THE GARDENS’ BULLETIN

The Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore publishes papers on plant taxonomy (including revisions),

horticulture, phytogeography, floristics, morphology, anatomy and related fields with

emphasis on plants in the West Malesian region.

EDITORIAL BOARD

Dr Ruth Kiew Dr R.T. Corlett

(Editor) University of Hong Kong

Singapore Botanic Gardens Hong Kong

Dr T.W. Foong Dr M.C. Roos

(Assist. Editor) Riksherbarium

Singapore Botanic Gardens

Dr S.C. Chin

Singapore Botanic Gardens

Dr M.J.E. Coode

Royal Botanic Gardens

Kew, U.K.

Leiden, Netherlands

Dr E. Soepadmo

- Forest Research Institute Malaysia

Kepong, Malaysia

Dr W.K. Tan :

Singapore Botanic Gardens

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Instructions for contributing authors are found on the inside backcover.

- WdUL 39 1998 2 bansronl

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The Gardens' Bulletin

Singapore

VOL. 49 (Part 1) June 1997 ISSN 0374-7859

CONTENTS

Turner, I.M., H.T.W. Tan, E.E.L. Seah, A.H.B. Loo and Ali Ibrahim

PRC CiIGns TOMS Mora OL Sime apOGe MT oe a ..s.a hans savesuasncucdaagesece den preseseveacsecacurncteasechdeedonsetes’ 1

Teo, S.P.

Root Wemi-parasitismy im Malavan Olacace ae «0... ic..h.nc-senssssecssuedecexetsncasnevavagedessnoransdenedpasabens 7

Tan, H.T.W., M.F Choong, K.S. Chua, A.H.B. Loo, Hj. Samsuri Hj. Ahmad,

E.E.L. Seah, I.M. Turner and J.W.H. Yong

A botanical survey of Sungei Buloh Nature Park, Simgapote ...........0:.c..ssveccescersnesececsseees 15

Kiew, R., S. Madhavan and Hamsah Selamat

Baccaurea scortechinii distinct from B. parviflora (Euphorbiaceae) ...........ceceeseceseeeeeees 37

Ali Ibrahim, P.T. Chew, Hj. Sidek Kiah and Joseph T.K. Lai

New records or plat species [Om SIMGAPOLS’....2...4.04.escce-Lecmaeabidedsssatdwencadsnsvedeccossbangeencoedes 49

Loo, A.H.B. and H.T.W. Tan

The angiosperm flora of Singapore, Part 6. Caesalpimiaceae ..........:....ccsccsesesseasstccecsaceees aD

Choo, J.P.S. and H.T.W. Tan

The angiosperm flora of Singapore, Part 7. Limmocharitaceae ..............sceseeseeeteeeteeeeees 107

Lim S.P. and R. Kiew

Gazetteer of limestone localities in Sabah, Borne iiss) cccsscdessaccdesevenctoceskecscensosvasececees 111

Turner, I.M. and J.W.H. Yong

The botany of the islands of Mersing District, Johore, Peninsular Malaysia.

Lyiiespiantisiand veschation Ol PULAU Pim eh i). iiccciczdacstcasccdemdexsnceesoacncsatshicecsesecnhenvereneess 119

BOOK REVIEW

Soepadmo, E. and K.M. Wong. The Tree Flora of Sabah and Sarawak .............ccccccsecseseeeeeeees 143

Vol..1 and 2. I.M. Turner

Date of Publication: 10 May 1998

Published by

National Parks Board

Singapore Botanic Gardens

Cluny Road

Singapore 259569

Printed by Oxford Graphic Printers Pte Ltd

Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) I-5.

Additions to the Flora of Singapore, III’.

I.M. TuRNER!, H.T.W. TAn!, E.E.L. SEAH', A.H.B. Loo! AND ALI BIN IBRAHINZ

‘School of Biological Sciences

National University of Singapore

Singapore 119260

“Singapore Botanic Gardens

Cluny Road

Singapore 259569

Abstract

Eleven species are added to the flora of Singapore as presented by Turner (1993).

Lecanopteris sinuosa (Polypodiaceae) was mistakenly omitted from that list. Records of

Dischidia complex (Asclepiadaceae), Grenacheria fulva (Myrsinaceae) and Microcos

globulifera (Tiliaceae) were also overlooked. Mangifera paludosa (Anacardiaceae) has

recently been described from a pre-War Singapore collection. Combretum tetralophum

(Combrebaceae), Korthalsia flagellaris (Palmae), Pouteria linggensis (Sapotaceae) and

Sindora coriacea (Leguminosae) are native species that have newly been collected for the

first time in Singapore. The successful naturalization of Justicia procumbens (Acanthaceae)

and Macroptilium atropurpureum (Leguminosae) is reported.

Introduction

In this series of articles on the flora of Singapore, we have taken the list

published by Turner (1993) as the reference point for the composition of

the flora. Subsequently species found growing wild in Singapore that are

not included in the list have been reported. In the current paper eleven

more species are added to the list. Nomenclature follows Turner (1995)

wherever possible.

1. Combretum tetralophum C.B. Clarke Combretaceae

Large liana or scandent shrub with spikes of small sweet-smelling flowers.

The fruits are ovoid to 4 cm long, with four distinct, longitudinal, sharp-

edged wings or ridges. The species is characteristic of lowland river margins

and back mangroves and is probably dispersed by water. It occurs from

Indo-China to the Pacific, though it is absent from the Philippines (Exell,

1954 p. 541). Its occurrence in Singapore is therefore not surprising, but it

‘Continued from Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 42 (1994) 131-135.

2 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

has eluded detection for many years, until recently when it was collected in

fruit on Pulau Semakau (H.7T.W. Tan et al. $1005, 27 September 96 SINU).

2. Dischidia complex Griff. Asclepiadaceae

A twining epiphyte with pitcher-like leaves (Rintz, 1980 p. 97) found in

lowland forest. It is known from the south of the Malay Peninsula and

Borneo. At least one Singapore collection is known (E.J.H. Corner s.n.,

January 1933, Jurong SING), but it is probably exinct today.

3. Grenacheria fulva (Mez) Airy Shaw Myrsinaceae

A climbing shrub (in Stone 1989 p. 279 as Embelia fulva Mez) it was once

collected (E.J.H. Corner SFN 26195, 5 March 1933 SING) from the swamp

forests that covered Jurong before development of the area took place.

The species is endemic to the Malay Peninsula and Borneo, and is probably

now extinct in Singapore.

4. Justicia procumbens L. Acanthaceae

Small prostrate herb, creeping, to 60 cm long, with small, terminal spikes

of zygomorphic flowers which have pale pink-purple corollas with darker

markings. It is included in Mohamad Soerjani et al. (1987 p. 28) under its

synonym Rostellularia sundana Bremek. It was first collected in Singapore

by Ahamed (16 October 1954) along Mandai Road. It still occurs in that

area (I.M. Turner 93-6, 3 January 1993, Mandai Lake Road SINU), but

recently appears to have become more common. It is a frequent weed of

short mown grass around Holland Village, and has also been seen along

Alexandra Road. It appears to be another example of a weedy species

filling an empty niche in urban Singapore.

5. Korthalsia flagellaris Miq. Palmae

Large clustering rattan to 40 m in length readily distinguished by its almost

unarmed stems, and bright green leaflets which are covered with a red-

brown indumentum on the lower surface (Dransfield, 1979 p. 42). The

leaflets are sessile, but the base of the lamina is tightly, longitudinally

folded forming a flexible petiole-like connection to the rachis. Dransfield

reports this species as being confined to peat swamp forest. In Singapore it

has recently been found in the Nee Soon swamp forest (D.H. Murphy s.n.,

23 December 1994 SING; I.M. Turner & P.P. Kumar 18 SINU), which is

Additions to the Flora of Singapore, Ir 3

freshwater swamp with relatively little peat accumulation. Korthalsia

flagellaris is found in the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo, and has

presumably been overlooked in Singapore until now.

6. Lecanopteris sinuosa (Wall. ex Hook.) Copel. Polypodiaceae

This species was mistakenly omitted from the Singapore species list (Turner

1993). It is the commoner of the ant-inhabited epiphytic ferns to be found

in Singapore (Johnson, 1977 p. 50 under the synonym Phymatodes sinuosa

(Wall. ex Hook.) J.Sm.).

7. Macroptilium atropurpureum (DC.) Urban Leguminosae

A twining perennial herb with hairy trifoliate leaves that appear distinctly

silvery and with very dark purple, almost black, flowers. It is native of

tropical America, but has been used throughout the tropics as a forage and

soil-binding plant (Jones & ‘t Mannetje, 1992 pp. 155-156). It has become

quite common on reclaimed land on Pulau Tekong where it was collected

recently (H.T.W. Tan et al. T2033, 20 August 1996 SINU). It seems highly

likely that this species will join its congener Macroptilium lathyroides (L.)

Urban as a frequent colonist of dry open waste ground in Singapore.

8. Mangifera paludosa Kosterm. Anacardiaceae

This species was recently described by Kostermans (Kostermans &

Bompard, 1993 p. 41) with Corner SFN 26193 collected from Jurong as the

holotype. It is a tree to 30 m tall found in freshwater swamp forest, often

behind mangroves and is known from the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra.

There can be little doubt that the species is no longer to be found in

Jurong.

In the same work, Kostermans also described Mangifera subsessilifolia

based on a Singapore type collected at Bukit Timah. However, this species

is known only from sterile material. Kostermans also referred a sterile

collection from the former swamp forest at Mandai Road (Kiah s.n. 24

July 1940 SING) to Mangifera magnifica Kochummen, a species not

previously recorded from Singapore. We leave final acceptance of these

species to whomever prepares the account of the Anacardiaceae for the

Angiosperm Flora of Singapore.

9. Microcos globulifera (Mast.) Burret Tiliaceae

This small tree of lowland forest (Kochummen, 1972 p. 397 under the

4 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

synonym Grewia globulifera Mast.) has escaped the notice of compilers of

the Singapore flora. It has been collected in the Botanic Gardens’ Jungle

(Hassan SFN 36267 25 April 1939 SING) and Bukit Timah (Ngadiman

SFN 36416 4 May 1939 SING). The species is endemic to the Malay

Peninsula.

10. Pouteria linggensis (Burck) Baehni Sapotaceae

A tree to 20 m tall found on rocky shores and occasionally inland (Ng,

1972 p. 436 under the synonym Planchonella linggensis (Burck) Pierre).

The species is found throughout Malesia and was recently discovered on

Pulau Sakijang Pelepah (Lazarus Island) (H.7.W. Tan et al. LIO01 SING).

11. Sindora coriacea (Baker) Prain Leguminosae

A big forest tree reaching more than 30 m in height, distinguished from

the other Malay Peninsula species of the genus by its shiny leaflets which

are glabrous beneath and its unarmed pods. The pods shown in Fig. 1 were

photographed in Bukit Timah Nature Reserve by Ali Ibrahim, but no

herbarium specimen was made. Later he collected a fertile specimen from

Mandai, Central Catchment Nature Reserve (Wong, Ali & Chew 16, 23

Nov 1992 SING). A further sterile collection (A.H.B. Loo et al. 83,29 Oct

1996 SING) was gathered at Bukit Kallang. The species is common

Figure 1. Pods and seeds of Sindora coriacea found in Bukit Timah Nature Reserve,

Singapore.

Additions to the Flora of Singapore, ie 5

throughout Malaya and also occurs in Sumatra and Borneo. Presumably

its apparent rarity and confusion with other species of Sindora have hitherto

led to it being overlooked in Singapore.

References

Dransfield, J. (1979) A manual of the rattans of the Malay Peninsula.

Malayan Forest Records 29: 1-270.

Exell, A.W. (1954) Combretaceae. Flora Malesiana, series I 4: 533-589.

Johnson, A. (1977) A Student’s Guide to the Ferns of Singapore. Second

Edition. Singapore University Press, Singapore.

Jones, R.M., & ’*t Mannetje, L. (1992) Macroptilium atropurpureum (DC.)

Urban. Pp. 155-157 in PROSEA Plant Resources of South-East Asia 4

Forages (eds: L. *t Mannetje & R.M. Jones), Pudoc Scientific Publishers,

Wageningen.

Kochummen, K.M. (1972) Tiliaceae. Tree Flora of Malaya 2: 392-412.

Kostermans, A.J.G.H., & Bompard, J.-M. (1993) The Mangoes. Academic

Press, London.

Mohamed Soerjani, Kostermans, A.J.G.H., & Tjitrosoepoma, G. (1987)

Weeds of Rice in Indonesia. Balai Pustaka, Jakarta.

Ng, F.S.P. (1972) Sapotaceae. Tree Flora of Malaya 1: 388-439.

Rintz, R.E. (1980) The Peninsular Malayan species of Dischidia

(Asclepiadaceae). Blumea 26: 81-126.

Stone, B.C. (1989) Myrsinaceae. Tree Flora of Malaya 4: 264-284.

Turner, I.M. (1993) The names used for Singapore plants since 1900.

Gardens’ Bulletin, Singapore 45: 1-287.

Turner, I.M. (1995) A catalogue of the vascular plants of Malaya. Gardens’

Bulletin, Singapore 47: 1-757.

Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 7-13.

Root Hemi-parasitism In Malayan Olacaceae

STEPHEN P. TEO

Sarawak Herbarium

Sarawak Forestry Department

93600 Kuching

Sarawak

Abstract

Six species of Olacaceae found in the Malay Peninsula were investigated for parasitism. Root

parasitism was observed only in Olax psittacorum and Ximenia americana var. americana but

not in Strombosia javanica, Scorodocarpus borneensis, Ochanostachys amentacea and

_Erythropalum scandens. Haustoria of the two parasitic species were found attached to a

number of hosts indicating that they are non-host specific. Anatomy of the haustoria revealed

that the suckers of the haustoria form a cup-like structure around the stelar region of the host

roots.

Introduction

Hemi-parasitism is known to occur among families of the Santalales.

Nevertheless, the extent to which parasitism occurs within the Olacaceae

has not been comprehensively investigated (Fineran, 1991). Cronquist (1981)

stated that most genera of Olacaceae are parasitic, while Whitmore (1973)

in his revision of Malayan Olacaceae, remarked that none is parasitic.

Corner (1988) mentioned that the roots of Ximenia americana are parasitic

including on roots of its own kind, while Backer and Bakhuizen (1965)

stated that the Olacaceae of Java are sometimes parasitic. However, there

is insufficient evidence to substantiate these claims. A review of literature

shows that the only published work on parasitism in Olacaceae reported

from Malesia is that on Olax imbricata from the Philippines (Herbert,

1922). Fineran (1991) cited geographical inaccessibility as the reason why

the Olacaceae was poorly studied. Field work was therefore undertaken in

Peninsular Malaysia to give a better understanding of the occurrence of

hemi-parasitism in the Olacaceae.

Materials and Methods

Parasitism can only be demonstrated by the presence of haustoria and

their penetration into the host roots. In the case of root parasites, the

haustoria occur below the soil surface so are not easy to locate. Indeed, a

8 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

cangkul and shovel were used to unearth the roots. The root systems were

then examined carefully for the presence of haustoria and host plants to

which the haustoria were attached were identified as far as possible. Plants

in their natural habitat as well as those cultivated at Rimba Ilmu (Botanic

Garden), University of Malaya were used in the study. The following is the

list of plants studied.

Erythropalum scandens Blume.

Bukit Lagong Forest Reserve, Selangor; Telok Cempedak, Kuantan, Pahang

(KLU 041342, KLU 041344, KLU 141349)

Ochanostachys amentacea Masters

Rimba IImu, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur

(KLU 041331, KLU 041333, KLU 041345)

Olax psittacorum (Willd)Vahl.

Kampung Sungai Baging, Trengganu

(KLU 041337, KLU 041338)

Strombosia javanica Blume.

Bukit Lagong Forest Reserve, Selangor

(KLU 041341, KLU 041340, KLU 041339)

Scorodocarpus borneensis (Baill.) Beécc.

Bukit Lagong Forest Reserve, Selangor

(KLU 041045, KLU 041382, KLU 041329)

Ximenia americana L. var. americana Defilipps

Blue Lagoon, Port Dickson, Negeri Sembilan

(KLU 041339, KLU 041340, KLU 041341)

Haustoria found during the study were preserved in 50% FAA (50%

ethanol:formalin:acetic acid 18:1:1) for further morphological and

anatomical investigations. They are also deposited in the University of

Malaya Herbarium (KLU). Seedlings of species not already represented in

Rimba Ilmu were brought back and grown there.

Results and Discussion

Only two of the six species of Olacaceae studied were found to be hemi-

parasitic, namely Olax psittacorum (Fig 1) and Ximenia americana vat.

americana (Fig 2).

Root Hemi-parasitism In Malayan Olacaceae 9

Figure 1. Haustorium of Olax psittacorum invading the root of its own species.

Figure 2. Haustorium of Ximenia americana var. americana invading the root of Pongamia

pinnata.

10 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Haustoria and host

Both primary and secondary haustoria occur in Olax psittacorum and

Ximenia americana var. americana. The haustoria totally or partially encircle

the host roots depending upon whether the roots are small or large,

respectively. The haustoria of Olax psittacorum are more or less dome-

shaped while those of Ximenia americana var. americana are more flattened

and disc-like during the early stage but later become dome-shaped.

Haustoria size ranged from about 1-20mm while their colour depends on

age. In general, the haustoria darken with age. This may be due to an

accumulation of phenolic compounds.

The haustoria of both Olax psittacorum and Ximenia americana vat.

americana invade the roots of other plants of their own species in the same

way that Herbert (1922) reported in Olax imbricata. This further confirms

the remark made by Corner (1988) for Ximenia americana vat. americana.

Self-parasitism probably arose out of the need to increase the efficency in

the use of limited water resource, especially when the hemi-parasites are

found in a hostile environment. In general, it appears that both species are

non-host specific judging from the number of hosts they can attack (Table

1). However, only the roots of dicotyledons are attacked by the haustoria.

Table 1: Plants invaded by the haustoria of Olax psittacorum and Ximenia

americana.

Olax psittacorum Ximenia americana

Aglaia sp. (Meliaceae) Pongamia pinnata (Leguminosae)

Tetracera sp. (Dilleniaceae) Terminalia catappa (Combretaceae)

Psychotria sp. (Rubiaceae)

Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae)

Anatomical sections of the haustoria of Olax psittacorum and Ximenia

americana var. americana reveal that the sucker at the distal end of the

vascular core forms a structure that is appressed to the stele of the host

roots (Fig. 3 & 4). The suckers are only connected to the xylem but not the

phloem. The location and arrangement of the conducting vascular cells in

both Olax psittacorum and Ximenia americana vat. americana are essentially

similar. In Olax psittacorum, only one strand of the conducting tissue links

the host to the parasite and occupies a central position in the sucker whereas

for Ximenia americana var. americana, there exist two strands of conducting

tissue and both strands are at the periphery.

Root Hemi-parasitism In Malayan Olacaceae Vi

Oe 5 mm

Figure 3. Cross-sectizon of the haustorium of Olax psittacorum.

H-haustorium; Hr - host root; V-vascular core; S-Sucker; T-vascular core

Oe sSmm

Figure 4. Cross-section of the haustorium of Ximenia americana var. americana. H-haustorium;

Hr - host root; L-lateral root; V-vascular core; S-Sucker; T-vascular core

12 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Correlation between parasitism and habitat in Olacaceae

The occurrence of parasitism among different families and orders

demonstrates that this mode of nutrition has evolved independently many

times during the evolution of angiosperms (Nickrent and Franchina, 1990;

Fineran, 1991). Parasitism might have developed among different taxa due

to similar habitat conditions. This might occur where certain nutrients and

water were scarce, and especially under circumstances favourable for the

development of organic connections between plants (Fineran, 1991).

The two parasitic species, Olax psittacorum and Ximenia americana

var. americana, thrive well in dry, sandy coastal areas while the non-parasitic

members are found in humid evergreen forest. Most hemiparasitic taxa of

the Santalales prefer somewhat open habitats with extreme conditions, e.g.

dry or harsh (Fineran, 1991). Parasitism may have arisen out of the need to

adapt in a water-deficient habitat. In fact, the dry, sandy habitat along the

coast of the Malay Peninsula supports a high number of other parasitic

plants from different famillies, namely, Champereia manillana (Opiliaceae),

Dendrotrophe spp. (Santalaceae) and Cassytha filiformis (Lauraceae).

The fact that there is only connection between the haustorium and

the xylem in both Olax psittacorum and Ximenia americana var. americana

coupled with their occurrence in only dry habitats demonstrates that hemi-

parasitism is one of the adaptive features that may increase the efficiency

in the use of water. This is also found to be true in other hemi-parasites

(Pate et al., 1990a, 1900b; Fineran, 1991). However, there is no co-

relationship between type of root system and life-form with hemi-parasitism

as suggested by other workers such as Pate et al. (1990a, 1990b) and Fineran

(1991). For example, Olax psittacorum has a shallow and extensive root

system and is a scrambling shrub, while Ximenia americana var. americana

has a root system quite deeply rooted and it is a tree up to 5 m high.

Within the haustoria of root parasites, there are unusual xylem

conducting cells known as graniferous (granule-containing) tracheary

elements (Fineran, 1985). Fineran (1985) noted that the nature of the

granules in Olacaceae is not consistent and varies from protein in one

genus to starch in another. On the other hand, the nature of granules in

other families of the Santalales is very consistent. Fineran suggested that

this showed that the Olacaceae is an unnatural family and with different

treachery elements, root parasitism has arisen at least twice in the family.

Conclusion

This study shows that only some species of the Olacaceae are hemi-parasitic,

namely Olax psittacorum and Ximenia americana var. americana, and that

they are non-host specific and that self-parasitism occurs.

Root Hemi-parasitism In Malayan Olacaceae 13

Acknowledgements

I am indebted to Dr. N. Prakash, University of New England, Australia,

Dr. Noorma Wati Haron and Prof. Haji Mohamed Abdul Majid, Head of

Botany Department, University of Malaya for their comments. Thanks are

also due to Mr. Mohamed Akip and Mr. Joseph Pao for the illustrations

provided. This paper reports part of an MSc thesis submitted to the

University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, which was supervised by Dr. Noorma

Wati Haron. Financial grants from Vote F 150/94 (University of Malaya)

and R & D 1-07-04-049-04 (Malaysian government) are gratefully

acknowledged.

References

Backer, C. A. and R. C. Bakhuizen van den Brink. 1965. Flora of Java. 2:

63-64.

Corner, E.J.H. 1988. Wayside Trees of Malaya. The Malayan Nature Society

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 3rd edition.

Cronquist, A. 1981. An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering

Plants. Columbia University Press, New York.

Fineran, B. A. 1985. Graniferous treachery elements in haustoria of root

parasitic angiosperms. Bot. Rev. 51: 389-441.

Fineran, B. A. 1991. Root hemi-parasitism in the Santalales. Bot. Jahrb.

Syst. 113: 277-308.

Herbert, D. A. 1922. Parasitism of Olax imbricata. Philipp. Agric. 11(1):

17-18.

Nickrent, D. L. and C. R. Franchina. 1990. Phylogenetic relationships of

the Santalales and relatives. J. Mol. Evol. 31: 294-301.

Pate, J. S., J. Kuo and N. J. Davidson. 1990a. Morphology and anatomy of

the haustorium of the root hemiparasite Olax phyllanthi (Olacaceae),

with special reference to the haustorial interface. Ann. Bot. 65: 425-436.

Pate, J.S.,S. R. Pate, J. Kuo and N. J. Davidson. 1990b. Growth, resource

allocation and the haustorial biology of the root hemiparasite Olax

phyllanthi (Olacaceae). Ann. Bot. 65: 437-449.

Whitmore, T. C. 1973. Olacaceae. Tree Flora of Malaya. 2: 299-307.

Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 15-35.

A Botanical Survey of Sungei Buloh Nature Park, Singapore

H.T.W. TAN!, M.F. CHOONG?’, K.S. CHUA’, A.H.B. LOO!" HAJI

SAMSURI BIN HAJI AHMAD*, E.E.L. SEAH*, ILM. TURNER? anp

J.W.H. YONG®

'School of Biological Sciences, The National University of Singapore,

Singapore 119260, Republic of Singapore

*Blk 111, Teck Whye Lane, #12-616, Singapore 680111, Republic of Singapore

‘Botanic Gardens, 1 Cluny Road, Singapore 259569,

Republic of Singapore

*35 Namly Crescent, Singapore 267550, Republic of Singapore

>Harvard University Herbaria, 22 Divinity Avenue,

Cambridge MA 02138, USA

°Environmental Biology Group, Research School of Biological Sciences,

Institute of Advanced Studies, Australian National University, GPO Box

475, ACT 2601, Australia

Abstract

A total of 249 wild vascular plant species (15 ferns, 1 gymnosperm, 233 angiosperms) were

collected on a succession of trips between 1991 and 1993 to the Sungei Buloh Nature Park. The

current flora includes mangrove and beach or coastal forest species but the majority are early

successionals, native and exotic weeds and species associated with cultivation. Earlier collections

from the Herbarium, Singapore Botanic Gardens, dating from the late 1880s to the early 1900s

were also included and these totalled 76 (1 club moss, 7 ferns and 68 angiosperms). The original

flora was very different and consisted mainly of lowland, or beach or coastal forest, and

mangrove species. The great change in species composition and the high number of weedy

species in the current flora reflect major man-made changes to the environment. Combining

both historical and recent collections, the wild vascular plant flora of Sungei Buloh Nature Park

totals 318 species (1 club moss, 21 ferns, 1 gymnosperm and 295 angiosperms).

Introduction

Sungei Buloh Nature Park, including Pulau Buloh, consists of 87 ha of

land (Fig. 1). A botanical survey was conducted to provide baseline

information for future reintroduction or introduction programmes.

Site

Sungei Buloh Nature Park is situated in the north-western coast of

Singapore island (N1°42’53.5" E103°43’30.8"). The proposal to set up this

park and its infrastructure was approved by the Master Plan Committee

16 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

—————

——

il 6

Chal

hill

Figure 1. Maps of Singapore and Sungei Buloh Nature Park. Above left, position of Singapore

in relation to Peninsular Malaysia; above right, map of Singapore showing the position of

Sungei Buloh Nature Park; bottom, Sungei Buloh Nature Park.

on the 29th March 1990 and the park was officially opened on the 6th

December 1993.

The park is a wetland area and consists of three main parts: the

reserve proper, the Visitor Centre area and Pulau Buloh, an island north

of the reserve area (Fig. 1). The river, Sungei Buloh Besar separates the

reserve proper from the Visitor Centre. Both Pulau Buloh and the Visitor

Centre area consist mainly of mangrove as well as man-made brackish and

freshwater ponds in the reserve proper. The site was marked for

preservation by the Singapore government as it is used by large numbers

of coastal birds, including the black-crowned night-heron (Nycticorax

Sungei Buloh Nature Park, Singapore 17

nycticorax), common greenshank (Tringa nebularia), common redshank

(Tringa totanus), curlew sandpiper (Calidris ferruginea), grey heron (Ardea

cinerea), marsh sandpiper (Tringa stagnatilis), Pacific golden plover

(Pluvialis fulva) and whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus).

History of Land Use

According to the 1890 Straits Settkement Government Gazette Reports of

the Botanic Gardens, the Sungei Buloh area was a forest reserve from 17th

April 1890 and “Consists entirely of mangrove swamp”. However, this

“area of 1,128 acres, 3 roods (sic) and 18 poles, more or less” (approximately

457 ha) ceased to be a forest reserve on 4th April 1938 (Straits Settlement

Government Gazette, 1938).

When first designated as forest reserve in 1890, the area appeared to

be entirely mangrove. Records as to when prawn and fish ponds were

constructed are not available but with the development of farms, the

mangroves were cleared. Native species were replaced by cultivated species

for consumption by the farmers or their livestock. The farms and ponds

were abandoned in 1989, when the Government took over the site, after

which time early successional and weedy species invaded the area.

Methods

The present survey consisted of collection trips made on 22nd May, 30th

August and 7th October 1991 and 27th September and 13th October 1993.

The park was divided into sectors where the collecting teams concentrated

their efforts. Representative specimens of all wild species, whether sterile

or not, were collected and made into herbarium specimens which were

deposited in the Herbarium, School of Biological Sciences, The National

University of Singapore (SINU). Specimens were identified by comparison

with descriptions in floras or recent revisions, as well as with named

specimens in the Herbarium, Singapore Botanic Gardens (SING).

Historical collections from Sg. Buloh at SING were examined.

Nomenclature and habitat data mostly follow those of Turner (1995).

Observations and Discussion

A total of 249 wild vascular plant species were collected in the survey

(Appendix 1) and included 15 ferns, 1 gymnosperm (Podocarpus

polystachyus) and 239 angiosperms.

18 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Most plants are characteristic of a highly disturbed environment.

The Sg. Buloh area presumably became highly disturbed when the prawn

and fish farms were established and the mangrove cleared and earth

excavated to create the ponds. Not much regeneration could take place as

the farmers would have to keep the mangroves out of the ponds and the

bund areas. Together with human settlement, there would be planting of

vegetable crops, fruit trees, spice, flavouring and ornamental plants.

When the government took over the site in 1989, soil was brought in

from other parts of Singapore. The latter is the most likely seed source for

the large number of exotic and native weed species, such as Ageratum

conyzoides, Kyllingia polyphylla, Panicum maximum and Pityrogramma

calomelanos. Exotic pioneer tree species include Acacia auriculiformis,

Manihot glaziovii, Muntingia calabura and Spathodea campanulata. If left

unchecked, Acacia auriculiformis may dominate those areas which are not

flooded at high tide.

Weed species considered native also make up a significant part of

the flora and include Centella asiatica, Eulophia graminea, Imperata

cylindrica and Vernonia cinerea.

Secondary forest would have developed after the clearance of the

original primary forest. Its species include A/stonia angustiloba, Melastoma

malabathricum, Trema spp. and Vitex pinnata.

The beach or coastal forest and mangrove species are probably

remnants of the original forest. Mangrove and its components include

Acrostichum spp., Bruguiera spp., Hibiscus tiliaceus and Rhizophora spp.

Species escaped or persisting from cultivation include vegetables such

as Coccinia grandis, Ipomoea batatas and Manihot esculenta, fruit trees

such as Annona muricata, Artocarpus heterophyllus, A. integer, Carica

papaya, Durio zibethinus and Psidium guajava, spice or flavouring plants

such as Murraya koenigii and Pandanus amaryllifolius, as well as ornamental

plants such as Celosia argentea, Dieffenbachia seguine, Tabebuia rosea and

Vernonia elliptica.

Based mostly on the conservation status ascribed by Turner et al.

(1995), 2 endangered species (Cassine viburnifolia and Podocarpus

polystachyus ), 6 vulnerable species, 58 rare species and 90 common species

were collected. For the exotic species, 66 are naturalized and 28 associated

with cultivation, making up about 37.8% of the total vascular plant flora.

This indicates the great disturbance in the area.

There are 12 fern families, each with only one species except for the

Pteridaceae with three, and the Polypodiaceae with two. The single

gymnosperm is Podocarpus polystachyus. Angiosperms dominate the park.

The largest ten families, in descending order are: Gramineae (25 species),

Papilionaceae (16), Compositae (15), Cyperaceae (12), Euphorbiaceae (11),

Sungei Buloh Nature Park, Singapore 19

Mimosaceae (9), Rubiaceae (9), Convolvulaceae (8), Moraceae (7) and

Verbenaceae (7). Again, weed and secondary forest species are the main

representatives of these families. Other families had six or fewer species

and 37 families had only one species each.

Appendix 2 lists the plants collected by H.N. Ridley, J.S. Goodenough,

and L.C. Corporal between 1889 and 1911. This list is by no means

representative of the whole area as they comprise opportunisitic collections

in the area. A total of 76 vascular plant species were recorded with one

club moss (Lycopodiella cernua), 7 ferns and 68 angiosperms.

The species they collected are very different from those found in the

recent survey. Of the 76, only 6 species were recollected, Excoecaria

agallocha, Gynochthodes sublanceolata, Hoya verticillata var. verticillata,

Ilex cymosa, Lygodium microphyllum and Oxyceros longiflora. Many

species previously collected are native climbers, epiphytes, lowland beach

or mangrove forest species. Beach or coastal forest species include

Asplenium macrophyllum, Dischidia benghalensis, Garcinia hombroniana,

Hoya verticillata var. verticillata and Oncosperma tigillarium.

Most climbers were not recollected except for Cayratia mollissima,

Gynochthodes sublanceolata, Lygodium microphyllum and Oxyceros

longiflora. The change in the flora reflects the change in the environment.

Tall trees would have had to be present to support the epiphytes and

climbers. Probably these were logged during land clearance and

Oncosperma tigillarium trunks were probably used for kelong poles. It is

interesting to note that the largest family in the historical collections, the

Orchidaceae with 27 species, has not a single species left today. Most

orchids are epiphytes of lowland forest or mangrove trees. All except

Bulbophyllum membranaceum and Claderia mayeriana are now extinct in

Singapore and both the surviving species are considered vulnerable to

extinction (Turner et al., 1995). At present, only the weedy, terrestrial

orchid, Eulophia graminea is present. All the epiphytic members of the

Melastomataceae are also now extinct at Sg. Buloh and Medinilla crassifolia

and Plethiandra sessiliflora are also extinct in Singapore.

Mangrove tree species are not among the earlier collections made by

Ridley, Corporal or Goodenough, thus it is difficult to confirm if mangroves

were present then. (Excoecaria agallocha is the closest to a mangrove tree

species in their collections.) They were possibly discriminating collectors

and ignored the mangrove trees, which were plentiful in other parts of the

island. Indirect evidence of the existence of mangroves are the orchid

species that were collected from the Sg. Buloh area and which are associated

with mangroves. These include Bulbophyllum concinnum, Bulbophyllum

restrepia, Dendrobium spegidoglossum, Dendrobium spurium, Eria neglecta

and Flickingeria xantholeuca, all of which are now extinct in Singapore

20 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

(Turner et al., 1995).

The name ‘Sungei Buloh’ is also very probably indicative of the

presence of bamboo (Malay, buloh). No native bamboos were collected

by past collectors or in this survey. (Bambusa vulgaris, a relic of cultivation,

was the only bamboo collected in the recent survey.) As mentioned earlier,

the past collectors may have ignored species which were common elsewhere

on the island. Bamboos also tend to be sterile most of the time because of

their generally infrequent flowering and collectors often collect only

flowering and/or fruiting material.

Based on the recent survey of Singapore bamboos by Chua, Soong

and Tan (1996) there are only four native bamboo species: Gigantochloa

ligulata Gamble, Schizostachyum gracile (Munro) Holttum, Schizostachyum

latifolium Gamble and Soejatmia ridleyi (Gamble) K.M. Wong.

Gigantochloa ligulata is a recent new record for Singapore. It is unlikely

to have grown at Sungei Buloh eighty years ago. Soejatmia ridleyi is an

inland forest species, not associated with coastal areas and is currently

found only at the Bukit Timah Nature Reserve, Singapore (Chua, Soong

and Tan, 1996). Both Schizostachyum gracile and Schizostachyum latifolium

may have grown at Sg. Buloh as both are common and grow at forest

edges or riversides. Unfortunately, both are now extinct in Singapore.

Based on the conservation status ascribed by Turner et al. (1995) to

species in Singapore, of the historical collections 30 species are now extinct,

3 endangered, 9 vulnerable, 27 rare, one common and two unknown. Three

are endemic species and are found only in Singapore and Peninsular

Malaysia: Plethiandra sessiliflora, Rhopaloblaste singapurensis and

Stachyphrynium griffithii. |

In terms of diversity, the current flora appears larger. This can be

explained in two ways. Firstly, the survey was comprehensive and all

species were collected, whereas the early collectors presumably concentrated

only on the fertile material or what was of interest to them. Secondly,

many species are weeds and are the result of disturbance caused by the

prawn and fish farming and the construction of the park.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the staff of the Sungei Buloh Nature Park and National

Parks Board for their help and cooperation. We would also like to express

our appreciation to the Director of the Singapore Botanic Gardens, for the

use of the herbarium facilities and to the Director, National Archives of

Singapore, for the use of maps and records. Last but not least, we would

like to express our appreciation to Chew Ping Ting, Kong Hui Ai, M.

Sungei Buloh Nature Park, Singapore pd |

Matthews and Y.C. Wee for their help in the survey and to K. S. Chua for

drawing the figure. This research was partially supported by The National

University of Singapore research grants RP 880301, RP 930325 and RP

960362.

Literature Cited

Chua, K.S., Soong, B.C. and Tan, H.T.W. 1996. The Bamboos of Singapore.

International Plant Genetic Resources Institute; Singapore. pp. 1-71.

Turner, I.M. 1995. A catalogue of the vascular plants of Malaya. Gardens’

Bulletin Singapore. 47: 1-757.

Turner, I.M., Tan, H.T.W., Ali bin Ibrahim and Corlett, R.T. 1995. Preliminary

status of the vascular plants native to Singapore: seed plants. In: Tan,

H.T.W., ed. A Guide to the Threatened Plants of Singapore. Singapore

Science Centre; Singapore. pp. 118-151.

Wee, Y.C. 1995. Preliminary status of the vascular plants native to Singapore:

ferns and fern allies. In: Tan, H.T.W.,ed. A Guide to the Threatened Plants

of Singapore. Singapore Science Centre; Singapore; pp.115-118.

Appendix 1. Recent collections from Sungei Buloh Nature Park. Conservation

status: C = common; N = endangered; R = rare; V = vulnerable; A = naturalized

exotic species (aliens); S = species escaped or persisting from cultivation.

PTERIDOPHYTA

Adiantaceae Blechniaceae

A. Pityrogramma calomelanos (L.) Link; K.S. C Stenochlaena palustris (Burm.f.) Bedd.;

Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 506 K.S. Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC

513; M.F. Choong VC 12

Aspleniaceae

C_ Asplenium nidus L.; M.F. Choong VC 65; Davalliaceae

P.T.Chew, H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB C Davallia denticulata (Burm.f.) Mett.; I.M.

1053 Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1045

Azollaceae Dennstaedtiaceae

A Azolla pinnata R.Br. ssp. asiatica V Pteridium esculentum (G.Forst.)

R.M.K.Saunders & K.Fowler; K.S. Chua, Cockayne; K.S. Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS

M. Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner & & WYC 505; K.S. Chua, M. Mathews,

J.W.H. Yong SB 3114 H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong

SB 3060

Gleicheniaceae

Dicranopteris linearis (Burm.f.) Underw.;

K.S. Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 504

Oleandraceae

Nephrolepis auriculata (L.) Trimen; Haji

Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad SA.66; K.S. Chua

& Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 477; MF;

Choong VC 60

Parkeriaceae

Ceratopteris thalictroides (L.) Brongn.;

K.S. Chua, M. Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.

Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3113

Polypodiaceae

Pyrossia lanceolata (L.) Farwell;

P.T.Chew, H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB

1056

Pyrossia piloselloides (L.) M.G.Price; Haji

Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad SA.56; I.M.

Turner & M.F.Choong SB 1095; I.M.

Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1037; I.M.

Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1097

Pteridaceae

Acrostichum aureum L.; P.T. Chew, H.A.

Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1033; M.F.

Choong VC 84; P.T. Chew, H.A. Kong &

J.W.H. Yong SB 1033

Acrostichum speciosum Willd.; K.S. Chua,

M. Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3000; P.T. Chew, H.A.

Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 13; P.T. Chew,

H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 13

Pteris vittata L.; K.S. Chua, M. Mathews,

H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong

SB 3030

Schizaeaceae

Lygodium microphyllum (Cav.) R.Br; I.M.

Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1090

Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

PINOPHYTA

Podocarpaceae

Podocarpus polystachyus R.Br. ex Endl;

P.T. Chew, H.A.Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB

1016; Haji Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad $A.25

MAGNOLIOPHYTA

Acanthaceae

Acanthus ebracteatus Vahl; Haji Samsuri

bin Haji Ahmad SA.70; I.M. Turner &

M.F. Choong SB 1086; P.T. Chew, H.A.

Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1021; P.T. Chew,

H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 16

Acanthus ilicifolius L.; Haji Samsuri bin

Haji Ahmad SA.44; I.M. Turner & MLF.

Choong SB 1085

Acanthus volubilis Wall.; K.S Chua & Y.C.

Wee 487; M.F.CHoong VC 79

Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson ssp.

gangetica; M.F. Choong VC 124; M.F.

Choong VC 126

Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson ssp.

micrantha (Nees) Ensermu; Haji Samsuri

bin Haji Ahmad SA 43; K.S. Chua & Y.C.

Wee CKS & WYC 516; M.F. Choong VC

55; P.T. Chew, H.S. Kong & J.W.H Yong

SB 1003

Aizoaceae

Sesuvium portulacastrum (L.) L.; K.S.

Chua, M. Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.

Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3058

Amaranthaceae

Amaranthus caudatus L.; P.T. Chew, H.A.

Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1025

Amaranthus spinosus L.; M.F. Choong SB

Celosia argentea L.; M.F. Choong VC 118

Anacardiaceae

Mangifera indica L.; M.F. Choong VC 138

Sungei Buloh Nature Park, Singapore

Annonaceae

Annona muricata L.; K.S. Chua & Y.C

Wee 483; Haji Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad

SA 54

Apocynaceae

Alstonia angustiloba Migq.; K.S. Chua, M.

Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3011

Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don; KS.

Chua, M. Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.

Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3079

Cerbera sp.; I.M. Turner & M.F. Choong

SB 1035

Aquifoliaceae

Ilex cymosa Blume; Haji Samsuri bin Haji

Ahmad SA.71; K.S. Chua, M. Mathews,

H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong

SB 3061

Araceae

Caladium bicolor (Aiton) Vent.; P.T.

Chew, H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB

1064

Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott; M.F.

Choong VC 110; M.F. Choong VC 116;

M.F. Choong VC 135

Dieffenbachia seguine (Jacq.) Schott in

Wiener Z. Kunst; K.S. Chua, M.

Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3081

Pistia stratiotes L.; K.S. Chua & Y.C. Wee

Chere wre 3i2°0R. 5. Chuay M.

Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3078

Araliaceae

Schefflera actinophylla (Endl.) Harms;

I.M. Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1047

Asclepiadaceae

Dischidia major (Vahl) Merr.; Haji

Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad SA. 57; I.M.

Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1096

Dischidia nummularia R.Br.; K.S. Chua,

M. Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner

& J.W.H. Yong SB 3050

Finlaysonia obovata Wall.; K.S. Chua, M.

Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3004; M.F. Choong VC

123; P.T. Chew, H.A. Kong & J.W.H

Yong SB 1055

Hoya verticillata (Vahl) G.Don var.

verticillata,; K.S. Chua, M. Mathews,

H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong

SB 3086

Tylophora flexuosa R.Br.; Haji Samsuri

bin Haji Ahmad SA.30; P.T. Chew, H.A.

Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1020; P.T.

Chew, H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB

1068

Avicenniaceae

Avicennia alba Blume; K.S. Chua & Y.C.

Wee CKS & WYC 532; M.F. Choong

VC 84; M.F. Choong PB 7; P.T. Chew,

H.A. Hong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1013

Avicennia officinalis L.; M.F. Choong PB

1; M.F. Choong VC 77; P.T. Chew,

H.A.Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1031; P.T.

Chew, H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB

1065

Avicennia rumphiana Hallier f.; M.F.

Choong VC 115; P.T. Chew, H.A. Kong

& J.W.H Yong SB 14

Bignoniaceae

Spathodea campanulata P.Beauv.; K.S.

Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.

Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3006

Tabebuia rosea (Bertol.) DC.; M.F.

Choong VC 43; P.T. Chew, H.A. Kong

& J.W.H. Yong SB 1062

Bombacaceae

Durio zibethinus Murray; M.F. Choong

VC 2; Haji Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad SA

Boraginaceae

Carmona retusa (Vahl) Masam.; K.S.

Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.

Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3013; I.M.

Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1080

Cordia cylindristachya (Ruiz & Pav.)

Roem. & Schult; I.M. Turner & M.F.

Choong SB 1081; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3014; M.F. Choong VC

Heliotropium indicum L.; P.T. Chew,

H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1050

Butomaceae

Limnocharis flava (L.) Buch.; K.S. Chua

& Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 495

Caesalpiniaceae

Caesalpinia crista L.; M.F. Choong PB 9;

M.F. Choong VC 33

Calopogonium mucunoides Desv.; K.S.

Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.

Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3037

Intsia bijuga (Colebr.) Kuntze; K.S.

Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.

Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3107

Senna alata (L.) Roxb.; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3080; P.T. Chew, H.A.

Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 10

Senna obtusifolia (L.) Irwin & Barneby;

K.S. Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan,

I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3069

Cannaceae

Canna indica L.; Haji Samsuri bin Haji

Ahmad SA. 20

Capparaceae

Cleome rutidosperma DC.; K.S. Chua &

WiC. Wee CRS & Wy 325: 'M.F.

Choong VC 3; M.F. Choong VC 54

Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Caricaceae

Carica papaya L.; M.F. Choong VC 18;

M.F. Choong VC 95

Celastraceae

Cassine viburnifolia (Juss.) Ding Hou;

K.S. Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan,

I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3054

Combretaceae

Lumnitzera littorea (Jack) Voigt; M.F.

Choong PB 4; P.T. Chew, H.A.Kong &

J.W.H. Yong SB 1014; P.T. Chew, H.A.

Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1114

Lumnitzera racemosa Willd.; M.F.

Choong VC 81; K.S. Chua, M. Matthews,

H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong

SB 3029

Terminalia catappa L.; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3067

Compositae

Ageratum conyzoides L.; 1.M. Turner &

M.F. Choong SB 1066

Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC.; K.S. Chua,

M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner

& J.W.H. Yong SB 3084

Complaya trilobata (L.) Strother.; K.S.

Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.

Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3025

Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist; K.S.

Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.

Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3085; K-S.

Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.

Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3105

Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.)

S.Moore; K.S. Chua, M. Matthews,

H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong

SB 3065

Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.; P.T. Chew, H.A.

Kong & J.W.H Yong SB 1008

Erechthites hieraciifolia (L.) Raf. ex DC.;

K.S. Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan,

LLM. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3016

Sungei Buloh Nature Park, Singapore

Gynura procumbens (Lour.) Merr.; P.T.

Chew, H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB

1058

Mikania micrantha Kunth; I.M. Turner

& M.F. Choong SB 1092; M.F. Choong

VC 7;M.F. Choong VC 10; M.F. Choong

VC 15; M.F. Choong VC 58

Pluchea indica (L.) Less.; P.T. Chew,

H.A.Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1019; I.M.

Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1083

Porophyllum ruderale (Jacq.) Cass.; K.S.

Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.

Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3044

Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn.; K.S.

Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 490

Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less.; I.M. Turner

& M.F. Choong SB 1088

Vernonia elliptica DC.; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3087

Wollastonia biflora (L.) DC.; Haji

Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad SA. 37; K\S.

Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 578;

M.F. Choong VC 22; M.F. Choong VC

Convolvulaceae

Ipomoea aquatica Forsk.; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3031

Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.; K.S. Chua,

M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner

& J.W.H. Yong SB 3071; M.F. Choong

VC 127; M.F. Choong VC 130

Ipomoea digitata L.; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3026

Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) R.Br. ssp

brasiliensis (L.) Ooststr.; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3042

Ipomoea quamoclit L.; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3036

Ipomoea triloba L.; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

JW) Yong SB’ 3028; P.T. Chew,

H.A.Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1042

Merremia hederacea (Burm.f.) Hallier f.

forma barbata Ooststr.; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3027

Xenostegia tridentata (L.) D.F.Austin &

Staples ssp. tridentata; I.M. Turner &

M.F. Choong SB 1052

Cucurbitaceae

Coccinia grandis (L.) Voight; K.S. Chua,

M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner

& J.W.H. Yong SB 3072; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3073;K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3074

Cyperaceae

Cyperus compactus Retz.; M.F. Choong

SB 0001

Cyperus distans L.f.; P.T. Chew, H.A.

Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1049

Cyperus javanicus Houtt.; P.T. Chew,

H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1028; P.T.

Chew, H.A.Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB

1070; K.S. Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS &

WYC 478

Cyperus rotundus L.; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3093; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3094; K.S. Chua & Y.C.

Wee CKS & WYC 534

Eleocharis ochrostachys Steud.; K.S.

Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.

Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3048

Fimbristylis acuminata Vahl; K.S. Chua

& Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 494

Fimbristylis cymosa R.Br.; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3095

Fimbristylis ferruginea (L.) Vahl; IM.

Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1074

Fimbristylis littoralis Gaudich.; I.M.

Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1039

Kyllinga polyphylla Willd. ex Kunth; K.S.

Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 485

Schoenoplectus mucronatus (L.) Palla;

K.S. Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC

48()

Scleria levis Retz.; K.S. Chua & Y.C. Wee

CKS & WYC 514; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3106

Dilleniaceae

Dillenia suffructicosa (Griff.) Mart.; K.S.

Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 526;

Haji Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad SA.7; M.F.

Choong VC 113

Elaeocarpaceae

Muntingia calabura L.; K.S. Chua, M.

Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3068

Euphorbiaceae

Breynia reclinata (Roxb.) Hook.f.; Haji

Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad SA. 21; I.M.

Turner & M.F.Choong SB 1077; P.T.

Chew, H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB

1032

Euphorbia hirta L.; K.S. Chua, M.

Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3075

Excoecaria agallocha L.; Haji Samsuri bin

Haji Ahmad SA.14; Haji Samsuri bin

Haji Ahmad SA.53; I.M. Turner & MF.

Choong SB 1071; P.T. Chew, H.A. Hong

& J.W.H. Yong SB 1061; P.T. Chew,

H.A.Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1017

Mallotus paniculatus (Lam.) M.A.; K.S.

Chua, M. Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.

Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3001

Manihot esculenta Crantz; I.M. Turner &

M.F. Choong SB 1044; M.F. Choong VC

Manihot glaziovii M.A.; K.S. Chua &

Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 492/A

Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Phyllanthus debilis Klein ex Willd.; K.S.

Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 497;

K.S. Chua, M. Mathews, H.T.W. Tan,

I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3111;

M.F. Choong VC 98; P.T. Chew, H.A.

Hong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1007; P.T.

Chew, H.A. Hong & J.W.H. Yong SB

1023

Phyllanthus urinaria L.; K.S. Chua, M.

Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3052

Ricinus communis L.; K.S. Chua, M.

Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3012

Sapium discolor (Champ. ex Benth.)

M.A.; M.F. Choong VC 36

Sebastiania chamalaea (L.) M.A.; KS.

Chua, M. Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.

Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3017

Flagellariaceae

Flagellaria indica L.; Haji Samsuri bin

Haji Ahmad $A.16; Haji Samsuri bin

Haji Ahmad SA. 59; ILM Turner & M.F.

Choong SB 1101; K.S. Chua & Y.C. Wee

CKS & WYC 484; M.F. Choong VC 121;

M.F. Choong VC 133

Gramineae

Axonopus compressus (Sw.) P.Beauv.:

I.M. Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1078

Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. ex Wendl.;

M.F. Choong VC 131; M.F. Choong VC

Chloris barbata Swartz; I.M. Turner &

M.F. Choong SB 1075; M.F. Choong VC

101

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.; K.S. Chua,

M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner

& J.W.H. Yong SB 3023

Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd.;

K.S. Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan,

I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3024

Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koeler; K.S.

Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 482;

Sungei Buloh Nature Park, Singapore

Digitaria longiflora (Retz.) Pers.; I.M.

Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1107

Echinochloa colona (L.) Link; K.S. Chua

& Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 479; KS.

Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.

Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3091

Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.; K.S. Chua

& Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 527; MF.

Choong VC 132

Eriochloa procera (Retz.) C.E.Hubb.;

K.S. Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan,

LM. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3022;

P.T. Chew, H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong

SB 1054; P.T. Chew, H.A. Kong &

J.W.H. Yong SB 1054

Imperata cylindrica (L.) P.Beauv.; P.T.

Chew, H.A.Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB

1070; K.S. Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W.

Tan, I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB

3041; M.F. Choong VC 96

Ischaemum magnum Rendle; K.S. Chua,

M. Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner

& J.W.H. Yong SB 3019

Ischaemum muticum L.; K.S. Chua &

Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 475; K.S. Chua,

M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner

& J.W.H. Yong SB 3090

Leptochloa chinensis (L.) Nees; K.S.

Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 474

Melinis repens (Willd.) Zizka; K.S. Chua,

M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner

& J.W.H. Yong SB 3018

Mnesithea glandulosa (Trin.) Koning &

Sosaf; I.M. Turner & M.F. Choong SB

1069

Ottochloa nodosa (Kunth) Dandy; K.S.

Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 481

Panicum maximum Jacq.; 1.M. Turner &

M.F. Choong SB 1099; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3056; M.F. Choong VC

100;M.F. Choong VC 134

Paspalum conjugatum Berg.; I.M. Turner

& M.F. Choong SB 1076; K.S. Chua &

Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 529; M.F.

Choong VC 52

Paspalum vaginatum Sw.; 1.M. Turner &

M.F. Choong $B1036; M.F. Choong VC

4()

Pennisetum polystachyon (L.) Schult.;

K.S. Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan,

[.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3020

Saccharum officinarum L.; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3108

Sporobolus indicus (L.) R.Br. var.

flaccidus (Roem. & Schult.) Veldkamp;

Haji Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad SA. 11;

K.S. Chua, M. Mathews, H.T.W. Tan,

I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3092

Sporobolus indicus (L.) R.Br. var. major

(Biise) Baaijens; K.S. Chua, M. Mathews,

H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong

SB 3021

Urochloa mutica (Forsk.) T.-Q.Nguyen;

I.M. Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1098

Guttiferae

Calophyllum inophyllum L.; K.S. Chua

& Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 507

Labiatae

Hyptis brevipes Poit.; P.T. Chew, H.A.

Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1067

Hyptis capitata Jacq.; K.S. Chua & Y.C.

Wee CKS & WYC 511; M.F. Choong

VC 6; M.F. Choong VC 14

Ocimum tenuiflorum L.; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3055

Lauraceae

Cinnamomum iners Reinw. ex Blume;

M.F. Choong VC 1

Lecythidaceae

Barringtonia asiatica (L.) Kurz; KS.

Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.

Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3088

Lemnaceae

Lemna perpusilla Torrey; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, ILM. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3115

Liliaceae

Cordyline terminalis Kunth; I.M. Turner

& M.F. Choong SB 1043

Loganiaceae

Fagraea fragrans Roxb.; I.M. Turner &

M.F. Choong SB 1091; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3002

Loranthaceae

Dendrophthoe pentandra (L.) Miq.; K.S.

Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.

Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3082

Macrosolen cochinchinensis (Lout.)

Tiegh.; K.S. Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W.

Tan, I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB

3010

Lythraceae

Cuphea hyssopifolia Humb., Bonpl. &

Kunth; K.S. Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W.

Tan, I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB

3101

Sonneratia alba J.J. Smith; P.T. Chew,

H.A.Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1048

Malpighiaceae

Tristellateia australasiae A.Rich.; K.S.

Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.

Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3083

Malvaceae

Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet; P.T. Chew,

H.A. Hong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1024

Hibiscus tiliaceus L.; M.F. Choong VC

38; M.F. Choong VC 50; M.F. Choong

VC 82

Sida acuta Burm.f.; Haji Samsuri bin Haji

Ahmad SA.31; M.F. Choong VC 20; M.F.

Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Choong VC 39; P.T. Chew, H.A. Hong

& J.W.H. Yong SB 15; P.T. Chew, H.A.

Hong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1063

Sida rhombifolia L.; M.F. Choong VC

31; P.T. Chew, H.A.Kong & J.W.H. Yong

SB 15; P.T. Chew, H.A.Kong & J.W.H.

Yong SB 1015; P.T. Chew, H.A.Kong &

J.W.H. Yong SB 1063

Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland. ex

Correa; I.M. Turner & M.F. Choong SB

1079; M.F. Choong VC 46; P.T. Chew,

H.A. Hong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1011

Urena lobata L.; Haji Samsuri bin Haji

Ahmad SA.36; K.S Chua & Y.C. Wee

476; K.S. Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W.

Tan, I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB

3045; P.T. Chew, H.A. Hong & J.W.H.

Yong SB 1018

Melastomataceae

Clidemia hirta (L.) D.Don; I.M. Turner

& M.F. Choong SB 1046; M.F. Choong

VC 9

Melastoma malabathricum L.; K.S. Chua

& Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 517; MLF.

Choong VC 19

Meliaceae

Melia azedarach L.; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3099

Xylocarpus granatum J.Konig; K.S. Chua

& Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 502; MLF.

Choong PB. 8; M.F. Choong VC 75; M.F.

Choong VC 87

Mimosaceae

Acacia auriculiformis A.Cunn. ex Benth.;

Haji Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad SA.50;

K.S. Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC

489; M.F. Choong VC 68

Acacia mangium Willd.; P.T. Chew, H.A.

Kong & J.W.H Yong SB 1057

Adenanthera pavonina L.; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3100

Sungei Buloh Nature Park, Singapore

Entada spiralis Ridl.; K.S. Chua & Y.C.

Wee CKS & WYC 531

Mimosa diplotricha C.Wright ex Sauvalle;

M.F. Choong VC 5; M.F. Choong VC

111

Mimosa pigra L.; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3047

Mimosa pudica L.; 1.M. Turner & MF.

Choong SB 1100; M.F. Choong VC 66

Neptunia plena (L.) Benth.; K.S. Chua,

M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner

& J.W.H. Yong SB 3035; M.F. Choong

VC 26

Paraserianthes falcataria (L.) I.Nielsen;

K.S. Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan,

I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3053

Moraceae

Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.; K.S.

Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 528

Artocarpus integer (Thunb.) Merr.; M.F.

Choong VC 8

Ficus apiocarpa Miq.;K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3103

Ficus benjamina L.; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3005

Ficus fistulosa Reinw. ex Blume; I.M.

Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1041

Ficus grossularioides Burm.f.; P.T. Chew,

H.A. Hong & J.W.H. Yong SB 11

Ficus microcarpa L.f.;M.F. Choong VC

108

Myricaceae

Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham.; I.M.

Turner M.F. Choong SB 1034

Myrtaceae

Eugenia aquea Burm.f.; Haji Samsuri bin

Haji Ahmad SA 55

Eugenia polyantha Wight; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3098

pa)

Eugenia rugosa (Korth.) Merr.; K.S.

Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.

Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3104

Eugenia spicata Lam.; Haji Samsuri bin

Haji Ahmad SA 58; K.S. Chua & Y.C.

Wee CKS & WYC 509; P.T. Chew, H.A.

Hong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1010

Psidium guajava L.; M.F. Choong VC 16

Nepenthaceae

Nepenthes gracilis Korth.; K.S. Chua &

Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 496

Onagraceae

Ludwigia hyssopifolia (G.Don) Exell;

K.S. Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC

492; P.T. Chew, H.A. Kong & J.W.H

Yong SB 1026a

Opiliaceae

Champereia manillana (Blume) Merr.;

M.F. Choong VC 73

Orchidaceae

Eulophia graminea Lindl.; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3057

Palmae

Calamus erinaceus (Becc.) Dransf.; K.S.

Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.

Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3089

Cocos nucifera L.; M.F. Choong VC 136

Nypa fruticans Wurmb; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3008

Pandanaceae

Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb.; K.S.

Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, IM.

Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3076

Pandanus odoratissimus L.f.; K.S. Chua

& Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 500

Papilionaceae

Aeschynomene americana L.; K.S. Chua,

M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner

& J.W.H. Yong SB 3015

Aeschynomene indica L.; 1.M. Turner &

M.F. Choong SB 1038

Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC.; M.F.

Choong VC 28

Calopogonium mucunoides Desv.; M.F.

Choong VC 17; M.F. Choong VC 102

Centrosema pubescens Benth.; K.S. Chua,

M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner

& J.W.H. Yong SB 3034; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3062

Clitoria ternatea L.; M.F. Choong VC 34

Crotalaria pallida Aiton; K.S. Chua &

Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 524

Dalbergia candenatensis (Dennst.) Prain;

K.S. Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC

508; M.F. Choong VC 122; P.T. Chew,

H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong S.Buloh 17;

P.T. Chew, H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong

S65 17

Derris trifoliata Lour.; Haji Samsuri bin

Haji Ahmad SA.15; K.S. Chua & Y.C.

Wee CKS & WYC 486; M.F. Choong

VC 62; M.F. Choong VC 119; P.T. Chew,

H.A. Hong & J.W.H. Yong SB 12; P.T.

Chew, H.A. Hong & J.W.H. Yong SB

1004

Desmodium heterophyllum (Willd.) DC.;

K.S. Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan,

I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3110;

M.F. Choong VC 140

Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC.; M.F.

Choong VC 53; M.F. Choong VC 89

Erythrina variegata L.; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3009

Indigofera hirsuta L.; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3033; P.T. Chew, H.A.

Hong & J.W.H. Yong SB 18

Macroptilium lathyroides (L.) Urb.; K.S.

Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.

Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3063

Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Sesbania cannabina (Retz.) Poir.; K.S.

Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.

Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3032; LM.

Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1103

Tephrosia noctiflora Bojer ex Baker; K.S.

Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.

Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3046

Passifloraceae

Passiflora foetida L.; Haji Samsuri bin

Haji Ahmad SA.39; K.S. Chua & Y.C.

Wee CKS & WYC 522; M.F. Choong

VC 47

Polygaceae

Polygala paniculata L.; M.F. Choong VC

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms; K.S.

Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.

Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3096

Rhizophoraceae

Bruguiera cylindrica (L.) Blume; Haji

Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad SA.23; Haji

Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad SA.52; K\S.

Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 535;

M.F. Choong VC 30; P.T. Chew, H.A.

Hong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1012

Bruguiera gymnorhiza (L.) Say.;

M.F.Choong PB 2; M.F. Choong VC 125;

P.T. Chew, H.A. Hong & J.W.H. Yong

SB 1059

Ceriops tagal (Pers.) C.B.Rob.; I.M.

Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1072; M-F.

Choong VC 74; M.F. Choong VC 114

Rhizophora apiculata Blume; K.S. Chua

& Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 499; M.-F.

Choong PB 11; M.F. Choong VC 86; MF.

Choong VC 129

Rhizophora mucronata Lam.; K.S. Chua,

M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner

& J.W.H. Yong SB 3007; M.F. Choong

PB 10

Rhizophora sp.; M.F. Choong VC 80

eee

Sungei Buloh Nature Park, Singapore

Rubiaceae

Gynochthodes sublanceolata Miq.; Haji

Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad SA. 62; I.M.

Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1082; P.T.

Chew, H.A.Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB

1002

Hedyotis dichotoma Koen. ex Roth; I.M.

Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1105

Morinda citrifolia L.; Haji Samsuri bin

Haji Ahmad SA.63; I.M. Turner & MF.

Choong SB 1094; K.S. Chua & Y.C. Wee

CKS & WYC 537

Oxyceros longiflora (Lam.) Yamazaki;

Haji Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad SA.12

Paederia foetida L.; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3112; M.F. Choong VC

44: M.F. Choong VC 48; M.F. Choong

VC 49; M.F. Choong VC 59; M.F.

Choong VC 63; M.F. Choong VC 69;

M.F. Choong VC 70; M.F. Choong VC

72; M.F. Choong VC 83; M.F. Choong

VC 92;M.F. Choong VC 128

Psydrax sp. 10 of Tree Flora of Malaya

V.4; P.T. Chew, H.A. Kong & J.W. H.

Yong SB 1009

Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea Gaertn.t.;

M.F. Choong VC 78

Timonius flavescens (Jack) Baker; P.T.

Chew, H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB

1009

Uncaria lanosa Wall. var. glabrata

(Blume) Ridsdale; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3059

Rutaceae

Melicope lunu-ankenda (Gaertn.)

T.G.Hartley; K.S Chua & Y.C. Wee 525;

K.S. Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan,

I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3049

Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng.; I.M.

Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1109

Sapindaceae

Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch.; K.S

Chua & Y.C. Wee 491; M.F. Choong VC

24; P.T. Chew, H.A. Hong & J.W.H.

Yong SB 1005

Sapotaceae

Pouteria obovata (R.Br.) Baehni; P.T.

Chew, H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB

1031

Scrophulariaceae

Scoparia dulcis L.; K.S. Chua & Y.C.

Wee CKS & WYC 521; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3077

Solanaceae

Physalis minima L.; 1.M. Turner & M.F.

Choong SB 1027; K.S Chua & Y.C. Wee

501; K.S. Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W.

Tan, I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB

3043; M.F. Choong PB. 12; P.T. Chew,

H.A. Hong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1027; P.T.

Chew, H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB

1030; SB 1024

Solanum nigrum L.; Haji Samsuri bin

Haji Ahmad SA.18; K.S. Chua & Y.C.

Wee CKS & WYC 493; P.T. Chew, H.A.

Kong & J.W.H Yong SB 1026

Solanum torvum Sw.; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3064

Sonneratiaceae

Sonneratia alba J.J.Smith; M.F. Choong

PB 5; M.F. Choong PB 6; M.F. Choong

VC 76

Tiliaceae

Triumfetta tomentosa Bojer; I.M. Turner

93-102

Typhaceae

Typha angustifolia L.; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3070

Ulmaceae

Trema cannabina Lour.; K.S. Chua &

Y.C Wee 579; P.T. Chew, H.A. Kong &

J.W.H. Yong SB 1029

Trema tomentosa (Roxb.) Hara; K.S.

Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.

Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3051

Umbelliferae

Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.; 1.M Turner &

M.F Choong SB 1089

Verbenaceae

Clerodendron inerme (L.) Gaertn.; Haji

Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad SA. 47; M.F.

Choong VC 107; M.F. Choong VC 117;

P.T. Chew, H.A.Kong & J.W.H. Yong

SB 1001

Lantana camara L; 1.M. Turner & M.F.

Choong SB 1073; M.F. Choong VC 11;

M.F. Choong VC 23

Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene; K.S. Chua,

M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner

& J.W.H. Yong SB 3040

Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Premna foetida Reinw. ex Blume; M.F.

Choong VC 35; K.S. Chua, M. Matthews,

H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong

SB 3066

Stachytarpheta indica (L.) Vahl; K.S.

Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.

Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3039; M.F.

Choong VC 51

Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl; K.S.

Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.

Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3038

Vitex pinnata L.; K.S. Chua, M.

Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &

J.W.H. Yong SB 3003

Vitaceae

Cayratia mollissima (Wall.) Gagnep.;

M.F. Choong VC 37; M.F. Choong VC

Cissus hastata (Miq.) Planch.; I.M. Turner

& M.F. Choong SB 1084

Appendix 2. Historical collections from the Sungei Buloh area. Conservation

status: C = common; N = endangered; R = rare; V = vulnerable; X = extinct; ? =

information on herbarium sheet label could not be read.

PTERIDOPHYTA

Aspleniaceae

Asplenium macrophyllum SW.;

J.S.Goodenough s.n. [1890]

Dennstaedtiaceae

Lindsaea borneensis Hook.f. ex Baker;

J.S.Goodenough & H.N.Ridley s.n. [9 Jan

1889]

Lindsaea parasitica (Roxb. ex Griff.)

Hieron.; J.S.Goodenough s.n. [30 Nov

1889]

Hymenophyllaceae

Cephalomanes obscurum (Blume)

K.Iwatsuki; J.S.Goodenough s.n. [30 Nov

1889]

Lycopodiaceae

Lycopodiella cernua (L.) Pic.Serm.;

J.S.Goodenough s.n. [30 Nov 1889]

Polypodiaceae

Microsorum punctatum (L.) Copel.;

J.S.Goodenough s.n. [30 Nov 1889]

Sungei Buloh Nature Park, Singapore

Schizaeaceae

Lygodium microphyllum (Cav.) R.Br.;

J.S.Goodenough s.n. [30 Nov 1889]

Schizaea digitata (L.) Sw,;

J.S.Goodenough s.n. [30 Nov 1889]

MAGNOLIOPHYTA

Acanthaceae

Staurogyne griffithiana (Nees) Kuntze;

H.N.Ridley s.n. [1894]

Alangiaceae

Alangium griffithii (C.B.Clarke) Harms;

H.N.Ridley s.n. [1894]

Annonaceae

Desmos dasymachalus (Blume) Safford;

H.N.Ridley 6228 [1894]

Goniothalamus ridleyi King; H.N.Ridley

6227 [1893]

Aquifoliaceae

Ilex cymosa Blume; H.N.Ridley 5089

[1893]

Asclepiadaceae

Dischidia benghalensis Colebr.;

H.N.Ridley s.n. 9 Jan [1890]; H.N.Ridley

2729 [without date]

Hoya verticillata (Vahl) G. Don var.

verticillata, H.N.Ridley s.n. [18??]

Commelinaceae

Amischotolype gracilis (Ridl.) I.M.

Turner; H.N.Ridley s.n. [Oct 1899]

Connaraceae

Rourea fulgens Planch.; J.S. Goodenough

2027a [30 Nov 1889]

Euphorbiaceae

Excoecaria agallocha L.; H.N.Ridley 4425

[1892]

Flacourtiaceae

Ryparosa hullettii King; Mat s.n. [April

1894]

Gesneriaceae

Cyrtandra pendula Blume; H.N.Ridley

s.n. [1894]

Guttiferae

Garcinia hombroniana Pierre; Unknown

collector 6197 [without date]

Cratoxylum cochinchinense (Lout.)

Blume; H.N.Ridley 6389 [189?]

Leguminosae

Archidendron contortum (Martt.)

I.C.Nielsen; H.N.Ridley 346? [1889]

Marantaceae

Stachyphrynium griffithii (Baker)

K.Schum.; H.N.Ridley s.n. [1894]

Melastomataceae

Medinilla crassifolia (Reinw. ex Blume)

Blume; H.N.Ridley s.n. [9 Jan 1890];

H.N.Ridley s.n. [9 Jul 1890]; H.N.Ridley

s.n. [without date]

Medinilla sp.; H.N.Ridley s.n. [without

date]

Pachycentria maingayi (C.B.Clarke)

J.F.Maxwell; H.N.Ridley 1652 [without

date]

Plethiandra sessiliflora (Cogn.) Merr.;

H.N.Ridley 2021 [9 Jan 1890]

Menispermaceae

Fibraurea tinctoria Lour.;

J.S.Goodenough s.n. [1893]

Myristicaceae

Myristica cinnamomea King; H.N.Ridley

6266 [1894]

Myrsinaceae

Ardisia tuberculata Wall. ex A.DC.;

Collector unknown s.n. [4 Aug ?]

Ochnaceae

Euthemis leucocarpa Jack; L.C.Corporal

772 [18 Apr 1890]

Orchidaceae

Apostasia nuda R.Br.; H.N.Ridley s.n.

(Jan 1890]

Appendicula cornuta Blume;

J.S.Goodenough s.n. [30 Nov 1889]

Bulbophyllum concinnum Hook.f.;

H.N.Ridley s.n. [9 Jan 1890]; H.N.Ridley

s.n. [1891]

Bulbophyllum membranaceum Teijsm. &

Binn.; H.N.Ridley s.n. [1891]

Bulbophyllum — restrepia Ridl.;

J.S.Goodenough s.n. [1889]

Claderia viridiflora Hook.f.; H.N.Ridley

s.n. [1890]

Coelogyne mayeriana Rchb.f.;

J.S.Goodenough s.n. [4 Aug ?];

H.N.Ridley s.n. [1890]

Cymbidium bicolor Lindl. ssp. pubesccens

(Lindl.) Du Puy & P.J. Cribb; H.N.Ridley —

[1891]

Dendrobium concinnum Miq.;

L.C.Corporal s.n. [18 Apr 1890]

Dendrobium lobatum (Blume) Miq.;

H.N.Ridley s.n. [1890]

Dendrobium microglaphys Rchb.f.;

J.S.Goodenough s.n. [1890]

Dendrobium — prostratum Ridl.;

H.N.Ridley s.n. [1890]

Dendrobium sp.; H.N.Ridley s.n. [9 Jan

1890]

Dendrobium spegidoglossum Rchb.f.;

J.S.Goodenough s.n. [30 Nov 1889]

Dendrobium spurium (Blume) J.J.Sm.;

J.S.Goodenough s.n. [1892]

Dendrobium — villosulum Lindl.;

J.S.Goodenough 369? [29 Jan 1889]

Eria floribunda Lindl.; H.N.Ridley 1634

(9 Jan 1890]

Eria neglecta Ridl.; H.N.Ridley s.n.

[1890]; H.N.Ridley s.n. [1891]

Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Eria nutans Lindl.; H.N.Ridley s.n. [1890]

Eria pannea LindL.; J.S.Goodenough s.n.

[30 Nov 1889]

Eria pulchella Lindl.; H.N.Ridley s.n.

[1890]

Eria tenuiflora Ridl.; J.S.Goodenough s.n.

[1892]

Flickingeria xantholeuca (Rchb.f.)

A.D.Hawkes; H.N.Ridley s.n. [4 Aug

1890]

Galeola nudifolia Lour.; H.N.Ridley s.n.

[9 Jan 1890]

Schoenorchis micrantha

H.N.Ridley 374 [30 Nov 1889]

Thelasis carinata Blume; H.N.Ridley s.n.

[9 Jan 1890]

Trichotosia_ velutina (Lindl.) Lodd. ex

Kraenzl.; H.N.Ridley [9 Jan 1890]

Blume;

Palmae

Oncosperma tigillarium (Jack) Ridl.;

J.S.Goodenough 1663 [29 Nov 1889];

J.S.Goodenough 3145 — [1890];

J.S.Goodenough 3509 [29 Nov 1889]

Rhopaloblaste singaporensis (Becc.)

Hook.f.; H.N.Ridley 2135 [May 1890]

Pandanaceae

Freycinetia angustifolia Blume;

J.S.Goodenough s.n. [30 Nov 1889]

Rubiaceae

Diplospora malaccensis Hook.f.;

H.N.Ridley s.n. [1894]

Gardenia tubifera Wall. var. subcarinata

Corner; H.N.Ridley s.n. [1891]

Gynochthodes sublanceolata Miq.;

J.S.Goodenough s.n. [4 Aug 1890]

Hedyotis pinifolia Wall. ex G.Don;

Unknown collector 8925 [1897]

Oxyceros longiflora (Lam.) T.Yamaz.;

J.S.Goodenough 2415 [16 Sep 1891]

Prismatomeris glabra (Korth.) Valeton;

H.N.Ridley s.n. [1894]

Psychotria penangiana Hook.f.; Corporal

2870 [18 Apr 1890]

Sungei Buloh Nature Park, Singapore

Timonius flavescens (Jack) Baker;

H.N.Ridley s.n. [without date]

Urophyllum glabrum Wall.; H.N.Ridley

s.n. [12 Jan 1890]

Sterculiaceae

Pterospermum javanicum Jungh.;

H.N.Ridley 6181 [1894]

Styraceae

Styrax benzoin Dryand. var. benzoin;

H.N.Ridley s.n. [1894]

Vitaceae

Cayratia mollissima (Wall.) Gagnep.:

Corporal s.n. [8 Apr 1890]

Zingiberaceae

Hornstedtia leonurus (J.K6nig) Retz.:

H.N.Ridley s.n. [1911]

Hornstedtia scyphifera (J.K6nig) Steud.

var. scyphifera; H.N.Ridley s.n. [1894]

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Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 37-47.

Baccaurea scortechinii distinct from B. parviflora

(Euphorbiaceae)

R. Krew!, S. MADHAVAN AND HAMSAH SELAMAT

Department of Biology

Universiti Pertanian Malaysia

43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

Abstract

Baccaurea scortechinii Hook. f. is a species distinct from B. parviflora (Mill. Arg.) Mill. Arg.

recognised by a combination of the following characters: greater number of pairs of veins,

proportionately wider leaf, shorter male and female inflorescences, position of the female

inflorescence on the upper part of the trunk or on the branches, short pedicel of male flowers,

longer sepals of the female flower, which are hoary outside, the rosy pink, obovoid ridged fruit

(often with a wrinkled surface), which has a thick pericarp and up to six seeds.

Introduction

Over reliance on herbarium material as opposed to field observations can

sometimes lead to erroneous results. A case in point is the synonomising

of Baccaurea scortechinii with B. parviflora (Airy Shaw, 1972).

In the field, these two species are totally distinct based on the position

of the infructescences, the colour and shape of the fruits and whether the

fruits are ridged or not. Corner (1952) described B. scortechinii as the

‘Chinese Lantern Tree’ because ‘the fruiting trees look as if they were

hung with little Chinese lanterns’. He described the fruits as being rose-

pink and six-ridged and hanging from the branches on strings. The

infructescences are also produced on the trunk but never from the base. In

contrast, the fruits of B. parviflora are smooth, purple-brown and are

produced on strings at the base of the trunk and trail in profusion on the

ground. In the field, these two species are certainly distinct!

The inability to distinguish between the two Baccaurea species with

elongate fruits and terminalia branching may in part be due to the poor

choice of characters in keys for identifying them. Thus, Pax and Hoffman

(1922) used the degree of pubescence of the young twigs, a character that

cannot be used for specimens with older twigs, which are uniformly glabrous

in both species. Ridley (1924) used leaf shape, which, while it can be used

for the extremes of variation, also shows considerable overlap. He

‘Present Address: Singapore Botanic Gardens, Singapore 259569

38 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

contributed to the confusion by adding a note to his description of B.

scortechinii stating that ‘Hooker says racemes from the branches, though

in the specimens I have seen at Kew they all appear to have been from the

stem as in B. parviflora, but B. parviflora does sometimes have racemes

from the branches’ (though this fact is not mentioned in Ridley’s description

of B. parviflora). Whitmore (1973) was of the opinion that those species

with terminalia branching ‘are extremely difficult to distinguish without

fruits because the leaves are similar, and variable, within each species’.

Based on a study of herbarium specimens, Airy Shaw (1972) reduced

B. scortechinii to synonomy with B. parviflora without giving a reason for

his decision. Whitmore (1973) followed Shaw in regarding it as a synonym

of B. parviflora but as Corner (1988) commented ‘there seems to be some

mistake’.

Baccaurea scortechinii was first described by Hooker f. based on a

single specimen (Scortechini s.n., Perak) and it has remained poorly known.

The fruit and the position of the inflorescence were not known to Hooker

but the character of number of vein pairs that he gave is useful in

distinguishing these two species (Table 1). Now that more specimens are

available, it is possible to reassess the characters that are used to separate

the two species.

Fruiting specimens of B. parviflora and B. scortechinii are readily

identified based on whether the fruits are ridged or not, their colour and

shape, and the position and length of the infructescence (Table 1).

Specimens with female flowers can be identified by flower size, indumentum

of the sepals and whether the ovary is ridged or not (but in fact have rarely

been collected) and those with male flowers by the length of the pedicel.

Sterile material can be identified by the number of pairs of veins and

also by the gestalt of the terminalia branching. In B. parviflora the distal

two or three tiers of caulomeres frequently have slender twigs of equal

thickness suggesting that they were produced by the same growth flush. In

contrast, it appears that usually only a single tier of caulomeres is produced

at a time in B. scortechinii as the distal twig is much more slender than the

adjacent proximal one. In the field, B. scortechinii has a conspicuously

narrow crown, perhaps the result of this less profuse mode of growth. The

phenology of these growth flushes is not known.

Flowering is, however, seasonal occurring in the two main flowering

seasons for trees (Kiew, 1986). Corner (1952) noted that B. parviflora

flowers gregariously after a dry spell. Most male flowering specimens have

been collected between January and April with a peak in February to

March with a few in June-July and October (specimens with female flowers

are scarce but have been collected in February to April and in September)

and fruiting specimens from May to September. B. scortechinii fruits

Baccaurea scortechinii distinct from B. parviflora

(Euphorbiaceae) 39

: between March and April and again in June-July and September, but

| there is insufficent flowering material to assess its flowering seasons.

Baccaurea parviflora is widespread from Burma to Borneo (where it

has rarely been collected). In Peninsular Malaysia, it has been collected

from all states and is common in the lowlands up to 1300 m altitude. It is

most frequently collected from hill slopes and ridge tops. In contrast, B.

scortechinii has been more frequently collected from forest beside streams

and rivers. B. scortechinii is endemic to Peninsular Malaysia and is more

common in Kelantan, Trengganu and Pahang.

Table 1. Baccaurea parviflora and B. scortechinii compared

Character B. parviflora B. scortechinii

bark! finely ridged not ridged

bark colour! brownish grey pale fawn

lamina length (cm) 8.5-15.5 13-18

lamina width (cm) 3-5 5-9.5

lamina I|:w ratio 2.8—-3.1 1.9-2.6

no. vein pairs (4—) 5 (-6) (6-—) 7 (-9)

male raceme length (cm) 10-15 3.5-8

male pedicel length (mm) 3-4 1-1.5

female raceme length (cm) 15-30 5.5-12

female raceme position

base of truck

trunk and branches

male & female sepal shape ovate oblong

female sepal length (mm) 2.5-3.5 8-9

female sepal indumentum

(outer surface) glabrous hoary

ovary shape cylindrical ovoid

ripe fruit colour purple brown rosy pink

fruit shape fusiform obovoid

not ridged 6-ridged

fruit apex narrowed rounded

pericarp thickness (mm) 1.5-2.0 0.5-1.1

no. seeds per fruit 1-3 1-6

'from Corner (1988). No details are available on labels of herbarium specimens to

verify this.

40 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Baccaurea parviflora

Baccaurea parviflora (Mill. Arg.) Mill. Arg. in DC Prodromus XV(2)

(1866) 462.

Figure 1.

Type: Wallich 7759B Tavoy, India. (K holo)

Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India. 5 (1887) 368; Pax & Hoff. Pflanzenreich. iv 147 XV

(1922) 59; Ridley Fl. Mal. Pen. 3 (1924) 243, Fig. 152; Corner Wayside

Frees: (1952) 241, Fis. 71,

Pierardia parviflora Mill. Arg. in Linnaea 32 (1863) 82.

Small tree to 15 m tall and 7.5—10 cm dbh., flowering at 2 m, with terminalia

branching with leaves clustered at the tips of the twigs, twigs slender with

long internodes and pilose, becoming glabrous with age. Bark

brownish-grey, rather closely and finely ridged. Stipules lanceolate,

pubescent outside. Young leaves pinkish. Petiole 0.75—3 cm long, grooved

above. Lamina oblanceolate, (8.5—) 12 (-15) cm long and (3-) 4 (-5) cm

wide; apex caudate, base strongly acute, margin entire, apex caudate,

glabrous above and beneath; in dried state thinly coriaceous, smooth (not

puckering); veins (4—) 5 (-6) pairs prominent beneath, tertiary veins

inconspicuous.

In male trees raceme cauliflorous in more or less upright tufts on

burrs on trunk about 3 m above the ground, sometimes on branches, 10-15

cm long, hairy. Bracts minute, broadly ovate, 0.2-0.3 mm long, densely

tomentose. Flower fragrant with a sharp lemon scent. Pedicel 3-4 mm

long. Sepals 4-5, ovate, 1.0-1.5 mm long and 0.5—1 mm wide, yellowish

green (rarely reddish brown). Stamens (3-—) 6, filaments 0.1—0.2 mm, anthers

subglobose, 0.2 mm long, yellow. Pistillode large.

In female trees, raceme cauliflorous, numerous and always at the

base of the trunk, (15—) 23 (—30) cm long. Peduncle reddish. Bracts cordate,

0.1-0.2 mm long, tomentose. Pedicel 3-4 mm long. Sepals 5, spathulate,

2.5-3.5 mm long and 0.5—1 mm wide, deep red and almost glabrous outside,

white and finely pilose inside. Ovary cylindric, 3-loculate, 1.5-2 mm long

and 1-1.5 mm wide, dark red, finely pilose. Style 0.5—1 mm long. Stigma 3,

each bifurcating and recurved, dark red.

Berry fusiform, stigma persistent, 1.25-2.75 cm long and 11.5 cm

wide, dark red turning purple brown, sour. Pericarp fleshy, smooth,

indehiscent, 13-20 mm thick. Seeds 1-3, oval, thin, 9-12 mm long, 5-6 mm

wide, aril fleshy, magenta, testa brown.

Baccaurea scortechinii distinct from B. parviflora

(Euphorbiaceae) 4]

2 -

Tree

eit gw ae ‘ee te tgt te (yl | ale’ ah ule’ ae ale! aie! ce aes

ba =

Figure 1. Baccaurea parviflora Figure 2. Baccaurea scortechinii

Anatomy of Ovary and Fruit

T.S. Ovary: (Fig. 3A, C)

Round with 3 locules, ovary wall (0.40—) 0.48 (0.55) mm thick, ovules 1 or

2 per locule. Vascular bundles 3, positioned midway in the ovary wall

opposite the locules with 2-4 minor bundles in between.

Epidermis thin, cells isodiametric (10—) 15 (—20) um wide. Trichomes

sparse, unicellular (0.15—) 0.27 (-0.3) mm long. Cortex (350-—) 430 (—500)

um thick, cells of inner layer (35—) 40 (-45) um thick. Xylem vessels small,

(S—) 8 (-10) um diameter.

T.S. Fruit: (Fig. 4A, C).

Round with 3 locules, 1-3 seeds per fruit. Pericarp fleshy (1.5—) 1.8 (—2.0)

mm thick. Arrangement of vascular bundle as for ovary.

Exocarp thin, single layered, cells (SO—) 53 (-55) um long and (20-)

23 (-25) um wide, becoming almost glabrous. Mesocarp (1.0—) 1.3 (-1.5)

mm thick; outer and central region with scattered large cells with thickened

42 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Figure 3. T.S. ovary: A Baccaurea parviflora, B B. scortechinii.

Outer layers of ovary: C B. parviflora, D B. scortechinii.

i major vascular bundle, ii minor vascular bundle, 0 ovule, t trichomes, e epidermis, | locule.

Baccaurea scortechinii distinct from B. parviflora

(Euphorbiaceae) 43

cellulose walls, cells in the central region larger and more numerous.

Endocarp with several layers of brachysclereids.

Distribution: Burma, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia (all states), Philippines

and Borneo.

Habitat: Lowland forest, frequently on hill slopes and ridges up to 1300 m.

Local Name: Setambun (Malay).

Notes: Earlier descriptions cited the male flowers as having up to eight

stamens but this is an error based on the inclusion of specimen King’s Coll.

3321 (K) with 6-8 stamens in B. parviflora when it does not belong to this

species as its inflorescneces are produced on the twigs.

Ridley (1924) recorded that the flowers are ‘scented like cowslips’

and Corner (1952) that when it flowers gregariously it scented the forest.

