 7-8 Indian Skimmers and live River
Terns). One record trom the Terai region in Bihar is the only
previous confirmed sighting from the region (Ali & Ripley 1971).
Hen Harrier Circus cyaneus
Recorded once in December 2007. Adult male was seen and
distinguished from the Pallid and Montagu’s Harriers based on
single black trailing edge along wing margin.
Pied Harrier Circus melanoleucos
One adult male seen in January 2008.
Montagu's Harrier Circus pygargus
Single adult male seen in December-January 2008. Distinguished
by barred tail from Pallid Harrier C. macrourus. (Note: juvenile
and female harriers were often indistinguishable during surveys and
we have reported confirmed species only based on adult male
sightings. Due to this shortcoming, harriers are probably more
common in the area than reported here.)
Northern Goshawk Accipiter gentilis
One adult seen in 2002-2003 near Bhagalpur.
Long-legged Buzzard Buteo rufinus
One adult seen in April 2008 near Sultanganj.
Upland Buzzard Buteo hemilasius
Regular but uncommon winter visitor, staying into spring (March).
Sand Martin Riparia riparia, Plain Martin Riparia
paludicola, Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica
These species nested on eroded river banks in large numbers,
but recently have been affected by erratic flow releases from
upstream dams
DISCUSSION
Forty percent of India’s human population inhabits the floodplain
riverscapes of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The consequent high
dependence on riverine ecosystem services has caused serious
conflicts between conservation efforts for biodiversity and the
demand lor river resources (Dudgeon 2000). This is evident in the
threatened status of the charismatic fauna that inhabit rivers of the
Gangetic basin, such as the Gharial, Ganges River Dolphin,
Smooth-coated Otter, freshwater turtles, and birds like the Greater
Adjutant and Indian Skimmer. The socio-economic conditions of
the human population, which depend on agriculture and fisheries
in the eastern Gangetic Plain, are extremely poor (Ara 1954,
Choudhary et al. 2006). In the Dolphin Sanctuary, traditional
fishing communities are the key stakeholders in biodiversity
conservation, but they live in abject poverty (Choudhary et al.
2006). On the one hand, the degraded condition of the Gangetic
basin, due to dams, dry-season water abstraction and flow
alterations, have marginalised the livelihoods of local people. On
the other, the region has had a history of feudal control over land
and water, which has led to high socio-political disparity, lawlessness
and crime (Kelkar & Krishnaswamy 2010). These factors, albeit
indirectly, are serious contributors to the threats to most
biodiversity, including birds.
The most important direct threats to birds include rampant
poaching, trapping/snaring and hunting, which have adversely
affected several resident and migratory species ofwaterbirds, whose
abundances have seen regular declines from year to year, as our
monitoring surveys suggest (Choudhary et al. 2006). This seems
to be particularly true for waterfowl species such as the Mallard
and Gadwall Mareca strepera , as well as for long-distance visitors
such as the Common Crane Grus grus. Bird hunting by shooting
and trapping has always been common in this region, and has
generally been highly indiscriminate (Harman & Munns 1943, Ara
1954). Birds, mainly waterfowl, waders and wagtails (local
informants, verbally), are hunted for food. Another serious threat
is the killing of birds by the use of poisoned grains laced with
pesticides such as thiamate, endosulfan and aldrin. This is practised
not for preventing crop damage, but for food. Huge nets, snares
and traps are occasionally used by professional bird-hunting tribes,
employed by criminal elements that operate in the floodplains, for
mass hunting of foraging ducks and geese, waders and even small
birds like larks, wagtails and pipits. Until recently, hunters would
even sell birds along the national highway, as there was no
enforcement of wildlife protection laws even in the Dolphin
Sanctuary area. However, sustained awareness campaigns,
community meetings and interactions with local people, led by our
team, plus regular monitoring seem to have led to a significant drop
in poaching incidents and snaring. Large nets are rarely encountered
in the sanctuary area (Choudhary et al. 2006) and the frequency
of hunting reports received from informants has also reduced over
the last 5-6 years. Government intervention for strict enforcement
of bans on killing of birds is urgently required, to ensure protection
of bird populations within the sanctuary area, as well as the
surrounding landscape.
Other threats to birds are from high levels ofhuman disturbance
in the Dolphin Sanctuary area. Human and cattle movement and
changing agricultural practices on the floodplains cause significant
disturbance to many bird species (Sundar 2011). Breeding
shorebirds in particular, including the endangered Indian Skimmer,
have declined, as has the breeding of River Lapwings Vanellus
duvaucelii, River Terns and Little Pratincole Glareola lactea. A
significant increase in cultivation of cucurbits on hitherto
uncultivated sand-bars and mid-channel islands has caused
considerable loss of habitat for breeding birds. Expansion of the
road network in Bihar has resulted in damage to long-term nesting
38
SUSHANTDEY etai
Forktail 30 (2014)
sites of threatened species such as the Greater Adjutant, Long-billed
Vulture Gyps indicus as well as Black-necked Stork (K. K. Sharma
verbally). The Greater Adjutant population on the north side of
the Ganga-Kosi interfluve region is the second largest breeding
population in India, and the only existing breeding population from
peninsular India ( Choudhary et al. 2004, Choudhary 2007, Mishra
& Mandal 2010). Community support for conservation of Greater
Adjutants by protection of their nesting trees has been forthcoming,
and there is hope to protect these local populations, barring the
threat of habitat loss from road construction (Mishra & Mandal
2010). The decline of vultures, apart from the causes well known,
is also blamed by local people on the wanton felling of nesting trees
such as Palmyra palm Borassus flabellifer in the 1990s, as a result of
a sudden, state-wide policy change terminating private ownership
of these trees (local fishermen, verbally).
Erratic flow releases from upstream dams on the Ganga, Sone
and Gandak rivers are leading to sudden submergence and erosion
of preferred bird habitats such as mid-channel alluvial islands
(Dudgeon 2000). The scale of this unseasonal bank erosion has
been increasing, leading to drastic habitat loss for breeding species
(Foote et al. 1996). Floodplain wetlands are also preferred habitats
for many waterfowl species (Hussain 1987). These are rapidly being
lost due to reclamation and filling-in for agriculture or settlement,
or commercial stocking with exotic alien fish (Foote et al. 1996,
Prasad et al. 2002). Organic pollution, deliberate disturbance of
birds and urban area expansion are other important threats in this
landscape (BirdLife International 2013).
Complete protection of rivers is very difficult to achieve given
the severe pressures imposed by competing human needs and
resource extraction. The Dolphin Sanctuary IBA has not received
the attention it has long deserved, given the difficult law and order
situation, government apathy, and lack of political and
administrative will to protect river biodiversity (Choudhary et al.
2006). No protective measures have yet been implemented, and
there is no proper management plan by the government
departments responsible for the sanctuary. Until recently river
stakeholders were mostly unaware of the Dolphin Sanctuary’s
existence (Choudhary et al. 2006, Kelkar & Krishnaswamy 2010).
The regulatory authorities of the sanctuary (the forest and fisheries
departments) have not yet attempted to settle or define human use
rights (fisheries, boat usage, agriculture etc.) or 'biodiversity- related’
compliance through conservation initiatives. Many fishing and
other communities continue to be skeptical about the issue of river
biodiversity conservation impinging on their livelihood needs.
Unless awareness efforts and community-based management
practices are implemented in a regular, sensitive and holistic manner,
there is every chance of local stakeholders turning hostile to the
Dolphin Sanctuary. Monitoring efforts by civil society initiatives
have led to palpable on-the-ground improvement in terms of
reducing local disturbance from hunting, poaching and killing wild
species (Choudhary et al. 2006). To sustain conservation in this
contested riverscape further, ensuring government support and
community compliance with biodiversity protection are clearly the
critical needs today.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank the Bihar forest department and the officials of the Bhagalpur and
Banka forest divisions for their permission to conduct studies in the sanctuary
area. Our surveys were at different times funded by the Whale and Dolphin
Conservation Society, UK, Wildlife Conservation Society- India Programme,
Bihar state forest department-CAMPA fund, the Ravi Sankaran Inlaks
Foundation (Small Grants programme) and the Wildlife Trust of India. We
thank the T. M. Bhagalpur University for supporting our work. We sincerely
thank Satya Prakash, Brajnandan Kumar, Samir Kumar, Arun Mitra, K. K.
Sharma, Karelal Mandal, Pramod Mandal, Rahul Kumar, Manish Kumar Gupta,
Kadambari Deshpande, Oliver Padget, Mayuresh Gangal, R. Jha, Y. C. Krishna,
Tarun Nair and Roopam Shukla for their contribution to bird records during
our surveys and Jagdish Krishnaswamy, Brian Smith and Nicola Hodgins for
their guidance. Most importantly, we thank the families of the local fishing
communities for their constant field support and help.
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Sushant DEY, Subhasis DEY & Sunil K. CHOUDHARY,
Vikramshila Biodiversity Research and Education Centre, T. M.
Bhagalpur University, Bhagalpur 81 2007, Bihar, India
Nachiket KELKAR, Academy of Conservation Science and
Sustainability Studies, Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and
the Environment, Royal Enclave, Srirampura, Bangalore,
560064, Karnataka, India. Email: rainmaker.nsk@gmail.com
(corresponding author)
Appendix.
Annotated checklist of birds recorded in the Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary and IBA
Habitat: Ch = river channel; Wt = floodplain wetland; Sc = alluvial scrub; Ag = agriculture; FI = alluvial floodplain; Rd = reeds and other bank vegetation. Occ (Occurrence): C = common; U = uncommon; 0 =
occasional; R = rare;V = Vagrant. Status: R = resident;)/!/ = winter visitor; L = local movement; M = migrant including summer visitor; Bm = breeding migrant; P = passage migrant. Trend: DC = decreasing; 1C
= increasing; NC = no change; NA = unknown. Notes: 1 also reported by Choudhary & Mishra (2006);2 .= breeding recorded;3.= possibly breedings = species reported in many parts of Bihar (see Harman
and Munns 1943, Inglis 1946, Pittie 2004); 5 = also reported by Choudhary etal. (2008).
40
SUSHANTDEY etal.
Forktail 30 (2014)
Name
Indian Cormorant Phalacrocorax fuscicollis
Oriental Darter Anhinga metanogaster (NT)
Indian Thick-knee Burhinus indicus
Pied Avocet Recurvirostra avosetta
Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus
Eurasian Golden Plover Pluvialis apricaria
Pacific Golden Plover Pluvialis fulva
Little Ringed Plover Charadrius dubius
Kentish Plover Charadrius alexandrinus
Lesser Sandplover Charadrius mongolus
River Lapwing Vanellus duvaucelii (NT)
Red-wattled Lapwing Vanellus indicus
Greater Painted-snipe Rostratula benghalensis
Pheasant-tailed Jacana Hydrophasianus chirurgus
Bronze-winged Jacana Metopidius indicus
Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus
Eurasian Curlew Numenius arquata (NT)
Bar-tailed Godwit Limosa lapponica
Black-tailed Godwit limosa limosa (NT)
Temminck’s Stint Calidris temminckii
Dunlin Calidris alpina
Little Stint Calidris minuta
Terek Sandpiper Xeneus cinereus
Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos
Green Sandpiper Tringa ochropus
Common Greenshank Tringa nebularia
Common Redshank Tringa totanus
Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola
Little Pratincole Glareola lactea
Indian Skimmer Rynchopsalbicollis (VU)
Slender-billed Gull Laws gene!
Brown-headed Gull Larusbrunnlcephalus
Black-headed Gull Laws ridibundus
Pallas's Gull Larus ichthyaetus
Sooty Tern Onychoprion fuscatus
Little Tern Stemula albifrons
Common Gull-billed Tern Gelochelidon nilotica
Caspian Tern Hydroprogne caspia
Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybrida
River Tern Sterna aurantia (NT)
Common Tern Sterna hirundo
Black-bellied Tern Sterna acuticauda (EN)
Spotted Owlet Athene brama
Short-eared Owl Asio flammeus
Brown Fish Owl Ketupa zeylonensis
Osprey Pandion haliaetus
Black-winged KdeElanuscaeruleus
Oriental Honey Buzzard Pernis ptilorhynchus
Crested Serpent Eagle Spilornis cheela
White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis (CR)
Indian Spotted Eagle Clanga hastata (VU)
Greater Spotted Eagle Clanga clanga (VU)
Tawny Eagle Aguila rapax
Steppe Eagle Aquila nipalensis
Eastern Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca (VU)
Western Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus
Hen Harrier Circus cyaneus
Pied Harrier Circus metanoieucos
Montagu's Harrier Circus pygargus
Shikra Accipiter badius
Eurasian SpamwbawV Accipiter nisus
Northern Goshawk Accipiter gentilis
Pallas's Fish Eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus (VU)
Brahminy Kite Haliastur indus
Black Kite Milvus migrans
White-eyed Buzzard Butastur teesa
Long-legged Buzzard Buteo rufinus
Upland Buzzard Buteo hemilasius
Name
Hoopoe Upupa epops
Asian Green Bee-eater Merops orientalis
Chestnut-headed Bee-eater Merops leschenaulti
Blue-tailed Bee-eater Merops philippinus
Indian Roller Coracias benghalensis
Common Kingfisher Alcedo atthis
Pied Kingfisher Cerylerudis
White-breasted Kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis
Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni
Common Kestrel Falco tinnunculus
Red-headed Falcon Falco chicquera (NT)
Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus
Rose-ringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri
Brown Shrike Lanius cristatus
Bay-backed Shrike Lanius vittatus
Eurasian Golden Oriole Oriotus oriolus
Black-hooded Oriole Oriolus xanthornus
Black Drongo Dicrurus macrocercus
Rufous Treepie Dendrocitta vagabunda
House Crow Corns sptendens
Large-billed Crow Corvus macrorhynchos
Sand Martin Riparia riparia
Plain Martin Riparia paludicola
Dusky Crag Martin Hirundo concolor
Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica
Wire-tailed Swallow Hirundo smithii
Red-rumped Swallow Hirundo daurica
Streak-throated Swallow Hirundo fluvicola
Singing Bushlark Mirafra cantillans
Rufous-tailed Lark Ammomanes phoenicura
Greater Short-toed Lark Calandrella brachydactyia
Indian Short-toed Lark Calandrella raytal
Tawny Lark Galerida deva
Oriental Skylark Alaudagulgula
Ashy-crowned Sparrow Lark Fremopterix griseus
Zitting Cisticola Cisticolajuncidis
Plain Prinia Prinia inornata
Red-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus cater
Blyth's Reed Warbler Acrocephalus dumetorum
Greenish Warbler Phylloscopus trochiloides
Common Babbler Turdoides caudata
Jungle Babbler Turdoides striata
Common Myna Acridotheres tristis
Bank Myna Acridotheres gingianus
Chestnut-tailed Starling Sturnus malabaricus
Brahminy Starling Sturnus pagodarum
Rosy Starling Sturnus roseus
Asian Pied Starling Sturnus contra
Bluethroat Luscinia svecica
Oriental Magpie Robin Copsychus saularis
Black Redstart Phoenicurus ochruros
Common Stonechat Saxicola torquatus
Pied Bushchat Saxicola caprata
Indian Chat Cercomela fusca
House Sparrow Passer domesticus
Black-breasted Weaver Ploceus benghalensis
Baya Weaver Ploceus philippinus
Red Avadavat Amandava amandava
Chestnut Munia Lonchura atricapilla
White Wagtail Motacilla alba
White-browed Wagtail Motacilla madaraspatensis
Citrine Wagtail Motacilla citreola
Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava
Grey Wagtail Motacilla cinerea
Paddyfield Pipit Anthusrufulus
Long-billed Pipit Anthussimilis
Tree Pipit Anthustrivialis
Olive-backed Pipit Anthus hodgsoni
FORKTAIL 30 (2014): 41-44
The seasonal home range and movements of
Mandarin Ducks Aix galericulata on tributaries of the
Tachia River, central Taiwan
YUAN-HSUN SUN, MING-CHIH CHIU, CHING-FENG LI, MARK LIU, HSIN-JU WU & PO-JEN CHIANG
The home range and movements of wild birds are closely associated with their habitat selection and use, knowledge of which is critical for
management and conservation programmes. From 1999 to 2002 we used radio-tracking technology to document the location and movement
of 29 adult and six first-year male and 41 adult and five first-year female Mandarin Ducks Aix galericulata on the Tachia River and some of its
tributaries in central Taiwan. The home ranges of both males and females were smaller during the breeding season than the non-breeding
season. The home ranges of males were larger than those of females only during the breeding season. Female yearling Mandarin Ducks
appeared to show stronger philopatry than males.This information may be useful in helping design a plan for the sustainable management
of the Mandarin Duck population on the Tachia River.
INTRODUCTION
For the purpose of bird population management, knowledge of
individuals’ home ranges and movements is essential to understand
their habitat requirements and use, data necessary when designing
areserve (Gilmer et al. 1973, Parr etal. 1979, Chubbs et al. 2008).
Waterfowl are mostly migratory; annual migrations may be short-
or long-distance, with some species even crossing the equator
(Mauser et al. 1984, Carboneras 1992). Consequently, most studies
of waterfowl only document behaviour in the breeding season
(Dwyer etal. 1979, Kirby etal. 1985, Dwyer & Baldassarre 1994,
Staus 1998, Mack & Clark 2006) or on their wintering grounds
(Morton et al. 1989, Iverson et al. 2004, Legagneux et al. 2009).
To our knowledge, no study has yet documented the year-round
variation in the home ranges and movements of a population of
non-migratory ducks.
The Mandarin Duck Aix galericulata is the Asian ecological
equivalent of the migratory North American Wood Duck A. sponsa-,
both are cavity-nesting birds inhabiting forest ponds or lakes
(Bellrose & Holm 1994). Each year, Mandarin Duck populations
that breed in Russia and northern China migrate to Japan, Korea
and southern China (Carboneras 1992). However, the most
southerly breeding populations, in Taiwan and the Yunnan-
Guizhou plateau in south-eastern China (Lever 2013), are non-
migratory; in Taiwan, where the species is considered threatened
(Council of Agriculture 1997), an estimated 300-500 resident birds
live along mountain streams and lakes at 600-2,300 m (Zhang
1983, Fang 2005). In this study we document the year-round
variation in the home ranges and movements of Mandarin Duck
with respect to sex and age on the Tachia River, which has the largest
population on Taiwan (Sun 2004).
METHODS
Study area
The 142 km long Tachia River (24. 350-24. 467°N 120.550-
121.433°E) is the fourth longest river in Taiwan and rises in the
Syue (3,886 m) and Nanhu (3,742 m) mountains in central
Taiwan. Kukuan Reservoir (950 m) and Techi Reservoir
(1,400 m) form artificial lakes on the river and are used by both
resident and migratory waterfowl. Taiwan Red Pine Pinus
taiwanensis plantations, orchards and vegetable farms fragment the
adjacent primary forest. Annual rainfall averages almost 2.3 m in
the upstream watershed, which includes the Chichiawan (1,780-
2,000 m) and Yousheng (1,780-1,948 m) streams. Rainfall occurs
primarily in summer and early autumn while there are numerous
wildfires during the winter dry season (Lin 1992).
Trapping
Walk-in traps baited with corn kernels (replaced if dampened by
rain) were placed at ponds near the Chichiawan and Yousheng
streams (three traps on each) and Techi Reservoir. Although those
at the reservoir captured three birds, the traps there were
closed because of vandalism. Over the study period, traps were set
on ten days each month and checked 2-3 times each day. Birds
were fitted with a numbered aluminum ring, and weighed, sexed,
aged and radio-tagged. We identified sex by the bill colour (grey in
females, dark red in males) and the presence of white bars on the
secondary flight feathers of females (Sun etal. 2001). Birds trapped
in May-September were classified as first-year or adult based on
the breast plumage pattern. Birds trapped at other times, when age
is difficult to determine (Sun etal. 2001), were classified as adults.
Radio-transmitters (5.1 x 1.5 cm diameter; model CHP-4P;
Telonics Inc., Mesa, AZ) were attached dorsally with a backpack
harness made from 2 mm multi-strand nylon string passed around
the wings and joined over the sternum. Each transmitter and harness
weighed 19.8 g, or 2.83-3.81% (mean = 3.63%) of a bird’s 520-
700 g body mass (Sun 2001), with batteries expected to last 24
months.
Radio-tracking
We attempted to locate each bird once a month, during the day,
from January 1999 to December 2002. We tracked them from roads
parallel to the streams and the two reservoirs using a directional
hand-held H-antenna and receiver (model TR-4; Telonics Inc.,
Mesa, AZ). Locations of radio-tagged birds were determined by
triangulation (White & Garrott 1990) from at least two bearings
taken within five minutes of each other.
Data analysis
The home range of each Mandarin Duck is the maximum distance
(km) on the river between locations at which a given individual
was identified by radio -tracking. A ‘linear 2-dimensional’ home
range is a reasonable assumption because, except for the 4-week
incubation period, ducks spent all their time foraging, resting and
roosting along the river. We divided the year into breeding (March-
June) and non-breeding (July-February) seasons (Sun etal. 2003).
Only those ducks tracked for more than four months during the
breeding or non-breeding season of a given year were used in the
home range analysis. Birds excluded from the analysis either died
from predation or illness, or could not be located for unknown
42
YUAN-HSUN SUN etal.
Forktail 30 (2014)
reasons. We used the paired t-test (Zar 1999) to test for seasonal
differences in the home range size of adult females and males tracked
for two or more consecutive seasons. However, home range sizes
were averaged for those individuals that had been tracked for more
than one breeding or non-breeding season over the study period.
For the comparison of home range size between sexes, those birds
with only one season of tracking data (n = 37) were added to the
sample, and the t-test was used rather than the paired t-test. We
used the binomial test to examine the return rate of first-year birds
by sex. The significance level was set at a = 0.05. All statistical
calculations were performed with SPSS 10.0 for Windows.
RESULTS
Over the study period we caught 81 Mandarin Ducks: 78 on the
Chichiawan and Yousheng tributaries of the Tachia, and three (one
male and two females) at Techi Reservoir. They consisted of 41
adult females, 29 adult males, five first-year females and six first-
year males. Ducks were radio-tracked for periods from less than
one month up to 27 months, with a mean of 9.2 ± 6.5 months (n =
81). We excluded five adult females, three adult males, three first-
year females and one first-year male from the home range analysis
because they were not tracked for more than four months during
the breeding or non-breeding season of a given year.
Table 1. Differences in the mean home range size of adultfemale and
male Mandarin Ducks during the breeding and non-breeding seasons
on the Tachia River, Taiwan.
Figure 1. Radio-tracked
locations of female and male
Mandarin Ducks along the Tachia
River, Taiwan, during the
breeding seasons (March-June),
1999-2002.
Figure 2. Radio-tracked
locations of female and male
Mandarin Ducks along the Tachia
River, Taiwan, during the non¬
breeding seasons (July—
February), 1999-2002.
Forktail 30 (2014) Seasonal home range and movements of Mandarin Ducks on tributaries of theTachia River, Taiwan
43
A total of 420 radio-locations were collected during the study;
results are summarised in Table 1. During the breeding season, the
average home range size of males, 8.8 ± 5.9 km [n = 22), was about
twice as large as that of females, 4.3 ± 3.2 km ( n = 27) (t47 = 3.40, p
= 0.001); 14 of 22 males moved outside the Chichiawan and
Yousheng streams, compared with only two of 27 females. However,
there was no difference in the home ranges of males (15.2 ± 7.9
km, n = 23) and females ( 1 6.8 ± 7.3 km, n — 2 1 ) in the non-breeding
season (t42 = 0.687, p = 0.496) and during this period only one
female stayed on these two streams. At this time, nearly all ducks
expanded their home range by moving downstream to the Nanhu
and Herhwan streams and Techi Reservoir, with one male going at
least as far as Kukuan Reservoir, 35 km from Chichiawan stream.
Only one bird, a male, moved upstream and over the ridge to the
Lanyang River in Ilan county, north-east Taiwan.
For 23 adult Mandarin Ducks that were tracked continuously
for at least two seasons, the linear home range size was significantly
larger during the non-breeding season than the breeding season for
both males (paired t-test, t9 = 3.122,p = 0.012) and females (paired
t-test, t12 = 4.020, p = 0.002) (Figures 1 & 2). For yearling Mandarin
Ducks, all ten males and eight out of ten females left their natal
sites along the Chichiawan and Yousheng streams. Although not a
statistically significant difference, young females tended to exhibit
stronger philopatry than males, as only one male returned and bred
in its second year, while four (three of them siblings) out of eight
females returned to the two streams, and two of them bred in the
second year (binomial test,p = 0.375).
DISCUSSION
Mandarin Ducks, particularly females, suffered high mortality
during our study (Sun et al. 2011). This contributed to the small
sample sizes in location data for some of our birds. At least 30
relocations per animal are considered necessary in order to estimate
its home range size (Kenward 1987). However, our study is still
meaningful in estimating the birds’ linear home range size because
the species tends to have relatively fixed feeding and roosting sites
in both the breeding and non-breeding seasons.
The home ranges of both male and female Mandarin Ducks
were longer during the non-breeding season than in the breeding
season. We found that breeding birds did not forage more than 4
km from their nest trees during the incubation and post-hatching
periods. Thus, their home range at that time was much shorter than
it was after breeding was completed. The furthest site to which
our radio-tagged Mandarin Ducks were known to have moved was
35 km downstream at Kukuan Reservoir to the west and upstream
of Nanyang stream to the east. Large expanses of open water are
deemed to be ideal moulting sites for waterfowl during the flightless
period (Bailey 1983). Finding a safer moulting place at the
downstream reservoir may be another reason for longer ranges
during the non-breeding period.
Many factors can directly affect the movement and home range
size of birds, including age, sex, breeding status, habitat structure
and weather conditions. These factors act as constraints on birds
whose home range size is driven by the availability of food resources
(Legagneux et al. 2009). Young birds, whose competitive ability is
more limited, may be excluded by experienced adults (Clark et al.
2003). In our study, most Mandarin Ducks moved downstream
from the breeding area during the non-breeding season. This
suggests that suitable nesting habitat is limited to the upstream areas
but suitable foraging habitat extends well downstream. In other
cases, unsuitable conditions (e.g. drought in wetland areas) may
cause ducks to stay in the breeding area (Gilmer et al. 1975). In
central Taiwan, high stream discharge during the summer monsoons
decreases the availability of suitable habitats such as pools and
shallow riffles, and corresponds with the departure of Mandarin
Ducks to downstream reservoirs.
The strongly male-biased sex ratio (2.2:1) in this study
population of Mandarin Ducks (Sun et al. 2001) may account, in
part, for the larger home ranges of males during the breeding season.
This is probably caused by the much higher mortality rate (50%)
of females than males (26.3%) (Sun 2002). The chance for males
to mate was therefore undoubtedly much lower than for females
(Sun et al. 2003). Consequently, bachelor males might be forced
to wander further in pursuit of a better chance of mating. In fact,
in 1999 a single male left the Chichiawan and Yousheng stream
area and found a mate downstream at Kukuan Reservoir. Paired
males tended to stay around the breeding site whilst females rarely
left the upstream areas during the breeding season. Those that did
were single or separated females. Bruggers (1974) found that only
about one third of first-year female Mandarin Ducks bred.
Waterfowl exhibit female-biased natal philopatry (Rohwer &
Anderson 1988). Our results support this finding; yearling
Mandarin Duck females appeared to show stronger philopatry than
males. This is also true of young Wood Duck females in North
America (Grice & Rogers 1965, Brown 1972). Female-biased
philopatry arises because pairs generally form in the wintering areas
or during migration and the pair then returns together to the natal
breeding area or the previous nesting location of the female (Hepp
etal. 1989).
Movement and home range information is important for
wildlife management and conservation decision-making, because
the availability of suitable habitat is essential for the maintenance
of wild animal populations (Gilmer et al. 1973, Parr et al. 1979,
Chubbs et al. 2008). Our radio-tracking study on the tributaries of
the Tachia from 1 999 to 2002 provides rarely reported, year-round
information about changes in the size and location of
Mandarin Duck home ranges during the breeding and non-breeding
seasons. Although the resident population of Mandarin Ducks is
non-migratory, it is clear that small-scale movements within the
Tachia watershed are important for breeding and survival. A few
Mandarin Ducks roamed to the Kukuan Reservoir, beyond the
boundary of Sheipa National Park, where birds are less protected,
and we suggest that the park boundary be extended to include the
reservoir.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Hui-Ling Chen, Hsing-Lu Wu, Huei-Heui Wang, Yuan-Zen Hwang
and Yu-ShengLin for assistance in data collection and fieldwork, Wulin Station
for providing shelter during fieldwork and the Taiwan Power Company for
providing a motorised raft for surveys of the Techi Reservoir. This project
was funded by Sheipa National Park.
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Yuan-Hsun SUN, Institute of Wildlife Conservation, National
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912. Email: ysun@maii.npust.edu.tw (Corresponding author)
Ching-Feng LI, Institute of Wildlife Conservation, National
Pingtung University of Science & Technology, Pingtung, Taiwan
9(2
Mark LIU, Institute of Wildlife Conservation, National Pingtung
University of Science & Technology, Pingtung, Taiwan 9(2
Hsin-Ju WU, Institute of Wildlife Conservation, National
Pingtung University of Science & Technology, Pingtung, Taiwan
9(2
Po-Jen CHIANG, Institute of Wildlife Conservation, National
Pingtung University of Science & Technology, Pingtung, Taiwan
9(2
Ming-Chih CHIU, Department of Entomology, National Chung
Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan 402
FORKTAIL 30 (2014): 45-49
A review of the distribution of
Black Eagle Ictinaetus malaiensis in mainland China
ZHU LEI, YANG XIAO-NONG, HAO GUANG, HUANG QIN, LIU TIAN-TIAN, DAI ZI-YUE, WEI QIAN,
RICHARD W. LEWTHWAITE & SUN YUE-HUA
The Chinese distribution of Black Eagle Ictinaetus malaiensis was traditionally restricted to Fujian, Taiwan and Yunnan. In the past two
decades the number of birdwatchers throughout China has greatly increased, resulting in wider coverage of forest sites, and consequently
more sightings of this species have been documented. We found several accounts where observations have been overlooked, leading to an
underestimate of the distribution of the species in mainland China. Our review indicates that it occurs in eight continental provinces, one
autonomous region and on the islands of Hainan and Taiwan, and at present its range extends over more than 20,000 km2; the lowest
altitude at which it has been recorded is 70 m in Anhui and the highest is 3,250 m in Yunnan
INTRODUCTION
The Black Eagle Ictinaetus malaiensis is a large diurnal raptor that
inhabits mountain forests of tropical and subtropical Asia (Clark
1994, Ferguson-Lees & Christie 2006). It is placed in the family
Accipitridae and is the only species of the genus Ictinaetus. Two
subspecies are currently recognised: I. m. malaiensis from eastern
Myanmar to southern China, through south-eastern Asia and south
to Indonesia, and /. m. perniger of the Indian subcontinent and Sri
Lanka. The subspecies differ mainly in size, the nominate being
larger (Stresemann & Amadon 1979, Clark 1994, Ferguson-Lees
& Christie 2001). Although widespread and not globally
threatened at present, it is an uncommon to rare resident of forested
hills and mountains, frequenting forest edge and clearings and
second growth over most of its range, with a global population
estimated to be around 10,000 individuals and thought to be
decreasing owing to ongoing deforestation (BirdLife International
2014). The species’s long, broad, paddle-shaped wings and widely
splayed primary tips enable the bird to glide very slowly above tree-
level or in and out of the upper canopy, and create a highly
distinctive wing shape, allowing it to be identified relatively easily
in the field compared to other large raptors (Naoroji 2006, Brazil
2009, Rasmussen & Anderton 2012).
To date there have been relatively few studies of the Black Eagle
and most have focused on its breeding biology (e.g. Soleha 2000,
Chiu 8c Lim 2003, Lim & Hut 2005, Lin 2005, Naoroji 2006, Lin
& Lin 2010, SamarawickramatrW. 2011). To our knowledge, there
are no specific accounts in the literature of this species in mainland
China. With reports compiled from numerous observers we present
a review of its current distribution in mainland China.
DISTRIBUTION IN CHINA
The earliest record of the Black Eagle in China which we have traced
is a specimen collected in central Hainan on 8 April 1899 by an
unknown person and now preserved as part of the Paul D. Bergen
Chinese Collection at the American Museum of Natural History
(AMNH 417528, information from GBIF http://www.gbif.org).
This specimen appears to have escaped the attention of
ornithologists at the time and was not mentioned in Peters’s (1931)
account of the species’s distribution. The honour of publishing the
first Chinese records fell jointly to Yamashina (1940), who reported
a specimen collected by Kanzano at Chiayi, Tainan, Taiwan, in
August 1935, and Jordans & Niethammer (1940), who ‘saw’ one at
Guadun, north-west Fujian, on 7 May 1938 (‘saw’ may possibly mean
‘shot and examined’ in accounts of this time). The specimen from
Taiwan (YIO-09752) is preserved at the Yamashina Institute of
Ornithology, Japan, and photographs of the specimen can be found
on the institute’s online database (http://decochan.net/). This
record and the record from Fujian formed the basis for the species
account in Cheng (1955).
The next two records to emerge were reported from Hainan,
involving a specimen without date or specific locality (Tang & Li
1957) and an undated specimen from Wuzhi Shan (GIEBD-SYU
1983). These have recently been traced by Jin-yu Lei to specimens
held at Wuhan University Museum and the South China Institute
of Endangered Animals, Guangzhou, which are labelled
Diaoluoshan, 4 April 1957, and Wuzhi Shan, 5 December 1963,
respectively.
Although three Black Eagles had been collected in Hainan by
1 963, the island is not mentioned in the species account of this eagle
in Cheng (1987), which instead restricted the range to Taiwan in
August-May and Fujian in May with the comment that it is ‘very
rare’. The reasons for Cheng’s (1987) omission of Hainan may be
two-fold: ( 1 ) he simply overlooked or discounted Tang & Li’s (1957)
record and/or (2) he did not include GIEBD-SYU’s (1983) record
in line with his stated policy of not consulting works published after
the end of 1982. As a result, these Hainan records were missed by
many authors, with the notable exception of Zhao (1995) and Zheng
& Wang (1998). Another influential work. The birds of China
(Meyer de Schauensee 1984), whose preparation involved the
examination of collections in North America, also failed to mention
the Hainan specimens described above, but recorded the species
from Yunnan in August in addition to listing Taiwan and Fujian, a
treatment that was apparently followed by Clark (1994).
In the 1980s and 1990s, new records of this eagle were reported
from Wuyanling, Zhejiang, on 15 April 1987 ( King &: Zheng 1988);
Emei Shan, Sichuan, on 27 February 1986 (Robson 1989, C. Robson
in lift.); and Chebaling Nature Reserve, north Guangdong, between
26 December 1995 and 2 June 1996 (Lewthwaite 1996). In addition,
MacKinnon & Phillipps (2000) recorded this species from south¬
east Xizang (Tibet). The latter authors included Guangdong records,
but overlooked those from Hainan, Zhejiang and Sichuan. Thus by
2000 Black Eagle had been recorded from Taiwan, Fujian, Hainan,
Yunnan, Zhejiang, Sichuan, Guangdong and Xizang, although no
single author reported this distribution.
Since 2000, and especially for the years covered by China Bird
Reports 2003-2007, reporting of Black Eagle in China has gready
increased. Table 2 lists a large increase in records of the species in
the period 2002-20 1 2, including the first records for Jiangxi in 2002,
Anhui in 2005 and Shaanxi in 2009.
With regard to Sichuan, Black Eagle is not listed in standard
works on the province such as Li (1995) and Zhang (199 ). As
already noted, it was first recorded from Emei Shan in the 1980s
(Robson 1989). This record was followed by a sighting in the south
46
ZHU LEI etal.
Forktail 30 (2014)
of the province at Yangsiba in April or May 1 997 by a team working
on the Sichuan Partridge Arborophila rufipectus in Mabian and Leibo
counties (Dowell etal. 1997). The next records were at Wawu Shan
National Forestry Park: one found by Bjorn Anderson on 6 May
2004 ( China Bird Report 2004), single birds on 25 January 2008
and 30 April 2009 ( China Bird Report unpublished data) and a
courting pair on 23 April 2011 which were observed engaging in
typical courtship behaviour by HG, YX-N and ZL. Elsewhere, one
was seen near Jiuzhaigou Nature Reserve on 26 May 2012 (Tsai Mu-
chi verbally to ZL, 25 June 2012), which is the northernmost record
in the province.
Taken together, present-day records indicate that Black Eagle
occurs uncommonly but is widely distributed in southern China. It
ranges in the east from northern Zhejiang to southern Anhui and
southern and eastern Jiangxi and through much of Fujian to
northern and central Guangdong. There is a break in distribution
in Guangxi, where it is unrecorded, but it appears again in Yunnan
where it is distributed across the southern and western flanks of the
province, and from there north through Sichuan to the southern
Qinling Mountains in Shaanxi. Outside these areas, it has been
recorded in southern Tibet from Nyala east to Motuo (Medog) and
in Hainan and Taiwan. The lowest altitude at which it has been
recorded is 70 m at Guba village, Jingchuan county, Xuancheng,
Anhui, and the highest is 3,250 m at the Pianma Yaojiaping pass,
Gaoligong Shan Nature Reserve, Yunnan. It presumably also occurs,
but has so far not been found, in the broadleaf forests of
Chongqing, Guizhou and Guangxi, and possibly also in Hunan and
Hubei provinces (Figure 1). A published record at Sanjiangyuan
Nature Reserve, north-west Qinghai (Ma etal. 2003), is regarded as
unsubstantiated in view of the unsuitable habitat of the area (high
alpine meadowland above 4,000 m) and lack of supporting detail.
DISCUSSION
In the past, published records were often overlooked by later
authors. This pattern still continues. As Table 1 shows, Gao (2002)
included Hainan within the range of Black Eagle, but not
Guangdong or Xizang, while Zheng (2005) listed Guangdong, but
not Hainan or Xizang. Other authors, such as Zhu et al. (2008)
and Brazil (2009) in their treatment of this species in eastern China,
overlooked or discounted new records published in China Bird
Reports. Prior to the publication of the present paper, the most
comprehensive statement on the distribution of this eagle in China
could be found in the latest edition of Zheng (2011), which gave
its range as Zhejiang, Fujian, Jiangxi, Guangdong, Yunnan, Xizang,
Hainan and Taiwan, but omitted records published in China Bird
Reports from Sichuan and Anhui.
Until recently, our knowledge of the distribution of birds in
China was almost wholly derived from specimen records. These
include large collections of birds made between the 1860s and the
1930s which are now preserved in museums in Europe, Russia,
North America and Japan. Even larger collections were made
between the 1920s and the 1980s and are kept in institutions in
Beijing and other major Chinese cities. Reliance on specimen
records leads to some species being under-recorded or totally
unrecorded, because of the difficulty of obtaining material. Birds
of open country or wetland are much easier to collect than forest
species like Black Eagle. Indeed, Lin (2010) noted that this eagle is
rarely poached in Taiwan. As we have detailed above, only five Black
Table 1. The distribution of Ictinaetus malaiensis given in major
ornithological works on China.
* = original authors' treatment of the status oUctinaetus malayensis in different provinces.
A = accidental, P = passage migrant, R= resident
Mongolia
<yrgyzst
Vietnai
Russia
Kazakhstan
akistan
Bangladesh
Myanmar
Inara
Laos
Thailand
• Records since 2000
° Records before 2000
Provinces with confirmed records
Figure 1. Current distribution of
Ictinaetus malaiensis in mainland
China.
AH = Anhui, FJ = Fujian,
GD = Guangdong, GX = Guangxi,
GZ = Guizhou, HB = Hubei,
HN = Hainan, HuN = Hunan,
JX = Jiangxi, SC = Sichuan,
SX = Shaanxi, TW = Taiwan,
XZ = Xizang, YN = Yunnan,
ZJ = Zhejiang; ? = currently no
record.
Forktail 30 (2014) A review of the distribution of Black Eagle Ictinaetus malaiensis in mainland China 47
Notes: Only the first record at each location is listed. NFP = national forestry park, NR = nature reserve; ? = lack of data; CBR = China Bird Report; * = World Natural Heritage Site; ** = first provincial record.
Eagle specimens are known from China, and of these only two
reached the attention of Cheng (1955, 1976, 1987).
By the time China reopened to the world in the 1980s after a
lengthy period of isolation, the shoot-to-identify era had passed.
The publication of colour field guides and the availability of
affordable, high-quality optical and audio equipment enabled
competent birdwatchers to identify birds in the field with
confidence. New records of Black Eagle based on sightings were
published from Sichuan, Guangdong and south-east Tibet (Robson
1989, Lewthwaite 1996, MacKinnon & Phillipps 2000). A further
rapid increase in sightings of this raptor in other provinces of
southern China has been evident since about 2000 ( Table 2) , a trend
which has also been observed in other bird species throughout
China (e.g. Li et al. 2012, Zhu et al. 2012). The publication of
MacKinnon & Phillipps (2000) was a milestone event, leading to a
huge increase in birdwatching activities in China. According to Ma
et al. (2012), the number of birdwatchers in mainland China rose
from about 600 in 2000 to more than 20,000 in 2010. Another
significant event was the publication of China Bird Reports annually
for the years 2003-2007 (Chinese Ornithological Society 2004-
2008), which provided a peer-reviewed platform for birdwatchers
to publish their records. Amateur birdwatchers, rather than
professional ornithologists or researchers, have provided the great
majority of new records, and their efforts have helped shed new
light on our understanding of the distribution of birds within this
vast country (Li et al. 2012, Ma et al. 2012). Important records, of
course, require solid documentation, preferably supported by
photographs, video footage or sound recordings, or at least in the
form of detailed written descriptions.
Several Chinese authors have recently interpreted new
distributional data as range expansions or range shifts resulting from
climate change (Du et al. 2009, Chen et al. 2012). However, we
48
ZHU LEI etal.
Forktail 30(2014)
take the view that our knowledge of the avifauna of China is still
far from complete and that many, and perhaps even most, new
records simply reflect increased observer activity and better
reporting of species which were overlooked, under-reported or
simply not reported in the past, or which occur in areas that were
previously not well surveyed. For example, Light-vented Bulbul
Pycnonotus sinensis has traditionally been regarded as an Oriental
species (Shaw 1936, Fishpool & Tobias 2005). Consequently, Li et
al. (2012) noted the northward expansion of the species based on
an analysis of data from the China Bird Reports (China
Ornithological Society 2004-2008). In fact, one adult female
Light-vented Bulbul was collected on 6 May 1935 at Tangku (now
Tanggu), Fdebei, on the coast of Bohai Bay (Shaw 1936). This
specimen indicates that the recent increase in observations of the
species in northern China is probably due to more increased
birdwatching activity than a real range shift.
It is worth mentioning the emergence of ‘observer bias’ when
considering new information on bird distribution in China. In the
case of the Black Eagle, there is obviously a large gap between its
confirmed western and eastern distribution in China (Figure 1).
Li et al. (2012) noted the very uneven geographic distribution of
birdwatchers in China. On the one hand, the eastern economically
developed provinces with higher numbers of birdwatchers often
have more bird records. On the other hand, the western provinces
(e.g. Sichuan and Yunnan) with higher avian biodiversity attract
more visiting birdwatchers who record and report more birds. Thus,
the current Black Eagle’s distribution pattern in mainland China
more or less coincides with the observations of what was been
noticed by Li etal. (2012).
CONSERVATION STATUS
Thiollay (1998) suggested that the Black Eagle might be severely
affected by forest fragmentation in tropical Asia. Brazil (2009) listed
it as a rare breeding species in eastern mainland China with fewer
than 100 pairs. In our view, the rise in the number of records of this
eagle in mainland China in recent years very probably reflects
wider coverage of suitable forest sites and better reporting rather
than an actual increase in numbers. As Table 2 shows, 20 out of
37 sightings since 2000 have occurred in nature reserves or
national forestry parks, which indicates that these protected sites
still hold sufficient forest habitat to support this large raptor.
As a top predator, it might be a good indicator of habitat
quality and environmental change. It was designated nationally ‘Near
Threatened’ by Zheng & Wang ( 1 998) based on the sparse records
and restricted range, but was not included in Wang & Xie (2009).
In order to assess the conservation status of species in China
more accurately, Jiang & Luo (2012) proposed new designations,
derived from a combination of distribution area, life history,
ecological function, anthropogenic interference and special use data.
By applying these new criteria, Jiang etal. (2013) assessed the Black
Eagle as nationally ‘Threatened’ based on its known distribution
and by applying the principle that the status of top predators should
be upgraded. Even so, our results indicate that it occurs in eight
continental provinces, one autonomous region and on the islands
of Hainan and Taiwan, and at present its range extends over more
than 20,000 km2. Thus it does not approach the thresholds for
globally ‘Vulnerable’ under the range size criterion, even if it was a
species entirely confined to China (BirdLife International 2014).
Nevertheless, considering its decreasing global population, its
vulnerable habitat and its foraging habits, perhaps specialised on
squirrels (Gunawardena 2006), we suggest that the status of this
raptor in mainland China could be better evaluated as Near
Threatened according to IUCN criteria (IUCN 2001).
Unfortunately, there is currently no long-term monitoring of its
population in mainland China and data are insufficient for
population trend evaluations over such a large landmass. A long¬
term monitoring programme which could involve volunteers should
be instigated for this raptor (Si & Ding 201 1, Wu et al. 2012, Ma et
al. 2012).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Liu Yang at Sun Yat-sen University and Paul Holt for revising early
drafts, two anonymous referees and Brian Sykes for further improvements,
Thomas Trombone and Paul Sweet of the American Museum of Natural
History for data on and photographs of the April 1899 Hainan specimen. Lei
Jin-yu for locating specimens at Wuhan and Guangzhou, Ko Wei-sum of the
Hong Kong Bird Watching Society (HKBWS) for assistance with Hong Kong
Bird Report papers, Liang Dan at Southwest Forestry University in Kunming
for sharing recent sightings at Gaoligong Shan National Nature Reserve,
Yunnan, and TangSong-hua at the Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of
Science, for access some references. We also thank Tsai Mu-chi of National
Taiwan University, Hannu Jannes and Craig Robson of Birdquest, Lu Gang
of Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Garden (China Programme), Lee Kwok-shing
of HKBWS, Zheng Yong-fu, Li Chao and Song Bing of Zhejiang Wildbird
Society, Bo Shun-qi of Wild Bird Society of Shanghai, Dong Jiang-tian of
Shenzhen Bird Watching Society and Luo Ping-zhao of Chengdu Bird
Watching Society for providing locations of Black Eagle records in Sichuan,
Shaanxi, Hainan, Zhejiang province and Xizang Autonomous Region,
respectively.
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(corresponding author)
YANG Xiao-Nong & HAO Guang, Dept, of Biology and Science,
Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an, 625014, China
HUANG Qin, Zhejiang Museum of Natural History, Hangzhou,
310014, China
LIU Tian-Tian, Graduate University of the Chinese Academy of
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DAI Zi-Yue & WEI Qian, China Bird Watch, Beijing, 100026,
China
Richard W. LEWTHWAITE, Hong Kong Bird Watching Society,
Hong Kong
FORKTAIL 30 (2014): 50-65
Notable bird records from Bangladesh
from July 2002 to July 201 3
PAUL M. THOMPSON, SAYAM U. CHOWDHURY, ENAM UL HAQUE, M. MONIRUL H. KHAN & RONALD HALDER
Details are given of 38 species new for Bangladesh which were recorded between July 2002 and December 2013. New sightings and
information are given for a further 86 species that either have few records since 1 978, or for which there have been major changes in known
status, or for which there is uncertainty over status, or which are globally threatened and for which a status update for Bangladesh is
warranted. In addition one species of doubtful occurrence is discussed, and the status of globally threatened and near threatened species
is updated where appropriate. This period has seen an increase in the number of active Bangladeshi birdwatchers, several surveys for
threatened species, the advent of digital photography to document sightings and, most recently, a series of ringing camps where mist-
netting revealed the presence of secretive passerines in reed-scrub habitat in the north-eastern wetlands.
INTRODUCTION
Since the summary of the status of birds in Bangladesh (Harvey
1990), two papers (Thompson et al. 1993, Thompson & Johnson
2003) have detailed notable bird records, and a carefully revised
national checklist and discussion oi unconfirmed records has been
published (Siddique et al. 2008). The purpose of this paper is to
update information on the status oi rarer birds in Bangladesh for
the 11-year period from July 2002 to December 2013
(henceforward 'this period’).
Species discussed in this paper fall into three main categories:
(1) new for Bangladesh in this period (marked t);
(2) those previously assumed to occur but for which
neither specimens nor documented observations are available
or which had not been recorded for many years before 1978
(see below) and which have been rarely recorded since June
1993;
(3) threatened and Near Threatened species for which changes in
status have been found during this period.
Details of all records since July 2002 are given for species with
up to ten records since 1978. For those which have been found to
be more frequent general details of status and peak counts are given;
and in some cases first records for regions of the country are detailed.
The year 1978 marked the start of observations in Bangladesh by
David L. Johnson and Md. Ali Reza Khan. Prior to then, there are
few if any descriptions available for species claimed and there was a
lack of field guides and identification literature available in
Bangladesh; therefore 1978 has been treated as the start of ‘modern’
field observation and recording of birds in the country (Thompson
etal. 1993).
It should be noted that ‘new’ species for Bangladesh is a broad
definition because in many cases previous lists, for example Rashid
( 1967), included species which were assumed to occur but for which
specimens or documented observations were not available. In
addition, Western Reef Egret Egretta gularis, a species for which
there are recent claims but which is not proven to have occurred in
Bangladesh, is discussed (see below).
This period has seen an increase in the number of active
Bangladeshi birdwatchers, and the formation of the Bangladesh bird
club (Bbc) has encouraged the documentation and circulation of
unusual records, several surveys for threatened species, the use of
digital photography to document sightings, and a series of ringing
camps that revealed the presence of secretive passerines in reed-
scrub habitat — the results of those surveys are reported in detail in
Round et al. (2014). Several papers and notes have already been
published covering first sightings in this period; lor completeness
these records are included in this paper but without repeating details
or descriptions.
Records in the following list are related to regions of Bangladesh
(north-west, south-east, etc.). This geographical arrangement is a
revised version of the regions used in Harvey (1990) and the
boundaries of these regions are shown in Figure 1, along with the
locations of the 92 sites mentioned in the text. Place names follow
current usage in olficial documents and maps in Bangladesh, but it
should be noted that there are often alternative transliterations in
common usage.
In the following list, BirdLife International (2013) is followed
for the species order, scientific names and global threatened
status; the latter is indicated where appropriate. Where the
threat status in Bangladesh is different, it is indicated following
IUCN Bangladesh (2000) and this is followed by a comment on
the status.
The records reported here are largely sight records, but in each
case have been made by at least one observer with several years of
Held experience in the region. Where possible field notes have been
collated and are stored with PMT or SUC. There is often additional
documentation (photographs and tape recordings), and in some
cases birds have been caught, measured and released.
The initials of the observer’s name are indicated after records
and the full names of all contributors are given here: Abdullah
Abu Diyan (AAD), Abu Bakar Siddik (ABS), Alex Lees (AL),
Andrew Pierce (AP), Ali Reza Hayder (ARH), Adnan S. Ali (ASA),
Arend van Riessen (AvR), Bashir Ahmed (BA), Bisharga Das (BD),
Chris Craig (CC), C.M. Reza (CMR), Christoph Zockler (CZ),
Dilip Biswas (DB), Enam Talukder (ET), Enam U1 Haque (ELIH),
Faysal Ahmed (FA), Farhad Pavel (FP), Ishrat Jebin (IJ), Jalal
Ahmed (JA), Jeremy Bird (JB), John O’Malley (JOM), James
Pender (JP), Munir Ahmed (MA), Mohammad Foysal (MF),
Majeda Huq (MH), M. Monirul H. Khan (MK), Mohsin Kabir
Miron (MoK), M. A. Muhit (MM), Nathan Charles (NC), Nick
Dymond (ND), Naimul Islam (NI), Nazim Uddin Khan Prince
(NP), Omar Shahadat (OS), Paul M. Thompson (PMT), Philip
D. Round (PDR), Parvin Sultana (PS), Ronald Haider (RH), Reza
Khan (RK), Rob Martin (RoM), Rubaiyat Mansoor (RuM), Rabiul
Rabi (RR), Rainer Schutt (RS), Shamim Ahmed (SA), Simon
Carter (SCa), Shimanto Dipu (SD), Sirajul Hossain (SH), Sharif
Hossain Sourav (SHS), Sajid Iqbal (SI), S.I. Shohel (SIS), Simon
Mahood (SMa), Sadananda Mandal Fatik (SMF); Samiul
Mohsanin (SMo), Sontaya Manawattana (SMt), Sue O’Malley
(SOM), Saniar Rahul (SR), Shibli Sadik (SS), Sahad Siddique (SaS),
Sayam U. Chowdhury (SUC), Tim Inskipp (TI), Tania Khan (TK),
Tareq Onu (TO), William Jones (WJ), Zahangir Alom (ZA),
Zamiruddin Faisal (ZF).
The initials NP, RF and WS after a place name stand
for National Park, Reserve Forest and Wildlife Sanctuary,
respectively.
Forktail 30(2014)
Notable bird records from Bangladesh from July 2002 to July 2013
51
IURGAON
GAJBANI
SHERPUR
7 SYLHET
METRAKOfJ£
^SUNAMGANJ
North-west
MYMEN SINGH
Central
HA8IGANJ
SRIMANGAL,
KISHORBGAW
PABNA
KUSHTI
iHERPUR
.MANIKGANJ
FARIDPUR
ihagrachari
East-central
South-west
bagerJiat
KHULHA
South-east
ONG ...
BANDARBAI
COX'S BAZAR
Swatch of no ground
number; remaining locations are near or within
18 Keokradang (Bandarban, Chittagong Hill Tracts, south¬
east) 21. 967°N 92.500°E
* Khagrachari (south-east) 23.133°N 92.167°E
* Khulna (south-west) 22.800°N 89.233°E
Kotka ( Sundarbans , south-west) 21 .867°N 89.800°E
1 1 Kulaura (north-east) 24.517°N 92.033°E
* Kurigram (north-west) 25.800°N 89.633°E
* Kushtia (south-west) 23.900°N 89.050°E
* Lalmonirhat (north-west) 25.900°N 89.433°E
Lawachara HP ( Srimanga\ , north-east) 24.333°N 91.800°E
1 1 Madhupkundo waterfall (north-east) 24.700°N 92.21 7°E
Majher Char ( Sundarbans , south-west) 21 .71 7°N 89.450°E
12 Malumghat (south-east) 21. 617°N 92.083°E
Mawa (Padma river, central) 23.467°N 90.250°E
* Meherpur (south-west) 23.800°N 88.667°E
13 Modhupur NP (central) 24.833°N 90.083°E
Moheskali (Cox's Bazar, south-east) 21 ,583°N 91.933°E
16 Moulvi Bazar (north-east) 24.483°N 91 ,767°E
* Netrakona (central) 24.800°N 90.81 7°E
7 Nijum Dwip HP (Hatiya, east-central) 22.067°N 91 ,000°E
* Hoakhali (east-central) 22.867°N 91 ,083°2 E
24 Pablakhali WS (Chittagong Hill Tracts, south-east)
23.183°N 92.267°E
* Pabna (north-west) 24.000°N 89.250°E
* Padma river (central and north-west)
Pallo (Dinajpur, north-west) 25.617°N 88.633°E
21 Pashua Beel/Haor (north-east) 25.050°N 91.100°E
Rajkandi ( Srimangal , north-east) 24.250°N 91.917°E
* Rajshahi (north-west) 24.700°H 88.933°E
* Rangamati (Chittagong Hill Tracts, south-east) 22.883°N
92.200°E
17 Rema-Kalenga WS (north-east) 24.1 17°N 91.617°E
18 Remakri (Chitttagong Hill Tracts, south-east) 21.667°N
92.5 17°E
Rheingkheong RF (Rangamati, south-east) 22.017°M
92.533°E
18 Ruma (Bandarban, Chittagong Hill Tracts, south-east)
22.050°N92.400°E
25 Sangu river and Sangu-Matamuhari WS (Bandarban,
Chittagong Hill Tracts, south-east) 21.483°N 92.450°E
19 Satchari NP (north-east) 24.133°N 91.417°E
4 Shariakandi (Jamuna river, north-west) 24.883°N
89.583°E
* Sherpur (central) 25.017°N 90.000°E
Singhari ( Thakurgaon , north-west) 26.017°N 88.450°E
* Srimangal (north-east) 24.31 7°N 91 .733°E
Sonadia (Cox'sBazar, south-east) 21.517°N 91 ,867°E
* Sunamganj (north-east) 25.067°N 91 ,383°E
* Sundarbans (south-west)
* Sylhet (north-east) 24.1 33°N 91 ,417°E
* Swatch of No Ground (coast) 21 ,250°N 89.450°E
22 St. Martin's Island (south-east) 20.600°N 91.317°E
20 Tamabil (north of Sylhet, north-east) 25.183°N 92.033°E
TangerChar (Mw/r/w//, east-centre) 22.283°N 91.417°E
21 Tanguar Haor (north-east) 25.083°N 91.117°E
Teesta Barrage (Lalmonirhat, north-west) 26.167°N
89.050°E
22 Teknaf (south-east) 20.867°N 92.283°E
3 Tetulia (north-west) 26.500°N 88.383°E
* Thakurgaon (north-west) 26.017°N 88.450°E
18 Thamchi ( Bandarban , south-east) 21 .81 7°N 92.433°E
Figure 1. Map of Bangladesh showing locations mentioned in the text.
Locations shown by name are indicated with a *; locations given a number are indicated by that
the italicised named location. Coordinates not appropriate for rivers or very large sites.
Adampur RF (Srimangal, north-east) 24.217°N 91 ,917°E * Dhaka (central) 23.717°N 90.41 7°E
Alikadam (Bandarban, south-east) 21 .633°N 92.300°E * Dinajpur (north-west) 25.61 7°N 88.633°E
5 Altadighi NP (north-west) 25.167°N 88.850E
1 Aricha (Jamuna river, central) 23.833°N 89.61 7°E
* Bagerhat (south-west) 22.650°N 89.767°E
Baikka Beel (Hail Haor .Srimangal, north-east) 24.350°N
91.700°E
* Bandarban (Chittagong Hill Tracts, south-east) 22.167°N
92.167°E
Bishambarpur (Sunamganj, north-east) 25.083°N 91.300°E.
* Barguna (south-west) 22.083°N 90.100°E.
Bhayadanga (Sherpur, central) 25.217°N 89.967°E
* Brahmaputra river (central)
Burigoalina (Sundarbans, south-west) 22.233°N 89.21 7°E
Burimari (Lalmonirhat, north-west) 26.383°N 88.933°E
1 2 Chakaria (south-east) 21 .750°N 92.067°E
14 Char Shahjalal, Bhola (central coast) 21 .850°N 90.767°E
* Chittagong (south-east) 22.333°N 91 ,817°E
* Chittagong Hill Tracts (south-east)
8 Chunati NP (south-east) 21.967°N 92.217°E
* Cox's Bazar (south-east) 21.433°N 91.967°E
18 Darjeelingpara (Bandarban, south-east) 21. 967°N
92.517°E
Dohogram (Lalmonirhat, north-west) 25.983°N 89.233°E
Domar Char ( Nijumdip , east-centre) 22.033°N 91.050°E
12 Dulhazari Safari Park (Malumghat, south-east) 21.617°N
92.083°E
Dumuria ( Khulna , south-west) 22.817°N 89.750°E
15 Feni (east-central) 22.933°N 91 ,400°E
Gangvanga Beel (Pabna, north-west) 24.050°N 89.583°E
6 Gazni forest (central) 25. 233°N 90. 067°E
Gechua Beel (Pabna, north-west) 24.133°N 89.41 7°E
Hail Haor (Srimangal, north-east) 24.367°N 91.667°E
9 Hakaluki Haor (north-east) 24.650°N 92.050°E
Harbaria (Sundarbans, south-west) 22.300°N 89.617°E
7 Hatiya (east-central) 22.333°N 91 .083°E
Jahangirnagar University (Dhaka, central) 23.783°N
90.267°E
* Jamuna river (north-west and central)
Kamarjal ( Sundarbans , south-west) 22.367°N 89.600°2 E
10 Kaptai NP (south-east) 22.500°N 92.167°E
23 Kassalong RF (Chittagong Hill Tracts, south-east)
23.517°N 92.1 50°E
2 Katolmari-Haluaghat (central) 25.1 17N 90.333°E
E 89“00‘E
j-90°00'E
wroo'E
f92"00'E
International Boundary
Regional Boundary
District Boundary
H Main River
100 Km
MEGHALAYA
TRIPURA
WEST
BENGAL
52
PAUL M. THOMPSON etol.
Forktail 30(2014)
NEW SPECIES AND NOTABLE RECORDS
Black Francolin Francolinus francolinus
Rare breeding resident. Critically Endangered in Bangladesh.
Although widely reported after Simson (1882) in the nineteenth
and early twentieth century, only one sighting was reported from
Modhupur NP (central) in Thompson & Johnson (2003). Since
2009 a small population has been found in Kazipara, Tetulia
Upazila (sub-district), Panchagar district, in the far north-west,
adjacent to the international border (Chowdhury 2011). Here
surveys have estimated a small population of up to 50 birds, several
have been photographed, and two nests were found (Sourav
2014). In 2013 one abandoned nest was found on 29 June and one
active nest was found on 21 August, both in tea gardens in this
area; both had four eggs (MK). Presumably the birds here are part
of a larger population that uses the surrounding Indian land and
could also occur in other sub-districts of Panchagar. Local people
interviewed by MK in January 2012 reported that this species also
occurs in Singhari in western Thakurgaon (north-west). The status
of this species in other areas remains unclear, but at best it is very
rare: in the south-east in the Chittagong Hill Tracts there is one
record — a male was seen on 1 1 November 2004 along the Sangu
River (RH).
Blue Quail Coturnixchinensis
Presumed rare resident. The third recent record was in 2002 at
Kotka grassland, Sundarbans, south-west (Khan 2005). The fourth
record and first for the north-west was one flushed from harvested
rice stubble while the observer approached a Laggar Falcon Falco
jugger on 27 December 2006 at Pallo, Dinajpur district (JP). It
showed striking bright red colouration around the tail, and gave a
purring rrrrrbb/brrrrrr call.
Grey Peacock Pheasant Poiyplectron bicakaratum
Rare or very localised resident. Critically Endangered in
Bangladesh. Feathers were collected by EUH from tribal trappers
who ate a bird in February 2003 in Alikadam, Chittagong Hill
Tracts (south-east), and local people at different locations in the
Chittagong Hill Tracts reported to SUC that it survives in well-
wooded areas of regenerating land after jbum (shiftingcultivation).
One new location for this species was added during this period, in
Kaptai NP, Chittagong Hill Tracts (south-east) one was seen in
early May 2010 (MK, SS), and another in 2013 (RR, NP), and it
has been heard on several visits by various observers.
Lesser White-fronted Goose Anser erythropus t
Vulnerable. Vagrant. The first for Bangladesh was a single adult at
Hakaluki Haor (north-east) on 19 February 2011; see Thompson
(2011) for details and photographs.
Baikal Tea! Anas formosa
Vagrant. After the first records — two males and a probable female
(Thompson & Johnson 2003) — the third to fifth records were
males, all in Tanguar Haor (north-east): one on Hatirgatha Beel
on 20 February 2011 (SUC), one on Lechuamara Beel on 31
December 2012 (SUC, MK, RK, SD, RH) and one there on 22
February 2013 (RH).
Baer's Pochard Aythya baeri
Critically Endangered winter visitor, declining and now rare. The
status of this species, for which Bangladesh has been one of the
main wintering areas, was reviewed by Chowdhury et al. (2012).
They found that it has declined from an average of 99 per year
between 2001 and 2005, to an average of fewer than eight per year
between 2006 and 2011. None was recorded during winter 20 1 2-
13 despite the main wetlands in the north-east where it previously
occurred (Tanguar and Hakaluki Haors) continuing to hold large
numbers of other waterfowl.
Short-tailed Shearwater Puffinus tenuirostris t
The first record for Bangladesh was a bird captured by a fisherman
and photographed by CMR at St Martins Island on 1 9 April 2008;
full details of its identification and photographs are given in
Thompson et al. (2013). This appears to be only the third South
Asian record: Rasmussen & Anderton (2012) noted two May
specimens from Pakistan and Sri Lanka; in addition Giri et al.
(2013) reported two photographed in West Bengal, India, not far
from the Bangladesh border in April 2013.
Red-necked Grebe Podiceps grisegena t
Rare winter visitor. The only previous (unconfirmed) claim was
from midwinter waterbird surveys summarised in Li & Mundkur
(2004). Pender (2010) details the first four records for Bangladesh
from: Gowrinagor Mat and Govinpur Beel, Meherpur district
(south-west) close to the Indian border, Tanguar Haor (north-east)
and Faridpur (south-west).
