ISSN 0950-1746

r.Y 1989 To f Xcj

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Cover photograph: Relict Gulls Lams rehclus. (P. C. Noakes)

FORKTAIL

Number 4, July 1989

CONTENTS

A. J. GASTON. Andrew Leith Adams: a pioneer of Himalayan ornithology . 3

F. E. DE RODER. The migration of raptors south of Annapurna, Nepal,

autumn 1985 . 9

E. C. DICKINSON. A review of larger Philippine swiftlets of the genus

Collocalia . 19

J. BOSWALL. Ornithology in China: an update . 55

B. KING. Birds observed at Huang Nian Shan, Mabian county, southern

Sichuan, China . 63

B. KING. Birds observed at Dafengding Panda Reserve, Mabian county,

southern Sichuan, China . 69

D. N. BAKEWELL, G. J. CAREY, D. G. DUFF, J. PALFERY,

A. PARKER and M. D. WILLIAMS. Observations of Relict Gulls Larus

relictus on passage at Beidaihe, People’s Republic of China . 77

A. D. JOHNS. Recovery of a Peninsular Malaysian rainforest avifauna

following selective timber logging: the first twelve years . 89

F. R. LAMBERT. Daily ranging behaviour of three tropical forest

frugivores . 107

Short communications

J. DEL HOYO and E. CARRERA. Dusting by a Green Cochoa Cochoa viridis ... 1 17

P. J. HEATH. A Short-billed Minivet Pericrocotus brevirostris nest in Nepal . 117

P. J. HEATH and D. M. THORNS. Bristled Grass Warbler Chaetomis striatus

new to and breeding in Nepal, and its separation from Large Grass Warbler

Graminicola bengalensis . 118

S. C. MADGE. Swinhoe’s Snipe Gallinago megala : a new species for Nepal . 121

D. R. HOLMES and J. R. D. WALL. Letter . 123

Guidelines for contributors . 126

ISSN 0950-1746

© Oriental Bird Club 1989

Published for the Oriental Bird Club by

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PUBLICATIONS

6 Norreys Avenue, Oxford, England.

Typeset by DMD, Oxford, England.

Printed on recycled paper by Informadon Press, Oxford, England.

2

Forktail 4

This issue should have appeared in the summer of last year, and the long

delay is a source of profound editorial regret and embarrassment. Initially

the cause was paucity of material; in the past six months it has been

overcommitment by the editor. In an attempt to redress this latter problem,

and in proper recognition of the outstanding qualities he has brought to the

editorial process, Tim Inskipp has now become joint editor of the journal.

Material for Forktail 5 has been accumulating, and I hope therefore that the

journal will soon be back on schedule. For all those who have waited with

mounting concern for this long overdue issue, I offer my sincere apologies.

N.J.C.

FORKTAIL 4 (1989): 3-8

Andrew Leith Adams: a pioneer

of Himalayan ornithology

ANTHONY J. GASTON

Adams was active in the Himalayas in the mid-nineteenth century, and provided a detailed

but neglected record of his bird observations in a book and two papers. The more

interesting of these observations are recounted here, including evidence of the former

abundance of game animals in both Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir/Ladakh.

Andrew Leith Adams, a military surgeon, spent seven years in India from

1849. He was a keen hunter and naturalist, and travelled extensively in

Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir in search of game. His account of his travels

and observations, Wanderings of a naturalist in India, the western Himalayas

and Cashmere (Adams 1867), is distinguished from many similar writings of

the nineteenth century by his attention to detail and his very specific

references to numbers, localities and dates for the animals that he

encountered. He also wrote two technical papers detailing his major findings

(Adams 1858, 1859). His excellent field descriptions of birds enable many

species to be clearly recognised.

In view of Adams’s excellent natural history writings, and the fact that

Jerdon (1877) included him among the fathers of Indian ornithology, it is

surprising that he is rarely referred to by modern authors. I hope that by

presenting a brief account of his observations in India I can bring his

contribution to Himalayan ornithology to the attention of the many

ornithologists now visiting the western Himalayas. I also compare his

observations in two main areas with my own notes from visits made to the

same places in recent years to indicate changes that have taken place over the

past 130 years.

NOTES FROM HIMACHAL PRADESH

Although he is not explicit, Adams appears to have been based at Dagshai,

near Simla, during most of the period from 1849 to 1854. While there he

noted several species not commonly recorded in the area: Spot- winged

Starling Saroglossa spiloptera, which he correctly noted as a summer visitor to

the hills, a point confirmed by Whistler (1923), Red-billed Leiothrix

Leiothrix lutea, and Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni, both of which he

characterised as common. The latter is normally considered rare in north¬

west India (Ah and Ripley 1984), and the observation might be considered

an error except that Adams (1867:99) states: ‘Independent of size the latter

[Falco naumanni ] is distinguished from the other by the light colour of its

claws, which are black in the Common Kestrel’. A similar attention to detail

4

A. J. GASTON

Forktail 4

is evident in Adams’s distinction between the house-martin that occurred at

Dagshai and the one he knew from Europe and southern India. Those that

he shot were described by Gould (1858) as Delichon cashmeriensis, which is

now usually treated as a subspecies of the Asian House-Martin D. dasypus.

Adams correctly noted the smaller size, dark axillaries and less forked tail by

comparison with D. urbica.

While living at Dagshai, Adams made two excursions to Chor Dhar, the

isolated massif which lies south of Simla, beyond the valley of the River Giri.

His first visit was in March. The second commenced on 24 September 1851,

reaching Chor after six days. His party spent eleven days hunting there,

which he described as ‘uninterrupted happiness’.

As a sportsman, Adams devotes a good deal of space to the game that he

encountered. On the march to Chor he notes many Kalij Pheasants Lophura

leucomelana at Narg (Narag), which ‘one after another rose before our dogs’,

as well as Red Junglefowl G alius gallus. Jungle Bush-quail Perdicula asiatica,

Black Francolin Francolinus fraticolinus, and an abundance of Indian Peafowl

Pavo cristatus (now rare in the area). While at Chor, his party based itself at

the hamlet of Chauras and found Impeyan Pheasants Lophophorus impejanus

in large numbers on the upper parts of the massif, which reaches a maximum

of 3,647m:

One morning we happened to get into a narrow defile leading towards the

summit . . . profusely covered with ferns, balsams, dwarf-bamboo jungle

and long dank vegetation, through which we could scarcely pick our way,

much less see the great numbers of monal pheasants which were

continually rising around us. I had just discharged my gun at a flock of

upwards of twenty monal which rose in front of us . . . My companion, in

spite of the uncertain footing and obstacles, killed ten monal in an hour.

Nearby Adams shot a Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos carrying a Kalij

Pheasant in its talons. The eagle weighed 8 lbs (3.6kg) and had a wingspan of

six feet four inches (193 cm). Interestingly, no weights at all are given for

Indian Golden Eagles by Ali and Ripley (1984). This was the first time

Adams had encountered the species in India, despite two years’ residence in

the hills. Apparently Golden Eagles were no more frequent in the front

ranges in the last century than they are today, when they are rarely

encountered below 3,000 m.

Despite the abundance of Impeyan Pheasants at Chor, Adams laments:

This splendid bird, once so abundant in the Western Himalayas, is now,

comparatively speaking, restricted to certain localities in the wooded

slopes of the higher ranges. Whole tracts of forest, once dazzling with the

gorgeous forms of these birds, are now without a single specimen.

In a footnote he adds: ‘Hundreds are sold at Stevens’ sale-rooms. They are

bought chiefly to adorn ladies’ bonnets!’ The famous hunter F. Wilson

(‘Mountaineer’), who operated mainly in Garhwal, was responsible for

killing 1,500 Impeyan Pheasants and tragopans Tragopan spp. yearly during

1989

Adams, Himalayan pioneer

5

a long career (Hume and Marshall 1878). Presumably similar slaughter had

prevailed around Simla prior to Adams’s arrival.

Considering Adams’s remarks and his own efforts (his party killed 68

Impeyan Pheasants), it is hardly surprising that in September 1983, when I

visited Chor with my wife, we met with only small numbers of Impeyan

Pheasants. We flushed several ones and twos from steep ravines close to the

summit, where the sanctity of the temple may discourage hunting.

Elsewhere we did not encounter the species. The Koklas Pheasant Pucrasia

macrolopha, characterised by Adams as less common than Impeyan,

appeared more abundant during our visit, despite being more cryptic and

difficult to see.

Among small birds seen at Chor, Adams mentions Goldcrest Regulus

regulus. Spot-winged Tit Parus melanolophus, Grey-crested Tit P. dichrous (in

both his 1858 and 1859 papers he described this species, but was unable to

put a name to it, but by the time he wrote Wanderings he had apparently been

able to confirm the identification), Black-lored (Yellow-cheeked) Tit P.

xanthogenys. Bar- tailed Treecreeper Certhia himalayana, White- tailed Nuthatch

Sitta himalayensis, Dark-sided Flycatcher Muscicapa sibirica, Red-headed

Bullfinch Pyrrhula erythrocephala and flocks of Mistle Thrushes Turdus

viscivorus feeding on acorns. We encountered all these species and

particularly noted many Mistle Thrushes along the main ridges on open

pastures. Another species that we both found at Chor was the Common Hill-

Partridge Arborophila torqueola ; this species is otherwise hard to find west of

the Ganges catchment and reaches its western limit in Chamba (Ali and

Ripley 1984).

NOTES FROM KASHMIR AND LADAKH

In 1852 Adams made a prolonged excursion to Kashmir and Ladakh. After

reaching the Vale, he visited the Ward wan (Marwan) Valley, a tributary of

the Chenab reached from the Vale of Kashmir by crossing the Margan Pass

from Islamabad. The area already had a reputation among big-game hunters.

Adams’s party crossed the pass on 27 May, having some difficulty with deep

snow, and spent ten days in the Wardwan Valley. We trekked through the

same area in September 1982 and experienced similar difficulties in crossing

the pass because of bad weather.

Even before reaching the Vale of Kashmir, about 27 March, Adams

discovered and collected the Orange Bullfinch Pyrrhula aurantiaca in the

Jhelum Valley west of Uri. Gould described the species in 1858 from

Adams’s specimens. Perhaps because of the bad weather he experienced in

the Wardwan Valley he makes little mention of non-game animals, although

he notes Goldcrest, Common Cuckoo Cuculus canorus, Black-and-yellow

Grosbeak Coccothraustes icterioides, Indian Blue Robin Erithacus brunneus and

Upland Pipit Anthus sylvanus on the western side of the pass.

6

A. J. GASTON

Forktail 4

The main result of the trip was the killing of 25 Brown Bears Ursus arctos

among three European guns over the ten days and, to judge from Adams’s

account, the wounding of many more. The idea of three hunters setting their

sights on perhaps as many as fifty bears while based in the upper Wardwan

for a mere ten days gives some idea of their density at that time. Ward (1887)

mentions that by the 1880s seasonal bags in Kashmir had fallen to a mere 6-7

bears from the 20-30 of earlier days. We saw none at all on our week-long

visit, although in September they may have been higher up than we

ventured. Adams remarks that Himalayan Black Bears Selenarctos thibetanus

occur only at the southern end of the Wardwan Valley, near Kishtwar. We

were told exactly the same thing by local hunters.

A later trip to the southern Pir Panjal, not described in detail in

Wanderings, led Adams to comment on the status of the Western Tragopan

Tragopan melanocephalus :

Oft, in the stillness of an alpine solitude, . . . have I listened to the well-

known wa, wa, wa of this bird. I believe the jewar [Western Tragopan] is

much more common than is generally supposed, for its habits are cunning

and stealthy, always preferring the deepest solitudes of the forest, and

seldom taking to wing unless hard pressed.

Notwithstanding this remark, he characterised the species as ‘not common’

in his 1859 paper on Kashmir birds. It is currently considered endangered,

and there are no recent records from the southern Pir Panjal, although it is

still found in the Neelam Valley of Pakistan (Gaston el al. 1983).

Following his foray in the Wardwan Valley, Adams, again with two other

Europeans, crossed the Zoji La into Ladakh on 7 July. The trio had little

success with big game, but Adams discovered and subsequently (1859)

named the Black-winged Snowfinch Montifnngilla adamsi and obtained the

first collection of skins ever made in the area. Among the more interesting

observations made on his forty-day trip was that of Brown-headed Gulls

Larus brunnicephalus on Tso Morari (a record apparently overlooked by

Vaurie 1972).

On the return journey the party left Ladakh via the Suru glacier. Adams

remarks on the abrupt change in the avifauna which he noted part-way up

the Suru Valley:

Yesterday, at Shergol [i.e. Mulbekh, in the Wakka Chu Valley between

Kargil and Khalatse, the area where he first located Monti fringilla adamsi ],

we had seen the magpie [Pica pica], chestnut-bellied [Giildenstadt’s]

redstart [Phoenicians erythrogaster], alpine chough [Pynhocorax graculus ]

and Tartar rock-pigeon [Columba rupestris]-, today [at Sanku, in the Suru

Valley] their places were taken by roller [see below], Cornish [Red-billed]

chough [Pynhocorax pynhocorax ] and blue rock-pigeon [Columba livia]-,

moreover the Tartar visage had now give [sic] place to the Caucasian.

The question of the identity of the rollers is of interest: Adams (1859) notes

Coracias indica (= benghalensis ) as frequently seen in Ladakh, and specifically

1989

Adams, Himalayan pioneer

7

states that he never saw C. garrulus in the ‘western Ranges’, but this conflicts

with all other records and for example Ali and Ripley (1984) list only garrulus

for Kashmir and Ladakh.

Reaching the Kashmir Valley again, Adams recorded Grey Wagtail

Motacilla cinerea and White-throated Dipper Cinclus cinclus on the Liddar,

one of the few places in the valley where the latter occurs (Bates and Lowther

1952). He also noted Ashy Drongos Dicrurus leucophaeus persistently

kleptoparasitising Hoopoes Upupa epops.

Before returning to Britain and thence to Canada ( Wanderings was

completed in New Brunswick), Adams saw duty with his regiment in

Peshawar. Despite some danger from local partisans, once outside the town

he managed some birdwatching, noting the arrival of winter visitors:

Northern Lapwing Vanellus vanellus. Greylag Goose Anser anser, Cranes

Anthropoides/Grus, Rook Corvus frugilegus. Common Jackdaw C. monedula ,

Great Bittern Botaurus stellaris, Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica and Grey

Wagtail. Unfortunately, most of his Peshawar notes were lost, as well as

those referring to a second excursion to Kashmir.

Adams, like most of his contemporaries, was impressed with game

statistics; the size of ‘heads’ and ‘bags’ are given due note. However, his

interest in smaller birds and his careful evaluation of the variation within

species, which gave him a remarkably modern view of taxonomy, set him

apart:

This rage for ‘species-making’ is not confined solely to cabinet naturalists,

but I regret to think, for the sake of science, that rather than be behind¬

hand, or that another should make the discovery, it is the custom with

even many of our best-known field ornithologists to give a separate

specific name to every individual that differs in the slightest degree from

another.

Unlike many explorers of the period, he appears to have done all of his

collecting himself. Most of his observations on habitat and behaviour accord

well with those of more recent fieldworkers.

Wanderings could usefully be employed by a modern visitor to the western

Himalayas to get an idea of the birds that they might encounter, although

obviously the status of large game animals has changed drastically; a

situation for which Adams himself cannot be entirely absolved of blame.

With Hodgson, active earlier in Nepal, Adams laid the groundwork for

subsequent Himalayan ornithology. We are fortunate that he left such a

lucid record of his experiences.

I would like to thank Peter Holmes, Tim Inskipp and Nigel Collar for useful comments on

earlier drafts of this paper.

REFERENCES

Adams, A. L. (1858) Notes on the habits, haunts etc. of some of the birds of India. Proc. Zool.

Soc. Lond.: 466-512.

8

A. J. GASTON

Forktail 4

Adams, A. L. (1859) The birds of Cashmere and Ladakh. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond .: 169-190.

Adams, A. L. (1867) Wanderings of a naturalist in India, the western Himalayas and Cashmere.

Edinburgh: Edmonston and Douglas.

Ali, S. and Ripley, S. D. (1984) Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. Compact edition.

Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Bates, R. S. P. and Lowther, E. H. N. (1952) Breeding birds of Kashmir. London: Oxford

University Press.

Gaston, A. J., Islam, K. and Crawford, J. A. (1983) The current status of the Western Tragopan

Tragopan melanocephalus. World Pheasant Assoc. J . 8: 40-49.

Gould, J. (1858) Description of two new species of the family Hirundinidae. Proc. Zool. Soc.

Lond.: 355-356.

Hume, A. O. and Marshall, C. H. T. (1878) Game birds of India, Burma and Ceylon, 1. Calcutta:

published by the authors.

Jerdon, T. C. (1877) The birds of India. Calcutta: P. S. D’Rosario.

Osmaston, B. B. (1925) The birds of Ladakh. Ibis (12)1: 663-719.

Vaurie, C. (1972) Tibet and its birds. London: Witherby.

Ward, A. E. (1887) The sportsman’s guide to Kashmir and Ladak. Calcutta: Calcutta Central Press

Co.

Whistler, H. B. (1923) The Spotted-winged Starling ( Psaroglossa spiloplera, Vigors). J . Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 29: 290-292.

A. J. Gaston, 30 Dufferin Road, Ottawa, Canada KIM 2A8.

FORKTAIL 4 (1989): 9-17

The migration of raptors south of

Annapurna, Nepal, autumn 1985

FRANK E. DE RODER

Raptor migration was observed over Khare, south of Annapurna, Nepal, from 20 October

up to and including 7 November 1985. Nearly 9,000 raptors of some 30 species were

counted, with Steppe Eagle Aquila rapax nipalensis being the most numerous species.

Birds of prey have recently been found to use the Himalayas as an east-west

pathway in autumn. This phenomenon was first described by Fleming

(1982), who made observations in October and November 1975 in the

Kathmandu Valley, and also at Dampus south of Annapurna where at least

490 raptors were seen from 3 to 5 November 1976.

In 1984 between 26 and 28 October I was accompanied by Rob Bijlsma,

Steen Christensen and Mogens Henriksen in the area between Birethante

and Naudanda south of Annapurna, where we observed 1,047 raptors of 15

species migrating to the south-west (Bijlsma in prep.). In 1985 I decided to

return to the area to observe the migration of raptors for a longer period. I

was accompanied by Gerard Verschoor throughout the study and by Rob

Lensink for the period 20-25 October. We found a suitable observation

point near Khare, and this paper describes the migration of raptors over

Khare from 20 October up to and including 7 November 1985.

LOCALITY AND WEATHER

The Annapurna massif lies near the northern border between Nepal and

Tibet and includes 1 1 high peaks of 7, 000 -8, 000m (Figure 1). It is bounded

at the west and the east by two large rivers, respectively the Kali Gandaki

and Marsyandi, whereas the southern side is drained by the Modi Khola,

Seti Khola and Madi Khola (Figure 2). Between the high peaks and the

lowlands there is an enormous variety of hills and mountains. At altitudes

below 2,000m most of the land is used for agriculture and between 2,000 and

3,000m there are oak/rhododendron forests.

Khare (1,646m) is a very small village (c.50 houses) along the trail from

Naudanda to Birethante. From a ridge south of the village there is an

excellent view towards Pokhara. The small villages near Naudanda are all

situated on top of a mountain ridge which has an east-west direction. On the

north and south side of the ridge there are rivers which feed Phewa Tal, the

lake near Pokhara.

During the observation period the wind blew very consistently from the

south to south-east, force 1-3 (Beaufort). The daily temperatures fluctuated

between 13 and 23°C. The visibility was usually very good, except over 27-29

10

F. E. DE RODER

Forktail 4

October when it was misty with low cloud near Naudanda much of the time.

Normally it was mainly sunny in the mornings and after 14h00 clouds

formed at an altitude of 2, 200-2, 500m.

METHODS

From 20 October up to and including 7 November we spent 135 hours on 18

days watching raptor migration near Khare. We watched from a small hill

about 3km east of Khare on the first two days of the observation period.

Figure 1. Nepal with mountains above 4,000 m.

Figure 2. Annapurna himalaya and position of observation point.

1989

Raptor migration in Nepal

11

Later we used a higher ridge just south of Khare where the viewing

conditions were much better.

Most of the time two observers were present, but during the first five days

there were three. We used 10x40 and 8x30 binoculars. Identification of the

raptors was possible with the use of the raptor identification section in

Inskipp and Inskipp (1985) and Fleming et al. (1979).

Usually observations started at 08h00 local time. Nearly all the raptors

passed in the period 10h00-16h00 except some local vultures, kites,

sparrowhawks and falcons which were seen before lOhOO. Hardly any

raptors were seen after 16h30 (Figure 3). Before 09h00 many eagles were

roosting in the forests along the hills north of the Yamdi Khola north-east of

Khare.

All observers looked in an easterly direction: one spotted the birds in the

Yamdi Khola valley north of Naudanda, one in the Marse Khola and over

Phewa Tal south of Naudanda (see Figure 2). As the air warmed up at about

lOhOO the eagles started circling with heavy wing-flaps. With considerable

difficulty they gained height and as the air became warmer, flapping changed

to soaring. Between lOhOO- llhOO several thermals developed. Most raptors

spent a great deal of time soaring, especially during the morning. After

Figure 3. Raptor migration according to the time

of day.

12

F. E. DE RODER

Forktail 4

reaching the top of thermals they glided down in a westerly direction. Most

of the soaring birds were first spotted north of Naudanda near Dampus.

They glided from Dampus in a south-westerly direction over the ridge near

Naudanda, then circled again and glided in a westerly direction, thus

crossing the observation point (Figure 4). In the afternoon, as clouds formed

at an altitude of 2, 200-2, 500m, the birds found it more difficult to soar and

they then flew past flapping more and more, especially north of the Yamdi

Khola valley. After 16h00 many eagles were seen near the oak/rhododendron

forests looking for a resting place.

SYSTEMATIC LIST

The daily totals of all raptor species seen during the observation period are

listed in Table 1.

Nearly 9,000 raptors of some B0 species were counted (Figure 5). Most of

the raptors passed between 50 and 500 m above the observers and could be

identified easily.

CRESTED HONEY BUZZARD Pemis ptilorhyncus A fairly common

resident and passage migrant in Nepal (Inskipp and Inskipp 1985). As only

two were noted, on 25 October and 5 November, it is likely that the major

migration period is earlier (September-October).

Figure 4. Direction of raptor migration.

altitude

H > 6,000 m

£5$ 4,500 - 6,000 m

(Si 3,000 - 4,500 m

E22 1,500 - 3,000 m

r~n 1,000- 1,500 m

I I < 1 ,000 m

1989

Raptor migration in Nepal

13

BLACK KITE Milvus migrans Recorded between 20 October and 6

November. Of the birds which were aged, 23% were adults and 77%

juveniles. A small proportion of the birds counted were probably resident.

Autumn migration has been observed in the Kali Gandaki valley, where 254

Black Kites were seen between 14 September and 1 October 1973 (Thiollay

1979).

EGYPTIAN VULTURE Neophron percnopterus A total of 74 birds was seen,

61% of these adults, 36% immatures and 3% juveniles. Most of the birds

counted were apparently resident while 11% were seen migrating in a

westerly direction.

HEN HARRIER Circus cyaneus Small numbers of migrants were noted

throughout the observation period. The highest daily total was ten on 6

November. The age and sex composition of the 66 birds was: 19 adult males

and 47 females/juveniles. Most birds appeared between 08h00-12h00, flying

low over the valleys.

PALLID HARRIER Circus macrourus Only two birds, both females, were

positively identified as Pallid Harriers, on 22 October. Their very slim

appearance, extremely buoyant flight, well-marked head pattern and narrow

white patch on the uppertail coverts made identification possible.

Table 1. Raptor migration at Khare, central Nepal - migration east-west.

•resident species for which the figures represent hourly maxima.

On 24 October raptor migration was not counted.

14

F. E. DE RODER

Forktail 4

MONTAGU’S HARRIER Circus pygargus On 21 and 26 October single

females were noted flying in a south-westerly direction.

BESRA Accipiter virgatus Noted in small numbers throughout the observation

period, hunting small passerines in the valleys and migrating west.

NORTHERN SPARROWHAWK Accipiter msus On 26 and 28 October

respectively one and two birds moved west, flying low over the valley.

SHIKRA Accipiter badius Only three observations of single birds on 22 and

29 October and 1 November. The one on 22 October moved west, while the

others were apparently resident.

Accipiter sp. A total of 15 birds could not be specifically identified because

they flew very low in the valleys and were only seen briefly.

COMMON BUZZARD Buteo buteo A small, very pale Buzzard migrating to

the west on 23 October was identified as B. b. japonicus. Small numbers of B.

b. refectus occurred almost daily.

STEPPE EAGLE Aquila rapax nipalensis By far the most numerous species

migrating over Khare. The first Steppe Eagles were seen on 20 October but

during the first five observation days numbers were very low, probably

because of bad weather (a hurricane) in early October. Numbers increased

from 27 October onwards with a maximum of almost 1,400 birds on 1

November (Figure 6). About 90% passed between 10h00-16h00 and the

strongest passage was between 12h00-14h00 (Figure 7). A total of 3,381

birds (43%) were aged, of which 28% were juveniles, 28% immatures and

44% adults (Figure 8). If the observations during the first four days are

omitted (extremely low numbers - see Table 1), then the number of juveniles

increased during the observation period, whereas the number of immatures

decreased slowly and the number of adults remained more or less stable. The

age composition of migrating Steppe Eagles in Nepal is different from the

age composition of migrating Steppe Eagles in Egypt (Bijlsma 1981). In

Egypt the migration started with juveniles, and by the second half of

October adults formed almost 80% of the migrating birds. The flock size of

migrating Steppe Eagles is given in Figure 9: 58% migrated in small flocks of

1-5 birds, 30% in flocks of 5-20 and 12% in larger flocks.

IMPERIAL EAGLE Aquila heliaca A total of nine birds was recorded

between 20 October and 5 November. The age composition was three adults,

three immatures and three juveniles. It is possible that there were some

Imperial Eagles among the unidentified eagles.

Aquila sp. Only five eagles were unidentified, all during the beginning of the

observation period when only very few eagles occurred. Later there was

1989

Raptor migration in Nepal

15

always ‘reference material’ in the air which made identification easier.

LESSER KESTREL Falco naumanm A total of 77 Lesser Kestrels was

counted: 56% of these were during the first five days of observation. The age

and sex composition was 46% males and 54% females/juveniles.

AMUR FALCON Falco amurensis A total of 138 birds was recorded, 96% of

them in October. The age composition (n=120) was 3% males, 9% females

and 88% immatures. Often small flocks of 5-10 birds were seen. Most birds

Figure 7. Number of Steppe Eagles

Figure 6. Migration of Steppe Eagles in autumn 1985. according to the time of day.

Figure 8. Age composition of Steppe Eagles in

four-day periods. Figure 9. Flock size of Steppe Eagles.

16

F. E. DE RODER

Forktaii 4

(55%) appeared between 10h00-12h00. Near Phewa Tal, Pokhara flocks of

100-150 birds could be seen going to roost in October.

SAKER FALCON Falco cherrug On 20 and 25 October and 5 November

single birds migrated in a westerly direction.

PEREGRINE FALCON Falco peregrinus Two records of single birds on 20

and 29 October; the first was identified as a female. Both birds migrated in a

westerly direction.

BARB ARY FALCON Falco pelegrinoides Two records of single birds, one

on 29 October and one on 3 November, migrating in a westerly direction.

DISCUSSION

The large number of migrating raptors south of Annapurna was not

completely surprising. In 1984 we saw some evidence of migration at

Naudanda whilst walking to Jomosom, and Fleming (1982) described the

migration of Aquila eagles at Dampus not far from Naudanda and Khare. In

1976 he counted 717 eagles at Dampus between 2-7 November. He

estimated an average migration intensity of 200 birds per hour over a seven-

and-a-half-hour period (giving a total of 1,500 eagles per day) and postulated

that the migration period covered 30 days. If correct these estimates suggest

that an annual total of 45,000 individuals is involved.

In my opinion this number is an overestimate. During our observation

period we counted 7,852 Steppe Eagles (Figure 6). If the first seven days of

the observation period (involving less than one per cent of the Steppe Eagles)

are omitted, an average of about 650 eagles passed per day. As the migration

of Steppe Eagles was still continuing at the end of November in Kathmandu

Valley it is likely that the migration period is longer than 30 days. As no

studies have been carried out in the last three weeks of November it is not

possible to estimate the total number of birds involved annually but, even

assuming the passage continues throughout this period at the high rate of 650

per day, it is unlikely that the total exceeds 20,000. If the passage tails off

later in the period the total number may be between 10,000 and 20,000.

First of all I am very grateful to my fellow traveller Gerard Verschoor who spent almost 18

days with me on top of a hill watching eagles. He made boring hours without migration

bearable. Special thanks also go to Rob Lensink who joined us during the first six days of

the observation period and who motivated us to continue. We found a good home and

learned to understand the Nepalese way of life better in Baba’s Lodge (Welcome for Cold

Drinks) in Khare. We learned a lot from the very kind inhabitants: Bolli, Tsuk, Laxmi,

Ama, Radjoe, Massina, Tuke and Maiita. Rob Bijlsma and Carol and Tim Inskipp kindly

commented on the first draft and corrected the English.

1989

Raptor migration in Nepal

17

REFERENCES

Ali, S. and Ripley, S. D. (1984) Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. Compact edition.

Bombay: Oxford University Press.

Bijlsma, R. G. (1981) The migration of raptors near Suez, Egypt, Autumn 1981. Sandgrouse 5:

19-44.

Fleming, R. L. Sr., Fleming, R. L. Jr. and Bangdel, L. S. (1979) Birds of Nepal. Second edition.

Kathmandu: Avalok.

Fleming, R. L. Jr. (1982) An east-west Aquila migration in the Himalayas. J. Bombay Nat. Hist.

Soc. 80: 58-62.

Inskipp, C. and Inskipp, T. (1985) A guide to the birds of Nepal. London: Croom Helm.

Thiollay, J. M. (1979) La migration des grues a travers l’Himalaya et la predation par les aigles

royaux. Alauda 47: 83-92.

FORKTAIL 4 (1989): 19-53

A review of larger Philippine swiftlets

of the genus Collocalia

EDWARD C. DICKINSON

The taxonomy of the larger Collocalia in the Philippines involves many repeated errors

owing to problems of identification and lack of information. A thorough analysis of the

evidence suggests that six species are recorded from the archipelago: C. maxima on

Palawan, whiteheadi (montane) on Luzon and Mindanao, vatiikorensis (probably lowland)

throughout, salangana on Basilan (possibly a vagrant), meamsi (probably submontane) on

Bohol, Luzon, Mindanao, Mindoro, Negros and Palawan, and fuciphaga (lowland), mainly

on the Palawan group.

During the last 25 years considerable progress has been made in sorting out

the relationships of the forms of Collocalia occurring in Malaysia (Medway

1961, 1962, 1966, Somadikarta 1986) and New Guinea and Melanesia

(Somadikarta 1967, Medway 1975, Salomonsen 1983). However, while some

of these authors have referred to Philippine forms, none has sought to

unravel the particular problems of the Philippines. This is now attempted in

preparation for a checklist of birds of the Philippines (Dickinson et al. in

prep.).

The name Collocalia is used as the generic name for all species in this

paper. This is purely a convenience that simplifies the text: the genus has

been separated into three subgenera (Brooke 1970) and my usage should not

be read as a rejection of the preference of some authors to treat these as three

genera (Brooke 1972, Medway and Pye 1977). English names have been

adopted from Pratt (1986).

The swiftlets occurring in the Philippines have suffered much confusion in

the literature, but they may conveniently be separated into larger and smaller

groups for review. This paper deals with all Philippine taxa except the

White-bellied Swiftlet C. esculenta (including marginata ) and the small

distinct white-rumped Pygmy Swiftlet C. troglodytes.

Partly stimulated by the problems of field identification in the Philippines,

this study is based on a thorough literature review and the examination of

many skins, especially older ones, to be sure about the identity of the taxon

being discussed by a given author. The opportunity has also been taken to

examine relevant typical or paratypical material. The Philippine literature on

Collocalia is a minefield of perpetuated errors, and the main challenge has

been to identify these and to put the record straight. Little information is

available on the ability of Philippine taxa to echolocate. Information on

nesting is incomplete; worse, several authors have cited earlier publications

without establishing what taxon was really involved.

There have been two main problems: (1) specific and subspecific scientific

names have been used against a background of changing views on the specific

affinities of Philippine forms; (2) authors writing simultaneously about the

20

E. C. DICKINSON

Forktail 4

same taxon have used different names for it owing to disagreement over its

validity. As a consequence, where one might hope that those reviewing the

Malaysian species of Collocalia would have been able to expand their review

of data on nesting and echolocation to Philippine forms, they have been

inhibited by these problems.

In organising the material to be presented here I have elected to follow the

advice of Lord Cranbrook and give a synonymy for each form discussed in

order to provide a readable account which minimises repetition. Within the

synonymy I have also followed the citations of authors with island names to

show the first accepted record for that island. Rejected first records for

islands are discussed in the body of the text.

Many museums cooperated in providing material for this study. In the text

they are indicated by the following abbreviations: American Museum of

Natural History, New York, AMNH; Brigham Young University, Salt Lake

City, Utah, B YU ; British Museum (Natural History), London (now in Tring),

BMNH; Carnegie Museum of Natural History, CM; Delaware Museum of

Natural History, DMNH; Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago,

FMNH; Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Massachusetts,

MCZ; Museum d’Histoire Naturelle, Geneva, MHNG; James Ford Bell

Museum of Natural History, University of Minnesota, MMNH; Ohio State

University, Museum of Zoology, OSUMZ; Rothschild Museum, Tring

(collection now at AMNH), Tring; United States National Museum,

Washington, D.C., USNM.

BLACK-NEST SWIFTLET Collocalia maxima ‘Hume’ Hartert 1892

Specific characters

Wing: 122- 136mm (Medway 1966); tail: 50-57mm (Oberholser 1906), tail

fork very shallow; tarsus feathered; back sooty-black with concealed downy

tips to the basal barbs mainly black, but traces of white at the top of downy

area (Sims 1961); rump colour racially variable.

Uses echolocation. Makes a ‘black’ nest of salival cement and feathers.

Differs from C. salangana and C. fuciphaga by larger size, squarer tail and

‘black nest’. Both C. whiteheadi and C. vanikorensis have more deeply forked

tails and naked tarsi.

Three races recognised ( maxima ‘Hume’ Hartert 1892, lowi Sharpe 1879

and tichelmani Stresemann 1926).

Overview

This species was not fisted in the most recent handbook on Philippine birds

(DuPont 1971), although Medway (1966) suggested that the species had

occurred. A specimen from Palawan has been located and its identity

confirmed.

1989

Larger Philippine Collocalia

21

Collocalia maxima lowi (Sharpe) 1879

Synonymy

Collocalia lowi: Hartert (1892) - partim - Palawan; Ogilvie Grant (1895) -

Palawan; Worcester and Bourns (1898); Oberholser (1906); McGregor

(1909a) - partim.

Collocalia lowi palawanensis: Hachisuka (1934) - partim; Peters (1940) -

partim; Delacour and Mayr (1946) - partim.

Collocalia maxima lowi: Medway (1966).

Subspecific characters

Rump concolorous with sooty-black back or only slightly paler. Rump

darker than maxima and usually than tichelmani, which is somewhat smaller.

Discussion

Hartert (1892) listed two specimens of lowi in BMNH taken in Palawan by

E. L. Moseley on the Steere Expedition 1887-1888. Steere (1890) did not

record a swiftlet from Palawan but at least 10 were taken on this expedition.

Moseley’s two in BMNH were reviewed by Ogilvie Grant (1895), who

accepted one as lowi and treated the other, which is a specimen of

palawanensis, like those examined that were taken by Steere, as related to his

new whiteheadi from Luzon.

The specimen that Ogilvie Grant accepted as lowi is BMNH 1890.12.1.87

with a wing length of 123 mm, collected by Moseley on 6 September 1887; it

does have some tarsal feathering but it is the shallow tail fork compared to

palawanensis that provides the most conviction that it is lowi.

This re-identification became the basis for listing this taxon from Palawan

by Worcester and Bourns (1898) and Oberholser (1906). However, in listing

lowi from Palawan, McGregor (1909a) cited Everett, Whitehead and the

Steere Expedition as the collectors. This requires review. (1) The Steere

Expedition was cited correctly, in that Moseley took it as shown above. (2)

Everett’s name seems to have been drawn from Hartert (1892), whom

McGregor misread, as discussed below under Nesting. (3) Whitehead

collected in Palawan in 1887 and Sharpe (1888) reported on his collection but

fisted only fuciphaga - which Whitehead (1890) said was common (although

it will emerge that this may have been based on confusion of two forms).

McGregor cited Whitehead as a Palawan collector of lowi, whiteheadi and

fuciphaga but, although it is possible he took three forms, any evidence has

since been dispersed. One skin (AMNH 634662) has been traced and it is

discussed further under C. meamsi.

There do not appear to be any subsequent records of lowi in the

Philippines. Hachisuka (1934), Peters (1940) and Delacour and Mayr (1946)

all presumed that palawanensis, described by Stresemann (1914) as a race of

lowi, must have feathered tarsi (which it does not) and therefore used the

name C. lowi palawanensis as a composite.

22

E. C. DICKINSON

Forktail 4

Nesting

McGregor (1909a) wrote that Everett found nesting colonies in Palawan, but

this was a misunderstanding of Hartert (1892), who wrote of it: ‘Palawan and

Northern Borneo, where Everett found it breeding in caves in October’. The

reference to breeding is clearly to Northern Borneo, for although Everett

collected in Palawan in 1877/1878 no Collocalia was among the 52 species

that he took (Tweeddale 1878b). Everett did not collect there again until

1894, later than the account of Hartert (1892).

No nest typical of C. maxima has been reported from the Philippines.

Range in the Philippines Palawan.

Material examined Palawan 1 (BMNH).

Remarks The status of this bird in Palawan is unknown; it may be a vagrant

or represent a rare local population.

WHITEHEAD’S MOUNTAIN SWIFTLET Collocalia whiteheadi

Ogilvie Grant 1895

Specific characters

A large species with a very distinctive ‘massive’ skull (see Plate 1);

wing: 129- 140.5 mm (Oberholser 1906, Stresemann 1914); tail: 57-60mm

(Oberholser 1906), distinctly forked; tarsus naked; rump and back concolorous

brownish-black with concealed white feathers below.

Information on echolocation is lacking. The vegetable nests seem not to

include salival cement.

Differs from maxima by naked tarsi, and from continental Asian brevirostris

(Horsfield) 1840 - of which some populations have naked tarsi - by the lack

of the ill-defined grey-brown rump with dark shaft streaks (see also under

Nesting below).

Endemic to the Philippines with two races ( whiteheadi and origenis). Taxa

occurring in New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago and the Solomon

Islands, and previously thought to be conspecific, have been discussed by

Salomonsen (1983) under the superspecies C. orientalis Mayr 1935; of these

C. nuditarsus Salomonsen 1962 is remarkably close to whiteheadi (Plate 2).

Overview

Most standard works have given the name whiteheadi to a relatively common

medium-sized Philippine swiftlet , following McGregor ( 1 909a) . U nfortunately

the evidence suggests that McGregor can never have seen the type of

whiteheadi, which is a substantially larger bird, although it is similar in

colour and in having naked tarsi.

1989

Larger Philippine Collocalia

23

Plate 1. Specimens of Collocalia w. whiteheadi (BMNH 1897.5.13.290) from Mt. Data, Luzon and C. w.

origenis (USNM 192161) from Mt. Apo, Mindanao compared with 2 of C. vanikorensis palawanensis (BM

1896.6.6.799 and 1911.11.16.87) from Palawan. Note the breadth and shape of the skull of whiteheadi.

Plate 2. Left to right: BMNH 1897.5.13.290 Collocalia w. whiteheadi from Mt. Data, Luzon; USNM

192161 Collocalia w. origenis from Mt. Apo, Mindanao; BMNH 1911.12.20.959 Collocalia [ whiteheadi ]

nuditarsus from New Guinea; and DMNH 36285 Collocalia apoensis, a syntype, [=C. meamsi]

previously associated with Collocalia whiteheadi.

24

E. C. DICKINSON

Forktail 4

The size difference was pointed out by Oberholser (1906) - for by this date

McGregor had published upon his collections - but McGregor (1909a) did

not accept this. Stresemann (1922), having seen the original series including

the two types of whiteheadi, re-emphasised the difference but McGregor s

standard work has remained the basis for all subsequent authors.

The range of the large, rare whiteheadi is here redefined. Secondly, two

forms have been described from Mount Apo, apparently from different

elevations. In fact the type-series of one of the two represents a smaller

species.

Collocalia whiteheadi whiteheadi Ogilvie Grant 1895

Synonymy

Collocalia brevirostris whiteheadi : Stresemann (1926); Medway (1966) -

partim; DuPont (1971) - partim.

Collocalia whiteheadi : Ogilvie Grant (1895) - partim - Luzon; Worcester and

Bourns (1898) - partim; Whitehead (1899); Oberholser (1906) - partim;

McGregor (1909a) - partim; Stresemann (1914).

Collocalia whiteheadi whiteheadi : Hachisuka (1934) - partim; Peters (1940) -

partim; Delacour and Mayr (1946) - partim.

Subspecific characters

Wing : 1 3 3 . 5 - 1 40 . 5 mm (Stresemann 1914); tail : 64 mm (original description) .

Said to differ from origenis in colour.

Discussion

Described by Ogilvie Grant (1895) based on four specimens of which two

went to BMNH and two to Tring. The four birds taken had wing lengths

from 5.2 to 5.5 inches (about 134 to 141mm). The longest winged bird, a

male, and one of the two next longest winged, a female, were declared types

but were identified only by wing length. The four specimens have wing

lengths measuring as follows: BMNH 97.5.13.289 - male, 142; BMNH

97.5.13.290 - female, 136; AMNH 634754 - male, 137; AMNH 634755 -

female, 134 (the AMNH birds were kindly measured by Mary LeCroy).

From this it may be concluded that the BMNH specimens are the types.

Worcester and Bourns (1898) and Oberholser (1906) both fisted whiteheadi

from Luzon and Palawan and Oberholser gave measurements of a composite

series, of whiteheadi from Luzon and of the birds from Palawan that have

since been called palawanensis . Oberholser in fact acknowledged that the

Palawan birds were smaller and browner above.

More importantly Oberholser (1906) rejected all the records of whiteheadi

by McGregor. He compared McGregor’s birds with some or all of the type-

series of whiteheadi and showed that the former, which he named C. unicolor

1989

Larger Philippine Collocalia

25

amelis, were substantially smaller. However, McGregor (1909a) treated

amelis - dealt with below under vanikorensis - as a synonym of whiteheadi.

Stresemann (1926) attached whiteheadi, which as mentioned he understood

in the correct narrow sense, to brevirostris on the strength of its naked tarsi.

Almost every other author since then has been misled by McGregor’s views.

Hachisuka (1934) recognised the smaller amelis but in treating whiteheadi,

which he considered a polytypic species, he made it a composite for he gave

the nominate form McGregor’s erroneous distribution (except that he

transferred the Palawan records to his new form tsubame, which is discussed

below under palawanensis) . His other forms were origenis and apoensis

(Hachisuka 1930) from different heights on Mt Apo in Mindanao! The

population of Mindanao is discussed below under origenis.

Peters (1940) listed 10 Philippine islands for his composite whiteheadi,

including Catanduanes - drawn from Manuel (1937b), a record discussed

under C. v. amelis. Delacour and Mayr (1946) did the same.

Medway (1966) underlined the size of whiteheadi - mentioning a wing

length of 136mm for one syntype - and treated it, like origenis and

palawanensis, as a race of brevirostris-, he did not go into the accuracy of

published distribution records. In summary, every standard text on

Philippine birds has followed McGregor (1909a) and ascribed to this rare

montane species a wide distribution and an altitudinal range from the

lowlands to the mountain tops. They have erred: nominate whiteheadi is still

only known from the four type-specimens from Mt Data. It may or may not

be a resident form.

Nesting

There are no reliable records of the nest of nominate whiteheadi from Luzon

(however see below under origenis ). McGregor’s records of nests refer to

amelis and are discussed below under C. vanikorensis amelis.

Range in the Philippines Luzon - known only from ‘near the summit’ (approx

2,300m) of Mt Data (Whitehead 1899).

Material examined Mt Data, Lepanto, Luzon: 3.

Collocalia whiteheadi origenis Oberholser 1906

Synonymy

Collocalia brevirostris origenis: Stresemann (1926); Medway (1966); DuPont

(1971).

Collocalia origenis: Oberholser (1906) - Mindanao; McGregor (1909a) -

partim.

Collocalia whiteheadi: Stresemann (1914) - partim.

Collocalia whiteheadi origenis: Hachisuka (1934); Peters (1940).

26

E. C. DICKINSON

Forktail 4

Subspecific characters

Wing: 129- 138mm (Oberholser 1906); tail: 53-60mm (Oberholser 1906);

compared to the nominate form, origenis was described as having the ‘upper

parts much darker, more blackish and more uniform, the rump not

appreciably lighter than the back; under surface darker and throat not

decidedly paler than abdomen’ (Oberholser 1906).

Discussion

Described by Oberholser (1906) from four adults taken by E. A. Mearns on

4 July 1904 at 4,000 feet on Mt Apo, Mindanao, with wing lengths of 129,

130, 134 and 138mm (USNM 192159-192162). He also mentioned a very

young bird taken on 11 July (USNM 192303).

A single skin of origenis (USNM 192161), lent me by the USNM, with a

wing length measured as 136mm, stands out immediately as it has the same

‘massive skull’ that is seen in nominate whiteheadi.

The nestling (USNM 192303) collected at this time also already shows the

skull size.

McGregor (1909a) listed origenis and cited Mearns and Celestino as

collectors. Mearns was correct but Celestino appears to be an error, as

discussed under C. meamsi. Stresemann (1914) perceived origenis as identical

to whiteheadi ( sensu stricto). Hachisuka (1934) placed apoensis, which he had

described in 1930 as a separate species, in his polytypic C. whiteheadi as a

subspecies distinct from origenis, although both were only known from Mt

Apo. This is discussed under C. meamsi. Peters (1940) doubtfully followed

Hachisuka (1934), whilst Delacour and Mayr (1946) listed origenis and

omitted apoensis. Medway (1966) treated both the Philippine forms and

palawanensis as races of C. brevirostris . DuPont (1971) did the same and

listed apoensis as a synonym of origenis but, as will be shown later, it is not.

In summary origenis is also a rare montane form known only from the

original series. My direct comparison of a single specimen of origenis with

two from Mt Data suggested they were doubtfully separable, but Oberholser

(1906) seems to have had more material to compare.

Nesting

Medway (1966) drew attention to nests in USNM thought to be those of

origenis. The nests were collected on 12 July and one nestling (USNM

192303) was taken the day before. One presumes that Mearns sent his

Bagobo collectors back for the nests. Mearns’s ms. notes (on file in USNM)

say ‘based on 4 adults and one nestling’, ‘the large dusky swift called Cal-

ahn-tee’-pach by the Bagobos, was said to build on cliffs. Four adults were

brought to me at Camp Goodfellow, which the Bag[ob]os said were taken

from a hollow tree’. No mention is made of the collection of nests.

Medway (1966) described them as ‘rounded vegetable nests constructed of

green bryophytes together with some fibrous plant material, and apparently

1989

Larger Philippine Collocalia

27

not incorporating nest-cement’. This lack of nest cement sets them apart

from the nests of C. brevirostris.

Range in the Philippines Mindanao - known only from Mt Apo at 4,000 feet.

Material examined Mindanao: 1 adult, 1 juvenile (USNM).

ISLAND SWIFTLET Collocalia vanikorensis (Quoy and Gaimard) 1830

Specific characters

Medium-sized; wing: 115- 126mm (Medway 1966), 109- 130mm (Salomonsen

1983), but including palawanensis reaching 134mm; tail: 44-57mm,

distinctly forked (4.5- 12 mm) (Salomonsen 1983), blackish-brown above

with more or less concolorous back and rump, usually somewhat glossed and

with concealed white barbs at the bases of the feathers of the back. Tarsi

naked.

Uses echolocation (Medway 1975), and makes vegetable nests placed on

ledges and bound with moist salival cement.

Widespread with some 14 races {palawanensis Stresemann 1914, amelis

Oberholser 1906, aenigma Riley 1918, heinrichi Stresemann 1932, moluccarum

Stresemann 1914, waigeuensis Stresemann and Paludan 1932 ,steini Stresemann

and Paludan 1932, grand Mayr 1937, tagulae Mayr 1937, pallens Salomonsen

1983, coultasi Mayr 1937, lihirensis Mayr 1937, lugubris Salomonsen 1983 and

vanikorensis (Quoy and Gaimard 1830) excluding forms in Micronesia

( pelewensis Mayr 1935, bartschi Mearns 1909 and the inquieta [Kittlitz] 1858

group), some of which may be closely related.

Differs from C. meamsi by having naked tarsi, and from salangana in

having white barbs beneath the back feathers. The Philippine form of C.

fuciphaga has a pale rump and makes edible white nests.

Overview

The Palawan population has not previously been assigned to this species.

The population of the main group of the Philippine islands has had a

different problem: it has suffered confusion with another species.

This is the commonest large to medium swiftlet in Palawan and is

represented by just over 20 skins in well known museums. These match the

type of palawanensis and show a closer affinity to amelis than to whiteheadi for

they lack the massive skull of the latter. In wing length they are intermediate

and Palawan skins in McGregor’s hands by early 1906 reinforced his belief

that whiteheadi and amelis, which he was collecting, were a single taxon.

The birds from the main islands, typical amelis discussed below, are

smaller, shorter- winged birds. They have generally been treated together

with true whiteheadi in composite accounts in most standard works. The

massive head of true whiteheadi shows this to be wrong.

28

E. C. DICKINSON

Forktail 4

If palawanensis, which is consistently long-winged and has naked tarsi, is

accepted as a race of vanikorensis, as I propose, it is necessary to review the

alignment of other Palawan taxa, and this is discussed under C. meamsi.

Finally, there has been a continuing question through the years: how can

these birds with naked tarsi (particularly C. v. amelis), be safely told from

the almost identical birds with feathered tarsi (meamsi)} This is discussed

below under amelis, but more work lies ahead.

Collocalia vanikorensis palawanensis Stresemann 1914

Synonymy

Aerodramus vanikorensis : Coleman (1981).

Collocalia brevirostris palawanensis : Stresemann (1926); Medway (1966);

Baud (1978); DuPont (1971).

Collocalia fuciphaga: Blasius (1888b); Whitehead (1890); McGregor (1909a)

- partim; Lowe (1916).

Collocalia fuciphaga amelis: Manuel (1939).

Collocalia lowi: Hartert (1892) - partim; McGregor (1909a) - partim.

Collocalia lowi palawanensis : Stresemann (1914); Hachisuka (1934) - partim;

Peters (1940) - partim.