The male flowers are usually yellow but Ridley observed trees with red

flowers at Semangkok and, close by at Fraser’s Hill, crimson-flowered

trees are seen though they are less common than the yellow-flowered ones

(Kiew, 1998).

Burkill (1966) reports that the Semai in Perak use dibbling sticks of

B. parviflora because ‘they suppose, its habit of fruiting close to the ground

may ensure the hill-rice having a short straw, inhibiting it from being lanky

in growth’.

There is another (as yet unnamed) taxon with terminalia branching

and elongate fruits collected from Trengganu, which shares characters with

both B. parviflora and B. scortechinii, i.e. its fruits are ridged like B.

scortechinii but are produced on long inflorescences at the base of the tree

as in B. parviflora. It is, however, distinct from these two species in its

extremely long petioles (c. 5 cm long). The petioles of both B. parviflora

and B. scortechinii are variable in length depending on the leaf’s position

within the tuft, the shortest being about 0.75 cm and the longest 3 cm long.

Baccaurea scortechinii

Baccaurea scortechinii Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India. 5 (1887) 368.

Figure 2.

Type: Scortechini s.n. Perak (K, Kew no. H/0980/88 71 - lectotype, here

chosen; L, SING iso)

Pax & Hoff. Pflanzenreich. iv 147 XV (1922) 56; Ridley Fl. Mal. Pen. 3

(1924) 244; Corner Wayside Trees. (1952) 242.

44 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Small tree to 10 m with 5-10 cm dbh, flowering at 3 m; with terminalia

branching with clusters of leaves at the tips of the twigs, twigs minutely

hirsute becoming glabrous with age. Bark pale fawn, slightly flakey, not

ridged. Stipules subulate. Petiole 0.75—3 cm long, grooved above. Lamina

oblanceolate to subrhomboid, (13-—) 14 (-18) cm long and (5-) 6 (—9.5) cm

wide; apex caudate, base strongly acute, margin entire, glabrous above and

beneath; in the dried state chartaceous and puckering along the tertiary

veins; midrib usually minutely pilose beneath, veins (6—) 7 (-9) pairs,

prominent beneath, tertiary veins conspicuous above and beneath.

In male trees raceme cauliflorous about 3 m from the ground, 3.5-8

cm long. Bracts minute, broadly ovate, c. 0.1 mm long, tomentose. Flowers

white. Pedicel 1—-1.5 mm long. Sepals 4-6, oblong, 1—-1.5 mm long and 0.5-1

mm wide. Stamens 4-5, filament c. 0.1 mm long, anthers subglobose, 0.1

mm long. Pistillode large.

In female trees, raceme slender, pendant, cauliflorous or less usually

ramiflorous but never from the base of trunk, 6.5—12 cm long. Bracts minute,

cordate, 0.1--0.2 mm long and 0.1—-0.2 mm wide, tomentose. Pedicel 2—2.5

mm long. Sepals 5, pale yellow, oblong, 8-9 mm long and 1-2 mm wide,

margin inrolled, densely tomentose inside and out. Ovary ovoid, 6-ridged

and 3-loculate, 2— mm long and 1-2 mm wide, red, densely pilose. Style

0.5—1 mm long. Stigma 3, each bifurcating and recurved.

Berry obovoid, stigma persistent, 6-ridged often finely wrinkled

between the ridges, (1.5—) 2.2 (-2.5) cm long and 1.2-1.5 cm wide, rosy

pink, sour. Pericarp fleshy, indehiscent, (S—) 8 (-11) mm thick. Seeds 1-6,

oblong, thin, 3-4 mm long and 1-2 mm wide, aril fleshy, purple, testa

brown.

Anatomy of the Ovary and Fruit

TS. Ovary (Fig, 3B, D).

Six-ridged with 3 locules, ovary wall (0.1—) 0.18 (-0.3) mm thick. Ovules 1-

2 per locule. Vascular bundles 3, positioned midway in the ovary wall

opposite the locules with 3 minor bundles in between.

Epidermal cells narrow, isodiametric (10—) 15 (—20) um wide.

Trichomes abundant, unicellular, (0.11—) 0.13 (-0.16) mm long originating

from the epidermal layer. Cortex with cells (10—) 15 (—20) um wide,

decreasing in size towards the exterior. Xylem vessels small, (5—) 8 (—10)

um diameter.

T.S. Fruit (Fig. 4B, D).

Baccaurea scortechinii distinct from B. parviflora

(Euphorbiaceae) 45

——<— el

o-1mm

Figure 4. T:S. fruit: A Baccaurea parviflora, B B. scortechinii.

TS. pericarp: C B. parviflora, D B. scortechinii.

i major vascular bundle, ii minor vascular bundle, b brachysclereids, e epidermis, en endocarp,

s seed.

46 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Six-ridged with 3 locules, 1-6 seeds per fruit. Pericarp fleshy (0.5-)

0.8 (-1.1) mm thick. Arrangement of vascular bundles as for ovary.

Exocarp thin, single layered, cells narrow (10-) 11 (—12) um long and

(15—) 18 (-20) um wide, becoming almost glabrous. Mesocarp (0.3-—) 0.4

(0.5) mm thick; outer and central region as for B. parviflora. Endocarp

with several layers of brachysclereids.

Distribution: Endemic to Peninsular Malaysia, most common in central

and northern regions and from Gunung Panti, Johore (not yet collected

from Perlis, Kedah, Negri Sembilan and Malacca).

Habitat: Lowland primary forest up to 200 m a.s.l., often by streams and

rivers, once from a wang in limestone (RK 3001) and the base of a limestone

cliff (Henderson 25005).

Local names: asam tamun, setambun antan (Malay).

Specimens examined: KELANTAN: Batu Boh Kiew & Anthonysamy RK

3001 (UPM), Kampung Parit Hanif & Nur SFN 10241 (SING), Kuala

Betis Ng FRI 5532 (K, KEP, SING), Whitmore FRI 5532 (L), Sungai Lebir

Henderson 29535 (SING), Stone & Mahmud 12427 (KEP), Whitmore FRI

4311 (K, KEP, L, SING). TRENGGANU: Sekayu Loy FRI 13515 (K,

KEP, L), Ulu Besut Cockburn FRI 8251 (KEP), Ulu Brang Moysey &

Kiah SFN 33866 (SING), Ulu Sungai Trengan Cockburn FRI 10581 (K,

KEP, L, SING), Wong & Khairuddin FRI 32616 (L, SING). PAHANG:

Bukit Chintamani Henderson 25005 (SING), Jeruntut Holttum 24747

(SING), Kuala Lompat Whitmore FRI 34477 (KEP, L, SING), Saw FRI

36300 (KEP, L), Kuala Tembeling Ridley s.n. (SING), Panching Ogata

10473 (KEP), Raub Kalong 20247 (KEP), Sungai Kenyam Whitmore FRI

20160 (KEP), Taman Negara (Merapoh) Soepadmo & Suhaimi S260 (L),

(Sungai Tahan) Mohd Shah & Ahmad Shukor MS2658 (L), Wyatt-Smith

KEP 71960 (K, L), Ulu Tembeling Henderson 21785 (SING), 22004 (SING).

PERAK: no locality Scortechinii s.n. (fruits, L, SING), (male flowers,

SING). SELANGOR: Kuala Pansom Gadoh KL 1324 (SING). JOHOR:

Gunung Panti Corner 29408 (SING), Kochummen KEP 99204 (KEP).

Notes: There are three sheets of Scortechini’s collections at K. The one

selected as the lectotype is his unnumbered collection, which has mature

fruits and female flowers. Of the other two sheets, Scortechini 1992 has

male flowers and Scortechinii 2002 has female flowers but no fruits. None

of Scortechini’s labels gives any information about exact locality, habitat

or position of the inflorescences.

Baccaurea scortechinii distinct from B. parviflora

(Euphorbiaceae) 47

Acknowledgements

We are indebted to S. Anthonysamy for assistance in the field and to the

curators of the herbaria of K, KEP, L and SING for permission to examine

specimens in their care and to Raoule Hagen for stimulating discussions

on the two species and for advice on extra-Malayan species.

References

Airy Shaw, H. K. 1972. The Euphorbiaceae of Siam. Kew Bulletin 26: 191-

363.

Burkill, 1H. 1966. A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay

Peninsula. Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Kuala Lumpur,

Malaysia.

Corner, E. J. H. 1952. Wayside Trees of Malaya. Government Printing Office,

Singapore. 2nd Edition.

Corner, E. J. H. 1988. Wayside Trees of Malaya. Malayan Nature Society,

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 3rd Edition.

Hooker, J. D. 1887. Euphorbiaceae. Flora of British India. 5: 368.

Kiew, R. 1986. Phenological studies of some rain forest herbs in Peninsular

Malaysia. Kew Bull. 41: 733-746.

Kiew, R. 1998. The Flora of Fraser’s Hill, Peninsular Malaysia. (in press).

Pax, F. 1922. Baccaurea Section Pierardia. Pflanzenreich iv 147 XV: 48-60.

Ridley, H. N. 1924. Baccaurea. Fl. Mal. Pen. 3: 242-251 & Fig. 152.

Whitmore, T. C. 1973. Euphorbiaceae. Tree Flora of Malaya. 2: 63-67.

Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 49-54. 49

New Records of Plant Species from Singapore

ALI IBRAHIM, P.T. CHEw, HJ StIDEK KIAH AND JOSEPH T.K. LAI

Singapore Botanic Gardens,

Cluny Road,

Singapore 259569

Abstract

Most notable among the 28 new records of flowering plant species from Singapore are the

first record of Mukia maderaspatana (Cucurbitaceae) for both Singapore and Peninsular

Malaysia, the first record for several genera - Chonemorpha, Ichnocarpus and Kibatalia

(Apocynaceae), Gymnanthera (Asclepiadaceae) and Scaphochlamys (Zingiberaceae) and

the two dipterocarps, Dipterocarpus elongatus and Shorea ochrophloia.

Introduction

In 1994, Turner reported the flora of the vascular plants of Singapore to

number 2277 species in 868 genera and 158 families. New records (those

not listed by Turner, 1993) continue to be added and 18 of these are

already published (Turner et al. 1994, 1997).

Here we list a further 28 species. Of these, a few are previously

overlooked species, such as Hedyotis verticillata, Ichnocarpus serpyllifolius,

Piper macropiper and Xanthophyllum amoenum that were in fact collected

many years ago. Many were recorded when plots were set up in the

Central Catchment Nature Reserve (which includes the MacRitchie area

and the Nee Soon Freshwater Swamp) as part of a survey commissioned

by the National Parks Board, which was carried out in 1992 and 1993

(Wong et al., 1994). However, even a forest as well known as the Bukit

Timah Nature Reserve continues to turn up new records. Perhaps more

surprising is that some of these are large canopy trees, such as Shorea

ochrophloia, that are visible from commonly walked trails (Lum and Sharp,

1996).

All specimens cited here are lodged at SING.

New Records

Apocynaceae A/stonia macrophylla Wall. ex G. Don

Singapore (without locality) N. Cantley s.n. — 1880s; Pulau Sentosa

Heaslett s.n. — 29 Jan 1973, Mount Faber Sao Kyi Win 24/AmI — 16 June

1983.

50 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Also observed in Pierce Reservoir area, Central Catchment Nature Reserve.

Distribution: Indo-China and Thailand south to Sulawesi.

Apocynaceae A/stonia pneumatophora Back. ex L.G. den Berger

MacRitchie area, Central Catchment Nature Reserve Wong, Ali & Chew

15 — Aug 1994.

Also observed from Nee Soon Stream near Lorong Banir and a fine tree

with a 3.4 m girth grows in the Zoological Garden, Mandai.

Distribution: Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Riouw, Borneo

and Sulawesi.

Apocynaceae Chonemorpha fragrans (Moon) Alston

Nee Soon Firing Ranges, Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Joseph Lai

& Ali Ibrahim LJ 102 — 5 Nov 1996.

Distribution: India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore

and Java.

Apocynaceae /chnocarpus serpyllifolius (Blume) P.I. Forster

This common, but overlooked, species was first identified by David

Middleton and Ali Ibrahim. This enabled a specimen, unnumbered and

undated (although the label indicated that it had been collected in the

1920s) that had long lain in the herbarium unidentified even to its family

(accession number 082726) to be identified. The collector is recorded as

Barnay Batto and the notes on the label read: “The leaf is used for those

who got smallpox is make into powder and with little safron is mixed with

run over the body.”

Recent collections include:

Bukit Timah Nature Reserve Ali Ibrahim AI 212 — 14 September 1994;

Nura A. Karim et al. NK 255 — 14 December 1995.

Distribution: Peninsular Thailand, Sumatra, Java, Peninsular Malaysia,

Singapore, Borneo, the Philippines and Sulawesi.

Apocynaceae Kibatalia maingayi (Hook. f.) Woodson

Nee Soon, Central Catchment Nature Reserve Wong, Ali & Chew 1 — 29

Oct 1092.

Also observed from Upper Seletar Reservoir Park and Nee Soon Firing

Ranges.

Distribution: Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Banka and Borneo.

Apocynaceae Urceola elastica Roxb.

Bukit Timah Nature Reserve EF. Tang & Hj. Sidek Kiah 996 — 12 Oct

1995.

Distribution: Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore.

New Records of Plant Species from Singapore |

Asclepiadaceae Gymnanthera oblonga (Burm. f.) P.S. Green

Jurong, Science Centre Jennifer Ng s.n. - 1 April 1983; Changi Point

mangrove Ali Ibrahim AI 139 — Sept 1991; Changi (Loyang Avenue

Swamp) Joseph Lai & Samsuri LJ 282 — 25 Nov 1997.

Distribution: Thailand, Singapore, Java, the Philippines and south to

northern Australia. The characteristic habitat of this species is the landward

side of mangroves. The fact that it is not yet recorded from Peninsular

Malaysia suggests that it has probably been overlooked rather than

representing a gap in its geographic distribution.

Burseraceae Dacryodes rugosa (Blume) H.J. Lam

Bukit Timah Nature Reserve Mohd Shah & Samsuri MS 3893 — 5 Suly

1976.

Distribution: S. Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, W. Java and

Borneo.

Cucurbitaceae Gymnopetalum integrifolium (Roxb.) Kurz

Singapore Quarry, Bukit Timah. Ali [brahim & S.C. Chin AI 241 — 2 Sept

1994.

Distributiopn: W. India to Indo-China and south to Java.

Cucurbitaceae Mukia maderaspatana (L.) M.J. Roem.

Khatib Bongsu (secondary vegetation) E. Tang & Hj. Sidek Kiah 1306 —

23 Feb 1998.

There is a single specimen from Malaysia, /.G. Reed s.n. — 7 April 1941,

from Bagan Datoh, Perak. Apparently it is an incidental introduction from

southern India as Reed records its name in Tamil as Masu masukai.

Distribution: India south to Australia.

Dipterocarpaceae Dipterocarpus elongatus Korth.

McRitchie Reservoir, Central Catchment Nature Reserve J. Sinclair SFN

40673 — 14 July 1955, 7.C. Whitmore 66 — 14 Feb 1957; Mandai, Central

Catchment Nature Reserve. Wong, Ali & Chew 2 — 16 Nov 1992.

Distribution: E. Sumatra, E. Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore and Borneo.

Dipterocarpaceae Shorea ochrophloia Strugnell ex Symington

Mandai, Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Ali Ibrahim et al. AI 24 — 7

July 1994.

Also observed from the MacRitchie area and Bukit Timah Nature Reserve.

Distribution: W. Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore.

Euphorbiaceae Aporosa miqueliana Mull.Arg.

Upper Pierce area, Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Wong, Ali & Chew

4 — 14 Oct 1992.

Distribution: Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore.

52 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Euphorbiaceae Baccaurea brevipes Hook. f.

Bukit Timah Nature Reserve. E. Tang & Hj. Sidek 1040 — 9 Nov 1995,

1292 — 23 May 1996.

Distribution: Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore and Borneo.

Euphorbiaceae Trigonostemon villosus Hook. f.

Mandai, next to Mandai Columbarium. Joseph Lai & Ali Ibrahim LJ 22 —

11 Dec 1995; Mandai, Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Joseph Lai &

Ali Ibrahim LJ 80 — 15 Oct 1996.

Distribution: Peninsular Malaysia (south from Perak and Trengganu) and

Singapore.

Guttiferae Garcinia maingayi Hook. f. var. stylosa King

Both the species and variety are new records for Singapore.

Seletar, Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Wong, Ali & Chew 6 — 21

ec t992.

Distribution: This variety is confined to Peninsular Malaysia (Perak and

Johore) and Singapore.

Leguminosae /ntsia palembanica Miq.

In Singapore, this species is represented by a majestic individual on the

summit of Bukit Timah Hill, identified by Ali Ibrahim.

Distribution: Thailand to W. New Guinea.

Meliaceae Aglaia leucophylla King

Mandai, Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Wong, Ali & Chew 9 — 23

Nov 1992.

Distribution: Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Borneo and _ the

Philippines.

Meliaceae Aglaia malaccensis (Ridl.) Pannell

Bukit Timah Nature Reserve Liew SFN 37278 — 4 July 1941; MacRitchie

area, Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Wong, Ali & Chew 17 — Oct

1992; Bukit Kallang, Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Joseph Lai &

Ali Ibrahim LJ 94 — 29 Oct 1996.

Distribution: Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore and Borneo.

Meliaceae Chisocheton sarawakanus (C. DC.) Harms

Mandai, Cantral Catchment Nature Reserve. Wong, Ali & Chew 10 — 23

Nov 1992.

Distribution: Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Banka and Borneo.

Pandaceae Galearia maingayi Hook. f.

Botanic Gardens Jungle E.J.H. Corner SFN 32519 — 16 Nov 1936; Bukit

Timah Nature Reserve E.J.H. Corner SFN 33588 — 6 July 1937, SFN

New Records of Plant Species from Singapore oo

36410 — 25 April 1939.

Distribution: Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore and Borneo.

Piperaceae Piper macropiper Pennant

Bukit Mandai Nangchi s.n. — 19 April 1887; Krangi Forest Reserve J.S.

Goodenough s.n. — 8 April 1890; Tuas J.S. Goodenough 4684 — 29 May

1890; Chan Chu Kang H.N. Ridley 6153 — 1894, s.n. — Feb 1896; Bukit

Timah Nature Reserve Chew W.L. 1442 — 30 May 1967; Nee Soon Firing

Ranges, Central Catchment Nature Reserve Joseph Lai LJ 99 — 5 Nov

1996.

Distribution: India and Sri Lanka, south to New Guinea and the Solomon

Islands.

Polygalaceae Xanthophyllum amoenum Chodat

Bukit Timah Nature Reserve E.J/.H. Corner s.n. — Nov 1943; McRitchie

area, Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Wong, Ali & Chew 12 — 17

Sept 1992.

Distribution: Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Riouw and Borneo.

Rubiaceae Geophila repens (L.) I.M. Johnst. var. asiatica (Cham. & Schltdl.)

Fosberg

Fort Canning Park Ali Ibrahim & Saifuddin AI 279 — 17 March 1998.

This species is quite widespread in Singapore and populations are known

from Fort Canning Park, Makeway Avenue, Mount Emily Park and Pearl’s

Hill City Park.

Distribution: Indo-Malaya and China, south to Peninsular Malaysia,

Singapore and Java.

Rubiaceae Hedyotis verticillata (L.) Lam

Chua Chu Kang Ridley s.n. — Feb 1894; Sultan of Johore’s Land, Tanglin

Joseph Lai LJ 114 — 12 Dec 1996.

Distribution: India to Java.

Sapindaceae Lepisanthes senegalensis (Poir.) Leenh.

Mandai Road, Track 7 Joseph Lai LJ 181 — 11 Feb 1997.

Also observed from MacRitchie area, Central Catchment Nature Reserve.

Distribution: Africa to New Guinea.

Sterculiaceae Prerospermum lancifolium Roxb.

Singapore (locality and collector unknown) Accession No. 075943, 075944

— 1880s; Fort Canning Road Ridley s.n. — 1902, Joseph Lai LJ 180 — 10

Jan 1997.

Distribution: India (NW Himalayas), Myanmar, Thailand and Peninsular

Malaysia. Singapore appears to be the southernmost locality for this species.

54 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Zingiberaceae Scaphochlamys tenuis Holttum

Bukit Timah Nature Reserve H. Kennedy & E.P. Tay 4462A — 16 Aug

1983.

Distribution: Peninsular Malaysia (previously known only from the type

collection from Trengganu) and Singapore.

This is the first record of the genus Schaphochlamys from Singapore and

was identified by Kai Larsen. Another plant with the same number (4462B)

was tentatively identified by Kai Larsen as Schaphochlamys aff. breviscape

Holttum but this has yet to be confirmed.

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to Ruth Kiew for help in writing this paper.

References

Lum, S. and I. Sharp (eds). 1996. A View from the Summit. The Story of

Bukit Timah Nature Reserve. Nanyang Technical University Singapore,

National University Singapore and National Parks Board Singapore.

Turner, I.M. 1993. The names used for Singapore plants since 1900. Gardens’

Bulletin Singapore. 45: 1-287.

Turner, I. M. 1994. The taxonomy and ecology of the vascular plant flora

of Singapore: a statistical analysis. Botanical Journal Linnean Society.

114: 215-227.

Turner, I.M., H.T.W. Tan and K.S. Chua. 1994. Additions to the flora of

Singapore, II. Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore. 42: 131-135.

Turner, I.M., H.T.W. Tan, E.E.L. Seah, A.H.B. Loo and Ali Ibrahim.

1997. Additions to the Flora of Singapore, III. Gardens’ Bulletin

Singapore. 49:1-5.

Wong, Y.K., P.T. Chew and Ali Ibrahim. 1994. The tree communities of

the Central Catchment Nature Reserve, Singapore. Gardens’ Bulletin

Singapore. 46: 37-78.

Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 55-100.

The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6

Caesalpiniaceae

A.H.B. Loo AnD H.T.W. TAN

School of Biological Sciences, The National University of Singapore

10 Kent Ridge Crescent, Singapore 119260.

Major references: R.Br. in M. Flinders, Voy. Terra austral. 2 (1814) 550;

R.S. Cowan in Polhill & Raven (eds.) 1(1981) 57-64; L. Watson & Dallwitz,

Gen. Leg. — Caesalpinioideae (1983) 95 pp.; Ding Hou, K. Larsen & S.S.

Larsen, Fl. Males. 1:12 (1996) 409-730.

Caesalpinioideae Kunth

Trees, lianas or herbs to shrubs; evergreen or deciduous, armed

(Caesalpinia) or not, rarely tendrilled (Bauhinia); sometimes buttressed

(Koompassia, Intsia). Leaves simple, pinnate or bipinnate; alternate;

petiolate; pinna and pinnules usually stalked, stipleless; extrafloral glands

sometimes present on leaves (/ntsia) or leaf-axes (Chamaecrista, Senna);

stipules paired, usually caducous. /nflorescence a raceme or panicle, singly

or in fascicles; axillary, terminal on branches, or cauliflorous. Flowers

usually bisexual, rarely unisexual (Caesalpinia bonduc), zygomorphic,

usually 5-merous except for the gynoecium, perigynous; sepals (4-)5, usually

free, rarely connate to form a calyx tube, usually imbricate; petals 5,

sometimes reduced to (1-) 4 or absent (Dialium), imbricate, the adaxial

petal overlapped by lateral petals (when these are present), often clawed,

often unequal; stamens 10, or through reduction 9, 7—2, or in female flowers

absent, filaments free or basally connate, anthers basi- or dorsi-fixed, often

versatile, longitudinally dehiscent or by apical (and basal) pores; ovary 1-

loculate, with lor few to many anatropous ovules often superposed in 2

rows on either side of the adaxial suture, usually flattened, stipitate to

sessile; style often recurved, short or long; stigma capitate or peltate, large

to indistinct; hypanthium usually cupular, + oblique, short. Fruit a legume,

drupe (Dialium) or samara (Koompassia); legume compressed, oblong to

linear, indehiscent or not, valves chartaceous, coriaceous or woody; drupes

and samaras, indehiscent, rarely with pulp (Dialium), glabrous, pubescent

to spinescent. Seeds 1-many per legume, varying in shape, often flattened,

exendospermous; testa membraneous, coriaceous or crustose, rarely areolate

(Senna), rarely arillate (Sindora); cotyledons fleshy or foliaceous, radicle

straight.

56 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Distribution — Predominantly tropical group of c. 160 genera with c.

2000 spp. (Hou ef al., 1996). In Singapore, there are 10 genera with 20 spp.

Ecology — Wide range of habitats including primary and secondary

forest, coastal beach forest, mangrove, wasteland, abandoned villages and

farmland.

Uses — See under species.

Notes — This family has traditionally been treated as a subfamily

(Caesalpinioideae) of the family Leguminosae (e.g., Bentham (1865),

Taubert (1894), Whitmore (1973) and Corner (1988) but here treated as a

family in agreement with Cronquist (1981) and Hou et al. (1996). The

primary reason is the distinction between three basic groups within the

legumes sensu lato is clear. Moreover, in this treatment no emphasis is laid

on the borderline Dimorphandra group sensu Polhill and Vidal (between

Mimosaceae and Caesalpiniaceae) and tribe Swartzieae (between

Caesalpiniaceae and Papilionaceae) as they are not found in Singapore.

Key to the Genera

la. Leaves simple; lamina bilobed with an apical sinus a quarter to a third

of the lamina length, venation palmate; tendrilled .............. Bauhinia

1b. Leaves pinnately compound; pinna or pinnule lamina margins entire,

venation pinnate; mot tendriled? 2.3 20005,0.5.00i. ae ee 2

Bl CAVES WHDUITIALE Boones cc yp acesdeie<sndacenesaivenqeaccedescu.Ue ase nena eee le

ZRy MAVES PORUNARE lee cea ccesrreiccen yes ciabees cates benspeupaceapnedaes eae Eee ~

3a. Prickly climbers (rarely shrubs or trees). Lowermost sepal mostly

cucullate. Stigma small, as wide as the style................... Caesalpinia

3b. Unarmed trees. Lowermost sepal unmodified. Stigma large, peltate

sistant ig apace forbes te LPR Medes tei eee el Ma pea ene Peltophorum

MAS OL AVES TAT RNIN eT otis asad coon otic aedan cee te eed lente eee 5

AD > SiCAVES. PALIQUINGS nels teeseonek seach eigsoteveepeneessnssucsesscoxt atone ey eee 6

5a. Midrib minutely puberulous above. Petals 5. Fruit a samara

SEN ESSA HOPE MASE TAADH ep N able ch tcyslib al boiN) Ubi fyi a laid nso gac Koompassia

5b. Midrib glabrous above. Petals absent. Fruit a drupe ......... Dialium

The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6

Caesalpiniaceae ay.

6a. Trees. Legumes oblong, orbicular or subglobose, 1—6-seeded........ i

6b. Herbs to shrubs. Legumes long and narrow, >10-seeded................ e)

7a. Pinnae unequal, lowermost pair if present usually very much smaller.

Petals (4-)5. Legume subglobose, deeply rugose ............. Cynometra

7b. Pinnae + equal, lowermost pair not markedly smaller than the others.

Petal! Lepume flattened) smooth: or spinescent :.../.......100...0ce.. 8

8a. Pinnae with a thickened marginal nerve. Fertile stamens usually 9,

basally connate into a hirsute sheath. Legume elliptic to orbicular.

Be ae ea Lt eget ee tee Ue ca, sic de vsncbnmladelUeend devsloaesaptbaccees Sindora

8b. Pinnae without a thickened marginal nerve. Fertile stamens 3(-4),

ime eocamnc oplong: | Scedsvexarillate .:1.)2/./i side euacli.. Intsia

9a. Pinnae linear or falciform, sessile. Anther-thecae ciliate along the

sutures. Legume elastically dehiscent, valves coiling «0.0... eee

Me eee hE A AOE Waki ccascavncs caky eionedioouee<oseyehs Chamaecrista

9b. Pinnae (oblong-)elliptic, ovate or obovate, stalked. Anther-thecae

glabrous. Legume either indehiscent or dehiscent through 1 or both

une taniecrens WUUV er TAO COMIN ae riick. saa bredelecsondedlina stab elicccseorae Senna

Bauhinia L.

Sp. pl. 1 (1753) 374; DC., Prodr. 2 (1825) 512; R.P.Wunderlin, K. Larsen &

S.S. Larsen, Biol. Skr. danske Vidensk Selsk. 28 (1987) 18; Watson &

Dallwitz, Gen. Leg. — Caesalpinioideae (1983) 12, 47.

Bauhinia subg. Phanera sect. Phanera (Lour.) Wunderlin, Larsen &

Larsen

Phanera subg. Phanera sect. Meganthera de Wit

Tendrilled lianas; stem dbh <15 cm, young branches brownish

pubescent, later glabrous. Leaves simple; lamina bilobed, palmately nerved,

glabrous above, mucronate; petiole brownish pubescent; stipules ovate,

falcate, puberulous, caducous. Raceme terminal or axillary, axis rusty brown

to silvery pubescent. Flowers bisexual, zygomorphic, alternate; bracts

lanceolate, early caducous; bracteoles linear, early caducous; calyx 5-lobed,

sepals longer than the hypanthium, rusty brown or silky white pubescent

outside; petals 5, shortly clawed, subequal, standard smaller with a hairier

claw; stamens 3, staminodes 2-3, anthers dorsifixed and versatile, dehiscence

58 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

longitudinal; ovary densely pubescent, stipitate; style widened just before

the peltate and capitate stigma; hypanthium long tubular with an orifice

near the standard; flower buds oblong-apiculate. Legume tardily dehiscent,

valves woody. Seeds ellipsoid to orbicular, flat with short funicular aril-

lobes.

Distribution — Bauhinia s. l. has about 300 spp. all over the tropics

with 69 spp. in Malesia and the section Phanera sensu Wunderlin, Larsen

& Larsen has about 60 spp. in South and South-east Asia (Larsen and

Larsen, 1996). In Singapore there is only one indigenous species.

Ecology — Lianas in primary and secondary forests, also in freshwater

swamps; fringing the forests or along trails and streams.

Uses — Various Bauhinia spp. are used as ornamental trees (B.

purpurea L., B. variegata L.), shrubs (B. acuminata L.) or climbers (B.

kockiana Korth.).

Notes — In the past, some authors split Bauhinia s. |. into several

distinct genera (e.g., de Wit (1956) who recognized 7 genera) as this large

genus included a wide range of habits like lianas, shrubs or trees. More

recently, Larsen & Larsen (1996) studied the genus throughout its

distribution and found it to be a natural group with a reticulate pattern of

variation. Bauhinia ferruginea vat. griffithiana (A.H.B. Loo & T.M. Leong

ALoo 064) was found near the Visitors’ Centre of Bukit Timah Nature

Reserve. Although it is not considered a native or naturalized species in

Singapore, it regenerates within the vicinity of adult plants; so its distribution

in Singapore should be monitored over time to see if this species becomes

naturalized.

1. B. semibifida Roxb. ex Roxb. var. semibifida

Fl. Ind., ed Carey, 2 (1832) 330; Ridl., J. Straits Br. R. Asiat. Soc. 33 (1900)

75; Ridl., Fl. Malay Penins. 1 (1922) 627; de Wit , Reinwardtia 3 (1956)

465; H. Keng, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 27 (1974) 256; H. Keng, Concise FI.

Singapore (1990) 32; ILM. Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore

natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19 (1990) 72; I.M. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45

(1993) 118; ILM. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 47 (1995) 294; Ding Hou,

K. Larsen & S.S. Larsen, Fl. Males. 1:12 (1996) 492.

Phanera semibifida (Roxb.) Benth.

The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6

Caesalpiniaceae 59

COO TT

ye a

Figure 1. Bauhinia semibifida Roxb. ex Roxb. var. semibifida. a. Inflorescence; b. Split legumes

with valves open and separate showing seeds; c. Flower bud; d. Top view of flower; e. Left,

leaf from a flowering branch (abaxial); right, leaf from a vegetative branch (adaxial); f. Left,

complete half-flower; right - mature standard petal having turned yellow from white. (Each

interval on scale bar equivalent to 1 mm). (A.H.B. Loo, A. Ibrahim, E.E.L. Seah & J. Lai

A.Loo 084)

60 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Young branches brownish pubescent. Laminas orbicular, 4-9 cm

across, chartaceous, 11-nerved, brownish pubescent below, apical sinus a

quarter to a third the lamina length, tips obtuse to subacute, base cordate;

petiole 1-5 cm long, pubescent; stipules c. 2 by 1 mm. Raceme to 45 cm

long, rusty tomentose. Flowers fragrant; sepals 5, reflexed, lanceolate, c. 2

cm long, caducous; petals 5, white turning yellow, oblanceolate with a

short claw, 20-40 by 8-13 mm, claw and the base of the midrib puberulous;

stamens 3, filaments white, 1—2.5 cm long, anthers dorsifixed, versatile, c. 1

cm long; staminodes to 1 cm long; ovary 2-4 cm long, silky tomentose,

stipitate; stigma, white-green, c. 1 cm long; receptacle tubular; pedicel 2-5

cm long. Legume flat, oblong, c. 10 by 4cm. Seeds 4-6 per legume, flat,

hilum seven eighths the seed circumference.

Distribution — Singapore: fairly common; Botanic Gardens’ Jungle,

Bukit Kallang, Central Catchment Nature Reserve, Clementi Road;

previously found in Bukit Mandai, Bukit Timah. Sumatra, Peninsular

Malaysia, Borneo, Philippines, Celebes (Larsen and Larsen, 1996). The

most widespread species of the genus.

Ecology — Forest edge and streams; flowering in June to July,

October to December. Legumes reach maturity about one month after

flowering. Ants are attracted to the secretions from the flowers and

Lepidopteran larvae were observed on the peltate stigma which had a

clear sticky secretion. Dispersal is by explosion and torsion of the legumes

(Ridley, 1930).

Uses — Pounded roots are used as a treatment for veneral disease

(de Wit, 1956).

Notes — There are five other varieties occurring in Malesia (four in

Borneo and one in the Philippines). Throughout its distribution, var.

semibifida is distinguished from the others in having a long tubular

hypanthium dilated at the base (versus a short, uniformly wide hypanthium)

, leaves on flowering shoots 4-11 cm across (versus leaves 11-18 cm across)

and the apical sinus 1/4—-1/2 the leaf length (versus a deep apical sinus

more than 1/2 the leaf length).

Caesalpinia L.

Sp. pl. (1753) 380; Gen. pl. ed. 5 (1754) 178; Hattink, Reinwardtia 9 (1974)

1-69; Polhill and Vidal in Polhill and Raven (eds.), Adv. Leg. Syst. 1

(1981) 93.

The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6

Caesalpiniaceae 61

Cinclidocarpus Zoll.

Guilandinia L.

Mezoneuron Dest.

Poinciana L.

Lianas or half-climbers, armed with recurved or straight prickles.

Leaves bipinnate; rachis armed with paired prickles below the insertion of

pinnae and pinnules with scattered ones in between; pinnae opposite;

pinnules opposite, alternate or rarely subopposite, sessile or subsessile.

Inflorescence a raceme or panicle (raceme of racemes); axillary, terminal

or rarely supra-axillary; bracts mostly caducous; bracteoles absent. Flowers

usually bisexual, sometimes unisexual, zygomorphic; sepals 5, free or

connate, subequal, lower one usually cucullate; petals 5, yellow, orange,

pink or rarely green, usually spathulate, clawed, unequal, standard differing

in shape and size; stamens 10, free, equal or alternately narrow and wide,

anthers dorsifixed and longitudinally dehiscent; ovary flat, sessile or

subsessile; style + curved upwards, slender; stigma usually as wide as the

style; hypanthium oblique, cupular; pedicels sometimes articulated.

Legumes usually smooth or sometimes armed with spines, winged along

the dorsal suture or not, dehiscent or not. Seeds 1-8 per legume, orbicular

to oblong, flat or globose.

Distribution — Pantropical genus with 18 indigenous species found

all over Malesia (Hou, 1996a). Four indigenous species are found in

Singapore.

Ecology — The Singapore species are found in beach forest and

back-mangrove or further inland, in primary or secondary forests along

trails or near streams.

Uses — See under individual species.

Notes — Recurved prickles may be set on top of woody triangular

knobs in old stems for C. crista (Fig. 2) and C. sumatrana.

Key to Species

la. Stipules pinnatifid, large, each lobe orbicular to 2.5 cm across; pinnae

prolonged to ac. 5 mm long mucro. Branches pubescent, armed with

straight and recurved prickles. Flowers unisexual (in male flowers,

carpel rudimentary, 1-2 mm long; in female flowers anthers without

1b.

2a.

2b.

3a.

3b.

Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

pollen); ovary densely spiny; petals green-yellow; style pubescent.

Legumes densely spiny, pubescent, dehiscent. Seeds with lines

concentne about the tilt (2.0020.5, 202.0... eee 1. C. bonduc

Stipules simple and triangular, minute or absent, c. 1 by 1 mm; pinnae

not prolonged into a mucro. Branches glabrous, armed only with

recurved prickles. Flowers bisexual, ovary inermous; bracts

inconspicuous or early caducous, 1-2 mm long, straight, not longer

than bud; petals orange, pink or yellow; style glabrous or only sparsely

puberulous basally. Legumes inermous, glabrous, indehiscent. Seeds

without concentric lines’.....4/..0.0.25 QAR ee 2

Pinnules sessile, 2-6 mm wide, linear, base oblique and truncate,

tapering to a point or a minute mucro on the distal side, in 12-30 pairs

per pinna, membranous; rachis pubescent, 30-—45(—70) cm long.

Branchlets lenticellate. Petals orange. Legumes often twisted, base

rounded. Seeds subglobose, c. 10 mm across .............. 4. C. tortuosa

Pinnules with a 2-4 mm long stalk, 10-50 mm wide, elliptic or ovate-

elliptic or oblong, base cuneate, not tapering on any side, in 1-6 pairs

per pinna, subcoriaceous to coriaceous; rachis glabrous, 10—30 cm long.

Branchlets without lenticels. Petals yellow or pink. Legumes not

twisted, base cuneate: Seeds flat, c. 1-5 mmthick 2.2) 2.2 eee 3

Pinnules alternate (but topmost pair often opposite), in 3-6 pairs per

pinna, widely elliptic to oblong, dull above, sometimes puberulous

below, apex retuse or rounded; pinnae in 4-8 pairs. Petals pink;

sepals connate to a campaniform calyx tube. Legumes chartaceous,

winged dorso-longitudinally (c. 1 cm wide), 10 cm long or more, apex

rounded or hooked. Seeds 1-8 per legume, clearly outlined on the

surface of the legume. Ovary glabrous, slightly falcate; filaments

laterally compressed, alternately a narrow and wide one, glabrous or

puberulous: basally... 2.04.06 cae Se ee eee 3. C. sumatrana

Pinnules opposite, in 1-3 pairs pairs per pinna, elliptic to ovate elliptic,

shiny above, glabrous on both surfaces, apex obtuse, acute or

acuminate; pinnae in 2-4 pairs. Petals yellow; sepals free, not forming

a calyx tube. Legumes woody, not winged, 7 cm long or less, apex

beaked. Seeds 1(—2) per legume, not outlined on the surface of the

legume. Ovary puberulous, straight; filaments terete, pubescent to

MDOVE TS MUONS 4 ins) Oa ierdnvietio ies cd idetenols Canee ee s 2. C. crista

1. C. bonduc (L.) Roxb.

Fl. Ind., ed. Carey, 2 (1832) 362; L., Sp. pl., (1753) 381; Ridl., Fl. Malay

The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6

Caesalpiniaceae 63

Penins. 1 (1922) 649; Hattink, Reinwardtia 9 (1974) 17; H. Keng, Gdns’

Bull., Singapore 27 (1974) 256; K. Larsen, S.S. Larsen & J.E. Vidal, FI.

Thailand 4 (1984) 72; H. Keng, Concise Fl. Singapore (1990) 32; I.M.

Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19

(1990) 72; ILM. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45 (1993) 118; I.M. Turner,

Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 47 (1995) 295.

Half-climbers to 15 m long. Leaves: rachis 15-80 cm long; pinnae in

3-9 pairs, 8-18 cm long; pinnules in 5-10 pairs per pinna, opposite or

rarely subopposite, elliptic-oblong, 2—5.5 by 1-2 cm, pubescent to glabrous,

apex mucronate, stalk 1-2 mm long. Panicle supra-axillary or terminal,

12-60 cm long, pubescent. Flowers: sepals ovate, equal or rarely subequal,

7-9 by 3-4 mm, pubescent; standard petal: limb reflexed, with red patches,

4-5 by 3-4 mm, claw 34 by 1-2 mm, other 4 petals: spathulate, 8-10 by 3-

4 mm (including c. 2 mm long, woolly claw); stamens 6-10 mm long (in

female flowers 5-6 mm long staminodes), lower half woolly, anthers c. 1

mm long; ovary c. 3 by 2 mm; style 3-4 mm long; stigma ciliate; pedicel 4—

5 mm long, articulated. Legume oblong, 6.5—9 by 3.5-4.5 cm, stipitate to 6

mm long, remnant style c. 10 mm long. Seeds 1-2 per legume, grey, globular,

1.5—2 cm across.

Distribution — Singapore: only two plants known; Pulau Sakijang

Pelepah (extreme South), Pulau Semakau (North-west). Previously found

in East Coast Park beach, Pulau Senang (South-east side). Pantropical; in

Malesia all parts, but distinctly scarce in the rain forests of Sumatra, Borneo,

the Philippines and western New Guinea (Hattink, 1974).

Ecology — Coastal, beach forest and back-mangrove to inland, in

secondary forests. Flowers and fruits can occur together without periodicity.

Legumes dispersed by floating in the sea (Ridley, 1930).

Uses — The seeds are used as an anthelminthic, vermifuge, chewed

for coughs or eaten for stomach trouble as well as for curing gout (Burkill,

1935). The attractive, hard seeds are used ornamentally as beads in

necklaces, rosaries and also used as marbles (Rudd, 1991), hence the name

“grey knicker” which refers to the game of marbles played by children. In

Somoa and Tonga, the prickly stems, attached to a stick are used to snare

fruit bats (Whistler, 1992).

2. C. crista L.

Sp. pl. (1753) 380; Ridl., J. Straits Br. R. Asiat. Soc. 33 (1900) 75; Ridl., FI.

64 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

“MA

Net SON os

\ : a oF “ss

od recente %

. - Sa x ills sapere OM AE Ry, OP % ug

<7 ma’ eS a te

Figure 2. Caesalpinia crista L. Stem showing characteristic recurved prickles set on top of

corky knobs.

Malay Penins. 1 (1922) 650; Sinclair, Gdns’. Bull., Singapore 14 (1953) 32;

Backer & Bakh. f,, Fl. Java 1 (1964) 545; Hattink, Reinwardtia 9 (1974) 20;

H. Keng, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 27 (1974) 256; K. Larsen, S.S. Larsen &

J.E. Vidal, Fl. Thailand 4 (1984) 70; H. Keng, Concise Fl. Singapore (1990)

32; I.M. Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore natn. Acad. Sci. 18

& 19 (1990) 72; ILM. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45 (1993) 118; I.M.

Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 47 (1995) 295.

Caesalpinia nuga (L) Ait-f.

Lianas to 15 m long; branchlets glossy. Leaves: rachis 10-30 cm long;

pinnae 3.5~9 cm long; pinnules opposite or rarely subopposite, 2—12.5 by

1-5 cm, subcoriaceous, base cuneate or rounded; petiolules 2-4 mm long;

stipules, triangular, c. 1 by 1 mm, caducous. Panicle axillary or terminal,

15-40 cm long; bracts c. 1mm long, caducous. Flowers: sepals unequal, 7-8

by 2-3 mm (lowest one cucullate); standard petal: limb reflexed, orbicular,

c.5 mm across, claw c. 5 by 2 mm, pubescent, other 4 petals: obovate, 8-10

by 5-6 mm (including c. 2 mm long pubescent claw); stamens 10-14 mm

long, anthers c. 1 mm long; ovary c. 5 by 2 mm; style c. 8 mm long,

glabrous; stigma ciliate; pedicel 5-15 mm long, articulated c. 1 mm below

The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6

Caesalpiniaceae 65

Figure 3. Caesalpinia crista L. a. Fruiting branch; b. Legume with one side removed to show

seed (Tanaka, Chen & Boo A.Loo 005); c. Isolated carpel on hypanthium; d. Isolated stamen

(SING 078418); m. Side view of flower; n. Standard petal (After Verdcourt, 1979). Caesalpinia

sumatrana Roxb. e. Winged legume; f. Seed; g. Alternate pinnules of a pinna (H. N. Ridley

2105); h. Isolated falcate ovary (Mat 6028). Caesalpinia tortuosa Roxb. i. Legume; j. One pair

of sessile pinnules; k. Isolated stamen; |. Isolated carpel on hypanthium. (King’s Collector

L10014).

66 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

the flower. Legume green turning brown, subelliptic or rhombic, flat, 4~7

by 3-4 cm, smooth, veined. Seeds brown, orbicular to reniform, 2—2.5 by

1.5—2 by 0.5-1 cm.

Distribution — Singapore: fairly common; Pulau Sakijang Pelepah,

Pulau Semakau (West), Pulau Tekong, Pulau Tekong Kechil, Pulau

Terkukor, Sembawang Road end, Sungei Buloh Nature Park, Sungei

Mandai Kechil (Kampong Fatimah), Western Catchment Area; previously

collected in Jurong, Kranji. Coastal parts of South-east Asia from India to

the Ryuku Islands, Australia (Queensland), Palau Island, New Caledonia;

all over Malesia except East Sumatra and East Borneo (Hattink, 1974).

Ecology — River banks, sandy beaches, in back-mangrove and its

fringes. Mature plants may have stems to c. 10 cm thick that are covered

by triangular woody knobs with recurved prickles set at the tip (Fig. 2).

Periodicity for flowering and fruiting not found (Hattink, 1974). Legumes

dispersed by floating (Ridley, 1930).

Uses — As for C. bonduc.

3. C. sumatrana Roxb.

Fl. Ind., ed. Carey 2 (1832) 366; Baker in J.D. Hook., Fl. Brit. India 2

(1879) 259; Ridl., J. Straits Br. R. Asiat. Soc. 33 (1900) 75; Ridl., Fl. Malay

Penins. 1 (1922) 647; Backer & Bakh. f,, Fl. Java 1 (1964) 546; Hattink,

Reinwardtia 9 (1974) 55; I.M. Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J.

Singapore natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19 (1990) 72; H. Keng, Gdns’ Bull.,

Singapore 27 (1974) 262; H. Keng, Concise Fl. Singapore (1991) 36; I.M.

Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45 (1993).118; I.M. Turner, Gdns’ Bull.,

Singapore 47 (1995) 295; Ding Hou, Fl. Males. 1:12 (1996) 553.

Mezoneuron sumatranum (Roxb.) W. & A. ex Mig.

Climbers to 20 m long; branchlets glossy. Leaves: rachis 16-20 cm

long; pinnae 6-15 cm long; pinnules 2-7 by 1—5.5 cm, subcoriaceous, apex

sometimes shortly mucronate, base cuneate to rounded; petiolules 2-4 mm

long. Panicle supra-axillary or terminal, 30-80 cm long; bracts c. 1 by 0.5

mm, caducous. Flowers: calyx tube red, c. 1.3 by 0.5 cm, circumscissle

above the hypanthium and falling off with the corolla and stamens, calyx

lobes half-orbicular, 3-10 mm long, lowest one cucullate; petals spathulate,

subequal, 12-30 mm long, limb 8-12 mm wide, basal part 2-3 mm wide;

filaments pale pink, 10-29 mm long, anthers 1.5—3 mm long; ovary falcate,

The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6

Caesalpiniaceae 67

4-15 by 1-2 mm; style 6-15 by 0.5 mm; stigma ciliate; pedicel 5-20 mm

long. Legume wine-red, oblong, 10-17 by 3-6 cm (including the c. 1 cm

wide wing). Seeds brown, broadly elliptic, 9-11 by 7 by 1 mm, smooth,

margins nerved.

Distribution — Singapore: rare, Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (along

the Rock Path and Cave Path); previously collected in Kranji, Sungei

Jurong. Possibly collected in India. Malesia: Sumatra (West Coast

Bengkulu), Peninsular Malaysia, West and East Java, Borneo (near

Sandakan); New Guinea, Solomons (Guadalcanal) (Hattink, 1974).

Ecology — Forest fringes, along forest trails and in late secondary

forests. Like C. crista, mature climbers of C. sumatrana also have thick

stems with recurved prickles set on top of woody knobs. The knobs of this

species are more closely set than in C. crista.

Uses — None known.

4. C. tortuosa Roxb.

Fl. Ind. ed. Carey 2 (1832) 365; Baker in J.D. Hook., Fl. Brit. India 2

(1879) 256, 257; Ridl., J. Straits Br. R. Asiat. Soc. 33 (1900) 75; Ridl., FI.

Malay Penins. 1 (1922) 651; Hattink, Reinwardtia 9 (1974) 57; H. Keng,

Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 27 (1974) 256; I.M. Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W.

Tan, J. Singapore natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19 (1990) 72; H. Keng, Concise FI.

Singapore (1991) 32; I.M. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45 (1993) 118;

I.M. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 47 (1995) 295.

Lianas, shrubs or small trees to 10 m tall. Leaves: pinnae in 7—20

pairs, 6-10.5 cm long; pinnules 10—13(—22) by 2-6 mm, glabrous or sparsely

puberulous below, apex rounded to obtuse; stipules absent. Panicle axillary,

terminal or rarely supra-axillary, 20-60 cm long; bracts 2 by 1 mm,

pubescent. Flowers: sepals ovate, unequal, 8-10 by 4-6 mm, ciliate (lowest

deeply cucullate); petals unequal, standard: limb reflexed, orbicular, c. 5

mm in diam., claw 5—8 by 2 mm, hirsute above, other 4 petals: limb orbicular

to reniform, 7-10 by 6-12 mm, claw 1-3 by 1 mn, hirsute or glabrous;

stamens slightly exserted, filaments 10-15 mm long, woolly halfway, anthers

2.5—-3 by 1 mm; ovary subsessile, 3-5 by 1-1.5 mm, hairy or glabrous; style

8-12 mm, sparsely puberulous basally; stigma c. 1 mm across; pedicel 8-15

mm long, pubescent. Legumes black when dry, oblong, 3.5—9 by 2-—3.5 cm,

sutures thickened, constricted between the seeds, apex obtuse, shortly

beaked. Seeds 1-5(—7) per legume.

68 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Distribution — Singapore: now extinct; previously collected in Changi

(Loyang). India (Assam), Hong Kong, Burma; Malesia: West and East

Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia (Johore, Penang), West and East Java,

Kalimantan (Hattink, 1974).

Ecology — Primary and secondary forests, forest fringes, along rivers.

Uses — None known.

Chamaecrista Moench

Methodus (1794) 272; de Wit, Webbia 11 (1955) 278; Irwin and Barneby in

Polhill and Raven (eds.) Adv. Leg. Syst. 1 (1981) 106, Mem. N. Y. bot.

Gdn 35 (1982) 636.

Cassia subg. Lasiorhegma Vogel ex Benth.

Herbs with a woody base; stem erect or decumbent, pubescent.

Leaves paripinnate; rachis with longitudinal ridges above, produced to a

short mucro beyond the terminal pairs of pinnae; pinnae asymmetrical,

sessile, apex + mucronate, margins sparsely ciliate, base truncate; petiole

with 1(—2) subsessile glands adaxially; stipules linear, apex acute, margins

ciliate, intrastipular trichomes present. Raceme supra-axillary, few-flowered,

bracts and bracteoles similar to the stipules but smaller. Flowers: sepals 5,

unequal, membranous and thicker in the median undersurface, puberulous;

petals 5, yellow, unequal, membranous, with darker reticulate veins visible,

claw short; stamens 10, filaments straight, short, anthers basifixed, straight

or + curved, of + two length classes, opening by two apical pores, thecae

ciliate along the sutures. Legume strap-shaped, flat, transversely grooved

between seeds, elastically dehiscent, valves twisting spirally. Seeds many

per legume, seedcoat + pitted, glossy.

Distribution — About 240 spp. are indigenous to the Americas with

few indigenous to Tropical Asia (Larsen and Hou, 1996a). In Singapore,

two exotic species. are naturalized (Corlett, 1988).

Ecology — Mainly found in open places, wasteland and reclaimed

land. Roots have nodules.

Uses — Used mainly as green manure. See under species.

The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6

Caesalpiniaceae 69

Notes — In the past, species in Chamaecrista and Senna were

considered as subgenera under Cassia L. s. l. (e.g., de Wit, 1955). They are

now recognized as separate genera following the work of Irwin and Barneby

(1982) who raised the genus Cassia s./. to the level of subtribe and elevated

the previous subgenera to generic rank alongside Cassia s.s... The

circumscription of the genera follows that of Irwin and Barneby (1982) but

the delimitation of species follows that of Larsen and Hou (1996a) who

have found that Asian species justify the maintenance of both C.

leschenaultiana and C. mimosoides.

Key to the Species

la. Leaf rachis with 2 evenly high longitudinal ridges parallel to each

other on the adaxial surface; pinnae falciform, 2-3 mm wide; subsessile

discoid gland 1—1.5 mm below the lowest pair of pinnae. Ovary and

legume with long, thin, non-appressed hairs; legume with a + hooked

macro. seeds 10-15, per legume .......:,-..:........... 1. C. leschenaultiana

1b. Leaf rachis with only one unevenly high longitudinal ridge in the form

of an adaxial series of semicircular flaps between the nodes; pinnae

linear, 0.5—1 mm wide; sessile discoid gland immediately below the

lowest pair of pinnae. Ovary and legume with stiff, appressed hairs;

legume with a + straight mucro. Seeds 20-25 per legume....................

PR rca eet uae Ashes yet hig dhss sssecsiapsxxeadavevaies dans 2. C. mimosoides

1. C. leschenaultiana (DC.) O.Deg.

Fl. Haw. Fam. 169b. (1934); DC., Mem. Soc. Phys. Hist. Nat. Geneve 2

(1824) 132; Ridl., J. Straits Br. R. Asiat. Soc. 33 (1900) 74; Ridl., Fl. Malay

Penins. 1 (1922) 619; de Wit, Webbia 11 (1955) 280; Rudd, Rev. Handb. FI.

Ceylon (1991) 88; ILM. Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore

natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19 (1990) 72; I.M. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45

(1993) 119; ILM. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 47 (1995) 297; K. Larsen &

Ding Hou, FI. Males. 1:12 (1996) 566.

Cassia leschenaultiana DC.

Chamaecrista nictitans (L.) Moench

Subshrubs to 1.5 m tall; stem erect or decumbent, pubescent. Leaves:

rachis 4—9 cm long, produced to a short mucro to 4 mm long; pinnae in 10-

30 pairs, asymmetrical, 5-20 by 2-3 mm, apex truncate, mucro 0.5 mm long

or more, margins sparsely ciliate, base truncate; petiole 5—7 mm long with

70 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Figure 4. Chamaecrista mimosoides (L.) Greene. a. Left, flowering branch; right, fruiting

branch; b. Paired stipules and petiolar gland, inset, intrastipular trichomes. c. From left, unripe,

ripe and split legume showing spirally twisted valves; d. Hilar view and side view of seed; e.

Exploded flower; f. Anterior view of flower. (Each interval on scale bar equivalent to 1mm).

(A.H.B. Loo A.Loo 085).

The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6

Caesalpiniaceae 71

1(-2) glands (c. 1 mm in diam.); stipules 10-17 mm long. Raceme 1+-

flowered. Flowers: sepals ovate to long—acute, 7-8 by 1-3 mm; petals

orbicular to obovate, c. 7-8 by 3-6 mm; filaments short, c. 1 mm long,

anthers slightly curved, unequal, 2-6 mm long; ovary c. 5 by 1 mm, sessile;

style recurved, c. 2 mm long, glabrous; stigma flat, ciliate. Legume green

turning brown, strap—shaped, 3-5 by 0.5 cm. Seeds dark brown, oblong,

flat, c. 4 by 3 mm.

Distribution — Singapore: fairly common but less common than C.

mimosoides; Pulau Tekong, Pulau Ubin (Western tip). South-east Asia,

widespread in Malesia (Larsen and Hou, 1996a).

Ecology — Found in waste or reclaimed land; in Pulau Ubin growing

in rock crevices near the sea. It has been observed to form nodules (Allen

& Allen, 1981).

Uses — As green manure (Burkill, 1935).

2. C. mimosoides (L.) Greene

Pittonia 4 (1899) 27; L., Sp. pl. (1753) 379; Baker in J. D. Hook., FI. Brit.

India 2 (1879) 266; Ridl., Fl. Malay Penins. 1 (1922) 619; de Wit, Webbia

11 (1955) 283; M.R. Hend, Mal. Wild. Fl. Dic. (1959) 97; H. Keng, Gdns’

Bull., Singapore 27 (1974) 258; R.T. Corlett, J. Biogeog. 15 (1988) 657-663;

J.B. Hacker, A guide to herbaceous and shrub legumes of Queensland

(1990) 94; H. Keng, Concise Fl. Singapore (1990) 33; I.M. Turner, K.S.

Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19 (1990) 72; I.M.

Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45 (1993) 119; I.M. Turner, Gdns’ Bull.,

Singapore 47 (1995) 297; K. Larsen & Ding Hou, Fl. Males. 1:12 (1996)

567.

Cassia mimosoldes L.

Subshrubs to 1.2 m tall; stem erect or decumbent, appressed

pubescent. Leaves: rachis 3-5 cm long, produced to a short mucro to 3 mm

long; pinnae in 40-60 pairs, asymmetrical, 3-6 by 0.5—1 mm, apex acute,

mucro less than 0.5 mm long, margins sparsely ciliate, base truncate; petiole

2-3 mm long with 1 adaxial gland (c. 0.5 mm in diam.); stipules 3-5 mm

long. Raceme 1—3-flowered; bracts and bracteoles like stipules but smaller.

Flowers: sepals ovate to long acute, 8-10 by 2-5 mm; petals orbicular to

obovate, 9-13 by 8-10 mm; filaments 1-2 mm long, anthers straight to

slightly curved, 4-8 mm long, 2 adaxial ones turning reddish; ovary 6—9 by

1 mm, sessile; style 3-4 mm long, glabrous; stigma flat, ciliate. Legume

72 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

green turning brown, strap—shaped, 4-6 by 0.5 cm. Seeds dark brown,

oblong, flat, c. 2.5 by 1.5 mm.

Distribution — Singapore: fairly common; Old Upper Thomson Road,

Pulau Tekong, Yishun Ave 6. Regarded as introduced in the Malesian

area and Africa; common all over tropical Asia (Larsen and Hou, 1996a).

Ecology — A short-lived weed of 1-2 years found in waste- or

reclaimed land and which flowers and fruits year-round. The leaves are

more sensitive than those of C. leschenaultiana and are thigmonastic and

photoblastic, folding up during the hottest hours of the day and at night.

The Singapore specimens have been observed to have root nodules. In

Malesia this is a polymorphic species with many ecotypes (Larsen and

Hou, 1996a).

Uses — As green manure; the roots are used for spasms in the

stomach and tea is made from the leaves by the Japanese (Burkill, 1935).

Notes — Like C. leschenaultiana, a line of hairs can be observed on

the inner surface of the stipules near the point of insertion (Fig. 4b, inset).

Cynometra L.

Sp. pl. (1753) 382, Gen. pl. ed. 5 (1754) 179; Meeuwen, Blumea 18 (1970)

1-52; Cowan & Polhill in Polhill & Raven (eds.), Adv. Leg. Syst. 1

(1981)124; Watson & Dallwitz, Gen. Leg. — Caesalpinioideae (1983) 22.

Trees to 26 m tall; vegetative buds small, scaly. Leaves when new in

bright pink tassles, when mature, paripinnate, 1—2-jugate; pinnae opposite,

asymmetrical, chartaceous with an acroscopic midrib, glabrous; stipules

early caducous. Raceme sessile, 1(—2) per axil or when cauliflorous, in

groups of 3-5, densely-flowered, + spherical in outline; rachis short,

pubescent to glabrous. Flowers bisexual, zygomorphic; bracts scale-like,

apressed hairy, lower ones reniform, decreasing in width up the raceme

and becoming acute; bracteoles obovate, ciliate, caducous; sepals 4(-5),

reflexed at anthesis, imbricate; petals 5(-4), narrow, glabrous; stamens 10

(-11), + equal, filaments glabrous, anthers sagittate basally and apiculate at

the apex, connective introrse, medi-dorsifixed, often cleft below the insertion

of the filament, longitudinally dehiscent; ovary with 1(—2) ovules, densely

pilose, shortly stipitate; style sparsely puberulous to halfway; receptacle

shortly campanulate, circumscissle under the ripening fruit. Fruit

indehiscent, rugose, brown scurfy, patently hairy, woody on a thickened

The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6

Caesalpiniaceae 73

pedicel. Seeds 1(-—2) per legume.

Distribution — About 70 spp., pantropical, in the West Pacific found

eastwards as far as Micronesia, the Solomons and Fiji. and 14 spp. (13

indigenous and one cultivated) occurring in Malesia (Hou, 1996b). In

Singapore there is only one indigenous sp.

Ecology — Mainly confined to the back-mangrove but also found

inland.

Uses — As commercial timber (as the medium hardwood kekatong

as classified by the Malaysian Timber Board). See under spp. Cynometra

cauliflora L. (nam nam) is a cultivated sp. which was commonly planted

for its fruits which can be eaten raw or cooked.

1. C. ramiflora L. var. ramiflora

Sp. pl. (1753) 382; Backer & Bakh. f, Fl. Java 1 (1964) 526; Meeuwen,

Blumea 18 (1970) 23; Whitmore, Tree fl. Malaya 1 (1972) 254; H. Keng,

Gdns’ Bull. Singapore 27 (1974) 259; Corner, Ways. Trees, 3rd ed. (1988)

434; H. Keng, Concise. Fl. Singapore (1990) 34; ILM. Turner, K.S. Chua &

H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19 (1990) 72; I.M. Turner,

Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45 (1993) 119; I.M. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore

47 (1995) 299.

Cynometra ramiflora subsp. bijuga Prain

Trees 4-26 m tall. Leaves 1—2-jugate; pinnae oblong, elliptic, obovate—

lanceolate, base cuneate, lower pair much smaller, 1.1-5.5 by 0.5-2.6 cm

with an acute apex, upper pair 4.5-14 by 1.6-5.6 cm with an acute to

acuminate apex, petiolules indistinct; rachis 0.8—1.3 cm, canaliculate; petiole

3-15 mm, canaliculate. Raceme: rachis 13-25 mm long. Flowers: bracteoles

3-4 mm long; sepals lanceolate, 3-6 by 1-1.5 mm long, ciliate marginally

and apically to glabrous; petals lanceolate to spathulate, 3-8 mm long,

sometimes shortly mucronate; filaments 4-7 mm long, anthers orbicular,

0.5—1 mm long; ovary slightly excentrically inserted, rhomboid, flattened,

1-2 by 0.5-1 mm; style 3.5-5.5 mm long; gynophore 0.5-1 mm long;

hypanthium 1-1.25 mm deep; pedicel 7-15 mm long. Fruit ovate or elliptic,

the tip pointing up, 2.3-3.8 by 1.5-3 cm. Seeds c. 1.2 by 1 cm.

Distribution — Singapore: now probably extinct; previously collected

in Kranji and Sungei Jurong. From India throughout South-east Asia and

Malesia to the Pacific but not in Sri Lanka and Australia (Hou, 1996b).

74 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Figure 5. Cynometra ramiflora L. var. ramiflora a. Fruiting branch with one fruit

longitudinally halved. (J. Sinclair SF 40957); b. Inflorescence; c. Scaly axillary bud; d. Isolated

petal; e. Isolated carpel on hypanthium and pedicel; f. Back view of a stamen with cleft introrsed

anther; g. Front view of an uncleft anther and top portion of filament. (Balara 3662).

The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6

Caesalpiniaceae fs

Ecology — A constituent of the back-mangrove. The corky pericarp

contains many air pockets which give buoyancy to the fruit which is

dispersed by water (Meeuwen, 1970).

Uses — The hard, dark brown timber is only available in small

quantities and is used for making doorposts; the roots purge and the leaves

and oil from the seeds are used to treat skin diseases (Burkill, 1935).

Notes — The other var., var. bifoliata (Merr.) Meeuwen, has distinct

petiolules 5-8 mm long but is only found in the Philippines (Luzon,

Mindanao) (Meeuwen, 1970).

Dialium L.

Mant. 1 (1767) 3; Irwin & Barneby in Polhill & Raven (eds.), Adv. Leg.

Syst. 1 (1981) 101; K. Larsen, S. S. Larsen & J. E. Vidal, Fl. Thailand 4:1

(1984) 85; J. P. Rojo, Fl. Males. 1:12 (1996) 608.

Trees; young stems lenticellate, pubescent. Leaves imparipinnate,

rachis and petiole pubescent to glabrous, eglandular; pinnae alternate to

subopposite, glabrous above, glabrous to pubsecent below, lamina margins

entire, petiolules short, 2-6 mm long; stipules small, 1-1.5 mm wide,

caducous. Panicle terminal, bractless, pubescent, lower branches usually

subtended by leaves. Flowers bisexual, zygomorphic, small; sepals 5,

reflexed at maturity, pubescent all over but minutely so inside; petals 0;

stamens 2, filaments slender to stout, anthers basifixed, longitudinally

dehiscent, connective puberulous; ovary sessile, centrally or excentrically

inserted, subglobose, densely pubescent, ovules 1(—2); style short, straight

to sharply curved; stigma small slightly swollen; hypanthium flat or concave;

pedicels pubescent. Drupe subglobose to obovoid, + compressed, hairy or

velvety, 1(—2)-seeded, exocarp crustaceous, endocarp pulpy, enveloping

the seeds. Seeds 1(-2) per drupe, squarish, roundish or reniform, flat,

smooth, longitudinally striate.

Distribution — Pantropical genus of 27 spp., not in Australia and the

Pacific Islands (Rojo, 1996). In Malesia absent from the islands east of

Borneo and Java. In Singapore there are two indigenous spp., one with

two vars.

Ecology — In primary and late secondary forests.

Uses — The heartwood gives a good general-purpose timber, known

76 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

as keranji (Rojo & Alonzo, 1993). The pulpy endocarp of the fruits are

edible but of slight economic importance (Rojo, 1996).

Notes — For the Singapore spp., D. patens has been reduced to D.

indum var. indum and D. maingayi reduced to D. platysepalum, respectively

following a revision by J. P. Rojo (unpubl. thesis, 1982). The spp. of

Dialium are best separated with floral characters, in particular, the anthers

(v-channeled or not), the depth of the hypanthium and the insertion of the

ovary and stamens (centrally or excentrically).

Key to the Species

la. Flower buds triulate, dark rusty pubescent; anthers v-channeled,

triangular; filaments stout and flattened; style sharply recurved at the

top; receptacle concave and wide; ovary and stamens excentrically

inserted. Lamina of pinna chartaceous to thinly coriaceous, veins

indistinct and not clearly raised on both surfaces, sometimes obscured

by a golden indumentum below. Drupe velvety ............. eee esseeeseeeeees

snownbinmtbedegdesinn Gat tsk des aust tlle oh oe Oa Pa Saha ea 2. D. platysepalum

1b. Flower buds elliptic or rarely, ovate, white or whitish pubescent; anthers

not v-channelled, oblong; filaments narrow and subulate; style straight

to slightly recurved at the top; receptacle shallow and narrow, ovary

and stamens + centrally inserted. Lamina of pinna subcoriaceous to

stiffly coriaceous, veins and reticulations distinct and slightly to

prominently raised on both surfaces, not obscured by a golden

indumentum on the lower surface at all times. Drupe hairy but not

52 8 5 MO SEND Um Sc: 5 UM, Un EAN NE AL WH Pe 1. D. indum

1. D. indum L.

Mant. 1 (1767) 24; Baker in J.D. Hook., Fl. Brit. India 2 (1878) 269, 270;

Ridl., J. Straits Brch R. Asiat. Soc. 33 (1990) 74; Ridl., Fl. Malay Penins. 1

(1922) 622; de Wit, Blumea 7 (1953) 320, 321; Whitmore, Tree Fl. Malaya

1 (1972) 260; H. Keng, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 27 (1974) 260; K. Larsen,

S.S. Larsen & J.E. Vidal, Fl. Thailand 4:1 (1984) 87; H. Keng, Concise FI.

Singapore (1990) 35; I.M. Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore

natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19 (1990) 72; I. M. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45

(1993) 121; ILM. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 47 (1995) 302; J. P. Rojo,

Fl. Males. 1:12 (1996) 609-612.

Dialium laurinum Baker

Dialium marginatum de Wit

Dialium patens Baker

The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6

Caesalpiniaceae a?

Trees to 40 m tall; dbh to 1 m, twigs grey to dark brown pubescent.

Leaves: petiole and rachis (4—)10—15(—20) cm long; pinnae 5, 7 or 9, lamina

surfaces concolourous to darker above, ovate-oblong, ovate-lanceolate to

broadly elliptic, (4~-)6-10(-17) by (2.5—)3—5(-7.5) cm, veins in 8—10(-14)

pairs, puberulous to glabrous below, apex rounded to long acute, base

cuneate to obtuse, petiolules 3-6 mm. Panicle rachis 6-20 cm long. Flowers:

sepals elliptic or ovate-elliptic, to 5 by 2.5 mm, white pubescent outside;

filaments 0.5—-2 mm long, anthers 2.5-4 by 1.5 mm; ovary to 2 mm long,

white to golden-brown pubescent; style to 2 mm long; pedicels 2-6 mm

long. Drupe brown, globose to ovoid, 1.5—2.5 by 1—1.5 cm, exocarp brittle.

Seeds 1(-2) per drupe, brown, squarish to reniform, 7-12 by 5 mm.

Distribution — Singapore: rare; confined mainly to the Nature

Reserves; previously collected in Kranji, MacRitchie Reservoir (South)

and Mandai Road. Southernmost Thailand and in Malesia: Sumatra,

Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo, Java (Rojo, 1996).

Ecology — Primary and late secondary forest.

Notes — There are two vars. that can be distinguished fairly accurately

based on their pinnae. There are, however, intermediates. The type

specimen of Dialium laurinum (Lectotype: Maingay 1625 (residing in K),

Peninsular Malaysia) is intermediate between the two vars. Ridley believed

that the Singapore district, Kranji may have taken its name from this sp.

which was previously abundant there (Keng, 1990). Dialium indum var.

indum was not included in Singapore for its distribution area by Rojo

(1996) in his revision of the Malesian spp. of Dialium. However D. patens

which was sunk into this var., was already included in the flora of Singapore

(Turner et al., 1990; Turner, 1993) and collections made in Singapore were

found in SING (specimen Corner 37721; J. Sinclair, SF 40957).

Key to Varieties

la. Pinnae broadly elliptic to broadly lanceolate, stiffly coriaceous, apex

obtuse to abruptly acuminate; veins and reticulations prominently

pene AbOVS BH CIWS dels var. bursa

1b. Pinnae ovate-oblong to ovate-lanceolate, subcoriaceous, apex long

acuminate to shortly cuspidate; veins and reticulations distinct but

RUPAE VARIO RUCI WN DAME TRON W) ooo cach soe devri sacscaavsa lt desnsnsdidarads var. indum

78 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

2. D. platysepalum Baker

In J.D. Hook. Fl. Brit. India 2 (1878) 270; Prain, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 66, ii

(1897) 173, 174; Ridl., J. Straits Brch R. Asiat. Soc. 33 (1990) 74; Ridl., FI.

Malay Penins. 1 (1922) 622, 623; Whitmore, Tree fl. Malaya 1 (1972) 259-

261; H. Keng, Gdns’ Bull., (1974) 260, 261; K. Larsen, S.S. Larsen & J.E.

Vidal, Fl. Thailand 4:1 (1984) 88; H. Keng, Concise Fl. Singapore (1990)

35; I.M. Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore natn. Acad. Sci. 18

& 19 (1990) 72; I. M. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45 (1993) 121; I.M.

Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 47 (1995) 302; J. P. Rojo, Fl. Males. 1:12

(1996) 612.

Dialium kingii Prain

Dialium maingayi Baker

Dialium wallichii (Baker) Prain

Trees to 45 m tall; dbh 90-120 cm; twigs greyish to rusty brown

pubescent. Leaves: petiole and rachis (S—)10—18(—28) cm long; pinnae less

the terminal one, in (S—)7—9(-13) pairs, lanceolate to oblong-elliptic, (4—-)

6-10(-15) by (1.5—)2-4(-7) cm, veins in 10—-12(-15) pairs, lamina upper

surface grey to dark brown when dry, lower surface milky brown or golden

pubescent, puberulous to glabrescent or with a golden indumentum below,

apex abruptly or long acuminate to cuspidate, base rounded to cuneate,

petiolule 2-6 mm long. Panicle rachis 7-18 cm long, dark brown pubescent.

Flowers: sepals ovate-triangular, to 6 by 4 mm, rusty to golden brown

pubescent outside; style to 3 mm long; pedicel 2-4 mm long. Drupe dark

brown, subglobose to obovoid, 1.5—3 long, sometimes with stipe to 2 mm

long, pericarp firm. Seeds 1(—2) per drupe, brown, subglobose, 0.3-1.7 by

0.9-1 cm.

Distribution — Singapore: rare; Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (Jungle

Falls); previously collected in Botanic Gardens’ Jungle; Bukit Timah Nature

Reserve (Rock Path and Ginger Walk), Jurong (Kim Teck Road),

MacRitchie Nature Reserve (South). Malesia: Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra,

Borneo (Rojo, 1996).

Ecology — In primary forests and late secondary forest. In Malesia,

also occurring in freshwater swamp forest. Flowers year-round, with peaks

in Dececember to March and May to September, and fruiting most in July

to October (Rojo, 1996).

Uses — As timber (keranji); pulpy endocarp of the fruits is edible

(Burkill, 1935).

The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6

Caesalpiniaceae 79

imm

Figure 6. Dialium platysepalum Baker. a. Flowering branch; b. Triulate flower bud; c. Position

of a v-channelled stamen; d. Isolated carpel on hypanthium and tip of pedicel (Ngadiman

3621); h. Drupe. (H. Keng S.N.) — Dialium indum L. e. (Ovate)-elliptic flower bud; f. Isolated

carpel on hypanthium and tip of pedicel; g. Isolated stamen. (Kostermans 6562).

80 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Notes — Based on the classification of Rojo (1996) there are 3 discrete

‘groups’ that can be distinguished in Singapore based on the size of the

pinnae and colour and quality of their indumentum on their undersurface.

The ‘wallichi’ group is the most distinct group and is characterised in

having lanceolate pinnae not exceeding 7 by 2 cm; the lower surface is also

covered with a golden indumentum that often obscures the veins below

and the upper surface is often greyish. The ‘maingayi and ‘platysepalum’

group are more difficult to separate; the ‘maingayi group having a whitish

to slightly golden indumentum below with indistinct veins and the

‘platysepalum’ group having pinnae that are often tinged golden beneath.

These ‘groups’ along with the ‘kingii’ and ‘triste’ groups are not given any

nomenclatural or taxonomic status as the differences between them are

slight and they form a gradient with intermediate specimens.

Intsia Thouars

Gen. Nov. Madg. (1806) 22; de Wit, Bull. Jard. bot. Buitenz.. 3:17 (1941)

139; Cowan & Polhill in Polhill & Raven (eds.) Adv. Leg Syst. 1 (1981)

128; Watson & Dallwitz, Gen. Leg. — Caesalpinioideae (1983) 35; K. Larsen,

S.S. Larsen & J.E. Vidal, Flora of Thailand 4:1 (1984) 124; Ding Hou,

Blumea 38 (1994) 322.

Trees often buttressed; trunk sometimes crooked, bark in brown and

grey patches. Leaves paripinnate, (1—)2(-3)-jugate, laminas ovate to

suborbiculate, chartaceous to subcoriaceous, usually with 1-2 small (< 0.5

mm across) crateriform glands at the base on the lower surface, petiolules

twisted; stipules intrapetiolar, connate. /nflorescence a fascicle or a raceme

of racemes, terminal or axillary, pubescent to glabrescent. Flowers bisexual,

zygomorphic; bracts early caducous; calyx lobes 4, subequal, pubescent;

petals: only one fully developed, limb flabellate, lower half narrowed into

a claw, others rudimentary or absent; stamens 3(-—4), staminodes 4-7,

filaments and staminodes connate at the base, anthers dorsifixed,

longitudinally dehiscent; ovary stipitate, stipe pubescent and adnate to the

hypanthium except at the apical part; style coiled and slender; stigma

capitulate, small. Legumes oblong, straight to slightly falcate, flattened,

glabrous, valves leathery to slightly woody. Seeds 3-6 per legume, oblong,

ovoid or discoid, flattened, scurfy.

Distribution — Two or more spp. from Madagascar, islands of the

Indian Ocean, Tropical Asia, through Malesia to Northern Australia,

Melanesia and Micronesia (Hou, 1994). In Malesia two spp. occur. In

Singapore only one sp. is indigenous.

The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6

Caesalpiniaceae 81

Ecology — Intsia spp. are long-lived spp. and are confined mainly to

the coastal habitats, near mangroves and on sandy beaches (Hou, 1994).

Uses — As timber under the trade name merbau; [ntsia timber is

hard, very strong and durable and also termite-resistant; it has a wide

range of uses both in- and outdoors from heavy construction to flooring,

doors, posts, poles, and sleepers (Hou, 1994).

1. I. bijuga (Colebr.) Kuntze

Rev. Gen. pl. 1 (1891) 192; Ridl., J. Straits Brch R. Asiat. Soc. 33 (1900)

75; Ridl., Fl. Malay Penins. 1 (1922) 639; Whitmore, Tree fl. Malaya 1

(1972) 262; H. Keng, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 27 (1974) 262; K. Larsen, S.

S. Larsen & J. E. Vidal, Flora of Thailand 4:1 (1984) 125; Corner, Ways.

Trees, 3rd ed. (1988) 438; H. Keng, Concise Fl. Singapore (1990) 36; I.M.

Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19

(1990) 72; I.M. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45 (1993) 122; Ding Hou,

Blumea 38 (1994) 324, ; ILM. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 47 (1995) 304.

Afzelia bijuga A. Gray

Afzelia retusa Kurz

Trees to 40 m tall; dbh to 1 m but usually smaller. Leaves: rachis

1.5—3.5 cm long; pinnae laminas ovate to broadly elliptic or suborbiculate,

(2—)4-15 by 1.5-8.5 cm, abaxial midrib pubescent in the lower half, apex

broadly acuminate, retuse or rounded, base cuneate to obtuse, petiolules

2—7 mm long; petiole 2.5-5.5 cm long; stipules c. 1 by 1 mm. Raceme 5-10

cm long. Flowers: calyx lobes ovate to obovate, 1—1.2 by 0.6—0.8 cm; petal

white turning pink, red or purple, limb 1.2—1.5 by 1.5 cm, claw c. 0.5 by 0.1

cm, puberulous adaxially; filaments red or purple, 3—3.5 cm long, puberulous

basally, anthers 2-2.5 by 0.5—1 mm, staminodes to 10 mm long; ovary 4—

7.5 by 1.5 mm; style red or purple, 3-4 cm long; stigma c. 1 mm long;

hypanthium 5-12 by 2-3 mm; pedicel 5-15 mm. Legume green turning

purple to black, 7.5—20 by 5-6 cm. Seeds black, c. 2 by 2.5 cm.

Distribution — Singapore: rare; Pulau Tekong Kechil, Sungei Buloh

Nature Park, Western Catchment Area; previously found in Bukit Timah

Nature Reserve, Changi, Kranji Nature Reserve, Lim Chu Kang

(Sarimbun), Pulau Jong, Pulau Ubin, Seletar, Tuas. Madagascar, islands

of the Indian ocean, Tropical Asia, through Malesia to Northern Australia,

Melanesia and Micronesia (Hou, 1994).

82 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Figure 7. Intsia bijuga (Colebr.) Kuntze. a. Fruiting branch; b. Inflorescence; c. Seed; d.

Lower surface of pinna showing crateriform glands (g); e. Adaxial view of twisted petiolule

(A.H.B. Loo, A. Ibrahim, E.E.L. Seah & H.T.W.Tan A.Loo 037; f. Side view of a flower. (Rao

& Jumali K6662).

The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6

Caesalpiniaceae 83

Ecology — Along sea coasts, in beach forest or the back-mangrove,

edges of rivers, in tidal or temporarily inundated places with (salty) water;

also found in primary forests. A treelet c. 2 m tall growing from a rock

crevice was observed to be in fruit in Pulau Tekong Kechil. The roots are

reported to nodulate with a typical cowpea-type strain in Tully, Queensland,

Australia (Allen and Allen 1981).

Uses — I. bijuga is a major tropical logwood and sawnwood sp.

imported and exported under the trade name merbau (ITTO, 1996).

Koompassia Maingay ex Benth.

In Hooker’s Icon. Pl. 12 (1873) 58, t. 1164; de Wit, Bull. Jard. bot. Buitenz.

3:17 (1947) 309; Irwin & Barneby in Polhill & Raven (eds.) Adv. Leg. Syst.

1 (1981) 101; Watson and Dallwitz, Gen. Leg. — Caesalpinioideae (1983)

37.

Trees, deciduous, gigantic; buttresses steep, thick and plank-like.

Leaves imparipinnate; rachis and petiole ferruginous pubescent to

glabrescent; pinnae alternate to subopposite, 5—14, laminas elliptic to ovate,

subcoriaceous to coriaceous, pubescent below, midrib sunken and

puberulous above, prominent below, lateral veins many, obscure on the

upper surface, petiolules pubescent; stipules broadly ovate, small, early

caducous. Panicle densely flowered, terminal or axillary, ferruginous

pubescent. Flowers small; bracts and bracteoles lanceolate, small, caducous;

calyx 5-lobed, lobes subequal, imbricate, pubescent outside; petals 5,

subequal, with a prominent midvein, glabrous; stamens 5, alternating with

the petals, filaments very short, glabrous, anthers basifixed, opening by

apical and basal pores, both pores connected by a subdehiscent longitudinal

rim; ovary sessile or sometimes, subsessile, 1-ovuled, pubescent; style very

short; stigma indistinct; pedicels pubescent. Samara strongly compressed

laterally, twisted 180°C at the base, pubescent, centre thickened and

prominently veined, wing broad, circumferential, broadened apically,

chartaceous. Seed 1 per legume, irregularly oblong, strongly compressed

laterally.

Distribution — A small genus comprising three spp. in Malesia:

Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo, Philippines and New Guinea (Hou,

1996c). In Singapore only one sp. is indigenous.

Ecology — In primary and late secondary forest; also in freshwater

swamp forest.

84 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Uses — All three spp. in Malesia have timber that are suitable for

structural usage.

1. K. malaccensis Benth.

In Hooker’s Icon. Pl. 3:2 (1876) 58, t. 1164; Ridl., J. Straits Brch R. Asiat.

Soc. 33 (1900) 74; Merr. Phillip. J. Sc. Bot 10 (1915) 12; Ridl., Fl. Malay

Penins. 1 (1922) 620; de Wit, Bull. Jard. bot. Buitenz. 3:17 (1947) 317;

Whitmore, Tree fl. Malaya 1 (1972) 265; H. Keng, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore

27 (1974) 262; K. Larsen, S. S. Larsen & J. E. Vidal, Flora of Thailand 4:1

(1984) 84; Corner, Ways. Trees, 3rd ed. (1988) 439; H. Keng, Concise FI.

Singapore (1990) 36; ILM. Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore

natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19 (1990) 72; ILM. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45

(1993) 122; ILM. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 47 (1995) 304; Ding Hou,

Fl. Males. 1:12 (1996) 634.

Trees to 45(—60) m tall; dbh 64(—120) cm; buttresses to 3(-6) m high.

Leaves: rachis 6.2-19 cm long; pinnae 5—9(-14), laminas elliptic, ovate,

oblong—ovate to elliptic-lanceolate, 3.5-10.4(-12.5) by 1.6-3.7 cm, finely

areolate above, apex acuminate, slightly notched, base usually rounded,

petiolules 4-9 mm long; petiole 1.4-3.9 cm long; stipules 2—-2.5 mm wide.

Panicle to 12 cm long. Flowers: bracts fleshy, c. 1 mm long, bracteoles

subalternate, 0.5—1 mm long; calyx lobes ovate-lanceolate, 2-3 by 1 mm;

petals orbicular to obovate, c. 2-3 by 1-1.5 mm, base fleshy; filaments

abruptly broadened basally, 0.5—1 mm long; anthers heart-shaped, c. 1 by

0.5 mm; ovary c. 1 mm long; style < 0.5 mm long; pedicel 0.5—5 mm long.

Samara green turning brown, oblong, 8.7—15 by 2.7-4.5 cm (including wing).

Seed beige, to 3.5 by 1.5 cm, shallowly rugose.

Distribution — Singapore: vulnerable; Botanic Gardens’ Jungle, the

Nature Reserves; previously common all over Singapore (Keng, 1990).

Malesia: Sumatra, Riau Archipelago, Bangka, Biliton, throughout

Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo (Hou, 1996c).

Ecology — In primary and late secondary forest and freshwater

swamp forest; sometimes occurring in groups near rivulets. Flowering and

fruiting occurs year round. Seedlings can be found abundantly near the

parent tree. Dispersal is by rapid spinning of the samaras sometimes to a

distance of 50 m or more (Ridley, 1930). J. F. Maxwell (specimen J. F.

Maxwell 81-225, in 1981), reported that the seeds were eaten by the long-

tailed macaque, Macaca fascicularis, which bent the wings over the seed to

expose it.

The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6

Caesalpiniaceae 85

€ f

Figure 8. Koompassia malaccensis Benth. a. Fruiting branch (Kostermans 6682); b. Isolated

sepal;c. Isolated petal; d. Isolated stamen;e. Isolated carpel on pedicel; f. Side view of a flower;

g. Seed; h. Cross-section of pinnae showing pubescence on adaxial midrib and and abaxial

surface of pinna. (J.F. Maxwell 81-225).