Black-necked Grebe Podiceps nigticollis
Vagrant. The second record was of four photographed together
swimming on thejamuna River near Aricha (central) on 5 February
2012 (SUC, JP, MF, OS).
Painted Stork Mycteria ieucocephala
Vagrant. With only two records between 1977 and 2002
(Thompson & Johnson 2003), this species has remained a vagrant
but with an increase in sightings, almost all from the coast.
The seven records in this period comprise: one flying over Aga
Thakurpara village, Barguna district (south-west), on 26 March
2004 (EUH); four flying over Sundarbans mangroves, Burigoalini,
Munshiganj, Shatkhira (south-west), in February 2005 (EUH);
one in a field at Rupgonj, Narayanganj, Dhaka, on 27 February
2006 (SR); one photographed along Moheshkhali channel and
Bakkhali river, Cox’s Bazar (south-east coast), on 28 March
2008 (EUH, SR); five seen at Mawa, Padma River (central),
on 20 November 2009 (RH); eight seen and photographed at
Domar Char, Nijum Dwip, Noakhali district (south central coast),
on 20 November 2012 (SUC, SMo, SCa); and 14 flying over
Doleshawar, South Keranigonj, Dhaka (central), on 7 May 2013
(MF).
Woolly-necked Stork Ciconia episcopus t
Vagrant. Although reported in the nineteenth century from the
south-west (Cripps 1878) and north-east (Hume 1888), there were
no recent confirmed records and it was considered extirpated. The
first recent record was one seen flying at Kotka, Sundarbans (south¬
west), on 9 October 2009 by many observers (Chowdhury 2011);
the second was one on the Padma River, Godagari, Rajshahi district,
on 27 January 201 1 (SD); and the third was one on a sandbank in
thejamuna River, Pabna (north-west) on 27 December 2011 (PMT,
PS) and again at the same location on 1 January 20 1 2, when it was
photographed (SUC, MF, OS).
Black-necked Stork Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus t
Near Threatened. Vagrant. Data Deficient in Bangladesh and
considered extinct (Thompson & Johnson 2003). The first recent
record came in December 2009 when local people captured one in
Hakaluki Haor (north-east) and it was transferred by the Forest
Department to the animal collection in Dulhazari Safari Park. Also,
at Nagua Dhulia, Hakaluki Haor, three immatures were seen and
photographed on 8 March 2010 (EUH, SMo, MF, TK, BA). These
birds are presumed to have wandered from the nearest populations
in India on the Ganga or Brahmaputra floodplains.
Forktail 30 (2014)
Notable bird records from Bangladesh from July 2002 to July 201 3
53
Glossy Ibis Plegadis falcinellus t
Rare winter visitor. Although first recorded in the nineteenth
century by Cripps (1878), Simson ( 1882) and Hume (1888), and
subsequently included in most national lists, we were unable to trace
any previous recent well-documented records. There has been a
spate of winter records since 2011 in three large wetlands, all in the
north-east. The first was one in Tanguar Haoron7and21 February
201 1 (EUH, RH, ET, SH, ZF, SUC), one (almost in breeding
plumage) was in Chodainna Khal, Tanguar Haor, on 12 March
2011 (MK), and three were there on 20 March 2011 (TK, MA).
In 2013, 12 were at Hatirgatha Beel, Tanguar Haor, on 8-11
February (SUC, MK, SD), and 26 were counted there on 6 March
(Round et al. 2014). At Baikka Beel, Hail Haor, Srimangal, a flock
of 25 on 11-12 February 2013 (PMT) had increased to 30 on 26
February 2013 (PDR); and in Hakaluki Haor three were seen on 9
November 2013 (PMT).
Great Bittern Botaurus stellaris
Winter vagrant. The fourth record was of one captured by local
trappers at Hail Haor, Srimangal (north-east), in early November
2010; initially it was held in a local private zoo, but was then released
back into the haor on 12 November 2010 (EUH, PMT).
Malaysian Night Heron Gorsachius melanolophus
Rare resident. Although there are a number of sightings from
eastern forests and it has been regarded as resident (Siddique et al.
2008), the first proof of breeding came in this period from four
sites. A juvenile was seen in Rangamati, Chittagong Hill Tracts
(south-east), in March 2006 (EUH); a juvenile was seen in
Karamjal, Sundarbans (south-west), on 16 May 2008 (MK); and a
nest was found in Lawachara NP (north-east) in May 2010 (TK,
MA, MK) from which three young are believed to have fledged. In
Kaptai NP, Chittagong Hill Tracts (south-east), there were three
breeding records: a nest was found in Bangchari on 7 June 2010
(MK); a juvenile was seen along a stream on 2 June 2012 (MK);
and a fledgling was seen on 23 November 2013 (EUH).
Western Reef Egret Egretta gularis
No confirmed records. The uncertain status of past reports of this
species was discussed in Thompson & Johnson (2003). Since then
there have been sightings and photographs of a few egrets
structurally identical to and with the same bare-parts colouration
as Little Egret Egretta garzetta, but with grey or mixed grey and
whitish plumage, from Hakaluki Haor (north-east) in February
2010 and one photographed in Moulvi Bazar in August 2011 (both
EUH). PDR {in litt. 2012) has advised that similar egrets are regular
in Thailand and are Little Egrets, and we have concluded that this
is the case also in Bangladesh. Hence there are no confirmed records
of Western Reef Egret.
Pacific Reef Egret Egretta sacra
Vagrant. There is one previous confirmed record of a white-phase
bird (Thompson & Johnson 2003). During 1-4 January 2010 two
dark-phase birds were found and photographed on St Martin’s
Island, Cox’s Bazar district (south-east), the most south-westerly
point of Bangladesh, lying 8 km off the Myanmar coast (EUH,
SUC, MH). These birds were reported by MK and several other
observers to have remained up to the end of that month.
Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni t
Vagrant or rare passage migrant. Although included in a few lists
and publications for Bangladesh including Rashid (1967), there
had been no confirmed documented records. The first record was
a flock of about 200 seen and recorded by video and still
photography (reproduced in Haider 2010) in late November 2007
at Madhupur Lake and tea estate, Srimangal (north-east) (RH).
Identifications were based on obvious males seen well, and female-
plumaged birds in the same flock were presumed to be this species.
In October 2009 at Farua, Rangamati, Chittagong Hill Tracts
(south-east) a flock of 6-7 was observed and photographed flying
north-east (RH). This species is recorded as a rare passage migrant
elsewhere in South Asia, usually in flocks, including the south
Assam hills to the north of Bangladesh and the Himalayas mostly
in autumn, with some in spring (Rasmussen & Anderton 2012), so
these records are consistent with this pattern.
Merlin Falco columbarius t
Vagrant. The first record was one seen from a boat just off the
southern tip of Hatiya Island, Noakhali (central coast), on 1 3 March
2013 (WJ, PDR, SMo). When first seen it was flyingvery close to
the surface of the sea in hunting mode with swift flight on narrow
wings and passed alongside the boat, continuing towards a flock of
small waders on a nearby shore. It was clearly a very small falcon
with no obvious head or facial markings other than brown streaking
on the head and breast, and uniform upperparts showing some grey,
with no subterminal band to the tail; these features ruled out
Common Kestrel F. tinnunculus. It was probably a first-year bird.
Other possible confusion species can also be ruled out: the narrow
wings, small size and slight build immediately excluded Peregrine
F. peregrinus seen on the same trip; it was not long-winged enough
for Northern Hobby F. subbuteo, and did not show that species’s
strong face-pattern; and its tail was too short for Red-necked Falcon
F. chicquera. WJ has regular annual experience of this species in
the UK, and PDR past experience. Although regular in parts of
Pakistan and north-west India (Rasmussen & Anderton 2012),
there are only scattered records from Nepal, and no previous records
from the coasts of the Bay of Bengal.
White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis
Critically Endangered. Rare resident. This species remains under
severe threat in Bangladesh. Khan (2013) estimated that the
population had fallen from just over 1,900 in 2008-09 to just over
800 in 20 1 1 - 1 2, and that in 2009- 1 0, out of 32 nests monitored,
only five were successful, fledging five young in total. In 20 10- 1 1
eight young fledged from 3 1 nests. The highest number of nesting
pairs (13-14) remain in the north-east, where a small nesting colony
has been protected in a tea estate in Moulvi Bazar district since
2012 (TK, MA): there were nine active nests, six of them
successfully fledging six young in 2012, but only seven (all
unsuccessful) nests in 2013. A small population also survives in
the northern part of the Sundarbans mangrove forests (south-west),
where up to 10 individuals are regularly seen. In addition to the
above records, the following are the largest individual flocks
recorded in this period: 23 on a cattle carcass at Hail Haor (north¬
east) on 12 February 2005 (PMT); about 55 in Kalachara Tea
Garden, Srimangal (north-east), in September-October 2009, of
which several were reported to be dead, suggesting continued
impacts of diclofenac (EUH, SUC, SMo, CMR, SD, ZF); and 45
on a cattle carcass in Dumuria, Khulna (south-west), on 1 August
2010 (NI). In addition to the wild population, Dhaka Zoo has five
individuals, including a breeding pair. According to the keepers and
monitoring by EUH, eggs have been laid three times since 2000;
two eggs hatched and the offspring have survived and remain in
captivity.
Himalayan Vulture Gyps himalayensis
Scarce localised winter visitor. The only previous published record
was in 2001 (Thompson & Johnson 2003). During this period,
sightings of this species increased so that it now appears to be annual
in small numbers, mostly in the north-east. All records are of
immature birds, most often associating with the few remaining
White-rumped Vultures. Early documented records (all from the
54
PAUL M. THOMPSON etal.
Forktail 30 (2014)
north-east unless stated) include: four on a carcass on the west side
otHail Haoron 12 February 2005 (PMT); three with one White-
rumped Vulture drying out after a storm on the east side of Hail
Haor and later circling over Srimangal town on 29 March 2009
(PMT); two on a carcass near Srimangal on 16 February 2011
(PMT, EUH); and two soaring over Bodormokum, Teknaf (south¬
east), on 8 January 201 1 (SUC). Khan (2013) reported l6sightings
during 2008- 1 2, from the north-east, central and north-west. Since
2008 birds have regularly been recorded each winter at a roosting
site in a tea estate, Moulvi Bazar district (north-east), where a
maximum of 2 1 were recorded in 20 1 2 (Khan 2013), usually being
present from late November to March (TK, MA).
Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus
Vagrant. The only record in this period — the third — was one
observed on the west side ol Hail Haor, Srimangal (north-east),
near a carcass with White-rumped Vultures and Himalayan
Vultures on 12 February 2005 (PMT).
Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monarchus
Near Threatened. Vagrant. There are only two previous
documented records (Thompson etal. 1993, Thompson & Johnson
2003). During this period all records involved injured or exhausted
immatures, most of which were taken into captivity/care. As of
2013, Dhaka Zoo has three individuals and other local zoos have a
few more. Observations in the field are limited to the following: a
subadult that several times tried to take flight but did not succeed
and appeared to be ill was seen and photographed on 16 January
2009 near Modhupur NP (central) (NC); one landed on a house
at Bishambarpur, Sunamgonj (north-east), during the night in
January 2013, and was caught by the house owner — it had lost a
substantial number of flight feathers and was unable to fly when it
was handed over to the Forest Department which placed it in the
care of TK. She nursed it back to health, with advice from a range
of vulture experts, and once its flight feathers had re-grown it was
released at Moulvi Bazar on 26 April 2013.
Short-toed Snake Eagle Circaetus gallicus
Vagrant. The fourth record and the first since 1 992 was an immature
photographed in Sundarbans (south-west) in early November 2009
(RH, photograph reproduced in Haider 2010).
Northern Goshawk Accipiter gentilis
Vagrant. The fourth record was an immature seen at close range
perched in trees near the edge of the National Botanical Gardens,
Dhaka (central), on 23 January 2009 (PMT, AvR).
Long-legged Buzzard Buteo rufinus
Regular winter visitor. There were multiple sightings by many
observers of up to 1 1 in a day, mostly from chars (sandy islands)
along the main rivers (Padma andjamuna) during this period, which
indicate that this species is a regular visitor.
Eastern Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca
Vulnerable. Rare winter visitor. Previous records are from the central
and south-east regions. In this period there was one record from
the north-west: two adults flying over deciduous forest at Phulbari,
Dinajpur, on 3 February 2005 (MK); and three records from the
north-east: an immature at Baikka Beel sanctuary, Hail Haor, on
13 January 2007 (PMT), one adult photographed in Hail Haor on
1 5 March 2012 (RH), and an immature photographed in a tea estate
in Moulvi Bazar district in mid-November 2012 (TK, MA). An
adult was along the Katolmari Haluaghat road (central) on 1
February 2006 ( JP). An adult on a char in the Padma River near
Rajshahi (north-west) on 28 January 2007 (JP, EUH) and an
immature photographed over Jamuna River chars near Aricha
(central) on 1 1 December 2009 (PMT, RH, SH) were in more
typical habitat.
Rufous-bellied Eagle Lophotriorchis kienerii
Vagrant. One immature was seen in Kassalong RF, Rangamati
district, on 29 September 2011 and a single adult at Ruma,
Bandarban district, on 20 November 2011, both in the Chittagong
Hill Tracts (south-east). These are the second and third confirmed
records (both MK); the first record was from coastal forest in the
south-east (Thompson & Johnson 2003). The lack of other records
suggests it is a wanderer from hills in neighbouring Myanmar or
India, or possibly a rare resident in this remote and ornithologically
under-explored area.
Mountain Hawk Eagle Nisaetus nipalensis t
Vagrant. Although included in Rashid (1967), there was no
evidence of any confirmed records from Bangladesh and the nearest
were from Meghalaya. The first record was one photographed in
Rangamati, Chittagong Hill Tracts (south-east), close to the borders
with India and Myanmar on 1 December 2009 (RH). A second
was photographed in Bandarban, Chittagong Hill Tracts, on 22
November 2010 (MK).
Slaty-legged Crake Rallina eurizonoides t
Rare resident or monsoon visitor. Although listed in Rashid ( 1 967),
there were no documented records, and the closest locations where
it has been recorded are in India: Assam valley, and as a winter
visitor/migrant to the Kolkata region. A record attributed to RK
was published in Bangladeshi newspapers, including a photograph,
reported as dating to August 2005 or 2006 from Satchoiya village,
Fakirhat Upazila, Bagerhat district (south-west), and one was seen
in a betel nut grove in the same village on 15 August 2008 (RH,
SUC). One was photographed in Modhupur NP (central) on 26
June 2009 (MK), and in October 2010 one was observed on a tidal
creek at Kotka, Sundarbans (south-east) (RH). The characteristic
breeding calls of two birds were also heard in deciduous forest,
Altadighi NP, Naogaon (north-west), on theevening of7July2013
(MK). As these records are from the breeding season (as documented
elsewhere in its range) and the first record was reportedly of a bird
at a nest, it seems likely that this secretive species is a rare breeder
which may be resident or a monsoon visitor to wooded habitat.
Yellow-legged Buttcsnquail Turnix tankii
Vagrant. The second to sixth recent records were: two seen on 1
May 2008 at Kazipara, Tentulia (north-west) (RH, SUC), and one
there in October 2009 (SHS); one photographed at Jahangirnagar
University (central) on 06 May 2009 (MK); one photographed at
Ekuria near Dhaka (central) on 13 October 2013 (ABS); and one
photographed at Hashdhora, Bhayadanga, Sherpur (central), on
12 October 2007 (ZA).
Indian (Eurasian) Thick-knee Burhinus (oedicnemus) indicus t
Rare resident. Although this species has been included in several
lists for Bangladesh (e.g. Rashid 1967, Harvey 1990) no detailed
sightings appear to have been documented. There were at least ten
observations in this period, all but one from the north-west. At
Kazipara, Tetulia Upazila (sub-district), Panchagar district, one was
seen on 17 May 2008 (SUC, AAD); a pair at a nest containing one
egg, on dry ground, were in the same area on 6 April 2009 (MK),
one was seen on 1 1 September 2009 (SUC, BD) and two were
photographed on 10 September 201 1 (TK, MA). AtTipaiMukha,
Rajshahi, two were photographed in late February 2011 (RH,
EUH). About four were seen in March 2012 at Teesta Barrage,
Lalmonirhat (RH). A maximum of six were seen along the Atria
River, Patnitala, Naogaon, in December 2012, July 2013 (when a
pair may have been nesting) and December 2013 (all FA, also MK
Forktail 30(2014)
Notable bird records from Bangladesh from July 2002 to July 2013
55
in July). Lastly, in the south-west, a flock of about 35 was seen and
some photographed in a large riverine char area with limited
cultivation due to land disputes on the Padma River, Kushtia and
Pabna districts, on 2 and 16 December 2013 (SMF, SIS). While the
last observers suggested that the birds might be resident, most of
that area is inundated in the monsoon. Overall this would appear
to be a regular but rare breeding resident, probably with seasonal
movements, found in lands with low-intensity agriculture in the
north-west.
Eurasian Oystercatcher Haematopus ostralegus
Vagrant. The fourth and fifth recent records comprised: three
photographed in Majher char, Sundarbans (south-west), on 15
January 2013 (SUC, CZ, AAD), and two seen on Shahjalal char
(central coast) on 17 January 2013 (EUH).
Northern Lapwing Vanellus vanellus
Regular rare winter visitor. This species appears to be increasing;
five earlier records were detailed by Thompson & Johnson (2003).
Since 2003 the highest count from a site where this species had
been previously recorded was 22 in Chattannar Khal, Tanguar
Haor, on 8- 1 1 February 2013 (SUC, MK, SD). New locations in
the north-east include: 1 1 in Hakaluki Haor on 19 February 2011
(PiVlT, BA, I J, SR), and two sightings from Bailcka Beel, Hail Haor,
in winter 2011-12 (PMT, EUH). There were also the first records
from the under-watched north-west where it may prove to be
regular: two with Grey-headed Lapwings V. cinereus at Gangvanga
Beel, Pabna, on 29 December 2011 (PMT), a record flock of 73 at
Dohogram, Lalmonirhat, on 20 January 2012 (MK), and four at
Gechua Beel, Pabna, on 26 January 2013 (PMT).
Asian Dowitcher Limnodromus semipalmatus
Near Threatened. Rare winter visitor. There were only two records
between 1993 and 2002. Since 2003 there have been four records:
one at Jamtal Creek, Kotka, Sundabans (south-west), on 30
December 2005 ( JP); 46 on Damar Char, Nijum Dwip, Noakhali
(central coast), on 28 March 2010 (JB, AL, RoM, RH) — this is
the highest number ever recorded from Bangladesh (Bird et al.
2010a, b); two on Sonadia Island, Cox’s Bazar (south-east), on 5
April 2010 (SUC, JB); and five again at Damar Char on 12 March
2013 (WJ, PDR, SMo).
Nordmann's Greenshank Tringa guttifer
Endangered. Scarce winter visitor. Although there was only one
record between 1992 and 2002 (Thompson & Johnson 2003),
during this period intensified coastal shorebird surveys have
revealed its continued presence and the largest numbers since 1988,
but from only two key shorebird sites. Twenty-eight were counted
on Sonadia Island, Cox’s Bazar (south-east), on 11 March 2010
(JB, AL, SUC) and 19 on Damar Char, Nijum Dwip, Noakhali
(central coastal area), on 28 March 2010 (JB, AL, RoM, RH) (Bird
etal. 20 1 0a, b) . Up to five individuals were regularly seen on Sonadia
Island during regular winter shorebird monitoring between 2011
and 2013 (SUC, MF). At Damar Char six were seen in a mixed
flock of waders on 15 January 2011 (EUH, MK, SUC, OS) and
one on 19 November 2012 (SUC, SMo, SCa).
Spoon-billed Sandpiper Eurynorhynchus pygmeus
Critically Endangered. Scarce winter visitor. Regularly seen on
Sonadia Island, Cox’s Bazar (south-east), between October and
April, following sighting of 13 there on 23 February 2009 (EUH).
Monthly counts during 2010-13 by the Bangladesh Spoon-billed
Sandpiper Conservation Project (SUC, MF) include: up to 26
during southward migration (November), up to 18 in winter
(December-February) and up to 27 during northward migration
(March) (Bird et al. 2010a, b). The other main location is on the
central coast, at Damar Char, Nijum Dwip, Noakhali, where 23 were
counted on 28 March 2010 (JB, AL, RoM, RE1) and one on 1 April
2012 (SUC, MF) (Bird et al. 2010a, b), and four were at Tanger
Char, Noakhali, on 19 March 201 1 (EUH, OS, BD). The only other
sighting during this period was two birds at Bodormokum (Shahpuri
Dip), Teknaf (south-east coast), in winter 2009-1 1, but none was
recorded there during surveys in 2012 or 2013 (SUC, MF).
Red Phalarope Phalaropus fulicaria t
Vagrant. On 14 April 2013 a bird in what appeared to be first-
summer plumage was seen and well photographed swimming and
in flight from a boat at Najirgong ferry-ghat, Sujanagar, Pabna
district, ih the Padma River (central) (SD). Full details are given in
Alam & Chowdhury (2013). Although listed as possibly occurring
in what is now Bangladesh by Rashid (1967), there are no previous
confirmed records, and this species is a vagrant to South Asia for
which this is only the fifth record, there being a specimen from
Kolkata market, and sightings in Rajasthan, Maharashtra and
Pakistan (Alam & Chowdhury 2013).
Sandwich Tern Sterna sandvieensis t
Vagrant. The first record was one seen at Nijum Dwip, Noakhali
district (east-central coast), on 22 January 2006 (TI, EUH). This
is a winter visitor to coastal South Asia, and has been recorded
previously in Orissa (Rasmussen & Anderton 2012), making this
sighting the most easterly in South Asia.
Black-bellied Tern Sterna acuticauda
Endangered. Rare resident or vagrant. This species is nowvery scarce
in Bangladesh, compared with the mid-1990s when it could be
regularly seen along the Jamuna River (PMT pers. obs.); see Sykes
(20 1 0) for a discussion of its recent decline. The only record in this
period was on the Jamuna River near Shariakandi, Bogra (north¬
west), where two were seen and photographed together on 25
January and on 11 February 2011 (SD^EUH. RH, ZF, SUC).
Targeted searches by SUC on the main rivers in 2011-12
(Chowdhury etal. 2014) failed to find the species. Claimed sightings
from coastal sites during this period (from Sonadia and Cox’s Bazar)
are considered to have been Whiskered Terns Cbidonias hybrida.
White-winged Tern Chlidonias leucopterus
Rare passage migrant or vagrant. A single bird at Belekardia,
Sonadia Island (south-east), on 26 November 2010 appears to be
the first winter record of the species (PDR, ND), which is
occasionally recorded as a scarce spring passage migrant in coastal
waters and also the north-east. It may have been overlooked in other
seasons among Whiskered Terns.
Pomarine Skua Stercorarius pomarinus t
Rare winter visitor. The first record was a bird photographed on /
over the Swatch of No Ground — the offshore waters south of the
Sundarbans and central coast in January 2006 (RuM). In early March
2011 at least seven were seen and photographed in the same area
(RH), and on 30-31 December 2013 four were seen and
photographed from a survey boat in the same area during cetacean
surveys (EUH, OT, SA). Although it is regular off the west coast of
South Asia as far east as Sri Lanka (Rasmussen & Anderton 2012), its
presumed regular presence in small numbers in winter in Bangladesh
territorial waters represents a considerable range extension.
Barred Cuckoo Dove Macropygia unchall t
Vagrant. Although its known distribution extends to the hills of
Meghalaya, India, and it was listed by Rashid (1967) and included
in Husain (1979), there were no confirmed or documented records.
The first record was a male in Lawachara NP, Srimangal (north¬
east), on 24 March 2006 (PMT). It was seen well, both flying, when
56
PAUL M. THOMPSON era/.
Forktail 30 (2014)
its long tail was obvious, and perched when, despite being part-
obscured by vegetation, the green sheen to the nape and pale face
below the level of the bill and eye contrasted with the brown
upperparts and unbarred underparts. Presumably it had wandered
from the hills of India, since there are no other records from this
well-watched forest.
Pin-tailed Green Pigeon Treron apicauda
Rare visitor or resident. Critically Endangered in Bangladesh. There
were only two records between 1977 and 2002. Since 2003 there
have been seven records. Five were seen in Kaptai NP, Chittagong
Hill Tracts (south-east), on 24 July 2009 (MK, SS) and two at the
same site on 15 September 2011 (SMo, SS); eight near Thanchi,
Bandarban district, Chittagong Hill Tracts (south-east), on 9 July
2009 (RH); and a roosting flock of 16 in Borthali, Rheingkheong
RF, Rangamati, on 27 September 2009 (MK). The only records
away from the south-east were a flock of about 30 on the road
between Srimangal and Kulaura (north-east) on 13 October 2010
(JP, SMF, MM), two at Satchari NP (north-east) on l6June 2013,
and one in the same area on 5 July 2013 (TK, MA, MK).
Wedge-tailed Green Pigeon Treron sphenura
Rare resident. The fourth to eighth recent records were all from
the north-east and comprised: four at Satchari NP on 27 March
2005 (MK), one male at Lawachara NP on 21 April 2006 (MK),
two at Satchari NP on 14 December 2008 (RH), one at Rema-
Kalenga WS on 28 June 2011 (MK) and one seen several times
amongst a mixed flock of about 30 Treron sp. at Satchari NP in
August 2013 (MK, TK, MA).
Mountain imperial Pigeon Ducula badia
Scarce local visitor or resident. Two records were documented from
the Chittagong Hill Tracts in Thompson & Johnson (2003). There
are many subsequent records from the Chittagong Hill Tracts
(south-east) which suggest it may be a regular local resident there.
A flock of 20 were photographed in Darjeelingpara, Bandarban,
in March 2006 (EUH); in Farua and Alikhyang, in Rangamati, in
2009, and in Bakali, Bandarban, in 20 1 0 there were several sightings
of small flocks (RH). In several years there were many sightings of
flocks of up to 22 birds at locations in the Chittagong Hill Tracts,
mainly during November to March (MK).
Alexandrine Parakeet Psittacula eupatria
Near Threatened. Rare resident. A regularly used breeding site in a
large tree in Burimari Bazar, Lalmonirhat (north-west), was found
in 2005; it was occupied until 2012 when the tree was felled. About
50 birds were seen in this area on five visits (RH, EH). Records
away from this site are limited: a few birds were in deciduous forest
at Phulbari, Dinajpur (north-west), on 3 February 2005 (MK).
Three records in Sherpur (central) — a nesting pair at Sribardi on
30 January 2008 (ZA, MK), three in flight at Gazni forest on 31
December 2008 (MK), and two at a nest hole on 27 November
2009 (ZA). Two were seen at Joyramkora Mission, Haluaghat
(central), on 8 November 2009 (JP), and one in the heavily
degraded sal Shorea robusta forest at Modhupur NP (central) on
31 October 2010 (MK) was the second record there. Two in the
National Botanical Gardens, Dhaka (central), on 6 October 2011
(SMo, SMa), and four (two adults and two immatures) seen and
photographed several times from March 2012 and throughout
20 1 3 in a garden in Bailey Road and around Ramna Garden, Dhaka
city (central) (JA, SHS), may have been escapes.
Grey-headed Parakeet Psittacula finschii
Rare, status uncertain . Although first recorded by Ty tier ( 1 8 5 2) in
what is now Bangladesh, his route lay outside suitable habitat for
this species and its inclusion in several lists for Bangladesh is not
supported by identification notes, nor have any specimens been
traced (Rasmussen & Anderton 2012). The scope for confusion
with other parakeet species means that its status is uncertain. The
recent field records with supporting evidence are all from the
Chittagong Hill Tracts (south-east): many flocks at Meghla,
Bandarban, on 12 July 2009 (MK); a single female at Rheingkheong
RF, Rangamati, on 27 September 2009 (MK); about 15
photographed along the Keokradong Trail in Bandarban district
on 14 March 2010 (RH); and a single and a flock of eight at Sajek,
Rangamati, on 30 September 20 1 1 (MK). In the north-east at least
six in captivity in a Khasia ethnic village in Kulaura on 30 December
2010 were reported by their captors to have been collected from a
nest in a large tree in a nearby tea garden (RH, SUC), and a female
(photographed) in a private collection in Srimangal in April 2011
was reported to have been obtained in that region (SHS).
Plum-headed Parakeet Psittacula cyanocephala
Localised seasonal visitor. Treated as of uncertain recent occurrence
by Thompson & Johnson (2003), as the only record between 1977
and 2002 in Dhaka could have involved escaped cagebirds. There
was at least one similar record from the National Botanical Gardens,
Dhaka (central), in the current period (SUC). However, during
this period there were several records from the far west of the
country, confirming its occurrence and suggesting that it is a scarce
visitor in the monsoon, presumably attracted by fruit and rice crops.
On 20, 22 and 23 August 2004, flocks estimated at 140 birds on
the first two evenings and 240 on the third were observed flying
east over Meherpur (south-west, close to the international border)
presumably on their way to roost (JP), and a pair was seen at the
same site on 1 0 July 2005 ( JP). There are three further records from
Meherpur district: two over Nil Kuti, Amjupi, on 29 August 2005
and one at Bhoirab River on 1 December 2006, while at Nil Kuti
on 13 July 2007 flocks totalling about 40 birds were watched
feeding on spilt grain in an abandoned field (all JP). One was seen
at Jahangirnagar University (central) on 28 November 2009 (MK);
six were on a char in the Padma River near Rajshahi (north-west)
on 8 July 2010, and 12 flew over the zoo towards the river in
Rajshahi on 12 July 2010 (both JP, ZA).
Violet Cuckoo Chrysococcyx xanthorhynchus
Scarce local mainly summer breeding visitor. All records in this
period were from the north-east evergreen forests. There were a
series of sightings from Satchari NP: one on 7 April 2006; a female
checking a nest of Little Spiderhunter Arachnothera longirostra for
egg-laying on 7 July 2007; a female on 10 June 201 1 (all by MK);
and a male photographed on 20 June 2010 (PMT, RH, JP, SUC)
was in the same tree as a male Asian Emerald Cuckoo C. maculatus
(itself a scarce migrant although with several past records from this
site). Singles were seen in Lawachara NP on 1 May 2009 and 26
June 201 1 (both MK). At least 10 observations (all by TK and M A)
from Lawachara NP, Satchari NP and Adampur RF between 2010
and 2013 during April, May and June, including four males and a
female together at Adampur, confirm that this species is regular in
these forests at least in the early monsoon.
Spot-bellied Eagle Owl Bubo nipalensis
Rare resident. The only records since 1996 of this probably
decliningspecies are: one in TeknafWS (south-east) on 1 May 2007
(MK), one in Lawachara NP (north-east) on 7 August 2008
(Chowdhury 2011), one in captivity in Bandarban, Chittagong Hill
Tracts (south-east), which was confiscated and put in the local
Bandarban zoo (RH), and one in Satchari NP (north-east) on 19
September 2012 (MA, TK).
Buffy Fish Owl Ketupa ketupa t
Rare local resident. This species was first recorded from the
Forktail 30(2014)
Notable bird records from Bangladesh from July 2002 to July 201 3
57
Sundarbans mangrove forests (south-west) in 2000 (Neumann-
Denzau & Denzau 2003). Four sightings during 2002-2003 were
discussed by Khan (2005). Subsequently there have been several
other sporadic sightings in the Sundarbans documented by
photographs, indicating that it should be considered a scarce
resident there.
Himalayan Swiftlet Collocalia brevirostris
Rare winter visitor. The only records in this period were a single
bird flyingwith Asian Palm Swifts Cypsiurus balasiensis in Chakaria,
Cox’s Bazar (south-east), on 24 January 2006 (MK), a flock of seven
over Roangchari, Bandarban, Chittagong Hill Tracts (south-east),
on 28 November 2008 (MK), one over Baikka Beel, Hail Haor,
Srimangal (north-east), on 13January 2010 (JND, PMT), and two
flying low over the same site on 21 December 201 1 in overcast
conditions (PMT).
Brown-backed Needletail Hirundapus gigemteus
Locally common winter and passage migrant. Although only one
previous record (Thompson & Johnson 2003), in this period there
have been regular sightings, all from the Chittagong Hill Tracts
(south-east). Many small to medium-sized flocks were seen in
different hilly areas between September and March from 2005 to
2013 (MK). Two of a flock of about 20 were photographed over
Tiger Hill, Bandarban, on 15 December 2007 (AAD). Several flocks
were seen in the Sangu valley, Bandarban, in May 20 1 3 (SUC), and
there were two sightings there in late 2013 (SUC); a flock of 30 or
more were flying around a forest patch in the same area in October
2013 (RH), with further reports from the same area. This suggests
that it is locally common mostly as a winter visitor and migrant to
the hills and remaining forested valleys of this remote part of the
Chittagong Hill Tracts; whether it nests in this area is not known.
Crested Treeswift Hemiprocne coronates
Vagrant. The third to fifth records since 1977 comprised about 15
seen and photographed at Bilaichari, Rangamati district,
Chittagong Hill Tracts (south-east), on 20 September 2009, a flock
seen there in September 2011 (RH), and two (male and female)
seen flying above the hills in Ruma Bandarban district, Chittagong
Hill Tracts (south-east), on 14 April 2013 (MK).
Blyth's Kingfisher Alcedo hercules
Near Threatened. Vagrant. The second and third recent records,
both from the Chittagong Hill Tracts (south-east), comprised one
perched in a tree on the bank of a ditch in forest on 25 December
2007 in Pablakhali WS, Rangamati (MK), and one along a small
shaded sandy-bedded forest stream in Kassalong RF in October 2013
(RH).
Crested Kingfisher Megaeeryle lugubris t
Rare, possibly resident. Although included in several lists for
Bangladesh, apparently based on Rashid ( 1 967) and Ripley (1982),
there were no definite past records, and Rasmussen & Anderton
(2012) did not trace any specimens. The first confirmed record
was of two seen at Remakri Khal, Bandarban district, Chittagong
Hill Tracts (south-east), in February 2003 (EUH); subsequently
one was seen on the Sangu River, Chittagong Hill Tracts, in
November 2004 (RH), and three singles were seen along Remakri
Khal in mid-April 2013 (MK). A few birds may be resident in the
only suitable habitat along the larger rivers flowing through forest
in this very remote area.
Great Hornbil! Buceros bicornis
Near Threatened. Rare resident/visitor. Critically Endangered in
Bangladesh. Reports from local people were summarised in
Thompson & Johnson (2003). The second to fourth documented
records were: one over forest along the Sangu River, Sangu-
Matamuhuri WS, Chittagong Hill Tracts (south-east), in
November 2004 (RH), one at the same site on 30 October 2005
(MK), and one in Kassalong RF, Rangamati, Chittagong Hill
Tracts, on 14 May 2006 (MK). These two remote areas contain
the last relatively intact larger patches of evergreen forests in
Bangladesh and this species may be regular in both. Skulls were
found in villages and local people reported frequent sightings and
breeding in both areas during 2013 (SUC).
Wreathed Hornbill Aceros undulatus t
Vagrant, possible former resident. Although previously recorded
from what is now Bangladesh by Blyth (1852) and Hume (1888),
the only recent confirmed record is one photographed at
Darjeelingpara, Bandarban, Chittagong Hill Tracts (south-east), on
23 December 2007 (MM, SI). In 2013 local people reported that it
is a rare visitor (possibly also breeding) in the Sangu-Matamuhuri
WS and in Kassalong RF, Chittagong Hill Tracts (SUC).
Streak-breasted Woodpecker Picus viridanus
Scarce local resident. There has been considerable confusion in the
literature about this species in South Asia. Paynter (1970) collected
a single adult female woodpecker in 1958 from the Sundarbans
(south-west) mangrove forests, but tentatively identified it as Laced
Woodpecker P. vittatus , thereby causing the latter to be added to
the Bangladesh and South Asian avifauna (Harvey 1990 and
others). However, Rasmussen (2000) reviewed this specimen record
and concluded that it refers to a Streak-breasted Woodpecker. The
species’s continued presence in the Sundarbans, where it is scarce
but regularly recorded, has been confirmed by recent observations
in 2001-2 (Khan 2005) and several subsequent observers and
photographers — it was seen during 12 out of 18 visits between 2009
and 2013 (all SUC).
Pale-headed Woodpecker Gecinulus grantia
Rare resident. The fourth and fifth recent records were both from
the Chittagong Hill Tracts (south-east): one male was seen in
Keokradong Range, Bandarban, on 22 November 2010 and again
(probably the same individual) on 17 November 201 1; and a female
was beside Remakri Khal, Ruma, Bandarban, on 14 April 2013 (all
MK).
Great Slaty Woodpecker Mulleripicus pulverulentus
Vulnerable. Scarce local resident. Only two records were reported
in Thompson & Johnson (2003), although one indicated breeding.
Since 2003, there have been regular sightings by several observers,
mostly from Kaptai NP as it is more frequently visited by
birdwatchers, but also from the remaining forest patches and
protected areas north and south of Cox’s Bazar (south-east) —
Medhakachopia NP, and Sangu-Matamuhuri RF, Chittagong Hill
Tracts (SUC). A pair engaged in courtship in mid-May 2009 and a
pair was seen at a nest hole on 23 March 2012, both at Kaptai NP
(MK). Remarkably, one was seen in Chittagong city (south-east)
in August 2012 (EUH). Elsewhere the only records were in the
north-east: a single in Satchari NP on 26 March 2010 and a single
in Lawachara NP on 26 April 2010 (both MK). These records
suggest that this species is able to survive even in degraded areas, as
long as some large trees remain. The lack of other sightings indicates
that only wandering birds may occur in the relatively well-watched
forest of the north-east.
Long-tailed Broadbill Psarisomus dalhousiae t
Rare resident. Although recorded by Hume (1888) from greater
Sylhet, there were no further observations of this resident of hill
forests until three records in this period, all from the Chittagong
Hill Tracts (south-east): one in Naikhongchari, Bandarban, on 4
58
PAUL M. THOMPSON et al.
Forktail 30 (2014)
September 2010 (RH); a flock of eight in Keokradong Range,
Bandarban, on 22 November 2010 (MK); and a nest found in
Sangu-Matamuhuri WS on 1 1 May 2013 (SUC).
Swinhoe's Minivet Pericrocotus cantonensis
Uncommon winter visitor. Thompson & Johnson (2003)
documented four sightings, the first from South Asia. Since then
almost all records have been from Lawachara NP, Srimangal (north¬
east): two on 22 November 2009 (PMT), three on 22 December
201 1 when one was photographed (PMT), one on 2 March 2012
(ND, PMT), and two females on 23 November 2012 (PMT, EUH,
TK, MA), in each case showing grey-brown upperparts with apaler
rump. The first records from the south-east were from Kaptai NP:
a flock of 1 5 on 26 November 2013 and a flock of six the following
day (PDR, EUH, SMo, SMt, TO). In addition, MK reported
several sightings during this period in Madhupur NP, Lawachara
NP and Rema-Kalenga WS (north-east), all in winter. It would
appear that this species and Ashy Minivet (see below) have become
more regular winter visitors in recent years, particularly in
Lawachara NP, but this is the more regular of the two species and
has in the past probably been under-recorded. Both species usually
associate with flocks of Rosy Minivet P. roseus.
Ashy Minivet Pericrocotus divaricatus
Rare winter visitor. Thompson & Johnson (2003) documented the
first three sightings. Since then it has been found to be a rare but
regular visitor mostly to eastern forests. In the north-east, sightings
in this period at Lawachara NP comprised one female on 8 Lebruary
2004, two females on 22 November 2009 and a female on 12
November 2010 (all PMT), in each case showing uniform grey
upperparts; one in Adampur RL, Moulovibazar, on 18 November
2013 (SUC, TK, RR, NUP); and six at Satchari NP on 23
December 2013 (SUC, TK, NUP). In the south-east, in Kaptai
NP a female was seen on 20 November 201 1 (SUC, SS) and another
was there on 23 November 2012 (SUC); three were in Dulahazra
Safari Park on 17 January 2012 (SUC); and three were in Bangdaba,
Eidgor, Cox’s Bazar, in November 2012 (SUC, ML). It is possible
that some of these sightings may refer to misidentified Swinhoe’s
Minivets, as they were not seen well. PDR (in litt.) suggests that,
based on habitat use in Thailand, Swinhoe’s Minivet might be
expected to be the more frequent in inland forest, while Ashy
Minivet may prefer coastal forest, and the only coastal records of
the two species in Bangladesh are of Ashy Minivet.
Burmese Shrike Lanius collurioides t
Vagrant. Although included in some Bangladesh lists (Harvey 1990,
Husain 1979), there were no documented records. The first recent
record was an adult seen in Meherpur on both sides of the Boirab
River (south-west) between 1 and 23 August 2004 (JP, SML, MM).
The chestnut rump and dark grey crown blending into a narrow
black mask extending across the fore-crown, distinguishing it from
similar species, were noted. A juvenile was seen near Madhupkundo
waterfall, Kulaura (north-east), on 23 Lebruary 2008 (MK), and
another juvenile was at Kesrigul Tea Estate (near Madhupkundo
waterfall) on 13 October 2010 ( JP, MM, SML), with probably the
same individual photographed at the same location on 30 December
2010 (RH, SUC). An adult was seen in Rheingkhelong RF,
Rangamati, Chittagong Hill Tracts (south-east), on 26 September
2009 (MK). While past records from the south Assam hills
(Rasmussen & Anderton 20 1 2) are relatively close to the north-east,
Meherpur appears to be the most westerly location recorded for this
species and the date was outside the expected winter season.
Slender-billed Oriole Oriolus tenuirostris t
Vagrant. Although included in Rashid (1967), there were no
documented records. The first record was on 5 February 2004: a
male was well seen in a tea estate near Srimangal (north-east) (PMT,
PS). Greenish wings and mantle contrasting with yellow underparts,
the narrow black nape and red bill which was not noticeably thick
were noted. The second record was one photographed at Tanguar
Haor (north-east) on 22-25 February 2010 (SUC, RH, MK,
ET). This species is a visitor or possibly resident in the hills of
Meghalaya (Rasmussen & Anderton 2012), and had presumably
wandered from there.
Asian House Martin Delichon dasypus
Rare winter visitor. The third and fourth records were singles over
Tanguar Haor (north-east) on 30 January 2005 (JP) and over Hail
Haor, Srimangal (north-east), on 14 January 2007 (PMT).
Rufous-rumped Grassbird Graminicola bengalensis
Near Threatened. Rare resident. Thompson & Johnson (2003)
reported only four recent records, although several birds were seen
in most cases; three of these records were from Tanguar Haor
(north-east). During this period the only record was one
photographed just after a shower when it emerged onto the stump
of a bush to dry out at Pashua Haor (north-east) on 23 February
2009 (RH). Mist-netting in Tanguar and nearby Pashua Haors in
2012 and 2013 failed to reveal any (Round et al. 2014). Wet
grassland and sparse reeds have been cleared and are becoming
scarce even in Tanguar Haor, despite protection as an Ecologically
Critical Area and a Ramsar site.
Asian Stubtail Urospehena squameiceps
Vagrant. The third and fourth sightings were of one photographed
at Madhupkundo waterfall, Kulaura (north-east), on 2 January
2011 (Chowdhury 2014), and probably more than one (based on
where it was heard) recorded in Satchari NP (north-east) on 21
and 27 December 2013 (TK).
Chestnut-crowned Bush Warbler Cettia major t
Vagrant. The first record was one caught during mist-netting at
Pashua Haor (north-east) on 16 February 2012 (Rounder^/. 2014).
The closest breeding populations are in the Himalayas, Meghalaya
and neighbouring parts of north-east India (Kennerley & Pearson
2010). The second record was of one mist-netted and ringed at
Baikka Beel, Hail Haor, Srimangal (north-east), on 27 November
2013 (ND, SUC, IJ, OS, TK).
Aberrant Bush Warbler Cettia flavolivacea t -
Rare winter visitor. Although listed for Bangladesh by Rashid
(1967), there appears to be no documented record of this species;
however, it occurs in the neighbouring hills of Meghalaya (Kennerley
& Pearson 2010). The first records came from mist-net surveys with
three caught in Pashua Haor (north-east) on 1 2 February 20 1 2, two
caught in Tanguar Haor on 19 February 2012 and one caught in
Tanguar Haor on 8 March 2013 (Round et al. 2014).
Grey-sided Bush Warbler Cettia brunnifrons t
Vagrant. Although listed by Rashid (1967) there is no documented
record of this species. The first record is one caught during mist-netting
at Tanguar Haor (north-east) on 24 February 2012 (Round et al.
20 14). The nearest previous record is from the Garo Hills, Meghalaya,
India, which overlook the site (Rasmussen & Anderton 2012).
Spotted Bush Warbler Bradypterus thoracicus
Scarce local winter visitor. A total of 13 were caught during mist-
netting at Baikka Beel, Hail Haor, Srimangal district, Pashua Haor
and Tanguar Haor (all north-east) in December 2011 and February
2012. Round et al. (2014) provides full details and a discussion of
the identification and status of this and the next species in
Bangladesh.
Forktail 30 (2014)
Notable bird records from Bangladesh from July 2002 to July 2013
59
David's Bush Warbler Bradypterus davidi t
Scarce local winter visitor. A total of 12 were caught during mist-
netting in Baikka Beel, Hail Haor, Srimangal district, Pashua Haor
and Tanguar Haor (all north-east) during December 2011 and
February 2012 (Round et al. 2014). This species has been recently
split from Spotted Bush Warbler B. thoracicus , and both appear to
be present in similar numbers in the same wetlands. Past published
sight records and field photograph records from Bangladesh assigned
to ‘Spotted Bush Warbler’ before David’s Bush Warbler acquired
species status should be considered as referring to either species.
Lanceolated Warbler Locustella lanceolata
Rare winter visitor. The only recent records were of one seen in
short grass at Pashua Haor (north-east) on 15 January 2010 (PMT,
ND, EUH, JP), one photographed at Hail Haor, Srimangal (north¬
east), on 17 December 2010 (MA), one at Baikka Beel, Hail Haor,
on 7 January 2011 (RH), and sightings in Hail Haor and Tanguar
Haor (north-east) during winter 2012-2013 (MK). The lack of
mist-net captures in apparently suitable habitat suggests that this
species is rarer than other warblers in the same habitat or is able to
elude capture.
Black-browed Reed Warbler Acrocephalus bistrigiceps
Locally common winter visitor. Thompson & Johnson (2003)
noted a number of sight records from the haors of north-east
Bangladesh, although there were no photographs or specimens.
Since then a limited number of sightings were made by several
observers in the north-east haors, with photographs of one in the
field taken at Baikka Beel, Hail Haor, Srimangal district, on 26
December 2010 (SUC) and Hail Haor on 13 December 2010
(TK). Two were caught at Baikka Beel on 4 and 5 December 2011
(with further sightings there), and 24 were caught during mist-
netting at Tanguar Haor in February 2012 and March 2013 (Round
etal. 2014). Singles were seen at Char Shahjalal, Bhola (south-west),
on 20 January 2009, and at Kochikhali, Sundarbans, on 29
November 2012 (MK).
Oriental Reed Warbler Acrocephalus orientalis t
Scarce winter visitor. Although listed by Rashid (1967) and Sarker
& Sarker (1988), Thompson & Johnson (2003) concluded that
one 1996 record with photographs was inconclusive. During this
period one was photographed from Char Shahjalal, Bhola (south¬
west), on 20 January 2009 (MK), and was considered to be this
species by P. C. Rasmussen ( in lift.), and subsequently it was
confirmed as a scarce winter visitor in the wetlands of the north¬
east. A total of 19 were caught during mist-net surveys and
identified from measurements and photographs: three in Baikka
Beel, Hail Haor, during 4-6 December 2011, 10 in Tanguar Haor
(north-east) during 20-26 February 2012 (where it was
outnumbered 2: 1 by Clamorous Reed WarblerH. stentoreus ) and a
further 10 at these sites in 2013. Full details are in Round et al.
(2014), except for four caught at Baikka Beel in November 2013
(ND, IJ, SUC, OS, TK).
Large-billed Reed Warbler Acrocephalus orinus t
Data Deficient. Vagrant. The first record for Bangladesh, and South
Asia outside north-west India was one caught and identified from
measurements and photographs at Baikka Beel, Hail Haor,
Srimangal (north-east), on 5 December 2011. Round etal. (2014)
gives full details of this record.
Sykes's Warbler Iduna rama t
Vagrant. The first and probably the most easterly record, was one
caught during ringing at Baikka Beel, Hail Haor, Srimangal (north¬
east), on 7 March 2011 and identified from measurements and
photographs (PDR, AP); full details in Round etal. (2014).
Hume's Leaf Warbler Phylloscopus humei t
Vagrant. This species was previously listed for Bangladesh but with
no details of any records (Sarker & Sarker 1988). It is likely to be a
regular but rare winter visitor in the north-west, having been
recorded in neighbouring Indian states (Rasmussen & Anderton
2012) , and may have been overlooked among Yellow-browed
Warblers P. inornatus. The first record was one at Pallo, Osmanpur,
Dinajpur district (north-west), on 26 December 2011 (Pender
2013) .
Large-billed Leaf-Warbler Phylloscopus magnirostris
Rare winter visitor or passage migrant. The status of this species
has not been adequately determined although the first published
record is Cripps (1878). Harvey (1990) listed it as recorded in
north-west, north-east and central in six months of the year, but
we believe this was partly in error, and Rasmussen & Anderton
(2012) did not include Bangladesh in its range, indicating that they
did not trace any specimens. Prior to this reporting period there
was a sighting from SatchariNP (north-east) (D. L. Johnson in lift.).
The only detailed record in this period was on 27 and 28 April
20 10 in Rajshahi town (north-west) where one was watched closely
( JP). Compared with other leaf warblers it was larger, with a large
bill, and a bold light yellow supercilium. It may be rarer than
previously thought, or overlooked among Greenish Warbler P.
trochiloides, a common winter visitor.
Green-crowned Warbler Seicercus burkii
Whistler's Warbler Seicercus whistleri
Grey-crowned Warbler Seicercus tephrocephalus
Fairly common winter visitor and two localised winter visitors
respectively. Prior to 2002 and the splitting of the former Golden-
spectacled Warbler (Alstrom & Olsson 1999), no attempt was made
to differentiate birds of this complex. Since 2002, PMT has kept
notes on all sightings at two main sites and identified them as far as
possible to species. Excluding those not identified, records are:
National Botanical Gardens, Dhaka (central), burkii seen on 10 dates
and tephrocephalus on one date (in direct comparison with two
burkii ); Lawachara NP, Srimangal (north-east), burkii seen on 12
dates, whistleri on six dates and tephrocephalus on four dates. At the
closest, all three species breed either in the Himalayas or in the hills
of north-east India, but further records supported by capturing birds
may be needed to determine their respective status in Bangladesh.
Lesser Whitethroat Sylvia curruca
Vagrant. The second record was one photographed and well
observed at the north end of Hail Haor, Moulvi Bazar district (north¬
east), on 15 November 2011 (MA, TK); the only previous record
was in 1991. The taxonomy of the S. curruca group is complex
(Olsson et al. 2013), and here we follow Inskipp et al. (1996) and
have not attempted to allocate this or the previous record
(Thompson etal. 1993) to any of the taxa within this complex, some
of which are treated as separate species in several works.
Pygmy Wren Babbler Pnoepyga pusilla t
Rare winter visitor. Although listed for Bangladesh by Rashid
(1967), Husain (1979), Khan (1982), Ripley (1982) and Harvey
(1990), there are no detailed records on which this is based. At its
closest, it occurs in Meghalaya (Rasmussen & Anderton 2012). One
was found persistently calling and creeping around a logfall near a
well-used track in Lawachara NP, Srimangal (north-east), on 20
December 2011 (PMT ) . It remained in the same area and was seen
and photographed by several observers up to the last sighting on 7
March 2012 (MK). While this species can be secretive, the fact
that this bird could be readily found from its calls for several
months, but had never previously been heard or seen in this site,
which is the best-watched forest in Bangladesh, suggests that it was
60
PAUL M. THOMPSON etal.
Forktail 30(2014)
a vagrant and is not resident. This is the lowest- altitudinal record
for this species, because the highest ground in Lawachara NP does
not exceed 50 m. Subsequently, this species was photographed on
three occasions at Madhupkundo waterfall, Kulaura (north-east),
on 16 March 2012 (SUC, TK), 20-21 February 2013 (MK), and
on 16 November 2013 (SUC, RR, NP). While this maybe the same
returning winter visitor, it may have been overlooked in the past.
White-hooded Babbler Gampsorhynchus rufulus
Rare resident. Since the two records in Thompson & Johnson
(2003), all records have again been from the Chittagong Hill Tracts
(south-east), as follows: Darjeelingpara, Bandarban, in early April
2011 (RH); a flock heard in Sangu-Maramuhuri WS, Bandarban,
on 8 May 201 1 (SUC); an adult and a juvenile in Sajek, Rangamati,
on 30 September 2011 (MK); a single seen in Kassalong RF,
Khagrachori, on 3 October 2011 (MK); and two adults beside
Remakri Khal, Ruma, Bandarban, on 14 April 2013 (MK).
Striated Yuhina Yuhina castaniceps
Rare resident. There is only one previous record. About 20 were
seen along the Keokradong trail, Bandarban district, Chittagong
Hill Tracts (south-east), on 13 March 2010 (RH). Medium to large
flocks were also seen in the Keokradong range in November 2010,
February 2011, November 201 1 and October 2012 (all MK).
Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch Sitta castanea
Rare resident. This species retains its status, with the only records
since 2000 being in Bandarban district, Chittagong Hill Tracts
(south-east) with four seen on the Keokradong trail on 12 March
2010 (RH); and further sightings of one or two birds in the
Keokradong range on 23 November 2010, 18 February 201 1, early
October 2012 and 14 April 2013 (all MK). Note: these records
relate to S. castanea sensu lato , although some authors have split
this into three species, and no attempt has been made here to
identify birds to lower taxa.
Purple-backed Starling Sturnus sturninus t
Vagrant. The first record was one photographed in a flock of about
20 Sturnus sp. at Harbaria, Sundarbans (south-west), on 26 October
2009 (RS), with the second record a year later from Modhupur
NP (central) on 31 October 2010 (MK). These records suggest it
could be a rare passage migrant. There are a few scattered records
from elsewhere in South Asia including Nepal and the Andamans
(Rasmussen & Anderton 2012).
Rosy Starling Sturnus roseus
Rare winter visitor. The third record and first since 1 992 was a flock
of sLx on St Martins Island (south-east) in January 2010 (RK), and
the number increased to an exceptional 25 at the same site on 19
February 2010 (SMo). Subsequently one was on Shajalal Char
(central coast) on 17 January 20 11 (MK),with another there on 18
January 2012 (EUH, TK, MA); one was photographed at Rema
Kalenga WS (north-east) on 15 March 2012 (ARH, SaS); one was
at Kochikali, Sundarbans (south-west), in late October 2012 (RH);
and a flock of eight was at St. Martin’s Island (south-east) on 10
January 2012 (SUC).
Common Starling Sturnus vulgaris
Rare winter visitor. The first record since 1991 and only the fourth
recent record was an adult bird seen at Hail Haor, Srimangal (north¬
east) on 26 December 2010 (MK). It called while perched on a
roadside acacia for several minutes before flying off.
Plain-backed Thrush Zoothera mollissima t
Vagrant. The first record was one adult in the campus of
Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka (central) on 29 January
2006 (MK, ET, ZA, SMo, DB). Full details are in Khan (2006) of
what is probably the lowest altitude sighting of this Himalayan and
montane forest species.
Eurasian Scaly Thrush Zoothera dauma
Vagrant. The third recent record was of several in Gazni forest,
Sherpur (central) on 5 January 2007 (MK). One was in the National
Botanical Gardens, Dhaka (central) from 16 December 2008
(PMT) to the end of January 2009, which was seen by many
observers. At Baikka Beel, Hail Haor, Srimangal (north-east) one
was seen in winter 2010-1 1 (TK, MH), and one (possibly the same
bird returning to winter) was at the same site in December 2011
where it was caught and ringed on 5 December (Round etal. 2014)
and last seen on 21 December (PMT). One was in Ruma,
Bandarban, Chittagong Hill Tracts (south-east) on 17 February
2011 (MK). The bird caught at Baikka Beel was identified to Z. d.
dauma from South Asia, but other sight records were not
distinguished from Z. d. aurea which is treated as a separate species
by some authors.
Eyebrowed Thrush Turdus obscurus
Rare passage migrant. The only records for this period were from
the unusual habitat of parks in urban Dhaka (central) where both
were photographed: the seventh record was one feeding on figs in
Ramna Park on 28 October 201 1 (OSM, MoK), and a first year
female was in the National Botanical Gardens on 1-2 November
2013 (PMT, SUC, RH).
Purple Cochoa Cochoa purpurea
Vagrant. The second record was an adult chased by a group of 6-7
Common Myna Acridotberes tristis in mid-air at Bolipara,
Bandarban, Chittagong Hill Tracts (south-east) on 23 October
2005 (MK).
Lesser Shortwmg Brachypteryx leucophrys
Scarce winter visitor or resident. There were six previous records,
but with several records in this period it is no longer considered a
rarity. Singles were seen at its most favoured site, Lawachara NP
(north-east) on 24 March 2006 (PMT) and a male on 2 March
2012 (ND, PMT); one was seen at Madhupkundo waterfall,
Kulaura (north-east) on 2 January 2011, where there were two
further records in 2012 (SUC), and it was also recorded at
Adampur RF (north-east) in November 2013 (SUC, MK, TK). In
the south-east a few were seen at Ruma, Bandarban, Chittagong
Hill Tracts in April 2013 (MK), and at least three were heard singing
along streams in Kaptai NP in November 2013 (PDR).
White-tailed Rubythroat Luscinia peetoralis
Localised winter visitor. The second record was of four rescued from
bird-trappers in Hakaluki Haor (north-east) in February 2009
(EUH). A male was photographed at Hail Haor (north-east) on
15 December 2010 (TK, MA). It has since been proved to be a
regular winter visitor to wetlands in the north-east. Eighteen were
caught during mist-netting at Baikka Beel, Hail Haor, Srimangal
between December 201 1 and November 2013 (Round etal. 2014;
ND, IJ), here it was more frequent than Siberian Rubythroat
L. calliope. Three were caught at Pashua Haor on 12 and 14
February 2012; and three were caught at Tanguar Haor on 21 and
25 February 2012 (Round et al. 2014).
Firethroat Luscinia pectardens
Rare winter visitor. There was only one previous confirmed record
(Thompson et al. 1993), although a probable immature male was
seen at Tanguar Haor in February 1996 (P. Thompson pers. obs.).
In total, 1 1 have been caught during mist netting surveys of north¬
eastern wetlands: seven were caught at Pashua Haor between 12
Forktail 30(2014)
Notable bird records from Bangladesh from July 2002 to July 2013
61
and 1 6 February 20 1 2, two at Tanguar Haor on 20 and 25 February
2012 and a further two at Tanguar Haor on 7 and 8 March 2013.
Further details are given in Round et al. (2014). It would appear
this is a regular winter visitor to swamp forest and wetland scrub
habitat in the large wetlands ( haors ) of the north-east. In addition
the first records from the south-west comprised a first winter male
and a female seen together at Karamjal, Sundarbans on 26
November 2012 (MK).
Indian Blue Robin Luscinia brunnea
Rare winter visitor and passage migrant. There were four previous
published records since 1978 (Thompson & Johnson 2003). A male
was in the National Botanic Gardens, Dhaka (central) from 1 5 April
2011, and was joined by a female from 20-24 April (PMT, several
observers, photographed); a male was seen at the same location on
6 October 2011 (SMo, SMa); and a female was photographed in
LawacharaNP (north-east) on 1 March 2012 (MK) and 21 April
2012 (PMT).
Siberian Blue Robin Luscinia cyans t
Vagrant. Although listed by Rashid (1967) and Husain (1979),
there were no confirmed records of this species which normally
winters in South-East Asia but has occurred as a vagrant in Assam
(Rasmussen & Anderton 2012). The first bird identified was a
female caught in Lawachara NP, Srimangal (north-east) on 2 March
2013 (SMo, ND, AP). Subsequently a female or first year male was
seen at the same site on 5 December 2013 (ND), and a male was in
Satchari NP (north-east) from 11 December 2013 to the end of
the year (TK, MA); further details are given in Mohsanin et al. (in
prep.).
Orange-flanked Bush Robin Tarsiger cyanurus
Vagrant. The third record was a f emale caught in an area of swamp
trees and bushes during mist-netting at Baikka Beel, Hail Haor,
Srimangal (north-east) on 29 November 2013 (ND, SUC, IJ, OM).
Neither this nor the previous observations have distinguished
between T. c. rufilatus and T. c. cyanurus which are now treated as
separate species by some authorities. The wing (81 mm) and tail
(64 mm) measurements of the 2013 bird suggest that it might be
rufilatus which Rasmussen & Anderton (2012) state is longer-tailed
than cyanurus, but this requires further investigation.
Whste-crowned Forktail Enicurus leschenauiti
Vagrant. The second record was one on 13 October 2010 at
Madhupkundo waterfall, Kulaura (north-east) (JP, SMF). The
observers were walking along the river above the waterfall when a
large forktail was watched for 20-40 minutes at various distances,
perched on the ground, feeding and in flight. It had a black unspotted
mantle, white extending across the crown and a black breast — the
latter two features ruling out Black-backed Forktail Enicurus
immaculatus.]V had prior experience of this species in Thailand.
White-throat ed Bushchat Saxicoia insignis t
Vulnerable. Vagrant. Although listed as possible by Rashid (1967),
and also included in Husain (1979) and Khan (1982), there are no
documented records for Bangladesh. The first record was a female
photographed in a tea garden near Madhupur Lake and tea estate,
Srimangal (north-east) in late November 2007 (RH.JOM, SOM).
Identification was based on well-marked buffy wingbars, a
prominent buffy supercilium, and robust large -billed appearance.
This scarce and declining species winters in the Himalayan foothills
where the nearest known location is Jalpaiguri, West Bengal
(BirdLife International 2001).
White-tailed Stonechat Saxicoia leucura
Rare winter visitor or resident. Only one recent record from 1990
(Thompson et al. 1993). In 2009 a small population was found by
JP on chars in the Padma River close to the international border
and Rajshahi town (north-west), with several sightings of up to
seven birds between 6 March 2009 and 4 January 2012. Most
sightings were in the spring (March-April), but on 3 June 201 1 a
male and female were seen suggesting that it is resident and may
breed in the area.
Jerdon's Bushchat Saxicoia jerdoni
Rare winter visitor. The fifth record and first for the south-east
was a male on the Keokradong trail, Bandarban district, Chittagong
Hill Tracts on 14 March 2010 (RH), while the sixth record was a
female caught and ringed at Baikka Beel, Hail Haor, Srimangal
(north-east) on 25 February 2013 (Round et al. 2014).
Chestnut-bellied Rock Thrush Monficola rufiventris t
Vagrant. Although listed for Bangladesh by Rashid (1967) and Ali
& Ripley (1987), there are no definite previous records of this
species, although it occurs in nearby Meghalaya. The first record
was of a female photographed at Ramgar, Khagrachari, Chittagong
Hill Tracts (south-east) on 15 or 16 January 2010 (RH), the second
a male photographed near Keokradang, Bandarban, Chittagong
Hill Tracts (south-east) in March 2010 (RH). These birds had
presumably wandered from the hills of north-eastern India, where
it is resident.
Brown-breasted Flycatcher Muscicapa muttui
Vagrant or rare passage migrant. There was one previous record
(Thompson & Johnson 2003). The second was in Lawachara NP
(north-east) on 13 October 2004 (PMT); its white eye ring,
moustache stripes, long bill, pale legs, buffy wing bar, warm brown
tail and brownish breast were noted. There were at least four birds
in spring and one autumn sighting: one was in the National Botanic
Gardens, Dhaka (central) on 22 April 201 1 (BD), two were seen
together at Kaptai NP (south-east) on 24 March 2012 (MK), one
was in Satchari NP on 12 April 2013 (RR) (where TK saw this or
another more than once), and one was at Kaptai NP on 20
September 2013 (MK).
Rufous-gorgetted Flycatcher Ficedula strophiata
Rare winter visitor. The fourth to at least sixth records were a male
photographed at Adampur, Rajkandi RF (north-east) on 25
February 2012 (TK, MA) with a male, presumably the same, in
the same spot on 29 March 20 1 2 (MK) and one female (but possibly
two more heard) in the same location in February 2013 (several
observers); and both a male and female photographed at Satchari
NP (north-east) on 12 and 26 December 2013 (TK, MA).
Ultramarine Flycatcher Ficedula superciliaris
Vagrant. There is only one previous record (Thompson et al. 1993).
The second record was a male photographed in Adampur RF
(north-east) on 21 December 2011 (TK, MA).
Slaty-blue Flycatcher Ficsduia tricolor
Rare winter visitor. Since the two previous records (Thompson &
Johnson 2003), mist-netting and recent observations suggest
this secretive species is more numerous than had been thought.