Collocalia unicolor amelis: Oberholser (1906) - partim.

Collocalia whiteheadi: Ogilvie Grant (1895) - partim; Worcester and Bourns

( 1 898) - partim; Oberholser ( 1 906) - partim; McGregor ( 1 906); McGregor

(1909a) - partim.

Collocalia whiteheadi palawanensis: Greenway (1978).

Collocalia whiteheadi tsubame: Hachisuka (1934); Peters (1940); Delacour

and Mayr (1946).

Cypselus lowi: Blasius (1888a) - Palawan.

Subspecific characters

Wing: 123- 134mm; tail: 53-56mm, distinctly forked (6-9mm); back and

rump more or less concolorous dull blackish-brown. Longer-winged than

amelis.

Differs from C. whiteheadi by much smaller skull as shown in Plate 1.

Discussion

Blasius (1888a) listed, under the name lowi, the four or more birds taken in

Palawan by Platen, which he perceived to have a shallower tail fork than

Cypsiurus balasiensis infumatus. Blasius (1888b) corrected himself over the

nomenclature and called them fuciphaga. It was from among Platen’s skins

that the type of palawanensis (AMNH 634757 - collected on 30 June 1887)

was later selected. A second is in New York (AMNH 634758), a third in

Leiden and a fourth, traced but not examined, is in Braunschweig.

Hartert (1892) included in lowi two specimens taken in Palawan by

1989

Larger Philippine Collocalia

29

Moseley on the Steere Expedition. Ogilvie Grant (1895) showed that, whilst

one of these (BMNH 1890.12.1.87 discussed above) was indeed lowi, the

other (BMNH 1890.12.1.86 collected 29 August 1887) was not - and he

placed it, along with a specimen (BMNH 94.8.6.117) taken in Palawan by

Everett in January 1894, with whiteheadi, which he was describing from

northern Luzon. These two are typical of palawanensis, having naked tarsi

and wings respectively of 126 mm and 132 mm but lacking the massive skull

of nominate whiteheadi.

Everett’s 1894 collection was not fully written up and Everett (1895) -

publishing a few months before Ogilvie Grant - included no comments on

swiftlets, although two skins from this trip are in BMNH.

One long- winged bird - mentioned above - is palawanensis. The other

smaller bird is discussed below under C. meamsi.

Consequently C. whiteheadi was listed for Luzon and erroneously for

Palawan by Worcester and Bourns (1898). Oberholser (1906) did likewise,

and while he acknowledged that the Palawan birds were smaller and browner

above he gave the measurements of a composite series, of whiteheadi from

Luzon and the birds from Palawan that have since been called palawanensis.

Oberholser (1906) also included a bird from Palawan, with a wing

measuring 118mm taken on 5 September 1887 in his list of 10 USNM

specimens of his new amelis. The USNM register shows that this must have

been USNM 161298 collected by F. S. Bourns on the Steere Expedition.

Exchanged to Brigham Young University, Utah, in 1983, this skin (now

BYU 7661) has been borrowed, thanks to the USNM. It has naked tarsi, a

flattened wing of 123 mm, and is palawanensis.

McGregor (1909a), who understood his whiteheadi to have a maximum

wing length of 125 mm (i.e. averaging slightly smaller than the Palawan birds

discussed here although just overlapping), listed whiteheadi from Palawan

citing neither Everett nor the Steere Expedition - and thus apparently

overlooking the careful remarks of Ogilvie Grant (1895) - but citing

Whitehead and White as collectors. Two considerations arise. (1) Whitehead’s

Palawan record has been mentioned above under C. m. lowi ; the only

specimen traced is C. meamsi. (2) White’s collections went partly to the

Bureau of Science and may have been seen by McGregor. This part has been

destroyed. Another part went to AMNH but no relevant specimen has been

found there. Of relevance to this enigma are Lowe’s skins in BMNH, for

Lowe was a cousin of White and stayed with him at Iwahig (Lowe 1932).

These, listed by Lowe (1916) as fuciphaga, are in fact palawanensis. As Lowe

(1916) called these common, the probability is that any birds taken there by

White will have been the same species.

McGregor (1906), reporting on a trip to Palawan by Celestino and Canton

in late 1905 to early 1906, wrote ‘three small swifts from Puerto Princesa

belong without doubt to this species’, so it is unclear why McGregor (1909a)

did not list Celestino and Canton, along with Whitehead and White, as

collectors of whiteheadi (or any other Collocalia ) in Palawan, when

presumably he had their skins available.

30

E. C. DICKINSON

Forktail 4

Stresemann (1914) described C. lowi palawanensis based on eight

specimens: one from Leiden, where there was one Platen specimen and one

Moseley specimen, and seven drawn from Tring (where there were at least

two Platen specimens including Stresemann’s selected type) or from BMNH

(where there were eight skins: one each from Everett and Moseley, two from

Steere and four from Lowe). Stresemann compared these with all four of the

original series of whiteheadi - both the two in BMNH and the two then in

Tring - and said that whiteheadi had paler underparts and larger feet, and

described palawanensis as having a naked tarsus like whiteheadi but unlike

lowi.

Later, Stresemann (1926) placed both whiteheadi and palawanensis, with

their naked tarsi, in brevirostris, thus removing palawanensis from lowi with

its feathered tarsi. This correction of the affinity of palawanensis was

unfortunately overlooked by Hachisuka (1934), who continued to view

palawanensis as a form of lowi and, saying that it had the front part of the

tarsus scantily covered with large feathers, gave a new name, tsubame, to the

form with the naked tarsus. As his type Hachisuka (1934) selected the

Moseley specimen that had been examined by Ogilvie Grant (1895).

Evidence that McGregor might in the end have changed his mind over

whiteheadi is to be found in Manuel (1939). Manuel used the heading

Collocalia fuciphaga amelis and the English name ‘Whitehead’s Swiftlet’.

Manuel made clear that he was drawing on notes by McGregor about his

collecting around Puerto Princesa in 1925, and that McGregor described this

form (as amelis ?) as abundant. Manuel had two of his skins available to him.

No measurements were given but abundance suggests palawanensis.

Fortunately, however, three other skins (MHNG 885/48 to 50) collected by

McGregor on this trip became part of the Parsons Collection (Baud 1978).

These have been re-examined and found to have wing lengths of 127, 129

and 130 mm and to be palawanensis.

Peters (1940), misled by Hachisuka, listed both C. 1. palawanensis and C.

whiteheadi tsubame, and was followed by Delacour and Mayr (1946).

Medway (1966) pointed out this error and made tsubame a synonym of

palawanensis, seeing this and whiteheadi as forms of brevirostris, as had

Stresemann. DuPont (1971) followed this.

Nesting

Manuel (1937a), discussing white nests satisfactorily proved to be those of

germani (see below), reported two types of nests in the same cave, the brown

ones being in ‘the very deep parts of the cave’. These could possibly have

belonged to palawanensis.

Coleman (1981) reported photographing nests 4 km inside St Pauls

Underground River and Medway, quoted by Coleman, considered that one

of them apparently had the characteristics of vanikorensis nests. This would be

consistent with the relative abundance of palawanensis and the morphological

evidence that it belongs to vanikorensis. Satisfactory proof is still lacking.

1989

Larger Philippine Collocalia

31

Range Endemic to Palawan.

Material examined Palawan 17-8 BMNH (Steere 2, Moseley 1 - the type of

tsubame, Everett 1, Lowe 4); 3 MHNG (McGregor); 2 RMNH (Platen 1,

Moseley 1); 2 AMNE1 (Platen - including the type of palawanensis ); 1

USNM (Steere); 1 BYU (Steere ex USNM). Not examined: Palawan: at least

6-2 AMNH (Worcester 1, Steere 1 - both ex USNM); 1 OSUMZ (Steere);

1 SMNB (Platen); 2 UMMZ (Steere).

Collocalia vanikorensis amelis Oberholser 1906

Synonymy

Collocalia brevirostris whiteheadi : Baud (1978); DuPont (1981) - partim;

Gonzales (1983).

Collocalia francica : Steere (1890) - partim - Cebu, Mindoro.

Collocalia fuciphaga: Worcester and Bourns (1898) - partim.

Collocalia fuciphaga amelis : Stresemann (1914); Hachisuka (1934); Peters

(1939) - Marinduque.

Collocalia inexpectata amelis: Peters (1940); Delacour and Mayr (1946);

Ripley and Rabor (1958); Meyer de Schauensee and DuPont (1962).

Collocalia unicolor amelis: Oberholser (1906) - partim: Mindanao.

Collocalia vanikorensis amelis: Medway (1966); DuPont (1971) - partim;

DuPont and Rabor (1973) - Dinagat.

Collocalia vestita meamsi: Gilliard (1950).

Collocalia whiteheadi: McGregor (1904) - Cagayancillo, Luzon and Verde;

McGregor (1905c); McGregor (1909a) - partim; Manuel (1937b) -

Catanduanes; Alcala and Sanguila (1969) - Calagna-an and Gigantes.

Collocalia whiteheadi whiteheadi: Hachisuka (1934) - partim.

Salangana whiteheadi: McGregor (1905a) - Sibuyan; McGregor (1905b);

McGregor (1906); McGregor (1907a); McGregor (1907b) - Bantayan;

McGregor (1907c) - Bohol; McGregor (1907d) - Batan.

Subspecific characters

Wing: lll-127mm (McGregor 1909a sub nom. whiteheadi ), tail: 46-56mm

(McGregor 1909a sub nom. whiteheadi ), distinctly forked. Smaller than

palawanensis.

Discussion

Steere (1890) listed only C. francica (Gmelin) 1789 and this from Cebu,

Mindoro, Negros and Panay. In fact other collectors (Moseley, Bourns and

Worcester) on the Steere Expedition took Collocalia sp. in Mindanao and

Palawan as well (table on page 194 in Oberholser 1906). These collections

need further comments.

32

E. C. DICKINSON

Forktail 4

(1) The bulk of Steere’s own material is in BMNH where there were three

specimens from Cebu, one from Mindoro, two from Negros and one from

Mindanao. Two species are represented, (a) The Cebu birds (BMNH

1896.6.6.791, 792 and 797) have naked tarsi and are amelis, and as noted

below this has been pointed out earlier by Stresemann (1914, 1922 - see

below). The Mindoro bird in BMNH also has naked tarsi (although another

in AMNH has feathered tarsi), (b) His Negros birds have feathered tarsi, as

did the Mindanao bird (BMNH 1896.6.6.794), which cannot now be found

but which was examined by Stresemann (1914). These are C. meamsi. (c) No

evidence has been found to support Steere’s record from Panay. Presumably

he had a dark-rumped specimen. It seems unlikely he had a pale-rumped one

( germani ), like USNM 161299 discussed under C. f. germani, as this would

have contrasted markedly with his series.

(2) The only specimens traced to Moseley are those in BMNH from

Palawan, brought into the literature by Hartert (1892) and Ogilvie Grant

(1895) and discussed above under palawanensis .

(3) Worcester presented the USNM with five skins of Collocalia collected

by Bourns or himself on this Expedition: three from Palawan are all

palawanensis - although one (USNM 161298, now BYU 7661 - discussed

above) was ascribed to amelis by Oberholser (1906); one from Panay -

discussed under C. f. germani - and one from Mindanao. The Mindanao bird

(USNM 161295 collected on 28 November 1887) was recognised by

Oberholser (1906) as amelis. The identity of this has been confirmed by re¬

examination. Although it has naked tarsi, concealed white barbs beneath the

feathers of the back, and seems closest to amelis, it has a rump that pales a

little - like USNM 201924 from Ilocos Norte and somewhat like DMNH

11401 from Ticao, which is discussed under germani.

Worcester and Bourns (1898) reported collecting fuciphaga during the

Menage Expedition. This is discussed under C. meamsi, but one skin each

from Cebu and Panay has naked tarsi and is amelis.

McGregor (1904, 1905a, b,c) listed his earliest birds with naked tarsi as

whiteheadi, taking them in Luzon (Benguet), Cagayancillo, Verde, Sibuyan

and Mindoro. At this point, with fresh material coming in from McGregor

and Mearns, Oberholser (1906) drew attention to some differences.

McGregor had noted that his birds had naked tarsi; those from Mearns, from

Mindanao, had feathered tarsi. For the latter Oberholser used the name

fuciphaga. However, he compared McGregor’s birds with the types of

whiteheadi and found them too small, so he named McGregor’s birds

Collocalia unicolor amelis. He also assigned McGregor’s published records of

whiteheadi from Cagayancillo, Mindoro, Sibuyan and Verde to this form.

Meanwhile McGregor (1907a, b,c,d) added whiteheadi for Cebu, Bantayan,

Bohol and Batan. In connection with his Batan record he said ‘this may be

the recently described Collocalia unicolor amelis'. However, McGregor

(1909a), in retaining whiteheadi, made amelis a synonym. He maintained that

what he had been collecting was whiteheadi, although it is apparent from his

surviving skins that Oberholser was correct.

1989

Larger Philippine Collocalia

33

Stresemann (1914) examined the original series of white headi and looked at

Cebu specimens with naked tarsi (one from Tring and three from BMNH -

which can only have been those of Steere) and thought these to be amelis.

Later he confirmed (Stresemann 1922) that such small birds were definitely

amelis , having discovered in Dresden a specimen from Irisan, Benguet,

taken by McGregor and Celestino and labelled whiteheadi. He rejected

McGregor’s identification and placed this with amelis of Oberholser (1906).

McGregor’s skins of his whiteheadi were not all lost with the destruction of

the Bureau of Science, Manila. Apart from the specimen once in Dresden, 10

from Benguet and one from Sibuyan have been obtained on loan from U.S.

museum collections and have been examined. They are amelis, have naked

tarsi, wing lengths of 1 1 1 - 124mm (av. 116.2), and when seen alongside true

whiteheadi with its massive skull they look puny; amelis has essentially the

same skull size as meamsi (See Plate 2). These wing lengths are in accord

with those given by McGregor ( 1 909a) : 111-127 mm - which would not take

in true whiteheadi. Apparently McGregor did not recognise that true

whiteheadi is a larger bird, and in this he was probably misled by the long

wings of his Palawan birds. Consequently all the distribution records

McGregor gave for whiteheadi are erroneous - except the original Whitehead

record from Mt Data. McGregor’s account is thus a composite, and it is

particularly important to recognise that his nesting data are applicable to

amelis not to true whiteheadi.

Two unpublished skins from Laguna province (MCZ 57496 and 57499)

collected by W. Cameron Forbes in 1910 have been reviewed. They have

wing lengths of 126 and 127 mm respectively. They appear to be overstuffed

amelis rather than true whiteheadi.

Hachisuka (1934) recognised both whiteheadi and amelis but failed to take

the next logical step of moving all McGregor records from his text on

whiteheadi to his text on amelis. He thus listed amelis only for Luzon,

Mindanao and Palawan, the three original islands from which Oberholser

(1906) had skins.

Manuel (1937b) reported whiteheadi from Catanduanes - doubtless using

McGregor’s material then in the Philippine Museum as his basis for

comparison so that this must be assigned to amelis. Peters (1939) reported

amelis from Cebu, Marinduque - a new locality - and Mindanao. He pointed

out the concolorous back and rump of amelis and the pale rump of germani -

which also has naked tarsi - and rejected the suggestion by Mayr (1937) that

these two belonged to the same species. In this Peters appears correct as

palawanensis , which is sympatric with germani, must be seen as the Palawan

representative of C. v. amelis. Peters also discussed distinctions between

meamsi and amelis which he restricted to the tarsal feathering and the

strength of the bill, seen as small and weak in meamsi and strong and

decurved in amelis. These are further discussed below.

Peters (1940) put amelis (with a range restricted to Cebu, Luzon,

Marinduque and Mindanao) in C. inexpectata along with the pale-rumped

germani. It is important to recognise that this represented an earlier view, the

34

E. C. DICKINSON

Forktail 4

introduction to Peters (1940) specifically saying ‘the treatment . . . has been

brought up to 31 December 1938’ and ‘no pretense has been made of keeping

the work up to date after 1938’ (although he did include his 1939 range

extension of this form to Marinduque). Here, like Hachisuka (1934), the

range he gave for nominate whiteheadi contained all the old errors, i.e. the

islands that should have been fisted under amelis. Delacour and Mayr (1946)

followed the treatment of Peters (1940).

Gilliard (1950) reported meamsi from the Batan lowlands in Luzon.

Specimens (AMNH 459274 and 459275) seem to have naked tarsi and are

judged to be amelis. Mary LeCroy has kindly examined the rest of the series

in AMNH and agrees that they have naked tarsi.

Ripley and Rabor (1958), whose notes on the nesting of meamsi in

Mindoro are reviewed under that form, discussed the differences between it

and amelis and concluded that distinction by tarsal feathering could not be

relied on and that a difference in the colour of the chin and throat (brownish-

grey in meamsi versus dark brown in amelis ) could be used to tell them apart.

Their conclusion will be disputed below.

Meyer de Schauensee and DuPont (1962) also recorded amelis from

Mindanao, but skins have not been re-examined.

Alcala and Sanguila (1969) fisted whiteheadi from Calagna-an and the

Gigantes, doubtless following available textbooks. As expected, 16 specimens

from the Gigantes lent by Silliman University to USNM and examined there

prove to be amelis.

Baud (1978) treated a bird from Solsona, Ilocos Norte (MHNG 885/47), as

whiteheadi : this has been re-examined. It has a wing length of 112mm and

naked tarsi and is amelis.

Some time earlier Medway (1966) introduced the specific name vanikorensis

for Philippine birds and pointed out that both amelis and meamsi have the

concealed white barbs at the base of the back feathers that are found in

vanikorensis. He speculated - based on the comments of Ripley and Rabor

(1958) - that they might be representatives of one variable population.

Where recent authors have followed DuPont (1971), who - following

Medway - treated meamsi as a synonym of amelis, their records require

review to be sure whether they are amelis ( sensu stricto ), or have feathered

tarsi and the features of meamsi. Such records are those of DuPont (1972) for

Ticao (which is discussed under germani ), of DuPont and Rabor (1973) for

Dinagat, and of Gonzales (1983) for Catanduanes. One specimen from

Dinagat has been examined (DMNH 20877): it has naked tarsi, and this

record of amelis may stand. A number of Catanduanes specimens (DMNH

73574 to 73585) taken in 1981 are amelis and are presumably identical with

those reported by Gonzales (1983).

In summary, it is clear that C. v. amelis is a relatively common bird. The

present re-evaluation of all possible records allows a clear picture of its range,

detailed below. This, however presumes that one is willing to let the record

be decided by whether specimens have or do not have naked tarsi.

McGregor (1904) considered that he had taken birds with and without

1989

Larger Philippine Colbcalia

35

tarsal feathers in the same flock in Benguet. To him the feathering of the

tarsi was the sole useful distinction. He emphasised the importance of noting

this in the hand (McGregor 1905c), for he felt that labels could dislodge these

small feathers. Other possible keys to whether we have here one taxon or two

seem to lie in the distinctions perceived by Oberholser (1906) - and repeated

by Ripley and Rabor (1958) - and those perceived by Peters (1939). Looking

at most of the specimens that Oberholser examined (Oberholser pencilled on

their labels their respective names and initialled them), it is quite possible to

see the differences, although the condition and make of the skins seem partly

responsible. In general when tarsal feathering is present this is the best

character to use to separate meamsi. After review of a wider series of skins it

is possible tentatively to reaffirm a subtle difference in the bill, which seemed

clearly narrower in meamsi to Ralph Browning at USNM. I found this

character hard to use and too subtle to reflect in measurements. Other

reported differences seem unsatisfactory when looking at series of the two

putative series.

It remains desirable to seek further, perhaps more constant and/or reliable

and evident features. One may be the extent of the feather tracts for the

white basal barbs beneath the feathers of the upperparts. More work on this

is recommended. Meanwhile, in essence, the principal difference remains

the tarsal feathering, which is absent in amelis and present in meamsi.

Nesting

McGregor (1905a) described the nesting of whiteheadi from Sibuyan and

later (1905b) that of whiteheadi from Benguet. Of the Sibuyan nests one

learns only that they ‘were supported by little ledges not fastened to the rock

nor to each other’. The Benguet nest was in a waterworn cave ‘its base is

composed of dirty dead moss, the rim and the inside are of moss, which was

bright green when the nest was collected; the whole nest is compact and well

glued together but there are no masses of the glutinous material that are of

commercial value’. The eggs were pure white and two specimens measured

22.3 by 13.9 and 23.6 by 14.2mm (McGregor 1909a).

The evidence that the nest was supported by little ledges is consistent with

the nest of nominate vanikorensis (Medway 1975).

Range in the Philippines Definitely known from Catanduanes, Cebu,

Gigantes, Dinagat, Luzon, Mindanao, Mindoro, Panay and Sibuyan.

Literature records accepted from: Bantayan, Batan, Bohol, Cagayancillo,

Marinduque and Verde. Records from Palawan relate to palawanensis ,

except for two specimens discussed under C. meamsi. A record from Ticao

(DuPont 1972), discussed under C. /. germani , is rejected, and one for

Calagna-an (Alcala and Sanguila 1969) requires confirmation.

Material examined 59 - Catanduanes 7, Cebu 3, Dinagat 1, Gigantes 16,

Luzon 24 (all from central and northern Luzon, none from Bicol), Mindanao

36

E. C. DICKINSON

Forktail 4

5, Mindoro 1, Panay 1 (examined by Ralph Browning) and Sibuyan 1; also

Palmas or Miangas, Indonesia 1 (note that this last record is not included in

White and Bruce 1986).

MOSSY-NEST SWIFTLET Collocalia salangana (Streubel) 1848

Specific characters

Wing: 115- 128mm (Medway 1962, 1966); tail: 49-54mm (Medway 1962),

moderately forked (3-6mm); tarsi naked; upperparts uniformly blackish-

brown with the concealed barbs at the bases of the feathers greyish-brown,

not white. Differs from C. vanikorensis in this latter character.

Uses echolocation (Medway 1966). Makes vegetable nests held together

with nest cement which remains moist; as does C. vanikorensis.

The salangana group ( salangana [Streubel] 1848, natunae Stresemann

1930, aerophila Oberholser 1912 and maratua Riley 1927) has a contiguous

allopatric range (and may be conspecific) with C. vanikorensis (Medway

1975).

Overview

There are no previous records from the Philippines.

Collocalia salangana subsp?

Synonymy

Owing to the lack of previous Philippine records, none is given here.

Sub specific characters

Geographically, the closest race is probably maratua. Medway (1966)

examined the type of maratua and confirmed that it showed no white basal

barbs to the feathers of the back. Ralph Browning has kindly re-examined it

and confirms that it has naked tarsi.

Discussion

In assembling the relevant records for this study it was discovered that no

species of Collocalia had been reported from Basilan, but it was known -

from separate work - that Mearns had taken a specimen (Field No. 13961)

there. When located, this specimen (USNM 201238), collected 18 February

1906, was found to resemble amelis - indeed it had had its label annotated

amelis by Oberholser - but to lack the white barbs at the base of the feathers

of the back. It has a wing length of 1 19mm, a tail of 45 mm and a tail fork of

8mm. It represents the sole record of this species for the Philippines.

1989

Larger Philippine Collocalia

37

Nesting

No known evidence from the Philippines.

Range in the Philippines Basilan.

Material examined Basilan 1 (USNM).

PHILIPPINE GREY SWIFTLET Collocalia meamsi Oberholser 1912

Synonymy

Collocalia [sic] fuciphaga: Whitehead (1890).

Collocalia apoensis: Hachisuka (1930).

Collocalia francica: Tweeddale (1878a) - Negros; Steere (1890) - partim.

Collocalia francica meamsi: Stresemann (1925) - partim.

Collocalia francica vestita ?: Stresemann (1931).

Collocalia fuciphaga: Sharpe (1888) - Palawan; Hartert (1892); Bourns and

Worcester (1894) - Luzon; Ogilvie Grant (1895); Ogilvie Grant (1896);

Worcester and Bourns (1898) - partim; McGregor (1904); McGregor

(1905c) - Mindoro; McGregor (1909a) - partim; McGregor (1909b).

Collocalia fuciphaga fuciphaga: Oberholser (1906) - Mindanao.

Collocalia fuciphaga meamsi: Oberholser (1912).

Collocalia inexpectata amelis: Rabor (1954) - partim; Rand and Rabor (1960)

- Bohol.

Collocalia ‘meamsi’: Mayr (1937) - partim.

Collocalia origenis: McGregor (1909a) - partim.

Collocalia vanikorensis amelis: DuPont (1971) - partim.

Collocalia vanikorensis meamsi: Medway (1966).

Collocalia (vestita) meamsi: Peters (1939); Delacour and Mayr (1945).

Collocalia vestita meamsi: Stresemann (1914); Peters (1940); Delacour and

Mayr (1946); Ripley and Rabor (1958).

Collocalia vestita vestita: Hachisuka (1934).

Collocalia whiteheadi: Rabor (1955).

Collocalia whiteheadi apoensis: Hachisuka (1934).

Specific characters

Medium-sized; wing: 106-119. 5mm (Oberholser 1912); tail: 45-52mm

(Oberholser 1912), slightly forked; tarsi feathered; bill relatively small and

decurved; upperparts including rump glossy blackish-brown, basal barbs

with white tips; crown darker than back; underparts brownish-grey.

No known evidence on echolocation. Builds moss nests held together with

salival cement which hardens rather than remaining moist.

Differs from the longer winged, sympatric C. vanikorensis amelis by

feathered tarsi and subde differences in shape and size of bill.

Monotypic (but see discussion below).

38

E. C. DICKINSON

Forktail 4

Overview

The essential problems here are first how to distinguish this form from C. v.

amelis and second whether to attach it to another wide-ranging species and if

so which.

Discussion

Tweeddale (1878a) listed francica from Negros based on skins (BMNH

1888.10.1.168 to 172) taken by Everett. These same specimens were listed

by Hartert (1892) as fuciphaga and subsequently re-examined and listed as

meamsi by Stresemann (1914) as discussed below. I have re-examined these

and indeed they appear to have or to have had tarsal feathers.

Sharpe (1888) listed fuciphaga from Palawan and, although this may have

been based on a composite collection by Whitehead, only one specimen

(AMNH 634662) has been traced. It was taken on 3 August 1887 at Taguso,

Palawan. It has feathered tarsi, a wing of 1 18 mm, and must be considered C.

meamsi.

Steere (1890) listed francica for the Steere Expedition from Cebu,

Mindoro, Negros and Panay. The bulk of Steere’s own specimens reached

the BMNH, but only after Hartert (1892) wrote his Catalogue. Included are

skins from Cebu, Mindoro and Negros (but not Panay) and these show, as

discussed above under amelis , that Steere had, overall, a composite series.

His Cebu skins were amelis. One Steere Expedition skin from Mindoro

(BMNH 1896.6.6.796) is amelis , a second (AMNH 634664) once in Tring,

was identified as meamsi by Stresemann (1914). His two Negros skins in

BMNH are meamsi. So is the skin (BMNH 1890. 12. 1.88) taken in Negros on

this expedition by Moseley which Hartert (1892) examined and called

fuciphaga. Although Steere (1890) did not list Mindanao the register at

BMNH includes one (BMNH 1896.6.6.794) and this was examined by

Stresemann (1914), who considered it had feathered tarsi. This skin is now

untraceable.

At the island level all Steere’s records could have been based on composite

series - tarsal feathering was not then an issue.

Hartert (1892) listed fuciphaga from Negros and described it, but did not

mention tarsal feathering. He cited Steere (1890) in the synonymy but had

probably not seen material from the Steere Expedition other than Moseley’s

skin from Negros.

Bourns and Worcester (1894) listed fuciphaga as new to Luzon. This

record is discussed below under their 1898 paper. Ogilvie Grant (1895)

reported a swiftlet (BMNH 1897.5.13.288) with feathered tarsi taken in

northern Luzon by Whitehead, and clarified that fuciphaga had a feathered

tarsus. To verify this he re-examined all the material listed as fuciphaga by

Hartert (1892) and found the Philippine material then available - i.e. that of

Everett from Negros (Tweeddale 1878a) and that of Moseley from Negros -

to have feathered tarsi. Ogilvie Grant (1896) reported a Whitehead specimen

from Negros (BMNH 1897.5.13.454).

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Larger Philippine Collocalia

39

Worcester and Bourns (1898) reported more fully on the Menage

Expedition, and considered they had taken Collocalia fuciphaga in Cebu,

Luzon, Mindoro and Panay. Like Steere, they had a composite series, as

shown by specimens from Cebu and Luzon. Preparatory notes relative to

Delacour and Mayr (1945), made by Mayr in August 1945 (and kindly

shared with Lord Cranbrook, who in turn shared them with me) allow us to

be certain that two of Worcester and Bourns’s specimens (then MMNH 6454

[this specimen is now CM 137964 and is from Toledo, Cebu] and 6455)

differed - the former from Cebu had naked tarsi, the Luzon one had

feathered tarsi.

Their Mindoro record is not critical as there are other valid records from

there (cf. Oberholser 1912). In Panay they reported collecting both this and

germani. Their Panay record - which was not repeated by McGregor (1909a)

- is shown by the Menage Expedition catalogue to have had the number 99 1 .

This is now USNM 315070 and is amelis.

Worcester and Bourns included their records in a table showing the

known distribution of all species. Two that they listed are relevant here and

reconciliation is helpful:

1. They continued to list francica for Negros, presumably following

Tweeddale (1878a): in other words they did not perceive that Ogilvie

Grant’s review had established that Hartert had treated this record as

being of fuciphaga.

2. They listed fuciphaga from Cebu, Luzon, Mindoro, Negros, Palawan and

Panay. They included here the records of francica in Steere (1890), in line

with the placement of this in synonymy by Hartert (1892), but they seem

not to have reviewed whether Steere’s birds all had feathered tarsi. These

have been discussed above. The Luzon listing would include both their

earlier record and that of Whitehead (Ogilvie Grant 1895). The Negros

listing is based on collecting by Whitehead (Ogilvie Grant 1896). The

Palawan record is derived from Sharpe (1888): this has been discussed

above.

McGregor (1904) called birds with a feathered tarsus by the name

fuciphaga. He applied the name meamsi when that name was published. He

reported fuciphaga from Luzon - in the same flock as whiteheadi - and from

Mindoro. Two of his specimens from Mindoro are still extant and as

expected show feathered tarsi - they are in the FMNH and have been

marked meamsi.

Oberholser (1906) reported fuciphaga from Mindanao for the first time

based on Mearns’s two specimens with feathered tarsi.

It is important to recognise that McGregor (1909a) set out, as had Bourns

and Worcester (1894) and Worcester and Bourns (1898), to follow Hartert

(1892) in his swiftlet nomenclature. He omitted Mearns’s records and listed

fuciphaga as follows: Cebu, Luzon, Mindoro (Bourns and Worcester);

Negros (Everett); Luzon, Mindoro (McGregor); Cebu, Mindoro, Negros,

Palawan, Panay (Steere Expedition); Luzon, Negros, Palawan (Whitehead).

Of these it has been possible to confirm the Luzon record of Bourns and

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E. C. DICKINSON

Forktail 4

Worcester (and delete that for Cebu), the records of Everett and McGregor,

the records of Mindoro and Negros of the Steere Expedition and all

Whitehead’s records. In summary, records of this form can so far only be

accepted from Luzon, Mindoro, Negros and Palawan - plus the valid, but

omitted, Mindanao record of Oberholser (1906).

McGregor (1909a) included Celestino as a collector of C. origenis; this

work bears a date of publication of 15 April 1909 and the text was no doubt

completed the previous year, including initial findings from recent collecting.

McGregor (1909b) worked up Celestino’s collections from northern Mindanao

and the only relevant swiftlet taken was given as fuciphaga (with which

Mindanao was not credited in the Manual ). It must therefore be presumed

that when working up Celestino’s collection McGregor found the tarsi to be

feathered and corrected his initial diagnosis - although he omitted to

mention this in the corrigenda at the end of volume two of the Manual.

Oberholser (1912) reviewed fuciphaga and, finding that his Mindanao

material with tarsal feathering differed from the nominate Javanese form by

having the rump concolorous with the back, named the Philippine

population meamsi. He claimed to have a series of 15 from Luzon, Mindoro

and Mindanao, but listed only 14. Eight of these were kindly lent by the

USNM for this study and all have feathered tarsi.

Stresemann (1914) examined 14 specimens from BMNH and it is possible

to reconstruct which he saw: one from Luzon (BMNH 1897.5.13.288 taken

by Whitehead), four from Valencia, Negros (ex BMNH 1888.10.1.168-172

taken by Everett), four from Negros (BMNH 1890.12.1.88 ex Moseley,

BMNH 1896.6.6.793 and 795 ex Steere and BMNH 1897.5.13.454 ex

Whitehead), one from Mindanao (BMNH 1896.6.6.794 ex Steere: not now

traceable), one from Palawan (BMNH 1894.8.6. 1 16 ex Everett) - all these he

listed as meamsi ; and three from Cebu (BMNH 1896.6.6.791-2 and 797)

which he believed to be amelis. The only specimen then in BMNH that he

seems not to have examined is BMNH 1896.6.6.796 ex Steere from

Mindoro.

Stresemann (1914) considered that the name fuciphaga had been misapplied

and belonged to the larger Javan form with a naked tarsus. (When, later, it

was shown to build a vegetable nest, this invalidated Stresemann’s action as

fuciphaga was finked to a bird building edible or white nests. Medway [1961,

1966] called Stresemann’s fuciphaga by the name salangana and has since

suggested [Medway 1975] that this is conspecific with vanikorensis.)

Stresemann introduced the combination C. vestita meamsi for Philippine

birds with tarsal feathering, fisting specimens from Luzon, Mindoro, Negros

and Mindanao - as well as one from Palawan. This Palawan bird (BMNH

1894.8.6.116) was taken by Everett and has a wing length of 115mm and a

feathered tarsus, and is indeed meamsi. Hence we have apparent sympatry in

Palawan between meamsi and both palawanensis and germam. I will revert to

this later. (Besides his series of palawanensis - with naked tarsi - Stresemann

[1914] had two other dark-rumped Palawan birds: (a) A BMNH specimen

with a wing of 1 15 mm and a feathered tarsus, which he fisted as C. vestita

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Larger Philippine Collocalia

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meamsi, undoubtedly Everett’s specimen mentioned above; (b) A Tring

specimen, probably now AMNH 634758, with a wing of 120mm and a

naked tarsus, which he assigned to a unnamed race of fuciphaga - this is the

second Platen skin which Stresemann considered different from his type

series of palawanensis, but I have not re-examined it.)

Later, Stresemann (1925) attached his C. vestita to C. francica, and the

name francica was brought into use as it had priority. This combined a

number of races - including germani - with more or less pale rumps and

naked tarsi, with the vestita group, comprised solely of forms with feathered

tarsi - including meamsi which he treated as a valid form from Borneo and

the Philippines.

Hachisuka (1930) described apoensis (type locality: Apo Lake at 8,000

feet) as a species, not a race of whiteheadi. He was well aware that origenis was

from the same mountain but not of the elevation at which it had been taken.

His original description is far from satisfactory. He made a comparative

statement regarding its coloration but did not state clearly with what he

compared it, he made no mention of the presence or absence of tarsal

feathering, and he neither specified how many specimens he had before him

nor gave measurements.

Stresemann (1931) introduced the concept of a widespread race vestita

from Sumatra to Borneo and the Philippines and made meamsi a probable

synonym. Hachisuka (1934) disagreed with Stresemann and retained the

importance of tarsal feathering so that he kept vestita (with meamsi as a

synonym) separate from francica - under which name he placed the pale-

rumped germani with a naked tarsus. Hachisuka also added to his earlier

description of apoensis , characterising it as having a darker and glossier back

(which would in fact set it apart from the rather brown-backed whiteheadi

and origenis, its supposed allies) and giving the wing length as 130 mm -

which is contradicted by two apparent syntypes as discussed below. At this

point Hachisuka did make apoensis a race of whiteheadi despite the presence

of origenis lower down the same mountain.

Two specimens of apoensis (DMNH 36284 and 36285) were kindly lent by

the DMNH - having been received from S. Dillon Ripley, who had acquired

Hachisuka’s collection - and they bear what appear to be Hachisuka’s

original blue labels, with the respective numbers H. 1259 and H. 1257.

Mary LeCroy has drawn to my attention a third specimen of apoensis

(AMNH 348682): this also came through Ripley from the Hachisuka

collection. Its green label carried number H. 1256. The first two agree with

the original description, but interestingly they have feathered tarsi and are

relatively small so that confusion with whiteheadi and origenis ought not to

have occurred (Plates 2 and 3). The third bird also has feathered tarsi and the

label has been annotated meamsi by Salomonsen. All three seem to have valid

claims to type status.

The wing lengths of the three are 120, 109 and 118mm (respectively for

DMNH 36284, DMNH 36285 and AMNH 348682). The measurement of

130 mm given by Hachisuka (1934) must have been an error for 120 mm and

42

E. C. DICKINSON

Forktail 4

this may have misled Hachisuka as to its affinities. Despite the fact that

Hachisuka disagreed with Stresemann (1925) and retained the taxonomic

importance of tarsal feathering, on the evidence available I can but conclude

that he overlooked the feathered tarsi and misread the wing measurement. It

follows that the name apoensis must be removed from the synonymy of C.

whiteheadi origenis and becomes available for a southern population of

meamsi should a name be required.

These errors can be readily understood against the background of shifting

taxonomy and in particular McGregor’s mistaken views as to the commonness,

distribution and wing length of whiteheadi. Hachisuka (1934) used McGregor’s

distribution data on whiteheadi but not his measurements, drawing these

from the original description. He seems to have written without a full

representation of the forms before him, and he clearly never compared his

Plate 3. Mindanao specimens of Collocalia meamsi: Left to right: DMNH 36285 from Mt. Apo - a

syntype of C. apoensis ; USNM 190172 from Pantar and USNM 191447 from Mercedes - both from the

original series of Oberholser (1912).

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Larger Philippine Collocalia

43

types of apoensis, probably then in Japan, with the types of either true

whiteheadi or origenis (Plate 2).

Peters (1939) reported meamsi from Luzon and Mindoro and discussed

distinctions between meamsi and amelis, which he restricted to the tarsal

feathering and the strength of the bill, seen as small and weak in meamsi and

strong and decurved in amelis. Peters (1940), like Hachisuka (1934), treated

C. vestita as a species but unlike Stresemann and Hachisuka recognised

meamsi as a race. Delacour and Mayr (1946) followed this, although with

some doubts expressed in their preliminary paper (Delacour and Mayr

1945).

Gilliard (1950) reported meamsi from Bataan. I have re-examined two

skins (AMNH 459274 and 459275) and find them to be amelis with naked

tarsi. Mary LeCroy has examined the rest of the series and agrees that they

too have naked tarsi. This is important, as Gilliard’s was perhaps the only

documented lowland record ascribed to meamsi. This may clear the way to

proving it an upland species.

Rabor (1954) reported amelis nesting at Miatan Caves in Mindanao. Later,

Ripley and Rabor (1958) seemed to confirm that the birds found nesting in

Miatan Caves were amelis, although they found some to have tarsal

feathering and others not. They still felt this was a single population and

retained the name amelis. It seemed more probable that they were all meamsi

with many having suffered the loss of their tarsal feathering through

abrasion. I borrowed 16 specimens from this long series to examine at

BMNH and examined the rest at FMNH. I could not separate them into two

distinct series but indeed some carry notations on the labels affirming the

presence of tarsal feathers, and show these. It may be that this collection is

wholly made up of specimens of meamsi, of which some individuals have

suffered the loss of tarsal feathering during preparation.

Ripley and Rabor (1958) commented on differences they perceived

between their meamsi from Mindoro and amelis (their samples of which seem

to have been drawn from the Miatan Cave series). The point they made that

has had the most impact was that the presence or absence of tarsal feathering

could not be relied on. However, if the series from Miatan Caves is meamsi as

I suspect, the other minor differences they report would, at most, be

between two geographical races of meamsi.

Rabor (1955) reported whiteheadi from Massisiat, Abra. Although these

might have been expected to be amelis, one specimen (FMNH 184119),

taken there by Rabor in May 1946 - and the only one traced - has been

examined and proves to be meamsi with a feathered tarsus and a wing length

of 1 17mm. Rand and Rabor (1960) reported amelis nesting in caves in Bohol,

but specimens (FMNH 223098 and 223100) have feathered tarsi and are

meamsi.

Medway (1966) introduced the name vanikorensis for Philippine birds and

pointed out that both amelis and meamsi have the concealed white barbs at

the base of the back feathers that are found in vanikorensis and, citing the

apparent findings of Ripley and Rabor (1958), speculated that they might be

44

E. C. DICKINSON

Forktail 4

representatives of one variable population. DuPont (1971) followed Medway

(1966) by placing amelis in vanikorensis and applied Medway’s speculation by

treating meamsi as a junior synonym of amelis. The effects of this have been

discussed under C. v. amelis. Finally, skins (in FMNH) taken by Rabor on

Camiguin Sur have been examined and found to have feathered tarsi.

The regular, as opposed to casual, occurrence of meamsi in northern

Palawan would show sympatry with germani (which it really does not

resemble) and of course with the larger palawanensis . Both differ from

meamsi in having naked tarsi.

Collocalia fuciphaga germani , which has a pale rump and produces an

edible nest, is relatively easy to separate and is discussed later. On the other

hand the species fuciphaga is still poorly understood; some races seem to

have feathered tarsi and these were once grouped with meamsi under the

name Collocalia veslila, but all seem to build edible ‘white’ nests. On present

evidence this alone warrants specific separation.

Finally, I must refer the reader back to the account on amelis for ways to

distinguish it from meamsi. On this more work lies ahead. The two are

indistinguishable in the field and separated here more on faith than firm

evidence. As will be seen, the evidence on nesting does not conclusively

support separation. In the final analysis I justify this separation by the need

to minimise further confusion of the record, which would certainly occur if

they do differ and are treated under one name - for an interesting, and

possibly directly instructive, parallel, see Mayr (1937) on the differences

between vanikorensis and hirundinacea Stresemann 1914 in New Guinea.

Nesting

Rabor (1954), writing of amelis, provided a photograph of a nest taken in

Miatan Caves in May 1952. I have given above my reasons for treating the

birds taken there as meamsi. The colony was some 700 m inside the cave

system; the nests were ‘typically shallow half saucers composed mainly of

green and black moss woven strongly together and glued with a little amount

of the birds’ hardened saliva. Hardened saliva is used in rather good amounts

in attaching the nests to the rock supports. The nests . . . were mainly

supported on the rock floor of the small shallow cavities ... so that there

was really no need for an exceptionally strong layer of hardened saliva at the

attached sides.’ Four white eggs measured 24mm by 14mm, 23mm by

13.5mm, 24mm by 13.5mm and 24mm by 14.2mm. Ripley and Rabor

(1958) found nests of meamsi at about 5,300feet on Mt Halcon in Mindoro.

Ledges were in use and the nest material was a mixture of moss and plant

material glued together with saliva, but they mention a lining of ‘feathers

which appeared to be those of the birds themselves’, and a single white egg

measured 20.5 mm by 14mm. They considered that these nests of meamsi

were identical to the nests, which they ascribed to amelis, that Rabor had

taken in Miatan Caves, Mindanao, in 1952. This may prove to be further

evidence that the nests in Miatan Caves were indeed those of meamsi.

Rand and Rabor (1960) reported nests of amelis in completely dark places

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Larger Philippine Collocalia

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in caves at some 700 m altitude in Bohol and mentioned that these were

similar to those reported from the Galakting Caves at Miatan. Specimens

collected show that the species concerned was meamsi. This further supports

the contention made above.

Nonetheless these descriptions do not differ much from McGregor’s

description of nests in Sibuyan that were associated with specimens with

naked tarsi (discussed under amelis ). However, Rabor (1954) writes of

hardened saliva and in nominate vanikorensis the salival cement stays moist

(Medway 1975). If Rabor is correct but writing about meamsi, and if amelis

nests include salival cement that stays moist, a feature not mentioned by

McGregor (1905a), there may be a constant and significant difference. This

will be an important finding.

Specific relationships

With what other species can meamsi be associated? Of the medium-sized

species occurring in Borneo all three seem to be inappropriate: (a) C. maxima

is larger and has a squarer tail. It has occurred at least once in Palawan, (b)

C. salangana is not here treated as conspecific with C. vanikorensis although

it was by Medway (1975); it differs both from meamsi and from vanikorensis

by lacking the concealed white tips to the barbs at the bases of the feathers of

the back, (c) C. fuciphaga ( sensu Medway 1966) is represented both in

Borneo and Palawan by a pale-rumped form which is, or is close to, germani

as well as by a dark-rumped inland form - vestita - in Borneo. At first sight

vestita appears to be a potentially conspecific form but it makes edible ‘white’

nests.

A few Philippine birds (such as Gallicolumba) show affinities to species

present in Papuasia rather than Borneo. Interestingly Mayr (1937) has

already pointed out the affinity of meamsi to hirundinacea and this seems the

most promising candidate for close kinship. However, it does seem desirable

to avoid further confusion in the literature until proof is available -

preferably including better data on nests. In consequence Collocalia meamsi

- in combination with hirundinacea (1914) the name meamsi (1912) takes

priority - is treated tentatively as part of a superspecies including C.

hirundinacea. Possibly this should include C. capnitis Thayer and Bangs 1909

- which is said to have feathered tarsi and cannot belong to C. vanikorensis -

if this is not a juvenile example of C. brevirostris innominata Hume 1873 as

suggested by Deignan (1955). This has not been examined.

Range in the Philippines Known from Bohol, Camiguin Sur, Luzon,

Mindanao, Mindoro, Negros and - perhaps only rarely - Palawan.

Material examined 43 - Bohol 2, Camiguin Sur 3, Luzon 16, Mindanao 8,

Mindoro 2, Negros 10 and Palawan 2.

46

E. C. DICKINSON

Forktail 4

EDIBLE-NEST SWIFTLET Collocaha fuciphaga (Thunberg) 1812

Specific characters

Medium-sized; wing 110- 125 mm; tail: 50-53 mm, well forked (7mm);

rump in most subspecies greyish-brown, more or less distinctly paler than

the back and tail and with dark shaft streaks; white tips to concealed feathers

on the back; tarsus unfeathered or lightly feathered.

Echolocates and builds edible, ‘white’ nests.

Up to eight races (germani Oustalet 1878, inexpectata Hume 1873,

amechana Oberholser 1912, vestita (Lesson) 1843, perplexa Riley 1927,

fuciphaga (Thunberg) 1812, dammermani Rensch 1931 and micans Stresemann

1914). Stresemann (1931) did not recognize amechana and apparently

overlooked perplexa ; dammermani has been described since and awaits

review. The Philippine form, germani, is readily distinguished from other

species of swiftlets occurring in the Philippines by its whitish-grey rump

with dark shaft streaks.

Overview

The Philippine literature of this species was confused in the early years by

changes in nomenclature, but its pale rump has generally allowed the record

to be kept straight.

This Malaysian species probably reached Palawan from Borneo. It has not

spread much beyond the nearby islands. There is, however, one record from

Panay which appears to be justified and during our study we have found that

it has been taken on Ticao.

Collocalia fuciphaga germani Oustalet 1878

Synonymy

Collocalia francica : Bourns and Worcester (1894) - Calamianes and Panay;

Worcester and Bourns (1898); McGregor (1903) - Cagayan Sulu;

McGregor (1904) - Cagayancillo and Cuyo.

Collocalia francica germani : Oberholser (1906); Hachisuka (1934); Manuel

(1937a); Manuel (1939).

Collocalia francica inexpectata : Mearns (1905).

Collocalia fuciphaga germani: Medway (1966); DuPont (1971).

Collocalia fuciphaga perplexa: Medway (1966).

Collocalia germani: McGregor (1909a).

Collocalia inexpectata germani: Peters (1940); Delacour and Mayr (1946).

Collocalia vanikorensis amelis: DuPont (1972) - Ticao.

Subspecific characters

The naked tarsi and the whitish-grey rump in combination distinguish this

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Larger Philippine Collocalia

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from other races except inexpectata, in which the rump is usually darker.

Discussion

Bourns and Worcester (1894) listed francica for the Calamianes and Panay,

believing both to be new records. Their Calamianes record is substantiated

by two skins (CM 137965 and 138619) from Culion taken in February 1892.

The Panay record seems to have been based on a skin (USNM 161299) that

Bourns took on the Steere Expedition in 1888. This was amongst skins given

to the USNM by Worcester and appears to have been held back for further

study. (There is a possibility that this skin is mislabelled, as are a few other

skins from the Steere Expedition collection. If so it might really be from

Palawan. Corroboration is really required from the Panay record.) Several

such skins from the Steere Expedition were the basis for new records in

Bourns and Worcester (1894), who omitted to explain that they were not

taken on the Menage Expedition! Such skins were almost certainly not seen

by Steere (1890) whose series, although composite, probably included no

pale-rumped birds, for these would have been strikingly dissimilar.

Worcester and Bourns (1898) repeated their record but erroneously listed

Negros too, on the basis of Everett’s skins of francica reported by Tweeddale

(1878a), which Hartert (1892) re-identified as fuciphaga and which have been

shown to be meamsi. McGregor (1903) reported francica from Cagayan Sulu,

as did Mearns (1905). McGregor (1904) found it abundant on Cagayancillo

and also collected it on Cuyo. A few skins taken by Mearns on Cagayan Sulu

are available in the USNM. Some of McGregor’s material from Cagayancillo

and Cuyo is now in the FMNH but the skins in the Bureau of Science listed

by Manuel (1937a) have now been lost along with the whole collection.

Oberholser (1906) fisted C. francica germani specimens in the USNM from

Cagayancillo, Cagayan Sulu and Panay, and mentioned published records for

Calamianes, Cuyo and Negros. The Negros record is no doubt the erroneous

one of Worcester and Bourns (1898) mentioned above. McGregor (1909a)

fisted the same islands plus Cebu for germani, and for Cebu and Negros cited

the Steere Expedition, which seems to be due to nomenclatural confusion.

The Steere Expedition should not be credited with a record of germani from

Cebu or Negros unless corroborative evidence is forthcoming. Hachisuka

(1934) kept to the classical view of francica, excluding dark-rumped birds

with feathered tarsi, and fisted the race germani from the same seven islands

as McGregor.

Manuel (1937a, 1939) discussed edible birds nests from Bacuit, north-west

Palawan. A pale-rumped bird was taken on a white nest and after

comparison with specimens from Cagayancillo and Cagayan Sulu was

pronounced to be C. francica germani. From the account it seems that no

previous specimen had been taken from Palawan. Ten small offshore islands

were named as sources of white nests. Peters (1940) listed C. inexpectata

germani only from Palawan (in the Philippine part of its range), apparently

overlooking the islands fisted by McGregor (1909a) and Hachisuka (1934),

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E. C. DICKINSON

Forktail 4

but was handicapped by considering amelis conspecific with it! Delacour and

Mayr (1946) listed germani only in the Palawan chapter of their book.