86 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Uses — This sp. yields a coarse and hard, reddish heartwood which

is known as kempas. The timber is strong but not popular as it is readily

attacked by termites and has limited durability when exposed; it gives

excellent charcoal and the buttresses are used as table tops (de Wit, 1947).

K. malaccensis is a major tropical logwood and sawnwood sp. imported

and exported under the trade name kempas (ITTO, 1996).

Peltophorum (Vogel) Benth.

J. Bot. 2 (1840) 75, nom. cons.;Vogel, Linnaea 11 (1837) 406; Taubert,

PflFam. 3:3 (1892) 176; Polhill & J. E. Vidal in Polhill & Raven (eds.) Adv.

Leg. Syst. 1 (1981) 90; Watson & Dallwitz, Gen. Leg. — Caesalpinioideae

(1983) 47.

Deciduous trees, young shoots ferrugineous pubescent or glabrescent.

Leaves twice-paripinnate; rachis and petiole ferruginous pubescent, grooved

adaxially; pinnules numerous, opposite, small, venation finely reticulate,

puberulous all over, sessile; stipules small, caducous. Inflorescence a raceme

of racemes, terminal and axillary, ferrugineous pubescent. Flowers bisexual,

zygomorphic; bracts minute, caducous; sepals 5, imbricate, reflexed, yellow-

green, triangular, subequal, pubescent outside; petals 5, yellow, subequal,

ferruginous woolly towards the short claw, venation finely reticulate;

stamens 10, free, subequal, filaments slender, basally flattened and pilose,

anthers brown, oblong, equal, dorsifixed and versatile, longitudinally

dehiscent; ovary stipitate; style filiform, incurled; stigma broadly peltate;

receptacle short, obscure. Legume indehiscent with a firm wing-like margin,

oblong-lanceolate, strongly compressed laterally, woody, smooth,

longitudinally striate, apex acute, base cuneate, slightly constricted between

the seeds. Seeds lenticular to narrowly oblong, irregularly compressed.

Distribution — A pantropical genus of about 15 spp., three occurring

in Malesia (Hou, 1996d). In Singapore, one sp. is indigenous.

Ecology — Coastal, along beaches and in the back-mangrove.

Uses — See under sp.

1. P. pterocarpum (DC.) K. Heyne

Nutt. Pl. Ned.-Ind., ed. 2 (1927) 755; DC., Prodr. 2 (1825) 441; Backer &

Bakh. f., Fl. Java 1 (1964) 547; Whitmore, Tree fl. Malaya 1 (1972) 268; H.

Keng, Gdns’ Bull. Singapore 27 (1974) 263; Hattink, Reinwardtia 9 (1974)

The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6

Caesalpiniaceae 87

Figure 9. Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) K. Heyne. a. Flowering branch; b. Anterior view

of flower; c. Side views of legume; d. Hilar view and side view of seed; e. Petiole cross-sectioned

to show paired stipules (s); f. Exploded flower; g. Left - flowers and buds in a raceme, right -

young legumes in a raceme. (Each interval on scale bar equivalent to 1mm). (A.H.B.Loo

A.Loo 086).

88 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

59; Verdc., Manual New Guinea Legumes., Lae Bot. Bull. 11 (1979) 16; H.

Keng, Concise Fl. Singapore (1990) 37; ILM. Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W.

Tan, J. Singapore natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19 (1990) 73; ILM. Turner, Gdns’

Bull., Singapore 45 (1993) 123; ILM. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 47

(1995) 308; Ding Hou, FI. Males. 1:12 (1996) 651.

Peltophorum ferrugineum (Decne.) Benth.

Trees to 35 m tall; trunk beige, dbh 0.7-1.0 m. Leaves: rachis 9-14

cm long; pinnae in 4—13 pairs; pinnules in 15-18 pairs per pinna, oblong,

10-18 by 5-7 mm, puberulous all over, sessile, apex rounded to emarginate,

base unequal, acute or rounded; petiole 2.5—4 cm long; stipules deltoid, 3—

5mm long. Inflorescence to 40 cm long. Flowers fragrant; bracts deltoid,

c. 5 mm long; sepals 7-10 by 5 mm; topmost two sometimes puberulous in

the upper median portion; petals obovate, 2—2.5 by 1.2-1.8 cm, wrinkled;

filaments pale yellow, 10-13 mm long, anthers c. 2 by 1 mm; ovary densely

pubescent, 5—7 by 1-2 mm; style c. 1 cm long, stigma white green, c. 2 by 2

mm, sticky; pedicel 5-7 mm. Legume reddish brown, 6-14 by 2-3.5 cm

(including 4-5 mm wide wing-like margin). Seeds 1-3(-4) per legume,

longitudinally arranged, beige, c. 12 by 5 mm.

Distribution — Singapore: almost extinct; possibly wild in Pulau

Semakau and Pulau Tekong Kechil; previously collected in Changi (coast),

Tuas. Sri Lanka, Thailand, Cambodia, South Vietnam; throughout Malesia

to Northern Australia (Hou, 1996d).

Ecology — Coastal beach forest and the back-mangrove. Flowering

and fruiting year round. Nodules are absent from this species (Allen &

Allen, 1981). The flowers have a slightly sweet, musky scent.

Uses — Cultivated widely as a wayside and park tree in Singapore.

The wood is strong and good for building, making boats and planks; in

Java a dye from the bark is used to colour batik yellow-brown; the bark is

used internally to cure dysentery and externally as a lotion for sprains,

muscular aches, ulcers, as an eye-lotion, gargle and tooth-powder (Burkill,

1935):

Senna Mill.

Gdnr’s. Dict., abr. ed. 4 (1754); Irwin and Barneby in Polhill and Raven

(eds.), Adv. Leg. Syst. 1 (1981) 105; Mem. N. Y. bot. Gdn 35 (1982) 64;

The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6

Caesalpiniaceae 89

Benth., Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. 27 (1871) 513; de Wit, Webbia 11 (1956)

228; K. Larsen & Ding Hou, Fl. Males. 1:12 (1996) 673.

Cassia subg. Senna (Miller) Benth.

Herbs to shrubs, foetid or weakly so; stem glabrous to pubescent.

Leaves: rachis and petiole eglandular or with 1(—2) glands adaxially, both

grooved or widely and shallowly so, puberulous to pubescent, rachis

abaxially produced to a short mucro beyond the uppermost petiolules;

pinnae opposite, elliptic, oblong-elliptic, ovate or obovate, increasing in

size distally, apex obtuse to acuminate, pubescent to glabrescent, base

subequal, petiolules to 5 mm long; stipules paired. Raceme axillary and/or

terminal. Flowers ebracteolate; sepals 5, ovate to orbicular, subequal;

petals 5, obovate to orbicular, subequal, shortly clawed; stamens (6-—)7, in 2

sizes, staminodes 0-—3(-4), filaments straight, anthers basifixed, mostly

beaked or produced, larger ones usually curved, opening by two apical

pores, thecae not ciliate along the sutures. Legume indehiscent or inertly

dehiscent through one or both sutures, in the latter case not coiling,

transversly septate between seeds, many-seeded. Seeds and funicles

variable.

Distribution — Pantropical genus of c. 260 spp., originating mainly

from the Americas. There are 17 relatively common spp. in Malesia and

of these probably only three spp. are indigenous (including Senna tora)

(Larsen and Hou, 1996b). In Singapore, five exotic spp. are naturalized

(Corlett, 1988).

Ecology — Mostly found in abandoned kampongs or farmland,

occasionally in open places and along railway lines. Root nodules are

absent.

Uses — See under spp.

Notes — See notes under Chamaecrista for reasons to recognize

Chamaecrista and Senna as genera separate from Cassia

Key to the Species

la. Shrubs; stem to 3-7 cm thick, marked with persistent stipules and

conspicuous leaf scars. Petiole and rachis eglandular; rachis 30-56 cm

long; pinnae in 8-20 pairs, margins orange, apex and base obtuse,

1b.

2a.

2b.

3a.

3b.

4a.

Ab.

Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

lowermost pair much smaller than the rest, recurved and set further

apart from the rest (1.e., Ist internode the longest); stipules deltoid,

stiff, persistent. Raceme densely 30—-50-flowered. Bracts orange,

petaloid, enveloping bud; sepals orange-yellow, incurled. Legume

tetragonal, winged. Seeds olive-green, quadrangular ........ 1. S. alata

Herbs or undershrubs; stem to 1.5 cm thick, not marked with persistent

stipules or conspicuous leaf scars. Petiole or rachis with glands present;

rachis 1.5-17 cm long; pinnae in 3-5(-7) pairs, margins green, apex

rounded, acute or acuminate, base cuneate to rounded, lowermost

pair not much smaller than the rest or recurved and not set further

apart from the rest (i.e., all internodes subequal); stipules linear,

membranous, caducous. Raceme loosely 2—5(-8)-flowered. Bracts

green, linear, not enveloping bud; sepals green, flat or slightly incurved.

Legume flattened or terete, wingless. Seeds brown, ovoid to orbicular

Petiole base with glands; rachis eglandular, 5-17 cm long; pinnae in 3-

5(-7) pairs, ovate or elliptic, apex acute or acuminate. Stigma subapical

or lateral. .Legume: + straight Seedsidulli.....34:,.0 eee 3

Petiole eglandular; rachis with glands between the lowest pair or lowest

two pairs of pinnae, 1.5-3 cm long; pinnae in 3 pairs, obovate, apex

rounded or obtuse. Stigma apical. Legume falcate. Seeds glossy ...4

Plant foetid, pubescent all over. Pinnae pubescent on both surfaces;

petiolar gland subulate, c. 1.5 mm long. Inflorescence a leafy raceme.

Lowest part of the androecium a stamen with a narrow anther; ovary

woolly. Legume hirsute, angular. Seeds obovoid, without an areole

{iotelaLlabueas edad a ical ee eles 0 Bo a a ga eee 2. S. hirsuta

Plant not foetid to slightly so, + glabrous. Pinnae glabrous above,

glabrescent below; petiolar gland globose, c. 3 mm across.

Inflorescence in + leafless raceme. Lowest part of the androecium a

filamentous staminode with a petaloid anther; ovary shortly pubescent.

Legume glabrous to glabrescent, sub-terete. Seeds orbicular, brown

with :a,paler-areole:.): cain ee eee 4. S. occidentalis

A gland between the lowest pair of pinnae only. Pedicel of flower

usually 1-3.5 cm long, of legume 2-4.5 cm long. 3 largest anthers

bottle-necked below the apex. Areole of seed 0.3-0.5 mm wide,

covering little of the seed surface. Plant weakly foetid ..........

sosegigsi cunndh ance bactLEd ie teaiseere deste AT eee ee a 3. S. obtusifolia

A gland between the lowest 2 pairs of pinnae. Pedicel of flower

usually 0.5-1 cm long, of legume 1-1.5 cm long. 3 largest anthers

The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6

Caesalpiniaceae 9]

abruptly rounded at the apex. Areole of seed 1.5—2 mm wide, covering

much of the seed surface. Plant strongly foetid ..........00...... 5. S. tora

1. S. alata (L.) Roxb

Fl. Ind. ed. 2, 2 (1832) 349; Sp. pl. (1753) 378; Ridl., J. Straits Brch R.

Asiat. Soc. 33 (1900) 74; Ridl., Fl. Malay Penins. 1 (1922) 619; de Wit,

Webbia 11 (1956) 231; H. Keng, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 27 (1974) 257;

Irwin & Barneby, Mem. N. Y. bot. Gdn 35 (1982) 460; R.T. Corlett, J.

Biogeog. 15 (1988) 657-663; Corner, Ways. Trees, 3rd ed. (1988) 429; J.B.

Hacker, A guide to herbaceous and shrub legumes of Queensland (1990)

86; H. Keng, Concise Fl. Singapore (1990) 33; ILM. Turner, K.S. Chua &

H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19 (1990) 72; I.M. Turner,

Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45 (1993) 124; ILM. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore

47 (1995) 309; K. Larsen & Ding Hou, Fl. Males. 1:12 (1996) 675.

Cassia alata L.

Shrubs, 1—2(—5) m tall. Leaves: rachis orange and widely grooved

above; pinnae in 8-20 pairs, oblong-elliptic but distal pairs obovate, 5—15

by 3-8 cm , veins pubescent below, petiolules c. 5 mm long; petiole 2—3 cm

long; stipules brownish-red. Raceme 25—80 by 4-6 cm. Flowers: bracts 2.5—

3 by 1.5-2 cm; sepals obovate, 1.5-1.8 by 0.7—1 cm; petals clawed, limb

ovate to oblong, rarely obovate, 1.8-2.5 by 1-1.6 cm (including 2-4 mm

long claw); stamens 7, unequal, largest 2: filaments laterally compressed,

5—6 by 2 x 1 mm, anthers swollen, curved, 12-13 mm long, central 4:

filaments and anthers 3-4 mm long, lowest one: filament 0.5-1 mm long,

anther 4-5 mm long, staminodes 3; ovary green, falcate with grooved sides,

15-20 by 2 mm, minute pubescent, style c. 7 mm long, stigma small, pedicel

4-5 mm long. Legume green turning black, tetragonal, 10-15 by 1.5-2 cm

(including 4-8 mm wide wings). Seeds c. 50, quadrangular, flat, 7-8 by 5-8

mm.

Distribution — Singapore: common in abandoned kampongs; Island

Club Road, Rochester Park, Old Upper Thomson Road (end of Kallang

River), Pulau Tekong (South), Sungei Mandai Kechil (Kampong Fatimah),

Yishun Ave 6; previously collected in Ang Mo Kio and Choa Chu Kang.

It is probably native in the rivers of the Guianas and periphery of the

Orinoco and Amazon basins in Brazil, Colombia and Venezuela. It became

fully established in Java by the middle of the 17th century (Irwin and

Barneby, 1982).

92 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Ecology — Found near riverbanks or margins of ponds and ditches

in abandoned kampongs, often in groups or scattered. It may be branched

or not, commonly procumbent, establishing itself over a small area by

leaning and producing erect shoots. The leaves are thigmonastic and

photonastic, turning up during the hottest and sunniest hours of the day, in

rainy weather and in the evenings. The legumes rattle when shaken.

Uses — This species has been used as an effective remedy for

ringworm and other cutaneous diseases (Burkill, 1935). The leaves are

also taken internally as a laxative, astringent, expectorant, purgative

taenifuge, tonic and mixed with lime juice as an anthelmintic, the flowers

are taken internally as a tonic for skin diseases, the seeds are taken internally

for skin diseases, the bark contains tanning material, the roots used in

West Africa for tattooing or tribal markings and the leaves contain

chrysophanic acid (2.2%) and are used as an antiparasitic (Duke, Reed &

Weder, 1981a). Burkill (1935) also mentioned that the roots are used

internally for constipation and externally for ringworm and that the toasted

leaves along with beans of Glycine max, are sometimes made into a drink

similar to coffee. The plant may poison stock, and is sometimes a weed in

pastures as it may rapidly reduce the area available for grazing as livestock

will not eat the plant (Verdcourt, 1979).

2. S. hirsuta (L.) Irwin & Barneby var. hirsuta

Phytologia 44 (1979) 499; Sp. pl. (1753) 378; Ridl., J. Straits Branch Asiat.

Soc. 33 (1900) 74; Ridl., Fl. Malay Penins. 1 (1922) 618; de Wit, Webbia 11

(1955) 250, 251; M.R. Hend., Mal. Wild. Fl. Dic. (1959) 96; H. Keng, Gdns’

Bull., Singapore 27 (1974) 258; Irwin & Barneby, Mem. N. Y. bot. Gdn 35

(1982) 434; R.T. Corlett, J. Biogeog. 15 (1988) 657-663; Randell, J. Adelaide

Bot. Gard. 11 (1988) 42; H. Keng, Concise Fl. Singapore (1990) 33; I.M.

Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19

(1990) 72; I.M. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45 (1993) 124; I.M. Turner,

Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 47 (1995) 309; K. Larsen & Ding Hou, Fl. Males.

1:12 (1996) 679.

Cassia hirsuta L.

Herbs to 2 m tall; hirsute all over. Leaves: rachis 5-17 cm long;

pinnae in 3-—5(-7) pairs, laminas ovate-elliptic, 2-12 by 1-3.5 cm, apex

acute to acuminate, petiolules c. 2 mm long; petiole 3-6 cm long; stipules

7-15 x 1 mm. Raceme 2-5(-8)-flowered. Flowers: bracts 3-5 mm long;

The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6

Caesalpiniaceae 93

sepals unequal, outer 2: ovate, 3-7 by 3-4 mm, villose outside; inner 3:

obovate, 7-10 by 4-6 mm; petals 9-17 by 7-11 mm (including 1-2 mm long

claw), limb obovate to orbicular; stamens 7, largest 2: filaments winged, 4—

6 mm long, anthers curved, 6 mm long, beaked; central 4: similar but half

as long, lowest 1: as long as the largest; ovary + falcate, 5-8 mm long; style

1.5-2.5 mm long; stigma subapical, ciliate; pedicel 1-2 cm long. Legume

grey brown, + straight, flattened, sides grooved, 10-14 by 0.3-0.5 cm, hirsute.

Seeds 50-100 per legume, 2—3 by 1 mm.

Distribution — Singapore: rare; previously collected in Geylang, Pasir

Panjang, Yio Chu Kang. Origin in tropical South America; long naturalized

in the Old World wet tropics (Irwin and Barneby, 1982).

Ecology — Along roadsides, railways, in old kampongs or abandoned

plantations and farmland.

Uses — This species is used as green manure and to treat herpes

(Heyne, 1927). The leaves are eaten steamed (Ochse, 1931).

Notes — Two varieties, var. puberula and var. hirsuta, are recognized

in the Malesian area (Larsen and Hou, 1996b); the former found only in

the Phillipines, has arched legumes and in the revision of de Wit (1955) is

synonymous with Cassia leptocarpa Benth. In the use of the keys given by

Larsen and Hou (1996b) to distinguish the varieties, it is important to

examine mature legumes as immature ones are + arched as in var. puberula.

3. S. obtusifolia (L.) Irwin & Barneby

mee. Y. bot, (adn 35 (1982) 252;) Sp. pl. (1753) 377; Ridl.y J. Straits

Branch Asiat. Soc. 33 (1900) 74; Ridl., Fl. Malay Penins. 1 (1922) 618; de

Wit, Webbia 11 (1955) 254; Brenan, Kew Bull (1958) 248; H. Keng, Gdns’

Bull., Singapore 27 (1974) 258; R.T. Corlett, J. Biogeog. 15 (1988) 657-663;

Randell, J. Adelaide Bot. Gard. 11 (1988) 45; J.B. Hacker, A guide to

herbaceous and shrub legumes of Queensland (1990) 96; H. Keng, Concise

Fl. Singapore (1990) 33; ILM. Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore

natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19 (1990) 72; ILM. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45

(1993) 124; Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 47 (1995) 309; K. Larsen &

Ding Hou, Fl. Males. 1:12 (1996) 681.

Cassia obtusifolia L.

Herbs or subshrubs to 2 m tall. Leaves: rachis 1.5—3 cm long, adaxial

94 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

gland c. 2 mm long; pinnae in 3 pairs, laminas obovate, 1.5—5 by 0.7-3 cm,

increasing in size distally, membranous, pubescent below, base cuneate,

petiolule 1-2 mm; petiole 1.5—3 cm; stipules linear, 5-20 by 0.5-1 mm,

setaceous. Raceme 1—2(-3)-flowered on ac. 2 mm long peduncle. Flowers:

bracts linear, c. 5 mm long; sepals ovate, subequal, 0.6—0.9 byx 0.3-0.5,

puberulous; petals subequal, 0.7—2 by 0.4-1.2 cm (including 0.5-1.5 mm

long claw), limb obovate; stamens 7, filaments 1-2 mm long, anthers

unequal, largest 3: 4-5 mm long, central 4: 2.5—-3.5 mm long, staminodes 0-

3; ovary falcate, 7-13 by 0.5-1 mm, pubescent; style 2-3 mm long; stigma

truncate, ciliate; pedicel pubescent. Legume brown, falcate, flattened, 11—

23 by 0.5 cm, puberulous. Seeds 20-30(-50) per legume, brown, rhombic

to ovoid, 3-5 by 2 by 2 mm, smooth.

Distribution — Singapore: uncommon; previously collected in Bukit

Kallang and Tanglin. Probably native to the Americas and rare in Malesia

(Larsen and Hou, 1996b).

Ecology — In old kampungs or abandoned plantations and farmland.

Uses — The leaves used as a vegetable, treatment for skin problems

and as a cure for vomitting and stomach-ache while the roots are used for

constipation (Burkill, 1935).

Notes — This species is closely related to Senna tora such that some

authors regarded them as conspecific (e.g., Bentham, 1871). However, de

Wit (1955) separated them into distinct taxa based mainly on foliar glands,

pedicel length and scent. Brenan (1958) further distinguished the two

species on differences in the width of the areoles of their seeds and

emphasized the difference in the stamens.

4. S. occidentalis (L.) Link

Handb. 2 (1831) 140; Sp. pl. (1753) 377; Ridl., J. Straits Branch Asiat. Soc.

33 (1900) 74; Ridl., Fl. Malay Penins. 1 (1922) 618; de Wit, Webbia 11

(1955) 256; M.R. Hend., Mal. Wild. Fl. Dic. (1959) 99; H. Keng, Gdns’

Bull. Singapore 27 (1974) 258; Irwin & Barneby, Mem. N. Y. bot. Gdn 35

(1982) 436; R.T. Corlett, J. Biogeog. 15 (1988) 657-663; Randell, J. Adelaide

Bot. Gard. 11 (1988) 41; Hacker, A guide to herbaceous and shrub legumes

of Queensland (1990) 97; H. Keng, Concise Fl. Singapore. (1990) 33; I.M.

Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19

(1990) 72; I.M. Turner, Gdns’ Bull. Singapore 45 (1993) 124; Turner,

Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 47 (1995) 309; K. Larsen & Ding Hou, Fl. Males.

The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6

Caesalpiniaceae 95

Figure 10. Senna occidentalis (L.) Link. a. Flowering and fruiting branch; b. Side view of

flower; c. Isolated staminode; d. One of four middle stamens; e. One of three upper stamens; f.

Isolated carpel on hypanthium with lowermost staminode attached on hypanthium and tip of

pedicel; g. Isolated sepal; h. Isolated standard petal A.H.B. Loo, A.Loo 070); i. Seed. (Abu

Kassim s.n.). Senna obtusifolia (L.) Irwin & Barneby. j. One of three largest stamens showing

bottle-neck below apex. (R. W. Hullett S. N.). Senna tora (L.) Roxb. k. One of three largest

stamens showing abruptly rounded apex; |. Leaf; m. Falcate legume. (P. W. Wong 2717). —

Senna hirsuta (L.) Irwin & Barneby var. hirsuta. n. Leaf; 0. Young legume; p. Isolated carpel

with lowermost anther attached on hypanthium and pedicel. (Abu Kassim s.n.)

96 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

1:12 (1996) 681.

Cassia occidentalis L.

Herbs to subshrubs, 0.5—2 m tall. Leaves: rachis 7-10 cm long, with a

puberulous groove; pinnae in 3—5(-6) pairs, laminas ovate-elliptic, 3-10.5

by 2-3.5 cm, petiolules 3-4 mm; petiole 3-6 cm long, gland glossy purple;

stipules 3-20 by 2-3 mm. Raceme 2-4-flowered on a 2-5 mm long peduncle.

Flowers: bracts 8 by 3-4 mm; sepals unequal, 2 ovate, 6-8 by 4-6 mm, 3

obovate to orbicular, 6-11 by 6-7 mm; petals unequal, 3 orbicular to widely

obovate, 12-15 by 10-15 mm, 2 obovate, c. 12-17 by 7-9 mm, all excluding

1-2 mm long claw; stamens 6, largest 2: filaments 6-9 mm long, anthers 5—

6 mm long, central 4: filaments 3-4 mm long, anthers 3-5 mm long,

staminodes 4; ovary green, 1-2 cm long, pubescent; style 4-5 mm long;

stigma lateral, ciliate; pedicel c. 1 cm long. Legume brown with pale

margins, + straight, 10-12 by 0.5—1 cm, glabrous to glabrescent. Seeds 30-

50 per legume, flat, 3-4 mm in diam., smooth.

Distribution — Singapore: uncommon; East Coast Road, School of

Biological Sciences Garden, the National University of Singapore;

previously collected in Changi, Geylang and Jalan Bahar. This sp. is of

South American origin and probably naturalized in the Malesian area

(Larsen and Hou, 1996b).

Ecology — In old kampongs and abandoned farmland and plantations

and along roads or near houses.

Uses — The seeds may be used as a substitute for coffee, the young

leaves and legumes are eaten with rice usually as medicine, the leaves are

used to cure headache and toothache and alcoholic infusions are slightly

insecticidal (Burkill, 1935). The plant is used as green manure, as a

purgative, febrifuge with diuretic and sudorific properties, the roots and

leaves used as a substitute for quinine and the seeds and leaves used

externally to treat skin diseases and as an antiperiodic, and the roots are

used for snakebite and as an antidote for poisons (Duke, Reed & Weder,

1981b). In Senegal, the leaves are used to protect cowpea seeds (Vigna

unguiculata ) against Callosobruchus maculatus (Coleoptera: Bruchidae)

(Liennard et al., 1993).

5. S. tora (L.) Roxb.

Fl. Ind. ed. 2, 2 (1832) 340; Sp. pl. (1753) 376; Prain, J. As. Soc. Beng. 66, i

The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6

Caesalpiniaceae 97

(1897) 158, 475; Ridl., Fl. Malay Penins. 1 (1922) 618; de Wit, Webbia 11

(1955) 276; Brenan, Kew Bull (1958) 248; M.R. Hend., Mal. Wild. Fl. Dic.

(1959) 99; H. Keng, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 27 (1974) 258; R.T. Corlett, J.

Biogeog. 15 (1988) 657-663; Randell, J. Adelaide Bot. Gard. 11 (1988) 45;

J.B. Hacker, A guide to herbaceous and shrub legumes of Queensland

(1990) 102; H. Keng, Concise FI. Singapore (1990) 33; I.M. Turner, K.S.

Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19 (1990) 72; I.M.

Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45 (1993) 124; I.M. Turner, Gdns’ Bull.,

Singapore 47 (1995) 309; K. Larsen & Ding Hou, FI. Males. 1:12 (1996)

689.

Cassia tora L.

Erect herbs to subshrubs up to 1.5 m tall; puberulous to pubescent

all over. Leaves: rachis 1.5—2.5 cm long, glands c. 2 mm long; pinnae in 3

pairs, laminas obovate, 2—4.5 by 1—-2.5 cm, membranous, pubescent below,

apex rounded or obtuse, base cuneate to rounded, subequal, petiolule 2

mm long; petiole 1.5—-4 cm long; stipules 5-11 by 1 mm. Raceme axillary, 2-

flowered on a 2-5 mm long peduncle. Flowers: bracts 2-5 mm long; sepals

ovate, subequal, 4-7 by 2-4 mn, puberulous below; petals obovate, unequal,

8-10 by 5-6 mm; stamens 7, filaments 2-3 mm long, anthers unequal:

largest 3, c. 3 mm long, central 4: c. 1.5-2 mm long, staminodes 0-3; ovary

green, falcate, c. 7 mm long, densely pubescent; style c. 2 mm long; stigma

ciliate; pedicel pubescent. Legume light brown, falcate, flattened, 10-15.5

by 0.2-0.5 cm, puberulous. Seeds 20-30 per legume, glossy light brown,

rhomboidal, 4-5 by 2.5 by 2 mm.

Distribution — Singapore: uncommon; previously found in Pulau

Ubin, Tanglin. Its origin is uncertain but is strictly palaeotropic in

occurrence. It is common throughout Malesia at lower altitudes (Larsen

and Hou, 1996b).

Ecology — In old kampongs or abandoned plantations and farmland.

Uses — Its leaves are used as a purgative, cure for coughs and against

ringworm, the young leaves are eaten as a vegetable, the seeds contain

emodin and are applied for itching, used for boils and as an internal and

external medicine for eye diseases and the seeds are also used as a substitute

for coffee (Burkill, 1935).

98 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Sindora Mig.

Fl. Ind. Bat. Suppl. (1861) 287; de Wit, Bull. Jard. bot. Buitenz.. 3:18

(1949) 5; Watson & Dallwitz, Gen. Leg. — Caesalpinioideae (1983) 53;

Cowan & Polhill in Polhill & Raven (eds.) Adv. Leg. Syst. 1 (1981) 132.

Trees. Leaves paripinnate, 2—4-jugate; pinna laminas elliptic to

obovate, coriaceous, rarely subcoriaceous, midrib slightly grooved above,

secondary veins many, emerging at 60° or more from the midrib measured

from the apex, anastomosing to a thickened marginal vein, tertiary veins

finely reticulate, petiolules short; stipules foliaceous, caducous. Panicle

axillary or terminal. Flowers bisexual, zygomorphic; bracts and bracteoles

small, caducous; sepals narrowly overlapping, 4, spinescent or not, strigose

inside, pubescent outside; petal 1, fleshy; androecium of 9 connate stamens

and staminodes and 1 uppermost free staminode, the lower 9 filaments

shortly, obliquely and basally connate into a hirsute sheath, the 2 uppermost

ones of the 9 with elongated filaments and dorsifixed and longitudinally

dehiscent anthers, the other 7 lower filaments shorter with or without

small, imperfect anthers; ovary subsessile, 2—5-ovuled, pubescent; style

filiform, recurved; stigma small; pedicel short, pubescent. Legume elliptic

to orbicular, flat, woody, armed or not, dehiscent, beak curved. Seeds 1-3

per legume, black, shiny, each set on a large fleshy aril; cotyledons split,

funicle curving. |

Distribution — A genus of 18-20 spp. in West Africa and South-east

Asia and 15 spp. occur in Malesia (Hou, 1996e). In Singapore there are

two indigenous species.

Ecology — Coastal beach forest to further inland in primary forest.

Uses — Mainly as timber. See under species.

Key to the Species

la. Lower surface of pinna glossy, glabrous except at the midrib; rachis

and petiole both glabrous. Sepals inermous outside; ovary inermous.

Leeuine Unarmed 1a ounce eee ee 1. S. coriacea

1b. Lower surface of pinna dull, puberulous to pubescent all over; rachis

and petiole pubescent to puberulous. Sepals with spiny outgrowths

on the upper half outside; ovary shortly spinescent. Legume densely

armed. with, spines to 4mm long. hii eee 2. S. wallichii

The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6

Caesalpiniaceae 99

1. S. coriacea (Baker) Prain

J. Asiat.. Soc. Beng. 66 11 (1897) 206, 482; Baker in J. D. Hook., FI. Brit.

India 2 (1878) 275; Ridl., Fl. Malay Penins. 1 (1922) 639; Whitmore, Tree

fl. Malaya 1 (1972) 271; de Wit, Bull. Jard. bot. Buitenz.. 3:18 (1949) 30; K.

Larsen, S.S. Larsen & J.E. Vidal in Fl. Thailand 4 (1984) 98; I.M. Turner,

Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 47 (1995) 310; Ding Hou, Fl. Males. 1:12 (1996)

697.

Trees 18-33 m tall; trunk cylindric, dbh 31-95 cm, buttresses to 60

cm high. Leaves: rachis 5.5—-12(-14) cm long; pinna laminas elliptic or

ovate, rarely obovate, (3.5—)5—10(—15) by (2.5—)3-5(-7.5) cm, glossy above,

apex acute to acuminate, rarely shortly-acuminate, base acute to obtuse;

petiolules c. 5 mm long; petiole 2.5-4 cm long. Panicle 20-30 cm long,

lateral branches to 7 cm long, + zig-zagging. Flowers: bracts and bracteoles

ovate-lanceolate, 1.5—3 mm long; sepals yellow, elliptic or lanceolate, 6.5—

7.5 by 2.5-3 mm; petal yellow to red, obovate to oblong, 5—7.5 by 2-4 mm,

pubescent outside, margins villous; stamens basally connate to c. 3 mm

high, free filaments and staminode to 12 mm long, 2 largest anthers ellipsoid,

2.5—3.5 by 1.5 mm long, the rest to 1.5 mm long; ovary + ellipsoid, 3-4 by 2

mm, woolly along the suture, 4—5-ovuled; style to 11 mm long, glabrous;

pedicel 1-2.5 mm long. Legume ellipsoid or rarely broadly ellipsoid, 7—10

by 4-6 cm, beak to c. 1 cm long. Seeds 2-3 per legume, black, compressed,

suborbicular, c. 2 by 2 cm, aril c. 2 by 2 cm.

Distribution — Singapore: rare; Bukit Kallang, Bukit Timah, Nee

Soon Swamp Forest. Peninsular Thailand; Malesia: Sumatra (East coast),

Peninsular Malaysia (widespread), Borneo (Sabah, Kalimantan) (Hou,

1996e).

Ecology — Primary rain forest or in fresh water swamp forest.

Uses — This species considered the best timber in the genus along

with Sindora velutina (Whitmore, 1973). The wood oil collected from the

tree is used for medicinal purposes (Burkill, 1935).

Notes — This species is a new record for the flora of Singapore. It

was first discovered in 1994 by Ali bin Ibrahim in Nee Soon Swamp Forest.

2. §. wallichii Benth.

In Hook., Icon. Pl. 11 (1867) sub t. 1018 excl. t. 1017; Baker in J.D. Hook.,

Fl. Brit. India 2 (1879) 268; Prain., J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 66, ii (1897) 203,

204, 481, 482; Ridl., J. Straits Brch R. Asiat. Soc. 33 (1900) 75; Ridl., FI.

100 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Malay Penins. 1 (1922) 637, 638; Symington, Kew Bull. (1938) 75, 77; de

Wit, Bull. Jard. bot. Buitenz.. 3:18 (1949) 76; Whitmore, Tree fl. Malaya 1

(1972) 273; Corner, Ways. Trees, 3rd ed. (1988) 445; H. Keng, Concise FI.

Singapore (1990) 39; ILM. Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore

natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19 (1990) 73; ILM. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45

(1993) 124; Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 47 (1995) 310; Ding Hou, FI.

Males. 1:12 (1996) 708.

Sindora intermedia (Baker) Prain

Trees to 30 m tall; trunk cylindric, dbh (0.7—)1-2 m. Leaves: rachis

(2—)4-6.5 cm long, pinna laminas elliptic to ovate or obovate, 3.3-9 by 2-

5.2 cm, upper surface sometimes puberulous, glossy, apex rounded to

broadly acuminate, base rounded; petiolules c. 4 mm long; petiole 1.5—2.5

cm long; stipules falcate, 10-17 by 4-8 mm. Panicle 6-25 cm long, lateral

branches to 5 cm long, zig-zagging. Flowers: bracts and bracteoles

lanceolate, to 4 mm long; sepals yellow-green, lanceolate, c. 10 by 3-4 mm;

petal elliptic, c. 8 by 3 mm, outside hirsute; stamens unequal, 2 largest:

filaments c. 1.5 cm long, anthers 3.5 by 2 mm, 7 others: 0.5—0.7 cm long,

anthers c. 3 by 2 mm, staminode 1; ovary rhomboid, c. 5 by 4 mm; style c.

1.5 cm long; stigma capitate; pedicel to 5 mm long. Legume green turning

black, orbicular to irregularly elliptic, 4-9.5 cm across, beak to 9 mm long.

Seeds 1-3 per legume, surface with concentric lines, compressed,

suborbicular, 1—1.5 by 0.7 cm, aril yellow turning dark brown, c. 2 by 2 cm.

Distribution — Singapore: rare; Botanic Gardens’ Jungle, Bukit

Timah Nature Reserve (Jungle Falls), Changi Point, Fort Canning Hill,

Pulau Sakijang Pelepah, Upper Pierce Reservoir; previously found in Bukit

Timah Road. Sumatra (East Coast, Jambi, Palembang, Riau Archipelago),

Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo (Sabah, Kalimantan) (Hou, 1996e).

Ecology — Coastal beach forest to further inland in primary forest,

sometimes near streams, in groups or solitary. Seedlings can be found

near the parent tree. The exudate from the spines of the legume has a

strong citrus scent. The seeds are said to be dispersed by rodents which

eat the fleshy aril (Ridley, 1930). The aril is fleshy in unripe legumes that

have fallen to the ground but in ripe legumes the aril is dark brown and

very hard.

Uses — The commercial timber is known as sepetir as classified by

the Malaysian Timber Board; the pods are medicinal and the wood oil

used as an illuminant (Burkill, 1935).

The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6

Caesalpiniaceae 101

Figure 11. Sindora wallichii Benth. a. Flowering branch with some newly formed legumes;

b. Left, inner surface of sepal, right - outer surface of sepal; c. 9 stamens basally connate into

a hirsute sheath; d. Ovary on stipe with one free uppermost staminode; e. Isolated petal

(adaxial); f. Abaxial view of pinna showing thickened marginal nerve and tertiary venation; g.

Legume; left, one valve removed to show arillate seed; right; outer surface of valve. (JF.

Maxwell 78-51)

102 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Notes — Corner (1988) believed that the famous tall tree that stood

at Changi and served as a navigational landmark to pilots until 1942,

belonged to this species.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the Director, Singapore Botanic Gardens for the

loan of specimens as well as the use of herbarium and library facilities.

For loans of other specimens we are grateful to the Director, Forest

Research Institute Malaysia and the Director, Rijksherbarium, Leiden.

We should also like to express our appreciation to D. Hou, L. Watson, J.F.

Veldkamp, I.M. Turner and K. Larsen for advice and Ali bin Ibrahim and

Joseph Lai for field and herbarium assistance. This project was supported

by the National University of Singapore Research Grants RP930325 and

RP 960362.

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(includes collector’s/s’ name, number, date of collection, location, state of specimen.)

Bauhinia semibifida Roxb. var. 1996, Western Catchment Area; A.H.B.

semibifida Loo, Ali Ibrahim, Eel Seah, H.T.W. Tan,

A.H.B. Loo, I.M. Turner, Eel Seah, ALoo

001, 6 July 1996;A.H.B. Loo, Eel Seah,

ALoo 007,12 Jul 1996, Nee Soon Swamp

Forest, flowering; A.H.B. Loo, C. Boo, J.

Yong, L. Chen, I.M. Turner, Eel Seah, ALoo

017(flower buds), 018 (fruiting), 019

(stem), Nee Soon Firing Range; T. M.

Leong, ALoo 039, 15 Aug 1996, Rifle

Range Road, seedling; B. Y.H. Lee, ALoo

071, Sep 1996, Macritchie Reservoir,

flowering; A.H.B. Loo, B.Y.H. Lee, ALoo

078, 11 Oct 1996, Upper Pierce Reservoir

(Resam Path), flower buds;A.H.B. Loo, Ali

Ibrahim, Eel Seah, Joseph Lai, ALoo 084,

29 Oct 1996, Rifle Range Road (Near Bukit

Kallang), flowering.

Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb.

A. H. B. Loo, Ali Ibrahim, Eel Seah, H. T.

W. Tan, ALoo 044, 26 Aug 1996, Pulau

Sakijang Pelepah, male flowers; A.H.B.

Loo, Ali Ibrahim, Eel Seah, H.T.W. Tan,

ALoo 057, 3 Sep 1996, Pulau Sakijang

Pelepah, male flowers; A.H.B. Loo, B.C.

Soong, Ali Ibrahim, Eel Seah, H.T.W. Tan,

S1019, 27 Sep 1996, Pulau Semakau (West),

fruiting.

Caesalpinia crista L.

A.H.B. Loo, Ali Ibrahim, Eel Seah, H.T.W.

Tan, ALoo 049, 29 Aug 1996, Pulau Tekong

(Kg. Salabin), fruiting; A.H.B. Loo, Eel

Seah, H.T.W. Tan, ALoo 055, 3 Sep 1996,

Pulau Sakijang Pelepah vegetative; N.

Tanaka, L. Chen, C. Boo, ALoo 005, 009,

Sungei Mandai Kechil, Kg. Fatimah; A.H.B.

Loo, ALoo 010, 18 July 1996, Sembawang

end, fruiting; A.H.B. Loo, Ali Ibrahim, Eel

Seah, H.T.W. Tan, ALoo 025 (stem), ALoo

(26 (fruiting), ALoo 027 (seedling), 9 Aug

ALoo 028, 15 Aug 1996, Pulau Tekong (Kg.

Unum), vegetative; A.H.B. Loo, Ali

Ibrahim, Eel Seah, A Loo 048, 22 Aug 1996,

Pulau Tekong Kechil, vegetative; A.H.B.

Loo, Ali Ibrahim, B.C. Soong, Eel Seah,

H.T.W. Tan, A.H.B. Loo, Ali Ibrahim, B.C.

Soong, Eel Seah, H.T:W. Tan, ALoo 080,

22 Oct 1996, Pulau Terkukor, vegetative;

ALoo 081, 22 Oct 1996, Pulau Terkukor,

seedling.

Caesalpinia sumatrana Roxb.

A.H.B. Loo, J.A.C.P.L. Looi, ALoo 058, 9

Sep 1996, Bukit Timah Nature Reserve

(Cave Path), sapling.

Chamaecrista leschenaultiana (DC.)

Degener

N. Tanaka, C. Boo, L. Chen, ALoo 043, Jul

1996, Pulau Ubin, vegetative.

Chamaecrista mimosoides (L.)

Greene

A.H.B. Loo, ALoo 011, 22 July 1996, Old

Upper Thomson Road, flowering and

fruiting; A.H.B. Loo, Ali Ibrahim, Eel Seah,

H.T.W. Tan, A Loo 034, 20 Aug 1996, Pulau

Tekong, flowering and fruiting; A.H.B.

Loo, ALoo 072, 11 Oct 1996, Yishun Ave

6, whole plant, nodules; A.H.B. Loo, ALoo

073, 11 Oct 1996, whole plant, nodules;

A.H.B. Loo, ALoo 074, 07911 Oct 1996,

Yishun Ave 6;A.H.B. Loo, ALoo 085, Nov

1996, Old Upper Thomson Road,

flowering and fruiting.

Dialium platysepalum Baker

A.H.B. Loo, T.M. Leong, A Loo 060, 19 Sep

1996, Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (Jungle

Falls), ‘wallichii’, vegetative.

106

Intsia bijuga (Colebr.) Kuntze

A.H.B. Loo, Eel Seah, D. Wee, Karen,

ALoo 020, 1 Aug 1996, Sungei Buloh

Nature Reserve, vegetative; A.H.B. Loo, Ali

Ibrahim, Eel Seah, H.T.W. Tan, A Loo 024,

9 Aug 1996, Western Catchment Area,

fruiting; A.H.B. Loo, Ali Ibrahim, Eel Seah,

ALoo 037, 22 Aug 1996, Pulau Tekong

Kechil, fruiting, ALoo 038, vegetative.

Koompassia malaccensis Benth.

A.H.B. Loo, ALoo 059, Jul 1996, Botanic

Gardens’ Jungle, fruits picked up from the

ground; A.H.B. Loo, T.M. Leong, ALoo

(63, Bukit Timah Nature reserve (Jungle

Falls), samaras and seedlings.

Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) K.

Heyne

A.H.B. Loo, ALoo 003, 12 July, Mandai

Road, fruiting; A.H.B. Loo, Ali Ibrahim,

Eel Seah, H.T.W. Tan, ALoo 015, 3 Aug

1996, Pulau Hantu, fruiting; Ali Ibrahim,

Eel Seah, ALoo 016, 3 Aug 1996, West

Coast Road, flowering; A.H.B. Loo, Eel

Seah, ALoo 021, 6 Aug 1996, Pulau

Sakijang Bendera, fruiting; A.H.B. Loo,

ALoo 023, 7 Aug 1996, NUS Campus,

flowering and fruiting; Ali Ibrahim, Eel

Seah, ALoo 036, 22 Aug 1996, Pulau

Tekong Kechil, vegetative, wild?; Ali

Ibrahim, Eel Seah, H.T.W. Tan, ALoo 051,

29 Aug 1996, Pulau Tekong, flowering;

A.H.B. Loo, Ali Ibrahim, B.C Soong, Eel

Seah, H.T.W. Tan, $1010, 27 Sep 1996,

Pulau Semakau (West), fruiting, wild?;

A.H.B. Loo, B.C Soong, Eel Seah, H.T.W.

Tan, $1023, 27 Sep 1996, Pulau Semakau

(West), sapling; A.H.B. Loo, Ali Ibrahim,

B.C Soong, Eel Seah, H.T.W. Tan, ALoo

067, 1 Oct 1996, Pulau Subar Darat,

fruiting; ALoo 082, 22 Oct 1996, Pulau

Terkukor, vegetative; A.H.B. Loo, ALoo

086, Nov 1996, NUS Campus, flowering

and fruiting.

Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Senna alata (L.) Roxb.

N. Tanaka, L. Chen, C. Boo, ALoo 002, 13

July 1996, Sungei Mandai Kechil, fruiting;

B.Y H. Lee, ALoo 032, 19 Aug 1996, North

Bouna Vista Road, flowering, A.H.B. Loo,

ALoo 033, 19 Aug 1996, North Bouna Vista

Road, flowering; A.H.B. Loo, Ali Ibrahim,

B.C Soong, Eel Seah, H.T.W. Tan, ALoo

035, 20 Aug 1996, Pulau Tekong, vegetative;

A.H.B. Loo, ALoo 075, 076, 11 Oct 1996,

Island Club Road, flowers and fruits;

A.H.B. Loo, ALoo 077, 11 Oct 1996,

Yishun Ave 6, fruiting.

Senna occidentalis (L.) Link

AH.B. Loo, ALoo 029, 030, 031, 16 Aug

1996, East Coast Road, flowering and

fruiting; A.H.B. Loo, Ali Ibrahim, Eel Seah,

ALoo 041, 22 Aug 1996, East Coast Road,

flowering and fruiting; A.H.B. Loo, ALoo

070, 8 Oct 1996, School of Biologial

Sciences Garden (NUS), flowering and

fruiting.

Sindora coriacea (Baker) Prain

A.H.B. Loo, Ali Ibrahim, Eel Seah, Joeseph

Lai, ALoo 083, 29 Oct 1996, Bukit Kallang

(Summit), vegetative.

Sindora wallichii Benth.

A.H.B. Loo, Ali Ibrahim, Eel Seah, ALoo

054, 29 Aug 1996, Netheravon Road,

fruiting; ALoo 063, 19 Sep 1996, Bukit

Timah Nature Reserve (Jungle Falls),

seedlings and fallen fruits.

The following species were not found

in the field:

Caesalpinia tortuosa Roxb.

Cynometra ramiflora L. var. ramiflora;

Dialium indum L.var. bursa (de Wit) Rojo

Dialium indum L. var. indum

Senna hirsuta (L.) Irwin and Barneby var.

hirsuta;

Senna obtusifolia (L.) Irwin and Barneby

Senna tora (L.) Roxb.

Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 107-110.

The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 7

LIMNOCHARITACEAE

J. P. S. CHoo! AND H.T.W. Tan?

‘Block 108, Lorong 1 Toa Payoh, #05-298,

Singapore 310108, Republic of Singapore

*School of Biological Sciences, The National University of Singapore

Singapore 119260, Republic of Singapore

Limnocharis Humb. and Bonpl.

Pl. aequinoct. 1 (1808) 116; M.R. Hend., Malayan Wild Flowers,

Monocotyledons (1954) 202-203; Steenis, Fl. Males. 1:5 (1954) 118-120;

Backer & Bakh.f., Fl. Java 3 (1968) 1-2; H. Keng, Orders and Families of

Malayan Seed Plants (1969) 287; R.R. Haynes & Holm-Niels., Fl. Neotropica

56 (1992) 8-12.

Emergent, substrate-rooted, fleshy, aerenchyma-rich, laticiferous,

aquatic herbs; stem very short. Leaves simple, basal, glabrous, long-

petiolate, exstipulate. J/nflorescence an umbel-like cincinnus, bracteate.

Flowers bisexual, actinomorphic, pedicellate, bracteate; sepals 3, persistent;

petals 3; staminodes numerous, tricyclic; stamens numerous, dicyclic; carpels

up to 20, fused marginally and basally to form a verticil, placentation

laminar; stigma sessile. Follicetum enclosed by the persistent sepals; follicles

up to 20. Seeds many per follicle.

Distribution, Ecology and Uses — See under species.

Notes — Limnocharis is often regarded as monotypic, although

Duchassaing in Grisebach (Bonplandia 6 (1858) 11) recognised L. laforestii

as a second species (Haynes and Holm-Nielsen, 1992).

Limnocharis has traditionally been placed in the Butomaceae but

more recent treatments follow Cronquist (1981) and his narrow concept of

the family. The Limnocharitaceae differ from the Butomaceae s.s. by the

presence of laticifers, “petiolated leaves that have a terminal pore, a non-

petaloid calyx, thin and evanescent petals, and curved seeds and embryos”

(Haynes and Holm-Nielsen, 1992).

1. Limnocharis flava (L.) Buchenau

Abh. naturwiss. Ver. Bremen 2 (1869) 2; Steenis, Fl. Males. 1:5 (1954) 120;

108 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Backer & Bakh/f., Fl. Java 3 (1968) 1-2; H. Keng, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore

40 (1987) 113; ILM. Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore Nat.

Acad. Sci. 18 & 19 (1990) 63; R.R. Haynes & Holm-Niels., Flora Neotropica

56 (1992) 8-10; ILM. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45 (1993) 48.

Alisma flava L.

Herb to 1 m tall. Leaves: lamina ovate to suborbicular, to 30 by 23

cm, with 1 midrib and 7-17 secondary veins, apex round or apiculate, with

a purple-margined hydathode at the abaxial tip; petiole trigonous, to 85 cm

long and c. 8 mm in diam.; sheath to 27 cm long. Inflorescence 3-9-

flowered, after fruiting becoming stolon-like and forming vegetative shoots;

peduncle to 71 cm long and c. 1.5 cm in diam., apically trigonous, basally

flattened, sheathless; bracts ovate, fugacious, outermost bracts 2, to c. 3.0

by 2.5 cm, subpedicellate supernumerary buds occasionally develop in their

axils in mature inflorescences. Flowers cockroach-scented; sepals to 22 by

17 mm; petals with a cream margin and yellow base, suborbicular, to 23 by

25 mm, membranous, fugacious; staminodes yellow, stamens with cream

anthers and yellow filaments; carpels cream, laterally compressed; pedicels

toc. 5.5 by 1 cm. Follicetum subglobose, to 15 mm diam.; follicles yellowish

when ripe, semi-circular, laterally compressed with thickened peripheral

wall, dehiscent. Seeds brown, U-shaped, with thin transverse ridges and

broad transverse spines, to c. 1 mm long. (Figure 1.)

Distribution — This species from tropical South America, is locally

naturalized and was first recorded in Singapore in 1930 (Corlett, 1988). It

was recently collected in Choa Chu Kang Muslim Cemetry, Jalan Ulu

Seletar, Mandai Road, Marina East and Neo Tiew Road.

Ecology — Aquatic or marsh plants usually found growing in or

along water margins, e.g., drains, ditches, freshwater pools or ponds in

farm- or wasteland and along roadsides. Usually a perennial, it can be

annual through drying of its habitat (Backer & Bakhuizen f,, 1965). Its

presence indicates fertile soils (Ochse, 1931). Flowers open in the morning

and fade by afternoon (van Steenis, 1954).

The peduncle of an old inflorescence grows downwards where, on

contact with water or mud, it develops leaves and roots so serving as an

effective means of vegetative propagation (Backer & Bakhuizen f, 1965).

Uses — In West Java, young leaves and inflorescences are eaten

and sold in markets (Burkill, 1935), and are eaten raw or cooked with rice

by the Javanese (Tanaka, 1976), and also eaten by the Malays (Burkill,

The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 7 109

1mm

=-'s

iy 2 ll

Tear

AUN elit

Lr ie nu Ta

ANON ag

tye » qi 4M,

V7,

O0:-5mm

Pe er

Bie

oon ray

pS BS J

“oF

es Ney ove a cual vy ee

- oxvets - «on ae caeaee beoe > 1

cae ee wend »

oe 5 : ‘ Wisi: =

x Oe ‘Anat 5

Fas ers rosa

ey “ye tea wer oF)

- ie PLY OREEE ae) ALAS

= =*-¥e OY geen ead

i aa\. .

5cm

<1) \

0:-5cm

Figure 1. Limnocharis flava (L.) Buchenau. a. Habit with two newly developed inflorescences

and one old inflorescence which has become stoloniferous with a rooting vegetative shoot at

its tip. b. Tip of the lamina showing the hydathode. c. A flower and buds of the inflorescence

and the peduncle tip. d. Half-flower. e. Follicetum enclosed by two of the three persistent

sepals, with one removed, at the tip of the pedicel. f. One follicle and seeds. g. Seed. Del.

J.P.S.Choo. P

70 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

1935). The raw lamina has a slightly bitter aftertaste. This plant was also

used as cattle fodder and green manure in Peninsular Malaysia (Burkill,

1935).

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Director, Singapore Botanic Gardens, for the use of

the herbarium and library facilities and for the financial support through

the National University of Singapore grant, RP 930325. We would also

like to thank Robert R. Haynes (University of Alabama) for determining

some of our specimens and K.P. Fong for field assistance.

References

Backer, C.A. & Bakhuizen van den Brink, R.C. Jr. (1965). Flora of Java,

Vol. IIT, Wolters-Noordhoff N.V.; Groningen, the Netherlands; 1-2.

Burkill, I.H. (1935). A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay

Peninsula, Vol. 2, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Kuala

Lumpur, Malaysia; 1347.

Corlett, R.T. (1988). The naturalized flora of Singapore. J. Biogeog. 15,

657-663.

Cronquist, A. (1981). An integrated system of classification of flowering

plants, Columbia Univ. Press; New York; 1048-1049.

Haynes, R.R. and Holm-Nielsen, L.B. (1992). Flora Neotropica Monograph

56, the Limnocharitaceae, New York Botanical Garden; New York; 1-

34.

Keng, H. (1987). Annotated list of seed plants in Singapore (XI). Gdns’

Bull., Singapore 40, 113.

Ochse, J.J. (1931). Indische groenten (met inbegrip van aardvruchten en

kruiderijen) (met meder werking van R.C. Bakhuizen van den Brink);

Department Landbouw, Nijverheid en Handel; Buitenzorg, Batavia

Centrum; 87-89, 612.

Steenis, C.G.G.J. van (1954). Butomaceae. FI. Males., Ser. 1, 5, 118-120.

Tanaka, T. (1976). Tanaka’s Cyclopedia of Edible Plants of the World;

Keigaku Publishing Co.; Tokyo; 431.

Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 111-118.

Gazetteer of Limestone Localities in Sabah, Borneo

Lim SHEH PING

Forest Research Centre, Forest Department,

Locked Bag 68, 90009 Sandakan

Sabah, Malaysia

and

RUTH KIEwW

Singapore Botanic Gardens

Cluny Road, Singapore 259569

Abstract

A map of the 59 limestone localities in the Malaysian state of Sabah, Borneo, is presented

together with a table with their co-ordinates, accepted name and the forest area in which

they occur.

Introduction

In investigating the limestone flora in Sabah, it became obvious that there

was no complete and convenient gazetteer to limestone localities. Limestone

hills had been surveyed for their caves with archaeological remains (T. and

B. Harrisson, 1971), for caves from which edible bird’s nests are collected

(Francis, 1987) or for their mollusc fauna (Vermeulen, 1996). None of

these sources covers even half the limestone localities. The section on hill

and mountain peaks in the Sabah Gazetteer (Tangah and Wong, 1995)

lists two limestone hills and gives their altitudes (Dulong Lambu attains

229 m a.s.l. and Madai reaches 359 m) but without mention that they are

limestone.

In addition, there are discrepancies in names or the spelling of names.

Standardising names has therefore been an important part of this work.

For example, the name ‘Lobok Buaya’ cited by the Harrissons is not to be

found on any maps and it was necessary to retrace their route to the site

and confirm the accepted name with local villagers. The hill should be

called Baladut. Similarly, Batu Punan has been given as an alternative

name to Pun Batu, but the local villagers are adamant that it should be

called Pun Batu.

Tourist localities are also not accurate in their use of names. Thus

the hill in which the Gomantong Cave is located is Bukit Dulong Lambu

112 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

(not Bukit Gomantong) and the hill commonly called Batu Putih should

correctly be known as Batu Tulug (Batu Putih being the name of the

nearby village, not the hill itself).

Two limestone localities are not included in the gazetteer. One is a

mollusc site, ‘Kirk’s Cave, 8 km N of Lahad Datu’, for which no co-ordinates

are available (Vermeulen, 1996). It is not to be found on any map probably

because it is a ‘small hill hidden among oil palm estates’ and so would not

have shown up on aerial photographs if it did not emerge above the tree

canopy. Similarly, George Argent (pers. comm.) reports that there are a

few large limestone boulders in the river at Danum Valley (Sungai Palum

Tambun 4° 58’N 117°49’E), but the source of these has not been found.

Francis (1987) drew attention to the confusion about the number

and names of limestone hills in the Sapulut and Sinobang areas, which

until recently were very remote and inaccessible. Now the area is riddled

with a maze of logging roads and it was possible to visit the Sinobang area

on the Sungai Pinangah and obtain information from the local Muruts.

This revealed that the hills do not have proper names and that Batu Urun

(not a hill but a unique bowl-shaped sunken gorge) is a descriptive name,

which merely indicates that it is upriver (‘oron’ in the Murut language,

equivalent to ‘ulu’ in Malay) and Kelabangan meaning ‘a trail’ (‘labangan’

in Murut), is a long cliff face that intermittently outcrops along a stretch

about 3-km long (R. Kiew, unpublished data).

The gazetteer was compiled from the following three maps as no

single map included all the limestone hills. The mineral map is the most

complete.

1. The Soils of Sabah. 1974. Scale 1: 125,000. Published for the Sabah

Government by the British Overseas Development Administration (Land

Resources Division), U.K.

2. Mineral Distribution Map of Sabah. 1st edition, 1976. Scale 1: 500,000.

Compiled by K.M. Leong, published by The Geological Survey of Malaysia.

3. Geological Map of Sabah. 3rd edition, 1985. Scale 1: 500,000. Compiled

by P.S. Lim, published by Directorate of Mapping Malaysia. No. 36/87.

Some hills have no names on the maps and these are recorded as

unnamed in Table 1 and, where there is a village or river close by, this is

given in parenthesis. The position of all hills is shown in Figure 1, the

numbers corresponding to the numbered localities in Table 1. The Forest

Reserve in which the hill is found is also given, as this is important in

considering the conservation status of the limestone flora. The limestone

flora is extremely susceptible to burning, which destroys not only the

a NSC

‘(soruenb [eloIOWIUIOS UT Poj}da][O9 OIv S}SOU SPIIQ YOIYM WOLF S[[IY S}VOIPUL SOTIIID PI[OS -T 9[QUL Ul 9SOy} O} spuodsa1109 soniTeso] oy} JO IoquINNY)

“YEQUS UI SAIPTTEIO] DUOJSOWITT *T BANSLY

113

Gazetteer of Limestone Localities in Sabah Borneo

114 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

vegetation but also the soil layer, which when no longer protected by

vegetation is washed away by subsequent rains leaving the rock bare (Kiew,

1991). The original vegetation on hills that suffered burning in the 1982-83

drought has still not recovered. Protection against fire by a buffer zone of

forest is therefore essential for the conservation of the limestone flora.

Hills that are not located within Wildlife Reserves or Virgin Jungle Reserves

are extremely vulnerable to fire.

Fifty nine limestone localities are listed here. They include the raised

coral limestone found on islands, for example in the extreme north and the

south east of Sabah, and the inland tower karst hills. It is in these latter

that the caves are found.

While we can be confident that all the major hills are listed, there

remains the possibility that smaller outcrops (such as ‘Kirk’s cave’

mentioned above), which do not emerge above the forest canopy and so

cannot be identified from aerial photographs remain to be mapped.

However, based on our field survey their number is likely to be very small.

Acknowledgements

The authors are extremely grateful to World Wide Fund for Nature

Malaysia for funding under Project No. MYS 328/ 95; to Dr Wong Khoon

Meng, Mr Robert C. Ong and staff at the Forest Research Centre for

providing facilities; to G. Argent, A. Lamb and J.J. Vermeulen for answering

queries.

References

Francis, C.M. 1987. The Management of Edible Bird’s Nest Caves in Sabah.

Wildlife Section, Sabah Forest Department, Sandakan, Sabah.

Harrisson, T. and B. Harrisson. 1971. The Prehistory of Sabah. Sabah

Society Journal. 4:1-272.

Kiew, R. 1991. The limestone flora. In: R. Kiew (ed.), The State of Nature

Conservation in Malaysia. Malayan Nature Society, Kuala Lumpur,

Malaysia. pp. 42-50.

Tangah, J. and K.M. Wong. 1995. A Sabah Gazetteer. Sabah Forest

Department and Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Malaysia.

Vermeulen, J.J. 1996. Notes on the non-marine molluscs of the island of

Borneo, 8. Basteria 60: 87-138.

Gazetteer of Limestone Localities in Sabah Borneo BLS

Table 1. Gazetteer of limestone localities in Sabah

Name of Locality Coordinate Forest Reserve

1. Tanjung Batu 5°36’30”N ~

118°20°00”E

2. Ulu Sungai 5°28'45”N -

Resang 113° 23°00" E

3. Panggi 5°32 157 N Panggi FR

(Bt. Temanggong bis is ov

Besar)

4. Batu Temanggong 5°32’00”N -

Kecil 118°18°00"E

5. Keruak (Cave) a ol 30" Keruak VJR

LIS? L/OO"E

6. Bod Tai Cave 5°31°45”N Bod Tai VJR

118°13°00"E

7. Unnamed 5°32’45”N -

1189930"

8. Baladut 5°26’30”N -

118°8’°00”E

9. Kuntos 3° 33°00"N Gomantong Protected FR

118°4°30”E

10. Bukit Dulong yo) B07N Gomantong VJR

Lambu 118°415”E

(Gomantong Cave)

11. Batu Batangan 5°28:00"°N -

118°6°00”E

12. Batu Materis 5°307307N _

Lis 213s E

13. Batu Bunod 5°31’45”N ta

L1S°2)45"

14. Batu Supu 5°29’°00”N Pin—Supu VJR

Lig sais: E

116

15. Batu Tulug

16. Tabin

(Batu Quoin)

17. Unnamed

(Tabin)

18. Unnamed

(Tabin)

19. Unnamed

(Tabin)

20. Batu Belas

21. Tempadong

22. Upak

23. Unnamed

24. Gunung Madai

25. Batu Supad

26. Bukit Baturong

27. Batu Tengar Cave

(Segarong)

& Pababola Cave

(Sipit)

28. Semorang Cave

(Sipit)

29. Selangan Island

(Sakong)

5°25’45”N

IL796'307E

5°18’00”"N

118°44°30”E

5°20°30”N

118°43°30”E

S°2100UN

118°40°30"E

SO ASIN

118°46°15”E

5°7'45”N

118°8’45”E

5°S’ 307 N

Uinomo® lay 2)

57h OOON,

118°3°45”E

4°50°30”N

118°4°45”E

4°43°00”N

Lier 915)

4°A42°15”"N

Lis hos"

4°42’°00"N

118°00’°30”E

4°34715”N

118°24’30”"E

4°33’30”"N

118°24°15”E

4°35’45”N

List23/0008

4°34°45”"N

113°30°00CE

Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Pin-Supu VJR

Tabin Wildlife Sanctuary

Mensuli VJR

Madai—Baturong VJR

Segarong Protected FR

Selangan Protected FR

Gazetteer of Limestone Localities in Sabah Borneo

30.

alk.

32:

34.

55.

36.

sie

38.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

Unnamed

(Kampung Ballong)

Pulau Pababag

(Sakong)

Bait Island

(Sakong)

Larapan Island

Tanjung Kapur

Bum Bum Island

Batu Pang

Sarupi

Batu Timbang

Melikop

Kelabangan

Batu Urun

Bandakan

Batu Punggul

Unnamed

(Labang)

Sambulyan

4°34°00”N

LES. 28)30"E

4°32’30"N

116°29'30"E

4°32’30"N

Lie 38 30°E

4°33745”

His"36°13"E

4°31°30”N

16°37 15" E

4°28°00”"N

118°40°00”E

4°27°00”"N

iS" 00" E

5°14’00”"N

hy 2s SOE

4°59°00”N

117°6°00”E

5°5’00”N

116°48°00”E

4°49°30”N

116°38°00”E

4°49°30”"N

116533007

4°43°45”°N

M630 00°E

4°38'45”"N

LiG?37:00"E

4°39°00”N

1167335457 E

4°43°30”N

£6733 5078

Pry

Pababag Protected FR

Batu Timbang VJR

Sg. Pinangah Commercial FR

Sapulut Commercial FR

118

46. Pun Batu

47. Pulun

48. Unnamed

(Sg. Pangi)

49. Lakutan

50. Burong Island

SL Labuan

52. Lian Cave

53. Mantanani Island

Besar

& Kecil

54. Unnamed

55. Unnamed

56. Melobang

57. Karakit

58. Kok Simpul

& Tg. Kalutan

59. Tanjung Timohing

(Balambangan)

4°48’00”"N

116717 0O"'E

4°46715”N

115°39°45”E

5°5’45”N

115°48°45”E

5°7’00”N

115°43°15”E

5°14°30”"N

Si ser E

5°18°45”N

11S" 1200"

5°29 S0 iN

116° 1630"E

6°43°30”"N

11.6°20°30"E

6°43°00"N

116°18’30°E

6°50°00”"N

116°49°00"E

PLOON

116°45°30"E

6°53°30"N

117°2’30"E

PTis™

1 BS Gao Bs) ss

PISRON

116°52’45”E

T1730" N

116°54’30”"E

Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Sabah Forest Industries

Gunung Lumaku Protected FR /

Sabah Forest Industries

Karakit VJR

Balambangan Protected FR

FR forest reserve; VJR virgin jungle reserve; — not found in forest reserve.

Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 119-141.

The Botany of the Islands of Mersing District, Johore,

Peninsular Malaysia. 1. The Plants and Vegetation of

Pulau Tinggi

I.M. TuRNER!, J.W.H. YONG?

School of Biological Sciences

National University of Singapore

Singapore 119260

A. ZAINUDIN ISMAIL & A. LATIFF

Department of Botany

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

Abstract

A list of the vascular plant species found on Pulau Tinggi in the district of Mersing, Johore,

Peninsular Malaysia is presented. This has been prepared from herbarium collections in

Malaysia and Singapore and covers more than 500 species. A brief outline of the vegetation

of the island and the principal species in each vegetation type are given. Pulau Tinggi is

mostly covered with lowland dipterocarp forest. The island has good examples of several

coastal vegetation types which include the presence of a number of rare seashore species

including Argusia argentea, Manilkara kauki, Pouteria linggensis and Serianthes grandiflora.

Introduction

Pulau Tinggi (2° 18' N, 104° 7' E) is an island of roughly 14.5 km lying 13

km off the east coast of Johore. Tinggi rises abruptly to a height of 610 m

at its summit, with most of the slopes covered in forest. Turner et al. (1993)

provided a preliminary account of the botany of Pulau Tinggi. Subsequent

further research allows a more detailed report to be given here.

Flora

A list of the vascular plants recorded from Pulau Tinggi is given in Appendix

1. Records are taken from herbarium specimens in the Singapore Botanic

'Present Address: Center for Ecological Research, Kyoto University, Shimosakamoto, Otsu 520 0105, Japan

*Present Address: Environmental Biology Group, Research School of Biological Sciences, Australian

National University, G.P.O. Box 475, Canberra A.C.T. 2601, Australia

120 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Gardens (SING), School of Biological Sciences, National University of

Singapore (SINU), Forest Research Institute Malaysia (KEP) and

Department of Botany, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKMB). The

collections were made by J.B. Feilding who visited Pulau Tinggi in late

1892, I.H. Burkill who was there from 16 to 20 June 1915, Strugnell and

Mohd. Yasin in 1952, J. Sinclair in May 1954, F.S.P. Ng in April 1967, A.

Zainudin Ismail in 1990 and 1996, and groups from the National University

of Singapore in 1991, 1992 and 1996. The list consists of 510 native or

naturalized species and 62 cultivated ones.

Vegetation

The main vegetation on Pulau Tinggi is the tropical rain forest that covers

the upper slopes of the island. In and around the villages this has been

cleared to give way to cultivated areas. Close to the villages these are

permanent, higher up the clearings (ladangs) are often abandoned in a

form of shifting agriculture. Currently these ladangs are mostly abandoned,

probably reflecting a gradual reduction in the permanent population of

Pulau Tinggi in recent years, and a shift to employment in the holiday

resorts on the island. The seashores support a range of different vegetation

types, largely related to their substrate. The sandy beaches differ in their

plant community from the more frequent rocky ones. There are also two

areas of mangrove vegetation. On some of the coral reef flats there are

seagrass meadows. The distribution of the major terrestrial vegetation types

is shown in Fig. 1.

Forest

We probably know least about this vegetation type on Tinggi compared to

the others. The area of forest is extensive and penetrated by relatively few

trails, and collecting from tall trees is technically difficult. Therefore we

can only be explicit with regard to the understorey vegetation. Turner et

al. (1993) described the summit of Tinggi, which is an open grassy area,

probably maintained as such by human visitors. The forest on the lower

slopes is tall, reaching to 30 m or more in height and contains typical

primary forest species such as members of the Dipterocarpaceae and

Myristicaceae (see Appendix 1). The palm Orania sylvicola is abundant,

and there is a zone of bamboo below the summit. This was tentatively

identified as Dendrocalamus hirtellus by Turner et al. (1993), an

identification confirmed from further collections by Dr K.M. Wong. Typical

forest understorey herbs, such as gingers, aroids and ferns, are to be found

in abundance.

The lower edges of the forest grade into secondary forest and

1. The Plants and Vegetation of Pulau Tinggi

Tg Sebirah

birah

pee Kg Sebir

Besar

Tg Sebirah

Kechil

Tk Sebirah Kechil

Kg Pasir

Panjang

(0 Primary Forest

Secondary Forest and Ladangs

Tk Tapak

Batu Gajah

Tg Segatal P. Ibol

A610 °S,

P. TINGGI

Tg Selata

308

315

Bt Semunda

Kechil

Tg Mali

Kg Tg Balang

Rb P. Nanga Kechil

ae P. Nanga Besar

[ Permanent Cultivation and Habitation

HB Mangrove

PAI

Figure 1. Maps of Pulau Tinggi and its major vegetation types. (P. = Pulau, Tg = Tanjung, Tk

= Telok, Kg = Kampung, Bt = Bukit;

spot heights in metres)

122 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

abandoned ladangs. Common species in this region include Vitex pinnata

and Melastoma malabathricum. Old crop plants may also be found. We

came across the garden pandan, Pandanus amaryllifolius growing along

one stream, and the climber Tinospora crispa, which is grown for its

medicinal uses, in another area. Newly cleared areas, if not planted, soon

give way to pioneering plants such as Trema tomentosa, Chromolaena

odorata and Macaranga heynei.

Cultivated Areas

The kampung houses on Tinggi are set among the typical tumult of

ornamental and useful plants seen in any Malay village. Coconut palms

(Cocos nucifera) dominate the flat areas near the sea, though their

cultivation appears to be largely neglected at present. The coconut groves

are mostly carpetted with cattle-grazed lallang (Jmperata cylindrica) and

clumps of Lantana camara. The kwini (Mangifera odorata) is the only crop

currently exported from Pulau Tinggi. Other commonly grown trees include

rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), clove (Syzygium aromaticum) and nutmeg

(Myristica fragrans). The attractive herb Tacca palmata is quite common in

the plantations.

Sea Shores

Most of Tinggi’s coastline is rocky, usually of large boulders. The north

coast is mostly inaccessible, even by boat. Common trees found just above

the high tide line are Memecylon edule, Allophylus cobbe, Ficus superba

and Pouteria obovata. Cycas rumphii, Glycosmis mauritiana, Premna

serratifolia and Ficus tinctoria ssp. gibbosa are shrubby species also common

on the rocks. Pandanus dubius is abundant on the north coast in such

situations. The rocky promontories most exposed to salt spray from the

sea support Pemphis acidula or Xylocarpus rumphii. Ferns are often

encountered creeping over the surface of the rocks. These include Davallia

solida, Drynaria quercifolia, Phymatosorus scolopendria and Pyrrosia

lanceolata. Cracks support other herbs, notably the naturalized alien

Kalanchoe pinnata, Dianella ensifolia and Asplenium macrophyllum. Hoya

verticillata and Dischidia major are common epiphytes. The orchids

Dendrobium crumenatum and Aerides odorata can be found growing both

epiphytically and on rocks.

On the sandy beaches, mostly found in the bays on the south and

east coasts, the creepers Ipomoea pes-caprae, Ipomoea littoralis, Vitex trifolia

and Cyperus stoloniferus can be found. The back of the beach is typically

~~ Tee Se re

ee ne eee a eee eee

1. The Plants and Vegetation of Pulau Tinggi 123

lined with shrubs of Scaevola taccada, Pandanus odoratissimus and

Dendrolobium umbellatum behind which grow trees such as Hibiscus

tiliaceus, Peltophorum pterocarpum, Terminalia catappa, Barringtonia

asiatica and Guettarda speciosa. Less frequently encountered are Thespesia

populnea, Cordia subcordata and Casuarina equisetifolia. Individual trees

of Erythrina fusca, Erythrina variegata and Hernandia nymphaeifolia are

to be found at Telok Seruang.

Mangrove

There are two areas of mangrove vegetation on Pulau Tinggi. At Telok

Terih there is a range of mangrove habitats at the mouth of the Sungai

Terih Besar. Telok Pinang contains a smaller area of mangrove.

A preliminary survey at Telok Terih found that an almost pure stand

of Rhizophora apiculata occupies the seaward front of the mangrove where

the substrate is muddiest (Fig. 2). Patches of different species, including

Telok Terih

Ac = Aegiceras corniculatum

Ar = Avicennia rumphiana

Be = Bruguiera cylindrica

Bs = Bruguiera sexangula

Cd = Ceriops decandra

Ct = Ceriops tagal

Ds = Dolichandrone spathacea

Ra = Rhizophora apiculata

Rm = Rhizophora mucronata

Sa = Sonneratia alba

Sh = Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea

Tanjong Terih

Figure 2. Map of the mangrove vegetation found at Telok Terih, Pulau Tinggi.

SEMA

124 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Avicennia rumphiana, Bruguiera cylindrica and Aegiceras corniculatum are

found behind. The back mangrove is quite diverse with big trees of

Xylocarpus granatum and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza. Dolichandrone spathacea,

Cynometra ramiflora and Bruguiera sexangula also occur here, with an

understorey of Acrostichum aureum and Acrostichum speciosum. The trees

on the rocky fringe bordering the mangrove support many epiphytes

including the rubiaceous myrmecophyte Hydnophytum formicarum and

the clubmoss Huperzia carinata.

The Telok Pinang mangrove is dominated by Rhizophora apiculata

and Rhizophora stylosa but with an admixture of a number of other species

including Ceriops decandra and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza. There appears to

be more human utilization of the mangroves in Telok Pinang than Telok

Terih, but there is evidence that the local people may be replanting areas

cut, presumably for fuel or for use as poles. Species found at Telok Terih

but not seen at Telok Pinang include Avicennia alba, Bruguiera sexangula

and Ceriops tagal. The mangroves on Tinggi are notable for the scarcity of

Sonneratia alba and Avicennia alba.

Sea Grasses

We have located herbarium specimens of three species of sea grass collected

from the coastal waters of Pulau Tinggi. There are fairly extensive areas of

sea grass in front of Kampung Tanjung Balang, mostly of Cymodocea

rotundifolia interspersed with the smaller Halodule uninervis. Burkill also

collected Thallassia hemprichii. Enhalus acoroides shoots were found among

the seashore flotsam, but no plants were seen growing around the island.

Japar (1994) also reports Halophila ovalis from Tinggi.

Botanical Significance

We now have records for more than 500 species of vascular plant from

Pulau Tinggi. However, we believe that this is likely to represent less than

half of the flora of the island. Many forest species remain uncollected.

As outlined by Turner ef al. (1993), the most important collections

from Pulau Tinggi are those of Pandanus lais and Canarium hirsutum. The

former has not been collected since 1915, but we have located the latter.

Several plants were encountered near the path running behind the

mangroves in Telok Terih. It grows at the edge of secondary forest and

becomes reproductive at a fairly small size (4-5 m tall).

The most exciting of the recent collections is the discovery of a new

east coast locality for Argusia argentea. Until now it was only known from

1. The Plants and Vegetation of Pulau Tinggi 25

Pulau Tengah in Johore. This adds to the number of rare seashore species

that have been recorded from Pulau Tinggi. Others in this category include

Serianthes grandiflora, Manilkara kauki and Pouteria linggensis.

Didymocarpus tiumanicus was believed to be endemic to Pulau

Tioman (Henderson 1930, as Paraboea tiumanica), but we have now found

it on Tinggi, and it has been collected on Pulau Pemanggil also. Thus this

species has to be added to the flora of Johore, and must be thought of as a

Tioman Archipelago endemic, rather than being confined to the one island.

Another species not previously reported from Johore is Mallotus

philippensis.

One sterile collection was identified by Mr K.M. Kochummen as

possibly Swintonia acuta, a species only previously recorded from Borneo.

Fertile material is needed to confirm the occurrence of this species in

Peninsular Malaysia.

Acknowledgements

The members of 1996-97 NUS Botany Honours Class are thanked for their

invaluable assistance in collecting and making observations on Pulau Tinggi.

That trip was arranged by the Malaysian Nature Society and Abdullah

Piee, Nik Mohamad and Dr Loh Chi Leong are thanked for their company

on Tinggi. A number of people assisted with identification of collections,

particularly Haji Sidek Kiah and Ali [brahim at the Singapore Botanic

Gardens and Chua Keng Soon at NUS. Mr K.M. Kochummen and Dr Saw

Leng Guan are thanked for their assistance with the Anacardiaceae, and

Dr Wong Khoon Meng for confirming the identity of the Tinggi bamboo.

References

Henderson, M.R. 1930. Notes on the flora of Pulau Tioman and

neighbouring islands. Gardens’ Bulletin Straits Settlements. 5: 80-93.

Japar, S.B. 1994. Status of seagrass resources in Malaysia. In: C.R.

Wilkinson, S. Sudara & L.M. Chou. Proceedings, Third ASEAN-Australia

Symposium on Living Coastal Resources, pp. 283-289 Vol. 1 Australian

Institute of Marine Science, Townsville.

Turner, I.M. 1995. A catalogue of the vascular plants of Malaya. Gardens’

Bulletin Singapore 47: 1-757.

Turner, I.M., H.T.W. Tan, K.S. Chua, P.T. Chew, & Haji Samsuri bin Haji

Ahmad 1993. A botanical reconnaisance of Pulau Tinggi, Johore. Malayan

Nature Journal 46: 157-168.

126

Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Appendix 1. A list of species collected from Pulau Tinggi.

One representative herbarium collection is cited for each species. Species only found

in cultivation, or as relics of cultivation, are indicated as such by ‘c’ in the margin.

Nomenclature follows Turner (1995) where possible.

PTERIDOPHYTA

Adiantaceae

Adiantum stenochlamys Baker - Strugnell

KEP 70933 (KEP)

Taenitis blechnoides (Willd.) Sw. - PT96

649 (SINU)

Aspleniaceae

Asplenium macrophyllum Sw. - PT96-186

(SINU)

Asplenium nidus L. - PT96-217 (SINU)

Asplenium tenerum G. Forst. - PT96-131

(SINU)

Blechnaceae

Blechnum finlaysonianum Wall. ex Hook.

& Grey. - J.W.H. Yong PTS (SINU)

Davalliaceae

Davallia angustata Wall. ex Hook. &

Grev. - I.M. Turner PT13 (SINU)

Davallia denticulata (Burm.f.) Mett. ex

Kuhn - PT96-423 (SINU)

Dennstaedtiaceae

Lindsaea doryophora K.U. Kramer

I.M.Turner PT4 (SINU)

Lindsaea lucida Blume - I.H. Burkill

S.F.N. 947 (SING)

Pteridium esculentum (G. Forst.)

Cockayne - I.M. Turner PT66 (SINU)

Tapeinidium pinnatum (Cav.) C.Chr. -

I.M. Turner PT31 (SINU)

Tectaria griffithii (Baker) C. Chr. -

I.M.Turner PT78 (SINU)

Tectaria semipinnata (Roxb.) C.V.

Morton - Radhika Ramadas PT99

(SINU)

Tectaria singaporeana (Hook. & Grev.)

Copel. - PT96-113 (SINU)

Dryopteridaceae

Crenitis vilis (Kunze) Ching - I.M.Turner

PT33 (SINU)

Heterogonium giganteum (Blume)

Holttum - I.M.Turner PT78 (SINU)

Pleocnema irregularis (C. Presl) Holttum

- 1.H. Burkill S.EN. 923 (SING)

Gleicheniaceae

Dicranopteris linearis (Willd.) Spreng. -

PT96-230 (SINU)

Stichurus truncatus (Willd.) Nakai -

I.M.Turner PTS3 (SINU)

Hymenophyllaceae

Cephalomanes javanicum (Blume) Bosch

- 1H. Burkill S.F.N. 937 (SING)

Hymenophyllum polyanthos Sw. -

I.M.Turner PT14 (SINU)

Lomariopsidaceae

Teratophyllum rotundifoliatum (R.

Bonap.) Holttum - I.M.Turner PT76

(SINU)

Lycopodiaceae

Huperzia carinata (Desv. ex Poir.) Trevis.

- PT96-208 (SINU)

Huperzia phlegmaria (L.) Rothm. - PT96

202 (SINU)

Marattiaceae

Angiopteris evecta (G. Forst.) Hoffm. -

PT96-107 (SINU)

Oleandraceae

Nephrolepis auriculata (L.) Trimen -

I.M.Turner PT9 (SINU)

1. The Plants and Vegetation of Pulau Tinggi

Polypodiaceae

Colysis pedunculata (Hook. & Grev.)

Ching - I.M.Turner PT55 (SINU)

Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J. Sm. - PT96

238 (SINU)

Drynaria sparsisora (Desv.) T. Moore -

PT 96-388 (SINU)

Lecanopteris crustacea Copel.

J.W.H.Yong PT104 (SINU)

Phymatosorus scolopendria (Burm.f.)

Pic.Serm. - PT96-332 (SINU)

Pyrrosia lanceolata (L.) Farwell - PT96

451 (SINU)

Pyrrosia piloselloides (L.) M.G. Price -

PT96-457 (SINU)

Selliguea heterocarpa (Blume) Blume -

I.M.Turner PT26 (SINU)

Pteridaceae

Acrostichum aureum L. - PT96-644

(SINU)

Acrostichum speciosum Willd. - PT96-312

(SINU)

Pteris ensiformis Burm.f. - PT96-654

(SINU)

Schizaeaceae

Lygodium circinnatum (Burm.f.) Sw. -

PT96-378 (SINU)

Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw. - PT96-

364 (SINU)

Schizaea digitata (L.) Sw. - PT96-671

(SINU)

Selaginellaceae

Selaginella intermedia (Blume) Spring -

PT96-285 (SINU)

Selaginella padangensis Hieron. - I.H.

Burkill s.n., June 1915 (SING)

Selaginella willdenowii (Desv.) Baker -

PT96-106 (SINU)

Thelypteridaceae

Amphineuron opulentum (Kaulf.)

Holttum - PT96-637 (SINU)

127

Christella parasitica (L.) Lév. - J. Sinclair,

S.F.N. 40291 (SING)

Cyclosorus interruptus (Willd.) H. It6 -

PT96-491 (SINU)

Pronephrium menisciicarpon (Blume)

Holttum - I.M.Turner PT43 (SINU)

Pronephrium repandum (Fée) Holttum -

PT96-683 (SINU)

Vittariaceae

Antrophyum callifolium Blume - PT96-

124 (SINU)

SPERMATOPHYTA

Acanthaceae

Asystasia nemorum Nees - PT96-53

(SINU)

c Justicia gendarussa Burm.f. - PT96-15

(SINU)

c Thunbergia affinis S. Moore - PT96-4

(SINU)

Actinidiaceae

Saurauia pentapetala (Jack) Hoogland -

D.J.Metcalfe PT71 (SINU)

Alangiaceae

Alangium kurzii Craib - A. Zainudin AZ

5785 (UKMB)

Alangium rotundifolium (Hassk.)

Bloemb.- I.H. Burkill S.EN. 907 (SING)

Amaranthaceae

Amaranthus lividus L. - PT96-657 (SINU)

Amaranthus spinosus L. - PT96-679

(SINU)

Amaryllidaceae

Crinum asiaticum L. - PT96-231 (SINU)

Anacardiaceae

Campnosperma auriculatum (Blume)

Hook.f. - Mohd. Yasin bin Aboo, KEP

70930 (KEP)

128

c Mangifera indica L. - PT96-609 (SINU)

Mangifera magnifica Kochummen - A.

Zainudin AZ 5922 (UKMB)

Mangifera pentandra Hook.f. - I.H.

Burkill s.n., June 1915 (SING)

Melanochyla caesia (Blume) Ding Hou -

PT96-160 (SINU)

Parishia maingayi Hook.f. - A. Zainudin

AZ 5921 (UKMB)

c Spondias cytherea Sonn. - PT96-153

(SINU)

Swintonia cf. acuta Engl.- A. Zainudin AZ

5841 (UKMB)

Anisophylleaceae

Anisophyllea cornerit Ding Hou - PT96-

525 (SINU)

Annonaceae

c Annona squamata L. - PT96-63 (SINU)

Desmos dasymaschalus (Blume) Safford

- A. Zainudin AZ 5896 (UKMB)

Phaeanthus ophthalmicus (Roxb. ex G.

Don) J. Sinclair - PT96-664 (SINU) —

Polyalthia cauliflora Hook.f. & Thomson

- Samsuri 61 (SINU)

Uvaria cordata (Dunal) Alston - Samsuri

62 (SINU)

Uvaria hirsuta Jack - 1.H. Burkill S.E.N. 872

(SING)

Apocynaceae

Alstonia angustiloba Miq. - 1.M.Turner

PT42 (SINU)

Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br. - A.

Zainudin AZ 5859 (UKMB)

Cerbera manghas L. - PT96-172 (SINU)

Ichnocarpus serpyllifolius (Blume) P.I.