All but one record are from the north-east. At Pashua Haor,
singles on 11, 12 and 16 February 2012, and at Tanguar Haor a
single on 25 February 2012 were all caught during mist-netting in
scrubby wetland habitat (Round et al. 2014). In addition single
males were photographed in Adampur RF on 21 December 2011
(TK, MA) and 2 March 2012 (MK), and in Lawachara NP on 1
and 7 March 2012 (MK); and a male and female were seen and
photographed at Kaptai NP (south-east) on 30 November 2013
(EUH, PDR).
62
PAUL M. THOMPSON et ol.
Forktail 30 (2014)
Sapphire Flycatcher Ficeduia sapphira
Vagrant. The second record was an immature male in treerops in
Lawachara NP (north-east) on 28 November 2008 (PMT),
the third was a male photographed at the same site in April 2010
(RH).
Pale Blue Flycatcher Cyornis unicolor
Rare winter visitor. There are only four previous records. In this
period a male was photographed at Naikanchari, Bandarban,
Chittagong Hill Tracts (south-east) in late March 2009 (RH), a
male was photographed in Adampur RF (north-east) on 27
February 2012 (TK, MA), and one in February 2013 at the same
site (TK, MA, MK). However, records in late 2013 suggest that it
may be more abundant: this species was heard on three days in
Kaptai NP, Chittagong Hill Tracts (south-east) in November 2013
(PDR), and in December 2013 at Satchari NP (north-east) at least
three were seen and photographed (TK, MA).
Hill Blue Flycatcher Cyornis banyumas t
Vagrant. Although listed as possibly occurring by Rashid (1967),
there were no confirmed records. The first record was a male
photographed in Satchari NP (north-east) on 22 November 2013
and present in the same area of forest through the remainder of the
year (TK, MA, SR). It showed typical features of dark blue
upperparts, an orange-rufous throat, breast and flanks fading into
a white belly, and did not have a sufficiently robust bill for Large
Blue Flycatcher Cyornis magirostris. This species is a scarce winter
visitor or possible resident in the hills of north-east India
(Rasmussen & Anderton 2012), so although this record is from a
lower altitude, it is not unexpected.
Small Nilfava Niltava macgrigoriae
Vagrant. The third to fifth records were of a female photographed
in Lawachara NP, Srimangal (north-east) from 31 December 2011
to 31 January 2012 (MA, TK), a female photographed at
Madhupkundo waterfall, Kulaura (north-east) on February 2012
(SUC), and another female seen in Adampur RF (north-east) on
23 February 2013 (MA, MK).
Rufous-beilied Niltava Niltava sundara
Rare winter visitor. A male in Kaptai NP (south-east) on 25-29
November 2011 (ND) was the fifth record and the first outside
Sylhet division. A male was photographed at Madhupkundo
waterfall, Kulaura (north-east) on 8 January 2012 (MA, TK, MK),
and a female (presumably the same wintering bird) was
photographed from the same location on 26 February 2012 (SUC),
23 February 2013 (MK), and on 16 November 2013 (SUC).
Mrs Gould's Sunbird Aethopyga gouldiae
Vagrant. Thompson etal. (1993) reported only two recent sightings
in the 1980s. Unexpectedly a male was photographed in an urban
location, Ramna Park, Dhaka (central), in October 2012 (DH),
and its identity established when the picture was posted on the
internet (SUC).
Fire-tailed Sunbird Aethopyga ignicauda t
Vagrant. Although reported from Sylhet by Hume (1888), there
were no subsequent records. The first recent record was a male in
breeding plumage feeding on the flowers of a koroi Albizia sp.
tree in a village near Kurigram town (north-west) in May 2008
(EUH); its red mantle and tail feathers were unmistakable. This
area is close to the northern border, but at around 100 m altitude is
well below the normal altitudinal range of this species. Rasmussen
& Anderton (2012) note that immatures disperse to lower hills,
but an adult male so far from the Himalayas in the breeding season
is exceptional.
Eurasian Tree Sparrow Passer montanus
Rare but increasing resident. This species was rarely recorded, with
most past records from the border at Tamabil (Thompson
& Johnson 2003), but since 2008 there have been increasing
numbers of sightings from several locations. In the north-east
there were several sightings in Sunamganj and Sylhet, including
nest building on 8 July 2012 (SUC, MK), and one on the
Moulvi Bazar road, Srimangal, on 25 February 2011 (CC) was
notable. A flock of about 20 was found in the Aricha area (central)
in January 2008 (RH), and several were seen in Netrakona district
(SUC). A thriving colony was found in Rangpur town (north-west)
in 2012-13 (EUH), and several observers recorded this species
from other towns in this area including Ponchogor and Bogra
(SUC).
Red-throated Pipit Anthus cervinus
Rare winter visitor. The first records for 18 years were two on 17
March 2010 at Fakura Char, Feni, and a flock of 15 at Chandia
Char, Feni (east centre), on 18 March 2010 (JB, AL, SUC, RoM).
This suggests that the delta may be a regionally important wintering
or passage site for a species that is uncommon to rare anywhere in
the east of the Indian subcontinent (Lees et al. 2011). The only
other records in this period were one from what previously had
been more typical habitat in Bangladesh — freshwater wetlands in
the north-east — one at Poroti Beel, Hakaluki Haor, on 19 February
2011 (PMT), and a few in the unusual habitat of hill areas at Ruma,
Bandarban, Chittagong Hill Tracts, the first for the south-east, on
1 8 November 20 1 1 (MK).
Common Rosefinch Carpodacus erythrinus
Rare winter visitor. There are five previous records, the last two
being from the Chittagong Hill Tracts (Thompson & Johnson
2003). The only records in this period were five in Chunati NP
(south-east) in March 2004 (EUH); a flock of at least 10 at Farua,
Chittagong Hill Tracts (south-east), in September 2010 (RH);
several small flocks (of up to 10 birds) in the higher hills of
Bandarban, Chittagong Hill Tracts, in November 2010, February
201 1 and November 2011 (MK); and a female on Shahjalal Char
(central coast) on 17 January 2013 (EUH, TK, MA).
Grey-necked Bunting Emberiza buchanani t
Vagrant. The first record was a male photographed at close range
on a small channel in mangroves at Hiron Point, Sundarbans (south¬
west), on 29 November 2012 (ASA). The photographer reported
that there were 9-10 people in a small rowing-boat and the bird
landed on the boat three times in five minutes, each time for 10-
1 5 seconds. It was unafraid of humans; the photographer was sitting
in the front row, hardly 1 m away. Identification was made when
the photographs were posted on the internet, and was
straightforward as this was an adult male at close range. The only
question, considering how confiding it was, was whether the bird
could be an escape, but the location is remote from human
habitation and there is no evidence of this species in captivity in
Bangladesh. This record is considerably east of the normal wintering
range which extends as far as peninsular India, but vagrants have
been recorded in Vietnam (Wright 2009), Hong Kong and Japan
(Robson 2008).
Little Bunting Emberiza pusilla
Rare winter visitor. There are three previous recent records. During
this period, one was on rice stubble at Gowrinagor Mat, Meherpur
(south-west), on 4January 2009 ( JP), one was at Cox’s Bazar (south¬
east) in January 2010 (RH, SUC), one was photographed at Hail
Haor, Srimangal (north-east), on 29 November 2011 (MA, TK),
and one was in Kaptai NP, Chittagong Hill Tracts (south-east), on
24 November 2012 (SUC, MF, ZF, SR).
Forktail 30(2014)
Notable bird records from Bangladesh from July 2002 to July 201 3
63
Yellow-breasted Bunting Emberiza aureola
Endangered. Rare and declining win ter visitor. This formerly locally
common winter visitor has become very scarce. There were only
three records in this period. At Baikka Beel, Hail Haor, Srimangal
(north-east), two were present on 21 March 2006 and a flock of
about 30 on 18 April 2007 (PMT), suggested spring passage
migration. These were the only sightings during 55 visits to this
site by PMT during 2001-2013; by comparison PMT recorded it
on six out of nine visits to Hail Haor during 1986-2000. At least
two were seen and photographed in grasslands on Khurma Tea
Estate, Moulvi Bazar (north-east), on 20 November 2013 (SUC,
TK, and others).
Black-headed Bunting Emberiza melanocephala t
Vagrant. The first record for Bangladesh was reported by
Chowdhury (2011): a group of three photographed at Kotka,
Sundarbans (south-west) on 10 October 2009 (RH, ZF, SUC).
DISCUSSION
The above 125 species (excluding the Western Reef Egret no longer
considered to have been reliably recorded) fall into three categories:
(1) long-distance migrants which occur as vagrants, or which are
regular visitors and were overlooked in the past (48 species); (2)
altitudinal or local migrants which breed within the subcontinent
and which may be regular in small numbers or are vagrants from
the Himalayas and adjacent hill states of north-east India (45
species); (3) species which are likely to be rare residents since they
are not known to make regular movements, although in most cases
there is no definite evidence of breeding (31 species). In addition,
19 species discussed in Thompson et al. (1993) or Thompson &
Johnson (2003) continue to be present in Bangladesh without a
change in their status and cannot be considered to be rarities. Table
1 summarises their status since 2002.
Recent fieldwork has concentrated on the north-east haors,
coastal wetlands, and moist evergreen and semi-evergreen forests
of the east side of the country. About 24% of the species discussed
here are typically found in inland wetlands, 10% are most typical
of coastal wetlands (including mangroves), 31% are typical of
eastern forests, and 35% were found in a mix of habitats including
open country, urban parks and wooded areas.
Four large haors in the north-east are particularly significant
sites. Tanguar Haor, where 1 5 notable species were recorded, covers
9,527 ha and hosts internationally significant concentrations of
wintering waterbirds. It is protected as Bangladesh’s second Ramsar
site, but important patches of reeds that were cleared in the early
2000s are'yet to be restored. Baikka Beel, where 16 notable species
were recorded, is exceptional for being a community-managed
sanctuary of only 170 ha within the 1 2,000 ha of Hail Haor wetland.
Following restoration of swamp vegetation and protection since
2003, a wide range of wetland-dependent species now visit the site.
Pashua Haor, where nine notable species were recorded, covers
about 4,000 ha and in the past was important for waterfowl;
remnant areas of swamp forest and swamp scrub are significant for
wintering passerines. However, the area is now overfished and lacks
any formal protection, although it has been proposed as a site for
habitat restoration and community conservation. Hakaluki Haor
covers over 1 8,000 ha and was declared an Ecologically Critical Area
(EC A) by the Bangladesh Government in 1999; although less
fieldwork has been conducted here, seven notable species were
recorded, but conservation efforts have yet to control regular
hunting and poisoning of waterfowl. The avifauna, management
and threats to three of these wetlands are discussed further in Round
et al. (2014).
Substantial fieldwork has been conducted in coastal areas in
this period, particularly Sonadia Island, Nijum Dwip NP and
adjacent areas; although relatively few notable species were recorded
these islands hold globally significant populations of endangered
shorebirds and form part of the East Asian Australasian Flyway.
Table 1 . Summary of the status of species considered to be noteworthy in past reviews but regularly recorded in 2002-201 3.
64
PAUL M. THOMPSON et al.
Forktail 30 (2014)
Sonadia Island was declared an EC A in 1 999 and has been proposed
as a Ramsar site. Recent projects on the island have successfully
restored mangroves and mitigated shorebird hunting. However,
there are proposals to construct a deep-water port at Sonadia Island
which may have a severe impact on the value of the island for
shorebirds and other wildlife. Although Nijum Dwip was declared
a national park in 200 1 and has been proposed as a Ramsar site, in
the absence of a management plan conservation work has been
limited, and livestock grazing appears to be a significant threat to
its wildlife.
Two small forest patches in the north-east are
particularly important: Lawachara NP covering 1,250 ha with 19
noteworthy species, and Satcheri NP covering 243 ha with 12.
These small areas remain the most accessible biodiverse areas
of evergreen forest (a mixture of natural forest and old
plantations) remaining in Bangladesh. Both have been protected
as national parks since 1996, and since 2003 collaborative
management (or ‘co-management’) has been established between
Forest Department and local communities. Management plans were
developed in the mid-2000s, but have only been followed partially
and are due to be updated. Visitor centres, trails and other facilities
have been constructed, and visitor numbers have increased
substantially — in Lawachara NP for example from 28,575 in 2007
to an average of over 100,000 per year during 20 10- 13. Half of the
revenue collected is returned for use by the communities, with the
rest retained by government. But high visitor levels increase
disturbance to parts of these small forests, and still local people
from nearby villages and tea estates continue to cut firewood and
some trees for timber (although this has reduced over the last
decade).
In addition two large and very different areas are of particular
note for species covered in this paper. Sixteen of the species were
recorded in the Sundarbans where over 600,000 ha of mangrove
forests are protected. The entire area was the first Ramsar site
designated in Bangladesh and is also a UNESCO World Heritage
Site, and still remains relatively intact and safe for its
distinctive avifauna. However, a 1,320 megawatt coal-fired
power plant has been proposed 14 km north of the Sundarbans at
Rampal, and would be a potential long-term threat to the
forest and its birds. The Chittagong Hill Tracts cover a large part
of south-east Bangladesh. Although extensively deforested and
difficult of access, the area still holds important evergreen forest
patches where most of the 35 species of note recorded here were
found, particularly in Bandarban district, including the remnant
forests in the remote Sangu valley, and the relatively accessible
Kaptai NP.
This period has seen a modest increase in interest in nature and
birds in Bangladesh. Digital photography has enabled more people
to document their sightings for subsequent identification and has
broadened interest in birds. A new batch of researchers have
undertaken important studies focusing on threatened species, and
the Bangladesh bird club has initiated a mist-netting programme
based on annual camps in the north-east wetlands. All these
initiatives have contributed to the new records summarised here.
We hope that this expanding knowledge and interest can be
harnessed to strengthen conservation of key sites for Bangladesh’s
diverse avifauna.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to Tim Inskipp for providing details of his extensive review of
historical references, and to Philip Round for helpful comments and for
sharing details of birds caught during mist-netting camps. We thank all the
observers who kindly provided details of their sightings, shared photographs,
and agreed to publish their records here.
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FORKTAIL 30 (2014): 66-78
Birds of Mondulkiri, Cambodia:
distribution, status and conservation
THOMAS N. E. GRAY, EDWARD H. B. POLLARD, THOMAS D. EVANS, FREDERIC GOES, MARK GRINDLEY, KEO OMALISS,
PAUL H. NIELSEN, ORN SAMBOVANNAK, PHAN CHANNA & SANH SOPHOAN
Since the late 1990s conservation activities have been carried out in a protected area complex centred on Mondulkiri province, eastern
Cambodia. We provide a comprehensive bird list for this area and information on the status and distribution of all globally threatened, near
threatened and restricted-range species. The total of 374 species includes 5 Critically Endangered, 3 Endangered, 7 Vulnerable and 1 6 Near
Threatened species as well as five species recorded for the first time in Cambodia. Three main forest types — deciduous dipterocarp, lowland
evergreen and semi-evergreen, and hill evergreen — each have distinctive avian communities. Evergreen forests on the Vietnam border
comprise probably the largest least-disturbed lowland forests in the southern Annamites. There are important populations of several
restricted-range and biome-restricted species. The area's populations of Green Peafowl Pavo muticus, White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis,
Slender-billed Vulture G. Tenuirostris, Red-headed Vulture Sarcogyps calvus, White-shouldered Ibis Pseudibis davisoni and Giant Ibis
Thaumatibis gigantea are evidently of high global conservation importance. Further surveys are required to clarify the status of a number of
other potentially important species, including Masked Finfoot Heliopais personata, White-winged Duck Cairina scutulata and Sarus Crane
Grus antigone. Major threats to the area include habitat loss, both unplanned encroachment and large-scale plantations, infrastructure
development and hunting. Active conservation management is reducing these threats.
INTRODUCTION
The birds of Cambodia are relatively poorly known, and it is only
earlier this year that the first avifaunal review of the country was
published (Goes 2014). The country can be divided into eight
ornithological landscapes, each of which supports its own
characteristic habitats and distinctly different associated bird
communities (Seng et al. 2003). In this paper we provide a first
overview of the birds of the eastern area, centred on Mondulkiri
province. The 17,500 km2 study area which is bordered by Vietnam
to the east and north includes all Mondulkiri province, eastern
Figure 1. The study area, comprising Mondulkiri province (dotted
boundary) and those parts of Lumphat Wildlife Sanctuary, Snoul
Wildlife Sanctuary, Seima Protection Forest and 0 Ya Dao Protected
Forest that lie in adjacent Kratie and Ratanakiri provinces.
Cambodia, together with the following protected areas which lie
partly in Mondulkiri and partly in adjacent provinces: Snoul
Wildlife Sanctuary (WS) and Seima Protected Forest (PF) to the
south-west lie partly in Kratie province while Lumphat WS and O
Ya Dao PF to the north and north-east lie partly in Ratanakiri
province (Figure l).
Most of the area forms part of the Lower Mekong Dry Forest
Ecoregion (Tordoff et al. 2005). These rolling lowlands, generally
under 1 50 m, are characterised by extensive deciduous dipterocarp
forest, including veal (open grassland areas) which experience
frequent fires, and smaller patches of mixed deciduous and semi¬
evergreen forests on higher ground and along watercourses. The
deciduous forest is dissected by a number of rivers including the
Srepok, a major tributary of the Mekong, and is characterised by
trapeang (small seasonal wetlands). The extreme south and east of
the area forms an extremity of the Annamite Range Moist Forests
Ecoregion (Baltzer etal. 200 1 ) with dominant wetter closed-canopy
evergreen forest, particularly along the Vietnam border, rising to
1,070 m in the Phnom Nam Lyr WS (12.5°N 107. 5°E).
Table 1. Summary of protected areas (see Figure 1) showing the
government departments and partnerships responsible for their
management. FA = Forestry Administration; MoE = Ministry of
Environment; WCS = Wildlife Conservation Society; WWF = World Wide
Fund for Nature; PRCF = People Resources and Conservation
Foundation; BL = BirdLife International. Forest cover estimated from
J 1C A (2006). DDF = deciduous dipterocarp forest; MDF = mixed
deciduous forest; SEGF/EGF = semi-evergreen and evergreen forest.
Forktail 30 (2014)
Birds of Mondulkiri, Cambodia: distribution, status and conservation
67
Almost 80% of the study area (13,730 km2) is protected, with
tour wildlife sanctuaries managed by the Ministry of Environment’s
General Department for Administration of Nature Conservation
and Protection (MoE) and three protected forests managed by the
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries’ Forestry
Administration (FA) (Table 1). Two adjacent areas ofVietnam are
gazetted as national parks: Bu Gia Map (12.2°N 107. 2°E) (260
km2), and Yok Don (12.8°N 107. 7°E), the largest national park in
Vietnam (1,155 km2) (Figure 1).
Most of the area, except parts of the Sen Monorom plateau
around the Mondulkiri provincial capital Sen Monorom town
(12.45°N 107.20°E), has been designated as several Important Bird
Areas (Seng et al. 2003). Mondulkiri is the least populated
Cambodian province, with a population density of less than
5 people/km2, and much of the area remains heavily forested
supporting, despite the recent history of conflict and associated
hunting, almost all the large mammal species found in Indochina
(Timmins & Ou 2001, Walston et al. 2001, Pollard et al. 2007,
Phan et al. 2010, Gray et al. 2012 a, b).
HISTORICAL BIRD SURVEYS AND METHODS
Although visited by Wharton (1957) during his research on
Kouprey Bos sauveli in the 1950s, few birds were recorded before
the mid-1990s (Thomas & Poole 2003) due to several decades of
conflict. The improved political and security situation from the
mid-1990s allowed wildlife surveys in north and east Cambodia
(Olivier & Woodford 1994, Desai & Lie 1996) which initially
focused on large mammals; these surveys also highlighted the
region’s potential importance for bird conservation (Timmins &
Men 1998, Long et al. 2000, Timmins & Ou 2001, Walston et al.
2001). Subsequently, the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS)
and World Wildlife Fund (WWF) developed programmes in
collaboration with government, and have documented bird
distribution and abundance (Bird etal. 2006, Claassen & Ou 2007).
V isits by recreational birdwatchers and, since 2008, commercial bird
tours have generated additional information (Goes & Davidson
2002, Evans & Goes 2010-201 1, authors’ pers. obs.). This paper
summarises significant bird records in the area up to 31 December
2011, and includes some later species-specific monitoring results
plus updated information on threatened species. Most records are
from grey literature and internal databases of conservation
organisations; all such reports are referenced. Unreferenced records
are from the authors’ personal observations in the area since 2005,
with most from 2008 to 2011. Data sources for each area are
summarised in Appendix 1. Appendix 2 is a comprehensive list of
the bird species recorded in the area during the study period.
Taxonomy, order and nomenclature follows Inskipp et al. (1996)
updated where necessary. The initials NP, PF and WS after a place
name stand for National Park, Protected Forest and Wildlife
Sanctuary, respectively.
RESULTS
Of 374 bird species recorded in the area (Appendix 2), five are
Critically Endangered, three Endangered, seven Vulnerable and 1 6
Near Threatened, whilst five species have not previously been
documented from Cambodia. Text accounts for the above and for
restricted-range species as defined by Stattersfield et al. (1998)
follow below.
Orange-necked Partridge Arborophila davidi
Near Threatened and restricted-range. Recorded from a small area
ofSeima PF (12.12°N 106.97°E) close to the Vietnam border. The
first record was from a camera-trap photograph in 2002. Following
increased targeted search effort (particularly the use of playback)
since 2006 there have been regular dry-season records from many
observers (Evans & Goes 2010-201 1), with breeding confirmed
in April 2011 ( J. Schwilk in litt. 2011). Most records are from three
easily accessible trails near the forestry headquarters with only two
brief targeted searches further afield (Claassen 2008), so overall
distribution and habitat use remain poorly known. Recorded
locations are mostly mapped as bamboo forest (WCS unpubl. data)
and at the micro-scale usually have a high percentage of non-thorny
large-stem bamboos; but extensive bamboo stands seem to be
avoided and the presence of bamboo patches with a canopy of
broadleaved trees appears to be important for the species. All
records have been in hilly terrain at 130-240 m and within 6 km
of the Seima PF headquarters, an area of about 2,000 ha. The whole
bamboo forest habitat covered about 6,300 ha in 2009 (WCS
unpubl. data).
Germain's Peacock Pheasant Polyplectron germaini
Near Threatened and restricted-range. Abundant in the main stands
of evergreen and semi-evergreen forest in the south and west parts
of Seima PF but has not been recorded north of about 1 2. 1 5°N. It
was also common in parts of Snoul WS ( 12.08°N 106.67°E) in 2000
(Walston et al. 2001) but has not been recorded there since,
presumably due to the reduced number of recent surveys (Appendix
2), or from any of the other protected areas. The species appears to
be quite tolerant of bamboo-dominated and heavily logged habitat,
although recent loss of natural forest cover in Snoul WS may have
reduced its suitability.
Green Peafowl Pavo muticus
Endangered. Regularly recorded in most areas of deciduous
dipterocarp and mixed deciduous forests throughout Seima PF,
Mondulkiri PF, Phnom Prich WS (12.71°N 106.96°E) and
Lumphat WS (13.36°N 106.75°E). No systematic surveys have
assessed population level: statements of a minimum 1,000
individuals in Seima PF (Goes 2009) are unsubstantiated. A minor
pest of the rice crop in some settlements in Seima PF (Scally et al.
2007). There are records from Snoul WS in 2000 (Walston et al.
200 1 ) and recent (February 20 1 2) records from unprotected forest
on the edge of the Sen Monorom plateau, south of Mondulkiri PF
(TDE pers. obs.). Family parties with large chicks are frequently
observed and camera-trapped in Seima PF, Phnom Prich WS and
Mondulkiri PF in the early wet season ( June to August) and the
species presumably breeds throughout the area. It was the bird
species most frequently recorded by camera traps set in forest in
Phnom Prich WS and Mondulkiri PF (Phan et al. 2010).
White-winged Duck Cairina scutulata
Endangered. Distribution and status of this shy and elusive species
is poorly known. Recorded from Phnom Nam Lyr WS on the
Cambodia-Vietnam border in May 1998 (Brickie et al. 1998).
Singles recorded from Seima PF in the core area on the Mahoach
and Pour rivers (WCS/FA 2006); occasionally recorded from
south-west Phnom Prich WS, where probably resident, since 2009
with singles or pairs at three locations on the Katoh River (Phan
et al. 2010). Records in Phnom Prich WS and Seima PF are from
seasonal streams in semi-evergreen forest with beds typically 5 —
15m wide, which retain water in deep pools during the dry season.
The extent of suitable habitat suggests it occurs more widely than
the few documented records show; there are unconfirmed reports
from several other streams in Seima PF, Phnom Prich WS and
Mondulkiri PF.
Great Slaty Woodpecker Mulleripicus pulverulentus
Vulnerable. Present in semi-evergreen and evergreen forest in Seima
68
THOMAS N. E. GRAY etal.
Forktail 30 (2014)
PF where encountered frequently. Recorded from mixed deciduous
and semi-evergreen forest in Mondulkiri PF (Long etal. 2000) and
Phnom Prich WS (Timmins & Ou 2001); recorded daily in Phnom
Prich WS in May and June 2000, in areas of mixed deciduous, semi¬
evergreen and tall closed-canopy deciduous dipterocarp forest.
There are no post-2008 records from either Mondulkiri PF or
Phnom Prich WS suggesting a decline. The species appears to be
absent from the area’s extensive low-stature deciduous dipterocarp
forest.
Great Hornbill Buceros bicornis
Near Threatened. Recorded regularly throughout the main semi¬
evergreen/evergreen forest stands in Seima PF and in the smaller
patches of similar habitat in Phnom Prich WS and Mondulkiri PF.
Recorded regularly in 2000 in Snoul WS (Walston eta/. 2001) but
no records since. No confirmed records from Lumphat WS
although unidentified Buceros/ Acer os hornbills have been recorded
from semi-evergreen forest patches. Large congregations have
occasionally been observed at fruiting trees or flying over the forest;
the largest was 44 birds in January 2005 about 15 km east of Seima
PF headquarters.
Alexandrine Parakeet Psittacula eupatria
Near Threatened. Recorded, in relatively small numbers,
throughout the study area. One 1997 record from 900 m at Dak
Dam, Sen Monorom plateau (Duckworth & Hedges 1998) and a
single recorded from 700 m on the Sen Monorom plateau in
October 2011 (OS pers. obs.). The scarcest parakeet in Mondulkiri
PF and Phnom Prich WS with <10 observations between 2008
and 2012 with most observations being singles or pairs (TNEG
pers. obs.). Chicks confiscated from Mondulkiri PF indicate
breeding but also highlight the threat to the species from nest¬
raiding by humans. Current sightings of the species are substantially
lower than during the 1990s (e.g. Timmins & Men, 1998; Timmins
& Ou 2001) suggesting decline.
Grey-headed Parakeet Psittacula finschii
Near Threatened. Patchily distributed throughout the area
(although no records from Lumphat WS); recorded most
frequently in lowland open deciduous dipterocarp forest and
degraded evergreen forest around Sen Monorom. Seasonally
abundant with large groups (up to 100 individuals) in Mondulkiri
PF and on Sen Monorom plateau between 2008 and 20 1 0 (TNEG
pers. obs.). Locally common in deciduous dipterocarp forest in
Seima PF (Walston etal. 2001, Bird et al. 2006).
Blossom-headed Parakeet Psittacula roseata
Near Threatened. Recorded from all protected areas, favouring
deciduous dipterocarp forest. It is probably seen more frequently
than Alexandrine but there are fewer records than for Grey-headed
both from recent observations (TNEG pers. obs.) and older surveys
(Walston etal. 2001). As with Alexandrine Parakeet sighting rates
seem to have declined since the 1990s (Timmins & Men 1998,
Timmins & Ou 2001, TNEG pers. obs.).
Red-breasted Parakeet Psittacula alexandtri
Near Threatened. The commonest and most frequently recorded
parakeet in the study area, found in all protected areas. Common
in deciduous dipterocarp forest with multiple encounters daily
throughout the landscape (MPF, PPWS, SPF, LWS) but rarely in
groups >20 individuals.
Pale-capped Pigeon Columba punicea
Vulnerable. Fifteen records of singles or small groups, all in the dry
season (January-May) except one at Dak Dam, Sen Monorom
plateau (12.372°N 107.319°E), in October 2011. Five records from
degraded semi-evergreen forest patches in grassland on the Sen
Monorom plateau (Evans & Goes 2010 2011, Gray 2012), and
three from hill evergreen forest (600-850 m) around Dak Dam
(Brickie etal. 1998, Evans & Goes 2010 201 1). Three records from
Seima PF were in extensive hilly semi-evergreen forest at 350 m in
the south (February) and two from gallery forest in a deciduous
forest area at 100 m in the west (January-February) (Bird et al.
2006). Lack of records from lowland deciduous dipterocarp forest
elsewhere suggests genuine scarcity. A record of at least 1 1
individuals from Ramis River on the Sen Monorom plateau in
January 2011 (Gray 2012) appears to be the largest flock recorded
from Cambodia.
Ashy-headed Green Pigeon Treron phayrei
Near Threatened. Recorded from semi-evergreen and evergreen
forest patches in Seima PF, Mondulkiri PF, Phnom Prich WS and
Lumphat WS. A single record from 445 m on the Sen Monorom
plateau (T. Kuenzel in litt. 2012). Most frequently recorded in
Seima PF, with 1-5 birds regularly recorded at different locations
since 2002 and a maximum of 20 birds in November 2010 (WCS
internal data). Fewer records from the other protected areas,
probably because the forest is more open.
Saras Crane Gras antigone
Vulnerable. Occurs at low densities in veal and trapeang in
deciduous dipterocarp forest across wide areas of Mondulkiri PF
and Lumphat WS, with fewer records from Phnom Prich WS and
Seima PF. Aerial surveys in September 2001 (Barzen 2004)
documented 14 nests in and around Lumphat WS and two in
Mondulkiri PF. Adults with juveniles have been observed several
times in east Mondulkiri PF close to the Srepok River. Three were
seen in west Seima PF in May 2008, with an abandoned nest mound
there in 2006 (Bird et al. 2006). Populations in Cambodia are
generally migratory, with large dry-season congregations in lowland
Cambodia (van Zalinge etal. 2010), but records from Mondulkiri
PF and Phnom Prich WS show no clear seasonal pattern (WWF
internal data) and the species appears at least partly resident at these
sites.
Masked Finfoot Heliopais personata
Endangered. Recorded on the Srepok River in Lumphat WS with
two records in May and June 1998 (Timmins & Men 1998) and in
Mondulkiri PF near the Vietnam border — one record March 2004
(M. van Kashike in litt.). No later records from the Srepok in
Mondulkiri PF despite the entire river being surveyed by kayak.
One was seen repeatedly on a small pool in evergreen forest in Seima
PF between March and June 2006 and in March 2007 (EHBP pers.
obs.). All these records are from the late dry and early wet seasons,
in contrast to records from the Tonle Sap and Preah Vihear
province, which peak between July and November (Mulligan etal.
2012).
Grey-headed Fish Eagle Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus
Near Threatened. Recorded widely at low densities on the larger
rivers; one record from a reservoir (12.991°N 107.3 19°E) in Kaoh
Nhek district (Timmins & Ou 2001). Recorded relatively
frequently by Claassen & Ou (2007) on the Te River in south-west
Phnom Prich WS, with at least one presumed nest documented. It
is regular at several locations along the Srepok in Mondulkiri PF,
there are six scattered records from west Seima PF ( WCS/FA 2006),
and two records from Snoul WS in 2000 (Walston etal. 2001) but
no documented records from Lumphat WS.
Lesser Fish Eagle Ichthyophaga humilis
Near Threatened. One record (April 2000) in east Mondulkiri PF
(Long et al. 2000).
Forktail 30(2014)
Birds of Mondulkiri, Cambodia: distribution, status and conservation
69
Slender-billed Vulture Gyps tenuirostris
Critically Endangered. Breeds in the area with 2-6 nests
documented annually from north-west Lumphat WS and 3-10
nests between 2006 and 2010 in unprotected forest at Phnom
Taprom (13.383°N 106.421°E) in the extreme north-west.
Maximum counts at supplementary feeding stations (restaurants)
are: 15 at Lumphat WS (July 2004), 9 at Phnom Prich WS
(December 2007), and 4 at Mondulkiri PF (January 2008). The
June 201 1 annual census recorded two birds at Lumphat WS and
two at Mondulkiri PF restaurants. The species has not been
recorded away from restaurants in Mondulkiri PF or Phnom Prich
WS and there are no confirmed records from Seima PF.
White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis
Critically Endangered. Nesting colonies recorded from Mondulkiri
PF (5-10 nests) and Lumphat WS (about 8 nests) (Clements et al.
2012). Since 2004, vulture populations have been monitored via
monthly supplementary feeding stations (restaurants) located in
Mondulkiri PF, Phnom Prich WS and Lumphat WS with additional
restaurants in Preah Vihear and Stung Treng provinces to the north
and west (Clements etal. 20 12). The vultures’ large home-ranges result
in extensive fluctuations in monthly counts between feeding stations
(Clements etal. 2012). Maximum counts at each restaurant are: 47 at
Phnom Prich WS (April 2008), 44 at Lumphat WS ( June 2008), and
29 at Mondulkiri PF (May 2010). The June 201 1 annual census
recorded 20 individuals in Lumphat WS, 18 in Mondulkiri PF, and
five in Phnom Prich WS. Apart from feeding stations and breeding
colonies, there are few records, with fewer than 10 from central
Mondulkiri PF, a few around Kaoh Nhek district and one (February
2006) from the western buffer of Seima PF (Bird et al. 2006).
Red-headed Vulture Sarcogyps ealvus
Critically Endangered. Recorded from Lumphat WS, Phnom Prich
WS, Mondulkiri PF and Seima PF with a few nests documented
from Lumphat WS and Phnom Taprom (Clements et al. 2012).
Maximum counts at supplementary feeding stations (restaurants)
are: 20 at Phnom Prich WS (December 2007), 18 at Lumphat WS
(May 2006) and 10 at Mondulkiri PF (May 2009). The June 2011
annual census recorded five individuals in Mondulkiri PF, three in
Lumphat WS, and one in Phnom Prich WS. The species is
encountered more frequently than Gyps vultures away from feeding
stations, presumably because it is less social and feeds on smaller
prey (Clements et al. 2012); there are several records from central
Mondulkiri PF along the Srepok.
White-rumped Falcon Polihierax insignis
Near Threatened. Recorded from Seima PF, Mondulkiri PF,
Lumphat WS and Phnom Prich WS. Relatively widespread in
deciduous dipterocarp forest below 200 m in all four protected areas,
but distribution appears patchy and/or the species is elusive. This
may be due to its unobtrusive behaviour but it may have specific
habitat requirements. A preference for recently burnt areas of forest,
which may facilitate hunting, has been noted (Bird etal. 2006).
Oriental Darter Anhinga meianogaster
Near Threatened. Often recorded on larger rivers such as the Srepok
and Rovei in the early wet season (pre-breeding season) in
Mondulkiri PF, with occasional records from the Srepok in
Lumphat WS (Timmins & Men 1998). There are also records from
the Te River in Phnom Prich WS (Claassen & Ou 2007) and small
pools within evergreen forest in Seima PF. No nesting colonies have
been found but habitat is suitable and copulation has been observed
in Seima PF.
White-shouldered Ibis Pseudibis davisoni
Critically Endangered. One adult recorded (September 2001) in
O Ya Dao PF (Barzen 2004). Two individuals recorded (January
2006) in Seima PF (Bird et al. 2006). Records from Mondulkiri
PF, Lumphat WS, and Phnom Prich WS are from trapeangs
(seasonal wetlands) in deciduous dipterocarp forest and from low-
intensity agricultural areas. White-shouldered Ibis populations in
Cambodia have been monitored since 2009 through coordinated
roost-counts in the non-breeding (rainy) season, when birds
congregate (Wright et al. 2012). Coordinated roost-counts in
Lumphat WS recorded 76 individuals (September 2009) rising to
a maximum of 27 8 (August 20 1 2) as roost locations became better
understood (Wright et al. 2013). The first roost-counts in north¬
east Phnom Prich WS and west Mondulkiri PF recorded a
maximum of 36 individuals in September 2012 (Wright etal. 2013).
In Mondulkiri PF the species has been recorded regularly, and
camera-trapped in small numbers, at trapeang in deciduous
dipterocarp forest in the east close to the Srepok and in areas
adjacent to Lumphat WS.
Breeding has recently been confirmed in Lumphat WS (Sum
et al. 2011), with 1 1 nests documented in the 2010 dry season and
15 in the 2011 dry season (FI. Wright in litt. 2012), and it is
probable that nestingoccurs, albeit at lower densities, in Mondulkiri
PF and north-east Phnom Prich WS. Surveys in east Mondulkiri
PF during the 2010 dry season recorded the species’s distinctive
probe-marks from 10 of about 90 trapeang that were studied
(Wright 2010). Comparable surveys in west Seima PF and adjacent
south-west Phnom Prich WS found no White-shouldered Ibis
probe marks at 271 trapeang surveyed (Bird et al. 2006, Claassen
& Ou 2007). This, combined with the rarity of direct sightings,
suggests that it is much less common there. The absence of suitable
deciduous dipterocarp habitat over large parts of Seima PF probably
explains why there is only one record from this protected area.
Giant ibis Thaumatibis gigantea
Critically Endangered. Recorded from west Seima PF and adjacent
unprotected forest (Bird etal. 200 6, Claassen & Ou 2007, Gray et
al. 2012a). Groups of up to five have been photographed in
Mondulkiri PF close to the Srepok in the east and in deciduous
dipterocarp forest in the west (Long etal. 2000, Gray etal. 2012a).
The species has also been recorded in south-west Phnom Prich WS
(Claassen & Ou 2007), and widely in Lumphat WS south and west
ofthe Srepok (Timmins & Men 1998, Sum et al 201 1). There are
two records of singles from Snoul WS prior to 2002 (Tan Setha
2002 in litt.) and Barzen (2004) recorded two in O Ya Dao PF in
September 200 1 . The species relies heavily on undisturbed trapeang
in deciduous dipterocarp forest below 200 m, although there are
observations in grassland patches away from veal and in river
channels (Timmins &: Men 1998, Claassen & Ou 2007). It is
thought to breed at low densities in suitable habitat in the area; a
nest was documented in south-east Lumphat WS (Sum etal. 2011).
The presence of the characteristic bill probe-marks at trapeang
allows crude comparisons of abundance during the non-breeding
(dry) season. The area’s two main concentrations of probe-marks
correspond with the (less numerous) concentrations of direct
sightings. During 2006, in west Seima PF and adjacent south-west
Phnom Prich WS, probe-marks were found at 22 of 1 6 1 trapeang
examined by Bird etal. (2006) and 48 of 1 10 visited by Claassen &
Ou (2007) in a nearby but different area. In east Mondulkiri PF
probe-marks were found at 9 of 119 trapeang during the 2010 dry
season (Wright 2010).
Asian Woollyneck Ciconia episcopus
Vulnerable. Recorded from deciduous dipterocarp and semi¬
evergreen forest in Seima PF, Mondulkiri PF, Phnom Prich WS,
Lumphat WS and Snoul WS. An aerial survey of northern
Cambodia in September 2001 recorded a total of 180 birds — about
half the number of Lesser Adjutants (Barzen 2004). At trapeang in
70
THOMAS N. E. GRAY etal.
Forktail 30 (2014)
deciduous dipterocarp forest in Mondulkiri PF and Phnom Prich
WS, Asian Woollyneck is the second most frequently observed and
camera-trapped large waterbird after Lesser Adjutant. Groups of 10+
individuals are recorded (2 3 records per year) and a small number
of nests, largely singly or in pairs, have been recorded in riverine
forest from Mondulkiri PF (TNEG pers. obs.).
Black-necked Stork Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus
Near Threatened. Although it is the least recorded large waterbird
in Mondulkiri PF, there are at least 30 records from the area between
November and July and it has been widely observed and camera-
trapped (singles and groups of two) from trapeang in deciduous
dipterocarp forest. Two records resulted from aerial surveys of
Lumphat WS in September 2001 (Barzan 2004) and one was seen
there in July 2007 (MG pers. obs.). One record in March 2002 from
Snoul WS by a pool in lowland semi-evergreen forest (Tan Setha
in litt. 2002).
Lesser Adjutant Leptoptilos javanicus
Vulnerable. Widely distributed and recorded in all protected areas.
Found in trapeang, grasslands and river channels in deciduous
dipterocarp and occasionally in semi-evergreen and evergreen forest
up to at least 400 m, with one record from the Sen Monorom
plateau at over 800 m (Evans & Goes 2010-2011). During the dry
season it is the most frequently recorded large waterbird. Both Bird
etal. (2006) and Claassen & Ou (2007) encountered groups of the
species almost twice as frequently as Asian Woollyneck in deciduous
dipterocarp forest in west Seima PF and adjacent parts of Phnom
Prich WS. The situation was similar in Mondulkiri PF where the
species is present at most trapeang visited during the dry season,
although group size (1-3) is smaller than Asian Woollyneck
(typically 4- 10). The pattern is reversed in the predominantly semi¬
evergreen and evergreen areas in south Seima PF, where Lesser
Adjutant is rarely recorded. Two breeding colonies, consisting of
four and 15 nests, were recorded in gallery forest along rivers in
Mondulkiri PF (January 2006), whilst colonies of nine nests in
Phnom Prich WS found in February 2002 and two nests found in
Seima PF in 2006 indicate that the species breeds at low densities
in deciduous dipterocarp forest throughout the area.
Rufous-browed Flycatcher Ficedula solitaris
First record for Cambodia. A single was photographed in evergreen
forest at 900 m close to Dak Dam, Sen Monorom plateau, in
October 2011 (SS pers. obs.).
Manchurian Reed Warbler Acrocephalus tangorum
Vulnerable. During February 2006, at least six birds were found at
two locations in west Seima PF in sedge beds in open grassy
meadows in flat semi-evergreen forest at about 100 m; identification
was confirmed by mist-netting (Bird et al. 2006). Although most
Cambodian records are from tall grasslands around the Tonle Sap,
recent observations indicate that the non-breeding range of this
species covers much of Cambodia, southern Lao PDR and the
borders with Vietnam (Bird etal. 2012).
White-cheeked Laughingthrush Garrulax vassali
Restricted-range. Recorded from semi-evergreen and evergreen
forest above 650 m on the Sen Monorom plateau; the first
Cambodian records were close to the Dak Dam border checkpoint
in January 1997 (Duckworth & Fledges 1998). Subsequently
recorded regularly from remnant semi-evergreen forest patches
above 800 m in the area (Evans & Goes 2010-2011). One record
from north-east Seima PF at about 650 m, of a group of 20
individuals in an overgrown cashew plantation close to degraded
semi-evergreen forest on the edge of the Sen Monorom plateau
(TDE pers. obs.).
Spot-throated Babbler Peiiomeum albiventre
First record for Cambodia. A single recorded from hill evergreen
forest at 900 m close to Dak Dam, Sen Monorom plateau, in
October 201 1 (SS, OS pers. obs.), with additional records from
the same area in February 2012 (SS, OS & PE1N pers. obs.).
Yellow-eyed Babbler Chrysomma sinense
First record for Cambodia. Small groups recorded from grassland
and degraded semi-evergreen forest on the Sen Monorom plateau
in January 2009 (TNEG pers. obs) and deciduous dipterocarp
forest in east Mondulkiri PF in March 2009 (TNEG pers. obs.)
and February 2012 (J. Schwilk in litt. 2012).
Grey-faced Tit Babbler Macronous keSleyi
Restricted-range. Common in evergreen and semi-evergreen forest
in Seima PF with additional old records from Snoul WS and
evergreen forest above 800 m on the Sen Monorom plateau
(Duckworth & Fledges 1998). Not recorded from other protected
areas but probably overlooked.
Chestnut-fronted Shrike Babbler Pteruthius aenobarbus
First record for Cambodia. Three individuals in evergreen hill forest
at 900 m close to Dak Dam, Sen Monorom plateau, in October
201 1 (SS, OS pers. obs.).
Collared Babbler Gampsorhynehus torquatus
First record for Cambodia. Three to five individuals were recorded
in mixed bamboo/semi-evergreen forest in the core area of Seima
PF in May 2011 (J. Schwilk in litt. 2011).
Black-headed Parrotbill Paradoxornis margaritae
Near Threatened and restricted-range. Found in evergreen hill
forest close to the Dak Dam border post and north of Sen Monorom
town on the plateau, with records above 800 m but lower than the
previously reported minimum of 850 m (Robson 2008). It is
presumably resident and may be quite widespread in the limited
areas of suitable altitude.
Mekong Wagtail Motacilla samveasnae
Near Threatened and restricted-range. Recorded on two reaches of
the Srepok River — in Lumphat WS below Lumphat town
(Duckworth et al. 2001, Eames 2007) and in Mondulkiri PF from
the Rovei River (13. 14°N 107.21°E) to the Vietnam border — it may
not be present in between these locations. Suitable habitat, a
combination of rocks and channel-bed emergent bushes
(Duckworth et al. 2001), is quite common at both locations, but
numbers are low — only seven were counted on a kayak trip along
the length of the Mondulkiri PF reach in March 2011 (TNEG
pers. obs.).
Asian Golden Weaver Ploeeus hypoxanthus
Near Threatened. Individuals in non-breeding plumage were
photographed with unidentified weavers in west Seima PF in
February 2006 (Bird etal. 2006).
Yellow-breasted Bunting Emberiza aureola
Vulnerable. One record: two individuals in a grassland patch in
deciduous dipterocarp forest in west Seima PF in February 2006
(Bird etal. 200 6).
DISCUSSION
Coverage
Ornithological coverage has been fairly extensive in several locations
which together constitute a good cross-section of the area, enabling
Forktail 30 (2014)
Birds of Mondulkiri, Cambodia: distribution, status and conservation
71
broad conclusions about the biogeography and conservation
significance to be drawn. However, overall coverage is low given
the size and diversity of the area so that further discoveries can be
anticipated — several large areas of habitat potentially important for
threatened species have been visited only once or not at all. A very
important population of White-shouldered Ibis in Lumphat WS
was overlooked until recently, and in 2011 the Collared Babbler,
new for Cambodia, but presumably a resident, was found a few km
from the Seima PF headquarters — an intensively studied area.
Survey work has mostly been restricted to small areas of deciduous
dipterocarp forest near the Srepok River in east Mondulkiri PF and
to semi-evergreen forest in south-west Phnom Prich WS, two of
the largest and most remote protected areas, whilst the small
number of species confirmed in Lumphat WS is testament to the
very limited observer effort.
Survey work has probably been insufficient to find several
globally threatened species which may occur — wintering Greater
Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga and resident Indian Spotted Eaglet.
hastata use deciduous dipterocarp forest in west Siem Pang, Stung
Trengprovince (BirdLife International Cambodia Program 2012),
whilst Greater Adjutant Leptoptilos dubius occurs at low density in
the deciduous dipterocarp forest of north Cambodia (Barzen
2004). The surprising lack of confirmed records from the study
area contrasts with records of up to 44 of these storks visiting vulture
supplementary feeding stations in west Siem Pang, Stung Treng
province (BirdLife International Cambodia Program 2012).
Biogeographical patterns
The Lower Mekong Dry Forest and the Annamite Range Moist
Forest ecoregions overlap this area and major patterns of avian
distribution are determined by their distinctive habitats — deciduous
dipterocarp forest supports a distinct avifauna that differs from that
found in denser lowland forest (evergreen, semi-evergreen and mixed
deciduous), and both differ from that in hill evergreen forest.
Fifty-seven species listed in Seng etal. (2003) or Ounekham &
Inthapatha (2003) as biome-restricted have been recorded
(Appendix 2): birds of the Indo-Malayan Tropical Dry Zone biome
are typical of deciduous dipterocarp forest, whilst those of the
Indochinese Moist Tropical Forest biome and Sino-Himalayan
Subtropical Forest biome are more frequently associated with
denser evergreen lowland and evergreen hill forest respectively. The
variation in altitude and forest type across the landscape determines
the number and composition of the biome-restricted species found
in each of the protected areas (Table 2).
Deciduous dipterocarp forest
Areas dominated by deciduous dipterocarp forest he in the Lower
Mekong Dry Forest ecoregion (Tordoff etal. 2005) and cover most
of the north and centre of the study area. The distinctive avian
community found here was once widespread in the dry forests of
Table 2. Numbers of bird species recorded in Seima Protected Forest
(SPF), Mondulkiri Protected Forest (MPF), Phnom Prich Wildlife
Sanctuary (PPWS), Sen Monorom plateau (SMP), and Lumphat Wildlife
Sanctuary (LWS) and numbers of biome-restricted and globally
threatened/Near Threatened species in each.
mainland South-East Asia, and includes several endemics, e.g.
Black-headed Woodpecker Picus erytbropygius , White-rumped
Falcon and distinctive forms of Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch Sit to.
castanea neglecta and Fulvous-breasted Woodpecker Dendrocopos
macei longipennis.
Few of the deciduous dipterocarp specialists are globally
threatened, thanks to the extensive forests presently remaining in
lowland Cambodia and Myanmar. In south and central Lao PDR
Duckworth (2007) identified several deciduous dipterocarp
specialists that were in decline or range-restricted. These species
are present in the study area and most are widespread and common
in Mondulkiri PF.and Phnom Prich WS, although given extensive
declines in lowland forest cover and quality outside and within
protected areas in east and north Cambodia (see Threats) there is
cause for concern and an ongoing monitoring programme is needed.
Evergreen forests
Areas in the south of the study area dominated by evergreen, semi¬
evergreen and mixed deciduous lowland forest lie in the Greater
Annamites ecoregion (Baltzer etal. 2001) and the more restricted
Southern Vietnamese Lowlands Endemic Bird Area (EBA)
(Stattersfield et al. 1998). They lack most deciduous dipterocarp
specialists but all three restricted-range species that define this
EBA — Orange-necked Partridge, Germains Peacock Pheasant and
Grey-faced Tit Babbler — are found here with several that occur more
widely in Indochina — Red-vented Barbet Megalaima lagrandieri,
Bar-bellied Pitta Pitta elliotii , Blue-rumped Pitta P soror and Pale¬
headed Woodpecker Gecinulus grantia — and notable populations
of more widespread dense forest species — Great Hornbill, Siamese
Fireback Lopbura diardi and Golden-crested Myna Ampeliceps
coronatus. Differences between the species present in lowland mixed
deciduous, semi-evergreen and evergreen forest are minor.
The transition to evergreen hill forest is gradual with a marked
increase in montane bird species above 700-800 m. This area lies
in both the Greater Annamites ecoregion and the smaller Da Lat
Plateau EBA (Stattersfield et al. 1998), supporting at least two —
White-cheeked Laughingthrush and Black-headed Parrotbill — of
the nine species that define the EBA. A recent increase in
observation around Dak Dam (800-900 m) near the Cambodia-
Vietnam border has led to the recording of three new species for
Cambodia and montane species rarely recorded in the country,
including Maroon Oriole Oriolus traillii, Silver-eared Mesia
Leiotbrix argentauris , Blue-winged Minla Minla cyanouroptera,
Ashy Bulbul Hemixos flavala and Ratchet-tailed Treepie Temnurus
temnurus. The races of Black-browed Barbet Megalaima oorti
annamensis and Black-throated Tit Aegitbalos concinnus
annamensis are shared endemics with adjacent central Vietnam and
south Lao. The five additions to the Cambodian list documented
here also inhabit adjacent South Annam, Vietnam (Robson 2008).
Conservation significance of the area
Of the 15 globally threatened species recorded in the study area,
nine — Green Peafowl, Sarus Crane, Slender-billed Vulture, White-
rumped Vulture, Red-headed Vulture, White-shouldered Ibis,
Giant Ibis, Asian Woollyneck and Lesser Adjutant — rely primarily
on deciduous dipterocarp forest. The region’s deciduous
dipterocarp forests are therefore a global conservation priority,
particularly important for Green Peafowl, vultures and large
waterbirds. The combination of important populations of globally
threatened birds, almost all the large mammal species found in
Indochina (see below) and the abundance of non-threatened
deciduous dipterocarp specialist avian species suggests that the area
is the most globally significant remnant of lowland deciduous
dipterocarp forest in South-East Asia.
Few accurate population estimates exist, so assessing the
proportion of global populations of many threatened species in the
72
THOMAS N. E. GRAY etal.
Forktail 30(2014)
area is difficult. Subjective assessment suggests populations of six
species — Green Peafowl, Slender-billed Vulture, White-rumped
Vulture, Red-headed Vulture, White-shouldered Ibis and Giant
Ibis — are of high global conservation value. Green Peafowl is the
most widespread of the globally threatened species in the area. It
appears abundant in both deciduous dipterocarp forest and denser
mixed deciduous/semi-evergreen forest throughout. The
population is contiguous with that in Dak Lak province, Vietnam,
where a substantial population is documented in Yok Don NP,
adjacent to Mondulkiri PF (Brickie etal. 1998, Eames etal. 2004).
It is probable that this area supports more numbers of this
threatened species than any other location in its residual range.
Assessing the relative importance of Cambodian sites for vulture
conservation is complicated because individuals of the three species
range widely over the area (Clements et al. 2012), despite vultures
being among the few species with abundance datasets and trends
in this area. All sites supporting vultures are of high conservation
significance at the present time. For example, the area contains all
the known nesting sites of Slender-billed Vulture in South-East
Asia, except for one in west Siem Pang. There one nest has been
recorded annually since 2009, although at different sites and thus
potentially more than one pair may be breeding there (BirdLife
International Cambodia Program 2012). Mondulkiri PF is the only
area with a substantial population of large wild ungulates within
the ranges of vultures in Indochina (Gray et al. 2013).
Cambodia is of enormous global significance for large
waterbirds (Davidson 2006, Wright et al. 2012, Clements et al.
2013). The study area holds particularly important populations of
Giant Ibis and White-shouldered Ibis — possibly over 50% of the
global population (Wright et al. 2012) — and probably also Sarus
Crane, Asian Woollyneck and Lesser Adjutant. Many breeding
Sarus Cranes may remain undetected as survey work has not been
carried out in some areas. Nesting populations of all large waterbirds
should be estimated following methodologies of Clements et al.
(2013). White-winged Duck and Masked Finfoot require further
research, particularly given the paucity of recent records of both
species from most of Indochina (Mulligan et al. 2012).
In addition to its ornithological importance Mondulkiri
province supports almost all the large mammal species found in
the lower Mekong. This includes the largest global population of
Banteng Bos javanicus (Gray et al. 2012b), and important
populations of Leopard Panthera pardus , Wild Water Buffalo
Bubalus arnee. Eld’s Deer Cervus eldii , Gaur Bos gaurus and Asian
Elephant Elephas maximus (Pollard etal. 2008, Gray & Prum 2012,
Gray etal. 2012b, 2013, O’Kelly etal. 2012). The semi-evergreen
and evergreen forests contain globally important primate
populations (Pollard et al. 2007) whilst Mondulkiri PF supports a
small population of the Critically Endangered Siamese Crocodile
Crocodylus siamensis (Phan et al. 2010).
Threats
This once remote, poorly developed region is changing rapidly and
many of the threats widespread in South-East Asia (Sodhi et al.
2004) now loom. Forests and wetlands are being destroyed by
encroachment and large-scale plantation development.
Translocation from other parts of Cambodia has greatly increased
the human population and stimulated extensive habitat clearance
(Pollard & Evans 2009). Much bamboo forest in the only Orange¬
necked Partridge site in Cambodia has been cleared since 2005
(Evans et al. 2009). Several areas of grassland and pools are
threatened by conversion to rice production. However, a more
serious threat is the poorly regulated development of large
plantations; between 2007 and 2009 at least eight concessions of
about 10,000 ha each were granted for rubber and other
commodities. Since early 2010 this has accelerated: almost all natural
habitat in Snoul WS has been cleared for rubber and cassava, and
there have been major clearances in and around Phnom Nam Lyr
WS, Phnom Prich WS and Lumphat WS. These agricultural
developments cause massive destruction, particularly to deciduous
dipterocarp forest — often viewed by government as unproductive
land.
The several hydropower dams proposed on the rivers in the area
(JICA 2007, Middleton 2008) will, if developed, damage riparian
zones and their wildlife — of greatest concern are two large
developments on the Srepok that will destroy not only some of the
least disturbed river ecosystems remaining in South-East Asia, but
also inundate much forest in Lumphat WS and Mondulkiri PF
(Middleton 2008). Other large-scale developments include a new
road system linking Mondulkiri province with Vietnam and Lao,
whilst mineral extraction concessions greatly overlap the protected
area network. Implementation of all approved concessions would
destroy Phnom Prich WS and the southern halt of Mondulkiri PF.
Disturbance of nests is a problem elsewhere in Cambodia (Sok
et al. 2012, Clements et al. 2013) but the extent of the damage it
causes in Mondulkiri is not known. Hunting and snaring,
particularly of Sarus Crane and galliforms, occurs principally for
subsistence, although Green Peafowl feathers are traded (Walston
et al. 2001). Other species at risk from hunting and trade include
pigeons and parakeets, which are occasionally trapped in large
numbers at mineral licks.
The dramatic decline in wild large mammals (Loucks et al.
2009) since the 1950s is thought to be the major driver of vulture
declines in the area, with the current low numbers of large mammals
(both wild and domestic) resulting in fewer carcasses and scarcity
of food for scavengers (Clements et al. 2012). Recently the
veterinary drug diclofenac, responsible for the rapid collapse of the
South Asia vulture population, has been on sale in Sen Monorom
town. WCS-Cambodia is working with the Cambodian Ministry
of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry to ensure it does not enter
the livestock-vulture food chain.
Conservation in Mondulkiri
Since 2002 WCS and WWF have worked closely with the
Cambodian Ministry of Environment and the Forestry
Administration of the Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and
Fisheries. Active management in Seima PF, Phnom Prich WS and
Mondulkiri PF has reduced the threats in these areas (Evans et al.
2009). Support for protected area management in Lumphat WS,
given the importance of the site for the conservation of the Critically
Endangered vultures and White-shouldered Ibis and the increasing
threat of agro-industrial concessions, is far from adequate. Key
conservation strategies successfully implemented in Seima PF,
Phnom Prich WS and Mondulkiri PF have included enforcing the
Cambodian forest, land, and protected areas laws, targeting
protection of nest colonies of vultures, creating vulture
supplementary feeding stations, and engaging with local
communities and the provincial government to plan land-use, and
national-level initiatives to increase support for biodiversity
conservation. Continued successful application and expansion of
these strategies would mitigate the worst of the threats outlined
above.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Chan Sarun, former Minister of MAFF, Ty Sokhun, Under¬
secretary of State for MAFF, Chheng Kimsun, Director-General of the
Forestry Administration, and Mok Mareth, former Minister of the
Environment, for their consistent support for conservation activities in
Mondulkiri over many years. Additional such support comes from Men
Soriyun, Keo Sopheak, Song Keang, Chak Sokhavicheaboth and Sanrangdy
Vicheth. We gratefully acknowledge the records submitted by visiting
Forktail 30 (2014)
Birds of Mondulkiri, Cambodia: distribution, status and conservation
73
birdwatchers and researchers, and particularly those contributed by the Sam
Veasna Centre and their clients. WCS and WWF’s work in Seima PF, Phnom
Prich WS and Mondulkiri PF has been supported by many donors including
the Asian Development Bank, Danish International Development Assistance,
United Kingdom Department for International Development, Eleanor Briggs,
Habitat Hotels, Humanscale, the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur
Foundation, the McKnight Foundation, Japanese International Cooperation
Agency, the Liz Claiborne and Art Ortenberg Foundation, New Zealand Aid,
Panthera, the East Asia and Pacific Environmental Initiative - an initiative of
the US Agency for International Development, US Fish and Wildlife Service,
WWF-US, WWF-Netherlands, and WWF-Sweden. Hugh Wright, Simon
Mahood, Rob Timmins and two reviewers, Hugo Rainey and Colin Poole,
provided valuable comments on the manuscript. Ly Bora provided technical
assistance.
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M., Pollard, E. H. B„ Men S. & Walston, J. (2012) Identify conservation
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236-239.
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davisoni population size and the impending threat of habitat
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Thomas N. E. GRAY, WWF Greater Mekong - Cambodia Country
Programme, #21, Street 322, Sangkat Boeun keng Kang 1,
Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Email: tomnegray@hotmail.com
Edward H. B. POLLARD & Thomas D. EVANS, Wildlife
Conservation Society Global Conservation Program, Bronx, New
York, USA.
Email: ehbpollard@gmail.com & tevans@wcs.org
Frederic GOES, Palmente, 20129 Bastelicaccia, France.
Email:! redbaksey@yahoo.com
Mark GRINDLEY, People Resources and Conservation
Foundation, Chiang Mai, Thailand.
Email: markgrindley@gmail.com
KEOOmaliss, Department of Wildlife and Biodiversity, Forestry
Administration, Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries,
40 Norodom Blvd, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Email: omaliss@gmail.com
Paul FI. NIELSEN ORN Sambovannak & SANFI Sophoan, Sam
Veasna Centre, Siem Reap, Cambodia
PFIAN Channa, Department of Wildlife and National Parks,
Ministry of Environment, 48 Samdech Preah Sihanouk, Phnom
Penh, Cambodia
Forktail 30(2014)
Birds of Mondulkiri, Cambodia: distribution, status and conservation
75
Appendix 1 . Data sources and estimated extent of ornithological coverage for areas covered in the study.
Seima Protected Forest
Key data sources: Walston etal. (2001 ), Goes & Davidson (2002), Bird etal. (2006), WCS/FA (2006),Claassen & Ou (2007), Claassen (2008), Evans & Goes (2010 201 1 ) Other data sources site records database
including peafowl quantitative survey data and numerous tourist and visitor trip reports (held on file by WCS/FA), EHBP & TDE unpubl. records.
Ornithological coverage: locally high, almost entirely in dry season. Major initial survey around headquarters and accessible areas of the southern core area 2000; same area often visited for shorter periods
2001-2012; intensive part surveys of the western buffer and adjacent core area in 2006. Very little coverage of central and northern core area, valleys closest to Vietnam, areas above 600 m or eastern buffer zone.
Snoul Wildlife Sanctuary
Key data sources: Walston etal. (2001 ). Other data sources incidental records by people using National Route 76.
Ornithological coverage very brief, localised and out of date.
Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary
Key data sourcesJimmins & Ou (2001),Claassen&Ou (2007), Evans & Goes (20102011), Phan etal. (2010), Clements etal. (2012). Other data sources: site camera-trap records database and vulture and
White-shouldered Ibis monitoring results.TNEG unpubl. records.
Ornithological coverage: limited and localised with rapid targeted surveys in 2000 (throughout) and in 2006 (south-west). Additional limited coverage (2008-201 1 ), almost entirely during the dry season, of
areas in east and south-east particularly semi-evergreen forest. Monitoring of vultures since 2005 and White-shouldered Ibis since 2012.
Mondulkiri Protected Forest
Key data sources:Timmins& Men (1998), Longer al. (2000), Barzen (2004), Evans & Goes (2010—2011), Phan ef cz/. (2010), Wright (2010). Other data sources: site camera-trap records database and vulture
monitoring results.TNEG & PHN unpubl. records.
Ornithological coverage \oca\\y high in east of core area beside Srepok River and in west of protected area with numerous dry-season visits (2008-2011). Very limited coverage of extensive areas of deciduous
dipterocarp forest east and north of the Srepok river and riverine forest along major tributaries of the Srepok. Monitoring of vultures since 2005.
Lumphat Wildlife Sanctuary
Key data sources:Timmins&Men (1998), Barzen (2004), Evans & Goes (2010-2011), Sum era/. (2011), Clements etal. (2012), Wright etal. (2012).
Ornithological coverage.my limited with a number of brief visits to some areas. However, monitoring and nest protection work for ibis and vultures, including restaurants and roost counts, since 2009 and
2005 respectively.
Phnom Nam Lyr Wildlife Sanctuary
Key data sources Brickie etal. (1998), Duckworth & Hedges (1998)
Ornithological coverage very brief, localised and out of date.
OYa Dao Protected Forest
Key data sources: Barzen (2004)
Ornithological coverage: none apart from aerial survey in 2001 (Barzen 2004).
Sen Monorom plateau (outside protected area network)
Key data sources: Brickie et al. ( 1 998), Duckworth & Hedges (1998), Evans & Goes (2010-201 1 ),TNEG, PHN, OS, SS & TDE unpubl. records.
Ornithological coverage relatively frequent during dry season in 2-3 patches of remnant evergreen hill forest >600 m close to Sen Monorom town and in Dak Dam district (2009-201 1 ). Elsewhere extremely
limited/no coverage.
Appendix 2. Birds recorded from the Mondulkiri study area.
CR = Critically Endangered: EN = Endangered VU = Vulnerable: NT = Near Threatened: RR = restricted-range: A = Indochinese Moist Tropical
Forest Biome: B = Indo-Malayan Tropical Dry Zone Biome: C = Sino-Himalayan Subtropical Forest Biome. SPF = Seima Protected Forest: MPF =
Mondulkiri Protected Forest: PPWS = Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary: SMP = Sen Monorom plateau: LWS = Lumphat Wildlife Sanctuary.