Medway (1961) reinstated the Javanese white nest builder as the proper

owner of the name fuciphaga and later (Medway 1966) used it for a number

of forms all building white nests, including an inland-nesting, dark-rumped

and tarsally feathered vestita in proximity to, if not actually mixing with,

coastal-nesting white-rumped germani with naked tarsi. To explain this he

postulated a circular cline with the ends overlapping in Borneo. Nominate

francica has meanwhile been shown not to make white nests (Medway 1966).

The map in Medway (1966) suggests that the race perplexa extends, or has

spread, from Maratua Island off eastern Borneo (its type-locality) to the

Sulus. Unfortunately the circle has mistakenly been placed too far to the

north-east over Sibutu in the southern Sulus, there being no records from

the Sulu Archipelago itself. Cagayan Sulu, with the nearest substantiated

record, lies 150 miles farther north. The population of Cagayan Sulu is

treated here as germani but this has not been studied.

DuPont (1972) recorded two specimens of C. vanikorensis amelis from

Ticao. DuPont’s two skins (DMNH 11401 and 11402) from Ticao, taken in

July 1971, were kindly lent by the DMNH. Both seem to lack the concealed

white-tipped barbs beneath the feathers on the back (which should be

present in both vanikorensis and this species), but so does one of three germani

examined from Cagayan Sulu. DMNH 11402 is otherwise undoubtedly

germani with a pale rump with dark shaft streaks. By contrast DMNH 11401

shows only an indication of this and if it were the sole specimen from Ticao

one might readily accept it as a specimen of amelis, but it seems best to

consider both germani. At least one other specimen of amelis (USNM

2019924 from Ilocos Norte), which does have white barbs below the feathers

of the back, has faint indications of a pale rump like that of DMNH 1 1402 -

but it has been judged best to leave it under amelis. It cannot be totally

excluded that this and the Ticao birds ascribed to germani are hybrids.

Nesting

The only satisfactory account of the nest is that of Manuel (1937a), but even

that is composed of a mixture of direct observation and a description by

Baker (1927). Nevertheless it is a pure white half-saucer with the pointed

end drawn upwards and slightly inwards and the edge against the wall

thicker.

Range in the Philippines Cagayancillo, Cagayan Sulu, Calamianes, Cuyo,

Palawan and, apparently, at least vagrant to Panay and Ticao. (Some doubt

attaches both to the Panay record, which might be mislabelled, and to the

Ticao records, which might be based on hybrids.)

Material examined 12 (Cagayancillo 3, Cagayan Sulu 3, Calamianes 2, Cuyo

1, Panay 1, Ticao 2).

1989

Larger Philippine Collocalia

49

SUMMARY

This review of larger Philippine swiftlets ( Collocalia ) is only partially

successful - one vital riddle remains to be solved. The table below

summarises the taxonomic conclusions.

SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF RECOMMENDED

ACCEPTED TAXA ENGLISH NAMES

CHANGES COMPARED

TO DUPONT (1971)

50

E. C. DICKINSON

Forktail 4

In the field C. fuciphaga can be told by its contrasting pale rump. It may prove easy to tell C. maxima by

its square tail and C. whiteheadi by its strikingly large head size. The three remaining species, C.

salangana, C. vanikorensis and C. meamsi are considered indistinguishable in the field. The last two may

eventually be proven conspecific but I believe their co-existence resembles that of two close relatives in

New Guinea.

Within the Philippines the distribution of these species appears to be broadly as follows:

These details only begin to complete the jigsaw puzzle; much needs to be added. The smaller species will

soon be dealt with in a separate shorter paper.

Great encouragement was given by the Earl of Cranbrook, who was kind enough to visit the

British Museum twice and share with me his knowledge of these swiftlets when I was

working on some of the more difficult issues. Thanks to the interest of the authorities at the

British Museum it has been possible to bring together there many skins of Philippine

Collocalia. Study space was kindly made available and much help was received from

Graham Cowles and Derek Read. For making swiftlet skins available on loan my thanks go

to Dr Storrs Olson, Messrs Charles Ross and Ralph Browning at the USNM, Dr Raymond

A. Paynter at MCZ, Dr David Niles at DMNH, Dr Kenneth Parkes at CM, Mrs Mary

LeCroy at AMNH, Dr John Fitzpatrick and Mr David Willard at FMNH. Additional

specimens were examined from Leiden thanks to Dr Gerlof Mees and Dr Frank Rozendaal

and from Geneva thanks to Dr Claude Weber. At one stage or another this paper has been

reviewed by the Rt. Hon the Earl of Cranbrook, Dr Robert S. Kennedy and Dr Kenneth

C. Parkes and by Mrs Mary LeCroy and Mr Ralph Browning.

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Manuel, C. G. (1939) Notes on recent collections of birds from Palawan and Busuanga. Phil. J.

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310-314.

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McGregor, R. C. (1907c) The birds of Bohol. Phil. J. Sci. 2: 315-335.

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U.K.

FORKTAIL 4 (1989): 55-61

Ornithology in China: an update

JEFFERY BOSWALL

This paper supplements an earlier one (Boswall 1986a) by summarising two Chinese

reviews of Chinese ornithology covering 1950-1979 and 1950-1983 respectively. It also

draws attenuon to other recent work and to recent books, including an important one on

the endangered waterbirds of Poyang Lake. Ringing is briefly mentioned and the training

of Azure-winged Magpies Cyanopica cyana to take pine moths described. Lastly, recent

work in China by foreigners is reviewed.

NEW SOCIETY

The Beidaihe Birdwatching Society was launched on 25 October 1988 by

Martin Williams with the support of Hsu Wei-shu. It will have local, student

and foreign membership (Anon. 1988). Beidaihe is on the coast of the Gulf of

Bohai where migration studies have been undertaken in the 1940s and since

1985 (see Williams et al. 1988).

RECENT BOOKS

Cheng’s enormous volume A synopsis of the avifauna of China, which takes

account of the literature till the end of 1982, appeared in 1987. It lists 1,186

species compared with the 1,200 of Meyer de Schauensee (1984), and a

summary of some of the differences is included in a postscript.

Other recent major works include The avifauna of Guizhou (formerly

Kweichow) by Wu et al. (1986), a hardback volume in Chinese that results

from a ten-year survey apparently completed in 1983, dealing with 417

species. Two paperbacks on a familiar theme are Beneficial birds in forestry by

Ying (1987) and Protecting and attracting beneficial birds by Yuan et al. (1987).

More significant is a collection of 41 papers mostly with generous English

summaries, Crane research and conservation in China, edited by Ma (1986).

A second assembly of writings, with no English summaries, is called A

report on rare migratory birds (Anon. 1987). Copies of the book, 5,000 of

which were printed, are not officially allowed to leave China, but persons

interested could try writing to the Jiangxi Nature Reserve Management

Officer (Beijing West Road, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China). It summarises

several years’ work at the now internationally famous Poyang Lake

Migratory Bird Reserve on the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtse)

River, where, in the 1980/1981 winter, a wintering population of Siberian

Cranes Grus leucogeranus was discovered. Chapter 5 by Liu Zhiyong, Chen

Bin and Huang Zuyou deals with this bird, and Chapter 6 by Chen Bin, Liu

Zhiyong and Tao Fuzhong with the Siberian Crane’s close associate, the

White-naped Crane G. vipio. Chapter 7 treats Hooded and Common Cranes

56

J. BOSWALL

Forktail 4

G. monacha and G. grus, (authors: Liu Zhiyong and Chen Bin and Wang

Zuoyi [sic]), Chapter 8 by Chen Bin and Zhou Xiaohua covers Oriental

White Stork Ciconia (ciconia) boyciana, and Chapter 9 by Liu Zhiyong and

He Xuguang, the Black Stork C. nigra. The last chapter covers the numbers

of anatids wintering on the reserve, notably Bewick’s Swan Cygnus bewickii,

Greater White-fronted Goose Anser albifrons. Swan Goose A . cygnoides. Bean

Goose A. fabalis, Ruddy Shelduck Tadoma ferruginea, Northern Pintail Anas

acuta, Spot-billed Duck A. poecilorhyncha, Mallard A. platyrhynchos,

Common Teal A. crecca, Northern Shoveler A. clypeata, Baikal Teal A.

formosa, Falcated Duck A. falcata. Goosander Mergus merganser, Smew M.

albellus and Greater Scaup Ay thy a mania (authors: Zhou Xiaohua, Liu

Zhiyong and He Xujiang [sic]). The opening five chapters are more general

in character, dealing with the geography, climate, fresh water, and human

social economy of the area, the vegetation, shellfish resources and avian

species seen at all seasons since 1981. (These total 148 of which 60 nest and

69 are water birds; the list contains some surprising omissions, compared

with the observations of Don Messersmith, Martin Williams, Peter

Kennerley and myself.) The reserve is in three separate but proximate parts

and totals nine lakes and 22,400ha. It has rightly attracted much

international attention as perhaps the most important wetland in eastern

Asia. Most of the world’s Siberian Cranes winter there, as do significant

proportions of the global populations of White-naped Crane, Oriental White

Stork and Great Bustard Otis tarda, as well as hundreds of thousands of

wildfowl of twenty-four species.

A work edited by Xiang (1986), Scientific survey reports on Lake Cao Hai,

Guizhou, China, runs to 282 pages. Cao Hai Lake in south-central China

(27°N 104°E) is otherwise known as the ‘Sea of Grass’ Nature Reserve. It

was established as a protected area in 1983 because of its wintering

population of about 300 Black-necked Cranes Grus nigricollis. This volume

assembles 25 papers, four of which are avian including two on Black-necked

and one on Common Cranes and one on birds generally. One hundred and

ten species are fisted for the reserve including 16 ‘rare-and-precious birds’.

Among the latter are Hooded Crane (as well as the two cranes above) and the

* Oriental White Stork. The remaining 21 papers deal with such topics as

climate, physiography, soil, phytoplankton and other aquatic vegetation,

mosquitoes, reptiles, amphibians and fish. All chapters have an English

summary. The behaviour of Black-necked Cranes has been separately dealt

with, in detail, by Wu and Li (1985); see also Marks and Tong (1988).

For a well-informed review of Meyer de Schauensee (1984) see King

(1988).

RECENT CHINESE PUBLISHED PAPERS

Two reviews of aspects of ornithology in China, Zheng (1981) and Liu (1984)

were not translated in time to be dealt with in the earlier paper (Boswall

1989

Ornithology in China

57

1986a). Liu, a senior ornithologist, surveys the taxonomic research done

from 1950 to 1983, and mentions regional faunistic works. He deals briefly

with local zoogeography and touches on economic ornithology. There are

164 references. Zheng is more modern in outlook, deals with bird ecology

and treats at length possible pest species such as the Eurasian Tree Sparrow

Passer montanus and the Yellow-breasted Bunting Emberiza aureola. He

deplores as ‘highly worrying problems’, declines in certain species and

natural communities of birds. Since 1970, 44.3% of the common nesting

species in Hubei province’s Luoranshan and Donghu areas have either

disappeared completely or become extremely scarce. In the region of the

Erdao River in the Changbai Shan mountains (on the border with North

Korea) there have been marked changes in the proportionate numbers of

species, as those that thrive in areas of human settlement and secondary

forest increase, at the expense of species confined to more natural habitats.

Zheng goes on to analyse all relevant papers published, 1950-c. 1979, first

by type of research. Certain topics such as migration and the management

and protection of bird populations have been virtually ignored (Table 1).

Table 1. Percentages of papers on different aspects of bird ecology published in China, 1950 to about

1979 (Zheng 1981)

Ecological distribution and community trends 18.5, breeding 42.6, feeding 19.0, wintering 6.6,

behaviour 5.5, moult 0.5, ecobiology 5.0, attracting and scaring 2.3.

Table 2. Percentage of papers on different groups of birds published in China, 1950 to 1979 (Zheng

1981)

1. Pelecaniformes 1.9, 2. Ciconiiformes 1.9, 3. Anseriformes 7.6, 4. Falconiformes 3.2, 5.

Galliformes 8.9, 6. Gruiformes 3.8, 7. Charadriiformes 4.5, 8. Columbiformes 2.5, 9.

Cuculiformes 2.5, 10. Strigiformes 1.9, 11. Apodiformes 3.2, 12. Coraciiformes 0.6, 13.

Piciformes 1.9, 14. Passeriformes 55.6- Alaudidae (2.5), Hirundinidae (3.2), Motacillidae

(1.3), Laniidae (1.9), Oriolidae (0.6), Dicruridae (0.6), Sturnidae (1.3), Corvidae (5.7),

Prunellidae (0.6), Muscicapidae (13.3), Paridae (4.4), Sittidae (1.3), Remizidae (0.6), Ploceidae

(14.5), Fringillidae (3.8).

A second analysis (Table 2) shows how the percentages of papers break down

between the different orders (and in the case of the Passeriformes the

different families) of birds. Groups of apparent economic importance, such

as birds of prey, waders such as snipes and plovers, and rare (and culturally

significant) birds like cranes have been comparatively neglected, at least up

to 1979.

Table 3. Percentages of papers on different aspects of phasianid research published in China, 1950-1986

(Zheng 1988)

58

J. BOSWALL

Forktail 4

In a more recent literature survey (in English) Zheng (1988) reviews Chinese

studies of the Phasianidae. Of the papers published on this family, 1950—

1986, 19% appeared in the first 30 years and 81% in the last seven years. In

the last decade work has been done on the breeding biology of 33 of China’s

49 galliform species, most notably perhaps on Cabot’s Tragopan Tragopan

caboti (see, for example, Zheng et al. 1985), Sichuan Hill Partridge

Arborophila rufipectus (King and Li 1988), and Chinese Monal Lophophorus

Ihuysii (He Fen-qi et al. 1988). He Fen-qi (1988) gives a bibliography of

Chinese work carried out on phasianids from 1979-1986. Five papers on

pheasants by Chinese authors appear in Ridley (1986).

Zhang Zhi-yen (1988) gives an account in English of Whooper Swans

Cygnus cygnus wintering in Qinghai province.

The breeding grounds of Saunders’s Gull Larus saundersi have been

recently discovered (Shi et al. 1988).

Zhang (in press) discusses bird-ringing in China and de Ribeira (in press)

lists the 36 Chinese recoveries of Charadriiformes ringed in Australia.

A count of the number of papers listed under ‘China’ in Zoological Record

since 1979 gives: 1980, 16 entries; 1981, 33; 1982, 61; 1983, 31; 1984, 41;

1985, 53; and 1986, 66.

AZURE-WINGED MAGPIE AND THE PINE MOTH

A comparatively recent feature of economic ornithology that has attracted

Chinese and some international attention is the training of the Azure-winged

Magpie (whose vernacular Chinese name is always translated as ‘Grey’

Magpie) to take an injurious pinemoth caterpillar (species not known). No

published scientific paper has been traced on this novel work, although

articles have appeared in newspapers and periodicals, and a film has been

devoted to this subject. The project began in 1977 when some forestry

research workers in Rizhao county, Shandong province, brought into

captivity some nestling magpies weighing about 50 grams each. The birds

were fed the caterpillars of the pine moth, the pupae and later the flying

insects (Zhang 1982). The birds were taught to associate the provision of

food with the blowing of a whistle. If a potentially harmful outbreak of

caterpillars can be predicted the temporary importation and release of

around 200 magpies can have a beneficial effect (Xu Zhen verbally). To

retrieve the birds at the end of a day’s work the magpie-tender blows his

whistle. The birds are lured into a large cage on the back of a lorry and

driven home. A count showed that in 20 days 18 birds ate 8,800 larvae and

1,700 pupae in a 1.8 ha pine plantation, apparently eliminating 62% of the

larvae and 70% of the pupae present. Also the magpies ate 90% of the adult

moths (no absolute number given) (Zhang 1982). By 1985 at least a thousand

young magpies had been trained and birds were being sent to a number of

places including Beijing municipality, and Anhui, Jiangsu, Sichuan and Jilin

1989

Ornithology in China

59

provinces (New China News Agency, 17 July 1985). Hsu Wei-shu (verbally

1988) expressed the view that in certain circumstances this method of control

can be effective. However, the method was questioned following a paper

read at the Third Symposium of the Ornithological Society of China in

November 1985 (Zheng Guangmei in litt.). The method is said to be costly in

both money and young birds’ lives, and opponents feel that the limited

success achieved is not worth the price. The practice is apparently now held

in rather less esteem than earlier. However, a recent report suggests that

Great Spotted Woodpeckers Dendrocopos major and Great Tits Pams major

might become involved in comparable experimental work.*

PAPERS PUBLISHED BY NON-CHINESE ORNITHOLOGISTS

King (1987a, b,c,d,e and Forktail, this issue) has produced a steady flow of

articles with an emphasis on galliform birds. His visits to areas not visited by

western ornithologists for half-a-century are fascinating and valuable.

The final report of China Cranewatch ’86, the second Cambridge (England)

expedition to study migration (this time in the autumn of 1986) at Beidaihe,

Hebei province, should be published soon but, meanwhile, the preliminary

summary (Williams 1986) is useful. Various European ornithologists are now

more regularly making observations at this coastal site where impressive

numbers of cranes, storks, bustards and birds of prey can be seen on

migration (Williams et al. 1988, Duff 1988 and Bakewell et al. this issue of

Forktail). For an account of the Earthwatch volunteers’ study of the

October-November 1988 migration at Beidaihe see Williams (1988).

Bird markets have long been used by expatriate ornithologists as sources

of data. Fiebig (1983), Beecroft (1986) and Boswall (1986c and in press a)

have carried out censuses at several different markets in China.

Bird populations in Chinese zoos are composed very largely of indigenous

species (Boswall 1986b and 1989) and provide close-up views useful for later

field identification. Species noted include several listed in Collar and Andrew

1988, such as the Great Bustard, Oriental White Stork and three species of

crane (Grws japonensis, G. monacha and G. vipio ) (Boswall 1989 and in press

b). There was a full-winged adult Siberian Crane in Nanchang Zoo in

February 1988.

* One hundred and twenty-eight trained Azure-winged Magpies were to appear on

1 October 1984, in the first Liberation Day military parade since 1959, celebrating the 35th

anniversary of the coming to power of the Communists. The birds were brought to Beijing

two or three weeks early, housed in the grounds of the Capital Steel Plant in the city

suburbs and there given rehearsals. Flags were waved at the float over which they were to

fly freely, and recorded music was loudly played. All went well. Even on the full dress

rehearsals past Tian An Men square the birds held station. But come the day, the crowds

and noise proved too much. Most of the birds took fright and flew off, to be retrieved

however the same evening by whistle (Shi Xianfei, in discussion).

60

J. BOSWALL

Forktail 4

Minna Daum translated most of the two major Chinese papers. Michael Rank helped with

the transliteration of Chinese names into Pinyin. Hsu Weishu helped in discussion and with

the books and reprints; and Wang Youhui and Wu Zhikang and Zheng Guangmei in

correspondence. Ma Yieing sent me one book and Ben King drew my attention to two

others. Don Messersmith and David S. Melville provided unpublished data. Xu Zhen and

his charming interpreter Mrs Shi Xianfei withstood hours of Socratic questioning about the

training of Azure- winged Magpies. Alison Gilderdale interpreted for me in China in

February 1988 and scoured bookshops for bird works in Chinese.

REFERENCES

Anon. (1987) [A report on rare migratory birds.] Nanchang: Jiangxi Science and Technology Press,

Nanchang. (In Chinese).

Anon. (1988) New birdwatching society in China. World Birdwatch 10(3-4): 5.

Beecroft, R. (1986) Hazards facing migrant birds at Beidaihe and bird markets at Beijing,

Qinhuangdao and Chengdu. Pp. 114-120 in M. D. Williams, ed. Report on the Cambridge

Ornithological Expedition to China 1985. Unpublished.

Boswall, J. (1986a) Notes on the current status of ornithology in the People’s Republic of China.

Forktail 2: 43-51.

Boswall, J. (1986b) The birds of Chengdu zoo, People’s Republic of China. Avic. Mag. 92: 47-50.

Boswall, J. (1986c) Some notes on bird markets, pigeon keeping and other man/bird relations in

China. Avic. Mag. 92: 126-142.

Boswall, J. (1988) Ornithological report on a group visit to China, February 1988. Unpublished

report to RSPB.

Boswall, J. (in press a) Further notes on man/bird relations in China. Avic. Mag.

Boswall, J. (in press b) Bird conservation in the People’s Republic of China. Biol. Consent.

Boswall, J. (1989) Some birds at three Chinese zoos. Avic. Mag. 95: 31-36.

Cheng Tso Hsin (1987) A synopsis of the avifauna of China. Beijing: Science Press.

Collar, N. J. and Andrew, P. (1988) Birds to watch: the ICBP world check-list of threatened birds.

Cambridge, U.K.: International Council for Bird Preservation (Techn. Publ . 8).

Duff, D. (1988) Systematic list of birds seen at Beidaihe Haibin in autumns of 1986 and 1987.

Unpublished.

Fiebig, J. (1983) Ornithologische Beobachtungen in Peking und Umgebung. Mitt. Zool. Mus.

Berlin 59: 163-187.

He Fen-qi (1988) References on the Galliformes from China. World Pheasant Assoc. J . 13: 73-78.

He Fen-qi, Lu Tai-chun and Cui Xue-zheng (1988) Ecology of the Chinese Monal Lophophorus

Ihuysii. World Pheasant Assoc. J . 13: 42-49.

King, B. (1987a) Some bird observations at Pangquanguo Reserve in west central Shanxi

Province in NE China. Hong Kong Bird Report 1984-85: 112-114.

King, B. (1987b) Some notes on the birds of the Yi Shan area of NW Jiangxi Province, China.

Hong Kong Bird Report 1984-85: 115-119.

King, B. (1987c) Wild sighting of Brown Eared Pheasant. WPA News 15: 14.

King, B. (1987d) Elliot’s Pheasant observation in SE China. WPA News 15: 22-24.

King, B. (1987e) Wild sighting of Cabot’s Tragopan. WPA News 18: 21-23.

King, B. (1988) Bird Books. Birding 29(3): 41-46.

King, B. and Li Guiyuan (1988) China’s most endangered galliform. Oryx 22(4): 216-217.

Liu Zhuomo (1984) [The current state of research into the avifauna of China.] Chinese J . Zool.

19(2): 45-49. (In Chinese.)

Ma Yieing (1986) [Crane research and consenation in China.] Harbin: Heilongjiang Education

Press. (In Chinese with generous English summaries.)

Marks, M. B. and Tong Xiyang (1988) Where man and bird meet. Living Bird Quarterly 7(3):

26-31.

Meyer de Schauensee, R. (1984) The birds of China. Oxford: Oxford University Press,

de Ribeira, C. P. S. (in press) Recovery in China of Charadrii banded in Australia. Proc.

Intematn. Conf. Wildlife Consen. China, 1987 .

1989

Ornithology in China

61

Ridley, M. (ed.) 1986 Pheasants in Asia 1986. Basildon, U.K.: World Pheasant Association.

Shi, Z. R., Thouless, C. R. and Melville, D. S. (1988) Discovery of the breeding grounds of

Saunders’ Gull Larus saundersi. Ibis 130(3): 444-445.

Williams, M. D. (1986) Preliminary report on the China Cranewatch 1986. Unpublished.

Williams, M. D. (1988) China Passage: a survey of migration on the north China coast between 7

October and 16 November 1988. Unpublished.

Williams, M. D., Hsu Weishu, Tao Yu, Liang Yu and Zheng Jimin (1988) Preliminary report on

a migration survey at Beidaihe, Hebei province, China, 16 March to 3 April 1988.

Unpublished.

Wu Zhikang and Li Ruoxian (1985) [A preliminary study on the overwintering ecology of Black¬

necked Cranes.] Acta Ecologica Sinica 5(1): 71-76. (Chinese with long English summary.)

Wu Zhikang, Lin Qiwei, Yang Jiongli, Liu Jichen and Wu Lu (1986) [The avifauna of Guizhou.]

Guizhou: People’s Publishing House. (In Chinese.)

Xiang Y inghai (1986) Scientific survey reports on Lake Cao Hai, Guizhou, China. Guizhou:

People’s Publishing House. (In Chinese, with English summaries.)

Ying Yinsheng (1987) [Beneficial birds in forestry.] Hunan: Hunan Technical Publishing House.

(In Chinese.)

Yuan Decan, Liu Zhenqian and Zhang Taisong (1987) [Protecting and attracting beneficial birds.]

Hunan: Hunan Technical Publishing House. (In Chinese.)

Zhang Fuyan (in press) Bird ringing in China today and tomorrow. Proc. Intematn. Conf. Wildlife

Conserv. China, 1987.

Zheng Guangmei (1981) [A review of, and the outlook for, bird ecology in China.] Chinese J.

Zool. 16(1): 63-68. (In Chinese.)

Zheng Guangmei (1988) A review of biological studies of Phasianidae in China. World Pheasant

Assoc. J. 13: 13-20.

Zheng Guangmei, Gao Zongxing and Zhou Honging (1985) [On the breeding biology of Tragopan

caboti.] Acta Ecologica Sinica 5(4): 379-385. (In Chinese, long English summary.)

Zhang Shen (1982) Birds trained to fight insects. China Reconstructs 31(5): 60.

Zhang Zhi-yen (1988) Whooper Swan and Swan Lake (1988). Wildfowl World 99: 18-19.

Jeffrey Boswall, do Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire,

SGI 9 2DL, England.

FORKTAIL 4 (1989): 63-68

Birds observed at Huang Nian Shan,

Mabian county, southern Sichuan, China

BEN KING

Huang Nian Shan (i.e. Huang Nian mountain) lies perhaps 25 km east of

Mabian city, Mabian county in southern Sichuan, south-west China, at

about 28°50'N 103°44'E. It contains a fine tract of about 800 ha of primary

broadleaf forest at 1 ,200- 1 ,500m elevation. Large parts of the remainder are

already planted with fast-growing conifers and other parts are freshly logged.

It is planned to log the primary forest entirely and replace it with a tree farm

within 15 years. Huang Nian Shan is administered by the Sichuan Forestry

Department.

I first visited Huang Nian Shan on 24 April and 7 May 1986. On both

those days I heard the Sichuan Hill-Partridge Arborophila rufipectus, but

could neither see it nor get a tape-recording. I therefore arranged to return

for the period 26 April to 1 May 1987, with the express aim of finding and

tape-recording this species. The visit was successful, and a healthy

population of the bird was found, though this is probably one of the few left

in existence. The only other forest in Mabian county capable of harbouring

the Sichuan Hill-Partridge is planned to be logged in 40 years, and as the

bird’s range is only 150 x 60 km and it appears not to exist in any reserve, it

must be the most threatened galliform in China. It was declared a category 1

(i.e. endangered) species by the Chinese government in November 1988.

Other interesting finds were: Mountain Hawk-Eagle Spizaetus nipalensis,

perhaps the first record for Sichuan, although I have an unpublished record

from Wolong Panda Reserve; Purple Cochoa Cochoa purpurea ; and Silver

Oriole Oriolus mellianus.

During the 1987 visit, I stayed at Huang Nian Shan in the loggers’ camp at

1,200m, still in primary forest. Most of my observations were made along a

logging road built through the primary forest at about 1,200 m elevation and

in the forest above it. I got up to 1,400 m in the forest, but did not go into the

forest below the track at 1,200 m.

Accompanying me on the 1986 visit were: Leslie Hogan, Walter Krawiec,

W. Graham Metson and Roy Woodall. Our interpreter was Wu Baihui. In

1987, I was accompanied by Yuan Shi Jun, interpreter, and Wang

Zhenhuan, driver. The Sichuan Forestry Department operated both trips.

Square brackets signify uncertain identification, or records outside the

locality in question.

ANNOTATED LIST

BLACK BAZA Aviceda leuphotes: one on 30 April 1987, possibly a first

64

B. KING

Forktail 4

spring arrival. A pair on 1 May 1987 and 7 May 1986 (male in courtship

display).

BLACK KITE Milvus migrans: one on 30 April 1987.

EURASIAN SPARROWHAWK Accipiter msus: singles on 29 and 30 April

and 1 May 1987; one probably this species on 7 May 1986.

MOUNTAIN HAWK-EAGLE Spizaetus nipalensis : one on 26 April 1987.

There are apparently no previous records for Sichuan (Li 1980). Possibly

breeding at this late date.

SICHUAN HILL-PARTRIDGE Arborophila rufipectus : two heard on 24

April and three heard on 7 May 1986. Two to eleven heard and seen daily 26

April- 1 May 1987. This is probably China’s most endangered galliform and

the population here seems a healthy one. Huang Nian Shan might make a

good reserve for this species, which is confined to southern Sichuan and

whose known range is only 150 x 60 km.

CHINESE BAMBOO-PARTRIDGE Bambusicola thoracica: 1-3 heard

daily; fairly common in second-growth and forest edge.

SILVER PHEASANT Lophura nycthemera : two on 28 April and three on 29

April 1987; fairly common.

LADY AMHERST’S PHEASANT Chrysolophus amherstiae: one heard in

scrub outside the forest on 26 April 1987 at 1,000m.

[WEDGE-TAILED PIGEON Treron sphenura : birds heard were believed to

be this species, one on 28, 29 and 30 April, and two on 1 May 1987.]

ORIENTAL TURTLE-DOVE Streptopelia orientalis: one on 29 April 1987.

LARGE HAWK-CUCKOO Cuculus sparverioides : 3-6 heard daily.

HODGSON’S HAWK-CUCKOO Cuculus fugax: one heard daily 28 April -

1 May 1987. The 28 April record was possibly a first arrival. Two heard 7

May 1986.

ORIENTAL CUCKOO Cuculus saturatus : 1-4 heard daily.

ORIENTAL SCOPS-OWL Otus sunia: 5-10 heard daily.

COLLARED SCOPS-OWL Otus lempiji: one heard on 26 April 1987.

COLLARED OWLET Glaucidium brodiei: 2-10 heard daily.

ASIAN BARRED OWLET Glaucidium cuculoides : one heard 28 April 1987.

GREY NIGHTJAR Caprimulgus indicus : one heard on 29 April and 1 May

1987. The 29 April record was possibly a first arrival.

WHITE-THROATED NEEDLETAIL Hirundapus caudacutus: six on 30

April 1987.

1989

Birds at Huang Nian Shan

65

FORK-TAILED SWIFT Apus pacificus: 10 on 26 April, two on 27 April,

and two on 29 April 1987.

GREAT BARBET Megalaima virens: 2-5 heard daily.

GREY-HEADED WOODPECKER Picus canus: 1-2 daily.

GREATER YELLOWNAPE Picus flavinucha : two on 26 and 28 April and

one on 1 May 1987.

CRIMSON-BREASTED WOODPECKER Picoides cathpharius: 2-4 daily.

RUFOUS-BELLIED WOODPECKER Picoides hyperythrus: one on 26

April 1987.

GREY-CAPPED WOODPECKER Picoides canicapillus : 1-2 daily.

BAY WOODPECKER Blythipicus pyrrhotis : 1-3 daily.

BARN SWALLOW Hirundo rustica: several on 26 April 1987.

ASIAN HOUSE-MARTIN Delichon dasypus: two on 26 April 1987; two on

7 May 1986.

GREY WAGTAIL Motacilla cinerea: common along road through logged

and tree farm areas.

WHITE WAGTAIL Motacilla alba : fairly common in cultivated areas

outside Huang Nian Shan.

OLIVE TREE-PIPIT Anthus hodgsoni: several on 24 April 1986; two on 26

April 1987.

ROSY PIPIT Anthus roseatus : two on 24 April 1986.

BLACK-WINGED CUCKOO-SHRIKE Coracina melaschistos: one on 27

and 28 April and two on 1 May, 1987.

LONG-TAILED MINIVET Pericrocotus ethologus: several on 24 April 1986

at 1,300m.

COLLARED FINCHBILL Spizixos semitorques: 2-8 daily in edge and

second-growth.

MOUNTAIN BULBUL Hypsipetes mcclellandii: 4-10 daily. Active nest

found on 29 April 1987.

BLACK BULBUL Hypsipetes leucocephalus: one on 29 April 1987.

SILVER ORIOLE Oriolus mellianus: three on 7 May 1986.

HAIR-CRESTED DRONGO Dicrurus hottentottus: 2-12 daily.

EURASIAN JAY Garrulus glandarius: 3-15 daily.

BLUE MAGPIE Urocissa erythrorhyncha: 3-8 daily.

LARGE-BILLED CROW Corvus macrorhynchos: 3-8 daily.

66

B. KING

Forktail 4

WHITE-CROWNED FORKTAIL Enicurus leschenaulti : one on 30 April

1987.

PURPLE COCHOA Cochoa purpurea-, one female seen on 7 May 1986; one

heard on 28 April 1987.

GREY BUSHCHAT Saxicola ferrea : one on 24 April and 7 May 1986 on cut¬

over area.

RIVER CHAT Chaimarromis leucocephalus : one on 24 May 1986.

[BLUE WHISTLING THRUSH Myophonus caeruleus : one between Mabian

and Huang Nian Shan on 26 April.]

SCALY THRUSH Zoothera dauma: two heard on 29 April and one on 1 May

(first arrival perhaps on 29 April).

EYE-BROWED THRUSH Turdus obscurus: 15 on 29 April, one on 30 April

and three on 1 May 1987.

RUFOUS-TAILED THRUSH Turdus naumanni naumanni : one on 30 April

1987.

STREAK-BREASTED SCIMITAR-BABBLER Pomatorhinus ruficollis : 5-

20 daily.

PYGMY WREN-BABBLER Pnoepyga pusilla: one on 26 April, six on 29

April, and one on 1 May 1987; one on 7 May 1986.

RUFOUS-CAPPED BABBLER Stachyris ruficeps: 3-10 daily.

WHITE-THROATED LAUGHINGTHRUSH Garrulax albogulans: 1-15

most days.

MOUSTACHED LAUGHINGTHRUSH Garrulax cineraceus : one on 29

April 1987.

RUSTY LAUGHINGTHRUSH Garrulax poecilorhyncha : 2-20 daily.

[WHITE-BROWED LAUGHINGTHRUSH Garrulax sannio : several near

Huang Nian Shan at 1,100m on 24 April 1986 in roadside scrub.]

RED-WINGED LAUGHINGTHRUSH Garrulax formosus: 2-6 daily.

RED-BILLED LEIOTHRIX Leiothnx lutea : 25-50 daily.

GOLDEN-BREASTED FULVETTA Alcippe chrysotis : four at 1,300m on

24 April 1986; one on 27 and 30 April 1987.

DUSKY FULVETTA Alcippe brunnea : one on 29 April, two on 30 April,

and one on 1 May 1987; three on 7 May 1986.

GREY-CHEEKED FULVETTA Alcippe morrisonia: 2-10 daily.

BLACK-HEADED SIBIA Heterophasia melanoleuca : one on 28-29 April

1987; four on 7 May 1986.

1989

Birds at Huang Nian Shan

67

STRIPE-THROATED YUHINA Yuhina gulans: one on 1 May 1987.

WHITE-COLLARED YUHINA Yuhina diademata : 1-6 most days.

BLACK-CHINNED YUHINA Yuhina nigrimenta: 4-12 daily.

[ASHY-THROATED PARROTBILL Paradoxomis alphonsianus: 12 in

roadside scrub near Huang Nian Shan on 24 April 1986.]

GOLDEN PARROTBILL Paradoxomis verreauxi : two on 28 April 1987 at

1,400m in bamboo.

GREY-HEADED PARROTBILL Paradoxomis gularis: 1-20 daily.

IBROWNISH-FLANKED BUSH-WARBLER Cettia fortipes: 6-15 daily.

GREY-SIDED BUSH-WARBLER Cettia brunnifrons: one on 29 April 1987,

probably a late migrant or winter visitor.

SPOTTED BUSH-WARBLER Bradyptems thoracicus: one on 29-30 April

and 30 May 1987; three on 24 April and 7 May 1986.

[TICKELL’S LEAF-WARBLER Phylloscopus affinis: several near Huang

Nian Shan in roadside scrub at 1,100 m on 24 April 1986.]

[BUFF-THROATED WARBLER Phylloscopus subaffinis: several near

Huang Nian Shan in roadside scrub at 1,100m on 24 April 1986.]

LEMON-RUMPED WARBLER Phylloscopus proregulus : several 24 April

1986; one on 26 April 1987.

LARGE-BILLED LEAF-WARBLER Phylloscopus magnirostris : two on 7

May 1986.

EBLYTH’S LEAF-WARBLER Phylloscopus reguloides: 1-10 daily. One

mest-building on ground on 29 April 1987.

tCHESTNUT-CROWNED WARBLER Seicercus castaniceps: 5-15 daily.

GOLDEN-SPECTACLED WARBLER Seicercus burkii : 3-20 daily.

iRUFOUS-FACED WARBLER Abroscopus albogularis: two on 26 April

1987.

FRED-THROATED FLYCATCHER Ficedula parva: three on 24 April

1986.

SSNOWY-BROWED FLYCATCHER Ficedula hyperythra : 2-8 daily.

sSLATY-BLUE FLYCATCHER Ficedula tricolor: one on 27 April 1987.

[IFUJIAN NILTAVA Niltava davidi: one on 7 May 1986 and another on 26

April 1987 were believed to be this species.]

( CHINESE FLYCATCHER Cyomis glaucicomans (I judge this a good species

distinct from C. rubeculoides ): 1-4 daily; eight on 7 May 1986.

68

B. KING

Forktail 4

VERDITER FLYCATCHER Muscicapa thalassina: several 24 April 1986;

one on 26 April 1987.

GREY-HEADED FLYCATCHER Culicicapa ceylonensis: 1-5 most days.

BLACK-THROATED TIT Aegithalos concinnus : 3-10 most days.

YELLOW-BELLIED TIT Pams venustulus : two on 28 April 1987.

[GREAT TIT Pams major : 1 on 26 April 1987 between Mabian and Huang

Nian Shan.]

GREEN-BACKED TIT Pams monticolus: 6-20 daily.

YELLOW-CHEEKED TIT Pams spilonotus: 2 on 29 April 1987.

CHESTNUT-VENTED NUTHATCH Sitta nagaensis: 1-4 daily. An active

nest on 29 April- 1 May. Not listed for Sichuan by Li (1980).

WHITE-EYE sp. Zosterops (japonicus ?): flock of unidentified white-eyes

heard 29 April- 1 May.

RUSSET SPARROW Passer mtilans: several near and at Huang Nian Shan

in roadside scrub and tree farm areas on 24 April and one on 7 May 1986.

EURASIAN TREE-SPARROW Passer montanus: near settlements between

Mabian and Huang Nian Shan.

GREY-CAPPED GREENFINCH Carduelis sinica: common in the tree farm

and settlements.

BLACK-HEADED GREENFINCH Carduelis ambigua: 1 male at western

(tree farm) edge of Huang Nian Shan on 24 April 1986.

VINACEOUS ROSEFINCH Carpodacus vinaceus : 1 on 29 April 1987.

LITTLE BUNTING Emberiza pusilla : several on 24 April 1986 and four on

26 April 1987 in secondary scrub and tree farm.

YELLOW-THROATED BUNTING Emberiza elegans: fairly common in

second-growth and tree farm areas 24 April 1986, 26 April and 1 May 1987.

BLACK-FACED BUNTING Emberiza spodocephala: several in second-

growth and tree farm areas on 24 April 1986.

REFERENCE

Li Guiyuan (1980) Aves. Sichuan Fauna Economica 1: 96-145.

B. King, c/o Bird Department, American Museum of Natural History, Central Park West at 79th

Street, New York, NY 10024-5192, U.S.A.

FORKTAIL 4 (1989): 69-76

Birds observed at Dafengding Panda

Reserve, Mabian county, southern

Sichuan, China

BEN KING

From 25 April to 6 May 1986 I ran a KingBird Tours ornithological

expedition to Dafengding Panda Reserve, in the range of mountains west of

Mabian city, Mabian county, southern Sichuan, south-west China. The

reserve is administered by the Sichuan Forestry Department, which also

operated the expedition. Expedition members were: Leslie Hogan, Walter

Krawiec, W. Graham Metson, Roy Woodall and myself. Our Forestry

Department interpreter was Wu Baihui.

The reserve ranges from perhaps 1,000 to 4,000m. We camped during our

entire stay as follows: 1,100m, 25-27 April; 1,800m, 27 April-1 May;

2,500m, 1-4 May; 1,800m, 4-5 May; 1,500m 5-6 May. The part of the

reserve above about 1,700 m was mostly primary forest. Below that there

were fingers of primary forest, a bit of secondary forest, and much scrub and

cultivation. Bamboo was abundant in the understorey from about 1,100 to

2,600m. We heard a Giant Panda Ailuropoda melanoleuca at 1,800m and

found lots of scat. All camps but the first were on a broad track that cuts

through the reserve and is fairly heavily travelled by the local Yi people. The

weather was dismal and rainy most of the time, reducing our field time and

our observations.

The objective of the expedition was to find the Sichuan Hill-Partridge

Arborophila rufipectus and the Gold-fronted Fulvetta Alcippe variegaticeps , as

well as to do a general avifaunal survey. We failed to find the partridge,

although we found it subsequently in a rather drier and perhaps different

type of forest in another part of Mabian county (see King, Forktail, this

issue). It remains possible that the partridge exists in another part of

Dafengding, but I believe it does not exist in the section of the reserve we

covered as it certainly would have been calling and noticeable if it did.

However, we found the rare and local Gold-fronted Fulvetta, the first record

for Mabian county, but saw four birds only, suggesting the species is not

common. I feel this species should be classified as threatened, because it is

known from only a few localities and may not be common in any of them.

We also found five Blue-fronted Robins Cinclidium frontale, apparently

only the second record for China. They probably breed here. Two specimens

of the rare Slaty Bunting Latoucheomis siemsseni were found behaving

territorially, a long distance from their known breeding grounds in northern

Sichuan and Shaanxi province. Several Purple Cochoas Cochoa purpurea

were heard, and the first records of Grey-hooded Parrotbills Paradoxomis

zappeyi in Mabian county were obtained.

70

B. KING

Forktail 4

Square brackets signify uncertain identification, or records outside the

locality in question.

ANNOTATED LIST

EURASIAN SPARROWHAWK Accipiter nisus: singles at 1,000 m on 25

April and 1,200 m on 27 April; single accipiters probably this species at

1,900m on 28 April, 2,200m on 4 May, and 1,500m on 6 May.

COMMON BUZZARD Buteo buteo\ three at 2,500m on 2 May.

GOLDEN EAGLE Aquila chrysaetos: one at 2,500m on 2 May.

NORTHERN HOBBY Falco subbuteo : one at 2,500m on 2 May.

TEMMINCK’S TRAGOPAN Tragopan temminckii: fairly common 1,500-

2,500m.

LADY AMHERST’S PHEASANT Chrysolophus amherstiae: common 1,000-

1,500m in secondary scrub.

[WEDGE-TAILED PIGEON Treron sphenura : two birds, believed to be this

species, heard on 28 April at 1,800 m.]

ORIENTAL TURTLE-DOVE Streptopelia orientalis: fairly common up to

1,300m.

LARGE HAWK-CUCKOO Cuculus sparverioides : fairly common 1,500-

2,500m.

ORIENTAL CUCKOO Cuculus saturatus: fairly common 1,500-2, 500m.

ORIENTAL SCOPS-OWL Otus sunia : common 1,500- 1,800m.

COLLARED OWLET Glaucidium brodiei : one at 2,400m on 2 and 4 May.

ASIAN BARRED OWLET Glaucidium cuculoides : one at 1,800 m on 1 May.

TAWNY OWL Strix aluco: one heard on 2 May and two heard on 3 May at

2,500m.

GREY NIGHTJAR Caprimulgus indicus : fairly common at 2,500m, 1-4

May.

FORK-TAILED SWIFT Apus pacificus: eight at 2,200m on 4 May.

GREAT SPOTTED WOODPECKER Picoides major, one at 1,900 m on 28

April and one at 2,400m on 2 and 4 May.

DARJEELING WOODPECKER Picoides darjellensis: two at 2,200m on 1

May.

CRIMSON-BREASTED WOODPECKER Picoides cathphanus : 2-4 daily,

2, 400-2, 500m, 2-4 May.

1989

Birds at Dafengding

71

BAY WOODPECKER Blythipicus pyrrhotis : one at 1,300m, 26 April; one at

2,000m, 1 May; one at 2,400m, 4 May.

HUME’S SHORT-TOED LARK Calandrella acutirostris: one at 2,500m on

2 May on a grassy knoll.

BARN SWALLOW Hirundo rustica : one at 2,500m on 3 May.

ASIAN HOUSE-MARTIN Delichon dasypus : 50 at 1,100m on 26 April.

GREY WAGTAIL Motacilla cinerea: several along river at 1,100m on 27

April and 6 May.

WHITE WAGTAIL Motacilla alba : common in cultivated areas surrounding

Dafengding 25 April and 6 May.

OLIVE TREE-PIPIT Anthus hodgsoni: several at 1,800m on 27 and 28 April

and one on 5 May.

ROSY PIPIT Anthus roseatus: common 1,800-2, 800m, 27 April-5 May.

BLACK-WINGED CUCKOO-SHRIKE Coracina melaschistos: one male at

1,800m on 29 April.

[BROWN-RUMPED MINIVET Pericrocotus cantonensis: two believed to be

this species at 1,000m on 6 May (could have been P. divaricatus ), in

scattered trees amidst cultivation.]

LONG-TAILED MINIVET Pericrocotus ethologus: common 1,000-2, 600m,

25 April-5 May.

MOUNTAIN BULBUL Hypsipetes mcclellandii : two at 1 ,200m on 2 May, in

secondary scrub near village.

BLACK BULBUL Hypsipetes leucocephalus: one at 1,300m on 7 May.

[BLACK DRONGO Dicrurus macrocercus: a loose migratory flock of about

30 in the river valley near Mabian on 25 April and five on 6 May in same

area.]

HAIR-CRESTED DRONGO Dicrurus hottentottus : one at 1,100m on 25

April.

EURASIAN JAY Garrulus glandarius : one at 1,800 m on 30 April and 1 May.

BLUE MAGPIE Urocissa erythrorhyncha: fairly common in cultivated areas

900- 1,300m.

BLACK-BILLED MAGPIE Pica pica: fairly common around cultivated

areas up to 1,300 m.

EURASIAN NUTCRACKER Nucifraga caryocatactes: one or two daily,

1,800-2, 600m, 28 April-4 May.

LARGE-BILLED CROW Corvus macrorhynchos: a few daily up to 2,800m,

25 April -6 May.

72

B. KING

Forktail 4

[BROWN DIPPER Cinclus pallasii : one on 25 April and four on 6 May on

river outside Dafengding.]

RUFOUS-BREASTED ACCENTOR Prunella strophiata: one at 2,300 m on

1, 2, and 4 May.

MAROON-BACKED ACCENTOR Prunella immaculata: four at 1,800m

on 29 April.

INDIAN BLUE ROBIN Erithacus brunneus: one at 1,800m on 1 May.

ORANGE-FLANKED BUSH-ROBIN Tarsiger cyanurus: one at 2,400m on

3 May.

WHITE-BROWED BUSH-ROBIN Tarsiger indicus: 2-5 daily, 2,400-

2,500m, 1-4 May.

PLUMBEOUS REDSTART Rhyacomis fuliginosus: common along streams

up to 1,100 m.

BLUE-FRONTED ROBIN Cinclidium frontale : one seen and four others

heard 2, 100- 2, 300m on 4 May. The bird we saw responded strongly to tape

playback, behaving territorially suggesting breeding. This is apparently only

the second record for this species in China, the only other record being also

from south-central Sichuan.

SLATY-BACKED FORKTAIL Enicurus schistaceus: one or two along river

at 1,100m, 25-26 April and 6 May.

SPOTTED FORKTAIL Enicurus maculatus: two at 1,100m on 26/27 April.

PURPLE COCHOA C ochoa purpurea: two heard on 28 April and one heard

on 1 May at 1,800m; one heard at 2,300m on 4 May.

STONECHAT Saxicola torquata : one at 1,800m, 1 May.

RIVER CHAT Chaimarromis leucocephalus: fairly common along river and

streams up to 1,100 m.

[BLUE ROCKTHRUSH Monticola solitarius: common along river and

bluffs at 700-900m near Dafengding, 25 April and 6 May.]

SCALY THRUSH Zoothera dauma: one heard on 28 April and two heard on

1 May at 1,800m.

STREAK-BREASTED SCIMITAR-BABBLER Pomatorhinus ruficollis : 1-

5 daily, 27 April- 1 May, and 4 May, 1,800-2, 000m.

SCALY-BREASTED WREN-BABBLER Pnoepyga albiventer : 1-10 daily,

2, 300-2, 600m, 1-4 May.

PYGMY WREN-BABBLER Pnoepyga pusilla: 1-5 daily, 1,700- 1,900m,

27 April- 1 May and 4-5 May.

RUFOUS-CAPPED BABBLER Stachyris ruficeps: fairly common at 1,100m,

26-27 April.

1989

Birds at Dafengding

73

CHINESE BABAX Babax lanceolatus : five at 1,500m, 6 May.

SPOTTED LAUGHINGTHRUSH Garrulax ocellatus: 1-4 daily, 1,500-

2,500m, 1-6 May.

BLACK-FACED LAUGHINGTHRUSH Garrulax affinis : four on 2 May at

2,400 m.

RED-BILLED LEIOTHRIX Leiothrix lutea: common 1,100-1, 800m, 26

April- 1 May and 6 May.

WHITE-BROWED SHRIKE-BABBLER Pteruthius flaviscapis: one on 30

April and five on 1 May at 1,800m, two at 2,000m on 4 May.

RED-TAILED MINLA Minla ignotincta : fairly common 1,700- 1,900m,

27-30 April and 4-5 May (2-10 daily).

GOLDEN-BREASTED FULVETTA Alcippe chrysotis: one daily 2,300-

2,400m, 1-3 May.

(GOLD-FRONTED FULVETTA Alcippe variegaticeps : two pairs at 1,200 m

con 26 April in bamboo in secondary forest. This is the first record of this rare

sspecies for Mabian county.

STREAK-THROATED FULVETTA Alcippe cinereiceps: 1-20 daily 1 ,800—

2,600m, 28 April-4 May.

GREY-CHEEKED FULVETTA Alcippe morrisonia: six at 1,300m on 26

April.

.'STRIPE-THROATED YUHINA Yuhina gularis : 5-10 daily, 2,300-2,600 m.

'WHITE-COLLARED YUHINA Yuhina diademata : five at 1,100 m on 27

April.

FBLACK-CHINNED YUHINA Yuhina nigrimenta: 25 at 1,200- 1,300m on

'26 April.

GREAT PARROTBILL Conostoma aemodium: 1-10 daily, 2, 300-2, 600m,

1-4 May.

THREE-TOED PARROTBILL Paradoxomis paradoxus : 10 on 2 May and

esight on 3 May, 2,400-2,600 m.

tGREY-HOODED PARROTBILL Paradoxomis zappeyi : two at 2,400m, 1

May. This is the first record for Mabian county for this rare species.

IFULVOUS PARROTBILL Paradoxomis fulvifrons : two at 2,400m and two

ait 2,600m on 3 May.