Forst. - J.W.H. Yong PT25 (SINU)

c Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Schum. -

PT96-303 (SINU)

Araceae

Aglaonema simplex Blume - I.H. Burkill

S.F.N. 912 (SING)

Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Alocasia beccarti Engl. - 1.M.Turner PT11

(SINU)

Alocasia denudata Endl. - PT96-101

(SINU)

Alocasia longiloba Mig. - A. Zainudin

AZ 5787 (UKMB)

Anadendrum montanum (Blume) Schott

- A. Zainudin AZ 3259 (UKMB)

c Caladium bicolor (Aiton) Vent. - PT96-

167 (SINU)

Homalomena angustifolia (Jack) Hook.f.

- .H. Burkill S.F.N. 908 (SING)

Homalomena propinqua Schott - PT96-

158 (SINU)

Homalomena sagittifolia Jungh. ex Schott

- .H. Burkill S.F.N. 931 (SING)

Rhaphidophora korthalsii Schott - J.

Feilding s.n., 1892 (SING)

Schismatoglottis calyptrata (Roxb.) Zoll.

& Moritzi - I.H. Burkill S.F.N. 883

(SING)

Schismatoglottis wallichii Hook.f. - 1-H.

Burkill S.F.N. 932 (SING)

Scindapsus pictus Hassk. - J.C.W.Chee

PT94 (SINU)

Araliaceae

Arthrophyllum diversifolium Blume -

PT96-402 (SINU)

Arthrophyllum maingayi Philipson - A.

~ Zainudin AZ 5961 (UKMB)

Macropanax maingayi (C.B. Clarke)

Philipson - A. Zainudin AZ 3251

(UKMB)

Schefflera elliptica (Blume) Harms - I.H.

Burkill S.EN. 886 (SING)

Aralidiaceae

Aralidium pinnatifidum (Jungh. & de

Vriese) Mig. - PT96-620 (SINU)

Asclepiadaceae

Dischidia major (Vahl) Merr. - PT96-237

(SINU)

Hoya diversifolia Blume - J. Feilding s.n.,

27 Nov. 1892 (SING)

1. The Plants and Vegetation of Pulau Tinggi

Hoya elliptica Hook.f. - A. Zainudin AZ

5878 (UKMB)

Hoya multiflora Blume - I.M.Turner 91-

31 (SINU)

Hoya verticillata (Vahl) G. Don - I.H.

Burkill S.EN. 898 (SING)

Avicenniaceae

Avicennia alba Blume - PT96-613

(SINU)

Avicennia rumphiana Hallier f.- PT96-175

(SINU)

Balsaminaceae

c Impatiens balsamina L. - PT96-55 (SINU)

Begoniaceae

Begonia herveyana King - J. Feilding s.n.,

Oct. 1892 (SING)

Bignoniaceae

Dolichandrone spathacea (L.f.) K.Schum.

- PT96-651 (SINU)

Bombacaceae

c Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. - PT96-16

(SINU)

ec Durio zibethinus L. - PT96-33 (SINU)

Boraginaceae

Argusia argentea (L.f.) Heine - PT96-257

(SINU)

Cordia dichotoma G. Forst. - A.

Zainudin AZ 3201 (UKMB)

Cordia subcordata Lam. - PT96-276

(SINU)

Burmanniaceae

Burmannia championii Thwaites - PT96-

511 (SINU)

Burseraceae

Canarium hirsutum Willd. - I.H. Burkill

S.F.N. 906 (SING)

Canarium littorale Blume - A. Zainudin

AZ 5864 (SING)

Canarium pilosum Benn. - I.H. Burkill

S.F.N. 862 (SING)

Santiria apiculata Benn. - A. Zainudin

AZ 5919 (UKMB)

Santiria rubiginosa Blume - A. Zainudin

AZ 5836 (UKMB)

Capparaceae

Cleome rutidosperma DC. - PT96-14

(SINU)

Casuarinaceae

Casuarina equisetifolia J.R. Forst. & G.

Forst. - PT96-176 (SINU)

Celastraceae

Bhesa paniculata Arn. - J.W.H.Yong

PT10 (SINU)

Loesneriella pauciflora (DC.) A.C. Sm. -

PT96-277 (SINU)

Salacia korthalsiana Mig. - 1.M.Turner

PT115 (SINU)

Salacia macrophylla Blume - 1.M.Turner

PT83 (SINU)

Chloranthaceae

Chloranthus erectus (Buch.-Ham.) Verdc.

- PT96-515 (SINU)

Chrysobalanaceae

Maranthes corymbosa Blume - A.

Zainudin AZ 5931 (UKMB)

Colchicaceae

c Gloriosa superba L. - PT96-49 (SINU)

Combretaceae

Lumnitzera littorea (Jack) Voigt - PT96-

298 (SINU)

Lumnitzera racemosa Willd. - PT96-272

(SINU)

Terminalia catappa L. - PT96-680 (SINU)

130

Commelinaceae

Amischotolype gracilis (Ridl.) I.M.

Turner - PT96-281 (SINU)

Murdannia nudiflora (L.) Brenan - J.

Feilding s.n., 1892 (SING)

Compositae

Acmella paniculata (Wall. ex DC.) R.K.

Jansen - Y.F. Chan & M.C. Loh PT48

(SINU)

Ageratum conyzoides L. - PT96-74

(SINU)

Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC. - J. Sinclair,

S.F.N. 40282 (SING)

Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King &

H. Rob. - PT96-653 (SINU)

Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist - IH.

Burkill s.n., June 1915 (SING)

c Cosmos sulphureus Cav. - PT96-52

(SINU)

Erechtites valerianifolia (Wolf) DC. -

PT 96-221 (SINU)

Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. - A.

Zainudin AZ 5939 (UKMB)

Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. - PT96-650

(SINU)

Vernonia patula (Dryand.) Merr. - PT96-

259 (SINU)

Wollastonia biflora (L.) DC. - PT96-386

(SINU)

c Zinnia elegans Jacq. - PT96-142 (SINU)

Connaraceae

Cnestis palala (Lour.) Merr.- A. Zainudin

AZ 5881 (UKMB)

Convallariaceae

Peliosanthes teta Andr. ssp. humilis

(Andr.) Jessop - D.J.Metcalfe PT60

(SINU)

Convolvulaceae

c Ipomoea batatus (L.) Lam. - PT96-94

(SINU)

Ipomoea littoralis Blume - I.H. Burkill

S.F.N. 889 (SING)

Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Ipomoea pes-caprea (L.) R.Br. - PT96-

199 (SINU)

Merremia peltata (L.) Merr. - J. Sinclair,

S.E.N. 40281 (SING)

Costaceae

Costus globosus Blume - PT96-159

(SINU)

Crassulaceae

ce Kalanchoe laciniata (L.) DC. - I.H.

Burkill S.F.N. 926 (SING)

Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers. - PT96-

339 (SINU)

Cycadaceae

Cycas rumphii Mig. - PT96-320 (SINU)

Cymodoceaceae

Cymodocea rotundata Ehrenb. & Hempr.

- PT96-235 (SINU)

Halodule uninervis (Forssk.) Asch. - I.H.

Burkill S.EN. 899 (SING)

Cyperaceae

Cyperus dubius Rottb. - PT96-247

(SINU)

Cyperus javanicus Houtt. - PT96-442

(SINU)

Cyperus rotundatus L. - A. Zainudin AZ

5769 (UKMB)

Cyperus stoloniferus Retz. - PT96-248

(SINU)

Fimbristylis cymosa R.Br. - A. Zainudin

AZ 5768 (UKMB)

Fimbristylis dichotoma (L.) Vahl - PT96-

318 (SINU)

Hypolytrum nemorum (Vahl) Spreng. -

PT96-411 (SINU)

Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb. - 1.H. Burkill

s.n., June 1915 (SING)

Kyllinga polycephala Willd. ex Kunth -

PT96-100 (SINU)

Mapania cuspidata (Miq.) Uittien var.

petiolata (C.B. Clarke) Uittien - PT96-

416 (SINU)

1. The Plants and Vegetation of Pulau Tinggi

Scleria biflora Roxb. - PT96-462 (SINU)

Scleria levis Retz. - PT96-459 (SINU)

Scleria lithosperma (L.) Sw. - PT96-224

(SINU)

Scleria purpurascens Steud. - PT96-279

(SINU)

Dilleniaceae

Tetracera indica (Christ. & Panz.) Merr.

- PT96-346 (SINU)

Tetracera scandens (L.) Merr. - PT96-325

(SINU)

Dipterocarpaceae

Dipterocarpus grandiflorus (Blanco)

Blanco - I.H. Burkill S.F.N. 930

(SING)

Shorea macroptera Dyer - Mohd. Yasin

bin Aboo, KEP 70928 (KEP)

Shorea materialis Ridl. - I.H. Burkill

S.F.N. 946 (SING)

Shorea pauciflora King - Mohd. Yasin bin

Aboo, KEP 70941 (KEP)

Dioscoreaceae

Dioscorea bulbifera L. - A. Zainudin AZ

5894 (UKMB)

Dracaenaceae

Dracaena maingayi Hook.f. - PT96-342

(SINU)

Dracaena umbratica Ridl. - A. Zainudin

AZ 3219 (UKMB)

Ebenaceae

Diospyros cauliflora Blume - A. Zainudin

AZ 5916 (UKMB)

Diospyros ferrea (Willd.) Bakh. - PT96-

189 (SINU)

Diospyros lanceifolia Roxb. - I.H. Burkill

S.F.N. 874 (SING)

Diospyros malabarica (Descr.) Kostel. -

PT96-447 (SINU)

Diospyros toposia Buch.-Ham. - I.H.

Burkill S.EN. 943 (SING)

131

Elaeocarpaceae

Elaeocarpus petiolatus (Jack) Wall. - A.

Zainudin AZ 5858 (UKMB)

Erythroxylaceae

Erythroxylum cuneatum (Mig.) Kurz -

PT96-315 (SINU)

Euphorbiaceae

c Acalypha hispida Burm.f.- PT96-12

(SINU)

Antidesma coriaceum Tul. - A. Zainudin

AZ 3222 (UKMB)

Antidesma cuspidatum Mill.Arg. - PT96-

476 (SINU)

Antidesma montanum Blume - F.S.P. Ng,

FRI 5031 (KEP)

Antidesma velutinosum Blume - A.

Zainudin AZ 5831 (UKMB)

c Baccaurea motleyana (Mill.Arg.)

Miuill.Arg. - PT96-458 (SINU)

Baccaurea racemosa (Reinw.) Miill.Arg.

- PT96-145 (SINU)

Baccaurea ramiflora Lour. - PT96-162

(SINU)

Breynia reclinata (Roxb.) Hook.f. - PT96-

412 (SINU)

Breynia vitis-idaea (Burm.f.) C.E.C.

Fisch. - D.J.Metcalfe PT49 (SINU)

Bridelia tomentosa Blume - A. Zainudin

AZ 5814 (UKMB)

Claoxylon longifolium (Blume) Endl. ex

Hassk. - A. Zainudin AZ 3260

(UKMB)

Croton argyratus Blume - A. Zainudin

AZ 5862 (UKMB)

Endospermum diadenum (Miq.) Airy

Shaw - D.J.Metcalfe PT2 (SINU)

Euphorbia cyathophora Murr. - PT96-234

(SINU)

Euphorbia hirta L. - PT96-50 (SINU)

c Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd. - A.

Zainudin AZ 3237 (UKMB)

Excoecaria agallocha L. - PT96-218

(SINU)

132

Glochidion fuscum (Mill.Arg.) Boerl. -

A. Zainudin AZ 3210 (UKMB)

Glochidion penangense (Miill.Arg.) Airy

Shaw - PT96-393 (SINU)

c Hevea brasiliensis (Willd. ex A. Juss.)

Mill.Arg. - PT96-485 (SINU)

c Jatropha gossypiifolia L. - PT96-677

(SINU)

Macaranga heynei 1.M. Johnst. - PT96-

166 (SINU)

Macaranga gigantea (Rchb.f. & Zoll.)

Miil.Arg. - PT96-686 (SINU)

Macaranga tanarius (L.) Mill.Arg. -

PT96-663 (SINU)

Macaranga triloba (Blume) Miill.Arg. -

I.M.Turner PT23 (SINU)

Mallotus penangensis Mill.Arg. - PT96-

147 (SINU)

_Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Miill.Arg. -

PT96-681 (SINU)

Mallotus oblongifolius (Mig.) Miull.Arg.

- PT96-466 (SINU)

Mallotus subcuneatus (Gage) Airy Shaw

- I.M.Turner PT105 (SINU)

Melanolepis multiglandulosa (Reinw. ex

Blume) Rchb.f. & Zoll. - A. Zainudin

AZ 5813 (UKMB)

Micrococca mercurialis (L.) Benth. -

PT96-30 (SINU)

Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn.

- PT96-151 (SINU)

Phyllanthus debilis Klein ex Willd. -

PT96-655 (SINU)

Phyllanthus urinaria L. - PT96-640

(SINU)

c Ricinus communis L. - PT96-367 (SINU)

Sauropus androgynus (L.) Merr. - PT96-

84 (SINU)

Suregada multiflora (Juss.) Baill. - PT96-

347 (SINU)

Trigonostemon longifolius Baill. - PT96-

109 (SINU)

Fagaceae

Castanopsis megacarpa Gamble - F.S.P.

Ng, FRI 5087 (KEP)

Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Castanopsis inermis (Lindl. ex Wall.)

Benth. & Hook.f. - Mohd. Yasin bin

Aboo, KEP 70926 (KEP)

Lithocarpus bancanus (Scheff.) Rehder -

A. Zainudin AZ 5923 (UKMB)

Flacourtiaceae

Casearia grewiifolia Vent. - I.H. Burkill

S.F.N. 871 (SING)

c Flacourtia jangomas (Lour.) Raeusch. -

I.H. Burkill s.n., June 1915 (SING)

Flacourtia rukam Zoll. & Moritzi - A.

Zainudin AZ 5782 (UKMB)

Hemiscolopia trimera (Boerl.) Slooten -

PT96-443 (SINU)

Flagellariaceae

Flagellaria indica L. - PT96-271 (SINU)

Gesneriaceae

Didymocarpus antirrhinoides A. Weber

- Strugnell KEP 70932 (KEP)

Didymocarpus tiumanicus (Ridl.) B.L.

Burtt - PT96-619 (SINU)

Gnetaceae |

c Gnetum gnemon L. - I.H. Burkill S.F.N.

964 (SING)

Gnetum macrostachyum Hook.f. - PT96-

393 (SINU)

Goodeniaceae

Scaevola taccada (Gaertn.) Roxb. - PT96-

44 (SINU)

Gramineae

Acroceras tonkinense (Balansa) C.E.

Hubb. ex Bor - I.M.Turner PT72

(SINU)

c Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. ex Wendl.

‘yittata’ - A. Zainudin AZ 5797

(UKMB)

c Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. ex Wendl. var.

vulgaris - A. Zainudin AZ 5969

(UKMB)

1. The Plants and Vegetation of Pulau Tinggi

Bothriochloa bladhii (Retz.) $.T. Blake -

PT96-675 (SINU)

Centotheca lappacea (L.) Desv. - PT96-

490 (SINU)

Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin. -

PT96-149 (SINU)

Cyrtococcum accrescens (Trin.) Stapf -

I.H. Burkill $.F.N. 913 (SING)

Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd. -

PT96-263 (SINU)

Dendrocalamus hirtellus Ridl. - 1.H.

Burkill S.F.N. 909 (SING)

Digitaria setigera Roem. & Schult. -

PT96-602 (SINU)

Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. - PT96-143

(SINU)

Eragrostis amabilis (L.) Wight & Arn. ex

Hook. & Arn. - PT96-152 (SINU)

Eragrostis cumingii Steud. - I.M.Turner

PT74 (SINU)

Imperata cylindrica (L.) P. Beauv. - PT96-

150 (SINU)

Ischaemum muticum L. - PT96-144

(SINU)

Miscanthus floridulus (Labill.) Warb. ex

K. Schum. - I.M.Turner & D.J.Metcalfe

PT89 (SINU)

Mnesithea glandulosa (Trin.) de Koning

& Sosef - PT96-674 (SINU)

Oplismenus compositus (L.) P.Beauv. -

PT96-467 (SINU)

Panicum sarmentosum Roxb. - PT96-473

(SINU)

Paspalum conjugatum Berg. - I.M.Turner

PT113 (SINU)

Pennisetum polystachion (L.) Schult. - A.

Zainudin AZ 3246 (UKMB)

Pogonatherum crinitum (Thunb. ex

Murr.) Kunth - PT96-118 (SINU)

Schizostachyum jaculans Holttum - A.

Zainudin AZ5817 (UKMB)

Setaria geniculata (Lam.) P. Beauv. -

PT96-223 (SINU)

Sporobolus indicus (L.) R.Br. var.

flaccidus (Roem. & Schult.) Veldkamp

- LH. Burkill S.F.N. 925 (SING)

b32

Thuarea involuta (G. Forst.) R.Br. ex

Roem. & Schult. - PT96-212 (SINU)

Urochloa paspaloides Pres - A. Zainudin

AZ 5952 (UKMB)

Zoysia matrella (L.) Merr. - PT96-90

(SINU)

Guttiferae

Calophyllum depressinervosum M.R.

Hend. & Wyatt-Sm. - A. ZainudinAZ

5845 (UKMB)

Calophyllum ferrugineum Ridl. - PT96-

289 (SINU)

Calophyllum flavoramulum M.R. Hend.

& Wyatt-Sm. - A. Zainudin AZ 5843

(UKMB)

Calophyllum inophyllum L. - PT96-167

(SINU)

Calophyllum pulcherrimum Wall. ex

Choisy - KEP 70936 (KEP)

Cratoxylon cochinchinense (Lout.)

Blume - A Zainudin AZ 5830

(UKMB)

Garcinia atroviridis Griff. ex T. Anderson

- A. Zainudin AZ 5854 (UKMB)

Garcinia eugeniifolia Wall. ex T.

Anderson - A. Zainudin AZ 5803

(UKMB)

Garcinia griffithii T. Anderson - Samsuri

63 (SINU)

Garcinia hombroniana Pierre - PT96-232

(SINU)

Garcinia nervosa Miq. - I.H. Burkill

S.F.N. 887 (SING)

Garcinia nigrolineata Planch. ex T.

Anderson - A. Zainudin AZ 5897

(UKMB)

Mesua aff. assamica (King & Prain)

Kosterm. - F.S.P. Ng, FRI 5088 (KEP)

Heliconiaceae

c Heliconia psittacorum L.f. - A. Zainudin

AZ 5793 (UKMB)

Hernandiaceae

Hernandia nymphaeifolia (Presl) Kubitski

134

- J, Feilding 4007, 1892 (SING)

Hydrocharitaceae

Thallassia hemprichii (Ehrenb.) Asch. -

I.H. Burkill S.EN. 900 (SING)

Hypoxidaceae

Molineria latifolia (Dryand.) Herb. -

PT96-134 (SINU)

Icacinaceae

Phytocrene bracteata Wall. - 1.H. Burkill

S.EN. 902 (SING)

Ixonanthaceae

Ixonanthes icosandra Jack - A. Zainudin

AZ 5868 (UKMB)

Ixonanthes reticulata Jack - A. Zainudin

AZ 3252 (UKMB)

Labiatae

c Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R.Br. - PT96-18

(SINU) 7

Leucas zeylanica (L.) R.Br. - PT96-27

(SINU)

Ocimum basilicum L. - PT96-13 (SINU)

Ocimum tenuiflorum L. - PT96-37 (SINU)

Lauraceae

Actinodaphne ?montana Gamble - J.

Sinclair, $.F.N. 40290 (SING)

Beilschmiedia kunstleri Gamble - A.

Zainudin AZ 5915 (UKMB)

Cassytha filiformis L. - PT96-47 (SINU)

Cinnamomum cf. altissimum Kostermans

- |.M.Turner PT64 (SINU)

Neolitsea zeylanica (Nees) Merr. - PT96-

527 (SINU)

Lecythidaceae

Barringtonia asiatica (L.) Kurz - PT96-

183 (SINU)

Barringtonia macrostachya (Jack) Kurz -

I.H. Burkill S.EN. 929 (SING)

Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Leeaceae

Leea indica (Burm.f.) Merr. - I.H. Burkill

S.E.N. 920 (SING)

Leguminosae

Abrus precatorius L. - PT96-177 (SINU)

Adenanthera malayana Kosterm. - F.S.P.

Ng, FRI 5072 (KEP)

Adenanthera pavonina L. - PT96-349

(SINU)

Archidendron ellipticum (Blume) I.C.

Nielsen - A. Zainudin AZ 5788

(UKMB)

Bauhinia _ integrifolia Roxb. ssp.

integrifolia - 1.H. Burkill S.F.N. 951

(SING)

Callerya atropurpurea (Wall.) Schot - A.

Zainudin AZ 5842 (UKMB)

Canavalia cathartica Thouars - PT96-322

(SINU)

Canavalia rosea (Sw.) DC. - A. Zainudin

AZ 5825 (UKMB)

Crotalaria pallida Aiton - PT96-79

(SINU)

Crotalaria retusa L. - A. Zainudin AZ

5895 (UKMB)

Cynometra ramiflora L. - PT96-652

(SINU)

Dalbergia candenatensis (Dennst.) Prain

- J. Feilding s.n., Nov. 1892 (SING)

~Dendrolobium umbellatum (L.) Benth. -

PT96-336 (SINU)

Derris trifoliata Lour. - PT96-387 (SINU)

Erythrina fusca Lour. - PT96-292 (SINU)

Erythrina variegata L. - PT96-209 (SINU)

Intsia bijuga (Colebr.) Kuntze - 1.H.

Burkill., $.F.N. 891 (SING)

Koompassia malaccensis Maing. ex

Benth. - Mohd. Yasin bin Aboo, KEP

70927 (KEP)

Lucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit -

PT96-10 (SINU)

Mimosa pudica L. - PT96-397 (SINU)

Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) K.

Heyne - PT96-220 (SINU)

Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre - PT96-319

(SINU)

1. The Plants and Vegetation of Pulau Tinggi

c Saraca indica L. - A. Zainudin AZ 5806

(UKMB)

Serianthes grandiflora Benth. - PT96-273

(SINU)

Senna alata (L.) Roxb. - A. Zainudin AZ

5815 (UKMB)

c Senna fruticosa (Mill.) Irwin & Barneby

- PT96-3 (SINU)

Senna tora (L.) Roxb. - PT96-60 (SINU)

Sindora echinocalyx (Benth.) Prain - I.H.

Burkill S.F.N. 896 (SING)

Sophora tomentosa L. - PT96-327 (SINU)

¢ Tamarindus indica L. - PT96-362 (SINU)

Tephrosia noctiflora Bojer ex Baker -

PT96-488 (SINU)

Vigna marina (Burm.) Merr. - I.H.

Burkill S.F.N. 892 (SING)

c Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek - PT96-

647 (SINU)

Loranthaceae

Dendrophthoe pentandra (L.) Miq. - PT96-

633 (SINU)

Lythraceae

c Lawsonia inermis L. - PT96-43 (SINU)

_ Pemphis acidula J.R. Forst. & G. Forst. -

PT96-169 (SINU)

Sonneratia alba J.J.Sm.- PT96-210 (SINU)

Malvaceae

c¢ Abelmoschus moschatus Medik. - PT96-

670 (SINU)

Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet - A.

Zainudin AZ 3239 (UKMB)

c Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. - PT96-38

(SINU)

Hibiscus tiliaceus L. - 1.H. Burkill S.F.N.

893 (SINU)

c¢ Malvaviscus penduliflorus DC. - PT96-

82 (SINU)

Sida rhombifolia L. - PT96-80 (SINU)

Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. ex Corréa -

PT96-196 (SINU)

Urena lobata L. - PT96-621 (SINU)

135

Marantaceae

Donax grandis (Mig.) K. Schum. - PT96-

122 (SINU)

c¢ Maranta arundinacea L. - A. Zainudin

AZ 5808 (UKMB)

Melastomataceae

Clidemia hirta (L.) D. Don - PT96-69

(SINU)

Melastoma malabathricum L. - PT96-323

(SINU)

Memecylon campanulatum C.B. Clarke -

A. Zainudin AZ 3226 (UKMB)

Memecylon edule Roxb. - PT96-601

(SINU)

Memecylon lilacinum Zoll. & Moritzi -

I.H. Burkill $.F.N. 903 (SING)

Pachycentria constricta (Blume) Blume -

PT96-500 (SINU)

Pternandra echinata Jack - 1.H. Burkill s.n.,

June 1915 (SINU)

Meliaceae

c Lansium domesticum Corréa - PT96-2

(SINU)

c Melia azederach L. - PT96-667 (SINU)

Xylocarpus granatum J. Konig - PT96-

304 (SINU)

Xylocarpus rumphii (Kostel.) Mabb. -

PT96-239 (SINU)

Menispermaceae

Cocculus orbiculatus (L.) DC. - PT96-

245 (SINU)

Fibraurea tinctoria Lour. - PT96-414

(SINU)

Hypserpa nitida Miers - I.H. Burkill

S.F.N. 880 (SING)

Pericampylus glaucus (Lam.) Merr. -

PT96-494 (SINU)

Stephania capitata (Blume) Spreng. -

PT 96-280 (SINU)

c Tinospora crispa (L.) Hook.f. &

Thomson - PT96-420 (SINU)

Moraceae

Artocarpus dadah Mig. - A. Zainudin AZ

5925 (UKMB)

Artocarpus hispidus F.M. Jarrett - A.

Zainudin AZ 5846 (UKMB)

Artocarpus lanceifolius Roxb. - J. Sinclair

s.n., May 1954 (SING)

Artocarpus rigidus Blume - A. Zainudin

AZ 5863 (UKMB)

Ficus consociata Blume var. murtoni

King - I.M.Turner PTS2 (SINU)

Ficus drupacea Thunb. - PT96-422

(SINU)

Ficus globosa Blume - PT96-646 (SINU)

Ficus grossularioides Burm,f.

I.M.Turner PT81 (SINU)

Ficus hispida L.f. - PT96-330 (SINU)

Ficus microcarpa L.f. - PT96-355 (SINU)

Ficus scortechinii King - I.H. Burkill

S.F.N. 954 (SING)

Ficus subcordata Blume - PT96-348

(SINU)

Ficus superba (Mig.) Mig. - PT96-368

(SINU) :

Ficus tinctoria G. Forst. ssp. gibbosa

(Blume) Corner - PT96-292 (SINU)

Ficus vasculosa Wall. ex Mig. - A.

Zainudin AZ 5962 (UKMB)

Parartocarpus ?bracteatus (King) Becc. -

F.S.P. Ng FRI 5076 (KEP)

Streblus ilicifolius (Vidal) Corner - I.H.

Burkill S.EN. 904 (SING)

Musaceae

Musa acuminata Colla ssp. malaccensis

(Ridl.) N.W. Simmonds - PT96-146

(SINU)

Myristicaceae

Gymnacranthera forbesii (King) Warb. -

A. Zainudin AZ 5902 (UKMB)

Horsfieldia irya (Gaertn.) Warb. - A.

Zainudin AZ 5896 (UKMB)

Horsfieldia polyspherula (Hook.f.) J.

Sinclair - J. Sinclair, S.F.N. 40288

(SING)

Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Horsfieldia tomentosa Warb. - A.

Zainudin AZ 5847 (UKMB)

Knema communis J. Sinclair - A.

Zainudin AZ 5926 (UKMB)

Knema hookeriana (Wall. ex Hook.f. &

Thomson) Warb. - A. Zainudin AZ

5807 (UKMB)

Knema malayana Warb. - PT96-244

(SINU)

Knema scortechinii (King) J. Sinclair - J.

Sinclair, S.F.N. 40287 (SING)

c Myristica fragrans Houtt. - PT96-66

(SINU)

Myrsinaceae

Aegiceras corniculatum (L.) Blanco -

PT96-181 (SINU)

Ardisia elliptica Thunb. - I.H. Burkill

S.F.N. 852 (SING)

Ardisia oxyphylla Wall. ex DC. - A.

Zainudin AZ 5857 (UKMB)

Embelia ribes Burm. - A. Zainudin AZ

5908 (UKMB)

Labisia pumila (Blume) Fern.-Vill. -

PT96-467 (SINU)

Maesa ramentacea Wall. ex Roxb. - PT96-

498 (SINU)

Rapanea porteriana Wall. ex A.DC. -

I.M.Turner PT66 (SINU)

Myrtaceae

c Psidium guajava L. - PT96-260 (SINU)

Rhodamnia cinerea Jack - A. Zainudin

AZ 5867 (UKMB)

c Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.

Perry - PT96-489 (SINU)

Syzygium grande (Wight) Walp. - PT96-

250 (SINU)

c Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr. & L.M.

Perry - PT96-622 (SINU)

Syzygium pauper (Ridl.) I.M. Turner -

I.H. Burkill $.F.N. 939 (SING)

Syzygium pendens (Duthie) I.M. Turner

- D.J.Metcalfe & J.W.H.Yong PT90

(SINU)

1. The Plants and Vegetation of Pulau Tinggi

Syzygium pycnanthum Merr. & L.M.

Perry - I.H. Burkill S.F.N. 940 (SINU)

c Syzygium samarangense (Blume) Merr.

& L.M. Perry - PT96-117 (SINU)

Nyctaginaceae

Boerhavia diffusa L. - PT96-141 (SINU)

c Mirabilis jalapa L. - PT96-28 (SINU)

Ochnaceae

Campylospermum serratum (Gaertn.)

Bittrich & M.C.E. Amaral - J. Feilding

s.n., 27 Oct. 1892 (SING)

Olacaceae

Strombosia javanica Blume - I.H. Burkill

S.F.N. 952 (SING)

Ximenia americana L. - I.H. Burkill S.EN.

884 (SING)

Oleaceae

Olea brachiata (Lour.) Merr.- A. Zainudin

AZ 3257 (UKMB)

Opiliaceae

Cansjera rheedii J.F. Gmel. - J. Feilding

s.n., 27 Oct. 1892 (SING)

Champereia manillana (Blume) Merr.- A.

Zainudin AZ 5832 (UKMB)

Orchidaceae

Aerides odorata Lour. - PT96-502 (SINU)

Anoectochilus geniculatus Ridl. - PT96-

285 (SINU)

Bulbophyllum vaginatum (Lindl.) Rchb,f.

- PT96-228 (SINU)

Corymborkis veratrifolia (Reinw.) Blume

- H.T.W.Tan PT8 (SINU)

Cymbidium atropurpureum (Lindl.)

Rolfe - A. Zainudin AZ 5885 (UKMB)

Cymbidium finlaysonianum Lindl. -

PT96-188 (SINU)

Dendrobium crumenatum Sw. - PT96-333

(SINU)

Eulophia spectabilis (Dennst.) Suresh -

PT96-301 (SINU)

|b A

Oxalidaceae

c Averrhoea bilimbi L. - PT96-57 (SINU)

c Averrhoa carambola L. - PT96-23 (SINU)

Oxalis barrelieri L. - PT96-404 (SINU)

Palmae

Arenga westerhoutii Griff. - A. Zainudin

AZ 5802 (UKMB)

Calamus javensis Blume - A. Zainudin

AZ 5800 (UKMB)

Caryota mitis Lour. - PT96-335 (SINU)

Daemonorops lewisiana (Griff.) Mart. -

I.H. Burkill S.F.N. 866 (SING)

Daemonorops melanochaetes Blume - A.

Zainudin AZ 5920 (UKMB)

Korthalsia rigida Blume - J.W.H.Yong

PT16 (SINU)

Korthalsia rostrata Blume - A. Zainudin

AZ 5917 (UKMB)

Licuala ferruginea Becc. - PT96-635

(SINU)

Licuala spinosa Wurmb - A. Zainudin

AZ 5872 (UKMB)

Nypa fruticans Wurmb - PT96-274

(SINU)

Orania sylvicola (Griff.) H.E. Moore -

PT96-161 (SINU)

Plectocomia elongata Mart. ex Blume -

I.M.Turner PT63 (SINU)

Pandanaceae

Freycinetia sumatrana Hemsl.

I.M.Turner PT39 (SINU)

c Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb. - PT96-

409 (SINU)

Pandanus dubius Spreng. - PT96-268

(SINU)

Pandanus lais Kurz - J.H. Burkill S.F.N.

957 (SING)

Pandanus c.f. longicaudatus Holttum &

H. St.John - J.W.H. Yong PT61 (SINU)

Pandanus odoratissimus L.f. - PT96-201

(SINU)

Passifloraceae

Adenia macrophylla (Blume) Koord. var.

TNT ee

138

macrophylla - 1.M.Turner PT69

(SINU)

Passiflora foetida L. - PT96-11 (SINU)

Passiflora laurifolia L. - PT96-626 (SINU)

Pedaliaceae

Sesamum orientale L. - PT96-187 (SINU)

Phormiaceae

Dianella ensifolia (L.) DC. - PT96-408

(SINU)

Piperaceae

Piper caninum Blume - D.J.Metcalfe

PT122 (SINU)

Piper pedicellosum Wall. - A. Zainudin

AZ 5789 (UKMB)

Piper protractum C. DC. - M.C.Lim PT29

(SINU)

c Piper sarmentosum Roxb. - PT96-24

(SINU)

Pittosporaceae

Pittosporum ferrugineum W.T. Aiton -

PT96-48 (SINU)

Podocarpaceae

Podocarpus polystachyus R.Br. ex Endl. -

PT96-193 (SINU)

Polgalaceae

Polygala paniculata L. - PT96-156

(SINU)

Xanthophyllum affine Korth. ex Mig. -

F.S.P. Ng, FRI 5085 (KEP)

Xanthophyllum amoenum Chodat - A.

Zainudin AZ 5914 (UKMB)

Xanthophyllum vitellinum (Blume) Dietr.

- A. Zainudin AZ 5918 (UKMB)

Portulacaceae

Portulaca oleracea L. - PT96-215 (SINU)

Punicaceae

c Punica granatum L. - PT96-46 (SINU)

Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Ranunculaceae

Clematis smilacifolia Wall. - 1.H. Burkill

S.E.N. 857 (SING)

Rhamnaceae

Colubrina asiatica L. ex Brongn. - I.H.

Burkill S.F.N. 894 (SING)

Rhizophoraceae

Bruguiera cylindrica (L.) Blume - PT96-

198 (SINU)

Bruguiera gymnorhiza (L.) Lam. ex

Savigny - I.H. Burkill S$.F.N. 953

(SING)

Bruguiera sexangula (Lour.) Poir. - PT96-

643 (SIND)

Ceriops decandra (Griff.) W. Theob. -

PT96-454 (SINU)

Ceriops tagal (Pers.) C.B. Rob. - PT96-

206 (SINU)

Rhizophora apiculata Blume - PT96-297

(SINU)

Rhizophora mucronata Lam. - PT96-211

(SINU)

Rhizophora stylosa Griff. - PT96-453

(SINU)

Rosaceae

Rubus moluccanus L. var. angulosus

Kalkman - I.H. Burkill S.F.N. 860

(SING)

Rubiaceae

Aidia densiflora (Wall.) Masam. - 1H.

Burkill S.F.N. 870 (SING)

Borreria laevicaulis (Mig.) Ridl. - A.

Zainudin AZ 5934 (UKMB)

Chassalia curviflora (Wall.) Thwaites -

J.W.H.Yong PT106 (SINU)

c Gardenia augusta (L.) Merr. - PT96-403

(SINU)

Guettarda speciosa L. - 1.H. Burkill S.F.N.

855 (SING)

Hedyotis capitellata Wall. ex G. Don -

PT96-616 (SINU)

1. The Plants and Vegetation of Pulau Tinggi

Hedyotis herbacea L. - PT96-632 (SINU)

Hydnophytum formicarum Jack - LH.

Burkill $.F.N. 869 (SING)

Ixora javanica (Blume) DC. - F.S.P. Ng,

FRI 5045 (KEP)

Ixora lobbii King & Gamble - J. Feilding

s.n., Oct. 1892 (SING)

Ixora pendula Jack - A. Zainudin AZ

3225 (UKMB)

Lasianthus cyanocarpus Jack - PT96-668

(SINU)

Morinda citrifolia L. - PT96-425 (SINU)

Morinda elliptica (Hook.f.) Ridl. - A.

Zainudin AZ 3217 (UKMB)

Morinda umbellata L. - PT96-432 (SINU)

Ophiorrhiza discolor R.Br. - H.T.W.Tan

PT32 (SINU)

Pavetta naucleiflora R. Br. ex G. Don -

I.H. Burkill S.F.N. 868 (SING)

Psychotria brachybotrys Ridl. - A.

Zainudin AZ 5828 (UKMB)

Psychotria sarmentosa Blume - PT96-493

(SINU)

Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea C.F. Gaertn.

- PT96-192 (SINU)

Spermacoce articularis L.f. - A. Zainudin

AZ 5960 (UKMB)

Timonius compressicaulis (Miq.) Boerl. -

I.H. Burkill $.F.N. 854 (SING)

Uncaria cordata (Lour.) Merr. - LH.

Burkill $.F.N. 950 (SING)

Urophyllum sp. 2 - PT96-126 (SINU)

Urophyllum streptopodium Wall. ex.

Hook. f.- 1-H. Burkill S.F.N.935 (SING)

Rutaceae

c Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle -

PT96-495 (SINU)

c Citrus maxima (L.) Merr. - PT96-83

(SINU)

Glycosmis mauritiana (Lam.) Tanaka -

PT96-396 (SINU)

Maclurodendron porteri (Hook.f.) T.G.

Hartley - A. Zainudin AZ 3261

(UKMB)

Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack - PT96-380

(SINU)

139

Paramignya lobata Burkill - PT96-345

(SINU)

Zanthoxylum nitidum (Roxb.) DC. - A.

Zainudin AZ 3242 (UKMB)

Sapindaceae

Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch. - LH.

Burkill S.F.N. 895 (SING)

Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. - J. Feilding 4062

(SING)

Guioa pleuropteris (Blume) Radlk. -

PT96-604 (SINU)

Lepisanthes fruticosa (Roxb.) Leenh. - A.

Zainudin AZ 3220 (UKMB)

Lepisanthes rubiginosa (Roxb.) Leenh. -

F.S.P. Ng, FRI 5092 (KEP)

Lepisanthes tetraphylla (Vahl) Radlk. -

PT96-128 (SINU)

Nephelium juglandifolium Blume - A.

Zainudin AZ 5848 (UKMB)

Pometia pinnata J.R. Forst. & G. Forst. -

Mohd. Yasin bin Aboo, KEP 70929

(KEP)

Sapotaceae

Manilkara kauki (L.) Dubard - I.H.

Burkill S.F.N. 942 (SING)

c¢ Manilkara zapota (L.) Royen - PT96-20

(SINU)

Palaquium rostratum (Mig.) Burck -

F.S.P. Ng FRI 5077 (KEP)

Payena lucida A. DC. - F.S.P. Ng FRI

5082 (KEP)

Pouteria linggensis (Burck) Baehni - [.H.

Burkill S.F.N. 876 (SING)

Pouteria maingayi (C.B. Clarke) Baehni

- F.S.P. Ng, FRI 5079 (KEP)

Pouteria obovata (Burck) Baehni - PT96-

450 (SINU)

Scrophulariaceae

Scoparia dulcis L. - PT96-605 (SINU)

Torenia ciliata Sm. - PT96-673 (SINU)

c Torenia fournieri Linden ex Fourn. - A.

Zainudin AZ 5967 (UKMB)

140

SIMAROUBACEAE

Brucea javanica (L.) Merr. - PT96-81

(SINU)

Smilacaceae

Smilax lanceifolia Roxb. - 1.M.Turner

PT92 (SINU)

Solanaceae

c Capsicum annuum L. - PT96-31 (SINU)

Physalis minima L. - PT96-317 (SINU)

Solanum lasiocarpum Dunal. - PT96-226

(SINU)

c Solanum melongena L. - PT96-5 (SINU)

Solanum torvum Sw. - PT96-509 (SINU)

Sterculiaceae

Commersonia bartramia (L.) Merr. -

PT96-618 (SINU)

Helicteres hirsuta Lour. - A. Zainudin AZ

5827 (UKMB)

Heritiera littoralis Dryand. - PT96-174

(SINU) |

Sterculia coccinea Jack - D.J.Metcalfe &

J.W.H.Yong PTS9 (SINU)

Sterculia rubiginosa Vent. - A. Zainudin

AZ 5905 (UKMB)

Stemonaceae

Stichoneuron caudatum Ridl. - A.

Zainudin AZ 3248 (UKMB)

Taccaceae

Tacca integrifolia Ker Gawl. - 1.M.Turner

PT91 (SINU)

Tacca palmata Blume - PT96-662 (SINU)

Theaceae

Gordonia concentricicatrix Burkill - A.

Zainudin AZ 5924 (UKMB)

Gordonia multinervis King - A. Zainudin

AZ 5851 (UKMB)

Ternstroemia bancana Miq. - A. Zainudin

AZ 5855 (UKMB)

Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

Thymelaeaceae

Aquilaria malaccensis Lam. - Mohd.

Yasin bin Aboo, KEP 70924 (KEP)

Linostoma pauciflorum Griff. - PT96-648

(SINU)

Tiliaceae

Colona serratifolia Cav. - A. Zainudin

AZ 5816 (UKMB)

Grewia laevigata Vahl - I.H. Burkill

S.F.N. 879 (SING)

Microcos hirsuta (Korth.) Burret - I.H.

Burkill S.F.N. 933 (SING)

Muntingia calabura L. - PT96-22 (SINU)

Turneraceae

Turnera ulmifolia L. - PT96-291 (SINU)

Ulmaceae

Gironniera hirta Ridl. - 1.M.Turner PT65

(SINU)

Trema tomentosa (Roxb.) Hara - PT96-45

(SINU)

Urticaceae

Pipturus argenteus (G. Forst.) Wedd. - I.H.

Burkill s.n., June 1915 (SING)

Verbenaceae

Callicarpa longifolia Lam. - Y.F.Chan &

M.C.Loh PT44 (SINU)

c Clerodendrum calamitosum L. - PT96-25

(SINU)

c Clerodendrum chinense (Osbeck) Mabb.

- PT96-71 (SINU)

Clerodendrum inerme (L.) Gaertn. -

PT96-214 (SINU)

¢ Clerodendrum paniculatum L. - PT96-34

(SINU)

c Clerodendrum serrulatum (L.) Moon - A.

Zainudin AZ 3235 (UKMB)

Gmelina asiatica L. - PT96-32 (SINU)

Gmelina elliptica Sm. - A. Zainudin AZ

5887 (UKMB)

Lantana camara L. - PT96-36 (SINU)

1. The Plants and Vegetation of Pulau Tinggi

Premna serratifolia L. - PT96-17 (SINU)

Stachytarpheta indica (L.) Vahl - PT96-

261 (SINU)

Vitex negundo L. - PT96-1 (SINU)

Vitex pinnata L. - PT96-350 (SINU)

Vitex trifolia L. - PT96-229 (SINU)

Violaceae

Rinorea bengalensis (Wall.) Kuntze -

J.W.H.Yong PT17 (SINU)

Rinorea horneri (Korth.) Kuntze -

J.W.H.Yong & D.J.Metcalfe PT7

(SINU)

Rinorea sclerocarpa (Burgersd.) M. Jacobs

- PT96-125 (SINU)

Viscaceae

Viscum ovalifolium Wall. ex DC. - PT96-

241 (SINU)

14]

Vitaceae

Ampelocissus elegans (Kurz) Gagnep. -

A. Zainudin AZ 5927 (UKMB)

Cayratia japonica (Thunb.) Gagnep. -

PT96-269 (SINU)

Cayratia trifolia (L.) Domin - F.S.P. Ng,

FRI 5101 (SING)

Cissus hastata Miq. - PT96-363 (SINU)

Cissus repens Lam. - PT96-358 (SINU)

Zingiberaceae

c Alpinia galanga (L.) Sw. - IH. Burkill

S.F.N. 861 (SING)

?Amomum cephalotes Ridl. - 1.H. Burkill

S.F.N. 882 (SING)

Amomum testaceum Ridl. - PT96-417

(SINU)

Amomum xanthophlebium Baker - PT96-

507 (SINU)

Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 143-145. 143

Tree Flora of Sabah and Sarawak edited by E. Soepadmo and K.M. Wong,

jointly published by the Sabah Forestry Department, Forest Research

Institute Malaysia and the Sarawak Forestry Department. Vol 1 (1995) LI

+ 513 pp, Vol 2 (1996) x + 443 pp.

The Tree Flora of Sabah and Sarawak is an ambitious project, some might

even say ‘mission impossible’. The aim is to produce a flora of the trees,

woody plants of at least 5 m tall and 10 cm dbh, of the two Bornean states

of Malaysia. This, it is estimated, will be enough to fill eight volumes, each

covering some 300-400 species; and, what is more, it is proposed to complete

the whole undertaking in ten years.

Two volumes have been published so far, and they are simply

magnificent. It is always possible to find something to criticise, and I will

indulge in the reviewer’s liberty to nitpick below, but in general the first

two volumes of the flora are excellent in every department. The quality of

production is outstanding, the standard of the taxonomic treatments

excellent, the drawings wonderful.

The first volume starts with three introductory chapters. These are:

an overview of the background to the Tree Flora of Sabah and Sarawak

Project by Professor E. Soepadmo, a brief history of plant collecting and

floristic accounts of Borneo by Dr Wong Khoon Meng, and an essay on

the biogeography and ecology of northern Borneo by Professor Peter

Ashton. There follow accounts of 31 families (Acer., Alangi., Anisophylle.,

Araucari., Bignoni., Burser., Cappar., Celastr., Chrysoblan., Clethr.,

Connar., Corn., Datisc., Goodeni., Hyperic., Illici., Jugland., Monimi., Nyss.,

Ochn., Olac., Oxalid., Pittospor., Rhamn., Rhizophor., Rut., Simaroub.,

Sonnerati., Staphyle., Styr. & Trigoni.). Volume Two includes 23 families

(Anacardi., Boragin., Caprifoli., Casuarin., Chloranth., Crypteroni.,

Ctenolophon., Daphniphyll., Epacrid., Erythroxyl., Ixonanth., Lee., Logani.,

Lythr., Malv., Myric., Nyctagin., Santal., Sapind., Scyphostegi., Tetramerist.,

Ulm. & Winter.). The accounts are contributed by many authors, including

the Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew and many junior staff

members of Malaysian Herbaria. The project workhorse is clearly Mr K.M.

Kochummen who has provided the treatments of most of the larger families

included thus far. The family accounts include a key to all genera occurring

in Sabah and Sarawak, followed by more detailed entries for genera that

include trees, with full keys and species descriptions of arborescent taxa.

This is a proper flora and not merely a manual for foresters, so major

synonyms and typification are given, but the inclusion of one plate for

each genus containing trees, the use of not-overly-technical language and

strict adherence to alphabetical arrangement of taxa will help to make the

flora more accessible to readers who are not taxonomists.

144 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)

The preparatory work for the flora has led to the discovery of many

new species, 39 in volume two alone. Also Wong and Sugau, in their

treatment of the Loganiaceae employ a much narrower species concept in

Fagraea than Leenhouts (1962) did in his account for Flora Malesiana. In a

precursory paper, Wong and Sugau (1996) have divided Leenhouts’s

Fagraea fragrans, F. ceilanica and F. elliptica and F. racemosa into many

elements. The relative susceptibility of taxonomists to see discontinuity or

intergradation will frequently lead to different treatments of groups

exhibiting complex variation like Fagraea. Users of the Tree Flora of Sabah

and Sarawak will have the opportunity to test whether Wong and Sugau’s

species are justified.

My only major complaint about the flora is the frequent omission of

any discussion about the taxonomy employed. In the introduction it is

stated that Brummit (1993) is the main guide to familial and generic

circumscription, yet the two volumes contain instances where Brummit has

not been followed e.g. the maintenance of the Sonneratiaceae and the

Hypericaceae, the inclusion of /rvingia and Ailanthus in the Simaroubaceae,

and the recognition of Neckera and Roureopsis, all of which I felt warranted

more discussion. Similarly the use of Scaevola sericea over Scaevola taccada

needed reference to the literature on this major nomenclatural controversy.

I believe the correct name for Scleropyrum wallichianum is Scleropyrum

pentandrum (Dennst.) Mabb. (Mabberley 1977) and that William Theobold

made the combination Ceriops decandra well before Ding Hou (Mabberley

1985}.

These are minor quibbles. The Tree Flora of Sabah and Sarawak is

excellent and should be included in any library (personal or institutional)

which purports to cover the flora of Southeast Asia. The team that has

produced the two volumes deserves hearty congratulations for what has

been achieved, and encouragement to face the challenges ahead.

References

Brummitt, R. K . 1992 Vascular Plant Families and Genera. Royal Botanic

Gardens, Kew.

Leenhouts, P.W. 1962 Loganiaceae. Flora Malesiana, series 1, 16: 293-336.

Mabberley, D.J. 1977 Francis Hamilton’s commentaries with particular

reference to Meliaceae. Taxon 26: 523-540.

Mabberley, D.J. 1985 William Theobald (1829-1908): unwitting reformer

of botanical nomenclature? Taxon 34: 433-444.

Book review: Tree Flora of Sabah and Sarawak 145

Wong, K.M., & Sugau, J.B. 1996 A revision of Fagraea (Loganiaceae)

Borneo, with notes on related Malesan species and 21 new species.

Sandakania 8: 1-93.

Ian Turner

School of Biological Sciences

National University of Singapore

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INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS

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Bulletin Singapore. 46: 113-119.

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Ridley, H.N. 1930. The Dispersal of Plants Throughout the World. L.Reeve, Ashford,

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Medinilla alternifolia Blume, Mus. Bot. Lugd.-Bat. I:2 (1849) 19.

Sterculia acuminatissima Merr., Philip. J. Sci. 21 (1922) 524.

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SINGAPORE BOTANIC GARDENS, CLUNY ROAD, SINGAPORE 259569

2 ROTI REP TE ee

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The Gardens' Bulletin

Singapore — Ce |

OL. 49 (Part 2) December 1997 : ISSN 0374-7859

~~ NATIONAL PARKS BOARD :

Singapore Botanic Gardens Cluny Road Singapore 259569 Tel: 4741165 Telefax: 4754295 - a

THE GARDENS’ BULLETIN

The Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore publishes papers on plant taxonomy (including revisions),

horticulture, phytogeography, floristics, morphology, anatomy and related fields with

emphasis on plants in the West Malesian region.

EDITORIAL BOARD

Dr Ruth Kiew

(Editor)

Singapore Botanic Gardens

Dr T.W. Foong

(Assist. Editor)

Singapore Botanic Gardens

Dr S.C. Chin

Singapore Botanic Gardens

Dr M.J.E. Coode

Royal Botanic Gardens

Kew, U.K.

Dr R.T. Corlett

University of Hong Kong

Hong Kong

Dr M.C. Roos

Rijksherbarium

Leiden, Netherlands

Dr E. Soepadmo

Forest Research Institute Malaysia

Kepong, Malaysia

Dr W.K. Tan

Singapore Botanic Gardens

The Gardens’ Bulletin is published twice yearly by the National Parks Board, Singapore.

Neither the National Parks Board nor the Editorial Board is responsible for the opinions or

conclusions expressed by the contributing authors.

The annual subscription for the Gardens’ Bulletin is Singapore $100.00 including

postage. Overseas subscribers are required to make payment in the form of bank drafts or

international money orders in Singapore currency payable to National Parks Board,

Singapore.

Instructions for contributing authors are found on the inside backcover.

Biodiversity in the

Nature Reserves of

Singapore

Edited by

Lena Chan

National Parks Board

Richard T. Corlett

University of Hong Kong

Proceedings of the Nature Reserves Survey Seminar,

Singapore, December 1997

BRE OW Nase Bene Harrell

A LILI NE) fro oT! PAR

PAT UNS bo § LEI

The Gardens' Bulletin

Singapore

VOL. 49 (Part 2) December 1997 ISSN 0374-7859

CONTENTS

i enh OME acre eld ad See or apes tas dees htipb acne watiocdaigdnme dvewevmrvcwe can canwacarasendiecren Satauod Kes i

NN Se lth ese gps podem nh dive sian hud ada cdaeas gcndnsiensnd cen ill

Corlett, R.T.

2me vegetation in the Nature Reservesiof Smpapore ..5..:..0....0..c.2s1ec.ensneesecdasthcecoscconseneee 147

Chew, P.T., Saifuddin Suran and Ali [brahim

Checklist of vascular plants in the Nature Reserves of Singapore ............ceceeseeteeeees 161

Lim, K.S.

Bird biodiversity in the Nature Reserves of Singapore ................:cssccsscseseceseeeseeeseeeeeenees 225

Ng, P.K.L. and K.K.P. Lim

The diversity and conservation status of fishes in the Nature Reserves

Sa ONO a Sia hag sah tan cd igs vas ned op sgsis romlmanenivpsedotellana vada pivoweeenanans 245

Ng, P.K.L.

The conservation status of freshwater prawns and crabs in Singapore

ene CaPamRSPearaRS (CPia! ABNEL PM UUMAMG PRE VER 0) inca edhe hotandmecsnnossenehatvesnsetecnsnassnscenvsenseee 267

Khew, S.K. and S.S.H. Neo

Butterfly biodiversity in Singapore with particular reference to the

oe TTS re vce Ac g's Mie) ae ee 273

Seow-Choen, F.

Stick and leaf insect (Phasmida: Insecta) biodiversity in the Nature Reserves

Sr nN LR Be Ne ee ah Stag snlpntunciteninacninsuntnaneene ienadinidsinsied 297

Yang, C.M., H.K. Lua and K.L. Yeo

Semi-aquatic bug (Heteroptera: Gerromorpha) fauna in the Nature Reserves

aN ee lke swidesdoents Ue intecuandinnpcoss 313

Balke, M., L. Hendrich and C.M. Yang

Water beetles (Insecta: Coleoptera) in the Nature Reserves of Singapore .................. a2

Murphy, D.H.

Odonata biodiversity in the Nature Reserves of Singapore ..............cccccsesseseeseeseeeeeseenes 333

Teo, R.C.H. and S. Rajathurai

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians in the Nature Reserves of

Singapore - Diversity, abundance\and distributidm 2:1)... 2k ae eee 353

Date of Publication: 30 March 1999

Published by

National Parks Board

Singapore Botanic Gardens

Cluny Road

Singapore 259569

Printed by Oxford Graphic Printers Pte Ltd

PREFACE

Singapore, despite having a total area of only 648 sq. kilometre, inherited a

rich natural indigenous legacy including over two thousand plant species,

eighty mammal species, a hundred bird species, and forty freshwater fish

species. The Nature Reserves, comprising Bukit Timah Nature Reserve

and Central Catchment Nature Reserve, are situated in the centre of

Singapore and constitute the largest remaining naturally vegetated area.

Although the biodiversity of Bukit Timah Nature Reserve has been well-

studied, prior to the Nature Reserves Survey, documentation relied heavily

on ad hoc, sporadic, and irregular surveys carried out by individual

researchers or groups with interest in specific taxonomic categories. In

contrast, the Central Catchment Nature Reserve was poorly surveyed before

this project.

By the early 1990s, it was apparent that a concerted effort at

scientifically documenting the biodiversity of the largest conservation area

in Singapore was long overdue. In 1991, a physical and biological survey

of the Nature Reserves was proposed with the following broad targets:

1. Geophysical survey on drainage, topography and soil of the Reserves;

and

2. Detailed flora and fauna surveys and identification of specimens.

The Singapore Government financed the physical survey while the

cost of the biological survey was supported with funds provided by Lady

Yuen Peng McNeice, patron of the Singapore Botanic Gardens and the

Cheng Kim Loke Foundation. The project, co-ordinated by the Nature

Conservation Branch of the National Parks Board, spanned from 1992 to

1997. It culminated in a seminar held in December 1997 where the

participating researchers presented their findings.

New records of at least four mammals, two reptiles and three

amphibians and the rediscovery of two reptiles and two amphibians that

had not been sighted in the Nature Reserves for the past thirty years,

amply confirm that the merits of a co-ordinated systematic survey.

The findings have already been put to good use. A Recreational

Masterplan for the Nature Reserves has been formulated taking into account

the distribution of sensitive species. Biological databases have been

established for the taxonomic groups surveyed during this project and this

will form the cornerstone of the proposed National Biodiversity Reference

Centre. The information accumulated forms a reliable baseline for

monitoring studies. There are many more projects in the pipeline that will

utilise the biodiversity data collected, particularly in the field of nature

conservation education.

This survey has indeed been a landmark in the history of nature

conservation in Singapore. It has amassed valuable data that should be

made more accessible, to academics as well as the general public. To

reach a wider audience and to provide a single permanent record for

monitoring and future comparisons, much of the data collected during the

survey and presented in the Nature Reserves Seminar has been compiled

into this special issue of the Gardens’ Bulletin.

The work carried out during the Nature Reserves Survey has laid a

firm foundation from which Singapore could springboard into nature

conservation initiatives in the New Millenium.

Dr. Tan Wee Kiat

Chief Executive Officer

National Parks Board

1 February 1999

ill

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Nature Reserves Survey would not have been possible if not for the

foresight of the Singapore Government and Lady Yuen Peng McNeice’s

ardent support for conservation. The generous financial support from

Lady McNeice, the Cheng Kim Loke Foundation and the Singapore

Government is gratefully acknowledged.

Dr. Leong Chee Chiew was instrumental in the initiation of this

project and in subsequently steering its course. He has unstintingly stood

by the project through thick and thin and we are very grateful for it.

The consultants, Mr. Wong Yew Kwan and Professor D. H. Murphy,

contributed to the Nature Reserves Survey in many ways, far beyond their

terms of reference.

For a survey spanning several years, particular credit must be given

to several people who were responsible for the smooth running of the

project. This list includes Ali Ibrahim, Sharon Chan, Chew Ping Ting,

Cheryl Chia, Wendy Kan, Shirley Pottie, Saifuddin Suran, Tay Eng Pin,

Robert Teo and Elspeth Waghorn.

It is impossible to name all the individuals who so magnanimously

contributed their time or expertise to the survey work carried out on the

diverse taxonomic groups. From the Nature Society (Singapore), the

dedicated and exemplary work of the Vertebrate Group and the Bird

Group is most appreciated. Many members from the Department of

Biological Sciences, the Zoological Reference Collection and the Geography

Department of the National University of Singapore participated actively

in the project and many thanks go to them for their unwavering support

and involvement. The number of weekends that Khew Sin Khoon and the

Butterfly Watching and Research Group of the Nature Society (Singapore)

had sacrificed in the documentation of butterfly biodiversity was numerous

and their efforts are gratefully acknowledged. We are much richer in our

knowledge of stick- and leaf-insect biodiversity entirely due to the single-

minded devotion of Dr Francis Seow-Choen and his family to this interesting

taxonomic group. The contribution of the National Institute of Education

of the National Technological University is also acknowledged. We thank

the Public Utilities Board and the Ministry of Defence for their unfailing

assistance in transportation and logistic support.

The fieldwork was greatly facilitated by the staff members of the

Nature Reserves Management Branch, especially the work of the rangers,

the daily rated employees and the drivers. We sincerely thank Sharon

Chan for her continuous and stalwart support in fieldwork co-ordination, a

contribution that cannot be over-acknowledged.

Sharon Chan also played a pivotal role in the initiation and

organisation of the Nature Reserves Seminar and its success can largely be

credited to her efforts. We also acknowledge the contributions of Nasir

Abdullah, Rehan Yusoff, Tay Soon Lian and Sunia Corina Teo from the

Nature Reserves Management Branch and all the other logistic support

staff during the Nature Reserves Seminar. The co-ordinated efforts of

Chew Ping Ting, Cheryl Chia and Saifuddin Suran of the Nature

Conservation Branch ensured the smooth running of the seminar.

This special issue of the Gardens’ Bulletin occupies an unique niche

in the Nature Reserves Survey Project. Many people contributed to bringing

this volume to fruition. In particular, we thank Chew Ping Ting and Cheryl

Chia for the excellent production of the GIS maps and general « “‘-g.

Our profoundest thanks must go to Cheryl Chia for her untiring amendment

and editing of the numerous versions of the papers. Without Cheryl, the

editorial work would have been more tedious and prolonged. Special

thanks are due to Dr Ruth Kiew for her efficient assistance in the general

editing of the papers. We would also like to thank Dr Ian Turner for his

critical comments on some of the papers.

Finally, we thank Dr Tan Wee Kiat and Dr Chin See Chuug for their

unfailing support of the project, which kept the morale high.

To all the above-named and the many more unnamed conuributors,

we express our keenest appreciation for all the time, effort, support and

dedication each and everyone gave to this mammoth task of documenting

the biodiversity of Singapore. This volume stands as a testimony to their

dedication to nature conservation.

Thank you, Terima kasih, Xie xie and Nantri.

Lena Chan & Richard Corlett

1 February 1999

Proceedings of the Nature Reserves Survey Seminar.

Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 147-159.

The Vegetation in the Nature Reserves of Singapore

RICHARD T. CORLETT

Department of Ecology & Biodiversity

University of Hong Kong

Pokfulam Road

Hong Kong, China

Abstract

yz rf

LiIDS

Singapore’s native, non-coastal biota is almost entirely forest-dependent. Progressive

deforestation during the nineteenth century reduced forest cover to isolated patches in a

matris of grassland. All primary forest patches outside the nature reserves were cleared but

protection within the reserves has allowed the growth of secondary forest. The surviving

primary forest patches are still distinct from the oldest secondary forest in their species

diversity and structural complexity. The freshwater swamp forest at Nee Soon is also clearly

distinct from the dryland primary forest. The highest conservation priority must be given to

the primary forest remnants, which support most of the surviving flora, and to the older

second, ‘y forest. Non-forest areas within the reserves should be reforested.

Introduction

Vegetation forms the matrix in which both plants and animals live, as well

as supplying the food on which most animals depend. In Singapore’s

continuously hot and wet climate, forest is the natural vegetation on almost

all substrates. Corlett (1991a) estimated that mangrove forest made up

13% of the original forest area, freshwater swamp forest an additional 5%,

and the remainder was lowland dipterocarp forest. Before human impact,

permanent open sites would have been confined to coastal cliffs and sandy

beaches. This basic fact has profound implications for understanding the

biodiversity of modern Singapore: all native, non-coastal species of plants

and animals are adapted to and, usually, dependent on forest, and are thus

adversely affected by deforestation.

There is no evidence for significant forest clearance in the interior of

the island before the nineteenth century, although coastal settlements have

existed for centuries (Corlett, 1992a, 1992b). Most of the deforestation

occurred in the period 1819-1900, after the foundation of the British colony

resulted in a rapid rise in population. Much of the initial clearance of

primary forest was for the cultivation of gambier (Uncaria gambir,

Rubiaceae), which grows best on soil newly cleared of forest and needs a

roughly equal area of forest to provide firewood for boiling the gambier

leaves (Jackson, 1965). The gambier growers moved on when the soil and

148 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

firewood supplies were exhausted. The results of this “reckless, migratory

cultivation” were described by Cantley (1884):

Such Crown forests as remain uncut are widely distributed in isolated

patches over the island. These forest patches or clumps are of various

sizes, from half an acre or so to about 25 acres [10 ha], and of no

particular shape; their distance from each other may average a quarter

of a mile [0.4 km] though often exceeding a mile [1.6 km]. The

interspace is generally waste grassland, which supports, as a rule,

only strongly-growing grass known locally as “lalang” [Jmperata

cylindrica].

From 1884, many of the larger forest patches were included in forest

reserves, but most of these were eventually abandoned (Corlett, 1995a).

Primary forest remnants survived only in those areas that have received

continuous protection, all of which are within the current nature reserves

in the central part of the island. Here, the cessation of cultivation and

control of grassland fires allowed the growth of secondary forest, which

restored links between some of the remnant patches. Subsequently,

however, the construction of reservoirs, roads and both recreational and

military facilities has re-fragmented the forest area (Figure 1).

The vegetation of Singapore as a whole has been described by Corlett

(1991a, 1992a). This paper concentrates on the vegetation of the current

nature reserves.

Sources

Singapore has had more than a century of continuous botanical collecting

activity. Checklists for the flora have been published by Ridley (1900),

Keng (1990), Turner et al. (1990) and Turner (1993). New species continue

to be added to a total which now stands at 2323 native species (Ali Ibrahim

et al., 1997). Corlett (1990, 1995b) recorded a total of 843 forest angiosperm

species seen, collected or reported from Bukit Timah Nature Reserve since

records began. Turner (1994) gives the total recorded forest vascular flora

of Singapore as 1673 species (with 912 spp. at Bukit Timah Nature Reserve)

and Turner et al. (1994) estimate that 1196 (71%) of these survive today,

all but a few within the nature reserves. More than 700 vascular plant

species have been recorded from freshwater swamp forest in Singapore

but many of these were only known from areas which had been cleared

(Turner et al., 1996a). The many forest plots enumerated during the forest

surveys described below cover a total of 20 ha, which is only about one

Vegetation 149

Sa | ee artnet

ae ere —rmrcrarrs “2 S ——

SELETAR

-RESERVOR

, REY NN

‘Sy

°)

een

> ~

eal Non-forest a Old Secondary Forest ee Freshwater Swamp Forest

SS Young Secondary Forest Pa Primary Forest Pe rh | OOD on ZO

METRES

Figure 1. Map of the Nature Reserves showing the major vegetation types.

150 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

percent of the total forest area within the reserves. However, much of the

rest of the reserve area has been sampled by collectors within the past

century, with particular attention paid to previously under-collected parts

of the Central Catchment Nature Reserves since 1992. Despite this, more

species undoubtedly remain to be discovered and some currently believed

to be extinct (Turner er al., 1995) have been rediscovered (Kiew & Chan,

in press).

Wee (1964) mapped the vegetation of the nature reserves from the

1955 aerial photographs, followed by field reconnaissance. He recognized

five vegetation types: high forest (recognized only on Bukit Timah),

regenerating high forest, regenerating swamp forest, belukar tua (old

secondary forest), and belukar muda (young secondary forest, shrubland,

grassland and fernland). Hill (1977) mapped the vegetation of the whole

of Singapore, including the nature reserves, from aerial photographs. Within

the reserves, he recognized five vegetation types: lowland rain forest,

freshwater swamp forest, tall secondary forest (with crowns mainly >10 m

high), low secondary forest (<10 m), and grass and scrub (including

Dicranopteris fernlands). Wong et al. (1994), using 1990 aerial photographs,

recognized four vegetation types within the Central Catchment Nature

Reserve: Type 1, consisting of early successional vegetation with only

scattered trees; Type 2, with many small-crowned trees 8-15 m tall; Type

3, with taller, larger-crowned trees; and Type 4, with some very large trees.

These structural types were mapped in Turner et al. (1996b), who also

compared this structural classification with a floristic ordination and

classification of Wong et al.’s (1994) plot data. Metcalfe et al. (1998) classified

the forest types in a 200 m x 200 m grid at Bukit Timah into four types:

near-pristine forest with no visible signs of human disturbance (around

10% of the forest area), other primary forest (52%), old secondary forest

(31%), and young secondary forest (7%).

The first quantitative vegetation studies within the area now covered

by the reserves were done in 1933 by Corner, in a patch of primary

freshwater swamp forest along the old Mandai Road (Corner, 1978). He

enumerated slightly over a hectare of this forest, which was felled for an

extension of Seletar Reservoir in 1940. Then, in the late 1950s, Gilliland

and co-workers measured and identified all plants within three 1000 feet x

6 feet (305 x 2m) transects in the nature reserves: one in regenerating high

forest south of MacRitchie Reservoir (Gilliland & Wantman, 1958), one in

tall secondary forest adjacent to Lornie Road and the golf course (Gilliland,

1958), and one in younger secondary forest in the Mandai area (Gilliland

& Mohd. Jabil, 1958). Gilliland named the three forest types the Shorea/

Agrostistachys community, the Rhodamnia/Champereia community, and

the Eugenia/Arthrophyllum community, respectively.

= eS ee eee -

Vegetation |e |

Wong (1987) enumerated all trees > 24 inches (61cm) girth at breast

height (gbh) in twenty 0.4 acre (0.16 ha) clusters of four circular subplots

located systematically on a grid at Bukit Timah Nature Reserve. Swan

(1988) mapped, measured and identified all stems > 2 cm dbh in two 0.24

ha plots on Bukit Timah, in Fern Valley and Jungle Falls Valley,

respectively. Corlett (1991b) measured and identified all stems > 2 cm dbh

in fifteen 0.1 ha plots in tall secondary forest in the Central Catchment

Nature Reserve. An additional five plots were located in primary forest

remnants (Corlett, unpublished). Sim et al. (1992) included a 225 m’ plot

at Bukit Timah in a survey of Adinandra belukar in Singapore. In by far

the biggest survey to date, Wong ef al. (1994) measured and identified

trees > 30 cm gbh in sixty-two 0.2 ha clusters of four circular subplots in

the Central Catchment Nature Reserve and Turner et al. (1996c)

enumerated herbaceous plants in 46 of these clusters. In 1993, the Center

for Tropical Forest Science and the National Institute of Education,

Nanyang Technological University, established a 2 ha permanent plot in

the primary forest core of Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (LaFrankie et al.,

1996; Ercelawn et al., 1998). All trees > 1 cm dbh have now been censused

twice, in 1993 and 1995, allowing the assessment of short-term recruitment

within the plot.

Vegetation

Dryland Primary Forest

All studies of the nature reserves have recognized a distinct forest type

characterized by the presence of huge individual trees, including

dipterocarps. It is likely that all the patches of this type were logged for

timber and exploited for firewood before and, probably, to some extent,

after protection. This exploitation seems to have been relatively light at

Bukit Timah and may have been extremely heavy in some patches kept as

firewood reserves for gambier plantations in the centre of the island.

However, these distinctions have been largely obscured by a century or

more of regeneration so it is now simplest and most informative to refer to

all this forest as primary, i.e., forest which has never been completely

cleared (Corlett, 1994). The continuity of forest occurrence on a site results

in a richer flora than even the oldest secondary forests (Corlett, 1995c;

Turner et al., 1997). The total area of dryland primary forest in the Nature

Reserves is approximately 192 ha, 80% of which is within the Central

Catchment Nature Reserve.

Most of the dryland primary forest remnants in Singapore consist of

lowland dipterocarp forest, with members of the family Dipterocarpaceae

1S2 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

(Anisoptera, Dipterocarpus, Hopea, Shorea) dominant among the large

trees. The species composition in the Central Catchment Nature Reserve

most closely matches the Red Meranti-Keruing forest type of Wyatt-Smith

(1963, 1964). Most of the primary forest on Bukit Timah Hill can be

distinguished as coastal hill dipterocarp forest by the dominance of Shorea

curtisii and Dipterocarpus caudatus subsp. penangianus (Wong, 1987; Swan,

1988; LaFrankie et al., 1996), but the flora is otherwise similar to that of

the patches in the Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Other prominent

large tree species in the dryland primary forest include several members of

the Burseraceae, Adenanthera bicolor (Leguminosae), Dyera costulata

(Apocynaceae), Gluta wallichii (Anacardiaceae), Ixonanthes icosandra

(Ixonanthaceae), Koompassia malaccensis (Leguminosae) and Mangifera

griffithii (Anacardiaceae). The major families of smaller trees and shrubs

are the Annonaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae and Rubiaceae.

Woody climbers have been ignored in most plot surveys and undercollected

in general. Rattans (spiny, climbing palms in the genera Calamus,

Daemonorops, Korthalsia and Plectocomia) are particularly abundant at

Bukit Timah and in some of the primary forest patches in the central

catchment area. The other major families of large, woody climbers are the

Rubiaceae (Uncaria), Annonaceae (Artabotrys, Fissistigma), Apocynaceae

(Leuconotis, Willughbeia), Leguminosae (Dalbergia, Derris, Entada,

Spatholobus) and Connaraceae (Rourea). Ferns and several families of

monocotyledons dominate the herb flora, but herb diversity is low in

Singapore’s forests, and not strongly differentiated between types (Turner

et al., 1996c).

Primary Freshwater Swamp Forest

In all floristic surveys - and, for that matter, most faunistic surveys - the

most distinctive forest type is the freshwater swamp forest at Nee Soon.

This swamp system is extremely complex and we do not know enough to

explain the patterns observed. Indeed, they are probably not explicable in

terms of the present day environment, since the all-important water regime

must have been drastically altered by changes both up and down stream of

the existing remnants. Turner et al. (1996a) bring together current

knowledge of the Nee Soon swamp forest and estimate the total area as

about 87 ha. Swamp forest occurs in low-lying areas where the water table

is close to the soil surface and the soil is usually rich in organic matter.

Many of the most characteristic tree species produce striking stilt roots

(e.g., Palaquium xanthochymum, Sapotaceae and Xylopia fusca,

Annonaceae) and/or pneumatophores of various types (plank-like in

Lophopetalum multinervium, Celastraceae) illustrated in Corner (1978),

Vegetation 153

presumably as an adaptation to this substrate and the periodic floods to

which most of the forest is subject.

Secondary Forests

Secondary forest is the most extensive vegetation type in the Nature

Reserves, covering a total area of about 1560 ha. Although different types

of secondary forest often seem sharply distinct at their boundaries on the

ground and in aerial photographs, ordination and classification techniques

show that they are all part of a floristic continuum (Corlett, 1991b; Turner

et al., 1997). Most authors have interpreted this continuum as representing

stages in successional development after the abandonment of cultivation.

However, it is possible that much of the variation reflects degrees of site

degradation, and that areas abandoned at the same time may have very

different vegetation. Unfortunately, we cannot usually date the start of

forest succession sufficiently accurately to test this hypothesis.

The strongest evidence against “time since abandonment” as the

only determining factor is the striking persistence of some - but by no

means all - of the patches of open, scrubby vegetation between a vegetation

map based on 1955 aerial photographs (Wee, 1964) and the present day,

43 years later. The ground in these areas is typically covered in a dense

growth of the fern Dicranopteris linearis, grasses or, occasionally, sedges.

Trees, particularly Adinandra dumosa (Theaceae) and Rhodamnia cinerea

(Myrtaceae), occur as scattered clumps and isolated individuals. Fire has

undoubtedly been a factor in some cases, but soil factors or the inhibitory

effects of a dense herbaceous ground cover may also be important.

Whatever the explanation, these persistent open areas should not be seen

as a model for the early stages of succession in areas now covered in tall

secondary forest. For these latter areas, presumably on more fertile soils,

the first stage of forest succession seems to have been the dense Adinandra-

dominated forest, which can be seen today in a few places within the

reserves and several areas outside (Corlett, 1991b; Sim et al., 1992). Holttum

(1954) reported that in 1930-40 “there were very large areas of dense,

almost pure Adinandra forest” in the catchment area, although much of

this was felled for use as poles just before and during the war. Macaranga

conifera (Euphorbiaceae), while apparently not a normal component of

this community, becomes prominent in regeneration after fire or cutting,

presumably in response to the increased nutrient supply (Corlett, 1991b).

Structural and floristic classifications of the secondary forests within

the reserves do not agree well (Turner et al., 1996b, 1997) but most sites

can be arranged along a successional gradient, whether or not this represents

time since initiation of succession. Rhodamnia cinerea (Myrtaceae) is

154 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

present, and often dominant, at all sites, but the other components are

more variable. At one extreme are sites where the light-demanding pioneers,

Adinandra dumosa (Theaceae) and Macaranga conifera (Euphorbiaceae),

are still prominent, tree crowns are small and indistinct on aerial

photographs, and the canopy height ranges from 8-15 m. At the other

extreme, where the canopy has attained 15-25 m, some tree crowns are

larger, and most light-demanding species have been eliminated. At this

stage, the forest is dominated by tree species in the families Myrtaceae

(Rhodamnia, Syzygium), Guttiferae (Calophyllum, Garcinia), and

Lauraceae (Litsea), with Campnospermum auriculatum (Anacardiaceae),

Elaeocarpus spp. (Elaeocarpaceae), Gynotroches axillaris (Rhizophoraceae),

Ixonanthes reticulata (Ixonanthaceae) and Timonius wallichianus

(Rubiaceae). The giant specimens of Syzygium grandis (Myrtaceae) in

some areas were, apparently, planted as fire-breaks in Jmperata grassland

in the late nineteenth century.

Non-forest vegetation

There has been no detailed study of the non-forest vegetation within the

Nature Reserves. Exotic grasses and legumes dominate some recently-

abandoned areas on the fringes, while native grasses and the fern,

Dicranopteris, cover most open areas in the interior. There are also some

large patches of native shrubland, dominated by the Melastoma

malabathricum (Melastomatacaea), Dillenia suffruticosa (Dilleniaceae),

Adinandra dumosa (Theaceae) and Macaranga heynei (Euphorbiaceae).

Discussion |

Because of the rarity of open habitats in the primeval landscape of

Singapore, most of Singapore’s surviving non-coastal biodiversity is confined

to forest. Man-made, non-forest vegetation is typically species-poor and/or

dominated by exotics (Corlett, 1992a, 1992b). Most of the forest vegetation

was cleared during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, with a

minimum probably being reached in the period 1910-1940. Many extinctions

occurred during this period of deforestation, with the vertebrates most

vulnerable and the vascular plants least (Corlett & Turner, 1997).

Subsequently, the forest area has increased as secondary forest developed

but extinctions have continued as a result of additional pressures in some

areas and, no doubt, as a consequence of the vulnerability of small

populations to chance extinction. Secondary forests are now much more

extensive than the primary forest remnants they surround (Figure 1) and

Vegetation 155

some are probably a hundred years or more old. However, secondary

forests in Singapore have accumulated species slowly and selectively, and

are still floristically impoverished in comparison with the primary forest

(Corlett & Turner, 1997; Turner ef al., 1997). A major reason for this

relative impoverishment seems to be the failure of many primary forest

species to disperse out from their refuges, and at least part of this can be

attributed to the disproportionate extinction of large seed-dispersing

frugivores in Singapore. Preliminary results from the 2-ha permanent plot

at Bukit Timah suggest that the same problem may be limiting regeneration

of some animal-dispersed species within the primary forest, particularly

members of the family Myristicaceae (Ercelawn et al., 1998). The elevated

abundance of seed-predating rodents may be another factor limiting

colonization of new sites. Whatever the explanation, there is no doubt that

preserving all the remaining primary forest remnants from destruction or

disturbance must be the basis of any plant conservation strategy in Singapore

(Turner & Corlett, 1996).

The importance of the primary forest does not mean, however, that

the more extensive secondary forests are of no value. These forests buffer

the tiny primary remnants from the harsh external environment and provide

the major habitat in Singapore for all those forest-dependent animal species,

which do not require the more complex structure and greater floristic

diversity of the primary forest. Moreover, both the structural complexity

and floristic diversity of the secondary forest will increase with time. The

secondary forests are the future of the nature reserves.

Most of the non-forest vegetation of the reserves is of limited

conservation value. The native shrubland dominated by Melastoma, Dillenia,

Adinandra and Macaranga heynei may be an exception, since the continuous

supply of nectar and small fruits it provides, in contrast to the more “pulsed”

supply in the older forest types, may increase the carrying capacity of the

reserves as a whole for nectar- and fruit-eating animals. In contrast, the

marginal areas dominated by exotic grasses and/or legumes, the bigger

patches of Dicranopteris fernland, and the grasslands dominated by /mperata

and other species, support little wildlife. Reforestation of these areas with

native species would help reduce fragmentation and increase the total area

of habitat available for forest-dependent plant and animal species.

Acknowledgments

A comprehensive list of those who have contributed to this paper would

exceed the limits of editorial tolerance, but I would like to offer special

thanks to P.T. Chew, H.T.W Tan, I.M. Turner, J.V. LaFrankie, F.R. Swan,

D.H. Murphy, Ali bin Ibrahim, and Haji Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad.

156 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

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Vegetation 157

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Vegetation 159

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Proceedings of the Nature Reserves Survey Seminar.

Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 161-223.

Checklist of Vascular Plants in the Nature Reserves of

Singapore

P.T. CHEW, SAIFUDDIN SURAN AND ALI IBRAHIM

Singapore Botanic Gardens,

1 Cluny Road,

Singapore 259569

Abstract

This vascular plant checklist of the Nature Reserves of Singapore is a compilation of

historical records (herbarium specimens, published and unpublished checklists) as well as

recent field observations and studies. A total of 1634 species of vascular plants have been

recorded in the Nature Reserves since the last century, of which 443 (or 29% of the

indigenous species) have not been seen during the last 10 years.

Introduction

The current Nature Reserves of Singapore consist of the Bukit Timah

Nature Reserve (BTNR) and the Central Catchment Nature Reserve

(CCNR). Floristic inventory and research in the past were mostly

concentrated at BI'NR, the Bukit Timah Reserve as it was formerly known.

It was one of the first Forest Reserves to be established in Singapore in

1883.

In 1951, the Nature Reserves Ordinance was enacted and the Central

Catchment Area, now known as the Central Catchment Nature Reserve,

was included as one of the five Forest Reserves. In 1990, the newly gazetted

National Parks Act established a National Parks Board, which acts as a

trustee for the current Nature Reserves.

The objectives of the Nature Reserves are, as stated in Part II of the

National Parks Act 1990:

(a) the propagation, protection and preservation of the plants

(flora) and animals (fauna) of Singapore;

(b) the study, research and preservation of objects and places of

aesthetic, historical or scientific interest;

horticulture, biotechnology and natural and local history;

162 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

and the following was added as Part VII in the National Parks Act 1996:

(d) recreational and educational use by the public.

In 1991, a six-year Nature Reserves Survey (NRS) project was initiated by

the National Parks Board (NParks), primarily to inventory the physical

and biological components of the Nature Reserves, particularly, that of the

lesser known CCNR.

Materials

The documentation of Singapore’s flora started in the late nineteenth

century. A literature and herbarium search at the Singapore Botanic

Gardens Herbarium (SING) yielded a long list of historical flora records

of the Nature Reserves of Singapore. These include Report on the Forests

of the Straits Settlements (Cantley, 1884), Flora of Singapore (Ridley, 1900),

Freshwater Swamp-forest of South Johore and Singapore (Corner, 1978);

and specimen records by H.N. Ridley, I-H. Burkill, R.E. Holttum, E.J.H.

Corner, and more recently, J. Sinclair in the 1950s—1960s.

After a lapse of about 30 years, interest in biodiversity revived when

field collections were carried out at Lower Peirce (within the CCNR)

under an independently commissioned survey for a separate project

proposal in 1990. This was followed by the NRS project, of which floristic

inventory was the primary component during the period 1991 to 1994.

Field surveys of the CCNR flora were conducted by NParks staff and

consultants (Wong ef al., 1994; Ali et al., 1997), and researchers and student

assistants from the National University of Singapore (Turner et al., 1994,

1996a, 1996b, 1996c, 1997).

Besides these recent compilations of Singapore flora, cheernete

(Turner et al., 1990, Turner,1993, 1995; Wee & Ng, 1994; Ng & Wee, 1994;

Chin et al., 1995: Tan, 1995) and selected flora inventory research carried

out in the Nature Reserves in the last decade (Wong, 1987; Swan, 1988;

Corlett, 1990, 1991: Sim et al., 1992; Tan et al., 1995; LaFrankie et al., 1996;

Chua et al., 1996) are available.

In addition, the flora in a two-hectare plot in the BTNR is under a

long-term population dynamic study carried out by the National Institute

of Education, Nanyang Technological University, in conjunction with the

Center for Tropical Forest Science (CTFS).

Checklist of vascular plants 163

Methods

The compiled list of indigenous vascular plant species (Appendix 1) that

are or were probably found growing in the Nature Reserves since the last

century is derived from the various publications listed above, herbarium

records in the Singapore Botanic Gardens Herbarium, and the unpublished

checklists noted below. Naturalised species sampled in the survey are

recorded in Appendix 2. The record sources for the four columns, R, H, P

and S, in Appendices 1 and 2 are as follows:

R — records from field collections, published data from NRS, and published

data during the period 1991 — 1997 from the “Additions to the Flora of

Singapore” and “The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore” series published in

the Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore, 44 — 49.

H — herbarium specimens records in SING.

P — publication records denoted as follows: C — Corlett (1990, 1991); F —

Wee (1983, 1984); N — Corner (1978); T — Chua et al. (1996), Tan et al.

(1995), Tan (1995, 1997); W — Wong (1987).

S — unverified records denoted as follows: 1 — observations from NParks

staff and NRS unpublished checklists, 2 —- unpublished checklist of BTINR

flora (Corlett, late 80s), 3 — collections from the Centre for Natural Product

Research (CNPR) project and 4 — collections from the CTFS project.

The records reported under S are non-exhaustive. Sources 1, 3 and 4

are complementary to R while source 2 is complementary to H, based on

dates of collections. Of the new unverified records discovered from this

survey that are not found in the Singapore checklist (Turner, 1993), those

that have not been recorded as far south as Johore, the nearest state of

Peninsula Malaysia, were left out.

Observations

The total vascular plant records for the Nature Reserves of Singapore is

1634 species, as listed in Appendices 1 and 2. Of these species, 1525 are

indigenous (Appendix 1) and 109 (7%) are exotic (Appendix 2). For the

NRS, 916 species (under R) were recorded with an additional 258 species

(1,3 & 4 under S) noted during the period.

164 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

A total of 1190 vascular plant species are recorded for the Nature

Reserves within the last 10 years, of which 341 species or 29% (excluding

those listed in recent publications under P) are new records for the Nature

Reserves.

Of the 1267 old records (those older than 10 years) for the Nature

Reserves, 443 (35%) species were not seen during this NRS project period.

Some of these species may be extinct as a result of habitat loss (tidal

freshwater swamp where the present Upper Seletar Reservoir resides) and

forest fragmentation due to clearing and cultivation within the century.

Others probably still survive in the Nature Reserves.

Out of 1190 species recorded within the last ten years in the Nature

Reserves, 90 (7.5%) are exotic. In comparison, only 11 (0.8%) species out

of 1297 species were exotic for records earlier than the last ten years, an

eight fold increase in ten years.

Discussion

From the literature survey, it can be seen that in the last few decades there

was an absence of field work in the CCNR. It is noteworthy that prior to

the NRS, the Singapore flora checklist comprises mainly records more

than 30 years old. Consequently, the NRS inventory sets an important

milestone in the documentation of flora in Singapore in filling this gap.