Species
Biome
restricted SPF MPF PPWS SMP LWS Species
Biome
restricted SPF MPF PPWS SMP LWS
Chinese Francolin Francolinus pintadeanus
B I u e Q u a i I Cot u mix chinensis
Orange-necked Partridge Arborophila davidi (NT/RR)
Scaly-breasted Partridge Arborophila charltonii A
Red Junglefowl Callus gallus
Siamese Fireback Lophura diardi A
Germain's Peacock Pheasant Polyplectron germaini (NT/RR)
Green Peafowl Pavo muticus (EN) B
Lesser Whistling-duck Dendrocygna javanica
White-winged Duck Cairina scutulata (EN)
Cotton Pygmy-goose Nettapus coromandelianus
Spot-billed Duck Anas poecilorhyncha
Small Buttonquail Turnixsylvatica
Yellow-legged Buttonquail Turnixtanki
Barred Buttonquail Turnixsuscitator
Speckled Piculet Picumnus innominatus
White-browed Piculet 5c7s/c7 ochracea
Grey-capped Pygmy Woodpecker Dendrocopos canicapillus
Fulvous-breasted Woodpecker Dendrocopos macei
Yellow-crowned Woodpecker Dendrocopos mahrattensis B
Rufous-bellied Woodpecker Dendrocopos hyperythrus
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Rufous Woodpecker Celeus brachyurus
White-bellied Woodpecker Dryocopus javensis
Lesser Yellownape Picus chlorolophus
Greater Yellownape Picus flavinucha
Laced Woodpecker Picus vittatus
Streak-throated Woodpecker Picus xanthopygaeus
Black-headed Woodpecker Picus erythropygius
Grey-headed Woodpecker Picus canus
Common Flameback Dinopium javanense
Greater Flameback Chrysocolaptesguttacristatus
Pale-headed Woodpecker Cecinulus grantia
Bay Woodpecker Blythipicus pyrrhotis
Black-and-buff Woodpecker Meiglyptesjugularis
Heart-spotted Woodpecker Hemicircus canente
Great Slaty Woodpecker Mulleripicus pulverulentus ( VU)
Red-vented Barbet Megalaimalagrandieri
Lineated Barbet Megalaima lineata
Green-eared Barbet Megalaima faiostricta
Black-browed Barbet Megalaima oorti
Blue-eared Barbet Megalaima australis
Coppersmith Barbet Megalaima haemacephala
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Forktail 30 (2014)
Species
Biome
restricted SPF MPF PPWS SMP LWS Species
Biome
restricted SPF MPF PPWS SMP LWS
Oriental Pied Hornbill Anthracoceros albirostris
Great Hornbill Buceros bicornis (NT)
Wreathed Hornbill Aceros undulatus
Common Hoopoe Upupa epops
Orange- breasted Trogon Harpactes oreskios
Red-headed Trogon Harpactes erythrocephalus
Indian Roller Coraciasbenghalensis
Asian Dollarbird Eurystomus orientalis
Common Kingfisher Alcedo atthis
Blue-eared Kingfisher Alcedo meninting
Banded Kingfisher Lacedo pulchella
Stork-billed Kingfisher Halcyon capensis
White-throated Kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis
Black-capped Kingfisher Halcyon pileata
Blue-bearded Bee-eater Nyctyornisathertoni
Green Bee-eater Merops orientalis
Blue-throated Bee-eater viridis
Blue-tailed Bee-eater Merops philippinus
Chestnut-headed Bee-eater Merops leschenaulti
Chestnut-winged Cuckoo Clamatorcoromandus
Large Hawk Cuckoo Hierococcyx sparverioides
Hodgson's Hawk Cuckoo Hierococcyx fugax
Indian Cuckoo Cuculusmicropterus
Oriental Cuckoo Cuculussaturatus
Banded Bay Cuckoo Cacomantissonneratii
Plaintive Cuckoo Cacomantis merulinus
Violet Cuckoo Chrysococcyxxanthorhynchus
Drongo Cuckoo Surniculus lugubris
Asian Koel Eudynamysscolopacea
Green-billed Malkoha Phaenicophaeustristis
Greater Coucal Centropus sinensis
Lesser Coucal Centropus bengalensis
Vernal Hanging Parrot Loriculus vernalis
Alexandrine Parakeet Psittacula eupatria (NT)
Grey-headed Parakeet Psittacula finschii (NT)
Blossom-headed Parakeet Psittacula roseata (NT)
Red-breasted Parakeet Psittacula alexandri (NT)
White-throated Needletail Hirundapuscaudacutus
Brown-backed Needletail Hirundapusgiganteus
Silver-backed Needletail Hirundapuscochinchinensis
Asian Palm Swift Cypsiurus balasiensis
Fork-tailed Swift Apus pacificus
Crested Treeswift Hemiprocne coronata
Oriental Bay Owl Phodilus badius
Mountain Scops Owl Otusspilocephalus
Oriental Scops Owl Otussunia
Collared Scops Owl Otus bakkamoena
Spot-bellied Eagle Owl Bubo nipalensis
Brown Fish Owl Ketupa zeylonensis
Collared Owlet Glaucidium brodiei
Asian Barred Owlet Glaucidium cuculoides
Spotted Owlet Athene brama
Brown Hawk Owl Ninox scutulata
Javan Frogmouth Batrachostomusjavensis
Great Eared Nightjar Eurostopodus macrotis
Large-tailed Nightjar Caprimulgusmacrurus
Indian Nightjar Caprimulgus asiaticus
Savanna Nightjar Caprimulgus affinis
Pale-capped Pigeon Columba punicea (VU)
Oriental Turtle Dove Streptopelia orientalis
Spotted Dove Streptopelia chinensis
Red Collared Dove Streptopelia tranquebarica
Barred Cuckoo Dove Macropygia unchall
Emerald Dove Chalcophaps indica
Pink-necked Green Pigeon Treron vernans
Orange-breasted Green Pigeon Treron bicincta
Ashy-headed Green Pigeon Treron phayrei (NT)
Thick-billed Green Pigeon Treron curvirostra
Yellow-footed Green Pigeon Treron phoenicoptera
Pin-tailed Green Pigeon Treron apicauda
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
X
X
X
X
X
X
C x
B x
X
X
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X
X
X
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X
X
X
X
X
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X
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X
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B x
X
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B X
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X X
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X X
X X
X X
X X
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X X
X X
X X
X
X X
X
X X
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X
X X
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X X
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X X
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X X
X X
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X
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Green Imperial Pigeon Duculaaenea
Mountain Imperial Pigeon Duculabadia
Sarus Crane Grus antigone (VU)
Masked Finfoot Heliopaispersonata (EN)
Slaty-breasted Rail Gallirallusstriatus
White-breasted Waterhen Amaurornisphoenicurus
Ruddy-breasted Crake Porzana fusca
Common Moorhen Gallinulachloropus
Purple Swamphen Porphyrioporphyrio
Watercock Gallicrexcinerea
Pintail Snipe Gallinagostenura
Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos
Common Greenshank Tringanebularia
Green Sandpiper Tringa ochropus
Red-necked Phalarope Phalaropuslobatus
Pheasant-tailed Jacana Hydrophasianuschirurgus
Bronze-winged Jacana Metopidius indicus
Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus
Eurasian Thick-knee Burhinus oedicnemus
Red-wattled Lapwing Vanellus indicus
Oriental Pratincole Glareolamaldivarum
Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybridus
Osprey Pandion haliaetus
Japanese Buzzard Buteo japonica
Pied Harrier Circus melanoleucos
Jerdon's Baza Avicedajerdoni
Black Baza Aviceda leuphotes
Booted Eagle Hieraatus fasciatus
Oriental Honey Buzzard Pernisptilorhynchus
Black-shouldered Kite Elanus caeruleus
Brahminy Kite Haliasturindus
Grey-headed Fish Eagle Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus (NT)
Lesser Fish Eagle Ichthyophaga humilis (NT)
Slender-billed Vulture Gyps tenuirostris (CR)
White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis (CR)
Red-headed Vulture Sarcogyps calvus (CR)
Crested Serpent Eagle Spilornis cheela
Crested Goshawk Accipitertrivirgatus
Shikra Accipiter badius
Japanese Sparrowhawk Accipiter gularis
Besra Accipiter virgatus
Rufous-winged Buzzard Butasturliventer
Grey-faced Buzzard Butastur indicus
Rufous-bellied Eagle Hieraaetus kienerii
Black Eagle Ictinaetus malayensis
Changeable Hawk Eagle Spizaetus cirrhatus
Mountain Hawk Eagle Spizaetus nipalensis
Common Kestrel Falco tinnunculus
White-rumped Falcon Polihieraxinsignis (NT)
Collared Falconet Microhierax caerulescens
Oriental Hobby Falco sever us
Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis
Oriental Darter Anhinga melanogaster (NT)
Little Cormorant Phalacrocoraxniger
Little Egret Egretta garzetta
Grey Heron Ardea cinerea
Purple Heron Ardea purpurea
Great Egret Casmerodius albus
Intermediate Egret Mesophoyx intermedia
Cattle Egret Bubulcusibis
Chinese Pond Heron Ardeola bacchus
Little Heron Butorides striatus
Black-crowned Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax
Malayan Night Heron Gorsachiusmelanolophus
Cinnamon Bittern Ixobrychuscinnamomeus
White-shouldered Ibis Pseudibis davisoni (CR)
Giant Ibis Thaumatibis gigantea (CR)
Asian Openbill Anastomusoscitans
Asian Woollyneck Ciconia episcopus (VU)
Black-necked Stork Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus (NT)
A
B
B
B
B
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Forktail 30 (2014)
Birds of Mondulkiri, Cambodia: distribution, status and conservation
77
Species
Biome Biome
restricted SPF MPF PPWS SMP LWS Species restricted SPF MPF PPWS SMP LWS
Lesser Adjutant Leptoptilos javanicus (VU)
Blue-rumped Pitta Pitta soror
Blue Pitta Pitta cyanea
Bar-bellied Pitta Pitta elliotii
Hooded Pitta Pitta sordida
Blue-winged Pitta Pitta moluccensis
Dusky Broadbill Corydon sumatranus
Black-and-red Broadbill Cymbirhynchus macrorhynchos
Banded Broadbill Eurylaimusjavanicus
Silver-breasted Broadbill Serilophuslunatus
Long-tailed Broadbill Psarisomusdalhousiae
Asian Fairy Bluebird Irena puella
Blue-winged Leafbird Chloropsiscochinchinensis
Golden-fronted Leafbird Chloropsisaurifrons
Brown Shrike Lanius cristatus
Burmese Shrike Lanius collurioides
Long-tailed Shrike Lanius schach
Eurasian Jay Carrulusglandarius
Red-billed Blue Magpie Urocissa erythrorhyncha
Indochinese Green Magpie Cissa hypoleuca
Rufous Treepie Dendrocitta vagabunda
Racket-tailed Treepie Crypsirina temia
Ratchet-tailed Treepie Temnurus temnurus
Large-billed Crow Corvus macrorhynchos
Ashy Woodswallow Artamus fuscus
Black-naped Oriole Orioluschinensis
Black-hooded Oriole Oriolusxanthornus
Maroon Oriole Oriolus traillii
Large Cuckooshrike Coracina macei
Indochinese Cuckooshrike Coracina polioptera
Black-winged Cuckooshrike Coracina melaschistos
Swinhoe's Minivet Pericrocotus cantonensis
Ashy Minivet Pericrocotus divaricatus
Grey-chinned Minivet Pericrocotus Solaris
Small Minivet Pericrocotus cinnamomeus
Scarlet Minivet Pericrocotus flammeus
Bar-winged Flycatcher-shrike Hemipuspicatus
White-throated Fantail Rhipidura albicollis
White-browed Fantail Rhipidura aureola
Pied Fantail Rhipidura javanica
Black Drongo Dicrurus macrocercus
Ashy Drongo Dicrurus leucophaeus
Bronzed Drongo Dicrurus aeneus
Lesser Racket-tailed Drongo Dicrurus remifer
Spangled Drongo Dicrurus hottentottus
Greater Racket-tailed Drongo Dicrurus paradiseus
Black-naped Monarch Hypothymisazurea
Asian Paradise-flycatcher Terpsiphoneparadisi
Common I ora Aegithina tiphia
Great lora Aegithina lafresnayei
Large Woodshrike Tephrodornis gularis
Common Woodshrike Tephrodornis pondicerianus
White-throated Rock Thrush Monticola gulafis
Blue Rock Thrush Monticola solitarius
Blue Whistling Thrush Myophonus caeruleus
Orange-headed Thrush Zoothera citrina
Scaly Thrush Zoothera dauma
Eyebrowed Thrush Turdusobscurus
Dark-sided Flycatcher Muscicapa sibirica
Asian Brown Flycatcher Muscicapa dauurica
Mugimaki Flycatcher Ficedula mugimaki
Red-throated Flycatcher Ficedula parva
Rufous-browed Flycatcher Ficedula solitaris
Blue-and-white Flycatcher Cyanoptila cyanomelana
Verditer Flycatcher Fumyias thalassina
Hainan Blue Flycatcher Cyornis hainanus
Blue-throated Flycatcher Cyornis rubeculoides
Tickell's Blue Flycatcher Cyornis Mediae
Grey-headed Canary Flycatcher Culicicapa ceylonensis
Siberian Rubythroat Luscinia calliope
C
A
A
A
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B
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Bluethroat Luscinia svecica
Siberian Blue Robin Luscinia cyane
Oriental Magpie Robin Copsychussaularis
White-rumped Shama Copsychusmalabaricus
Slaty-backed Forktail Fnicurusschistaceus
Common Stonechat Saxicola torquata
Pied Bushchat Saxicola caprata
Grey Bushchat Saxicola ferrea
Chestnut-tailed Starling Sturnusmalabaricus
Black-collared Starling Sturnusnigricollis
Vinous-breasted Starling Sturnusburmannicus
Asian Pied Starling Sturnus contra
Common Myna Acridotheres tristis
White-vented Myna Acridotheres cinereus
Golden-crested Myna Ampeliceps coronatus
Hill Myna Cracula religiosa
Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch Sitta castanea
Velvet-fronted Nuthatch Sitta frontalis
Great Tit Pa rus major
Black-throated Tit Aegithalos concinnus
Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica
Red-Rumped Swallow Hirundo daurica
Striated Swallow Hirundo striolata
Asian House Martin Delichon dasypus
Black-headed Bulbul Pycnonotus atriceps
Black-crested Bulbul Pycnonotus melanicterus
Red-whiskered Bulbul Pycnonotusjocosus
Sooty-headed Bulbul Pycnonotus aurigaster
Stripe-throated Bulbul Pycnonotus finlaysoni
Yellow-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus goiavier
Streak-eared Bulbul Pycnonotus blanfordi
Puff-throated Bulbul Alophoixuspallidus
Grey-eyed Bulbul lolepropinqua
Ashy Bulbul Hemixos flavala
Black Bulbul Hypsipetes leucocephalus
Zitting Cisticola Cisticolajuncidis
Bright-headed Cisticola Cisticola exilis
Brown Prinia Priniapolychroa
Rufescent Prinia Prinia rufescens
Grey-breasted Prinia Prinia hodgsonii
Yellow-bellied Prinia Prinia flaviventris
Plain Prinia Prinia inornata
Chestnut-flanked White-eye Zosterops erythropleurus
Oriental White-eye Zosterops palpebrosus
Lanceolated Warbler Locustella lanceolata
Rusty-rum ped Warbler Locustella certhiola
Blunt-winged Warbler Acrocephalus concinens
Manchurian Reed Warbler Acrocephalus tangorum (VU)
Oriental Reed Warbler Acrocephalus orientalis
Thick-billed Warbler Acrocephalus aedon
Common Tailorbird Orthotomussutorius
Dark-necked Tailorbird Orthotomusatrogularis
Dusky Warbler Phylloscopus fuscatus
Radde's Warbler Phylloscopus schwarzi
Yellow-browed Warbler Phylloscopus inornatus
Two-barred Greenish Warbler Phylloscopus trochiloides
Arctic Warbler Phylloscopus borealis
Pale-legged Leaf Warbler Phylloscopus tenellipes
Eastern Crowned Warbler Phylloscopus coronatus
Plain-tailed Warbler Seicercus soror
Yellow-bellied Warbler Abroscopus superciliaris
White-crested Laughingthrush Garrulaxleucolophus
Lesser Necklaced Laughingthrush Carrulaxmonileger
Black-throated Laughingthrush Carrulaxchinensis
White-cheeked Laughingthrush Carrulaxvassali (RR)
Abbott's Babbler Malacocincla abbotti
Collared Babbler Campsorhynchus torquatus
Buff-breasted Babbler Pellorneum tickelli
Spot-throated Babbler Pellorneum albiventre
Puff-throated Babbler Pellorneum ruficeps
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78
THOMAS N. E. GRAY etal.
Forktail 30 (2014)
Species
Biome
restricted SPF MPF PPWS SMP LWS Species
Biome
restricted SPF MPF PPWS SMP LWS
Scaly-crowned Babbler Malacopteron cinereum
Large Scimitar Babbler Pomatorhinus hypoleucos
White-browed Scimitar Babbler Pomatorhinus schistkeps
Striped Tit Babbler Macronous gularis
Grey-faced Tit Babbler Macronous kelleyi (RR)
Chestnut-capped Babbler Timaliapileata
Yellow-eyed Babbler Chrysommasinense
Silver-eared Mesia Leiothrix argentauris
White-browed Shrike Babbler Pteruthiusflaviscapis
Chestnut-fronted Shrike Babbler Pteruthius aenobarbus
Blue-winged Minla Minla cyanouroptera C
Black-browed Fulvetta Alcippegrotei
Mountain Fulvetta Alcippe peracensis C
Black-chinned Yuhina Yuhinanigrimenta C
White-bellied Yuhina Yuhina zantholeuca
Black-headed Parrotbill Paradoxornismargaritae (NT/RR)
Australasian Bushlark Mirafrajavanica
Indochinese Bushlark Mirafra erythrocephala B
Oriental Skylark Alauda gulgula
Thick-billed Flowerpecker Dicaeum agile
Yellow-vented Flowerpecker Dicaeum chrysorrheum
Plain Flowerpecker Dicaeum concolor
Fire-breasted Flowerpecker Dicaeum ignipectus
Scarlet-backed Flowerpecker Dicaeum cruentatum
Brown-throated Sunbird Anthreptesmalacensis
Ruby-cheeked Sunbird Anthreptessingalensis
x x
x
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Purple-naped Sunbird Hypogramma hypogrammicum
Purple-throated Sunbird Nectarinia sperata
Olive-backed Sunbird Nectariniajugularis
Purple Sunbird Nectarinia asiatica
Black-throated Sunbird Aethopyga saturata
Crimson Sunbird Aethopyga si pa raja
Little Spiderhunter/lrac/wof/jera longirostra
Streaked Spiderhunter Arachnothera magna
Eurasian Tree Sparrow Passer montanus
Plain-backed Sparrow Passer flaveolus
Forest Wagtail Dendronanthus indicus
Mekong Wagtail Motacilla samveasnae (NT/RR)
White Wagtail Motacilla alba
Citrine Wagtail Motacilla citreola
Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava
Grey Wagtail Motacilla cinerea
Richard's Pipit Anthus richardi
Paddyfield Pipit Anthus rufulus
Olive-backed Pipit Anthus hodgsoni
Streaked Weaver Ploceus manyar
Baya Weaver Ploceus philippinus
Asian Golden Weaver Ploceus hypoxanthus (NT)
Pin-tailed Parrotfinch Erythrura prasina
White-rumped Munia Lonchura striata
Scaly-breasted Munia Lonchura punctulata
Yellow-breasted Bunting Emberiza aureola (VU)
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FORKTAIL 30 (2014): 79-83
Status and roosting characteristics of
Collared Crow Corvus torquatus at the
Mai Po Nature Reserve, Hong Kong
DAVID J. STANTON, BENA R. SMITH & KATHERINE K. S. LEUNG
For unknown reasons, the number of Collared Crow Corvus torquatus communally roosting at Mai Po Nature Reserve has steadily increased
between 2004 and 2013, and are higher in summer than the preceding winter. The Deep Bay population appears to be isolated and there is
no evidence of recruitment locally or the population being supplemented by northern migrants in winter. Collared Crows form large pre¬
roost gatherings in several locations close to the final roost. When they depart to roost after sunset, they do so as a single species flock,
showing a preference for dense stands of mangrove trees, probably Kandelia obovata, in the intertidal mangal (mangrove zone) as their
final roost location. The majority of birds arrive from habitats to the south of the reserve, suggesting that the local population in Deep Bay
is not homogeneous throughout the contiguous network of commercial fishponds. Fishponds are being ecologically degraded or lost over
much of the Collared Crow's range, a result of development and agricultural intensification. Given the paucity of information about this
species in most of its range, and that it is suspected to be in global decline, the Mai Po Nature Reserve and its environs are clearly an
important site for this Near Threatened species.
INTRODUCTION
Collared Crow Corvus torquatus is a near-endemic to China, being
resident in the south and east, reaching southern Hebei in the north¬
east, Gansu in the west and Yunnan and Hainan in the south-west
(Cheng 1987, BirdLife International 2014). Its range extends to
north Vietnam, and it is a vagrant to Taiwan (Brazil 2009, BirdLife
International 2014). It is an uncommon and localised resident in
the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (Hong Kong),
frequently encountered in the Deep Bay area (Carey et al. 2001).
The global population of the species is in decline (BirdLife
International 2014), with a range contraction being reported by
birdwatchers and field researchers across China (DJS pers. obs.).
Loss of food supply owing to agricultural intensification and an
associated overuse of pesticide are considered the major factors,
although human persecution in some areas also occurs (dos Anjos
et al. 2009, BirdLife International 2014). In recognition ofreported
population declines, a Near Threatened global status was assigned
to Collared Crow in 2008 (BirdLife International 2014). In
contrast to the global trend there appears to be a secure population
in Hong Kong (Kilburn 2009), with an estimated 200 birds in 2007
(BirdLife International 2014).
Status in Hong Kong
Deep Bay, an eastern branch of the Pearl River estuary located at
the north-west of Hong Kong (22.485°N 1 14.035°E), is the major
area for Collared Crows (Carey et al. 2001, WWF-HK 2009a, b).
During the day, this population disperses as individuals or small
foraging groups throughout the area, with highest concentrations
seen feeding on bunds within commercially managed fish ponds.
Nearby, on the northern shoreline adjacent to the city of Shenzhen
(22.518°N 1 14. 002°E; Figure 1), the species is rarely recorded and
occurs generally singly (J. Martinez verbally).
Away from Deep Bay, the other main area for the species is
Shuen Wan near Tolo Harbour, north-east Hong Kong (22.452°N
1 14.201°E), with a maximum count of 7 1 pre-roosting birds in April
2011 (HKBWS 2013). Outside these areas, observations of
Collared Crow typically involve no more than five birds. On Po
Toi Island (22.167°N 114.252°E), a regularly watched site in
southern Hong Kong, there is only a single record (G. Welch
verbally). The species disappeared from a cluster of former haunts
on Lantau Island following construction of Hong Kong
International Airport (22.301°N 1 13.917°E) (Carey 2009).
Study area
The study area is the Mai Po Nature Reserve (hereafter Mai Po), a
377 ha wetland located in the Mai Po Inner Deep Bay Ramsar Site
(22.485°N 114.035°E) (Figure 1).
The interior of Mai Po is a mix of impounded brackish ponds
(including traditionally managed shrimp ponds — locally called^?/
wai — and shallow water ponds with islands) and rain-fed ponds/
marshes. The major vegetation types are mangal, composed
predominantly of Kandelia obovata, and reedbed dominated by
common reedgrass Pbragmites australis. Open water covers 50.3%
of the area (WWF-HK 2013).
Earth embankments (or bunds) between ponds and gei wai are
typically lined with individual or small clusters of trees composed
of chinaberry Melia azedarach , elephant’s ear Macaranga tanarius ,
Chinese tallow tree Sapium sebiferum and several standing snags
(dead trees), although recently disturbed areas are either bare
ground or short grass, interspersed with snags.
The western part of Mai Po is a strip of mature intertidal mangal
500 1,000 m wide (Figure 3). Dominant species include K. obovata,
spiny bears breeches Acanthus ilicifolius,Aegiceras comiculatum and
black mangrove Avicennia marina (WWF-HK 2013). A 3-m high
immigration fence, constructed in the early 1960s between the
impounded ponds and the intertidal mangal, controls human access
to the intertidal area.
Figure 1 . Map of Deep Bay showing the location of the study area.
80
DAVID J. STANTON, BENA SMITH AND KATHERINE K.S. LEUNG
Forktail 30 (2014)
Pre-roost and roost behaviour
Communal roosting by corvids is well documented (Cramp &
Simmons 1977, Francis 1998, Everding& Jones 2004, dos Anjos e/
al. 2009, Seng 2009) and although it has been reported for Collared
Crow (Carey etal. 200 1 , Wong & Young 2009, WWF-HK 2009a, b,
2011, 2013), we expand further here on a locally well-known
Collared Crow roost.
The benefits of communal roosting are well described and
include a decrease in the chance of predator approach going
unobserved, some physical protection against adverse weather, the
facilitation of the meeting and pairing of unrelated individuals and
probably maximising the chances of finding rewarding food sites
the next day (Moore & Switzer 1998, Dali 2002, dos Anjos et al.
2009). These ‘information centres’ have previously been attributed
to both roost sites and breeding colonies (Zahavi 1971, Ward &
Zahavi 1973, Sonerud et al. 2001, Wright et al. 2003, dos Anjos et
al. 2009). It has been suggested that young corvids tend to follow
older individuals and recruitment to the communal roost is
common (dos Anjos et al. 2009).
Prior to roosting, many corvids often congregate at locations
away from the final roost site, forming what is known as a pre-roost
(Moore & Switzer 1998, Hansen et al. 2000, Everding & Jones
2004). These pre-roost gatherings have rarely been studied and their
function is poorly understood; it has been suggested that pre-roost
gatherings of corvids are not simply a consequence of many
individuals approaching the same roost area but, like communal
roosting, have a particular function (Moore & Switzer 1998,
Hansen et al. 2000, Winiecki 2000).
Study objectives
The core part of this study was to look at the long-term population
trend of Collared Crows roosting at Mai Po and to form a
preliminary assessment of their roosting characteristics. This serves
to build up the knowledge base to aid the conservation of this
species elsewhere in its range and to generate information for
management decisions at Mai Po.
Pre-roost and roost counts were considered the most
appropriate way of gathering data to meet the study objectives. This
paper does not attempt to explain the purpose of pre-roost or roost
gatherings.
METHODS
Roost counts and observations
Counts and determination of both pre-roost and final roost
locations commenced at least 60 minutes before sunset (as recorded
by Hong Kong Observatory) and continued until birds had settled
at the final roost site in Mai Po or light conditions inhibited
counting. Following sunset, twilight provides between 20-
50 minutes for observations, and in most cases crows would depart
to roost within this time period.
A single observation point within an 800 m radius of the final
roost was used during each survey; the position of this point was
dependent on the location of the pre-roost site and a certain amount
of flexibility was necessary throughout the counts. Observations
were made with binoculars and naked eye. All birds seen arriving
at the pre-roost location were counted and field notes kept of arrival
direction (simply as the lour cardinal points of the compass), local
movements, habitat use, any noteworthy behaviour and association
with other corvid species. A maximum count was derived from each
survey sample; this was usually when birds finally departed to roost.
However, when a final roost count could not be made, the
maximum count irom the survey was taken based on experience of
pre-roost behaviour and confidence that the maximum count had
already been attained. Counts were conducted seasonally between
December 2004 and August 2013; four every winter (between
December and February) and four every summer (between July and
August), each count being approximately two weeks apart.
The final roost was determined to be the location where the
birds that had departed irom the pre-roost locations settled as a
larger flock and ceased movements completely for the overnight
roost. Pre-roost locations were deemed to be those areas where birds
congregated in the 60-minute period prior to the final roost. Birds
may be mobile at these pre-roost locations, but generally form a
loose congregation whilst feeding or interacting with other
individuals.
RESULTS
A total of 71 counts between December 2004 and August 2013
(one count in July 2005 was cancelled due to bad weather) recorded
a maximum of 167 birds (18 July 2013) and a minimum of 31 birds
(3 February 2005). During each survey, when roosting was
recorded, there was only one final communal Collared Crow roost
at Mai Po.
Total numbers roosting in both winter and summer periods
increased over the eight-year study period at average annual rates
of +9.6 and +8.6 individuals respectively. Winter mean count was
60.1 ± 22.2 birds (range 30-118, n = 36) and summer mean
count was 100.0 ± 30.2 birds (range 32-167, n = 35). Differences
between the winter and summer numbers were significant (one¬
way ANOVAr/./. = l,p<0.001) (Figure 2).
Figure 2 Maximum counts of
Collared Crows roosting at Mai Po in
summer and winter between 2004
and 2013.
Forktail 30 (2014)
Collared Crow Corvus torquatus at the Mai Po Nature Reserve, Hong Kong
81
Pre-roost gathering and communal roosting
Individuals were often present at regular pre-roost locations before
the start of the count. In the 60-minute period prior to sunset, pre¬
roosting birds arrived singly or in small groups of 2- 1 0 birds. Birds
typically congregated at the southern and south-western parts of
Mai Po (Figure 3) and were observed both loafing and foraging on
bunds or islands, or perched on snags or on branches of living trees
devoid of, or with limited, foliage. All the pre-roost locations were
within 150-950 m ol the final roost site. Birds generally departed
to the main night roost location as a single group led by several
individuals that flew above the congregation, cawing and circling
the pre-roost locations for several minutes. The lead birds would
then drop into the final roost, followed by the main group, and did
not re-emerge. Birds settled at the final roost on average 22.4 ±
9.3 minutes after sunset (range -6 to +45 minutes). Counts when
final roost time could not be determined are excluded.
The final roost was located inside the intertidal mangal (Plate
3), with exceptions on eight counts (11.3% of total) when birds
remained at the pre-roost locations and were not seen going into
roost within the survey period. Given the strong site fidelity of the
roosting crows for the intertidal mangrove zone, it is assumed on
these occasions that the population entered the roost sometime after
twilight. Whilst the final roost location within the wide belt of
intertidal mangal could not be determined with precision, the same
general area of dense mangal was utilised consistently (Figure 3).
Direction of arrival to pre-most locations
Birds not already at pre-roost locations 30 minutes prior to sunset
arrived either from the south (49.0% of the total number of birds)
or from areas to the north and east of the study area (40.4%).
Relatively few birds (10.6%) arrived from the west, i.e. over the
intertidal mangal. The state of tides was not recorded, but given
the low percentage of birds coming from the west tidal influence
was believed to be minimal.
Figure 3. Pre-roost and final roost locations of Collared Crows at Mai Po.
R = location of final roost; P = regular pre-roost locations; pond/ge/ wai
numbers shown.
N
Association with other corvids
On nine occasions, Large-billed Crow Corvus macrorybnchos and
House Crow C. splendens were recorded among pre-roosting
Collared Crows. These individuals left the pre-roost locations
earlier than the Collared Crow flock and in a different direction;
none was seen to join the Collared Crow roost. Up to 74 Eurasian
Magpie Pica pica roosted in a separate area of the intertidal mangal
(KKSL pers. obs.) and were regularly observed at the same pre¬
roost locations used by Collared Crows.
DISCUSSION
Overall numbers
At Mai Po, numbers of Collared Crows observed gathering and
going to roost within the intertidal mangal have steadily increased
over the eight-year study period, reaching high counts of 167 in
summer (2013) and 118 individuals in winter (2012/13).
Numbers were consistently higher in each summer period than
the preceding winter period; this is assumed to be due to the
recruitment of young birds following breeding success. Collared
Crows commence breeding in early February with a clutch size of
2-6 eggs; young fledge at the end of March (dos Anjos etal. 2009).
This corresponds to the winter/ summer pattern seen in the roosting
flock and perhaps the drop in winter numbers is a result of natural
mortality. However, given the similarities in plumage of different-
age birds and the varying light levels at survey times, it was difficult
to identify the age-class structure within these pre-roost gatherings.
Seasonal fluctuations in the number of individuals joining roosts
are usual amongst communally roosting corvids, increasing in early
summer and falling during autumn (dos Anjos et al. 2009).
Preliminary findings from a study in progress confirm that this
seasonal pattern is found in the Collared Crow roost at Mai Po.
The reason for this gradual population increase is not known.
To the authors’ knowledge there have been no significant changes
to the habitats of, or management strategies at, Mai Po, and no
apparent land use or habitat changes in the wider area during the
study period. Given that lower numbers are seen in winter, there is
no evidence to show that the winter population at Mai Po is
supplemented by a winter influx of northern birds withdrawing
southward to milder coastal areas of southern China, as reported
by dos Amjos etal. (2009). ha addition, our study in progress suggests
it is unlikely that there is recruitment locally from populations
outside Deep Bay. Further investigation is required to explain the
shift of the population away from a state of equilibrium, as
population density is determined by birth and death rates, and by
immigration and emigration rates.
Pre-roost gathering and communal roosting
Pre-roost gatherings typically formed in open areas, usually on bare
tree branches or snags but also on bare or sparsely vegetated islands
and bunds; all appeared to be conspicuous from the air. The trigger
for the final movement to roost is not known. Immediately prior
to roosting, birds became vocal with constant movements and
jostling by small groups between trees.
Birds departed to roost well after sunset, settling at the roost
on average 22.4 ± 9.3 minutes post-sunset. Variation in settling
times may be attributed to seasonality or local weather conditions.
In addition, other parameters that may influence timing of roosting
include the presence of security floodlights along the immigration
fence, which are switched on around dusk with no discernible
pattern, along with the periodic drain-down of ponds or gei wai,
allowing birds to forage later into the evening.
All surveys at Mai Po recorded Collared Crows pre-roosting
and roosting communally. Elsewhere in Hong Kong this species
only appears to roost communally in the Plover Cove area (Carey
500m
MARTIN HALE MARTIN HALE
82
DAVID J. STANTON, BENA SMITH AND KATHERINE K.S. LEUNG
Forktail 30(2014)
Plate 1 . Collared Crow Corvus torquatus gather at pre-roost on a snag
(dead tree), Mai Po Nature Reserve, Hong Kong, September 2013.
Plate 2, Collared Crow gather at pre-roost on a Melia azedarach, Mai
Po Nature Reserve, Hong Kong, September 201 3.
etal. 2001, HKBWS 2013). Observations in the wider environs of
Hong Kong reveal this species is present in lower densities (singles
or pairs) and it does not appear to roost communally as a single
flock.
The intertidal mangal in Deep Bay is well documented as a
favoured roost site for Collared Crows (WWF-HK 2009a, b, Wong
& Young 2009, WWF-HK 201 1,2013). This dense habitat type is
in decline in southern China (UNEP 2008) and globally (UNEP
20 1 0, AFCD 2011). The fact that Collared Crows choose to roost
within intertidal mangal as opposed to stands of terrestrial mature
trees which are present nearby, adds potential importance to the
conservation of mangal for this species. Investigation of other roost
sites is required.
The strip of mature intertidal mangal currently used by Collared
Crows is not considered to be under any immediate threat.
However, siltation (leading to colonisation by terrestrial climbing
plants), annual defoliation of A. marina by the larvae of the moth
Nephopterix syntaractis, and competition between native mangrove
trees and the recently introduced exotic mangrove species
Sonneratia caseolaris and S. apetala (AFCD 2011) could have
implications for the Deep Bay Collared Crow population.
Monitoring of these threats and their impact should be considered.
Direction of arrival to pre-roost locations
Birds tended to arrive at pre-roost gatherings from the south,
suggesting that the local population in Deep Bay is not
homogeneous throughout the wetlands. There are approximately
1 , 1 50 ha of fish pond habitat in Hong Kong (AFCD 20 1 3). A larger
area of suitable fish pond habitat is available to the north-east of
MaiPo (Figure 1), but a larger proportion of the population arrives
Plate 3. Intertidal mangal outside the immigration fence — the final
roost location of the Collared Crows, Mai Po Nature Reserve, Hong
Kong, December 2005.
from habitats in the south. It is not known why there should be
such a preference for the habitats to the south of the roost site given
the apparent similarities to other fish pond areas throughout the
Deep Bay area. Further investigation into why specific areas are
selected as foraging grounds is required.
Association with other corvids
Communal roosting involving different corvid species has been
described previously (Francis 1998, Wright et al. 2000, dos Anjos
etal. 2009) and Eurasian Magpies notably share pre-roost locations
with the Collared Crows at Mai Po. However none was recorded
going to the same final roost with the Collared Crows, indicating
that roosting in a single monospecific flock is preferable. A single
Collared Crow was observed at a pre-roost gathering of Large -billed
Crows in southern Hong Kong, and presumably roosted as part of
the flock (DJS pers. obs.).
Elsewhere in its range. Collared Crow is known to associate
with Large-billed Crow (dos Anjos et al. 2009). Qu et al. (2005)
described up to 20 Collared Crows roosting with other corvids over
six consecutive winters in Henan province, China. These were in
mixed flocks with Daurian Jackdaw C. danuricus ( 1 ,000+), Eurasian
Jackdaw C. monedula (500+), Rook C. frugilegus (4,000+) and
Large-billed Crow (5,000+); numbers in parentheses indicate the
maximum count over the study period, illustrating the low
proportion of Collared Crows in these roosting flocks.
CONCLUSION
Given the paucity of information on the Collared Crow in most of
its range (dos Anjos etal. 2009) and that it is believed to be in global
decline (Kilburn 2009, BirdLife International 2014), Mai Po and
its environs are clearly an important site for this Near Threatened
species. The increase in the local population at Mai Po is
encouraging, and it would appear the existing management and the
current site condition are favourable for roosting Collared Crows.
Further studies are required to establish the reasons behind the
continued population growth at Mai Po. Furthermore, it is hoped
that wider studies can be employed to reveal the factors affecting
the population status and dynamics elsewhere in the region.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Tommy K.C. Cheung and Roger H. Lee for their help in collecting
data and WWF-HK for usage of its' monitoring data and the Agriculture,
Fisheries and Conservation Department of Hong Kong Special Administrative
Region for its conservation work in the Ramsar site. Paul Leader provided
KATHERINE LEUNG
Forktail 30(2014)
Collared Crow Corvus torquatus at the Mai Po Nature Reserve, Hong Kong
83
exhaustive comments on earlier drafts which greatly improved this manuscript
and for which we are extremely grateful. We thank Martin Hale for allowing
us to use his images.
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Road, New Territories, Hong Kong. Email: kleung@wwf.org. hk
FORKTAIL 30 (2014): 84-89
A survey for Black-bellied Tern Sterna acuticauda
and other riverine birds on the Jamuna and Padma rivers
in Bangladesh
SAYAM U. CHOWDHURY, MOHAMMAD FOYSAL, JOHN SHARPE & OMAR SHAHADAT
Owing to disturbance, degradation and destruction of riverine habitats, the Black-bellied Tern Sterna acuticauda has become extremely
rare in Bangladesh. A casual sighting of a pair in breeding plumage on the Jamuna River in January 201 1 generated hope that the species
might still breed. This paper sets out the findings of surveys carried out between December 2011 and April 2012 to determine the current
status of the Black-bellied Tern and other riverine birds along the Jamuna and upper Padma rivers. Potentially suitable and undisturbed
sandbanks away from the main channels were identified from satellite images. In addition, more intensive searches were targeted on the
locations of recent and historical sightings of Black-bellied Tern. Semi-structured interviews were carried out with local fishermen and
villagers on the occurrence of Black-bellied Tern and potential threats to riverine birds such as hunting and egg collection. A total of 75
species of birds was recorded during the survey: 69 on the Jamuna and 49 on the Padma rivers. Although no evidence of continued breeding
(or even presence) of Black-bellied Tern was found, the extent of potentially suitable habitat suggests that its presence in small numbers
cannot be entirely ruled out. As a consequence a number of recommendations are made which if implemented would benefit not only
Black-bellied Tern but also the remaining riverine species in Bangladesh.
INTRODUCTION
Human impact on riverine biodiversity is more apparent in Asia
than any other part of the world. Flow regulation, construction of
large dams, flood control, over-harvesting of fish, pollution and
conversion of riverine wetlands to agriculture are common threats
to many Asian rivers (Dudgeon 2000, 2002). As a result of this
ongoing degradation of riverine ecosystems some taxa have been
gravely affected, especially riverine birds. Furthermore freshwater
turtles are highly endangered, and over-harvesting has severely
impacted fish — an effect that is exacerbated by pollution and flow
regulation (Dudgeon 2002). In the dynamics of erosion and
accretion in the rivers of Bangladesh, the sandbars emerging as
islands within the river channel, or as attached land to the
riverbanks, often create new opportunities to establish settlements
and pursue agricultural activities on them. Once vegetated, such
lands are commonly called chars in Bangladesh.
Bangladesh is a riverine country with numerous small rivers
throughout it and three major rivers: Padma, Meghna and Jamuna.
Like several other riverine species the Black-bellied Tern Sterna
acuticauda was once common along the large river systems of
Bangladesh including a now incredible record of 98 from Sirajganj
in 1995 (P. Thompson in litt.). However, owing to large-scale
destruction of riverine habitats throughout its range, the species
has become extremely rare in Bangladesh and elsewhere. It was
uplisted in 2012 from Near Threatened to Endangered due to a
rapid and continuous decline over the last three decades, leading it
to become almost extinct in a large part of its range. Loss of habitat
Table 1. Sites surveyed along Jamuna (J) and Padma (P) rivers.
through agricultural conversion, river flooding and unsustainable
development along large rivers, egg collection, disturbance and
reduction in food supplies as a result of overfishing are known
threats to this species (BirdLife International 2014a).
Although the Black-bellied Tern has a wide range, it is suspected
that the global population is perhaps considerably fewer than
10,000 mature individuals. The species is now almost extinct in
South-East Asia; very rare in southern China; fairly common in
north Sind and Punjab in Pakistan; locally fairly common, but with
evidence of local declines, in India; once locally fairly common but
now a maximum population of 20 estimated in 201 1 in Nepal; of
uncertain status in Myanmar with none recorded during recent
surveys; very rare and probably extinct as breeding species in
Thailand; very rarely recorded today in Laos, although large
numbers formerly bred along the Mekong channel; probably extinct
in Cambodia, although formerly fairly common along the Mekong;
probably extinct in V ietnam, although formerly recorded regularly
(BirdLife International 2014a).
Apparently the only known stronghold of this species is
National Chambal Sanctuary in India, but even here its status is
precarious with recent counts between 2003 and 2010 varying from
24 to 64 (Rahmani 2012). Thorough surveys are needed to
determine its current status and distribution in Bangladesh,
Myanmar, Nepal and South-East Asia.
An opportunistic sighting of a pair of Black-bellied Tern in
breedingplumageby A. B. M. S. Alam in January 201 1 on the banks
of the Jamuna River near Sariakandi, Bogra district, Bangladesh,
generated hope that the species might still breed on the remote
Forktail 30 (2014) A survey for Black-bellied Tern Sterna acuticauda on the Jamuna and Padma rivers in Bangladesh
85
sandbanks of the Jamuna and upper Padma river systems. This paper
sets out the findings of riverine bird surveys carried out in in these
areas between December 201 1 and April 2012. The objectives of
the survey were: (1) to determine the current status of the Black-
bellied Tern along the Jamuna and upper Padma rivers in
Bangladesh; (2) to identify nesting sites in Bangladesh (if any); (3)
to assess potential threats to the Black-bellied Tern; (4) to
recommend future conservation measures; and (5) to determine
the current status of other riverine birds along the Jamuna and upper
Padma rivers.
METHODS
Study area and survey techniques
The survey was conducted on the Jamuna and Padma rivers, the
two largest river systems in Bangladesh, between December 2011
and April 2012. The Black-bellied Tern was regularly sighted in
the 1990s along these two rivers (Sykes 2010). The Jamuna River is
the main channel of the Brahmaputra River when it flows south
out of India into Bangladesh; it is 205 km long, ending at Goalundo
Ghat where it joins the Padma River. Its width varies from 3 to 18
km, but the average is about 10 km. The Padma River is the
downstream section of the Ganga, 120 km long and 4 8 km wide
(Banglapedia 2006).
In the absence of a detailed habitat map of the rivers, specific
survey locations in the study area — potentially suitable and
undisturbed sandbanks and chars away from the main channels —
were identified from satellite images freely available from Google
Earth. In addition, more intensive searches for Black-bellied Tern
were targeted on the locations of recent and historical sightings.
A total of 302 km of waterways, 199 km on the Jamuna and
103 km on the Padma, was surveyed from a slowly moving motor-
boat. Additionally, undisturbed sandbars not entirely visible from
the boat were investigated on foot, and visits in December 2011,
and March April 2012 were made to sites such as Sirajganj and
Sariakandi on the Jamuna and Kushtia on the Padma where Sterna
sp. were seen recently or known historically. A minimum of three
observers undertook these surveys. While cruising the rivers,
surveyors observed each bank of the river, while another observed
facing forward to minimise counting and identification errors.
In addition, local fishermen and villagers were interviewed
about the occurrence of Black-bellied Tern and about potential
threats to riverine birds such as hunting and the collection of eggs.
RESULTS
Regrettably, the survey programme failed to find any trace of the
main target, the Black-bellied Tern, but a total of 75 species of birds
was recorded (Table 2) during the work, with 69 on the Jamuna
and 49 on the Padma rivers, of which 33 (44%) were residents and
42 (56%) were winter visitors. In the case of the Jamuna River, only
10% of the birds were categorised as common (encountered more
than 10 times in a visit) and on the Padma only 4%. Many of the
species were encountered less than five times during a visit.
Four species were recorded for the first time on the Padma and
Jamuna river systems: Common Shelduck Tadorna tadorna,
Falcated Duck Anasfalcata, Eastern Marsh Harrier Circus spilonotus
and Black-necked Grebe Podiceps nigricollis, although all have been
previously recorded during winter elsewhere in Bangladesh. Three
globally Vulnerable species, Asian Woollyneck Ciconia episcopus,
Indian Spotted Eagle Clanga hastata and Greater Spotted Eagle
Clanga clanga, and three Near Threatened species. Falcated Duck
Mareca falcata. River Lapwing Vanellus duvaucelii and River Tern
Sterna aurantia, were recorded during the survey.
Important species accounts
Black-bellied Tern Sterna acuticauda
Endangered. Despite the intensive searches the team failed to sight
any Black-bellied Terns. However, a group of fishermen claimed to
see nesting terns including the Black-bellied Tern (they were shown
photographs) near the Jamuna bridge at Sirajganj. None of the
Sterna sp. was recorded even after several visits to these sites. It is
perhaps unwise to conclude that Bangladesh no longer supports
the Black-bellied Tern given (a) that large stretches along the Jamuna
and Padma rivers still remain unsurveyed, and (b) the opportunistic
sighting of a pair of Black-bellied Tern in breeding plumage by
A. B. M. S. Alam in January 201 1 on the banks of the Jamuna River
near Sariakandi, Bogra district, which initiated these searches.
However, it is apparent that a sharp decline has taken place since
the 1990s and, if the species does still occur, the remaining
population must be very small. Further surveys are required to
ascertain accurately its status in Bangladesh.
Falcated Duck Mareca falcata
Near Threatened. One was seen in a mixed flock of wintering ducks
near Dhunat on 30 December 201 1 at Rajshahi, Jamuna River. It is
considered a rare winter visitor to Bangladesh and occurs mainly
in the freshwater wetlands of Barisal, Chittagong, Dhaka and Sylhet
divisions (Siddiqui etal. 2008). This is the first national record of
this species for the Jamuna River and Rajshahi division.
Indian Spot-billed Duck Anas poecilorhyncha
At least 12 breeding pairs were seen in March and April 2012 near
Shariakandi and Gaibanda. This species was not recorded during
the early to mid-winter period, as presumably at that time it was
dispersed more widely and only later returned to the rivers to breed.
Although it is considered to be an uncommon resident of Bangladesh
it is known to occur in all divisions (Siddiqui etal. 2008). However,
recent observations from several freshwater wetland sites in north¬
east Bangladesh suggest that the resident population is undergoing
a gradual decline, primarily because of collection of eggs by humans
and loss of suitable breeding habitat. Breeding records away from
the haors in the north-east are scarce, with almost no known recent
records. One nest was found in February 2012 at Pashua Haor in
the north-east by SUC; unfortunately all seven eggs were later
collected by local fishermen. A local fisherman at Shariakandi
reported collection of several clutches from grassy chars along the
Jamuna River. Hence it is important to note that these moderately
undisturbed chars still support breeding populations of this
declining species in Bangladesh.
BSack-neeked Grebe Podiceps nigricollis
Four individuals were photographed near Aricha Ghat on 6 February
2012. This is the second record and first photographic evidence of
this vagrant in Bangladesh. The first record was among a large
concentration of waterfowl on Tanguar Haor (north-east region)
on 7 February 2002 (Thompson & Johnson 2003). The four birds
observed are possibly the largest group recorded in South Asia.
River Lapwing Vanellus duvaucelii
Near Threatened. Only one pair was observed, nesting on a sand-
spit in Rajshahi (24.367°N 88.600°E) at lOhOO on 17 April 2012.
The scrape nest, which contained three eggs, was found on a
450 m2 sandy spit between channels 540-577 m wide. The nest
was exposed, surrounded by scattered grass, and was built on the
edge of a small sand dune. The incubating River Lapwing (it was
not possible to determine the sex) left the nest as the observer
approached within 40 m. The other member of the pair was seen
foraging, about 190 m from the nest, along the edge of the water.
The oval-shaped eggs were pale-brown and heavily dotted with dark
86
SAYAM U. CHOWDHURY et al.
Forktail 30 (2014)
Table 2. Numbers of birds recorded along Jamuna (J) and Padma (P) rivers between December 201 1 and April 2012. Sequence follows del Hoyo
& Collar (2014) for non-passerines and BirdLife International (2014c) for passerines.
Steppe Eagle kguila nipalensis
3
1
7
Forktail 30 (2014) A survey for Black-bellied Tern Sterna acuticauda on the Jamuna and Padma rivers in Bangladesh 87
brown and black spots and blotches. The River Lapwing is
considered a rare resident in Bangladesh and listed as nationally
Endangered. Currently, it is known to occur mainly along riverbeds
in Chittagong, Dhaka and Rajshahi divisions, but it was thought
to be extirpated from Sylhet division (IUCN 2000, Siddiqui etal.
2008). The River Lapwing was recently sighted in several locations
outside the study area, including two birds on the Mahananda River,
Tetulia, in September 2010, nine on the Sangu River near
Bandarban (south-east) in December 201 1 (S. P. Mahood in litt.
2012), one on the Piyain River in the Jaflong area, Sylhet division,
in April 2012 and a flock of five on the Gorai River near Kushita in
June 2012. All these sightings were from rivers which are
approximately 200-500 m wide, considerably less than the large,
fast-flowing, wide rivers covered in this survey. It seems the River
Lapwing prefers stable narrow rivers, tributaries and less dynamic
channels adjacent to a wide river. In South-East Asia, especially in
Cambodia and Laos, River Lapwing prefers wide riverbeds but
narrow rivers in Bangladesh (Duckworth et al. 1998, BirdLife
International 2014b). The majority of potential River Lapwing
habitat, particularly in Rajshahi division, remains unsurveyed.
Little Pratincole Glareola lactea
This species was regularly seen on both rivers in relatively good
numbers, with a maximum flock of 156 individuals. A chick was
found on a sandbank hiding in thin vegetation, 7 km downstream
from Shariakandi, on 22 April 2012. At least 15 pairs were in the
area and several were possibly breeding on the same sandbank, even
though only the one chick was found.
River Tern Sterna aurantia
Near Threatened. Only one was sighted on 8 February 2012 on
the Padma River near Hardinge Bridge. The tern was observed for
20 minutes while it was actively foraging. There are only two recent
records of this species from inland waters: seven on the Jamuna
River near Nagarbarighat in December 2009 and three on a river
near Pashua Haor, Sunamganj, in February 2011 2009 (P.
Thompson in litt. 2011). There are regular records of up to 10
breeding pairs, and several nests were found in January 2009 on
Domar Char (22.039°N 9 1 .068°E) adjacent to Hatia Island on the
south-central coast, while two pairs (probably breeding) were
observed on Sandwip Island (22.400°N 91.532°E) on the south¬
east coast. Both of these nest sites were located less than 500 m
from open sea, and may constitute the first record of nesting River
Tern on coastal sand dunes in Bangladesh.
Indian Spotted Eagle Clanga hastata
Vulnerable. An adult was seen near Nagarbarighat on 28 December
2011, resting on a sandbank close to the water s edge. It is considered
a rare resident of Bangladesh (Siddiqui etal. 2008). It may breed in
the area but no evidence of this could be gathered.
88
SAYAM U. CHOWDHURY et at.
Forktail 30 (2014)
Greater Spotted Eagle Clanga danga
Vulnerable. An adult was observed soaring over the Jamuna River at
Belkuchi (24.283°N 89.700°E) on 5 February 2012. Another two
adults were seen soaring over the Padma River near Hardinge Bridge
on 8 February 2012. This species is known as a rare winter visitor
and occurs mainly in the haors of Bangladesh (Siddiqui etal. 2008).
DISCUSSION
Black-bellied Tern
According to BirdFife International (2014a), the Black-bellied Tern
was previously common but is now a local breeder in Bangladesh.
Apparently, there has been no substantiated breeding record later
than 2000. The coastal records from Cox’s Bazar (Sykes 2010)
should be treated as unreliable (most probably these referred to late
winter Whiskered Terns Cklidonias bybridus), since recent year-
round waterbird surveys in Cox’s Bazar have not recorded any Black-
bellied Terns (SUC pers. obs. 2012). However, a pair was
photographed in lull breeding plumage from Sariakandi, Bogra
district (24.89 1°N 89.59 1°E), on 25 January and 1 1 February 201 1,
which conlirmed the ongoingpresence of this species in Bangladesh,
although our extensive targeted survey failed to find the tern.
The widespread sharp decline of this riverine species is believed
to be triggered by a combination of several factors throughout its
range. A major factor is the destruction of breeding habitat as islands
and sand-spits in larger rivers are increasingly cultivated. However,
in Bangladesh this appears to be a modest threat, as many islands,
sandbanks and sand-spits are still relatively undisturbed, even
though the majority of the riverbanks are largely degraded. Other
riverine species such as River Lapwing, Little Tern Sternula albijrons
(although no nests were found, several pairs were sighted during
the survey) and Little Pratincole are breeding along the Jamuna
and Padma rivers. Moreover, human footprints or evidence of other
human activities were not observed on some of these islands and
sandbanks, which could provide key breeding habitat for a residual
population of the Black-bellied Tern, or for future recolonisation.
The collection of eggs for food might have been a reason for
decline at the time when the species bred in large numbers in
colonies along the Padma and Jamuna rivers. Several older fishermen
indicated that they formerly collected eggs of unidentified species
of terns from sandbanks where they could find many nests in one
place. Currently, in the absence of the large tern colonies, many of
the fishermen or harvesters of other natural resources ( grass cutters,
farmers and random travellers) collect eggs of Indian Spot-billed
Duck from bushy islands; and the eggs of Little Pratincole, Little
Tern and River Lapwing from sandbanks. Predation of eggs by
predators such as dogs and corvids is unlikely to be a major threat,
as no dogs and only one flying Jungle Crow Corvus levaillantii was
observed on sandbanks during the survey. However, three Black
Kites Milvus migrans were seen wheeling over the sandbank where
the Little Pratincole chick was found.
The Black-bellied Tern primarily feeds on small fish (Rahmani
2012). Since 1 960, hundreds of water resource development projects
have been implemented in Bangladesh. Through these projects the
entire country has been converted into a series of polders with earth
embankments. These have resulted in the obstruction of the natural
migration and recruitment offish and other aquatic animals between
rivers and their floodplains. The construction and operation of
Farrakka Dam in India has changed the water flow regime and
hydrology of the entire Padma River basin. The negative impacts of
the Farrakka and other barrages has severely affected spawning
grounds, nursery areas, and the feeding migrations of fish. Increased
fishing pressure has also resulted from upstream river construction
of embankments on both banks through the Ganges-Kobadak
project (Ali 1997, Mazid 2002, Hussian 2010).
Moreover, flood control structures in the north-west region
have also affected fisheries and caused the destruction of many
resident breeding stocks of fish. River flows have been altered in
both the depth and the duration of flooding, and this has resulted
in changes in the pattern of siltation that has had detrimental effects
on riverine fishes and prawns. It was estimated that the north-west
region’s contribution to national fish production fell from 14% in
1983-84 to 10% in 1988-89 and, in particular, riverine fish
production decreased from 24,500 tonnes in 1983-84 to 3,940
tonnes in 1988-89. An estimated 2 million ha of floodplain was
lost to fisheries due to water development projects by 2005, with a
loss of fish production of over 1 million tonnes per year (Ali 1997,
Mazid 2002, Hussian 2010). This massive reduction of fisheries in
the Jamuna and Padma river systems in Bangladesh clearly might
have led to severe food scarcity for the Black-bellied Tern.
Other species
Significant differences in numbers and diversity of other migratory
and resident waterbirds were observed between mid-winter and late
winter. Resident species such as Fittle Tern and Indian Spot-billed
Duck were not sighted from December to February but were seen
in good numbers in March and April on both rivers. These resident
species may be wintering in other places and moving to the rivers
during the breeding season. Migratory species like Ruddy Shelduck
Tadorna ferruginea were commonly seen from December to
February but were not recorded in March and April. On the other
hand Whiskered Tern Chlidonias bybridus was recorded in relatively
good numbers in March and April but was absent in winter, possibly
occurring mainly as a passage migrant on these rivers.
Overall, the numbers and diversity of riverine birds were much
higher on the Jamuna River than the Padma, although two
significant riverine species — the River Lapwing and the River
Tern — were only recorded on the Padma. However, several species
that were previously seen on these rivers were not recorded during
this survey: Fulvous Whistling Duck Dendrocygna bicolor , Greylag
Goos cAriser anser, Greater White-fronted Goose A. albifrons, Bar¬
headed Goose A. indicus, Goosander Mergus merganser , Red-
crested Pochard Netta rufina , Common Pochard Aythya ferina,
Baer’s Pochard A. baeri, Mallard Anas platyrhynchos , Common Teal
A. crecca, Pacific Golden Plover Pluvialis fulva. Grey-headed
Lapwing Vanellus cinereus , Eurasian Curlew Numenius arquata.
Green Sandpiper Tringa ochropus. Common Redshank T. totanus ,
Wood Sandpiper 77 glareola , Indian Skimmer Ryncbops albicollis ,
Pallas’s Gull Larus icbtbyaetus , Common Gull-billed Tern
Gelochelidon nilotica, Common Tern Sterna hirundo and Eastern
Imperial Eagle Aquila beliaca.
CONCLUSIONS
Several factors may have affected the numbers of riverine waterbirds.
Degradation of the riverine ecosystems has occurred due to the
construction of dams and embankments, as well as through
agricultural encroachment onto muddy shores (exposed as the
water level recedes in the dry season). Moreover, sand and
gravel extraction for development is common in these two rivers,
especially around large towns. This further stresses the overall
riverine ecosystems and reduces potential roosting and nesting
habitats of riverine bird species and other resident wildlife.
However, even when the habitat remains suitable, hunting in
winter by local or visiting sport-hunters and collection of eggs and
chicks of sand-nesting birds in late winter are frequent along the
Padma and Jamuna rivers. Owing to the reduced level of fisheries
resources, competition between riverine birds and local fishermen
may also be expected, although there was no evidence of this
observed.
Forktail 30 (2014) A survey for Black-bellied Tern Sterna acuticauda on the Jamuna and Padma rivers in Bangladesh
89
Although the survey found no evidence of continued breeding
(or even presence) of Black-bellied Tern, the extent of potentially
suitable habitat suggests that its presence in small numbers cannot
be ruled out. As a consequence we make a number of
recommendations which would benefit not only Black-bellied Tern,
but also the remaining riverine species in Bangladesh:
(1) Surveys for the Black-bellied Tern are still needed later in the
dry season, ideally between February and May, particularly in
Sirajganj (around Jamuna Bridge), the Sariakandi and Kurigram
areas of the Jamuna River and the Pabna and Kushtia areas of
the Padma River.
(2) Further surveys are also required to identify breeding sites of
other riverine species. Once identified these sites can be declared
as sanctuaries. The sandbanks and islands (which remain in state
ownership) are not leased out and hence any change in
management will not be resisted by leaseholders unlike other
wetland sites in Bangladesh.
(3) There also needs to be a comprehensive conservation strategy
by the government for the Padma and Jamuna rivers, with
sustainable management plans for fisheries and wildlife.
(4) An indicator bird species approach, based on those species
which are still widespread such as the Little Pratincole, Indian
Spot-billed Duck and Plain Martin, should be established to
enable rapid assessment of the overall health of the riverine
ecosystem.
(5) Detailed study of the breeding biology of the little known River
Lapwing is also recommended to inform any future
conservation action plan.
(6) Almost all the waterfowl species that occur in these areas are
protected by the Bangladesh Wildlife Preservation Act.
Therefore, enforcement by the government and support by
NGOs are needed to tackle bird hunting and prevent illegal
habitat encroachment.
(7) Awareness-raising activities in villages along these rivers should
be carried out to educate local people, especially fishermen and
other natural resource harvesters, of the importance of birds to
maintain a healthy riverine ecosystem.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to the Oriental Bird Club for funding this project. We thank
Paul Thompson for his comments and suggestion on the study methods and
James Pender for participating in one of the surveys. Thanks go to Md. Mostofa
for the hire of his boat and Bashir Ahmed and Masum for their support with
the logistics.
REFERENCES
Ali, M. Y. (1997) Fish, water and people: reflections on inland openwater
fisheries resources of Bangladesh. Dhaka: The University Press.
Banglapedia (2006) Jamuna River. Downloaded from http://
www.banglapedia.org/ on 08/02/2012.
Banglapedia (2006) Padma River. Downloaded from http://
www.banglapedia.org/ on 08/02/201 2.
B i rd Life International (2014a) Species factsheet: Sterna acuticauda.
Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 14/04/2014.
B ird Life International (2014b) Species factsteet: Vanellus duvaucelii.
Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 14/04/14.
BirdLife International (2014c) The BirdLife checklist of the birds of the world,
with conservation status and taxonomic sources. Version 6.1.
Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.info/im/species/checklist.zip.
Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R. J. & Evans,T. D. (1 998) The conservation status
of the river lapwing Vanellus duvaucelii in Southern Laos. Biol.
Conserv. 84: 215-222.
Dudgeon,- D. (2000) Large-scale hydrological changes in tropical Asia:
prospects for riverine biodiversity. BioScience 50: 793-806.
Dudgeon, D. (2002) An inventory of riverine biodiversity in monsoonal Asia:
present status and conservation challenges. Water Sci. Techno!. 45:
11-19.
del Hoyo, J. & Collar, N. J. (2014) HBW & BirdLife International illustrated
checklist of the birds of the world, 1. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions.
Hussain, M.G. (2010) Freshwater fishes of Bangladesh: Fisheries, biodiversity
and habitat. Aquat. Ecosyst. Health 1 3: 85-93.
IUCN Bangladesh (2000) Red book of threatened birds of Bangladesh. Dhaka:
lUCN-The World Conservation Union.
Mazid, M. A. (2002) Development of fisheries in Bangladesh: plans and
strategies for income generation and poverty alleviation. Dhaka: Momin
Offset Press.
Rahmani, A. R. (2012) Threatened birds of India — their conservation
requirements. Indian Bird Conservation Network: Oxford University
Press.
Siddiqui, K. U., Islam, M. A., Kabir, S. M. H., Ahmad, M„ Ahmed A. T. A.,
Rahman, A. K. A., Haque, E. U., Ahmed, Z. U., Begum, Z. N.T., Hassan, M.
A., Khondker, M. & Rahman, M. M„ eds. (2008) Encyclopaedia of flora
and fauna of Bangladesh, 26. Dhaka: Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
Sykes, B. (2010) River terns: is the Black-bellied Tern Sterna acuticauda
heading to oblivion? BirdingASIA 1 3: 73.
Thompson, P. M. & Johnson, D. L. (2003) Further notable bird records from
Bangladesh. Forktail 1 9: 85-102.
Sayom U. CHOWDHURY, Department of Environmental
Science and Management, North South University, Plot 15,
Block-B, Bashundhara, Dhaka 1229, Bangladesh.
Email: sayam_uc@yahoo.com
Mohammad FOYSAL, Ekuria, Paschim para, South Keranigonj,
Dhaka-1311, Bangladesh. Email: pakhivhai@yahoo.com
John SHARPE, RSPB, Stalham House, 65 Thorpe Road, Norwich,
NR1 1UD, UK. Email: ajohn.sharpe@rspb.org.uk
Omar SHAH AD AT, 160 North Jatrabari, Shahid Faruque
Road, 2nd Floor, Dhaka- 1204, Bangladesh.