(GOLDEN PARROTBILL Paradoxomis verreauxi: eight at 1,300m on 26

April.

(CHESTNUT-HEADED TESIA Tesia castaneocoronata: 1-5 most days,

l, 800-2, 400m, 28 April-5 May.

74

B. KING

Forktail 4

BROWNISH-FLANKED BUSH-WARBLER Cettia fortipes: common

1,000-2, 200m, 25 April-6 May.

CHESTNUT-CROWNED BUSH-WARBLER Cettia major, one at 2,400m

on 2 and 3 May.

ABERRANT BUSH-WARBLER Cettia flavolivacea : 1-2 daily, 2,300-

2,500m, 2-4 May.

YELLO WISH-BELLIED BUSH-WARBLER Cettia acanthizoides: 3-8

daily, 2, 200-2, 600m, 1-4 May.

SPOTTED BUSH-WARBLER Bradypterus thoracicus : 1-2 daily, 1,800m,

28 April- 1 May; 3-7 daily, 1,500- 1,800m, 4-6 May.

BROWN BUSH-WARBLER Bradypterus luteoventris : a pair at 1,800m, 29-

30 April and 5 May.

BUFF-BARRED WARBLER Phylloscopus pulcher: common 1,800-2, 800m

(3-50 daily), 27 April-4 May.

LEMON-RUMPED WARBLER Phylloscopus proregulus: common 1,100-

2,600m (2-30 daily), 26 April-4 May.

ASHY-THROATED WARBLER Phylloscopus maculipennis: 1-4 daily,

1,800-2, 000m, 28 April-1 May.

LARGE-BILLED LEAF-WARBLER Phylloscopus magnirostris : 1-5 daily,

1.100- 1,900m, 26-28 April, 1 May and 6 May.

GREENISH WARBLER Phylloscopus trochiloides : one at 2,400m on 1 May.

BLYTH’S LEAF-WARBLER Phylloscopus reguloides: common to abundant,

1.100- 2, 200m, 26 April- 1 May, 4-5 May.

CHESTNUT-CROWNED WARBLER Seicercus castaniceps: one at 1,200m

on 26 May.

GOLDEN-SPECTACLED WARBLER Seicercus burkii: common (3-40

daily) 1,100-2, 200m, 26 April- 1 May, and 4-6 May.

RUFOUS-GORGETED FLYCATCHER Ficedula strophiata : common (2-

20 daily), 1,100-2, 600m, 26 April-5 May.

SNOWY-BROWED FLYCATCHER Ficedula hyperythra: uncommon (1-3

daily) 1,800-2, 000m, 28-30 April and 4 May.

SLATY-BLUE FLYCATCHER Ficedula tricolor: fairly common (2-6

daily) 1,200-2, 000m, 26-30 April and 4 May; one at 2,400m on 2 May.

[FUJIAN NILTAVA Niltava davidi: one on 30 April, three on 4 May and

two on 5 May at 1,800m were believed to be this species.]

[RUFOUS-BELLIED NILTAVA Niltava sundara: one at 1,300m on 26

April and another at 1,100m on 27 April were believed to be this species.]

1989

Birds at Dafengding

75

BROWN-BREASTED FLYCATCHER Muscicapa mutiui : four at 1,100-

1,200m on 26 April.

VERDITER FLYCATCHER Muscicapa thalassina : two at 2,000m on 1

May.

GREY-HEADED FLYCATCHER Culicicapa ceylonensis: common 1 , 100 —

1,300m on 26-27 April, 2-6 daily 1,800-2, 400m, 1-2 and 4 May.

FIRE-CAPPED TIT Cephalopyrus flammiceps : 10 on 28 April, two on 1 May

and one on 4 May, 1,800-2, 000m.

RUFOUS-BELLIED TIT Parus rubidiventris: common 2, 400-2, 800m, 1-

3 May.

COAL TIT Parus ater: four on 2 May and two on 3 May, 2,500m.

YELLOW-BELLIED TIT Parus venustulus: five at 900 m in trees in village

near cultivation at edge of Dafengding on 25 April; eight on 26 April, 1,100-

1,300m; one at 1,800m on 30 April.

GREY-CRESTED TIT Parus dichrous : two on 2 May and four on 3 May at

2,400-2, 600m.

GREEN-BACKED TIT Parus monticolus : common 1,100-2, 200m, 26

April- 1 May and 4-5 May; two at 2,400m, 2 May.

YELLOW-BROWED TIT Sylviparus modestus: 4-6 daily 1,800-2, 000m;

common (12-25 daily) 2,400-2,800 m.

COMMON TREECREEPER Certhia familiaris: two at 1,800m on 27 April;

two at 2,200 m on 4 May.

GOULD’S SUNBIRD Aethopyga gouldiae : fairly common 27 April-6 May,

1,500-2, 500m.

CHESTNUT-FLANKED WHITE-EYE Zosterops erythropleura: two at

2,400m on 2 May.

JAPANESE WHITE-EYE Zosterops japonicus : flock of 15 in village at 900 m

near Dafengding 25 April; three at 1,100m on 26 April; one at 1,800m on 30

April; 10 at 2,500m, 3 May; three at 2,400m, 4 May.

BLANFORD’S ROSEFINCH Carpodacus rubescens : two at 2,700m, 3 May;

two at 2,400m, 4 May.

DARK-BREASTED ROSEFINCH Carpodacus nipalensis : one at 1,800 m

on 28-30 April; one at 2,500m, 3 May.

COMMON ROSEFINCH Carpodacus erythrinus: one at 1,500m on 27 April.

GREY-HEADED BULLFINCH Pyrrhula erythaca: one or two daily 29-30

April, 2-5 May, 1,800-2, 600m.

SLATY BUNTING Latoucheomis siemsseni : a male behaving territorially at

76

B. KING

Forktail 4

1,800m, 28 April- 1 May and on 5 May. Another male behaving territorially

on 4 May about 300m from the first. Both were in second-growth scrub in a

logged and heavily grazed valley in the forest. The territorial behaviour

suggests possible breeding. The only known breeding areas are in southern

Shaanxi and extreme northern Sichuan provinces. This would be a

significant breeding range extension if confirmed. Territorial behaviour

consisted of very strong and agitated response to playback of the respective

birds’ song.

EURASIAN ROCK-BUNTING Emberiza cia: common in cultivation edge

and second-growth scrub around Dafengding, 1,100- 1,400m.

YELLOW-THROATED BUNTING Emberiza elegans : several 1,000-

1,100m in secondary scrub on 27 April; one at 1,100m, 6 May.

B. King, do Bird Department, American Museum of Natural History, Central Park West at 79th

Street, New York, NY 10024-5192, U.S.A.

FORKTAIL 4 (1989): 77-87

Observations of Relict Gulls

Larus relictus on passage at Beidaihe,

People’s Republic of China

DAVID N. BAKEWELL, GEOFFREY J. CAREY,

DANIEL G. DUFF, JOHN PALFERY, ALAN PARKER and

MARTIN D. WILLIAMS

Relict Gulls were recorded on passage at Beidaihe in the autumns of 1986, 1987 and the

spring of 1988. Most of the birds were in first-winter plumage, which had been previously

unreported. Detailed descriptions of this plumage reveal the salient features of white head,

dark bare parts, hindneck streaking and distinctive wing and tail pattern. Brief notes on

adult winter and probable second-winter plumages are also given.

In the autumns of 1986 and 1987, and in spring 1988, numbers of Relict

Gulls Larus relictus were seen on passage on the coast of the Gulf of Bohai, at

Beidaihe, Hebei province, People’s Republic of China. The status of this

little-known gull was summarized by Kitson (1980) and Melville (1984), and

the current and historical position of the species in China is to be the subject

of a subsequent communication (Bakewell, Duff and Williams in prep.).

The observations at Beidaihe are the first concentration of sightings away

from the breeding areas, and were mostly of birds in previously undescribed

winter plumages (although photographs of a first-winter bird at Beidaihe in

autumn 1987 have recently been annotated by Grant 1988). Immature Relict

Gulls have previously been described in juvenile (Auezov 1971, Kitson 1980)

and first-summer (Fisher 1985) plumages. This paper summarizes the dates

of occurrence, behaviour and plumage details of the species at Beidaihe.

Terminology follows Grant (1986).

DATES OF OCCURRENCE

The first record of Relict Gull at Beidaihe was of an adult, in moult from

summer to winter plumage, on 23 August 1986. It was present for less than

half an hour after initial observation, before flying south with Common

Black-headed Gulls L. ridibundus. This, and all subsequent observations

during autumn 1986, were made on the Heng-Ho (Heng He) estuary, known

as the ‘Sand Flats’ (Williams 1986, Williams et al. 1986). Two first-winter

birds were recorded on 8 September, and thenceforth up to seven first-

winters were present until the China Cranewatch expedition left Beidaihe on

20 November. The sedentary nature of these birds (they could be seen at any

state of the tide or time of the day) and their habitual preference for

particular areas on the Sand Flats suggested that a small number of birds

78

D. N. BAKEWELL el al.

Forktail 4

relative to bird-days was involved. Further evidence to support this theory

was provided by the presence of an individual with blackish coloration on the

breast, presumably some form of feather contamination, from 19 October to

at least 2 November.

In autumn 1987, the first Relict Gull observation was of an adult in

breeding plumage flying north on 29 July (birdwatchers being present from

26 to 29 July). When observers returned on 18 August, the species was

recorded in every week, apart from the first half of November, until the end

of the survey, on 30 November. A daily maximum of seven birds was

recorded on 18 October. First-winter birds again predominated. Although

the details of ages of all birds are incomplete, observations also included two

adults in winter plumage, one on 10 and one on 16 October, and a probable

second-winter bird on 15 October.

Despite coverage during spring 1985, 1986 and 1987, Reflet Gulls were

not recorded on return migration until spring 1988. Then the only

observations were of a single adult at the Sand Flats on 19 and 20 April, and

of eight adults flying south, calling, over the Yang-Ho (Yang He) estuary to

the south of Beidaihe on 25 April. All these birds were in full summer

plumage.

The timing of the migration in 1986 and 1987 is represented by a

histogram (see Figure).

Figure. The occurrence of Relict Gull at Beidaihe in the autumns of 1986 and 1987, expressed in terms

of number of bird-days recorded in ten-day periods.

1989

Passage Relict Gulls in China

79

BEHAVIOUR AND HABITAT PREFERENCE

In 1986 the behaviour of first-winter Relict Gulls was consistently different

from that of other gull species present in numbers (Common Black-headed,

Mew L. canus kamschatschensis, Vega L. vegae and Yellow-legged Gulls L.

cachinnans mongolicus) . Gulls favoured four localities covered by the survey:

the Yang-Ho and Tai-Ho (Dai He) river estuaries, both characterised by the

appearance of reasonably extensive mudflats at low tide, the Heng-Ho Sand

Flats and, to a lesser extent, the Heng-Ho reservoir and surrounding

fishponds (for map, see Williams 1986, Williams et al. 1986). In autumn

1986 Reflet Gulls were recorded only from the Heng-Ho Sand Flats. This

was a very extensive, largely sandy area surrounding the narrow tidal Heng-

Ho river channel. Within it the Reflet Gulls preferred the river and its gently

shelving banks, and drier sandy areas well away from both the river and the

tideline. They were rarely seen on the muddier areas and tideline, preferred

by most gulls using the area. Perhaps as a result of this different habitat

preference, Reflet Gulls rarely associated with other species, although two

were observed roosting with Common Black-headed Gulls on one occasion.

They sometimes walked through groups of loafing gulls of other species, but

did not join such flocks. Twice, interspecific antagonism from Common

Black-headed and Mew Gulls was noted when Reflet Gulls strayed into areas

frequented by the other species. Kitson (1980) noted the normally

unsociable nature of the species at Orok Nor, Mongolia.

Unlike the four commoner gulls, which followed a regular feeding and

roosting cycle dependent on the state of the tide, the Reflet Gulls were

constantly active during daylight hours. Occasionally one would spend a few

minutes preening or standing motionless, but roosting was observed only

once. Most of their time was spent walking apparently aimlessly, or more

obviously searching for food. The birds sometimes fed in the river channel,

upending in the manner of a dabbling duck Anas, but most foraging was on

the Sand Flats themselves. Here the hunting posture was very erect, with the

neck stretched and the head held high. At breeding sites, by contrast, the

birds adopt a hunched horizontal posture, with head held low, when looking

for food (S. C. Madge, in Harrison 1985). Zubakin and Flint (1980) report

that at nesting time the birds feed predominantly on small Diptera flies. The

hunched posture and low elevation of the head would presumably facilitate

the location of small abundant prey on or just above the ground. At Beidaihe

the only identified prey items were small crabs, seen taken in one instance in

1986. The erect posture would presumably help in detecting such relatively

large, scattered prey. Two first-winter birds on 17 and 18 November 1987 at

the Heng-Ho Sand Flats were seen to take crabs, from both shallow water

and exposed sand. The crabs were swallowed whole, and neither washed nor

dismembered. It seems likely that crabs and items of similar size make up a

significant part of the diet outside the breeding season. Zhuravlev (1975)

records fish and Crustacea as well as insects amongst prey items taken by

80

D. N. BAKEWELL et al.

Forktail 4

Relict Gull. Small insects were generally not abundant on the Sand Flats,

and were almost certainly absent late in the autumn, whereas small crabs

were evident for much of the period. However, an inspection of the site on

20 November 1986 revealed only a few shellfish, and no crabs (or insects),

the area having become drier due to less frequent tidal covering. Conditions

were such that few species continued to feed on the Sand Flats, Mew and

Common Black-headed Gulls preferring some nearby drained fishponds.

Nevertheless the remaining Relict Gulls continued to feed in this area.

Although the Relict Gulls showed no tendency to flock with other species,

they tended to associate loosely with one another. Occasionally, more

obvious social behaviour was observed, when three or four birds would chase

each other vigorously, both on the ground and in the air, calling frequently.

In autumn 1987, many of the Relict Gulls recorded at Beidaihe were

observed on the south side of the Yang-Ho estuary, approximately 4.5 km

south of the Heng-Ho Sand Flats. This area had been inaccessible the

previous year, so the species may well have used the site in 1986. The

turnover rate in 1987 was more rapid than in 1986, the longest staying bird

being present for only three days. Turnover was particularly fast at the

Yang-Ho, and feeding and roosting behaviour was similar to that of other

gulls present. The birds were seen at or shortly after dawn, and appeared to

be resting prior to onward migration; they departed when local people

arrived to tend their fishponds. Nine birds were recorded passing straight

over Beidaihe.

STRUCTURE AND GENERAL APPEARANCE

OF FIRST-WINTER BIRDS

As mentioned above, gull species available for comparison at Beidaihe in

1986 were Common Black-headed, Mew, Vega and Yellow-legged. The

Relict Gulls appeared almost twice as bulky as Common Black-headed when

on the ground, substantially smaller than Vega and Yellow-legged, and very

slightly bigger and longer-legged than Mew (L. c. kamschatschensis being

noticeably larger than the nominate race). On the ground the first- winter

Relict Gulls were very distinctive (see cover). The contrast between the

generally pale plumage and dark bare parts was striking. The white head

showed no trace of a hood. Also distinctive were the blackish-centred,

broadly white-tipped tertials and extensive tibial feathering. Even when

plumage details were not discernible, the posture and structure of the birds

was characteristic. When walking, the Relict Gulls had an erect stance, with

thick neck extended, a full breast and deep chest, and with the line of the back

approaching 45°. The high-stepping, elegant, rolling gait was reminiscent of

a starling Stumus. When taking prey, the head was held low, the neck

hunched, and the line of the back horizontal.

In flight, the wings appeared longer and more pointed than those of Mew

1989

Passage Relict Gulls in China

81

Plates 1 and 2. Relict Gulls in first-winter plumage at Beidaihe, September 1987. (P. C. Noakes, S.

Jensen)

82

D. N. BAKEWELL el al.

Forktail 4

Gull. The wingtips curved upwards slightly, and the flight action was rather

stiff-winged. The legs were occasionally held half-lowered during short

flights. As mentioned by Fisher (1985) the upperwing pattern is distinctive

when seen well (see Plate 1 and 2). From a distance, when the wing covert

markings were poorly visible, the overall impression was of a gull resembling

a pale second-year Mew Gull. However these wing covert markings were

variable in prominence, and on some individuals were strong enough to form

the ‘W’ pattern seen on some smaller gull species in first-year plumage. Also

of variable prominence was a rather poorly marked secondary bar.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF FIRST-WINTER BIRDS

Bare parts

Iris dark. Legs looked proportionately long, usually dark grey or black, but

tinged olive on one individual and brownish on another. Bill appeared short,

thick and rather pointed compared to that of other large gulls. Culmen

length roughly equal to distance between front of eye and culmen base.

Culmen straight for basal two-thirds, gently curved towards tip. Lower edge

of lower mandible angled distinctly upwards at gonys, contributing to

pointed bill-tip shape. Culmen only three-quarters as long as lower edge of

bill, due to extensive forehead feathering, which extended almost to nostril,

thus enhancing the short, thick appearance of bill. Head feathering often

appeared to cover the gape. This extent of head feathering led to unusual

facial expression perhaps most comparable to Audouin’s Gull L. audouinii.

Bill colour variable, sometimes all black, particularly early in autumn,

otherwise black-tipped, with basal third to half greenish-olive or grey,

becoming paler towards base; at a distance, appeared wholly black. Two

birds seen in mid-November 1987 had significantly paler bare parts than

those on birds of the early autumn. In particular the bill base on one was

markedly pale (fleshy grey?), making the bill appear more slender and not

unlike that of first-winter Mew Gull, and the legs were grey with a fleshy

tone, especially to the feet. Mouth pink.

Head

Forehead, crown, lores, ear coverts, chin, throat, foreneck white. Crescents

above and below eye white, but thick and readily visible. Indistinct grey eye

crescent (in front of eye). This was sufficient to give a somewhat slit-eyed

appearance at times. One individual showed small dark mark immediately

behind eye, but this was not usual. When forehead feathers raised, forehead

steep, head peaking just in front of eye, flat crown sloping slightly

downwards to sharply angled rear crown, creating rather square head-shape.

When lowered, forehead slope gentler, head peak at rear of crown, creating

head-shape more reminiscent of Great Black-headed Gull L. ichthyaetus.

Nape white or lightly flecked with small dark spots, often appearing slightly

1989

Passage Relict Gulls in China

83

shaggy. Hindneck densely flecked with small, well defined, slightly crescentic

dark brown to gingery spots. Markings at base of hindneck thinner and more

crescentic, extending onto sides of neck and breast, where sparser, and

occasionally forming poorly defined virtually complete collar. Extent of

hindneck spotting variable, and probably very susceptible to wear. Neck

appears thick and well feathered, especially from behind, in accordance with

other observations of Relict Gull (D. J. Fisher verbally), and sometimes

appears ruffed.

Upperparts

Mantle and scapulars pale grey, similar in colour to those of Common Black¬

headed Gull. Some individuals retained a few juvenile scapulars, which had

cold mid-brown subterminal crescents. Rear scapular fringed, or totally,

white. Marginal coverts white. Lesser coverts cold mid-brown, fringed

white; or pale grey, tipped white (a few of the latter only, usually outer

coverts). Extent and prominence of brown marking variable. Inner two or

three median coverts largely cold mid-brown, with base of outer web pale

grey. Remaining median coverts pale grey with cold mid-brown subterminal

arrowheads or chevrons, extending slightly up feather shafts. Greater coverts

pale grey, tipped white, with cold mid-brown subterminal chevrons usually

present on outers, and more prominent and always present on inner four or

five. Tertials large and rounded, with very broad white fringes, and black or

dark brown central spots; shaft of uppermost tertial occasionally showed

white, and the black mark on this feather had white centre on some

individuals. Dark feather centres to tertials generally rather striking on

Beidaihe birds, but tertials almost wholly white ‘with small brown

subterminal spots’ on the first-summer seen in early June 1983 (Fisher

1985). This is probably the effect of wear and fading on these feathers, but

may perhaps indicate a spring tertial moult, which occurs on some small and

medium-sized species in their first spring (Grant 1986).

Secondaries had black or dark brown subterminal spots, probably

extending to base of feathers, with white edges and broad white tips. These

dark areas were partially obscured by the greater coverts in flight, and

completely so at rest, so never obvious. Less prominent on outer three or

four secondaries on some birds (P. C. Noakes in litt. 1988). The effect was of

a row of subterminal spots, or ‘pearls’ (Grant 1988), along the trailing edge of

the inner wing, appearing more prominent on some individuals than on

others.

Primaries 10-6 pale grey, tipped white; 10-8 with small black subterminal

spot; 7 with black subterminal bar on inner web; 6 with broad terminal black

bar on inner web and narrow subterminal bar on outer web. Primaries 5-1

predominantly black, with thin white tips; 5,4 and possibly others, had

whitish inner webs with black terminal bar; 5 also had white subterminal

spot on outer web, joined to pale on inner web on some birds, appearing as

isolated mirrors on others. Outer webs of remaining primaries black.

84

D. N. BAKEWELL el at.

Forktail 4

Primary 1 had white subterminal mirror on inner web. Greater primary

coverts white-tipped. Inner four wholly white; outer six with blackish outer

webs, whitish inner webs with blackish subterminal bar. Median primary

coverts wholly pale grey, or pale grey with blackish subterminal spots. Alula

white with black subterminal spot on inner web, or more extensively

blackish, forming isolated dark spot on leading edge when seen head-on.

Four evenly spaced primaries visible on closed wing. White mirror on first

primary only visible on underside of far wing. Primary projection beyond tail

slightly shorter than on Common Black-headed Gull. Rump and uppertail

coverts white. Outer two pairs of tail feathers all white. Remaining tail

feathers white with narrow, well defined, black subterminal band.

Underparts

Breast, belly, vent and undertail coverts white. A few individuals retained

pale brown, white-tipped juvenile flank feathers. White tibial feathering

extensive, covering half tibia length, giving prominent ‘trousered’ effect.

Axillaries, underwing coverts, secondaries, inner primaries and primary

coverts white. Sixth primary had black subterminal spot. Outer five

primaries black, first with small white subterminal mirror. Outer three or

four greater primary coverts black. Thus underwing white with clearly

demarcated black wedge on leading edge of outer wing.

Call

Uttered in autumn 1986 when chasing other Relict Gulls. A nasal

downwardly inflected ‘kyeu’ reminiscent of (first-year) Mediterranean Gull

L. melanocephalus . A similar call, transcribed as a low-pitched, drawn-out

‘ke-arr’, only slightly disyllabic, was noted from the adult birds present on

25 April 1988.

DESCRIPTIONS OF RELICT GULLS

IN OTHER NON-BREEDING PLUMAGES

Second-winter plumage

Brief views of a bird tentatively aged as a second-winter were obtained by

one of the authors (A.P.) on 15 October 1987. The following details were

noted: Bare parts'. Bill black with dark red basal third. Legs black. Head:

White with small black mark behind eye, and marking on nape more

restricted than on first-winter. Upperparts: No markings visible on coverts.

Tertials as first-winter, noted as dark brown with whitish edges. White tips

to primaries more prominent in folded wing than those on an adult bird seen

the following day. The retention of dark-centred tertials by this bird is

noteworthy.

1989

Passage Relict Gulls in China

85

Adult winter plumage

Descriptions of the bare parts and head pattern of Relict Gulls in adult

winter plumage seen on 23 August 1986 (by G.J.C.) and on 16 October 1987

(by A.P.) were as follows: Bare parts: Legs and bill deeper, more scarlet-red

than on Common Black-headed Gull. Bill had narrow grey subterminal area,

and slightly paler tip (1986 individual). Bill and legs quite bright red (1987

individual). Head and neck: Less bull-necked than first-winters (1986).

Head-shape noticeably rounder, less angular, than on first-winters (1987).

Well defined black patch on ear-coverts similar to that on (adult winter)

Mediterranean Gull. Crown streaked above this. Small amount of streaking

on hindneck.

DISCUSSION OF SOME PLUMAGE CHARACTERS

OF FIRST-WINTER RELICT GULLS

The appearance of the first-winter birds at Beidaihe agrees in most respects

with expectations from the published descriptions of other immature

plumages (juvenile and first-summer) of Relict Gull. The first-winter

plumage of gulls should be separated from the juvenile by a late-summer

moult of head and body feathers (Grant 1986). The description of juvenile

plumage by Auezov (1971), summarized by Kitson (1980), reports the

largely white head and brown-spotted hindneck shared by first-winter birds

at Beidaihe. The bare parts description - ‘The beak is black, lightening

somewhat towards the base. Feet dull grey’ - also matches the Beidaihe

birds.

Auezov’s description of remiges and retrices of ‘young, flying’ Relict Gulls

from Kazakhstan is also broadly similar to those of first- winters at Beidaihe,

including the two white outer pairs of tail feathers, which distinguish young

Relict Gull from all the other hooded gulls of the region, as well as from

Mediterranean and Mew Gull. There is however one striking difference.

After an overall description of ‘primary wing-feathers’ as being more black

than those of the adult, followed by individual description of the first to the

seventh ‘wing-feather’ in turn, Auezov then simply states ‘the remaining

feathers are clean white’. Whether this refers to the remaining primaries, or

to the remaining remiges, is unclear. From photographs and descriptions

taken at Beidaihe, it is obvious that first-winters here had particularly

noticeable dark tertial centres, and dark subterminal marks on the inner

primaries and secondaries of variable prominence but apparently consistent

presence. Moreover, Fisher’s (1985) notes on a first-summer Relict Gull

from central Mongolia describe the secondaries as having small dark marks,

in accordance with our observations.

It may be that Auezov is in error in his observation, or that his description

is based on a specimen of an unusual individual, although, as already stated,

the marks on the secondaries are variable in prominence on birds at

86

D. N. BAKEWELL el al.

Forktail 4

Beidaihe. Mukhin (1974) points out that nestlings in Transbaikalia differ

from those from Kazakhstan in being greyish-white with indistinct greyish

spots, rather than pure white. It is not clear whether this difference is a real

one, or one of interpretation, but it does hint at the possibility of plumage

differences between eastern and western populations.

The near-white colour of the downy young is a feature separating Relict Gull

from both Mediterranean Gull and Brown-headed Gull L. brunnicephalus,

and one which allies it with Great Black-headed Gull. The wing patterns of

adult ichthyaetus and relictus are also very similar, as pointed out by Vaurie

(1962). The two species are similar in first-winter plumage, and share some

features unusual for hooded gulls, such as a largely white head and extensive

hindneck mottling. Overall size, and bill proportions, should normally be

sufficient to differentiate between these species. Relict is more superficially

similar to Mew, and Great Black-headed to Vega and Yellow-legged, than

either are to each other. When size and proportions are not discernible, the

broad white secondary tips of relictus distinguish it from ichthyaetus , while

the white outer two pairs of tail feathers are completely diagnostic. Unbarred

axillaries, underwing and rump are additional features that separate Relict

from Mew (and Ring-billed L. delawarensis) Gulls. Confusion with immature

Brown-headed, Black-headed, Black-tailed L. crassirostris and Saunders’s L.

saundersi Gulls is unlikely now, but may have occurred in the past, when

immature plumages were little known, and the existence of relictus

unsuspected (Bakewell, Duff and Williams in prep.). Now that Relict Gull is

on the ornithological map, it seems to be sufficiently distinctive to be

unlikely to be overlooked or mistaken for other species.

The authors should like to thank particularly Paul Noakes and Stig Jensen for providing

photographs, and them and other observers (D. Allen, R. H. Appleby, D. J. Fisher, P. R.

Kennerley, S. A. Stirrup, R. Thorpe and M. R. Turnbull) for providing and collecting

information.

REFERENCES

Auezov, E. M. (1971) [Taxonomic evaluation and systemauc status of Larus relictus.] Zool. J .

Acad. Sci. Moscow 50: 235-242. (In Russian.)

Fisher, D. J. (1985) Observations on Relict Gull in Mongolia. Dutch Birding 7: 117-120.

Grant, P. J. (1986) Gulls: a guide to identification. Second edition. Calton (Staffordshire, U.K.):

T. and A. D. Poyser.

Grant, P. J. (1988) Relict Gulls in China. Birding World 1: 240-241.

Harrison, P. (1985) Seabirds: an identification guide. Revised edition. Beckenham (Kent, U.K.):

Croom Helm.

Kitson, A. R. (1980) Larus relictus - a review. Bull. Brit. Om. Club 100: 178-185.

Melville, D. S. (1984) Seabirds of China and the surrounding seas. Pp. 501-51 1 in J. P. Croxall,

P. G. H. Evans and R. W. Schreiber, eds. Status and conservation of the world’s seabirds.

Cambridge, U.K.: International Council for Bird Preservation (Techn. Publ. 2).

Mukhin, I. (1974) [Relicts from the ancient sea of Tetiss.] Science and Life ( Nauka i Zhizni) 3:

124-126. (In Russian.)

Vaurie, C. (1962) The status of Larus relictus and other hooded gulls from central Asia. Auk 79:

303-309.

1989

Passage Relict Gulls in China

87

Williams, M. D., ed. (1986) Report on the Cambridge Ornithological Expedition to China 1985.

Unpublished.

Williams, M. D., Bakewell, D. N., Carey, G. J. and Holloway, S. J. (1986) On the bird

migration at Beidaihe, Hebei Province, China, during spring 1985. Forktail 2: 3-20.

Zhuravlev, M. N. (1975) [Observations of Larus relictus.] In [Colonies of water birds and their

protection .] Moscow. (In Russian.)

Zubakin, V. A. and Flint, V. E. (1980) Okologie und Verhalten der Relictmowe ( Larus relictus

Lonnb.) Beitr. Vogelkd. 26: 253-275.

David N. Bakewell, c/o Whimbrel Cottage, Wilby, Eye, Suffolk, U.K.

Geoffrey J. Carey, do Barlavington Estate, Petsworth, West Sussex GU28 OLG, U.K.

Daniel G. Duff, 21 Great Eastern Street, Cambridge CB1 3AB, U.K.

John Palfrey, Tolpeth, Burton Row, Brent Knoll, Highbridge, Somerset TA9 4BX, U.K.

Alan Parker, Swigshole, High Halstow, Rochester, Kent ME3 8SR, U.K.

Martin D. Williams, 1IF, 15 Sui Kwai Wan, Cheung Chau, Hong Kong.

FORKTAIL 4 (1989): 89-105

Recovery of a Peninsular Malaysian

rainforest avifauna following selective

timber logging: the first twelve years

ANDREW D. JOHNS

The long-term ecological effects of selective timber logging operations are being studied in

Peninsular Malaysia in a research project initiated in 1979. Results of the initial

ornithological studies were reported in a past volume of Forktail. In 1987, the second phase

of study was undertaken. Results now cover the response of the original rainforest avifauna

to logging and population changes occurring up to 12 years after the logging event.

A very high proportion of birds recorded in unlogged forest had reappeared by 12 years

after logging. Some had not, notably terrestrial litter-gleaning and understorey flycatching

species. The avifauna even in the older logged forests was still dominated by frugivore/

insectivores, however, particularly by bulbuls Pycnonotidae of species uncommon in

unlogged forest. The species-abundance patterns even in older logged forests were

markedly dissimilar to those of primary forest.

INTRODUCTION

Within a few years, almost all lowland dipterocarp forests in Peninsular

(West) Malaysia are likely to be cleared for plantation agriculture (Wells

1985). Only a few reserve areas are likely to remain exempt, and many of

these are designated as timber production areas (Forest Reserves). In total,

Peninsular Malaysia plans to retain 41,000 km2 of dipterocarp forest as

sustained-yield forestry concessions; most of this is upland forest which is

less suitable for conversion to plantations. This amounts to 31% of the

original forests of the country.

Following several years of decline, due mainly to the exhaustion of readily

accessible forests and tightening of government controls on logging activity,

the Malaysian timber industry is currently experiencing a major upturn. Log

production was 15.4% up in 1987, reaching a level of 33.7 millionm3. Prices

increased from an average of US$60/m3 in 1986 to US$75/m3 in 1987, the

highest quality timber peaking at US$1 85/m3. Increased production was,

however, largely a political move, designed to alleviate Malaysia’s economic

problems. Resurgence of other major commodities will allow reduction of

output, particularly of unsawn timber, perhaps by 1990 ( Asiaweek 1988).

To maintain this valuable resource there is considerable commitment

within Malaysia towards the sustainable management of productive forest on

land unsuitable for plantation crops. Forest management is likely to remain

financially viable in the long term. The effect is evident in the large amount

of research being conducted into the scientific basis of sustained-yield

management.

Given the probable persistence of large areas of managed forest and the

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A. D. JOHNS

Forktail 4

considerably smaller areas of totally protected forest, it is important to

consider the extent to which rainforest wildlife can persist in the former.

Logically, the maintenance of a healthy stock of native timber trees should

not be wholly incompatible with the maintenance of other components of the

forest ecosystem.

During 1979-1981, an intensive field study was carried out in Peninsular

Malaysia on the initial effects of selective timber logging on a rainforest

avifauna (Johns 1986). At that time, a community was studied throughout a

typical logging operation, data being collected before, during and immediately

after felling. Forests logged up to six years previously were also surveyed

briefly. The sites studied during 1979-1981 were revisited in 1987 and

further surveys undertaken. Data have thus been extended to cover

fluctuations in species abundances up to 12 years after the completion of tree

felling. This paper considers changes that have taken place in the avifauna

during this time, and forms the second part of a continuing study designed to

examine responses over a complete logging and regeneration cycle.

STUDY AREA

Data were collected in tropical dipterocarp forest (for a description of this

vegetation type, see Whitmore 1984) in the Tekam Forest Reserve, Pahang,

West Malaysia (4°10'N 102°40'E). This region, formerly called the Sungai

Tekam Forestry Concession, was part of a large block of forest, most of

which had been logged over the previous 12 years. Study sites (Figure 1)

were all at least 12 km from any sizeable unlogged forest area.

Study sites were the same as those surveyed during the 1979-1981

studies. At the time of the 1987 work, the areas contained 6-7 year-old

(C13C), 7-8 year-old (C5A), 9-10 year-old (CIA) and 11-12 year-old

logged forests (C2). The sites ranged from 80 to 400 m above sea level and

were originally of similar vegetation-types.

The damage levels and changes in vegetation caused by logging are

discussed in detail elsewhere (Johns 1988a). The logging operation employs

both conventional tractor haulage and overhead cable systems (for hauling

logs up steep slopes). Both cause considerable damage to the forest: largely

uniform under tractor logging; more severe but more localized (to the

vicinity of haulage routes and winch sites) under cable logging.

Overall, about 50% of the trees originally present were lost during logging,

causing considerable changes in microclimate and tree species composition

within the forest, especially once colonizing trees became established. The

main colonizing trees were euphorbs of genera Macaranga and Mallotus, and

Tretna orientalis (Ulmaceae), all of which are scarce in unlogged forest. The

change in species composition is exacerbated by the planting of alien species

(mostly Acacia mangium, Albizia falcateria and Eucalyptus spp.) as shade

trees on heavily damaged land that would otherwise be very slow to develop

ground cover (Borhan et al. in press).

1989

Rainforest birds and logging

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METHODS

Data were collected in the form of spot observations; notes were made on

first observing an individual bird and not subsequently. Observations were

made while walking 3 -4 km survey trails cut along abandoned logging roads

at each site. Most observations were made between 06h00 and 12h00 daily;

some were made between 16h00 and 19h00, and between 20h00 and 23h00

for nocturnal species. Between 12 and 14 days were spent at each site, but no

more than six in any 30-day period. Observations were made between March

and June 1987, the dry season, matching the seasonality of previous surveys.

Details of the methodology and some problems associated with this

approach have been discussed previously (Johns 1986).

RESULTS

Species composition

A total of 225 bird species have been observed at the Tekam F.R. These are

Figure 1. Location of study areas within the Tekam Forest Reserve. Shaded areas are clear-felled forest,

now under plantation crops; all remaining land is logged-over forest. The area logged before 1981 is

delimited by the dotted line. Boxes enclose the study sites. [Note: the scale given on a similar map by

Johns (1986) was incorrect.]

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A. D. JOHNS

Forktail 4

listed in the Appendix, together with their relative abundances during

selected study periods.

Eight species were seen for the first time during the 1987 surveys, namely

Lesser Fish-Eagle Ichthyophaga humilis, Greater Coucal Centropus sinensis,

Barred Eagle-Owl Bubo sumatranus. Pied Elornbill Anthracoceros albirostris,

Stripe-throated Bulbul Pycnonotus finlaysoni, Yellow-rumped Flycatcher

Ficedula zanthopygia. Spectacled Spiderhunter Arachnothera flavigaster and

Thick-billed/Brown-backed Flowerpecker Dicaeum agile/ everetti. All species

apart from the Lesser Fish-Eagle, Barred Eagle-Owl and Pied Hornbill are

secondary forest or edge specialists: these three are rare species that may

have been overlooked previously.

The number of birds recorded in the logged-over forest (all sites) has now

reached 181 species, slightly less than the total for unlogged forest (193

species). This statistic has little meaning, however; the observation time in

primary forest is greater (bias in favour of primary forest) but the logged

forest sample is generated from observations at several sites with slight

differences in altitude, vegetation-type and so on (bias in favour of logged

forest).

More meaningful is the observation that of the 22 commoner species

defined as intolerant of recently logged forest by the earlier study (Johns

1986), all but five have now been observed in older logged forests. The five

exceptions are Reddish Scops Owl Otus rufescens, Rufous-collared Kingfisher

Actenoides concreta, White-crowned Forktail Enicurus leschenaulti, Mugimaki

Flycatcher Ficedula mugimaki and Grey-headed Flycatcher Culicicapa

ceylonensis. This contrasts with the fact that the majority of the 20 colonizing

species listed in the earlier study were still present in the older logged forest,

and, as mentioned above, some new colonists were added. Even the oldest of

the logged forests has a species composition quite different to that of

unlogged forest.

Similarity between areas

The similarity in species composition can be examined, albeit simplistically,

by the use of Horn’s (1966) Index of Overlap, viz :

where p;j = the proportion of species j out of the ten most abundant

observed in forest i,

phj = the proportion of species j out of the ten most abundant

observed in forest h.

1989

Rainforest birds and logging

93

Because this index considers only the ten most abundant species in each

sample it is clearly limited in sensitivity. The ten most abundant species also

occupy a higher proportion of the sample in logged-over forest due to the

i dominance of a few species (often over 40% of the sample); in unlogged

forest the top ten species occupy less than 20% of the sample. Nevertheless,

an examination of the similarity between sites as determined by this index

(Table 1) makes three main points:

a) Most logged forests are remarkably dissimilar to unlogged forest. The

exception is area CIA, which showed a higher similarity both in 1980-1981

and in 1987, probably because of the patches of swampy, relatively

undisturbed forest remaining at this site.

b) The calculated index of overlap between the various logged forest sites

averaged 0.54 (n=3) in 1980-1981, but had decreased to 0.38 (n=6) in 1987.

That is, the species composition became more divergent over time.

c) There was no tendency for forests logged within the same few years to

be similar to each other. Neither was similarity evident when comparing the

same site as surveyed during the two study periods, 1980-1981 and 1987 (in

this case the index averages 0.55: n=3).

I Changes in individual species abundances

There is a tendency in the literature towards the examination of differences

! between habitats by the use of simple diversity indices. Bird species diversity

.correlates strongly with vegetational height diversity (MacArthur et al.

1962); structurally complex vegetation-types buffer effects of seasonality

such that resources become predictable (Karr 1976). In the case of disturbed

habitats, such simple indices merely express obvious changes in the

vegetation resulting from disturbance. A simple index overlooks the fact that

different subsets of the avifauna react to disturbance in different ways (Karr

and Roth 1971).

Examined in terms of feeding groups, there are considerable changes

Table 1. Similarity of primary and logged forest avifaunas as described by Horn’s Index of Overlap.

Calculations of the ten most numerous species omit nomadic species (e.g. green pigeons Treron-,

hornbills of the genus Rhyticeros ) and migrants (e.g. Blue-throated Bee-eater Merops vindis).

94

A. D. JOHNS

Forktail 4

occurring in relative abundances after logging, although these may not be

expressed immediately (Table 2). As would be expected from the variable

degree of transience among species, recently logged forest exhibits an

avifauna showing characteristics of both primary and older logged forests.

Data collected at a single site (C13C) emphasize the dominance of arboreal

insectivore/frugivores (particularly bulbuls Pycnonotidae) in disturbed forest

and the decline of certain insectivore groups, notably terrestrial and sallying

(flycatching) species. The susceptibility of these groups was suggested in the

earlier paper (Johns 1986), extrapolating data from a number of sites. The

number of species recorded declines steadily: a reflection of the lesser numbers

of rare species and consequently higher equitability typical of disturbed

systems. Older logged forests show evidence of the re-establishment of many

of these rare species (see Appendix): thus equitability would be expected to

increase as the forest regeneration process continues. The structurally

complex vegetation in tall rainforest does not allow dominance by a few

species.

An important factor affecting the recolonizing capacity of species

intolerant of the environmental conditions within recently logged forest

appears to be the re-establishment of a closed lower canopy. This is not

associated with re-establishment of the vegetation typical of unlogged forest,

but may create similar microclimatic conditions in the understorey. This

Table 2. A comparison of feeding guild membership within samples of 800 individual birds observed

at area C13C. Calculating from the original numerical data, divergence from the unlogged forest sample

6-7 years after logging is greater than that shown 1-6 months after logging, although both change

significantly (x2 = 219.5 and 43.2 respectively; df = 8, p <.001 in both cases).

1989

Rainforest birds and logging

95

may be achieved on tractor-logged land after about 10 years (Figure 2). At

site C2, the abundance of babblers Timaliidae (typically intolerant species)

had risen from 3.1% of the sample in 1980-1981 to 10.4% in 1987: an

improvement, but still well below their abundance in unlogged forest

(17.1%). This lesser relative abundance reflects the continued presence of

many bulbuls Pycnonotidae along the margins of the larger logging roads.

Similar responses are seen among understorey flycatchers Muscicapidae,

conspicuously low in abundance during the 1980—1981 surveys but

beginning to reappear in 1987 (although still much less abundant than in

primary forest which suggest that they may be more prey-specific than the

foliage-gleaning babblers, or have more specific habitat requirements when

foraging or nesting).

Intra-habitat variation

Important differences were seen to arise in the recolonization of land logged

by different techniques. Patches of forest logged by conventional tractors,

which cause less soil compaction than do cable systems, quickly support a

regrowth of herbs, such as bananas Musaceae and gingers Zingiberaceae,

which create shade and enable the germination of seeds from many of the

forest trees (Plate 1). These areas are rapidly occupied by a variety of birds,

particularly understorey spiderhunters Arachnothera affinis and A. longirostra,

which are associates of these herbs. In area CIA, where the banana/ginger

understorey was particularly well developed, these species together made up

5.5% of birds encountered.

On the other hand, patches of forest logged using overhead cables suffer

much more from soil compaction, particularly on the ridgetops, and have

large areas completely cleared of vegetation. The compacted and cleared

areas are colonized by plants which grow inwards from the verges, notably

the fern Gleichenia, a sprawling shrub Leuconotis and various tough grasses

Figure 2. Re-formation of the lower canopy in conventionally logged forest (area C2). The profile

diagrams are constructed from 50 x 7.5m transects that show all trees & 4.5m tall. Stippled trees are

colonizing softwoods.

96

A. D. JOHNS

Forktail 4

Plate 1. Understorey regeneration in conventionally logged forest 9- 10 years after the felling event (area

CIA). Note the preponderance of bananas and gingers growing over the old logging road.

1989

Rainforest birds and logging

97

Plate 2. Regeneration in a cable-logged area 7-8 years after the felling event (area C5A). Note the sparse

regeneration extending only gradually over the heavily compacted ridgetop soil. The medium-sized trees

in the middle distance are planted Acacia mangium.

98

A. D. JOHNS

Forktail 4

(Plate 2). This serai community is occupied by only two bird species, the

Black-necked Tailorbird Orthotomus atrogularis and Fluffy-backed Tit-Babbler

Macronous ptilosus. The time taken before the compacted ground is broken

up by these plants and colonization by others becomes possible is not clear,

but is likely to be at least 10 years.

Replanting with rapidly growing colonizing trees, notably Acacia, certainly

aids the re-establishment of undergrowth. It appears, however, that tree

seedlings that become established beneath these trees are of their own

species, not of native species. Birds may visit inflorescences of eucalypts, but

there is little evidence of their exploiting fruit or foliage insects on these

trees.

The obvious effect of these differences is that the distribution of forest

birds will be highly uneven in cable-logged areas (they will be largely

restricted to the less-damaged valley bottoms). For example, babblers

(excluding Fluffy-backed Tit-Babblers) occupied 2.3% of the population

sample on ridgetops at C5A (1987 surveys) but 10.0% of the sample in less

damaged valleys. Their distribution is likely to be much more even in

tractor-logged areas. Both systems of logging preserve areas of lightly

damaged forest, however, at least under current logging systems.

DISCUSSION

Species tolerances

Results of the 1987 surveys emphasize, to a large extent, trends observed six

years previously (Johns 1986). In this earlier paper, attempts were made to

explain why certain groups of birds were affected in certain ways. Exclusion

from recently logged forest was found to result from a variety of

environmental changes, of which the two most important concerned food

supply and microclimate, particularly in the understorey. Broad feeding

groups most likely to decline, and within which individual species were

statistically most likely to be locally eradicated, were defined. (There were

few consistencies at the level of individual species.) The main conclusions

have since been proved to hold for several other forest-types in the humid

tropics (India: Beehler et al. 1987; Brazilian Amazonia: Johns unpublished;

Uganda: J. Holmes in litt.). Given the fact that some groups are identified as

severely affected by logging, the most important question that now arises is

when, if ever, they are able to recolonize the regenerating forest.

It is clearly beyond the scope of the current dataset to answer this question

for the entire avifauna. Many terrestrial birds were, largely because of the

effects of microclimatic changes on the microfauna of the leaf-fitter, found to

be entirely absent from recently logged forest; partridges Phasianidae, pittas

Pittidae and wren-babblers of the genus Napothera have still never been

observed in the logged forests at the Tekam F.R., even 12 years after

logging. Admittedly, these were uncommon birds at the study site, but a

1989

Rainforest birds and logging

99

continuing lack of observations is becoming conclusive. Some understorey

flycatchers of unlogged forest, and aquatic invertebrate specialists such as

White-crowned Forktails, have also failed to recolonize after 12 years.

On the other hand, a high proportion of the bird species observed in

unlogged forest have now been found in logged-over areas, though at lesser

abundances. The formation of an interlocking lower canopy, as colonizing

euphorbs fill gaps created during logging, re-creates the cool and humid

microclimate typical of the understorey of unlogged forest and allows re¬

establishment of many understorey birds (such as babblers of the genus

Stachyris). The vegetational composition of the regenerating forest does not

appear to be a major influencing factor for such species: foliage insects

occupying the early successional vegetation are likely to be of different

taxonomic disposition to those occurring in primary forest (as has been

suggested, though not well proven, elsewhere: Henwood 1986, Shelley

1988), but appear sufficiently accessible and palatable to support the

insectivores. It has elsewhere been shown that physiological considerations

(heat and water balance) can be more important in determining the ranging

of understorey birds than local food abundance (Karr and Freemark 1983).

The recovering population of foliage-gleaning insectivores may be

contrasted with the declining abundance of bark-associated species (mostly

woodpeckers Picidae). The loss of large trees during logging obviously

reduces the foraging substrata available to such birds. They continue to

decline in abundance even 12 years after logging, in line with continuing

mortality among large remnant old trees. Woodpeckers are unlikely ever to

regain former numbers in logged-over forest since periodic re-cropping will

greatly reduce the average age of trees, their size and the numbers becoming

senescent (senescent trees being preferred by boring insects upon which

many woodpeckers feed).

A reliance upon remnant trees as food sources might also be expected to

limit abundances of canopy frugivores in logged-over forest. Hornbills

Bucerotidae are a case in point: these birds suffered a loss of 56% of their

food trees during logging operations at the Tekam F.R. and are rarely

observed to feed from colonizing vegetation (Johns 1987). Their numbers

appear depressed in logged forests (see Appendix), but this is actually an

artifact of the appearance of overdominants in the sample (i.e. a few species

of small bird that are extremely numerous). Calculated estimates of hornbill

density, obtained from line transect surveys, actually show hornbills to occur

in the logged forests at close to their former densities (Johns 1988b). These

wide-ranging birds, and others such as green pigeons Treron, appear

wherever suitable trees are in fruit. Because of the lesser density of such

trees, the amount of fruit eaten from each will be greater, unless the birds

switch to other types of food (which may happen to some extent: F. Lambert,

verbally). The continued presence of hornbills and pigeons suggests that any

increase in exploitation levels does not necessarily result in competition for

suddenly limiting resources. This is perhaps explainable by the observation

that mature specimens of many of these trees produce a superabundance of

100

A. D. JOHNS

Forktail 4

fruit. This is particularly true of fig trees Ficus, large free-standing

specimens of which also tend to be avoided during the felling operation

because of the inconvenience caused by their copious and sticky sap, and

because of superstitious beliefs. Fig tree density has been reported to be a

primary determinant of the abundance of several frugivorous mammals and

birds (Rijksen 1978); although some non-free-standing fig trees are

destroyed by logging, losses do not appear to be at a critical level.

Community changes •

While presence/absence statistics suggest that most species re-establish

themselves in logged-over forests, an examination of relative abundances

emphasizes the differences that remain. This is demonstrated very clearly by

the indices of similarity: overdominant birds common to most logged areas

give a generally higher similarity between logged forests than between any

logged forest site and primary forest. The only exception to this is area CIA,

which retained larger patches of less disturbed, or undisturbed, forest than is

usually the case.

Disturbance to complex ecosystems is more often expressed in terms of

changes in the relative abundance of species than in terms of species

deletions. While most species of bird observed in unlogged forest may persist

or reappear in logged-over areas, it may take a very long time for the logged

areas to regain the species-abundance characteristics of unlogged forest. This

is particularly true in cable-logged areas where regeneration is much less

successful than in conventionally logged areas (Borhan et al. in press). Full

recovery is likely to be achieved only with the regeneration of full

vegetational diversity and a complete age-range of vegetation (including

senescent and dead trees), which may take in excess of 70 years.

The continuing study

Given sufficient time, the vegetation and then the fauna of logged-over forest

would probably regain a close to natural state. Sufficient time will not be

allowed, however. Re-logging is scheduled on a 35-year cycle, much less

time than the natural regeneration cycle (e.g. Meijer 1970). Also, the forest

will not be allowed to regenerate naturally. One silvicultural practice has

already been mentioned: the planting of fast-growing alien tree species on

heavily damaged land to speed up the re-establishment of ground cover.

Removal of non-commercial trees and climbers is another potentially

damaging silvicultural practice - designed to increase the representation of a

few timber tree species in the stand at the expense of others - the economic

feasibility of which is currently being researched at the Tekam F.R.