Records of lianas, herbaceous, climbing and creeping epiphytes,

terrestrial ferns, sedges, grasses, and aquatic and semi-aquatic flora are

also expected to be not as complete as that of the tree flora in the NRS, as

these were randomly sampled rather than sampled intentionally as defined

taxonomic groups. ?

As noted above, exotics have been invading the Nature Reserves

within the last few decades. The number of exotic species establishing in

the Nature Reserves should be monitored in future surveys for management

implications in the conservation of indigenous species.

Acknowledgements

We should like to thank Drs. R.T. Corlett, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner,

S.K.Y. Lum, J.V. LaFrankie and their students and assistants, and Mr Y.K.

Wong, D.H. Murphy and E.S.K. Tang for providing published and

unpublished flora checklists and records of the Singapore Nature Reserves.

Checklist of vascular plants 165

References

Ali Ibrahim, P.T. Chew, Hj Sidek Kiah & J.T.K. Lai. 1997. New records of

plant species from Singapore. Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore. 49: 49-54.

Cantley, N. 1884. Report on the Forests of the Straits Settlements. Singapore

Printing Office, Singapore.

Chin, S.C., R.T. Corlett, Y.C. Wee & S.Y. Geh (eds.). 1995. Rain forest in

the city: Bukit Timah Nature Reserve Singapore. Gardens’ Bulletin

Singapore. Suppl. 3.

Chua, K.S., B.C. Soong & H.T.W. Tan. 1996. The Bamboos of Singapore.

International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), Singapore.

Corlett, R.T. 1990. Flora and reproductive phenology of the rain forest at

Bukit Timah, Singapore. Journal of Tropical Ecology. 6: 55-63.

Corlett, R.T. 1991. Plant succession on degraded land in Singapore. Journal

of Tropical Forest Science. 4: 151-161.

Corner, E.J.H. 1978. The freshwater swamp-forest of South Johore and

Singapore. Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore. Suppl. 1: 59-224.

LaFrankie, J.V.,S.K. Lee & A.C. Ercelawn. 1996. Tree population structure

in a tropical forest fragment in Singapore. Asian Journal of Tropical

Biology. 2: 39-48.

National Parks Act 1990. Republic of Singapore Government Gazette Acts

Supplement 17:No. 10 of 1990.

National Parks Act 1996. Republic of Singapore Government Gazette Acts

Supplement 20:No. 22 of 1996.

Ng, P.K.L. & Y.C. Wee (eds.). 1994. The Singapore Red Data Book:

Threatened Plants & Animals of Singapore. The Nature Society

(Singapore).

Ridley, H.N. 1900. The flora of Singapore. Journal of the Straits’ Branch of

the Royal Asiatic Society. 33: 27-196.

Sim, J.W.S., H.T.W. Tan & I.M. Turner. 1992. Adinandra belukar: an

anthropogenic heath forest in Singapore. Vegetatio. 102: 125-137.

Swan, F.R. Jr. 1988. Tree distribution patterns in the Bukit Timah Nature

Reserve. Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore. 41: 59-81.

166 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Tan, H.T.W. (ed.). 1995. A Guide to the Threatened Plants of Singapore.

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Tan, H.T.W. (ed.). 1997. A Guide to the Carnivorous Plants of Singapore.

Singapore Science Centre.

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Timah Nature Reserve. Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore. Suppl. 3: 29-59.

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Bulletin Singapore. 45: 1-287.

Turner, I.M. 1995. A catalogue of the vascular plants of Malaya. Gardens’

Bulletin Singapore. 47: 1-757.

Turner, I.M., K.S. Chua & H.T.W. Tan. 1990. A checklist of the native and

naturalized vascular plants of the Republic of Singapore. Journal of the

Singapore National Academy of Science. 18-19: 58-88.

Turner, I.M., H.T.W. Tan, K.S. Chua & D.J. Metcalfe. 1994. Recent

botanical collections from the Nature Reserves of Singapore. Gardens’

Bulletin Singapore. 46: 1-36.

Turner, I.M., C.M. Boo, Y.K. Wong, P.T. Chew & Ali Ibrahim. 1996a.

Freshwater swamp forest in Singapore, with particular reference to that

found around the Nee Soon Firing Ranges. Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore.

48: 129-157.

Turner, I.M., H.T.W. Tan & K.S. Chua. 1996b. Relationships between

herb layer and canopy composition in a tropical rain forest successional

mosaic in Singapore. Journal of Tropical Ecology. 12: 843-851.

Turner, I.M., Y.K. Wong, P.T. Chew & Ali Ibrahim. 1996c. Rapid

assessment of tropical rain forest successional status using aerial

photographs. Biological Conservation. 77: 177-183.

Turner, I.M., Y.K. Wong, P.T. Chew & Ali Ibrahim. 1997. Tree species

richness in primary and old secondary tropical forest in Singapore.

Biodiversity and Conservation. 6: 537-543.

Wee, Y.C. 1983. A Guide to the Ferns of Singapore. Singapore Science

Centre.

Wee, Y.C. 1984. Common Ferns and Fern-allies of Singapore. Malayan

Nature Society (Singapore Branch).

Checklist of vascular plants 167

Wee, Y.C. & P.K.L. Ng (eds.). 1994. A First Look at Biodiversity in

Singapore. National Council on the Environment, Singapore.

Wong, Y.K. 1987. Ecology of the trees of Bukit Timah Nature Reserve.

Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore. 40: 45-76.

Wong, Y.K., P.T. Chew & Ali Ibrahim. 1994. The tree communities of the

Central Catchment Nature Reserve, Singapore. Gardens’ Bulletin

Singapore. 46: 37-78.

168 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Appendix 1. Indigenous vascular plant species in the Nature

Reserves.

(R — records from field collections, published data from NRS, and published data

during the period 1991-1997 from the “Additions to the Flora of Singapore” and

“The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore” series published in the Gardens’ Bulletin

Singapore 44-49.

H — herbarium specimens records in SING.

P — publication records denoted as follows: C—Corlett (1990, 1991); F-Wee (1983,

1984); N-Corner (1978); T—Chua et al. (1996), Tan et al. (1995), Tan (1995, 1997);

W-Wong (1987).

S — unverified records denoted as follows: 1—observations from NParks staff and

NRS unpublished checklists, 2-unpublished checklist of BTNR flora (Corlett, late

80s), 2—collections from the Centre for Natural Product Research (CNPR) project

and 4—collections from the CTFS project.)

Species sii site din i elie ee

|ACANTHACEAR, (000010) 00 3

[Hygrophila ringens (LJ R.BrexSteud st # ||

Justicia vasculosa Wall, yn

| Peristrophe roxburghiana (Schult) Bremek. || |

Reaeltia repens TTS 1 TNS SN

Siaurogyne griffithiana (Nees) Kuntze || |

| Siaurogyne setigera (Nees) Kune t+! ||

PACTINIDIACE AR % 11) 15 YAU ee

| Saurauia pentapetala (Jack) Hoogland | t+

a anise iain

/ADIANTACEAR) }),. Wits 208 Iw AAS aa

Adiantum flabellulatum L.

Syngramma alismifolia (C. Presl) J.J. Sm.

Taenitis blechnoides (Willd.) Sw.

Taenitis interrupta Hook. & Grev.

ALANGIACEAE

Alangium ebenaceum (C.B. Clarke) Harms

Alangium griffithii (C.B. Clarke) Harms

Alangium nobile (C.B. Clarke) Harms

Alangium ridleyi King

Checklist of vascular plants 169

ANACARDIACEAE

Bouea macrophylla Gritt.

Rema

LE eA We ye ina

Campnosperma auriculatum (Blume) Hook.f. ee ee eee

ae ee

[Mangifera lagenifera Gift, |

[Mangifera macrocarpaBlume |

[Mangifera odorata Grit |

ces

hep edlal

Melanochyla auriculata Hook.f.

Melanochyla bracteata King aa A

Melanochyla caesia (Bl.) Ding Hou

a ee Ee Ee ee

2 Eee ee ee

Swintonia schwenkii (Teijsm. & Binn.) Teijsm. & Binn. Pin Te ae

EE SEE ee ee

one a a a

[Ancistrocladus tectorius(Lour) Mer. f# | | |

(SAE Ee EE

Ee ea DS

[Anisophyllea disticha (Jack) Baill, f+ [+ [NL

-f

170 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Ee aR 33 0 2. Mie soe leon amano

AR RR Cit 8 yc Ree TN,

a eee om P 2i2ilale Zigio = ko < o

Checklist of vascular plants ryt

Polyalthia glauca (Hassk.) F. Muell.

Polyalthia hookeriana King

Polyalthia hypoleuca Hook.f. & Thomson

Polyalthia jenkensii (Hook.f. & Thomson) Hook.f. & Thomson

Polyalthia lateriflora (Blume) King

Polyalthia macropoda King

Polyalthia rumphii (Blume) Merr.

Polyalthia sclerophylla Hook.f. & Thomson

Polyalthia sumatrana (Migq.) Kurz

Popowia fusca King

Popowia pisocarpa (Blume) Endl.

Popowia tomentosa Maingay ex Hook.f. & Thomson

Pyramidanthe prismatica (Hook.f. & Thomson) J. Sinclair | +

Uvaria cordata (Dunal) Alston

Uvaria curtisti King

Uvaria grandiflora Roxb. ex Hornem.

Uvaria hirsuta Jack

Uvaria leptpoda (King) R.E. Fr.

Uvaria pauci-ovulata Hook.f. & Thomson

Xylopia caudata Hook.f. & Thomson

Xylopia ferruginea (Hook.f. & Thomson) Hook.f. & Thomson | +

Xylopia fusca Maingay ex Hook.f. & Thomson

Xylopia magna Maingay ex Hook.f. & Thomson

Xylopia malayana Hook.f. & Thomson

APOCYNACEAE |

Alstonia angustifolia Wall. ex A. DC.

Alstonia angustiloba Miq.

Alstonia macrophylla Wall. ex G. Don

Alstonia pneumatophora Back. ex L.G. den Berger

Alstonia spatulata Blume

Alyxia reinwardtii Blume

Chonemorpha fragrans (Moon) Alston

Dyera costulata (Miq.) Hook.f.

Ichnocarpus serpyllifolius (Blume) P.I. Forst.

Kibatalia maingayi (Hook.f.) R.E. Woodson

172 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

phenat|

pet

LAGE

[Tabernaemontana peduncularis Wal. | | |

| Urceola brachysepala Hook fii) | bn oat) A

| Uroeola elastica Roxby...) vu) Smile a

| Ureeola torulosa Hookef iia spat anal he eee a

| Willughbeia angustifolia (Mig) Marker. | | + | |

| Willughbeia edulisRorb. |e

[Willughbeia flavescens Dyer exHookf | | + IN|

Willughbeia tenuiflora Dyer ex Hook.f. +

Wrightia laevis Hook.f.

AQUIFOLIACEAE

Ilex cymosa Blume

Ilex macrophylla Hook.f.

Ilex maingayi Hook.f.

ARACEAE

Aglaonema nebulosum N.E. Br.

Aglaonema nitidum (Jack) Kunth

Aglaonema simplex Blume

Alocasia denudata Engl.

Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicolson

Amorphophallus prainii Hook.f.

Amydrium medium (Zoll. & Moritzi) Nicolson

Anadendrum montanum (Blume) Schott

Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott

Cryptocoryne griffithii Schott

Cyrtosperma merkusii (Hassk.) Schott

Checklist of vascular plants ry

Homalomena humilis (Jack) Hook.f.

(Hassk.) Engl.

Homalomena sagittifolia Jungh. ex Schott

(L.) Thw.

Rhaphidophora korthalsii Schott

) Engl.

Schismatoglottis calyptrata (Roxb.) Zoll. & Moritzi

a oe a Be a,

SIZISIS LF IE ae | S| ope ey hee

=|s S |S /8 Ss |S S-iS oa

S/S Se (= sis ais Ss 3

= |= alo lo = ae Ee ee

S15 me St Ss 1S S 1S is

S18 a {8 |S sis Sis is is

ee = |/a1s em | eS 1S SS

SiS S/S |s s |s sifis s

StS Se if is a Se 15

ae 8 Be a ae wm jo 1S |e

— S jo Ne a1 |= l99

Se 9 ~ : og > ee = S Sy

a = ae ‘a Le is

— — = = ~~

igs) = > S S S| a 2 ras

S/R: - iS PS =. /8 = ~

IT iln a. —~ | >

wy @’) 818 2). || ee aes

> = Cin ea ees

—

| : 2) So te 1S

= | a st |S | tri |e

5 ~h es ee

fe) i a

re)

2 a

aw Ss)

se =

Schismatoglottis wallichii (Roxb.) Hook.f.

Typhonium roxburghii Schott

Arthrophyllum diversifolium Blume

Aralidium pinnatifitidum (Jungh. & de Vriese) Mig.

Thottea grandiflora Rottb.

+4.

NPM PN] } we fy [rw eal ieee NN} Sil Reno ams

i) NW }t

Cynanchum ovalifolium Wight

Dischidia albiflora Griff.

Dischidia cochleata Blume

> > v4 “a > | Se

Z z P| ie isle = |§

_ n ‘4 > > gees

= _ i S “ SPS

jo) = ~ a 1S

~ = = Ss oa = |<

- ° > a @ <i

= 6 Oo] ISIS |e S |8

2 = S| |e la|e = 18

Q wa)

= = — ae aap bs

> les) o ls

aa rj = Blea

> *

—_ = Poe

o =

7 r

tale

Fa)

SST a A

Dischidia hirsuta (Blume) Decne.

Dischidia major (Vahl) Merr.

174

BOMBACACEAE

Coelostegia griffithii Benth.

Durio griffithii (Mast.) Bakh.

Durio singaporensis Ridl.

Neesia altissima (Blume) Blume

Neesia malayana Bakh.

Neesia synandra Mast.

fast

ie)

ee)

(om

Lose 3

Desa

ive)

(coin

Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Checklist of vascular plants 175

Gymnosiphon aphyllus Blume

TUF

PULL F

PAL

PUTT EEE EEE

[Canarium patentinervium Mig. tL

OSES? SESS Ee Ee Ee

[Dacryodes cosiaia (Benn) HJ.Lam | + LWT

[Dacryodes incurvata(Engl)HILam | HINT

[Dacryodes taxa (Benn.)HJtam t+ + wT

[Dacryodes longifolia (King) H.Lam | | |

[Dacryodes rostrata (Blume) HJ.Lam | +L + LNW

[Dacryodes rugosa (Blume) HJ.Lam | HW

[Suniriaapicwigaa Benn | t+ LC

OSE) re re a Eee

[Santiria griffithii(Hookf) Eng | +L} NW

Santiria laevigata Blume Pot ea ae

UNE ere RS esis es

Santiria rubiginosa Blume +

Santiria tomentosa Blume

Triomma malaccensis Hook.f.

CAMPANULACEAE

Lobelia zeylanica L.

CAPPARACEAE

Capparis micracantha DC. ~

= |Z

176 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Pi:

(AKER

Bias

|BhesapaniculataArn, |

[Bhesarobusia (Roxb) DingHou | | |

[Cassine viburnifotia (uss) DingHou | t+ LT

[EwonymusjavanicusBlume | LNT

[Kokoona reflexa (Lawson) DingHou [+ | CW

[Lophopetalum multinervium Rid. | *# t+ IN|

[Lophopetalum pachyphyltumKing | t+ ||

[Lophopetalum wightianum Am. t+ T+ TC |

| Salacia korthalsiana Mig.) ws fd AE |

| Salacia macrophylla Blume =| eed)

| Salacia viminea Wall. exLawsom, | dA

Se ee

}CHLORANTHACEAE «00 ei

Chloranthus erectus (Buch.-Ham.) Verdc. ho lea ek deli aa

Pet

|CHRYSOBALANACEAE | ee

Atuna racemosa Raft.

Licania splendens (Korth.) Prance

Maranthes corymbosa Blume

Parastemon urophyllus (Wall. ex A. DC.) A. DC.

Parinari costata (Korth.) Blume

Parinari oblongifolia Hook.f.

COMBRETACEAE

Combretum sundaicum Miq.

_ Sic as ase eae pneesientias ceeded hi eeeanitemeenyeaiecimeminadaesaeeteeesin aha eaeiene epeetinnnamedhadenddoeeaatae ete er eet oe ee

Terminalia phellocarpa King

Terminalia subspathulata King

[Salacia grandiftoraKua | |

28 UE RE Cheese ae Kye an nm Nn fomnmtntnsnipyed yest honk tbe ih ad we ipl ewer e

Checklist of vascular plants yy

Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC.

Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less.

Q Z, Z Zz

Agelaea macrophylla (Zoll.) Leenh.

Cnestis palala (Lour.) Merr.

Connarus ferrugineus Jack

Connarus grandis Jack

Connarus monocarpus L.

Connarus planchonianus Schellenb.

Ellipanthus tomentosus Kurz

Rourea fulgens Planch.

aes) phe

S e

= —

S S

i z

S 5

= 3S

OS a

S mn

> —

= =

w Se

_ an

jab)

(@)

Rourea mimosoides (Vahl) Planch.

Rourea minor (Gaertn.) Leenh.

CONVALLARIACEAE

Peliosanthes teta Andrews

CONVOLVULACEAE

178

Argyreia ridleyi (Prain) Prain ex Ooststr.

Erycibe griffithii C.B. Clarke

Erycibe leucoxyloides King ex Prain

Erycibe maingayi C.B. Clarke

Erycibe malaccensis C.B. Clarke

Erycibe tomentosa Blume

Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) R. Br.

Merremia hederacea (Burm.f.) Hallier f.

Merremia umbellata (L.) Hallier f.

Neuropeltis racemosa Wall.

Xenostegia tridentata (L.) D.F. Austin & Staples

Mastixia pentandra Blume

Mastixia trichotoma Blume +

Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

ne \ ome ios) NO | NM | NO

}cosraCeam | ee

[Costus globoms Blume ee

[Costus speciosus (I. Konig)Sm tL |

CERES OES) SAP AEE S|

}CRYPTERONIACEAE) 4 hi

| Crypteronia griffshii CBClarke | tT

(ORAS BOT WIT i

[CIENOLOPHONAGEAE =| | |

[Cienolophon parvifolus Oliv. | ee

cy 77 Sa ee ee

}CUCURBITACEAE Yo)

| Trichosanthes celebioa Cope. | iv a

[Trichosanthes waltichiana (Ser. Wight | f+ | |

| Trichosanthes wawraci Cogn. tad 1 i

Checklist of vascular plants 179

CYPERACEAE

Actinoscirpus grossus (L.f.) Goetghebeur & D.A. Simpson

Carex cryptostachys Brongn.

Cyperus digitatus Roxb.

Cyperus distans Lf.

Cyperus haspan L.

Cyperus laxus Lam.

Diplacrum caricinum R. Br.

Eleocharis dulcis (Burm.f.) Hensch.

Eleocharis ochrostachys Steud.

Fimbristylis acuminata Vahl

Fimbrisiylis dichotoma (L.) Vahl

Fimbristylis dura (Zoll. & Moritzi) Merr.

Fimbristylis obtusata (C.B. Clarke) Ridl.

Fimbristylis pauciflora R. Br.

Fimbristylis umbellaris (Lam.) Vahl

Fuirena umbellata Rottb.

Gahnia tristis Nees

Hypolytrum nemorum (Vahl) Spreng.

Kyllinga brevifolius Rottb.

[Lipocarpha microcephala(R.Br.)Kunth | | ||

| Mapania bancana (Mig.) Benth. & Hook. ex BD. Jacks. | + | |N|

[/Mapania cuspidaa (Mig) Uitien +L + ||

Mapania enodis (Mig.) C.B. Clarke reer Sess ee ae

Mapania kurzii C.B. Clarke

Mapania palustris (Hassk. ex Steud.) Fern.-Vill.

Mapania squamata (Kurz) C.B. Clarke

Mapania wallichii C.B. Clarke

Rhynchospora corymbosa (L.) Britt.

Rhynchospora rubra (Lour.) Makino

Schoenoplectus mucronatus (L.) Palla

Scleria biflora Roxb.

Scleria ciliaris Nees

Scleria corymbosa Roxb.

Scleria levis Retz.

Scleria purpurascens Steud.

180

Lindsaea divergens Hook. & Grev.

Lindsaea doryophora K.U. Kramer

Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

wa) Pe)

fess

hon

sia

mer

eisva

nly

che a

es a

cane

DHS ell

LaLa aaa aaa

—— ee

| Checklist of vascular plants 181

CE)

Dioscorea polyclades Hook.f. are bene

ORE aa ES Ee

Prempro ey

palin

SS errr

[DIPTEROCARPACEAR |

[Dipterocarpus caudatusFoxw. |

LS a a Ee a) Ee

[open mengaramin Mig. Cw

ow a re Ee ee eS

EE SS ee a

ES DOTS a Ed

oie Co

Shorea gibbosa Brandis

Shorea gratissima (Wall. ex Kurz) Dyer

Shorea leprosula Miq.

Shorea macroptera Dyer

Shorea ochrophloia Strugnell ex Symington

Shorea ovalis (Korth.) Blume

Shorea parvifolia Dyer

Shorea pauciflora King

Shorea platycarpa F. Heim

Vatica maingayi Dyer

Vatica nitens King

Vatica pauciflora (Korth.) Blume

Vatica ridleyana Brandis

Vatica stapfiana (King) Slooten

Zito Za O m be tz

182 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

[Dracaena cantleyiBaker |

[Dracaena granulata Hook |

[Dracaena porteriBaker |

[Dracaena umbratica Rid

Fe AE PUR EA

Pleocnemia olivacea (Copel.) Holttum -

Tectaria singaporeana (Hook. & Grev.) Copel ~

EBENACEAE

Diospyros argentea Griff.

Diospyros buxifolia (Blume) Hiern »

Diospyros clavigera C.B. Clarke

Diospyros confusa Bakh. .

Diospyros coriacea Hiern

Diospyros diepenhorstii Mig

fe)

Diospyros styraciformis King & Gamble | +

Rn uk i. tulad" a

Elacocarpus ferrugineus (Jack) Steud. | +

Elaeocarpus floribundus Blume

Elaeocarpus griffithii (Wight) A. Gray

Elaeocarpus mastersii King

aut oo) oR Z|zZ

Checklist of vascular plants 183

Elaeocarpus nitidus Jack

ERICACEAE

Rhododendron longiflorum Lindl

ERIOCAULACEAE

Eriocaulon truncatum Buch.-Ham. ex Mart.

Eriocaulon willdenovianum Moldenke

ESCALLONIACEAE

Polyosma kingiana Schltr +

EUPHORBIACEAE

Actephila excelsa (Dalzell) Mill. Arg

A) ke 2 eg he 2)

Antidesma coriaceum Tul.

Antidesma cuspidatum Mill. Arg

Antidesma neurocarpum Miq

[AporusanervosaHookf§ |

[Aporusa penangensis (Ridl.) Airy Shaw | +

[Aporusa prainiana King ex Gage +

fod oR

Agrostistachys longifolia (Wight) Benth

Alchornea villosa (Benth.) Mill. Arg

—

184 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Baccaurea brevipesHookf. | 4

Baccaurea hookeri Gage +

Baccaurea kunstleri King ex Gage + +

Baccaurea minor Hook.f.

fo)

Baccaurea reticulata Hook.f.

NS ae

Breynia discigera Mill. Arg

Baccaurea racemosa (Reinw.) Mill. Arg

Breynia reclinata (Roxb.) Hook.f.

Baccaurea macrophylla (Mill. Arg.) Mill. Arg.

Baccaurea maingayi Hook.f.

Blumeodendron tokbrai (Blume) J.J. Sm.

Breynia coronata Hook.f |

Bridelia tomentosa Blume

Cheilosa montana Blume ~

Claoxylon indicum (Reinw. ex Blume) Endl. ex Hassk. -

Claoxylon longifolium (Blume) Endl. ex Hassk.

Cleistanthus hirsutulus Hook.f

Baccaurea lanceolata (Mig.) Mill. Arg

Baccaurea motleyana (Mill. Arg.) Mill. Arg

Baccaurea parviflora (Miill. Arg.) Miill. Arg

Baccaurea sumatrana Mill. Arg.

Cleistanthus macrophyllus Hook.f.

Cleistanthus sumatranus (Miq.) Miill. Arg.

Croton laevifolius Blume

[Drypetes pendulaRid.

Checklist of vascular plants 185

Elateriospermum tapos Blume

Endospermum diadenum (Miq.) Airy Shaw

Glochidion arborescens Blume

Glochidion borneense (Mill. Arg.) Boerl.

Glochidion brunneum Hook.f.

Glochidion hypoleucum (Migq.) Boerl.

Glochidion littorale Blume

Glochidion rubrum Blume

Glochidion sericeum Hook.f.

Glochidion singaporense Gage

Glochidion superbum Baill.

Koilodepas longifolium Hook.f.

Macaranga conifera (Zoll.) Mill. Arg.

Macaranga gigantea (Rchb.f. & Zoll.) Mill. Arg.

Macaranga heynei 1.M. Johnst.

Macaranga hullettii King ex Hook.f.

Macaranga hypoleuca (Rchb.f. & Zoll.) Mull. Arg. + N

[/Macaranga lowii King exHookf, t+ LTT

[Macaranga motleyana (Mill. Arg.) Mill. Arg, |_| # [Nf

[Macaranga puncticulaa Gage # | INT

OS CE a Se oe

| Macaranga trichocarpa (Rehb-f. & Zoll) Mill. Arg. |_| + [CN |

Macaranga triloba (Blume) Mill. Arg. aa VES ee ee

[Mallotus macrostachyus (Mig) Mill. Are | # |

Mallotus paniculatus (Lam.) Miill. Arg.

arle i o 2 fe)

2/2 |= 2\=

= =

+ [+

Mallotus penangensis Mill. Arg.

Neoscortechinia kingii (Hook.f.) Pax & K. Hoffm.

Paracroton pendulus (Hassk.) Mig.

Phyllanthus emblica L.

Phyllanthus urinaria L.

Pimelodendron griffithianum (Mill. Arg.) Benth.

Ptychopyxis caput-medusae (Hook.f.) Ridl.

Ptychopyxis costata Miq.

Sapium discolor (Champ. ex Benth.) Miill. Arg.

Sauropus androgynus (L.) Merr.

Trigonopleura malayana Hook.f.

186 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Trigonostemon longifolius Baill.

Trigonostemon malaccanus Mill. Arg.

Trigonostemon villosus Hook.f.

FAGACEAE

Castanopsis inermis (Lindl. ex Wall.) Benth. & Hook.f.

Castanopsis lucida (Nees) Soepadmo

Castanopsis malaccensis Gamble

Castanopsis megacarpa Gamble

Castanopsis nephelioides King ex Hook.f.

Castanopsis schefferana Hance

Castanopsis wallichii King ex Hook.f.

Lithocarpus bennettii (Miq.) Rehder

Lithocarpus cantleyanus (King ex Hook.f.) Rehder

Lithocarpus conocarpus (Oudem.) Rehder

Lithocarpus elegans (Blume) Hatus. ex Soepadmo

Lithocarpus encleisacarpus (Korth.) A. Camus

Lithocarpus ewyckii (Korth.) Rehder

Lithocarpus hystrix (Korth.) Rehder

Lithocarpus lucidus (Roxb.) Rehder -

[Lithocarpus sundaicus (Blume) Render | + f+ | |

Lithocarpus wallichianus (Lindl. ex Hance) Render | | + ||

\Ohierous argentata Korte, | 1)

PO Oe

PELACOURTIACKAR | 0) |).

[Casearia capiteliaa Bund YE ee

{Cosearia clarkei King |) vi)

Osmelia philippina (Turcz.) Benth

+ [+

Flagellaria indica L. + N

Checklist of vascular plants 187

Aeschynanthus albidus (Blume) Steud.

Aeschynanthus parvifolius R. Br.

;

ul 5

— i)

Aeschynanthus radicans Jack

Aeschynanthus wallichii R. Br.

Cyrtandra pendula Blume

Didymocarpus platypus C.B. Clarke

Dicranopteris curranii Copel.

Dicranopteris linearis (Burm.f.) Underw.

rie

Sticherus truncatus (Willd.) Nakai

a a a

Z = es!

> 2 =

S = z

: 2 Z

= > 2

o >

> ie)

les)

Gnetum gnemon L.

Gnetum gnemonoides Brongn.

[rain macrotuchiyom Hook fT Pe

[Gnetum microcarpumBume tH fC

2s SE A TT SS

eS SA EC

[Bambusa vulgaris Schrad.ex Wendl | | TTT

iCanisitiead tapparem (Dew! ee

[Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz)Trin, | | Td

Coix lacryma-jobi L. +

[Cyrtococcum accrescens (Trin) Stapt | HT

Cyrtococcum oxyphyllum (Steud) Stapf

Digitaria longiflora (Retz.) Pers.

Eragrostis atrovirens (Desf.) Trin. ex Steud.

Eragrostis cumingii Steud.

Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud.

Gigantochloa ligulata Gamble

Imperata cylindrica (L.) P. Beauv.

Isachne globosa (Thunb.) Kuntze

Isachne pulchella Roth ex Roem. & Schult.

Ischaemum ciliare Retz.

Ischaemum timorense Kunth

188 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Paspalum scrobiculatum L.

Pogonatherum crinitum (Thunb. ex Murr.) Kunth

Schizostachyum gracile (Munro) Holttum

Soejatmia ridleyi (Gamble) K.M. Wong

[GUTTERAE 0 |b (a ad

[Calophytiam calaba Le | | a

[Calophyttum costulatum MR. Hend.& Wyattsm | | |

|Calophyltum dispar PR.Stevens t+ LT

[Calophyttum ferruginewm Ril. f+ CNW

[Calophyllum lanigeumMig, LH TL

[Calophyllum macrocarpumHookf_ t+ | |

[Calophyllum pulcherrimum Wall. ex Choisy | + | few |

[Calophytium rigitum Mig 3

| Calophyllum rubiginosum MR. Hend. & WyattSm | + | [NW |

|Calophyllum rufigemmatum M.R. Hend. & Wyatt-Sm | + | | 2

Calophyllum soulattri Burm.f.

Calophyllum sundaicum P.F. Stevens

Calophyllum tetrapterum Miq.

Calophyllum teysmannii Mig.

Calophyllum wallichianum Planch. & Triana

Cratoxylum arborescens (Vahl) Blume

Cratoxylum cochinchinense (Lour.) Blume

Cratoxylum formosum (Jack) Dyer

Cratoxylum maingayi Dyer

Garcinia atroviridis Griff. ex T. Anderson

Garcinia eugeniifolia Wall. ex T. Anderson

Garcinia forbesii King

Garcinia griffithii T. Anderson

Garcinia hombroniana Pierre

Garcinia maingayi Hook.f.

oR ate ie eh al valet ee a ey I

Checklist of vascular plants 189

i=)

Garcinia nigrolineata Planch. ex T. Anderson aaa

op)

go)

‘a

eo)

Garcinia scortechinii King

Garcinia urophylla Scort. ex King

Ploiarium alternifolium (Vahl) Melchior

[Cephalomanes javanicum (Blume) Bosch | + | |

[Cephalomanes obscurum (Blume) Kwatsuki_ | + | | |

|Crepidomanes chrisii (Copel) Copel t+ | |

[Hymenophyltum denticulatum Sw. ||

Trichomanes motleyi (Bosch) Bosch He ORAM aga N

Molineria latifolia (Dryand.) Herb. ex Kurz

Gomphandra quadrifida (Blume) Sleumer

Gonocaryum gracile Mig.

— —

Ss OQ

> >

= lo

Q aa

> Z

+1 (8 (6

Shs ke |e

= ms

(e)

Blume

—~

fas)

Phytocrene bracteata Wall.

Platea latifolia Blume

Stemonurus malaccensis (Mast.) Sleumer

—

ie)

Stemonurus scorpioides Becc.

190 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Species

IRVINGIACEAE

Irvingia malayana Oliv. ex Benn.

IXONANTHACEAE

Ixonanthes icosandra Jack

Ixonanthes reticulata Jack

LAURACEAE

Actinodaphne glomerata (Blume) Nees

Actinodaphne macrophylla (Blume) Nees

Actinodaphne malaccensis Hook.f.

Actinodaphne pruinosa Nees

Alseodaphne bancana Miq.

Alseodaphne intermedia Kosterm.

[Alseodaphne oblanceolata (Mert) Kosterm. || + ||

[Beilschmiedia kunstleriGamble —f# | IN 2

Beilschmiedia madang Bue f# LL

Cassytha fliformiss hii, a CW, TG Ea

[Ginnamomum inersReinw. |e a

[Cinnamomum javanicum Bue fH |

| Ginnamomum sintoe Blume) 0) oie) Ll ie Oe

[Cryptoearya,ferrea Binnie)

| Cryptoearya griffithiana Wight: |i i os i a

| Gryptocarya impressa Mid. | ii pl

| Cryptocarya kuraii Hooks.) if ie

)

<|Z Q/0 fo

Base ie :

+ |+ |+ [+

Cryptocarya rugulosa Hook.f. W

Dehaasia incrassata (Jack) Kosterm.

Lindera lucida (Blume) Boerl.

Litsea accedens (Blume) Boerl.

Litsea castanea Hook.f.

Litsea cordata (Jack) Hook.f.

Litsea costalis (Nees) Kosterm.

Litsea costata (Blume) Boerl.

Litsea elliptica Blume

Litsea erectinervia Kosterm.

Litsea ferruginea (Blume) Blume

Checklist of vascular plants 191

Litsea maingayi Hook.f.

Litsea ridleyi Gamble

Phoebe grandis (Nees) Merr.

Ue a ae

ES eS A a

[Barringtonia racemosa(L) Spreng. | tT

1 ES a AR EN ES

EE ee PEE CE CE

Se) Ee eae Ae Pee

Leea rubra Blume ex Spreng. VNR Lab Ni eiarearc baw. |

a ehily staeliyaten|

LEGUMINOSAE

Acacia kekapur I.C. Nielsen

Adenanthera malayana Kosterm.

Aganope thyrsiflora (Benth.) Polhill

Albizia splendens Miq.

Archidendron bubalinum (Jack) I.C. Nielsen

Archidendron clypearia (Jack) I.C. Nielsen

Archidendron contortum (Mart.) I.C. Nielsen

Archidendron ellipticum (Blume) I.C. Nielsen

Archidendron globosum (Blume) I.C. Nielsen

Archidendron jiringa (Jack) I.C. Nielsen

Archidendron microcarpum (Benth.) I.C. Nielsen

Bauhinia semibifida Roxb.

Caesalpinia sumatrana Roxb.

Callerya eriantha (Benth.) Schot

192 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Crotalaria retusa L.

Dalbergia hullettii Prain

Dalbergia junghuhnii Benth.

Dalbergia pseudosissoo Miq.

Dalbergia velutina Benth.

Desmodium heterocarpon (L.) DC.

Desmodium heterophyllum (Willd.) DC.

Entada spiralis Ridl.

Koompassia malaccensis Maing. ex Benth.

Kunstleria ridleyi Prain

| Ormosia bancana (Mig) Mere |

|Ormosia macrodivea Baker) |

[Ormosia sumatrana (Mig) Prain | tt TT

| Parkia speciosa Haske

LEN

oS S S

S Ss" ss =.

= |= i >

SS a g

=| S og.

SIS = 5

ais S 5

Bs 5 =

Sis e =

= = PS

> a -

ies) oO

fav) »

~~ Se

—

yaAleveme Ob

Z =

Spatholobus ferrugineus (Zoll. & Moritzi) Benth

Spatholobus maingayi Prain ex King

Z |e

a indica L.

ra wallichii Grah. ex

Spatholobus ridleyi Prain ex King

TIBULARIACEAE

Utricularia bifida L.

Utricularia caerulea L

Utricularia gibba L

LINACEAE

Indorouchera griffithiana (Planch.) Hallier f.

LOGANIACEAE

—_

- -

Checklist of vascular plants 193

Fagraea auriculata Jack

Fagraea fragrans Roxb

Fagraea racemosa Jack ex Wall

Fi im

Strychnos axillaris Colebr

Strychnos ignatii Berg

LOMARIOPSIDACEAE

B iS

D n

(

agraea acuminatissima Merr.

agraea ridleyi King & Gamble

trychnos maingayi C.B. Clarke

olbitis appendiculata (Willd.) K. Iwatsuki

Bolbitis heteroclita (C. Presl) Ching

olbitis singaporensis Holttum

olbitis sinuata (C. Presl) Hennipman

Teratophyllum aculeatum (Blume) Mett. ex Kuhn

ne)

endrophthoe pentandra (L.) Miq.

Elytranthe albida (

ana ( .) Mig.

currula ferruginea (Jack) Danser

a (L.)

j (ke) Pic,

Teratophyllum ludens (Fée) Holttum

Teratophyllum rotundifoliatum (R. Bonap.) Holttum

LORANTHACEAE

Amylotheca duthieana (King) Danser

Barathranthus axanthus (Korth.) Mig

Blume) Blume

Elytranthe arnottiana (Korth.) Mig

Macrosolen cochinchinensis (Lour.) Tiegh

Cee ee

a I +

r =

SI I

SI P

f (

—-

—

+ + NT

194 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

MALPIGHIACEAE

Aspidopterys concava (Wall.) A. Juss

Hiptage sericea Hook.f.

MALVACEAE

Sida rhombifolia L

Urena lobata L

MARANTACEAE

, Se

| ee

2 a

, | ar

ati

Mars:

2 <n

| ais

[Phrynium villosulum Mig |

Cio ie id RY

ARATE 0 eee

[Angiopteris evecta (G.Forst) Hoffm |

pea ti

he td

f seve

iii

peti

pra

er!

Z Zz Q

Donax grandis (Mig.) K. Schum

MELASTOMATACEAE

Diplectria viminalis (Jack) Kuntze

Lijndenia laurina Zoll. & Moritzi

Macrolenes echinulata (Naudin) Bakh,f.

Medinilla crassifolia (Reinw. ex Blume) Blume

re jk NM | hM oe) _ — |

ain

Melastoma malabathricum L

Memecylon amplexicaule Roxb

Memecylon caeruleum Jack

Memecylon campanulatum C.B. Clarke

Memecylon edule Roxb

Memecylon excelsum Blume

—

Checklist of vascular plants 195

Memecylon floridum Ridl.

Memecylon garcinioides Blume

Memecylon globosum Bakh-f.

Memecylon lilacinum Zoll. & Moritzi

Memecylon megacarpum Furtado

Memecylon minutiflorum Miq. |

Memecylon oleifolium Blume

Memecylon paniculatum Jack

Memecylon pubescens (C.B. Clarke) King

Pachycentria constricta (Blume) Blume

Pachycentria maingayi (C.B. Clarke) J.F. Maxwell

Pogonanthera pulverulenta (Jack) Blume

Pternandra coerulescens Jack

Pternandra echinata Jack

Pternandra tuberculata (Korth.) M.P. Nayar

Sonerila heterostemon Naudin

Sonerila moluccana Roxb.

MELIACEAE

Aglaia cucullata (Roxb.) Pellegr.

Aglaia exstipulata (Griff.) W. Theob.

Aglaia leptantha Mig.

Aglaia leucophylla King

Aglaia macrocarpa (Mig.) Pannell

Aglaia maingayi (Hiern) King

Aglaia malaccensis (Ridl.) Pannell

Aglaia odoratissima Blume

Aglaia oligophylla Miq.

Aglaia rubiginosa (Hiern) Pannell

Aglaia rufinervis (Blume) Bentv.

Aglaia simplicifolia (Bedd.) Harms

Aglaia spectabilis (Miq.) S.S. Jain & Bennet

Aglaia tomentosa Teijsm. & Binn.

Z =

Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) R. Parker

Chisocheton erythrocarpus Hiern

Chisocheton patens Blume

196 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Chisocheton pentandrus (Blanco) Merr.

Chisocheton sarawakanus (C. DC.) Harms.

Dysoxylum acutangulum Miq.

Dysoxylum alliaceum (Blume) Blume

Dysoxylum carolinae Mabb.

Dysoxylum cauliflorum Hiern

Dysoxylum cyrtobotryum Miq.

Dysoxylum densiflorum (Blume) Mig.

Dysoxylum excelsum Blume

Pseudoclausena chrysogyne (Miq.) T.P. Clark

Sandoricum beccarianum Baill.

DH wn

S S z

= > oO

= S Cc.

= S 3

a) =

S =

> 2

S =

S oS

— nA

5 :

® S

B a

= oe

5 is

=| 5

we”

(q@)

am |

eo)

[Meliosma lanceolata Blume | + ills a

|Meliosma pinnata Roxb.) Maxim | | WT

[Meliosma simplicifolia Roxb.) Walp. f+ |

pov sewed dE

[MENISPERMACEAE yoy) | ah

| Coscinium fenestratum (Gaertn.) Colebr. | dt |

Cyclea laxiflora Miers

Fibraurea tinctoria Lour.

ie)

(Ss)

(e)

(oe)

Limacia scandens Lour.

Stephania capitata (Blume) Spreng.

Tinomiscium petiolare Hook.f. & Thomson

Tinospora macrocarpa Diels

Nymphoides indica (L.) Kuntze

MONIMIACEAE

Kibara coriacea (Blume) Tul.

Matthaea sancta Blume

—

eo)

Checklist of vascular plants 197

MORACEAE

Artocarpus anisophyllus Miq.

Artocarpus dadah Miq.

Artocarpus elasticus Reinw. ex Blume

Artocarpus fulvicortex F.M. Jarrett

Artocarpus gomezianus Wall. ex Trécul.

Artocarpus hispidus Jarrett

Artocarpus kemando Migq.

Artocarpus lanceifolius Roxb.

Artocarpus lowii King

Artocarpus maingayi King

Artocarpus nitidus Trécul.

Artocarpus rigidus Blume

Artocarpus scortechinii King

Ficus annulata Blume

Ficus apiocarpa Miq.

Ficus aurantiacea Griff.

Ficus aurata Miq.

Ficus binnendykii Mig.

Ficus bracteata Wall. ex Mig.

Ficus caulocarpa Miq.

Ficus chartacea Wall. ex King

Ficus consociata Blume

Ficus delosyce Corner

Ficus deltoidea Jack

Ficus dubia Wall. ex King

Ficus excavata King

Ficus fistulosa Reinw. ex Blume

Ficus glandulifera (Wall. ex Miq.) King

Ficus globosa Blume

Zz, eh ee Zi Z|Z LZ Z's Z oe

Ficus grossularioides Burm.f.

Ficus heteropleura Blume

Ficus kerkhovenii Valeton

Ficus laevis Blume

Ficus lamponga Miq.

Ficus microcarpa Lf. M2

198 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Ficus scortechinii King

—

Ficus sundaica Blume

Ficus sumatrana Mig

Ficus sinuata Thunb

Ficus subgelderi Corner

Ficus superba Mig

Ficus trichocarpa Blume

Ficus variegata Blume Pa

Ficus vasculosa Wall. ex Miq. aay ~

—

Ficus villosa Blume

Ficus virens Aiton

Ficus xylophylla Wall. ex Mig. N

Parartocarpus bracteatus (King) Becc.

Streblus elongatus (Miq.) Corner |

MYRICACEAE

Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham.

MYRISTICACEAE

Endocomia canarioides (King) W.J. de Wilde

Gymnacranthera bancana (Miq.) J. Sinclair

Gymnacranthera farquhariana (Hook.f. & Thomson) Warb.

Horsfieldia crassifolia (Hook.f. & Thomson) Warb

Horsfieldia grandis (Hook.f.) Warb

Horsfieldia irya (Gaertn.) Warb.

jana (

Gymnacranthera forbesii (King) Warb

Horsfieldia brachiata (King) Warb

—

zZ\z\s\s a2 9

_ Checklist of vascular plants 199

Horsfieldia polyspherula (Hook.f. emend King) J. Sinclair

Horsfieldia punctatifolia J. Sinclair

Horsfieldia sucosa (King) Warb.

Horsfieldia superba (Hook.f. & Thomson) Warb.

Horsfieldia wallichii (Hook.f. & Thomson) Warb.

Knema communis J. Sinclair

Knema conferta (King) Warb.

Knema curtisii (King) Warb.

Knema furfuracea (Hook.f. & Thomson) Warb.

Knema glaucescens Jack

Knema hookeriana (Wall. ex Hook.f. & Thomson) Warb.

Knema intermedia (Blume) Warb.

= Zz, |Z aes Z

CNW

Knema latericia Elmer

Knema laurina (Blume) Warb.

Knema malayana Watb. + N

Knema patentinervia (J. Sinclair) W.J. de Wilde ee Waa

Myristica cinnamomea King

Myristica crassa King Cece SIE ES a

(OOS SEE ES eel Se Ee Ee

OS ee Se Ee ee

Myristica maing@iMookf | Pee

ES SS Tae

ES ES ORES eee ee a ee

CE SEE EN RG ea ied EES ETE SO

OE ae ea I

EOE a a

CE a a

Ashe

Ardisia singaporensis Rid. a

Ardisia teysmanniana Scheff. Cay ERS

pee

Ardisia tuberculata Wall. ex A. DC.

200 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Embelia dasythyrsa Miq.

Embelia ribes Burm.

Grenacheria lampani (Scheff.) Mez

Labisia pumila (Blume) Fern.-Vill

Maesa ramentacea Wall. ex Roxb.

MYRTACEAE

Acmena acuminatissima (Blume) Merr. & L.M. Perry

Decaspermum parviflorum (Lam.) A.J. Scott

Eugenia sp.8

Eugenia sp.39

Melaleuca cajuputi Powell

Rhodamnia cinerea Jack

Rhodomyrtus tomentosa (Aiton) Hassk.

Syzygium attenuatum (Migq.) Merr. & L.M. Perry

Syzygium borneense (Miq.) Miq.

Syzygium cerinum (M.R. Hend.) I.M. Turner

Syzygium chloranthum (Duthie) Merr. & L.M. Perry

Syzygium cinereum (Kurz) P. Chantaranothai & J. Parn.

Syzygium claviflorum (Roxb.) Wall. ex A.M. Cowan & Cowan

Syzygium duthieanum (King) Masam.

Syzygium filiforme (Wall. ex Duthie) P. Chantaranothai &

Syzygium flosculiferum (M.R. Hend.) Sreek.

Syzygium glaucum (King) P. Chantaranothai & J. Parn.

Q iz OQ

—-

< < <|z/z 2 = Zilal la

Syzygium gracile (Korth.) Amsh.

Syzygium grande (Wight) Walp.

Syzygium griffithii (Duthie) Merr. & L.M. Perry

Syzygium inophyllum DC.

Syzygium kunstleri (King) Bahadur & R.C. Gaur

Syzygium leptostemon (Korth.) Merr. & L.M. Perry

Syzygium leucoxylum Korth.

Syzygium lineatum (DC.) Merr. & L.M. Perry

Syzygium linoceroides (King) I.M. Turner

Syzygium maingayi P. Chantaranothai & J. Parn.

Syzygium muelleri (Miq.) Miq.

Syzygium nemestrinum (M.R. Hend.) I.M. Turner

Checklist of vascular plants 201

Syzygium ngadimanianum (M.R. Hend.) I.M. Turner

Syzygium nigricans (King) Merr. & L.M. Perry

Syzygium oblatum (Roxb.) Wall. ex A.M. Cowan & Cowan

Syzygium pachyphyllum (Kurz) Merr. & L.M. Perry ~

Syzygium palembanicum Miq.

Syzygium papillosum (Duthie) Merr. & L.M. Perry

Syzygium pauper (Ridl.) ILM. Turner

Syzygium pendens (Duthie) I.M. Turner

Syzygium polyanthum (Wight) Walp.

Syzygium pseudocrenulatum (M.R. Hend.) I.M. Turner

Syzygium pseudoformosum (King)

i@)

—<

Syzygium pustulatum (Duthie) Merr. +

[Syzygium pyenanthum Mert. &LM.Perry | t+ |

[Syzygium pyrifolium (BlumeyDC_ t+ t+ IN|

Syzygium ridleyi (King) P.Chantaranothai &J.Pam [+ | + | |

Syzygium rugosum Korth.

+ [+

Syzygium scortechinii (King) P. Chantaranothai & J. Parn.

Syzygium singaporense (King) Airy Shaw

Syzygium skiophilum (Duthie) Airy Shaw

Syzygium subdecussatum (Wall. ex Duthie) ILM. Turner | +

Syzygium syzygioides (Miq.) Merr. & L.M. Perry

Syzygium zeylanicum (L.) DC.

Tristaniopsis merguensis (Griff.) Peter G. Wilson & J.T. Water | +

Tristaniopsis whiteana (Griff.) Peter G. Wilson & J.T. Water

HYDROCHARITACEAE

Najas indica (Willd.) Cham.

Najas malesiana W.J. de Wilde

NEPENTHACEAE

Nepenthes ampullaria Jack

Nepenthes gracilis Korth.

Nepenthes hookerana Lindl.

Nepenthes rafflesiana Jack

Nepenthes trichocarpa Miq.

202 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Brackenridgea palustris Bartell.

wlo w |Z w |Z |e

Si] |siS| is /siz

— = —e

S|Z2/} (2 15 s |=/s

= |} S |= =. |2

ss I-Co

oe | ts = 5 a |5

Sje| [Rie] 1S

ee a =e

> = ( B10

Ss |e ee

is 6 |= ea)

™~. ~

= s

jee)

Campylospermum serratum (Gaertn.) Bittrich & M.C.E. Amaral} +

Euthemis leucocarpa Jack

Anacolosa frutescens (Blume) Blume

—

ie)

Erythropalum scandens Blume

[Ochanostachys amentaceaMas. | ++ Cw

|Scorodocarpus borneensis (Baill) Bec. | +L + WT

Strombosia ceylanica Gardn. hia canil

[Strombosia javanica Bime |) / 1 |) | Oise Thee ea

pe OT ne lal iil

jorracran Po) a

|Chionanthus ramifiorusRoxe, |

[Jasminum elongatum (Bergius) Willd. |e

Po Nee taal leh ei aiid ea

OLEANDRACEAE a

Nephrolepis acutifolia (Desv.) H. Christ.

Nephrolepis auriculata (L.) Trimen

Ludwigia adscendens (L.) H. Hara

Ludwigia hyssopifolia (G. Don) Exell

Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) P.H. Raven

Ludwigia prostrata Roxb.

Pp)

OPILIACEAE

Champereia manillana (Blume) Merr.

+ + 3

Checklist of vascular plants 203

Lepionurus sylvestris Blume

cae

rage

ita a

S95 ee

idee |

aniadieniit |

imme |

ne |

Ose Eg a A

oe a i aa aE

itm tl

| Sh

Sn sD

anergy a

nem, | |.

| on ae yc

ie | (fs

ene ra

ees

gree

oat

soe

ray

Bae

FNM

fate

pine

sar

ane

204 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Species

Dendrobium pulchellum Roxb. ex Lindl.

Dendrobium setifolium Ridl.

Dendrobium subulatum (Blume) Lindl.

Didymoplexis pallens Gnift.

Dilochia wallichii Lindl.

Dipodium scandens (Blume) J.J. Sm.

Eria pulchella Lindl.

Eulophia graminea Lindl.

Eulophia spectabilis (Dennst.) Suresh

Flickingeria fimbriata (Blume) A.D. Hawkes

Galeola nudifolia Lour.

Gastrodia javanica (Blume) Lindl.

Grammatophyllum speciosum Blume

Hetaeria nitida Ridl.

Hetaeria obliqua Blume

Hylophila mollis Lindl.

Lecanorchis malaccensis Ridl.

Liparis ferruginea Lindl.

PTL

UPL

PUPELPFEE PEE PPP E TTF

Liparis tricallosa Rchb.f.

[Liparis weayi Hook «| i | ill) | ee

|MolavistatioliaSm. | eats pa a

[Malaxis micrantha (Hook.f) Kune | tT

Microsaccus javensis Blume

[Nephelaphyllum pulchrumBlume t+ + |

[Nervilia punctata (Blume) Makino | THN

LNewwiedia griffuhiv Remy: | alin pail en

|Newwiedia veratrifolia Binme || ee fg

Oberonia ciliolata Hook.f.

Oberonia dissitiflora Ridl.

Oberonia stenophylla Rid.

gaat.

Peristylus candidus J.J. Sm.

Peristylus lacertiferus (Lindl.) J.J. Sm.

Phaius tankervilleae (Banks ex L’Heritier) Blume

Plocoglottis gigantea (Hook.f.) J.J. Sm.

Plocoglottis javanica Blume

Plocoglottis lowti Rchb.f.

Checklist of vascular plants 205

Podochilus microphyllus Lindl.

Pomatocalpa latifolium (Lindl.) J.J. Sm.

Pteroceras pallidum (Blume) Holttum

Spathoglottis plicata Blume

Stereosandra javanica Blume

Taeniophyllum filiforme J.J. Sm.

Taeniophyllum obtusum Blume

Thrixspermum amplexicaule (Blume) Rchb.f.

Thrixspermum calceolus (Lindl.) Rehb,f.

Thrixspermum ridleyanum Schltr.

Thrixspermum trichoglottis (Hook.f.) Kuntze

Trichotosia gracilis (Hook.f.) Kraenzl.

Trichotosia velutina (Lodd ex Lindl.) Kraenzl.

Tropidia curculigoides Lindl.

Vanilla griffithii Rchb.f.

Vrydagzynea albida (Blume) Blume

Vrydagzynea lancifolia Ridl.

Vrydagzynea tristriata Ridl.

Zeuxine clandestina Blume

OXALIDACEAE

Dapania racemosa Korth.

Sarcotheca griffithii (Planch. ex Hook.f.) Hallier f.

Sarcotheca laxa (Ridl.) Kunth

PALMAE

Calamus diepenhorstii Miq.

Calamus insignis Griff.

Calamus javensis Blume

Calamus laevigatus Matt.

Calamus lobbianus Becc.

Calamus ornatus Blume

Calamus oxleyanus Teijsm. & Binn.

Calamus paspalanthus Becc.

Calamus ridleyanus Becc.

Caryota mitis Lour.

206 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Daemonorops angustifolia (Griff.) Mart.

Daemonorops didymophylla Becc.

Daemonorops geniculata (Griff.) Mart.

Daemonorops grandis (Griff.) Mart.

Daemonorops hystrix (Griff.) Mart.

Daemonorops kunstleri Becc.

Daemonorops leptopus (Griff.) Mart.

Daemonorops lewisiana (Griff.) Mart.

Daemonorops longipes (Griff.) Mart.

Daemonorops micracantha (Griff.) Becc.

Daemonorops periacantha Miq.

Daemonorops sabut Becc.

Eleiodoxa conferta (Griff.) Burret

Iguanura wallichiana (Wall. ex Mart.) Hook.f.

Korthalsia echinometra Becc. +. +

Korthalsia flagellaris Miq. ay DY Fey es

Fame ees

|Korthalsia rigida Biome || | it

[Korihalsia rostrata Blume || hr

[Korthalsia scontechiniBege, |

LLicwalaferruginea Bec. |

[Myrialepis paradoxa (Kurz) .Dranst. |||

[Neng pumila (Mart). Wendl, 0) vil 15 lis ib 0) [a

[Oncosperma horridum Gritt) Scheff. | * | IN|

| Orania sylvicola (Grift)HB.Moore |e

pPinanga imosa ig 6 hy ee

Pinanga malaiana (Mart.) Scheff.

gdaaaa

Pinanga pectinata Becc.

Pinanga simplicifrons (Miq.) Becc.

Plectocomia elongata Mart. ex Blume

Rhopaloblaste singaporensis (Becc.) Hook.f.

Salacca affinis Griff.

PANDACEAE

Galearia fulva (Tul.) Miq.

Galearia maingayi Hook.f.

i a et at prey

Checklist of vascular plants 207

Microdesmis caseariifolia Planch.

PANDANACEAE

Pandanus atrocarpus Gritf.

Pandanus scortechinii Mart.

—

EY CSR Rees ae

ee 7 a ee eee

[Ceratopteristhalictroides (L.) Brongn, f+ | | |

LN ES TOS eee ae ae a a

eee | arano)via|

[Adenia macrophylla (Blume) Koord§ f+ t+ ITT

Oe EE ee ee a a

EE ee a DE

[Pentaphragma ellipticum Poulsen | t+ LT 3

JA Wal

PHORMIACEAE

Dianella ensifolia (L.) DC.

>)>|>/3/2]2/3 13/22/23 ]2

= = = = = SS ie ae a &

Q& [= Q Q i=) = Cn (iO) at

= = = = = = => = = = =

= Te eS tS TS SoS STS =

slefslslslzizis ls

= Ss s |S silo 1o 161s

S SiS {2 {sls Sis (e783

. | fa => a AN = =. | & a

N =} os > i a SS a =

Ais X = = “72 7S

<a me ie S ee) S = ito 5

3 215 18 19/9 wD ~ ||

a “ InlZlwlas =—|WiO}a|s

5 a es = |

— Oo = =. —

3 — ea = a) oO oe

”n : oO ca?) a)

5 =|

oO a)

PIPERACEAE

Piper caninum Blume

Piper flavimarginatum C. DC.

Piper macropiper Pennant

Piper maingayi Hook.f.

Piper muricatum Blume

—

Piper pachyphyllum Hook.f.

208 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Piper pedicellosum Wall.

Piper porphyrophyllum N.E. Br.

Piper sarmentosum Roxb.

a=]

Laie

ig")

PODOCARPACEAE

Nageia wallichiana (Presl) Kuntze

Podocarpus polystachyus R. Br. ex Endl.

POLYGALACEAE

Salomonia cantoniensis Lour.

Xanthophyllum affine Korth. ex Miq.

Xanthophyllum amoenum Chodat

Xanthophyllum discolor Chodat

Xanthophyllum ellipticum Korth. ex Miq.

Xanthophyllum eurhynchum Miq.

Xanthophyllum griffithii Hook.f. ex A.W. Benn.

Xanthophyllum obscurum A.W. Benn.

Xanthophyllum stipitatum A.W. Benn.

Xanthophyllum vitellinum (Blume) Dietr.

S-)

Persicaria barbata (L.) H. Hara

Ss")

Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J.J. Sm.

Lecanopteris sinuosa (Wall. ex Hook.) Copel.

Microsorum punctatum (L.) Copel.

Phymatosorus nigrescens (Blume) Pic. Serm.

Phymatosorus scolopendria (Burm.f.) Pic. Serm.

Platycerium coronarium (D. Konig ex O.F. Mill) Desv.

Pyrrosia piloselloides (L.) M.G. Price

PRA RRS REE

Checklist of vascular plants 209

PETS Sen ee

[Ventilago malaccensisRid. | tC

W 3

EE Ee a a EE

a. i ea a a a

ESE OS aa A a a

LS Se ee a a ee

Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr. a Cor cite ae

[GynotrochesaxillarisBlume + | + [CNW

fete arian Kohls | hdd Wx yin) | NWee |

[Pellacalyx saccardianus Scot. +L + tCw

Prunus arborea (Blume) Kalkman

77)

e3)

Prunus grisea (Blume) Kalkman

Prunus polystachya (Hook.f.) Kalkman

RUBIACEAE

Aidia densiflora (Wall.) Masam.

Borreria laevicaulis (Miq.) Rid].

oat

Canthium confertum Korth.

210 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Ce ee

Hedyotis hippies (Willd. ex Spreng.) Merr. ex C.B. Rob.

Checklist of vascular plants pA |

Lasianthus cyanocarpus Jack

Lasianthus densifolius Migq.

Lasianthus ellipticus Wight

Lasianthus griffithii Wight

Lasianthus maingayi Hook.f.

Lasianthus perakensis King & Gamble

Lasianthus ridleyi King & Gamble

Lasianthus scabridus King & Gamble

Lasianthus stipularis Blume

Lasianthus tomentosus Blume

Lucinaea membranacea King

Morinda ridleyi (King & Gamble) Ridl.

Morinda rigida Miq.

Morinda umbellata L.

Mussaenda glabra Vahl

Mussaenda mutabilis Hook.f.

Mussaendopsis beccariana Baill.

Mycetia malayana (Wall. ex Ridl.) Craib

Myrmecodia tuberosa Jack

Nauclea officinalis (Pierre ex Pit.) Merr. & Chun

Nauclea subdita (Korth.) Steud.

Ophiorrhiza singaporensis Ridl.

+ +

Oxyceros fragrantissima (Ridl.) K.M. Wong - T

[Onyceros longiflora(Lam.)T.Yama. | | |

| Oxyceros penangiana (King & Gamble) Tirveng. |_| |

[Oxyceros scandens (Blume) Tieng. | | | 28

Paederia foetida L. ~

Paederia verticillata Blume

Pavetta wallichiana Steud.

Pertusadina eurhyncha (Miq.) Ridsdale

Porterandia anisophylla (Jack ex Roxb.) Ridl.

Prismatomeris glabra (Korth.) Valeton -

Prismatomeris tetrandra (Roxb.) K. Schum.

Psychotria cantleyi Rid.

Psychotria griffithii Hook.f.

Psychotria helferiana Kurz

Hlol4lala

—

ii)

Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Species

Psychotria maingayi Hook.f.

Psychotria malayana Jack

Psychotria obovata Wall.

Psychotria ovoidea Wall.

Psychotria penangiana Hook.f.

Psychotria ridleyi King & Gamble

Psychotria rostrata Blume

Zz Z

Psychotria sarmentosa Blume

Psychotria singapurensis (Ridl.) I.M. Turner

Psydrax maingayi (Hook. f.) Bridson

Psydrax sp.10

Psydrax sp.11

Rothmannia macrophylla (R. Br. ex Hook.f.) Bremek. +

Saprosma glomerulata King & Gamble +

|Tarenna adpressa(King)Mer. | | IN

[Tarenna costita (Mig) Mer, 7a

Tarenna fragrans (Nees) Koord. & Valeton | | Tt

Tarenna mollis (Wall. ex Hook.f.) B.L. Rob. re rae

|Tarenna odoraia(Roxb)BL.Rob t+ ||

| arena stellata (Hook.f) Rid. |) eee

|Timonius flavescens (Jack) Baker | t+ LEN

Timonius wallichianus (Korth Valeton | + | + LNW

Uncaria acida (W. Hunt.) Roxb. re

Uncaria attenuata Korth.

— & a

Uncaria callophylla Blume ex Korth.

Uncaria cordata (Lour.) Merr.

Uncaria lanosa Wall.

Uncaria longiflora (Poir.) Merr.

Uncaria roxburghiana Korth.

Urophyllum blumeanum (Wight) Hook.f.

Urophyllum glabrum Wall.

Urophyllum griffithianum (Wight) Hook.f.

Urophyllum hirsutum (Wight) Hook.f.

Urophyllum sp.2

Urophyllum streptopodium Wall. ex Hook.f.

Q Zz,

Checklist of vascular plants 213

RUTACEAE

Clausena excavata Burm.f.

Glycosmis chlorosperma Spreng.

Luvunga crassifolia Tanaka

Maclurodendron porteri (Hook.f.) T.G. Hartley

Melicope glabra (Blume) T.G. Hartley

Melicope hookeri T.G. Hartley

Melicope lunu-ankenda (Gaertn.) T.G. Hartley

Paramignya scandens (Griff.) Craib

SANTALACEAE

Dendrotrophe varians (Blume) Miq.

Scleropyrum pentandrum (Dennst.) Mabb.

SAPINDACEAE

Cardiospermum halicacabum L.

Guioa pleuropteris (Blume) Radlk.

Guioa pubescens (Zoll. & Moritzi) Radlk. +

Lepisanthes rubiginosa (Roxb.) Leenh. edie

Lepisanthes senegalensis (Poir.) Leenh.

Mischocarpus pentapetalus (Roxb.) Radlk.

—

Nephelium cuspidatum Blume

Nephelium lappaceum L.

Nephelium laurinum Blume

Nephelium maingayi Hiern

Nephelium ramboutan-ake (Labill.) Leenh.

Pometia pinnata J.R. Forst.

Trigonachras acuta (Hiern) Radlk.

Xerospermum laevigatum Radlk.

Xerospermum noronhianum (Blume) Blume

SAPOTACEAE

Chrysophyllum roxburghii G. Don

Madhuca kingiana (Brace ex King & Gamble) H.J. Lam

Madhuca korthalsii (Pierre ex Burck) H.J. Lam

Madhuca malaccensis (C.B. Clarke) H.J. Lam

Q ‘2 Z, Z|4

214 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Madhuca motleyana (de Vriese) J.F. Macbr.

Madhuca sericea (Mig) HJ.Lam | +

Madhuca sericea (Miq.) H.J. Lam

Palaquium gutta (Hook.f.) Baill.

[Palaguium obovatum Gritt) Eng # L TWT

| Palaguium rostratum (Mig) Burk f# T+ IN|

Palaguium semaram HSLtam | >) SL)

Palaguium xanthochymum (de Vriese) Pierre er Burck | + [+ |N_ |

Payena lucida (G. Don) ADBd) oi A

Payena maingayi C.B. Clarke 4

Payena obscura Burck W

| Pouteria maingayi (CB. Clarke) Baehni___ | + | + [CNW

| Pouteria malaccensis (CB.Clarke) Baemni_ | + f+ ||

[Pouteria obovata (R.Br) Basho | | a a

Sarcosperma paniculatum (King) Stapt &King | f+ ||

tae ill wii ss So NST

[SCHISANDRACKAR, (0/1) 0 Ws

-Radsira scandens Blume |) eel

Pe oN ee

SOHIZAFACKAR (jc) | OND

[Lygodium circinnatum (Burm) Sw. | | TR

[Lygodium longifotium (Willd) Sw. t+ f+ OTF |

Lygodium microphyllum (Cav.) R. Br.

+ [+ |+

Schizaea dichotoma (L.) Sw.

Schizaea digitata (L.) Sw.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Adenosma javanica (Blume) Koord.

ss age

Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst.

Limnophila laxa Benth.

Limnophila sessiliflora (Vahl) Blume

Limnophila villosa Blume

Lindernia crustacea (L.) F. Muell.

Lindernia elata (Benth.) Wettst.

Striga asiatica (L.) Kuntze

Checklist of vascular plants 215

—

Selaginella intermedia (Blume) Spring

Turpinia sphaerocarpa Hassk.

wn wn KHlnlnlu|lw wn iH KHl|w

ca ut S/S /5 |= /z rl |Z S x |&

S [a > SIE(E/E/E| WIS|S] [8 a |S

g S [etc pest ej = =

Sie <| ISIS IF ISIS] [BF IS! [SlSlS/5

eM fc = Sis is 1s |e as ee ee =

e |S SB isi itiS| IS lel IS1F ele

= 1 > 2if |= 12 co |2o |e = Sle

a9 ) Si< |S |e iS. eS > =

5 = - ois j=/8 ls STS | ss S = |e

. S =

=. > 2 < S|S|> S) e peo

S ies i ea Ss fe pias =

eee 3 |: Q. | ae o |

s OTs it we o —

e = e © es

a < x

= es S

C = -)

6 nn

”n

j=)

Commersonia bartramia (L.) Merr.

Heritiera simplicifolia (Mast.) Kosterm.

Melochia corchorifolia L.

Pterocymbium tubulatum (Mast.) Pierre

me pee |

ee ee

~. ~~. ™.

we. [Peete tess

age

Solos

~~. fax) >

2/8 |

=| = is

™. sa)

i ollie

. un

es sen

= =

3 o

a —

vs —

9 A

a a

an) oO

3 s

Pterospermum javanicum Jungh.

Scaphium linearicarpum (Mast.) Pierre

Scaphium macropodum (Miq.) Beumée ex Heyne

Sterculia coccinea Jack

Sterculia cordata Blume

Sterculia gilva Mig.

Sterculia macrophylla Vent.

Z|zZ Zz

Sterculia parviflora Roxb. + -

216 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Symplocos fasciculata Zoll. -

| Symplocos odoratssima (Blume) Choisy & Zo. |_| + | |

[Symplocos rubiginosa Wall. exDC. + T+! | |

Www et a

PTACCACEAR | 0g 0 an

| Facca integrifolia Ker Gawler

Boaik bot ies De

PUHEACEAR ) 40h.) Ooi astaia 7

[Adinandra acuminataKorth, | tL w

Adinandra dumosateck |

[Adinandra integerrimaT. Anderson exDyer__ |_| + | |

Bure acuminaDC ee

[Gordonia mulinervis King |e

|Gordonia penangensis Rid in te

[Gordonia singaporiana Wall. ex Rid f+ | CW

$12) | + Aaa

Pyrenaria acuminata Planch.

Ternstroemia bancana Mig.

Ternstroemia penangiana Choisy

THELYPTERIDACEAE

Christella dentata (Forssk.) Brownsey & Jermy

Christella parasitica (L.) Lév.

Cyclosorus interruptus (Willd.) H. It6

Mesophlebion chylamydophorum (Rosenst. ex C. Chr.) Holttum

Mesophlebion motleyanum (Hook.) Holttum

Pronephrium triphyllum (Sw.) Holttum

Sphaerostephanos heterocarpus (Blume) Holttum

Checklist of vascular plants 247

Aquilaria hirta Ridl.

Aquilaria malaccensis Lam.

Aquilaria microcarpa Baill.

Enkleia malaccensis Griff.

Gonystylus maingayi Hook.f.

Linostoma pauciflorum Griff.

Microcos latifolia Burret

Microcos globulifera (Mast.) Burret

Microcos hirsuta (Korth.) Burret

CNW

Trigoniastrum hypoleucum Miq.

Sciaphila maculata Miers

en: AZ Sic

Z Z

= =

Sciaphila tenella Blume

Gironniera hirta Ridl.

Gironniera nervosa Planch.

Gironniera parvifolia Planch.

Gironniera subaequalis Planch.

Trema cannabina Lour.

Trema tomentosa (Roxb.) Hara

UMBELLIFERAE

Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.

VERBENACEAE

Callicarpa longifolia Lam.

= = = ~~ qQ |= Gs =

= = ae |= S z

= = a S = fe Ss ss

> = S| {k S |e 3 =

= = Z| |3 ais = =

t ~A

> > > a = = >

ea] ) O = og | S Se

Se os S = S >

> > = 7 = e

a Sih ge e. : >

= > >

C2)

218 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Species

Clerodendrum deflexum Wall.

Clerodendrum laevifolium Blume

Clerodendrum villosum Blume

Teijsmanniodendron coriaceum (C.B. Clarke) Kosterm.

Teijsmanniodendron holophyllum (Baker) Kosterm.

Vitex gamosepala Griff.

Vitex pinnata L.

Vitex vestita Wall. ex Schau.

VIOLACEAE

Rinorea anguifera (Lour.) Kuntze

PWISCACEAE 0 ee

Viscum articulate Burmf |e

[Viscum ovalifolium Wall exDC. + t+ |

PWITACEAE. (0

[Ampelocissus cinnamomea (Wall) Planch. || |

[Ampelocissus elegans (Kurz) Gagnep. | + | + |

[Ampelocissus floccosa (Rid) Galt | t+ |

[Ampelocissus gracilis (Wall) Planch. f+ T+ ||

| utd na

Cayratia mollissima (Wall.) Gagnep. | +

UL LE

LEP

LPP LF

+ |+

Cayratia novemfolia (Wall. ex Lawson) Burkill

Cissus hastata Mig.

Cissus nodosa Blume

Cissus repens Lam.

Cissus rostrata (Miq.) Planch.

Nothocissus spicifera (Griff.) Latiff

Pterisanthes eriopoda (Migq.) Planch.

Pterisanthes polita (Mig.) Lawson

Tetrastigma lawsoni (King) Burkill ex A.W. Hill

Tetrastigma leucostaphylum (Dennst.) Alston ex Mabb.

VITTARIACEAE

Vittaria elongata Sw.

Checklist of vascular plants 219

Vittaria ensiformis Sw

WOODSIAC

Diplazium crenatoserratum (Blume) T. Moore

XYRIDACEA

Xyris pauciflora Willd

ZINGIBERACEAE

[Zingiber griffthiBaker |

—

OO EAE

R E

. Konig)

. Konig) ,

Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Appendix 2. Exotic vascular plant species in the Nature Reserves.

(R — records from field collections, published data from NRS, and published data

during the period 1991-1997 from the “Additions to the Flora of Singapore” and

“The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore” series published in the Gardens’ Bulletin

Singapore 44-49.

H — herbarium specimens records in SING.

P — publication records denoted as follows: C—Corlett (1990, 1991); F-Wee (1983,

1984); N—Corner (1978); T—Chua et al. (1996), Tan et al. (1995), Tan (1995, 1997); W—

Wong (1987).

S — unverified records denoted as follows: 1—observations from NParks staff and

NRS unpublished checklists, 2-unpublished checklist of BTNR flora (Corlett, late

80s), 2—collections from the Centre for Natural Product Research (CNPR) project

and 4—collections from the CTFS project.)

Seeds eee

[Acacia auriculiformis A.Cumn.ex Benth, || |

| Acacia mangium Willd: i A pin

Adiantum laifotumtam |

LAgeratum conyeoidesLs | ee

Alpinia galanga (L.) Sw.

[Antiaristoricaria Leste,

ane

Baie

| Astlepias curassavioa ts" hud Mitel SS

Asystasia gangetica (L.) T. Anderson subsp. +

micrantha (Nees) Ensermu

Axonopus compressus (Swartz) P.Beaw. | | |

| Rariure Pedder 0 1

[Bauhinia ferrugineaRoxb. ||

Callerya atropurpurea (Wall) Schott + |

| Cana india ie (Sup sn CE Ge

| Coeropin petite ta’ Gans tiv ANG ey NEG ig

Controsema plumieri (Turp.ex Pers.) Benth. ||

bea

omc

Checklist of vascular plants 22

Cleome aculeata L.

Cleome rutidosperma DC.

Clerodendrum paniculatum L.

Clidemia hirta (L.) D. Don

Clitorea laurifolia Poir.

Cocos nucifera L.

Complaya trilobata (L.) Strother

Cordia cylindristachya (Ruiz & Pav.) Roem. & Schult.

Costus lucanusianus J. Braun & K. Schum.

Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S. Moore

Dendrocalamus asper (Roem. & Schult.) Baker ex Heyne

Diodia ocymifolia (Willd. ex Roem. & Schult.) Bremek.

Dioscorea hispida Dennst.

Dioscorea sansibarensis Pax

Dracaena fragrans (L.) Ker Gawl.

Erechtites hieraciifolia (L.) Raf. ex DC.

Etlingera elatior (Jack) R.M. Sm.

Ficus benjamina L.

Ficus religiosa L.

Garcinia mangostana L.

Gymnopetalum integrifolium (Roxb.) Kurz

Heliconia bihai L.

Heliconia psittacorum Lf.

Hevea brasiliensis (Willd. ex A. Juss.) Mill. Arg.

Hyptis brevipes Poit.

Hyptis capitata Jacq.

Indigofera hirsuta L.

Kyllinga polyphylla Willd. ex Kunth

Lansium domesticum Corréa

ag,

c e

= 3

i=) fas)

S oS

= :

= 5

= S

i =

al:

Sig

Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit

Limnocharis flava (L.) Buchenau

Mangifera indica L.

Manihot esculenta Crantz

Manihot glaziovii Mill. Arg.

222 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Mikania micrantha Kunth

Mimosa bimucronata (DC.) Kuntze

Momordica charantia L.

Oxalis barrelieri L.

Panicum maximum Jacq.

Paraserianthes falcataria (L.) 1.C. Nielsen

Passiflora laurifolia L.

~ a =< =|

z z 2 = |=

=. = |3

SS R/S [2 |£

8 8 5 DIS.

2 iF |? iF ik /8

i Sats ie)

x a S eS

a " 8

= i ro

—_

Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.

| a a ee

Persicaria chinensis (L.)H.Gross | tu) |

| Persicaria orientalis (L.) Spach te

[Phyllanthus amarus Schum. & Thom. | | |

[Physalis minimal) |

Pilea microphylla(L) Liebman

[Pityrogramma calomelanos(L.)Link | | |

[Polygala paniculata. || eT oh nl

|Porophyllum ruderale (Jacq) Cas. | |

Portulaca oleraoales 6 ow

Prion guajava ln, 0) 1 ot) NSA 2A

Quisqualis indica L. -

igs}

a=)

tas)

42.

—

Ruellia tuberosa L.

Salvinia molesta D.S. Mitchell

Saraca cauliflora Baker

Scoparia dulcis L.

Senna alata (L.) Roxb.

Senna siamea (Lam.) Irwin & Barneby

Sida cordifolia L.

Solanum torvum Sw.

Spathodea campanulata P. Beauv.

Stachytarpheta indica (L.) Vahl

Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl

Checklist of vascular plants Des

Struchium sparganophorum Kuntze

Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn.

Syngonium podophyllum Schott

Thunbergia alata Boj. ex Sims

Thunbergia fragrans Roxb.

Thunbergia grandiflora (Roxb. ex Rottl.) Roxb.

Thysanolaena latifolia (Roxb. ex Hornem.) Honda

Tridax procumbens L.

Trimezia martinicensis (Jacq.) Herbert

Typha angustifolia L.

Typhonium trilobatum (L.) Schott

Uncaria gambir (W. Hunt.) Roxb.

Wikstroemia ridleyi Gamble

Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Sm.

ma i

phe ny Ny

AT Au ; i ee ai Ay

: fay v4 ay

ie) oy Oye f Ur ide

BOM eA 3

pean ae he

a Bi irene

ih gee

PSC ALS

{ i at

Ley: ff le

: Rhy Pal Fs

Nat

Proceedings of the Nature Reserves Survey Seminar.

Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 225-244.

Bird Biodiversity in the Nature Reserves of Singapore

K.S. LIM

Bird Group, Nature Society (Singapore)

601, Sims Drive, #04-04/05

Pan-I Complex, Singapore 387382

Abstract

Forest clearance and associated disturbance since 1819 are chiefly responsible for the loss

of 70 species from the forest habitat in Singapore. Of the remaining 207 species, 127 are

resident of which only 26 are forest dependent. The rest include 72 migrants and 8 non-

breeding visitors. A comprehensive survey of the central forests, the last of the terrestrial

forests in Singapore, was conducted by members of the Nature Society (Singapore) Bird

Group between July 1993 and June 1997, and increased the known species total for the

area from 171 in 1989 to 207 by 1997. The 35 additions to the Nature Reserves list included

one new to Singapore, Velvet-fronted Nuthatch, and rediscoveries of White-bellied

Woodpecker, the first since 1988, Barred Eagle-owl, since 1925 and Yellow-eared

Spiderhunter, since 1920. Of 19 key species, 14 were recorded during the survey of which

four - Drongo Cuckoo, Blue-rumped Parrot, Blue-crowned Hanging Parrot and Chestnut-

winged Babbler - were found to be widespread within the Central Catchment Nature

Reserve. Four areas found to be of importance because of high species diversity and

concentration of key species were the MacRitchie peninsula, the Mandai Track 15 peninsula,

Nee Soon Swamp Forest and the hill primary forest at Bukit Timah Nature Reserve.

Conservation and protection of these areas and the control of poaching and illegal

introduction of alien birds are the keys to the preservation of the current forest bird

diversity and the prevention of further extinction.

Introduction

The central forests consist of two nature reserves in the centre of Singapore:

the 2,675 ha Central Catchment Nature Reserve and the recently enlarged

164 ha Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (National Parks Board, pers. comm.).

These reserves constitute the last remnant of a rainforest habitat that once

covered the island and are important as last refuges for many resident bird

species. This shrinkage and associated disturbance, which began with the

arrival of Stamford Raffles in 1819, resulted in the extinction of 70 resident

species that included entire families, such as partridges, hornbills, trogons

and broadbills (Lim, 1992, 1997). Other families, normally well represented

in the forest habitats of the Sunda region, became very much reduced.

These included bulbuls and babblers, with some reduced to just one

representative species, e.g., barbets and malkohas (Lim, 1992, 1997).

226 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

History

The study of birds in Singapore began with Raffles who collected birds for

the British Museum (Lim, 1997). Raffles was followed by Alfred Russel

Wallace who collected in Singapore between 1854 and 1862, A.O. Hume

(1879-1880), H.R. Kelham (1881—1882) and H.N. Ridley (1898—1901).

There followed a lull after which the collecting tradition continued with

the arrival of erstwhile curators of the Raffles Museum, F.N. Chasen in the

1920s and 1930s and C.A. Gibson-Hill in the 1940s (Bucknill & Chasen,

1927; Gibson-Hill, 1950). Gibson-Hill and his contemporary, R.J. Spittle,

made the first life history studies of birds in Singapore during their World

War II internment and were succeeded in 1968 by P. Ward who conducted

the first avifaunal studies. However, it was not until the arrival of C.J.

Hails in 1983 that the first systematic study of forest birds was carried out.

His findings were published in 1987 (Hails & Jarvis, 1987; Hails, 1992).

There were no subsequent studies until the National Parks Board’s

sponsored bird survey which began in 1993 with the participation of

volunteers from the Nature Society (Singapore).

Survey Objectives

The Nature Society (Singapore) Bird Group commenced a study of the

central forests in July 1993 at the invitation of the National Parks Board

(NParks). The field survey took some 48 months to complete and members

expended over 1,500 observer-hours during the study. The survey was

done in four stages as follows:

MacRitchie Catchment (MC) : July 1993 - June 1994

Seletar Catchment (SC) : July 1994 - June 1995

Peirce Catchment (PC) : July 1995 - June 1996

Bukit Timah (BT) : July 1996 - June 1997

The objectives of the survey were:

1. to determine the status, diversity, density and population of birds in the

Nature Reserves,

2. to map the occurrence of key species (nationally threatened forest

dependent species),

3. to recommend methods of maintaining/improving current bird diversity,

and

4. to identify areas of high bird diversity.

Bird biodiversity BOG

Materials and Methods

To facilitate a uniform and thorough coverage, the central forests were

divided into four parts, each taking one year to complete. In turn, each

part was further divided into five smaller sectors (Figure 1), each being

supervised by an experienced birdwatcher with the aid of 1—S assistants.

The methods employed were as follows:

Line transect counts

Line transects were selected from existing trails within each area and

designed to be representative of the vegetation type of each sector. The

transects varied in length from 0.8 km to 2.3 km.

Two types of transect counts were used: diurnal and nocturnal.

Diurnal transect counts were carried out monthly, commencing at 0730

hours and ending at approximately 0830 to 0930 hours, depending on the

length of each transect and bird activity. Nocturnal transect counts were

also made at less frequent intervals commencing at 1930 hours and ending

at approximately 2030 to 2130 hours.

Birds seen or heard during the transect counts were recorded using

the 25-metre belt method and an estimation of the population and density

derived using the methods recommended by Bibby et al. (1992).

The formula used to calculate species density is D = Nk/L

where D = density

N = total number of birds counted

k = unknown constant = [1-SQR(1-p)|/W

[p=N1/N where N1 is the total number of birds counted in the

inner belt; W = belt width (m)|

L = length of transect (m)

This formula is based on the assumption that all birds occurring

within the transect route are counted and that detectability (the k factor)

decreases linearly with distance.

Area counts

Line transects are by design confined to a particular route and time. In

order that bird diversity and distribution of each area be properly recorded,

additional area counts were conducted by the area leaders either before or

228

UPPER

SELETAR

RESERVOIR

MacRitchie Catchment (MCj

consisting of Sectors A,B GC DES&E

Seletar Catchment (SC)

consisting of Sectors G, H, |, J & K.

Peirce Catchment (PC}

consisting of Sectors l,M N, O&PR

Bukit Timah (BT}

Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Figure 1. Map showing sectors surveyed in the Nature Reserves.

Bird biodiversity 229

after line transect counts or on a separate date. Data so obtained were

recorded in designated field survey forms and submitted.

Mapping

Mapping of the ranges of key species was conducted for those recorded in

transect and area counts on an area-by-area basis. The aim of this mapping

study was to determine the occurrence and distribution of key species in

each area so that these could be transferred to the NParks’ Geographic

Information System for future threatened species management and

conservation purposes.

Bird ringing

Bird ringing using mist nets and rings belonging to NParks was carried out

in order to study the movement and longevity of resident birds and the

migration patterns of migrants. Nets were set up along existing trails in the

early morning (by 0600 hours) and taken down at noon.

Birds caught in the net were quickly ringed, measured, photographed

and released near the site where they were caught.

Results

Annotated checklist of selected species

The following is an annotated checklist of species that are nationally

threatened, forest dependent (stenotopic) or key species.

White-bellied Woodpecker (Dryocopus javensis)

Large wood-boring insectivore, the only extant stenotopic picid, nationally

threatened. Frequents canopy and mid-storey, particularly dead trees.

Confined to the MacRitchie Catchment and Bukit Timah Nature Reserve.

No more than 2 individuals seen since 1993.

Red-crowned Barbet (Megalaima rafflesii)

Large frugivore, the only extant stenotopic barbet, nationally near-

threatened. Frequents canopy and upper storey. Occurs only in the Central

Catchment and Bukit Timah Nature Reserves. Breeding recorded.

Blue-eared Kingfisher (Alcedo meninting)

Small piscivorous kingfisher restricted to forest streams; nationally

230 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

threatened. Confined to the Central Catchment Nature Reserve with regular

sightings in the MacRitchie area. Breeding recorded in 1997.

Drongo Cuckoo = (Surniculus lugubris)

Small insectivore favouring the canopy; nationally threatened. Occurs widely

throughout Central Catchment and Bukit Timah Nature Reserves. Breeding

recorded. Numbers are augmented by winter visitors between October

and March.

Chestnut-bellied Malkoha (Phaenicophaeus sumatranus)

Large insectivore frequenting all levels from lower storey to canopy, the

only extant malkoha; nationally near-threatened. Occurs in both reserves.

Breeding recorded.

Blue-rumped Parrot = (Psittinus cyanurus)

Small frugivore frequenting canopy; nationally threatened. Occurs in both

reserves. Breeding not confirmed.

Blue-crowned Hanging Parrot (Loriculus galgulus)

Very small frugivore of the canopy; nationally threatened. Occurs in both

reserves. Breeding not confirmed.

Glossy Swiftlet | (Collocalia esculenta)

Very small aerial insectivore of the airspace above forests. Confined to the

summit of Bukit Timah. Not recorded since 1990. Breeding not confirmed.

Not recorded during the survey.

Brown Hawk-owl = (Ninox scutulata)

Small insectivore/carnivore; nocturnal; forest stenotopic; common.