Email : shahadat_uzzal@yahoo.com
FORKTAIL 30 (2014): 90-95
The spread and relative abundance of the non-native
White-crested Laughingthrush Carrulax leucolophus and
Lineated Barbet Megalaima lineata in Singapore
WONG SOON HUAT FELIX
The non-native species White-crested Laughingthrush Garrulax leucolophus and Lineated Barbet Megalaima lineata are now firmly established
in various parts of Singapore. This study chronicles their spread over the past two decades and verifies their persistence in areas where they
had previously been seen or heard. The relative abundance of these birds at 1 6 sites reported in the literature was evaluated by means of
field visits whereby intra- and inter-species ecological interactions with native avian species were observed. Both species have spread and
become established in the west, south and central parts of Singapore and field visits confirmed the persistence of populations in most of
these areas, with evidence of breeding in some cases. The highest White-crested Laughingthrush count was at Kent Ridge Park followed by
Bukit Batok Nature Park and Bukit Batok West/Brickland Road, while for Lineated Barbet the highest count was at Bukit Batok Nature Park
followed by Fairways Drive and Bukit Brown. Further field studies across all parts of Singapore and the satellite islands are needed to
determine accurate populations of these species and observe any adverse ecological interactions with native avian species. Appropriate
intervention conservation measures may be proposed if there is evidence of detrimental effects of the increasing population of these alien
species on native birds that occupy similar ecological/foraging niches and nesting sites.
INTRODUCTION
An invasive species is an organism that is not native (alien) and is
known to have negative effects on native biodiversity and
ecosystems (Carrete & Telia 2008). Invasive plants and animals are
the second greatest threat to biodiversity after habitat loss.
However, not all introduced species are invasive.
Most invasions are a direct result of human activities. For
example, deforestation for agriculture indirectly creates suitable
habitats lor the establishment of exotic species that possess intrinsic
characteristics and biological factors that favour their success (Yap
& Sodhi 2004). Avian species demonstrating social behaviour,
colonial nesting, high fecundity, varied diet, foraging innovations,
locomotive efficiency, habitat flexibility, low neophobia, human
commensalism, sedentary behaviour and ecological plasticity have
been shown to be successful invaders (Sol et. al. 2002, Yap & Sodhi
2004, Carrete & Telia 2008). Other factors such as introduction
effort and propagule pressure are also directly related to invasion
success (Carrete & Telia 2008). A clear understanding of the
contributing environmental and intrinsic factors would bode well
in the development of effective management strategies in tackling
invasive populations.
This study focuses on the White-crested Laughingthrush
Garrulax leucolophus and Lineated Barbet Megalaima lineata, two
alien species in Singapore whose populations have ballooned in the
past two decades; both are now relatively common in secondary
forests and many green spaces.
Until recently, the White-crested Laughingthrush had a large
native range from north and north-east India, south-east Tibet,
Sumatra, Myanmar, Thailand, Indochina to south-west China, but
was absent from central and south Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia
and Singapore. Today it is a rare to locally common feral resident
in central Thailand (Bangkok area), Peninsular Malaysia (Penang
Island and Kuala Lumpur area) as well as Singapore (Robson 2008).
It is easily recognisable by its distinctive broad whitish crest, black
mask, whitish underparts, rufous-chestnut upperparts and rufous
flanks and undertail-coverts. It is usually seen in flocks which
produce song bursts of rapid chattering and repetitive double-note
phrases. It is found in a wide range of habitats, including
broadleaved evergreen, semi-evergreen and dry deciduous forest,
secondary growth and bamboo up to about 1,600 m (Robson
2008). Its varied diet includes berries, seeds, nectar, insects and small
reptiles. It is a co-operative breeder and is multi-brooded, laying 2
6 eggs per brood (Yap & Sodhi 2004).
The Lineated Barbet has a similar large native range from north¬
west, north and north-east India, Nepal, Bangladesh, south
Myanmar, Thailand, south and central Vietnam to south-west
China (south Yunnan), Java and Bali (Robson 2008), but is limited
to northern Peninsular Malaysia although Wells (1999) has plotted
its southward movement particularly down the east coast of the
peninsula. With its broad yellow orbital skin, beige to pinkish bill
and broad creamy-white streaked head and breast, it is unlikely to
be mistaken lor any ol the native barbet species ol Singapore. Only
one other barbet, the somewhat smaller Green-eared Barbet
Megalaima faiostricta of south China, Thailand and Indochina is
generally similar in appearance but lacks the bright yellow orbital
skin and is characterised by a red eye and rather obvious green
cheeks and ear-coverts; the calls ol the two species are also
distinctive. The presence of Lineated Barbet is often betrayed by
its far reaching territorial loud poo-poh calls uttered every second,
as well as a rapid bubbling koh-koh-koh-koh-koh call. This bird has
been found in habitats ranging Irom deciduous lorest, scattered
trees in open areas, coastal scrub and plantations up to 1,220 m,
but is contined to the lowlands in northern Peninsular Malaysia
(Robson 2008). A frugivore with a varied diet consisting ol Iruits,
in particular figs, nectar as well as flower petals, it also takes insects,
eggs and nestlings particularly when leeding young; it nests in tree
holes and is double-brooded, with the second brood started within
days of the fledging of the lirst (Shorts & Horne 2002).
The White-crested Laughingthrush (hereafter the
laughingthrush) and the Lineated Barbet (hereafter the barbet) are
believed to have been introduced into Singapore, possibly through
the bird trade as accidental escapes (Wang & Hails 2007) as well as
through deliberate release known as Jang sheng, literally meaning
‘freeing life’ by devout Buddhists on Vesak Day. In the late 1 980s,
the laughingthrush was sporadically seen in southern Singapore and
the Central Catchment Area. By the early 1990s, the species was
regularly seen in Bukit Batok Nature Park and the western
catchment area. The barbet was first seen in Bukit Batok Nature
Park in the mid-1990s and by the early 2000s had spread to the
fringes of Bukit Timah Nature Reserve and other areas (Linr 2009).
Although over the last two decades, sightings and nesting
records were submitted to the Bird Group of the Nature Society
(Singapore) and appeared in Singapore Avifauna, no systematic
Forktail 30(2014)
White-crested Laughingthrush and Lineated Barbet in Singapore
91
study of the chronology and extent of spread, relative abundance,
etc., of these aliens in secondary forests, wooded areas and green
spaces of Singapore has been made. Therefore the objectives ol this
study were:
( 1 ) To document the chronology and extent ol spread ol these two
aliens in Singapore through extensive review of bird sighting
information and scientific literature.
(2) To verify the persistence of these birds in areas where they have
been seen and heard over recent years through systematic visits
to these areas.
(3) To perform a rough preliminary density estimate of these birds
in areas where they were previously seen or heard and compare
the relative abundance of these birds in these areas.
(4) To observe the foraging behaviour, food and habitat preferences
as well as any ecological interactions with native species through
field observations.
METHODS
Determination of range expansion
Singapore Avifauna issues were reviewed for records of both species
to document the chronology and extent of their spread in
Singapore. Singapore Avifauna was a publication of the Bird Group
of the Nature Society (Singapore) which documented local
sightings submitted by birdwatchers, and is the only such record
available in the public domain today. The inaugural issue was
published in April 1987 and it was available online from 2008 to
2010, the final issue covering the period July-September 2010. I
was able to review volumes covering the following periods: April
1987-December 1989, April-June 1990, January 1994-March
1995, May 1997-September 2010. Missing issues were not
retrievable despite efforts to source them.
Field surveys
Sixteen sites were surveyed over a three-month period in areas where
the laughingthrush and barbet had previously been seen or heard,
in order to confirm the persistence of these species and make a rough
estimate of their abundance. These sites (Table 1) were selected
following the review of Singapore Avifauna and discussion with local
birdwatchers about their recent sightings of the species; the site
selection was made on the basis that it appeared that naturalisation
had occurred and that there was a greater likelihood of an encounter.
Field observations were made by walking the main trails
(transects) at these locations. Binoculars and a camcorder were used
for observations and recordings. Surveys were carried out from
07h30 when bird activity is at its highest and usually completed by
lOhOO, depending on the length of the transect. Every effort was
made to cover the full length of each trail; however, the sites vary
greatly in size and consequently the length of individual transects
was very variable.
A ‘visual search and listen’ method was adopted every 10 m on
the trails to detect the two target species. The time of observation
was noted and numbers counted; habitat type, foraging behaviour,
diet, intra- and inter-species behaviour (feeding, resting, preening,
duetting, mating and aggression) were also documented.
If birds were not visible, numbers were estimated from the
calls heard. For the laughingthrush, a conservative three birds
were counted for every burst of singing heard, as this is a
sociable bird and typically occurs in groups of three or more birds.
For the barbet, every call detected was counted as a single bird.
The loudness of the call was used to estimate the distance of a bird
that could not be seen. To avoid double counting, birds heard or
seen were not counted if detected in close proximity and in the
same direction. Counts were not made on the return journey on
the same trail.
RESULTS
Chronology and extent of the spread of the species
in Singapore
The locations and spread of the laughingthrush and the barbet are
plotted in Figures 1 and 2 respectively.
According to Singapore Avifauna, three laughingthrushes were
first observed at Gilman Park on 17 May 1987; one was a juvenile
seen begging for food. In the late 1980s, the species was also seen
sporadically at Jalan Loyang Besar (north-east), Sime Road (central)
Table 1 . Details of survey sites.
92
WONG SOON HUAT FELIX
Forktail 30(2014)
Figure 1. Chronological spread of
White-crested Laughingthrush.
Figure 2. Chronological spread of
Lineated Barbet
Legend for Figures 1 & 2
Two digit numbers indicate year first recorded at a location.
Underlined locations indicate areas with breeding records.
Italicised locations are new sites discovered during field surveys.
Directional arrows indicate probable direction of spread from one site to another based on chronology and site proximity.
Location abbreviations used
BB: Bukit Brown
BG: Bukit Gombak
BN: Bukit Batok Nature Park
BT: Bukit Timah Nature Reserve
BW: Bukit Batok West
CC: Choa Chu Kang Road
DF: Dairy Farm Road
DH: Dempsey FHill
FD: Fairways Drive
GA: Gymkhana Avenue
GP: Gilman Park
HW: Holland Woods
JB:Jalan Loyang Besar
JL: Jurong Lake Park
KR: Kent Ridge Park
MF: Mount Faber
MP: Malcolm Park
MR: MacRitchie Reservoir
NT: Neo Tiew Lane 2
NU: Nanyang Technological University
PG: Prince George's Park
PO: Poyan
PU: Pulau Ubin
SB: Singapore Botanic Gardens
SR: Sime Road
SW: Sunset Way
TB: Telok Blangah Hill Park
TT: Toh Tuck Road Woods
TW: Tyersall Woods
UP: Ulu Pandan Park Connector
WC: West Coast Park
YC: Yio Chu Kang Woods
Forktail 30(2014)
93
White-crested Laughingthrush and Lineated Barbet in Singapore
and Prince George’s Park (south-west). From 1995 onwards, it
established strongholds in the west, particularly in Bukit Batok
Nature Park where it was often encountered, mostly in flocks —
highest count 19 birds on 28 March 2004, whilst juveniles seen on
29 May 2000 indicated successful breeding here. The literature
indicates that by 1997 the Bukit Batok population had started to
spread north-west into the forest at Nanyang Technological
University and Poyan; also east to Bukit Timah Nature Reserve;
south to Sunset Way by 2003; Tyersall Woods by 2004; Holland
Woods by 2005; Singapore Botanic Gardens by 2008 and north to
Choa Chu Kang by 2004. From Poyan, birds may have moved
north-east and become established in Neo Tiew Lane 2 by 2005.
In the south the species was established at Kent Ridge Park in early
1992 (Lamont 1998) and Gilman Parkin 1997, spreading east into
Mount Faber by 2003, Telok Blangah Hill Park by 2004 and west
into West Coast Park by 2005. The laughingthrush is now firmly
established in west and south Singapore.
According to the literature and based on personal
observations, three barbets were first seen in Bukit Batok
Nature Park on 25 March 1 995 and the species has been frequently
seen in the park ever since. From 2000 it spread north-west into
Choa Chu Kang and Poyan, west to Jurong Lake Park and east to
Bukit Timah Nature Reserve, Dairy Farm Road to the Central
Catchment Area including Bukit Brown and MacRitchie Reservoir.
The spread continued south along the Ulu Pandan Connector,
Holland Woods and Singapore Botanic Gardens. Breeding has been
reported in Bukit Batok Nature Park (2002), Dairy Farm (2009),
Jurong Lake Park (2009) and Dempsey Hill (2011). The field visits
in January and March 2013 showed further movement west into
Lorong Danau/Nanyang Crescent and further south into
Mount Faber. The barbet is now firmly established in west and
central Singapore.
Persistence of populations, population estimates
and relative abundance
The numbers oflaughingthrushes and barbets seen or heard at the
16 survey sites are summarised in Table 2 whilst the relative
abundance of the two species at the survey sites is compared in
Figure 3.
The laughingthrush was most common at Kent Ridge Park —
34 birds counted, followed by Bukit Batok Nature Park with 25
birds. These hilly forested sites with dense leaf-litter provide suitable
habitat for the birds to thrive, which is a key factor favouring
invasion (Williamson & Fitter 1996). At Bukit Batok West/
Brickland Rd, 18 birds were counted, while fewer than 10 birds
were counted at all other sites. Eleven barbets were counted at Bukit
Batok Nature Park, followed by Fairways Drive and Bukit Brown
with 1 0 and 9 respectively.
DISCUSSION
The number and location of the original releases/escapes and the
number of individuals involved on each occasion are unknown, but
evidently the number of events and number of individuals involved
had an important bearing on the subsequent success of the species
in the wild. The introduction in the 1 990s of green corridors linking
parks and existing green areas in Singapore may have also been a
springboard for the two species to move rapidly around the island,
aiding their spread and establishment in west, south and central
Singapore.
Literature reviews and field observations show that both species
are only found in low numbers in primary forest and tend to favour
secondary growth, indicating their tolerance of degraded forest and
woodland habitat conditions. The massive destruction of primary
Table 2. Records of White-crested Laughingthrush (L) and Lineated Barbet (B) seen/heard during field visits.
94
WONG SOON HUAT FELIX
Forktail 30(2014)
O 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
MacRitchie Reservoir
Bukit Batok Nature Park
Neo Tiew Lane 2
Lorong Danau
Nanyang Crescent
Bukit Batok West & Brickland Rd
Goldhill Ave
Kent Ridge Park
Pasir Ris Park
Jurong Lake Park & Jap. Garden
BTNR & Mt. Bike Cycling Track
Fairways Drive
Telok Blangah Hill Park
Singapore Botanic Gardens
Mt. Faber Park
Bukit Brown
—I - 1—
I >
TT"
□ 18
□ 25
□ 34
X
10
□ 9
0^ 1
□ Laughingthrush
■ Ba r bet
Figure 3. Relative abundance of
White-crested Laughingthrush
and Lineated Barbet at the field
sites.
forest in Singapore during the eighteenth century changed the
landscape to secondary forests and woodlands — habitats suitable
for these adaptable species (Brook et. al. 2003, Sodhi et. al. 2004).
Most of the barbet nest holes were cavities excavated in branches
of albizia trees Falcataria moluccana — a common, fast-growing
species of secondary forests and self-seeded woodlands growing on
abandoned land.
The success of the laughingthrush as an invasive species is
attributable to the fact that it is a sociable bird living in groups,
benefiting from the improved protection from predators, better
foraging and reproductive efficiency afforded by the group (Yap &
Sodhi 2004). It is a multi-brooded cooperative breeder with adults
assisting each other to care for the young (Round 2006) — during
the visit to Bukit Batok Nature Park, five adults and three juveniles
were seen together. During site visits, its varied diet was observed
to include forest cockroaches, caterpillars, small berries and human
waste food including bread and biscuits. The ability to exploit
varied food sources is another important factor in its successful
exploitation of many different green spaces in Singapore. The fact
that it is sedentary with a relatively high body mass and that it
appears to be relatively aggressive also contributes to its invasive
spread in Singapore (Kolar & Lodge 2001); it is believed to have
displaced a population of another non-native, the Greater
Necklaced Laughingthrush Garrulax pectoralis from Kent Ridge
Park (Lamont 1998). It may have also occupied ecological niches
vacated by babblers; for example, Abbott’s Babbler Malacocincla
abbotti, which was formerly common but now in decline, has
disappeared from Bukit Batok Nature Park — the decline is thought
to be due to direct competition with the laughingthrush coupled
with forest degradation and fragmentation isolating unsustainable
non-viable populations (Yong 2009).
However, the laughingthrush was not detected in seven of the
16 sites surveyed; four of these, Mount Faber, Singapore Botanic
Gardens, Bukit Timah Nature Reserve and MacRitchie Reservoir
previously held individuals/populations, and repeat visits will need
to be made to confirm whether isolated populations are still present
or are truly extirpated.
The canopy-dwelling barbet was more often heard than seen.
It is a stronger flyer than the laughingthrush — given that it is a
frugivore, it needs to fly across forest patches to search for and visit
scattered fruiting trees. During breeding periods, the bird also
searches for trees with suitable dead wood for nest excavation. Hole¬
nesting species experience lesser stress than open-nesting species
when faced with micro-climatic changes, and also suffer less
mortality in terms of individual or whole nest losses (Yap & Sodhi
2004). The barbet is also reported to be double-brooded, the second
brood being started within days of the fledging of the first brood
(Short & Horne 2002). All these factors are possible explanations
why it is more widespread than the laughingthrush and was detected
at 1 3 of the 1 6 study sites.
The alien Lineated Barbet and the native resident Red-crowned
Barbet Megalaima rafflesii are closely related species of similar size ;
both are frugivores, nesting in tree cavities, and might be expected
to be in direct competition. However, based on Wells (1999),
personal observations and sightings in Singapore Avifauna, the Red-
crowned Barbet is always recorded and breeds in primary forest,
whilst the Lineated Barbet is usually recorded in secondary forest
and open areas (Wells 1999), and there are no breeding records
from primary forest; in fact there may be no competition between
these species for nest sites. It may be that those cavity-nesting
woodpeckers which favour secondary forest habitats are more
adversely affected by the alien barbet, as local birdwatchers have
seen the barbet showing aggression towards woodpeckers. An
important non-avian consideration is the potential detrimental
impact on native forest flora by the dispersal of seeds of non-native
flora, thereby extending the range of alien flora, since the barbet is
a versatile frugivore, feeding on exotic species like MacArthur s palm
Ptychosperma macarthurii , Cecropia species and albizia Falcataria
moluccana. In the not-too-distant future, it is also plausible that
populations of the barbet in Singapore may be augmented by
natural range expansion from Malaysia — it has been recorded
spreading down the coasts of the peninsula during the last century
where it is found in coastal habitats due to deforestation (Wells
1999).
During field visits, neither laughingthrush nor barbet was seen
or heard in Pasir Ris Park, suggesting they have not spread to east
Singapore, possibly due to lack of a green corridor linking the central
catchment forest to the isolated patchy forests in the east. However,
these visits confirmed the spread and persistence of populations of
laughingthrush and barbet in west, south and central Singapore.
This invasive transition from introduced to naturalised populations
is presumably a result of a combination of many factors — climatic
matching (Duncan et al. 2003, Hayes & Barry 2008), presence of
suitable habitats (Williamson & Fitter 1996), existence of empty
niches, varied diets and inherent attributes of the birds (Kolar &
Lodge 2001), social behaviour, cooperative breeding (Round 2006)
and aggressive nature.
On the other hand, over the past decades, loss of non-protected
green areas holding native habitats has led to the fragmentation
and isolation of populations of sensitive resident birds, some of
Forktail 30 (2014)
White-crested Laughingthrush and Lineated Barbet in Singapore
95
which gradually died out leading to the current depauperate state
ot Singapore’s avifauna (Castelletta et al. 2000, Brook et al. 2003,
Sodhi et al. 2004, Yong 2009, Sodhi et al. 2010). Ecological niches
previously occupied by native species are now being taken over by
more tolerant and invasive species such as the laughingthrush and
the barbet.
Given that the laughingthrush competes directly with native
ground-dwelling and foraging birds and that the barbet competes
directly with native frugivores and some of the native tree-cavity
nesters, it is important that lurther field studies are carried out on
these alien species in the north and east of Singapore and the
offshore islands which have not been well surveyed. Population
assignment methods or phylogeography (Alacs et al. 2009) would
be useful to determine the geographic origins and the genetic
relatedness of the populations in different parts of Singapore. Data
from these studies could potentially be used to infer the pattern
and extent of invasive spread as well as to determine whether their
populations are potentially detrimental to native birds occupying
similar ecological/foraging niches and nesting sites.
Evaluation of other potential invasive species in the bird trade
should be carried out, given the country’s role in the international
bird trade (Nijman 2010), the significant number oi bird shops,
the widespread popularity oi birds as pets and the thriving songbird
and exotic bird culture in Singapore. This will help determine the
need for appropriate interventions, for example the culling of
naturalised and other exotic species to prevent further and future
invasions in order to protect vulnerable native species from
extirpation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I thank Shawn Lum and Yong Ding Li for their support and valuable comments
on the study and my wife for accompanying me on the field trips. I also wish
to thank Brian Sykes, Colin Poole and an anonymous reviewer for their reviews
and valuable comments.
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deforestation in Singapore. Nature 424: 420-423.
Carrete, M. & Telia, J. L. (2008) Wild-bird trade and exotic invasions: a new
link of conservation concern? Front. Ecol. Environ. 6: 207-21 1 .
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introductions. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 34: 71-98.
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(Singapore).
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Asia. Biodivers. Conserv. 1 9: 1 1 01 -1 1 1 4.
Robson, C. (2008) A field guide to the birds of South-East Asia. London: New
Holland.
Round, P. D. (2006) Cooperative provisioning of nestlings in the White-
crested Laughingthrush Garrulax leucolophus. Forktail 22: 138-139.
Short, L. L. & Horne, J. F. M. (2002) Family Capitonidae (barbets). Pp.140-
219 in J. del Hoyo, A. Elliott & J. Sargatal, eds. Handbook of the birds of
the world, 7. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions.
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biodiversity: an impending disaster. Trends Ecol. Evol. 19: 654-660.
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B.W. (2010) The state and conservation of Southeast Asian biodiversity.
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Sol, D., Timmermans, S. & Lefebvre, L. (2002) Behavioural flexibility and
invasion success in birds. Anim. Behav. 63: 495-502.
Wang, L. K. & Hails, C. J. (2007) Annotated checklist of the birds of Singapore.
Raffles Bull. Zool. 15: 1-179.
Wells, D. R. (1999) The birds of the Thai-Malay peninsula, 1. London: Academic
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Williamson, M. & Fitter, A. (1996) The varying success of invaders. Ecology
77: 1661-1666.
Yap, C. A. M. & Sodhi, N. S. (2004) Southeast Asian invasive birds: ecology,
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WONG Soon Huat Felix, 641 Choa Chu Kang Street 64,
Singapore 680641.
Email: lovelypitta@yahoo.com
FORKTAIL 30 (2014): 96-103
Molecular sexing and stable isotope analyses reveal
incomplete sexual dimorphism and potential breeding
range of Siberian Rubythroats Luscinia calliope
captured in Taiwan
GUO-JING WENG, HUI-SHAN UN, YUAN-HSUN SUN & BRUNO A. WALTHER
The Siberian Rubythroat Luscinia calliope breeds widely across Siberia and several other north Asian countries, migrating to overwinter to
the south, including Taiwan. Its presence in Taiwan presented a unique opportunity to investigate questions which could not be reliably
answered before the development of modern molecular techniques. We used molecular sexing techniques to determine whether there is
overlap between the sexes in the measurements of colour and morphometric traits. We also used stable hydrogen isotope analysis to
determine the potential breeding areas of these individuals. We found consistent morphometric and colour differences between males and
females, but with so much variation that no single measurement could be used to sex individuals and, as already suspected, neither size nor
colour of the red throat-patch or the bordering sub-malar stripes are reliable field marks for sexing Siberian Rubythroats. However, a
combination of wing length and red throat-patch area when entered into a logistic regression correctly identified all males and females.
This result could not be repeated when we used a discriminant function with cross-validation, which is currently the standard procedure for
sex discrimination. The stable hydrogen isotope analysis showed that individuals captured in Taiwan potentially originate from large parts
of its known breeding range, but mostly from southern areas. This suggests a 'leap-frog' migration by this species. Furthermore, larger
individuals originated from higher latitudes, in accordance with Bergmann's rule. Modern molecular techniques thus shed interesting new
insights into the morphology and ecology of Siberian Rubythroats.
INTRODUCTION
The Siberian Rubythroat Luscinia calliope breeds from the central
Ural Mountains across Siberia to the coast of Far East Russia,
northern Japan, northern Korea, central China and parts of
Mongolia, and overwinters in South and South-East Asia, the
south-east seaboard of China, Taiwan and the Philippines (Glutz
von Blotzheim 1988, Pagenkopt 2003, Collar 2005, Brazil 2009).
In Taiwan, Siberian Rubythroats are passage migrants or stay to
overwinter (Wang etal. 1991): ringing data collected by the Chinese
Wild Bird Federation (CWBF) between 2000-2007 showed that
the species arrives in Taiwan in October and returns north by early
May.
The presence of Siberian Rubythroats in Taiwan presented us
with a unique opportunity to investigate some questions which
could not be reliably answered before the arrival of modern
molecular techniques: (1) are Siberian Rubythroats consistently
dimorphic, or is there overlap in the measurements of colour and
morphometric traits between the sexes? (2) where are the breeding
areas of Siberian Rubythroats which overwinter in Taiwan?
Due to the rapid advance of reliable molecular techniques
(Griffiths etal. 1998, Fridolfsson & Ellegren 1999), sexing ofbirds
has moved from using colour, morphometric or behavioural
differences to more reliable DNA techniques (e.g. Jodice etal. 2000,
Redman et al. 2002). Before these techniques were available, the
main colour difference between Siberian Rubythroat sexes was
described as the metallic ruby-red chin and throat of the male
compared with the white chin and throat of the female (Kennedy
et al. 2000, Severinghaus et al. 2010), although most field guides
and handbooks noted that some females had a yellow-tinged buff
( Collar 200 5 ), pinkish or even reddish throat (Glutz von Blotzheim
1988, Barthel 1996, Grimmett et al. 1998, Lee et al. 2000,
MacKinnon & Phillipps 2000, Bergmann 2001, Robson 2008,
Brazil 2009). FFowever, it is unclear from these sources how reliable
the sexing of individuals was; most are field guides, while others
(Glutz von Blotzheim 1988, Barthel 1996, Collar 2005) cite
original research but their sources all pre-date the use of DNA
sexing techniques.
Likewise, Pagenkopf (2003) documented that 28% of breeding
females in central Siberia had obvious red colouration on their
throats, and then cited Svensson (1992) which claimed that 80%
of females showed such colouration. While Svensson (1992)
determined the sex using body size, brood-patch and the shape of
the cloacal region, Pagenkopf (2003) did not describe how he
verified the sexes, but claimed that a better diagnostic colour trait
than the throat colour is the dark lines bordering the throat-patch
(hereafter referred to as ‘sub -malar stripes’), supposedly always black
in males and brown in females. As a result of these conflicting
identification guidelines, there are many records of unsexed Siberian
Rubythroats in the literature (e.g. Pagenkopf 2003) and databases
(e.g. the CWBF Taiwan bird banding database). Females are, on
average, smaller than males (Glutz von Blotzheim 1988, Kennedy
et al. 2000, Pagenkopf 2003). Pagenkopt (2003) established that
females, on average, had less body mass and shorter wings, tails,
tarsi and toes (with all differences statistically significant at the p <
0.001 level, except for the back toe); this assertion was supported
by his review of 16 previous publications (Pagenkopf 2003).
To our knowledge, no previous study had used DNA sexing
techniques when we adopted this method to clarify the extent and
variation of the supposed colour and morphometric differences
between male and female Siberian Rubythroats. Because DNA
sexing techniques require invasive blood sampling and extensive
laboratory work, we also investigated whether we could develop a
statistical method based on morphometric and colour traits to
reliably determine the sex of Siberian Rubythroats.
Due to the rapid advance of stable-hydrogen isotope techniques,
we can now determine the potential breeding or wintering areas of
migratory species, at least to the accuracy of a regional scale (e.g.
FFobson 2005, Reichlin et al. 2010). Since birds consume water
directly or indirectly via food, the stable-hydrogen isotope ratios
of their feathers (8Df) should reflect the SD of the precipitation
(8Dp) of the geographic region where an individual grows its
feathers (Hobson & Wassenaar 1997). So far, only a few studies
(Rocque et al. 2006, 2009, Chang et al. 2008, Perez et al. 2010)
have used this technique in East Asia, and none for the Siberian
Rubythroat. In the case of some species, linkage between breeding
Forktail 30 (2014) Molecular sexing and stable isotope analyses of Siberian Rubythroats Luscinia calliope in Taiwan
97
and wintering areas was established through ringing recoveries,
satellite tracking or morphological studies (e.g. using different
races). However, Siberian Rubythroats have very low ringing
recovery rates, are too small to carry transmitters, and show little,
if any, racial variation (Glutz von Blotzheinr 1988, Barthel 1996,
Pagenkopf 2003, Collar 2005). Therefore, we used the stable-
hydrogen isotope technique to determine the potential breeding
areas of Siberian Rubythroats captured in Taiwan.
METHODS
Capture and handling of individuals
Siberian Rubythroats were sampled during winter 2007/2008.
Between 6 November and 14 December 2007, birds were examined
in a cage-bird trade shop in Neipu township, Pingtung county,
south-west Taiwan; these had been captured by using playback to
lure them into mist-nets set along the banks of the Donggang River
and its tributaries (22.633°N 120.617°E). We arranged to be
immediately informed when birds were captured and, consequently,
individuals were sampled, measured, banded and released within
3 days or less of their arrival at the shop. Between 21 January and
27 February 2008, birds were trapped using the same technique
around the headwaters of the Nioujiaowan stream (22.633-
22.650°N 120. 417-120. 583°E) upstream of the Donggang River.
Essentially, both sets of birds were captured in the same area using
the same method but by two different groups of people.
We assumed that the measured colour and morphometric traits
and 5Df values did not change during captivity. However, we did
exclude body weight from our analyses. Blood and feather samples
along with colour and morphometric measurements were taken
from each individual when possible. However, a few individuals
developed signs of stress (e.g. open bills and fast breathing) during
handling and were released immediately, hence the unequal sample
sizes in some of our analyses.
Molecular sexing
A few drops of blood were collected from one brachial vein of each
individual using half-inch needles and capillaries and then stored
in 99% ethanol until isolation of genomic DNA. We isolated total
genomic DNA using traditional chloroform/isoamyl alcohol (24:1)
extraction and then identified the sex of each individual with the
2550F (5'-GTTACTGATTCGTCTACGAGA-3') and 2718R
(5'-ATTGAAATGATCCAGTGCTTG-3') primer set
(Fridolfsson & Ellegren 1999). We performed PCRs on iCycler
thermal cyclers (Bio-Rad) in 10-^L reaction volumes containing
about 0.5 ng of genomic DNA, 0.1 mM of each dNTP, 1 x PCR
buffer (BioScience), 0.1 U of Taq DNA polymerase (BioScience),
0.5 mM ofMgCE, and 0.2 /iM of each primer. The PCRconditions
were 95°C lor 180 s, followed by 35 cycles of 95°C for 30 s, 46°C
lor 40 s, and 72°C for 100 s. The final extension was at 72°C for
300 s. PCR products were separated in 1.2% agarose gels and
visualised by ethidium bromide staining. To minimise risk of error,
the entire procedure was repeated independently by two different
laboratory workers.
Age determination
Each individual was classified as subadult (first-winter) or adult.
Subadults have incompletely ossified skulls (Jenni& Winkler 1994)
and/or light-brown tips on the greater coverts 1-7, and tertials
which contrast with the dark brown of the remainder of the leathers
(Glutz von Blotzheim 1988, Barthel 1996, Collar 2005). However,
subadults may lose the light-brown tips through abrasion (Glutz
von Blotzheim 1988) and/or may have completely ossified skulls.
Therefore, individuals with either light-brown tips or incompletely
ossified skulls were classified as subadults; all others were classified
as adults. To ensure consistency, all age classification, colour and
morphometric measurements were conducted by H-SL.
Colour and morphometric traits
All morphometric measurements (Table 1) were taken according
to instructions detailed in banding manuals of the Taiwan Bird
Banding Center (1989) and were measured to the nearest 0. 1 mm,
except for the area of the red throat-patch which was determined
by counting the red- filled 2.5 x 2.5 mm grid squares in photographs
of each individual (Plate 1 ). When grid squares were only partially
red, each was classified visually using ten categories (red coverage
1 — 10%, 1 1-20% etc). Any ‘orange’ areas were scored as red because
the ‘orange’ is the result of a different viewing angle or a change in
ambient light. Although several authors suggested that the sub-
malar stripes are black in males and more grey-brown in females
Plate 1. Variation of red throat-patches and sub-malar stripes of
Siberian Rubythroats. (A) A typical male with dark red throat-patch and
black sub-malar stripes. Clear plastic with a grid size of 2.5x2.5 mm
was placed over the throat to estimate the area covered by red colour.
(B) An atypical female showing significant red throat-patch and strong
sub-malar stripes. (C) A typical female with a faint reddish throat-patch
and faint light-brown sub-malar stripes. A sub-malar stripe in B and
the throat-patch in C were manually framed (thin yellow lines) with
the software ImageJ to measure their grey values.
Table 1 . Colour and morpholometric traits of Siberian Rubythroats.
Two-tailed Mann-Whitney U tests were used to compare differences between males and females.
Males Females
98
GUO-JING WENG etal.
Forktail 30(2014)
(see Introduction), we noticed that the darkness of the sub-malar
stripes correlated with the darkness of the throat-patches, regardless
of sex. In order to quantify the darkness of each throat-patch and
sub -malar stripe, a front-view photo of each individual was taken.
Grey values of the throat-patch and sub-malar stripe were measured
under the red, green and blue (RGB) mode using the software
ImageJ (Schneider etal. 2012). The grey value measures the light
intensity at each pixel with black as the weakest (grey value = 0)
and white at the strongest (grey value = 255) intensity. The areas
of each throat-patch and each sub -malar stripe to be measured were
manually framed using the Freehand Selection tool in ImageJ (Plate
1). For each throat-patch, the entire area was used, including any
whitish areas. For the sub-malar stripes, only one was randomly
chosen and measured, as we assumed that the light intensity of the
two stripes was essentially equal.
Stable-hydrogen isotope analyses
We combined maps (Glutz von Blotzheim 1988, Grimmett et al.
1998, Collar 2005) of the breeding and wintering areas of Siberian
Rubythroat to create a shape-file of maximum breeding and
wintering areas using ArcGIS 9.2 software. To interpret the
geographic locations of the breeding area of Siberian Rubythroats
correctly, we needed to ensure that the collected feather samples
were actually grown in the breeding region and not later during
migration or wintering. We used three approaches to evaluate the
reliability of the feather samples.
First, we considered the published moult chronology of
Siberian Rubythroats to sample the appropriate feathers from which
to analyse 8Df. After the breeding season but before migration, adult
Siberian Rubythroats go through a complete annual moult between
August and September, while subadults moult the feathers of the
head, body, lesser coverts, medium coverts and parts of the greater
coverts 8-10 between late August and late September (Glutz von
Blotzheim 1988, Svensson 1992, Cramp 1998). Therefore, for
adults and subadults, the 8Dfvalues of the rectrices should reflect
the 5Dp of the breeding region. We collected the innermost rectrix
on the right side (Rl) from each individual. In one case, R1 had
been lost for an unknown reason. Because the replacement feather
growing at Rl could therefore not be used, we collected the first
rectrix on the left side of Rl. We refer to these feathers as ‘breeding
feathers’.
Second, it is well established that subadults grow all of their
feathers on the breeding grounds prior to migration. Therefore,
similar mean §Df values of the breeding feathers for subadults and
adults would further indicate that the breeding feathers of adults
are also grown in the breeding area and not later during migration.
On the same lines of reasoning, the SDf values of the breeding
feathers should exhibit smaller variation if they were grown in the
breeding area and larger variation if they were grown along the
migration route. We thus compared the mean and variation of 5Df
values between subadults and adults.
Third, we collected feathers from nine individuals showing signs
of recent feather growth. We refer to these feathers as ‘wintering
feathers’. If any of our breeding feathers were actually grown during
migration, we would expect to observe 8Df values for at least some
individuals which would lie somewhere between the mean §Df
value of the breeding and wintering feathers. If the arguments made
above all favour the hypothesis that all breeding feathers were
indeed grown on the breeding grounds, we could then be confident
that we could use the 8Df values of our breeding feathers to interpret
the geographic range where Siberian Rubythroats breed.
To determine the distribution of 8Dp values within the
maximum breeding and overwintering areas, we downloaded the
global mean 8Dp map of the growing season from http://
www.waterisotopes.org (Bowen et al. 2005); the resolution of its
grid squares was 20x20 geographic minutes. This growing-season
8Dp map (Figure 3) shows clear and roughly latitudinal 8Dp bands
within the maximum breeding range, without any trend from coast
to inland, which suggests that heavier (and thus less negative) §Dp
values are roughly associated with lower latitudes. Consequently,
the 5Df values of the breeding feathers should also reflect this
latitudinal patterns if the conditions above hold.
The mean 6Dp value for Pingtung county from November to
the following March was -20%o during 2005 and 2007 (C.-H. Wang
in litt. 2013) while the mean 8Df value of our wintering feathers
was -37%o, which is 17%o more depleted than the 8Dp value (see
Results). This difference of -17%o was used as the discrimination
factor to transform the growing-season 8Dp map to the map of
expected SDfvalues (Figure 4).
Fixed discrimination (actors have been widely used for assigning
migratory species to their breeding area, e.g. Northern Pintails Anas
acuta breeding in Alaska (Yerkes et al. 2008) where water sources
are probably as variable as in the breeding area of Siberian
Rubythroats. Similarly, Perez et al. (2010) assigned waterbirds
moulting in north-central Mongolia to their breeding region using
a fixed discrimination factor of -28%o calculated for North
American waterfowl by Clark et al. (2006). We also used a
discrimination factor but, unlike Perez et al. (2010), we derived it
from our own data, specifically -17%o as explained above.
We thus subtracted 17%o from each grid square of our growing-
season SDp map (Figure 3) to derive a map of the potential breeding
area of Siberian Rubythroats (Figure 4) within the maximum
breeding range. We then colour-labelled those grid squares whose
value matched the mean 8Dt value of our breeding feathers as well
as those grid squares which fell (1) within one standard error, (2)
within the 95% confidence interval of the mean 8Df value and (3)
within the total range of the 8Df of the breeding feathers, to rank
each grid square for its likelihood as the location where these
feathers were actually grown.
After collection, all feathers were soaked in a 2:1
chloroform: methanol solution to remove surface oil and dirt; then
each sample was air-dried and then weighed to 0.5 mg before
analysis (Wassenaar & Hobson 2000, Norris et al. 2006). The
samples were analysed at the Stable Isotope Facility, University of
California, Davis. There, feather samples and four keratin standards
with known values of non-exchangeable hydrogen (BWB, CFS,
CHS and CH 1 ) were stored in a vacuum desiccator to equilibrate
the exchangeable hydrogen in feather samples and standards. The
Heckatech HT Oxygen Analyzer, interfaced to a continuous-flow
Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometer (IRMS) known as PDZ Europa
20-20 (Sercon Ltd., Cheshire, UK), was used for the analysis during
which the keratin standards and the standard VSMOW (Vienna
Standard Mean Ocean Water), which has no exchangeable
hydrogen with - 1 20%o (NBS22), were used to adjust for the stable-
hydrogen isotope ratios of the feather samples.
Statistical analyses
Since some data relating to colour, morphometric and feather
measurements were not normally distributed, the Mann-Whitney
U test was used to test for differences between two groups, while
the Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) was used to evaluate
correlation between two variables. We also used a non-parametric
one-sample sign-test to test for a general trend in the direction of
correlations between latitude and measures of body size. We used
SPSS 12.0 tor these analyses.
To choose the optimal model for sex determination of Siberian
Rubythroats, we used the logistic regression procedure with the
stepwise effect-selection method in SAS 9.0, whereby the binary
dependent variable sex was regressed against nine independent
variables, namely the seven morphometric traits (Table 1), the red
throat-patch area (Table 1) and the grey value (Figure 1).
Independent variables were added to the model when p < 0.05 and
Forktail 30 (2014) Molecular sexing and stable isotope analyses of Siberian Rubythroats Luscinio calliope in Taiwan
99
were excluded from the model when p > 0.35. Once some of these
independent variables had been selected by this logistic regression
model, these same variables were then used in a discriminant analysis
for sex determination. We also conducted a cross-validation to
evaluate the performance of the discriminant function. The
individual to be validated was not included when we calculated
the respective discriminant function, and this discriminant function
was then used to determine the sex of this omitted individual.
RESULTS
Sex determination using DNA analyses
A total of 56 individuals (8 from mist-nets, 48 from the cage-bird
trade shop) were captured. Genetic sexing identified 39 males and
17 females (Table 2), with the results from the two independent
laboratory workers agreeing completely.
Table 2. Variation of the colour of the throat-patch among sex and
age categories in Siberian Rubythroats. The red and white categories
meant that > 95% of the throat-patch was either red or white, and all
other individuals fell into the red-and-white category.
Morphometric and colour traits
No significant differences in morphometric or colour traits (Table
1) were found between the birds captured by the authors (n = 8)
and by the cage-bird shop owners (n — 48) except for tail length —
cage-bird shop birds had marginally longer tails (U = 136.0, p =
0.04). We therefore lumped all individuals together. All medians
and means of our eight traits were greater for male than for female;
moreover, ali differences were statistically significant at thep < 0.05
level except for bill length (Table 1). However, there was always
some overlap : the maximum female measurement was always greater
than the minimum male measurement but always smaller than the
maximum male measurement. The minimum female measurement
was always smaller than the minimum male measurement, except
for bill length (Table 1).
Classifying the throat-patch colouration into three types, we
observed that 43 of the 56 individuals (76.8%) had red throat-
patches (Table 2). All males fell into this category, but also one
subadult and three adult females. The nine individuals with red-
and-white throats (16.1%) and the four with white throats (7.1%)
were all females (Table 2). Thus, if individuals with red patches
had been identified exclusively as males and individuals with red-
and-white patches or white patches exclusively as females, 7.1% of
all individuals and 23.5% of all females would have been incorrectly
sexed. Twenty-eight subadult males (100%) but only one subadult
female (10%) had red throat-patches (Table 2), indicating that, at
least for males, the red throat-patch appeared in their first winter
and was not a good indicator of age at this time of year, in
accordance with Barthel (1996).
In both sexes the average area of the red throat-patch was larger
in adults than in subadults, but these differences were not
statistically significant in either sex (male: U = 271.0, p = 0.11;
female: U = 65.5, p = 0.81), which is due to the large overlap in
values (Figure 2). The grey value of the throat -patch was positively
correlated with the grey value of the sub-malar stripe (« = 5 6, r =
0.73, p < 0.0001; Figure l).This relationship was slightly stronger
for females in = 17, r - 0.72, p = 0.002) than for males [n = 39, r =
0.44, p = 0.005). Figure 1 further illustrates that, in general, males
have significantly darker throat-patches and sub-malar stripes than
females but again with some overlap (U = 668 and 742, p = 0.001
and < 0.0001, respectively). Variation of grey values was larger in
females than in males for throat-patch (s.d. = 45.2 and 19.9
respectively) and for sub-malar stripe (s.d. = 32.2 and 22.4
respectively) (Figure 1). In both sexes, there was no statistically
significant difference for the grey values of the throat-patch or the
sub-malar stripe between subadults and adults (Mann-Whitney
U tests, all p > 0.08; Figure 1).
Figure 1 . Relationship between the grey values of the red throat-patch
and the grey values of the sub-malar stripe of Siberian Rubythroats
(filled circle = adult male, open circle = subadult male, closed triangle
= adult female, open triangle = subadult female). Possible grey values
range from 0 (black) to 255 (white), whereby the corresponding
gradation bars show that lower grey values appear darker in vision.
The lower-left and upper-right crosses show the means and standard
deviations for males and females, respectively.
250
200
Figure 2. Relationship between the red throat-patch area and the wing
length of Siberian Rubythroats (same symbols as in Figure 1). The
values of two females overlap at zero red throat-patch area and 75
mm wing length.
84
• © GOO •
80 o o % 9
o o © «
CO o o o
00
o o ooo o o
•
A A A • CO
76 A A o o
A A
AAA AX' O
A O
A
A
72 A
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Red throat patch area (mm2)
100
GUO-JINGWENG etal.
Forktail 30 (2014)
Table 3. An example of one of the possible logistic regression models
to distinguish the sexes of Siberian Rubythroats. Because a gap exists
between males and females in Figure 2, a maximum likelihood estimate
does not exist and therefore the logistic equation is not unique; rather,
many different possibilities exist, of which the one below is one
example. Negative values always identify males and positive values
always identify females correctly (number of observations = 47).
The logistic regression identified two independent variables
which correlated with the binary dependent variable sex, namely
red throat -patch area and wing length (Table 3). This function
yielded a 100% accuracy of sex determination because negative
values resulting from the application of the logistic regression
function always identified males correctly, and positive values
always females correctly. Accordingly, plotting red throat-patch area
versus wing length shows clearly separated clusters of males and
females, although it also shows the considerable overlap between
the sexes for both variables when they are considered by themselves
(Figure 2).
Using red throat-patch area and wing length as independent
variables, a quadratic discriminant function was established which
misclassified two males and one female in cross-validation, which
amounts to an error rate of 5.1% in identifying males and 5.9% in
identifying females. The cross-validation failed to identify sexes as
perfectly as the logistic regression model because the two
misidentified males had relatively short wing lengths (75 mm) while
the misidentified female had a relatively long wing length (77 mm).
The cross-validation thus showed that male and female Siberian
Rubythroats could not always be reliably identified within a
discriminant function.
Isotope analysis
The 5Df values of the breeding feathers did not diff er signif icantly
between the sex and age categories with an overall mean ± s.d. of
-99.9%o ± 12.0%o (Table 4; sex comparison: U = 540.0, p = 0.64;
age comparison: U = 527.5, p = 0.44). Indeed, the mean 8Dfvalues
of the breeding feathers from adults and subadults were almost
identical (Table 4), suggesting that all individuals originated from
similar regions (see Methods). Furthermore, if any of the breeding
feathers were grown outside the breeding range, we would see a
larger s.d. of 8Df for adults than for subadults (see Methods), but
adults possessed a smaller s.d. than subadults (Table 4). Finally, our
wintering feathers (mean ± s.d.: -37.0%o ± 7.7%o, range: -45%o to
-23%o) differed substantially from the breeding feathers in terms
of mean, s.d., and range of 5Df values (Table 4). If any of the
breeding feathers had been grown during migration, we should have
found §Df values somewhere between -99.9 and -37.0%o, as
explained in the Methods. These facts thus support the hypothesis
that all breeding feathers were indeed grown in the breeding area
and can be used to pinpoint the breeding region using the growing-
season §Dp map (Figure 3) and our discrimination factor.
The derived map of the potential breeding areas of Siberian
Rubythroats overwintering in Taiwan shows that, except for the
most westerly part of the published breeding range, the potential
breeding area identified by the most likely grids is located mostly
in the southern part of the maximum breeding range (Figure 4).
As estimates of overall body size, we chose five of our seven
morphometric traits (Table 1). We randomly excluded one of the
two measurements of wing length and excluded bill length because
it is not well correlated with overall body size. Correlating these
five measurements with the mean 8Df values of the breeding
Table 4. Sample size (n), mean ± standard deviation, minimum and
maximum 5Df values of the breeding feathers collected from Siberian
Rubythroats of different ages and sexes.
Figure 3. Distribution of the 8Dp values across the published maximum breeding region (outlined in blue) of the Siberian Rubythroat.
60'0'0"E
X
90 0X)"H
A
120WE
X
1 50"0'0"E
L
TOW
50'0'0"N
300'0"N
IOWiV'
o Breeding range
□ 6D-999
□ -998 to -160
□ -159 to -150
□ -149 to -140
□ -139 to -130
| -129 to -120
B -119 to -110
Q -109 to -100
□ -99 to -90
B -89 to -80
B -79 to -70
B -69 to -60
B -59 to -50
B -49 to -40
B -39 to -30
B -29 to -20
□ -19 to -10
□ -9-0
□ o-io
□ 11 to 20
1.100 2.200
4.400
6.600
a Kilometers
Forktail 30 (2014) Molecular sexing and stable isotope analyses of Siberian Rubythroats Luscinia calliope in Taiwan
101
60‘0'0"E
-l
70WH-
50'0'0"N-
30'0'0"N-
10WN*
0 1,100 2.200
Wintering range
FI Breeding range
| 5Df Mean (-99.9%o)
H 6Df MeantSE (-101.5%. to -98.3%o)
□ 6Df 95% Cl (-103.1%. to -967%.)
□ 6Df Total (-126%. to -72%.)
4,400 6,600
— . . . . 1 Kilometers
Figure 4. Map of the potential
breeding area of Siberian
Rubythroats overwintering in
Taiwan. The published maximum
overwintering and breeding
ranges of the Siberian Rubythroat
are outlined in lightblueand blue,
respectively. Only those grid
squares within the maximum
breeding range which were equal
to the mean 8Df value of the
breeding feathers (dark green),
within one standard error (green),
within the 95% confidence
interval (light green) around the
mean, or within the total range of
8Df values of the breeding
feathers (pale green), have been
coloured.
Table 5. Correlations between five body size measurements and mean
8Df values of breeding feathers taken from Siberian Rubythroats
captured in Taiwan (r= Pearson's correlation coefficient; p = p-value;
n = sample size). Eighteen of 20 correlations were negative (one sample
sign-test, p = 0.0004), meaning that there was an overall significant
trend that larger individuals originated from higher latitudes (which
are associated with lower SDf values), even if only two of the 20
correlations themselves had an associated p-value < 0.05.
feathers, there is a general trend for larger individuals to have lower
mean 8Df values (Table 5), which are roughly associated with higher
latitudes (Figure 4).
DISCUSSION
Through the use of relatively novel molecular techniques, we were
able for the first time to reliably test how male and female Siberian
Rubythroats differ in colour and morphometric traits as well as to
determine the potential breeding grounds of individuals captured
in Taiwan.
Our results demonstrate that neither the size nor the colour of
the red throat-patch nor the bordering sub-malar stripes are reliable
field marks for sexing Siberian Rubythroats, particularly females.
Whilst males overall have larger and darker throat-patches and
darker sub-malar stripes, there is overlap between males and females
and therefore scope for misidentification. The same is true for all
morphometric traits which cannot be used in isolation to reliably
sex individuals. We emphasise that these results are novel because
this is the first study based on reliable sexing techniques. Therefore,
previous studies (Glutz von Blotzheim 1988, Svensson 1992,
Barthel 1996, Cramp 1998, Pagenkopf 2003) which described
colour and morphometric differences between the sexes should now
be viewed cautiously, as some individuals may have been
misiden tilled il sexing was not based on additional sexing methods,
e.g. song, brood-patch or sexual organs.
While a logistic regression without cross-validation was able to
reliably sex individuals, this result could not be repeated with a
discriminant function analysis, which is the standard procedure for
sex discrimination. Further studies should test whether these results
would change when sample sizes are increased or when different
populations are sampled.
Previous studies have claimed that fledglings within their first
year of life have no or almost no red in their throat-patches,
regardless of sex (Glutz von Blotzheim 1988, Bergmann 2001),
although Barthel (1996) differed in claiming that subadult males
already have red throats during the autumn of their first year while
maintaining their light-brown feather tips. Barthel’s claim is
supported by our findings that both subadult and adult males have
red throat-patches, while subadult and adult females may have
white, red-and-white or red throat-patches (Table 2).
Bergmann (2001) claimed that the red throat colouration is
dependent on nutrition and possibly exposure to sunlight, as captive
birds lose most/all of the throat s red colouration after their moult.
This effect is well known from other species (Hudson 1994). If age
is not an important determining factor lor the area and darkness of
the red throat-patch, as our results suggest, then perhaps the red
throat-patch is a signal which indicates the capability of its bearer
to obtain the required carotenoid-containing foods (Olson &
Owens 1998, Senar & Escobar 2002, Saks et al. 2003, Griggio et
al. 2007).
Despite the conclusion that the colour and morphometric traits
discussed above cannot by themselves (but possibly in combination)
reliably sex individuals in every case, our study lends support to
previous studies which revealed that, on average, males are larger
102
GUO-JINGWENG etal.
Forktail 30 (2014)
and have larger and darker red throat-patches and darker sub-malar
stripes. Therefore, besides the obvious colour dimorphism of the
throat area, there is indeed also a slight size dimorphism in the
species. Owens & Hartley (1998) found that differences in size
dimorphism were associated with variation in social mating system
and sex difference in parental care, while differences in plumage-
colour dimorphism were associated with variation in the frequency
of extra-pair paternity. Thus social mating system, parental care and
extra-pair paternity could all play a role in the evolution of the
Siberian Rubythroat’s body size and colours. The closely related
Bluethroat Luscinia svecica has already been used to investigate the
relation between colouration and male and female mate choice, mate
guarding and sperm competition (Amundsen et al. 1997, Johnsen
etal. 1 998, 2003). In the future, Asian ornithologists should perhaps
consider using the Siberian Rubythroat to study these topics.
Since the mean and variation of our 5Df values of the breeding
and wintering feathers met the conditions set out in our Methods,
we are confident that the breeding feathers were all grown within
the breeding area. Furthermore, the s.d. values of our breeding
feathers (Table 4) were comparable with those reported from
feathers grown at similar latitudes by other bird species examined
in Europe (Hobson etal. 2004); 25 species, s.d. = 1.0-10.6%o) and
North America (Hobson & Wassenaar 1997); 6 species, s.d. = 4.0-
11.0%o), indicating that Siberian Rubythroats overwintering in
Taiwan originated from a relatively restricted latitudinal range. Based
on their studies in North America, Farmer et al. (2008) stated that
‘two samples that differ by less than 31%o cannot be confidently
said to originate from different latitudes’. The 5Dt values of our
breeding feathers ranged from -126%o to -72%o, thus spanning
approximately 54%o, which means that our samples should span
about 2° of latitude. The relatively small s.d. and range of our 5Df
values thus suggest that the actual breeding range of Siberian
Rubythroats overwintering in Taiwan could be even more restricted
than Figure 4 suggests.
Our map of the potential breeding area of Siberian Rubythroats
(Figure 4) suggests that birds overwintering in Taiwan originate
only from the southern part of the published breeding range, except
for the most westerly regions. Given that Taiwan is located at the
most northerly part of the documented overwintering range, this
result suggests possible leap-frog migration (Kelly et al. 2002,
Paxton etal. 2007, Reichlin £7v?/. 20 10), whereby the most northerly
breeding populations migrate to the most southerly overwintering
regions and thereby literally leap over those populations which
migrate the least latitudinal distance from breeding to
overwintering regions. Therefore, it would be interesting to repeat
this analysis for other overwintering populations within east Asia
to reliably establish the linkages between various breeding and
overwintering areas.
Given that there is a rough correlation between 5Dp and
latitude (Figure 3), our results (Table 5) also suggest that larger
individuals breed at higher latitudes. Such a correlation is in
agreement with Bergmann’s rule (Bergmann 1847, Futuyma2009).
However, as discussed above, our Siberian Rubythroats probably
originated from within only 2° of latitude. This finding should
therefore also be corroborated by further studies of other
overwintering populations within east Asia.
Modern molecular techniques, in combination with older
techniques such as colour and morphometric measurements, thus
shed interesting new insights into the morphology and ecology of
Siberian Rubythroats.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Chung-Ho Wang for providing the hydrogen isotopic composition
of the precipitation in Pingtung county, Yu-Cheng Hsu for assisting in DNA
sex determination, Andrew Gosler, Klaus Michalek, Roger Riddington, Susan
Samuel and Norbert SchSffer for providing references, and Tsai-Yu Wu for
help with translation and with information on migratory birds in Taiwan.
BAW was financially supported by a grant from Taipei Medical University.
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Guo-Jing WENG, Institute of Wildlife Conservation, National
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Hui-Shan LIN, Institute of Wildlife Conservation, National
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Taiwan. Email: blackkite588@yahoo.com.tw
Yuan-Hsun SUN, Institute of Wildlife Conservation, National
Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung 912,
Taiwan. Email: ysun@mail.npust.edu.tw
Bruno A. WALTHER, Master Program in Global Health and
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FORKTAIL 30 (2014): 104-108
Migration routes and stopover sites of Pallas's Gulls
Larus ichthyaetus breeding at Qinghai Lake, China,
determined by satellite tracking
ZHANG GUO-GANG, LIU DONG-PING, HOU YUN-QIU, JIANG HONG-XING, DAI MING, QIAN FA-WEN, LU JUN, MATIAN,
CHEN LI-XIA, XING ZHI & LI FENG-5HAN
The migration routes, stopover sites, wintering areas, and site fidelity of five Pallas's Gulls captured in July 2006 at Qinghai Lake, Qinghai,
western China, are documented. Each gull was captured after the breeding season using leg nooses and fitted with a 1 2 g solar-powered
Platform Transmitter Terminal. One bird died within a month of capture near the release site, two birds completed the return journey
between the breeding and wintering grounds on three occasions, and two birds completed the return migration twice. After departing
from Qinghai Lake, migration to the wintering areas took an average of 99 days and covered a mean distance of 2,990 km. Return migration
to Qinghai Lake in spring averaged 38 days and covered a mean distance of 2,556 km. In 2006-2009, the gulls left the breeding grounds
between 2 and 1 4 August, stopping at 1 4 sites en route to the wintering areas, which they reached between 3 November and 3 December.
In 2007-2009, returning birds departed from the wintering areas and stopped at 1 2 sites before reaching Qinghai Lake. Wetlands at
Donggeicuona, Zhaling and Eling Lakes, Keluke Lake, Qinggeda Lakes, Xinjiang, and wetlands along the Yellow River, Ningxia, were most
extensively used. The number of Pallas's Gull breeding at Qinghai Lake has already fallen dramatically from over 87,000 in the 1970s to
about 1 5,000 in present times. Rapid economic development on the Qinghai-Tibet plateau (Qinghai province and the Tibet autonomous
region), particularly for tourism, poses serious threats to the fragile ecosystems associated with the wetlands where gulls stop over, with
some wetlands became unsuitable for the gulls during the period of this study. Conservation measures must be put in place urgently to
protect the fragile wetland ecosystems on the Qinghai-Tibet plateau.
INTRODUCTION
The Pallas’s (or Great Black-headed) Gull Larus ichthyaetus breeds
from the Danube Delta in Romania eastwards across large areas of
Central Asia to western China, where the lakes of the Qinghai-
Tibet plateau hold most of the Chinese breeding population (Liao
etal. 1984, Jian et al. 1991, Wang 1991). It breeds on small islands,
often in large numbers, and forages primarily on these lakes; other
islands and shorelines serve as daytime roosts. Qinghai Lake, lying
on the northern part of the Qinghai-Tibet plateau at 3,260 m, is
home to approximately 15,000 Pallas’s Gulls (Liao etal. 1984, Zhang
et al. 2008a).
With a total area of 4,392 km2, Qinghai Lake is the largest saline
lake in China and one of the most important breeding and stopover
sites for waterbirds along the Central Asia-India Flyway (Zhang
& Yang 1997). Attempts have been made to determine where Pallas’s
Gulls from Qinghai Lake spend the winter, and a total of 711
fledglings were marked with metal rings in the period 1983-1985.
Of these, just two were recovered; one at Liuyuan, Gansu province,
China, and the other in Assam, India, this latter location being an
important stopover site during autumn migration (Zhang & Yang
1997, Muzaffar et al. 2008). To further our understanding of the
migration routes followed. Platform Transmitter Terminals (PTTs)
were fitted to five Pallas’s Gulls at Qinghai Lake in July 2006 and
their movements monitored until January 2010. The specific
objectives of this study were to: ( 1) determine migration routes and
stopover sites used by Pallas’s Gulls breeding at Qinghai Lake; (2)
explore possibilities in changing migration routes; (3) determine
wintering locations; (4) document fidelity at major stopover sites.
This research will contribute to the conservation of the wetlands
on the Qinghai-Tibet plateau, areas that have been threatened by
human encroachment leading to habitat damage in recent years.
STUDY AREA AND METHODS
Capture sites
At Qinghai Lake, Pallas’s Gulls nest on two islands — about 1,400
birds on Haixinshan and 14,000 on Sankuaishi (Zhang et al.
2008a) — and forage at Quanwan, Buhahekou, Sankuaishi and
Heimahe (Zhang et al. 2008b). Five PTTs were fitted, two to birds
captured at Quanwan (36.945°N 99.623°E), one at Buhahekou
(36.958°N 99.837°E) and two at Sankuaishi (36.797°N 99.9 1 8°E).
Gull capture, harnessing and transmitters
In order to avoid disturbing nesting birds and fledglings in May
and June, the birds were captured in July during the post-breeding
period using leg nooses (Zhang et al. 2008b). Each bird was fitted
with a solar-powered PTT ( 12 g Microwave Telemetry PTT- 100),
weighing 0.6-0. 8% of the bird’s body mass, and released
immediately. PTTs were attached dorsally between the wings by
fashioning a harness of 0.6 cm wide Teflon ribbon (Nagendran et
al. 1994). This timetable allowed the gulls time to adjust to their
transmitters before migration. The birds were identified as Gl to
G5. Duty cycles for all PTTs were 10 hours on, 48 hours off
(Table 1).
Satellite location data and statistical analysis
The Argos location and data collection system (ARGOS 2007) was
used to track movements of the gulls. Location classes (LC) were
used to reflect location accuracy (ARGOS 2007). Collecte
Localisation Satellites (CLS) report a 1 -sigma error radius of
Table 1. Details of Pallas's Gulls fitted with PTTs at Qinghai Lake,
Qinghai, China.
*Duty cycles for all PTTs were 1 0 hours on/48 hours off.
Forktail 30 (2014)
Migration routes and stopover sites of Pallas's Gulls breeding at Qinghai Lake, China
105
1,000 m, 350-1,000 m, 150-350 m, and 150 m for LC 0, 1,2, and
3, respectively. Auxiliary LCs A, B, and Z are not assigned accuracy
estimates by CLS (Takekawa et al. 2010). As recommended by
Keating et al. (1991) and ARGOS (2007), only LCs 3, 2, 1 and 0
were used in this study to determine migration routes, so an
accuracy of 1,000 m for all data is assumed for LC 1 and above.
According to the duty cycle of the PTTs and a study by Takekawa
et al. (2010), a migratory stopover site was defined as an area where
birds moved less than 20 km in a time period e” 48 hours.
Because the PTTs did not transmit continuously, the date of
departure and arrival was defined as the median date between the
last point at the previous location and the first point at the new
location (Zhang et al. 201 la). If the gap between dates was greater
than ten days due to no data or LCs A, B, and Z data received from
ARGOS, then departure or arrival dates, or length of stay, were
not calculated (Martell etal. 200 1 ). We used the c2-test to determine
significant differences in the migration distances of the tagged gulls
between years. The LCs 3, 2, 1 and 0 were also used in kernel density
analysis on locations to establish home range selection at some
important stopover sites.
RESULTS
Of the five Pallas’s Gulls tracked, four left Qinghai Lake successfully,
while one died close to the site where it was released, most likely
from avian predation (Table 1). Of the four surviving gulls, two
completed autumn and spring migration on three occasions, and
the other two completed autumn and spring migration twice.
Migration timing
In each year from 2006 to 2009, the gulls departed from their
breeding areas between 2 and 14 August and spent an average of
99 days on migration or at stopover sites (range 81-1 16 days) before
arriving at wintering grounds between 3 November and 3 December
(Tables 2 & 3). From 2007 to 2009, birds departed from their
wintering sites between 18 February and 30 March and migrated
north-eastwards for an average of 38 days (range 7-69), and
returned to Qinghai Lake between 23 March and 2 May.
Autumn migration routes
In autumn, the gulls departed the breeding areas in four different
directions (south-west, west, north-west and north-east). During
Table 2. Departure and arrival dates of Pallas's Gulls tagged with PTTs
during 2006-2009 at Qinghai Lake, Qinghai, China.
A = Could not be determined due to insufficient data.
Table 3. Stopover sites and length of stay of Pallas's Gulls tagged with
PTTs at Qinghai Lake, Qinghai, China during 2006-2009.
A = could not be determined due to insufficient data.
the monitoring period (2006-2009), Gl and G2 completed a full
annual migration cycle (both autumn and spring) three times, G3
and G4 completed it twice. Three gulls (G2, G3, G4) dispersed
and wandered for over two months to wetlands to the west and
north of Qinghai Lake, including Keluke Lake, Qinghai (250 km
west of Qinghai Lake, average duration of stay 43 days), Qinggeda
Lake, Xinjiang (1,300 km north-west of Qinghai Lake, average 68
days), Hongyashan reservoir, Gansu (290 km south-east to Qinghai
Lake, 79 days), and Yellow River wetlands, Ningxia (550 km north¬
west of Qinghai Lake, 17 days) (see Figures 1-4). All four gulls
flew over the T’ang-ku-la mountains, passed by the Qiangtang
wetlands in Tibet, such as Hangcuo Lake (5 days) in Nagqu, Tibet,
and then crossed the FFimalayas to reach wintering sites on the
shores of the Bay of Bengal.