Acting together, these procedures may deflect regenerative processes and

cause a gradual breakdown of the food web. Such changes may take several

logging cycles to become expressed fully, and the timber industry or markets

may undergo major changes in the interim period, but the potential danger is

there to see. Studies at the Tekam F.R. are planned to continue, covering

1989

Rainforest birds and logging

101

the whole of the current logging cycle. This will enable assessment of the

extent to which the avifauna is able to reachieve its former state before being

disturbed by another felling episode.

A long-term study of this kind is able to address several questions.

Principal among these are: to what extent do lesser damage levels (the

retention of patches of less damaged or undamaged forest) aid recovery; to

what extent does this differ according to the local logging system; are those

birds identified as intolerant of logging ever able to re-establish their former

numbers and re-create the patterns of species-abundance common to

primary forests? Even a study of this length will not address all questions,

however; what is the effect of isolation from large tracts of unlogged forest as

a potential source of colonizers during the second and subsequent logging

cycles?

If long-term sustained-yield management for timber is possible, then the

maintenance of rainforest animals should be also. But a permanent change in

the avifauna may well occur with the first logging event; the original

organization of the community may never be regained.

I especially acknowledge the assistance of the Forest Research Institute of Malaysia with

ongoing research at the Tekam F.R. My thanks to the Director, Dr Mohd. Salleh, and to

the organizer of silvicultural studies at Tekam, Mr Borhan Mohd. I thank Prof. Mohd.

Nordin, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, for sponsorship, and the Socioeconomic

Planning Unit of the Prime Minister’s Department for permission to conduct field

research.

Research was undertaken during the tenure of a Research Fellowship in Zoology at the

University of Aberdeen, a post funded by the National Environmental Research Council

through The Royal Society. Financial support in Malaysia was kindly provided by WWF

International, WWF Malaysia and The Royal Society’s South-East Asian Rain Forest

Research Programme. I thank A. G. Marshall, L. U. Mole and K. Scriven for

administrative assistance. I am particularly grateful to M. Kavanagh and D. R. Wells for

discussion in the field. M. Kavanagh, F. Lambert and D. R. Wells kindly offered

comments on the manuscript.

REFERENCES

Asiaweek (1988) Commodities: Malaysia bounces back. Asiaweek, 12 February: 50-51.

Beehler, B. M., Krishna Raju, K. S. R. and Ali, S. (1987) Avian use of man-disturbed forest

habitats in the Eastern Ghats, India. Ibis 129: 197-211.

Borhan b. M., Johari b. B. and Quah E. S. (in press) Studies on logging damage due to different

methods and intensities of harvesting in Tekam Forest Reserve, Pahang, Peninsular Malaysia.

Malay. Forester.

Henwood, A. (1986) Moth trapping in the rain forest of Borneo. Unpublished report to Danum

Valley Management Committee, Sabah Foundation, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.

Horn, H. S. (1966) Measurement of overlap in comparadve ecological studies. Amer. Nat. 100:

419-424.

Johns, A. D. (1986) Effects of selective logging on the ecological organization of a peninsular

Malaysian rainforest avifauna. Forktail 1: 65-79.

Johns, A. D. (1987) The use of primary and selectively logged rainforest by Malaysian hornbills

(Bucerotidae) and implications for their conservation. Biol. Conserv. 40: 179-190.

102

A. D. JOHNS

Forktail 4

Johns, A. D. (1988a) Effects of ‘selective’ timber extraction on rainforest structure and

composition and some consequences for frugivores and folivores. Biotropica 20: 31-37.

Johns, A. D. (1988b) Malaysian hornbills and logging: some new observations. Oriental Bird

Club Bull. 8: 11-15.

Karr, J. R. (1976) Seasonality, resource availability and community diversity in tropical bird

communities. Amer. Nat. 110: 973-994.

Karr, J. R. and Freemark, K. E. (1983) Habitat selection and environmental gradients: dynamics

in the ‘stable’ tropics. Ecology 64: 1481-1494.

Karr, J. R. and Roth, R. R. (1971) Vegetation structure and avian diversity in several New

World areas. Amer. Nat. 105: 423-435.

MacArthur, R. H., MacArthur, J. W. and Preer, J. (1962) On bird species diversity. II.

Predictions of bird census from habitat measurements. Amer. Nat. 96: 167-174.

Meijer, W. (1970) Regeneration of tropical lowland forest in Sabah, Malaysia, forty years after

logging. Malay. Forester 33: 204-229.

Rijksen, H. D. (1978) A field study of Sumatran orang-utans (Pongo pygmaeus abelii, Lesson 1827):

ecology, behaviour and conservation. Wageningen, Holland: H. Veenman and Zonen.

Shelley, T. E. (1988) Relative abundance of day-flying insects in treefall gaps vs shaded

understorey in a Neotropical forest. Biotropica 20: 114-119.

Wells, D. R. (1985) The forest avifauna of western Malesia and its conservation. Pp. 213-232 in

A. W. Diamond and T. E. Lovejoy, eds. Conservation of tropical forest birds. Cambridge, U.K.:

International Council for Bird Preservation (Techn. Publ. 4).

Wells, D. R. (1988) Birds. Pp. 167-195 in Earl of Cranbrook, ed. Key Environments: Malaysia.

Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Whitmore, T. C. (1984) Tropical rain forests of the Far East. Second edition. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

A. D. Johns, Department of Zoology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB9 2TN, U.K.

1989

Rainforest birds and logging

103

APPENDIX

BIRD SPECIES RECORDED IN UNLOGGED AND SELECTIVELY LOGGED FORESTS

AT TEKAM FOREST RESERVE

Migrant species are marked (Mig); montane species, probably accidental at Tekam F.R., are

marked (Mont). Species which follow logging roads, and may thus occur along open roads even

within otherwise unlogged forest, are marked with an asterisk (*).

Above-canopy feeding species are not included in the population sample (they would be

underestimated in unlogged forest where the canopy is closed); their presence is marked ‘p\

Species producing loud and characteristic calls may also be marked in this way in areas where

they were heard but not seen.

Feeding guild data are from Wells (1988) and my own personal observations. Feeding guild

codes are as follows: TF, terrestrial frugivore; AF, arboreal frugivore; FF, faunivore/frugivore;

TIF, terrestrial insectivore/frugivore; AIF, arboreal insectivore/frugivore; IN, insectivore/

nectarivore; TI, terrestrial insectivore; BGI, bark-gleaning insectivore; FGI, foliage-gleaning

insectivore; Sal, sallying insectivore; SwI, sweeping insectivore; R, raptor; P, piscivore.

Survey sites are as follows: Unlogged (C13C: results from 1979-1980), 1-6 year-old logged

(C5A, CIA, C2: 1980-1981 surveys, combined), 7-12 year-old logged (C5A, CIA, C2: 1987

surveys, combined). Species observed at Tekam F.R. outside of these surveys are included in

brackets [].

Nomenclature follows Johns (1986), with minor additions.

% Total Sample % Total Sample

104

A. D. JOHNS

Forktail 4

% Total Sample % Total Sample

1989

Rainforest birds and logging

105

% Total Sample

1-6 7-12

% Total Sample

FORKTAIL 4 (1989): 107-116

Daily ranging behaviour of three

tropical forest frugivores

FRANK R. LAMBERT

Data are presented on the daily ranging behaviour of six frugivorous birds of three species

in a Malaysian lowland rain forest. Radiotelemetry showed that Green Broadbills

Calyptomena viridis and a Yellow-crowned Barbet Megalaima henricii spent prolonged

periods at fruiting Ficus. A Black-and-white Bulbul Pycnonotus melanoleucos preferred

other fruit sources. Green Broadbills ranged over 2.5-6.0ha per day, and c. 13-24ha per

week. In contrast, a Black-and-white Bulbul ranged over 8-18ha per day, and c.50ha in a

week.

Whilst ringing studies and observations of apparent changes in the abundance

of certain species have enabled ornithologists to make some tentative

generalisations about the movements of forest birds in South-East Asia and

Sundaland, remarkably little is known about the daily ranging of forest

species. Only two studies have addressed the problem of ascertaining home-

range sizes, and both have focused on large non-passerines as their subjects

(Davison 1981, Leighton 1982). No previous studies have investigated the

daily movements of smaller or medium-sized arboreal species in the region,

even though a knowledge of this aspect of bird behaviour is fundamental to

an understanding of the resource use, population dynamics and future

conservation of forest bird species.

Ringing studies have suggested that the ranging of non-migratory forest

birds in Sundaland is strongly influenced by diet. Insectivorous species, and

many species with mixed diets, appear to be largely sedentary, utilising

relatively small patches of forest (Fogden 1970, Medway and Wells 1976,

Wong 1986), although it is possible that such species range over larger areas

if they join mixed bird flocks. In contrast, nectarivorous, granivorous and

frugivorous species are generally more wide-ranging, or even nomadic

(Fogden 1972, Medway and Wells 1976, Leighton and Leighton 1983).

This paper documents the daily ranging behaviour of six individual

frugivorous birds, of three species. Although the data presented relate to

only a few days of bird activity, information of this kind has not hitherto

been obtained for similar tropical forest frugivores in the Indomalayan

Region.

STUDY AREA AND METHODS

The study area, Kuala Lompat (3°43'N 102°17'E), lies at the south-eastern

periphery of the Krau Game Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia, at the confluence

of the rivers Krau and Lompat. The area is relatively flat, mostly at

elevations of 50 -80m, although further west the terrain becomes more hilly

108

F. R. LAMBERT

Forktail 4

as it rises towards Mount Benom. Whilst most of the vegetation within the

Game Reserve is climax forest, the Kuala Lompat area exhibits signs of

limited disturbance. The vegetation has been described as Lowland

Evergreen Dipterocarp Forest, although it is relatively poor in dipterocarps

and unusually rich in large leguminous trees. Further descriptions of the

study area can be found in Raemaekers et al. (1980) and Lambert (1987).

The avifauna of the site is described in Medway and Wells (1971).

Radiotelemetry was used to document the ranging behaviour of suitable

captured frugivorous birds. Birds were tracked by approaching them as close

as possible, rather than using triangulation, although the latter technique

was used on a few occasions when birds entered unknown areas. Although

transmitter signals often bounced off vegetation, giving false directional

information, it was possible to assess the correct direction of the signal by

taking readings from different positions. Once in close proximity to the bird,

distances could be assessed by movements of the signal needle and the noise

emitted from the radio-receiver. At bias settings of four or lower, movements

of the needle could only be detected at distances of less than 15 m, whilst the

receiver noise became distinctly disyllabic (with a ‘whiplash’-like second

note) only when within c. 25m, or when directly below the bird when in the

upper strata of the forest.

It was found that approaching close to a bird’s perceived position usually

resulted in it moving. Birds were therefore not approached too closely, in

order to reduce observer-induced bias to ranging data, and consequently

were infrequently seen. Nevertheless, when a bird remained in a small area

for a long time it was often possible to identify the fruiting tree that it was

using, and subsequently observe it. Details of equipment used are given in

the Appendix.

The data were collected during a three-year study of fig-eating by birds

(which began in March 1984), and the study site was well known to the

author before radiotelemetry began.

RESULTS

Between June 1985 and August 1986 at Kuala Lompat, a total of nine

frugivorous birds of four species were trapped and tagged with radio¬

transmitters. Daily ranging data were obtained for the following three

species: one Yellow-crowned Barbet Megalaima henricii (weight 55 g), one

Black-and-white Bulbul Pycnonotus melanoleucos (31 g), and four Green

Broadbills Calyptomena viridis (mean weight 62 g). No daily ranging data

were obtained for two other Green Broadbills, or a Brown Barbet

Calorhamphus fuliginosus, which lost their transmitters soon after tagging.

Results from successful following of birds are summarised below by

species, and accompanied by ranging maps (Figures 1 and 2). Observation

time is defined in transmitter-minutes; this is the actual length of time

during which data were collected and does not include intervening periods.

1989

Forest frugivore ranging behaviour

109

Ranging areas given refer to the area enclosed by a line joining the peripheral

points of the area used by the birds. Detailed daily ranging maps can be

found in Lambert (1987).

Yellow-crowned Barbel

A Yellow-crowned Barbet was caught at a fruiting Ficus pellucido-punctata

strangler on 2 June 1985, at c. 15h00. The bird was released the following

morning, at 08hl5, below the same fruiting tree. Data were obtained for

1,380 transmitter-minutes during four days, but, for unknown reasons,

signals from the transmitter terminated on the fourth morning.

During the diurnal period of data collection the barbet spent at least 71%

(and possibly as much as 85%) of its time feeding at or in close proximity to a

single fruit source, a Ficus binnendykii tree. The roost-site of the tagged bird,

c.700m from the fruiting tree, was used on both nights during which data

were collected. Apart from moving between roost-site and the fruiting Ficus,

little other ranging was observed, so that the total area of forest used during

the four days was only in the order of 7.6 ha. The roost-site was situated

somewhere in the crown of a 40m emergent tree.

Brown Barbet

On 9 February 1986 a Brown Barbet was caught and subsequently released

at a fruiting Ficus pellucido-punctata tree. However, the transmitter was

recovered the following day under a fruiting Ficus binnendykii tree some

400m from the point of release. The bird was active in or near the fruiting

tree for an hour prior to finding the transmitter, and suspected of feeding on

the ripe figs.

Subsequently, on 14 February, the same Brown Barbet was identified (it

had been colour-marked for later identification when initially caught)

feeding in a second F. binnendykii tree with a group of five other Brown

Barbets. This tree was c.400m from the point of capture and c.750m from

the first F. binnendykii.

Black-and-white Bulbul

A female Black-and-white Bulbul was caught when it came to drink at a

forest pond in the late afternoon of 22 August 1986. The bird was released at

dusk, and flew to a nearby hanging vine stem about 4m above the ground. It

roosted on this vine during the first night. Subsequently, data were collected

on the ranging of this bird for seven days, but on 29 August the signal from

the transmitter was lost, almost certainly as a result of battery exhaustion in

view of the small size of battery used (B. Cresswell pers. comm.).

During a total diurnal period of 2,220 transmitter-minutes radiotracking,

the female Black-and-white Bulbul spent most of its time with at least one

conspecific, and on occasions possibly as many as five. Both primary and

secondary forest were used. Some 840 minutes, representing 38% of total

observation time, were spent in secondary forest during the first two days.

110

F. R. LAMBERT

Forktail 4

Although it is difficult to estimate the exact area of forest utilised, lines

drawn around the known daily ranges for all seven days enclose an area of

approximately 50 ha. The maximum distance between areas visited was

1,800m. Daily ranges varied between 8 ha and 18 ha.

As far as could be ascertained, different roost-sites were used each night.

Similarly, daily ranging did not indicate any close affinity with any particular

patch of forest, although three conspecific (unidentified) fruiting vines,

situated within 50 m of each other, were important sources of fruit on four of

the first five days. During these four days, 878 minutes, representing 39.5%

of total observation time (of the whole seven-day period), were spent in close

Figure 1. Kuala Lompat study area, showing location of ranging maps given in Figure 2. The six

ranging areas defined are for birds as follows; CfB, 9A, 9B, 9C, - Green Broadbills; YB - Yellow-

crowned Barbet; BW - Black-and-white Bulbul.

All areas are primary forest unless stated otherwise; hatched areas are man-made clearings, stippled

areas are secondary forest (with some plantation areas to the east of R. Krau), swamp shading within

primary forest indicates areas which are periodically flooded.

1989

Forest frugivore ranging behaviour

111

Figure 2. Summary of daily ranges of six individual forest frugivores. Numbers indicate successive

days. See Figure 1 for location of the rectangle within the study site. Since birds were not necessarily

followed for whole days, areas defined are minimum daily ranges. The total number of transmitter-

minutes (TM), during which each bird was followed, is indicated.

Green Broadbill 9a

Green Broadbill CfB

Yellow-crowned Barbet

• Fruiting Ficus known to have been visited for feeding

Green Broadbill 9B

Green Broadbill 9C

Black-and-white Bulbul

112

F. R. LAMBERT

Forktail 4

proximity to these vines. Fruiting individuals of the same species of vine

were also found in the vicinity where the bird spent the last two days, and it

seems likely that the bird again fed on these fruits. When initially caught the

bird defaecated seeds identical to those of the vine. The ripe red fruit of this

vine were roughly spherical drupes, about 5 mm in diameter.

Green Broadbill

Sixteen bird-days’ ranging data were obtained from following three female

and one male Green Broadbills. Female A, Female B and Male A were

captured at the same fruiting Ficus obscura tree on 23 March 1986, so that

there is temporal overlap for some of the data. However, no ranging data

were obtained for Male A, other than the final recovery position of the

transmitter. Male B was caught at a fruiting Ficus parietalis tree on 20 April

1986 and followed for six days. A female (Female C), caught at the same tree

a day earlier, lost its transmitter soon after release. A fourth female (Female

D) was captured at a forest pond on 30 July 1986, but only followed for one

day, after which the detached transmitter was found.

Female A During the first morning of data collection, 24 March 1986,

Female A remained within 150m of the point of capture, with the most

distant points only 200m apart. Just before dusk the bird was either in or

very close to a fruiting Ficus stupenda tree at which it may have been feeding.

The roost-site used on both day 1 and day 2 was within a swampy area of

forest, where the bird appeared to be in the subcanopy of a small tree c. 10 m

above the ground. At least one other Green Broadbill was at the roost-site

just before dusk. During mid- and late afternoon of day 2 the bird was

located 400 -500 m east of the area known to have been used on day 1, within

an area of secondary forest bordering primary forest. The bird remained in

the secondary forest for at least 90 minutes.

Whilst the area of forest used on the first day may have been as little as

1.8ha, data were collected during only three hours. On the afternoon of the

second day, the bird had moved about 600 m from the roost and must

therefore have ranged over 3.5 ha of the forest. In total, a minimum of 5 ha of

forest were used during six hours of observation during two days.

Female B The ranging of Female B was monitored for 2,189 transmitter-

minutes during a seven-day period. During this time an area of 13 ha of

forest was used, with daily ranges of up to 5 ha.

At least five different Ficus trees were visited during the seven-day period;

two (F. sundaica and F. bracteata ) on the first day, a different F. sundaica on

the second day, a F. obscura on the four subsequent days, and another F.

obscura on the last day. In total 960 minutes were spent in or close to fruiting

Ficus trees during five days (days 2-6), representing c.50% of total

observation time for those days. One of the fruiting F. obscura trees was

evidently an important source of fruit since 62.4% of total time, during the

1989

Forest frugivore ranging behaviour

113

four days that it was used, were spent at or very near to this tree.

Female B roosted within the same swampy area on three successive nights.

It was not established that the roost-site was shared, but Male A’s

transmitter was found within 10 m of the site.

Female C During 410 transmitter-minutes on the day after release, Female C

used 6 ha of primary forest, some 250m from the release point.

Male B Male B was followed for 2,046 transmitter-minutes during a six-day

period. Daily ranges varied from a minimum of 2.5 ha to 4.5 ha (these are

minimum values since the bird was not followed continuously), with a total

ranging area of c.24ha during the whole period of data collection.

Two Ficus trees were visited during the period; a fruiting F . benjamina on

day 2 and day 3, and a fruiting F. pellucido-punctata on days 3-6. The total

time spent in or in close proximity to fruiting Ficus was 587 minutes,

representing 30.7% of total observation time for the five days when these

trees were visited.

DISCUSSION

Comparative ranging behaviour

Green Broadbills ranged over areas in the order of 2.5 ha to 6ha per day. In

contrast daily ranging areas of the Black-and-white Bulbul varied from 8 ha

to 18 ha per day. Similarly, longer-term ranging was substantially different

for these two species: Green Broadbills covered areas of 13 ha in seven days

(Female B) and 24ha in six days (Male B), compared to c.50ha in 6.5 days

for the Black-and-white Bulbul.

Unfortunately, there are no comparative data on ranging behaviour of

individual arboreal frugivores from South-East Asia, with the exception of

hornbills. Leighton (1982) determined the home ranges of four hornbill

species (Bucerotidae) in East Kalimantan, Borneo, by following habituated

and individually recognisable groups and individuals. These large arboreal

frugivores, weighing between 900 and 3,100g (Kemp 1979), had home

ranges of 120-770ha. Davison (1981) radiotagged two male Great Argus

Pheasants Argusianus argus, which ranged over no more than 6.2 ha per

month, and usual monthly ranging was possibly only half this area.

However, comparisons between this large terrestrial omnivorous non¬

passerine and small arboreal frugivorous species are not very enlightening.

Limited observations of marked birds, and ringing studies, provide the

only information on ranging behaviour of passerine species in Sundaic

forests. Observations of bulbuls in Sarawak have suggested that Black¬

headed Bulbuls Pycnonotus atriceps gather at roosts from at least three miles,

and several individuals were retrapped at points enclosing areas of 12.9-

20.7km2 (Fogden 1970). In contrast Criniger bulbuls and Puff-backed

114

F. R. LAMBERT

Forktail 4

Bulbuls Pycnonotus eutilotus were repeatedly trapped in areas of about 4 ha or

less during a two-year period. In Gunung Mulu National Park, Sarawak,

ringing studies have shown that the largely nectarivorous Little Spiderhunter

Arachnothera longirostra is highly mobile (Wells et al. 1978). Two trapped

individuals were retrapped 490 m up the mountain eight and nine days later.

These observations and ringing studies have suggested that at least some

frugivorous and nectarivorous species in Malaysian forests are nomadic, or at

least patrol very large areas of forest. The Black-and-white Bulbul is one of

the species which is suspected to be nomadic, as indicated by their sporadic

appearances in patches of well-watched forest (Medway and Wells 1976).

Black-and-white Bulbuls were observed in only five of 21 months’ fieldwork

at Kuala Lompat (Lambert 1987). The ranging of the Black-and-white

Bulbul tagged in this study provides some evidence to support the notion

that this species is nomadic. Not only did the individual that was tagged

range over a much larger area of forest than the other species tagged, but it

roosted at different sites every night. The ability to utilise different roost-

sites on a daily basis is presumably a fundamental prerequisite for a nomadic

species.

The importance of Ficus as a fruit resource

The limited data suggest that for all three species ranging is to a large extent

determined by the availability of fruiting trees. All the birds followed for

more than two days were found to spend prolonged periods at or within 30 m

of fruiting trees, and to visit the same trees for several days. Whilst the

Black-and-white Bulbul concentrated its feeding at five unidentified fruiting

vines of a single species at two sites, the Yellow-crowned Barbet and Green

Broadbills spent substantial periods of time at fruiting Ficus. Apart from

brief consecutive visits to an unidentified fruiting tree made by Male B

during 80 minutes on day 1, Green Broadbills and the Yellow-crowned

Barbet were not seen to visit fruit sources other than Ficus during the period

of data collection. Black-and-white Bulbuls are also known to feed

occasionally on figs, but apparently prefer other fruits. Only one Ficus

species was seen to be used by the Black-and-white Bulbul during this study

(Lambert 1987).

The importance of Ficus to frugivorous bird assemblages in South-East

Asia and Sundaland is well documented (McClure 1966, Wells 1975, 1982,

Brockelman 1982, Leighton and Leighton 1983, Lambert 1987, in press),

but no previous studies have documented fidelity to individual fruiting Ficus

by individual birds.

I would like to thank the staff of the Department of Wildlife and National Parks,

Peninsular Malaysia, especially the Director General, Mohamed Khan bin Momin Khan,

for permission to conduct research at Kuala Lompat. Peter G. H. Evans, Robert Kenward

and Brian Cresswell provided valuable advice on radiotracking techniques. This study was

carried out whilst in receipt of a NERC/NATO award, and was supported by an equipment

grant from the Frank M. Chapman Memorial Fund, for which I am most grateful. I am

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greatly indebted to Adrian Marshall and David Wells for supervising this study.

REFERENCES

Bray, O. E. and Corner, G. W. (1972) A tail clip for attaching transmitters to birds. 7 Wildlife

Mgmt. 36: 640-642.

Brockelman, W. Y. (1982) Observations of animals feeding in a strangler fig F. drupacea in

South-East Thailand. Nat. Hist. Bull. Siam Soc. 30: 33-44.

Davison, G. W. H. (1981) Diet and dispersal of the Great Argus Argusianus argus. Ibis 123- 485-

494.

Fogden, M. P. L. (1970) Some aspects of the ecology of bird populations in Sarawak.

Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Oxford University.

Fogden, M. P. L. (1972) The seasonality and population dynamics of equatorial forest birds in

Sarawak. Ibis 114: 307-43.

Kemp, A. C. (1979) A review of the hornbills: biology and radiation. Living Bird 17: 105-136.

Lambert, F. R. (1987) Fig-eating and seed dispersal by birds in a Malaysian lowland rain forest.

Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Aberdeen.

Lambert, F. R. (in press) Fig-eating by birds in a Malaysian lowland rain forest. J. Trop. Ecol.

Leighton, M. (1982) Fruit resources and patterns of feeding, spacing and grouping among

sympatric Bornean hornbills (Buceroudae). Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of

California, Davis.

Leighton, M. and Leighton, D. R. (1983) Vertebrate responses to fruiting seasonality within a

Bornean rain forest. Pp. 181-196 in S. L. Sutton, T. C. Whitmore and A. C. Chadwick,

eds. Tropical rain forest: ecology and management. Oxford: Blackwell Sci. Publ. (Special Publ.

series of the British Ecological Society, No. 2).

McClure, H. E. (1966) Flowering, fruiting and animals in the canopy of a tropical rain forest.

Malayan Forester 24: 182-203.

Medway, Lord and Wells, D. R. (1971) Diversity and density of birds and mammals at Kuala

Lompat, Pahang. Malayan Nature J. 24: 238-247.

Medway, Lord and Wells, D. R. (1976) Birds of the Malay Peninsula , 5. London: Witherby.

Raemaekers, J. J., Aldrich-Blake, F. P. G. and Payne, J. B. (1980) The forest. Pp. 229-61 in

D. J. Olivers, ed. Malayan forest primates. New York: Plenum Press.

Wells, D. R. (1975) Bird Report: 1972 and 1973. Malayan Nature J. 28: 186-213.

Wells, D. R., Hails, C. J. and Hails, A. J. (1978) A study of the birds of the Gunung Mulu

Nadonal Park, Sarawak, with special emphasis on those of lowland forests. Cyclostyled report

to the Royal Geographical Society (Mulu Expedition).

Wells, D. R. (1982) Bird Report: 1974 and 1975. Malayan Nature J . 36: 61-85.

Wong, M. (1986) Trophic organisation of understory birds in a Malaysian dipterocarp forest.

Auk 103: 100-116.

F. R. Lambert, Department of Zoology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB9 2TN, Scotland,

U.K.

APPENDIX

RADIOTELEMETRY EQUIPMENT AND METHODOLOGY USED IN THIS STUDY

Data were collected using an AVM LAD Receiver, with a Yagi antenna, and ‘AVM’ and

‘Biotrack’ transmitters. Zinc-air A13 cells were attached to all transmitters used except in the case

of Black-and-white Bulbul which used a RM212 Mercury cell. Transmitters were attached to

birds using one of two methods: tail mounting, or back mounting. For tail mounting the

transmitter was glued to a special clip fastened over the central four tail-feathers (Bray and Corner

1972). This clip consisted of two thin pieces of plastic, c. 12 X 3mm, held together by two fine

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screws. After the clip had been screwed tightly to the tail, the screws were cut near the tightening

nut and Superglue used to prevent the nut loosening. Superglue was also used to prevent the clip

from slipping off the tail. Back mounts were composed of the transmitter with battery, attached

to a small piece of cloth gauze. This package was glued to the bases of back-feathers. Superglue

was utilised in both mounting techniques, whilst epoxy-resin (Rapid Araldite) was used to cover,

and therefore waterproof, the whole tag.

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Dusting by a Green Cochoa

Cochoa viridis

JOSEP DEL HOYO and ENRIC CARRERA

At around lOhOO on 7 August 1986, about a kilometre beyond the

checkpoint at km 38 on the road to Mae Chaem in Doi Inthanon National

Park, Thailand, we observed a male Green Cochoa Cochoa viridis dusting. It

used a metre-wide strip of bare earth between the tarmac and the vegetation,

at a point where montane forest practically abutted the road. During the two

minutes or so that we had the bird in view, we were able to approach it to

within 10m; its actions were similar to those of a sparrow Passer when

dusting. When it finally flew up, it joined another Green Cochoa whose sex

we could not determine, and together they moved fairly low through the

trees near the road until lost to sight.

This took place on the third day of our visit to Doi Inthanon, throughout

which it was consistently very cloudy with intermittent, usually very light

rain. The dusting took place in a dry spell, but it started drizzling fifteen

minutes later; indeed, only some 300 m further along the road to Mae

Chaem, we encountered very dense fog.

We can find no reference to dusting by this species, and P. D. Round,

whom we told of our observation, knew of no similar record in Thailand,

where probably the majority of sightings of Green Cochoa are currently

made.

J. del Hoyo, Pintor Ribalta 5, 08028 Barcelona , Spain.

E. Carrera, Consell de Cent 341, 08007 Barcelona, Spain.

A Short-billed Minivet

Pericrocotus brevirostris nest in Nepal

P. J. HEATH

On the morning of 27 April 1986, I briefly watched a pair of Short-billed

Minivets Pericrocotus brevirostris building a nest in an area of forest just above

Hanga Than (c.27°05'N 87°54'E), at about 2,140m, in the upper Mai valley

in eastern Nepal.

The nest structure was built on a flat fork, about half-way along a large

moss- and he hen-covered branch at a height of about 10 m in a large tree,

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below canopy height. It seemed to consist of a rough platform with a cup of

mosses and lichen being constructed on it. Both birds were observed adding

small pieces of moss and lichen to the nest, although only one would leave

the immediate area at any time to gather material from nearby trees, while its

mate, usually the male, remained close to the nest.

The date, nest site, situation and construction all seem to be similar to

nests described for other minivet species Campephagidae, which are placed

high in a tree on a horizontal branch and have a woven cup lined with lichens

as their basic structure (Ali and Ripley 1984).

This is the first nest of Short-billed Minivet recorded from Nepal (Inskipp

and Inskipp 1985), and apparently for anywhere within its range (Ali and

Ripley 1984).

I would like to thank Rodney Martins for comments on this note.

REFERENCES

Ali, S. and Ripley, S. D. (1984) Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. Compact edition.

Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Inskipp, C. and Inskipp, T. (1985) A guide to the birds of Nepal. London: Croom Helm.

P. J . Heath, 120 Yarmouth Road, Thorpe, Norwich NR7 ORE, U.K.

Bristled Grass Warbler

Chaetornis striatus new to and breeding

in Nepal, and its separation from

Large Grass Warbler

Graminicola bengalensis

P. J. HEATH and D. M. THORNS

On 6 May 1986, while birdwatching near Meghauli, at the western end of

Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal, P.J.H. found what he believed to be a

Bristled Grass Warbler Chaetornis striatus in the riverine grassland bordering

the Rapti River, just inside the park. An extensive search of the area

produced a minimum of five individuals. He was joined on 9 May 1986 by

D.M.T. who was also able to observe these birds perching openly on the tops

of grass stems, performing prolonged song flights and, on 13 May, nest

building.

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The presence of a species previously unrecorded from Nepal in such a

well-watched area left us puzzled, especially since several birds were present,

indicating an established colony. Identification appeared straightforward

from the plates in Ali and Ripley (1983), but absolute certainty was

confounded by the unavailability of further information about this species or

Large Grass Warbler Graminicola bengalensis, a species regularly recorded at

Chitwan but which we had not encountered at that time.

Subsequent examination of skins at the British Museum (Natural

History), Tring, confirmed that differences between the two species are

indeed as marked as depicted in Ah and Ripley (1983) and were in

accordance with the plates and limited descriptions given in Ali and Ripley

(1972). On the basis of the information below, future observers at Chitwan

should have little difficulty in separating them, given adequate views.

DESCRIPTION

The fact that the birds were actively breeding made observations relatively

easy and we were able to compile the following notes.

Generally a large buffy-fawn warbler with a distinctive song and bill

shape. Size about that of Clamorous Reed Warbler Acrocephalus stentoreus,

though no direct comparison was made. When perched, appeared upright,

flat-crowned and somewhat long-necked. Upperparts buffy-fawn, crown

slightly richer brown indistinctly streaked darker. Mantle and scapulars

heavily streaked blackish, recalling Striated Warbler Megalurus palustris.

Tertials long, dark blackish brown, fringed pale buff and contrasting with

uniformly paler greater coverts and remiges. Faint whitish orbital ring and

thin off-white supercilium contrasting with plain brown cheeks and ear-

coverts. Throat white. Rest of underparts washed with greyish-buff of

variable strength, becoming white on the belly and vent. Tail long,

graduated and broad. Upper surface of tail dull brown, with numerous fine

dark bars. Feathers tipped buffy white on upperside and clean white on

underside. Central tail feathers paler, creating a two-tone effect to the tail as

a whole when fanned. Uppertail coverts and, more indistinctly, rump

regularly streaked darker. The wings appeared rather short, especially

during song flight.

The dark bill appeared distinctly short and thick creating the curious

impression of a large warbler with a shrike-like bill. Legs were fleshy pink,

eye dark.

The song, based on two somewhat sparrow-like notes arranged in pairs,

was incessantly repeated in song flight: ‘ji jee’ (pitch rising) . . . ‘jee ji’ (pitch

falling) etc., with a c.0.5s interval between each pair of notes. Calls noted

were a strong, harsh ‘cha’ and a soft ‘zip’.

The song flights were often of about a minute’s duration. The birds would

leave the top of a grass stem where they had been perching and cover a wide

circle, about 3 m above the tops of the grass, in a gently undulating flight in

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which the wings were ‘whirred’ in the manner of a babbler Timaliidae.

IDENTIFICATION POINTS

Coloration of the crown and mantle

In Large Grass Warbler the crown is blackish, with paler (light brown)

streaking, and the mantle is blackish with silvery white streaking. This

general coloration contrasts with the paler brown wings. The coloration and

appearance of the upperparts of Bristled Grass Warbler is more similar to

Striated Warbler - pale buff-brown with darker streaking arising from

thicker pale fringes. This pattern creates no significant contrast with the

wings.

Tail coloration and relative length of undertail coverts

Large Grass Warbler has a more uniformly coloured, dark blackish brown

tail. Only a few skins examined showed slightly paler webs to some inner

feathers. Bristled Grass Warbler by contrast has a dull brown tail, with

numerous fine dark bars, and has distinctly paler fringes to the inner

feathers, presumably causing the two-tone effect noted in the field.

Furthermore the tips of the uppertail feathers appear a distinctly duller and

dirtier white than those of the undertail. The tail tips of Large Grass

Warbler, however, are a similar clean white on both upper- and undertail

surfaces. The undertail coverts of Bristled Grass Warbler extend to roughly

half the total tail-length and thus appear far longer than those of Large Grass

Warbler, which has short undertail coverts extending only about a quarter of

the total tail-length.

Bill structure

Bristled Grass Warbler has a noticeably deeper bill, which thus appears

proportionately shorter, though this feature is not nearly as marked as

suggested in Ali and Ripley (1972), which depicts Large Grass Warbler with

an exaggeratedly fine bill. The actual shape and structure of the bills of the

two species are as illustrated in the Figure.

Two Large Grass Warblers, perhaps a pair, were observed together in the

Figure. A comparison of the bills of Large Grass Warbler and Bristled Grass Warbler .

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same area shortly before our visit by A. Goodwin (verbally) and one was seen

nearby by P.J.H. during our stay. These were very shy and skulking, though

they do sing from exposed grass stems and have a display fight like that of

Bristled Grass Warbler (Ali and Ripley 1972; C. Inskipp and T. P. Inskipp

verbally), a species which is itself skulking except in the breeding season.

Bristled Grass Warbler breeds locally throughout the Indian subcontinent

in grassland habitats similar to that at Chitwan and was listed by Inskipp and

Inskipp (1985) as a species which could occur in Nepal. It is unclear whether

the species has previously been overlooked, whether it is a late-arriving

summer visitor to the area, occurring at a time when there have been fewer

observers, or whether it has recently colonised the area.

We would like to thank Graham Cowles and Peter Colston for arranging access to the

British Museum skin collection at Tring and Rodney Martins and Craig Robson for

comments on this paper.

REFERENCES

Ali, S. and Ripley, S. D. (1972) Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan, 8. Bombay: Oxford

University Press.

Ali, S. and Ripley, S. D. (1983) A pictorial guide to the birds of the Indian subcontinent. Bombay:

Oxford University Press.

Fleming, R. L. Sr., Fleming, R. L. Jr. and Bangdel, L. S. (1979 ) Birds of Nepal. Second edition.

Kathmandu: Avalok.

Inskipp, C. and Inskipp, T. (1985) A guide to the birds of Nepal. London: Croom Helm.

King, B. F., Dickinson, E. C. and Woodcock, M. W. (1975) A field guide to the birds of South-

East Asia. London: Collins.

P. J. Heath, 120 Yarmouth Road, Thorpe, Norwich NR7 ORE, U.K.

D. M. Thoms, c!o l ‘Rwington’, Beacon Gardens, Crowborough, East Sussex TN6 1BD, U.K.

Swinhoe’s Snipe Gallinago megalai

a new species for Nepal

S. C. MADGE

In the early morning of 6 March 1987, a party of birdwatchers was working

an area of damp rice-fields between Biratnagar and Itahari in the lowlands of

south-eastern Nepal with the intention of finding Pintail Snipe Gallinago

stenura.

After finding numerous Common Snipe G. gallinago we eventually flushed

two or three Pintail Snipe and were following them up to try and obtain

views of them on the ground, when a distinctly larger snipe was silently

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flushed by P. Tipler, S. Taylor and myself from relatively dry ground close

to some wet field edge. From my experience with Swinhoe’s Snipe Gallinago

megala during several visits to its breeding grounds in Siberia I was fairly

confident about the identity of the bird as soon as it got up. At this point a

number of snipe, chiefly Common, but with at least two Pintail, rose and the

unusual bird joined the party which circled over us at a height of some 10 m

or more. The flock did a couple of circuits of the immediate vicinity,

affording us relatively brief, but quite adequate comparative views of the

three species in the air at the same time, and my initial identification of the

unusual bird was confirmed. The flock then moved over a small river and

dropped into a more extensive area of wet fields, but we were unable to

follow them up as a crossing point could not be found.

By comparing the birds in the air together, although only Common Snipe

was actually alongside the Swinhoe’s, it was apparent from all angles, i.e. in

profile when going around, when directly overhead and when tail-on going

away, that the Swinhoe’s was distinctly larger and bulkier than the Common

in both body-depth and width of the wing. The bill was roughly the same

length as that of the Common Snipe and was held almost horizontal, but the

plumage, i.e. wing-pattern above and below, was like that of a Pintail Snipe.

All the Pintail Snipe that we had flushed looked distinctly smaller and

shorter-billed than the Common Snipe, although Taylor (1984) found bill-

length to be not particularly helpful when separating these two species. The

body appeared rather long, although depth of breast and belly gave it a

chunky appearance. Only the very tips of the toes, at most, projected a little

beyond the tip of the tail, a feature that I have observed with Swinhoe’s in

Siberia. Plumage details were admittedly sparse. It had a typical snipe head-

pattern, the belly was unmarked whitish, similar in extent to that of

Common Snipe, the breast was dull light brownish, but the underwing was

densely and uniformly barred throughout on the coverts, with no paler

central areas visible as on Common Snipe. Neither the underwing nor the

upperwing had the white trailing edge to the secondaries, which was visible

on the Common Snipe in the air with it. The upperwing, seen as the bird was

rising, was dull light brown, rather uniform and not as contrastingly marked

as in Common Snipe, with flight feathers not obviously darker; in short it

looked less striped on the upperparts than does Common Snipe but very

much like Pintail Snipe in pattern and coloration both from above and

below.

To summarize its features, the bird had the upper- and underwing pattern

of a Pintail Snipe but it was obviously larger and longer-billed, it was a little

larger and bulkier than Common Snipe, with a rather longer and deeper

body and broader and slightly blunter primaries, but the bill was roughly the

same length as that of Common Snipe. It was not as bulky as a Great Snipe

G. media, which I have seen on two occasions previously, and was considered

definitely not to have been large enough for a Solitary Snipe G. solitaria,

although this is a species that I have never seen. The toes projected only very

slightly beyond the tip of the tail, but no more so than in Common Snipe and

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not as extensively as is considered to be diagnostic of Pintail (Taylor 1984).

Compared to Pintail Snipe flushed at the same site it was noticeably larger

and relatively longer-billed and with a heavier and slower flight action.

Pintail Snipe appear distinctly smaller and a little shorter-billed when seen in

flight with Common Snipe, and show a fairly prominent projection of the

toes beyond the tip of the tail if this is looked for. The latter feature would

have been visible in the good profile views obtained as the bird circled us,

especially as we were looking for it. The remote possibility of the bird being

the very similar Latham’s Snipe G. hardwickii was discounted, partly on

range (it has never been recorded from the Indian subcontinent) and from

subsequent experience of it in Australia, where I felt that Latham’s was

substantially larger and bulkier than Swinhoe’s and invariably called when

flushed.

Although this is the first record for Nepal, it is not unexpected as this

species has been recorded from various parts of eastern India in winter (Ali

and Ripley 1984).

REFERENCES

Ali, S. and Ripley, S. D. (1984) Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. Compact edition.

Bombay: Oxford University Press.

Taylor, P. B. (1984) Field identification of Pintail Snipe and recent records in Kenya. Dutch

Birding 6: 77-90.

5. C. Madge, 2 Church Row, Sheviock, Torpoint, Cornwall PL11 3EH, U.K.

Letter:

Setornis criniger, Malacopteron albogulare

and conservation in Indonesia

In his paper on habitat preferences of the Hook-billed Bulbul Setornis criniger

and the White-throated Babbler Malacopteron albogulare, Sheldon (1987)

notes that a common denominator in their habitats is ‘poor-soil’ forest. In

lowland forests, this term encompasses peat-swamp forest, heath forest

( kerangas ) on podzols, forests on ultrabasic soils, and also those transitional

forests between kerangas and the typical rich lowland Mixed Dipterocarp

Forest (MDF). While pedologically very different from each other, the soils

have common factors of high acidity and severe nutrient deficiency or

toxicity, resulting in poor quality forests with low species diversity.

More recent data from Borneo support these observations on habitat

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preference. Thus Nash and Nash (1988) recorded both species in Tanjong

Puting National Park on the south coast, an area comprising mainly peat-

swamp and heath forest. In Similajau National Park in Sarawak, W.

Duckworth (pers. comm.) reports 5. criniger to be virtually confined to poor-

soil forest, though the few records of M. albogulare were from adjacent

MDF. D. R. Wells (pers. comm.) notes that in the Malay Peninsula M.

albogulare successfully occupies peat-swamp forest though it is also found in

MDF.

Information from Sumatra is very sparse, and all known records of both

species are listed in van Marie and Voous (1988). All the localities for A.

criniger would suggest peat-swamp forest, except perhaps that from Bangka

where heath forest is common. However, as in other areas of its range, M.

albogulare is perhaps less so confined. The first record by D.A.H. from

Jambi was in poor-soil forest (acid, sandy, upland soils) but two subsequent

records were from MDF in rolling terrain. Sheldon (1987) acknowledges

that the relative increase in records of M. albogulare reflects recent netting

activities. We suggest also that this babbler is rather easily overlooked, being

perhaps an infrequent songster, and not associating with congeners in mixed

flocks. S. V. Nash and A. D. Nash (pers. comm.) never heard the song in

Tanjong Puting. This song is very distinctive, but rather repetitive and

approaching that of Horsfield’s Babbler Trichastoma sepiarium in monotony.

Sheldon expresses concern over the threats to the habitats of the two

species, and while this may be appropriate in Sabah, the threats are rather

lower on the list of conservation concerns in Indonesia. Recent resource

studies have shown that Kalimantan has some 44,000 km2 of peat-swamp

forest and 17,000 km2 of lowland heath forest. While there is logging in some

peat swamps, principally in areas of Ramin wood, the poor-soil forests are

generally those least under threat. The conservation of the richer lowland

forests and wetlands remain of far greater urgency. It is not difficult to

envisage a future scenario in which Indonesian forests will be confined to the

mountains, gazetted and managed reserves, and the poorest soil areas such as

those apparently frequented by A. criniger and M. albogulare.

The habitat area measurements above are derived from a five-year-long

national inventory of land resources currently being executed by the Land

Resources Department of the Overseas Development Natural Resources

Institute of the U.K. government. By 1989, this survey expects to have

completed the entire country (two million km2), mapping land systems

(ecosystems identified by their landform using mainly remote-sensing

imagery), also current land-use and forest cover, and existing or proposed

development projects and reserves. The survey provides baseline data for

agricultural and forest planning, and will be of great assistance in revisions to

the national conservation plan drawn up by FAO prior to the availability of

such comprehensive regional data.

To prevent the worst scenario from becoming reality, ecological surveys of

remaining forest areas, the establishment of gazetted reserves of sufficient

size, and their management, must be considered an international priority.

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Without international support, the Indonesian government does not yet have

the skilled manpower and capacity to resolve the complex multi-disciplinary

issues involved in developing the sustainable management of its environment.

REFERENCES

van Marie, J. G. and Voous, K. H. (1988) The birds of Sumatra. London: British Ornithologists’

Union (Check-list 8).

Nash, S. V. and Nash, A. D. (1988) An annotated checklist of the birds of Tanjong Pitting

National Park, Central Kalimantan. Kukila 3: 93-116.

Sheldon, F. H. (1987) Habitat preferences of the Hook-billed Bulbul Setomis crtniger and the

White-throated Babbler Malacopteron albogulare in Borneo. Forktail 3: 17-25.

Derek A. Holmes, KUKILA, P.O. Box 287 / KBY, Jakarta. Indonesia.

Dr J . R. David Wall, LRD/ODNRI do The British Embassy, Jakarta. Indonesia.

1 July 1988

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Guidelines for contributors

Forktail publishes original papers in the English language (also, in certain cases, English

translations of papers in Oriental languages) treating any aspect of the ornithology (e.g.

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Submissions should be in duplicate, typewritten on one side of the paper only, and double¬

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Whenever possible, authors should consult an issue of Forktail for style and layout. Spelling

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Spelling of place-names accords (unless another source is specified) with the most recent edition

(currently seventh, 1985) of The Times atlas of the world-, we use ‘South-East Asia’ and ‘Viet

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English and scientific names of birds should preferably follow those provided by King el al. in

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1989

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Campbell, B. and Lack, E. eds. (1985) A dictionary of birds . Calton (Staffordshire, U.K.): T. and

A. D. Poyser.

King, B. F., Dickinson, E. C. and Woodcock, M. W. (1975) A field guide to the birds of South-

East Asia. London: Collins.

Kuroda, Nh., ed. (1984) Ketteiban seibutsu daizukan; chorui [Illustrations of animals and plants:

birds], Tokyo: Sekai Bunkasha. (In Japanese.)

Roslyakov, G. E. (1985) [information on the distribution and number of Aix galenculata and

Mergus squamatus over Khabarovsk Territory.’] Pp. 101-102 in N. M. Litvinenko, ed. Rare

and endangered birds of the Far East. Vladivostok: Far East Science Center, Academy of

Sciences of the USSR. (In Russian.)

Sien Yao-hua, Kuan Kuan-Hstin and Zheng Zuoxin (1964) [‘An avifaunal survey of the Ching-

hai province.’] Acta Zool. Simca 16: 690-709. (In Chinese.)

Smythies, B. E. (1981) The birds of Borneo. Third edition. Kota Kinabalu and Kuala Lumpur:

The Sabah Society and the Malayan Nature Society.

Somadikarta, S. (1986) Collocalia linchi Horsfield & Moore - a revision. Bull. Bm. Om. Club

106: 32-40.

White, C. M. N. and Bruce, M. D. (1986) The birds of Wallacea (Sulawesi, the Moluccas and

Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia): an annotated check-list. London: British Ornithologists’ Union

(Check-list no. 7).

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Pisces

PUBLICATIONS

'EMBER 1989

uirnal of the Oriental Bird Club

OBC Council

Sally Allport

Mike Crosby (Secretary)

Jon Eames (Sales Officer)

Kay Gordon (Membership Secretary)

Adam Gratton

Richard Grimmett (Chairman)

Simon Harrap (Bibliography/Secretary

of Checklist Committee)

Carol Inskipp (Conservation Officer)

Tim Inskipp (Co-Journal Editor/Chairman

of Checklist Committee)

Paul Jepson (Conservation Officer)

Nigel Lindsey (Publicity Officer)

Rod Martins

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Editorial Committee

Dr Nigel Collar (Forktail Co-Editor), Richard Grimmett, Simon Harrap, Tim

Inskipp (Forktail Co-Editor), Rod Martins, Nigel Redman.

OBC Representatives

Murray Bruce (Australia), Prof. K. Z. Husain (Bangladesh), Clive Mann (Brunei),

Dr. Yao-Kuang Tan (China), Anders Prieme and Jesper Madsen (Denmark),

Hannu Jannes (Finland), Roland Eve (France), Dr. W. Thiede (F.R. Germany),

Peter Kennerley and David Melville (Hong Kong), Taej Mundkur (India),

Derek Holmes and Bas van Balen (Indonesia), Chris Murphy (Ireland), Akira Hibi

(Japan), Denis Yong and John Howes (Malaysia), Frank Rozendaal (Netherlands),

Terje Axelsen (Norway), Ashiq Ahmad Khan (Pakistan), Hector Miranda Jr.

(Philippines), Clive Briffett (Singapore), Dr. Sarath Kotagama and Upali Ekanayake

(Sri Lanka), Per Alstrom (Sweden), Dr. W. Suter (Switzerland), Philip Round

and Uthai Treesucon (Thailand), Dr. Robert Kennedy (USA).

The Oriental Bird Club has been established for ornithologists throughout

the world, both amateur and professional, who share a common interest in

the region’s birds and wish to assist in their conservation.

The Club aims to:

• Encourage an interest in the birds of the Oriental Region and their conservation

• Liaise with, and promote the work of, existing regional societies

• Collate and publish material on Oriental birds

Membership

Member (individual): £9p.a.

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Corporate Member: £15p.a.

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Cover photograph: male Giant Pitta Pitta caeruleam first nest known to science, KhaoNoiChuchi, Thailand

(see Round et al., within). Photo: U. Treesucon.

FORKTAIL

Number 5, December 1989

CONTENTS

T. P. INSKIPP and P. D. ROUND. A review of the Black-tailed Crake

Porzana bicolor . 3

C. F. MANN. More notable bird observations from Brunei, Borneo . 17

E. C. DICKINSON. A review of smaller Philippine swiftlets of the genus

Collocalia . 23

P. D. ROUND, U. TREESUCON and J. C. EAMES. A breeding record of

the Giant Pitta Pitta caerulea from Thailand . 35

C. INSKIPP. The ornithological importance of Khaptad National Park, Nepal ... 49

S. HARRAP. Identification, vocalisations and taxonomy of Pnoepyga

wren-babblers . 61

C. R. ROBSON, J. C. EAMES, J. A. WOLSTENCROFT, NGUYEN CU and

TRUONG VAN LA. Recent records of birds from Viet Nam . 71

A. R. RAHMANI. Status of the Black-necked Stork Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus

in the Indian subcontinent . 99

Guidelines for contributors . Ill

l museum

MAIUHAL HISTORY)

24 JAN 1990 I

PRESENTFD

TRING library

ISSN 0950-1746

© Oriental Bird Club 1989

Published for the Oriental Bird Club by

Pisces

PI 'BI IC4TIONS

6 Norreys Avenue, Oxford, England.

Typeset by DMD, Oxford, England.