Frequents the understorey. Occurs throughout the nature reserves. Breeding

recorded.

Malaysian Eared-nightjar (Eurostopodus temminckii)

Medium-sized aerial insectivore; crepuscular; forest stenotopic; nationally

threatened. Feeds over forest canopy and edges. Confined to Central

Catchment. Breeding not confirmed.

Crested Serpent-eagle (Spilornis cheela)

Large raptor of reptiles and amphibians; forest stenotopic; nationally

threatened. Feeds over canopy. Confined to Central Catchment Nature

Reserve. Breeding recorded.

Bird biodiversity 231

Asian Fairy-bluebird = (Jrena puella)

Small frugivore of forest canopy; forest stenotopic; common. Occurs in

both reserves. Breeding recorded.

Greater Green Leafbird (Chloropsis sonnerati)

Small frugivore of canopy; forest stenotopic; nationally threatened. Occurs

in both reserves. Breeding not confirmed.

Lesser Green Leafbird (Chloropsis cyanopogon)

Small frugivore of canopy; forest stenotopic; nationally threatened. Occurs

in both reserves. Breeding not confirmed.

Lesser Cuckoo-shrike = (Coracina fimbriata)

Small insectivore of canopy and upper storey; forest stenotopic; nationally

threatened. Confined to Bukit Timah Nature Reserve. Not recorded during

survey. Breeding not confirmed.

Scarlet Minivet (Pericrocotus flammeus)

Small insectivore of canopy; forest stenotopic; nationally threatened.

Confined to Bukit Timah Nature Reserve. Breeding recorded.

Black-headed Bulbul = (Pycnonotus atriceps)

Small frugivore of upper storey; forest stenotopic; nationally threatend.

Confined to Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Breeding not confirmed.

Cream-vented Bulbul (Pycnonotus simplex)

Small frugivore of mid and lower storeys; forest stenotopic; nationally

near-threatened. Occurs in both reserves. Breeding recorded.

Red-eyed Bulbul (Pycnonotus brunneus)

Small frugivore of mid and lower storeys; forest stenotopic; nationally

threatened. Occurs in both reserves. Breeding recorded.

Buff-vented Bulbul —_(Jole olivacea)

Small frugivore of middle and lower storeys; forest stenotopic; nationally

threatened. Confined to Bukit Timah Nature Reserve. Not recorded during

the survey. Breeding not confirmed.

Short-tailed Babbler = (Malacocincla malaccensis)

Small insectivore of forest floor and understorey; forest stenotopic; common.

Occurs in both reserves. Breeding recorded.

252 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Moustached Babbler (Malacopteron magnirostre)

Small insectivore of understorey; forest stenotopic; nationally threatened.

Confined to Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Breeding recorded.

Chestnut-winged Babbler = (Stachyris erythroptera)

Small insectivore of understorey (especially, resam Dicranopteris spp.)

frequently seen with Striped Tit-babbler; forest stenotopic; nationally

threatened. Occurs in both reserves but rare in Bukit Timah Nature

Reserve. Breeding recorded.

Yellow-vented Flowerpecker (Dicaeum chrysorrheum)

Very small frugivore/insectivore of understorey to canopy; forest stenotopic;

nationally threatened. Occurs in both reserves but not recorded during the

survey. Breeding recorded.

Little Spiderhunter (Arachnothera longirostris)

Small insectivore/nectarivore of understorey; forest stenotopic; uncommon.

Occurs in both reserves. Breeding recorded.

Thick-billed Spiderhunter = (Arachnothera crassirostris)

Small insectivore/nectarivore of canopy; forest stenotopic; nationally

threatened. Confined to Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Not recorded

since 1989. Breeding not confirmed.

Yellow-eared Spiderhunter (Arachnothera chrysogenys)

Small insectivore/nectarivore of canopy; forest stenotopic; nationally

threatened. Confined to Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Breeding not

confirmed.

The avifauna

As a result of this survey, 207 species of birds are now known to occur in

the Nature Reserves (Appendix 1). Although this is only 59% of the

national total i.e., 350 (Lim & Gardner, 1997), the Nature Reserves are

home to all 26 extant forest specialists, 40 (75%) of the nationally threatened

species (Lim, 1992) and 2 globally threatened species (Collar et al., 1994).

This is about 75—80% of the species total of lowland forests of similar

size, such as Panti Forest Reserve, Johor and Pasoh Forest Reserve in

Negri Sembilan, in Peninsular Malaysia (pers. obs.). The most important

factor for this impoverishment is the loss of 70 resident species, which if

added to the total, would be approximately 100%, in terms of number of

species one would expect to record in a Peninsular Malaysian forest of

similar size. However, one important difference is dominance of generalist

Bird biodiversity 233

(eurytopic) species, 101 species (about 80%) of the resident species. In a

mainland forest, the percentage of eurytopics would be about 25% (pers.

obs.; Medway & Wells, 1976). Contributing factors are that Singapore is an

island and many species are not able to cross the narrow Johor Straits and

the history of land clearance, which created opportunities for open country

species to invade forest niches left vacant by extirpated forest species.

During the four-year survey, from July 1993 to June 1997, a total of

175 species (85% of the species total), were recorded from both reserves.

The Central Catchment Nature Reserve’s bird list increased from 155 to

185 species, an increase of 30 species or 19%. Of the grand total, 170 or

92% were recorded during the survey, with 16 species not detected. Of the

17 key species that had been observed in Central Catchment Nature

Reserve, 13 (76%) were recorded during the survey (Table 1). Of the 35

nationally threatened species observed in Central Catchment Nature

Reserve, 25 (71%) were recorded. The bird list for Bukit Timah Nature

Reserve and its extension increased from 117 to 143, an increase of 26

species or 22%. Of these, 114 were found during the survey, with 29 not

detected. Of the 13 key species that had been observed in Bukit Timah

Nature Reserve, 8 (62%) were recorded during the survey (Table 1). Of

the 21 nationally threatened species previously observed in Bukit Timah

Nature Reserve, 15 (71%) were recorded.

Table 1. Distribution of key species in the Nature Reserves.

(MC — MacRitchie Catchment, SC — Seletar Catchment, PC — Peirce Catchment,

BT — Bukit Timah)

Common Name MC SC PC BT

White-bellied Woodpecker

Blue-eared Kingfisher

Drongo Cuckoo

Blue-rumped Parrot

Blue-crowned Hanging Parrot

Malaysian Eared-nightjar

: Glossy Swiftlet

rested Serpent-eagle

reater Green Leafbird

esser Green Leafbird Z

esser Cuckoo-shrike

carlet Minivet

lack-headed Bulbul -

ed-eyed Bulbul of

uff-vented Bulbul

: oustached Babbler =

hestnut-winged Babbler e 3

ellow-vented Flowerpecker

hick-billed Spiderhunter

elie)

Rl Rey Rell RIT RJR |e ~ MBI] QO!N]

19;

234 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Bird status

Of the 207 bird species recorded in the nature reserves, 127 (61%) are

residents, 72 (35%) are migrants and 8 (4%) are non-breeding visitors. Of

the total of 185 species recorded in the catchment, 120 (65%) are residents,

65 (35%) are migrants with 1 (1%) non-breeding visitor. For Bukit Timah,

its 143 species comprised 91 residents (64%), 47 (33%) migrants and 5

(4%) non-breeding visitors.

Key species

Of the 19 key species, all but 5 species were recorded (Table 1). Of these

five, the Glossy Swiftlet was last recorded in 1990, Lesser Cuckoo-shrike in

1986, Buff-vented Bulbul in 1991, Yellow-vented Flowerpecker in 1990

and Thick-billed Spiderhunter in 1989. All but the last-named species are

confined to Bukit Timah.

Of the 14 key species recorded, only 4 species - Drongo Cuckoo,

Blue-rumped Parrot, Blue-crowned Hanging Parrot and Chestnut-winged

Babbler - are relatively widespread and occur in all four areas. The

remaining 12 species live a precarious existence, especially those which

number less than 5 individuals and occur in a single area, e.g., White-

bellied Woodpecker (MacRitchie) and Scarlet Minivet (Bukit Timah).

New discoveries

The survey added several species to the list of the Nature Reserves.

Noteworthy amongst these were Large Hawk-cuckoo, Oriental Cuckoo,

Red-legged Crake and Velvet-fronted Nuthatch. Stunning rediscoveries

included White-bellied Woodpecker (first since 1988), Barred Eagle-owl

(1925) and Yellow-eared Spiderhunter (1920). Most of the other additions

were forest edge, parkland or open country species recorded within reserve

boundaries, e.g., Lower Peirce, Bukit Timah extension.

Other findings

The globally threatened Straw-headed Bulbul appears to be invading from

the Sembawang area, being recorded in sectors G, I, P, K and the Bukit

Timah extension. The Black-headed Bulbul also occurs in both Chestnut

Avenue sectors in addition to its known presence in MacRitchie. Another

nationally threatened species, Crested Serpent-eagle is present in E, I, M,

N and O. The little known Malaysian Eared-nightyjar is also recorded in

sectors H, I and P in addition to MacRitchie. Yet another locally threatened

Bird biodiversity 235

species, Little Green-pigeon, has not been recorded in the central forests

or anywhere else in Singapore since it was last seen in the Seletar Catchment

im: 1992.

Breakdown by areas

Based on the survey results, the bird inventory of the four forest areas is

given below:

ah Ww

in RN

Seletar Catchment (SC)

Peirce Catchment (PC) ae, Sioa lie te ithadnil,

Bukit Timah (BT)

Breakdown by sectors

The following is a breakdown of the individual sectors and their species

count (with numbers of key species in parenthesis):

N= 563)

Soh

Br-11®)

High diversity - B, I, D, C, O, BT

High key species - B, D, C, I, H, L, M, O, BT.

High diversity and high key species - B, C, D, I, O, BT.

From this simple comparison, it can be seen that areas of high bird diversity

as well as high concentration of key species can be defined as follows:

1. The MacRitchie peninsula comprising sectors B, C & D.

2. The Mandai Track 15 peninsula comprising sector I.

3. The Nee Soon Swamp Forest comprising sector O.

4. Bukit Timah Nature Reserve.

236 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Conclusions

The survey has shown that while some forest dependent species are doing

well, having both stable numbers and a wide distribution, virtually all key

species exhibit signs of decline. The reasons for this decline are not known

but are suspected to be related to the long-term effects of isolation,

competition and inbreeding.

Three primary core areas, Bukit Timah, the Sime-Shinto-Thomson

peninsula in MacRitchie and Nee Soon Swamp Forest in Peirce, and a

secondary one in the Mandai Track 15 area in Seletar, have been identified

in the survey. The future of forest dependent, in particular key species, lies

in the strict protection of these four sites. In addition, there is a need to

ensure that bird populations of the three catchments are allowed to mingle

to generate a healthy gene pool by linking intervening waterbodies with

corridors and also by conserving adjacent sectors as protective buffers.

The biggest threat to forest birds is unviable population levels for

key species and isolation for forest dependent species. A secondary threat

is forest clearance and disturbance as these factors result in habitat

shrinkage, and the introduction of predators (e.g. mammals) and

competitors (generalist birds). A third factor is the introduction of alien

birds.

Acknowledgments

The writer would like to thank all participants of the Nature Reserves Bird

Survey 1993-1997 and members of the Nature Society’s Bird Group for

help with the survey. Thanks are also extended to the National Parks

Board for the invitation to participate in the survey as well as for logistic

support.

References

Bibby, C.J., D.A. Hill & N.D. Burgess. 1992. Bird Census Techniques.

Academic Press, London, UK.

Bucknill, J.A.S. & F.N. Chasen. 1927. The Birds of Singapore Island.

Government Printers, Singapore.

Collar, N.J., M.J. Crosby & A.J. Sattersfield. 1994. Birds to Watch 2. BirdLife

International, Cambridge, UK.

Gibson-Hill, C.A. 1950. A checklist of the birds of Singapore Island. Bulletin

of the Raffles Museum. 21: 132-183.

Bird biodiversity 237

Hails, C.J. 1992. Improving the quality of life in Singapore by creating and

conserving wildlife habitats. In: B.H. Chua (ed.). Public space: Design,

Use and Management. Singapore University Press. pp. 138-158.

Hails, C.J. & F. Jarvis. 1987. Birds of Singapore. Times Editions, Singapore.

Lim, K.S. 1992. Vanishing Birds of Singapore. The Nature Society

(Singapore).

Lim, K.S. & D. Gardner. 1997. Birds: An Illustrated Field Guide to the

Birds of Singapore. Sun Tree Publishing Limited, Singapore.

Medway, Lord & D.R. Wells. 1976. The Birds of the Malay Peninsula, Vol

5: Conclusion and Survey of Every Species. Witherby, London, UK.

238

Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Appendix 1. A Checklist of the Birds of the Nature Reserves of

Singapore.

(Status : R — Resident, M — Migrant, V — Non-breeding Visitor, I — Introduced, ? —

Status Uncertain.

Abundance Codes : 1 — Rare, 2 —- Common, 3 — Abundant

* - Key species. Species which are nationally threatened and forest dependent.

Location : CCNR — Central Catchment Nature Reserve, BTINR — Bukit Timah

Nature Reserve.)

Part A : Species which are believed to be genuinely wild birds.

No. Common Name

a ee oe ee eee See ae

BQ BQO BQO HO KN HW NWN NWN NO KF EF | — eT se oN

SIARARKHGSSFSSHRADAARANHE S

—

Blue-breasted Quail

Lesser Whistling-Duck

Cotton Pygmy-Goose

Barred Buttonquail

Sunda Woodpecker

Rufous Woodpecker

White-bellied Woodpecker*

Banded Woodpecker

Laced Woodpecker

Common Flameback

Red-crowned Barbet

Coppersmith Barbet

Dollarbird

Common Kingfisher

Blue-eared Kingfisher*

Black-backed Kingfisher

Stock-billed Kingfisher

Ruddy Kingfisher

White-throated Kingfisher

Black-capped Kingfisher

Collared Kingfisher

Blue-throated Bee-eater

Blue-tailed Bee-eater

Chestnut-winged Cuckoo

Large Hawk-cuckoo

Hodgson’s Hawk-cuckoo

Indian Cuckoo

Oriental Cuckoo

Species

Coturnix chinensis

Dendrocygna javanica

Nettapus coromandelianus

Turnix suscitator

Dendrocopus moluccensis

Celeus brachyurus

Dryocopus javensis

Picus miniaceus

Picus vittatus

Dinopium javanense

Megalaima rafflesii

Megalaima haemacephala

Eurystomus orientalis

Alcedo atthis

Alcedo meninting —

Ceyx erithacus

Pelargopsis capensis

Halcyon coromanda

Halcyon smyrnensis

Halcyon pileata

Todirhamphus chloris

Merops viridis

Merops philippinus

Clamator coromandus

Cuculus sparverioides

Cuculus fugax

Cuculus micropterus

Cuculus orientalis

Status

Remarks

Nationally threatened.

_ Forest dependent.

Confined to CCNR.

Bird biodiversity

No. Common Name

29.

30.

Bile

B33

34.

33.

36.

37.

38.

ay.

4(),

41.

42.

43,

44.

45,

46,

47,

48,

49.

50.

Eye

aya

33,

54.

56.

ST.

58.

60.

61.

62.

63.

64.

Banded Bay Cuckoo

Plaintive Cuckoo

Rusty-breasted Cuckoo

Little Bronze-cuckoo

Violet Cuckoo

Drongo Cuckoo*

Asian Koel

Chestnut-bellied Malkoha

Greater Coucal

Lesser Coucal

Tanimbar Cockatoo

Blue-rumped Parrot*

Blue-crowned Hanging Parrot*

Rose-ringed Parakeet

Red-breasted Parakeet

Long-tailed Parakeet

Glossy Swiftlet*

Black-nest Swiftlet

Edible-nest Swiftlet

Silver-backed Needletail

Brown-backed Needletail

Asain Palmswitt

Fork-tailed Swift

House Swift

Grey-rumped Treeswift

Oriental Scops-owl

Collared Scops-owl

Barred Eagle-owl

Buffy Fish-owl

Spotted Wood-owl

Brown Hawk-owl

Malaysian Eared-nightjar*

Grey Nightjar

Large-tailed Nightjar

Rock Pigeon

Spotted Dove

Species

Cacomantis sonneratii

Cacomantis merulinus

Cacomantis sepulcralis

Chrysococcyx minutillus

Chrysococcyx xanthorhynchus

Surniculus lugubris

Eudynamys scolopacea

Phaenicophaeus sumatranus

Centropus sinensis

Centropus bengalensis

Cacatua goffini

Psittinus cyanurus

Loriculus galgulus

Psittacula krameri

Psittacula alexandri

Psittacula longicauda

Collocalia esculenta

Collocalia maxima

Collocalia fuciphaga

Hirundapus cochinchinensis

Hirundapus giganteus

Cypsiurus balasiensis

Apus pacificus

Apus nipalensis

Hemiprocne longipennis

Otus sunia

Otus lempiji

Ketupa ketupu

Strix seloputo

Ninox scutulata

Eurostopodus temminckit

Caprimulgus indicus

Caprimulgus macrurus

Columba livia

Streptopelia chinensis

Status

IR2

De he

Remarks

Nationally threatened.

Forest dependent.

Confined to BTNR.

Nationally threatened.

Forest dependent.

Confined to CCNR.

240

No. Common Name

65. Emerald Dove

66. Zebra Dove

67. Little Green-pigeon

68. Pink-necked Green-pigeon

69. Thick-billed Green-pigeon

70. Jambu Fruit-dove

71. Pied Imperial Pigeon

72. Red-legged Crake

73. White-breasted Waterhen

74. Pintail Snipe

75. Common Sandpiper

76. Common Greenshank

77. Pheasant-tailed Jacana

78. Pacific Golden Plover

79. Oriental Pratincole

80. Little Tern

81. White-winged Tern

82. Osprey

83. Black Baza

84. Oriental Honey-buzzard

85. Brahiminy Kite

86. White-bellied Fish-eagle

87. Grey-headed Fish-eagle

88. Crested Serpent-eagle*

89. Eastern Marsh-harrier

90. Himalayan Griffon

91. Crested Goshawk

92. Chinese Goshawk

93. Japanese Sparrowhawk

94. Besra

95. Grey-faced Buzzard

96. Changeable Hawk-eagle

97. Black-thighed Falconet

98. Peregrine Falcon

99. Purple Heron

100. Great Egret

Species

Chalcophaps indica

Geopelia striata

Treron olax

Treron vernans

Treron curvirostra

Ptilinopus jambu

Ducula bicolor

Rallina fasciata

Amaurornis phoenicurus

Gallinago stenura

Tringa hypoleucos

Tringa nebularia

Hydrophasianus chirurgus

Pluvialis fulva

Glareola maldivarum

Sterna albifrons

Chlidonias leucopterus

Pandion haliaetus

Aviceda leuphotes

Pernis ptilorhyncus

Haliastur indus

Haliaeetus leucogaster

Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus

Spilornis cheela

Circus spilonotus

Gyps himalayensis

Accipiter trivirgatus

Accipiter soloensis

Accipiter gularis

Accipiter virgatus

Butastur indicus

Spizaetus cirrhatus

Microhierax fringillarius

Falco peregrinus

Ardea purpurea

Casmerodius albus

Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Status

M1.

Remarks

Nationally threatened.

Confined to CCNR.

Nationally threatened.

Bird biodiversity

. Common Name

. Cattle Egret

. Chinese Pond-heron

. Striated Heron

. Black-crowned Night-heron

. Malayan Night-heron

. Yellow Bittern

. Schrenck’s Bittern

. Cinnamon Bittern

. Black Bittern

. Hooded Pitta

. Blue-winged Pitta

. Golden-bellied Gerygone

. Asian Fairy-bluebird

. Greater Green Leafbird*

. Lesser Green Leafbird*

. Blue-winged Leafbird

. Tiger Shrike

. Brown Shrike

. House Crow

. Large-billed Crow

. Black-naped Oriole

. Lesser Cuckoo-shrike*

. Pied Triller

. Ashy Minivet

. Scarlet Minivet*

126.

IBaY

128.

129,

130.

132.

133.

134,

135.

136.

Pied Fantail

Ashy Drongo

Crow-billed Drongo

Greater Racket-tailed Drongo

Asian Paradise-flycatcher

Japanese Paradise-flycatcher

Common lora

White-throated Rock-thrush

Blue Rock-thrush

Orange-headed Thrush

Siberian Thrush

Species

Bubulcus ibis

Ardeola bacchus

Butorides striatus

Nycticorax nycticorax

Gorsachius melanolophus

Ixobrychus sinensis

Ixobrychus eurhythmus

Ixobrychus cinnamomeus

Ixobrychus flavicollis

Pitta sordida

Pitta moluccensis

Gerygone sulphurea

Irena puella

Chloropsis sonnerati

Chloropsis cyanopogon

Chloropsis cochinchinensis

Lantus tigrinus

Lantus cristatus

Corvus splendens

Corvus macrorhynchos

Oriolus chinensis

Coracina fimbriata

Lalage nigra

Pericrocotus divaricatus

Pericrocotus flammeus

Rhipidura javanica

Dicrurus leucophaeus

Dicrurus annectans

Dicrurus paradiseus

Terpsiphone paradisi

Terpsiphone atrocaudata

Aegithina tiphia

Monticola gularis

Monticola solitarius

Zoothera citrina

Zoothera siberica

Status

241

Remarks

Nationally threatened.

Forest dependent.

Confined to BTINR.

No. Common Name Species

137. Eyebrowed Thrush Turdus obscurus

138. Brown-chested Jungle-flycatcher Rhinomyias brunneata

139. Dark-sided Flycatcher Muscicapa sibirica

140. Asian Brown Flycatcher Muscicapa dauurica

160.

161.

162.

163.

164.

165.

166.

167.

168.

169.

170.

171.

. Ferruginous Flycatcher

2. Yellow-rumped Flycatcher

. Narcissus Flycatcher

. Mugimaki Flycatcher

5. Blue-and-white Flycatcher

. Siberian Blue Robin

. Oriental Magpie-robin

. White-rumped Shama

. Asian Glossy Starling

. Purple-backed Starling

. Common Myna

. Javan Myna

. Hill Myna

. Velvet-fronted Nuthatch

. Barn Swallow

. Pacific Swallow

. Red-rumped Swallow

. Asian House-martin

. Straw-headed Bulbul

Black-headed Bulbul*

Black-crested Bulbul

Red-whiskered Bulbul

Yellow-vented Bulbul

Olive-winged Bulbul

Cream-vented Bulbul

Red-eyed Bulbul*

Buff-vented Bulbul*

Streaked Bulbul

Ashy Bulbul

Yellow-bellied Prinia

Pallas’s Warbler

Muscicapa ferruginea

Ficedula zanthopygia

Ficedula narcissina

Ficedula mugimaki

Cyanoptila cyanomelana

Luscinia cyanea

Copsychus saularis

Copsychus malabaricus

Aplonis panayensis

Sturnus sturninus

Acridotheres tristis

Acridotheres javanicus

Gracula religiosa

Sitta frontalis

Hirundo rustica

Hirundo tahitica

Hirundo daurica

Delichon dasypus

Pycnonotus zeylanicus

Pycnonotus atriceps

Pycnonotus melanicterus

Pycnonotus jocosus

Pycnonotus goiavier

Pycnonotus plumosus

Pycnonotus simplex

Pycnonotus brunneus

Tole olivacea

Ixos malaccensis

Hemixos flavala

Prinia flaviventris

Locustella certhiola

Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Status

IR2

Remarks

Globally threatened.

Nationally threatened.

Globally/nationally

threatened.

Confined to CCNR.

Forest dependent.

Confined to BINR.

Bird biodiversity

No.

V2.

173.

174.

195;

176.

Wee

178.

180.

181.

182.

183.

184.

185.

186.

187.

188.

189.

190.

191.

192.

193.

194,

195.

196.

197.

198.

199,

200.

201.

202.

203.

204.

205.

206.

207.

Common Name

Common Tailorbird

Dark-necked Tailorbird

Rufous-tailed Tailorbird

Inornate Warbler

Arctic Warbler

Eastern Crowned-warbler

Species

Orthotomus sutorius

Orthotomus atrogularis

Orthotomus sericeus

Phylloscopus inornatus

Phylloscopus borealis

Phylloscopus coronatus

White-crested Laughingthrush Garrulax canorus

Hwamei

White-chested Babbler

Abbott’s Babbler

Short-tailed Babbler

Moustached Babbler*

Chestnut-winged Babbler*

Striped Tit-babbler

Thick-billed Flowerpecker

Yellow-vented Flowerpecker*

Orange-bellied Flowerpecker

Scarlet-backed Flowerpecker

Plain-throated Sunbird

Purple-throated Sunbird

Olive-backed Sunbird

Crimson Sunbird

Little Spiderhunter

Thick-billed Spiderhunter*

Yellow-eared Spiderhunter

Eurasian Tree-sparrow

Forest Wagtail

Yellow Wagtail

Grey Wagtail

Paddyfield Pipit

Baya Weaver

White-rumped Munia

Javan Munia

Scaly-breasted Munia

Black-headed Munia

White-headed Munia

Garrulax canorus

Trichastoma rostratum

Malacocincla abbotti

Malacocincla malaccensis

Malacopteron magnirostre

Stachyris erythroptera

Macronous gularis

Dicaeum agile

Dicaeum chrysorrheum

Dicaeum trigonostigma

Dicaeum cruentatum

Anthreptes malacensis

Neactarinia sperata

Nectarinia jugularis

Aethopyga siparaja

Arachnothera longirostris

Arachnothera crassirostris

Arachnothera chrysogenys

Passer montanus

Dendronanthus indicus

Motcilla flava

Motacilla cinerea

Anthus rufulus

Ploceus philippinus

Lonchura striata

Lonchura leucogastroides

Lonchura punctulata

Lonchura malacca

Lonchura maja

Status

IRI

IR2

IRI

243

Remarks

Nationally threatened.

Forest dependent.

Confined to CCNR.

Forest dependent.

Confined to CCNR.

Nationally threatened.

244 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Part B: Species that are suspected to be escapees.

No. Common Name

1. Red Junglefowl

2. OQOnental Pied Hornbill

. Black Magpie

4. Red Lory

5. Black Hornbill

6. Sooty-headed Bulbul

7. Milky Stock

8. Painted Stock

9. Great Argus

10. Australian Pelican

11. Azure-winged Magpie

12. Green Wood-hoopoe

13. Grey Treepie

14. Silver-eared Mesia

15. Black-winged Starling

Part C : Species which are of doubtful status. i.e., their origin cannot be ascertained.

No. Common Name

1. Grey-headed Canary-flycatcher

2. Red-bearded Bee-eater

3. Red-throated Barbet

4. Mountain Imperial Pigeon

(nA

Maroon Woodpecker

Proceedings of the Nature Reserves Survey Seminar.

Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 245-265.

The Diversity and Conservation Status of Fishes

in the Nature Reserves of Singapore

PETER KE NG@AND KELVIN:K.P. LIM

Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research

Department of Biological Sciences

National University of Singapore

Kent Ridge, Singapore 119260

Abstract

An update on the taxonomy and conservation status of the 61 indigenous species of

freshwater fishes now known from Singapore is provided. Of these, 26 species (43%) are

extinct. Of the 35 extant species, 33 are known in the Nature Reserves and 21 appear to be

restricted there. Of the 52 introduced species of fish in Singapore, 17 are present in the

Nature Reserves. The conservation status of native fishes in the Nature Reserves is assessed

and the survival of highly threatened species discussed. The significance of the Nature

Reserves for freshwater fish conservation is highlighted.

Introduction

The freshwater fish fauna of Singapore is among the best studied in the

region and has been the subject of many publications (Alfred, 1961, 1966;

Johnson, 1973; Munro, 1990; Lim & P.K.L. Ng, 1990; P.K.L. Ng & Lim,

1996). In the first major synopsis of the Singapore ichthyofauna, Alfred

(1966) listed a total of 73 native and introduced species from Singapore of

which 42 were still extant. Alfred (1968) subsequently listed 35 native

species as extant and believed 19 were extinct.

It was 22 years before the next appraisal was made by Lim & PKA.

Ng (1990) in their guide to the freshwater fishes of Singapore. By then,

several developments had taken place with direct implications on local

freshwater fish conservation. Channa gachua, one of the species presumed

extinct by Alfred (1968) was rediscovered (P.K.L. Ng & Lim, 1989), while

two others, Channa melasoma and Pseudomystus rugosus [as Leiocassis cf.

siamensis| were added to the Singapore ichthyofauna (P.K.L. Ng & Lim,

1990; Munro, 1990). P.K.L. Ng & Lim (1996) subsequently reviewed what

was known about the freshwater fish fauna of Singapore, listing 104 species

of which 59 were regarded as native species, with 23 being extinct.

Over the years, taxonomic revisions of several groups have also shown

that some of the old records were misidentifications. From studies by P.K.L.

Ng & Kottelat (1994), H.H. Ng & Lim (1995), Tan & P.K.L. Ng (1996) and

246 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Siebert (1997), five species were added to Singapore’s known fauna, viz.

Betta tomi (specimens had been misidentified as B. pugnax), Ompok

fumidus (misidentified as O. leiacanthus), Parakysis longirostris

(misidentified as P. verrucosus), Rasbora paucisqualis (misidentified as R.

bankanensis) and Puntius banksi (misidentified as P. binotatus). Of these,

Betta tomi and Ompok fumidus are now regarded as extinct (P.K.L. Ng &

Kottelat, 1994; Tan & P.K.L. Ng, 1996).

A synopsis of the freshwater fish fauna in the Nature Reserves

(Central Catchment and Bukit Timah Nature Reserves) of Singapore (Table

1) is provided together with an annotated checklist for native and exotic

species, both extant and recently extinct. General localities within the

Central Catchment Nature Reserve (CCNR) and the Bukit Timah Nature

Reserve (BTNR) where each species is presently known to occur are

provided. We also examine how the continued conservation of the remaining

forest in the centre of the island (i.e., the Nature Reserves) is necessary for

the long-term survival of most of the extant fauna. The emphasis is on

species that complete their life cycle in fresh water.

Table 1. Extant indigenous freshwater fish species of Singapore.

(EN = Endangered, CO = Common, UN = Uncommon, FO = Forest waters, OP =

Open waters, NSS = Nee Soon Swamp Forest, BINR = Bukit Timah Nature

Reserve, NR = Nature Reserves (excluding NSS and BTNR), OA = Open rural

areas, + = present, - = absent)

No. Species Status Habitat NSS BINR NR OA

Family CYPRINIDAE

1. Boraras maculatus EN FO - - + -

2. Cyclocheilichthys apogon EN FO - : + -

3. Puntius banksi CO FO + + ~ -

4. Puntius hexazona EN FO + - - -

5. Puntius lateristriga EN FO - + - -

6. Rasbora einthovenii CO FO + + ~ -

7. Rasbora elegans CO FO + + - -

8. | Rasbora heteromorpha EN FO + - - -

Family BALITORIDAE

9. | Nemacheilus selangoricus EN FO + - - -

Family COBITIDAE

10. Pangio shelfordii EN FO + - : -

Family SILURIDAE

11. Silurichthys hasselti EN FO + - - -

Diversity and conservation status of fishes

18.

19.

20.

cae

24.

35.

247

. Species Status Habitat NSS BINR NR OA

Family CLARIIDAE

Clarias batrachus CO OP - . es ois

Clarias teijsmanni EN FO + oh + :

Family AKYSIDAE

Parakysis longirostris EN FO ~ 5 L :

Family BAGRIDAE

Mystus gulio CO OP - - z +

Pseudomystus rugosus EN FO + - - z

Family APLOCHEILIDAE

Aplocheilus panchax CO OP + - ~ -

Family ADRIANICHTHYIDAE

Oryzias javanicus CO OP - - 2 +

Family HEMIRAMPHIDAE

Dermogenys pusilla CO OP/FO ~ - - -

Hemirhamphodon pogonognathus EN FO + : + :

Family NANDIDAE

Nandus nebulosus EN FO - + + 3

Family GOBIIDAE

Gobiopterus birtwistlei CO OP = - + +

Oxyeleotris marmorata CO OP/FO - ~ - ~

Family ANABANTIDAE

Anabas testudineus CO OP/FO = - - -

Family OSPHRONEMIDAE

Betta imbellis UN OP/FO 3 i * +

Betta pugnax CO FO + + + i

Luciocephalus pulcher EN FO + : + L

Trichogaster trichopterus CO OP - ~ + -

Trichopsis vittata CO OP/FO - - - -

Family CHANNIDAE

Channa gachua EN FO + + ve :

Channa lucius CO FO + + + L

Channa melasoma EN FO ve 2 4. E

Channa striata CO OP/FO re if id +

Family MASTACEMBELIDAE

Macrognathus maculatus EN FO + - :

Family SYNBRANCHIDAE

Monopterus albus CO OP/FO - - ~ -

248 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Unless otherwise stated, material has been examined of all species

found in the Nature Reserves. These are deposited in the Zoological

Reference Collection (ZRC) of the Raffles Museum of Biodiversity

Research, Department of Biological Sciences, National University of

Singapore. Much of the findings came from surveys conducted under the

purview of the National Parks Board. However, recent surveys on the fish

fauna of the Nature Reserves have not been exhaustive as some streams

and reservoir inlets are difficult to access. Measurements are of the standard

length (SL) unless otherwise stated. Taxonomic and ecological notes on

each species already mentioned in Alfred (1966), Lim & P.K.L. Ng (1990)

and P.K.L. Ng & Lim (1996) are not repeated. Systematic classification

follows Nelson (1994) with some modifications.

Annotated Checklist

Extant Native Species in the Nature Reserves

Order Cypriniformes

Family Cyprinidae

Boraras maculatus (Duncker)

CCNR: streams and swamps in Sime Road forest and along southern shore

of MacRitchie Reservoir.

Cyclocheilichthys apogon (Valenciennes)

CCNR: MacRitchie Reservoir, and streams in Sime Road forest.

The probability of this species having been introduced many years ago

cannot be ascertained as it is widely distributed in Southeast Asia.

Puntius banksi Herre

CCNR: common in streams in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest, Lower Peirce

forest and Sime Road forest. BTNR: swamp along eastern boundary.

Puntius hexazona Weber & de Beaufort

CCNR: apparently restricted to the Nee Soon Swamp Forest.

Puntius lateristriga (Valenciennes)

CCNR: streams in the Sime Road and Lower Peirce forests. BINR: swamp

along eastern boundary.

Diversity and conservation status of fishes 249

Rasbora einthovenii (Bleeker)

CCNR: common in streams throughout area. BINR: swamp along eastern

boundary.

Rasbora elegans Volz

CCNR: common in streams throughout the area. BINR: swamp along

eastern boundary.

Rasbora heteromorpha Duncker

CCNR: streams in the Sime Road forest and Nee Soon Swamp Forest.

Family Balitoridae

Nemacheilus selangoricus Duncker

CCNR: apparently restricted to streams in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest.

Family Cobitidae

Pangio shelfordii (Popta)

CCNR: apparently restricted to streams in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest.

The species name is mis-spelt as sheldfordii by P.K.L. Ng & Lim (1996:

rif).

Order Siluriformes

Family Siluridae

Silurichthys hasseltii Bleeker

CCNR: apparently restricted to streams in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest.

The genus Silurichthys was recently revised by H.H. Ng & P.K.L. Ng (1998:

302).

Family Bagridae

Pseudomystus rugosus (Regan)

CCNR: Known only from streams in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest.

Identified as Pseudomystus cf. siamensis by P.K.L. Ng & Lim, (1996: 112,

Fig. 2), the specimens appear to fit the descriptions for Pseudomystus

rugosus best, but lack black markings on the caudal fin. Conspecific

examples are also known from Pulau Bintan, the large Indonesian island

off the southeastern coast of Singapore.

250 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Family Akysidae

Parakysis longirostris Ng & Lim

CCNR: apparently confined to streams in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest.

This species was recently described from Singapore (type locality) by H.H.

Ng & Lim (1995).

Family Clariidae

Clarias batrachus (Linnaeus)

CCNR: drainages along boundary and in exposed areas. BITNR: drainages

along boundary.

Clarias teijsmanni Bleeker

CCNR: Nee Soon Swamp Forest.

This species appears to be confined to shaded streams, while Clarias

batrachus frequents exposed habitats.

Order Cyprinodontiformes

Family Aplocheilidae

Aplocheilus panchax (Hamilton)

CCNR: common in open bodies of water, especially the MacRitchie

Reservoir and streams in the adjacent Sime Road forest and Seletar

Reservoir Park.

Order Beloniformes

Family Hemiramphidae

Dermogenys pusilla van Hasselt

CCNR: MacRitchie Reservoir and adjacent streams in Sime Road forest.

Also in streams in the Upper Seletar Reservoir Park and along Lorong

Banir.

The populations in the MacRitchie Reservoir and Sime Road forest are

land-locked.

Hemirhamphodon pogonognathus (Bleeker)

CCNR: streams in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest and Sime Road forest.

Diversity and conservation status of fishes 251

Order Perciformes

Family Nandidae

Nandus nebulosus (Gray)

CCNR: streams in the Sime Road and Lower Peirce forests. BTINR: swamp

along eastern boundary.

Family Gobiidae

The family Eleotrididae in which Oxyeleotris marmorata used to belong,

has been included in the Gobiidae (see Hoese & Gill, 1993; Lim & Larson,

1994).

Gobiopterus birtwistlei (Herre)

CCNR: Lower Peirce Reservoir.

Although it is mainly found in brackish water of estuarine areas, this species

appears to be able to breed under land-locked conditions as in the Tengeh

Reservoir in the Western Catchment.

Oxyeleotris marmorata Bleeker

CCNR: common in the Upper Seletar and Lower Peirce Reservoirs, and

their adjacent streams.

Family Anabantidae

Anabas testudineus (Bloch)

CCNR: common in streams and swamps.

Family Osphronemidae

The families Belontiidae and Luciocephalidae are presently part of the

Osphronemidae (Britz et al., 1995).

Betta imbellis Ladiges

CCNR: streams in the Sime Road forest and along Lorong Banir.

Betta pugnax (Cantor)

CCNR: common in small streams and swamps throughout area. BINR:

swamp along eastern boundary, Jungle Fall Valley.

This is the most common anabantoid in forest areas and is the only fish

present in small streams in the interior of the Bukit Timah Nature Reserve.

252 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Luciocephalus pulcher (Gray)

CCNR: appears to be restricted to streams in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest.

Trichogaster trichopterus (Pallas)

CCNR: exposed water bodies.

Trichopsis vittata (Cuvier)

CCNR: common in exposed and weed-choked water bodies. BINR: swamp

along eastern boundary.

Family Channidae

Channa gachua (Hamilton)

CCNR: small streams in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest and the Chestnut

Drive area.

The population from the Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (Johnson, 1973: 110

as Ophicephalus gachua) has not been seen in recent years.

Channa lucius (Cuvier)

CCNR: streams in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest and Sime Road forest, and

Lower Peirce Reservoir. BINR: swamp along eastern boundary.

Channa melasoma (Bleeker)

CCNR: small streams in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest and Lower Peirce

Forest.

Channa striata (Bloch)

CCNR: common in water bodies.

Order Synbranchiformes

Family Synbranchidae

Monopterus albus (Zuiew)

CCNR: in streams and swamps.

Family Mastacembelidae

Macrognathus maculatus (Valenciennes)

CCNR: appears to be restricted to streams in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest

and adjacent areas.

Diversity and conservation status of fishes 25

Recently Extinct Native Species

Alfred (1966) has already discussed in some detail the freshwater fish

species previously known from Singapore (Table 2). Some species, (e.g.,

Wallago leerii and Tor tambroides) which were supposed to have occurred

in Singapore in the past but are now extinct, and whose presence in

Singapore has been debated have been discussed by Johnson (1973) and

Lim & P.K.L. Ng (1990). One species which Alfred (1966) listed as extinct

has since been refound (Channa gachua, fide P.K.L. Ng & Lim, 1989). In

addition, Channa melasoma and Pseudomystus rugosus (P.K.L. Ng & Lim,

1990, 1992, respectively) are new records.

Table 2. Extinct indigenous freshwater fish species.

(FO = Forest waters, OP = Open waters, LRF = large river fauna, + = present, -

= absent)

No. Species Habitat LRF

Family CYPRINIDAE

& Barbodes schwanenfeldii FO/OP ~

ye. Discherodontus halei FO 7

ks Hampala macrolepidota FO 7

4. Labiobarbus festivus FO -

> Osteochilus melanopleura FO ~

6. Osteochilus spilurus FO -

7. Oxygaster anomalura FO +

8. Puntius dunckeri FO -

a Rasbora cephalotaenia FO -

10. =Rasbora paucisqualis FO/OP .

11. Tor tambroides FO

Family COBITIDAE

12. = Pangio semicincta FO :

Family SILURIDAE

13. | Micronema micronema FO f

14. Ompok bimaculatus FO +

15. © Ompok fumidus FO -

16. —~Wallago leerii FO +

Family CLARIIDAE

17. ~~ Clarias meladerma FO +

Family SISORIIDAE

18. Glyptothorax fuscus FO +

Family BAGRIDAE

19. Hemibagrus nemurus FO +

254 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

No. Species Habitat LRF

Family PRISTOLEPIDAE

20.‘ Pristolepis fasciata FO 7

Family GOBIIDAE

21. Pseudogobiopsis oligactis OP/FO -

22. Pseudogobiopsis siamensis OP/FO -

Family OSPHRONEMIDAE

23. Belontia hasselti FO -

24. ~~ Betta tomi FO -

Family MASTACEMBELIDAE

25. | Macrognathus aculeatus FO -

26. | Mastacembelus armatus FO ~

P.K.L. Ng et al. (1994) subsequently published a selective list of

Singapore freshwater fishes which they believed were under threat, listing

18 as extinct and 17 as locally endangered species. Three species, Rasbora

paucisqualis (as R. bankanensis), Pangio semicincta and Glyptothorax fuscus

were listed as being probably extinct as there had been no recent records.

All three are relatively common species in southern Malaysia where they

are easily found in disturbed areas adjacent to forests. The failure to obtain

these species in Singapore for so many years is a good indication that they

are no longer extant.

Alfred (1966, 1968) believed that one species originally described

from Singapore, Hemibagrus elongatus, was extinct. Kottelat et al. (1998)

believe this species is actually a Chinese and Vietnamese one, and should

be excluded from the Singapore faunal list.

Family Cyprinidae

Rasbora paucisqualis Ahl

Since its rediscovery by Alfred (1966: 17 as Rasbora bankanensis), it has

not been seen again.

Family Cobitidae

Pangio semicincta (Fraser-Brunner)

Earlier identified as Pangio kuhlii (Alfred, 1966; P.K.L. Ng & Lim, 1996:

111) under which P. semicincta was synonymised (Kottelat & Lim, 1993)

Diversity and conservation status of fishes 255

M. Kottelat (pers. comm.) now believes P. kuhilii is restricted to its type

locality in Java. The forms on Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula (and Singapore)

and Borneo are P. semicincta. This fish has not been encountered since

1966 and we believe that it is locally extinct.

Family Sisoridae

Glyptothorax fuscus Fowler

Previously referred to as Glyptothorax major by P.K.L. Ng & Lim (1996:

112). However, G. major appears to be restricted to Borneo, and is a

larger and more robust species. The local form should be called G. fuscus,

a species described from southeastern Thailand (H.H. Ng, pers. comm.).

There is an unconfirmed record of this fish in 1988 from a stream at

Seletar Reservoir Park on the outskirts of Nee Soon Swamp Forest (Richard

Yeong, pers. comm.). The specimen, however, was not retained.

Family Gobiidae

Pseudogobiopsis oligactis (Bleeker)

We have not been able to find Pseudogobiopsis oligactis in recent surveys.

All recent goby specimens collected from the Central Catchment Nature

Reserve and other inland freshwaters by the authors and their colleagues

have been the introduced Rhinogobius.

Pseudogobiopsis siamensis (Fowler)

There was only one record of this species from the Nee Soon Swamp

Forest area. Both Pseudogobiopsis oligactis and P. siamensis were

misidentified as Stigmatogobius poicilosoma by Alfred (1966).

Introduced Taxa

Fishes discussed under this section (Table 3) are present in the wild state

through human intervention. They may be foreign species, which are native

to South America or Africa, or even taxa that have been recorded as

indigenous fauna in the past and presently regarded as extinct as they were

not recorded by Alfred (1966) in his fairly thorough survey of the island’s

freshwater fish fauna. Their presence strongly indicates introduction by

human means (e.g., Hampala macrolepidota). The aquarium fish trade and

the food fish trade are the main contributors to the alien fish diversity in

Singapore. Many species have adapted well to conditions independent of

human husbandry, and have established self-sustaining populations in the

256 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

wild. However, their survival may not be long-term. For instance,

Rasborinus lineatus, which was once common in Singapore and occurred in

areas now under the Nature Reserves, appears to have died out (P.K.L.

Ng & Lim, 1996). The species listed have either established thriving

populations in the Nature Reserves, or have good potential of doing so as

they are found in similar habitats and occur naturally in neighbouring

areas.

Table 3. List of known introduced species and their status in Singapore.

(Status: CU = cultured, ES = escapee, FE = feral (established), NA = native,

EX = extinct

Use: AQ = aquarium fish, FF = food fish, IN = incidental (no use), PC = pest

control)

No. Species Status Use

Family OSTEOGLOSSIDAE

if Scleropages formosus FE? AQ

8 Osteoglossum bicirrhosum ES AQ

Family NOTOPTERIDAE

x Chitala ornata * FE? AQ

Family CYPRINIDAE

~ Amblypharyngodon chulabornae ES AQ?

5 Barbodes gonionotus CU i

6. Carasius auratus FE FF

7. Cirrhinus molitorella CU FF

8 Ctenopharyngodon idella CU

9. Cyprinus carpio PE AQ/FF

10. Esomus metallicus PE AQ

11. | Hampala macrolepidota BS? AQ?

12. Hypopthalmichthys molitrix CU PE

13. | Hypopthalmichthys nobilis CU FF

14. Leptobarbus hoeveni S 5 PE

15. Osteochilus hasselti FE? AQ?

16. Puntius binotatus FE AQ?

17. Puntius conchonius ES AQ

18. Puntius partipentazona FE AQ

19. Puntius semifasciolatus FE IN

20. Puntius tetrazona ES? AQ

21. Rasbora borapetensis FE AQ

22. Rasbora gracilis ES AQ

23. Rasbora trilineata ES AQ

24. Rasborinus lineatus EX IN

Diversity and conservation status of fishes

257

No. Species Status Use

Family CHARACIDAE

25. | Colossoma macropomum CU FF/AQ

26. | Paracheirodon innesi ES AQ

Family PANGASIIDAE

27. Pangasius hypophthalmus CU FF/AQ

Family PMELODIDAE

28. | Phractocephalus hemioliopterus * — ES AQ

Family CALLICHTHYIDAE

29. Corydoras aeneus ES AQ

Family LORICARITDAE

30. -Liposarcus pardalis FE AQ

Family POECILIIDAE

31. Poecilia reticulata FE AQ/PC

32. Poecilia sphenops FE AQ

33. — Poecilia latipinna FE? AQ

34. Xiphophorus helleri ES AQ

35. Xiphophorus maculatus FE? AQ

36. §Gambusia holbrookii rE AQ/PC

Family AMBASSIDAE

37. | Parambassis siamensis re AQ/IN

Family CICHLIDAE

38. Astronotus ocellatus ES AQ

39. — Cichla ocellaris FE? AQ

40. Oreochromis aureus ES FF

4]. Oreochromis mossambicus FE PE

42. Oreochromis niloticus ES FF

43. Thorichthys meeki ES AQ

44. = Tilapia zillii FE? FF

Family GOBIIDAE

45. Rhinogobius giurinus FE IN

Family OSPHRONEMIDAE

46. Betta splendens ES AQ

47. | Osphronemus goramy FE lat

48. § Sphaerichthys osphromenoides ES AQ

49. Trichogaster microlepis PE? AQ

50. Trichogaster pectoralis BPE FF

258 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

No. Species Status Use

Family CHANNIDAE

aL. Channa micropeltes CU/FE FE

Family MASTACEMBELIDAE

52. | Macrognathus siamensis ES AQ

* The Clown Knifefish, Chitala ornata, a native of Thailand, was reported from the

Sungei Seletar Reservoir where some ten examples were obtained (but not kept) by

rod and line in early 1998 (Tan Yit Wee, pers. comm.). There is a record of a 4 ft.

(25 kg) Red-tailed Catfish, Phractocephalus hemioliopterus, native to tropical South

America, fished off the Pandan River in 1996 (Lianhe Wanbao, 4 Aug. 1996: 4&8

with photographs). Being popular aquarium fish that attain large eventual sizes, they

may have been deliberately released when their owners could not cope.

Single individuals of Puntius conchonius (Cyprinidae) and

Macrognathus siamensis (Mastacembelidae) have been recorded from

streams in the CCNR. Specimens of Chinese major carps, for example,

Cyprinus carpio and Hypopthalmichthys nobilis, can sometimes be observed

in the reservoirs. These exotic species are frequently imported as food or

aquarium fish. Occasionally, individuals may be encountered in the wild

state, having escaped from ponds and cages, or released as unwanted

aquarium pets. However, there is no evidence of them having established

self-sustaining populations in the wild. They are therefore not included in

the list.

Family Osteoglossidae

Scleropages formosus (Miiller & Schlegel)

CCNR: Lower Peirce and MacRitchie Reservoirs.

Family Cyprinidae

Hampala macrolepidota Kuhl & van Hasselt

CCNR: Upper Peirce Reservoir (Robert Teo, pers. comm., in 1998).

Although it was considered extinct in Singapore (Alfred, 1966), the present

population seems most likely to be the result of deliberate introduction.

As this is a common fish in streams and lakes throughout Peninsular

Malaysia, it should adapt well to conditions in the Central Catchment

reservoirs.

Diversity and conservation status of fishes 259

Osteochilus hasselti (Valenciennes)

CCNR: stream at Upper Seletar Reservoir Park.

Puntius partipentazona Fowler

CCNR: MacRitchie and Lower Peirce Reservoirs, and streams in Sime

Road forest. BINR: swamp along eastern boundary.

Puntius semifasciolatus (Giinther)

CCNR: stream in Sime Road forest, Lower Peirce Reservoir.

Puntius tetrazona (Bleeker)

CCNR: stream in Upper Seletar Reservoir Park.

Rasbora borapetensis Smith

CCNR: stream in Upper Seletar Reservoir Park.

Family Loricartidae

Liposarcus pardalis (Castelnau)

CCNR: Lower Peirce and Upper Seletar Reservoirs.

Family Poeciliidae

Gambusia holbrookii (Girard)

CCNR: Lower Peirce Reservoir.

Poecilia reticulata Peters .

CCNR and BTNR: present in exposed water bodies along peripheral areas.

Family Ambassidae

Parambassis siamensis (Fowler)

CCNR: Upper and Lower Peirce Reservoirs.

Family Cichlidae

Cichla ocellaris Bloch & Schneider

CCNR: Lower Peirce Reservoir.

Previously referred to as Cichla cf. monoculus (P.K.L. Ng & Lim, 1997:

123). This popular game and aquarium fish originates from South America.

260 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters)

CCNR: present in all reservoirs and adjacent drainages.

Family Gobtidae

Rhinogobius giurinus (Rutter)

CCNR: Lower Peirce Reservoir, and a stream in the Upper Seletar

Reservoir Park.

This species is native to China and Japan.

Family Osphronemidae

Osphronemus goramy Lacépéde

CCNR: MacRitchie Reservoir.

Trichogaster pectoralis (Regan)

CCNR: Nee Soon Swamp Forest.

Family Channidae

Channa micropeltes (Cuvier)

CCNR: present in all reservoirs.

Conservation Status

The state of knowledge of Singapore’s freshwater biodiversity is generally

regarded as excellent (Kottelat & Whitten, 1996). This knowledge, together

with Singapore’s small size, makes conservation easier than is the case in

most Asian countries. Over the past two decades, the landscape of Singapore

has changed very drastically, and the pressures on natural fresh waters

have been great (P.K.L. Ng, 1991, 1994; P.K.L. Ng & Lam, 1995). Many

native species reported by Alfred (1966) have since become rare or perhaps

even extinct. P.K.L. Ng et al. (1994) listed 18 extinct and 17 locally

endangered species, and regarded three species as being possibly extinct.

Moreover, the flourishing aquarium [which accounted for over S$80 million

in 1994] (Ngiam, 1994; P.K.L. Ng & Tan, 1997) and food fish trade appear

to have contributed more foreign species to the local fauna by way of

deliberate or accidental introductions or escapees.

The list of extant native fish species known from Singapore thus now

stands at 35 (Table 1), whilst the number of extinct species is 26 (Table 2).

That is, 43% of Singapore’s known native fish fauna is now extinct. It is

Diversity and conservation status of fishes 261

important to note that 21 of the 35 extant indigenous fish species (60%)

are confined to waterways under forest cover. The five species that have

recently become extinct (Rasbora paucisqualis, Pangio semicincta,

Glyptothorax fuscus, Pseudogobiopsis oligactis and P. siamensis) were also

collected mainly from the Nature Reserves. This strongly suggests that the

loss of Singapore’s forest over the last 150 years has contributed substantially

to the loss of fish fauna on the island.

It is pertinent to note here that many of the extinct species are

actually large river species and there are doubts as to whether they were

actually found in Singapore at all. Many of these records are old [pre-

World War II] (Herre & Myers, 1937) and are unsubstantiated. Singapore

never had large rivers that could support large and typically riverine species

like Barbodes schwanenfeldii, Tor tambroides, Osteochilus melanopleura,

Labiobarbus festivus, Hampala macrolepidota (Cyprinidae), Micronema

micronema, Wallago leerii (Siluridae) and Hemibagrus nemurus (Bagridae),

and there is every chance that the specimens on which the old records are

based actually came from neighbouring Peninsular Malaysia.

Of the extant species, 21 of the 35 species are present only in the

Nature Reserves which illustrates the crucial importance of the Nature

Reserves for the contiuned existence of these species (Table 1). More

worrying is that the Nee Soon Swamp Forest has a disproportionately

large number of native species, which are only known from or have their

major populations there. Eight species (Puntius hexazona, Nemacheilus

selangoricus, Pangio shelfordii, Silurichthys hasselti, Pseudomystus rugosus,

Parakysis longirostris, Channa melasoma and Macrognathus maculatus)

are only known from this area while another three species (Rasbora

heteromorpha, Luciocephalus pulcher and Channa gachua) have their major

populations in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest (P.K.L. Ng & Lim, 1992). As it

now stands, with the Nee Soon Swamp Forest suffering from possible

excess drainage etc., some species would likely become extinct over the

next few decades. Prime candidates for extinction because of their

apparently fastidious habitat requirements and current low populations

would be Nemacheilus selangoricus, Pangio shelfordii, Silurichthys hasselti,

Pseudomystus rugosus and Parakysis longirostris. The threats to the native

freshwater fish are thus particularly serious as all of them are primary

freshwater species and most are very stenotopic in their habitat

requirements.

About 52 introduced species have been recorded in Singapore’s

freshwaters, 17 of which have established feral populations here (Table 3).

This is a substantial number, considering that Singapore’s extant indigenous

freshwater fish fauna is only 35 species. Despite the large proportion of

introduced fauna, it has not been shown that they have caused substantial

262 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

reduction in population size or the extinction of any native species (P.K.L.

Ng et al., 1993).

Acknowledgements

Many colleagues have assisted in documenting the present records over

the years. Thanks are especially due to Richard Yeong, Joseph Tan, Ng

Hock Ping, George Tay, C. M. Yang, Yeo Keng Loo, Lua Hui Keng,

Daphne Chung, Tommy Tan, Ng Heok Hee, Tan Heok Hui, Tan Swee

Hee, Oliver Chia, Darren Yeo, Adrian Ou, Tay Joe Boy, Tan Yit Wee,

Tay Hui Cheng, Serena Teo, Robert Teo, Cheryl Chia and R. Subharaj.

We have received a substantial amount of help and guidance from Maurice

Kottelat and Tyson Roberts on many aspects on fish taxonomy, and for

this, we are most grateful. Eric Alfred was responsible for providing the

original impetus for this paper and the many discusions and informal

conversations we have had proved most helpful in enabling it to come

together. Permission by the National Parks Board to carry out studies in

the Nature Reserves is much appreciated.

References

Alfred, E.R. 1961. Singapore freshwater fishes. Malayan Nature Journal.

15: 1-19. .

Alfred, E.R. 1966. The fresh-water fishes of Singapore. Zoologische

Verhandelingen, Leiden. 78: 1-68, 8 plates.

Alfred, E.R. 1968. Rare and endangered freshwater fishes of Malaya and

Singapore. In: Technical Session IV - Threatened Species, Conference on

Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources in Tropical South-east

Asia, Bangkok. Y\UCN Publications, n.s., No. 10, (4): 325-331.

Britz, R., M. Kokoscha & R. Riehl. 1995. The anabantoid genera Ctenops,

Luciocephalus, Parasphaerichthys, and Sphaerichthys (Teleostei:

Perciformes) as a monophyletic group: evidence from egg surface

structure and reproductive behaviour. Japanese Journal of Ichthyology.

42: 71-79.

Herre, A.W.C.T. & G.S. Myers. 1937. A contribution to the ichthyology of

the Malay Peninsula. Part II. Fresh-water fishes. Bulletin of the Raffles

Museum. 13: 53-74, pls. 5-7.

Hoese, D. F. & A. C. Gill, 1993. Phylogenetic relationships of eleotridid

SSS

Diversity and conservation status of fishes 263

fishes (Perciformes: Gobioidei). Bulletin of Marine Science. 52: 415-440.

Johnson, D.S. 1973. Freshwater life. In: S.H. Chuang (ed.). Animal Life

and Nature in Singapore. Singapore University Press. pp. 103-127.

Kottelat, M. & K.K.P. Lim. 1993. A review of the eel-loaches of the genus

Pangio (Teleostei: Cobitidae) from the Malay Peninsula, with descriptions

of six new species. Raffles Bulletin of Zoology. 41: 203-249.

Kottelat, M. & T. Whitten. 1996. Freshwater Biodiversity in Asia with Special

Reference to Fish. World Bank Technical Paper No. 343. pp. 1x + 59.

Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

Mottola tv, ELE INe a PK T.. Neg,..1998. Notes, on the identity of

Hemibagrus elongatus (Giinther, 1864) and other East Asian species

allied to H. guttatus (La Cepéde, 1803) (Teleostei: Bagridae). Raffles

Bulletin of Zoology. 46: 565-572.

ham. 6K P. 1995. Fishes, In:'S.C. Chin, R.T. Corlett, Y.C) Wee & S.Y.

Geh (eds.). Rain Forest in the City: Bukit Timah Nature Reserve,

Singapore. Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore. Suppl. 3: 159-163.

Lim, K.K.P. & H.K. Larson. 1994. A preliminary checklist of the gobiid

fishes of Singapore. In: S. Sudara, C.R. Wilkinson & L.M. Chou (eds.).

Proceedings of the Third ASEAN-Australia Symposium on Living Coastal

Resources, Chulalongkorn University. 2 (Research papers): 257-262.

Lim, K.K.P. & P.K.L. Ng. 1990. A Guide to the Freshwater Fishes of

Singapore. Singapore Science Centre, Singapore. pp. 160. First edition.

Munro, A.D. 1990. The freshwater fishes of Singapore. In: L.M. Chou &

P.K.L. Ng (eds.). Essays in Zoology. Department of Zoology, National

University of Singapore. pp. 97-126.

Nelson, J.S. 1994. Fishes of the World. John Wiley & Sons. xvii + pp. 600.

Third edition.

Ng, H.H. & K.K.P. Lim. 1995. A revision of the Southeast Asian catfish

genus Parakysis (Teleostei: Akysidae), with descriptions of two new

species. [chthyological Exploration of Freshwaters. 6: 255-266.

Ng, H.H. & P.K.L. Ng. 1995. Fishes of the forest. Nature Watch. Nature

Society (Singapore). 3: 14-17.

Ng, H.H. & P.K.L. Ng. 1998. A revision of the South-east Asian catfish

genus Silurichthys. Journal of Fish Biology. 52: 291-333.

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Ng, P.K.L. 1991. Native Southeast Asian freshwater fishes. Conservation

of a precarious resource. In: Proceedings of the 1991 Annual ASAIHL

Seminar “Role of ASAIHL Universities in Promoting Preservation of the

Environment”, Airlangga University, Surabaya, Indonesia, pp. 373-381.

Ng, P.K.L. 1994. Freshwater habitats. In: Y.C. Wee & P.K.L. Ng (eds.). A

First Look at Biodiversity in Singapore. National Council on the

Environment, Singapore. pp. 23-34.

Ng, P.K.L. & M. Kottelat. 1994. Revision of the Betta waseri species group

(Teleoste1: Belontiidae). Raffles Bulletin of Zoology. 42: 593-611.

Ng, P.K.L. & T.J. Lam. 1995. The conservation of biodiversity in Singapore:

status and research prospects. Wallaceana, Kuala Lumpur. 76: 1-5.

Ng, P.K.L. & K.K.P. Lim. 1989. Rediscovery of the Dwarf Snakehead,

Channa gachua (Hamilton, 1822) (Channidae) in Singapore. Raffles

Bulletin of Zoology. 37: 172-174.

Ng, P.K.L. & K.K.P. Lim. 1990. The Black Snakehead, Channa melasoma

(Bleeker, 1851) (Channidae): first record from Singapore. Raffles Bulletin

of Zoology. 38: 21-24.

Ng, P.K.L. & K.K.P. Lim. 1992. The conservation status of the Nee Soon

Freshwater Swamp Forest of Singapore. Aquatic Conservation: Marine

and Freshwater Ecosystems. 2: 255-266.

Ng, P.K.L.& K.K.P. Lim. 1996. The freshwater fishes of Singapore. Journal

of the Singapore National Academy of Science. 22-24: 109-124, figs. 1-6,

1 table. }

Ng, P.K.L. & H.H. Tan. 1997. Freshwater fishes of Southeast Asia: potential

for the aquarium fish trade and conservation issues. Aquatic Science and

Conservation. 1: 79-90.

Ng, P.K.L, L.M. Chou & T.J. Lam. 1993. The status and impact of

introduced freshwater animals in Singapore. Biological Conservation.

64: 19-24.

Ng, P.K.L., J: Low & K-K-P. Lim. 1994. Fish, Ino PRC: Ne dk Yo Wee

(eds.). The Singapore Red Data Book. Threatened Plants and Animals of

Singapore. Nature Society (Singapore). pp. 185-207.

Ngiam, T.T. 1994. Agrotechnology: its development in Singapore. In: CS.

Loh, S.K. Lee, T.M. Lim & T.K. Tan (eds.). Proceedings of the

Diversity and conservation status of fishes 265

International Conference on Agrotechnology. Commonwealth: Focus 21st

Century, Singapore. National University of Singapore. pp. 199.

Siebert, D.R. 1997. The identities of Rasbora paucisqualis Ahl in

Schreitmiiller, 1935, and Rasbora bankanensis (Bleeker, 1853), with the

designation of a lectotype for R. paucisqualis (Teleostei: Cyprinidae).

Raffles Bulletin of Zoology. 45: 29-37.

Tan, T.H.T. & P.K.L. Ng. 1996. Blackwater catfishes of the Ompok

leiacanthus (Bleeker, 1853) species group (Teleostei: Siluridae) from

Southeast Asia, with description of a new species. Raffles Bulletin of

Zoology. 44: 531-542.

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Proceedings of the Nature Reserves Survey Seminar.

Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 267-272.

The Conservation Status of Freshwater Prawns and Crabs

in Singapore with Emphasis on the Nature Reserves

PETER Kl. NG

Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research

Department of Biological Sciences

National University of Singapore

Kent Ridge, Singapore 119260

Abstract

The freshwater prawn and crab fauna of Singapore are well studied, and 23 species have

been reported. Seven species of freshwater crabs are present, of which three species,

Parathelphusa reticulata (Parathelphusidae), /rmengardia johnsoni (Parathelphusidae), and

Johora singaporensis (Potamidae) are endemic to Singapore. Sixteen species of freshwater

prawns are known, but two species, Macrobrachium scabriculum and M. rosenbergii

(Palaemonidae) are now believed to be extinct. Eight species had originally been described

from Singapore. The possibility of species entering the catchment area through the import

of raw water into Singapore from Malaysia is discussed.

Introduction

The freshwater decapod prawns and crabs (Decapoda, Crustacea) of

Singapore have been studied intensely over the last 30 years, and are well

known by any standard (Ng, 1990). In a recent appraisal of the state of

freshwater biodiversity in Asia, Singapore was singled out as one country

in which its freshwater fauna was very well known and studied in depth

(Kottelat & Whitten, 1996).

The present paper is intended to review and provide a synopsis of

the extant and extinct freshwater decapod crustacean fauna of Singapore

with particular reference to the Nature Reserves. It will also examine how

the continued conservation of the remaining forests in the centre of the

island (i.e., the Nature Reserves) is critical for the long-term survival of

the majority of the extant decapod crustacean fauna.

State of the Prawn Fauna

The freshwater prawn and crab fauna of Singapore were recently reviewed

by Ng (1990), who recognised 24 species, of which 22 were regarded as

indigenous. Since then, three new species have been added to the fauna.

Choy and Ng (1991) described Caridina temasek, a species that was only

268 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

identified as Caridina sp. by Ng (1990). Ou and Yeo (1995) showed that

specimens which had been identified as Macrobrachium pilimanus by

Johnson (1961a) and Ng (1990) were actually new to science and named it

M. platycheles. Most recently, Yeo and Ng (1997) added Potamalpheops

amnicus, the first record of a freshwater snapping prawn (Alpheidae) from

Singapore. A total of 23 native species of freshwater decapod crustaceans

are thus now known from Singapore (Tables 1, 2).

Table 1. Extant Native Freshwater Decapod Crustaceans.

(EN = Endangered, CO = Common, FO = Forest waters, OP = Open waters, NSS

= Nee Soon Swamp Forest, BINR = Bukit Timah Nature Reserve, NR = Nature

Reserves (excluding NSS & BTNR), OA = Open areas, + = present, - = absent)

Species Status Habitat NSS BINR NR OA

Family POTAMIDAE

1. Johora singaporensis EN FO - + - -

Family PARATHELPHUSIDAE

2. Parathelphusa maculata CO FO/OP + - + ~

3. Parathelphusa reticulata EN FO + - - -

4. Irmengardia johnsoni EN FO + + ~ -

Family GRAPSIDAE

5. Varuna yui CO OP - . - -

6. | Geosesarma peraccae EN FO + + + -

7. Geosesarma nemesis EN FO - + - -

Family PALAEMONIDAE

8. | Macrobrachium malayanum CO FO ... + ~ + -

9. | Macrobrachium platycheles EN FO + - - -

10. Macrobrachium trompii EN FO + - + -

11. Macrobrachium sintangense CO OP/FO : - + +

12. Macrobrachium neglectum EN FO + - - -

13. Macrobrachium idae EN OP + - + -

14. Macrobrachium equidens CO OP - - - ~

Family ATYIDAE

15. Caridina temasek EN FO - - + -

16. Caridina gracilirostris EN FO/OP + - - -

17. Caridina propinqua CX3 FO/OP . - + +

18. Caridina simoni peninsularis EN FO/OP - - + +

19. Caridina tonkinensis EN FO/OP - - + =

20. Caridina weberi sumatrensis EN FO/OP - . ~ +

Family ALPHEIDAE

21. Potamalpheops amnicus EN FO - - + “

Conservation status of freshwater prawns and crabs 269

Two of the species (both palaemonids) are now regarded as extinct

(Table 2), representing about 9% of the total known native fauna.

Macrobrachium scabriculum has not been reported since early this century

and must be regarded as extinct (Johnson, 1961a). The specimens on which

this record was based were recently re-examined and their identity was

confirmed (Y. Cai, pers. comm.). The extinction of the well known Giant

Prawn or Udang Galah, M. rosenbergii, is a more recent phenomenon, as

juveniles were still seen as late as 1985 in the streams draining into Nee

Soon (Ng, 1990). This area is now very disturbed, with the lower stretches

highly polluted. No individuals have, however, been seen or recorded since,

and the species is now regarded as extinct. Both these species have small

eggs and pelagic larvae that develop in estuarine and coastal areas, with

the young prawns having to swim upstream to their adult habitats. Pollution,

concretisation and changes in almost all estuarine areas in Singapore mean

that the survival of these species is doubtful. The same problems are also

faced by two other species, Macrobrachium neglectum and M. idae. Both

species were still relatively common in the early 1980s in streams outside

the Nee Soon Swamp Forest, but they have become very rare in recent

years. Both species have small eggs and pelagic larvae that must develop

downstream. The loss and/or modification of downstream habitats have

apparently contributed to their population decrease, and both species are

likely to become extinct in the near future, regardless of how much of our

forests are conserved.

Table 2. Extinct Freshwater Decapod Crustaceans of Singapore.

(FO = Forest waters, OP = Open waters, LRF = large river fauna, + = present,

- = absent)

Species Habitat LRF

Family PALAEMONIDAE

1. Macrobrachium scabriculum OP/FO -

2. Macrobrachium rosenbergii OP/FO +

For the three atyid shrimps, Caridina simoni peninsularis, C.

tonkinensis and C. weberi sumatrensis, none has been collected from

Singapore waters since the reports by Johnson (1961a, b) and they might

no longer be extant. If they are present, they should be regarded as highly

endangered. All three are freshwater species that have their larval

development linked to estuarine areas as well.

270 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Of the extant shrimp species, most of the endangered species have

direct or semi-abbreviated larval developments, that is, they can complete

their development within the waters of the catchment area. Of these, the

two most vulnerable species are Macrobrachium platycheles and M. trompii.

Macrobrachium platycheles is known only from the forested, faster flowing

streams in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest, whilst M. trompii only occurs in

the more acidic waters of the same swamp.

State of the Crab Fauna

Of the freshwater crabs, Varuna yui is a eurytopic species that is essentially

a marine crab that can live in freshwater. Of the true freshwater crabs (1.e.,

species that have semi- to completely abbreviated larval development), all

species are threatened to various degrees by ongoing and potential habitat

loss.

Of the six extant wholly freshwater species, three (Parathelphusa

maculata, Geosesarma peraccae and G. nemesis) are also common in

Peninsular Malaysia, with P. maculata and G. peraccae still relatively

common in Singapore in some areas at the edge of the catchment area.

Three species, /. johnsoni, P. reticulata and J. singaporensis, are endemic

to Singapore (Ng, 1988, 1989). Studies of neighbouring areas (e.g., southern

Malaysia and Riau Archipelago) have revealed allied but clearly different

species that strongly support the consensus that these three species are

true Singapore endemics.

The most vulnerable of these three is P. reticulata, which is known

only from a small patch of swamp in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest (Ng &

Lim, 1992). Johora singaporensis is known only from Bukit Timah Nature

Reserve and a small stream at the edge of the catchment area (near Bukit

Batok Nature Park). The main population is in Bukit Timah Nature

Reserve, where it is now threatened by the gradual drying up of the streams

there (Ng, 1995). Although no freshwater crab species is yet known to

have become extinct in Singapore, P. reticulata and J. singaporensis are the

most likely candidates in the decades ahead due to their stenotopic habitat

requirements and restricted ranges.

Note on Introductions

There are some problems with a few species that are now still regarded as

native. The shrimps Caridina temasek and Potamalpheops amnicus are

known only from one stretch of Sime Road in the Central Catchment

Nature Reserve, an area in which raw, untreated water from Johor is

Conservation status of freshwater prawns and crabs Zi

regularly pumped in to supplement the water stock in the reservoirs. It is

possible that these two shrimps may have entered Singapore this way. It is

pertinent to note that both shrimps are small species (up to 10 mm in

length) and the adults or young could have easily crossed the filters normally

placed in water pipes. The two shrimps had not been listed in any of the

earlier works on Singapore shrimps by Johnson (1960, 1961a, b), and both

species can be common in parts of western Johor (Yeo & Ng, 1997), from

where much of Singapore’s water comes.

There is as yet, however, no compelling evidence that the two species

are definitely not part of Singapore’s original fauna, as the habitats for

both taxa are not very specific. In addition, P. amnicus is a very difficult

species to collect by normal methods as it is not only very small (and

therefore easily mistaken for the young of other common prawns) but it

also lives deep in burrows in eroded banks (Yeo & Ng, 1997). This species

could thus have been missed by earlier workers. For the moment, it seems

best to regard them as part of Singapore’s extant native fauna.

With regards to introduced crustacean species in Singapore, there

appears to be no obvious problems for the native fauna at present. This is

probably due to the fact that the majority of the extant native species are

forest inhabitants living in softer and more acidic waters, while successful

introductions have mainly been more open-country and hard water species

(Ng et al., 1993).

References

Choy, S.C. & P.K.L. Ng. 1991. A new species of freshwater atyid shrimp,

Caridina temasek (Decapoda: Caridea: Atyidae) from Singapore. Raffles

Bulletin of Zoology. 39: 265-277.

Johnson, D.S. 1960. Sub-specific and infra-specific variation in some

freshwater prawns of the Indo-Pacific region. Proceedings of the

Centenary and bicentenary Congress of Biology, Singapore. pp. 170-181.

Johnson, D.S. 1961a. A synopsis of the Decapoda Caridea and Stenopodidea

of Singapore, with notes on their distribution and a key to the genera of

Caridea occuring in Malayan waters. Bulletin of the National Museum,

Singapore. 30: 44-79.

Johnson, D.S. 1961b. Notes on the freshwater Crustacea of Malaya. I. The

Atyidae. Bulletin of the National Museum, Singapore. 26: 120-153.

Kottelat, M. & A.J. Whitten. 1996. Freshwater Biodiversity in Asia with

special reference to Fish. World Bank Technical Paper No. 343. pp. 59.

272 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Ng, P.K.L. 1988. The Freshwater Crabs of Peninsular Malaysia and

Singapore. Department of Zoology, National University of Singapore.

Ng, P.K.L. 1989. Endemic freshwater crabs in Singapore: discovery,

speciation and conservation. Singapore Institute of Biology Bulletin.

13: 45-51.

Ng, P.K.L. 1990. The freshwater crabs and prawns of Singapore. In: L.M.

Chou & P.K.L. Ng (eds.). Essays in Zoology. Department of Zoology,

National University of Singapore. pp. 189-204.

Ng, P.K.L. 1995. Freshwater decapod crustaceans. In: S.C. Chin, R.T.

Corlett, Y.C. Wee & S.Y. Geh (eds.). Rain Forest in the City: Bukit

Timah Nature Reserve, Singapore. Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore. Suppl.

3: 151-157.

Ng, P.K.L. & K.K.P. Lim. 1992. The conservation status of the Nee Soon

Freshwater Swamp Forest of Singapore. Aquatic Conservation: Marine

and Freshwater Ecosystems. 2: 255-266.

Ng, P.K.L, L.M. Chou & T.J. Lam. 1993. The status and impact of

introduced freshwater animals in Singapore. Biological Conservation.

64: 19-24. |

Ou, A.C.T. & D.C.J. Yeo. 1995. A new species of freshwater prawn,

Macrobrachium platycheles (Decapoda: Caridea: Palaemonidae) from

Singapore and Peninsular Malaysia. Raffles Bulletin of Zoology. 43: 299-

308.

Yeo, D.C.J. & P.K.L. Ng. 1997. The alpheid shrimp genus Potamalpheops

Powell, 1979 (Crustacea: Decapoda: Caridea: Alpheidae) from Southeast

Asia, with descriptions of three new species. Journal of Natural History.

31: 163-190.

Proceedings of the Nature Reserves Survey Seminar.

Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 273-296.

Butterfly Biodiversity in Singapore with Particular

Reference to the Central Catchment Nature Reserve

S.K. KHEW! AND STEVEN S.H. NEO?

'103, Tai Keng Gardens, Singapore 535384

*Blk 16, Simei Street 1, #05-13, Melville Park, Singapore 529942

Abstract

A total of 381 butterfly species have now been recorded in Singapore of which 18 are new

records since 1990. Of this total, 236 species (62%) were recorded during the present

survey. All except 8 (3%) of these occur within the Nature Reserves and 148 (63%) were

recorded only within the Nature Reserves. A total of 74 species (31%) within the Reserves

were considered very rare.

Introduction

The study of butterflies by amateurs is not new, and indeed, it is through

the observations of these dedicated individuals that much important data

have been accumulated over the years. The information on butterfly

biodiversity in Singapore is, at most, sketchy. Most of the documentation

of the species occurred done during the post-war years until the late 1960s.

From our literature research, two references stand out: W.A. Fleming’s

Butterflies of West Malaysia and Singapore (1991) and Steven Corbet and

Maurice Pendlebury’s Butterflies of the Malay Peninsula (1992). Although

the latest editions of the two reference books were published in the early

1990s, most of the updates referred only to the Peninsular Malaysia.

Collating data from these reference books, the last known total species

count for Singapore Island was 363 (Corbet & Pendlebury, 1992).

Only recently has a concerted effort been made to study and establish

the status of butterfly biodiversity in Singapore. This paper presents our

observations and findings with particular reference to the Central Catchment

Nature Reserve. With continued support from the National Parks Board

there is an opportunity to undertake a long-term butterfly biodiversity

survey in Singapore so that the knowledge of the status of species of

butterflies will increase and a greater understanding of these beautiful

creatures will be established.

Methods

Field surveys were conducted from 1990 to 1997 in and around various

274 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

areas in Singapore. In particular, many of the surveys were concentrated

within and around the Central Catchment Nature Reserve. For the surveys,

we used a simple method of selecting sites based on available information

of known or marked routes. Field surveys were based on visual identification

but where necessary, specimens were captured for closer inspection and

subsequently released, or were kept in a reference collection. Where

possible, the number of individuals was noted, and other observations like

male/female or special activities were also documented. However, it should

be noted that for two of the families, Lycaenidae and Hesperiidae, there

are limitations to field identification, and even in a set reference collection,

the correct identification of certain species may be difficult. Whilst all

attempts have been made to identify the species correctly, it is hoped that

the data from future surveys and scientific studies will provide opportunities

for counterchecking and confirmation.

Results and Discussion

To establish a reference database on the butterfly biodiversity in Singapore,

a comprehensive checklist of the species observed during the last seven

years has been compiled (Table 1). Of the 363 species previously known

species in Singapore, a total of 218 (or 60%) was accounted for. A further

18 new records were observed, making a total of 236 extant species

(Appendix 1). Not all species were located within the Central Catchment

Nature Reserves.

Summary Analysis by Family

About 60% of the species previously identified as existing in Singapore

can still be found. Many of the larger and showy species are still evident,

although some species are extremely rare with only a few individuals

observed. The family Papilionidae (Plate la—f) is currently represented by

13 species in Singapore. It can be safely concluded that two species, Malayan

Birdwing Troides amphrysus ruficollis and Great Blue Mime Chilasa

paradoxa aenigma, recorded earlier have since become extinct. A surprising

find is Blue Helen Papilio prexaspes prexaspes. It is highly unlikely that

the earlier authors missed such a large butterfly. We can only speculate

that the species has migrated south from Peninsular Malaysia and has

since established a small colony.

The family Pieridae seems to have suffered a significant drop in

biodiversity over the years. Only 15 out of the original 23 species still

survive in Singapore. However, the Eurema species, particularly, Common

Butterfly biodiversity 212

Table 1. Survey of Butterfly Biodiversity — Species Count.

Extant Total

no. of | recorded

survey species

period

bid deals

—

(oo) Ngo ove ly)

—l

— Oo Nn —

ions

Eda

Leltiy

sills

aul

Shot

pmiaahar

HES

18 236 381

Grass Yellow Eurema hecabe contubernalis enjoys the distinction of being

the most common butterfly in Singapore and can often be found in

abundance.

The family Nymphalidae is represented by 5 subfamilies in Singapore.

A total of 13 species of the subfamily Danainae (Plate 2a—b) can still be

found in Singapore. Most of these species can often be found swarming

around flowering trees, e.g., Syzygium spp. (Myrtaceae) in the Nature

Reserves. One species, Plain Tiger Danaus chrysippus chrysippus (Plate

2b) is decidedly local and can be found only in a few suburban locations.

The subfamily Satyrinae (Plate 2c, d) records a healthy 94% of the original

species known to exist in Singapore. Furthermore, one new record

Mycalesis perseoides perseoides has been added to the Singapore checklist.

Of notable interest is E/ymnias penanga penanga, which still survives but

only on Pulau Ubin. Most of the species in this subfamily feed on grasses,

276 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

bamboo, palms and other monocotyledons. Five of the original seven of

the subfamily Morphinae still exist in Singapore, although most are forest

butterflies that have become quite rare. As many of the species are attracted

to fruit bait, it would be interesting to conduct bait trap experiments to

establish the density of these species. Dark Blue Jungle Glory Thaumantis

kKlugius lucipor is one of the most beautiful butterflies in the region,

comparable to the Morpho of South America. The life history of the

species is still unknown, although we suspect that it feeds on rattan or

another palm. The subfamily Nymphalinae (Plate 3a—c) records a total of

37 of the original 51 species that existed in Singapore. The majority of the

species can be found in the nature reserves. It is interesting to note that we

have observed four new records, Lace Sergeant Athyma pravara helma,

Plain Lacewing Cethosia penthesilia methypsea, Neptis harita harita and

Lexias dirtea merguia (Plate 3c) for Singapore. One species, Neptis harita

harita is restricted in distribution, and can only be found in the Mandai

area. It is likely that this species migrated from Malaysia in recent years

and the colony in Singapore is highly dependent on a hitherto unknown

food plant somewhere in the northern part of Singapore. Only two of the

original five species of the subfamily Charaxinae (Plate 3d) have been

observed in Singapore recently. Both species are rather rare and are not

often seen. Although the Blue Nawab Polyura schreiber tisamenus, is known

to feed on leaves of the common rambutan, it has become extremely rare,

as the food plant has seen a significant loss in popularity as a garden fruit

tree in recent years, and also there have been severe changes in its favoured

habitat.

The family Lycaenidae (Plates 4a—d, Sa—c) includes the largest number

of species in both Malaysia and Singapore. Of the originally recorded 159

species, we have observed only 77 to date. However, many of the species

in this family are difficult to identify with certainty, particularly in the

genera Arhopala, Jamides, Allotinus and Nacaduba. Further intensive

research and field collection would probably yield a greater number of

species that have not been recorded in recent years.

Finally, the family Hesperiidae (Plate S5d—e), with 41 of the original

69 species found in Singapore, may also yield more species when more

collecting data are available. It is interesting to note that we have discovered

a total of seven new records for Singapore — the highest number of new

records amongst the five butterfly families in Singapore.

Some Observations on Singapore Butterflies and Their Host Plants

The interrelation between butterflies and their caterpillar host plants cannot

Butterfly biodiversity S|

be understated. Many species depend solely on one particular species of

plant and will obviously become extinct, if the host plant is no longer

available.

Interestingly, the adaptation of certain species is remarkable, in that

due to some evolutionary process, these species have been found to feed

on other plants. One such case is the species Common Faun Faunis canens

arcesilas. From established literature (Corbet & Pendlebury, 1992), this

species was reported to feed on a species of wild banana (Musa sp.).

However, we have discovered that the species in Singapore feeds on Fish

Tail Palm (Caryota mitis, Arecaceae).

Another species, The Common Tit Hypolycaena erylus teatus (Plate

5c), was known to feed on Vangueria spinosa (Rubiaceae) and

Cinnamomum verum (Lauraceae), (Corbet & Pendlebury, 1992). However,

we made a Startling find here in Singapore, when we discovered the

caterpillars of this species, feeding on Javanese Ixora (/xora javanica,

Rubiaceae), planted at the road shoulder along busy Victoria Street in

downtown Singapore!

Eurema species, on the other hand, have been found on several

types of Leguminosae such as Cassia, Acacia, Caesalpinia and Albizia. The

species’ versatility in their host plants seem to explain why they are often

abundant in many areas in Singapore. It is interesting to note that the

species Common Grass Yellow Eurema hecabe contubernalis, does. not

seem to have any preference for large- or small-leafed plants. We have

seen a female of the species lay her eggs on both Peacock Flower

(Caesalpinia pulcherrima, Leguminosae) and Seven Golden Candlesticks

(Cassia alata, Leguminosae) planted in adjacent pots. The caterpillars were

bred to adulthood with no apparent difference or distinction in size or

colouration.

Orange Emigrant Catopsilia scylla scylla appears to be confined to

urban areas where its host plant, Cassia biflora, is grown as a roadside

tree. It is not unusual to find the butterfly, which is fast on the wing,

darting between the rush hour traffic along Shenton Way. We have not

encountered this species in the Nature Reserves.

Some Observations on Habitats and Feeding Preferences of

Singapore Butterflies

Many butterflies species that we recorded during the surveys were observed

whilst feeding. Favourite flowering bushes of many species of butterflies

are Prickly Lantana (Lantana camara, Verbenaceae), Singapore

Rhododendron (Melastoma malabathricum, Melastomataceae), Common

278 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Asystasia (Asystasia gangetica spp. micrantha, Acanthaceae), Mile-a-Minute

(Mikania micrantha, Compositae) and Common Snakeweed (Stachytarpheta

indica, Verbenaceae). Occasionally, we encountered a flowering tree in

the Nature Reserves, which was literally swarmed with butterflies. Some

of the Syzygium species when in full bloom are particularly attractive to

butterflies. Species of the families Papilionidae, Pieridae and Nymphalidae

are attracted to roadside seepages and damp muddy banks where they

imbibe the liquid nutrients from the ground.

Many species are also attracted to rotting fruit like pineapple, papaya

and banana and certain species of butterflies feed on rotting fruits of figs

(Ficus spp.) on the forest floor. Of particular interest is the Dark Blue

Jungle Glory Thaumantis klugius lucipor, one of the most beautiful species

of the Morphinae subfamily, which is reported to avoid fruit bait (Corbet

& Pendlebury, 1992). However, we have observed an individual female of

this species feeding on the rotting berries on the forest floor. This suggests

that it can be captured with a bait trap, provided that its preferred menu is

offered.

Several species of the subfamily Danainae are attracted to dried

plants of Indian Heliotrope (Heliotropium indicum, Boraginaceae).