The Bay of Bengal, with extensive areas of coastal mudflats, is
an important wintering site for Pallas’s and other gull species, from
early November to mid-March. The birds favour areas close to
Chittagong, Magdhara, Bhubaneswar, Rajahmundry and Dhamra.
Spring migration routes
After departing from their wintering areas, the gulls migrated north¬
east and crossed the Himalayas before entering Tibet, where they
paused briefly before crossing the T’ang-ku-la mountains. At this
point, G 1, G2 and G3 paused at sites where they had lingered during
post-breeding dispersal: Gl at the Yellow River wetland in Ningxia
for between 21 and 26 days, G2 at Keluke Lake for between 26 and
66 days and G3 at Hongyashan reservoir in Gansu for 12 days. The
other bird, G4, stopped at Longyangxia reservoir for three days
and Keluke Lake for several days before returning to Qinghai Lake.
Migration distances
After departing from Qinghai Lake, the tagged gulls stopped at up
to four sites and travelled an average of 2,990 km (range 1,81 0—
3,980 km) before reaching their wintering areas. Distances travelled
were not significantly different between years for the same tagged
individuals (Table 4) (c:= 0, df - 3, p = 1.000), while they were
significantly different among the marked gulls in the same year or
106
ZHANG GUO-GANG etal.
Forktail 30(2014)
Figure 1. Migration routes and stop-over sites of Pallas's Gull (G1 )from
autumn 2006 to winter 2009.
90 WE 93'0,0“E 90°0'0"E 99*0'0"E 102 WE l05'ff0"E I08'ff0"E
Figure 2. Migration routes and stop-over sites of Pallas's Gull (G2) from
autumn 2006 to autumn 2009.
Figure 3. Migration routes and stop-over sites of Pallas's Gull (G3) from Figure 4. Migration routes and stop-over sites of Pallas's Gull (G4)from
autumn 2006 to spring 2008. spring 2007 to spring 2008.
Forktail 30(2014)
Migration routes and stopover sites of Pallas's Gulls breeding at Qinghai Lake, China
107
Table 4. Distances travelled by Pallas's Gulls tagged with PTTs at
Qinghai Lake, Qinghai, China, during autumn and spring migration.
A = could not be determined due to insufficient data.
between years if = 10.829, df = 9,p = 0.007). Gulls G2 and G4
travelled much further — 3,307km and 3,900 km respectively — than
G1 (average 1,900 km) (Table 4).
During spring migration, one or two stopover sites were used,
and the mean distance travelled was 2,556 km (range 1,980-2,970
km) before reaching their breeding area. As in autumn migration,
the distances travelled during spring migration were not
significantly different between years for the same individuals (c2 =
0, df- 3 ,p - 1.000), but were significantly different among different
gulls in the same year or between years if = 10.024, df= 9, p =
0.009). The distance travelled by G1 (mean 2,917km) and G3
(mean 2,720 km) was substantially more than by G2 (mean
2,277km),) and G4 (mean 2,270 km) (Table 4).
Fidelity to stopover sites
After leaving Qinghai Lake, a variety of stopover sites were selected
by the gulls (Table 3, Figures 1-4) These sites included
Donggeicuona Lake (Gl, August and September), Zhaling and
ElingLake (Gl, October), Keluke Lake (G2, August), Yellow River
wetlands (G3, October) and Qinggeda Lake (G4, September and
October)) during the autumn migration, and the Yellow River
wetlands (Gl, March April) and Keluke Lake (G2, March April)
during the spring migration, indicating strong stopover site fidelity
by the gulls. But stopover duration varied greatly between
individuals and/ or between different years for the same individuals.
For example, G2 stayed at Keluke Lake for 88 days during autumn
2006, but for just 19 days in 2007 and 21 days in 2008, before
heading north-west to the Qinggeda Lake, Xinjiang, where it
remained for over one month between August and October in 2007
and 2008 (Table 3).
DISCUSSION
In the 1970s, Pallas’s Gull nested at five sites at Qinghai Lake
(Haixinshan, Sankuaishi, Niao island, Sha island and Luci island)
and the numbers breeding were much higher than those found
during this study. For example, Liao et al. ( 1 984) reported 12,150
nests at Niao island and 14,000 nests at Luci island, while Li et al.
(1989) reported over 87,500 gulls in July at Qinghai Lake. Zhang
et al. (2008a) did not record any nests at Niao island, Sha island, or
Luci island. During this study, in all 15,400 breeding birds were
counted at Haixinshan and Sankuaishi, indicating that the breeding
population in this area has decreased dramatically.
Two gulls marked with metal rings at Qinghai Lake in the early
1980s have been recovered: one at Liuyuan in Gansu, western
China, in October 1983 and the other in Assam, north-east India,
in March 1984 (Zhang & Yang 1997), the latter being an important
stopover site (Muzaffar et al. 2008). Based on the finding from the
present study, we suspect the Liuyuan bird probably died during a
stopover en-route to Xinjiang. The Assam bird, also found dead,
may have left the Bay of Bengal, a known major wintering site
(Zhang & Yang 1997, Muzaffar et al. 2008) and died while
returning to the breeding grounds.
The gulls depart in groups at different times over a period of
about a month. After departing from Qinghai Lake, some gulls did
not fly south immediately to their wintering sites, but wandered in
nearby areas for as long as a month. Natural wetland habitats, such
as Zhaling and Eling Lakes at Madoi, Qinghai, are virtually
unaffected by human activites (Hong et al. 2008), while other sites
which were utilised for short stopovers, such as the Yellow River
wetlands, Hongyashan reservoir and Qinggeda Lake, are facing
serious challenges and threats, including over-fishing, water
development projects and tourism (Wei & Guo 2000, Song et al.
2003, Yao et al. 2008).
It is well known that animals may change their migration routes
due to environmental deterioration at stopover sites, especially those
relating to human disturbance, habitat loss and decrease in food
resources (Shepherd & Boates 1999, Schaub & Jenni 2001). In this
study, G2 changed its migration routes during autumn migration
in 2007, when a road around Keluke Lake was extended into its
home range there (Zhang et al. 2011b). The road improvement
was aimed at increasing local income by attracting more tourists,
but with the increase in the number of tourists, land vehicles, boats
and yachts, the lake is no longer suitable for foraging gulls (Hao &
Ju 201 1, Zhang et al. 201 lb).
During spring migration, higher-altitude wetlands such as
Donggeicuona, Zhaling and Eling lakes are ice-covered and gulls
are unable to forage. Instead, they fly directly to more suitable sites
in warmer areas and at lower altitude, such as the Yellow River
wetlands and Keluke Lake, before reaching Qinghai Lake (Figure
1-4). Migration routes and the duration of stopover periods on
the Qinghai-Tibet plateau primarily depend on external factors,
in particular the prevailing weather conditions that may enable or
prevent foraging, especially at higher altitudes (Eichhorn et al.
2009, Koppen etal. 2010). For example, the duration of stay by Gl
and G2 at Keluke Lake and the Yellow River wetlands during spring
migration was possibly related to ground surface temperature at
Qinghai Lake.
There is little or no persecution of Pallas’s Gulls in the breeding
areas by the indigenous Tibetan people who traditionally consume
‘neither fish nor fowl,’ and wildlife hunting is contrary to their
religious belief. Waterbirds and wetlands surveys on the Qinghai-
Tibet plateau in 2006-2011 revealed that wetland degradation on
the plateau was caused mainly by mineral exploration in major
wetlands in Shenzha county, Nagqu prefecture, as well as other
areas, together with related road development and wetland
drainage, critically threatening the plateau’s fragile wetland
ecosystem (Ying et al. 2009), to the extent that some wetlands are
no longer suitable for breeding waterbirds (Yu et al. 2011). In
addition, proposed petroleum extraction and airport construction
by local governments in this region pose further threats to the
wetlands and waterbirds, leading to increasing conflict with wildlife
and wetlands conservation. It seems inevitable that further
economic development in the Changtang region will take place
(Sun et al. 2011, Lai et al. 2012).
As tourism continues to expand the local standard of living will
continue to rise, with local governments continuing to invest
enthusiastically in infrastructure and urban expansion on the
Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (Jian et al. 2011). If unregulated and
unchecked this will lead to damage and drainage of wetlands. As
remaining wetlands and other wildlife habitats become fragmented,
wildlife will find survival increasingly difficult. To protect the fragile
wetland ecosystem on the Qinghai-Tibet plateau, it is
recommended all development projects are carefully planned,
reviewed and managed. Development of some areas used for
breeding and stopovers during migration, such as Zhaling Lake,
Eling Lake and Keluke Lake, must be restricted or prohibited, and
108
ZHANG GUO-GANG etal.
Forktail 30 (2014)
these vital habitats preserved so that the long-term survival of gulls
and other wildlife can be secured.
A study of factors that may have been responsible for the decline
in Pallas’s Gull breeding numbers is needed. One possible reason
lor this decline is increasing human disturbance at Qinghai Lake,
including the impact of increasing numbers of tourists during the
breeding season from May to August — for example, activities now
include an annual international cycle race held over two weeks in
July.
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ZHANG Guo-Gang, LIU Dong-Ping, HOU Yun-Qiu, JIANG
Hong-Xing, DAI Ming, QIAN Fa-Wen, LUJun, MA Tian & CHEN
Li-Xia, Research Institute of Forest Ecology and Environment
Protection, Key Laboratory of Forest Protection of State Forestry
Administration, National Bird Banding Center of China, Chinese
Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China (corresponding
author Hou Yun-Qiu Email: houyg@caf.ac.cn)
XING Zhi, Qinghai Lake National Nature Reserve, Xining,
Qinghai 25700, China
LI Feng-Shan, International Crane Foundation, E-l 1 376 Shady
Lane Road, Bara boo, Wisconsin 53913, USA
FORKTAIL 30 (2014): 109-121
Ringing and ornithological exploration in north-east
Bangladesh wetlands
PHILIP D. ROUND, ENAM UL HAQUE, NICK DYMOND, ANDREW J. PIERCE & PAUL M.THOMPSON
Weights and biometric information are presented for 1,582 birds of 66 species ringed during four joint Bangladesh bird club-The Wetland
Trust expeditions to three wetland Important Bird Areas in north-east Bangladesh between March 201 1 and March 201 3. Comprehensive
checklists of bird species recorded at each site, Hail Haor (including Baikka Beel), Pashua Haor andTanguar Haor, are appended. The species
caught and ringed included seven that were additions to the country's avifauna: Chestnut-crowned Bush Warbler Cettia major, Aberrant
Bush Warbler C. flavolivacea, Grey-sided Bush Warbler C. brunnifrons, David's Bush Warbler Bradypterus davidi, Large-billed Reed Warbler
Acrocephalus orinus, Oriental Reed Warbler A. orientalis and Sykes's Warbler Iduna rama. The 1 1 Firethroats Luscinia pectardens caught and
ringed suggest that this species is an annual winter visitor to the north-east of South Asia. These findings underscore the conservation
importance of these major wetlands, all of which remain threatened by human exploitation. Only Baikka Beel and Tanguar Haor receive a
measure of formal protection. Extending protection to reed, scrub and swamp forest habitats in all haors, especially Pashua Haor, which
remains completely unprotected, is an urgent priority.
INTRODUCTION
This paper reports the results of four ringing expeditions to major
wetlands in north-east Bangladesh between March 2011 and March
2013, organised through collaboration between Bangladesh bird
club (Bbc) and the Wetland Trust, UK. The objectives were to
develop ringing and identification skills of local ornithologists, to
facilitate future ecological research in Bangladesh and to use ringing
to help survey key wetland sites and gather information relevant to
their conservation. Mist-netting in particular offered opportunities
to detect and identify less conspicuous and lesser-known species,
including some of global conservation concern, and to collect
information on their ecology and annual cycles. The ringing trainers
were: Nick Dymond (2011 & 2012), Ian Hunter (2013), Bill Jones
(2012 & 2013), Andrew Pierce (2011-2013), Philip Round
(201 1-2013), and Kevin Thornton (2012). The participants from
Bbc (who included two officers of Bangladesh Forest Department
and one field staff of IUCN, Bangladesh) were: A. B. M. Sarower
Alom, Allama Shibli Sadik, Enam U1 Haque, Fatema tuz Zohora
Mila, Israt Jahan, Majeda Haq, M. A. Mohit, Mohammad Foysal,
Mohammad Tarik Kabir, Tania Khan, Omar Shahadat Uzzal,
Samiul Mohsanin, Sayam U. Chowdhury and Zenifer Azmeri. In
February-March 2013 we were joined by Ugyen Tenzin and
Kencho Gyltshen, officers from Royal Bhutanese Department of
Forests.
STUDY AREA AND METHODS
The work was carried out in the floodplain of Sylhet division, north¬
east Bangladesh. About two-thirds of the country lies in the
floodplains of the major river systems, and at least one-third of the
land area is entirely inundated each year during the monsoon season.
Farge seasonally flooded wetlands in the north-east of the country
are known as haors. These depressions, bounded by rivers, often
with natural levees raised with low embankments, flood for 6-7
months during the monsoon. In the dry season, roughly November
to March, a typical haor comprises paddyfields growing a single
wet rice crop and a grassy floodplain on which cattle are grazed,
surrounding permanent waterbodies known as beels. Swamp-forest
dominated by the trees Koroch Millettia pinnata and Hijal
Barringtonia acutangula was formerly a major component of the
vegetation but has progressively diminished due to intensive human
use/exploitation; stands of Phragmites karka and other tall wetland
grasses were also extensive in some areas. In the wet season extensive
flooding causes the beels to expand and the individual waterbodies
combine as a huge sheet of water which may completely submerge
much of the vegetation.
The Sylhet basin has a subtropical monsoon climate, with
average maximum temperatures of 30-33°C and minimum
temperatures of 21-25°C in the summer monsoon season; and
maximum 25-29°C, minimum 8-17°C during the winter dry
season. The average rainfall is 4,000 mm of which about 80% falls
between April and October (Khan 1997). The wetland habitats
have for generations been exploited by the human population,
particularly during the dry season, when fish and aquatic plants are
harvested from the beels and floodplains as they dry up. Besides
Figure 1. Map showing location of study sites (bold black dots): (1)
Tanguar Haor ringing site; (2) Pashua Haor ringing site; (3) Hail Haor
and Baikka Beel ringing site. Green areas indicate forest and
plantations; blue indicate more or less permanently inundated areas.
110
PHILIP D. ROUND etal.
Forktail 30 (2014)
growing a single crop of winter rice on land surrounding the beels,
reeds and swamp trees are cut for construction and fuel, while cattle
and buffaloes are grazed on lands too dry for rice production. In
addition to resident communities who live year-round in villages
located on raised mounds, seasonal migrants camp in the haors for
fishing and livestock-rearing during the dry season.
All three sites visited — Hail Haor (incorporating Baikka Beel),
Tanguar Haor and Pashua Haor — are listed as Important Bird Areas
(BirdLife International 2004) and the two first named have been
afforded some form of protection for all or part of their area.
Baikka Beel 24.350°N 91.700°E
This 170 ha site lies at the south-east edge of the 3,000-12,000 ha
(wet season area) Hail Haor, Moulvi Bazar district, about 6 km
north-west of Srimangal town. It is about 10 km from the higher
ground to the east which extends south to the border with Tripura
state, India.
The government declared Baikka Beel a permanent wetland
sanctuary in 2003, since when it has become a major conservation
project instigated by a local community organisation, and
supported up to 2008 by the Management of Aquatic Ecosystem
through Community Husbandry (MACH) project, funded by
USAID, and then by two further projects also funded by USAID.
This is part of a wider effort to establish co-management and
sustainable use of Hail Haor. These efforts have successfully
reversed degradation, rehabilitated the wetland and replanted the
swamp forest that had previously disappeared.
The study area was on the eastern edge of the open beels and
marshes of the sanctuary and comprised a narrow strip of native
Barringtonia and Millettia swamp-forest trees planted during
2003-2005. On the east side, it was bounded by a canal separating
the reserve from extensive areas of irrigated rice-paddy, whilst on
the west the boundary was a narrow belt of woody Ipomoea fistulosa ,
parallel with the lakeshore. It was separated from the water’s edge
by a 50-100 m-wide expanse of marshy grassland.
Most mist-nets were placed in rides cut in the Ipomoea ,
perpendicular to the long axis of the vegetation, and in the swamp-
forest plantation, below the 5 m high canopy. The area in which
nets were set was about 5 ha.
Pashua Haor 25.050°N 91. 100°E
Pashua (also known as Gurmar) Haor is a 4,000-5,000 ha area,
bounded by rivers with low embankments built along the natural
levees. Most of the beels have now been drained for dry-season
agriculture but were formerly managed to retain water for fish in
the dry season. It was previously of international importance for
wildfowl — for example, in 1993 the haor held an estimated 250,000
wintering waterbirds. Pashua Haor currently lacks protected status,
and fishing rights in the beels are leased out by the district
administration, but it has recently (2013) been proposed for
conservation-oriented collaborative management that would follow
the similar approaches already employed in Hail Haor and
Baikka Beel.
The ringing site was in and around the margins of an area of
Millettia scrub-woodland that extended to within 150 m of the
Baulai River. Adjacent areas consisted of open grassy marsh. Nets
were positioned both in and around the margins of the scrub-
woodland and in areas of lower scrub, herbage and emergent
aquatic plants. The area in which nets were set was about 10-15 ha.
An overnight camp was set up roughly 2 km away at a fishing camp.
Tanguar Haor 25. 083°N 91.1 1 7° E
Tanguar Haor is roughly 10,000 ha in area and lies about 30 km
west-north-west of Sunamganj town. Parts of the northern edge of
the haor are only 2-3 km south of the Garo Hills, Meghalaya state,
India, which rise to over 1,500 m. Large areas are dominated by
reeds, other wetland grasses and emergent herbage, although some
important habitat has been cleared — for example, a 2-5 ha area ol
Giant Can eArundo donax which formerly supported species such
as White-tailed Rubythroa tLuscinia pectoralis and almost certainly
Firethroat L. pectardens until cleared between 1997 and 2004.
Tanguar Haor regularly supports over 100,000 waterbirds;
designated as an Ecologically Critical Area by the government in
1999, it was declared a Ramsar Site in 2000 (Alam etal. 2012). The
IUCN Bangladesh Country Programme is in the process of
implementing a community-based sustainable management project
at the site, funded by the Swiss Agency for Development and
Assistance.
The ringing camp was in a small Millettia and Barringtonia
plantation near Golabari village, Lessmara Beel, by the Patnai River.
The study area was mainly scrub and low herbage, with small areas
of reeds, and the area in which nets were regularly set was about 1 5
ha. Visits were also made by boat to a reed-covered island, where
nets were set on some days.
METHODS
ND, EUH and PMT made a preliminary visit to the three sites
between 14 and 18 January 2010, as part ol an annual midwinter
waterbird survey, in order to investigate the logistics for future work.
No nets were erected, although Held observations of birds were
made. Ringing activities were conducted on four visits between
March 2011 and March 2013. Baikka Beel was visited in all three
winter seasons, 5-10 March 2011, 2-8 December 2011 and 24-
27 February 2013 (17 days), Tanguar was visited in two winters,
19-26 February 2012 and 3-8 March 2013 (14 days), and Pashua
between 10-19 February 2012 (10 days).
Birds were caught in mist-nets. Usually 6-12 nets (small-mesh,
four-panel, 12 m or 18 m nets) were used on each site. These were
located opportunistically, most often in emergent waterside
vegetation and scrub. Occasionally at Baikka Beel and Tanguar
Haor a few nets were positioned beneath plantations of swamp-
forest trees where, however, they were too low in the vegetation
column to sample birds effectively in the 4-6 m canopy. Nets were
usually fixed in position lor at least 2-3 days and moved to a new
site when numbers of birds caught declined, as birds became
accustomed to them. Nets were usually open from dawn to late
morning, when they were furled. From time to time, some nets were
opened in late afternoon. One or two local men were hired as
nightwatchmen to guard the furled nets overnight at Pashua and
Tanguar, the less secure sites.
Because development of the capacity ol local ornithologists was
a major aim of the programme, most of the commoner species were
usually processed by trainees, under the supervision of experienced
ringers. Key measurements such as wing length, bill length and
tarsus length were usually checked by the trainer(s). Detailed wing
formulae, where necessary, were recorded by experienced ringers.
Biometric data, particularly lor warblers, are reported here as in
some cases these may constitute the largest published datasets from
live-trapped birds. In discussion of wing formula, primaries are
numbered with the short, outermost primary as pi and innermost
plO for convenience. All bill measurements were to the base ol the
skull. Wing lengths were maximum chord, and tarsus length was
measured using the ‘bent-toe’ method of Svensson (1992).
RESULTS
The avifauna of all three sites, particularly Hail Haor, was already
quite well known before our mist-netting expeditions, observations
having been collected annually in recent years during the Asian
Forktail 30(2014)
Ringing and ornithological exploration in north-east Bangladesh wetlands
111
Midwinter Waterbird Census and other visits. Up to February 2013
a total of 2 17 resident and migrant species have been recorded from
the entire area of Hail Haor, 1 1 of which were added at Baikka
Beel by this study. Within the small area ot Baikka Beel 169 species
have now been recorded. This compares with 16 1 species —
including 12 added in this study — lor Pashua Haor and 176 — 23
added in this study — tor Tanguar Haor (Appendix 1).
A total of 1,582 birds of 66 species were ringed at the three
sites during the three seasons (Appendix 2). The resident avifauna
of these sites was relatively depauperate, and the absence or scarcity
of some species was assumed to be related to the hydrological
regime. Prolonged, several metres-deep inundation ot much of the
area during the monsoon season presumably results in the absence
of many sedentary species. Even the nationally abundant Red-
vented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer was scarce. Striated Babbler
Turdoides earlei and Rufous-necked Laughingthrush Garrulax
ruficollis were encountered only at Baikka Beel and its immediate
surroundings, which are close to wooded uplands, allowing
colonisation by these species. Striated Babbler has been recorded
at Baikka Beel since winter 2004-2005 (PMT pers. obs.). Both
these species may also occur in parts of Tanguar Haor close to the
Meghalaya hills not surveyed during the project.
Species accounts
Greylag Goose Anser anser
Scarce winter visitor. A flock of 32 was at Tanguar Haor on 21
February 2012. Five in flight at Baikka Beel on 27 February 2013
constituted the second record for the site.
Bar-headed Goose Anser indicus
Winter visitor mostly in coastal areas. Seven in flight over Tanguar
Haor on 5 March 2013 provided the first record for the site.
Black Stork Ciconia nigra
Rare but regular winter visitor mainly to sandbanks in the main
rivers (Siddiqui et al. 2008). One in flight over Pashua Haor on 13
February 2012 was the first record for any of the haors.
Black-headed Ibis Threskiornis melanoeephaius
Winter visitor, more numerous on the coast. Seven were at Baikka
Beel, on 26 February 2013, where it is a regular winter visitor
(highest count 24).
Glossy Ibis Plegadis fakinellus
At Baikka Beel a maximum of 30 on 26 February 2013, following
the first site record of 25 on 11-12 February 2013 (PMT). At
Tanguar, 26 on 6 March 2013 was also the highest site count.
Thompson et al. (2014) provide a comprehensive review of national
records of this species. It is premature to say whether the February-
March 2013 influx is indicative of a longer-term increase in birds
wintering in Bangladesh. The species has widened its Asian range
in recent years, having colonised Thailand, where it now breeds
(PDR pers. obs.).
Raptors
The area is rich in raptors with at least 27 species recorded
(Appendix 1), of which about half were seen during the surveys.
Black Kites Milvus migrans , Brahminy Kites Haliastur indus and
harriers Circus spp. were moderately common. Definitive adult
males of both Western Marsh Harrier C. aeruginosas and Eastern
Marsh Harrer C. spilonotus — listed as rare for South Asia
(Rasmussen & Anderton 2012) — were seen.
The Vulnerable Pallas’s Fish Eagle Haliaeetus leucoryplms was
present at all sites, with 12 immature individuals in close proximity
at Baikka Beel in February 2011 (PMT pers. obs.). Active nests
were seen on a telephone tower by the Surma River at Gojaria Bazar,
in Millettia trees near Joyshree Bazar on the Baolai River, and in a
Crataeva nurvala tree at Golabari village, Tanguar Haor. The species
is already well known at the ringing sites, although numbers were
fewer than reported in BirdLife International (2001), suggesting
ongoing population decline. Although there is no estimate of the
national or regional population it remains of international
conservation importance.
A first-winter Shikra Accipiter badius was caught and ringed at
Pashua Haor (Appendix 2).
Northern Lapwing 1 /anellus vaneilus
Regular rare winter visitor which maybe increasing (Thompson et
al. 2014). A single was present at Tanguar Haor on 22 February
2012.
Pied Cuckoo Clamator jacobinus
One in flight at Baikka Beel on 24 February 2013 was unusual —
the species is typically a summer (wet-season) visitor to Bangladesh
(Siddiqui et al. 2008).
Common Hawk Cuckoo Hierocoeeyx varius
Although a common resident in village groves and open woodland
in Bangladesh, one/ two birds seen daily in swamp trees at our camp
site at Tanguar Haor in February 2012 were the first recorded for
the site.
Lesser Coucai Centropus hengalensis
Mainly found in scrub and tea estates in east Bangladesh (Siddiqui
et al. 2008) but may be widespread where areas of marshy scrub
and tall grass remain in the haors. A single caught and ringed at
Tanguar Haor was the first record for the site.
Brown Hawk Owl Ninox scutulata
Widespread in Bangladesh. A single caught at Baikka Beel on 5
December 2012 appeared to be the first record for the site; it
showed characters of Al s. burmanica , the race listed for Bangladesh
and north-east India (Ali & Ripley 1 983). A decomposed bird was
found suspended in a fishing net at Baikka Beel on 25 February
2013.
Eurasian Wryneck Jynx torquilla
W idespread winter visitor to bushy areas and open wooded habitat.
Four birds trapped — two adults, one first-year and one not aged.
One of two Baikka Beel birds retrapped three days after ringing in
December 2012 showed a weight loss of 0.5 g.
Fulvous-breasted Woodpecker Dendrocopos macei
Common throughout the country in village groves and open
woodland; even found in wooded areas in inner-city Dhaka. A
single male was caught in planted swamp-forest at Baikka Beel on
6 March 2011, where it is a recent colonist.
Grey-backed Shrike Lanius tephronotus
Widespread but scarce winter visitor (Siddiqui et al. 2008). A single
trapped and ringed at Baikka Beel on 24 February 2013 was the
fifth site record.
Black-hooded Oriole Oriolus xanthornus
Five birds trapped, three at Pashua (including one retrieved from
an itinerant fisherman who had caught it in a fish-net) and two at
Tanguar; also at Baikka Beel but none caught there. In South-East
Asia, this species is largely associated with extensively wooded areas,
both open-canopy dry dipterocarp woodland and closed-canopy
taller forest, although also found in swamp-forest and secondary
growth; but in Bangladesh it is widespread in villages and all
112
PHILIP D. ROUND era/.
Forktai I 30 (2014)
wooded areas, wandering into more open places, including this
seasonally almost totally inundated landscape with minimal
wooded cover — mostly low-stature trees on embankments.
Striated Grassbird Megalurus paiustris
One of the commonest resident birds at all sites, generally found at
the edge of reed and Ipomoea beds where there are isolated clumps
of vegetation in the grassy floodplain. Marked sexual dimorphism
in body size was evident, the birds’ wing length showing a near¬
perfect bimodal distribution, with presumed males measuring 92-
102 mm and females 80-88 mm (Figure 2, Appendix 2). Males
also averaged nearly hall as heavy again as females. Breeding had
started by late February and a nest with eggs was observed at Baikka
Beel on 25 February 2013. Two males and a female ringed at Baikka
Beel in December 2011 were recaptured in late February 2013.
Figure 2. Wing lengths of Striated Grassbird Megalurus paiustris.
9
O^HfMrO'stLnLOr^OOO^OrHrMrrj'vrLnLDr^OOCnOTHrM
cocooocooooo30oooooocr>cncncncncr>a^Ohcr>cnooo
Wing (mm)
Chestnut-crowned Bush Warbler Cettia major
One caught in scrub at Pashua Haor on 16 February 2012 was the
first country record. Wing length 64 mm (Appendix 2), bill
14.3 mm, tarsus 23.0 mm; it had lost its tail. The race was
undetermined. Two are recognised: nominate major Himalayas to
south-west China and vafra Meghalaya and north-east India
(Kennerley & Pearson 2010).
Aberrant Bush Warbler Cettia flavolivacea
SLx birds trapped and ringed, five at Pashua Haor during 12-19
February 2012 and one at Tanguar Haor on 8 March 2013 (Table
l). All were caught in very low (<1 m high) scrub. Based on the
strongly yellow-suffused supercilium and underparts, all could be
assigned to the western group of races (C.f. flavolivacea, C. f.
stresemanni and C. f. weberi ) though not more precisely. These are
the first national records: Rashid (1967) listed this species but there
are no previous documented records. These were presumably
migrants from the Meghalaya hills, and the capture sites (altitude
about 20 m), change the reported lowest altitude (250 m)
significantly (Rasmussen & Anderton 2012).
Table 1. Biometrics (mm) of six Aberrant Bush Warblers Cettia
flavolivacea caught in north-east Bangladesh.
Grey-sided Bush Warbier Cettia brunnifrons
One caught at the edge of a reedbed on an island at Tanguar Haor
on 24 February 2012 was the first country record. Although listed
by Rashid (1967), there are no previous documented records, the
nearest being from the Garo Hills, Meghalaya, which overlook the
site (Rasmussen & Anderton 2012). Superficially similar to
Chestnut-crowned Bush Warbler, it differed in its much smaller
size (Appendix 2) — tail 47 mm, bill 11.8 mm, tarsus 18.2 mm —
with proportionately longer tail (taihwing ratio was close to unity).
For comparison, taihwing ratio for six Cettia major, caught and
ringed in north Thailand, was 0.73-0.81 (AJP unpubl. data).
Plumage differences from C. major were the darker brown
undertail-coverts, slightly greyer sides to the breast, and lack of a
gingery suffusion on the anterior part of the whitish supercilium.
The race was undetermined but was most likely either nominate
brunnifrons (central Himalayas) or umbratica (north-east India and
north Myanmar). The differences among the (three) races are said
to be clinal (Kennerley & Pearson 2010).
Spotted Bush Warbler Bradypterus thoracicus
David's Bush Warbler B. davidi
These taxa are difficult to separate in the field and until the 1990s
were considered to be conspecific until Round & Loskot (1995)
examined the morphological differences between them and
suggested that B. davidi, a long-range migrant, should be recognised
as a separate species from B. thoracicus , which migrates over much
shorter distances. Both taxa were present at all sites in similar
numbers: 13 Spotted Bush Warblers and 12 David’s Bush Warblers
were ringed during the whole period. David’s Bush Warbler was
first detected in the field, being both seen and heard; the dzzzzzzr
call of this species, which appears to derive from a low-intensity
version of the song (Round & Loskot 1995), is diagnostic. Many
(e.g. chucking) calls of Bradypterus and Locustella species are hard
to distinguish and no diagnostic calls that could be definitely
associated with Spotted Bush Warbler were detected during the
period.
The mean wing length for B. davidi captured in Bangladesh
was 51.9 ± 1.16 mm compared with 55.0 ± 0.78 mm for B.
thoracicus ( Table 2). Whilst Spotted Bush Warbler is the larger bird,
David’s, the longer-distance migrant, has a more pointed wing and
the largest individuals of the latter overlap in wing length with
Spotted. Spotted Bush Warbler is on average longer-tailed and a
plot of wing against tail length (Figure 3) is sufficient to separate
most individuals. Data on B. davidi from Thailand (where B.
thoracicus is, as yet, unrecorded), held on file by AJP and PDR, are
included in Figure 3. No B. davidi with tails of 50 mm or longer
have yet been found.
Both species have sharply defined white edges to the undertail-
coverts which contrast markedly with the dark brown bases to the
feathers. The white edges are very narrow, usually only 1-2 mm
broad, in B. thoracicus compared with much broader (3-5-5 mm)
edges of B. davidi. Round & Baral (2013), in referring to this
distinguishing feature, unknowingly overlooked its earlier mention
in Alstrom et al. (2008). Additionally, whilst both species have
strongly rounded tails, in which the longest undertail-coverts are
longer than the shortest outermost tail feathers, the projection of
the tail beyond the longest (central) undertail-coverts is much
longer in B. thoracicus. Alstrom et al. (2008) gave a mean projection
of 16.43 ± 1.73 mm for three B. davidi compared with 22.72 ±
3.25 mm for 12 B. thoracicus. This compares with respective ranges
of 12.5-17.0 mm for six B. davidi from Bangladesh and Thailand
combined, and 18.0-2 1.4 mm tor three B. thoracicus in which this
feature was measured (Table 2).
A Spotted Bush Warbler caught at Baikka Beel on 25 February
2013 was in the early stages of primary moult and was moulting
the three innermost primaries (aggregate moult score 5) of both
Forktail 30(2014)
Ringing and ornithological exploration in north-east Bangladesh wetlands
113
Table 2. Wing and tail measurements (mm) of Bradypterus taxa caught in Bangladesh compared with sample of B. davidi from Thailand (t data
held on file by AJP and PDR).
Figure 3. Graph of tail against wing length for Spotted Bush Warbler
Bradyterus thoracicus and David's Bush Warbler B. davidi (BDAV: 6.
davidi trapped during present project; BRTH: B. thoracicus trapped
during the present project; THA: B. davidi from Thailand)
50
45
OBDAV
BRTH
+THA
+
O
+
o
o
+
o
+
+
+
40
+
35 1 - 1 - 1 - ‘ - 1 - > - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1
47 43 4 9 5 0 51 52 53 54 5 5 5 6 57
Wing (mm)
wings. There appear to be no previously published data on moult
in this species (Kennerley & Pearson 2010).
Although Round & Loskot (1995) identified a specimen
collected by Whistler from northern West Bengal as B. davidi,
Rasmussen & Anderton (2012) considered it was in too poor a
condition to assign, and listed the taxon as hypothetical for South
Asia. The same authors mention a 2012 sight record (J. Eaton in
lift.) from north-east India. The first undoubted David’s Bush
Warblers documented for South Asia, were therefore two individuals
caught at Baikka Beel on 4 December 2011. The 12 B. davidi caught
during the present study, together with one caught and ringed at
Koshi, Nepal (Round & Baral 2013), together with the 13 5.
thoracicus caught during our study, reaffirm that both B. davidi and
B. thoracicus may now be considered as localised, scarce, probably
regular, winter visitors to lowlands in north-east South Asia. The
latter was previously considered a rare winter visitor to Bangladesh,
but observers did not then distinguish between the taxa in the field.
lanceolated Warbler L ocustella lanceolate!
The only record was one seen at Pashua Haor on 15 January 2010
by ND, EUH, PT and J. Pender during the exploratory visit. This
was only the fourth record — there being two previous records from
Pashua Haor and one from Tanguar Haor (Thompson etal. 1993,
Thompson & Johnson 2003). Lanceolated Warbler appears to be
genuinely scarce at these sites. Although small, and sometimes apt
either to pass unhindered through even small-mesh mist-nets, or
avoid capture if the net is not set low enough, the fact that a number
of David’s Bush Warbler, of similar size and demeanour to
Lanceolated Warbler, were caught would indicate genuine rarity
of the latter species.
Pallas's Grasshopper Warbler Locusteila certhiola
This species was present at all sites and 27 were trapped. Although
plumage features and biometrics vary markedly among the five races
usually recognised across the extensive north and central Asian
breeding range, all those caught had features consistent with race
L. c. rubescens. Adults could usually be distinguished from first-
winter birds by haying two ages of primaries in which the outermost
2-4 had been replaced in a partial post-breeding moult. Pre¬
breeding moult had not started in any birds trapped up to the end
of the survey period in mid-March.
Black-browed Reed Warbler Acrocephalus histngiceps
A total of 26 were trapped and ringed, two at Baikka Beel and 24
at Tanguar. The predominance of the species at Tanguar, and
apparent absence from Pashua, was presumably due to the close
association of this species with reeds and similar aquatic vegetation
rather than scrub, where it occurs less frequently. Nevertheless a
single was seen at Pashua Haor on 16 January 2010 by ND and
PMT during the exploratory visit.
Paddyfield Warbler Acrocephalus agricola
A total of 143 were ringed, of which 130 were caught at Tanguar
Haor, reflecting the preference of this species for reeds and sedges
rather than scrub. Mean tarsus length: 22.0 ±0.87 mm, range 18.7—
24.9 (n = 126). Mean bill length: 15.4 ± 0.71 mm, range 13.0 17.3
mm (n = 131). Mean tail length: 56.5 ± 2.02 mm, range 52-63 mm
(n = 140). The individual with a bill length of 17.3 mm, well above
the expected upper limit for this species, was carefully measured by
two independent observers who agreed on both bill length and the
identification features of the bird concerned. It appeared to be an
aberrant individual and was photographed for the record.
BSyth's Reed Warbler Acrocephalus dumeiorum
The most frequent Acrocephalus, occurring at all sites; 286 ringed
(Appendix 2). It fed in a wide range of habitats including scrub
and swamp-forest plantations, frequently found in the low canopy
of trees. One individual ringed at Tanguar Haor in February 2012
was recaptured there in March 2013. Tarsus length, mean 22.6 ±
0.75 mm (range: 20.7-25.0 mm, n = 233). Hindclaw length, mean
6.2 ± 0.42 mm (range: 5. 1-7. 3, n = 128). Bill length, mean 17.5 ±
0.66 mm (range: 15.1-19.3 mm, n = 272), was longer than recorded
by Svensson (1992) and Svensson et al. (2008, 2010) but closer to
Kennerley & Pearson (2010) who reported 17.2 mm (range 15.5—
18.5 mm) for males and 17.0mm (range 15.5-18.0mm)forfemales.
Mean tail length: 53.6 ± 1.89 mm, range 46-61 mm (n = 272).
Large-billed Reed Warbler Acrocephalus orinus
A single caught in Ipomoea at Baikka Beel on 6 December 2011
(Table 3) was identified primarily on the combination of its long
bill and long hindclaw (Round et al. 2007, Svensson et al. 2008,
2010). Identification was confirmed in January 2014 through assay
of cytochrome b. A second putative individual from Tanguar Haor
on 25 February 2012 — bill length 19.1 mm and hindclaw 7.0 mm,
Table 3. Details and biometrics (mm) of a Large-billed Reed Warbler
Acrocephalus orinus netted in north-east Bangladesh, 6 December 201 1.
(* measured at base of nostrils)
114
PHILIP D. ROUND efo/.
Forktail 30(2014)
referred to as ‘probable’ (Haque et al. 2012) — proved on assay of
cytochrome b to be a Blyths Reed Warbler.
This is the first record from Bangladesh. Apart from north¬
west India, with four museum specimens dating from 1867 to 1933,
taken in October, November and May (Svensson et al. 2008), the
only other records from South Asia are unauthenticated, albeit
highly probable, sight records of one or more from West Bengal
(Kennerley & Pearson 2010). Given the difficulty of separating this
species from Blyths Reed Warbler, and that a straight line drawn
on a Mercator projection map from north-west India to Pegu (now
Bago), near Yangon, Myanmar, where there are two records from
May 1879 and January 1880 (Svensson et al. 2008), would pass
through Bangladesh, the occurrence of Large-billed Reed Warbler
was not unexpected.
Oriental Reed Warbler Acroeephalus orientalis
Clamorous Reed Warbler A. stentoreus
In all, 19 Oriental Reed Warblers were trapped and ringed over
the whole period, five at Baikka Beel and 14 at Tanguar Haor,
compared with 69 Clamorous Reed Warblers at all three sites. The
absence of Oriental Reed Warbler from Pashua Haor, where nets
were mostly located in scrub woodland, was probably due to the
scarcity of reeds and other short emergent non-woody waterside
vegetation at that site. The Clamorous Reed Warblers were
presumed to be race A. s. brunnescens , which breeds mainly in
central Asia and also patchily in parts of South Asia (Rasmussen &
Anderton 2012) although not at any of the present sites. Three
Clamorous Reed Warblers ringed at Baikka Beel in March 2011
were recaptured in late February 2013 (one of them had been
recaptured previously in December 2012). Another individual
ringed at Tanguar Haor in February 2012 was recaptured there in
March 2013.
Separation of these large reed warblers was based primarily on
accepted wing formula criteria following Kennerley & Pearson
(2010). In Oriental Reed Warbler, the second outermost primary,
p2, was usually longer than p5, occasionally = p5 and only rarely
< p5, whereas in Clamorous Reed Warbler p2 was always shorter
than p5, occasionally = p6, or (rarely) shorter than p6. The notch
on the inner web of p2 was usually longer in Clamorous Reed
Warbler than in Oriental Reed Warbler, falling slightly below the
tips of the secondaries, while Oriental Reed Warbler had a shorter
notch, falling roughly opposite to, or outside, the tips of the
secondaries although this feature was less easily judged. The bill
length of Oriental Reed Warbler was shorter (mean length 23.6 ±
0.79 mm), compared with Clamorous Reed Warbler (mean length
25.3 ± 1.26 mm) (Table 4). Generally the shorter, weaker
supercilium of Clamorous Reed Warbler was a helpful field
character and adults usually showed a much warmer brown iris than
seen in Oriental Reed Warbler.
Although these records of Oriental Reed Warbler may be
regarded as the first confirmed records for Bangladesh, its presence
had long been suspected here and in north-east India, based on
sight records and photographs (Rasmussen & Anderton 2012).
However, caution is needed because many Clamorous Reed
Warblers examined showed buffy white tips to the outer rectrices,
and some showed apparent vague breast streaking, both features
usually suggested as aiding recognition of Oriental Reed Warbler.
Sykes's Warbler Iduna rama
One caught in a mixed stand of Barringtonia/ Millettia-p\a.nx.e<l
swamp-forest trees at Baikka Beel on 7 March 201 1 was the first
confirmed record for Bangladesh.
It was a small sandy-greyish, noticeably broad-billed warbler,
with a white outer web, tip and distal part of the inner web of R6
and distal inner web only of R5. Its legs were pale fleshy-brown
with duskier soles to the feet. Three scutes were visible on the tarsus.
The lower mandible was pale, imperceptibly dusky towards the tip;
and the upper mandible brownish slaty with a narrow pale cutting
edge. The gape was bright yellow and the iris dark brown. The initial
impression was that the bird somewhat resembled a Paddyfield
Warbler due to its sandy-grey colour and the smallish bill (small
for an Acroeephalus but too large and broad for a Phylloscopus ).
However, the tail was only slightly rounded (shortfall of outermost
rectrix was 4 mm) and the undertail-coverts appeared somewhat
short for an Acroeephalus. The white in the tail immediately
suggested either Booted Warbler I. caligata or Sykes’s Warbler /.
rama.
The single most important diagnostic character was bill-width
which, measured at the proximal edge of the nostrils, was 4.3 mm.
This unequivocally indicated Sykes’s Warbler — indeed, it is at the
upper margin of the range of measurements for that species — with
bill-width given as 3. 6-4. 3 mm compared with 3. 3-3. 8 mm for
Booted Warbler (Kennerley & Pearson 2010). Additionally, the
edges of the mandibles were straight laterally when viewed from
above, whereas the bill of Booted Warbler is noticeably fine and
concave-sided (Kennerley & Pearson 2010). Supporting features
favouring Sykes’s Warbler were the shortish second primary, a short
primary projection with only five primary tips protruding beyond
the tertials and bunched secondaries, the relatively long, sloping
forecrown, the supercilium which was broad and most visible above
the eye, compared with supercilium extending behind the eye in
Booted Warbler, and the dark loral spot rather than a loral line.
The tail was 48 mm, bill 14.4 mm and tarsus 19.6 mm. Wing length
was 61 mm and weight 9.2 g (Appendix 2). The bird was silent on
release.
Harvey (1990) lists Booted Warbler for Bangladesh, but does
not list individual records and lacks documented records from two
of the observers. Nor does his account distinguish between Iduna
caligata and I. rama , then treated as conspecific. Siddiqui et al.
(2008) merely repeat the account in Harvey (1990). Sykes’s Warbler
is listed by Rasmussen & Anderton (2012) as wintering in South
Asia, east to Bihar and south to Sri Lanka, with Booted Warbler
apparently extending to the extreme eastern edge of West Bengal,
close to the border with Bangladesh.
Common Chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita
A total of 16, all apparently race tristis, were trapped and ringed,
mostly in reedbeds and low herbage at Tanguar Haor. Although
treated as a rare winter visitor (Siddiqui et al. 2008), it is more
frequently recorded from the north-east than from other parts of
the country (PMT pers. obs.).
Dusky Warbler Phylloscopus fuscatus
The commonest migrant passerine encountered, recorded at all
sites; 386 ringed. Wing length was bimodally distributed; the modal
Table 4. Biometrics of Oriental Reed Warbler Acroeephalus orientalis and Clamorous Reed Warbler A. stentoreus.
Forktail 30 (2014)
Ringing and ornithological exploration in north-east Bangladesh wetlands
115
wing length of presumed males was 62 mm and that ol females was
56 mm. March-caught birds were significantly heavier than those
caught in February (Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test: W = 27371.5, p <
0.0 1 ), with a mean weight of 9.0 ± 1 .0 g compared with 8.2 ± 0.7 g
in February. Over 90% of birds examined from 5 March onwards
had already started to undergo a partial moult, usually involving
body feathers, tertials and tail.
Six ringed Dusky Warblers were retrapped in successive seasons.
At Baikka Beel one bird ringed in March 2011 was recaptured in
December 2011, while four ringed in December 2011 were
recaptured in late February 2013. One ringed at Tanguar in
February 2012 was recaptured in March 2013.
Tickell's Leaf Warbler Phylloscopus affinis
A total of 32 were ringed. This species appeared to be more arboreal
than Common Chiffchaff, often in the canopy of low trees, but at
times descended into scrub. This study indicates that it is more
regular in wetland scrub-forest than previously thought. Siddiqui
et al. (2008) regard it as rare.
Yellow-vented Leaf Warbler Phylloscopus cantator
Regular winter visitor to evergreen forests in the north-east
(Siddiqui et al. 2008) and not recorded in other habitats (to date).
One in the canopy of a large, planted tree at Tanguar Haor on 23
February 2012 was a new locality record.
Rufous-necked Laughingthrush Garrulax ruficollis
Four were trapped and ringed from, apparently, a single flock which
frequented the patch of swamp-forest and associated scrub at
Baikka Beel. The species was first recorded at Hail Haor in
January 2009 (PMT pers. obs.), and its first occurrence at Baikka
Beel in February 2011 was presumably a response to habitat
rehabilitation.
Eurasian Scaly Thrush Zoothera dauma
A single trapped at the edge of planted swamp-forest on 5
December 2011 at Baikka Beel was retrapped the following day
when its weight had increased from 82.3 g to 89.4 g. Wing 141
mm, tail 97 mm, bill 29.5 mm, firmly place the bird within the
expected range for Z. dauma rather than the longer-distance
migrant Z. aurea , listed by Rasmussen & Anderton (2012) as
hypothetical for South Asia. Additionally, the bird had 12 tail
feathers whereas 14 rectrices are more typical forZ. aurea. Possibly
the same individual had been seen at this site the previous winter
(M. Khan & T. Khan pers. comm.). These were the first records of
this species for any haor, and only the fifth (or sixth) country record
of this rare winter visitor.
Siberian Rubythroat Luscinia calliope
On the basis that only seven birds were trapped, Siberian
Rubythroat was less frequent than White-tailed Rubythroat L.
pectoralis at all sites. This presumably was an outcome of focusing
trapping effort on better-quality wetland sites with more reeds,
more typical habitat for White-tailed Rubythroat. Siberian
Rubythroat tends to be more frequent in drier scrub, such as on
hillsides and in tea estates (Siddiqui et al. 2008, PMT pers. obs.),
where it is widespread although uncommon.
White-tailed Rubythroat Luscinia pectoralis
Of a total of 21 birds caught, the eight males all showed the
prominent white submoustachial streak of the Tibetan plateau race
L. p. tschebaiewi. Some adult females resembled males, with a male
face pattern in which the red on the throat was much reduced and
the face pattern less strongly contrasted, with the lores and eye-
patch being dark grey rather than black, these individuals also
showing white in the base of the tail. Song was heard in early March.
Call-notes included a thin se-ic, a deep tchuck and a falling-tone
whistle. All were similar to calls known for Siberian Rubythroat,
but the whistle was, with experience, separable from the latter
species, in being less strongly downward-inflected, and having a
more plaintive quality.
A first-winter female ringed at Baikka Beel on 5 December 2011
was recaptured there on 24 and 25 February 2013. Prior to these
records there were only three sightings (involving six birds) of this
species, including the first from Tanguar Haor (Thompson &
Johnson 2003, Thompson et al. 2014).
Bluethroat Luscinia svecica
Common winter visitor to wetlands throughout the country. One
undoubted adult male, caught at Pashua on 1 3 February 20 1 2, had
a white central throat spot. It appears that nominate svecica, to
which these birds appeared to belong, may have either a red or white
spot in breeding plumage although red is much more frequent.
Firethroat Luscinia pectardens
The species is considered globally Near Threatened (BirdLife
International 2014). A total of 1 1 birds (9 males and 2 females), 9
in 2012 and 2 in 2013, were caught at Pashua and Tanguar. The
only previous country record was at Pashua in April 1992
(Thompson etal. 1994), with a second probable sighting at Tanguar
in February 1996 (PMT pers. obs.). All birds seen and trapped were
in native scrub forest close to the wetland margins.
Males were identified from the varying amounts of blue on the
upperparts, and black tails with white flashes in both inner and
outer webs of R2-R6 (with very little white, basally, on R6). Six of
the nine males were first-winter birds, with a mixture of brown and
black feathers on the upperparts, all (or most) greater coverts having
pale tips. The remiges were edged brown rather than slaty-blue and
the crown was brownish. Two presumed adult males were entirely
slaty-blue above, including the crown, with no brown tipping on
greater coverts and blackish lores. The plumage phenology seems
to be undescribed but there is apparently a non-breeding plumage,
since the first presumed adult male, caught on 14 February 2012,
lacked any orange on the throat and additionally the cheeks were
brownish. A second adult male, caught on 8 March 2013, was
beginning to moult-in an orange throat and black on the sides of
the head, but the breast and flanks remained uniformly buffy. The
age of one further male, caught on 7 March 2013, was
undetermined — the upperparts were all slaty-blue, lacking juvenile
greater covert tipping, and only primaries 3 and 4, and all
secondaries, were blue-edged; the remainder were brown-edged and
additionally the lores were pale.
A series of photographs of a bird which apparently wintered
in West Bengal, posted on Oriental Bird Images
(orientalbirdimages.org) by Abhishek Das and Kshounish Sankar
Ray, illustrates the transition from presumed non-breeding adult
male plumage when first photographed on 11 March 2012, into
partial breeding plumage by 1 April 2012. The sequence of body
moult in this individual appeared different to our 8 March bird.
The latter was already moul ting-in orange on the throat, but showed
a uniformly buffy breast. The West Bengal bird, clearly in a more
advanced stage of body moult, had moulted-in deep, flame-orange
feathers on the centre of the breast and had black on the sides of
the breast but, unlike our 8 March bird, still showed a whitish
throat.
Jerdon's Buschchat Saxicola jerdoni
A female caught at Baikka Beel on 25 February 2013 was only the
sixth country record (Thompson et al. 2014). Wing 62 mm, tail
60 mm, bill 16.0 mm, tarsus 22.0 mm. The tail was strongly
rounded, the outermost feathers being 11.3 mm shorter than the
central pair.
116
PHILIP D. ROUND etal.
Forktail 30 (2014)
Taiga Flycatcher Ficedula albicilla
Despite being a common winter visitor in Bangladesh, only 1 5 were
trapped, mostly at Baikka Beel. It proved unaccountably scarce at
both Pashua and Tanguar, although both sites supported scrub and
trees that appeared to be suitable habitat.
Slaty-blue Flycatcher Ficedula tricolor
All four trapped birds were females: three at Pashua Haor during
11-16 February 2012 and one at Tanguar on 25 February 2012,
caught in woody scrub. The weight of a Pashua bird recaptured
three days later remained constant at 6.0 g. The presumed race was
F. t. cerviniventris , which breeds in S Assam and Meghalaya above
2,700 m (Rasmussen & Anderton 2012) and winters on the plains
of Bangladesh where it is rare — only two previous sightings,
including the first record, a pair at Tanguar Haor (Thompson &
Johnson 2003, Thompson et ill. 2014).
Citrine Wagtail Motacilla citreola
Six birds caught included one undoubted breeding-plumage male
(black-backed) M. c. calcar at a.
Richard's Pipit Anthus richardi
Two individuals at Baikka Beel on 9-10 March 2011 were not aged,
but were undergoing moult of tertials and some central tail feathers.
One was also moulting the two innermost greater coverts. A third
at Tanguar Haor on 22 February 20 1 2, aged as a first-winter on the
basis of three retained juvenile greater coverts, had not started pre¬
breeding moult. This winter visitor may be under-recorded among
the generally commoner resident Paddyfield Pipit ^t/. rufulus.
Olive-backed Pipit Anthus hodgsoni
Common winter visitor to open forest and village groves (Siddiqui
et al. 2008); rare in wetlands due to the limited tree cover. Five
trapped on the floor of open swamp woodland at Tanguar Haor
during 22-23 February 2012 were identified as the long-distance
migrant rac eyunnanensis on the basis of the pronounced shortfall
of p5 against the wing-point.
Rosy Pipit Anthus roseatus
Regular winter visitor (Siddiqui et al. 2008). A total of ten were
trapped, typically in the wet, grassy margins of waterbodies. Eight
individuals examined at Baikka Beel during 9- 10 March 2011 were
undergoing pre-nuptial moult involving tertials. Four were also
renewing central tail feathers and five had renewed one/two
innermost greater coverts. Only one individual was in the early
stages of body moult and none had yet assumed the pink underparts
of breeding plumage.
Black-faced Bunting Emberiza spodocephala
A total of 1 5 were trapped in low scrub at Pashua Haor (eight males,
six females, one sex unrecorded). Ail were considered to be race E.
s. sordida due to the saturation of the yellow colour on the
underparts and the greenish-tinged head in the males. This is a
regular site for this localised winter visitor, known only from the
haors of the north-east (Siddiqui etal. 2008). For reasons unknown
it is very rarely recorded in Hail Haor (PMT pers. obs.).
DISCUSSION
Because the visits were focused primarily on ringing and training,
relatively little time was spent in more general survey work, and
observations (other than those obtained in the course of ringing)
are fragmentary. Only a relatively small proportion of each site was
covered. No systematic counts of waterbirds or other larger birds
were attempted.
Implications of findings
The survey documented seven species not previously recorded in
Bangladesh — Chestnut-crowned Bush Warbler, Aberrant Bush
Warbler, Grey-sided Bush Warbler, Davids Bush Warbler, Large¬
billed Reed Warbler, Oriental Reed Warbler and Sykes’s Warbler.
Furthermore Firethroat, previously known from only one or two
records, listed by some authors (e.g. Grimmett et al. 2011) as a
vagrant, was found in two successive winters, with eleven birds
trapped in all, presumably indicating regular occurrence. These data
and other species already documented in the systematic list indicate
the continued richness and conservation importance of the north¬
east Bangladesh haors for species other than waterbirds. Because of
the large size and relative inaccessibility of this area in the most
densely populated country in Asia, other ornithological discoveries
may be expected. Nonetheless the area has been hugely impacted by
man, and its biodiversity has suffered greatly since Baker (1924)
reported Rufous-rumped Grassbird Graminicola bengalensis,
globally Near Threatened today, as ‘very common in Cachar and
Sylhet’. Although we have so far failed to find this species there is a
strong possibility that a small population may remain — several were
seen at Aila and Tanguar Haors in 1995, with further sightings from
Tanguar Haor in 1996 and 2002 (Thompson & Johnson 2003),
but since then the only records and photographs are from near
Pashua Haor (Haider 2010, R. Haider pers. comm.). There are two
historic records of another threatened floodplain passerine, the
Vulnerable Black-breasted Parrotbill Paradoxornis flavirostris, from
north-east Bangladesh in the nineteenth century (BirdLife
International 2001). Later claims from south-east Bangladesh are
unsubstantiated (BirdLife International 2001), and it is almost
certainly extirpated from the country. The Vulnerable Marsh Babbler
Pellorneum palustre was recorded in the nineteenth century but there
is only one recent record from forest edge in 1989 (Thompson etal.
1993). Although other floodplain species, such as the Critically
Endangered Bengal Llorican Eupodotis bengalensis and Vulnerable
Bristled Grassbird Cbaetornis striata , have been lost there appear to
be no historic records of either from the north-eastern haors
(Siddiqui et al. 2008).
Because of its location in the north-east of South Asia it is likely
that the study area hosts both South Asian and South-East Asian
wintering populations of different bird taxa, and further work might
better elucidate the winter ranges and relative numbers of these. Lor
example Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava is common at Hail Hoar
and Baikka Beel (Appendix 1 ) but we cannot offer any observations
on the taxa present in Bangladesh as we neither caught nor observed
any closely.
Aside from the great conservation importance for birds the sites
support Golden Jackal Canis aureus , the globally Endangered
Fishing Cat Prionailurus viverrinus, while the globally Endangered
Ganges River Dolphin Platanista gangetica is still present in the main
waterways.
Threats
Habitats at the three sites are threatened by the intensification of
human use over the last two decades (EUH & PMT pers. obs.). In
the dry season water levels in the haors have been reduced by
pumping and diversion to expand agriculture, while the formerly
extensive areas of swamp-forest in Pashua Haor have been cleared.
In both Pashua and Tanguar Haors, reeds, swamp-forest and scrub
continue to be cut for fuel. Most of the former seasonal grazing lands
and marshlands adjacent to Baikka Beel have been converted to crops
or aquaculture during the past five years. In addition burning has
adversely affected the areas of Ipomoea during every dry season since
2010. Regeneration of this vegetation is limited due to the heavy
grazing pressure.
Conservation measures at Baikka Beel, instituted since 2003 by
a local community organisation and supported by a series of projects
Forktail 30 (2014)
Ringing and ornithological exploration in north-east Bangladesh wetlands
117
funded by USAID, have proved spectacularly successful in reversing
degradation, rehabilitating the wetland and replanting swamp-forest,
and waterbird numbers are increasing. Even so, the Ministry of Land
has recently threatened to lease out fishing rights in part of the
wetland, reversing its designation as a sanctuary. This would
adversely impact the progress made through community
involvement. These factors, together with the loss of parts of Hail
Haor where traditional fishing methods were previously used, due
to conversion of the areas to agriculture and fish-farming, have
increased the pressure on Baikka Beel sanctuary. In April 20 1 3, after
our most recent ornithological survey, unusually low water levels,
natural fish mortality and agitation started by sections of the human
population seeking to destroy the sanctuary, resulted in a mass fish¬
poaching operation in Baikka Beel itself, in which over 1,000 people
participated (PMT pers. obs.).
, Tanguar Haor already has formal protection supported by
assignment of guards funded by the government, and by a
conservation project implemented by IUCN Bangladesh, but
swamp habitats have received less attention than fishery
management. Pashua Haor has had no protection to date, leaving
its remaining swamp vegetation vulnerable to further clearance. In
2013 a combination of sustainable management and conservation,
following the approaches already adopted in Hail Haor and Baikka
Beel, was proposed but could not be implemented due to existing
leaseholder interests.
Recommendations
Based on the significance of swamp vegetation — reeds, bushes and
trees — for specialised, mostly migratory, passerines revealed by this
study, the threats observed to and wider ornithological significance
of the sites revealed by waterbird monitoring, we make the following
recommendations:
(1) Greater emphasis should be placed on restoring and protecting
bushy swamp vegetation, reeds, and swamp trees in all haors, in
recognition of the value of these habitats for a range of mostly
migrant passerines. Replacing existing bushy-thicket type
vegetation with dense plantations of swamp-forest trees is,
however, unacceptable as it may be detrimental to this avifauna.
Instead, plantations of native trees should be established in more
open areas that presently lack scrub and taller emergent vegetation.
(2) Conservation initiatives and protection should be implemented
at Pashua Haor, based on similar arrangements already made at
Baikka Beel. Besides limiting human exploitation and
disturbance, interventions should include maintaining dry
season water levels through restrictions on extraction for
irrigation, and enhancing and expanding the existing swamp
vegetation.
(3) The integrity of Baikka Beel sanctuary should be maintained,
and extended by formally including in the sanctuary the
bordering lands which lack proper protection at present.
(4) Conservation of Tanguar Haor should include as a priority
protection from grazing and the restoration of reed habitats,
including the Giant Reed habitat that has been lost. Strict
conservation areas need to be designated within the overall haor
so that large areas remain free of human use, and exist alongside
other zones where sustainable exploitation by the local
communities is permitted.
(5) Regular surveys using mist-nets and ringing should continue to
be conducted by Bbc, in collaboration with government
authorities, as a means of monitoring the avifauna of this habitat.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to the Chief Conservator of Forests, Bangladesh, the IUCN
Country Representative, Bangladesh, and Executives of Baragangina RMO,
Baikka Beel, all of whom encouraged and facilitated our surveys. Dr Niaz
Abdur-Rahman and Ronnie Haider contributed advice and observations. We
also thank the many other observers whose records contributed to the species
listing for Baikka Beel and the three haors, and Sontaya Manawattana for
assaying the DNA of two individual Acrocephalus. Peter Kennerley and
Stephen Rumsey commented on this manuscript. Perawit Insuan kindly
prepared the map. The enormously significant contributions of Bill Jones,
Kevin Thornton and Ian Hunter, and indeed the efforts of the trainee ringers,
in making these surveys successful should also be mentioned here. This work
was funded jointly by the Oriental Bird Club and by The Wetland Trust (UK).
We owe particular thanks to Stephen Rumsey for his generous and enthusiastic
support of ringing activities in Bangladesh.
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University, The Burroughs, Hendon, London, NW44BT, UK. Email
paulk@agni.com
Appendix 1.
List of bird species recorded at Hail Haor (including Baikka Beel), Pashua Haor and Tanguar Haor from 1 986 to March 2013.
Note: Baikka Beel lies entirely within Hail Haor, therefore records and status from Baikka Beel are included in Hail Haor. Key: the numbers 1 -5
indicate the number of times a species has been seen at each location (a flock on one day counts as one record). When a species has been
seen > 5 times since 1 986: r = rare, > 5 sightings but rarely recorded (< 1 per year); uc = uncommon, seen on several visits per year; c =
common, several individuals seen on every visit. New site records during the present study are shown in bold.