Printed on recycled paper by Information Press, Oxford, England.

2

ForktaiJ 5

ADDITION

to Forktail 4

On p. 17 add the author’s name and address:

Frank E. de Roder, Zwartemeerweg 20A, 8307 RP Ens, The Netherlands.

We apologise to Mr de Roder and to readers for this omission.

FORKTAIL 5 (1989): 3-15

A review of the

Black-tailed Crake Porzana bicolor

T. P. INSKIPP and P. D. ROUND

The Black-tailed Crake Porzana bicolor is a little-known rallid with few recent records from

anywhere in its range. The plumage and biometrics of the species are described, its

taxonomic affinities discussed and all known records summarised by country. Certain

records (mostly from between 1,000 and 3,000m) extend from Sikkim, Bhutan and the

north-east Indian uplands into eastern Burma, south-west China and the northern parts of

Viet Nam, Laos and Thailand, although the only recent records are from Thailand and

China. The species affects dense vegetation by streams and pools, often shaded by trees,

but will feed in the open. Its song is a long trill given mainly at dusk; the breeding season

extends from May to August.

The recent discovery of the Black-tailed Crake Porzana bicolor in northern

Thailand (Seriot et al. 1986) has prompted us to review the sparse literature

pertaining to this very poorly known species, and to incorporate new

observations, in particular the first published details of its vocalisations.

There is a wide scatter of records in a number of countries in the Oriental

region, to which the bird is endemic, but there are few recent observations.

This is partly because many of the localities are currently inaccessible to all

but a few local ornithologists, but the absence of records in the last fifty years

from the frequently visited Darjiling district, India, is not easy to explain.

In the following account, unless otherwise stated, the coordinates and

modern place-name spellings are derived either from The Times atlas of the

world (1986) or from more detailed maps consulted in Cambridge University

Library. Superscript numbers next to place-names in the text correspond to

the position of the localities on the map (see Figure 1). AMNH stands for

American Museum of Natural History, ANSP for the Academy of Natural

Sciences, Philadelphia, BMNH for British Museum (Natural History),

FMNH for Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, MCZ for Museum

of Comparative Zoology, Harvard, USNM for National Museum of Natural

History, Washington.

DESCRIPTION

The following descriptions are derived from a number of sources, but mainly

from Walden (1872) and Sharpe (1894). Where described features appear to

be at variance with the majority of descriptions, they are included in

parentheses.

Full-grown birds Head and neck dark ashy-grey, darker on the crown and

nape; mantle, rump, scapulars and wing-coverts dull rufous-brown;

carpal-edge white; alula, primary coverts and remiges dark brown, outer

4

T. P. INSKIPP and P. D. ROUND

Forktail 5

webs rufescent brown or fuscous (P.D.R. has seen one individual with very

narrow whitish margins to the tertials); upper tail-coverts and tail blackish;

sides of head pale grey; chin whitish; rest of underparts ashy-grey, breast

slightly darker; vent and under tail-coverts blackish or dusky brown; under

wing-coverts and axillaries dusky, slightly washed with rufous-brown.

Iris blood-red or vermilion in adults, brown in immatures; orbital ring

venetian-red or apricot-orange.

Bill pale bluish-green or apple-green, tipped paler and greyer (or tip black:

Walden 1872, Stanford and Mayr 1941), with a venetian-red patch near the

base of both mandibles, which is brighter in the breeding season (however,

P.D.R. has never observed any red at the base); gape slaty colour.

Legs and feet dull lobster-red, bright brick-red or deep pinkish-red (or

fleshy-grey: Stanford and Mayr 1941) (Meyer de Schauensee 1984 also

mentions ‘livid purple’ but this is probably a transcription error for

Amauromis akool).

Pullus Black all over with a steely-green gloss on the upperside. Iris

hazel. Bill pale pinkish-mauve, tip lighter. Tarsus dusky with a faint

mauve-plumbeous wash (Kinnear 1929).

Table. Biometrics of the Black-tailed Crake Porzana bicolor, in millimetres

Total length (cm): 20.3 (Sharpe 1894), 21.6 (Blanford 1898), 22.2 (Godwin-Austen 1874),

25.4 (King et al. 1975).

1989

Black-tailed Crake

5

TAXONOMY

Walden (1872), when he described the species, placed it in Porzana but gave

no reason for this generic assignment. Amauromis had been established by

Reichenbach (1852), but until the 1870s much of the Indian literature

continued to include in Porzana both akool and phoenicurus, which are now

generally accepted as belonging to Amauromis. Sharpe (1894) was the first

author to transfer akool and phoenicurus to Amauromis but he maintained

bicolor in Porzana. His key to rallid genera indicates that Amauromis

comprised species with primaries hardly projecting beyond the secondaries

and the bill slightly swollen at the base. Blanford (1898) transferred bicolor to

Amauromis, which he distinguished from Porzana by the more rounded

wing: 3rd primary longest (as opposed to the 2nd) and the 1st primary

shorter than the 8th (as opposed to equalling the 6th or 7th). He indicated

that the bill is not swollen at the base in bicolor or in fusca, which he also

included in Amauromis. Baker (1929) retained this classification in his second

edition of the Fauna. However, Peters (1934) returned both bicolor and fusca

to Porzana. Ali and Ripley (1969) followed Baker in placing bicolor in

Amauromis ; they used the same criteria as Blanford and Baker for

distinguishing the two genera but, confusingly, transferred fusca back to

Porzana. Benson and Wagstaffe (1972) drew attention to the similarities

between bicolor, (Limnocorax) flavirostris, (Amauromis) olivieri and (Porzana)

tabuensis and advocated ‘the placing of all four of these species in the same

genus, perhaps most correctly Porzana ’.

Olson (1973), in a complete review of the classification of the family,

declared that ‘one of the most difficult problems in rail taxonomy lies in the

proper allocation of the species included in the genera Porzana and

Amauromis. The four species that Peters (1934) included in Amauromis

(phoenicurus, akool, olivaceus and isabellina ) form a rather basic stock from

which both the Porzana assemblage and the gallinules could have arisen.’

After skeletal studies of various species, but not including bicolor, he

recommended the placement of bicolor, fusca and tabuensis in Porzana.

Ripley (1977) included bicolor in Amauromis, which he defined as comprising

species ‘powerfully built in proportion . . . and [which] have a tendency to

large, stout bills with a culmen ridge extending back into the forehead into a

nascent shield’. His key to genera requires that all Amauromis have a ‘frontal

shield or culmen swollen at base’ and the tarsus longer than the middle toe

without the claw. The characters defining Porzana are the lack of a frontal

shield, small size (less than 7 inches [180 mm] in length) and the tarsus

shorter than the middle toe plus claw.

Although bicolor is longer than 7 inches, so are several species included in

Porzana by Ripley and, since this is a small species without a swollen base to

the culmen and a tarsus hardly longer than the middle toe less claw, we

prefer to follow Sharpe (1894) and Olson (1973) in placing bicolor in Porzana.

6

T. P. INSKIPP and P. D. ROUND

Forktail 5

HISTORY

India

The first specimens were collected by B. H. Hodgson between 1844 and

1858 whilst he was resident in Darjiling. The present labels (in BMNH) state

‘Nepal’ as the place of collection and Inskipp and Inskipp (1985) treated

them as originating in that country. However, Ludlow and Kinnear (1937)

suggested that it was more likely that they had been obtained in Darjiling or

Sikkim. There is, in fact, considerable doubt that any specimens in

Hodgson’s later collections originated in Nepal. Hodgson’s specimens were

originally misidentified as Brown Crakes Amauromis akool, and remained so

until reported correctly by Sharpe (1894).

The species was described from a specimen (in BMNH) taken at 880m at

Rungbee (= Rangbi)1, below Darjiling (27°N 88°20'E), in November 1870

(Walden 1872). This specimen is pre-dated by one taken by H. J. Elwes on

29 September 1870 at 1,570m in a paddyfield at Choongtam (= Tsungtang)2,

Sikkim (27°38'N 88°35'E) (Sharpe 1894). Early in 1872 Hume had named

this latter individual Porzana elwesi in a description sent to Ibis, but the

editor put it aside and only remembered it after the appearance of Walden’s

publication (Hume 1875, Hume and Marshall 1879). Soon afterwards, four

adults were taken by L. Mandelli: one at Lebong3, Darjiling district

(27°03'N 88°25'E) in 1874, and the others in ‘Native Sikkim’ (= Darjiling

area), in May 1874, November 1877 and March 1879; in addition a juvenile

was obtained on an unknown date (Sharpe 1894, BMNH collection data).

Meanwhile the species had been found at Shillong4, Meghalaya (25°34'N

91°53'E) by Godwin-Austen (1874), who collected one at 1,570m in June.

Two other birds were brought to him alive with an egg, said to be from this

species; he kept the birds in confinement but reported that they did not live

for long - these were perhaps the same birds as two specimens, now in

BMNH, dated 14 July and August (BMNH collection data). Hume and

Marshall (1879) stated that ‘numerous specimens have now been obtained in

Sikhim, and again in the neighbourhood of Shillong’, but no other relevant

specimens have been traced in museum collections.

The next mention of the species was by Hume (1888) who saw two birds,

which he felt sure were of this species, at 3,500m below Tankool Hoondoong

(= Tangkhul Hundung)5, Manipur (24°45'N 94°10'E). He did not feel able

to add it to his Manipur list on the basis of this sight record, but it is

nevertheless listed as occurring in Manipur by Sharpe (1894), Baker (1928,

1929), Ripley (1977) and Ali and Ripley (1980).

Baker (1907) recorded taking two specimens, trapped on nests, in the

Khasi Hills. There are two specimens of male bicolor in AMNH, collected by

Baker from nests at Shillong4, in the Khasi Hills, on 20 and 21 June 1908. It

is possible that the same individuals are involved and that the year of

collection on the museum labels is incorrect. Stevens (1925) had three live

birds brought to him on 22 May 1912, whilst he was collecting on the

1989

Black-tailed Crake

7

Nepal-Darjiling border; he was told that they had been caught between

3,660m and 3,960m, but was not entirely convinced by this claim. He

also provided details of a female, containing an oviduct egg, taken by

F. S. Boileau on 27 March 1918 at about 1,300m, below Nagri6 in the

Rungbong (= Rangbang) Valley, Darjiling district (26°55'N 88°12'E). Baker

(1928, 1929, 1935) listed the species as occurring in ‘Eastern Assam’ (now

Figure 1. The distribution of the Black-tailed Crake.

g

T. P. INSKIPP and P. D. ROUND

Forktail 5

Arunachal Pradesh) above 1,000m and in the Lakhimpur district7, Assam,

calling it ‘not uncommon practically down to the foothills’, and noting that it

also breeds ‘in considerable numbers in the Khasia Hills, as also in the North

Cachar Hills in the few places suitable to it’. A specimen was taken at

1,675m at Mirik8, Darjiling district (26°52'N 88°10'E), on 30 January 1938

(Matthews and Edwards 1944).

In May 1938 F. Ludlow noted four on 4th and collected a male and female

on 6th, all at 2,135m at Lhalung9, Arunachal Pradesh (28°42'N 94°12'E)

(Ludlow and Kinnear 1944, Cheng et al. 1983, BMNH collection data).

W. Koelz collected a male on 5 August 1950 at Takubama

(= Chakhabama)10, Nagaland (25°40'N 94°14'E) (ANSP collection data),

and the last known records for India involve a male and female that Koelz

collected on 20 and 23 February 1953 at Sangau11, Lushai Hills, Mizoram

(22°43'N 93°04'E) (FMNH collection data).

Bhutan

The only definite record is of one collected by Ludlow at 2,290m at

Taktoo12, Gamri Chu (27°22'N 91°50'E) on 27 October 1934 (Ludlow and

Kinnear 1937, BMNH collection data). However, Ripley (1977) saw a bird

that he was convinced was of this species at Gasa13 (3,250m) (27°45'N

89°40'E) in September 1968.

Nepal

Apart from the records discussed above under India there is a possible sight

record from Phul Chowki14, Kathmandu Valley: on 27 March 1981 T.P.I.

saw a small, plain-looking, short-billed rallid at 1,650 m crossing a forest

path well away from water.

Bangladesh 1 5

The species is listed as a rare resident by Khan (1982), but no further details

are known.

China

The first record was a specimen collected by G. Rippon at 2,750m in the

Lijiang Valley16, north Yunnan (26°51'N 100°16'E) on 10 April 1906

(Ingram 1912, BMNH collection data). The species was subsequently found

breeding at 1,830m on Wa Shan17, Ebian County, Sichuan (29°40'N 103°E),

and two males were collected there by W. R. Zappey on 29 May and 7 June

1908 (Thayer and Bangs 1912, MCZ collection data). In 1923 J. F. Rock

collected two specimens on 3 June from Lanping Plain18, north-west

Yunnan (26°25'N 99°25'E); also a male on 22 August near Lungwangmiao19

(2,500m), Lijiang Plain, and three more specimens in the same area in

August (Riley 1926, AMNH and USNM collection data). In the winter of

1929-1930 a further female was collected at Lijiang16 by M. S. Hsuen

1989

Black-tailed Crake

9

(FMNH collection data). In 1960 a female was collected on 6 April at

2,500m on Yulongxue Shan20, north Yunnan (27°08'N 100°17'E) (Cheng

et al. 1962, Tan and Cheng 1964; specimen held in Institute of Zoology,

Beijing). In 1963 a male was collected on 21 September at Taiping21 (500m),

Jiang, north-east Guizhou (27°45'N 108°50'E) (Wu Zhikang 1982,

Wu Zhikang et al. 1986; specimen held in Kunming Institute of Zoology,

Kunmong, Yunnan). In 1965 a female was collected at 2,000m on

Wa Shan17 on 11 May (Cheng Tso-hsin in litt.). In 1988 the species was

recorded at Mengyang Nature Reserve22, south Yunnan (22°N 101°E) on

29 March (S. Jensen in litt.).

One specimen has also been collected in August at Tengchong23 (25°02'N

98°28'E), south-west Yunnan (Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia

Sinica 1980), but the year of collection is not known.

Burma (recently renamed Myanmar)

A specimen in BMNH, which was presented by G. A. Frank (apparently a

dealer in skins), is labelled ‘Burmah’, but no further details are known.

H. H. Harington procured a nest with four eggs at Sinlum-Kaba24 (1,830m),

Bhamo district (24°18'N 97°32'E), on 29 May 1905. These were identified as

of this species when compared with six eggs taken with an adult bird by

O. K. Tancock, nearby at Lweje on 9 May 1909 (Harington 1910).

Harington (1914) subsequently obtained ‘other specimens’ at Sinlum in

December 1909. B. B. Osmaston found a nest containing six eggs on 18 July

(year not known), near Mogaung25 (100 - 200m), north-east Burma (25°20'N

96°54'E), the only low-elevation record for the country (Baker 1935,

Smythies 1953). T. R. Livesey described the species as not uncommon in the

Southern Shan States26 (presumably in the 1930s) (Smythies 1953).

P. F. Wickham (1930) found it to be common in the Chin Hills27, West

Burma. A female was brought to A. Vernay and S. F. Hopwood at

Hpawshi28 (1,52 5-1, 8 30m), near Gangfang, north-east Burma (26°N

98°30'E) on 12 February 1939, and another crake, almost certainly

belonging to this species, was seen ‘on a small swampy pool at Gangfang’

(Stanford and Mayr 1941, Stanford 1942, AMNH collection data). The most

recent record is of a male taken at Nattaung29 (1,370m), Karenni (18°49'N

97°02'E), on 9 April 1940 (Smith et al. 1944, BMNH collection data).

Laos

A male was collected by J. van Tyne at Phong Saly30 (1,340m) (21°40'N

102°06'E) on 4 May 1929 (Bangs and van Tyne 1931, FMNH collection

data). David-Beaulieu (1939, 1940) noted the species at Nong Het31

(19°29'N 104°01'E) and Xieng Khouang32 (19°21'N 103°23'E); at the latter

locality he collected a male on 25 March 1939 (USNM collection data), but

subsequently he collected ‘un bon nombre’ at these two localities and

considered it to be less rare than formerly supposed.

10

T. P. INSKIPP and P. D. ROUND

Forktail 5

Viet Nam

In 1924 H. Stevens collected a chick on 21 June, and an adult female on the

following day, below Ngai-tio33, Tonkin (22°43'N 103°23'E) (Kinnear 1929,

BMNH collection data). In 1929 two birds were obtained at Cha Pa34,

Tonkin (22°20'N 103°50'E): B. Bjorkegren collected a male on 3 January

(MCZ collection data) and J. Delacour collected a female on 18 December

(Delacour 1930, AMNH collection data). Vo Quy (1975) has recorded the

species at Cha Pa, apparently in recent years, and he also found it at Lai

Chau35, Tonkin (22°04'N 103°10'E). The only other record is one seen on

the Deo Mang Pass36, Central Annam, on 31 March 1966 (Abramson 1971).

The bird was described as ‘about 11 in. long with a conspicuous red bill,

olive brown back and wings’. It seems unlikely, however, that the

identification as Black-tailed Crake is correct.

Thailand

The Black-tailed Crake is known in Thailand so far only from Ban Maeo

Khun Klang37 (1,300m), Doi Inthanon National Park (18°32'N 98°31'E),

where it was first definitely reported on 25 January 1985 (Seriot et al. 1986).

A bird was seen at the same site on 29 January by two other observers, and

by a number of people, including B. King and P.D.R., on 30 January. The

species has not apparently been seen subsequently at this site. However, on

7 April 1983, about 1km from the above site, P.D.R. and J. W. Wall heard

three unknown rallids calling, obtained a tape and saw one bird poorly; in

the light of P.D.R. ’s subsequent experience he is convinced that these were

Porzana bicolor. On 31 January 1985 P.D.R., with B. King and others,

heard three or possibly four individuals along 200 m of streamside, at a site

400m downstream from the 1983 site. P.D.R. subsequently found one or

two birds at this site on 5-6 November 1985 and 21-22 March 1986 (Anon.

1986), and 25 February 1987. F. and C. Rozendaal heard and saw one bird

on 9 May 1987 (Round 1987a) and Robson (1987) saw three individuals on

2 and 3 July. G. Speight confirmed it as a breeding bird when he found two

adults with three young on 6 August 1987 (Round 1987b). The Black-tailed

Crake is thus clearly a resident species on Doi Inthanon. It is possible that it

occurs quite widely in the north of Thailand, perhaps only above 1,000 m

(though note Osmaston’s low-altitude breeding record in Burma); there are

over 13,000km2 of land above this altitude in northern Thailand (data from

the Conservation Data Centre, Mahidol University per P.D.R.).

Malaysia

In the early 1920s a previously unidentified skin in the Raffles Museum,

Singapore, was determined as this species. It bore a label stating ‘Kotta

Tinggi38, Johore, Dec. 18th 1892. Sex female’ (Moulton 1922). Some doubt

about the authenticity of the record was expressed at the time because of ‘a

slight possibility of a mistake having been made in attaching the original

1989

Black-tailed Crake

11

label’. Robinson (in Robinson and Chasen 1936) expressed more positive

doubt: ‘I believe that this skin was brought to Singapore, probably by

Davison, with other non-Malayan specimens and that it is now wrongly

labelled’. Medway and Wells (1976) make no reference to the species.

HABITAT, BEHAVIOUR, VOICE

The Black-tailed Crake is usually found in patches of jungle, scrub and

rushes between or around rice cultivation or around small ponds in or near

forest; it also frequents small streams, especially those with plenty of cover

on one side and open grassland on the other (Baker 1927).

In Thailand the recent records are mainly from narrow (l-5m wide),

slow-flowing, permanent streams in which the stream beds are grown over

with lush, dense but short (30cm) grass. The birds were noted emerging into

open pools, muddy areas and shallow runnels. These streams are shady with

dense herbage and small (up to 12 m) trees of secondary growth along the

banks. The surrounding areas are almost completely deforested, with small

cultivated patches scattered among dense clumps of Eupatorium adenophorum

and young pine plantations.

Baker (1927) described birds as coming out of cover in the early mornings

and late evenings and feeding in the open grass, picking up small

grasshoppers, snails and small worms. At the least sign of danger they

scuttled down to the bank and either swam or flew to cover on the far side.

When frightened they ran with head and tail depressed and covered the

ground at a great pace, but at other times their walk was the usual slow jerky

movement affected by all rails. Ripley (1977) described the species as a ‘great

skulker’, though at times feeding unconcernedly in the open. Robson (1987)

noted one bird feeding away from cover in the mid-afternoon in close

proximity to a grazing horse and a group of people tilling a field. P.D.R. has

noted it feeding with a rapid pecking motion, the wings somewhat drooped

and the tail cocked and frequently flicked upwards.

A bird watched by P.D.R. on 30 January 1985 uttered high-pitched keck

or kik notes while feeding (see Figure 2). The ‘song’ consists of an initial

rasping waak-waak call, which is often inaudible except at close range,

followed by a long, slightly descending trill lasting about 12-13 seconds

(see Figure 3). The interval between each trill is usually 5-15 minutes.

P.D.R. has mainly heard it calling at dusk, though once (7 April 1983) in the

early morning.

BREEDING

Baker (1927, 1935) is the only person who has recorded finding a large

number of nests. Most were in ‘quite small patches of jungle round about, or

12

T. P. INSKIPP and P. D. ROUND

Forktail 5

between, rice fields at an elevation of some 5,500 feet’. The species has been

found breeding up to 1,830m and down to about 200m in the Lakhimpur

district of Assam and at Mogaung, Burma. The nest is a rough pad of loosely

put-together twigs and grass with a slight depression in the centre. Most

nests are on the ground in grass but some have been found in trees and

bushes and one, in a rhododendron in dense forest, some way from water,

was about 6m from the ground (all described in Baker 1927, 1935). In

China, two nests found by W. R. Zappey were on small, reedy islands in

mountain streams (Thayer and Bangs 1912).

The breeding season lasts from the middle of May to the end of August,

and the number of eggs varies from five to seven and, very rarely, eight. The

eggs average 33.9 x 26.1mm and are richly coloured pale cream to pale

Figure 2. Call (presumably for contact; given while feeding) of Black-tailed Crake. Recording by

P. D. Round.

Figure 3. Part of trilling song of Black-tailed Crake. Recording by P. D. Round.

5 —

|T'i i 'i 1 1 1 1 1 |i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 in 1 1 1 1 r| 1 1 1 ii 1 1 1 1 1 ri i 1 1 1 n ij m 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

O 01 02 0-3 04 0-5 0 6 07 0-8 0-9 10 1-1 1-2 1 3 1 4 1 5

sec

1989

Black-tailed Crake

13

salmon-pink, boldly blotched with deep red-brown, purplish-brown or

brick-red, with secondary markings of grey and lavender. Both sexes are

involved in nest construction and incubation. The period of incubation is

unrecorded.

Professor Cheng Tso-hsin and Dr Tan Yao-kuang kindly provided extra details of the

records from China. Grateful thanks to Nigel Collar, Mary LeCroy (AMNH),

Mark Robbins (ANSP) and Melvin Traylor (FMNH) for extracting information from

specimen labels in American museums, to Stig Jensen for providing information, and to

Peter Colston for facilitating access to the British Museum (Natural History) collection.

Joan Hall-Craggs and William Seale very kindly prepared the sonagrams.

REFERENCES

Anon. (1986) Recent reports, February, March and April 1986. Bangkok Bird Club Bull. 3(4):

1W12.

Abramson, I. J. (1971) Sight observations of some South Vietnamese birds. Nat. Hist. Bull. Siam

Soc. 24: 183-186.

Ali, S. and Ripley, S. D. (1969) Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan, 2. Bombay: Oxford

University Press.

Baker, E. C. S. (1907) Birds of the Khasia Hills. Part 2.J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 17: 957-975.

Baker, E. C. S. (1927) Gamebirds of the Indian Empire. Vol. 5. The waders and other

semi-sporting birds, Part 3. J . Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 32: 1-13.

Baker, E. C. S. (1929) The fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Birds, 6. Second

edition. London: Taylor and Francis.

Baker, E. C. S. (1935) The nidification of birds of the Indian Empire, 4. London: Taylor and

Francis.

Bangs, O. and van Tyne, J. (1931) Birds of the Kelley-Roosevelts Expedition to French

Indo-China. Field Mus. Nat. Hist. (Zool.) 18: 33-119.

Benson, C. W. and Wagstaffe, R. (1972) Porzana olivieri and Limnocorax flavirostris ; a likely

affinity. Bull. Bnt. Om. Club 92: 160-164.

Blanford, W. T. (1898) The fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Birds, 4. London:

Taylor and Francis.

Cheng Tso-hsin (1987) A synopsis of the avifauna of China. Beijing: Science Press.

Cheng Tso-hsin, Li Dehau, Wang Zuxiang, Wang Ziyu, Jiang Zhihua and Lu Taichun (1983)

The avifauna of Xizang (Tibet). Beijing: Science Press, Academia Sinica. (In Chinese.)

Cheng Tso-hsin, Tan Yao-kuang, Lo Chuan-sheng and Min Chih-lan (1962) Taxonomic

studies on birds from south-western Szechwan and north-western Yunnan. Part 1 -

Non-Passeriformes. Acta Zool. Sinica 14: 537-553. (In Chinese.)

David-Beaulieu, A. (1939) Liste complementaire des oiseaux de Tranninh. L’Oiseau el R.F.O.

N.S. 9: 183-186.

David-Beaulieu, A. (1940) Deuxieme liste complementaire des oiseaux du Tranninh. L’Oiseau et

R.F.O. N.S. 10: 78-85.

David-Beaulieu, A. (1944) Les oiseaux du Tranninh. Hanoi: Publications de l’Ecole Superieure

des Sciences.

Delacour, J. (1930) On the birds collected during the fifth expedition to French Indo-China. Ibis

(12)6: 564-599.

Delacour, J. and Jabouille, P. (1931) Les oiseaux de I’lndochine franqaise, 1. Paris: Exposition

Coloniale Internationale.

Godwin-Austen, H. H. (1874) Fourth list of birds principally from the Naga Hills and Munipur,

including others from the Khasi, Garo and Tipperah Hills. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 43: 151-180.

Harington, H. H. (1910) A further list of birds of the Bhamo district, upper Burma. J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 20: 373-379.

Harington, H. H. (1914) Notes on the nidification of some birds from Burma. Ibis (10)5: 1-26.

14

T. P. INSKIPP and P. D. ROUND

Forktail 5

Hume, A. O. (1875) Recently described species. Stray Feathers 3: 279-283.

Hume, A. O. (1888) The birds of Manipur, Assam, Sylhet and Cachar. Stray Feathers 1 1 : 1-353.

Hume, A. O. and Marshall, C. H. T. (1879) The game birds of India, Burmah, and Ceylon. 3 vols.

Calcutta: published by the authors.

Ingram, C. (1912) The birds of Yunnan. Novil. Zool. 19: 269-310.

Inskipp, C. and Inskipp, T. (1985) A guide to the birds of Nepal. London: Croom Helm.

Khan, M. A. R. (1982) Wildlife of Bangladesh, a checklist. Dhaka: University of Dhaka.

King, B. F., Dickinson, E. C. and Woodcock, M. W. (1975) A field guide to the birds of

South-East Asia. London: Collins.

Kinnear, N. (1929) On the birds collected by Mr H. Stevens in northern Tonkin in 1923-24.

Part 1. Ibis (12)5: 107-150.

Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica (1980) Yunnan niadlei minglu [= Checklist of

birds of Yunnan]. (In Chinese.)

Ludlow, F. and Kinnear, N. (1937) The birds of Bhutan and adjacent territories of Sikkim and

Tibet. Part 3. Ibis (14)1: 467-504.

Ludlow, F. and Kinnear, N. (1944) The birds of south-eastern Tibet. Ibis 86: 43-86, 176-208,

348-389.

Matthews, W. H. and Edwards, V. S. (1944) A list of birds of Darjeeling and neighbourhood.

Darjeeling: published by the authors.

Medway, Lord and Wells, D. R. (1976) The birds of the Malay Peninsula, 5. London and Kuala

Lumpur: H. F. and G. Witherby in association with Penerbit Universiti Malaya.

Meyer de Schauensee, R. (1984) The birds of China. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Moulton, J. C. (1922) A rail new to the Malay Peninsula. J . Straits Br. Roy. Asiatic Soc. 85:

213-214.

Olson, S. L. (1973) A classification of the Rallidae. Wilson Bull. 85: 381-416.

Peters, J . L. (1934) Check-list of birds of the world, 3. Cambridge, Mass. : Museum of Comparative

Zoology.

Reichenbach, H. G. L. (1847-1854) Avium Systema Naturale. 11 tomes. Dresden and Leipzig.

Riley, J. H. (1926) A collection of birds from the provinces of Yunnan and Szechwan, China,

made for the National Geographic Society by Joseph F. Rock. Proc. U.S. Natn. Mus. 70,

no. 2654.

Ripley, S. D. (1977) Rails of the world. Toronto: M. F. Feheley.

Robinson, H. C. and Chasen, F. N. (1936) The birds of the Malay Peninsula, 3. London:

H. F. and G. Witherby.

Robson, C. (1987) Recent reports, June-July 1987. Bangkok Bird Club Bull. 4(7): 10.

Round, P. (1987a) Recent reports, March-May 1987. Bangkok Bird Club Bull. 4(5): 10-11.

Round, P. (1987b) Recent reports, July-September 1987. Bangkok Bird Club Bull. 4(9): 10- 1 1 .

Seriot, J., Pineau, O., de Schatzen, R. and Dubois, Ph. J. (1986) Black-tailed Crake: a new

species for Thailand. Forktail 2: 101-103.

Sharpe, R. B. (1894) Catalogue of the birds in the collection of the British Museum, 23 - Fulicariae,

Alectorides. London: British Museum.

Smith, H. C., Garthwaite, P. F., Smythies, B. E. and Ticehurst, C. B. (1944) On the birds of the

Karen Hills and Karenni found over 3,000 feet. Part 3. 7. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 44:

221-232.

Smythies, B. E. (1953) The birds of Burma. Second edition. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd.

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to northern Burma. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 42: 242-254.

Stanford, J. K. and Mayr, E. (1941) The Vernay-Cutting Expedition to northern Burma. Part 5.

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Stevens, H. (1925) Notes on the birds of the Sikkim Himalayas. Part 7. 7. Bombay Nat. Hist.

Soc. 30: 872-893.

Tan Yao-kuang and Cheng Tso-hsin (1964) On the vertical distribution of birds on Mt. Yu-lung,

north-western Yunnan. Acta Zool. Sinica 16: 295-314. (In Chinese.)

Thayer, J. E. and Bangs, O. (1912) Some Chinese vertebrates: Aves. Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. 40:

137-200.

The Times atlas of the world (1986) Comprehensive (seventh) edition. London: Times Books.

1989

Black-tailed Crake

15

Vo Quy (1975) Chim Viet nam, 1. Hanoi. (In Vietnamese.)

Walden, A. (1872) Description of a new species of Porzana from the Himalayas. Ann. Mag. Nat.

Hist. (4)9: 47.

Wickham, P. F. (1930) Notes on the birds of the Upper Burma hills. Part 3. J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 34: 337-349.

Wu Zhikang (1982) Birds in the Fanjingshan Mountain area. Pp. 222-231 in Scientific survey of

the Fanjingshan Mountain Preserve. (In Chinese.)

Wu Zhikang, Lin Qiwei, Yang Jiongli, Liu Jichen and Wu Lu (1986) The avifauna of Guizhou.

Guizhou: People’s Publishing House. (In Chinese.)

T. P. Inskipp, 65 Swaynes Lane, Comberton, Cambridgeshire CB3 7EF, U.K.

P. D. Round, Center for Wildlife Research, Biology Department, Faculty of Science, Mahidol

University, Rama 6 Road, Bangkok 10400, Thailand.

FORKTAIL 5 (1989): 17-22

More notable bird observations

from Brunei, Borneo

C. F. MANN

Notable records are of birds in Brunei, 1986-1989, involve 27 species, including three first

records for Borneo, an additional six first records for Brunei, one first breeding record for

Borneo and Brunei respectively and one first record of a nest. The expanding Wasan Rice

Scheme continues to attract waterbirds.

Some of the more interesting records of birds in Brunei in the last few years

were summarised by Mann (1987a). Since then, further interesting

observations have been made, and these will appear in what is hoped will be

regular ‘bird reports’ in the Brunei Museum Journal, the first of which covers

the period July 1986 to June 1988 (Mann in press). However, as some of

these records may be of wider interest, they are presented here.

The Wasan Rice Scheme, which figures so prominently in several records

and in Mann (1987a), continues to be expanded. How this will affect the

birds remains to be seen. Large areas of mud are sometimes exposed and

churned up by tractors prior to planting, attracting numbers of waders,

ducks and marsh terns. However, other activities are less welcome: intensive

netting to trap granivorous species has resulted in the deaths of small bitterns

Ixobrychus, hirundines and warblers Locustella and Acrocephalus orientalis.

Fortunately, in 1989 the netting effort was considerably reduced (although

the amount of rice planted was maximised) as a result of being ridiculed in a

cartoon by a visiting Japanese! Meanwhile, agricultural fungicide was

believed to be responsible for the poisoning of over 30 Garganey Anas

querquedula and perhaps other duck in November 1988, and a general lack of

raptors in January 1989 was possibly the result of large amounts of poison

bait being laid for rats Rattus and munias Lonchura.

An area of newly reclaimed land, used as a high-tide roost, along with a

nearby rubbish-tip, at Serasa (13 km north-east of Bandar Seri Begawan), has

produced some interesting sightings.

The records that follow were made by Jung Dharuvala (JD), David A.

Diskin (DAD), Jen A. Elkin (JAE), Derek Harvey (DH), A. Conrad Ozog

(ACO), B. Prins (BP) and myself (CFM).

SYSTEMATIC LIST

RUFOUS NIGHT-HERON Nycticorax caledonicus Serasa: one adult on

29 August 1988 and subsequent dates; two pairs, each with a nest (in a

Casuarina tree), and an immature were later present, and up to three adults

and two juveniles were present until 10 November 1988, but no further

18

C. F. MANN

Forktail 5

interest was shown in the nests (DAD, CFM, ACO). The species nests in

Sabah (Smythies 1981, Sheldon and Marin 1985); otherwise its nearest

known breeding area is in the Philippines.

BLACK-FACED SPOONBILL Platalea minor [Serasa: an unidentified

spoonbill flew over on 25 January 1985 (Mann 1987b).] Seria: one from

6 January to the end of April 1985 (Mann 1987b and in press). This record,

inadvertently omitted from Mann (1987a), is the first for Borneo. However,

it is possible that the records of Royal Spoonbill P. regia for Borneo

(e.g. Smythies 1981) in fact refer to this species.

NORTHERN PINTAIL Anas acuta Wasan: six, 8 January 1988; present

from 9 November 1988 to 3 March 1989, with a maximum of 13 on

2 December and 10 February (DAD, CFM, ACO). The first records for

Brunei. Previously known in Borneo (Sarawak and Sabah) from Bintulu,

Kapit, Labuan, Padas Damit and Mumiang (Smythies 1981; Parish and

Wells 1985).

COMMON TEAL Anas crecca Wasan: two males from 8 January to

21 February 1988; one on 4 November, 2 and 9 December 1988 (DAD,

CFM, ACO). The first records for Brunei. There is only one previous record

in Borneo: Padas Damit, Sabah, on 8 December 1984 (Parish and Wells

1985).

NORTHERN SHOVELER Anas clypeata Wasan: an eclipse male on 13 and

20 November and 10 December 1987; a pair on 4 and 18 November 1988;

three or four on 25 November 1988 (DAD, CFM, ACO). The single

previous record from Brunei and all other records from Borneo are

summarised in Mann (1987a).

[MALLARD Anas platyrhynchos Two ducks at Seria Beach on 22 September

1987 were thought to be females or immatures of this species - a blue

speculum was noted (JAE, BP). The locality is most unlikely for domestic

ducks, which are uncommon in Brunei and mostly white or khaki. Mallards

have not been recorded in Brunei, and the only previous records for Borneo

are from Sundar, Tarikan and Niah (Sarawak) and Kota Belud (Sabah)

(Smythies 1981).]

EURASIAN WIGEON Anas penelope Wasan: one, 9 and 25 November and

2 December 1988 and 19 February 1989 (DAD, CFM, ACO). The first

record for Brunei, with apparently just three previous records for Borneo:

Tampassuk Plains and Papar (Sabah) and Bintulu (Sarawak) (Smythies

1981).

TUFTED DUCK Aythya fuligula Wasan: an immature on 18 and

20 November and two on 25 November 1988 (DAD, CFM, ACO). The

single previous record from Brunei and all other records from Borneo are

summarised in Mann (1987a).

[COMMON BUZZARD Buteo buteo A probable at Rampayoh on

1989

More observations from Brunei

19

18 September 1987 (CFM, ACO). This species is unrecorded on Borneo, but

occurs on Java and the Philippines, so its occurrence is not unlikely. The

date here, however, is early.]

[ORIENTAL HOBBY/NORTHERN HOBBY Falco severus/F. subbuteo

Wasan: an immature was seen briefly on 18 October 1987 (DAD). The

former is rare and the latter unrecorded in Borneo (Smythies 1981).]

BULWER’S PHEASANT Lophura bulweri Belait District: a nest with one

egg, among the buttress roots of a large tree on a forested ridge not far from a

river, on 17 November 1985 (DH). The female was flushed from the nest at

the observer’s feet. This is the first known nest in the wild of this Bornean

endemic.

WATER RAIL Rallus aquaticus Wasan: one on 11 and 25 March 1988

(DAD). There are only two previous records from Borneo: Talang Island,

Sarawak, 20 December 1956 (Smythies 1981) and one at Sg. Seria, Brunei,

18 September 1980 (Vowles and Vowles 1985).

COMMON RINGED PLOVER Charadrius hiaticula Serasa: two immatures,

clearly distinguished from Semipalmated Plover C. semipalmatus, on

21 October 1988 (DAD, CFM, ACO). The birds were seen down to about

30 m with 40 x telescopes. The facial pattern and breast-band were plainly

seen. [A probable on 6 November 1988 (DAD).] The previous two records

from Borneo, both from Brunei, are summarised in Vowles and Vowles

(1985).

[LONG-BILLED PLOVER Charadrius placidus Sg. Seria: a record of one

on 11 December 1982 (Vowles and Vowles 1985), included in Mann (1987b),

has been withdrawn at the request of one of the observers.]

LITTLE CURLEW Numenius minutus Wasan: one on 14 October 1988

(DAD, CFM, ACO). Previous Bornean records are: Kuching, Sarawak,

5 October 1900, two on 15 November and six on 23 November 1965; Miri,

Sarawak, three on 25 October 1976; Brunei airport, 10 December 1976; west

coast of Sabah, 26 April, 7 and 19 September (Smythies 1981; also Burton

1978).

BLACK-WINGED STILT Himantopus himantopus and WHITE-HEADED

STILT H. leucocephalus Wasan: recorded in small numbers (up to 12) from

August to January (now recorded annually at this locality). Smythies (1981)

lists only leucocephalus for Borneo; while it has not been easy to distinguish

between the two species in most cases, three himantopus were present on

2 September 1988, and seven leucocephalus on 30 September 1988 (CFM,

ACO). The adult himantopus were identified by either a white head and neck

or a combination of grey-black on the crown and a greyish hind neck.

ORIENTAL PRATINCOLE Glareola maldivarum Wasan: it is thought that

perhaps three pairs attempted to breed in 1988 and raised two young (DAD,

ACO). Previous Bornean breeding records are given in Mann (1987a).

20

C. F. MANN

Forktail 5

COMMON BLACK-HEADED GULL Larus ridibundus Seria: one in

almost adult winter plumage on 8 December 1987 (JAE). Bandar Seri

Begawan: one on 3 January 1989 (DAD). These are the first records for

Brunei, although the species winters in small numbers in Sarawak and Sabah

(Smythies 1981).

LITTLE TERN Sterna albifrons Serasa: display was first noticed on 15 July

1988 over the reclaimed area; by early August probably 25 or more pairs had

begun nesting, and some eggs were found; at least one nest still contained

eggs on 9 September, when four or five flying juveniles were seen; another

nest with a single egg was found on 1 1 September, when at least 10 juveniles

were seen; juveniles were still being fed in October. The total number of

young successfully reared was difficult to judge, as a considerable influx

occurred in early October, but probably about 12 young were raised (DAD,

CFM, ACO). These would appear to be the first breeding records for

Borneo.

JAVAN FROGMOUTH Batrachostomus javensis Lamunin Forest: now

known to occur at two separate sites, having first been discovered there on

27 January 1987 but not identified until captured the following December

(CFM, ACO). Smythies (1981) states that it is known from only six

specimens in Borneo, scattered in Kalimantan, Sabah and Sarawak. Nash

and Nash (1988) have recently found it in Kalimantan.

HOOPOE Upupa epops Seria: one in September 1988 (per Lord Cranbrook).

The five earlier records for Borneo are summarised in Mann (1987a).

CHESTNUT-CAPPED THRUSH Zoothera interpres Mumong: one flew

into a window at night in July 1985. The bird was photographed and released

next day (JD). This is apparently a very uncommon rainforest species, and

this record suggests that it may be a nocturnal migrant, since the nearest

forest (peat swamp) is a few kilometres distant.

ASIAN BROWN FLYCATCHER Muscicapa latirostris Labi: one or two

with characteristics of williamsoni seen on 23 December 1987 (CFM, ACO).

Earlier Bornean records are summarised in Mann (1987a).

[LEMON-BELLIED WHITE-EYE Zosterops chloris Serasa: descriptions of

the plumage and call of a bird seen on 25 September 1987 (CFM) and

suspected of being this species were sent to John McKean for confirmation,

which was forthcoming. In its known distribution it comes no closer to

Brunei than the Karimata Islands, off south-west Kalimantan, and Sulawesi

(Smythies 1981, White and Bruce 1986). Despite further searches, the bird

was never relocated. Attempts to call it up by imitating its call only lured a

Ruddy Kingfisher Halcyon coromanda, whose call is similar but much louder

and more strident. The following brief description of the bird was taken at

the time: size, about that of Copper-throated Sunbird Nectarinia calcostetha,

with a similarly proportioned tail; predominant colour yellow, brighter on

breast, greener on back and wings; tail yellow when seen from below with

1989

More observations from Brunei

21

sun shining through it; bill narrow but not particularly long; face-pattern

obscured. It drew attention to itself by its fairly loud, persistent ‘chew’ or

‘chewp’ call. Zosterops was not considered at the time, probably because the

head was obscured, and the call was unusual for the genus. Since the views

obtained were less than adequate, it is preferable to regard this record as

unconfirmed.]

WHITE-SHOULDERED STARLING Stumus sinensis Bandar Seri

Begawan: one feeding with a party of Common Mynas Acridotheres tristis on

10 November 1988 (CFM). It is possible that this individual was an escape,

but the species does winter in Peninsular Malaysia and the Philippines.

Smythies (1981) accepts one previous record from Borneo: Satang Island,

Sarawak, on 5 October 1962.

YELLOW-BREASTED BUNTING Emberiza aureola Wasan: an immature

or female was seen on 10 January 1988 (DAD), a male on 2 and 9 December

1988 (DAD, CFM, ACO). These are the third and fourth Bornean records

(see Mann 1987a).

[RED-HEADED or BLACK-HEADED BUNTING Emberiza bruniceps or

E. melanocephala Wasan: an immature or female was seen on 4 November

1988. The following brief description was taken: pale, washed out; rather

lark-like, until bunting-type bill seen; quite a large bird for a bunting. Pale,

greyish-brown above, with slight, very indistinct streaking. Almost no

discernible head-pattern, although cheeks and crown slightly darker than

chin and throat. Underparts pale greyish- white with some yellowish on

breast. No white on tail. In flight looked rather sandy, contributing to its

initial lark-like appearance. Observed on the ground, perched and in flight at

close range through binoculars and a 40x telescope (CFM, ACO). The bird

was very similar to that seen previously (Mann 1987a), except that the latter

showed some yellow around the vent and possibly on the upper tail-coverts.

There are no other records of either species in Borneo.]

Thanks go to the observers listed above for their records. Much gratitude is expressed to

Dr D. R. Wells for useful criticism of earlier drafts, and also to Dr D. A. Holmes and John

McKean for their help.

REFERENCES

Burton, P. J. K. (1978) Notes on some waders and kingfishers in Sarawak. Sarawak Mus. J.

26(47): 195-204.

Mann, C. F. (1987a) Notable bird observations from Brunei, Borneo. Forktail 3: 51-56.

Mann, C. F. (1987b) Checklist of the birds of Brunei. Brunei Mus. J. 6(3): 170-212.

Mann, C. F. (in press) Bird report for Brunei, 1986-1988. Brunei Mus. J. 6(4).

Nash, S. V. and Nash, A. D. (1988) An annotated checklist of the birds of Tanjung Puting

National Park, Central Kalimantan. Kukila 3: 93-116.

Parish, D. and Wells, D. R. (1984) Interwader Annual Report 1984.

Sheldon, F. H. and Marin, A. M. (1985) The sympatry of night herons in Borneo. Bull. Bnt.

Om. Club 105: 76-79.

22

C. F. MANN

Forktail 5

Smythies, B. E. (1981) The birds of Borneo. Third edition. Kota Kinabalu and Kuala Lumpur:

The Sabah Society and the Malayan Nature Society.

Vowles, R. S. and Vowles, G. A. (1985) Some notes on the birds of Borneo. Bull. Brit. Om. Club

105: 71-73.

White, C. M. N. and Bruce, M. D. (1986) The birds ofWallacea (Sulawesi, the Moluccas and

Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia ): an annotated check-list. London: British Ornithologists’ Union

(Check-list no. 7).

Clive F. Mann, P. O. Box 2359, Bandar Sen Begawan 1923, Brunei Darussalam.

FORKTAIL 5 (1989): 23-34

A review of smaller Philippine swiftlets

of the genus Collocalia

EDWARD C. DICKINSON

The species of smaller Philippine swiftlets Collocalia are here judged two in number, with

both White-bellied Swiftlet C. esculenta and Pygmy Swiftlet C. troglodytes being

widespread. C. esculenta is represented by four races, septentnonalis and marginata with

rump feathers clearly edged with white, isonota and bagobo with such markings faint or

absent. The white-rumped C. troglodytes evidently does not build edible nests.

In a separate paper (Dickinson 1989) all the larger Philippine swiftlets have

been reviewed. The smaller ones, dealt with here, are the white-bellied

forms esculenta and marginata, which are treated here as conspecific, and the

white-rumped troglodytes. This paper, unlike that on the larger swiftlets, is

not arranged with separate texts for each subspecies.

Many museums cooperated in providing material for this study. In the

text they are indicated by the following abbreviations: British Museum

(Natural History), Tring, BMNH; Carnegie Museum of Natural History,

CM; Delaware Museum of Natural History, DMNH; Field Museum of

Natural History, Chicago, FMNH; Museum of Comparative Zoology,

Cambridge, Massachusetts, MCZ; United States National Museum,

Washington, D.C., USNM.

WHITE-BELLIED SWIFTLET Collocalia esculenta

Synonymy

Callocalia [sic] linchi: McGregor (1904a).

Collocalia cebuensis: Kutter (1882).

Collocalia esculenta: Parkes (I960), Alcala and Sanguila (1969), Alcala and

Alviola (1970).

Collocalia esculenta bagobo: Hachisuka (1930), Hachisuka (1934), Peters

(1940), Delacour and Mayr (1945), Ripley and Rabor (1958), Rand and

Rabor (1960), Medway (1966), duPont and Rabor (1973a).

Collocalia esculenta isonota: Hachisuka (1934), Peters (1940), Delacour and

Mayr (1945), Rabor (1955), Medway (1966).

Collocalia esculenta marginata: Stresemann (1925), Manuel (1939), Delacour

and Mayr (1945), Rabor (1952), Rabor (1954), Rand and Rabor (1960),

duPont and Rabor (1973b), Parkes (1973), Rabor (1977), Salomonsen

(1983).

Collocalia esculenta mindanensis: Hachisuka (1941).

Collocalia esculenta septentnonalis: Delacour and Mayr (1945).

Collocalia isonota: McGregor (1909).

24

E. C. DICKINSON

Forktail 5

Collocalia linchi isonota : Oberholser (1906).

Collocalia linchi: Sharpe (1894), Ogilvie Grant (1895), McGregor (1905c).

Collocalia Linchi: Kutter (1883).

Collocalia marginata: Salvadori (1882), Hartert (1892), Bourns and

Worcester (1894), McGregor (1903), McGregor (1904a), McGregor

(1904b), McGregor (1905a), Oberholser (1906), McGregor (1909),

McGregor (1910), McGregor (1921), Hachisuka (1934), Manuel (1937),

Peters (1939), Peters (1940), Medway (1966).

Salangana linchi: McGregor (1905b).

Salangana marginata: McGregor (1905a), McGregor (1906a), McGregor

(1906b), McGregor (1907a), McGregor (1907b), McGregor (1907c).

Specific characters

Small, wing up to 107mm, glossy blue-black or metallic blue-green - not the

oily green found in Javan C. linchi - with the crown and upper tail-coverts

most glossy, sometimes with edges to feathers of the rump whitish, feathers

of underparts with white or whitish edges.

No rattle call. Builds mossy nests, bound with salival cement and placed

under overhangs or if in caves near their entrances.

Overview

Authors have disagreed on the conspecificity of eastern esculenta, occurring

from Sulawesi eastward through the Moluccas and the Lesser Sundas east of

Lombok to New Guinea, and western linchi. Recently Somadikarta (1986)

has shown that the two both occur in Borneo and are best treated as good

species. Once distinguished by the presence of white spots on the inner webs

of the rectrices (Oberholser 1906) - which are said to be absent in linchi and

typical of esculenta - Somadikarta underlined that neither had such spots in

the Bornean and other western populations and differentiated them by

colour ( linchi being glossy green and esculenta glossy blue) and by the

presence or absence of a feather tuft on the hind toe.

Oberholser (1906) treated Philippine birds as linchi, as he found white

spots on the rectrices to be absent in marginata and isonota. Later authors

discussing esculenta (Salomonsen 1983, Somadikarta 1986) have not made

quite clear how the Philippine forms fitted their views. However, the tail

spots do indeed seem to be absent and feather tufts do seem to be present on

the hind toes (of at least some birds). In addition even the greenest

population is not the oily green colour of linchi. The Philippine populations

thus belong to the western group of esculenta that, as in Borneo, Sumatra and

the Malay Peninsula, lacks the tail spots.