Conclusions

Although the biodiversity of butterflies in Singapore may be considered

fair, a number of species observed were represented by only a single

specimen. There is cause for more effort on the conservation of remaining

nature reserves in Singapore to maintain what is left of the flora on which

the butterflies depend on for survival. As studies on identifying the host

plants for the different species of butterflies is far from complete, it is

necessary to conserve as much plant biodiversity in the Nature Reserves as

possible.

For the known host plants, it would be useful to identify possible

locations where these species may be planted without danger of being

sprayed with pesticides and other chemicals that are harmful to the

caterpillars and egg-laying females. Whilst the Nature Reserves would be

the obvious choice for establishing these plants, urban and suburban areas

may also be considered. Some examples of roadside trees e.g., Cassia fistula,

Cassia biflora, Cerbera odollam (Apocynaceae) and others are already

supporting certain species in the public housing areas. “Butterfly gardens”

could be incorporated into school ecogardens, government-owned premises

such as bin centres, power substations and other utility buildings — where

the plants could be cultivated and left to be eaten by the caterpillars without

Butterfly biodiversity 279

too much concern for the aesthetic appearance of the plants themselves.

Even a small area of the Singapore Botanical Gardens could be set aside

to cultivate insecticide-free host plants.

If the cultivation of host plants is more widespread, there will also

need to be adequate flowering plants to support the adult butterflies. In

this case, there is less concern about where these flowering plants could be

grown. In fact, our parks and green areas are ideal for planting /xora,

Lantana camara, and other nectar-rich flowering plants that the adult

butterflies depend on for sustenance.

There is also scope for a pilot study on the re-introduction of some

of the more spectacular species of butterflies that have become extinct in

Singapore. For example, we could import the pupae of the “birdwing”

species Malayan Birdwing Troides amphrysus ruficollis and release the

adult butterflies in areas where its food plant Dutchman’s Pipe Aristolochia

tagala, is cultivated and monitor the survival rate of the species. As the

host plant is indigenous, it does no threat to Singapore’s flora. However,

care must be taken to ensure that the re-introduction will not be at the

expense of existing species of butterflies which share the same host plant.

There is still much to learn and do, and we hope that this paper will

help in a small way to increase the knowledge of our butterflies and to

help preserve them for Singapore’s future generations.

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank the National Parks Board, in particular Dr Lena Chan

and Ms Sharon Chan and their staff for their encouragement and support

in the butterfly surveys and for making constructive suggestions in our

pursuit of knowledge of these beautiful insects. We would also like to

thank the following members of the Butterfly Watching and Research

Group of the Nature Society (Singapore), Ms Andrea Hoffmann, Mr Gan

Cheong Weei, Miss Sabrina Tan, Mr Koh Keow Chai, Mr Simon Chan and

Mr Andrew Tay for their assistance in collecting data in the field.

References

Corbet, A.S. & H.M. Pendlebury. 1992. The Butterflies of the Malay

Peninsula. Revised by J.N. Eliot. Malayan Nature Society, Kuala Lumpur,

Malaysia. Forth edition.

Fleming, W.A. 1991. Butterflies of West Malaysia and Singapore. Longman

Malaysia Sdn Bhd., Malaysia. Second edition.

280 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Foo, T.S. 1985. A Guide to the Wildflowers of Singapore. Singapore Science

Centre, Singapore.

Neo, S.S.H. 1996. A Guide to Common Butterflies of Singapore. Singapore

Science Centre, Singapore.

Polunin, I. 1987. Plants and Flowers of Singapore. Times Editions,

Singapore.

——

Butterfly biodiversity 281

Appendix 1. Checklist of Butterflies in Singapore.

Legend for Status

Very Rare - An average of 1—5 individuals observed per year

Rare - An average of 6-20 individuals observed per year

Common - An average of 21—50 individuals observed per year

Very Common - An average of 51 or more individuals observed per year

Legend for Habitat

Not present in the Nature Reserves

. Present in the Reserves and other Locations Outside the Nature Reserves

Present Only in the Nature Reserves

. Largely Confined to the Reserves with an Occasional Record Outside the

Nature Reserves

No. Species Common Name Status Habitat

Family PAPILIONIDAE — Subfamily PAPILIONINAE

1. Chilasa clytia clytia Common Mime Rare Z

2. Graphium agamemnon agamemnon Tailed Green Jay Common 2

3. Graphium evemon eventus - Very Common 4

4. Graphium sarpedon luctatius Common Bluebottle VeryCommon 4

5. Pachliopta aristolochiae asteris Common Rose Rare 2

6. Papilio demoleus malayanus Lime Butterfly Very Common 2

7. Papilio demolion demolion Banded Swallowtail Rare 2

8. Papilio iswara iswara Great Helen Rare 3

9. Papilio memnon agenor Great Mormon Common 2

10. Papilio polytes romulus Common Mormon Very Common 2

11. Papilio prexaspes prexaspes Blue Helen Very Rare 3

12. Pathysa antiphates itamputi Five Bar Swordtail Rare 8

13. Troides helena cerberus Common Birdwing Rare 2

Chilasa paradoxa aenigma Great Blue Mime Extinct

Troides amphrysus ruficollis Malayan Birdwing Extinct

Family PIERIDAE — Subfamily PIERINAE

14. Appias libythea olferna Striped Albatross Very Common 2

15. Appias lyncida vasava*"' Chocolate Albatross Very Rare 2

16. Delias hyparete metarete Painted Jezebel Very Common 2

17. Delias pasithoe parthenope*? - Very Rare 1

18. Leptosia nina malayana Psyche Rare Z

19. Pieris canidia malayica Cabbage White Common l

Appias nero figulna Orange Albatross Extinct

Cepora iudith malaya Orange Gull Extinct

Delias singhapura singhapura - Extinct

Pareronia valeria lutescens Wanderer Extinct

Saletara liberia distanti Malayan Albatross —_ Extinct

No.

Species

Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Common Name

Status

Family PIERIDAE — Subfamily COLIADINAE

Catopsilia pomona pomona

Catopsilia pyranthe pyranthe

Catopsilia scylla scylla

Eurema andersonii andersonii

Eurema blanda snelleni

Eurema hecabe contubernalis

Eurema sari sodalis

Eurema simulatrix tecmessa

Gandaca harina distanti

Dercas verhuelli herodorus

Eurema ada iona

Eurema brigitta senna

Common Emigrant

Mottled Emigrant

Orange Emigrant

Three Spot Grass

Yellow

Common Grass

Yellow

Chocolate Grass

Yellow

Tree Yellow

Family NYMPHALIDAE — Subfamily DANAINAE

Danaus chrysippus chrysippus*?

Danaus genutia genutia

Danaus melanippus hegesippus

Euploea camaralzeman malayica**

Euploea crameri bremeri

Euploea eyndhovii gardineri

Euploea midamus singapura

Euploea mulciber mulciber

Euploea phaenareta castelnaui

Euploea radamanthus radamanthus

Idea stolli logani

Ideopsis vulgaris macrina

Parantica agleoides agleoides

Euploea eunice lencogonis

Euploea tulliolus ledereri

Idea leuconoe chersonesia

Ideopsis gaura perakana

Parantica aspasia aspasia

Plain Tiger

Common Tiger

Black Veined Tiger

Malayan Crow

Spotted Black Crow

Striped Black Crow

Spotted Blue Crow

Striped Blue Crow

King Crow

Magpie Crow

Common Tree

Nymph

Blue Glassy Tiger

Dark Glassy Tiger

Blue Branded King

Crow

Dwarf Crow

White Tree Nymph

Lesser WoodNymph

Yellow Glassy Tiger

Family NYMPHALIDAE — Subfamily SATYRINAE

Elymnias hypermnestra agina

Elymnias panthera panthera

Elymnias penanga penanga*°

Lethe europa malaya

Melanitis leda leda

Common Palmfly

Tawny Palmfly

Bamboo Tree Brown

Common Evening

Brown

Very Common

Rare

Common

Rare

Very Common

Common

Extinct

Very Rare

Common

Rare

Very Rare

Rare

Common

Very Common

Common

Extinct

Very Common

Rare

Very Rare

Rare

Habitat

NW rR dw dO

WwW hNM HM FW HW NM KWH LY

Oo NM bY

bo WR WB bd

Butterfly biodiversity

285

No. Species Common Name Status Habitat

47. Mycalesis fusca fusca Malayan Bush Rare 5)

Brown )

48. Mycalesis mineus macromalayana Dark Brand Bush Very Common 2

Brown

49. Mycalesis orseis nautilus Purple Bush Brown Rare 3

50. Mycalesis perseoides perseoides . Rare 2

51. Mycalesis perseus cepheus - Common 2

52. Mycalesis visala phamis - Rare 8

53. Orsotriaena medus cinerea Nigger Very Common 2

54. Ypthima baldus newboldi Common Five Ring Common 2

55. Ypthima fasciata torone*® - Very Rare 3

56. Ypthima horsfieldi humei*’ : Very Rare 3

58. Ypthima pandocus corticaria Common Three Very Common 2

Ring

Elymnias esaca esaca : Extinct

Family NYMPHALIDAE — Subfamily MORPHINAE

59. Amathusia phidippus phidippus Palm King Rare +

60. Discophora sondaica despoliata** Very Rare 5

61. Faunis canens arcesilas Common Faun Common 3

62. Thaumantis klugius lucipor Dark Blue Jungle Very Rare 3

Glory

63. Zeuxidia amethystus amethystus Saturn Common 3

Thaumantis noureddin noureddin Dark Jungle Glory — Extinct

Zeuxidia doubledayi doubledayi - Extinct

Family NYMPHALIDAE — Subfamily NYMPHALINAE

64. Athyma asura idita - Very Rare 3

65. Athyma kanwa kanwa - Very Rare 3

66. Athyma nefte subrata Colour Sergeant Rare 3

67. Athyma pravara helma Lance Sergeant Very Rare 3

68. Athyma reta moorei - Very Rare 3

69. Cethosia hypsea hypsina Malay Lacewing Very Common 4

70. Cethosia penthesilia methypsea*° Plain Lacewing Very Rare 2

71. Chersonesia peraka peraka*"” . Very Rare 3

72. Cirrochroa orissa orissa Banded Yeoman Very Rare 3

73. Cupha erymanthis lotis Rustic Rare 3

74. Eulaceura osteria kumana - Very Common 3

75. Euripus nyctelius euploeoides Courtesan Rare 5

76. Euthalia aconthea gurda Baron Very Rare 2

77. Euthalia adonia pinwilli . Very Rare 3

78. Euthalia monina monina Malay Baron Common 8

79. Hypolimnas anomala anomala Malayan Egefly Very Common 2

80. Hypolimnas bolina bolina Great Egefly Very Common 4

81. Hypolimnas misippus misippus*!! - Very Rare 3

284

Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

No. Species Common Name Status Habitat

82. Junonia almana javana Peacock Pansy Rare 2

83. Junonia atlites atlites Grey Pansy Rare 2

84. Junonia hedonia ida Chocolate Pansy Very Common 2

85. Junonia orithya wallacei Blue Pansy Common 2

86. Lasippa heliodore dorelia - Rare 3

87. Lasippa tiga siaka Burmese Lascar Common 3

88. Lebadea martha parkeri Knight Rare -

89. Lexias canescens pardalina - Very Rare 3

90. Lexias dirtea merguia Rare 3

91. Lexias pardalis dirteana Archduke Very Common 3

92. Moduza procris milonia Commander Very Common 3

93. Neptis harita harita*” - Rare 3

94. Neptis hylas papaja Common Sailor Rare 4

95. Neptis leucoporos cresina - Very Common 3

96. Pandita sinope sinope - Rare 3

97. Pantoporia hordonia Common Lascar Rare 3

98. Pantoporia paraka paraka - Rare 3

99. Phaedyma columella singa Short Banded Sailor Common 2

100. Phalantha phalantha phalantha Leopard Common 2

101. Tanaecia iapis puseda Horsfield’s Baron Common 3

102. Tanaecia pelea pelea Malay Viscount Very Common 4

103. Terinos terpander robertsia Royal Assyrian Rare 3

104. Vindula dejone erotella Cruiser Very Common 3

Ariadne ariadne ariadne Angled Castor Extinct

Athyma perius perius Common Sergeant Extinct

Bassarona teuta goodrichi Banded Marquis Extinct

Chersonesia rahria rahria Wavy Maplet Extinct

Dophla evelina compta - Extinct

Euthalia djata rubidifascia - Extinct

Euthalia merta merta - Extinct

Neptis miah batara - Extinct

Pantoporia aurelia aurelia - Extinct

Pantoporia dindinga : Extinct

Pantoporia sandaka sandaka - Extinct

Parthenos sylvia lilacinus Clipper Extinct

Tanaecia godartii puloa Malay Count Extinct

Vagrans egista macromalayana Vagrant Extinct

Family NYMPHALIDAE — Subfamily CHARAXINAE

105. Polyura hebe plautus - Rare 3

106. Polyura schreiber tisamenus Blue Nawab Very Rare 3

Charaxes bernadus crepax Tawny Rajah Extinct

Polyura moori moor - Extinct

Prothoe franck uniformis - Extinct

Family LYCAENIDAE — Subfamily RIODININAE

107. Abisara geza niya - Rare 3

Butterfly biodiversity

285

No. Species Common Name Status Habitat

108. Abisara savitri savitri - Rare 3

109. Laxita thuisto thuisto Lesser Harlequin Rare 3

Abisara saturata kausambioides Malayan Plum Judy —_ Extinct

Taxila haquinus haquinus Harlequin Extinct

Zemeros flegyas albipunctatus Punchinello Extinct

Family LYCAENIDAE — Subfamily PORITIINAE

110. Poritia philota philota - Very Rare 3

111. Poritia sumatrae sumatrae Sumatran Gem Rare 3

Simiskina phalia potina Blue Brilliant Extinct

Family LYCAENIDAE — Subfamily MILETINAE

112. Allotinus unicolor unicolor Lesser Darkie Rare 3

113. Logania marmorata damis - Rare 3

114. Miletus biggsti biggsii Bigg’s Brownie Common 2

115. Miletus gopara gopara - Rare 3

116. Miletus symethus petronius*'* - Rare 3

117. Spalgis epius epius : Very Rare 2

Allotinus davidis . Extinct

Allotinus horsfieldi nessus - Extinct

Allotinus strigatus malayanus ; Extinct

Allotinus substrigosus substrigosus Extinct

Allotinus subviolaceus alkamah Extinct

Liphyra brassolis abbreviata The Moth Butterfly Extinct

Miletus gaesa gaesa - Extinct

Family LYCAENIDAE — Subfamily CURETINAE

118. Curetis santana malayica Malayan Sunbeam Common 2

119. Curetis saronis sumatrana*"* - Very Rare 1

Curetis bulis stigmata - Extinct

Curetis regula - Extinct

Curetis sperthis sperthis : Extinct

Family LYCAENIDAE — Subfamily LYCAENINAE

120. Acytolepis puspa lambi Common Hedge Common 3

Blue

121. Anthene emolus goberus Ciliate Blue Rare 4

122. Anthene lycaenina miya - Rare ~

123. Arhopala abseus abseus - Rare 3

124. Arhopala aedias agnis Large Metallic Oak Rare 4

Blue

125. Arhopala ammon ammon - Very Rare 3

126. Arhopala amphimuta amphimuta - Very Rare 3

127. Arhopala antimuta antimuta - Rare 3

128. Arhopala athada athada - Rare 3

129. Arhopala atosia malayana Tailed Disc Oak Very Rare 3

Blue

286

Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

No. Species Common Name Status Habitat

130. Arhopala aurea - Rare 3

131. Arhopala epimuta epiala - Rare 3

132.. Arhopala major major - Rare 3

133. Arhopala myrzala lammas - Very Rare 3

134. Arhopala pseudocentaurus nakula : Rare 2

135. Arhopala pseudomuta pseudomuta Raffles’ Oak Blue Rare 3

136. Arhopala trogon*? . Very Rare 3

137. Caleta elna elvira Elbowed Pierrot Rare 3

138. Castalius rosimon rosimon*'® - Very Rare 3

139. Catochrysops panormus exiguus*" Silver Forget-Me- Very Rare 1

Not

140. Catochrysops strabo strabo - Very Rare 3

141. Cheritra freja friggia Common Imperial Very Rare 3

142. Chilades pandava pandava Cycad Blue Common a3

143. Deudorix epijarbas cinnabarus Cornelian Rare 3

144. Drupadia ravindra moorei Common Posy Common 3

145. Drupadia rufotaenia rufotaenia*"* - Very Rare 3

146. Drupadia theda thesmia Dark Posy Very Rare 3

147. Eooxylides tharis distanti Branded Imperial Very Common 3

148. Euchrypsos cnejus cnejus Gram Blue Common 3

149. Everes lacturnus rileyi Indian Cupid Very Rare 1

150. Flos anniella anniella - Very Rare S

151. Flos apidanus saturatus - Rare 3

152. Flos diardi capeta - Rare 3

153. Flos fulgida singhapura - Rare 3

154. Horaga syrinx maenala*”” - Very Rare 4

155. Hypolycaena erylus teatus Common Tit Common 4

156. Hypolycaena thecloides thecloides - Very Rare +

157. Ionolyce helicon merguiana Pointed Line Blue Common 3

158. Iraota distanti distanti*™ - Very Rare 3

159. Iraota rochana boswelliana - Very Rare -

160. Jacoona anasuja anasuja*"' - Very Rare 3

161. Jamides bochus nabonassar*” - Very Rare 3

162. Jamides caeruleus caeruleus Sky Blue Rare 3

163. Jamides celeno aelianus Common Caerulean Common +

164. Lampides boeticus Pea Blue Rare 3

165. Loxura atymnus fuconius Yamfly Rare 2

166. Megisba malaya sikkima - Very Rare 5

167. Nacaduba berenice icena Rounded 6-Line Rare 3

Blue

168. Nacaduba beroe neon - Rare 5

169. Neocheritra amrita amrita Grand Imperial Very Rare 3

170. Neopithecops zalmora zalmora ; Very Rare 3

171. Prosotas nora superdates - Common -

172. Rapala dieneces dieneces*” - Very Rare 3

173. Rapala domitia domitia - Rare 3

174. Rapala iarbus iarbus Common Red Flash Rare 3

Butterfly biodiversity

287

No. Species Common Name Status Habitat

175. Rapala manea chozeba - Very Rare 3

176. Rapala suffusa barthema Very Rare 3

177. Rapala varuna orseis - Rare 5

178. Remelana jangala travana*™™ Chocolate Royal Very Rare 3

179. Semanga superba deliciosa - Rare 3

180. Sinthusa nakasa amba - Rare 3

181. Spindasis lohita senama Long Banded Very Rare 3

, Silverline

182. Spindasis syama terana Club/Black-Banded Very Rare 3

Silverline

183. Surendra vivarna amisena Acacia Blue Rare 3

184. Tajuria cippus maxentius Peacock Royal Rare 4

185. Virachola kessuma deliochus*” - Very Rare 3

186. Zeltus amasa maximinianus Fluffy Tit Rare 3

187. Zizina otis lampa Lesser Grass Blue Very Common 2

188. Zizula hylax pygmaea - Rare 1

Ancema blanka blanka - Extinct

Arhopala achelous achelous - Extinct

Arhopala agrata agrata de Niceville’s Dull Extinct

Oakblue

Arhopala alitaeus pardenas - Extinct

Arhopala allata pandora Extinct

Arhopala ariel Extinct

Arhopala avathina avathina - Extinct

Arhopala barami penanga - Extinct

Arhopala corinda acestes - Extinct

Arhopala delta - Extinct

Arhopala democritus lycaenaria . Extinct

Arhopala eumolphus maxwelli Green Oakblue Extinct

Arhopala fulla intaca - Extinct

Arhopala hypomuta hypomuta Extinct

Arhopala inornata inornata - Extinct

Arhopala lurida - Extinct

Arhopala metamuta metamuta - Extinct

Arhopala milleri . Extinct

Arhopala moorei busa - Extinct

Arhopala muta maranda : Extinct

Arhopala normani - Extinct

Arhopala phanda phanda - Extinct

Arhopala silhetensis adorea - Extinct

Arhopala sublustris ridleyi - Extinct

Arhopala wildeyana wildeyana - Extinct

Bindahara phocides phocides - Extinct

Bullis buto cowani . Extinct

Catapaecilma major emas - Extinct

Deudorix elioti - Extinct

Deudorix staudingeri - Extinct

288 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

No. Species Common Name Status Habitat

Drina cowani - Extinct

Eliotia jalindra burbona - Extinct

Horaga albimacula malaya : Extinct

Horaga chalcedonyx malaya - Extinct

Horaga onyx sardonyx : Extinct

Traota timoleon wickii - Extinct

Jamides abdul abdul - Extinct

Jamides alecto ageladas - Extinct

Jamides elpis pseudelpis - Extinct

Jamides philatus subditus - Extinct

Jamides pura pura - Extinct

Manto hypoleuca terana : Extinct

Mantoides gama gama - Extinct

Nacaduba augusta kerriana - Extinct

Nacaduba calauria malayica - Extinct

Nacaduba hermus swatipa - Extinct

Nacaduba kurava nemana - Extinct

Nacaduba pactolus odon . Extinct

Nacaduba pavana singapura - Extinct

Nacaduba pendleburyi pendleburyi : Extinct

Nacaduba russelli - Extinct

Nacaduba sanaya elioti - Extinct

Nacaduba subperusia lysa - Extinct

Pratapa deva relata White Royal Extinct

Pratapa icetoides calculis - Extinct

Prosotas dubiosa lumpura - Extinct

Pseudotajuria donatana donatana - Extinct

Purlisa gigantea gigantea - Extinct

Rapala abnormis abnormis - Extinct

Rapala cowani - Extinct

Rapala damona - Extinct

Rapala pheretima sequeira - Extinct

Tajuria deudorix ingeni - Extinct

Tajuria dominus dominus - Extinct

Tajuria mantra mantra - Extinct

Una usta usta Singleton Extinct

Virachola subguttata malaya - Extinct

Zizeeria karsandra Dark Grass Blue Extinct

Family HESPERITIDAE — Subfamily COELIADINAE

189. Badamia exclamationis - Very Rare 3

190. Bibasis etelka*** - Very Rare 3

191. Bibasis harisa consobrina Orange Awlet Very Rare 3

192. Hasora badra badra Common Awl Rare 3

193. Hasora chromus chromus - Very Rare 3

194. Hasora schoenherr chuza*’ ‘Yellow Banded Awl Very Rare 3

195. Hasora taminatus malayana - Rare 2

Butterfly biodiversity

289

No. Species Common Name Status Habitat

196. Hasora vitta vitta Plain Banded Awl Rare 3

Choaspes subcaudatus crawfurdi - Extinct

Hasora lizetta : Extinct

Family HESPERIIDAE — Subfamily PYRGINAE

197. Gerosis limax dirae** - Very Rare 3

198. Gerosis phisara phisara*” - Very Rare 3

199. Odina hieroglyphica ortina : Very Rare 3

200. Odontoptilum angulatum angulatum**” - Very Rare 3

201. Tagiades calligana - Rare 3

202. Tagiades gana gana Large Snow Flat Rare 3

203. Tagiades japetus atticus Common Snow Flat Rare 3

204. Tagiades ultra - Very Rare 3

205. Tapena thwaitesi bornea*" - Very Rare 3

Celaenorrhinus asmara asmara - Extinct

Gerosis tristis - Extinct

Family HESPERIIDAE — Subfamily HESPERIINAE

206. Ampittia dioscorides camertes** Bush Hopper Rare 3

207. Ancistroides nigrita maura Chocolate Demon Rare 3

208. Caltoris cormasa . Rare 3

209. Caltoris philippina philippina : Common 3

210. Eetion elia - Rare 3

211. Erionota acroleuca apicalis** - Very Rare 3

212. Erionota thrax thrax Banana Skipper Rare 4

213. Erionota torus - Rare 4

214. Gangara thyrsis thyrsis** Giant Redeye Very Rare 8

215. Halpe ormenes vilasina - Very Rare 3

216. Hidari irava Coconut Skipper Rare 4

217. Hyarotis adrastus praba - Very Rare 3

218. lambrix salsala salsala Chestnut Bob Rare 3

219. Iambrix stellifer Starry Bob Very Rare 3

220. Matapa aria Common Redeye Very Rare 3

221. Notocrypta paralysos varians Banded Demon Rare D

222. Oriens gola pseudolus Common Dartlet Very Rare 3

223. Pelopidas mathias mathias Small Branded Swift Common 4

224. Plastingia naga - Rare 3

225. Plastingia pellonia*® - Very Rare 3

226. Polytremis lubricans lubricans Contiguous Swift Common -

227. Potanthus omaha omaha Lesser Dart Common /

228. Pyroneura latoia latoia Yellow Veined Lancer Common 3

229. Quedara monteithi monteithi** . Very Rare 3

230. Suastus everyx everyx**’ - Very Rare 3

231. Suastus gremius gremius . Rare 2

232. Taractrocera ardonia lamia . Very Rare 3

233. Telicota besta bina - Common -

234. Udaspes folus Grass Demon Rare 2

290

Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

No. Species Common Name Status Habitat

235. Unkana ambasa batara Hoary Palmer Very Rare 3

236. Zela zenon** - Very Rare 3

Astictopterus jama jama Forest Hopper Extinct

Baoris farri farri - Extinct

Baoris oceia Paintbrush Swift Extinct

Borbo cinnara Formosan Swift Extinct

Caltoris malaya - Extinct

Cephrenes acalle niasicus - Extinct

Gangara lebadea lebadea - Extinct

Idmon distanti - Extinct

Idmon obliquans obliquans Small Red Bob Extinct

Notocrypta clavata clavata - Extinct

Parnara bada bada - Extinct

Pelopidas agna agna - Extinct

Pemara pugnans pugnans Pugnacious Lancer __ Extinct

Potanthus confucius dushta - Extinct

Potanthus heraerus serina - Extinct

Potanthus juno Juno : Extinct

Potanthus trachala tytleri - Extinct

Psolos fuligo fuligo The Coon Extinct

Telicota augias augias Palm Dart Extinct

Telicota colon stinga - Extinct

Zela cowani - Extinct

Zographetus doxus - Extinct

Zographetus ogygia ogygia - Extinct

Zographetus rama . Extinct

Compiled by Khew Sin Khoon, 1 September 1998.

New records for Singapore are printed in bold.

Species identified in the genus Arhopala are tentative and subject to further verification.

The extinct species have either not been seen in recent years or are believed to be extinct.

However, it is still possible that some of these may turn up in continuing surveys.

Ww i —

oo ~— OO nN a=

Chestnut Ave.

'° Two unconfirmed sightings at Upper Seletar Reservoir Park.

Very seasonal. No physical records taken in recent years.

Record verified by a single physical specimen taken in the Mandai area.

Very local in distribution. Found mainly in the Sembawang area.

Species recorded by a single physical specimen taken at Nee Soon Pipeline.

Very local in distribution. Observed only on Pulau Ubin.

Species recorded by a single photographed specimen at Night Safari Zoo.

Species recorded by a single physical specimen taken in Lower Peirce Reservoir area.

Species recorded in early 90s. None observed in recent years.

Not seen in recent years, except for one physical specimen taken on the Gangsa Track,

'' Not seen in recent years, except one physical specimen taken in the Mandai area.

————

Butterfly biodiversity 291

Very localised distribution in the Mandai area.

'3 All specimens taken on the Gangsa Track, Chestnut Ave.

‘4 Very local in distribution. Records mainly from Sungei Buloh Nature Park.

'S Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken on the Island Club Track.

'7 Species recorded from two physical specimens taken at Pulau Ubin and Khatib Bongsu.

'8 Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken on the Island Club Track.

' Three unconfirmed sightings in Feb 98. No physical specimens taken.

*0 Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken in the MacRitchie area.

21 Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken in the Mandai area.

* Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken on the Gangsa Track.

*3 Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken on the Gangsa Track.

4 Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken in the Upper Seletar Reservoir Park.

* Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken on the Gangsa Track.

*6 Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken at Nee Soon Pipeline.

*7 Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken on the Island Club Track.

*8 Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken on the Island Club Track.

*? Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken at Upper Peirce Reservoir.

*? Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken at Nee Soon Pipeline.

*! Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken in the Sime Road area.

*” Very local. Found only on the Water’s Edge Path, Chestnut Ave area.

33 Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken in the Upper Seletar Reservoir Park.

“ Unconfirmed observation on the Island Club Track.

* Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken at Nee Soon Pipeline.

*6 Species recorded from two physical specimens taken in the Upper Seletar Reservoir Park.

*7 Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken at Upper Peirce Reservoir.

*8 Species recorded by a single physical specimen taken in the Upper Seletar Reservoir Park.

292 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Khew Sin Khoon

Plate la

Plate

Plate le Khew Sin Khoon

Plate 1d Khew Sin Khoon

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, stiseal’

Khew Sin Khoon

Plate 1f Steven Neo

Plate le

Plate 1. Family Papilionidae. a. The Great Mormon (Papilio memnon agenor) female form-

esperi is the commonest of the four forms found in Singapore. b. The Common Mormon

(Papilio polytes romulus) - recently hatched males drying their wings. c. The Banded

Swallowtail (Papilio demolion demolion) is a threatened species. d. The Common Birdwing

(Troides helena cerberus), being very dependent on its caterpillar host plant, Aristolochia tagala,

is extremely vulnerable to extinction. e. The Five Bar Swordtail (Pathysa antiphates itamputi)

is a relatively rare and forest-dependent species. f. The Tailed Green Jay (Graphium

agamemnon agamemnon) can be found in the reserves and housing estates.

Butterfly biodiversity 293

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ey z

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Plate 2. Family Nymphalidae—Subfamily Danainae (a—b) and Subfamily Satyrinae (c—d).

a. The Common Tree Nymph (/dea stolli logani) is a forest-dependent species which floats

among tree tops. b. The Plain Tiger (Danaus chrysippus chrysippus) is extremely rare and

sightings are limited to northen part of the island. c. The Tawny Palmfly (Elymnias panthera

panthera) is a forest-dependent species which feeds on palms. d. The Malayan Bush Brown

(Mycalesis fusca fusca) is a forest-dependent species which is usually seen singly amongst

low-growing shrubs and grasses. |

294 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

z =

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A 7

z 2

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Py =

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Plate 3. Family Nymphalidae—Subfamily Nymphalinae (a—c) and Subfamily Charaxinae

(d). a. This rare Athyma asura idita is a forest-dependent species. b. This extremely rare Euthalia

adonia pinwilli is most often seen on the western banks of the Upper Peirce Reservoir. c.

Lexias dirtea merguia is a rare forest-dependent species. d. Polyura hebe plautus,a subspecies

thought to occur only in Singapore, and southern Johore.

Butterfly biodiversity 295

Khew Sin Khoon

Plate 4a Steven Neo

Plate 4b

= =

15 5

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= it

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Plate 4. Family Lycaenidae—Subfamily Riodininae (a—b) and Subfamily Lycaeninae (c—

d). a. Abisara geza niya is a rare forest-dependent species. b. The Lesser Harlequin (Laxita

thuisto thuisto) is a rare forest-dependent species. e. Arhopala abseus abseus is more common

here than in Malaysia. d. The forest-dependent Common Posy (Drupadia ravindra moorei) is

found throughout the Nature Reserves.

296 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Plate 5c Steven Neo

Plate 5a Steven Neo Plate Sb Steven Neo

wee

Plate 5d Khew Sin Khoon Plate Se Khew Sin Khoon

Plate 5. Family Lycaenidae—Subfamily Lycaeninae (a—c), Family Hesperiidae—Subfamily

Pyrginae (d) and Subfamily Coeliadinae (e). a. The Common Tit - Caterpillar stage. b. The

Common Tit - Pupa stage. e. The Common Tit (Hypolycaena erylus teatus).d. Tagiades calligana,

a forest-dependent species which is usually seen singly. e. The rare Orange Awlet (Bibasis

harisa consobrina) is bred on Arthrophyllum diversifolium found in the Nature Reserves.

Proceedings of the Nature Reserves Survey Seminar.

Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 297-312.

Stick and Leaf Insect (Phasmida: Insecta) Biodiversity in

the Nature Reserves of Singapore

FRANCIS SEOW-CHOEN

Department of Colorectal Surgery

Singapore General Hospital

Outram Road, Singapore 169608

Abstract

Forty-one species of phasmids found in Singapore extant as well as extinct are listed and

aspects of their conservation discussed. Eleven species are still relatively common and are

widely distributed especially within the Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Eleven species

exist in only very isolated pockets within the Central Catchment Nature Reserve. One

species has been found only in the Punggol area. A further ten species are very rare and in

almost a decade of studying these insects only one or two specimens have been found in

Singapore. An additional eight species have not been seen or recorded for at least 30 years

and are best described as extinct in Singapore.

Introduction

Stick and Leaf Insects (order Phasmida) are common but little known

insects of tropical and subtropical forests. Indeed, South-East Asia has a

large number of species. Most if not all species have an uncanny ability to

“disappear” into their surroundings by mimicking sticks and leaves thus

earning them their names Phasmida and Spectres, both meaning ‘ghost-

like’. Phasmids are food plant specific and all species refuse to eat unless

the plants offered are acceptable to that particular species. Most species

will take only a few species of naturally occurring plants. Similar species

may eat similar plants while species from different genera eat totally

different plants. In the wild, phasmids are usually located on or near their

food plants. This may, therefore, make phasmids a good indicator of forest

health. A wide variety of phasmids is an indicator of the presence of a

wide variety of plant species.

The order Phasmida is divided into three suborders and six families.

The suborder Timematodea consists of one family of small insects with

three segmented tarsi and is found only in North and Central America. All

other phasmids are therefore divided into one of the other two suborders.

The suborder Areolatae consists of insects where the middle and hind

tibiae have a sunken triangular region or areola on the underside of the

apices. The suborder Anareolatae is made up of insects without this sunken

areola. The suborder Areolatae consists of the families Bacillidae,

298 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Pseudophasmatidae and the Phyllidae. The suborder Anareolatae consists

of the families Heteronemiidae and the Phasmatidae.

History and Methods

Prior to the present survey, reports of phasmids from Singapore were

scanty and limited to occasional and infrequent accounts (Westwood, 1859;

Brunner & Redtenbacher, 1906-08; Ridley, 1894). During the course of

this survey, several reports were published including new records and new

species (Seow-Choen, 1993a-e, 1995a-d, 1996a-b, 1997a-b; Seow-Choen &

Brock, 1996; Seow-Choen et al., 1994a-d; Seow-Choen et al., 1994e; Tay &

Seow-Choen, 1996, Seow-Choen & Seow-En, 1994; Seow-Choen eft al.,

1996 & Brock, 1995)

Details of records from Singapore were based on field observations

by the author, friends and colleagues as well as extensive searches of the

literature and examination of museum collections. The author started

working on Singapore phasmids in 1990. Full details on synonyms and

museum records may be found in Brock (1999). Field work consisted mainly

of meticulous searching after dark of bushes along paths within the Nature

Reserves. These insects are nocturnal and daytime searching 1s futile. Night-

time searching with a powerful hand torch gives the best results. Searches

are normally made from ground to a level of about 3 m from ground level.

Searches higher up were not made as capture of insects at such levels

would have been impossible. It is possible that many insects that are

considered rare are present at the top of the canopy but these are impossible

to assess at the present time by the current methods employed by the

author. Torch lighting obviously allows only for capture of individual insects

one at a time and is time consuming and labour intensive.

Phasmid ecology, including food plants and aspects of their life cycle,

was also investigated as the author is successful in rearing many of the

local species.

Results

The Phasmida classification of Bradley and Galil (1977) lists three suborders,

six families and 17 subfamilies. In our survey of Singapore forests, we

have found representatives from two suborders, five families and six

subfamilies (Table 1). Altogether 41 species have been found or been

recorded in the past from Singapore. In the course of our research into

Singapore’s Phasmids, 18 new records for Singapore were established,

numerous synonyms cleared up and three undescribed species found. Two

Stick and leaf insect biodiversity

299

species (Abrosoma xiuyuae and Asceles singapura) have since been

described. One species is still undescribed and could possibly represent a

new genus.

Table 1. Checklist of Phasmids in Singapore and their status.

(C=common, I= isolated pockets, R= rare, E=extinct)

No. Species Status

Suborder AREOLATAE

Family BACILLIDAE — Subfamily HETEROPTERYGINAE

1. Datames oileus (Westwood) 1859 =

2. Datames mouhotii (Bates) 1865 I

3. Heteropteryx dilatata (Parkinson) 1798 E

4. Planispectrum bengalensis (Redtenbacher)1906 R

Family PPEUDOPHASMATIDAE — Subfanily

ASCHIPHASMATINAE

5. Abrosoma xiuyuae Brock & Seow-Choen 1999 C

6. Presbistus peleus (Gray) 1835 C

7. Presbistus flavicornis (de Haan 1842) E

Family PHYLLIDAE

8. | Phyllium bioculatum Gray 1832 R

9. Phyllium siccifolium (Linnaeus) 1758 R

Suborder ANAREOLATAE

Family HETERONEMIIDAE — Subfamily NECROSCIINAE

10. Acacus sarawacus (Westwood) 1859 I

11. Asceles malaccae (Saussure )1868 e

12. Asceles larunda (Westwood) 1859 e

13. Asceles singapura Seow-Choen & Brock 1999 I

14. Calvisia sangarius (Westwood) 1859 EB

15. Diacanthoidea diacanthos (de Haan) 1842 R

16. Diesbachia tamyris (westwood) 1859 I

17. Gargantuoidea phaetusa(Westwood) 1859 E

18. Gargantuoidea triumphalis Redtenbacher 1908 R

19. Lopaphus brachypterus (de Haan) 1842 R

20. Lopaphus iolas (Westwood) 1859 f

21. Marmessoidea rosea (Fabricius) 1793 EB

22. Necroscia punctata (Gray) 1835 I

23. Necroscia affinis (Gray) 1835 3

24. Necroscia roseipennis Audinet-Serville 1838 Cc

25. Necroscia westwoodi Kirby 1904 I

26. Necroscia inflata (Redtenbacher) 1908 Ce

27. Phaenopharos struthioneus (Westwood) 1859 EB

28. Sipyloidea sipylus (Westwood) 1859 I

29. Sipyloidea meneptolemus (Westwood) 1859 R

300 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

No. Species . Status

30. Sosibia esacus (Westwood) 1859 I

31. Sosibia solida Redtenbacher 1908 I

32. Baculofractum insignis (Brunner von Wattenwyl) 1907 R

33. Undescribed species R

Family HETERONEMIIDAE — Subfamily LONCHODINAE

34. Carausius nodosus (de Haan) 1842 I

35. Lonchodes brevipes Gray 1835 .

36. Lonchodes geniculatus Gray 1835 C

37. Prisomera malaya (Stal) 1875 2

Family HETERONEMIIDAE — Subfamily HETERONEMIINAE

38. Bactricia ridleyi Kirby 1904 E

Family PHASMATIDAE — Subfamily PHASMATINAE

39. Baculum nematodes (de Haan) 1842 I

40. Eurycnema versirubra (Audinet-Serville) 1838 E

41. Phobaeticus serratipes (Gray) 1835 R

All the living phasmids located by the author were found in the

Central Catchment Nature Reserve and its surrounding fringe areas such

as the forest within the Singapore Island Country Club locality. The full

list of phasmid food plants is not discussed here as it has been published

(Tay & Seow-Choen, 1996).

Eleven species are still relatively common and are widely distributed

especially in the Central Nature Reserve Areas. These are Datames oileus

(Plate la), Presbistus peleus, Abrosoma xiuyuae, Asceles malaccae, A.

larunda (Plate 1b), Necroscia affinis (Plate 1c—e), N. roseipennis (Plate 2a—

b), N. inflata, Lonchodes brevipes (Plate 2c), L. geniculatus (Plate 2d) and

Prisomera malaya. All these species are common because their food plants

are very common within the Nature Reserves.

Datames oileus is a small ground or low-lying species that feeds mainly

on Curculigo spp. (Hydrophyllaceae), palms, and various species of aroids.

This species is therefore widely distributed in the Nature Reserve and is

especially common in Bukit Timah Nature Reserve and the trail leading

from Singapore Island Country Club to MacRitchie Reservoir (S-M trail).

Prebistus peleus feeds only on Leea indica (Leeaceae), a very common

shrub within the Nature Reserves and its fringes, A. xiuyuae is widespread

and its feeding marks are found on every Pternandra echinata

(Melastomataceae) that I have encountered. Strangely this phasmid was

undescribed before this survey began. Asceles malaccae and A. larunda are

very common flying insects that feed mainly on the various Macaranga

species. These are common along the S-M trail as well as in Upper Pierce

Stick and leaf insect biodiversity 301

Reservoir Park. Necroscia affinis and N. roseipennis are also commonly

seen. These very pretty insects are beautifully coloured. Necroscia affinis

occurs in various shades of green, yellow, brown and even red, all with

yellow spots. Necroscia roseipennis possesses bright rose coloured wings.

They feed on Cinnamomum iners (Lauraceae) and N. roseipennis may also

be found on Gomphandra quadrifida (Icacinaceae). Necroscia roseipennis —

and N. affinis are common at the S-M trail, and may also be found along

Rifle Range Road trail. Unfortunately these insects have not spread to

roadside cinammon trees as the dryness and heat make the sides of highways

and roads very unsuitable for these insects for which high humidity is

essential for their survival. Necroscia inflata is another very common insect

found on the various Uncaria species and on Mussaenda glabra in the

Nature Reserves. It is very common at Rifle Range Road, Upper Pierce

Road and along the S-M trail. Lonchodes brevipes, L. geniculatus and P.

malaya are also widespread species within the Nature Reserves. Of these

three species, L. geniculatus is perhaps the most common, especially along

the S-M Trail. It feeds on a wide variety of plants, including various Uncaria

species, Ilex macrophylla (Aquifoliaceae) and Psychotria rostrata

(Rubiaceae). Prisomera malaya feeds on various low-growing ferns and it

is also commonly encountered along the S-M trail and on Bukit Timah

Hill. Lonchodes brevipes feeds on these plants as well as Grewia acuminata

(Tiliaceae) and introduced species such as Acacia auriculiformis

(Leguminosae) and Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (Malvaceae). It is widespread

but not as commonly seen as the other two species just mentioned.

Lonchodes brevipes was found on Pulau Ubin as well as in Labrador Park.

Unfortunately, 11 species exist in only very isolated pockets within

the Central Catchment Nature Reserve. These are Datames mouhotii,

Acacus sarawacus (Plate 3a—b), Asceles singapura (Plate 3c—d), Diesbachia

tamyris, Lopaphus iolas (Plate 3e), Necroscia punctata (Plate 4a—b), N.

westwoodi, Sosibia esacus, S. solida (Plate 4c), Carausius nodosus (Plate

4d) and Baculum nematodes (Plate 4e). Although D. mouhotii feeds on the

same plants as D. oileus, it is found only in a small patch of forest in Upper

Seletar Reservoir Park. The reason it has not spread like D. oileus is not

immediately obvious. Perhaps it is because the species is less prolific or

hardy as it is probably a parthenogenetic species. No male has ever been

found. Acacus sarawacus exists only in one spot along the S-M trail. It is a

very difficult species to keep alive in captivity and requires high humidity

at all times. It feeds on Lithocarpus ewyckii in the wild and Psidium guajava

when in captivity. Asceles singapura also feeds on Macaranga, especially

Macaranga gigantea, but its range seems to be confined to Upper Pierce

and the S-M trail. Diesbachia tamyris and C. nodosus are found in the

same general area in MacRitchie Reservoir on the trail to the Shinto Shrine.

302 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Carausius nodosus is always found on Rourea mimosoides (Connaraceae)

along this trail. The wild food plant of D. tamyris is not known. Lopaphus

iolas is only found near the freshwater swamp forest area within the Nature

Reserves, although it feeds on a wide variety of plants. Necroscia punctata

and N. westwoodi may be found on Bukit Timah Hill and occasionally

along the S-M trail. The former feeds on Cinnamomum iners (Lauraceae)

and the latter on Psychotria malayana (Rubiaceae). Again the reason for

the isolation of N. punctata is not obvious as Cinnamomum iners is a

common tree. Necroscia punctata may also be found along the Upper

Pierce Road. Sosibia esacus and S. solida are both limited to areas where

their food plant grows. Sosibia esacus may be found along Upper Pierce

Road, and Bukit Timah Hill whereas S. solida is found along the S-M trail.

Sosibia esacus feeds on Salacia macrophylla and Ixonanthes reticulata. The

food plant of S. solida is still unidentified. Baculofractum nematodes 1s a

very long species in the female reaching up to 190 mm. It was found on

Grewia acuminata (Tiliaceae) along Upper Pierce Road and near the

freshwater swamp forest area.

Sipyloidea sipylus has been found only in the Punggol area feeding

on cultivated guava. It had not been encountered within the Nature

Reserves.

A further ten species are very rare and in almost a decade of studying

these insects, only one or two specimens have been found in Singapore.

These are Planispectrum bengalensis, Phyllium bioculatum, P. siccifolium

(Plate 5a), Diacanthoidea diacanthos (Plate 5b), Gargantuoidea triumphalis,

Lopaphus brachypterus (Plate 5c—d), Sipyloidea meneptolemus,

Baculofractum insignis (Plate 6a), Phobaeticus serratipes and an undescribed

species of Necrosciinae (Plate 6b). Planispectrum bengalensis is very tiny

and is ground dwelling and this may explain its rarity. Phyllium species are

very difficult to find as they are tree top dwellers. The winged phasmids;

D. diacanthos, G. triumphalis, L. brachypterus, S. meneptolemus and B.

insignis are very specialised feeders and this may explain their rarity. The

female B. insignis is not winged but is a very fussy feeder nonetheless.

Phobaeticus serratipes is a very common insect in West Malaysia and feeds

on a wide variety of plants including Mangifera indica, Macaranga spp..,

Uncaria spp. and many others, which explains its frequency. In Singapore,

however, it is very rare inspite of the presence of its food plants. Perhaps

its long length has to do with its rarity as it may make the insect more

readily detectable by both human and animal predators. The longest female

on record measured 555 mm from tip of front claw to tip of the hind claw.

The undescribed species is currently being researched but its rarity may

make work on this species very difficult.

An additional eight species have not been seen or recorded for at

Stick and leaf insect biodiversity 303

least 30 years and are best described as extinct in Singapore. These are

Heteropteryx dilatata, Presbistus flavicornis, Calvisia sangarius (Plate 6c),

Gargantuiodea phaetusa, Marmessoidea rosea, Phaenopharos sthruthioneus

(Plate 6d), Bactricia ridleyi and Eurycnema versirubra. Heteropteryx dilatata

and E. versirubra are large impressive species and may have been destroyed

by farmers clearing land in the early days. These insects were also kept in

the past by Malays and Chinese as their droppings were used for a variety

of ailments including diarrhoea and as an aphrodisiac. Perhaps they were

overcollected for this purpose. The other insects are probably all very

specialised feeders and occurred only in isolated pockets where their food

plants were found. Entire populations may have been destroyed when the

original forest was cleared. Bactricia ridleyi is known only from the holotypic

specimen found by H.N. Ridley in the Singapore Botanic Gardens.

Discussion

Singapore has only about 2675 ha of forest left which includes reservoir

areas in the Central Catchment Nature Reserve as well as 164 ha of forest

at Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (National Parks Board, pers. comm.). A

well thought-out and planned conservation programme for these forested

areas is of utmost importance, if Singapore’s remaining flora and fauna are

to survive.

Phasmids are phytophagous and indeed very particular about the

species of leaves they eat. Many species of phasmids will only feed on a

very few species of plants. Destruction of these plants will therefore result

in the elimination of food plant dependent insect species. Many species,

which have particularly specific food plant requirements, are therefore

either extinct, at serious risk of extinction or occur only in very isolated

pockets where these plants may be found. In primary rain forests, many

hundreds of species of plants are found and an individual of a particular

species may be widely separated from the next. Destruction of our natural

forest trees is an important cause of the disappearance of some of our

indigenous stick-insect species as when forests are cleared stick-insect food

plant are lost. The resulting effect is that the stick-insect species dependent

on these food plants are eliminated and are not to be found at the cleared

sites anymore.

The continual encroachment of man into the fringes of forested areas

also has had very negative effects on our insect populations. The building

of houses near the Nature Reserves poses a very serious problem. Many of

the flying insect species including phasmids are attracted to light and many

are therefore eliminated in this manner. This threat is far more damaging

304 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

than collection by insect enthusiasts. Lights from street lamps and houses

probably attract and result in the death of far more insects than all insect

enthusiasts can collect in their combined life times.

Combined with the building of roads and houses adjacent to the

forests is mankind’s general dislike for insects and his rampant use of

insecticides, pesticides and herbicides. Phasmids are very sensitive insects

and will not tolerate any amount of insect poison with the result that

indiscriminate spraying of pesticides had eliminated most of Singapore’s

phytophagus insects.

References

Bradley, J.C. & B.S. Galil. 1977. The taxonomic arrangement of the

Phasmatodea, with Keys to the subfamilies and tribes. Proceedings of the

Entomological Society of Washington. 79: 176-208.

Brock, P.D. 1995. Catalogue of stick and leaf-insects (Insecta: Phasmida)

associated with Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore. Malayan Nature

Journal. 49: 83-102.

Brock, P.D. 1999. Stick-insects of Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore.

Malaysian Nature Society. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Brunner, V.W. & J. Redtenbacher. 1906-8. Insektenfamilie der Phasmiden.

Leipzig. Engelmann Verlag.

Ridley, R.N. 1894. Stick-insects destroying orchids. Journal of the Straits

Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. 26: 204.

Seow-Choen, F. 1993a. The dangers of using head torches in the tropics.

The Phasmid Study Group. 56: 6.

Seow-Choen, F. 1993b. Colour of newly hatched Phyllium. The Phasmid

Study Group. 56: 7.

Seow-Choen, F. 1993c. Datames oileus and bramble. The Phasmid Study

Group. 56: 7.

Seow-Choen, F. 1993d. Guava and stick- and leaf-insects. The Phasmid

Study Group. 58: 9-10.

Seow-Choen, F. 1993e. A stick insect year in Singapore. The Phasmid

Study Group. 58: 9-10.

Seow-Choen, F. 1995a. Walking leaves. Nature Watch. 3: 16-19.

Stick and leaf insect biodiversity 305

Seow-Choen, F. 1995b. The longest insect in the world. Malayan Naturalist.

48: 12.

Seow-Choen, F. 1995c. Two more gynandromorphs of the Malayan Jungle

Nymph, Heteropteryx dilatata (Phasmida) with notes on captive

behaviour. Bulletin of the Amateur Entomologists’ Society. 54: 49-51.

Seow-Choen, F. 1995d. The stick insect Datames oileus (Westwood) 1859

(Phasmida). Bulletin of the Amateur Entomologists’ Society. 54: 239.

Seow-Choen, F. 1996a. Reproductive behaviour in stick insects. Insect and

Invertebrate World. 1: 23-25.

Seow-Choen, F. 1996b. Leaf insects of Peninsular Malaysia. Nature

Malaysiana. 21: 68-73.

Seow-Choen, F. 1997a. Stick insects. Malaysian Naturalist. 51: 32-33.

Seow-Choen, F. 1997b. A Guide to the Stick and Leaf Insects of Singapore.

Singapore Science Centre.

Seow-Choen, F. & Brock, P.D. 1996. A rare stick insect from Singapore,

Lopaphus brachypterus (de Haan) 1842 with description of the male

and egg. Bulletin of the Amateur Entomologists’ Society. 55: 79-82.

Seow-Choen, F. & I. Seow-En. 1994. Nature’s mimics. Nature Malaysiana.

19: 89-96.

Seow-Choen, F., P.D. Brock & I. Seow-En. 1994a. The stick-insects of

Singapore. Singapore Scientists. 70: 10-14.

Seow-Choen, F., P.D. Brock & I. Seow-En. 1994b. Notes on the stick-

insect Prisomera malaya (Stal) (Phasmida) in Singapore with a description

of the male and egg. Malayan Nature Journal. 48: 59-65.

Seow-Choen, F., P.D. Brock & I. Seow-En. 1994c. Colour variations of the

stick insect Necroscia roseipennis Serville (Phasmida=Phasmatodea) in

Singapore. Bulletin of the Amateur Entomologists’ Society. 53: 71-73.

Seow-Choen, F., P.D. Brock & I. Seow-En. 1994d. An introduction to the

stick and leaf insects of Singapore. Malaysian Naturalist. 46: 7-11.

Seow-Choen, F., I. Scow-En & S. Seow-An. 1996. Colour in stick and leaf

insects. Nature Malaysiana. 21: 40-47.

Seow-Choen, F., E.P. Tay, P.D. Brock & I. Seow-En. 1994e. Food plants

of some stick insects (Phasmida=Phasmatodea) from Singapore. Malayan

Nature Journal. 47: 393-396.

306 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Tay, E.P. & F. Seow-Choen. 1996. Relationship of plant families and stick-

insects in Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore. In : I.M. Turner, C.H.

Diong, S.S.L. Lim & P.K.L. Ng (eds.). Biodiversity and the Dynamics of

Ecosystems. DIWPA Series. 1: 181-190.

Westwood, J.O. 1859. Catalogue of the orthopterous insects in the collection

of the British Museum. Part 1. Phasmidae. London.

Stick and leaf insect biodiversity 307

Plate lb

Plate Ic

Plate Id.

Plate le

Plate 1. Some of the common and widely distributed species in the Nature Reserves. a. A

mating pair of the common Datames oileus. These small insects feed on the Money plant

(Epipremnum aureum, Araceae ).b. A mating pair of the common Asceles larunda. All Asceles

species are Macaranga feeders. ce. A red specimen of Necroscia affinis. This species has several

colour varieties. It may be seen along Upper Pierce Road feeding on wild cinnamon. d. A

brown variety of Necroscia affinis.e. A mating pair of the green variety of Necroscia affinis.

308 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Plate

Plate 2. Some of the common and widely distributed species in the Nature Reserves. a. A

green adult female Necroscia roseipennis.b. A brown adult male Necroscia roseipennis. ¢. A

female Lonchodes brevipes resting among leaves. This common species is very easily reared

in captivity as it feeds on a wide variety of garden-plants including guava, hibiscus, rose and

bramble. d. A mating pair of Lonchodes geniculatus. It is common in all parts of the Nature

Reserve but does not feed on any common garden-plants.

Stick and leaf insect biodiversity 309

Plate 3b.

Plate 3d.

Plate

Plate 3. Species found in only isolated pockets within the Central Catchment Nature Reserve.

a. A male Acacus sarawacus shows the white knees typical of the sex. This species is found

only in a very small patch of forest along the MacRitchie to the Singapore Island Country

Club trail. b. A female Acacus sarawacus lies very still in a state of thanatosis after being

disturbed in the hope of escaping detection. ce. A female Asceles singapura on Macaranga.

This species was described recently from specimens found in Singapore. It is found along

isolated pockets of forest in Upper Pierce and along the MacRitchie-Island Club trail. d. A

nymphal Asceles singapura. e. Lopaphus iolas is common all over Peninsular Malaysia but is

found only near the fresh water swamp forest in Singapore. This is a female adult.

310 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Plate 4b

Plate 4d

Plate 4. Species found in only isolated pockets within the Central Catchment Nature Reserve.

a. Necroscia punctata is a very colourful species that is occasionally encountered. This is a

green variety. b. This is a red Necroscia punctata. ec. Another view of an adult Sosibia solida. d.

Carausius nodosus is found only in isolated pockets along the MacRitchie trail to the old

Shinto Shrine. The female bears a pair of tufts on the head. Both sexes have bright red mid

femurs. e. Baculum nematodes is found only along Upper Pierce Road and the fresh water

swamp forest area.

Stick and leaf insect biodiversity

eae

TFTA AM A a ARAM A AIMEE

Plate Sb

Plate Sd

Plate 5. Some of the rare species encountered in the Nature Reserves. a. Phyllium siccifolium

is another leaf insect that may be found in Singapore albeit very rarely. b. A male Diacanthoidea

diacanthos is very rare. Only one specimen has ever been found in Singapore and that at

Upper Pierce Road. e. Lopaphus brachypterus is a rare insect found only very occasionally.

This is a male. d. A female Lopaphus brachypterus feeding on guava.

312 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Plate 6a.

Plate 6b

Plate 6d.

Plate 6c.

Plate 6. Some of the rare species encountered in the Nature Reserves (a—b). Two of the

extinct species (c-d). a. Baculofractum insignis is very rare in Singapore and may be found

only around the fresh water swamp forest. b. An unidentified Necrosciinae which may represent

anew genus. ¢. Calvisia sangarius, now extinct in Singapore, is a very specialized feeder and as

far as is known feeds only on a very pungent forest tree. d. Phaenopharos struthioneus is

extinct in Singapore and has not been seen for many decades now.

Proceedings of the Nature Reserves Survey Seminar.

Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 313-319.

Semi-aquatic Bug (Heteroptera: Gerromorpha) Fauna in

the Nature Reserves of Singapore

C.M. YANG, H.K. LUA AND K.L. YEO

Zoological Reference Collection

Department of Biological Sciences

National University of Singapore

Kent Ridge, Singapore 119260

Abstract

A total of 37 species of semiaquatic bugs were recorded from the forest during the survey

of the Nature Reserves. 78% were found in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest that also has the

highest percentage of the rare or threatened species on the island. Bukit Timah Nature

Reserve has the lowest diversity. Three forest-dependent species, Cylindrostethus malayensis,

Ventidius hungerfordi and Esakia fernandoi previously recorded from Singapore were not

found and hence are, presumed extinct. Eight species are new records for Singapore.

Introduction

Early studies on the Singapore’s freshwater bugs were scattered in some

reports (van Martens, 1876; Esaki, 1926, 1930). After 1960, substantial

studies on Malaysian fauna were carried out by the University of Singapore.

Researchers documented a total of 15 species of Gerridae and two species

of Veliidae in Singapore (Cheng, 1965; Cheng & Fernando, 1969; Fernando

& Cheng, 1974). Murphy (1990) reviewed the fauna and increased the

species list to 19 Gerridae, eight Veliidae, two Hydrometridae and two

Mesoveliidae from freshwater habitats. However, he also failed to record

three species (Cylindrostethus malayensis, Ventidius hungerfordi and Esakia

fernandoi) previously recorded by Cheng and Fernando.

In view of changes in the forest habitats caused by development and

other human activities in recent years, this study was conducted to provide

a present-day checklist of the semiaquatic bugs (Gerromorpha) found in

the forest. It is also to record the diversity and distribution of the fauna of

the Bukit Timah Nature Reserve and Central Catchment Nature Reserve

that are separated by the Bukit Timah Expressway.

As the true aquatic bugs (Nepomorpha) are rarely found in the

forest because of the poor vegetation growth in and along streams and the

lack of natural standing waters, they are not discussed in this report.

314 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Amemboa brevifasciata @ Hydrometra carinata,

H. longicapitis, H. okinawana

& H. papuana

Cryptobates rufus

Tenagogonus octopunctatus

& T. quingquemaculatus

Figure 1. Distribution of some rare heteropteran bugs in the Nature Reserves. Inset shows

the location of the Nature Reserves in Singapore. BTNR: Bukit Timah Nature Reserve, BKE:

Bukit Timah Expressway, ------ : Boundary of Nature Reserves.

Semi-aquatic bug fauna 315

Materials and Methods

The survey area (Figure 1) covered in this study included all the water

drainages found in the Central Catchment Nature Reserve and the Bukit

Timah Nature Reserve from 1992 to 1995. Specimens were collected by

hand nets or by hand and then either preserved in 75% alcohol or pinned

dry. They were deposited in the Zoological Reference Collection of the

National University of Singapore.

Results and Conclusions

A total of 37 species of semiaquatic bugs were recorded from the reserves

during this survey (Table 1), with 36 species found in the Central Catchment

Nature Reserve and 17 species in the Bukit Timah Nature Reserve. Of the

24 forest species, 13 are considered rare in Singapore and they are mostly

distributed in the Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Eight species:

Tenagogonus octopunctatus, Ventidius modulatus, Microvelia albolineolata,

Neoalardus typicus, Hydrometra carinata, H. longicapitis, H. okinawana

and H. papuana were recorded from Singapore for the first time. Several

other recently published records were also based on the materials collected

in the Nature Reserves notably, Cryptobates rufus, Rhagovelia singaporensis

and R. rudischuhi (Polhemus & Polhemus, 1995a; Yang & Polhemus, 1994).

Table 1. Distribution of Gerromorphan bugs in the Singapore Nature Reserves.

S : Seletar; M : MacRitichie; N : Nee Soon; J : Jungle Fall Valley; P : Peripheral

(F : forest species; R : rare, restricted distribution; C : common; U : uncommon:

1 : moderate/fast flowing water; 2 : slow flowing water; 3 : swamp forest: 4 : pool

and puddle; 5 : margin of water or bank:

* : new record; + : present; - : absent.)

Species Status Habitat Central Catchment Bukit Timah

S M N J P

Family GERRIDAE

1. Amemboa brevifasciata Miyamoto, FR 2,5 : 7 : : d

1967

2. Amemboa riparia Polhemus & FU 25 Pe 4 +. x

Andersen, 1984

3. Aquarius adelaides (Dohrn, 1860) U 4 ¥ 4 i E ‘

4. Cryptobates rufus J & D Polhemus, FR 3 - + + 2 :

1995

5. Limnogonus fossarum (Fabricius, 1775) U 4 = + + , +

6. Metrocoris tenuicornis Esaki. 1926 FC 2 - + + + +

316 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

_ Species Status | Habitat | Central Catchment | Bukit Timah

| Re ae ee es

7. Neogerris parvulus Stal, 1860 U 4 ~ + - - + |

8. Ptilomera tigrina Uhler, 1860 PC. Meare - ma rs : +)

9. Rheumatogonus intermedius FC 1 si = - - -

Hungerford, 1933 |

10. Rhagodotarsus kraepelini Breddin, (9) 4 + + ~ : - |

| 1905

| 11. Tenagogonus (Limnometra) ciliatus U 4 + + + - -

Mayr, 1865

12. Tenagogonus (L.) insularis Hungerford | FC 2 + + + + +)

& Matsuda, 1958

13. *Tenagogonus (L.) octopunctatus PR ious + ~ - : - |

Hungerford, 1955

14. Tenagogonus quinquemaculatus FR Ps + + + - -

Miyamoto, 1967

15. Ventidius harrisoni Cheng, 1965 FC 2 + + + - -

16. *Ventidius modulatus Lundblad, 1933 FR 2 = + - - -

Family VELIIDAE

17. *Microvelia albolineolata Torre FU 4 - : - - + |

Bueno, 1927

18. Microvelia diluta Distant, 1909 te 4 + + - +

19. Microvelia douglasi Scott, 1874 U + + + - - -

20. Microvelia plumbea Lundblad, 1933 FR 3,4 + + - - -

21. Microvelia genitalis Lundblad, 1933 FR 3,4 ~ - + + +

22. Microvelia sp. 1 PO | oe + + + + +

23. Microvelia sp. 2 ile ae + + + - +

24. *Neoalardus typicus (Distant, 1903) R 2 - - -

25. Rhagovelia sumatrensis Lundblad, 1933 | FC 1,2 + + + + -

26. Rhagovelia singaporensis Yang & D BO (ice + + + :

| Polhemus, 1994

| 27. Rhagovelia rudischuhi Zettel, 1993 FC Zz + ~ + - -

_ 28. Strongylovelia sp. Le Dee ae + ~ - - -

_ Family HYDROMETRIDAE

29. *Hydrometra carinata J & D Polhemus,| FR = 3,5 . : + - -

| 1995

_ 30. Hydrometra insularis Hungerford & R 3.5 - + + - +

Evans, 1934

31. *Hydrometra longicapitis Torre Bueno,| FR — 3,5 - - + - :

1927

32. Hydrometra maidli Hungerford & U 313 + + + : -

Evans, 1934

33. *Hydrometra okinawana Drake, 1951 FR 35 - - + - -

34. *Hydrometra papuana Kirkaldy, 1901 | FR = 3,5 - : - - -

Semi-aquatic bug fauna 317

Species Status Habitat Central Catchment Bukit Timah

S M N J P

Family MESOVELIIDAE

35. Mesovelia horvathi Lundblad, 1933 & 45 + 4 + + +

36. Mesovelia vittigera Horvath 1895 U 45 - - ~ - -

Family HEBRIDAE

37. Hebrus sp. U 45 - ~ ~ -

Rare species (13) 5 8 y 1 2

Forest species (24) 16 19 20 6 10

Total species (37) 27 31 29 7 17

The poor diversity of Gerromorphan bugs in the Bukit Timah Nature

Reserve was due to the small and relatively short streams with poorly

grown aquatic vegetation and total absence of swamp. The middle and

lower reaches of the streams were either at the edge of the forest or in the

open country habitats. Inside the forest, parts of the streams dried up

easily during the dry season as these were exposed due to a large number

of fallen big trees in recent years. They probably also suffered from the

drying effects of the numerous walking trails constructed in the reserve

(Corlett, 1988). The isolated location and the small stream at a higher

elevation in Jungle Fall Valley probably accounted for the lowest number

of forest species of (6 out of 24) found in this primary forest.

The Central Catchment Nature Reserve has many swampy forest

streams under well-shaded forest and these provide different microhabitats

that are not available in the Bukit Timah Nature Reserve. Ten forested

species found in the forest of the Central Catchment Nature Reserve,

Amemboa brevifasciata, Cryptobates rufus, Rheumatogonus intermedius,

Tenagogonus (L.) octopunctatus, T. quinquemaculatus, Ventidius harrisoni,

V. modulatus Microvelia plumbea, Rhagovelia singaporensis and

Strongylovelia sp. were not found in Bukit Timah Nature Reserve. With

exception of R. intermedius (moderate to fast flowing water species), the

other nine species were either found on swampy puddles or in slow flowing

streams (Table 1). Four species of water measurers, Hydrometra carinata,

H. longicapitis, H. okinawana and H. papuana, were collected from a weedy

pool, in a semi-open country habitat, near the Nee Soon swamp forest.

These were new records for Singapore and found only in this location. H.

papuana is very rare in Peninsular Malaysia and was only recorded from

lowland swamp forests (Polhemus & Polhemus, 1995b).

The Nee Soon Forest has the highest species diversity recorded in

this study. Twenty (83%) of the 24 forest species and 9 (69%) of the 13

318 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

rare species were found in this location. This swamp forest was also the

type locality for two recently described species, Rhagovelia singaporensis

Yang & Polhemus (1994) and Cryptobates rufus Polhemus & Polhemus

(1995a). The latter is rare (Figure 1) and distributed only in a few swampy

streams, under well shaded forest, either near headwaters or in areas with

iron hydroxide deposits (Murphy, 1990).

Metrocoris tenuicornis, Rhagovelia sumatrensis and R. rudischuhi were

very common and were widely distributed in all forest streams, along with

the less common Tenagogonus insularis at the swampy or quiet edges of

the streams in all forested areas. Ptilomera tigrina was also common in

most flowing forest streams with the exception of the stream at the Jungle

Fall Valley.

Three gerrids, Cylindrostethus malayensis Polhemus, 1994 (= C.

costalis Cheng & Fernando, 1969), Esakia fernandoi Cheng and Ventidius

hungerfordi Cheng, previously collected from Sungei Seletar in 1965 (Cheng,

1965; Cheng & Fernando, 1969) were not found in this study. Sungei Seletar

was the biggest stream in the Central Catchment Nature Reserve before it

was converted into a reservoir in the early 1970s. The interruption of the

water system probably accounted for the possible extinction of these three

species that inhabited larger flowing water bodies. The survival of the

present-day swamp forest species, especially those rare and localized ones

will, therefore, be threatened by the change, loss or pollution of the swamp

forest.

Entomovlia doversi, previously recorded from the MacRitchie forest

(Murphy, 1990) was also not found in this study. It could have been carried

over through the pipeline from the river in Johore (Malaysia) to the Upper

Peirce Reservoir. Only a single specimen was collected after a heavy

downpour that could have caused the water from the reservoir to flow into

the forest stream. This species is common in pristine forest streams in

Peninsular Malaysia. The single record of Ventidius modulatus was also

from the same area.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Kelvin Lim and all student assistants (too many to

name individually) for their hard work on the field and in the laboratory,

and to S. Greasi and several colleagues for their help. Thanks are also

extended to the Director and staff of the National Parks Board for their

cooperation and assistance during the period of this study. We are indebted

to Prof. D.H. Murphy for his advice on this survey and very useful comments

during the preparation of this manuscript. This study has been partially

Semi-aquatic bug fauna 319

supported by research grant RP 830064 from the National University of

Singapore.

References

Cheng, L. 1965. Studies on the Taxonomy and Biology of the Malayan

Gerridae (Hemiptera: Heteroptera). M.Sc. thesis (Unpublished).

University of Singapore.

Cheng, L. & C.H. Fernando. 1969. A taxonomic study of the Malayan

Gerridae (Hemiptera:Heteroptera) with notes on their biology and

distribution. Oriental Insects. 3: 97-160.

Corlett, R.T. 1988. Bukit Timah: the history and significance of a small

rain-forest reserve. Environmental Conservation. 15: 37-44.

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Proceedings of the Nature Reserves Survey Seminar.

Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 321-331.

Water Beetles (Insecta: Coleoptera) in the Nature

Reserves of Singapore

MICHAEL BALKE', LARS HENDRICH? AND C.M. YANG?

‘Institut fiir Zoologie, Freie Universitat Berlin, KGnigin-Luise-Strasse 1-3,

D-14195 Berlin, Germany

*Berlin-Forschung, Freie Universitat Berlin, Gartnerstrasse 3,

D-12207 Berlin, Germany

*Zoological Reference Collection, Department of Biological Sciences,

National University of Singapore, Kent Ridge, Singapore 119260

Abstract

Of the 36 species of aquatic beetles recognised here, 17 are rated threatened. Two rare

species of Microdytes (Dytiscidae) were only found in a small springlet in the Bukit Timah

Nature Reserve. Nee Soon Swamp Forest has the highest diversity as well as the highest

number of locally threatened water beetle species in the Nature Reserves.

Introduction

Conservationists and systematists nowadays agree that most species can

only be saved when habitats of adequate size can be protected (Polhemus,

1993; Samways, 1994). However, conservation action with clear management

strategies on a rather limited geographical scale is also frequently needed.

This is especially true in areas that have already experienced considerable

disturbance for a long period of time. To facilitate such action,

biomonitoring groups are needed to determine the state of a given habitat.

In wetland management, water beetles prove to be one such group,

especially when microhabitats such as springs, low order streams or small

waterholes require evaluation (Balke & Hendrich, 1991; Foster, 1991;

Hendrich & Balke, 1993). The theoretical background characterising water

beetle communities in terms of their conservation value, too, has been well

worked out (e.g., Eyre & Rushton, 1989; Foster et al., 1990; Richoux, 1994;

Larson, 1997).

Balke and Hendrich (Hendrich & Balke, 1995; Balke et al., 1997a,

1997b) have successfully utilised water beetles in the course of numerous

environmental impact assessments in Germany, Malaysia and Indonesia.

Several species of water beetle are to date not only included in regional

red lists in Europe but also in the latest IUCN Red List of Threatened

Animals (IUCN, 1996). Moreover, detailed conservation plans are in hand

for two European species of diving beetles (Foster, 1996a, 1996b). These

322 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

are target species by the law in the European Community (EC), where

every suitable aquatic habitat within their respective ranges must be

monitored for the two beetle species before the land can be used for

purposes other than conservation. As adequate observations on the

distribution and biology of Southeast Asian water beetles have now become

available, we believe that several factors could make them a useful

biomonitoring group here as well: 1) the group is species rich; 2) they are

present in virtually every type of fresh and brackish water habitat; 3) the

group has numerous species confined to particular microhabitats; 4)

knowledge of the group’s taxonomic status is improving rapidly; 5) there is

a good general knowledge of most groups; and 6) the group is represented

by some large or especially colourful or enigmatic species, which may

attract public interest (Hendrich, 1995).

The term “water beetle’ as used here, does not representa

phylogenetic unit, such as a family or superfamily. Rather, this is an arbitrary

umbrella term for several beetle groups. For convenience, we refer to

beetles spending most of their adult stage in the water as ‘water beetles’.

Of these, Dytiscidae (diving beetles) and Hydrophilidae (true water beetles)

are the most species-rich groups in Singapore.

As early as the 1870s, Singapore was the type locality for numerous

water beetles, such as the highly threatened Copelatus minutissimus Balfour-

Browne, 1939. The holotypes of Hydrovatus pisiformis Bistro6m, 1996 and

Hydrovatus stridulus Bistro6m, 1996 are the Saunders’s material collected

from Singapore in 1920s (Bistr6m, 1996). Among the collections made by

H.N. Ridley at the beginning of the century, Lacconectus corayi Brancucci,

1986, is a species no longer found in Singapore.

Yang (1992) listed 28 species of aquatic beetles from the Lower

Peirce forest but her list is incomplete. Our aim is to evaluate the water

beetle fauna based on recent surveys of the nature reserves in Singapore

and identify the species that appear to be most threatened in Singapore

and to discuss possible conservation action.

Methods

The survey area of this study included all water drainages in the Central

Catchment Nature Reserve and Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (Figure 1)

carried out during the period 1992 to 1997. Every type of water body was

investigated. Those that appeared to be of particular interest according to

our field experience were most intensively sampled. Interesting sites were

revisited for observations on population dynamics and habitat succession.

S25

Water beetles

~ ] “i \

, NEE SOON” }.

l betes PN RIO Pe se AA RRR et RE RE RA A AA LR AAR RP RI AH Na ae

Figure 1. Map of Nature Reserves with an inset showing its location in Singapore. Central

Catchment Nature Reserve (CCNR) and Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (BTNR) are separated

by the Bukit Timah Expressway (BKE). Dotted lines = bounderies of Nature Reserves.

324 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Larger water bodies were sampled with an aquatic dip net and a set

of kitchen sieves of different diameters. The substrate obtained by strongly

sweeping the net through mats of submerged grasses, aquatic plants, or

open water, was placed on a 1 m x 1 m nylon panel for drainage. The

substrate was then examined for the presence of the insects that, in most

cases, within a couple of minutes exhibited themselves by running. Less

active species or individuals were traced by carefully sorting the substrate

with a pair of forceps. Beetles from springs and small streams could

frequently be directly sampled with an aspirator or a pair of forceps.

Specimens collected were fixed in 70-90% alcohol, and brought to

the Zoological Reference Collection (National University of Singapore)

for further processing and setting. Species that could be identified on site

were immediately released.

Results

A total of 36 species of water beetles from the survey are presented in

Table 1. Several additional genera and species are currently under study

and additional fieldwork is likely to provide additions to the list. A couple

of species, most probably undescribed, are so far known only from

Singapore. We have made some comments on ecological preferences of

the species. Some species identified as ‘target species’ that deserve our

special attention and conservation efforts have the following characteristics:

1) they are presently rare due to threats caused by man, 2) they have clear

taxonomic status, 3) they have known habitat preferences, and 4) they

have low ecological tolerance.

Of the 36 species surveyed in this study, 17 are threatened or identified

as target species (Table 1). Fifteen species also occur outside the reserves

(‘other areas’) but of these, only three are threatened. Thirteen species are

restricted to different types of forest habitats of which 12 are target species.

Discussion

Though rather isolated from potential source areas that might contribute

to a re-colonisation of wetlands in Singapore, our results suggest that the

Nature Reserves contain communities of water beetles typical of lowland

sites in Southeast Asia. However, the sites in Singapore are either relict

sites (Bukit Timah Nature Reserve, Nee Soon Swamp Forest) or in many

cases secondary (many parts of the Central Catchment Nature Reserve).

Thus, their water beetle fauna deserve special attention. Two important

areas are briefly discussed here:

Water beetles

325

Table 1. Preliminary checklist of water beetles from nature reserves in Singapore,

with data on their ecology and conservation status. (t - temporary habitats; p -

permanent habitats; lo - lotic species; In - lentic species; R - restricted in distribution

to forest sites; bold species names and numbers - target species.)

Other |

Species Bukit | Nee | Mac Ecology) Forest

Timah | Soon | Ritchie | areas Species

Nature ‘Swamp

| Reserve} Forest

Family NOTERIDAE

Neohydrocoptus bivittis (Motschulsky, 1859)| —- + + + p/In/lo_ -

Neohydrocoptus distinctus (Wehncke, 1883) - + S ) pt inf lo. 1 -

Neohydrocoptus frontalis (Régimbart, 1899) - + - p/ In .

Hydrocanthus indicus Wehncke, 1876 - : + - p/ In R

Family DYTISCIDAE

Hydrovatus maai Bistré6m, 1996 - + . - p/ In .

Hydrovatus pisiformis Bistrom, 1996 - + - p/ In R

Hydrovatus pudicus (Clark, 1863) : + - p/ In -

Hydrovatus rufoniger (Clark, 1863) + : ~ p/ In

Hydrovatus saundersi Bistrom, 1996 - + ; : p/ In -

Hydrovatus sinister Sharp, 1882 - + : ~ p/ In

Hydrovatus stridulus Bistrém, 1996 - + + p/ In

AHydrovatus sumatrensis Sharp, 1882 - + - - p/ In -

Microdytes elgae Hendrich, Balke & + - : : p/ lo R

Wewalka, 1995

Microdytes pasiricus (Csiki, 1937) ~ - - - p/ lo R

Laccophilus pulicarius Sharp, 1882 - + - sey (Ais hs Co

Copelatus andamanicus Régimbart, 1899 + + + + t/ In R

Copelatus minutissimus Balfour-Browne, - + : - t/ In R

1939

Lacconectus krikkeni Brancucci, 1986 ~ a - - p/In/lo R

Hydaticus bipunctatus Régimbart, 1899 + + - + p/ In -

Hydaticus sexguttatus Régimbart, 1899 - + - p/ In R

Family HYDROPHILIDAE

Allocotocerus muelleri (Kirsch, 1875) - - + . p/ In .

Amphiops mater (Sharp, 1873) : ~ + Ae Ea Ley

Helochares lentus Sharp, 1890 : + . + p/ In -

Enochrus esuriens (Walker, 1858) + : + + p/lIn/lo_ -

Enochrus gaggermeieri Hebauer, 1995 + + + =. Lgpl ini to... R

Paracymus evanescens Sharp, 1890 + - - + p/ In

Coelostoma subditum d’Orchymont, 1936 + - - + P/ In

326 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Species Bukit | Nee | Mac | Other Ecology Forest |

Timah | Soon | Ritchie | areas Species |

Nature [Swamp |

Reserve| Forest |

Family HYDRAENIDAE |

Hydraena sp. 1 4 - - - p/ lo R |

Hydraena sp. 2 + : . - p/ In |

Hydraena sp. 3 - + - - p/ lo R

Family GYRINIDAE

Dineutus spinosus (Fabricius, 1781) - - + - p/ lo -

Orectochilus productus Regimbart, 1883 + + + p/lo/In_ -

Orectochilus oxygonus Regimbart, 1907 + + - p/lo/In_ -

Orectochilus andamanicus Regimbart, 1883 + - : p/ lo R

Orectochilus corniger Zaitzev, 1910 - + - - pilo R |

36/ 17 VES << 25 Whe BA dn Deis 13/12

Bukit Timah Nature Reserve

One of the most interesting sites we sampled is the small forest springlet in

Taban Valley (Plate la) - a true relict site. It was found to contain viable

populations of three target species, Microdytes elgae (Plate 1b), Lacconectus

krikkeni and Hydraena sp. 1, while a fourth target species is represented

by a relict population only, 1.e., Microdytes pasiricus. For three of these

species, this is the only known locality in Singapore (Table 1). Microdytes

species are rare and rather localised in distribution not only in Singapore

but also elsewhere (Hendrich, 1995; Hendrich & Balke, 1995). Thus, for

the water beetles, the Bukit Timah site has conservation implications at

the global level (Balke et al., 1997a). At the local level, the site should be

considered a potential source from which other suitable Singapore sites

could be re-colonised, assuming viable populations could be maintained at

Bukit Timah over longer periods of time.

Briffett (1990) listed the following threats to the Bukit Timah Nature

Reserve: a) construction of the Bukit Timah Expressway has cut off the

forest from the larger water catchment forest area, reducing the migratory

interflow of flora and fauna (Fig. 1); b) the general drying-up of the forest

threatens freshwater life that is now in danger of extinction; and c) heavy

quarrying has resulted in many landslides over the years, causing several

streams to be diverted or disrupted and endangering rare freshwater life.

Water beetles a9

With regards to management of the area, strategies to prevent further

draining of the sites must be found. In fact, the above-mentioned water

beetles could be used as an umbrella group here, and their protection will

save many other rare animals, too. Further draining will, inevitably, make

them disappear from the local scene.

Nee Soon Swamp Forest

Of the expected streamfauna, only one species, Hydraena sp. 3, was

detected. The primary swamp nearby with a rich vegetation structure (Plate

1c) fully contained what should be there, i.e., a species-rich community of

Hydrovatus species. Species of this genus are typical inhabitants of semi-

exposed to exposed swampy sites and can thus be found in a wide variety

of water bodies, such as Kent Ridge Park. However, a species-rich

community, like Nee Soon Swamp Forest with at least six species, can only

be found in primary environments for reasons not yet fully understood.

Moreover, five of these Hydrovatus species have not been collected from

localities other than Nee Soon Swamp Forest in Singapore (Table 1), and

two of them are threatened fauna. It is notable that the populations of

most species appear viable. However, a single specimen of the rare

Copelatus minutissimus was collected here as well (Balke, 1994). This species

is an inhabitant of small waterholes in forested areas and is among the

rarest of the Southeast Asian water beetles (Balke, 1994). It probably

faces extinction now, and we will include it in the next edition of the IUCN

Red List of Threatened Animals. More sites deeper in the forest will have

to be surveyed to attempt to detect a population of this species.

The whirligig beetles, Orectochilus andamanicus and O. corniger,

were both found in well-shaded streams in the Central Catchment Nature

Reserve swamp forest, mainly located in the Nee Soon area. O. andamanicus

is a very rare and threatened species in Singapore as only one to two

specimens per site were collected from the bigger streams. Although

distributed from India to Peninsular Malaysia, it appears to be a very rare

species (Mazzoldi, pers. comm.).

Without doubt Nee Soon Swamp Forest is the most important site

for water beetles that warrants full conservation attention. Additional

fieldwork will undoubtedly reveal many more species of interest. However,

any lowering of the groundwater level would be disastrous to the swamp

forest species. Management strategies should take into consideration the

creation of small water holes in the forest that may serve as new breeding

habitats for the rare Copelatus species and a range of other rare species

not discussed here.

328 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Conclusion

Preliminary surveys show that Singapore is home to a relatively rich water

beetle fauna. It still offers the opportunity to discover either new or rare

and little known species. However, those species adapted to primary habitats

can be extremely vulnerable, some even on the verge of (local) extinction.

To maintain the diversity presently observed, more proactive conservation

actions need to be taken.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank H.K. Lua, K.L. Yeo, Kelvin Lim (ZRC) and

student assistants for their hard work in the field and in the laboratory:

Paolo Mazzoldi (Brescia, Italy) for his help in identification and comments

on Gyrinidae, the Director of the National Parks Board and his staff

members for their cooperation and assistance during the period of the

survey, and for preparing Figure 1. This study was partially supported by

research grant RP 830064 from the National University of Singapore.

Michael Balke thanks the “Studienstiftung des deutschen Volkes” and

Lars Hendrich the “Berlin-Forschung” for financial support.

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32-34.

Balke, M. & L. Hendrich. 1991. Rote Liste der Wasserkafergruppen

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Water beetles 329

Briffett, C. (ed.). 1990. Master Plan for the Conservation of Nature in

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Helsdingen, L. van Willemse & M.C.D. Speight. Background information

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7. European Invertebrate Survey. pp. 40-48.

Foster, G.N., A.P. Foster, M.D. Eyre & D.T. Bilton. 1990. Classification of

water beetle assemblages in arable fenland and ranking of sites in relation

to conservation value. Freshwater Biology. 22: 343-354.

Hendrich., L. 1995. Malaysia’s predaceous water beetles. Nature Malaysiana.

20: 46-49.

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Insektengruppe (“Wasserkafer”) als Bioindikator (Indikator, Zielgruppe)

fiir Landschaftsplanung und UVP in Deutschland. /nsecta. 1: 147-154.

Hendrich, L. & M. Balke. 1995. Die Schwimmkdafer der Sundainsel Bali:

Faunistik, Taxonomie, Okologie, Besiedlungsgeschichte und

Beschreibung von vier neuen Arten (Coleoptera: Dytiscidae).

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Water beetles 331

Michael Balke

Plate la.

Plate 1b.

Lars Hendrich

Michael Balke

Plate lc.

Plate 1d.

Plate 1. a. A small springlet in Bukit Timah Nature Reserve. b. Microdytes elgae, a rare

dytiscid from Bukit Timah Nature Reserve. ¢. A species rich habitat for Hydrovatus in Nee

Soon Swamp Forest. d. Hydaticus bipunctatus, a forest pool species.

Proceedings of the Nature Reserves Survey Seminar.

Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 333-352.

Odonata Biodiversity in the Nature Reserves of

Singapore

D. H. MurpHy

Department of Biological Sciences

National University of Singapore

Kent Ridge, Singapore 119260

Abstract

An account is given of Odonata collected during the survey of the Nature Reserves. Most

of the species described from Singapore material in A.R. Wallace’s collection in 1856 still

occur. A total of 79 species have been recorded within the Nature Reserves, including an

endemic damselfly, Drepanosticta quadrata. Eight species are known only from Nee Soon

Swamp Forest.

Introduction

The Odonata are a relatively well studied group whose aquatic larvae are

carnivorous and thus not limited by distribution of specific plants, but

which are known, at least in some cases, to be affected by the nutrient

status and ambient properties of the water they live in.

The insect order Odonata (Plate 1) consisting of dragonflies and the

smaller, more slender forms called damselflies, is represented in Southeast

Asia by members of 14 families. Where known, all regional forms have

aquatic larval stages so a biodiversity survey of the group must be related

to the diversity of wetlands available in the area, even though many species

range far from their breeding grounds as adults. However, there remain

many species for which the larvae remain unknown and the existence of

terrestrial larvae in other regions, such as in Megalagrion oahuensis in

Hawaii (Williams, 1936), suggest some caution even in this assumption.