Species
Hail (Baikka Pashua Tanguar
Haor Beel) Haor Haor Species
Hail (Baikka Pashua Tanguar
Haor Beel) Haor Haor
Fulvous Whistling-duck Dendrocygna bicolor
Lesser Whistling-duck Dendrocygna javanica
Greylag Goose Anser anser
Bar-headed Goose Anser indicus
Comb Duck Sarkidiornis melanotos
Ruddy Shelduck Jadorna ferruginea
Common Shelduck Jadorna tadorna
Mandarin Duck Aix galericulata
Cotton Pygmy Goose Nettapus coromandellanus
Gadwall Anas strepera
Falcated Duck Anas falcata
Eurasian Wigeon Anas penelope
Mallard Anas platyrhynchos
Western Spot-billed Duck Anas poecilorhyncha
Northern Shoveler/ta dypeata
Northern Pintail Anas acuta
Garganey Anas guerquedula
Baikal lea\Anasformosa
Common Teal Anas crecca
Red-crested Pochard Nettarufina
Common Pochard Aythya ferina
Ferruginous Duck Aythya nyroca
Baer's Pochard Aythya baeri
Tufted Duck Aythya fullgula
Greater Scaup Aythya marila
Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis
Red-necked Grebe Podiceps grisegena
Great Crested Grebe Podiceps cristatus
Black-necked Grebe Podiceps nigricollis
Asian Openbill Anastomus oscitans
Black Stork Ciconia nigra
Black-headed Ibis Threskiornis melanocephalus
Glossy Ibis Plegadis falcinellus
Eurasian Spoonbill Platalea leucorodia
Great Bittern Botaurusstellaris
Yellow Bittern Ixobrychus sinensis
Cinnamon Bittern Ixobrychus cinnamomeus
Black Bittern Ixobrychus flavicollis
Black-crowned Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax
Striated Heron Butorides striata
r 2 r r
3 2 1
3 1 uc r
r uc
Indian Pond Heron Ardeola grayii
Chinese Pond Heron Ardeola bacchus
Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis
Grey Heron Ardea cinerea
Purple Heron Ardea purpurea
Great Egret Casmerodius albus
Intermediate Egret Mesophoyx intermedia
Little Egret Egretta garzetta
GreatWhite Pelican Pelecanus onocrotalus
Little Cormorant Phalacrocorax niger
Great Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo
Oriental Darter Anhinga melanogaster
Common Kestrel Falco tinnunculus
Red-necked Falcon Falco chicquera
Eurasian Hobby Falco subbuteo
Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus
Osprey Pandion haliaetus
Black-winged KtieElanuscaeruleus
Black Kite Milvus migrans
Brahminy Kite Haliastur indus
Pallas's Fish Eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus
Grey-headed Fish Eagle Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus
White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis
Slender-billed Vulture Gyps tenuirostris
Himalayan Vulture Gyps himalayensis
Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus
Crested Serpent Eagle Spilornis cheela
Western Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus
Eastern Marsh Harrier Circus spilonotus
Northern Harrier Circus cyaneus
Pallid Harrier Circus macrourus
Pied Harrier Circus melanoleucos
Shikra Accipiter badius
Eurasian Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus
Common Buzzard Buteo buteo
Indian Spotted Eagle Aquila hastata
Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila donga
Steppe Eagle Aquila nipalensis
Eastern Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca
Slaty-breasted Rail Gallirallusstriatus
2
1
c c c uc
c c r uc
5 1 1
1
c uc uc r
1 1
r
1
3 2 r
uc uc r
r r ' r 1
2 1
2 1 2 r
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Ringing and ornithological exploration in north-east Bangladesh wetlands
119
Species
Hail (Baikka Pashua Tanguar
Haor Beel) Haor Haor Species
Hail (Baikka Pashua Tanguar
Haor Beel) Haor Haor
Water Rail Rallusaquaticus 2
White-breasted Waterhen Amaurornis phoenicurus 2
Baillon'sCrak ePorzana pusilla 1
Ruddy-breasted Crake Porzana fusca r
Watercock Ga/ferex cinerea r
Purple Swamphen Porphyrio porphyrio c
Common Moorhen Gallinula chloropus c
Common Coot Fulica atra uc
Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus c
Pied Avocet Recurvirostra avosetta
Northern Lapwing Vanellus vanellus 2
River Lapwing Vanellus duvaucelii
Grey-headed Lapwing Vanellus cinereus c
Red-wattled Lapwing Vanellus indlcus r
Pacific Golden Plover Pluvialis fulva c
Grey Plover Pluvialis squatarola 1
Long-billed Plover Charadrius placidus 1
Little Ringed Plover Charadrius dubius c
Kentish Plover Charadrius alexandrinus r
Lesser Sand Plover Charadrius mongolus r
Greater Painted-snipe Rostratula benghalensis r
Pheasant-tailed Jacana Hydrophasianus chirurgus c
Bronze-winged Jacana Metopidius indicus c
iackSmpeLymnocryptesminimus r
Pintail Snipe Gallinago stenura uc
Swinhoe's Snipe Gallinagomegala 1
Common Snipe Gallinago gallinago c
Black-tailed Godwit Limosa limosa uc
Bar-tailed Godwit Limosa lapponica 1
Spotted Redshank Tringa erythropus c
Common Redshank Tringa totanus r
Marsh Sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis c
Common Greenshank Tringa nebularia uc
Green Sandpiper Tringa ochropus uc
Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola c
Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos r
Little Stint Calidris minuta r
Temminck's Stint Calidris temminckii uc
Curlew Sandpiper Calidris ferruginea r
Ruff Philomachuspugnax c
Oriental Pratincole Glareola maldivarum r
Small Pratincole Glareola lactea 2
Heuglin's Gull Laws heuglini
Pallas's Gull Larus ichthyaetus
Brown-headed Gull Larus brunnicephalus 3
Black-headed Gull Larus ridlbundus r
Gull-billed Tern Gelochelidon nilotica
River Tern Sterna aurantia
Common Tern Sterna hirundo 1
Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybridus uc
Rock Pigeon Columbalivia . c
Oriental Turtle Dove Streptopelia orientals r
Spotted Dove Streptopelia chinensis c
Red Collared Dove Streptopelia tranquebarica r
Eurasian Collared Dove Streptopelia decaocto c
Rose-ringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri uc
Pied Cuckoo Clamatorjacobinus r
Common Hawk Cuckoo Hierococcyx varius r
Indian Cuckoo Cuculus micropterus uc
Lesser Cuckoo Cuculus poliocephalus 1
Plaintive Cuckoo Cacomantis merulinus c
Greater Coucal Centropus sinensis
Lesser Coucal Centropus bengalensis 3
Barn Owl Tyto alba
Spotted Owlet Athenebrama uc
Brown Hawk Owl Nlnox scutulata 2
Large-tailed Nightjar Caprimulgus macrurus r
Himalayan Swiftlet Collocalia brevirostris 2
Asian Palm Swift Cypsiurus balasiensis uc
House Swift Apus nlpalensis 1
1 3 r
2 r r
2 r
r uc r
3 r
c c c
c c c
uc c c
c c c
1
2 3 r
c r uc
c 1 r
c r
r
1 1
2
c 2
c
r 3
uc c
uc r
c r
1
c r
3 r
r r
uc r
r uc
r 1
uc 2
2
c uc
1
1
1
2 r
r c
1
1
uc uc
r r
r
r
1
uc
c
1
r
r
uc
r
1
r
r
r
uc
r
uc
uc
2
r
c
uc
2
uc
r
c c c
1
uc r c
1 r
3 1 r
1 r
1
c 2 uc
2 1
3 1
1
r
2
r
2
4 1
1
Indian Roller Coracias benghalensis uc
Stork-billed Kingfisher Pelargopsis capensis 1
White-throated Kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis c
Blyth's Kingfisher Alcedo hercuies 1
Common Kingfisher Alcedoatthis c
Pied Kingfisher Cerylerudis uc
Green Bee-eater Merops orientalis uc
Blue-tailed Bee-eater Merops philippinus uc
Eurasian Hoopoe Upupa epops uc
Eurasian Wryneck 7y/7x foA<7i////<7 r
Fulvous-breasted Woodpecker Dendrocopos macei 4
Small Minivet Pericrocotus cinnamomeus
Brown Shrike Lanius cristatus c
Long-tailed Shrike Lanius schach c
Grey-backed Shrike Lanius tephronotus 3
Eurasian Golden Oriole Oriolus oriolus 1
Black-naped Oriole Oriolus chinensis 1
Black-hooded Oriole Oriolus xanthornus 3
Slender-billed Oriole Oriolus tenuirostris
Black Drongo Dicrurus macrocercus c
Rufous Treepie Dendrocitta vagabunda c
House Crow Corns spiendens
Jungle Crow Corvus levalllantl c
Sand Martin Riparia riparia c
Plain Martin Riparia paludicola r
Pale Martin Riparia diluta
Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica c
Red-rumped Swallow Hirundo daurica uc
Asian House Martin Delichon dasypus 1
Bengal Bush Lark Mirafra assamica c
Oriental Skylark Alaudagulgula uc
Zitting Cisticola Cisticola juncidis c
Red-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer uc
Common Tailorbird Orthotomus sutorius r
Striated Grassbird Megalurus palustris c
Rufous-rumped Grassbird Graminicola bengalensis
Chestnut-crowned Bush Warbler Cettia major
Aberrant Bush Warbler Cettia flavolivacea
Grey-sided Bush Warbler Cettia brunnifrons
Spotted Bush Warbler Bradypterus thoracicus r
David's Bush Warbler Bradypterus davidi r
Lanceolated Warbler Locustella lanceolata 3
Common Grasshopper Warbler Locustella naevia
Pallas's Grasshopper Warbler Locustella certhiola r
Black-browed Reed Warbler Acrocephalus bistrigiceps r
Paddyfield Warbler Acrocephalus agricola c
Blyth's Reed Warbler Acrocephalus dumetorum c
Oriental Reed Warbler Acrocephalus orientalis r
Large-billed Reed Warbler Acrocephalus orinus 1
Clamorous Reed Warbler Acrocephalus stentoreus c
Thick-billed Warbler Acrocephalus aedon r
Sykes'sWarblerWu/wrama 1
Common Chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita 4
Dusky Warbler Phylloscopus fuscatus c
Smoky Warbler Phylloscopus fuligiventer
Tickell's Leaf Warbler Phylloscopus affinis r
Inornate Warbler Phylloscopus inornatus r
Greenish Warbler Phylloscopus trochiloides 1
Yellow-vented Warbler Phylloscopus cantator
Whistler's Warbler Seicercus whistleri 1
Lesser Whitethroat Sylvia curruca 1
Striated Babbler Turdoides earlei uc
Rufous-necked Laughingthrush Garrulaxruficollis r
Common Myna Acridotheres tristis c
Jungle Myna Acridotheres fuscus uc
Chestnut-tailed Starling Sturnus malabaricus r
Common Starling Sturnus vulgaris 1
Asian Pied Starling Sturnus contra c
Eurasian Scaly Thrush Zootheradauma 2
Siberian Rubythroat Luscinia calliope r
1
c r c
c c c
uc c uc
uc uc uc
uc r
r 2
r 1 2
3 1
1
uc r uc
c 1
3 1 r
1
1 1
3 uc uc
1
c c c
r
c c
uc c c
uc c
1 1
1
c c c
r
1
r r
2
1 r r
uc r r
r
c c c
3
1
5 1
1
r r r
r r 2
1 2 3
1
r uc uc
3 r uc
uc c c
c c c
r r
1
c c c
r 1 1
1
3 1 uc
c c c
1
r uc uc
r 1
1 2
uc
r
c c uc
uc 1 r
r 1 uc
c c c
2
r 1
120
PHILIP D. ROUND etal.
Forktail 30 (2014)
Sources: Site lists compiled by PMT include his records since 1986, records contributed by all authors and participants (including records from visits/surveys outside the present study) and records from other
observers, including Anisuzzaman Khan, William Collis, Ronald Haider, David Johnson, David Millin, Munir Ahmed, S. M. A. Rashid, Derek Scott, Tania Khan and John Woolner.
Appendix 2.
Wing lengths and weights of bird trapped and ringed at Baikka Beel, Pashua Haor and Tanguar Haor, 201 1-2013.
BaikkaBeel Pashua Tanguar
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121
Forktail 30 (2014): 122-129
Significant recent ornithological records from the limestone
area of south-west Guangxi, south China, 2004-201 2
AIWU JIANG, FANG ZHOU & NAIFA LIU
From 2004 to 2012, we conducted a long-term series of surveys of birds in 16 areas in the largely limestone area of south-west Guangxi,
south China. A total of 304 bird species (1 92 resident, 44 summer visitors, 62 winter visitors and 6 passage migrants) were recorded, including
seven globally threatened birds and 40 Chinese National Key Protected Animals. Fourteen species and seven subspecies were recorded for
the first time in the area. The fauna of south-west Guangxi is similar to that of south Yunnan and Indochina. We suggest that Nonggang
Babbler Stachyris nonggangensis and Oriental Pied Hornbill Anthracoceros albirostris are the priority flagship bird species for the region.
Nonggang National Nature Reserve is the most important site in south-west Guangxi for the conservation of endemic birds in limestone
areas, while Quyang Lake is very important for wintering waterbirds. Further surveys and studies are necessary for bird conservation in
south-west Guangxi.
INTRODUCTION
TFie limestone area of south-west Guangxi Zhuang autonomous
region (sometimes referred to as a province), one of the largest and
most famous karst areas in the world, is in the Sino-Vietnamese
border region. The area has been included in one of the 25
biodiversity hotspots of the world for conservation priority (Myers
etal. 2000). Some nature reserves in this area are listed as Important
Bird Areas (BirdLife International 2009). Three new bird species
have been discovered in limestone forests of the region in recent
years (Zhou & Jiang 2008, Woxvold etal. 2009, Alstrom etal. 2010).
However, the overall extent and size of forested areas have been
declining due to human disturbance (Wu 2009).
For such an important area, the avifauna of south-west Guangxi
is still poorly known. The history of ornithological study in the region
can be traced back to the 1930s (Chong 1932), but the first systematic
bird survey of this area was carried out for the establishment of
Nonggang National Nature Reserve in the 1980s (Long 1988).
Regional surveys have been conducted and many new records have
been reported in south-west Guangxi since the late 1990s (Chan &
Lee 2006, Jiang etal. 2006, Lee etal. 2006, Robbins etal. 2006, Zhou
etal. 2011). Likewise knowledge of the avifauna of the adjacent areas
in Vietnam is also lacking (Hill 2000, Pilgrim et al. 2009).
With support from many sources and international NGOs, we
began a series of bird surveys from 2004 to 20 1 2 to update the status
and distribution in south-west Guangxi, and present the results here.
STUDY AREA AND METHODS
The largely limestone terrain of south-west Guangxi, including
Daxin, Longzhou, Ningming, Chongzuo, Fusui, Jingxi, Napo and
Pingxiang counties, covers about 21,300 knvand borders northern
Vietnam (Figure 1). The climate is subtropical, with an average
annual rainfall of 1 , 1 00- 1 ,500 mm and annual average temperature
18-22°C. The native dominant vegetation types in this region are
seasonal rain forest and mixed evergreen and deciduous broadleaved
forest (Xu & Zhou 2011). The areas surveyed lie between about
100 m and 1,300 m. Most forests in the lowlands have been cleared
for agriculture (mainly maize and sugarcane).
With help from other experienced birdwatchers we conducted
bird surveys between 2004 and 2012 at 16 locations (Table l). We
Table 1. Survey sites in south-west Guangxi, south China. Site areas obtained from Guangxi Forestry Bureau. NNR=National Nature Reserve,
NR=Nature Reserve. All areas are limestone except for 1 4 & 1 5 which are partial limestone.
Forktail 30 (2014) Recent ornithological records from the limestone area of south-west Guangxi, China, 2004-2012
123
visited Nonggang National Nature Reserve (Nonggang NNR)
every month from 2005 to 2007, and in the breeding season
between 2008 and 2012. The number of visits to most other sites
were more limited. Bird surveys were carried out using line transects
and fixed point observations. We also used mist-netting to help
investigate forest understorey birds. Waterbirds were mostly
surveyed by direct counts in the winter. The specimen collections
of the Forest Inventory and Planning Institute of Guangxi and the
Institute of Biology, Guangxi Academy of Sciences, were searched
for previously undocumented specimens. IUCN Red List status is
according to BirdLife International (2013). Nomenclature and
taxonomic order follows Inskipp et al. (1996) but includes species
recognised since that time by the BirdLife Taxonomic Working
Group.
RESULTS
A total of 304 bird species — 192 resident, 44 summer visitors, 62
winter visitors and 6 passage migrants — were recorded during these
surveys, including 7 globally threatened birds (2 Endangered, 2
Near Threatened, and 3 Vulnerable species) and 40 Chinese
National Key Protected Animals (one in Class I and 39 in Class
II). Fourteen species and seven subspecies were found in south¬
west Guangxi for the first time.
The Appendix lists the status and sites where each bird was
observed.
The annotated list below gives details of significant records,
including globally threatened species and those with range
extensions.
Significant records
Ferruginous Pochard Aythya nyroca
Near Threatened. Two birds were seen on a seasonal pond near
Nonggang NNR on 18 December 2008. In January 2009, one adult
was also observed on QuyangLake. These are the first records from
south-west Guangxi.
Scaly-sided Merganser Mergus squamatus
Endangered. One bird was seen on Quyang Lake on 15 November
2008. The species had earlier been found on the coast of Guangxi
in winter 1981 (Wu 1993). These records indicate a small number
may winter in south Guangxi.
Speckled PicuSet Picumnus innominatus
Least Concern. Speckled Piculet is common in Diding and
Xidamingshan NRs. Three subspecies, innominatus , cbinensis and
malayorum , have been recorded in China (Cheng 1987, MacKinnon
& Phillipps 2000). Specimens we collected from south-west Guangxi,
with dark olive crown and yellow-green belly, were subspecies
malayorum — the first for Guangxi and an eastern range extension.
Green-eared Barbet Megalaima faiostricta
Least Concern. This species has rarely been recorded in Guangzhou
bay and Naozhou island (Cheng 1987, MacKinnon & Phillipps
2000). Three individuals and one nest were observed in Nonggang
NNR between 2005 and 2011. These records help fill a gap in the
species’s range between Guangdong province and Indochina.
Oriental Pied Hornbill Anthracoceros aibirostris
Least Concern. Common in south-west Guangxi 30 years ago ( Wu
106 0'0'E 107- 0‘0'E 103' 0’0'E
Figure 1 . Map of survey locations in
south-west Guangxi, south China.
Site numbers correspond to Table 1 .
124
AIWU JIANG, FANG ZHOU & NAIFA LIU
Forktail 30 (2014)
1993). However, only two flocks were observed, in NonggangNNR
and Xidamingshan NR, between 2005 and 2009. This extreme
north-eastern population of Oriental Pied Hornbill has declined
rapidly in the last 30 years.
Blyth's Kingfisher Alcedo Hercules
Near Threatened. First recorded in north-east Guangxi in 1998
(Lee etal. 2006) . One pair was observed along a stream in Nonggang
NNR in November 2007. It has also been observed in Diding NR
(Robbins etal. 2006). These records for the limestone area of south¬
west Guangxi indicate a continuous distribution of this rare forest
kingfisher.
Blue-bearded Bee-eater Nyctyornis athertoni
Least Concern. Although some authorities have stated that Blue-
bearded Bee-eater was recorded in China only from Hainan, Xizang
and Yunnan provinces (Cheng 1987, MacKinnon & Phillipps
2000), it is common in south-west Guangxi. Over 40 individuals
and 5 nest burrows were observed in Nonggang, Xialei, Bangliang
and Xidamingshan NRs from 2005 to 2012. It has already been
recorded in Dayaoshan, central Guangxi (Zhou etal. 201 1).
Asian Emerald Cuckoo Chrysococeyx maculatus
Least Concern. One pair was seen at Nonggang NNR on 1 5 June
2006. Another pair and one juvenile fostered by a White-throated
Fantail Rhipidura albicollis were seen in Xidamingshan NR. The
Asian Emerald Cuckoo was first recorded in Guangxi at
Cenwanglaoshan NNR, north-west Guangxi (Kadoorie Farm &
Botanic Garden 2003, Lee et al. 2006). These records indicate this
small cuckoo may breed in forests throughout western Guangxi.
Barn Owl Tyto alba
Least Concern. Three individuals were observed in Nonggang
NNR between 2005 and 2008. One specimen was also collected
in Ningming county, south-west Guangxi, in January 2004 (Zhou
etal. 2004). The species may also occur as vagrant in south Yunnan
(MacKinnon & Phillipps 2000). These records, the most easterly
in Guangxi, indicate an extension of the known range.
Thick-billed Green Pigeon Treron curvirostra
Least Concern. One seen on 24 August 2006 at NonggangNNR,
three in Encheng NR on 15 December 2008 and recorded in Xialei
NR on 20 December 2008. This species is mostly seen in Yunnan
and Hainan provinces in China (Cheng 1987, MacKinnon &
Phillipps 2000).
Black-legged Kittiwake Rissa tridactyla
Least Concern. An adult was on Quyang Lake on 7 November
2009. This species has also been recorded in winter in Yunnan
province (Zhao etal. 2009). This is the first record from Guangxi
and a southern extension of the known wintering range in China.
Jerdon's Baza Avkeda jerdoni
Least Concern. This species was seen 12 times between 2005 and
2011 in three reserves. We also found a nest on a cliff in Nonggang
NNR in May 2005. Contrary to MacKinnon & Phillipps
(2000), who document few records only in Yunnan and Hainan
provinces, it is common in limestone areas of Guangxi. It was also
observed breeding in Liuzhou, central Guangxi (Zhou etal. 2011).
Oriental Honey Buzzard Pemis ptilorhynchus
Least Concern. A chick of this species was reared by local people
in Xidamingshan NR in June 2009. Five juveniles were observed
in Nonggang NNR and Longhushan NR in early summer 2005
and 2009. Thus breeding was confirmed in south-west Guangxi.
Most Oriental Honey Buzzards breed in the eastern Palearctic and
winter in southern China and South-East Asia. The subspecies
ruficollis breeds from India to Myanmar and in Sichuan and Yunnan
provinces in western China. It is likely that birds breeding in south¬
west Guangxi are this race.
Red-necked Grebe Podiceps grisegena
Least Concern. The species has been recorded in Hebei, Fujian and
Guangdong provinces in winter. Two adults were observed on a
seasonal pond near Nonggang NNR on 18 December 2008. This
record confirms that Red-necked Grebe also winters in south-west
Guangxi.
White-eared Night Heron Gorsachius magnificus
Endangered. This species is very rare in south-west Guangxi. We
have systematically searched for this nocturnal heron several times
in the ponds and streams of south-west Guangxi, but we found only
one adult, captured by a local fisherman on a stream in Xialei NR,
in November 2005.
Black-throated Loon Gavia arctica
Least Concern. One adult was observed in winter on Quyang Lake
on 17 January 2009. This record is the first for Guangxi. The species
is usually considered a rare winter visitor to the coasts of Fujian,
Jiangsu, Shandong and Taiwan (Cheng 1987, MacKinnon &
Phillipps 2000, Zheng 2011). This record is also the first from
freshwater ecosystems in south-west China.
Fairy Pitta Pitta nympha
Vulnerable. One pair was nesting on a rock in Nonggang NNR
during June 2012. The species’s distinctive song was also heard at
Bangliang NR in May 2006.
Swinhoe's Mirsivet Pericrocotus cantonensis
Least Concern. Six individuals associating with Rosy Minivets P.
roseus were observed at Nonggang NNR on 4 October 2005. Over
30 individuals were also seen in Bangliang, Banli and Diding NRs
in the migration seasons between 2005 and 2009. South-west
Guangxi may be an important migration corridor for the species.
Asian Paradise-flycatcher Terpsiphone paradisi
Least Concern. More than 30 individuals were seen, in Nonggang,
Chunxiu, Dizhou, Xidamingshan and Diding NRs. The Asian
Paradise-flycatcher in south-west Guangxi has a light grey throat
similar to specimens collected from southern Yunnan province. We
confirm it is the subspecies indochinensis , which breeds from south
Yunnan to Thailand and Indochina (Cheng 1987). This is the first
record of the subspecies indochinensis from Guangxi, and an
eastward range extension.
Blue Whistling Thrush Myophonus caeruleus
Least Concern. Blue Whistling Thrush, subspecies eugenei, was
found to be resident in Gulongshan, Laohutiao and Diding NRs.
This subspecies is usually considered to occur in south-west China
(MacKinnon & Phillipps 2000). Our records indicate an eastern
extension of its range.
Brown-chested Jungle Flycatcher Rhinomyias brunneata
Vulnerable. Two individuals were seen at Nonggang NNR on
5 May 2006. One was recorded in Xidamingshan NR on 2 May
2009. The distinctive song was also heard in Bapen NR on 29 June
2012.
Hill Blue Flycatcher Cyomis banyumas
Least Concern. Although this species was previously considered a
rare bird in China, distributed only in Sichuan, Guizhou and
Yunnan provinces (MacKinnon & Phillipps 2000), it is common
Forktail 30 (2014) Recent ornithological records from the limestone area of south-west Guangxi, China, 2004-2012
125
in south-west Guangxi. We observed it breeding at 16 sites. It was
also recorded in Gulongshan NR in 1999 (Lee et al. 2006).
Oriental Magpie Robin Copsychus saularis
Least Concern. This species is very common in south-west Guangxi.
We compared specimens collected from south-west Guangxi and
south China and confirmed that subspecies erimelas inhabits south¬
west Guangxi — an eastern range extension.
White-rumped Shama Copsychus malabaricus
Least Concern. The first Guangxi record of this species was from
Chunxiu NR on 24 May 1998 (Lee et al. 2006). However, it is
common in south-west Guangxi and we observed or heard it at most
study sites. Two nests in dead bamboo were found at Nonggang
NNR in May 2012.
Biack-throated Tit Aegithaios concinnus
Least Concern. Common in Xidamingshan, DidingandXialei NRs.
The individuals seen had paler chestnut flanks and a narrower breast-
band than those in north-east Guangxi and were confirmed to be
subspecies talifuensis, recorded from Yunnan, Guizhou provinces
and Indochina, extending its range to south-west Guangxi.
Flavescent Bulbul Pycnonotus flavescens
Least Concern. Recorded in Yunnan province (MacKinnon &
Phillipps 2000, Zheng 2011). Over 40 individuals were seen in
Diding NR between 2005 and 2007. Five were observed at
Bangliang NR on 15 November 2008. These records are the first
for Guangxi and an eastward range extension.
Pale-footed Bush Warbler Cettia pallidipes
Least Concern. Although the first record from Guangxi was only
in Fusui in 1998 (Lee eta/. 200 6), this species was common in the
grassland and farmland of south-west Guangxi. We observed or
heard this bird in most areas during our surveys and its range has
now extended to Liuzhou, central Guangxi (Zhou et al. 2011).
Limestone Leaf Warbler Phylloseopus calciatilis
Least Concern. This species was only recently described from the
limestone area ofVietnam and Laos (Alstrom eta/. 2010). It is very
common in south-west Guangxi. We observed many individuals in
Nonggang, Chunxiu, Qinglongshan, Banli and Bangliang NRs and
one nest on a rock in Nonggang NNR in May 2012 during the
surveys.
Yellow-bellied Warbler Abroscopus supeirciliaris
Least Concern. Although the first record in Guangxi was only in
Chunxiu NR in 1998 (Lee et al. 2006), the species is common in
bamboo forest in Nonggang, Chunxiu, Gulongshan, Encheng and
Xialei NRs. Five nests were found in holes in bamboo in Nonggang
NNR between 2010 and 2012. These records indicate an eastern
extension of the range.
Red-tailed Laughingthrush Garruiax milnei
Least Concern. Rare in south-west Guangxi. Only 8 individuals
were observed, in Diding NR, between 2005 and 2008. These were
compared with the subspecies sinianus collected from north-east
Guangxi, and it was confirmed that the south-west Guangxi birds
were subspecies sbarpei, recorded from south Yunnan province,
north-west Thailand and north Indochina. These were the first
records of sharpei from Guangxi and an eastern extension of its
range.
Buff-breasted Babbler Pellomeum tickelli
Least Concern. Previously recorded in China only from Yunnan
province (Cheng 1987, MacKinnon & Phillipps 2000), the species
was first recorded in Diding NR in 2004 (Robbins eta/. 2006).
We found it very common in south-west Guangxi — in
Nonggang, Chunxiu, Qinglongshan, Encheng, Xialei NRs and
Daqingshan Botanical Garden between 2005 and 2010. It was
one of the most frequent mist-net captures in Nongang NNR.
These records for Guangxi indicate an eastern extension of its
range.
Spot-throated Babbler Pellomeum albiventre
Least Concern. This species had been considered a resident in
Tibet and Yunnan (Cheng 1987, MacKinnon & Phillipps 2000)
and the first Guangxi record was collected in Nandan county,
north-west Guangxi (Zhou et al. 1995). Five individuals were
observed in Nonggang NNR between 2005 and 2009 and a nest
with three eggs was found there in grassland in May 2008. Two
were seen in Xidamingshan NR on 4 May 2009. It has also been
observed in Shiwandashan and Diding NRs (Robbins et al.
2006). These records indicate a south-eastward extension of its
range in China.
Rufous-fronted Babbler Stachyris nififrons
Least Concern. Six individuals were seen in Nonggang NNR
between 2005 and 2007, and two were observed in Diding NR
on January 2006. The first Chinese record was of subspecies
adjuncta in south Yunnan province (Yang & Yang 2004) and
the Guangxi records are of this subspecies — an eastern extension
to the range.
Nonggang Babbler Stachyris nonggangensis
Vulnerable. Nonggang Babbler is a recently described species
collected from the Sino Vietnamese border region (Zhou &
Jiang 2008). It is common in good protected limestone forest
in Nonggang NNR and easy to detect by call. Over 200 different
individuals were observed in Nonggang NNR every year from
2007 to 2012, but only three nests, in limestone holes, were
found between 2009 and 2012. Some individuals were also
found in Chunxiu NR and Bangliang NR on the Sino
Vietnamese border, suggesting that a small population of
Nonggang Babbler also inhabits limestone forest in northern
Vietnam.
Rufous-backed Stbia Heterophasia annectans
Least Concern. This species was previously recorded from Tibet
autonomous region and Yunnan province (Cheng 1987,
MacKinnon & Phillipps 2000), but when we checked specimens
in the Guangxi Forest Inventory and Planning Institute we
found a Rufous-backed Sibia collected in Diding NR in March
1985. This is apparently the first record for Guangxi and an
eastern range extension. This species was not seen in the field
during the surveys.
Ashy-throated Parrotbill Paradoxornis alphonsianus
Least Concern. Four flocks of Ashy-throated Parrotbills were
observed in Laohutiao and Diding NR between 2005 and 2008.
The first record for Guangxi was seen in Xilin county, north¬
west Guangxi, in 2006 (Lu et al. 2006). These records fill a gap
in the range between Yunnan and Guizhou provinces.
Grey Wagtail Motacilla cinerea
Least Concern. Grey Wagtail has been considered a winter
visitor to southern China (Cheng 1987, MacKinnon &
Phillipps 2000). However, over 30 individuals and one nest were
seen in Nonggang, Encheng, Xialei, Diding and Xidamingshan
NRs during the breeding season in 2005 to 2009. 1 hese records
indicate a small population may be resident in south-west
Guangxi, indicating a southern extension to its breeding range.
126
AIWU JIANG, FANG ZHOU & NAIFA LIU
Forktail 30 (2014)
DISCUSSION
Composition of the avifauna
Based on our field surveys and published literature, a total 317 bird
species, 304 seen during these surveys and 1 3 published earlier ( Table
2), have been recorded from the limestone area of south-west
Guangxi — 23% ol the Chinese bird list (Zheng 2011). Seven of
these — White-eared Night Heron, Ferruginous Pochard, Scaly-sided
Merganser, Blyth’s Kingfisher, Fairy Pitta, Brown-chested Jungle-
flycatcher and Nonggang Babbler — are Endangered, Vulnerable or
Near Threatened species. Scaly-sided Merganser has also been
ranked Class I in the List of Chinese National Key Protected
Animals, while 39 other species are ranked Class II, including Red¬
necked Grebe, White-eared Night Heron, Greater Coucal Centropus
sinensis , Lesser Coucal C. bengalensis , Long-tailed Broadbill
Psarisomus dalhousiae. Silver-breasted Broadbill Serilophus lunatus,
Blue-rumped Pitta Pitta soror. Fairy Pitta, and all Falconiformes and
Strigiformes. These surveys have added fourteen species and seven
subspecies to the bird list of either Guangxi as a whole or south¬
west Guangxi. They are: Black-throated Loon, Scaly-sided
Merganser, Black-legged Kittiwake, Thick-billed Green Pigeon,
Asian Emerald Cuckoo, Barn Owl, Green-eared Barbet, Swinhoe’s
Minivet, Flavescent Bulbul, Buff-breasted Babbler, Rufous-fronted
Babbler, Rufous-backed Sibia, Ashy-throated Parrotbill, Limestone
Leaf Warbler, subspecies ruficollis of Oriental Honey Buzzard,
subspecies malayorum of Speckled Piculet, subspecies erimelas of
Oriental Magpie Robin, subspecies eugenei of Blue Whistling
Thrush, subspecies indochinensis of Asian Paradise-flycatcher,
subspecies sharpei of Red-tailed Laughingthrush, and subspecies
talifuensis of Black-throated Tit. Furthermore, several birds have
been confirmed to breed in south-west Guangxi.
Our study and other recent surveys of sourh-west Guangxi have
helped to fill in some gaps in the distribution of birds in south China.
Historically, the fauna of south-west Guangxi has been considered
part of the coastal subregion of Fujian, Guangdong and Guangxi
provinces, with poorer biodiversity than the mountain subregion
of south Yunnan province (Zhang 1999). However, the ranges of
many birds recorded in Yunnan and Indochina extend into south¬
west Guangxi. According to incomplete statistics, of 236 breeding
birds in our study, about 56 species and 10 subspecies have only
Table 2. Birds previously listed as occurring in the limestone area of
south-west Guangxi (Zhou etal. 201 1), but not detected in 2004-2012.
Seasonal status assigned according to Zhou et at. (2011) and our
observations in other areas of Guangxi. VU = Vulnerable species in IUCN
Red List. * = €135$ II in the list of Chinese National Key Protected Animals.
been recorded in south-west Guangxi, Yunnan and Indochina. For
example, Lesser Racket-tailed Drongo Dicrurus remifer is observed
in south-west Guangxi, south-east Tibet, Yunnan and South-East
Asia. However, only five species, namely Fairy Pitta, Swinhoe’s
Minivet, Collared Finchbill Spizixos semitorques , Light-vented
Bulbul Pycnonotus sinensis and Brown-chested Jungle Flycatcher, are
recorded breeding only in south-west Guangxi and the forests of
south-east China. Nonggang Babbler is even endemic to Sino
Vietnamese limestone (Shu et al. 2009) and two range-restricted
vertebrates, Chinese Tiger Gecko Goniurosaurus luii and White-
headed Langur Presbytis leucocephalus are also confined in China to
the limestone area of south-west Guangxi, an important centre of
biodiversity (Lee et al. 1999, Huang 2002). Therefore, we suggest
that the fauna of the limestone area of south-west Guangxi should
be considered as an independent subregion or part of the mountain
subregion of Yunnan province and northern Vietnam.
Only a few bird surveys have been conducted in limestone areas
of south China and Indochina in recent years (Long 1988,
Duckworth etal. 1998, Chan etal. 2005, Robbins et al. 2006). Even
so, these should be considered a special habitat type for birds. With
its barren outcrops, depressions, numerous caves, plentiful
underground water and little surface water this habitat is home to
several endemic birds. Nonggang Babbler and Streaked Wren
Babbler Napothera brevicaudata, mostly inhabiting and nesting in
limestone areas, depend on limestone forests. Other more
widespread species can adapt to this unique habitat. For example,
Oriental Pied Hornbill, which mostly nests in tree holes in non¬
limestone areas, usually nests in limestone caves in Nonggang NNR.
In addition, there are more ground and undergrowth specialists in
limestone areas.
Conservation
The limestone area of sourh-west Guangxi and adjacent limestone
highlands of northern Vietnam are important hotspots for the birds
ofsouth-west China and Indochina (Tordoff etal. 2007). Nonggang
NNR is probably the most important site for the conservation of
restricted-range birds in south-west Guangxi. Quyang Lake is very
important for wintering waterbirds in south-west China. However,
the avian population has decreased in the last 30 years. Thirteen
species, including four waterbirds, eight forest birds and the Hill
Myna, a very popular cage bird, have disappeared from south-west
Guangxi in recent years due to forest loss, water pollution and
poaching (Table 2). Eight of the lost species — Lesser Yellownape,
Greater Yellownape, Blossom-headed Parakeet, Derbyan Parakeet,
Red-breasted Parakeet, Pied Falconet, Silver Oriole and Hill Myna —
are main hole nesters or species of mature forest. This indicates that
forest loss and degradation, particularly the loss of large trees, is a
major threat. In some nature reserves, although large in official area,
vegetation is dominated by shrubland and secondary forest. Good
protected limestone forests are only found in Nonggang NNR and
a few inaccessible sites in other nature reserves. Furthermore, habitat
fragmentation is very common in south-west Guangxi. Nonggang
NNR, the largest and best limestone forest in south-west Guangxi,
is divided into three sections by farmland, roads and rivers.
Most of the surveyed areas are officially protected by local
government; however, improving management ability and
developing a special bird conservation management plan are very
important for every nature reserve. Ecological corridors are also
important for threatened birds in fragment habitats. We suggest
Nonggang Babbler and Oriental Pied Hornbill be regarded as
flagship bird species for conservation priority in the region: the
former is a specialised limestone species, while the latter, an extreme
north-east population, is very important for seed dispersal and
regeneration of limestone forest in south-west Guangxi.
Knowledge of the birds of these limestone areas is limited. The
three recently discovered species and many new records in this area
Forktail 30 (2014) Recent ornithological records from the limestone area of south-west Guangxi, China, 2004-201 2
127
are evidence of the inadequacy of past surveys. A lack of quantitative
surveys limits our ability to understand population trends, while
the ability to manage habitats for threatened birds is limited by many
factors, including ecological knowledge. Therefore more specific
surveys by skilled ornithologists, with detailed observations on
habitat and ecological needs, are necessary for bird conservation in
south-west Guangxi.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank the Guangxi Bureau of Forestry for permission to carry out
these surveys. We also thank Gan Yang, Dehui Yang, Renjie Sun, Zhou Lu,
Guidui Nong, Bo Zhao and Wenqing Zhao for their help in the field, and Mike
Cline for help with editing. John Fellowes provided valuable comments on an
earlier draft. This work was supported by grants from Hong Kong’s Kadoorie
Farm and Botanic Garden, the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(No.30360012, 30970381 and 31172123) and Guangxi Zhuang Autonomic
Region (20 1 0GXNSFB0 1 3044). The survey was also partly funded by a small
science grant from the Nature Reserve Management Enhancement Component
of the Guangxi Integrated Forest Development and Conservation Project
(GXGEF200804), the China Programme Office of Fauna & Flora International.
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Fang ZHOU, College of Animal Science and Technology,
Guangxi University, Daxue Rd 100, Nanning, 530004, Guangxi,
China. Email: zhoufang768@i26.com
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128
AIWU JIANG, FANG ZHOU & NAIFA LIU
Forktail 30 (2014)
Appendix.
Birds recorded in south-west Guangxi during 2004-2012.
Forktail 30 (2014) Recent ornithological records from the limestone area of south-west Guangxi, China, 2004-2012
129
IUCN China IUCN China
Red List Protected Seasonal Red List Protected Seasonal
1 EN = Endangered, VU = Vulnerable, NT = NearThreatened
2 I and II: Class in the list of Chinese National Key Protected Animals.
3 Seasonal status most commonly applicable according our observations. R: resident, S: summer visitor, W: winter visitor, P: passage migrant.
4 Sites correspond to those listed in Table 1 .
130
SHORT NOTES
Forktail 30(2014)
Vocalisations and display behaviour of Javan Woodcock Scolopax saturata
support its status as a distinct species
JOHN C. MITTERMEIER, RYAN C. BURNER, CARL H. OLIVEROS, DEWI M. PRAWIRADILAGA, MOHAMMAD IRHAM,
TRI HARYOKO & ROBERT G. MOYLE
Introduction
The woodcocks Scolopax are well known for their distinctive and
vocal roding displays. These have been well described for Eurasian
Woodcock S. rusticola (Cramp & Simmons 1983), American
Woodcock S. minor (Keppie & Whiting 1 994), New Guinea Woodcock
S. rosenbergii (Mayr & Rand 1937) and, more recently, Bukidnon
Woodcock S. bukidnonensis (Kennedy et al. 2001) and Moluccan
Woodcock S. rochussenii (Cottee-Jones et al. 2013). Amami
Woodcock S. mira apparently does not conduct roding displays
(Brazil & Ikenaga 1987) and the display of Sulawesi Woodcock S.
celebensis remains undocumented. The final species, Javan
Woodcock S. saturata, was described by Bartels (1940) but this
publication has since been overlooked and modern descriptions
of the vocalisations and display of Javan Woodcock are lacking.
Javan Woodcock is distributed in montane habitats in Java and
Sumatra; on Java, it has been recorded only in the west, specifically
from Gns Salak, Gede-Pangrango, Papandayan, Ciremai, Slamet and
Tangkuban Perahu (Bartels 1940, MacKinnon & Phillipps 1993).
Ambiguity exists between published records of this woodcock's
vocalisations and behaviour: MacKinnon & Phillipps (1993) listed
two vocalisations from Java and Sumatra as a 'fast, endlessly
repeated harsh cry do-do-do-do-do, also a singing krrr-krrr-krrd
while Bartels (1940), who collected 32 specimens of Javan
Woodcock between 1 902 and 1 923, described one call as ooooooh-
cherrr-doddoddoddoddod . . . Recently published vocalisations are
of a single, repeated, nasal note (e.g. ML Audio 70472), apparently
referable to the second call described by MacKinnon & Phillipps
(1993). Likewise, several reports describe the woodcock calling
while flying high over the forest at dusk (e.g. Andrew 1 985) while
Bartels (1940) described it vocalising while alighting and perched
on a branch.
Vocal differentiation is an important component of speciation
in birds and is often used in the assessment of species status
between allopatric populations (Remsen 2005, Tobias etal. 2010).
In the case of Javan Woodcock, several authors 'lump' Javan and
New Guinea Woodcocks together as one species, the Dusky or
Rufous Woodcock (MacKinnon & Phillipps 1 993, van Gils & Wiersma
1996, Clements 2007), whereas others treat them as separate
species on the basis of subtle morphological differences and a
substantial range separation (Kennedy etal. 2001 [followed by
BirdLife International 2014], Dickinson & Remsen 2013). Here the
display behaviour and vocalisations of Javan Woodcock are
described and comments made on their implicationsfor taxonomy.
Display behaviour
Between 1 9 and 26 September 201 3, a single Javan Woodcock was
observed displaying daily at dawn and dusk at Camp Bajuri, situated
at 1,350 m on the south-west slope of Gn Salak, West Java (6.731 °S
106.707°E). Habitat in the immediate vicinity of the camp was
degraded montane forest, consisting of secondary growth mixed
with high-canopy trees left after selective logging. Recordings of
the vocalisations made by JCM with a Marantz PMD661 digital
recorder and Sennheiser MKH70 microphone are archived at the
Macaulay Library of Natural Sounds, Ithaca, New York
(macaulaylibrary.org: ML Audio 181892-181896). Dawn displays
began at 05h 1 5 and dusk displays at 17h50, with display times
consistent throughout the duration of the fieldwork. The Javan
Woodcock's activity coincided with the vocalisation time of
Salvadori's Nightjar Caprimulgus pulchellus and occurred when too
dark for diurnal passerine species but too light for nocturnal species
such as Javan Frogmouth Batrachostomus javensis.
During display the bird flew through the forest canopy to perch
on a horizontal branch in the upper levels of a mid-storey tree,
about 1 0 m above the ground. After calling once or twice from this
perch (at intervals of 40 seconds), the woodcock flew to another
tree about 50 m away and called again. The bird was consistent in
its choice of perch and flight path. On all eight mornings of the
study, the woodcock flew through the same gap between trees
before calling from its selected perch. A different, nearby tree and
perch were used during both of the two observed evening displays.
Figure 1. Sonagram of the display song of Javan Woodcock Scolopax saturata recorded during the dusk display at Gn Salak, West Java, 23
September 2013. Sonagram produced using RavenLite software (Cornell University, Ithaca, NY); original recording archived at the Macaulay
Library of Natural Sounds (ML Audio 181 893).
o.ooo
kHz SO. 776
Forktail 30 (2014)
SHORT NOTES
131
Vocalisations
The woodcock was only observed vocalising while perched. The
song consisted of a loud three-part vocalisation beginning with a
short, low growl grrrr (1 .2 seconds), followed by an explosive sneeze
churrr! (0.5 second) and a drawn-out staccato grunt do-do-do-do-
do-do-do-do (7 seconds). Analysis of sonagrams (Figure 1 ) indicates
that the first motif is composed of a three-part harmonic with sound
bands at 0.35 kHz, 0.7 kHz and 1 .0 kHz, while the second is higher
and descending (3.3 kHz to 2.5 kHz) and the third consists of fast
bursts of six notes at a rate of one note/0.005 second, followed by
a pause of about 0.02 second, then two notes at the same rate
followed by another pause of 0.02 second on a repeating cycle.
These notes are audible to the human ear at a rate of about 23
notes/second and have minimum and maximum frequencies of
0.08 kHz and 2 kHz, with the peak frequency occurring at 0.8 kHz.
Discussion
The display behaviour of the Javan Woodcock is similar to other
woodcock species in its timing relative to other bird species and in
the consistency with which it conducts dawn and dusk displays.
The use of a tree perch to sing rather than calling in flight is
apparently unique amongst known woodcock displays and the
present observations concur with the descriptions made by Bartels
(1940), in contrast with those of subsequent observers. In terms of
vocalisations, these observations also support those published by
Bartels (1 940) and add to the description in MacKinnon & Phillipps
(1993) ofth e do-do-do-do call. The existence of both a lower 'grunt'
vocalisation and a higher-pitched call is similar to other woodcock
species, specifically Eurasian, Bukidnon and New Guinea
Woodcocks (Kennedy etal. 2001). It is noteworthy, however, that
the high-pitched krrrr call was not recorded during the fieldwork,
and existing recordings of that call do not include the do-do-do
vocalisations. These two calls could serve different functions or be
used at different times of year. Alternatively, the krrrr vocalisation
might not be made by the woodcock at all, a possibility supported
by the fact that it was not described by Bartels despite his long
experience of the species.
Kennedy etal. (2001 ) provided a description and sonagrams of
the vocalisations of Eurasian, Bukidnon and New Guinea
Woodcocks, and these recordings offer the opportunity to compare
analogous vocalisations from Java. As in those three species, Javan
Woodcock has a low-pitched grunt phase with its main energy at
about 1 kHz and a banded pattern composed of simple, rapidly
repeated elements. However, substantial differences in the song
are apparent. Relative to the song of New Guinea Woodcock,
notable differences are: (a) the three-part structure of the Javan
song (New Guinea Woodcock shows only two distinct motifs), (b)
the presence of the introductory harmonic, (c) the repetition
without pauses and the overall longer duration (5-7 seconds rather
than 0.2 second) of the rapidly repeating third motif, and (d) the
lack of gaps between each of the three motifs. Although the limited
sample size restricts the potential for statistical comparison, the
vocalisations are clearly distinct and fully diagnosable. Additionally,
one recording available for this taxon from Sumatra (www.xeno-
canto.org: XC5693 1 ) shows the same three motifs, of similar length
and speed, as the Javan recordings. The substantial vocal
differences between the song of Javan and New Guinea
Woodcocks, as well as the previously noted plumage differences
(Kennedy et al. 2001 ), support the conclusion that the Javan and
New Guinea Woodcocks are best treated as separate species.
Acknowledgements
Research on Java was funded through a National Science Foundation Grant
(DEB1 241 181) to RGM and Frederick H. Sheldon; support for JCM is provided
by a Ron and Mary Neal Graduate Fellowship at Louisiana State University;
CHO is supported by a University Graduate Fellowship at Kansas University.
We thank the State Ministry of Research and Technology (RISTEK, permit
number: 345/SIP/FRP/SM/IX/201 3) and the Ministry of Forestry for
providing permits to carry out fieldwork in Java. We are grateful to the
Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (RCB-LIPI) and
the Museum Zoologicum Bogoriensefor providing staff and support. Rafe
Brown, Scott Travers, Karen Olson and Heru Handika, as well as local
assistants on Salak, helped with fieldwork and logistics. Frederick H.
Sheldon, J. V. Remsen Jr. and two anonymous reviewers commented on
drafts of the manuscript. Brad Walker and Matt Medler provided JCM with
sound equipment and archiving recordings.
References
Andrew, P. (1985) An annotated checklist of the birds of the Cibodas-
Gunung Gede Nature Reserve. Kukila 2: 10-28.
Bartels, H. (1940) De Javaansche Housnip. De Nederlandsch-lndische Jager
10:63-64.
Bi rd Life International (2014) Species factsheet: Scolopax saturata.
Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 02/03/2014.
Brazil, M. A. & Ikenaga, H. (1987) The Amami Woodcock Scolopax mira: its
identity and identification. Forktail 3: 3-16.
Clements, J. F. (2007) The Clements checklist of the birds of the world (6th
edition). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Cottee-Jones, H„ Mittermeier, J. C. & Redding, D. W. (2013) The Moluccan
Woodcock Scolopax rochussenii on Obi Island, North Moluccas,
Indonesia: a 'lost' species is less endangered than expected. Forktail
29: 88-93.
Cramp, S. & Simmons, K. E. L. (1983) Flandbook of the birds of Europe, the
Middle East and North Africa, 3. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Dickinson, E. C. & Remsen, J. V., eds. (201 3) The Howard & Moore complete
checklist of the birds of the world (4th edition). Eastbourne: Aves Press,
van Gils, J. & Wiersma, P. (1996) Family Scolopacidae (snipes, sandpipers
and phalaropes). Pp.444-534 in J. del Hoyo, A. Elliott & J. Sargatal, eds.
Handbook of the birds of the world, 3. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions.
Kennedy, R. S„ Fisher, T. H„ Harrap, S. C., Diesmos, A. C. & Manamtam, A. S.
(2001) A new species of woodcock (Aves: Scolopacidae) from the
Philippines and a re-evaluation of other Asian/Papuasian woodcock.
Forktail 17: 1-12.
Keppie, D. M.& Whiting, R. M. (1994) American Woodcock (Scolopax minor).
In A. Poole & F. Gill, eds. The birds of North America. Philadelphia:
Academy of Natural Sciences.
MacKinnon, J. & Phillipps, K. (1993) A field guide to the birds of Borneo,
Sumatra, Java and Bali. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Mayr, E. & Rand, A. L. (1937) Results of the Archibold expeditions, 14: birds
of the 1 933-1934 Papuan expedition. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 73: 1 -
248.
Remsen, J. V. (2005) Pattern, process, and rigor meet classification. Auk 1 22:
403-413.
Tobias, J. A., Seddon, N., Spottiswoode, C. N., Pilgrim, J. D., Fishpool, L. D. C.
& Collar, N. J. (2010) Quantitative criteria for species delimitation. Ibis
152(4): 724-746.
John C. MITTERMEIER & Ryan C. BURNER, Louisiana State University
Museum of Natural Science and Department of Biological Sciences,
1 19 Foster Hall, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA.
Email: john.mittermeier@gmail.com (corresponding author)
Carl H. OUVEROS & Robert G. MOYLE, University of Kansas
Biodiversity Institute and Department of Ecology and Evolutionary
Biology, 1345 Jay hawk Blvd, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA.
Dewi M. PRAWIRADILAGA, Mohammad IRHAM & Tri HARYOKO,
Research Center for Biology-LIPI, Cibinong, West Java, Indonesia.
132
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Forktail 30(2014)
Nest-site selection by Isabelline Wheatears Oenanthe isabellina
on the Tibet plateau
SHAOBIN U&WEIJUN PENG
Introduction
The Isabelline Wheatear Oenanthe isabellina is a small insectivorous
bird (Li & Lu 2012b) which, in common with most species in genus
Oenanthe, is poorly known (Panov 2005, Kaboli etal. 2007). It has a
wide distribution, breeding from central Asia to south-east Europe,
and wintering in India and Africa; its altitudinal range lies between
1 ,000 m and over 4,000 m and it typically inhabits shrublands and
grasslands, often nesting in rodent burrows (Cramp 1988, Zheng
2002, Collar 2005).
Although the species's breeding biology has been reported (Li
& Lu 2012b), little information on nest-site selection is available.
This note focuses on nest-site selection by Isabelline Wheatears at
about 3,400 m, near the upper limit of their breeding range, to study
how they avoid predation and cope with the harsh high-altitude
conditions.
Material and methods
Work was carried out between April 2009 and July 2012 in Tianjun
county, Qinghai province, north-east Tibetan plateau (37.283°N
99.1 00°E) at 3,400 m. The climate is cold and dry, with an annual
mean temperature of-1.1°Cand total precipitation of 345 mm. The
habitat is dominated by alpine steppe meadow, with the
commonest mammal in this area being the Black-lipped Pika
Ochotona curzoniae (Li & Lu 201 2a, b).
Isabelline Wheatear nests were located by following the adults'
breeding activities using binoculars. When a nest was located, a
series of nest parameters were recorded: geographical coordinates
(by GPS), burrow origin (excavated by pika or other primary cavity-
nesters), burrow status (abandoned or not by the excavators), the
direction of burrow entrance (by compass), the long radius (R^ and
short radius (R2) of the burrow entrance (using calipers). The number
of pika burrows within 36 m2 of the nest burrow was counted. The
same procedures were followed at a set of randomly selected
burrows not being used by breeding wheatears, so that the
characteristics of burrows selected by Isabelline Wheatears could
be identified. For some nests, we dug vertical holes at the side of
the burrow tunnel turnings to obtain nest dimensions after the
young fledged (for details of the procedures see Li & Lu 2012b).
The distance from the burrow entrance to the nest (entrance-nest
distance) was measured during these operations.
A total of 43 nests were located. Burrow entrance size (entrance
hole size) was calculated by 7txR1xR2. The direction of burrow
entrances were designated as north, north-west, west, south-west
etc. Independent or paired-samples f tests were used to compare
the means of two variables and chi-square tests were applied to
determine whether the cardinal directions of selected burrows
differed from a random distribution. The four years of data were
pooled together because of small sample size each year. All the
analyses were performed in SPSS V. 16.0. Tests were two-tailed and
values are given as means ± se.
Results
The majority of the nests (41) were located in burrows excavated
by pikas, but two were in Hume's Groundpecker Pseudopodoces
humilis burrows in vertical banks. All 43 wheatear nests were built
in abandoned burrows. Entrance hole size averaged 28.5 ± 1 .2 cm2
(1 7.7-41 .2), and no difference between the two burrow types was
detected (pika burrow vs groundpecker burrow = 28.6 vs 25.9, f41 =
0.49, p = 0.63). Compared with the randomly selected pika burrows
(n = 200), the ones selected by the wheatears had a smaller entrance
hole size (38.6 vs 28.5, t241= 8.27, p < 0.001 ). The directions of burrow
entrances did not deviate from a random distribution (%32 = 3.49, p
= 0.32; x72= 7.1 5, p — 0.41). Within 36 m2 of a wheatear burrow,
there were 2.2 ± 0.2 (n = 43) pika burrows, which is significantly
fewer than around the randomly-selected burrows (6.4 ± 0.3, n =
50; f91 = 1 0.2, p< 0.001).
Of the 29 nests dug out, two were in Hume's Groundpecker
burrows and the nest was constructed directly on the
abandoned groundpecker nest in the burrow chamber. Of the
27 nests in pika burrows, 1 5 (56%) were placed in the second section
(between the first and second tunnel turning), nine (33%) in the
third section (between the second and third turns) and the
remaining three (11%) in the fourth section (beyond the third
turning); 25 of the pika burrows dug out had only one opening.
Nests were either in tunnels (n = 18) or in burrow chambers built
on the abandoned pika nest (n = 1 1 ).The wheatear nest was a cup¬
shaped structure, consisting of grass stems lined with animal fur,
feathers and artificial fibres. The external diameter of 1 2 nests was
14.6 ± 0.5 cm, the internal diameter 7.7 ± 0.4 cm, the cup depth
4.9 ± 0.2 cm, and the dry nest mass averaged 98.7 ± 15.9 g.
The entrance-nest distance in pika burrows averaged 125.1 cm
(n = 27), whereas the length of the two groundpecker burrows were
221 and 1 82 cm.
Discussion
The aims of nest-site selection are to avoid predators and improve
breeding success (Lack 1968, Roff 2002). Black-lipped Pikas are
abundant on the Tibet plateau alpine steppe (Wang & Zhang 1 996)
and studies have found that this species may attack birds that nest
in their burrows and also block burrow tunnels during its excavating
activities (Du 2009, Lu etal. 2009, Zeng & Lu 2009). The Isabelline
Wheatears selected abandoned pika burrows in areas with a low
density of rodent burrows. This strategy may reduce disturbance
by pikas and also predation by the Mountain Weasel Mustela
altaica — a major predator of burrow-nesting birds (Du 2009, Lu et
at. 2009, Zeng & Lu 2009, Li & Lu 201 2a, b) and of pikas which are a
large part of its diet, such that density and distribution of weasels
is closely linked to that of pikas (Wei et al. 1 994).
Relative to sympatric open-nesting passerines, the burrow¬
nesting Isabelline Wheatears benefit from better concealment
from predators and a much better microclimate — higher
temperature and humidity — for reproduction. These factors all
contribute to improved breeding success of burrow-nesting birds
(Martin & Li 1992, Martin 1995, Li & Lu 2012b). With strong winds
and low temperatures prevailing throughout the year, Isabelline
Wheatears frequently chose a burrow with a small entrance hole
and made their nest beyond the first tunnel turning — a choice which
reduces the effect of the cold wind and improves the micro-climate
in the nest.
Acknowledgements
We thank Bo Du, Shiyi Tang and Xia Zong for help in the field. We also
appreciate the references provided by Canwei Xia.
References
Collar, N. J. (2005) Family Turdidae (thrushes). Pp. 514-807 in J. del Hoyo, A.
Elliott & D. A. Christie, eds. Handbook of the birds of the world, 10.
Barcelona: Lynx Edicions.
Cramp, S. (1988) The birds of the Western Palearctic, 5. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Forktail 30(2014)
SHORT NOTES
133
Du, B. (2009) Cuckold or cooperate? A reproductive game of Tibetan Ground
Tits Pseudopodoces humilis. Post-doctoral dissertation. Wuhan
University.
Kaboli, M., Aliabadian, M., Roselaar, K. S. & Prodon, R. (2007) Ecomorphology
of the wheatears (Genus Oenanthe). Ibis 149: 792-805.
Lack, D. (1968) Ecological adaptations for breeding in birds. London: Methuen.
Li, S. & Lu, X. (201 2a) Breeding biology of Rock Sparrows Petronia petronia in
the Tibetan plateau, with special reference to life history variation across
altitudes. Acta Ornithol. 47: 1 9-25.
Li, S. & Lu, X. (201 2b) Reproductive ecology of Isabelline Wheatears at the
extreme of their altitude distribution. Ardeola 59: 301-307.
Lu, X., Ke, D. H., Zeng, X. H. & Yu, T. L. (2009) Reproductive ecology of two
sympatric Tibetan snowfinch species at the edge of their altitudinal
range: response to more stressful environments. J. Arid Environ. 73:
1103-1108.
Martin, T. E. & Li, P. (1992) Life history traits of open- versus cavity-nesting
birds. Ecology 73: 579-592.
Martin, T. E. (1995) Avian life history evolution in relation to nest sites, nest
predation and food. Ecol. Monogr. 65:101-127.
Panov, E. N. (2005) Wheatears of the Palaearctic: ecology, behaviour and
evolution of the genus Oenanthe. Moscow: Pensoft.
Roff, D. A. (2002) Life history evolution. Sunderland MA: Sinauer Associates.
Wang, Z. W. & Zhang, Z.B. (1 996) Theory and practice of rodent pest
management. Beijing: Science Press.
Wei, W. H., Zhou, W. Y., Fan, N. C. & Biggins, D. E. (1994) Habitat selection,
feeding and caring for the young of alpine weasel. Acta Theriol. Sin. 1 4
(3): 184-188.
Zeng, X. H. & Lu, X. (2009) Interspecific dominance and asymmetric
competition with respect to nesting habitats between two snowfinch
species in a high-altitude extreme environment. Ecol. Res. 24: 607-616.
Zheng, G. M. (2002) A checklist on the classification and distribution of the
birds ofthe world. Second edition. Beijing: Science Press.
Shaobin LI, College of Life Science, Yangtze University, Jingzhou,
434025 Email: shaobinlee@yahoo.com (corresponding author)
Weijun PENG, College of Life Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan,
430072
Similarity of the calls of juvenile Pied Cuckoo Clamator jacobinus and its
Sri Lankan host species. Yellow-billed Babbler Turdoides affinis
GABRIEL A. JAMIE & GEHAN de SILVA WIJEYERATNE
On 7 May 2005 GSW was at Dunuvila Cottage, near Wasgomuwa
National Park, Sri Lanka (7.583°N 80.91 7°E) with Chandrika Maelge
and Sunela Jayawardene. At about 10h45 he heard what sounded
like the typical whinnying chatter of a Yellow-billed Babbler
Turdoides affinis. GSW did not investigate further immediately, as
the Yellow-billed Babbler is widespread in Sri Lanka, but as the bird
continued to call, he noticed that the pitch of the vocalisation
changed slightly and decided that it merited further attention, only
to find not a Yellow-billed Babbler but a Pied Cuckoo Clamator
jacobinus. The bird was identified as a juvenile due to its duller
colours — more brown than black — although the overall plumage
pattern was similar to that of an adult. SJ and CM, both wildlife
enthusiasts familiar with the calls of Yellow-billed Babbler, agreed
that the cuckoo's call was almost indistinguishable from that of the
babbler. At this time it appeared to be alone, with no sign of Yellow¬
billed Babblers in the vicinity.
A few hours later, in the same area, GSW observed what he
assumed to be the same Pied Cuckoo moving through the trees
with a flock of Yellow-billed Babblers, about 4.5 m above the
ground. Babbler-like calls were heard again, but it was not clear
whether any of them came from the cuckoo. No direct begging by
the cuckoo was observed during this period. Owing to the lack of
sound recordings and experimentation, this cannot be presented
as a definite example of vocal mimicry (oreven similarity) between
an avian host and its parasite. However, the vocalisations of
fledgling Pied Cuckoos are little known, even by experienced
birdwatchers and ornithologists, and hence details of this
encounter have been documented.
The Pied Cuckoo is widely distributed, from sub-Saharan Africa
and IrantoSri Lankaand Myanmar. Yellow-billed Babbleristheonly
host known in Sri Lanka, but elsewhere in its range a variety of other
hosts are parasitised including other Turdoides babblers, bulbuls
and shrikes (Erritzoe et al. 2012).There is a precedent for vocal
similarity between Pied Cuckoo and its hosts — Liversidge (1969)
claimed that the begging calls of Pied Cuckoos parasitising
Common Fiscal Lanius collaris are 'similar to that of host chicks'.
Similarity has also been noted between the begging calls of nestling
and fledgling Pied Cuckoos and Southern Pied Babbler T. bicolor
hosts in South Africa (A. Ridley pers. comm.). It should be noted
that both these examples differ from the Sri Lankan observation in
that the vocal similarity in this account was between a young
cuckoo and adults of the host species rather than between young
birds of both species.
It is possible that Pied Cuckoo nestlings imitate the different
begging calls of their hosts in different parts of their range the
better to solicit food from the host parents or to avoid being
rejected by them. Such vocal mimicry has already been found in
Horsfield's Bronze Cuckoo Chrysococcyx basalis of Australia. These
birds lay their eggs in the nests of more than one other species.
The nestling Horsfield's Bronze Cuckoo alters its begging call to
match that of the host chicks (Langmore etal. 2008). Adult males
of most species of the brood-parasitic indigobirds and whydahs
Vidua spp. of Africa incorporate elements of their hosts'fboth adult
and nestling) vocalisations into their own repertoires (Payne etal.
1 998, 2000), and in some species at least the begging call of Vidua
nestlings resembles that of their host (Payne & Payne 2002).
However, detailed experiments and sound recordings are reguired
to demonstrate if Pied Cuckoos do indeed copy the vocalisations
of host species (both young and/or adults), and to interpret the
significance of this behaviour.
Birdwatchers and ornithologists are urged to pay attention to
the vocalisations of both adultand immature avian brood parasites
and their hosts, and to make sound recordings and field notes when
possible. GAJ (address below) would be interested to hear of any
further examples of such similarity.
Acknowledgements
Many thanks go to Michael Mills, Suhel Quader and Amanda Ridley for
providing information from their own experiences with Pied Cuckoos, and
to Claire Spottiswoode for reading and commenting on the typescript.
References
Erritzoe, J., Mann, C. F„ Brammer, F. P. & Fuller, R. A. (2012) Cuckoos of the
world. London: Christopher Helm.
134
SHORT NOTES
Forktail 30 (2014)
Langmore, N. E„ Maurer, G„ Adcock, G. J. & Kilner, R. M. (2008) Socially
acquired host-specific mimicry and the evolution of host races in
Horsfield's Bronze-Cuckoo Chalcites basalis. Evolution 62:1689-1699.
Liversidge, R. (1969) The biology of the Jacobin Cuckoo Clamatorjacobinus.
Ostrich Suppl. 8: 117-137.
Payne, R. B„ Payne, L. L. & Woods, J. L. (1 998) Song learning in brood-parasitic
indigobirds Vidua chalybeata: song mimicry of the host species. Anim.
Behav. 55: 1 537-1 553.
Payne, R. B., Payne, L. L„ Woods, J. L. & Sorenson, M. D. (2000) Imprinting
and the origin of parasite-host species associations in brood-parasitic
indigobirds Vidua chalybeata. Anim. Behav. 59: 69-81 .
Payne, R. B. & Payne, L. L. (2002) Begging for parental care from another
species: specialization and generalization in brood-parasitic finches.
Pp 429-450 in J. Wright & M. L. Leonard, eds. The evolution of begging:
competition, cooperation and communication. Dordrecht, Netherlands:
Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Gabriel A. JAMIE, Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge,
Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK Email: gaj29@cam.ac.uk
Gehan de SILVA WIJEYERATNE, Flat 3, Venture Court 206, Bermondsey,
London SE1 3FE, UK Email: gehan.desilva.w@gmail.com
The occurrence of the Willow Warbler Phylloscopus trochilus in the
Indian subcontinent: notes from museum specimen records
V. J. ZACHARIAS & NATHAN H. RICE
Introduction
The Willow Warbler Phylloscopus trochilus is a strongly migratory
species with an extensive breeding range across northern and
temperate Europe and Asia, from the British Isles to eastern Siberia.