The Philippine races fall into two rather distinct groups based on the

presence ( marginata ) or absence of pale edges to the feathers of the rump

(Plate 1); the case for treating these as separate species is re-examined below.

I also review the reportedly anomalous nesting behaviour of isonota. If this

1989

Smaller Philippine Collocalia

25

were to be confirmed it would contradict the apparent conspecificity of these

two groups.

Plate 1. Top left: Collocalia e. septentnonalis from Calayan. Top right: Collocalia e. marginata from

Bataan, Luzon (left) and Cebu (2 right-hand birds). Bottom left: Collocalia e. isonota from Benguet

(2 at left) and Collocalia e. bagobo from Mindoro (right-hand bird). Bottom right: Collocalia e. bagobo

from Mindanao (left) and from Bongao, Sulu Islands (right).

26

E. C. DICKINSON

Forktail 5

Discussion

(1) Early names and island records

Tweeddale (1878) reported a bird from Luzon, in Darmstadt Museum, that

he called fuciphaga, saying that it was inseparable from the Javan C. linchi

Horsfield and Moore 1854 - which he considered to be the same as

C. fuciphaga (Thunberg) 1812.

Birds occurring in Cebu, with whitish edges to the feathers of the rump,

were named respectively marginata by Salvadori (1882) and cebuensis by

Kutter (1882). Kutter (1883) reported a Mindanao bird as Linchi [sic] and

indicated that he believed it to be the same as the Luzon bird reported by

Tweeddale (1878).

Hartert (1892) had a single skin in the British Museum (Nat. Hist.)

(BMNH) that he ascribed to marginata. From Luzon, it had been acquired as

part of the Tweeddale Bequest; I have examined it (BMNH 1888.10.1.152)

and concur in its identification. As mentioned by Hartert (1892) this appears

to be the skin that Tweeddale had seen in, and must have acquired from,

Darmstadt. About ten years later marginata was collected at Mariveles in

Bataan province, Luzon (McGregor 1903) - removing the remaining doubts

about Hartert’s identification of the Darmstadt specimen.

Subsequent island records of marginata - known from Cebu and Luzon -

were: Masbate (Bourns and Worcester 1894), Mindoro (McGregor 1904a),

Calayan (McGregor 1904b), Sibuyan (McGregor 1905a), Banton (McGregor

1906a), Tablas (McGregor 1906b), Bohol (McGregor 1907b), Camiguin

Norte - sight record - and Babuyan Claro (McGregor 1907c), Polillo

(McGregor 1909, 1910), Panay (McGregor 1921), Palawan (Manuel 1937,

1939), Mactan (Peters 1939), Samar (Dupond 1942, Rand and Rabor 1960),

Negros (Rabor 1952), Camiguin Sur (McClure and Leelavit 1972), Dinagat

(duPont and Rabor 1973b), Siargao (sight record - duPont and Rabor 1973b)

and Leyte (Parkes 1973). Meanwhile linchi - previously known from

Mindanao - was reported from Bongao (Sharpe 1894), northern Luzon

(Ogilvie Grant 1895, McGregor 1904a, 1905b) and Mindoro (McGregor

1905c).

Some recent records were given only as C. esculenta (Calagna-an and

Gigantes: Alcala and Sanguila 1969; Carabao: Alcala and A1 viola 1970) and

require review as to the form occurring, although the geographical

probability in both cases is marginata.

(2) Taxonomy

Oberholser (1906) placed cebuensis in the synonymy of marginata and

introduced the name isonota for the population of northern Luzon.

Stresemann (1925) considered both cebuensis and isonota to be synonyms of

marginata.

Hachisuka (1930) described bagobo from Mt Apo, and later (Hachisuka

1989

Smaller Philippine Collocalia

27

1934) considered marginata distinct from esculenta for which he maintained

the Philippine races isonota and bagobo. Peters (1940) followed Hachisuka

(1934) on this. Hachisuka (1941) described mindanensis from “Tumadgopt”

(= Tumadgo Point), south-east Mindanao, across Davao Gulf about 110km

east of Mt Apo.

Delacour and Mayr (1945) reviewed the situation and considered

marginata a geographical race of esculenta occurring from the lowlands of

central Luzon south to Cebu and Bohol, and named the population from

Babuyan, Calayan and Camiguin Norte septentrionalis - and thus occurring to

the north of isonota in the highlands of northern Luzon. The population of

Mindanao and Bongao they considered bagobo. Apparently no specimen

of mindanensis, which they synonymised, was available to them. The

Palawan race - although differing by its ‘very long tail’ - was left unnamed.

Ripley and Rabor (1958), with six fresh specimens from Mindoro,

considered them intermediate between isonota and bagobo but closer to the

latter.

Medway (1966) kept marginata as a separate species only on the grounds of

sympatry. He noted that esculenta and marginata had an identical type of nest

and shared the inability to utter "the rattle call.

(3) Geographical variation

Luzon. records of marginata are from the central and southern parts; isonota

appears to be confined to the northern highlands (specimens from Irisan,

Mt Data, Zigzag Hill and Mt. Santo Tomas, Baguio and Haights in the

Oaks). Birds from both Pampanga in central Luzon and Sorsogon in

southern Luzon are typical of marginata but birds from Bataan - perhaps

from the slopes of Mt Mariveles - show only faint white edges to the rump

feathers and suggest intergradation.

Both marginata and bagobo have been collected in Mindoro: marginata over

mangroves and bagobo at over 1,500m (Ripley and Rabor 1958). In Luzon

and Mindoro isonota and bagobo, with uniform rumps, would appear to be

representative montane forms.

Interestingly, and perhaps in contradiction to the above, birds with

uniform rumps are more frequent in collections from Mindanao, and where

there is evidence of intergradation (i.e. faint white edges on the rump

feathers), this has been seen essentially on montane birds (from Mt Apo,

Mt Malindang and Mt Katanglad and near Gingoog). Intergradation is

similarly suggested in birds from Camiguin Sur and Dinagat.

The type of mindanensis was a male collected on 7 April 1930 by

Y. Nakamura. This cannot now be found but the female taken that day

(DMNH 36283) has been examined. The race was based on a shorter wing

length, not on plumage differences, and it has generally been treated as a

synonym of bagobo. The female examined suggests this is appropriate.

Plate 1 shows examples of marginata-type birds from Calayan

(, septentrionalis ), Bataan and Cebu (both marginata ) as well as birds with

28

E. C. DICKINSON

Forktail 5

uniform rumps from Benguet ( isonota ), Mindoro, Mindanao and Bongao

( bagobo ).

Nesting

Nests ascribed to linchi or isonota have been reported from the highlands of

northern Luzon by McGregor (1904a) and Rabor (1955). McGregor (1905b)

reported in detail on two nests of isonota. An Igorot boy had told him this

swiftlet nested on the ground and McGregor did not believe this until taken

to see two nests. He wrote:

The first nest was well hidden among ferns on a gently sloping hillside and

was on the ground. It is composed for the most part of dry moss; the uphill

side is thin and has a few lichens mixed with moss; a few dry grass stems

also enter into its composition, but the glutinous substance is almost

entirely wanting.

The second nest, situated about 200 yards from the first, was similarly

placed beneath weeds and ferns. This nest is composed of the lichen

Usnea. The outer rim is well rounded and along the uphill side is a

considerable patch of the characteristic glutinous material.

The second nest held two well-fledged young.

Reminiscent of this is an account from montane Mindoro in Mearns’s

unpublished diaries (held in the USNM library), although it is perhaps of a

bigger species:

When Messrs. Merrill and Hutchinson were on the main ridge of

Mount Halcon, chopping a trail towards the main peak of Halcon, on

Nov. 19, 1906, they found the weather partially clear with occasional

moments of sunshine; then they flushed a ‘medium-sized swift’ from the

heather, where it seemed to have a nest as it continually flew at them in

great perturbation. I had the same experience two days later, but found no

nest.

Rabor (1955) reported a nest on Mt Data but no birds were taken at the

nest site and the nest, which was a moss nest that, unusually, had a lining of

feathers, was not recovered.

Nests of bagobo have been recorded on Mt Malindang, Mindanao, where

they were moss nests on the underside of the steep roof of the tribal worship

house (Rand and Rabor 1960), and inside the shallow caverns and crevices of

the steep and sheer rocky cliffs of Bongao (duPont and Rabor 1973a).

Nests ascribed to marginata have been reported from Sibuyan by

McGregor (1905a) as on the face of one of three boulders forming an

enclosure and as composed of blackish-brown hairlike moss cemented with

the characteristic glutinous saliva; from Cebu (McGregor 1907a), where the

nests were said to be of sandy mud; from Bohol (McGregor 1907b) in a large

cave; from Polillo (McGregor 1910) in a small cave; from Panay (McGregor

1921) in a small cave and composed of fibres of Usnea and a few other fine

1989

Smaller Philippine Collocalia

29

plant stems, fastened together and to the rock wall by means of a small

quantity of the glutinous substance; and from Negros (Rabor 1952, 1954,

1977) in shallow cavities or on the rock walls of streams and described as half

cups composed of plant fibres and moss well glued together with the birds’

hardened saliva.

The nests of the Palawan form have been discussed by Manuel (1937,

1939), and were described as consisting of dark mossy materials held

together by a scanty gelatinous substance.

In sum, virtually all the nests are described as moss nests and they are

rarely, perhaps never, deep inside caves.

Subspecific characters

Delacour and Mayr (1945) and Parkes (1960) have provided the best

comments on the subspecific variation of these forms. Although I formed the

impression that septentrionalis and marginata were more blue-green glossed

and isonota and bagobo more steel-blue, I had less material together at any

one time than Parkes (1960), who could not see a consistent difference.

The following is a key to the Philippine forms of esculenta (including

marginata ), although intergrading examples occur:

feathers of rump clearly edged with white:

green above, underparts whiter . septentrionalis

underparts duller . marginata

feathers of the rump faintly or not edged with white:

underparts whiter . isonota

underparts browner . bagobo

The unnamed Palawan form, of which few specimens are known, is

reputed to be darker ventrally than any other specimens of this species

(Parkes 1960) and has been reported with and without white edges to the

rump feathers (Delacour and Mayr 1945).

Range in the Philippines

subsp. ?: Palawan.

septentrionalis: Babuyan Claro, Calayan, Camiguin Norte and Fuga

(unpublished).

isonota: the highlands of northern Luzon.

marginata: Banton, Bohol, Camiguin Sur (unpublished), Cebu, Dinagat,

Guimaras (Dickinson et al. 1989), Leyte, central Luzon, Mactan, Masbate,

Mindoro, Negros, Panay, Polillo, Romblon (unpublished), Samar, Siargao,

Sibuyan and Tablas. Birds from Calagna-an, Carabao and Gigantes are

probably this race. Birds from Camiguin Sur and Dinagat are intermediate

with bagobo.

bagobo: Bongao, Mindanao and montane Mindoro.

Material examined Bohol 2, Bongao 14, Calayan 6, Camiguin Sur 8, Cebu 33,

Dinagat 18, Fuga 13, Guimaras 2, Leyte 4, northern Luzon 16, rest of

30

E. C. DICKINSON

Forktail 5

Luzon 13, Mactan 2, Mindanao 27 (including 3 syntypes of bagobo and

1 topotype of mindanensis), Mindoro 1, Negros 5, Palawan 1, Polillo 1,

Romblon 3, Samar 2 and Sibuyan 1.

PYGMY SWIFTLET Collocalia troglodytes

Synonymy

Collocalia troglodytes: Gray (1845), Walden (1875), Tweeddale (1877),

Sharpe (1877), Sharpe (1888), Steere (1890), Bourns and Worcester (1894),

Ogilvie Grant (1897), McGregor (1903), McGregor (1909), Manuel (1937),

Rabor (1938), Rabor (1954), Lack (1956), Meyer de Schauensee and

duPont (1962), Medway (1966), duPont and Rabor (1973b), Rabor (1977),

Salomonsen (1983).

Salangana troglodytes: McGregor (1906a), McGregor (1907b).

Specific characters

Small, wing 86-96mm; glossy black above with a clearly delineated white

rump band (in which the feathers show the narrow black shafts) and a white

abdomen.

Echolocation ability unknown. Makes vegetable nests bound with strands

of salival cement.

Plate 2 shows the white rump in comparison with a specimen of

White-bellied Swiftlet Collocalia spodiopygia eichhomi Hartert 1924 from the

Bismarck Archipelago and - to show relative size - a specimen of Edible-nest

Swiftlet Collocalia fuciphaga germani Oustalet 1878.

Overview

The distinctness of this species has never been questioned, so no attempt has

been made to review series to look for geographical variation.

However, it has been suggested that it builds an edible nest and this is

shown below to be incorrect. It is thought not to echolocate, but this is not

yet proven although nests have been reported up to 50 feet (15 m) inside

caves.

Discussion

Described from the Philippines by Gray and Mitchell in Gray (1845), the

description depending upon the plate by Mitchell, and listed for Luzon by

Walden (1875), it has subsequently been reported from many islands:

Mindanao (Tweeddale 1877), Panay (Sharpe 1877), Palawan (Sharpe 1888),

Guimaras, Marinduque and Negros (Steere 1890), Cebu, Masbate, Mindoro,

Romblon, Samar, Sibuyan and Siquijor (Bourns and Worcester 1894), Leyte

(Ogilvie Grant 1897), Ticao (McGregor 1903), Banton (McGregor 1906a),

Bohol (McGregor 1907b), Catanduanes (Manuel 1937), Gigantes (Rabor

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Smaller Philippine Collocalia

31

1938), Dinagat (duPont and Rabor 1973b) and Siargao - sight record

(duPont and Rabor 1973b).

Nesting

Details appear in the notes of Bourns and Worcester in McGregor (1909).

They considered that it built edible nests, always in caves, composed chiefly

or entirely of secretion from their fhouths.

More recent, consistent and thus almost certainly more accurate reports

are those of Rabor (1954), who found nests in small water tunnels with the

Plate 2. From the left: Collocalia spodiopygia eichhomi ; Collocalia troglodytes ; Collocalia fuciphaga

germani.

32

E. C. DICKINSON

Forktail 5

inside of the nest made of saliva strands and the outside of moss and

vegetable fibre; Meyer de Schauensee and duPont (1962), who reported nests

about 50 feet into the cave and made of rootlets and tendrils held together

with saliva; and Rabor (1977), who described the nest as a half cup attached

on one side to the wall of the cave, composed of matted hardened strands of

saliva that appeared white and translucent, with reinforcements of plant

fibres, well coiled and matted together.

Salomonsen (1983) suggested that the nest was more or less edible and

cited Lack (1956) and Medway (1966). In fact those known to Medway -

taken in Guimaras by Bourns and Worcester - were ‘bracket-shaped nests

constructed of fibrous vegetable material, apparently including seaweed,

held together by strands of firm nest cement’. But Medway did quote the

notes of Bourns and Worcester given by McGregor (1909), which suggested

that the nests are usually edible. However, it seems certain - given the nature

of most recent evidence - that Bourns and Worcester were commenting on

nests found in a cave housing more than one species, as suggested by Manuel

(1937).

Range in the Philippines

Banton, Bohol, Catanduanes, Cebu, Dinagat, Gigantes, Guimaras, Leyte,

Luzon, Marinduque, Masbate, Mindanao, Mindoro, Negros, Palawan,

Panay, Romblon, Samar, Siargao, Sibuyan, Siquijor and Ticao.

Material examined Luzon 3, Marinduque 1, Mindanao 2.

Great encouragement was given by the Earl of Cranbrook, who was kind enough to visit the

British Museum (Natural History) twice and share with me his knowledge of these swifdets

when I was working on some of the more difficult issues of this whole group. Thanks to the

interest of the authorities at the British Museum it has been possible to bring together there

many skins of Collocalia esculenta. Study space was kindly made available there and much

help was received from Messrs Graham Cowles, Michael Walters and Derek Read. For

making swiftlet skins available on loan my thanks go to Dr Storrs Olson, Messrs. Charles

Ross and Ralph Browning at the USNM, Dr Raymond A. Paynter at MCZ, Dr David

Niles at DMNH, Dr Kenneth Parkes at CM, Mrs Mary LeCroy at AMNH, Dr John

Fitzpatrick and Mr David Willard at FMNH. At one stage or another this paper has been

reviewed by the Rt. Hon. the Earl of Cranbrook, Drs Robert S. Kennedy and Kenneth C.

Parkes and by Mrs Mary LeCroy and Mr Ralph Browning. Julie Gray very kindly helped

prepare the final typescript.

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McGregor, R. C. (1906a) Notes on a collection of birds from Banton. Philippine J. Sci.

1: 768-770.

McGregor, R. C. (1906b) Notes on a collection of birds from the island of Tablas. Philippine

J. Sci. 1: 771-777.

McGregor, R. C. (1907a) Notes on birds collected in Cebu. Philippine J . Sci. 2: 298-309.

McGregor, R. C. (1907b) The birds of Bohol. Philippine J . Sci. 2: 315-335.

McGregor, R. C. (1907c) The birds of Batan, Camiguin, Y Ami, and Babuyan Claro, islands

north of Luzon. Philippine J . Sci. 2: 337-351.

McGregor, R. C. (1909) A manual of Philippine birds. Manila: Bureau of Science.

McGregor, R. C. (1910) Birds collected in the island of Polillo, Philippines. Philippine J. Sci.

5: 103-114.

McGregor, R. C. (1921) Birds of Antique Province, Panay, Philippine Islands. Philippine J. Sci.

18: 537-555.

34

E. C. DICKINSON

Forktail 5

Medway, Lord (1966) Field characters as a guide to the specific relations of swiftlets. Proc. Linn.

Soc. London 177: 151-172.

Meyer de Schauensee, R. and duPont, J. E. (1962) Birds from the Philippine Islands. Proc. Acad.

Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 114: 149-173.

Oberholser, H. C. (1906) A monograph of the genus Coilocalia. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.

Philadelphia 58: 177-212.

Ogilvie Grant, W. R. (1895) On the birds of the Philippine Islands - Part V. The highlands of the

province of Lepanto, north Luzon. Ibis (7)1: 433-472.

Ogilvie Grant, W. R. (1897) On the birds of the Philippine Islands. Part IX. The birds of Samar

and Leite. Ibis (7)3: 209-250.

Parkes, K. C. (1960) Notes on some non-passerine birds from the Philippines. Ann. Carnegie

Mus. 35(15): 331-340.

Parkes, K. C. (1973) Annotated list of the birds of Leyte Island, Philippines. Nemouna 11: 1-73.

Peters, J. L. (1939) Collections from the Philippine Islands: birds. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 86:

74-128.

Peters, J. L. (1940) Check-list of birds of the world, 4. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univeputy

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Rabor, D. S. (1938) The avifauna of the Gigante Islands. Philippine J . Sci. 66: 267-274.

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Rabor, D. S. (1954) Notes on the nesting of some Philippine swifts on Negros and Mindanao.

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Philippines Press.

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Malindang, Bohol, and Samar. Fieldiana Zool. 35 (7): 221-441.

Ripley, S. D. and Rabor, D. S. (1958) Notes on a collection of birds from Mindoro Island,

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106: 32-40.

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Philippines, with localities, and with brief preliminary descriptions of supposed new species. Ann

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Edward C. Dickinson, Norman Chapel, Aston Magna, nr. Moreton in Marsh, Glos. GL56 9QN,

U.K.

FORKTAIL 5 (1989): 35-47

A breeding record of the Giant Pitta

Pitta caerulea from Thailand

PHILIP D. ROUND, UTHAI TREESUCON

and JONATHAN C. EAMES

An occupied nest of Giant Pitta Pitta caerulea was studied during July-August 1988 at the

Khao Pra Bang Khram Non-Hunting Area, southern Thailand. The locations of four other

disused nests, thought to be this species, are also described. This appears to be the first

documented nesting of the species. Earthworms and land snails Cyclophorus were the

predominant food items brought to the nestlings. Although the Giant Pitta appears

primarily restricted to lowland forests, which have been almost completely destroyed in

southern Thailand, the occurrence of birds in secondary growth, together with some

former records of birds on hill slopes, suggests that the species may persist elsewhere in

protected areas in southern and perhaps even south-western Thailand.

The Giant Pitta Pitta caerulea is a Sunda subregion endemic which is known

from Tavoy in Burma (Smythies 1953), south through Peninsular Thailand

and Peninsular Malaysia to Sumatra and Borneo. Two races are described,

P. c. caerulea throughout the mainland and in Sumatra, and P. c. hosei in

Borneo (Chasen 1935).

This enigmatic species is relatively seldom encountered in the field and

remains one of the least known members of its genus. It was said by Davison

to be unlike other pittas in that, when disturbed, it would fly off low but

rapidly, and not alighting within 200 or 300 yards (Hume and Davison

1877). Even its call was unknown until 1985, when in March N. J. Redman

(in litt . ) called out a male in Taman Negara, Peninsular Malaysia, by

imitating a whistle he heard, and in July J. W. Wall and G. C. Yong taped a

long series of whistles at Sepilok, Sabah, East Malaysia (J. W. Wall in litt. ).

Almost nothing is known of its ecology. The collection of a half-grown

nestling in Perlis, Malaysia, in early November (Medway and Wells 1976)

and the collection of young attributed to this species in March 1834 at an

unrecorded altitude on Mt Singgalang, Padang Highlands, Sumatra (Muller

and Schlegel 1840) are the only documented ffgments of breeding evidence.

A nest discovered on Fraser’s Hill, Malaysia, and provisionally attributed to

this species (Medway and Wells 1976) was later determined to be that of a

previously undescribed subspecies of Rusty-naped Pitta Pitta oatesi

(King 1978).

Surveys of Gurney’s Pitta Pitta gumeyi and other lowland forest birds

carried out in and around the Khao Pra Bang Khram Non-Hunting Area

(also known as Khao Noi Chuchi), Krabi and Trang provinces, southern

Thailand, have also revealed the presence of Giant Pitta there. We give

details of these sightings and provide the first documented description of the

nesting of the species.

The first indications of the presence of Giant Pitta at Khao Noi Chuchi

36

P. D. ROUND, U. TREESUCON and J. C. EAMES

Forktail 5

came in June 1986, in P.D.R. and U.T.’s earliest conversations with

villagers, who referred to the species as ‘nok sum muu’. ‘Nok’ is Thai for

bird, while ‘sum’ is a shelter and ‘muu’ means a pig. Wild pigs Sus scrofa

apparently build a domed mound of vegetation, a ‘sum muu’, in which the

female lies up while suckling young, and this is likened by villagers to the

large and relatively conspicuous domed nest of Giant Pitta. The identity of

‘nok sum muu’ was confirmed by showing villagers, including the former

bird-trapper Mr Beung Sukmechai (‘Lung Beung’), the pitta page in

Lekagul and Cronin (1974). Between June and December 1986 Lung Beung

showed P.D.R. and U.T. the remains of three nests which he said were those

of Giant Pitta, the details of which are reported in Table 1.

In April 1987, P.D.R. and C. R. Robson heard the characteristic series of

long whistles from two Giant Pittas, possibly a pair, and in May C.R.R.

succeeded in obtaining views of a calling male at another location

approximately 2km distant.

During 1988, at least two further male Giant Pittas were seen and heard

intermittently by R. Lansdown, J. McLoughlin and others during the period

from 9 April to mid- June. On 17 June, two juvenile birds were seen and

heard calling and on 24 June an empty nest, thought to be that of Giant Pitta,

was found in an area where no calls had been heard previously (McLoughlin

1988; Table 1).

On 22 July 1988, Lung Beung found an occupied nest, containing two

eggs, at yet another location and reported this in a letter to U.T. This made a

total of seven discrete locations around Khao Noi Chuchi from which Giant

Pittas, their nests or abandoned nests, had been reported over the three

years, of which at least four were occupied by birds in 1988.

Lung Beung showed the occupied nest to J.E., C.R.R. , Mr Kamol and

Mrs Patcharee Komolphalin on 29 July. The nest was a large domed

structure, not quite globular, being slightly higher than wide (external

horizontal diameter 210mm; vertical height 320mm). The roof was slightly

flattened. The entrance measured 140mm wide and 120mm high. The nest

entrance was flattened into a ledge 180mm deep. The nest was constructed

from dry leaves from a selection of unidentified broadleaved plants, and was

fixed in the fork of a rattan, either Calamus sp. or Daemonorops sp. The

entrance was 0.85 m above the ground (see Plate 1).

The nest was located in a forest fragment which extended for about 1.5 km

along a low ridge and varied from about 200m to 500m in width. This finger

of forest was still more or less connected by secondary growth to

approximately 5 km2 of forest on a nearby hill which rose to 479 m elevation

but was otherwise isolated from the more extensive lowland forest patches at

the site. The nest-site was within 5 m of the base of a 30 degree slope and

only 10m from the forest edge, at roughly 150m above sea level. The nest

entrance faced up the slope. There was no permanent stream in the

immediate vicinity, although there was a moist gully running parallel with

the forest edge and lying between it and the nest. Beyond the forest edge the

land had been cleared for cultivation, mostly within the last five years, and a

1989

Giant Pitta nesting in Thailand

37

new house was in the early stages of construction only 50m away.

OBSERVATIONS AT THE NEST

As the observers approached on 29 July, the male bird was inadvertently

flushed from the nest. Close inspection of the contents revealed two large

Table 1. Details of old or unoccupied nests at Khao Noi Chuchi, believed to be those of Giant Pitta.

Plate 1. Occupied nest of Giant Pitta, Khao Noi Chuchi, 9 August 1988. U. Treesucon.

38

P. D. ROUND, U. TREESUCON and J. C. EAMES

Forktail 5

(30 x 35 mm) eggs, coloured off-white and with a band of fine brown

speckling towards the broad end of each. The speckles became slightly

larger, but were fewer in number and therefore less dense towards the apex.

After a rapid inspection, the observers left the site.

When C.R.R. and J.E. returned to the nest on the morning of 30 July,

there was no bird present. After measuring the nest the observers retreated

20m and hid in the vegetation on the slope overlooking the nest-site.

Although some calling was heard in the vicinity of the nest, neither bird

returned within 30 minutes, so the observation was discontinued. Lung

Beung and J.E. returned at 17hl0 to find the female apparently incubating.

At 17h25 she stood up and, after standing on the ledge of the nest, slipped

unseen to the ground.

Lung Beung and J.E. observed the nest again on 2 August, from 08h30

until 09h20, when it began to shower with rain. The female appeared to be

incubating, but left the nest at 08h42. J.E. returned alone at 16hl5 and, as

there was no bird present, inspected the nest, which now contained two

nestlings. He retreated up the slope to his former viewing position and built

a small screen from branches and saplings, ready to conduct observations the

following day.

On 3 August, J.E. watched the nest from 06h50 until it began to rain at

09hl0. During this period the male visited the nest with food on five

occasions and the female twice. On 4 August, the nest was watched from

06h45 until 09h55. The female was still present on the nest at this time, and

remained brooding the young until 08h00. From 08h00 to 09h55, the male

made five visits and the female eight visits. At 09hl8, the male removed a

faecal sac. On 5 August, the nest was watched from 16hl5 until 18h00,

during which period the male made seven visits and the female three.

Observations were subsequently conducted by P. Hurrell on 7 August

(06h44 to 10h05 and 12h00 to 1 3h 15); by U.T., who also photographed the

birds, on 8 August (06h00 to 19h00: see cover) and 9 August (06h00 to

14h00: see Plate 2); and by P.D.R. on 12 August (12h53 to 19h00),

13 August (06h53 to 18h50) and 14 August (07h43 to 08h51). U.T. watched

the nest from a blind, constructed on 7 August at a distance of 9 m from the

nest. P.D.R. watched from the photographic blind on 12 August, but on the

two succeeding days watched from a distance of 25-30m. All observers used

binoculars of 8 to lOx magnification but, in addition, both U.T. and P.D.R.

used a tripod-mounted telescope of 20 x magnification.

Subsequent observations of feeding frequency are shown in the Figure.

A further 136 parental visits were observed, making 167 visits in a total

observation period of 52 hours 16 minutes (average one visit per 18 min 47 s).

On one occasion, the male made two successive visits only 30s apart. The

longest interval between two visits was two hours, though this coincided

with first use of the photographic hide and was presumably due to the initial

disturbance caused. If instances of obvious disturbance are discounted, the

longest interval between feeds was one hour one minute. There was a

roughly equal division of labour between the sexes, the male contributing

1989

Giant Pitta nesting in Thailand

39

Plate 2. Female Giant Pitta at nest, 9 August 1988. U. Treesucon.

Figure. Feeding frequency by half-hour periods.

- 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

i _ i _ i - 1 - 1 - X - J - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1

sunrise Local Time sunsel

40

P. D. ROUND, U. TREESUCON and J. C. EAMES

Forktail 5

93 visits (55.7%) and the female 73 (43.7%), with one visit undetermined.

Although feeding was roughly even throughout the day, there appeared to

be a slight tendency for the frequency of feeds to increase during the

afternoon. However, there is some bias from initial unwitting disturbance

involved in photographing the birds and their subsequent habituation. On

the only full day on which the photographic blind was used, 8 August, only

six feeds were recorded from 06h00 to 13h00, compared with 22 feeds from

13h00 to 19h00 and 23 feeds during 06h00 to 13h00 on the following day. If

feeding rates are compared, feeding frequency was one visit per 26 min 30 s

(averaged for all the period when the photographic hide was used) compared

with one visit per 12mhi23s for the period when observations were made at

a distance.

The average time spent on the nest during feeding visits was 36.7s

(n = 69 visits) and ranged from 7 s to 2 min 37 s. There was no apparent

difference between the sexes in the average duration of the visits, although

the longest feeding visit by the female was 86 s whereas the male made two

visits of 2 minutes duration or longer. One of these visits coincided with the

male presenting a large (c. 2 cm long) insect larva (probably a beetle) to the

young and, on this occasion, he was still feeding the young when joined by

the female. Otherwise, both members of the pair were not seen on the nest

together during the day except on 7 August, 5-6 days following the hatch,

when the female entered the nest at 07hl6, and brooded the young for 1 hour

28 minutes. During this period, the male made three feeding visits and, on

one of these occasions, the female took food from the male and assisted him

in feeding the young. Feeding continued uninterrupted even in moderately

heavy rain.

Both sexes contributed to nest sanitation, the male carrying away 11 faecal

sacs during the observation period and the female 18.

Overnight brooding of the young by the female appeared to be a consistent

trait. On each of the three occasions when observations were continued until

nightfall (8, 12 and 13 August) the female was seen to enter the nest to

brood, at 18h46, 18h44 and 18h39 respectively. On two of these occasions,

both male and female birds were seen on the nest together for a few seconds,

the male leaving shortly before the female entered the nest. It was unclear

whether the female fed the young before entering the nest to brood. On the

morning of 4 August, the female remained on the nest until 08h00, but on

both 8 and 9 August she had apparently already left by 06h00.

The behaviour at the nest differed in a number of ways from that of

Gurney’s Pitta, which has also received recent study (Round and Treesucon

1986, Gretton 1987). First, both parents spent rather longer perching on the

nest while bringing food to the young. Gretton (1987) found average length

of feeding visits of Gurney’s Pitta as 26.55 s in the male and 22.55s in the

female, while those of Giant Pitta were almost half as long again. This may

be linked with the apparently greater wariness of Giant Pitta, as the birds

spent long periods looking around while perched on the nest rim, usually

1989

Giant Pitta nesting in Thailand

41

after having fed the young. There may well be considerable individual

variation in both species, however, as the first male Gurney’s Pitta ever

watched at the nest by P.D.R. and U.T. usually spent no more than 5- 10s

on the nest during each feeding visit.

Another striking behavioural difference was that the female Giant Pitta

brooded the young overnight, even when they were within two days of

leaving the nest. The adaptiveness of this behaviour is not fully evident,

since nestlings of the larger species, having a smaller ratio of surface area to

body volume, should be less prone to overnight heat loss than those of their

smaller congener and therefore less likely to require brooding to help

maintain body temperature. Perhaps a better explanation is that a larger,

more conspicuous nest might be more likely to attract the unwelcome

attentions of a nocturnal predator, and therefore requires the attendance of

an adult. However, snakes are possibly the most significant predator of

nestling birds and presumably detect their prey by smell rather than by

vision. Also, it is unclear whether the presence of the adult bird would be

sufficient to deter a predator of this sort.

FEEDING

Of a total of 131 food items brought in, 66 (50%) were not seen well enough

to be identified. Of the visible food items (Table 2), the larger annelid worms

and snails predominated, each accounting for slightly more than one third.

On several occasions, the birds could be heard smashing snails on an ‘anvil’,

a behaviour reported to be fairly common among pittas (Bruce 1985), and on

one occasion U.T. watched the male bird, with a snail in its bill, smashing it

Table 2. Food items brought

in to nestlings.

42

P. D. ROUND, U. TREESUCON and J. C. EAMES

Forktail 5

against a rock four or five times (Plate 3). The bird then turned, looked at the

observation blind and flew for about 15m, landing out of view. After

observations ceased, two almost complete broken shells and various small

shell fragments were collected. The snails were subsequently identified as

belonging to the genus Cyclophorus. They were large (50 -60 mm diameter),

robust and thick-shelled snails, somewhat vertically compressed about the

axis of the spiral. Snails were relatively easily identified as prey when the

birds brought them in, since their flesh appeared blackish and, on some

occasions, the horny operculum could clearly be seen. Both of the shells

collected had been broken in the posterior part of the body whorl (Plate 4).

In all probability, however, the flesh was extracted from the shell aperture

since the snails’ opercula were too large to permit passage of the body

through the break in the posterior whorls of the shell. In Thailand

Cyclophorus is more or less exclusively associated with forests and is often

found in proximity to rocky areas (Dr S. Upatham verbally).

The majority of the unseen food items may also have been snails and

worms, since the usual viewing conditions (from 25-30m) were not very

favourable and, in addition, the bird’s body, when it landed on the nest,

obscured a clear view of the prey. When observations were made from the

photographic blind, at 9m range, unobserved items only accounted for 13 of

53 feeds (24.5%) and snails and worms together accounted for 90% of all

food items identified. Robinson and Kloss (1924) also recorded a male Giant

Pitta eating a small snake while Davison reported large black ants from his

specimens shot in Burma (Hume and Davison 1877).

As might be expected with two species so markedly different in size, the

diet of Giant Pitta differed strongly from that of Gurney’s. In the latter,

worms accounted for over 70% of all food items and snails or slugs less than

2%, compared with 34% each for worms and snails in Giant Pitta (Table 2).

Gurney’s was, however, also noted taking frogs on four occasions (Gretton

1987).

FLEDGING PERIOD

The young were first seen on the afternoon of 2 August, and were thought to

have hatched on either 30 or 31 July. The young were well grown by

12 August, when they already showed the adult-type face pattern of pale

cheeks, throat and eyebrow contrasting with a dark eye-line extending

behind the eye. The upperparts appeared uniformly dark brown and the bills

pale orange-flesh. Lung Beung later reported that the young left the nest on

15 August, when they would have been a maximum of 16 days old.

VOCALISATIONS

The only call recorded in the vicinity of the nest consisted of a slow and

1989

Giant Pitta nesting in Thailand

43

Plate 3. Snails at Giant Pitta ‘anvil’, 9 August 1988. U. Treesucon.

42

P. D. ROUND, U. TREESUCON and J. C. EAMES

Forktail 5

against a rock four or five times (Plate 3). The bird then turned, looked at the

observation blind and flew for about 15 m, landing out of view. After

observations ceased, two almost complete broken shells and various small

shell fragments were collected. The snails were subsequently identified as

belonging to the genus Cyclophorus. They were large (50-60mm diameter),

robust and thick-shelled snails, somewhat vertically compressed about the

axis of the spiral. Snails were relatively easily identified as prey when the

birds brought them in, since their flesh appeared blackish and, on some

occasions, the horny operculum could clearly be seen. Both of the shells

collected had been broken in the posterior part of the body whorl (Plate 4).

In all probability, however, the flesh was extracted from the shell aperture

since the snails’ opercula were too large to permit passage of the body

through the break in the posterior whorls of the shell. In Thailand

Cyclophorus is more or less exclusively associated with forests and is often

found in proximity to rocky areas (Dr S. Upatham verbally).

The majority of the unseen food items may also have been snails and

worms, since the usual viewing conditions (from 25-30m) were not very

favourable and, in addition, the bird’s body, when it landed on the nest,

obscured a clear view of the prey. When observations were made from the

photographic blind, at 9 m range, unobserved items only accounted for 13 of

53 feeds (24.5%) and snails and worms together accounted for 90% of all

food items identified. Robinson and Kloss (1924) also recorded a male Giant

Pitta eating a small snake while Davison reported large black ants from his

specimens shot in Burma (Hume and Davison 1877).

As might be expected with two species so markedly different in size, the

diet of Giant Pitta differed strongly from that of Gurney’s. In the latter,

worms accounted for over 70% of all food items and snails or slugs less than

2%, compared with 34% each for worms and snails in Giant Pitta (Table 2).

Gurney’s was, however, also noted taking frogs on four occasions (Gretton

1987).

FLEDGING PERIOD

The young were first seen on the afternoon of 2 August, and were thought to

have hatched on either 30 or 31 July. The young were well grown by

12 August, when they already showed the adult-type face pattern of pale

cheeks, throat and eyebrow contrasting with a dark eye-line extending

behind the eye. The upperparts appeared uniformly dark brown and the bills

pale orange-flesh. Lung Beung later reported that the young left the nest on

15 August, when they would have been a maximum of 16 days old.

VOCALISATIONS

The only call recorded in the vicinity of the nest consisted of a slow and

1989

Giant Pitta nesting in Thailand

43

Plate 3. Snails at Giant Pitta ‘anvil’, 9 August 1988. U. Treesucon.

44

P. D. ROUND, U. TREESUCON and J. C. EAMES

Forktai] 5

mournful whistle. Each note was identical, with a descending pitch and

downward inflection. The birds were never seen while calling, so that the sex

of the caller was not determined. Calls were heard during 08h00 to 1 lhOO

with breaks of 15-20 minutes.

In 1988, Khao Noi Chuchi was continuously manned from 24 March to

7 August, yet Giant Pitta calls were heard only during two periods: in April

(9-15 April and 20-26 April) and from mid- to late June onwards

(McLoughlin 1988). In April, on at least four occasions when calling birds

were seen, all were males. Calling was reported at all times of day, but was

most frequent during 06h00-07h00 and 16h00-18h00. While the birds

called mainly from the ground or from fallen logs, on occasion birds also

called from low trees in response to imitation of their calls. The calls were

described as ‘a short discordant whistle, “phreew”, repeated several times.

The whistles were constant except for the odd one . . . delivered at a lower

pitch thus adding to the calls’ tuneless quality’. Bouts of calling usually

lasted no longer than 2-3 minutes but, on occasion, birds were heard calling

for a period of up to 50 minutes (McLoughlin 1988). The same (or very

similar) call was also given by females and juveniles in June. Calls heard at

this time possessed a more even quality, and lacked the occasional

lower-pitched notes and, in three out of four occasions on which the birds

were seen, were given by females or juveniles. On 17 June, two juvenile

birds, thought to have recently fledged, were located calling from a gully and

both birds responded to imitations of their calls. The implications are,

therefore, that two call-types, extremely similar to the human ear, may serve

different functions. Calls in April may be associated with territoriality and

those in the post-fledging season with alarm or contact.

STATUS

The extremely secretive behaviour of this species has hitherto greatly

impeded any assessment of its status. While most recent records of Giant

Pitta throughout its range have come from forests below the hill-foot

boundary, strongly suggesting that, in common with many other Sundaic

birds (Wells 1985), these may be its optimal habitat, there are, nonetheless,

several older records from the hill slopes. These include a bird netted at

800 m elevation on Khao Luang, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand

(B. King, verbally and in litt., also cited in Medway and Wells 1976) and two

records at 800 feet (240-250m) in West Malaysia: a sighting in the Main

Range, Selangor (Medway and Nisbet 1968), and a male specimen from

Gunung Benom, Pahang (Medway et al. 1968). In addition, a specimen from

Mt Murud, Sarawak, Borneo, was taken at c. 900m (Smythies 1960). Van

Marie and Voous (1988) list the species as a resident in hill or lower montane

forest in Sumatra, on the basis of specimens collected at unrecorded altitudes

from Mt Singgalang, Padang Highlands and in Lampung district.

1989

Giant Pitta nesting in Thailand

45

It is possible that, as lowland forests were more extensive in historical

times, Giant Pitta was more abundant and therefore more likely to disperse

onto the submontane slopes. Another possibility is that it may persist locally

above the hill-foot boundary in areas of gentle slope or on plateaus or

elsewhere where the forest plant community may perhaps more closely

resemble that of the lowlands.

Wells (1985) has stressed the critical importance of forests of the level

lowlands for the conservation of the Sundaic forest bird community. In

Peninsular Thailand, the reduction in lowland species with increased slope

or altitude may be even more severe than elsewhere in the Sunda subregion

since the montane areas are small and the mountain flanks extremely steep

(Round 1988). Yet over 95% of all forest below 200m elevation in Peninsular

Thailand had been cleared by the end of 1985, and in many areas the front of

forest clearance has already ascended the hill slopes to 600 m. Even if the

Giant Pitta still persists above the hill-foot boundary in Thailand, its

population there must be extremely small. Although 11 national parks and

wildlife sanctuaries have so far been established on the mainland of

Peninsular Thailand, three of which either encompass, or are situated close

to, former localities from which Giant Pitta has been recorded, none

encompasses any significant areas of level lowland forest, so that Khao Noi

Chuchi may be the most important single site in Thailand for Giant Pitta (as

it undoubtedly is for Gurney’s Pitta and for many other Sundaic forest

birds).

Elsewhere in its range, the Giant Pitta may still be fairly widespread. It is

known from several sites, including some protected areas, such as Taman

Negara National Park, Krau Game Reserve and the proposed Endau-

Rompin National Park in West Malaysia (F. R. Lambert in litt., D. R. Wells

in litt.)1, also Sepilok, Sabah, and from Sungai Kubaan, Tutoh, Sarawak

(Fogden 1976), which lies outside any park or sanctuary. Its occurrence in

protected areas in Sumatra remains to be determined. Although not

accorded threatened status by Collar and Andrew (1988) it is listed as

“near-threatened”, presumably because of the increasing pressure on

lowland forests throughout its range from logging, estate agriculture and

human settlement.

One of the interesting facets of studies at Khao Noi Chuchi is the extent to

which both Giant and Gurney’s Pittas, together with some other lowland

forest birds, have been recorded in patches of secondary growth. One of the

four nests described in Table 1 was in a small patch of secondary growth at

least 2km from the nearest piece of primary forest. A small number of

Gurney’s Pittas have also been recorded in such sites (Round and Treesucon

1986, Gretton 1987). It may be that birds are forced to utilise such areas

because of the almost complete lack of primary forest in the level lowlands of

southern Thailand, or it could be that both Giant and Gurney’s Pittas

actually favour a certain stage of advanced successional regrowth. Gurney’s

Pitta has been known to raise young to fledging in a small (2 ha), nearly

isolated plot (Gretton 1987). The principal question may be whether the

46

P. D. ROUND, U. TREESUCON and J. C. EAMES

Forktail 5

young birds, once they have left the nest, can survive long enough in such

habitat fragments to enable them to disperse elsewhere, or indeed whether

sufficient habitat remains elsewhere for them to establish their own breeding

territories. While the recent (May 1989) suspension of logging activities in

Thailand may improve the conservation prospects for Thailand’s upland

watersheds, there is currently much impetus for the promotion of

commercial forestry (chiefly involving eucalypt plantations) and cash crops

(especially oil palm) in areas of so-called ‘degraded forest’ in the lowlands.

This would actually promote the clearance of much existing scrub and

secondary growth and prevent the re-establishment of any semi-natural

secondary forest which could conceivably support some of the more

ecologically tolerant lowland forest birds.

Although the northernmost record for Giant Pitta in Thailand is at Tasan,

Chumphon Province (10°30'N; Robinson and Kloss 1924), it should perhaps

also be searched for to the north of this, especially in view of the fact that it

has been recorded to Tavoy in Burma (14°00'N). Although very little forest

now remains in Thailand between about 10°30' and 12°00'N, there are some

large areas of evergreen forest on hill slopes further north still, between

about 12°00' and 14°00'N, including the Kaeng Krachan National Park

(3,080km2) in Phetchaburi Province. Although it appears that the moist

rainforest biome extends further north on the Burmese side of the Dawna

Mountain range in Tenasserim than on the Thai side (Wells 1976),

a surprising number of Sundaic forest birds, including Ferruginous

Wood-Partridge Caloperdix oculea, Raffles’s Malkoha Phaenicophaeus

chlorophaeus, Chestnut-breasted Malkoha P. curvirostris, Red-throated Barbet

Megalaima mystacophanos and Maroon-breasted Flycatcher Philentoma

velatum, have recently and unexpectedly been found in Thailand even as far

north as 14°58'N in patches of evergreen forest (records held on file at

Conservation Data Center, Mahidol University). This part of Thailand

certainly warrants further ornithological study.

We are grateful to Phil Hurrell and Craig Robson for permission to use their unpublished

observations; to Dr Suchart Upatham and Miss Pakar Songmuaeng of the Center for

Applied Malacology and Entomology, Mahidol University, for identifying the snails taken

by Giant Pitta; and to D. R. Wells for his comments on this manuscript and for drawing

our attention to some key references. We thank Mr Beung Sukmechai for introducing us to

Giant Pitta and for his hospitality and assistance. Mr Wirot Naktae, Superintendent of the

Khao Pra Bang Khram Non-Hunting Area, has also greatly facilitated our work at the site.

REFERENCES

Bruce, M. D. (1985) Pitta. Pp. 464-465 in B. Campbell and E. Lack, eds. A dictionary of birds.

Calton (Staffordshire): T. and A. D. Poyser.

Chasen, F. N. (1935) A handlist of Malaysian birds. Bull. Raffles Mus. 11: i-xx, 1-389.

Collar, N. J. and Andrew, P. (1988) Birds to watch: the ICBP world check-list of threatened birds.

Cambridge, U.K.: International Council for Bird Preservation (Techn. Publ. 8).

Fogden, M. P. L. (1976) A census of a bird community in tropical rainforest in Sarawak.

Sarawak Mus. J. 24: 251-267.

1989

Giant Pitta nesting in Thailand

47

Gretton, A. (1987) Gurney’s Pitta and the lowland forests of southern Thailand. A report to

Wildlife Conservation International of research and surveys carried out in 1987 at the Khao

Pra Bang Khram Non-Hunting Area. Cambridge, U.K.: International Council for Bird

Preservation.

Hume, A. O. and Davison, W. (1877) A revised list of the birds of Tenasserim. Stray Feathers 6:

i-viii, 1-524.

King, B. (1978) A new race of Pitta oatesi from Peninsular Malaysia. Bull. Brit. Om. Club 98(3):

109-113.

Lekagul, B. and Cronin, E. W., Jr. (1974) Bird guide of Thailand. Bangkok: Association for the

Conservation of Wildlife.

McLoughlin, J. (1988) Bird of the month - Giant Pitta. Bangkok Bird Club Bull. 5(7).

Medway, Lord and Nisbet, I. C. T., eds. (1968) Bird Report 1966. Malay. Nat. J . 21: 34-50.

Medway, Lord, Nisbet, I. C. T. and Wells, D. R., eds. (1968) Bird Report 1967. Malay. Nat. J.

21: 185-200.

Medway, Lord and Wells, D. R. (1976) The birds of the Malay Peninsula , 5. London and Kuala

Lumpur: H. F. and G. Witherby in association with Penerbit Universiti Malaya.

Muller, S. and Schlegel, H. (1840) Overzicht der in den Indischen Archipel levende soorten van

het geslacht Pitta. Verhand. Naluurlijke Gesch. Nederl. overzeesche bezittingen 1.

Robinson, H. C. and Kloss, C. B. (1924) The birds of South-west and Peninsular Siam. J . Nat.

Hist. Soc. Siam 5(3): 219-397.

Round, P. D. (1988) Resident forest birds in Thailand: their status and conservation. Cambridge,

U.K.: International Council for Bird Preservation (Monogr. 2).

Round, P. D. and Treesucon, U. (1986) The rediscovery of Gurney’s Pitta Pitta gumeyi. Forktail

2: 53-66.

Smythies, B. E. (1953) The birds of Burma. 2nd edition. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd.

Smythies, B. E. (1960) The birds of Borneo. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd,

van Marie, J. G. and Voous, K. H. (1988) The birds of Sumatra: an annotated checklist. Tring:

British Ornithologists’ Union.

Wells, D. R. (1976) Resident birds. Pp. 1-33 in Lord Medway and D. R. Wells, Birds of the

Malay Peninsula , 5. Kuala Lumpur: H. F. and G. Witherby in association with Penerbit

Universiti Malaya.

Wells, D. R. (1985) The forest avifauna of western Malesia and its conservation. Pp. 213-232 in

A. W. Diamond and T. E. Lovejoy, eds. Conservation of tropical forest birds. Cambridge, U.K.:

International Council for Bird Preservation (Techn. Publ. 4).

P. D. Round and U. Treesucon, Center for Conservation Biology, Department of Biology, Faculty of

Science, Mahidol University, Rama 6 Road, Bangkok 10400, Thailand.

J . C. Eames, 17 Brookside Drive, Oadby, Leicester LE2 4PB, U.K.

FORKTAIL 5 (1989): 49-60

The ornithological importance of

Khaptad National Park, Nepal

CAROL INSKIPP

An assessment is made of the conservation value of Khaptad National Park, the only

protected area in Nepal’s western mid-mountain region. The 50 bird species breeding at

Khaptad for which Nepal may hold significant world populations are listed. A summary of

the main vegetation-types and an account of ornithological importance is given for each

climatic zone. People’s use of the park, management problems and recommendations for

future ornithological survey work are described.

Khaptad National Park is located south of the main Himalayan range in Seti

Zone, far western Nepal, at an air distance of 446km from Kathmandu. The

park lies between 29°17'-29°27'N and 81°-81°13'E and covers 225km2. It

was gazetted in 1985 as a result of representations made by the Khaptad

Swami to His Majesty, King Birendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev, and following

recommendations made by Kattel (1981).

Khaptad is an isolated massif with the highest point at 3,300m. The top is

a rolling plateau of extensive grasslands interspersed with oak and coniferous

forests, shrubberies of rhododendron and berberis, and boggy areas. The

slopes of the massif are thickly vegetated with broadleaved and coniferous

forests and bamboo stands. A small shallow lake, Khaptad Daha, lies on the

top at 3,050m.

•

INFORMATION SOURCES

Dr Robert Fleming Sr was the first ornithologist to go to Khaptad, but his

visit between 25 and 27 October 1959 was hampered by heavy rain. His

account of the trip and details of the seven bird species he recorded are given

in Fleming and Traylor (1961, 1964). In 1981 Bijaya Kattel from the

Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation carried out a

cursory ecological survey of Khaptad (Kattel 1981). He described the

area, access, communications, fauna, flora, geology, climate and future

management problems and compiled preliminary fists of plants, birds and

mammals. Arend van Riessen of the Netherlands Development Organisation

in Nepal visited Khaptad in May and June in 1983 and 1984, and in May

1986 (van Riessen 1986). He recorded 98 bird species in the park and so

made the first major contribution to the ornithological knowledge of

Khaptad. The previous and present park wardens, Gopal Upadhyaya and

Barna Bahadur Thapa, have also kept some wildlife records. Bruce and

Margaret Jefferies visited Khaptad in February 1988 on behalf of the

Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, mainly to

investigate park management (Jefferies 1988). Grasslands in all Nepal’s

50

C. INSKIPP

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protected areas including Khaptad were surveyed in 1988 (Anon. 1988).