The entire population is believed to winter in Africa (Mayr & Cottrell
1 986), mostly in sub-Saharan Africa, although small numbers winter
in south-east Somalia, west-central Ethiopia, Egypt, Tunisia and
Algeria (Clement 2006). Birds originating in north-east Siberia
undertake one of the longest migrations of any Palearctic breeding
passerine to reach the East African wintering grounds. It has long
been suspected that it occurred in the Indian subcontinent,
although until now there have been no confirmed records. Here
specimens of Willow Warbler collected from Nepal and Pakistan
and held in collections in the USA, and a specimen from Tajikistan
housed in the Moscow State University museum, Russia, are
documented.
The authenticity and identification of the very few historical
claims of Willow Warbler from the Indian subcontinent are open to
question. Jerdon (1840) obtained a specimen from the edge of the
Western Ghats, in south India, which he believed to be this species.
However, Whistler & Kinnear (1934), who extensively covered
peninsular India, did not mention this record. It has also been
reported from Gujarat (Ali 1 954), but the specimen was found to be
a misidentified Greenish Warbler P. trochiloides and the species was
removed from the Indian bird list (Abdulali & Unnithan 1986).
Another was reported from Kohima, Nagaland, north-east India, in
January 1 952 and held in the Meinertzhagen collection (Ali & Ripley
1 983), this presumably being the bird referred to by Mayr & Cottrell
(1986) on passage from the Naga Hills. However, the Meinertzhagen
collection is known to hold specimens that have had the collection
details (location, date, etc.) deliberately and fraudulently changed,
leaving the origin of many of these specimens open to question
(Rasmussen & Anderton 2005). This led Grimmett et at. (1998) to
express doubt about the Meinertzhagen specimen from Nagaland,
while Rasmussen & Anderton (2005) considered it to be fraudulent
and the occurrence of the species in the region to be hypothetical.
More recently, a sighting of a Willow Warbler has been reported from
the PeriyarTiger Reserve, Kerala, south India (Zacharias etal. 1997).
Museum records
As part of a wider study into the distribution of Phylloscopus
warblers in the Indian subcontinent based on museum voucher
specimens, several previously unreported specimens of Willow
Warbler were discovered. At the Academy of Natural Sciences,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA, an undated specimen labelled P.
trochilus (ANSP 52636) and as taken in 'Nepal', was examined and
the identification confirmed. Another specimen, collected from
Bampur, Baluchistan, Pakistan, on 1 3 April 1901, was found in the
American Museum of Natural History, New York, USA (AMNH
449058), where Thomas Trombone, Collection Data Manager,
confirmed the identification. Two skeletons at the Smithsonian
Institution (USNM 561494 and USNM 561495) were labelled as
P. trochilus, but both were found to be P. trochiloides.
Slightly outside the boundaries of the Indian subcontinent,
some additional interesting specimens of this species have been
located, although it is suspected that these were passage rather
than overwintering birds.Two specimensfrom Durud, Iran, held at
the Academy of Natural Sciences (ANSP 174238 collected on 13
April 1941 and ANSP 174537 collected on 29 August 1941) were
examined. In addition, the Field Museum of Natural History,
Chicago, houses a specimen of the Willow Warbler (FMNH 106900)
from Sama-, Mazandaran district, Iran, collected on 1 7 August 1 969,
and the Zoological Museum of Moscow State University has a
female specimen collected on 1 9 May 201 2 by Arkhipov and Koblik,
from the south slope of the Gissar range in Tajikistan (E. Koblik pers.
comm.).
Discussion
The Willow Warbler is likely to occur in the Indian subcontinent,
given its close proximity to the migratory route of the species as
evidenced by the specimens from Tajikistan and Iran, and Vaurie's
(1959) statement that the species occurs in 'Persian Baluchistan'
supports this view. The collection dates suggest that a previously
undocumented passage occurs through the Indian subcontinent,
and further studies may help to elucidate the migration route.
These discoveries highlight the importance of the careful
examination of systematic bird collections for historically significant
location records. In this case, a species previously unrecorded from
the entire subcontinent has been proven to occur, albeit in small
numbers, based on museum records providing vouchered records
of its existence in the region. This study also highlights how
valuable information may be gained from voucher specimens of
even seemingly common birds in museum collections.
Acknowledgements
We thank A. J. Gaston, Canadian Wildlife Service, and Nigel Collar, Birdlife
International, for their critical comments on the manuscript; Thomas
Trombone, American Museum of Natural History, New York, Chris Milensky,
United States National Museum, Washington, D. C., Ben Marks, Field
Museum of Natural History, Chicago, and Eugeny Koblik, Zoological
Museum, Moscow State University, for providing information on
Phylloscopus trochilus voucher specimens in their collections.
Forktail 30(2014)
SHORT NOTES
135
References
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Rasmussen, P. C. & Anderton, J. C. (2005) Birds of South Asia: the Ripley guide.
Washington DC & Barcelona: Smithsonian Institution & Lynx Edicions.
Vaurie, C. (1959) The birds of the Paiearctic fauna: order Passeriformes.
London: Witherby.
Whistler, H. & Kinnear, N. B. (1934) The Vernay scientific survey of the Eastern
Ghats. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 36: 561 -590.
Zacharias, V. J., Oelke, H. & Bhardwaj, A. K. (1997) Occurrence of the Willow
Warbler Phylloscopus trochilus (Linnaeus) in Thekkady, Kerala, S. India.
Indian Forester 1 23: 975.
17. J. ZACHARIAS, Biology Division, Northern Virginia Community
College, Manassas, VA 20109, USA. Email: vjzacharias@yahoo.co.uk
Nathan H. RICE, Department of Ornithology, Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia, Drexel University, 1 900 Benjamin Franklin
Parkway, Philadelphia, PA 19103, USA. Email: nhr25@drexel.edu
Lophura ignita macartneyi revisited
N.J. COLLAR & R. P. PRYS-JONES
Introduction
The Crested Fireback Lophura ignita is a Sundaic forest species with
populations in Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo. The usual
taxonomic treatment in recent checklists (Dickinson 2003, Clements
2007), monographs (Delacour 1951, 1977, Johnsgard 1999,
McGowan 1994, Madge & McGowan 2002, Hennache & Ottaviani
2005), regional avifaunas (van Marie & Voous 1 988, Mann 2008) and
the international Red List (BirdLife International 2001) has been to
accept the existence of four subspecies: L. i. rufa (Raffles, 1822) in
the Thai-Malay Peninsula and most of Sumatra except the far south¬
east; L. i. macartneyi (Temminck, 1813) in the far south-east of
Sumatra; L. i. ignita (Shaw, 1798 — for the date of which see
Dickinson et al. 2006) on the Sumatran island of Bangka and in
Borneo except the north; and L. i. nobilis (P. L. Sclater, 1863) in
northern Borneo.
Of these subspecies, nobilis is clearly only slightly different from
ignita, such that Mann (2008) was unable to provide an indication
of where they replace each other, while macartneyi shows
characters that suggest it to be 'intermediate between ignita and
rufa' (Delacour 1951, 1977). However, such are the differences
between ignita and rufa that it has been proposed they be
reinstated (following, e.g., Kloss 1931, Peters 1934, Beebe 1936,
Ghigi 1 968) as separate species: male rufa, compared to (Vs') male
ignita, has (1) dark blue belly (continuous with breast) with fine
white flank-streaks vs a chestnut belly and flanks, (2) white vs buffy-
rufous central tail feathers, and (3) red vs greenish-white legs (del
Hoyo & Collar 2014), plus (4) red-tinged blue vs all-blue lobes on
the face-wattles fide Delacour (1949, 1951), although not evident
in internet photographs; the female differs by its (5) rich rufous vs
blackish wings and tail (del Hoyo & Collar 2014).
This arrangement, however, hinges on a clearer understanding
of the status of macartneyi. An illustration (McGowan 1994)
suggests that this is itself a highly distinctive taxon, although the
accompanying text reveals a far less clear-cut situation: 'race
macartneyi very variable, with several apparently co-existing colour
morphs described, based mainly on amount of rufous on plumage'
(McGowan 1 994). In spite of this and other passing comments in
the recent literature concerning the variability of macartneyi (e.g.
van Marie & Voous 1987, Hennache & Ottaviani 2005), its validity
as a taxon — it was omitted entirely in Peters (1934) — has not been
critically examined or challenged.
The reasons for this can be traced to the comprehensive review
of macartneyi — building on the work of Buttikofer (1895) —
provided by Delacour (1949). This study made some crucial
clarifications and advances in the taxonomy of Lophura ignita and
L. rufa, covering the history of the 'many names' (macartneyi,
sumatrana, delacouri and albipennis) for Sumatran birds associated
with these taxa and, through careful analysis of descriptions,
pinning those names to particular museum specimens. In
documenting eight male study skins at the Rijksmuseum van
Natuurlijke Historie (now Naturalis) at Leiden, Netherlands,
Delacour (1949) developed the view that the considerations of
previous authors (Ghigi 1926, Kloss 1931, Beebe 1936) were'based
on the conception that ignita. . . and rufa are two different species'
and that 'a more modern idea of systematics’ is rather that 'the
Crested Firebacks constitute but one species with four subspecies
(ignita, nobilis, macartneyi, rufa), macartneyi serving as a link and a
transition'. He therefore preferred 'to consider macartneyi as a
subspecies inhabiting the south-eastern part of [Sumatra], that is
variable in colour and still in the course of evolution'.
In further pursuit of this interpretation, two years later Delacour
(1951) accounted for the various names and appearances of birds
in south-east Sumatra by calling them 'phases' (the term 'morph'
was only coined four years later: Huxley 1 955). The 'phase to which
the type [specimen 1 in Table 1 ] belongs' (i.e. the form macartneyi )
has buff central rectrices and is either (a) like ignita (dark blue breast,
rufous belly) but heavier in shape and with generally paler rufous
colours or (b) with breast and belly dark blue and flanks with rufous
patches. The phase delacouri' has plain rufous sides but the central
rectrices are mostly white'. The phase sumatrana has the belly dark
blue, rufous or mixed, flank feathers black-based and rufous-tipped,
the rufous varying in size and tone and with or without a black
border, and central rectrices white, sometimes washed buff usually
near the base and with variable amounts of black. The phase
albipennis replaces the rufous of the flank markings of blue-bellied
birds with white. Delacour (1 95 1 ) judged that the first three phases
co-occur, while the fourth is found close to the range of and is
'intermediate' with rufa.
136
SHORT NOTES
Forktail 30 (2014)
A still more modern idea of systematics would, surely, reject
the notion that a subspecies can be based on a population which
is so variable that it divides into four phases, two of which
themselves consist of seemingly almost infinite permutations. Every
living taxon is inevitably 'in the course of evolution', but the notion
that evidence of this can be provided by such an array of plumage
variation is not normally one that finds any modern expression.
What, then, is Lophura ignita macartney 'll
Methods and results
NJC examined 12 specimens of male birds catalogued as L. i.
macartneyi at Naturalis, Leiden, Netherlands (ten) and the Natural
History Museum, Tring, UK (two). Clearly from the writings of Ghigi
(1926) there are or were many more specimens in Italian museums,
butthe Leiden-cum-Tring material provides a slightly larger sample
than that used by Delacour (1949). Each specimen was tabulated
for colour of belly, pattern of flanks and colour of tail. Details of the
identity and provenance (where known) of the specimens are given
in Table 1 ; results are shown in Table 2. It is a weakness inherent in
the situation that as few as four of the specimens in question (2, 3,
7 and 1 1 ) have certain origins in the wild.
Discussion
No two specimens of the 1 2 examined showed a matching pattern
of colouration (Table 2). This is completely contrary to what one
might expect in any series of a population from within a
circumscribed geographical area. Overall, this variation is so marked
that the explanation already furnished by Elliot (1 878), Beebe (1921)
and Kloss (1931) — and mentioned more tentatively by Buttikofer
(1895), van Marie & Voous (1987), Madge & McGowan (2002) and
Hennache & Ottaviani (2005) — appears compelling: as hinted at
almost 20 years ago by Davison (1996), these birds, each with a
different phenotypic character combination, represent a hybrid
swarm between rufa and ignita. Thus while the only known extant
syntype of macartneyi (specimen 1 in Tables 1 and 2) possesses the
belly of rufa and the tail of ignita, thereby appearing evenly
balanced in its intermediacy, most of the other material examined
suggests mainly rufa in showing a dark belly and white tail, but
with varying degrees of rufous in the flanks, betraying the influence
of ignita. Indeed, the instability and indefinability of macartneyi
only lends support to the view that L. rufa and L. ignita are separate
species. The variability of specimens mirrors (but exceeds) that
found in Imperial Pheasant Lophura imperialis, which was recently
shown to be of hybrid origin (Hennache et at. 2003); and just as L.
imperialis thereby forfeited its taxonomic status, so too must L.
ignita macartneyi. The recent discovery that the supposed highly
variable Silver Pheasant subspecies L. nycthemera rufipes in fact
represents a hybrid population of L. n. nycthemera and Kalij
Pheasant L. leucomelanos (Dong et a!. 2013) provides a further
parallel.
Beebe (1921: 125) and Kloss (1931: 305), evidently
independently, noted that there is some small variation within both
rufa and ignita. Beebe (1921) mentioned that the more buffy or
rufous tips to the white flank stripes of rufa on Sumatra are matched
by 'over fifty per cent of the Malayan birds' (and it may well be that
specimen 11 in Tables 1 and 2 is a normal rufa in this regard,
although at the time of writing it is preserved in a tray reserved for
macartneyi). Kloss (1931) referred confidently to'individual variation
and variation due to age' in both rufa and ignita, and thought that
these factors, when the two taxa cross, would add to the illusion of
'the existence of several forms'.
Very recently, the'Arbeitsgruppe Feuerruckenfasane'(201 1 ) has
sought, using colour photographs, to document these variations
and hybrid forms of fireback, but could still only conclude, without
presenting evidence or argument, that macartneyi is 'probably' a
hybrid. Senior European aviculturists, however, have long had no
doubts on the matter. Alain Hennache (in litt. 2013) reports that
among living captive specimens he 'never saw one looking like the
other' and is convinced of their hybrid origin. Ludo Pinceel (in litt.
2013) and Heiner Jacken (in litt. 2013) concur, the latter reporting
that 'Today many breeders try to "stabilise" the macartneyi form by
pairing continuously macartneyi to each other, thus creating a new
"species" called "Delacour's Fireback''.'
Ironically the problem of macartneyi may be resolved in a more
direct manner. Temminck's (1813) original description was based
on more than 20 specimens ('plus de vingt individus'), at least one
of which apparently survives (specimen 1 in Table 1), but these
represented a variety of forms, crucially including Lophura ignita
Table 1. Details of museum data associated with 12 specimens
described in Table 2.
Table 2. Colour pattern of 12 specimens of male Lophura ignita
macartneyi in Naturalis, Leiden (register abbreviation RMNH and ZMA),
and NHM (register abbreviation NHMUK), Tring. Numbers in left
column coincide with numbers in Table 1.
Forktail 30(2014)
SHORT NOTES
137
itself. At the beginning of his account Temminck wrote (our
translation):
This beautiful gallinaceous species of which we have only
brief descriptions was reported in the first case by George
Staunton based on an individual which was offered to Lord
Macartney, the British ambassador to the Emperor of China,
during his stay in Batavia. It is because I cannotfind the name
which the Sumatrans call this species that I give it the name
of the famous ambassador to whom we owe the first details
of this magnificent bird.
From this it seems evident that Temminck was only aware of
Staunton's (1 797) quotation of a description by Shaw (without an
associated name) of Macartney's bird, but not of Shaw's (1798)
independently published description and name (ignita).
Consequently Temminck's account, which also includes a brief
description of a variety that is identifiably L. rufa, represents a
composite of taxa and forms. We also incidentally confirm that, from
the plate accompanying Shaw (1798), it is apparent that Shaw's
account refers unambiguously to Bornean birds (the plate shows a
male with blackish maculations on its rufous flanks, which are
certainly present in some Bornean specimens, e.g. N43292 in
Staatliches Naturhistorisches Museum Braunschweig and'nr.16'in
Zoologisches Museum Berlin).
If the issue of macartneyi and its various other manifestations
( sumatrano , delacouri and albipennis) can now be considered
resolved — it might be appropriate to refer to these hybrids
collectively under the established name' macartneyi', so long as this
is in inverted commas to indicate its taxonomic invalidity — the
puzzle remains how the two firebacks, rufa and ignita, came into
contact in south-east Sumatra. Although Sumatra and Borneo share
a common Sundaic biogeography and were most recently
separated only some 10,000-12,000 years ago (Mann 2008), the
faunal differences between them have been shaped by much older
periods of independence (Hall 2009). A well-developed form such
as ignita on Borneo would hardly be expected to occur naturally
on Sumatra if another distinctive but closely related form was
already present. Intriguingly, on Bangka, a large island lying close
to the north-east coast of southern Sumatra, it is Bornean ignita
that occurs, in a pure form (Mees 1986). Beebe (1921: 131-132)
suggested that this population was introduced to the island by
travellers from Borneo, and then to adjacent Sumatra by further
human agency or even 'a stray bird finding its way' there; he
adduced the absence of any Lophura from the island of Belitung
(Billiton), east of Bangka, in support of this hypothesis (although
given Belitung's much flatter land surface it may have been more
heavily cultivated, leading to the local extinction of any Lophura
population).
On the other hand, Wallace (1 864) suggested that Bangka was
isolated from Sumatra and Borneo before the two large islands
separated from each other; if so, its fauna might be expected to
contain elements of both. Mees (1986: 7) implied a different
scenario when mentioning that,
in spite of the proximity of Bangka to Sumatra, the distance
separating the mountains or hills of Bangka from the higher
ground of Sumatra, is actually greater than the distance
separating them from the higher ground of Billiton, or even
than the distance separating the latterfrom the hilly country
of south-western Borneo. This may explain the presence of
several Bornean subspecies on Bangka.
These Bornean subspecies are seven in total (Mees 1986: 18)
and it is notable that the native mammals of Bangka show'a greater
affinity' (our emphasis) to Borneo than to Sumatra (Whitten etal.
1987). Presumably either ignita naturally penetrated further than
the other taxa into what is now south-east Sumatra or it was taken
there by human hand, perhaps after native populations of rufa had
been depleted by exploitation. The fact that no pure phenotypes
of either rufa or ignita have been reported from within the area
defined by Delacour (1 949) for' macartneyi' (roughly Sumatra within
a 200 km radius of Palembang) suggests that introgression has been
fairly long term; but whether the hybrid swarm is spreading in the
region will presumably be very difficult to establish given the
habitat loss and human exploitation of the birds that are
presumably now extensive in the region. More generally, the effect
of geological evolution on the biogeography of Bangka and
adjacent landmasses clearly deserves much closer study.
Acknowledgements
Steven van der Mije (Naturalis) very kindly granted access to the material
on which this note is based and gave patient help with catalogue
information. Alain Hennache, Heiner Jacken and Ludo Pinceel provided very
helpful commentary on the avicultural situation. Two referees and Edward
Dickinson gave us very helpful comments and judgements.
References
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Witherby.
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birds of the world. Third edition. London: Christopher Helm.
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Jabouille, 1924) demonstrated by morphology, hybrid experiments,
and DNA analyses. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 80: 573-600.
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Email: nigel.collar@birdlife.org
R. P. PRYS-JONES, Bird Group, Department of Life Sciences, Natural
History Museum, Akeman Street, Tring, Herts HP23 6AP, UK.
Observations of waterbirds on migration along two rivers in northern China
during August 2010
ARTUR GOLAWSKI, ZBIGNIEW KASPRZYKOWSKI, CEZARY MITRUS &TOMASZ STANSKI
Introduction
The East Asian-Australasian Flyway (EAAF) is a huge region with
little information on the status of its waterbirds, despite holding
significant wader populations (Amano etal. 2010). The number of
people in this region amounts to over 45% of the global population
and it is changing very quickly because of its rapidly growing
economies. Over 80% of the wetlands in East and South-East Asia
are now classified as threatened, with over half of them under
serious threat (International Wader Study Group 2003). Our
knowledge of the flyway and the important places for migratory
waders in China is limited to coastal zones, estuaries and river deltas
(Wilson & Barter 1 998, Ge etal. 2006, Zou etal. 2006, Jing etal. 2007).
However, river valleys also serve as migration corridors for many
bird species, especially waterbirds (Berthold 2001). The most
important habitats for concentrating migrating waterbirds are
natural riverbeds (Shields etal. 2000, Platteeuw etal. 2010) where
they can find attractive places to rest and feed, such as sandy
islands, sandbanks and muddy banks. Both the Huang He and
Sungari rivers in northern China (Figure 1) have such habitats.
To date, published papers have described only rudimentary
information about autumn migration in this area (e.g. Pronkevich
1998, He etal. 2010). The main goal of our work was a comparison
of the avifauna of the two rivers, observed over several days during
the peak autumn waterbird migration. Both are within the EAAF
and we collected important data about some of the species which
use this migration route. It is well known that the Huang He delta
is very important for migrating birds, with up to 250,000 shorebirds
congregating there during the northward migration period (Zhu
et at. 2001), and the nearby area of Tanggu, on the coast of the
Yellow Sea, is also important for many wader species (Barter et al.
2001). However, no data have been published about species
composition or the numbers of waterbirds migrating in the middle
reaches of the rivers in question. This work therefore makes a
contribution to the knowledge of the migration of waterbirds in
two regions of China.
In the second half of August 2010, we canoed the middle
reaches of the Huang He and Sungari and counted waterbirds on
or near them. The courses of the rivers are approximately parallel,
with a distance of about 1,600 km between the two sampled
stretches (Figure 1). Although the period of observation was short,
it occurred during the peak of autumn migration, thereby allowing
potentially important insights into the value of the river systems
for certain migratory waterbirds in the EAAF.
Study area
Observations of waterbirds on autumn migration were conducted
in the middle reaches of the Huang He along a 143 km section
between Tongxintang (40.483°N 1 08.31 7°E) and Lihu Geducun
(40.500°N 1 09.31 7°E) in Inner Mongolia. The largest city in the
vicinity is Batou, 1 00 km to the east of Lihu Geducun (Figure 1 ). In
this section, the river flows mainly through agricultural areas, which
extend as a narrow strip along the valley where maize and
sunflowers are cultivated, but the desert part of the Ordos Upland
stretches for 40 km on the south bank. In some places, the desert
Figure 1. Map of the study area, showing the stretches of river covered
and their positions in China.
Forktail 30 (2014)
SHORT NOTES
139
reaches the banks of the river but, for most of the distance,
hedgerows or villages separate it from the river. Many shallow
places, sandbanks and islands, overgrown in various ways by soft-
stemmed plants and shrubs, were observed on this part of the river
where the main riverbed was usually 350''500 m wide.
The 1 26 km stretch of the Sungari which we observed was also
in its middle reaches, between Baojiatun (44.800°N 1 25.867°E) and
Songyuan (45.1 33°N 1 24.850°E) in Jilin province. The valley is used
for agriculture, with maize cultivation dominating the fields and
poplar plantations established in many places on islands and
riverbanks. The Sungari also has many shallow places, sandbanks
and sandy islands, but fewer than the Huang He, with the shallows
concentrated in the lower part of the study area. As the result of
floods which hit this area in the spring and summer of 2010, the
main course of the river reached widths of 700-900 m and the
backwaters embraced areas as wide as 1 ,500 m. Despite high water
levels on both rivers, many attractive places for resting and feeding
for birds were found.
Methods
Autumn bird migration in eastern Asia spans about four months,
starting in July and finishing in October. Our observations were
conducted during just a few days on each river but they were timed
so as to include the migration peak of many waterbirds (Pronkevich
1 998) and the numbers of birds recorded were relatively high.
Observations on the Sungari were made from 13-18 August
2010 and on the Huang He from 22-26 August 2010. We canoed in
the main stream of the rivers and then paddled closerto groups of
birds. Special attention was paid to shallows and sandbars, where
birds were concentrated. All waterbirds were noted on maps,
making a distinction between flocks and single birds. To avoid
recording birds more than once, their movements were noted as
precisely as possible. The birds were less disturbed by the sight of
canoes than by observers moving on land, thus in our opinion the
risk of counting the same birds more than once was minimised.
Data analysis
For comparisons of both the numbers of species and of birds, both
stretches of river were divided into five sections, based on the
distance travelled each day. A short section (2 km) of the Sungari
covered on the evening of 13 August was included in the following
day's figures. The mean daily section length for the Huang He was
28.6 km (s.d. 7.88) and for the Sungari 25.2 km (s.d. 4.32) and there
were no significant differences (Mann-Whitney test, z = 0.52, p =
0.602, n = 10). The number of species and of birds on both rivers
were compared using Mann-Whitney tests. Wilcoxon tests were
used to compare the differences in the density of birds (defined as
the number of individuals per 1 0 km) and flock sizes of particular
species on both rivers. The calculations were performed using
Statistica 8.0 (StatSoft 2007). Additionally, to calculate the similarity
of species composition between the different river sections we used
Jaccard's index,; = c/a+b+cx 100%, where c is the number of species
common to both communities, a is the number of species in
community A, and b the number of species in community B (Real &
Vargas 1996). Comparisons of species densities employed the
quantitative Sorensen's coefficient of similarity: Sor = 2 j/(a + b)
where a and b are the total species density in both rivers and j is
the sum of minimum values of densities of species common to both
communities (Jankowski etal. 2009).
Results
On the Huang He, 6,270 birds (438.4/1 0 km) of 54 waterbird species
were noted, and on the Sungari 1,767 birds (140.2/10 km) of 36
species (Table 1). Out of a total of 70 different species on both rivers,
34 species were observed only on the Huang He Heand 16 only on
the Sungari, while 20 species were common to both. The average
number of species on the sections on the Huang He was 29.2 (s.d.
6.57) and on the Sungari 19.6 (s.d. 1.52); differences between the
rivers were significant (Mann-Whitney test, z = 2.40, p = 0.01 6, n -
10). Species similarity (Jaccard's index) between the rivers
amounted to 22.2%, a relatively low value. The most numerous
species on the Huang He were Mallard Anas platyrhynchos, Black¬
headed Gull Larus ridibundus, Common Tern Sterna hirundo and
Eurasian Spoonbill Platalea leucorodia. On the Sungari, White¬
winged Terns Chlidonias leucopterus dominated, comprising almost
60% of all observed birds and only one other species, Whiskered
Tern C. hybrida, exceeded a threshold of 5% (Table 1 ). The average
number of birds on the sections of the Huang He was 1,254.0 (s.d.
477.66) and on the Sungari 353.2 (s.d. 228.52); differences were
statistically significant (Mann-Whitney test, z = 2.61 , p = 0.009, n =
10). The density of particular species also differed significantly
between the two rivers (Wilcoxon test, z- 3.44, p < 0.001, n = 70), a
finding supported by the very low Sorensen index, only 6.1%.
Differences were also observed in the average flock sizes of some
species (Wilcoxon test, z = 3.51, p < 0.001, n = 70), flocks generally
being bigger on the Huang He (Table 1).
Discussion
A comparison of the incidence of birds on both rivers indicated a
potentially more important roleforthe Huang Hethan the Sungari
for migrating birds. Admittedly this conclusion is based on a short
period of observations on both rivers but it was within the time of
intense migration. In addition, observations were conducted on
relatively long stretches of both rivers (over 100 km) with various
habitats and feeding places favourable for a wide variety of birds.
Canoes enabled easy movement and gave us access to sheltered
places where the birds concentrated and which it would not have
been possible to count from the banks. It also enabled us to assess
further the species composition in this part of the migration period.
What are the reasons for the differences between the avifaunas
of the two rivers? One factor contributing to the substantially
smaller number of birds on the Sungari could be the widths of the
rivers. At this time, when backwaters covered large areas, birds used
not only islands and sandbars but also areas outside the river
channel, where they were more scattered and harder to detect.
Second, high water levels limited the number of places available
for feeding and resting, particularly on the Sungari. Third, the
geographical location of the Huang He, more southerly than the
Sungari and where additional species such as Eurasian Spoonbill
were found, could also contribute to the differences between the
rivers. However, probably the most important factor— leading to
both the high diversity of species and the numbers of birds — is
the path of the main migration route from north-east Asia to the
wintering areas in South-East Asia and Australia, running along the
coast of the Sea of Okhotsk, the Sea of Japan and the shore of the
Yellow Sea (Parish et al. 1 987, Pronkevich 1 998, Barter et al. 2001 ,
Zhang etal. 2010), thus by-passing the Sungari valley. Despite this,
for species such as White-winged Tern, the Sungari is more
important (based on the intensity of migration) than the Huang
He. It is also possible that the intensity of migration may be different
at other times.
Despite our short study period, the number of birds of four
species exceeded 1% of the total migrating populations of the EAAF
(Partnership for the EAAF 2008). On the Sungari it was White¬
winged Tern (4.1% of EAAF migrating population) and on the
Huang He, Eurasian Spoonbill (6.3%), Black-headed Gull (3.0%) and
Common Tern (1.5%). This indicates that both rivers play an
important role as migration routes in China for some species of
waterbirds, but it merits further more detailed and longer
observation. As a result of the rapid development of infrastructure
and construction of new reservoirs, conditions for migrating birds
may soon change significantly; thus such studies are urgent.
140 SHORT NOTES Forktail 30 (2014)
Forktail 30 (2014)
SHORT NOTES
141
Acknowledgements
This study was funded by Siedlce University of Natural Sciences and
Humanities (grants 75/94/s and 1 6/91/s). We would like to thank Yuxiang
Liu for logistical support and Shelley Hinsley for providing comments that
improved the quality of the manuscript and for correcting the English. We
also thank the two anonymous reviewers who provided valuable comments
on the earlier version of the manuscript.
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Amano, T., Szekely, T„ Koyama, K., Amano, H. & Sutherland, W. J. (2010) A
framework for monitoring the status of populations: an example from
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Lee K. S. (2010) Species abundance and conservation of coastal wintering
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Artur GOLAWSKI, Department of Zoology, Siedlce University of
Natural Sciences and Humanities, Prusa 12, 08-1 10 Siedlce, Poland.
Email: artur.golowski@uph.edu.pl
Zbigniew KASPRZYKOWSKI, Department of Ecology and Nature
Protection, Siedlce University of Natural Sciences and Humanities, Prusa
12, 08-1 10 Siedlce, Poland. Email: zbigniew.kasprzykowski@uph.edu.pl
Cezary MITRUS, Department of Zoology, University of Rzeszow,
Zelwerowicza 4, 35-601 Rzeszow, Poland. Email:
mitrus@univ.rzeszow.pl
TomaszSTANSKI, Department of Zoology, Siedlce University of Natural
Sciences and Humanities, Prusa 12, 08-1 10 Siedlce, Poland. Email:
stanskit@uph.edu.pl
142
SHORT NOTES
Forktail 30 (2014)
Black Francolin Francolinus francolinus in Bangladesh: breeding biology,
status, threats and conservation
MD. SHARIF HOSSAIN SOURAV
Three species of francolin Francolinus have been recorded in
Bangladesh, Black Francolinus francolinus, Swamp F. gularis and
Grey F. pondicerianus, but only the first of these is considered to
survive in the wild and there are few records (Siddiqui etal. 2008).
Black Francolin is legally protected under the Bangladesh Wildlife
Act (1974) 2012, and nationally classified as Critically Endangered
(IUCN Bangladesh 2000), although globally it is classified as of least
concern (BirdLife International 2013). Its range formerly extended
over Chittagong, Dhaka and Rajshahi divisions (Siddiqui etal. 2008),
but it has disappeared from most of these areas owing to habitat
loss and hunting. Now it is only found in Kazipara and Sharial
villages (26.489°N 88.336°E) Tentulia sub-district, Panchagarh
district, in the far north-west of Bangladesh, along the international
border with India. According to local people, Black Francolins
formerly occurred in the adjacent Thakurgaon and Dinajpur
districts in cultivated lands. This paper summarises past records
and the results of recent fieldwork to better document the range
and size of the remnant population in Bangladesh.
Between 2009 and 2013, seven field visits were made to
Kazipara village, Tentulia sub-district, during the breeding and non¬
breeding seasons, making opportunistic sightings, walking
transects and interviewing local people. A total of 120 ha of
cropland associated with tea gardens, scrub and smallholdings,
including the border area, were surveyed. Transects were walked
in suitable habitats in the morning and afternoon when the birds
are most active. Numbers of birds seen (by sex) and heard calling
were recorded. Breeding behaviour, habitat condition, threats and
other biological data were noted.
The Tentulia area lies at just under 50 m above sea-level in the
extreme north-west of Bangladesh, and is bordered on three sides
by West Bengal, India, with the Darjeeling district to the north,
Siliguri, Jalpaiguri and Cooch Behar districts to the north-east, and
West Dinajpur and Purnea districts on the west. The soil is sandy
and alluvial, and has a close affinity with the soil of the old
Himalayan basin, with an underground layer of pebbles. The area
surveyed is mostly cultivated with maize, sugarcane, rice, wheat,
sesame Sesamum indicum and pulses. There are a few scrubby bush
and bamboo patches adjacent to crop fields and homesteads. Wild
shrubby bushes such as 'satordron' Leucas aspera, 'bhant'
Clerodendrum viscosum and 'datarnga' Melastoma malabathricum,
mango orchards, tea gardens and crop fields form the feeding,
nesting and roosting grounds of the Black Francolin. A few streams
flowthrough the tea gardens, and just over the international border
are more tea gardens and a small patch of sal forest Shorea robusta.
Black Francolins appear to be well adapted to cultivated crops.
During the winter they often shelter in sugarcane fields. In addition,
throughout the year the birds forage in the tea gardens. Without
the tea gardens the species would not have survived in Bangladesh.
It forages (chiefly on seeds and insects) on the ground or in low
bushes and low tree branches at dawn and dusk. Large fields are
used as feeding grounds very early in the morning and at dusk,
when people are not working in them. The species is also reported
to occur in the villages of Paschim Dangapara, Purba Dangapara,
Bara Dangapara, Fatahabad and Juropani, just across the
international border in Siliguri, India, close to the Mohanonda River,
mostly in tea plantations. Francolins were seen to move between
India and Bangladesh on every day that I observed them.
In Tentulia, Black Francolin breeds from April to July. The
breeding season starts with the loud creaking calls of the male,
given from low bushes or tea gardens: chick... cheek... cheek...
keraykek. The people of Tentulia term the call pan-bere-sigarate.
The male is usually more obvious during this period, and birds
which call continuously for most of the day may be unmated.
However, females are shy and silent, but were observed foraging
with males. The nest is in a hollow on the ground and is madefrom
a little grass and lined with the female's own feathers plus crop
leaves from the vicinity.
I observed a few fights between males during the study, but
territorial conflict seems to be rare. I observed one active nest with
five eggs (Table 2). During the incubation the male foraged alone in
the area but was never seen to come near the nest and took no part
in incubation. The female appeared to settle in the afternoon and
presumably incubated throughout the night. In the morning when
the ground was bathed in sunlight, the female left the nest to feed
for 25-30 minutes in adjacent habitat such as sugarcane fields. This
was repeated 3-4 times a day. In case of danger such as human
disturbance, the female left the nest. No chicks were observed. Local
people rarely observe chicks but said they have collected eggs from
nests and incubated them under domestic hens, but the chicks are
not adaptable and escape if they get an opportunity.
The loud ringing call of the male Black Francolin can be heard in
the morning and evening, and even most of the day during the
breeding season (April— July), when the birds nest in fields of maize,
sugarcane, rice, wheat and sesame, and in patches of tall grass. This
makes it susceptible to hunting at these times. Local people hunt
francolins, despite their protected status, using net traps, and when
they find nests while weeding and harvesting crops they return at
night to catch the female and collect the eggs. Even if a nest escapes
human detection or is left intact, the female will not brood and hatch
the eggs if the vegetation cover protecting the nest is cleared. During
the rice harvest in 201 1, a local farmer found and left a nest with
four eggs, but the female never returned to the nest in my five days
of observation. Collection of tall grasses from fallow lands and fodder
from the periphery of cropland is also responsible for diminishing
breeding habitat. The same threats also affect Barred Buttonquail
Turnix suscitator and Yellow-legged Buttonquail T. tanki, two other
species of ground-dwelling bird that occur in this area.
The local village children also hunt francolins, destroy nests and
collect eggs. In addition, stone collection by local people directly
damages habitat, and even the noise of stone-carrying vehicles may
disturb the birds. Other contributory factors are burning of rice
stubble reducing food items and ground cover, and the use of
agricultural pesticides. Lastly, this study found small Asian
mongoose Herpestes javanicus, golden jackal Canis aureus and
domestic dogs in the area, which are all likely to be nest predators.
Table 1 summarises the known Black Francolin records from
Bangladesh up to September 2009 — the highest count was 10 at
Kazipara in September 2009 (Choudhury 201 1 ). Table 2 summarises
the number of birds seen and heard during the seven field visits I
made to Kazipara between October 2009 and May 2013. Owing to
the detectability of calling males and secretive behaviour of
females, more males than females were recorded. The Kazipara area
population appeared to be about 50 adults in 2012 during the
breeding season.
Conversion of bushy vegetation to agriculture has
compounded the problem of hunting to reduce the population
and range of the Black Francolin in Bangladesh. The dense scrub-
bush in which it takes cover when disturbed is disappearing day-
by-day. Tentulia is probably the last surviving habitat of the birds
in Bangladesh, but there is no effective conservation initiative for
Forktail 30(2014)
SHORT NOTES
143
a Male call is the most reliable indicator for population estimation during the breeding period.
this species there. In 2013, during the breeding season, 1 used my
own resources to place 1 ,000 posters on houses, schools and other
institute walls in Kazipara and Sharial villages and the nearby
market areas, in order to make local people aware of the need to
conserve these birds. The recovery of the population will need a
strong programme of activities to preserve and perhaps extend an
appropriate matrix of habitats and to eliminate the hunting of the
species through awareness campaigns, legal enforcement and, if
necessary, the development of alternative sources of protein.
References
BirdLife International (2013) Species factsheet: Francolinus francolinus.
Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 06/10/2013.
Chowdhury, S. U. (2011) Some significant avifaunal records from
Bangladesh including first record of Black-headed Bunting Emberiza
melanocephala. Forktail 27: 85-86.
Hume, A. O. (1888) The birds of Manipur, Assam, Sylhet and Cachar. Stray
Feathers 11:1-353.
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IUCN.
Khan, R. (1987) Bangladesher Banyaprani [Wildlife of Bangladesh, in Bangla],
2. Birds. Dhaka: Bangla Academy.
Siddiqui, K. U., Islam, M. A., Kabir, S. M. H., Ahmed, M., Ahmed, A. T. A.,
Rahman, A. K. A., Haque, E. U„ Ahmed, Z. U., Begum, Z. N.T., Hassan, M.
A., Khondker, M. & Rahman, M. M. eds. (2008) Encyclopaedia of flora
and fauna of Bangladesh, 26. Dhaka: Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
Simson, F. B. (1882) Notes on birds found near Dacca. Ibis 4(6): 84-95.
Thompson, P. M. & Johnson, D. L. (2003) Further notable bird records from
Bangladesh. Forktail 1 9: 85-102.
Thompson, P. M., Chowdhury, S. U„ Haque, E. U. Khan, M. M. H. & Haider, R.
(2014) Notable bird records from Bangladesh from July 2002 to July
201 3. Forktail. 30 - maybe!
Md. Sharif Hossain SOURAV, Center for Environmental and
Geographic Information Services, Dhaka, Bangladesh. Email:
nature.sourav@gmail.com
Range expansion of Lemon-bellied White-eye Zosterops chloris and Sooty-
headed Bulbul Pycnonotus aurigaster to south-east Sulawesi, Indonesia
JOHN A.TROCHET, MOHAMMAD IRHAM, ALANT. HITCH, TRI HARYOKO, HIDAYAT ASHARI, DADANG DWI PUTRA
& ANDREW
Introduction
This note makes use of specimen collections and observations to
document the spread of Lemon-bellied White-eye Zosterops chloris,
a well-established native in other parts of mainland Sulawesi, to
the south-east peninsula and the spread of the introduced Sooty-
headed Bulbul Pycnonotus aurigaster in the same area. In January
2007 a team from Indonesia Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense
(MZB) surveyed the avifauna of Block Debbie, an area of woodland
replanted from 2002 and managed by a nickel mining company
following its mining operations near Saroako (Sorowako), South
Sulawesi province. Located in the north of the south-east peninsula,
Block Debbie is classified as'regeneration forest'and succession to
ENGILIS JR.
secondary forest is taking place. Subsequently, between 2009 and
201 1 , personnel from MZB and the University of California, Davis
Museum of Wildlife and Fish Biology (MWFB), undertook a series of
collaborative research expeditions further south in South-East
Sulawesi province, with the primary objective to survey and
document biodiversity in the Masembo river drainage, Mekongga
mountains, North Kolaka district, South-East Sulawesi. In 201 1 four
areas were surveyed: the Mangolo river near Mangolo, Kolaka
district; two separate areas of Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park
(Rawa Aopa): Morowali district in the north and South Konawe
district in the south; and Haluoleo University campus in Kendari
on the south-east coast. At these sites, mist-nets and air guns (guns
144
SHORT NOTES
Forktail 30 (2014)
were not used at the university) were used to collect birds, point
counts were conducted and incidental observations made.
Incidental observations were also made when travelling between
sites.
Lemon-bellied White-eye Zosterops chloris
The Lemon-bellied White-eye is a widely distributed Indonesian
endemic, generally common where it occurs — its core distribution
is mainland Sulawesi and the Lesser Sundas; and to the west in the
Java Sea and east in the Banda Sea it is distributed sporadically,
being found predominantly on small islands and islets and often
absent from even medium-sized islands (Coates & Bishop 1 997, van
Balen 2008). Lemon-bellied White-eye is a polytypic species (van
Balen 2008), with two races recognised on Sulawesi — Z. c. mentoris
in north-central Sulawesi (the racial identity of birds in north-east
Sulawesi is unclear), and Z c. intermedius in south and east Sulawesi
and the islands of Muna and Buton off the south-east peninsula
(the racial identity of birds from Kabeana island to the west of Muna
is unclear). A third race, Z. c. flavissimus, is found on theTukangbesi
archipelago lying south-east of Buton; this might also be the origin
of birds found on the south-east peninsula. The species is listed for
Rawa Aopa by Suratin (201 0) and was found by Kelly etal. (2010) in
August 2007 at Rumba rumba on the tip of the south-east peninsula
(4.41 7°S 1 22.800°E), but it appears previously unrecorded from the
south-east. It is reported that in 1 995 and 1 996 the species was not
seen in the Kendari area by a series of observers during lay-overs
between surveys on Buton where the species was common (B. R.
Sykes in lift. 2014). In 2009 AE saw two Lemon-bellied White-eyes,
one on 1 August near Wesalo village, Lalolae subdistrict, Kolaka
district (4.027°S 1 21 .786°E), and one on 6 August in mountains east
of Kolaka at about 260 m (4.047°S 1 21 .727°E) in a mixed flock with
Scarlet Myzomela Myzomela dibapha, Yellow-sided Flowerpecker
Dicaeum aureolimbatum and sunbirds.
During the 201 1 surveys at Haluoleo University and Rawa Aopa,
nine Lemon-bellied White-eye specimens were collected, two
(MWFB 10060& 10061) on the Haluoleo University campus (4.014°S
1 22.521 °E) and seven from three sites in the southern part of Rawa
Aopa (MZB 32930, 32938, 32940, 32946 & 32947; MWFB 10256 &
1 0532). Two sites were at mangrove forest edge (4.494°S 1 22.085°E
& 04.494°S 122.083°E) and one at the edge of mixed broadleaf
riparian forest (4.459°S 122.123°E). The various sites where the
species has been seen in South-East Sulawesi province are already
widely scattered and it seems likely that Lemon-bellied White-eye
may well occur at additional locations there.
A series of mentoris, intermedius and flavissimus specimensfrom
MZB and AMNH were examined and it was found that the nine
Z. chloris specimens collected best matched Z. c. mentoris based
on dorsal colouration, and they have provisionally been assigned
to this race; further study is in progress. Birds seen by Kelly et al.
(2010) may belong to the same set of populations, but in the
absence of specimens no claim can be made. However, we note
that near Rumbarumba the width of the channel between the
south-east peninsula and Buton is only about 5 km and the sea
crossings, if birds were to cross from Muna to the mainland using
theTobea islands as stepping stones, are even shorter.
Sooty-headed Bulbul Pycnonotus aurigaster
The Sooty-headed Bulbul is a fairly common to common species
widely distributed in South-East Asia, native to south and south¬
east China, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Java and
Bali; introduced populations are established on Sulawesi, Sumatra
and Singapore (Fishpool & Tobias 2005). Birds of the Javanese
nominate race were collected by Heinrich in 1 930 around Makassar,
South Sulawesi province (White & Bruce 1 986); subsequently this
population appears to have spread at least as far as Enrekang on
the south peninsula, some 160 km to the north (Coates & Bishop
1 997). The species has recently been widely reported on the north¬
east peninsula of Sulawesi and appears to have been established
as long ago as 1990 in Manado (Fitzsimons et al. 201 1).
In January 2007 MZB obtained three Sooty-headed Bulbul
specimens (two males and a female, MZB 31042-31044) from
Block Debbie, Saroako town (2.589°S 121.402°E). Abubakar
(2009) has reported subsequent sightings in the same area.
Between 2009 and 2011 during the Mekongga mountains
biodiversity surveys, two specimens of Sooty-headed Bulbul were
taken. A male (WFB 10533) was collected 18 December 2009 by
HA, east of Tinukari village (3.637°S 121.078°E), in an orchard
surrounded by secondary lowland forest at 200 m. A second adult
male (WFB 10088), was collected on 30 June 2010 by Mas Fieldan
at 419 m (3.642°S 121.095°E), in an orchard surrounded by
secondary hill forest in the western foothills. A third specimen, a
young female (WFB 10235), was collected by Jolee Faisal on 23
November, 2011 at a garden plot in Mangolo village at 100 m
(3.984°S 1 21 .567°E).
In July 2004, DDP found Sooty-headed Bulbul near Mokaleleo
village, Puriala, Konawe district in north Rawa Aopa, at two locations
(4.1 06°S 1 22.073°E & 4.102°S 122.076°E). In 2009 AE made four
observations: on 1 August, one was perched on a powerline along
Muhammad Yamin road near the Sampara river crossing, about 1 2
km east of Kendari (3.982°S 122.398°E), and on the same day a
second was on the verge of the Kolaka-Raterate road near Wesalo
village, Lalolae subdistrict, Kolaka (4.027°S 1 21 .785°E). On 2 August
one was seen inTinukari village (3.654°S 121 .05 1 °E) and on 6 August
one was in Kolaka city (4.049°S 121.590°E). On 26 November 201 1
JAT recorded this species in south Rawa Aopa at the edge of riparian
forest and savannah habitats on the outskirts of Lanowulu village,
Tinanggea (4.459°S 122.123°E). Sooty-headed Bulbul is not listed
in Suratin (2010).
The Sooty-headed Bulbul appears to have extended its range
in southern Sulawesi into the south-east peninsula. Populations are
evident from Saroako southward through the western foothills of
the Mekongga mountains to Kolaka, south to Rawa Aopa and east
to Kendari, and it seems probable that the species has continued
to spread from the original Makassar site. Based on Fitzsimons et
al. (201 1) and these new data, it may be expected to spread more
widely on the island and indeed it has been found at several other
widely separated sites (DDP pers. obs.).
Conclusions
Five million ha of forest were destroyed in Sulawesi between 2000
and 2010 (Miettinen et al. 201 1), reducing populations of forest-
dependent organisms but creating opportunities for other species.
Both Lemon-bellied White-eye and Sooty-headed Bulbul can thrive
in a variety of the habitats that replace harvested primary forest —
secondary forest, open woodland, scrub, cultivation, village and
urban gardens (Coates & Bishop 1997). These species, and others
with similar habitat preference/tolerance, able to take advantage
of change, benefit from the new availability of suitable
anthropogenic landscapes.
Acknowledgements
We thank the International Cooperative Biodiversity Group Indonesia
project for funding; the Indonesian API leader Rosichon Ubaidillah;
Elizabeth Widjaja for help with locality data; Korps Citaka and Irene Engilis
for assistance in the field; Thomas J. Trombone, Dept, of Ornithology, AMNH,
for loan of specimens. This project was supported by Grant U01TW008160
from the Fogarty International Center, Office of Dietary Supplements,
National Science Foundation and Dept, of Energy, and by the USDA
Agricultural Food Research Initiative of the National Institute of Food and
Agriculture, Grant #35621-04750. The content is solely the responsibility
of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the
above organisations.
Forktail 30 (2014)
SHORT NOTES
145
References
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Barcelona: Lynx Edicions.
Coates, B. J. & Bishop, K. D. (1997) A guide to the birds ofWallacea. Alderley:
Dove Publications.
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251 in J. del Hoyo, A. Elliott & D. A. Christie, eds. Handbook of the birds of
the world, 10. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions.
Fitzsimons, J. A., Thomas, J. L. & Argeloo, M. (2011) Occurrence and distribution
of established and new introduced bird species in north Sulawesi,
Indonesia. Forktail 27: 23-28.
Kelly, D. J., Marples, N. M. & Singer, H. A. (2010) A population of Lemon-bellied
White-eye Zosferopsch/or/s from the south-eastern peninsula of Sulawesi.
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Asia between 2000 and 2010. Glob. Change Biol. 17: 2261-2270.
Suratin, I. A., ed. (2010) Biodiversity information book for Rawa Aopa
Watumohai National Park. Tatangge, Sulawesi Tenggara: Rawa Aopa
Watumohai National Park. (In Bahasa Indonesian.)
White, C. N. M. & Bruce, M. D. (1986) The birds of Wallacea: an annotated
check-list. London: British Ornithologists' Union (Check-list No. 7).
John A. TROCHET, Alan T. HITCH & Andrew ENGILIS Jr, Museum of
Wildlife and Fish Biology, Department of Wildlife, Fish and
Conservation Biology, University of California, Davis, California 956 1 6,
USA. Email: jatrochet@ucdavis.edu (corresponding author)
Mohammad IRHAM, Tri HARYOKO & Hidayat ASHARI, Museum
Zoologicum Bogoriense, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian
Institute of Sciences, Widyasatwaloka Building, Jl. Raya Jakarta-Bogor
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Diet and foraging behaviour of Purple Cochoa Cochoa purpurea in
Namdapha National Park, India
ASHWIN VISWANATHAN & ROHIT NANIWADEKAR
Introduction
The Purple Cochoa Cochoa purpurea is a scarce and secretive
species found throughout the mid- to high-altitude broadleaved
forests of the Himalaya, north-east India, China and South-East Asia
(Robson 2008). The species is sluggish and often remains
motionless in the canopy making it very difficult to see, particularly
outside the breeding season when it is not vocal (C. Robson in lift.).
Although the nest and eggs have been described (Whymper 1 902),
the diet and foraging behaviour of the species is poorly known.
There are only two published records describing the diet of Purple
Cochoa (from the gut contents of dead birds) (Baker 1924, D'Abreu
1931) and none documenting their foraging behaviour. They are
thought to be facultative frugivores which feed on fruits and berries
(species unknown), insects and molluscs (Baker 1924, D'Abreu 1931,
Robson 2008, Rasmussen & Anderton 2012). They have been seen
in Ficus trees, which possibly indicates that they feed on figs. No
other fruits in their diet are known. Their role as seed dispersal
agents has never been studied.
Purple Cochoas are thought to be nomadic, ranging widely in
search of food, and are potentially altitudinal migrants in some parts
of their range, but might be resident at certain altitudes in other
parts (C. Robson in litt.). They have been recorded at altitudes ranging
from 1 ,000-2,1 35 m in South-East Asia, although as low as 400 m in
Cue Phuong National Park, Vietnam (where the maximum elevation
is 659 m) (Robson 2008), and 91 5-3,000 m in South Asia where they
are thought to be mainly summer visitors, possibly influenced by
the predominance of summer records (Rasmussen & Anderton 201 2).
However, at least two published articles report their presence in
Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh during winter and spring (Sangha
2001 , Srinivasan etal. 201 0), and at least one bird has been seen by
birdwatchers in Nagaland on 6 January 2010 (S. Dalvi verbally).
Because it is such a poorly known species, it is easy to make
assumptions about its altitudinal limits and seasonal status.
Study area
Namdapha National Park (hereafter Namdapha) lies in Changlang
district, eastern Arunachal Pradesh, India (27.392-27.661 °N 96.251-
96.976°E). It has an altitudinal range of 200-4,571 m and covers an
area of 1,985 km2. The east and south-east boundaries of Namdapha
border northern Myanmar. It has a very high diversity of avian
species and has been designated an Important Bird Area together
with Kamlang Wildlife Sanctuary to the north (Islam & Rahmani
2004). All our observations of Purple Cochoa were on Hornbill
Plateau (about 1 5 km2) in Namdapha during the winters of 2010-
201 1 and 201 1 -201 2. The plateau lies at an altitude of 500-700 m
and is primarily covered with tropical evergreen forest.
The lowland forests of Namdapha have large numbers of trees
of the Lauraceae, Meliaceae and Moraceae families, including the
following species which produce fleshy fruits between 21-29 mm
in diameter: Prunus ceylanica, Beilschmiedia assamica, Phoebe
paniculata, Phoebe sp., Alseodaphne petiolaris, Machilus duthiei,
Aphanamixis sp., Dysoxylum sp. and Canarium strictum (Datta 2001 ).
These trees fruit during winter (November to February) and early
summer (March to April) (Kanjilal & Bor 1 998). The avian frugivores
which are known to disperse the seeds of some, if not all, of these
species in Namdapha are four species of hornbill. Mountain Imperial
Pigeon Ducula badia, Great Barbet Megalaima virens and Hill Myna
Gracula religiosa (Viswanathan 201 2). Although it is believed Purple
Cochoa have been seen previously in Namdapha by birdwatchers,
only one report has been published — three birds heard singing/
calling at 2,059 m on 18 and 20 December 2008 (Srinivasan et al.
2010). At the outset of our project, because of this paucity of
records, we had not expected to observe Purple Cochoa in the study
area and it had not been identified as a potentially important
species in the context of our project on seed dispersal of forest trees.
Methods
As a part of our research project on seed dispersal by avian
frugivores (RN unpubl. data, Viswanathan 2012), we systematically
watched fruiting trees over two winter periods, November 201 0 to
March 201 1 and November 201 1 to February 2012. During each
fruiting tree observation session, we watched frugivore behaviour
for up to about four hours — starting between 06h00 and 06h30
and finishing between lOhOO and 10h30 — while lying hidden
146
SHORT NOTES
Forktail 30 (2014)
Table 1. The encounter rate of Purple Cochoa on the tree species
sampled, and the diameter of fruits these trees produce.
Sessions = number of 4-hour watches under each tree species: Cochoa
visits = number of times Purple Cochoa were seen to visit trees. *Green
Cochoa were also seen foraging on these species.
under the tree. Tree species we found in fruit (the number of
individual trees observed is shown in brackets) and which were in
suitable locations to observe were: Beilschmiedia assamica (8),
Prunus ceylanica (6), Alseodaphne petiolaris (5), Machilus duthiei
(4), Phoebe sp. (6) and Canarium strictum (4). AV also informally
observed Aphanamixis sp. (1) which began fruiting towards the
end of February 2012. In most cases only one session was spent at
a tree, but repeat sessions were carried out at two of the
Beilschmiedia trees and one Alseodaphne petiolaris was also
observed twice. We were able to measure the size (diameter) of
the fruits produced by all these species (Table 1 ) except for Machilus
duthiei. Although we did not formally measure the hardness of
these fruits, we understand through handling them that P. ceylanica,
A. petiolaris and M. duthiei have very soft pulps, Phoebe sp. and C.
strictum have hard pulps, and B. assamica has pulp of intermediate
hardness.
Results
Purple Cochoa were observed on eight occasions in all, six during
our systematic observation programme — once in winter 2010-
201 1 and five times in winter 201 1 -2012 — and two opportunistic
observations in the same period. In addition, Purple Cochoa were
heard (calling/singing) occasionally during the study period, and
on 23 December 201 1 a single bird responded to playback.
Details of the observations of Purple Cochoa during the course
of our study were as follows (see also Table 1 ):
(1) 26 November 201 0: RN saw one male on Beilschmiedia assamica.
It flew to a fruit, pecked at it, and then returned to perch; two
fruits were pecked in this manner.
(2) November 201 1 : RN saw a male and a female on Alseodaphne
petiolaris. They appeared to be pecking at fruits in the same
manner as (1 ). A flock of at least six Green Cochoa Cochoa viridis
was foraging on the same tree, pecking at fruits; they
occasionally perched in an adjacent tree before returning to
continue foraging.
(3) 1 8 December 201 1 : RN saw one male on Machilus duthiei. The
bird was swallowing fruits — after flying to perch near a fruit, it
would fly to it, pluck it and settle back in the canopy before
ingesting it (see Discussion).
(4) 16 January 2012: RN saw two individuals on Beilschmiedia
assamica between 08h47 and 08h49, then four individuals at
09h43, but all were then lost to sight in the canopy. Both males
and females were seen. In all, Purple Cochoa were observed for
about 12 minutes, during which time the birds pecked and
dropped fruits on five occasions.
(5) 24 January 201 2: AV saw one male at 07h45 on Prunus ceylanica.
It perched alongside some ripe fruits, immediately plucked a
fruit and disappeared into the canopy. It was subsequently
visible on the tree for short intermittent periods but was not
seen to forage again.
(6) 25 January 2012: AV saw two males at 07h58 on Beilschmiedia
assamica. They were seen flying to fruits and possibly pecking
at them before flying back into the canopy. At 08h25, one bird
plucked a fruit and retired into the canopy. The two birds sat
motionless and were very difficult to see until 09h36. The sound
of falling seeds when the birds were resting indicated that they
might have regurgitated seeds from the fruits they ate. At
09h36, five more Purple Cochoa (three males and two females)
visited the tree and began foraging. This time they were seen
swallowing fruits on at least four occasions. They easily
swallowed fruits apparently almost double the size of their
gapes. Several fruits were dropped too. These birds foraged
(although not all at the same time) until 09h56, during which
period AV took a few photographs. At 09h59, two birds ingested
one fruit each. Three to six birds were still on the tree at 1 0h 1 5
when AV completed his observation session. One Mountain
Imperial Pigeon was seen intermittently foraging on the same
tree during the entire period.
Additional observations were as follows:
(7) 15 February 2012: at about 09h00 AV had an opportunistic
sighting of one male sitting in the upper canopy of an
unidentified tree. A Purple Cochoa had been calling sometime
previously from the vicinity of an unidentified Lauraceae tree
with ripe fruits, but AV did not see it visiting a fruiting tree.
(8) 28 February 2012: AV saw a male and a female on Aphanamixis
sp. at about 1 5h00. There were two bouts of foraging activity
between 1 5h00 and about 1 6h00.The birds foraged in the same
manner as observed previously and ingested several fruits
(arils).
Green Cochoa were seen more frequently at the study site than
Purple Cochoa, mainly on Ficus sp., but were infrequently seen on
the targeted trees during observation sessions. Green Cochoa fed
in a similar manner to Purple Cochoa (see below), but were usually
in small flocks and seemingly less concerned about concealment.
Discussion
Distribution
We saw Purple Cochoa on seven occasions during the winter of
201 1-201 2 at the study site, but almost always only on the fruiting
trees which we were systematically sampling to collect data for our
main studies. This indicates how difficult it is to see Purple Cochoa
during winter and raises questions about their reported seasonal
status in South Asia. Perhaps their status as mostly summer visitors
to the region (with winter distribution unknown) has to be re¬
examined. It is possible that they are resident in South Asia but are
completely overlooked due to their relative inactivity and
inconspicuousness outside the breeding season. This is the first
time a population has been documented throughout winter
(November to February) in South Asia.
During the winter of 201 1 -2012, several higher-altitude species
were seen at unusually low elevations in Namdapha (AV and RN
pers. obs.); this phenomenon may have been driven by an unusually
severe winter. The relatively large number of Purple Cochoa seen
was possibly a reflection of the same. However, we did see one
Purple Cochoa in November 201 0 in the same area, indicating that
they do visit lower altitudes at other times. The sightings reported
here — between 500-600 m — are some of the lowest altitudinal
records for the species. However, a propensity to move far and
erratically in search of food (C. Robson in litt.) may see them
regularly occur at lower altitudes, where they go unnoticed.
Diet and foraging behaviour
Purple Cochoa (and Green Cochoa) have an unusual foraging
technique compared with other frugivores (e.g. horn bi I Is, pigeons,
barbets and mynas). They almost sally, like flycatchers, limiting the
time they spend active in the open. They usually remain hidden in
Forktail 30 (2014)
SHORT NOTES
147
the foliage of the fruiting tree and fly to the fruits, perching briefly
near them without attempting to seize one from this perch. They
then flit to a fruit, remove it or peck at it in one quick motion, and
fly directly back into the canopy to perch out of sight once more
and ingest it. Fruits are often dropped in the process. Once a fruit
has been swallowed, the bird may repeat the procedure. An
individual has bursts of foraging activity during which it swallows
two to three fruits and rests for long periods in between; the Purple
Cochoa has the ability to remain completely still for long periods,
and are then very difficult to see. The foraging bouts are relatively
long because fruits are dropped, although it is not clear whether
this is because the fruit is not at the stage of ripeness the bird prefers
or simply due to clumsiness. Often several attempts appear to be
unsuccessful and many fruits are dropped.
The'sallying'behaviour may be a consequence of their inability
to remove large fruits while perched on a branch, but it may also
be an adaptation which minimises the time they spend actively in
the open. Contrary to typical thrush behaviour (pecking at large
fruits, often on the ground), we found that they also swallow some
large fruits whole and regurgitate seeds. However, they may find it
difficult to handle large fruits, as they were seen to drop fruits
several times, but it is possible that the fruits were dropped
deliberately because they were being rejected for some reason. We
sometimes saw Purple Cochoa pecking at fruits, rather than seizing
them, but these might have been failed attempts to remove them.
We observed Purple Cochoa feeding on the fruits of five species
of fruiting tree. This is the first documentation of fruits of specific
trees in the diet of the species. Although they appear to swallow
fruit with diameters greater than 20 mm (Table 1), they were not
seen to feed on either C. strictum or Phoebe sp., possibly because
these fruits are generally too large to ingest or are too hard. We
also observed Green Cochoa feeding on the fruits of A. petiolaris
on two occasions, and once on the fruits of M. duthiei, which they
plucked and swallowed whole.
As they spend long periods foraging on fruiting trees, Purple
Cochoas may be highly frugivorous birds. In fact, only hornbills were
encountered more often than cochoa on B. assamica during fruiting
tree observation sessions. On Prunus ceylanica, Mountain Imperial
Pigeon, Great Barbet and Hill Myna were seen more often than
Purple Cochoa. The only other frugivore we have seen feeding on
the fruits of Aphanamixis sp. is Austen's Brown Hornbill Anorrhinus
austeni, although several other species probably do so. Purple
Cochoa may therefore be important dispersers for these tree
species. However, they may not disperse these seeds far from the
parent tree as they often sit on the same or a neighbouring tree
after feeding, as do Great Barbets and Hill Mynas (Viswanathan
2012).
The fruits which we have reported in the diet of Purple Cochoa
are large and lipid-rich. This might indicate that the species feeds
on several types of large lipid-rich fruits (at least in winter) and is
similar to frugivores like hornbills and imperial pigeons in this
respect. Large fruits from the families Lauraceae and Meliaceae,
which depend almost exclusively on hornbills, pigeons and
occasionally barbets and mynas for dispersal (Corlett 1 998), are also
potentially dispersed by Purple Cochoa (and other cochoa species).
In forests where numbers of large frugivores are greatly diminished
(Corlett 1998), cochoa species may be particularly important for
continued dispersal of large bird-dispersed seeds.
Acknowledgements
We thank Nature Conservation Foundation, National Centre for Biological
Sciences, Wildlife Conservation Society and Centre for Wildlife Studies for
institutional support. We thank the Arunachal Forest Department for
permission to conduct the research and the Principal Chief Conservator of
Forests, J. L. Singh, and the Namdapha Field Director, S. Jongsam, for their
support. We thank our field assistants and Japang Pansa and Phupla
Singpho for their invaluable support. We are grateful to Craig Robson for
sharing Information with us and commenting on our manuscript. Special
thanks to Aparajita Datta for guidance and editing the manuscript and,
and to two anonymous reviewers.
References
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Ashwin VISWANATHAN, WCS - India Program, National Center for
Biological Sciences, Bangalore 560065, India. Email:
ashwinv2005@gmail.com
Rohit NANIWADEKAR, Nature Conservation Foundation, 3076/5
Gokulam Park, Mysore 570002, India. Email: rohit@ncf-india.org
Forktail 30(2014)
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