A survey was made by Barna B. Thapa, T. P. Inskipp and C. I. between

20 April and 28 May 1988 (Inskipp 1988). Routes taken are shown in

Figure 1. The bird species of all the park’s habitats were investigated.

Numbers of individuals, altitude, habitat-type and breeding information

were recorded. A total of 208 bird species was found including 109 new

species for the park. Six of these were new for western Nepal. Records were

also kept of mammals, butterflies and plants. Ian Barber and Tom Prescott

found an additional five bird species in the park in 1989, bringing the total

recorded there to 223.

CONSERVATION VALUE

Khaptad is the only protected area representative of Nepal’s western

mid-mountain region. There is just one other protected area in Nepal’s

middle mountains, the Shivapuri Watershed and Wildlife Reserve (145 km2 ),

which lies on the northern side of the Kathmandu Valley.

Khaptad is of importance for nature conservation mainly because of the

wide variety and high quality of its forests. These comprise subtropical,

lower and upper temperate, and subalpine types. About 76% of the bird

species recorded and 86% of breeding or probably breeding bird species

depend on forests or shrubs. (Throughout the rest of this paper the term

‘breeding species’ includes those known to breed and those assumed to

breed.) #

Breeding bird species currently recorded from Khaptad number 176 and

many more are likely to be found. There are 124 bird species which may

have significant world populations in Nepal; their breeding distributions are

restricted to an area encompassing the Himalaya, north-east India, northern

South-East Asia and south-west China (Inskipp and Inskipp 1986, Inskipp

1989). The high number of 50 of these (40% of the total) breed at Khaptad

(see Table 1). Nepal may be especially important for 36 breeding bird species

because they either have particularly restricted ranges within the general area

under consideration or have been described as uncommon or rare in the

Indian subcontinent (Inskipp and Inskipp 1986, Inskipp 1989). No fewer

than five of these breed at Khaptad: Pied Thrush Zoothera wardii,

Great Parrotbill Conostoma aemodium, Hoary-throated Barwing Actinodura

nipalensis , Rusty-flanked Treecreeper Certhia nipalensis and Spot-winged

Rosefinch Carpodacus rhodopeplus. Bird species considered at risk in Nepal

(i.e. at a national level) are given in Inskipp (1989). Only 5% of these breed

at Khaptad (those marked with an asterisk may have significant world

populations in Nepal): Satyr Tragopan* Tragopan satyra, Mountain

Scops Owl Otus spilocephalus , Brown Wood Owl Strix leptogrammica,

Yellow-bellied Bush Warbler Cettia acanthizoides. Great Parrotbill*,

Black-throated Parrotbill Paradoxomis nipalensis and the nationally

1989

Birds in Khaptad National Park, Nepal

51

Table 1. Khaptad breeding species for which Nepal may have significant world populations

52

C. INSKIPP

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Figure 1. Geographical map of Khaptad.

Park boundary

- Routes taken in spring 1 988 survey

- Other paths

HQ Park headquarters

Park guard posts: Jhingrana, Lokhada, Sapra

1989

Birds in Khaptad National Park, Nepal

53

Figure 2. Vegetational zones and forest-types in Khaptad.

KEY Altitudinal zones and forest types follow Dobremez and Joshi (1 984)

Subalpine zone; lorest-types 1 , 2, grassland and boggy areas

2.900-3,000 m

Upper temperate zone, forest-type 3

2.400-2.900 m

Upper temperate zone, forest-type 4

2.450-2.900 m

Lower temperate zone, forest-type 5 and some cultivation on lower slopes

1 .800- 2.500 m

Lower temperate zone, forest-type 6 and some Chir pine forest-type 8

and cultivation on lower slopes

1.800- 2.400 m

Lower temperate zone, forest-type 7 and some cultivation on lower slopes

1 500-2,500 m

Subtropical zone; Chir pine forest-type 8. broadleaved forest-type 9

and some cultivation on lower slopes

1,250-1.600 m

54

C. INSKIPP

Forktail 5

endangered Black-chinned Yuhina Yuhina mgrimenta. Khaptad is the only

protected area in Nepal where the last species is known to occur (Inskipp

1989).

Khaptad is also rich in other faunal groups although they have been little

studied so far. A wealth of plant species including many medicinal herbs

grow in the park. The high-altitude bog system on Khaptad top is a rare

habitat in Nepal.

The conservation value of each climatic zone is now described. Climatic

zones and forest-types follow Dobremez and Joshi (1984) with the exception

of the subalpine zone where an additional forest-type (shrubberies of

Rhododendron barbatum ) was identified in the 1988 survey. The distribution

of forest-types is shown in Figure 2, while Table 2 lists for each zone: the

numbers of breeding bird species, numbers of breeding bird species which

may have significant world populations in Nepal, and numbers of breeding

bird species considered at risk in Nepal.

Subalpine zone (2, 900 -3, 300m)

The subalpine zone comprises a rolling plateau with a mixture of dense

forests, grasslands and wetlands (streams, pools and boggy areas). Two

forest-types occur: Type 1: fir Abies spectabilis/ hemlock Tsuga dumosa/oak

Quercus semecarpifolia/rhododendron Rhododendron barbatum. Type 2:

shrubberies of rhododendron Rhododendron barbatum.

Local people maintain that the extent of forests and grasslands has

remained the same on Khaptad for at least 100 years, although ringbarking

of large trees noted in the 1988 survey indicates that this is not entirely

correct. However, as the soil is shallow and lies on impermeable rock, some

of the grasslands are very wet and it is likely that they are unable to support

forests.

As many as 45% of the number of breeding bird species in the zone may

have significant world populations in Nepal. No other zone has such a large

number. Notable species are the two pheasants, the Satyr Tragopan* and

Himalayan Monal Lophophorus impejanus (the country’s national bird) and

also the Great Parrotbill*, Hoary Barwing, Rusty-flanked Treecreeper and

Spot-winged Rosefinch (asterisks indicate nationally threatened species).

Table 2. Breeding species

recorded

Key

1 = Number of breeding species

2 = Number of breeding species with significant world populations in Nepal

3 = Number of breeding species at risk in Nepal

1989

Birds in Khaptad National Park, Nepal

55

Nearly all breeding birds are dependent on forests or shrubs. The

shrubberies are of high importance, as although only 15 breeding bird

species have been recorded, as many as 11 of them may have significant

world populations in Nepal. The Slender-billed Warbler Phylloscopus tytleri

was recorded in these shrubberies - only the second locality for the species in

Nepal. However it was only recorded in late April 1988 and the birds

observed may have been passage migrants. They were located mainly by

their song, so it is possible that they had stopped singing in May and were

therefore overlooked.

During the summer months the grasslands are rich in many species of

colourful flowers including primulas Primula, buttercups and anemones

Ranunculaceae, and gentians Gentianaceae. However their conservation

value is reduced by overgrazing. The grasslands are poor for birds, only

supporting two breeding species, the Oriental Skylark Alauda gulgula and

Himalayan Monal. A considerably larger number of bird species (24) have

been observed to feed in the grasslands. These include the Upland Buzzard

Buteo hemilasius and Common Buzzard B. buteo which hunt the habitat’s

abundant small mammals. Although both species may breed at Khaptad,

neither has so far been confirmed to breed in Nepal.

There are many boggy areas and pools amongst the grasslands, the largest

being the lake, Khaptad Daha, which covers about 1.5 ha. During the 1988

survey the small pools were found to be rich in invertebrates including

dragonfly larvae. A total of five breeding bird species associated with

wetlands has been found, all fairly common and widespread in the country;

in addition the Solitary Snipe Gallinago solitaria, which is described as an

uncommon winter visitor and passage migrant to Nepal (Inskipp and

Inskipp 1985), may also breed at Khaptad. It was recorded along streams in

April and May 1988 and was still present in July (B. B. Thapa in litt.). The

lake is probably a useful staging post for small numbers of passage migrant

birds, although so far it has been insufficiently studied. The broadleaved

forests around the lake are particularly rich in birdlife.

Upper temperate zone (2, 400 -2, 900m)

The upper temperate zone is almost entirely covered in dense forest with a

well developed understorey and interspersed with a few grass clearings. The

steep slopes are rock- and grass-covered in places. There are two

forest-types: Type 3 (northern and eastern slopes): mixed hygrophytic forest

of oak Quercus semecarpifolia - Q. floribunda, hemlock Tsuga dumosa, fir

Abies pindrow and maple Acer (2, 400-2, 900m). Type 4 (southern and

western slopes): mesophytic montane forest of oak Quercus semecarpifolia

and rhododendron Rhododendron arboreum (2, 450-2, 900m). There are

dense stands of bamboo Thamnocalamus between 2,700 and 2,900m around

Choya Gadne on the southern slopes. Some bamboo stands also occur on the

northern slopes in forest-type 3.

The high proportion of 39% of breeding bird species in this zone may have

56

C. INSKIPP

Forktail 5

significant populations in Nepal. These include the Satyr Tragopan,

Himalayan Monal, Great Parrotbill, Hoary Barwing and Rusty-flanked

Treecreeper. The Himalayan Monal’s occurrence in this zone is of interest,

since the species’s normal breeding range in Nepal is 3, 300-4, 570m

(Inskipp and Inskipp 1985). In late April and May 1988 it was found as low

as 2,500m and up to 3,100m. The Fire-capped Tit Cephalopyrus flammiceps,

previously of uncertain status in Nepal (Inskipp and Inskipp 1985), was

proved to breed at Khaptad in 1984 (van Riessen 1986) and during the 1988

survey. The distribution of this species and Common Crossbill Loxia

curvirostra are closely linked to the maple Acer and hemlock Tsuga dumosa

respectively, which explains why both species have only been found in

forest-type 4. Six of the seven Khaptad breeding species which are at risk in

Nepal occur in this zone. Three of them, the Yellow-bellied Bush Warbler

and the Great and Black-throated Parrotbills, are dependent on dense

bamboo stands. Khaptad forms the western recorded limit of the Great

Parrotbill’s world range. Birds occurring along streams in this zone have not

been studied.

Lower temperate zone (1 , 500-2,500 m)

The lower temperate zone is mainly covered in forest with a dense

understorey, apart from some relatively small degraded areas near the park

boundary, and a few clearings and steep rock- and grass-covered slopes.

Khaptad’s lower temperate forests are of national importance because of

their wide variety of types and their good condition. Khaptad is the only

protected area in the country with extensive stands of the oaks Quercus

leucotrichophora and Q. floribunda, and with large areas of Q. lanata of high

quality. There are four forest-types: Type 5: mixed oaks Q. leucotrichophora,

Q. lanata, and Q. floribunda and laurels Lindera pulcherrima and

Persea odoratissima with many shrubs (e.g. Viburnum, Rosa, Zanthoxylum,

Euonymus, Staphylea, Schizandra ) (1 ,800-2, 500m). Type 6: collinean oak

Quercus lanata and Q. leucotrichophora with Lyonia ovalia and Rhododendron

arboreum (1,850-2, 400m). Type 7: mixed hygrophytic broadleaved forest

with oaks Quercus lanata and Q. leucotrichophora, horse-chestnut Aesculus

indica and maple Acer stachyophyllum, mostly in wet gullies (1,500-2, 500m).

Type 8: Chir pine Pinus roxburghii. Some stands of type 8 are pure and

others are mixed with broadleaved forest. The pine forests extend into the

subtropical zone and, in sharp contrast to the broadleaved forests, they are

open with little or no understorey or sign of regeneration, because of

frequent fires.

The breeding bird communities of the broadleaved forests are particularly

species-rich and include the Pied Thrush, a species for which Nepal may be

especially important. Only one breeding species of this habitat, the

Mountain Scops Owl, is considered at risk in the country. Lower temperate

forests have been virtually unstudied in winter, but are likely to be of great

value both for altitudinal migrants from the upper temperate and subalpine

1989

Birds in Khaptad National Park, Nepal

57

zones of Khaptad and for birds from the Himalayan range to the north, as

well as for birds from outside Nepal. The bird community of the Chir pine

forests is very species-poor. Birds occurring on streams in the lower

temperate zone have not been studied.

Subtropical zone (1 ,250-1 ,600 m)

The subtropical zone covers only a small proportion of the park; the land

lying between 1,250 and 1,450m is probably almost entirely cultivated. The

forests comprise broadleaved species (forest-type 9), Chir pine Pinus

roxburghii (forest-type 8) and a mixture of the two. Although of small extent

the broadleaved forests are of high national importance as they are among the

very few protected forests in Nepal’s subtropical zone which remain in

good condition. They comprise the steep-sided valley near Koramando

(see Figure 2) and probably other small patches elsewhere in the park.

Subtropical forests are severely threatened in Nepal and in the centre and

east of the country most have been replaced by cultivation. The subtropical

forests are especially poorly studied and the only available records are those

from the 1988 survey. During the survey period in May these forests were

relatively quiet as the breeding season was well advanced at the low altitudes

of the subtropical zone; many more species are likely to be found. Two

nationally threatened species were found: Mountain Scops Owl and

Black-chinned Yuhina. As mentioned above, the Chir pine forests are very

species-poor. Breeding species recorded along streams total six, all of which

are fairly common and widespread in Nepal.

PEOPLE’S USE OF THE PARK

The grasslands on Khaptad top are intensively grazed by domestic stock

during the summer months. The people move into the park with their

animals from the surrounding districts in late April and May and remain

until August or September. During this period families live in wooden

dwellings scattered throughout the meadows. Kattel (1981) counted

29 grasslands with cattle sheds. Local people are allowed to utilise the park’s

natural resources by carrying out certain activities on payment of a small fee

(see Table 3). There are no permanent settlements within the park apart

Table 3. People’s activities in

the park

58

C. INSKIPP

Forktail 5

from some isolated pockets of private land on the lower slopes.

Khaptad is nationally famous for its wide diversity of medicinal herbs.

There was a medicinal farm on the top for about six years, but this has closed

quite recently.

The forests of Khaptad are exploited far less than many others in Nepal.

This is partly because the park lies in the country’s least populated zone.

Other major factors are that considerable forests still remain in the

surrounding districts and are more easily accessible than those on Khaptad’s

exceptionally steep slopes.

Khaptad is held in high regard by local people as a holy area and is the

home of the Khaptad Swami, more usually known as the Baba, who is

regarded as a spiritual saint. A meditation zone of 5 km2 has been set aside in

the core area of the park and includes the temples at lower Tribeni

(see Figure 1). At the end of May an annual festival called the Mella is held

near the temples. It is the social event of the year for the surrounding

districts. Several thousand people walk for two to four days to sing and dance

throughout the night before returning home the following morning. The

women are resplendent in brightly coloured traditional dress, typical of their

individual villages. The festival originally marked the celebration of people

gathering on Khaptad top for the summer grazing, but now far larger

numbers of people participate and there is even a thriving fair. Tourists have

yet to visit Khaptad and few foreigners have been there.

MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS

In boggy areas of the grasslands, the current overgrazing has caused the

development of gullies up to l-2m deep and wide and the loss of some

vegetational cover, resulting in bare soil patches which have given way to

dust holes in places. Local people fill in pools to prevent their cattle from

drowning. Surveys were planned by park staff in 1988 to determine livestock

numbers and the carrying capacity of the grasslands. The building of dams

and establishment of plantations are also planned to counteract erosion.

The pockets of private land within Khaptad present some problems.

Eventually their owners will be compensated and resettled outside the park.

A full report with alternative suggestions has been prepared by the previous

warden. Each year damaging fires are deliberately lit by local people in the

Chir pine forests on the lower slopes to encourage the growth of grasses for

their grazing animals.

Conservation education for the villagers in the park’s surrounding districts

is urgently needed as there is widespread ignorance about the reasons for the

park’s establishment. It is particularly important to justify the park’s

relevance to local people as a provider of vital resources and as part of their

natural heritage. Important initial steps have already been taken by the

park’s wardens aided by the Baba, but much remains to be done. This

1989

Birds in Khaptad National Park, Nepal

59

problem is especially acute for Khaptad as the people in Seti zone are

amongst the least educated in Nepal. The highly successful Seti Project, run

by the United Nations Development Programme, is helping to remedy this

by funding the building of schools throughout the zone.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE ORNITHOLOGICAL

SURVEY WORK

Khaptad’s birds are inadequately studied throughout the year, so further

surveys at any season would be valuable. Surveys in March and April to

locate breeding and wintering species of the subtropical and lower temperate

forests would be especially worthwhile. The peak spring bird migration

occurs during this period. Looking for migrants at the lake and on the

grasslands on top is recommended. It is also a good season to search for the

Cheer Pheasant Catreus wallichii, which may well occur on Khaptad’s lower

slopes. The species is recognised as internationally threatened (Collar and

Andrew 1988). It is considered of indeterminate status in Nepal and one for

which the country may be especially important (Inskipp and Inskipp 1986).

Khaptad’s forests are highly suitable for research because of their good

condition and their wide range of types extending from the subtropical to

subalpine zones.

Funding for this study was generously provided by the International Council for Bird

Preservation, British Section. My husband, Tim, and I are grateful to B. B. Upreti,

Director General of the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, for

inviting us to carry out a survey of Khaptad. Special thanks go to the park warden,

B. B. Thapa, with whom we carried out our fieldwork and who provided invaluable

assistance, advice, and the help of his park staff. I am indebted to Tim who recorded many

of the species in this paper, for his useful advice during the study and for drawing the

maps. Ian Barber and Arend van Riessen generously gave me their unpublished records.

I am also grateful to the Baba, Ian Barber, Bruce Jefferies (Food and Agricultural

Organization), Dr Mike Rands (International Council for Bird Preservation), Arend van

Riessen, and Lt Col J. Roberts for their useful advice and assistance.

REFERENCES

Anon. (1988) Patan in Khaptad. July Newsletter Wildlife Nepal. Kathmandu: Department of

National Parks and Wildlife Conservation.

Barber, I. and Prescott, T. (1989) Notes on birds recorded at Khaptad in 1989. Unpublished.

Collar, N. J. and Andrew, P. (1988) Birds to watch: the ICBP world checklist of threatened birds.

Cambridge: International Council for Bird Preservation (Techn. Publ. 8).

Dobremez, J. F. and Joshi, D. P. (1984) Carte ecologique du Nepal. Region Dhangarhi-Api

1:250,000. Grenoble: Documents de Cartographic Ecologique.

Fleming, R. L. and Traylor, M. A. (1961) Notes on Nepal birds. Fieldiana Zool. 35(9): 447-487.

Fleming, R. L. and Traylor, M. A. (1964) Further notes on Nepal birds. Fieldiana Zool. 35(9):

495-558.

Inskipp, C. (1988) Khaptad National Park. An account of current knowledge and conservation

value. Unpublished report to the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation,

Nepal.

60

C. INSKIPP

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Inskipp, C. (1989) Nepal’s forest birds: their status and conservation. Cambridge: International

Council for Bird Preservation (Monogr. 4).

Inskipp, C. and Inskipp, T. (1985) A guide to the birds of Nepal. Beckenham: Croom Helm.

Inskipp, C. and Inskipp, T. P. (1986) Some important birds and forests in Nepal. Forktail 1:

53-64.

Jefferies, B. (1988) Khaptad National Park duty travel report 9-16 February 1988. Unpublished

report to the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation in Nepal.

Kattel, B. (1981) A cursory ecological survey of Khaptad area. J. Nat. Hist. Mus. Nepal 5(1):

57-73.

van Riessen, A. (1986) Notes on birds recorded in far western Nepal. Unpublished.

C. Inskipp, 65 Swaynes Lane, Comberton, Cambridge CB3 7EF , U.K.

FORKTAIL 5 (1989): 61-70

Identification, vocalisations and

taxonomy of Pnoepyga wren-babblers

SIMON HARRAP

Apart from an isolated, subspecifically distinct population on Taiwan, the Scaly-breasted

Wren-Babbler Pnoepyga albiventer has a distribution that lies almost entirely within that of

the much wider-spread but extremely similar Pygmy Wren-Babbler P. pusilla. The

literature proves confusing on their separation in the field. Altitude is no clear guide, and in

fact only a bird that is heavily spotted on head and mantle can be confirmed as albiventer.

Song is the best character, with albiventer giving a fast, wren-like warble and pusilla a high,

persistent ‘see . . . saw’.

The Pygmy Wren-Babbler Pnoepyga pusilla is widespread in the Oriental

region, ranging from western Nepal to Timor. Its closest relative, the

Scaly-breasted Wren-Babbler P. albiventer , has a much more restricted

distribution, encompassing the Himalayas from Duala Dhar eastwards, the

hills south of the Brahmaputra, Mount Victoria and the hills of north-east

Burma, south-west China (south and south-east Xizang Autonomous

Region, Sichuan and north-west Yunnan) and northernmost Viet Nam;

throughout all but the westernmost portion of its range, the Scaly-breasted

Wren-Babbler is sympatric with the Pygmy Wren-Babbler (see Figure 1).

(The wren-babbler on Taiwan has been variously assigned to both species

and is discussed in greater detail below.) Pygmy and Scaly-breasted

Figure 1. Distribution of Scaly-

breasted Wren-Babbler Pnoepyga

albiventer and Pygmy Wren -

Babbler P. pusilla.

KEY

’°oe?

Distribution of Scaly-breasted Wren-Babbler Pnoepyga albiventer

For Taiwan, see text

Distribution of Pygmy Wren-Babbler Pnoepyga pusilla

62

S. HARRAP

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Wren-Babblers are very similar in appearance and King et al. (1975) is the

only readily available reference that offers any plumage criteria for their

separation in the field. Their songs are, however, widely given as distinctive.

THE PROBLEM OF IDENTIFICATION

On 24 May 1985 in the Langtang Valley, central Nepal, between Chongong

(Lama Lodge) and Syabru (Shabru), 28°10'N 85°24'E, at an altitude of

c.2,000m, Neil Simpson and I had excellent views of a singing wren-babbler

Pnoepyga. I made the following notes:

‘Song, lasting about U/2S, “seee-u see-u zer-zi-ze-ze”. Upperparts plain,

with only the faintest of marks on the coverts. Underparts pale brown-white,

evenly scaled throughout. No pale throat, except when it pointed its bill

skywards to sing - then a very small unmarked whitish chin was visible.’

No less than six others were singing in the same area. The question was,

which species had we seen? The characters advanced in the literature for the

separation of the two species are outlined under the four headings that

follow.

Size and jizz

Pygmy is 9cm long and Scaly-breasted 10cm (Ah and Ripley 1983; see below

for details of wing lengths). Average weights give a better picture of the

difference in size: 20. 9g (n = 10) for Scaly-breasted compared with 12g

(n = 8) for Pygmy (Ali and Ripley 1983).

Plumage

The species are extremely similar, even showing the same white and buff

phases of underpart coloration, and many authors consider them inseparable.

However King et al. (1975) state that Scaly-breasted ‘usually has fairly

numerous rusty-buff spots on mantle (and often on head); throat paler than

breast (black scales more prominent on breast but nearly lacking on throat);

buff phase often has whitish throat’. Pygmy has ‘throat usually not paler than

breast. Pale spotting on upperparts (when present) usually limited to the

wings and lower back’. Baker (1922) even suggests that Pygmy has ‘the

median and greater coverts and innermost secondaries . . . more plentifully

and more regularly spotted’ than Scaly-breasted.

Voice

The call of both species is a ‘zick’ or ‘tsik’, perhaps given mainly when

agitated. This is probably what Ludlow and Kinnear (1937, discussing

Scaly-breasted) likened ‘to nothing so realistic as an ill-mannered person

loudly sucking his teeth! . . . repeated at regular intervals every four or five

seconds for the space of a couple of minutes, and . . . frequently very

1989

Identification of Pnoepyga wren-babblers

63

difficult to locate . Smythies (1986) noted the call of Pygmy as being sharper

and thinner than that of Scaly-breasted, and to be uttered more frequently.

However, Ali and Ripley (1983) maintain that the two are indistinguishable

and it would seem that any difference must be slight, though they go on to

say that Pygmy Wren-Babbler ‘utters a sharp single “tsik” every half-second

or so, alternatively higher and lower with a semitone difference; this note is

given more frequently and over longer periods than in the case of albiventer’.

However, this description may refer to Pygmy’s song, rather than its call-, see

below. A shrill, piercing whistle given in extreme alarm has also been noted

for Scaly-breasted by Ludlow and Kinnear (1937), and Ali and Ripley (1983)

give a sharp, explosive, scolding ‘chiruk chiruk’ as the alarm-call of Pygmy.

Pygmy’s song is described by Smythies (1986) as ‘a loud, shrill whistle,

followed after an interval of about one second by a lower note . . . the

whistle having a penetrating quality . . . The bird calls on the move, at

intervals of 10-20 seconds for several minutes’. King et al. (1975) give a

‘loud, shrill, penetrating 2- or 3-note whistle, each successive note separated

by a long interval and lower in pitch’, and Fleming et al. (1979) ‘a loud,

slowly squeezed out “see . . . saw”, a second long with two second

intervals, repeated up to thirty times’.

Regarding Scaly-breasted, Smythies (1986) refers to Heinrich’s description

(in Stresemann and Heinrich 1940): ‘The song is short and trilling like the

first part of the song of Brachypteryx cruralis ’ [= B. montana White-browed

Shortwing]. Baker (1922) likened it to the song of Northern Wren

Troglodytes troglodytes, Fleming et al. (1979) describe a ‘fine strong warble:

‘tzee-tze-zit-tzu-stsu-tzit”, rising and ending abruptly’, and Ludlow and

Kinnear (1944) state that the song of Scaly-breasted is ‘a pretty trill of seven

or eight notes, quite indescribable, but quite distinct from the double-noted

whistle of P. p. pusilla .’

It seems, then, that the two species have completely different and

distinctive songs. However, Ali and Ripley (1983) also give the following

description of Scaly-breasted’s call: a ‘loud, squeaky long-drawn double-noted

“seek . . . sik” like an unoiled “patla” (Indian swing bed) swinging back and

forth (SA) . . . These notes are markedly ventriloquial, the “seek” seeming

to come from an entirely different direction to the “sik” that follows a

half-second later.’ There seems to be little doubt that this is a description of

the song of Pygmy Wren-Babbler (a very accurate description, in fact),

mistakenly attributed (as a call) to Scaly-breasted Wren-Babbler.

Altitudinal distribution

Both species are altitudinal migrants in at least parts of their ranges,

descending in winter to as low as 275 m in the Himalayas (Inskipp and

Inskipp 1985), though apparently resident further south and east. They are

separated altitudinally to some extent during the breeding season. In

the Himalayas, Scaly-breasted breeds at 2, 400-4, 000m and Pygmy at

1,500-3, 000m (Ali and Ripley 1983, Inskipp and Inskipp 1985); in

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S. HARRAP

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south-east Xizang Scaly-breasted breeds at 2, 000-2, 200m (Cheng et al.

1983). In Assam Scaly-breasted breeds at c.l, 000- 1,800m and Pygmy

from c.l ,000m upwards (Ah and Ripley 1983). On Mount Victoria in

south-west Burma Pygmy breeds from 1,400 -2, 600m and Scaly-breasted at

2, 200-2, 800m (Stresemann and Heinrich 1940), while King et al. (1975)

state that in Burma and northernmost Viet Nam only Pygmy should be

found from 1,067 to 1,676m. Thus, altitudinal overlap is considerable in the

Himalayas (2, 400-3, 000m) and on Mount Victoria (2, 200-2, 600m), and

apparently complete in Assam.

Based on the survey of the literature summarised above, the identity of the

Langtang wren-babbler was still uncertain. Plumage (unspotted head and

mantle and lack of pale throat) and altitude seem to indicate Pygmy (though

the caveat ‘usually’ attached to the text in King et al. hinted at caution),

whilst the song pointed strongly towards Scaly-breasted. In order to resolve

the problem, about 50 skins of each species were examined at the British

Museum (Natural History), field-notes were sought from various observers,

and an appeal made for tape-recordings of both species in the Bulletin of the

Oriental Bird Club. The following conclusions were reached.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERS

The size difference between the two species is obvious in skins, and

Scaly-breasted appears larger and more robust in the field, with a more

thickset bill; its posture is less upright and less ‘perky’ than Pygmy

(C. R. Robson in litt.). The difference in bill size is supported by

measurements (Ali and Ripley 1983 give bill from skull as 13- 15mm for

Scaly-breasted, 12- 14mm for Pygmy). However, even marked differences

in overall size are notoriously difficult to assess objectively in the field.

An unmarked pale throat is not a specific character of Scaly-breasted.

About 25% of Pygmy Wren-Babblers examined (especially buff-phase

individuals) showed unmarked throats or were so indistinctly marked that

they would have appeared so in the field. Conversely, one white-phase

Scaly-breasted had a scaled throat.

Plain upperparts are not diagnostic of Pygmy. The upperparts of

Scaly-breasted are rather variable: some have many distinct buff spots on the

head and mantle, some a few distinct spots, some a few faint, scattered spots,

and spotting may occasionally be absent. (In this context, it is important to

note that juveniles of both species lack spots on the upperparts. However,

they are very distinct from adults, generally lacking scales on the underparts,

and may show a more or less streaked breast on a variable dark brown to

whitish ground: Mayr 1944, Abdulali 1982, Ali and Ripley 1983.) Only a

wren-babbler that is heavily spotted with buff on the head and mantle can be

identified confidently as Scaly-breasted.

Pygmy tends to be less boldly marked on the underparts than

1989

Identification of Pnoepyga wren-babblers

65

Scaly-breasted. On white-phase birds, the white feathers have thin dark

fringes resulting in a scalloped effect. On Scaly-breasted, in addition to the

dark fringes shown by Pygmy, bold dark feather-centres are also present,

especially on the breast. The overall effect is darker than Pygmy but the

complexity of the pattern means that it is doubtfully distinguishable in the

field.

VOICE

In the following discussion it must be remembered that the identification of

birds seen and recorded from areas of sympatry between the two species has

not been confirmed by examination in the hand.

Calls

Tape-recordings and field observations indicate that both species give a very

similar, if not identical, explosive sharp ‘tsik’ or ‘tschik’ (at least sometimes

in alarm): see Figure 2. In addition, Pygmy gives a harsh, low-pitched

‘chreew-chreew-chreew-chreew’ (recordings from Malaya and Java).

Songs

Recordings from the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, and Darjiling (north-east

India) of Scaly-breasted Wren-Babbler reveal a fast, warbling song which is,

as Baker (1922) indicated, reminiscent of a Northern Wren (see Figure 3).

There does not seem to be geographical variation.

Recordings also indicate that the song of Pygmy Wren-Babbler is a

distinctive, stereotyped high-pitched whistle. Though there is some

variation, it is easily recognisable. The basic theme is ‘see . . . saw’ or

perhaps better ‘tzee . . . zwee’, repeated at fairly regular intervals;

occasionally, just one of the notes may be given. The major variation on this

theme is to insert a third note between the ‘see’ and the ‘saw’, to produce a

Figure 2. Call (‘tsik’ or ‘tk’) of Pygmy Wren-Babbler, West Java, 17 November 1984, recorded by

A. B. van den Berg.

66

S. HARRAP

Forktail 5

*In the Yang Highlands, East Java, the notes do not differ in pitch (B. van

Balen in litt.).

In addition a fast, high-pitched cadence, ‘tsi-zi-zi-zi-zi-zi-zi-zi-zi-zi-zi-zi-zi’

is occasionally given by Pygmy (tape, Java), somewhat reminiscent of the

song of a Willow Warbler Phylloscopus trochilus. (A high-pitched ascending

trill, vaguely reminiscent of Black-and-yellow Broadbill Eurylaimus

ochromalus, may also be attributable to Pygmy Wren-Babbler; tape, Malaya.)

The Taiwan wren-babbler

Ingram (1909), when describing P. formosana, considered it to be a

subspecies allied to P. albiventer. Hartert and Steinbacher (1932-1938)

listed it as P. albiventer formosana and Vaurie (1959) also apparently aligned

it with albiventer. However, at some point in time there was a general shift

towards treating it as a race of pusilla ; the date and reasons for this have not

been traced but Kinnear (in Ludlow and Kinnear 1937), Wynne (1956),

Deignan (1964) and many subsequent authors have followed this treatment.

What are the affinities of formosana ?

The song of formosana is a fast strong warble, rather shorter but otherwise

very similar to that of Scaly-breasted Wren-Babbler (tapes: Severinghaus

and Scharringa): see Figure 5. All the populations of Pygmy Wren-Babbler

for which information has been obtained possess a highly stereotyped song,

despite a widespread distribution, encompassing several islands.

Two specimens of formosana were examined in the British Museum

1989

Identification of Pnoepyga wren-babblers

67

(Natural History) and have the crown, mantle, and scapulars spotted with

buff. Their throat is white, with small dark feather-centres and fine dark

feather-fringes forming a finely scaled pattern. The feathers of the breast and

belly are heavily marked with extensive dark centres and fine dark tips (the

throat appears slightly paler in contrast, though still clearly scaled). Thus, in

plumage pattern, formosana is closer to Scaly-breasted, only the scaled throat

Figure 3. Song of Scaly-breasted Wren-Babbler, Darjiling, 15 May 1989, recorded by J. Scharringa.

Figure 5. Song of Taiwan (= Scaly-breasted) Wren-Babbler, Taiwan, recorded by S. R. Severinghaus.

68

S. HARRAP

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being anomalous (and even this may be found in some Scaly-breasted:

see above).

The wings of the two British Museum specimens of formosana examined

(not the type) measure 54 mm and 55mm, whilst Hachisuka and Udagawa

(1951) give a range of 48.5-53mm and the type description gives c.56mm

(Ingram 1909). In comparison, Scaly-breasted Wren-Babblers measure

57-65 mm (Stresemann and Heinrich 1940, Abdulali 1982, Ali and Ripley

1983, Cheng et al. 1987), and - discounting that on Mt Victoria (see below) -

mainland populations of Pygmy 44-53 mm (subspecies pusilla, annamensis;

Robinson and Kloss 1919, Baker 1922, La Touche 1925, Delacour and

Jabouille 1930, Abdulali 1982, Ali and Ripley 1983, Cheng et al. 1987).

Island populations of mainland species are often somewhat larger, so it is

interesting to note that Pygmy Wren-Babblers on Sumatra measure 51-

54 mm (subspecies lepida: Robinson et al. 1924), on Java 49-55 mm

(subspecies rufa: Stresemann 1930, Kuroda 1933), on Flores 52-56mm

(subspecies everetti : Rothschild 1897, Rensch 1931), and on Timor 52-

55 mm (subspecies timorensis: Mayr 1944), while the population isolated on

the ecological ‘island’ of Mt Victoria in south-west Burma is the largest

known mainland population at 48-55 mm (subspecies pusilla: Stresemann

and Heinrich 1940). Despite the fact that all these measurements may not be

strictly comparable (due to differences in measuring technique etc.),

formosana is clearly smaller than Scaly-breasted Wren-Babblers from

mainland Asia, and, whilst perhaps larger than Pygmy Wren-Babbler from

the mainland, is certainly no larger than island populations of that species.

The nearest Scaly-breasted Wren-Babblers to Taiwan are c. 1,600km

distant, in north-west Viet Nam in the Fansipan mountains (specimens from

around Cha Pa, Hoang Lien Son province, an area which supports several

‘Himalayan outpost’ species: Delacour and Greenway 1940). By contrast,

Pygmy Wren-Babbler is widespread in Southern China (see Figure 1),

including mainland areas near to Taiwan. However, despite its distribution,

the similarity of the plumage and, most importantly, the song of formosana to

that of albiventer strongly suggests that, if it is not a monotypic species

endemic to Taiwan, formosana should be treated as a subspecies of albiventer.

A similarly disjunct distribution is shown by a number of other species,

including Ruddy Kingfisher Halcyon coromanda. Plain Martin Riparia

paludicola, White-browed Bush-Robin Tarsiger indicus. Vivid Niltava Cyomis

vivida. Ferruginous Flycatcher Muscicapa ferruginea and Vinaceous

Rosefinch Carpodacus vinaceus.

CONCLUSIONS

The wren-babbler I observed and heard singing in the Langtang Valley must

have been Scaly-breasted which is thus, in central Nepal at least, found

(presumably on territory) as low as 2,000m in summer. The altitudinal

1989

Identification of Pnoepyga wren-babblers

69

overlap of this species and Pygmy Wren-Babbler in the Himalayas is clarified

as from 2,000 to 3,000m.

The plumage criteria invoked by King et al. (1975) for distinguishing

Scaly-breasted from Pygmy Wren-Babbler are unreliable. Whilst a

wren-babbler Pnoepyga that is heavily spotted on the head and mantle can be

confidently identified as Scaly-breasted, no other plumage feature can be

considered consistently distinctive.

The songs of Pygmy and Scaly-breasted Wren-Babblers are distinctive,

enabling a confident identification to be made; the calls are doubtfully

distinguishable.

Extreme caution must be exercised when identifying these two

wren-babblers in the field, and many past sight-records, unless supported by

details of song, may be found unacceptable.

Despite the differences in size, the similarity of both plumage and

vocalisations indicate that formosana is probably best treated as a race of

alhiventer.

Bas van Balen, Arnoud B. van den Berg, Steve Madge, Clive F. Mann, Frank Rozendaal,

Jelle Scharringa and Sheldon R. Severinghaus very kindly responded to my appeal for

tape-recordings of wren-babblers. The Library of Natural Sounds, Cornell Laboratory of

Ornithology, supplied copies of recordings in their collection. My thanks to Ben King for

his comments on the identification of the Langtang wren-babbler, and to Peter Colston,

who arranged access to skins at the British Museum (Natural History). Rod Martins and

Nigel Redman made valuable comments on the first draft of this note and Craig Robson

commented on wren-babbler identification as well as tracing the Vietnamese record of

P. albivetiter. Tim Inskipp made many valuable comments in the final stages of

preparation. Joan Hall-Craggs and William Seale very kindly prepared the sonagrams.

REFERENCES

Abdulali, H. (1982) A catalogue of birds in the collection of the Bombay Natural History

Society - 25. J . Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 79: 336-360.

Ali, S. and Ripley, S. D. (1983) Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. Compact edition.

Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Baker, E. C. S. (1922) The fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Birds, 1. London:

Taylor and Francis.

Cheng Tsohsin (Zheng Zuoxin), Li Dehao, Wang Zuxiang, Wang Ziyu, Jiang Zhihua and

Lu Taichun (1983) The avifauna of Xizang (Tibet). Beijing: Science Press, Academia Sinica.

(In Chinese.)

Cheng Tsohsin, Long Zeyu and Zheng Baolai (1987) Fauna Sinica. Aves Vol. II: Passeriformes,

Muscicapidae II: Timaliinae. Beijing: Science Press. (In Chinese.)

Deignan, H. G. (1964) Subfamily Timaliinae. Pp. 240-247 in E. Mayr and R. A. Paynter, Jr.,

eds. Check-list of birds of the world, 10. Cambridge. Mass.: Museum of Comparative Zoology.

Delacour, J. and Greenway, J. (1940) Notes critiques sur certains oiseaux indochinois. L’Oiseau

et R.F.O. (2)10: 60-77.

Delacour, J. and Jabouille, P. (1930) Description de trente oiseaux de l’lndochine fran^aise.

L’Oiseau et R.F.O. (2)9: 393-408.

Fleming, R. L., Sr, Fleming, R. L., Jr and Lain Singh Bangdel (1979) Birds of Nepal. Second

edition. Kathmandu: Avalok.

Hachisuka, M. and Udagawa, T. (1951) Contributions to the ornithology of Taiwan. Part 2.

Q. J. Taiwan Mus. 4: 1-180.

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Hartert, E. and Steinbacher, F. (1932- 1938) Die Vogel der palaarktischen Fauna. Erganzungsbd.

Berlin: Friedlander.

Ingram, C. (1909) [Description of Pnoepyga formosana subsp. n.] Bull. Brit. Om. Club 23:

96-97.

Inskipp, C. and Inskipp, T. (1985) A guide to the birds of Nepal. Beckenham: Croom Helm.

King, B. F., Dickinson, E. C. and Woodcock, M. W. (1975) A field guide to the birds of

South-East Asia. London: Collins.

Kuroda, N. (1933) Birds of the island of Java, 1. Tokyo: published by the author.

La Touche, J. D. D. (1925) A handbook of the birds of eastern China, 1. London: Taylor and

Francis.

Ludlow, F. and Kinnear, N. (1937) The birds of Bhutan and adjacent territories of Sikkim and

Tibet. Part 2. Ibis (14)1: 249-293.

Ludlow, F. and Kinnear, N. (1944) The birds of south-east Tibet. Part 2. Ibis 86: 176-208.

Mayr, E. (1944) The birds of Timor and Sumba. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 83: 125-194.

Meyer de Schauensee, R. (1984) The birds of China. Washington: Smithsonian Institution.

Rensch, B. (1931) Die Vogelwelt von Lombok, Sumbawa und Flores. Mitt. Zool. Mus. Berlin 17:

451-637.

Robinson, H. C. and Kloss, C. B. (1919) On birds from South Annam and Cochinchina. Part 2.

Ibis (11)1: 565-625.

Robinson, H. C., Kloss, C. B. and Jacobson, E. (1924) On a large collection of birds chiefly from

West Sumatra made by Mr E. Jacobson. J. Fed. Malay States Mus. 11: 189-347.

Rothschild, W. (1897) Description of a new hill-wren from Flores. Novit. Zool. 4: 168.

Smythies, B. E. (1986) The birds of Burma. Third (revised) edition. Liss, Hants: Nimrod.

Stresemann, E. (1930) Eine Vogelsammlung vom Vulkan Papadajan. Treubia 12: 425-430.

Stresemann, E. and Heinrich, G. (1940) Die Vogel des Mount Victoria. Milt. Zool. Mus. Berlin

24: 151-264.

Vaurie, C. (1954) Systematic notes on Palearctic birds. No. 6, Timaliinae and Paradoxornithinae.

Amer. Mus. Novit. 1669.

Vaurie, C. (1959) The birds of the Palearctic fauna. Passeriformes. London: Witherby.

Wynne, O. E. (1956) Key-list of the Palearctic and Oriental passerine birds. Arbroath: T. Buncle.

Simon Harrap, ‘El Coqui’, 23 Folgate Road, Heacham, King’s Lynn PE3I 7BQ, U.K.

FORKTAIL 5 (1989): 71-97

Recent records of birds from Viet Nam

C. R. ROBSON, J. C. EAMES, J. A. WOLSTENCROFT,

NGUYEN CU and TRUONG VAN LA

From April to July 1988 a survey of forest birds at a selection of sites in Viet Nam,

including proposed protected areas, was undertaken. Surveys were focused on threatened

pheasants. The surveys provided information on the condition of Vietnamese forests and

the status of forest birds. Information was gathered on Vietnamese Pheasant Lophura

hatinhensis and Crested Argus Rheinartia ocellata and other little-known forest birds such as

Red-collared Woodpecker Picus rabien, Short-tailed Scimitar-Babbler Jabouilleia danjoui,

Grey-faced Tit-Babbler Macronous kelleyi and White-winged Magpie Urocissa whiteheadi.

From late April to mid- July 1988 we took part in a survey of

forest-dependent birds at a selection of sites in Viet Nam, including

proposed protected areas. This survey, which was endorsed by the

International Council for Bird Preservation, paid particular attention to

threatened pheasants. The localities that we visited included Viet Nam’s first

national park, Cue Phuong, and two newly proposed protected areas, Kon

Cha Rang and Tam Dao. A wealth of information on the condition of

Vietnamese forests and the status of forest birds was obtained. In particular,

valuable information was gathered on Vietnamese Pheasant Lophura

hatinhensis and Crested Argus Rheinartia ocellata (two globally threatened

pheasants) and a number of little-known birds, some endemic to

Viet Nam and Indochina, including Red-collared Woodpecker Picus rabieri ,

Short-tailed Scimitar-Babbler Jabouilleia danjoui , Grey-faced Tit-Babbler

Macronous kelleyi. White-cheeked Laughingthrush Garrulax vassali,

White- winged Magpie Urocissa whiteheadi and Ratchet-tailed Treepie

Temnurus temnurus. The surveys concluded that Viet Nam holds the largest

known population of Crested Argus in the world and that other species such

as Bar-bellied Pitta Pitta ellioti (endemic to Indochina) are sufficiently

common that they may be deleted from the ICBP World Checklist of

Threatened Birds (Collar and Andrew 1988). A considerable number of new

distributional records were made and information on these constitutes the

main body of this paper.

REGIONS IN VIET NAM

Various authors have divided Viet Nam into ornithological regions.

King et al. (1975) split the country into five regions following Delacour and

Jabouille (1931). These regions, based on a combination of zoogeographical

and political boundaries, have been modified by Vo Quy (1983). The regions

put forward by Vo Quy are intended to follow stricter zoogeographical

boundaries. For the purposes of this paper, when discussing new

distributional information, we have first referred to the regions put forward

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C. R. ROBSON et al.

Forktaii 5

by King et al. (1975). The three regions of Annam used by King et al. (1975),

rather than the two put forward by Vo Quy (1983), make it easier to

determine expansion in a species’s known range.

ITINERARY

APRIL

18-20 Hanoi

21 Hanoi-Cuc Phuong NP

22-23 Cue Phuong NP

24 Cue Phuong NP-Hanoi

25 Hanoi

26 Hanoi-Tam Dao

27-28 Tam Dao

29 Tam Dao-Hanoi

30 Hanoi

MAY

1 Hanoi-Vinh

2 Vinh-Dong Ha

3 Dong Ha-Quang Ngai

4 Quang Ngai-Kannack

5 Kannack-Buon Luoi

6-9 Buon Luoi

10 Buon Luoi-Kon Cha Rang

11-17 Kon Cha Rang

18 Kon Cha Rang-Buon Luoi

19-29 Buon Luoi

30 Buon Luoi-Kannack

31 Kannack-Hue

JUNE

1 Huc-Dong Ha

2 Dong Ha-A Luoi

3 A Luoi-Lang Ka Kou

4-12 Lang Ka Kou and ‘Pass

13 Lang Ka Kou-A Luoi

14 A Luoi-Dong Ha

15 Dong Ha-Ky Anh

16 Ky Anh-Son Tung

17-28 Son Tung

29 Son Tung-Ky Anh

30 Ky Anh-Hanoi

JULY

1-3 Hanoi

4 Hanoi-Cuc Phuong NP

5-8 Cue Phuong NP

9 Cue Phuong-Hanoi

10-13 Hanoi

Figure. Viet Nam, showing

zoogeographical regions and

survey localities.

1989

Recent records of birds from Viet Nam

73

LOCALITIES VISITED

1. Kon Cha Rang (14°28'N 108°37'E)

A proposed protected area of c. 16,000-20,000 ha, situated within the Kon

Ha Nung Union Forestry Project (logging concession), which covers an area

of approximately 307,980 ha on the Tay Nguyen plateau, south-eastern Gia

Lai Contum province, southern Central Annam. The general forest-types in

this area are: Lowland Semi-Evergreen and Tropical Montane Evergreen

(MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1986) or Closed Broadleaved Tropical

Evergreen Seasonal Lowland and Closed Broadleaved Tropical Evergreen

Seasonal Sub-Montane (CVRER 1985). Seven days were spent in the field,

based at an abandoned ‘Ba Na’ (Bohnar) peoples’ settlement by the Kon

river, amongst good quality forest with small clearings between 700 and

900m elevation. The Kon river marks the south-eastern boundary of the

proposed protected area, and much of the fieldwork was subsequently found

to have been carried out just outside the proposed reserve in Nghia Binh

province.

2. Buon Luoi (14°1S'N 108°37'E )

A small settlement situated within the Kon Ha Nung Union Forestry Project

(see locality 1). Eighteen days were spent in the field based at an old research

station, and observations were made in a c.2km2 area of logged and

secondary forest at c.650m elevation.

3. A Sau A Luoi (16°23'N 107°07'E - ‘Pass 41’/Lang Ka Kou)

The A Sau valley and surrounding hills in A Luoi district, Binh Tri Thien

province, Central Annam, lie along the Laos border west of Hue. The valley

was of strategic importance during the American war and consequently

suffered the effects of herbicide spraying and other disturbance. Despite the

continuing effects of herbicide and the clearance of forest for agriculture,

large areas of forest remain. The general forest-type in the area is Tropical

Montane Evergreen (MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1986) or Closed

Broadleaved Tropical Evergreen Seasonal Sub-Montane (CVRER 1985).

Nine days were spent in the field, based in a ‘Bakor’ long-house at Lank Ka

Kou, Hong Van sub-district. Observations were made in good quality forest

at 500- 1,000m elevation in the vicinity of ‘Pass 41’ and Lang Ka Kou, at the

northern end of the A Sau valley.

4. Ky Anh (17°59'N 106° 10' E - Son Tung)

This is the south-easternmost district of Nghe Tinh province, North

Annam. Good quality forest still remains in the west and south of the

district. The general forest-type in the area is Lowland Semi-Evergreen

(MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1986) or Closed Broadleaved Tropical

Evergreen Seasonal Lowland (CVRER 1985). Twelve days were spent in the

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field based at Son Tung, Ky Son sub-district, and observations made in

secondary and logged forest up to 6 km from our base, over an area of at least

12 km2. Elevation varied between c.50 and 300m.

5. Cue Phuong (20°15'N 105°35'E )

Viet Nam’s first national park, established in 1962, covers an area of

c. 2 5, 000 ha (of which at least 20,000 ha are forested), and is situated

south-west of Hanoi in western Ha Nam Ninh province, Tonkin. Altitude

ranges from c.200 to 600m and the general forest-types are Lowland

Semi-Evergreen on Limestone (MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1986) or

Closed Broadleaved Tropical Evergreen Seasonal Lowland and Closed

Broadleaved Tropical Evergreen Seasonal Lowland and Sub-Montane Forest

on Limestone (CVRER 1985). Seven days were spent in the field based at

the Bong sub-station, and observations were made along c. 12 km of trails

and rough track through good quality forest and clearings from c.300 to

400m elevation.

6. Tam Dao (21°27'N 105°35'E)

A former resort (‘hill station’) from French colonial times, situated on a

forested ridge north-west of Hanoi in eastern Vinh Phu province, Tonkin. A

proposal has been made to set aside c. 19,000ha as a national park. The

general forest-types are Lowland Semi-Evergreen and Forest on Limestone

(MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1986) or Closed Broadleaved Tropical

Evergreen Seasonal Lowland and Closed Broadleaved Tropical Evergreen

Seasonal Sub-Montane (CVRER 1985). Only three days were spent in the

field here, in good quality forest immediately above and below the station at

c.900m elevation. During the visit observations were made on the