The Central Catchment Nature Reserve (CCNR) together with the

adjacent Bukit Timah Nature Reserve lies near the centre of Singapore,

remote from the coast so that essentially maritime species can be at most

only casual visitors. The function of the area as a water catchment implies

that polluted waters are essentially excluded, though in fact some

institutional land, golf courses, parkland and a closely monitored zoological

garden do fall within its drainage area.

The reserve area lies wholly within the central granitoid core of the

island at the focus of the main headwaters of streams flowing north, south

and east, now impounded to form four reservoirs supplying the potable

334 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

water grid of the city, and whose input is supplemented by water imported

from Johore. The high ground is largely ‘tree country’ in the sense of

Johnson (1967), though of very varied forest quality, mostly a mosaic of

secondary vegetation with a few pockets retaining primary character.

The odonate fauna may be expected to reflect the extent to which

the original forest stream, pool and swamp biota have survived the intense

human exploitation over almost two centuries as described by Corlett (1992).

It will also reflect the impact of large water bodies wholly foreign to the

original hydrography of the island, the loss of major open streams to

impoundment or canalisation, and, most recently, the conversion of a largely

rural and agricultural terrain to one now wholly urban, industrial and

recreational. This study of the CCNR can only address some of these

aspects. An account of the odonate fauna of the island of Singapore as a

whole is deferred to a later communication.

History

The first collection of Singapore dragonflies seemed to be that assembled

by Alfred Russell Wallace during his six-month stay in 1854 prior to his

travels through the Malay Archipelago. No list was ever published, but in

a short paper entitled ‘The entomology of Malacca’, Wallace (1855)

mentioned that in Malacca he ‘... nearly doubled my collection, which now

amounts to 72 species of true dragonflies.” He must have taken over 36

species in Singapore but even so only 26 species have been accounted for

in literature available to me. None of the Wallace material could be

unequivocally assigned to the existing CCNR since his material was simply

labelled ‘Singapore’.

The next important contribution was by Laidlaw (1931) and this

time, using material in the Raffles Museum, he gave actual location, date

and collector, writing ‘I have attempted to note all records for Singapore

as it occurs to me that such records may be of particular interest in view of

the many changes which have been in progress in the Island in the last

hundred years or so.’ Laidlaw himself seemed never to have collected in

Singapore and the material came from collectors who were not specialists

in Odonata capable of specific search. Most locations mentioned were not

within the reserve.

The next important contribution was a comprehensive catalogue for

the Malesian region (Lieftinck, 1954) in which Singapore island is frequently

cited specifically but without internal locations. Although many interesting

new records were made, it was striking that very few of the forest species

found by Wallace had been recollected. Far from indicating their extinction

Odonata biodiversity 335

however, this appeared only to reflect limitations of the collecting habits

of the workers concerned. After the Lieftinck catalogue, only a few small

lists were on record that could be localised to the CCNR area (Paulson,

undated; Iwasaki, 1981; Kiauta & Kiauta, 1982: Yokoi, 1996) besides

occasional notes in special literature (e.g., Murphy, 1994).

Methods

During the formation of the collection on which this paper is based, an

attempt was made to reach all known stream-lines in the reserve, many of

which were remote from normal access (Figure 1). A policy of mapping all

penetrations of the area was adopted and in fact the geographical survey

became a significant component of the work in its own right. The problem

of locating and recording individual collecting sites in such remote terrain

presented some difficulty.

Figure 1. Locations of sampling sites.

336 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Since the CCNR has most (three out of four) of its stream systems

impounded to form reservoirs, this allowed us to code the sectors in the

following manner. In each reservoir, the major inlets were lettered

anticlockwise (A being the outlet) and streams entering each inlet received

this code with appropriate subscripts to identify them and their various

tributaries. A similar system was found workable in the unimpounded Nee

Soon Swamp Forest.

Adult dragonflies were collected by hand-net at selected points during

the mapping operation, wherever local conditions permitted. Because many

forest streamlines were choked with hooked rattans or pandans, this was

inefficient and some records by sighting alone had to be made. In genera

with closely similar species (e.g., Gynacantha and Vestalis) only a generic

name could be applied and in such cases had to be discounted in mapping

distribution. A limited amount of larval collection and rearing was also

undertaken. Identification relied on available regional literature and an

unpublished generic key of my own, and all have been checked by M.

Hamalainen. Names conform to those in van Tol (1992).

Results

Table 1 lists the dragonfly and damselfly species collected from the reserve

area during the survey period 1994 to 1998 and some previous confirmed

records. A total of 79 Odonate species have been recorded from within

reserve limits out of a total of more than 100 now known from the whole

island. This total now excludes some species previously reported in error.

The Singapore list now included 36 species not previously recorded from

the State, most of these taken during the period of this survey although

not all from within the reserve area. Some of these were common species,

which were to be expected but some are rarities of some significance. For

example, Aethriamanta aethra (Plate 2a) is the first record for Singapore

and the Malay Peninsula and Orthetrum luzonicum is normally considered

a montane species but found in Singapore.

Probably the commonest dragonfly in Singapore is Neurothemis

fluctuans whose brown-winged males are seen everywhere around marshy

spots, grassy pools and open stream sides. It penetrated the CCNR along

road-sides and open tracks and can be common quite deep in open

secondary forest. Yet, this species was never associated with true forest

streams. Its very abundance might have contributed to our failure to record

the related Neurothemis disparilis, reliably recorded from Singapore

(Laidlaw, 1931), which perhaps could be mistaken for a teneral or female

of N. fluctuans.

Odonata biodiversity 33

Table 1. Dragonflies and damselflies collected during the Nature Reserves survey.

(1-New Record for Singapore, 2—Singapore is type locality)

[Species —~=S”S*S*”dStat in Nate Reserves | Singapore general

(Damselflies)

ee ee ee

2 eS Sen

Ce nn ee

i Eee

2 ee eee ee

Libellago hyalina’ Rare (Nee Soon only) -

Libellago lineata

Family Euphaeidae

Family Lestidae

Locally common (MacRitchie only) |

Platylestes heterostylus ?Bukit Timah Daneanto ge sia

Family Megapodagrionidae |

a ee Ce

_ jhe ence ei ee

2 ey Ee

[Coelicciaalbicauda’ | Rare,1SeletarU |=

[Coeliccia octogesima® | Locallycommon |=

ec idle a

Family Pseudagrionidae

338 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Status in Nature Reserves

Occasional

Local

Local naa lee a

Swamp forest only beast eal a

Rare, reservoir ete a

Local a iNaieiiis’ ;

Local i

Local

Occasional

Frequent

Common, reservoirs

Common, open streams

Rare hoo

Rare Easiarices

Local U.Mac.cony, ps

Nt ee eat ie

Local, widespread ieaaiierecmivin =...

Local, Nee Soon catchment ae

Local, widespread jarred eas

Lecce ea ae Sch cece eee

Pe inidbienaie 20

|Common

Suborder ANISOPTERA

(Dragonflies)

1 (mist net) Common

Visual sightings

Rare Old record

Rare, Nee Soon Swamp Forest

hee: cae ea aa here a a

eeramiwa

Common (reservoirs)

ket hime 6:03,

Local, Nee Soon SF

Odonata biodiversity 339

ee lees [shee ee)

ee eee

Meee ieee ee

ohh aaa ee

ia Me esl

paarvomueRG

Chonan pn € Sai a te a Pe STE

asad

ee ae ees ef

eee ee

OR Goa SO eh

2 SSS a

PAV tines oo Le ea

340 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Local (open stream)

|Tyriobaptatorrida | Frequent =

More locally, open ground with wet areas supports the tiny

Nannophya pygmaea, Rhyothemis obsolescens and common damselflies

such as Agriocnemis femina and Ceriagrion cerinorubellum. The blue

coloured Pseudagrion, P. microcephalum (Plate 2b) and P. australasiae,

occur along open stream lines as well as around reservoirs. Large active

libellulid dragonflies hover over and near open waters and include

Orthetrum sabina, O. chrysis, O. testaceum, O. glaucum and O. luzonicum,

Crocothemis servilia, Rhodothemis rufa, Trithemis aurora, T. festiva, and

the smaller Aethriamanta gracilis, Brachydiplax chalybea and Diplacodes

nebulosa. The large gomphid /ctinogomphus decoratus is also very common.

Open spaces far from water, especially high ground such as the

helicopter landing site near Chestnut Avenue, also have large populations

of Rhyothemis phyllis, Pantala flavescens and Trithemis aurora, and some

rare records such as Camacinia gigantea. Road-sides with temporary pools

may have local populations of Diplacodes trivialis.

Although these common species are likely to be those usually seen

by the public, very few of them penetrate into truly closed forest (an

exception is Orthetrum chrysis), and it is the forested water bodies that

were the principal object of the present survey. Of the nine species originally

collected by Wallace in 1854 and said to be based on Singapore material,

all but one (Libellago stigmatizans) still survive and are found in the reserve.

Of the others, Libellago aurantiaca is now confined to the Nee Soon

drainage (but would probably have been collected by Wallace in the upper

reaches of the Pang Sua, which would have been swamp forest at that

time). Of the others, Coeliccia octogesima (Plate 3a), Drepanosticta quadrata

(Plate 3b), Onychargia atrocyana, Prodasineura interrupta (Plate 3d), P.

notostigma and Agrionoptera sexlineata are still found scattered widely

throughout the central catchment area near forested streams or swamps.

Devadatta argyoides is now virtually confined to Bukit Timah and Teinobasis

ruficollis to secondary forest pools at the stream convergence of the Upper

MacRitchie basin. Interestingly, this latter point would have been accessible

by cart track in Wallace’s day, though it is more likely that the species

were more widespread in his day

Odonata biodiversity 34]

Eight species now appear to be totally confined to the Nee Soon

Swamp Forest, Burmagomphus divaricatus, Heliogomphus kelantanensis,

Libellago aurantiaca, L. hyalina, Microgomphus chelifer, Risiophlebia

dohrni, Tetracanthagyna plagiata, and Vestalis amoena. Six others,

Amphicnemis gracilis, Macrogomphus quadratus (Plate 2c), Orchithemis

pulcherrima (Plate 2d), Prodasineura collaris, P. interrupta and P.

notostigma, are also common there, but extend elsewhere in forested

streamlines.

Seven other species, Archibasis viola, Drepanosticta quadrata,

Euphaea impar, Onychargia atrocyana, Podolestes orientalis (Plate 3c),

Tyriobapta torrida, and Vestalis amethystina, occasionally appear in the

fringes of the swamp forest but are more typical of feeder streams or

swamps elsewhere in the catchment. Of these, Euphaea impar and Vestalis

amethystina are believed to favour higher water speeds and often indicate

erosion areas such as those in the Upper MacRitchie basin (Figure 2). The

distinctive larva of Euphaea is found among trapped leaves in fast water.

NV Erosion

/V Silt plume

/V Operational Units

/ Streams

‘High ground

ei!

Figure 2. Sites of erosion processes currently or historically likely to have affected dragonfly

distribution.

342 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Secondary swamp forest variants also exist (Figure 3). At the head

of inlets of the low-lying reservoirs (MacRitchie and Lower Peirce) where

the stream profile is very shallow, long narrow ‘ribbon swamps’ with braided

stream lines have developed since the impoundment. They have a very

depauperate tree flora but offer conditions in which some of the swamp

forest odonates, such as Amphicnemis and Macrogomphus, have become

established. Higher up the water courses, uneroded streams often alternate

between fast flowing reaches and level swampy reaches which I call ‘step

swamps’. Whether this is a general feature of granitic topography or perhaps

a consequence of prior land use is uncertain, but some of the step swamps

are particularly favoured by Drepanosticta, Coeliccia, Podolestes and

Archibasis viola, though these species can certainly be found elsewhere.

/¥ Streams

’, High ground

= Swamp forest

— Ribbon swamp

Ne - Step swamp

Figure 3. Distribution of various kinds of water body in and near the reserve area.

Odonata biodiversity 343

As an example of species distribution, Figure 4 plots records of the

three species of Prodasineura. None of these have been found outside the

CCNR in Singapore and the genus is not known from Bukit Timah. Too

few larvae have been seen to throw light on breeding conditions and only

one of these was reared to adult so we do not know how to discriminate

species from larvae. Nevertheless, adult distribution shows intriguing

differences. Prodasineura collaris is widely scattered and appears associated

with still waters choked with leaves. Prodasineura notostigma is common

over deeply-shaded open streams. Prodasineura interrupta occurred together

with P. notostigma in the lower part of the Nee Soon Swamp Forest and

was widespread in the upper Nee Soon basin where it was the only species

seen. It remains unexplained why this species is, on present evidence,

confined to the Nee Soon catchment, since it is found in riparian galleries

not obviously different from those in other drainage systems. The absence

of P. notostigma from the Upper Nee Soon basin 1s also remarkable.

Figure 4. Distribution of three species of Prodasineura.

344 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

The convergence streams and pools of the Upper MacRitchie basin

(Figure 5) support some species not, or rarely, seen elsewhere. The

artificially straightened lower reaches of streams H and J caused berms to

impound ponds to which several rare species are now confined, notably

Argiocnemis rubescens and Teinobasis ruficollis. Some of these ponds are

fairly open with scattered emergent small trees of Alstonia spatulata but

have well shaded edges, while smaller ponds under full shade also exist.

Other species breeding here include 7yriobapta and Lathrecista that are

more widespread. Also restricted to this area, but along the open streams,

is Agriocnemis nana. Why this location should have localised species is not

entirely clear. However it is speculated that these forest pools may represent

a habitat formerly more widespread in lowland Singapore in situations

now lost to urbanisation or cultivation. The species may have succeeded in

colonising this secondary habitat before their original and natural habitats

were completely destroyed. However there are possibly other contributing

factors.

The recent appearance of Pseudagrion pruinosum and Copera

marginipes in the nearby meter pond area may relate to seepage of enriched

water from Upper Peirce, as may the presence of the calcareous alga Chara.

Figure 5. Location of the convergence streams and pools of the Upper MacRitchie basin.

Odonata biodiversity 345

Upper Peirce Reservoir is now principally a holding reservoir for water

imported from Johore and has potassium levels ten times higher than that

of purely local water. Similar levels occur in some headwater streams

originating close to Upper Peirce but which feed into MacRitchie. Water

quality may also be a factor in the presence of Devadatta in one location

(MacRitchie stream J). This species is otherwise restricted to Bukit Timah

whose streams also show higher potassium levels due to drainage from

freshly decomposing granite. Throughout its wide range in South East

Asia, Devadatta seems intolerant of the nutrient deficient waters typical of

forest streams on deep mature regolith. In addition, meter pond stream H

(Figure 5) until recently received water through the Kallang Tunnel also

originating in Johore and the possibility of larvae having washed through

cannot be discounted.

Dragonflies are less often seen in dry-land forest remote from water

but certainly do occur there. This is especially true of females that may

tend to leave the breeding sites to forage before returning to mate and lay

eggs. Females of Coeliccia octogesima, Vestalis amethystina and

Amphicnemis have been taken so, but never their males. This may be why

C. octogesima was described from a female, while the actually more

commonly seen males were unknown until this present survey. However,

Tholymis tillarga males are quite often seen flying in deep shade. This

species is commonly attracted to lights and is widely considered to be

nocturnal, but in the forest it is clearly active in daytime. Cratilla metallica

and one or more of the three species of Gynacantha known from Singapore

are also seen in deep forest. Pericnemis stictica and Lyriothemis cleis breed

in ‘phytotelms’ (tree-holes and bamboos holding water) and are apparently

widespread, though not often seen as adults. Their habits would not restrict

them to stream-lines.

The reservoirs themselves support some species not entering forest.

The oldest reservoir, MacRitchie, has three species not found elsewhere,

Archibasis melanocyana, Chalybiothemis fluviatilis, and Lestes praemorsus

as well as common open-water species of Orthetrum, Rhyothemis, Trithemis,

Epophthalmia and Ictinogomphus, which are found around all reservoirs

and open streams throughout the island. The reservoirs have not been a

major issue during this survey although, of course, some material has been

assembled, including the three species confined to MacRitchie. Several

species recorded only from other reservoirs are known to be associated

with unstable or even maritime conditions (e.g., Trithemis pallidinervis and

Ischnura senegalensis).

Of species known to be present in Singapore but not recorded during

this survey of the CCNR, several are high flying or nocturnal forms that

are certainly there but were not collected by the methods used. Several

346 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

very common forms associated with small open water bodies, maritime

conditions or enriched or polluted waters are either absent or extremely

local, as would be expected in a controlled water catchment where such

habitats are excluded. Thus Brachythemis contaminata that is one of the

commonest species around shallow grassy ponds such as exist in the nearby

golf courses, is hardly ever seen even in immediately adjacent arms of the

reservoirs.

Discussion

Of the recorded names accepted as valid, seven are considered suspect as

records. N. tullia, P. laidlawii and Rhinocypha sp. were listed from Nee

Soon in a publication in Japanese attributed to Iwasaki (1981) after his

death. On translation this proved to be his edited field notes, originally

using Japanese names of Japanese species with which he was familiar, but

with scientific names added apparently by an editor. He appeared to have

been unfamiliar with tropical species at the time of collection and used

Japanese species names as a rough guide, the editor then attempted to

match these with known regional species. His exact collecting sites were

mapped and have been revisited but none of his species were found there.

His N. tullia may be Tyriobapta torrida, and P. laidlawii may be

Prodasineura collaris, the only species now found at that site. Several other

names though valid are to some extent suspect. Thus, Vestalis amethystina

is recorded from where we now find only Vestalis amoena, possibly because

former records of V. amoena from Singapore have been revised as V.

amethystina (Lieftinck, 1965) and we now know that both species occur.

Agriocnemis pygmaea was reported with a note that its thorax was unusually

thick compared with Japanese material. Today the site has only Agriocnemis

femina. That there could have been faunistic changes is, of course, possible

especially since oiling for mosquito control is carried out at the site specified.

One record of N. intermedia by Yokoi (1996) from a site near the

Zoological Gardens is unlikely since the species is Indian. Possibly this was

Neurothemis disparilis, also a species we have failed to recognise. Material

from Bukit Timah attributed to Indolestes by Murphy and given to D.

Paulson in 1980 may be the origin of his informally circulated record of

Platylestes heterostylus.

The widely cited records of Urothemis abbotti appear to originate

from the original author (Laidlaw, 1927) mentioning a damaged female

Singapore specimen when describing U. abbotti from Thailand. All material

of this genus examined since have proved to be Urothemis signata bisignata.

A record of Orolestes wallacei by Laidlaw (1931) was based on a specimen

Odonata biodiversity 347

“said to be in the British Museum and not seen by me...”. It is a possible

record but remains unconfirmed to this day.

A total of 24 species collected during this survey are new records for

Singapore (Table 1). Some of these are common and were to be expected.

In total, 79 species have been recorded as documented specimens from

within reserve limits with a further eight likely to be present but with

habits precluding collection, such as being nocturnal or high flying. The

species listed as now confined to Nee Soon Swamp Forest were probably

more widespread in the past. Vestalis amoena was historically recorded

(correctly) from Bukit Timah. Two species are distinctive of Bukit Timah -

Indolestes and Devadatta argyoides. All other species so far known in Bukit

Timah also occur in the CCNR. The hill does, however, need more intensive

survey than it has received.

An additional eight species recorded more or less reliably in the

literature have not been seen (or at least recognised) but are not necessarily

forms to be expected in the reserve area. Some may have habits (such as

high perching) that preclude easy collection and only an extended rearing

programme would be likely to reveal them. Only for three species, normally

associated with habitats such as large rivers that have now been totally

converted in Singapore, can extinction be strongly suspected.

Five historically recorded species may have become extinct -

Brachygonia oculata, Burmagomphus plagiatus, Dysphaea dimidiata,

Libellago stigmatizans and Neurobasis chinensis. Burmagomphus plagiatus

was a reliable larval record by Lieftinck (1964) from the lower reaches of

Seletar River now converted to a concrete canal. In addition, Neurothemis

disparilis, Agriocnemis pygmaea and Rhyothemis pygmaea have not been

seen by me, although records of the latter two by Paulson in 1980 are

recent. Even so, none of the extinctions can be taken as absolutely certain,

although very probable.

Among Odonata, only one species (Drepanosticta quadrata) is

believed totally endemic to Singapore, but it is common in several areas

and is not threatened. The genus is known for having many extremely

localized species.

Many species are more or less restricted to tree covered land and

most of these found only in the CCNR and/or Bukit Timah. These include

the eight species mentioned above as only known today from the Nee

Soon Swamp Forest.

The deteriorating conditions in the Upper MacRitchie Basin are

reflected in the odonate fauna in several ways. An apparent extinction that

occurred within the last three decades concerns Neurobasis chinensis (last

taken in Singapore in 1970), extinct probably due to siltation of the stream

marked Jc (Figure 5) where it occurred by construction of the Pan Island

348 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Expressway in 1972. A stand of mature riparian swamp forest in the upper

reach of that stream died out at that time. By 1990 good regrowth had

developed but then the expressway was widened and the whole streamline

again smothered by a new silt surge. Well-established local populations of

Amphicnemis and Coeliccia died out, together with the young secondary

swamp forests in which they had become established between 1993 and

1994. Possibly Onychargia, not seen there since 1989, was also lost. These

species, which are still present elsewhere, will probably recolonise sites

that revert to forest cover. In the lower reach, a population of Agriocnemis

nana was destroyed along with other species and only 7rithemis aurora, a

‘weedy species not formerly present, is found there today.

Finally the question of seasonality has hardly been addressed. Most

species are not significantly seasonal on a regular basis, but some migrants

may be affected by the monsoons. Periods of drought may cause smaller

water bodies to dry out entirely with possible long term consequences for

species with poor dispersal.

Acknowledgements

My thanks to my student helpers, all engaged in collecting and who did

most of the mapping work who are too numerous to name, but Tan Hoe

Teck and Lim Koon were the longest serving and most expert; Mrs. Yang

also fielded teams of collectors who took some material; Dr. Matti

Hamalainen of Helsinki visited Singapore after the project was completed

and who kindly corrected my misidentifications, detected a specimen of

Coeliccia albicauda among Mrs. Yang’s material and provided some

references I had overlooked; Dr. Tan Koh Siang made lengthy translation

from Japanese text that clarified some important issues; and the staff of

the National Parks Board who have been continually supportive as have

my colleagues at the Department of Biology, National University of

Singapore.

References

Corlett, R.T. 1992. The changing urban vegetation . In: A. Gupta & J.

Pitts. Physical Adjustments in a Changing Landscape: The Singapore

Story. Singapore University Press. pp. 190-214.

Iwasaki, M. 1981. Field observation notes in Malay Peninsula and Sumatra.

Gracile. 28: 12-26. (in Japanese).

Odonata biodiversity 349

Johnson, D.S. 1967. On the chemistry of freshwaters in southern Malaya

and Singapore. Archiv fuer Hydrobiologie. 63: 477-496.

Kiauta, B. & M. Kiauta. 1982. The chromosome numbers of eleven

dragonfly species from Singapore. Notulae Odonatologicae. 1: 164-165.

Laidlaw, F.F. 1927. Description of a new dragonfly from lower Siam

belonging to the genus Urothemis. Proceedings of the United States

National Museum. 70: 1-3.

Laidlaw, F.F. 1931. A list of the dragonflies (Odonata) of the Malay

Peninsula with descriptions of new species. Journal of the Federated

Malay States Museums, Singapore. 16: 175-233, figs. 1-7.

Lieftinck, M.A. 1954. Handlist of Malaysian Odonata. A catalogue of the

dragonflies of the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java and Borneo, including

the adjacent small islands. Treubia. Suppl. 22: 1 - xi, 1-202.

Lieftinck, M.A. 1964. Some Gomphidae and their larvae, chiefly from the

Malay Peninsula (Odonata). Zoologische Verhandelingen (Leiden).

69: 3-38.

Lieftinck, M.A. 1965. The species group of Vestalis amoena Selys, 1853, in

Sundaland (Odonata, Calopterygidae). Tijdschrift voor Entomologie.

108: 325-364.

Murphy, D.H. 1994. Risiophlebia dohrni. In: P.K.L. Ng & Y.C. Wee (eds.).

The Singapore Red Data Book: Threatened Plants and Animals of

Singapore. The Nature Society, Singapore. pp. 107.

Paulson, D. (undated) Singapore Odonata collected 29 August 1980.

Unpublished report.

van Tol, J. 1992. An annotated index to names of Odonata used in

publications by M. A. Lieftinck. Zoologische Verhandelingen (Leiden).

279: 1—263.

Wallace, A.R. 1855. The entomology of Malacca. Zoologist. 13: 4636-4639.

Williams, F.X. 1936. Biological studies in Hawaiian water-loving insects.

Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society. 9: 235-345.

Yokoi, N. 1996. A record of the Odonata from Mandai, Singapore,

Malangpo (Newsletter of the Thai National Office of the International

Odonatological Society) 13: 100.

Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

350

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Odonata biodiversity 351

Plate 2. a. Aethriamanta aethra, a first record for Singapore. b. Pseudagrion microcephalum

occurs along open waters such as grassy streams and edges of reservoirs. e. Macrogomphus

quadratus. d. Orchithemis pulcherrima.

S'S)

(Nn

Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Plate 3. Some damselflies widespread in forest stream-lines (a—c) and a species from the

Family Protoneuridae (d).a. Male Coeliccia octogesima.b. Drepanosticta quadrata is believed

to be endemic to Singapore. e. Podolestes orientalis. d. Prodasineura interrupta.

Proceedings of the Nature Reserves Survey Seminar.

Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 353-425.

Mammals, Reptiles and Amphibians in the Nature

Reserves of Singapore - Diversity, Abundance and

Distribution

R.C.H. TEO AND S. RAJATHURAITI

Vertebrate Study Group

Nature Society (Singapore)

601, Sims Drive, #04-04/05

Pan-I Complex, Singapore 387382

Abstract

The diversity of mammals, reptiles and amphibians is still high in the Nature Reserves with

a total of 141 indigenous species recorded in the past decade, comprising 44 mammals, 72

reptiles and 25 amphibians. During the four-year survey, there were 10 additions to

Singapore’s checklist of mammals, reptiles and amphibians, and 13 other species were

rediscovered compared with four and ten, respectively, recorded during the six-year period

prior to the survey. This is a clear indication that our Nature Reserves may still hold many

species that are either not recorded for Singapore or are thought to be extinct. The Nature

Reserves are probably the last refuge for 74 forest-dependent species and 80 species whose

populations are of such low numbers that they are threatened with extirpation. Bukit

Timah, Nee Soon and MacRitchie are the richest in biodiversity and, hence, are key areas

for conservation. They should be set aside as core zones with the incorporation of Mandai

and Lower Peirce.

Introduction

At the inception of the Nature Reserves survey, the Vertebrate Study

Group of the Nature Society (Singapore) was requested to survey the

mammals, reptiles and amphibians, the scope of which included:

1. an inventory of species,

2. information on the abundance of species,

3. a study of the distribution patterns of species in relation to vegetation

type, geophysical, historical and human factors, and

4. information on the conservation status of endangered and rare species.

Methodology

The Nature Reserves were divided into six zones, namely Bukit Timah,

MacRitchie, Upper Seletar, Lower Peirce, Nee Soon and Mandai. These

Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

zones were further divided into 23 sectors. The number of sectors per zone

was determined by taking into account the size, geography and accessibility

of the zone (Figure 1).

ae Bukit Timah Zone | MacRitchie Zone

A - Taban & Lasia Valleys A - Sime Forest

B - Tiup Tiup B - Rifle Range Forest

C - Jungle Fall & Seraya Valleys C - MacRitchie North Forest

D - Fern Valley D - Lornie Forest

E - Main Road E - Thomson Ridge Forest

ey Lower Peirce Zone ES Nee Soon Zone

A - Lower Peirce East A - Nee Soon Range

B - Lower Peirce West B - Nee Soon East

C - Three-stone Hill

D - Nee Soon South

[| Mandai Zone P| Upper Seletar Zone

A - Upper Peirce West A - Upper Seletar West

B - Chestnut Track Forest B - Ulu Sembawang Forest

C - Gangsa Forest C - Upper Seletar North

D - Range Forest

Figure 1. The zones and sectors surveyed in the Nature Reserves.

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 355

Field surveys were conducted for about four years. Each sector

received detailed nocturnal coverage over two separate weekends, a few

months apart. Additional data collected on personal trips into the Nature

Reserves by various individuals were also incorporated. The data were

divided into two categories - records within the pre-survey period from

1987 to May 1993 and records within the survey period of June 1993 to

July 1997. The combined data provided a better picture of the diversity

and distribution of the mammals, reptiles and amphibians.

Nocturnal Surveys

As most of the mammalian, reptilian and amphibian species are active at

night, nocturnal surveys were an important component of the survey. The

basic nocturnal survey stretched from 1700 hours to 0900 hours the next

day. Each sector received nocturnal coverage over one weekend per month

(usually Friday evening to Saturday morning, Saturday evening to Sunday

morning). After every sector of a particular zone had been covered, field

survey moved to another zone before returning for a second round of

coverage in the same zone. Hence each sector within a zone was covered

over two weekends or four nights. During the first year, a half-night session

was also conducted as a reconnaissance before the weekend survey.

Various methods were deployed during each night survey. These

included mist-netting, trapping, transect surveys and bat-detecting. A

minimum of six participants, including four experienced surveyors, were

required at any given time for these methods to be used simultaneously. In

practice, however, a team of eight to ten was optimal, especially on good

capture nights, when more experienced hands were needed to extract and

process the numerous animals caught.

Bat- Detecting

Important information on bats was gathered through the use of a bat-

detector, which picks up the ultrasonic echo-locating calls of insectivorous

bats. Shirley Pottie was the only researcher who could confidently handle

the bat-detector, which was normally utilised during transect surveys. As

she left Singapore before the completion of the survey, data on bats were

highly biased towards zones that had been covered before her departure,

namely MacRitchie and Upper Seletar. In addition, the bat-detector was

damaged during the survey, and a less sophisticated alternative was later

utilised. Unlike the first, this instrument was not able to record the echo-

locating calls for further analysis.

356 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Mist-netting

Mist-nets were deployed to capture bats as their very fine mesh was not

easily detected by them, and was gentle on captured animals. About five

to nine nets, including at least two high nets, were erected at two pre-

selected spots by dusk. The nets were about 2.5 metres high, with lengths

of 18, 30 or 42 feet, and denier of 30 or 50. High nets were set up by taping

two bamboo poles together to raise the nets to a height of about 6 metres.

Pulleys were attached to the top of the poles so that the nets could be

raised and lowered like a flag. The remaining nets were set at a low level,

from the forest floor to a height of over 2.5 metres. On exceptional

occasions, “triple-storey” nets were tried, where three poles were taped

together to allow the nets to reach a height of about 8 metres. The nets

were left open from about 1830 hours to 0730 hours the next day. They

were checked regularly, especially during peak activity periods.

A harp trap for bats was also used a few times but failed to capture

anything. This type of trap has been used successfully to capture

insectivorous bats worldwide. The lack of success could be due to

insufficient traps.

Trapping

Small spring-door traps were utilised for small mammals like treeshrews,

rats and squirrels. Apart from these target species, several terrapins, three

palm civets and a monkey were also caught. About 50 traps were placed

by NParks’ staff along a pre-selected transect, at 20-metre intervals, a few

days prior to each weekend survey. These were left open to allow animals

to accept them as part of their habitat.

Banana and papaya were the main baits used, although jackfruit,

pineapple, apple, grape, durian seed, sweet potato, bread, dried cuttlefish,

salted fish and soap were also tried. Banana proved to be the most effective

bait, but jackfruit and bread provided good results as well. During the

weekend surveys, traps were baited on Friday evenings, and were checked

and re-baited on Saturday mornings. A second team would then check and

re-bait the traps on Saturday evenings, and a final check was made on

Sunday mornings. Captured animals were carefully processed before

release.

Larger traps for animals like palm civets, leopard cats and mousedeer

were also utilised a couple of times but were generally non-productive.

Pitfall traps for smaller species were used in association with drift fences.

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 357

Transect Surveys and Casual Sightings

Many species could not be captured by the above-mentioned methods. For

these, transect surveys were deployed. At each sector, two transects, of 1

to 3 kilometres each, were covered on foot by one to four surveyors. A

transect was usually covered after dusk and at around midnight. Rocks,

buttresses and streams were thoroughly scanned with powerful spotlights

for animals. Casual sightings by surveyors around the Base Camp also

provided valuable data. Attention was given especially to streams and

other water-bodies in the area.

Road-kill surveys

Motorable roads bordering or running through the Nature Reserves lend

themselves well to road-kill surveys. Much information on reptiles, especially

snakes, was gathered through this method. The roads were surveyed either

on foot or bicycle. Road-kill surveys were carried out for the service roads

to Bukit Kalang Service Reservoir, Upper Peirce Reservoir Park and Upper

Seletar Reservoir Park, end of Sime Road, Rifle Range Road, Old Upper

Thomson Road, Mandai Lake Road, Mandai Track 15, Old Mandai Road

and Jalan Ulu Sembawang. It should be noted that data on snakes were

biased towards sectors with heavily used roads like Old Upper Thomson

Road. Obviously, sectors without any roads would have no data from

road-kill surveys.

Identification

The main references used for identification of species were:

Mammals - Medway (1983), Payne et al. (1985), Corbet & Hill (1992) and

Lekagul & McNeely (1988).

Reptiles - Tweedie (1983), Lim & Lee (1989), Lim & Lim (1992), Inger &

Tan (1996), and Manthey & Grossman (1997).

Amphibians - Berry (1975), Lim & Lim (1992), Inger & Stuebing (1989)

and Manthey & Grossman (1997).

To aid identification and for record purposes, photographs of rarer

species were taken, usually with slide film. Where necessary, descriptions

and measurements were also recorded.

358 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Results

For the pre-survey period, 94 indigenous species were recorded - 17

mammals, 57 reptiles and 20 amphibians. The survey period yielded a total

of 131 indigenous species - 42 mammals, 66 reptiles and 23 amphibians.

Combining both periods, 1.e., between 1987 and July 1997, gave a total of

141 indigenous species (44 mammals, 72 reptiles and 25 amphibians).

A total of ten indigenous species from the pre-survey period were

not recorded in the survey period - two mammals, six reptiles and two

amphibians. In contrast, 54 species from the survey period were not recorded

in the pre-survey period - 27 mammals, 21 reptiles, and six amphibians.

This indicates the effectiveness of a deliberate survey in establishing an

inventory of species over casual observations in the pre-survey period.

Bukit Timah, Nee Soon and MacRitchie scored well in terms of

overall diversity of indigenous species (Figure 2). Bukit Timah, especially,

stood out from the other zones with 98 species compared to a mean of 80

and mammal diversity was highest, 28 species compared to a mean of 23.

Lower Peirce had only 18 species while the other zones ranged from 22 to

24 species. The mean reptile diversity was 41 species. The most diverse

zones for reptiles were Bukit Timah (51 species) and MacRitchie (50

species), but Nee Soon and Lower Peirce were not far behind, with 46

species each. Reptile diversity was markedly lower at Mandai (14 species).

Amphibian diversity was highest at Nee Soon (21 species) and Bukit Timah

(19 species) - the mean diversity was 16 species. |

No. of species

Bukit Timah Nee Soon Lower Peirce Mandai Upper Seletar MacRitchie

Figure 2. Species diversity according to zones in the Nature Reserves.

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 359

A total of 80 species have populations that are threatened (50

endangered, 11 rare, 17 uncommon and two indeterminate). From Figure

3, it is obvious that the key refuges for threatened species are Bukit Timah

(50 species), Nee Soon (46 species) and MacRitchie (40 species).

No. of species

Bukit Timah Nee Soon Lower Peirce Mandai Upper Seletar MacRitchie

SEndangered M/Rare @Uncommon MIndeterminate

Figure 3. Number of threatened species according to zones in the Nature Reserves.

The following terminology is used in this paper:

e Endemic subspecies : Subspecies confined to Singapore, 1.e., found

nowhere else in the world

e Localized species _: Species that are presently found in a particular

zone and nowhere else in Singapore

e Discovery : Species recorded for the first time in Singapore

within the survey period

e Rediscovery : Species recorded within the survey period

previously not seen in the past 30 years

e Recent Discovery : Species recorded for the first time in Singapore

within the pre-survey period or a species recorded

for the first time in Singapore during the survey

period but from outside the Nature Reserves

e Recent Rediscovery : Species recorded within the pre-survey period

that has not been seen in the past 30 years, or a

species recorded in the survey period but from

outside the Nature Reserves, which has not been

seen in the past 30 years.

360 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Between 1987 and 1997, there were 10 discoveries (four mammals,

three reptiles and three amphibians), four recent discoveries (two reptiles

and two amphibians), 13 rediscoveries (nine mammals, three reptiles and

one amphibian) and 10 recent rediscoveries (four mammals, five reptiles

and one amphibian).

The following section deals with every indigenous mammal, reptile

and amphibian species recorded from 1987 to 1998. A few exotic feral

species (marked ) are also mentioned as they have significant established

populations within the Nature Reserves.

Mammals

Nomenclature for mammals follows Corbet & Hill (1992). For most species,

the following conventions and criteria are adopted in describing the

abundance of mammals (numbers indicate known population size in

Singapore):

e Endangered : Occurring in very low numbers (< 30)

e Rare : Occurring in low numbers (30-59)

e Uncommon : Occurring in moderate numbers (60-99)

e Fairly Common : Occurring in high numbers (100-199)

e Common : Occurring in very high numbers (> 199)

Only 17 indigenous mammals were recorded in the pre-survey period,

while 42 were recorded in the survey period making a total of 44 indigenous

species recorded from 1987 to 1997, of which 21 species are forest dwellers

(48%) and 23 are not dependent on the forest. Twenty-one species (48% )

are restricted to the Nature Reserves.

Bukit Timah, Mandai, MacRitchie and Nee Soon are key sanctuaries

for threatened mammal species (Figure 4). Twenty-six species (59%) are

threatened with extinction - 19 endangered, five uncommon and two

indeterminate. These include three endemic subspecies - Tragulus javanicus

fulviventer, Ratufa affinis affinis and Rhinosciurus laticaudatus leo. The

last species is in fact found only in Bukit Timah. In addition, seven other

localized species also have threatened populations - Penthetor lucasi,

Emballonura monticola, Nycteris tragata, Tylonycteris pachypus,

Cheiromeles torquatus, lomys horsfieldii and Hylopetes spadiceus. Each of

these highly endangered species was recorded from only one zone. The

distribution of endangered and rare mammals is mapped out in Figure 5.

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 361

Lower Peirce

Endangered Uncommon @ Indeterminate

Figure 4. Number of threatened mammal species in the Nature Reserves.

ORDER PHOLIDOTA

Family Manidae

1. Manis javanica Desmarest, 1835

Sunda Pangolin, Malayan Pangolin, Scaly Anteater

There were 16 records of M. javanica - five from the pre-survey period and

11 from the survey period. It is fairly well distributed but MacRitchie is the

most important area (8 records). This species has often been poached for

its meat, and in recent years, its population outside the Nature Reserves

has declined drastically. The future of M. javanica may depend on the

survival of the population existing within the Nature Reserves. We are

listing it as endangered.

ORDER INSECTIVORA

Family Soricidae

2. Suncus murinus murinus (Linnaeus, 1766)

House Shrew

There were only three records of this shrew, all from Upper Seletar. This

362

~ Crocidura cf. fuliginosa

Oo Rhinolophus trifoliatus

+ Rhinolophus luctus

Oo Cheiromeles torquatus

Oo Nycteris tragata

x Presbytis femoralis

Oo Manis javanica

es a

Ratufa affinis

lomys horsfieldii

Maxomys rajah

Paguma larvata

Tragulus javanicus

Nycticebus coucang

Penthetor lucasi

Figure 5. Distribution of endangered and rare mammals.

Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Tylonycteris pachypus

Hylopetes spadiceus

Rhinosciurus laticaudatus

Emballonura monticola

Arctogalidia trivirgata

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 363

is not surprising as it is more commonly found in urban and suburban

areas.

3. Crocidura cf. fuliginosa malayana Robinson & Kloss, 1911

South-east Asian White-toothed Shrew, Common White-toothed Shrew

Murphy (1973) first recorded C. fuliginosa at Bukit Timah - specimens

were found in pitfall traps laid out for insects - but there had been no

further records until the survey. Pitfall traps laid out by NParks resulted

in 21 widely distributed records at Bukit Timah, and five each at Nee Soon

and Mandai (at a proposed “faunal link”, just on the outskirts of CCNR).

Medway (1983) stated that C. fuliginosa occurs “in all habitats from montane

to lowland forest, scrub, grass and cultivated land, and including caves.” It

is postulated that the species will be found to be more widespread in

Singapore, if pitfall trapping is carried out in areas away from the Nature

Reserves. At present however, this species has to be treated as endangered

and confined to the Nature Reserves and its vicinity.

ORDER SCANDENTIA

Family Tupaiidae

4. Tupaia glis ferruginea Raffles, 1821

Common Treeshrew

This is the dominant diurnal mammal of the forest floor. The 702 records

from the survey period alone indicate it is probably overly abundant within

the Nature Reserves. Bukit Timah is definitely over-populated with T. glis,

where it accounted for 70% (323 records) of all trappings. This species is

also common in wooded areas outside the Nature Reserves.

ORDER DERMOPTERA

Family Cynocephalidae

5. Cynocephalus variegatus peninsulae (Thomas, 1908)

Malayan Colugo, Malayan Flying Lemur

Harrison (1966) and Medway (1983) reported that C. variegatus was

common in Singapore, but Yang ef al. (1990) listed it as uncommon, and

Wee (1992) even considered it to be rare. Based on the current data, the

authors consider this species as fairly common. There were 22 records

from the pre-survey period and 95 records from the survey period. Although

364 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

widespread in distribution, the largest populations are apparently in Bukit

Timah (where it is quite easily spotted) and MacRitchie.

ORDER CHIROPTERA

Family Pteropodidae

6. Pteropus vampyrus malaccensis Andersen, 1908

Large Flying Fox, Malayan Flying Fox

This species is believed to be no longer resident in Singapore, as no

permanent roosts are currently known to exist. Furthermore, numbers

fluctuate through the year and at times, the species is absent. All recent

records were probably of visitors from Malaysia. There were 159 records

from the pre-survey period, and only 24 from the survey period. The largest

bat in the world, P. vampyrus, has a wingspan of up to 1.5 metres (Medway,

1983). It is threatened by habitat loss and poaching (especially during the

durian flowering season).

7. Cynopterus brachyotis brachyotis (Miiller, 1838)

Lesser Dog-faced Fruit Bat, Common Fruit Bat, Malaysian Fruit Bat

This is the dominant fruit bat in the Nature Reserves (670 records from

the survey period). It is also the most common and widespread fruit bat in

Singapore.

8. Penthetor lucasi (Dobson, 1800)

Dusky Fruit Bat

Plate la

The last record of Singapore’s only true forest fruit bat was in 1925, until

its rediscovery in 1995 in Bukit Timah where a colony of over 80 individuals

was found roosting in a man-made tunnel complex along Cave Path, while

a possibly separate population of at least 13 was located at the bottom of

Fern Valley. There was a total of 123 records, including females with

young.

9. Eonycteris spelaea (Dobson, 1871)

Cave Nectar Bat, Cave Fruit Bat, Dawn Bat

Eonycteris spelaea was last recorded from Singapore in 1924, and Yang et

al. (1990) listed it as ‘indeterminate’. The species was recently rediscovered

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 365

in 1990 at Sungei Buloh Nature Park, where three were mist-netted.

Throughout the survey, a total of seven bats were mist-netted for the first

time in CCNR (MacRitchie, Lower Peirce and Mandai). Outside the Nature

Reserves, a roost of over 50 was located at Pandan in 1997 while another

of about 370 was found in the Bukit Timah area. Both roosting sites were

under expressway flyovers and were quite well lit. Considering the

abundance of flowering plants and the great number of flyovers in

Singapore, this nectarivorous bat is probably surviving well.

Family Emballonuridae

10. Emballonura monticola monticola Temminck, 1838

Lesser Sheath-tailed Bat

Pottie (1996) recorded the rediscovery of FE. monticola in Bukit Timah,

where she recorded a maximum of six individuals. Emballonura monticola

roosts are often rather exposed e.g. hollow logs and rock overhangs. There

is no lack of such habitats, especially in Bukit Timah, and it is hoped that

future surveys will produce more records of this highly endangered species.

11. Taphozous saccolaimus crassus (Blyth, 1844)

Pouched Tomb Bat, Pouch-bearing Bat

Listed as indeterminate by Yang et al. (1990), this bat was recently

rediscovered at Pulau Ubin in 1993. It is common and found throughout

Singapore - 238 records were obtained during the survey period, including

the first confirmed record of the species from the Nature Reserves.

Family Nycteridae

12. Nycteris tragata (Andersen, 1912)

Hollow-faced Bat

Plate 1b

The first and only record of this species was made in 1993, when a pair was

found roosting in a culvert at Rifle Range Forest (MacRitchie). They were

caught and taken to the National University of Singapore for processing.

Unfortunately, the female died and was deposited as a voucher specimen

at the Zoological Reference Collection. The male was released at the point

of capture but has not been recorded again.

366 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Family Rhinolophidae

13. Rhinolophus trifoliatus trifoliatus Temminck, 1834

Trefoil Horseshoe Bat

Plate lc

Last recorded from Singapore in the 1930s, and classified as indeterminate

in status by Yang et al. (1990), R. trifoliatus was rediscovered in 1994 at

MacRitchie, where four were recorded. A larger population of 14 was

later located at Nee Soon and Mandai.

14. Rhinolophus luctus morio Gray, 1842

Great Woolly Horseshoe Bat, Great Eastern Horseshoe Bat

Plate 1d

An identified rhinolophid bat was detected through its call at MacRitchie

(three records) and Mandai (one record) during the survey period. These

were probably the same records that Pottie (1996) attributed to R. luctus.

Although a true forest bat, it was also recorded at Fairy Point Hill, Changi,

a suburban area (Pottie, 1996).

15. Rhinolophus lepidus Blyth, 1844

Blyth’s Horseshoe Bat

In Peninsular Malaysia, this species was formerly known as R. refulgens,

the Glossy Horseshoe Bat, a name which is now considered a synonym of

R. lepidus. This species is a discovery for Singapore, the first official record

being in 1994 at Upper Peirce West (Mandai). Pottie (1996) had, however,

recorded it earlier at Bukit Timah in 1993 or 1994 (S.A. Pottie, pers. comm..).

But since no details of the record were published, it was not officially

accepted as the first record. Rhinolophus lepidus is widespread in the Nature

Reserves, with a big population of at least 350 at Bukit Timah. Though

new to Singapore, we consider the species to be fairly common, as there

were a minimum of 555 records.

Family Vespertilionidae

16. Myotis muricola muricola (Gray, 1846)

Whiskered Myotis, Whiskered Bat

This bat is the most common species along roads and tracks within the

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 367

forest. It is widespread and Pottie (1996) recorded it in all habitats except

the city.

17. Myotis adversus (Horsfield, 1824)

Grey Large-footed Myotis

Harrison (1966) implied that M. adversus was rare in Singapore (based

only on an old record), and Medway (1983) regarded the species as rare in

Peninsular Malaysia. This is amazing, as Pottie (1996) found it to be common

in Singapore, being recorded island-wide over many fresh and brackish

water-bodies. During the survey, the species was mostly found over

reservoirs and adjacent channels (156 records).

18. Scotophilus kuhlii castaneus Gray, 1838

Lesser Asiatic Yellow House Bat

This is the commonest insectivorous bat over the forest canopy. Pottie

(1996) found many roosts on the rooftops of houses and Housing

Development Board (HDB) apartment blocks all over Singapore, and

reported it as the commonest microchiropteran in Singapore.

19. Tylonycteris pachypus pachypus (Temminck, 1840)

Lesser Bamboo Bat

Pottie (1996) listed T. pachypus as extinct but a single bat was mist-netted

in 1997, just below the Summit at Bukit Timah. This is the only record

since Chasen (1925) and constituted the rediscovery of the species.

20. Tylonycteris robustula robustula Thomas, 1915

Greater Bamboo Bat, Greater Flat-headed Bat

There were only 34 records of this species during the survey but it is fairly

common and widespread in Singapore. At dusk, it is easily observed

hawking for insects with Scotophilus kuhlii. Like T. pachypus, this species

roosts in the internodes of bamboo.

21. ?Pipistrellus sp.

Pipistrelle A

An unidentified bat was observed foraging high over open areas (Bukit

Timah, Mandai, Upper Seletar and MacRitchie). Pottie (1996) suggested it

to be a vespertilionid, and possibly P. javanicus, the Javan Pipistrelle - all

368 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

other vespertilionids known to have occurred in Singapore were ruled out.

This species is tentatively designated as Pipistrelle A, but it is possible that

it is a previously unrecorded species for Singapore. This is an uncommon

but widespread species.

Family Molossidae

22. Cheiromeles torquatus torquatus Horsfield, 1824

Naked Bat, Hairless Bat

Cheiromeles torquatus was last recorded in 1979 in a derelict house near

Braddell Road (Anon, 1979). The only record since then was of a flock of

five over Chestnut Track Forest (Mandai) in 1995. Although found foraging

over the forest, this flock could have been roosting outside the Nature

Reserves. At present, however, we consider the species as being confined

to Mandai, and endangered in status.

ORDER PRIMATES

Family Loridae

23. Nycticebus coucang coucang (Boddaert, 1785)

Slow Loris

Although recorded from Bukit Timah and MacRitchie during the pre-

survey period, both records of N. coucang were possibly of escapees. The

species has also been recorded in 1993 and 1995 at Pulau Tekong (Senin,

pers. comm.) and is therefore considered extant in Singapore, though highly

endangered. There has also been an unconfirmed record from Nee Soon in

1997 (S. Chan, pers. comm.).

Family Cercopithecidae

24. Macaca fascicularis fascicularis (Raffles, 1821)

Long-tailed Macaque, Crab-eating Macaque

Perhaps the most well-known mammal of the Nature Reserves, it is

abundant - 1,415 records in the survey period alone - but the records

probably involved about 850 individuals, based on maximum counts of

troops. It is estimated that about 34 separate troops were encountered

during the survey.

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 369

25. Presbytis femoralis femoralis (Martin, 1838)

Banded Leaf Monkey, Banded Langur

This subspecies is highly endangered, as it is found only in Singapore and

South Johor. Locally, with its recent extirpation in Bukit Timah in 1987

(Yang & Lua, 1988), P. f. femoralis is now confined to Nee Soon and

Lower Peirce. There were a total of 257 records from 1987 to June 1997,

but these involved a high degree of duplication. It is suspected that there

are only two or three troops, with a total of 18 to 23 individuals. The

largest troop, of at least 10 individuals, inhabits the main swamp forest at

Nee Soon Range Forest. A second troop moves between Nee Soon East

and Lower Peirce West, comprising at least seven individuals. A troop of

at least five individuals was reported by NParks staff at Lower Peirce East

- this might be a previously unknown troop as it was quite a distance from

the other troops. A lone individual was also seen at Three-Stone Hill.

ORDER CARNIVORA

Family Canidae

26. Canis familiaris Linnaeus, 1758

Domestic Dog

Feral dogs were probably more common in the past when villages abounded

at the edge of the Nature Reserves. There were only six records during the

survey but many other records were probably not reported. Although the

population within the Nature Reserves is not substantial, the presence of

even a few C. familiaris poses a threat to endangered species like Tragulus

Javanicus and Paguma larvata. All known populations of this unwelcome

species should be removed from the Nature Reserves.

Family Viverridae

27. Paradoxurus hermaphroditus musanga (Raffles, 1821)

Common Palm Civet, Toddy Cat

There were five records from the survey period - all from the fringes of

CCNR (Mandai, Upper Seletar and Lower Peirce), in the vicinity of

remnant agricultural habitat. Yang er al. (1990) listed this species as

common, but the authors are of the opinion that it is now uncommon in

Singapore.

370 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

28. Paguma larvata jourdainii (Gray, 1837)

Masked Palm Civet

Chasen (1924) doubted the record of Singapore specimens of P. larvata by

Flower (1900). However, based on a record in 1993, at MacRitchie, and

_ another in 1990, at Pulau Tekong (Vasantha, pers. comm.), we are listing

this species as a possible resident, and the record at MacRitchie, a

rediscovery.

29. Arctogalidia trivirgata sumatrana Lyon, 1908

Small-toothed Palm Civet, Three-striped Palm Civet

Yang et al. (1990) listed this species as indeterminate as there were no

recent records since Chasen (1924). Two examples were confirmed from

Nee Soon in 1997, after the survey period (S.H. Yeo, pers. comm.). During

the survey period, there were also two records of an arboreal civet, probably

involving the same individual, during night surveys at Bukit Timah. This

was believed to be A. trivirgata. It was also heard calling incessantly,

sounding like Sundasciurus tenuis, but much louder and exaggerated.

30. Viverra tangalunga tangalunga Gray 1832

Malay Civet

There was an unconfirmed record of this large civet in the early 1990s, at

Upper Seletar (Vasantha, pers. comm.). If this species still exists, Mandai

and Upper Seletar are the most likely zones for future records. Viverra

tangalunga, has also been reported at Pulau Tekong (Lim, 1991a; Sivasothi,

1994), but the authors believe that might have been a misidentified V.

zibetha.

ORDER ARTIODACTYLA

Family Tragulidae

31. Tragulus javanicus fulviventer Gray, 1836

Lesser Mousedeer

This subspecies is endemic to Singapore, and internationally endangered.

There were five records from the pre-survey period - one from Bukit

Timah and two each from Nee Soon and MacRitchie. During the survey

period, five records were noted in Nee Soon, while only one each was

obtained at Bukit Timah and MacRitchie.

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians epi

Family Cervidae

32. Cervus unicolor equinus Cuvier, 1823

Sambar, Sambhur

Natural populations of C. unicolor apparently died out decades ago, but a

few have been reported from Upper Seletar since the 1970s, including

three records from the survey period. These are believed to have been

escapees from the nearby Singapore Zoological Gardens or Night Safari.

A small feral herd of perhaps about 10 to 15 animals exists at Upper

Seletar (Vasantha & T.M. Leong, pers. comm.)

33. Muntiacus muntjak peninsulae Lydekker, 1915

Common Barking Deer

A single record of M. muntjak was obtained from Chestnut Track Forest

(Mandai). This might have been one of two reported escapees from the

Night Safari (Vasantha, pers. comm.), as the species is believed to be

extinct (Yang et al., 1990). However, the possible existence of a small

remnant population at Mandai should not be ruled out.

ORDER RODENTIA

Family Sciuridae

34. Ratufa affinis affinis (Raffles, 1821)

Cream-coloured Giant Squirrel, Common Giant Squirrel, Pale Giant

Squirrel

Another endemic subspecies, R. a. affinis is highly endangered and

threatened with extinction. Except for a single record from Bukit Timah in

1990, it is confined to Nee Soon, where only four examples (one pair and

two individuals) were confirmed in the survey period (all 22 CCNR records

from 1987 to June 1997 are believed to involve the same animals).

35. Callosciurus notatus singapurensis Robinson, 1916

Plantain Squirrel, Common Red-bellied Squirrel

Although common everywhere, C. n. singapurensis is actually endemic to

Singapore. It is our only endemic subspecies that is currently not threatened.

It is found in forested areas as well as suburban gardens, parks and even

on wayside trees. A total of 425 individuals were recorded during the

survey period.

372 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

36. Sundasciurus tenuis tenuis (Horsfield, 1823)

Slender Squirrel

This is the most abundant rodent in the Nature Reserves - 763 were

recorded in the survey period alone. The only known sustainable population

outside the Nature Reserves is centred at the Botanic Gardens’ Rain Forest

and Tyersall Woods.

37. Rhinosciurus laticaudatus leo Thomas & Wroughton, 1909

Shrew-faced Ground Squirrel

Confined to Bukit Timah, this endemic subspecies is threatened with

extinction. The only recent record was in 1989 and none were confirmed

during the survey period. This species could be a victim of competition

from the abundant Tupaia glis.

Family Pteromyidae

38. lomys horsfieldii davisoni (Thomas, 1886)

Horsfield’s Flying Squirrel,

Chasen (1925) recorded J. horsfieldii from Kranji and Bukit Timah.

However, the two specimens from Kranji, deposited at the Zoological

Reference Collection, are misidentified. This leaves the single specimen

from Bukit Timah as the only previous record of the species. Jomys

horsfieldii was, however, rediscovered in 1995, when a pair was observed

at Nee Soon East. This was the first record of the species from CCNR.

39. Hylopetes spadiceus (Blyth, 1847)

Red-cheeked Flying Squirrel

Plate 2

This species was only discovered in 1996 in Bukit Timah. The existence of

H. spadiceus has perhaps been overlooked, due to its small size and a lack

of nocturnal surveys in Singapore over the past few decades. Twenty-four

records were obtained during the survey period and a small but apparently

viable population exists within Bukit Timah. There was also a report in

1990 of a small flying squirrel at Taban Valley, Bukit Timah (M.N. Jumaat,

pers. comm.), which is now believed to have been H. spadiceus. During the

survey period, a pair was clearly observed at its nest hole about 2 m above

the ground. The local animals have white stockings, a characteristic not

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 373

found in any Malaysian flying squirrel. This indicates a possible undescribed

subspecies endemic to Singapore. This flying squirrel gives a short, high-

pitched shriek as it moves around the forest.

Family Muridae

40. Rattus rattus diardii (Jentinck, 1880)

There were four records of this familiar rat - one from the Summit of

Bukit Timah, and two in scrubland at Upper Seletar. Rattus rattus is more

commonly found in urban and suburban areas, and the Bukit Timah

example probably reached the Summit by way of the access road. A possible

example was, however, trapped at Seraya Valley under primary forest, but

it escaped during processing, and its identity could not be positively

established.

41. Rattus tiomanicus jalorensis (Bonhote, 1903)

Malaysian Wood Rat, Malaysian Field Rat

Only 19 examples were recorded (three in the pre-survey period and 16 in

the survey period), but this species is believed to be more prevalent outside

rain forest. Future surveys, especially in forest fringe, scrub and back

mangrove, should produce more records for Singapore. At Bukit Timah,

an example was known to have gnawed through a Chengal-timber door.

42. Rattus exulans concolor (Blyth, 1859)

Polynesian Rat

Commonly found in urban and suburban areas, R. exulans was recorded

only once from Upper Seletar in scrubland.

43. Rattus annandalei bullatus (Lyon, 1908)

Annandale’s Rat, Singapore Rat

Rattus annandalei is the most common nocturnal mammal of the forest

floor (310 records in the survey period). Considering that Harrison (1966)

and Medway (1983) were of the opinion that its natural habitat is secondary

forest and scrub, the abundance of R. annandalei (even in primary

vegetation) is cause for concern. The population at Bukit Timah (107

records) is especially worrying with respect to competition with spiny rats.

374 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

44. Maxomys rajah pellax (Miller, 1900)

Brown Spiny Rat, Rajah Rat

New to Singapore, M. rajah was first recorded in 1995 at Three-Stone Hill

(Nee Soon), where two were trapped. Subsequently, a total of 19 were

trapped from all sectors in Nee Soon, but mainly from Three-Stone Hill.

There is probably a viable but nonetheless endangered population. This

murid has not been confirmed outside Nee Soon though juveniles of a

spiny rat were caught both at Lower Peirce and Mandai but these could

not be identified to species, as juveniles of M. rajah and M. surifer look

alike. The two records outside Nee Soon are tentatively placed under M.

rajah, the only spiny rat confirmed for CCNR thus far.

45. Maxomys surifer leonis (Robinson & Kloss, 1911)

Red Spiny Rat

The last records of this endemic subspecies were in 1968 from Bukit Timah

(Murphy, 1973) but no specimens were kept and the identification is

doubtful. A spiny rat was observed once in the field at Bukit Timah during

the survey period, but could not be identified to species. With the discovery

of M. rajah at Nee Soon, this spiny rat could, however, not be assumed to

be M. surifer.

Reptiles

Nomenclature for reptiles generally follows Lim & Lim (1992) and Denzer

& Manthey (1991). For most species, the following convention and criteria

are used to describe the abundance of reptiles (numbers indicate known

population size in Singapore):

e Endangered : Occurring in very low numbers (< 10)

e Rare : Occurring in low numbers (10-19)

e Uncommon : Occurring in moderate numbers (20-29)

¢ Fairly Common : Occurring in high numbers (30-39)

¢ Common : Occurring in very high numbers (> 39)

As most reptiles are not easily detectable, it is difficult to designate a

reptile as extinct, even if there have been no records for a long period of

time. For this reason, not much data on extinct reptiles is available. From

Lim & Lim (1992), it is, however, assumed that there are no recent records

(at that time) for 33 terrestrial species (32%) not covered in its main text.

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians BYD

During the pre-survey period, 57 indigenous species were recorded,

while the survey period produced 65 species making a total of 72 for the

period 1987 to July 1997, of which 35 are forest species (49%) and 37 are

not true forest dwellers. Twenty-eight species (39%) are confined to the

Nature Reserves.

Bukit Timah, Nee Soon, MacRitchie and Lower Peirce are the four

most important zones for threatened reptile species (Figure 6). Forty species

(56%) are considered to be threatened, 24 endangered, seven rare and

nine uncommon. These include nine localized species - Ahaetulla fasciolata,

Ophites subcinctus, Psammodynastes pictus, Rhadophis subminiatus,

Xenochrophis piscator, Xenochrophis trianguligerus, Zaocys fuscus,

Lygosoma sp. and Cyrtodactylus cf. consobrinus. The distribution of

endangered and rare reptiles is mapped in Figures 7 and 8.

No. of species

Ate Sa Y,

ea? = AEE a Wy :

Bukit Timah Nee Soon Lower Peirce Mandai Upper Seletar MacRitchie |

SS eee

———

SEndangered MRare WUncommon wMlindeterminate

Figure 6. Number of threatened reptile species in the Nature Reserves.

ORDER SQUAMATA

Family Boidae

1. Python reticulatus (Schneider, 1801)

Reticulated Python

The world’s longest snake (up to 10 m) is both common and widespread in

376 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

UPPER

SELETAR

RESERVOIR

+ Mabuya rugifera O Dogania subplana

+ Aphaniotis fusca a Dasia olivacea

Oo Cosymbotes craspedotus ala Cyrtodactylus cf. consobrinus

a) Hemiphyllodactylus typus A Lipinia cf. vittigera

Oo Notochelys platynota A Dasia cf. grisea

O Amyda cartilaginea

Figure 7. Distribution of endangered and rare reptiles (excluding snakes).

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians

SELETAR

RESERVOIR

= Calamaria lumbricoidea A Gonyosoma oxycephala

* Liopeltis baliodeirus A Oligodon signatus

a Chrysopelea pelias a Boiga cynodon

oO Dryophiops rubescens & Ophiophagus hannah

* Boiga dendrophila D4 Tropidolaemus wagleri

| Xenochrophis trianguligerus O Dryocalamus subannulatus

A Xenochrophis maculatus @) Rhadophis subminiatus

Psammodynastes pictus

Zaocys fuscus

Ophites subcinctus

Boiga jaspidea

Ahaetulla fasciolata

Figure 8. Distribution of endangered and rare snakes.

378 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Singapore. It was recorded from all zones in the Nature Reserves. This

species has learnt to use our drainage and sewerage systems to its advantage.

It is actually useful in helping to keep the rodent pest population in check.

Family Xenopeltidae

2. Xenopeltis unicolor Reinwardt, 1827

Sunbeam Snake, Iridescent Earth Snake

A medium-sized snake, X. unicolor is actually quite harmless. Although

there were only nine records from the survey, it is believed to be fairly

common, as it is an obscure burrower.

Family Typhlopidae

3. Ramphotyphlops braminus (Daudin, 1803)

Common Blind Snake

Another burrowing species, R. braminus is commonly found in gardens

and parks and presumably in the Nature Reserves as well. Only one example

was recorded in the survey.

Family Colubridae

4. Ahaetulla fasciolata (Fischer, 1885)

Speckled-headed Whip Snake

There was only a single confirmed record of this endangered snake from

the Nature Reserves (Bukit Timah). A record of one donated to the zoo

gave no details of its origin (Lim, 1990a). Due to its arboreal habit and

brown colouration, it is easily overlooked.

5. Ahaetulla prasina (Boie, 1827)

Oriental Whip Snake

One of the commonest snakes in Singapore, A. prasina is also found in

gardens and parks. There were a total of 33 records, spread across all

zones except Mandai. It is the most frequently recorded snake at Upper

Seletar (14 records). This arboreal species is normally camouflaged and

when disturbed it moves very swiftly, appearing to flow through the foliage.

It preys on lizards and other small creatures.

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 379

6. Boiga cynodon (Boie, 1827)

Dog-toothed Cat Snake

This endangered species was found on eight occasions (four within the

pre-survey period, and four during the survey). It is arboreal and grows up

to 2.5 m in length. A forest dweller, B. cynodon, was recently recorded

from Pulau Ubin. This was surprising as the forest there is very much

degraded, in comparison to the Nature Reserves.

7. Boiga dendrophila (Boie, 1827)

Yellow-ringed Cat Snake, Mangrove Snake

This is one of our most striking snakes. Though rare, B. dendrophila is not

confined to the rain forest - it has also been found in mangroves. With a

maximum length of about 2.5 m, this species should not be handled as it

readily bites when provoked. There were a total of 13 records, mostly of

live examples.

8. Boiga jaspidea (Dumeril, Bibron & Dumeril, 1854)

Jasper’s Cat Snake, Mottled Cat Snake

This endangered species was recorded in the pre-survey period only - once

each from Upper Seletar and Lower Peirce.

9. Calamaria lumbricoidea Boie, 1827

Variable Reed Snake

This rare species was recorded ten times in the survey. Because of its

burrowing habit, it is not often seen. Like C. schlegeli below, it is totally

harmless to humans.

10. Calamaria schlegeli schlegeli Dumeril, Bibron & Dumeril, 1854

Pink-headed Reed Snake

A total of 26 records were obtained for this species, mostly from Lower

Peirce (11 records) and Bukit Timah (eight records). The first author has

also recorded it in 1989 at Holland Woods, outside the Nature Reserves.

This indicates that C. schlegeli may not be a true forest species. Further

records are needed to confirm this.

11. Chrysopelea paradisi (Boie, 1827)

Paradise Tree Snake

380 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

This beautiful species, like C. pelias below, has been observed to glide

from tree to tree. Other than the Nature Reserves, it is also commonly

found in gardens and parks. It is known to eat mice, birds and lizards (Lim

& Lee, 1989) and the first author has even recorded one with a bat

(Tylonycteris robustula) in its coils.

12. Chrysopelea pelias (Linnaeus, 1758)

Twin-barred Tree Snake

There were 12 records of this attractive, arboreal species, with eight records

coming from Lower Peirce. Sadly, except for one live example each at Nee

Soon and Bukit Timah, all records were of road-kills. This rare forest

species has surprisingly been recorded recently from Pulau Ubin.

13. Dendrelaphis caudolineatus (Gray, 1824)

Striped Bronzeback

Although growing up to 2 m, this species is rather inoffensive. Like all

bronzebacks, it is arboreal and very agile among the branches, where it

hunts for small birds, lizards and frogs (Lim & Lee, 1989). There were a

total of 15 records during the survey.

14. Dendrelaphis formosus (Boie, 1827)

Elegant Bronzeback

This is possibly the commonest arboreal snake in the Nature Reserves (34

records). and the dominant snake at Lower Peirce (18 records). It has the

ability to puff up the anterior part of its body when threatened, thus

appearing larger.

15. Dendrelaphis pictus (Gmelin, 1788)

Painted Bronzeback

More commonly found in open or lightly wooded areas, D. pictus was

recorded 12 times in the Nature Reserves. Its diet consists of frogs and

lizards.

16. Dryocalamus subannulatus (Dumeril, Bibron & Dumeril, 1854)

Saddled Tree Snake, Malayan Bridal Snake

Plate 3a

Dryocalamus subannulatus was recently rediscovered in 1990 when a dead

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 381

specimen was found on a road at Lower Peirce. Two live examples were

subsequently recorded in 1996 at Nee Soon and Bukit Timah. This slender

inoffensive snake can be easily handled.

17. Dryophiops rubescens (Gray, 1835)

Keel-bellied Whip Snake

A road-kill of this highly endangered snake was found during the survey

period at Lower Peirce. Supposedly a forest species, it has also been recently

recorded from Pulau Ubin.

18. Elaphe flavolineata (Schlegel, 1837)

Common Racer, Common Malayan Racer

There were only four records of this species, but it is more commonly

found in agricultural and other open areas. A large species reaching 2 m, it

is terrestrial and feeds on rodents and birds.

19. Gonyosoma oxycephala (Boie, 1827)

Red-tailed Racer

This species starts life with a humble olive-brown colour, but is a beautiful

green when mature. The tail is brown or red. There were a total of only

four records at MacRitchie, Nee Soon and Bukit Timah. It 1s arboreal and

not easily seen as its green coloration blends with the surrounding foliage.

20. Homalopsis buccata (Linnaeus, 1758)

Puff-faced Water Snake

With 41 records, H. buccata is technically the commonest snake in the

Nature Reserves. It is, however, restricted to aquatic habitats, with the

largest population at Nee Soon (24 records), where it is the commonest

snake. The juvenile has a reddish-orange body, handsomely marked with

broad black bands. As it matures, the coloration changes to light brown or

grey, with darker bands. Its diet consists of fish and probably frogs.

21. Liopeltis baliodeirus (Boie, 1827)

Orange-bellied Ringneck

This rare, harmless species has a light orange underside. Only 11 were

recorded, mainly from MacRitchie (five records) and Lower Peirce (four

records). It is normally found on low vegetation or on the forest floor.

382 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

22. Macropisthodon rhodomelas (Boie, 1827)

Blue-necked Keelback

There were 10 records of this frog-eating species. It is fairly common and

also occurs in open country and wooded areas.

23. Oligodon octolineatus (Schneider, 1801)

Striped Kukri Snake

An attractive and harmless species, this snake is common and widespread

in the Nature Reserves (21 records). It is also found in rural areas and

perhaps parks and gardens. Lim & Lim (1992) suspected that eggs form a

major part of its diet, and during the survey, a pair was observed in a tree

hole with large reptilian eggs.

24. Oligodon signatus (Giinther, 1864)

Barred Kukri Snake

There are only four recent records of the endangered O. signatus - two at

MacRitchie, and a single example each from Bukit Timah and Nee Soon.

Except for the Nee Soon snake, all others were road-kills.

25. Ophites aulicus (Linnaeus, 1758)

Common Wolf Snake, House Snake

This is a common snake of suburban and cultivated areas. Its diet consists

largely of geckoes. Hence, it is often encountered in or near buildings.

26. Ophites subcinctus (Boie, 1827)

Banded Wolf Snake

A road-kill at Lower Peirce in 1988 remains the only recent record of this

attractive snake. Inger & Tan (1996) stated that this species never grows

beyond 40 cm in length, but the Singapore specimen measured over 49 cm

(Lim, 1988).

27. Psammodynastes pictus Giinther, 1858

Painted Mock Viper

Lim (1991b) noted that P. pictus feeds on fish and prawns. The only record

in the past decade came from Nee Soon in 1991.

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 383

28. Pseudorhabdion longiceps (Cantor, 1847)

Dwarf Reed Snake

This tiny snake lives in the leaf litter, under logs and stones, and can even

burrow. It is not restricted to forest.

29. Ptyas carinatus (Giinther, 1858)

Keeled Rat Snake

Ptyas carinatus is almost as frequently encountered as Maticora bivirgata

at Bukit Timah (13 records). There were a total of 21 records during the

survey. A large species reaching 4 m, it feeds on frogs and terrestrial

rodents.

30. Ptyas korros (Schlegel, 1837)

Indo-Chinese Rat Snake

There were only five records of this species, but it is not confined to the

Nature Reserves. It is perhaps commoner in cultivated and rural areas.

31. Rhadophis subminiatus (Schlegel, 1837)

Red-necked Keelback

Tentatively a rediscovery, a single record of this handsome snake was

obtained in 1994, at Mandai. Lim & Lee (1989) stated that R. subminiatus

is “recorded mainly from the northern parts of Peninsular Malaysia,

Thailand and south China”. It is possible that this record was of an escapee

from the Singapore Zoological Gardens.

32. Sibynophis melanocephalus (Gray, 1834)

Black-headed Collared Snake

This terrestrial species is considered uncommon as it is not often

encountered - there were only six records from the survey, including an

example caught in a pitfall trap. It is, however, not confined to the forest.

33. Xenelaphis hexagonotus (Cantor, 1847)

Malayan Brown Snake

This is a large but inoffensive snake, more commonly found in open country

and cultivated areas, often near water. Lim & Lee (1989) reported a diet

consisting of rodents, amphibians and fish. There are only two recent records

from the Nature Reserves.

384 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

34. Xenochrophis maculatus (Edeling, 1865)

Spotted Keelback

This species was recently rediscovered in 1989 at Bukit Timah. A second

pre-survey record was obtained at MacRitchie in 1991. During the survey

period, there were 12 more records with 11 from Lower Peirce and 1 from

MacRitchie. Unfortunately, except for the latter, all other records were of

road-kills.

35. Xenochrophis piscator (Schneider, 1799)

Chequered Keelback

There were four records at Upper Seletar, but these were possibly of

escapees (Lim & Lim, 1988; Lim & Lee, 1989).

36. Xenochrophis trianguligerus (Bote, 1827)

Triangle Keelback, Red-sided Water Snake

Plate 3b

This species was rediscovered in 1995 at Lower Peirce, but only a moult

was found.

37. Zaocys fuscus (Giinther, 1858)

White-bellied Rat Snake, Brown Rat Snake

A snake, possibly of this species, was observed beside a pool in 1997 at

Nee Soon (S.H. Yeo, pers. comm.). If confirmed, the record constitutes a

rediscovery of this highly endangered snake.

Family Elapidae

38. Maticora bivirgata (Boie, 1827)

Blue Malayan Coral Snake

This highly venomous species is the commonest snake at Bukit Timah (15

records) and is also frequently encountered at MacRitchie (nine records).

In addition, it is one of the commonest terrestrial snakes in the Nature

Reserves (26 records). One of our most beautiful snakes, M. bivirgata

often lies across a track to soak in the sun. As a result, visitors to the

Nature Reserves often chance upon it. Fortunately, it is not aggressive and

makes its escape rather than standing its ground. The first author has

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 385

observed an example flattening itself against the ground and raising its

bright red tail when cornered. Though not necessarily a forest dweller, M.

bivirgata has not been recently recorded outside the Nature Reserves, and

the authors consider it an uncommon species in Singapore.

39. Maticora intestinalis (Laurenti, 1768)

Banded Malayan Coral Snake

A close cousin of the above, this species is rather widespread in the Nature

Reserves, but is commoner at MacRitchie, where 11 were recorded. Unlike

M. bivirgata, most of the records were of road-kills. The species is also

found in areas fringing the Nature Reserves.

40. Naja sumatrana Miiller, 1887

Black Spitting Cobra

This very dangerous species is more common than most people think. It

can be found in gardens, parks and scrubland, as well as the Nature Reserves

(11 records). Hiding in the day, it emerges at night to hunt for small

animals. This species has the ability to spit venom accurately at the eyes,

and should not be approached, as it is highly irritable.

41. Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1836)

King Cobra, Hamadryad

The largest venomous snake in the world, O. hannah was recorded only

four times in the past decade - three at MacRitchie and one at Nee Soon.

In the mid 1980s, the first author also recorded a juvenile at Pulau Tekong.

The species can grow to about 6 m. It feeds on other snakes (ophiophagous),

particularly rat snakes (Lim & Lee, 1989).

Family Viperidae

42. Tropidolaemus wagleri (Boie, 1827)

Wagler’s Pit Viper

This beautiful snake is green when young, slowly developing black barrings

and a bright yellow venter as it matures. It is usually seen on shrubs or low

branches, and stays motionless to avoid detection. When disturbed it is

sluggish and usually unagegressive. This snake has heat-sensing organs and

presumably feeds on small mammals and birds. There were 12 records

386 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

from the survey - six at Bukit Timah, five at MacRitchie and one at Mandai.

It is also recorded from mangroves, and the first author has a record from

a rubber plantation on Pulau Tekong.

ORDER SAURIA

Family Varanidae

43. Varanus nebulosus (Gray, 1831)

Clouded Monitor

Lim & Lim (1992) listed V. nebulosus as a rare species, and prior to the

survey, there was only a single record for Singapore. There were, however,

32 records from the survey period. This species had probably been mistaken

for the more familiar V. salvator in the past. The status of the species is

now considered to be fairly common. MacRitchie is the stronghold for V.

nebulosus (23 records), where it is often seen clinging onto tree trunks.

44. Varanus salvator salvator (Laurenti, 1786)

Malayan Water Monitor, Asian Water Monitor, Common Water

Monitor

This is the monitor commonly seen in mangroves, on offshore islands and

even along canals in urban areas. Large specimens are common in and

around Sungei Buloh Nature Park. As its name suggest, V. salvator swims

readily, especially when threatened. Within the Nature Reserves, it is usually

found on the fringes of the reservoirs.

Family Scincidae

45. Dasia cf. grisea (Gray, 1845)

Brown Tree Skink

This skink is a new record for Singapore and its presence was confirmed in

1996 at Nee Soon (S.H. Yeo, pers. comm.). The second author recorded an

example in 1994 at MacRitchie. It has a brown dorsum with black transverse

barrings with white below the eye. The juvenile is yellow-brown with thicker,

more defined barrings and a series of spots on the head. The underparts

are yellowish in colour.

46. Dasia olivacea Gray, 1839

Olive Tree Skink

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 387

There were a total of nine records of this endangered species, including

four juveniles at Nee Soon. The other records came from Bukit Timah.

The adult is olive brown dorsally with indistinct black transverse barrings,

whereas the juvenile has a yellowish head and tail, and a blackish body

with thin yellowish barrings. The underparts are light green. An example

from Bukit Timah had no barring on the dorsum. There is a possibility

that the records involve more than a single species of Dasia.

47. Lipinia cf. vittigera (Boulenger, 1894)

Yellow-striped Skink

There were four records of this newly discovered species at Bukit Timah.

Another was seen after the survey period, at Upper Seletar, within the

grounds of the Night Safari (T.M. Leong, pers. comm.). This striking skink

is usually observed on tree trunks. A broad yellow band runs dorsally from

the snout to the end of the tail. A broad black band is found on each side

of the yellow band, but tapers off towards the tail.

48. Lygosoma sp.

Supple Skink A

Two specimens of a skink species were collected in 1989 and 1990 near a

stream at Nee Soon, but their identity is still not determined.

49. Mabuya multifasciata (Kuhl, 1820)

Common Sun Skink, Sun Lizard

This handsome skink is very common in any wooded area, and is often

seen sunning itself along trails and footpaths. There were 121 records from

the survey, making it the second most numerous reptile, after Cuora

amboinensis. Although highly approachable, it is extremely difficult to

catch. The coloration varies from bronze to yellow-brown, and often the

sides are a bright orange and the throat a deep yellow.

50. Mabuya rugifera (Stoliczka, 1870)

Striped Sun Skink

There were only five records of this endangered species during the survey

(Bukit Timah and Nee Soon). All were found in clearings in the forest.

The second author eventually recorded another in 1998 at Thomson Ridge,

MacRitchie.

388 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

51. Riopa bowringi (Gunther, 1864)

Garden Supple Skink

This tiny skink is more easily seen in urban areas, where it often crawls out

of grass to sun itself. It is probably found all over Singapore. Within the

Nature Reserves, only one record was obtained. However, the use of pitfall

traps (with sealed bottoms) may perhaps produce more records.

Family Agamidae

52. Aphaniotis fusca (Peters, 1864)

Earless Agamid

The only known population of A. fusca in CCNR, prior to the survey

period, was at the fringes of Upper Seletar Reservoir Park (Nee Soon),

where two individuals were recorded. Two other populations have since

been located during the survey, at MacRitchie North and Three-Stone Hill

(Nee Soon), with four records at each location. At Bukit Timah, two were

recorded during the pre-survey period and another four during the survey

period.

53. Bronchocela cristatella (Kuhl, 1820)

Green Crested Lizard

This beautiful agamid used to be very common in urban and suburban

areas. It is now more frequently encountered in parks and wooded areas.

It is suspected that its populations have dwindled due to competition from

Calotes versicolor. The species is, however, surviving well on the fringes of

the Nature Reserves. Extensive culling of C. versicolor may allow this

species to make a comeback in its lost niches.

54. Calotes versicolor (Daudin, 1802)

Changeable Lizard

A feral species, C. versicolor was supposedly introduced in the 1980s, and

has since spread to every urban, suburban and rural area. It has, however,

not penetrated the Nature Reserves, except at the fringes.

55. Draco melanopogon Boulenger, 1887

Black-bearded Flying Dragon

Due to its arboreal habits, this species has probably been overlooked by

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 389

many. Confined to the Nature Reserves, it is uncommon (36 records) but

rather widespread. Males have a red and black gular flag. To the untrained

eye, it is similar to D. volans, but its colour is greener, and it is larger and

proportionately more slender.

56. Draco volans sumatrana Schegel, 1844

Common Flying Dragon

This species can be found in any area with trees, and it may surprise many

that it can often be seen in housing estates. It is equally at home in the

Nature Reserves, where 23 were recorded. Unlike D. melanopogon, it has

a yellow gular flag, tinged with blue.

Family Gekkonidae

57. Cnemaspis kendalli (Gray, 1845)

Kendall’s Rock Gecko

Bukit Timah is the key sanctuary (50 records) for this forest species,

although Nee Soon probably has a sizeable population as well (five records).

There was one record each from MacRitchie, Mandai and Upper Seletar.

Rajathurai (1996a) reported an example found in a culvert, at Pulau Tekong

Besar, the only known record outside the Nature Reserves. This record

needs verification, however, as C. kendalli can easily be confused with

Gekko monarchus. Cnemaspis kendalli is usually seen on tree trunks and

rocks, and often raises its tail over its back when alarmed. Strangely,

regenerated tails are yellow.

58. Cosymbotes craspedotus (Mocquard, 1890)

Frilly Gecko

Plate 3¢

Lim (1991c) recorded the recent discovery of this species at Nee Soon. A

second example of this highly endangered species was subsequently found

during the survey period at the same locality. The first record for Bukit

Timah was by the second author in 1998, after the survey period when an

example was seen on a tree along Tiup Tiup Path. It has bright yellow

underparts and is mottled brown dorsally with a series of dark brown

blotches down the length of the body. A fringe of loose skin is found on

the sides of the head, body, tail and feet. This cryptic morphology allows it

to blend into the surface of tree trunks or rocks.

390 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

59. Cosymbotes platyurus (Schneider, 1792)

Flat-tailed Gecko

This familiar species resembles C. craspedotus, but is not as cryptic. It also

has a fringe of skin on the sides of the head, body, tail and feet, although

this is much less pronounced. Furthermore, its undersides are also yellow

and under dim light, its beige-brown coloration changes to reveal a similar

series of dark brown blotches down the body. Within the Nature Reserves,

it is usually found on buildings and concrete structures, especially where

there is a light source.

60. Cyrtodactylus cf. consobrinus (Peters, 1871)

Banded Bent-toed Gecko, Giant Bent-toed Gecko, Peter’s Bent-toed

Gecko

Plate 3d

The opening of the man-made tunnels at Bukit Timah led to the discovery

of C. consobrinus in 1993. Prior to this, it had apparently been observed at

least once at Jungle Fall Valley, but could not be identified. To date, there

are 23 records from Bukit Timah but none from elsewhere. This primary

forest species grows to at least 30 cm, and is often found together with

Cnemaspis kendalli, which it possibly preys on. The coloration varies from

light to dark purplish-brown, with transverse light yellowish bands on the

body, tail and limbs. There is an elaborate, but more or less distinctive,

network of pale yellow on the head and neck.

61. Cyrtodactylus quadrivirgatus Taylor, 1962

Marbled Bent-toed Gecko, Marbled Forest Gecko

A total of eight records of C. quadrivirgatus were obtained during the pre-

survey period and 20 from the survey period. Most records came from

Nee Soon and Upper Seletar. There was only a single record from Bukit

Timah, where an example was released after having “hitch-hiked” all the

way from South Johor. It is most unusual that no natural populations of C.

quadrivirgatus were located at Bukit Timah, as it seems to have the same

niche as Cnemaspis kendalli.

62. Gehyra mutilata (Wiegmann, 1835)

Four-clawed Gecko

Another gecko associated with human dwellings, G. mutilata is perhaps

more adaptable to the forest environment. Juveniles have pink or gold

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 39]

spots on the body (Lim & Lim, 1992) and white spots on the face, which

slowly fade with maturity. This species has only four-clawed digits, and a

head that is more rounded and blunt than the other gecko species. The call

is a series of low and monotonous squeaks. Gehyra mutilata is quite easily

seen along the pipeline at Nee Soon.

63. Gekko monarchus Duméril & Bibron, 1836

Spotted House Gecko

This species is rarely seen in housing estates, but is usually found in houses

and structures near wooded areas, including culverts and covered drains.

Most survey records came from Bukit Timah and Nee Soon. Juveniles

have a banded tail and a row of paired spots from head to tail - markings

that become indistinct with age. The skin of the adult is covered with

prominent, sharp tubercles. Eggs are laid in large clusters cemented

together, and attached to hard surfaces. Like Gehyra mutilata, it has only

four-clawed digits.

64. Gekko smithi Gray, 1842

Large Forest Gecko, Stentor’s Gecko

Largest of our geckoes, G. smithi is more commonly heard than seen.

Adults grow to over 35 cm and can give a nasty bite. They are most

commonly found on dead or dying trees. This species has distinctive green

eyes and an Y-shaped marking on the head. The dorsum and tail has

transverse, dark brown bands. In addition, the bands on the body are

bordered with large white spots. These beautiful markings are more

pronounced in very young juveniles. Bukit Timah is the main refuge for

this forest gecko (17 records), although it also occurs at Nee Soon (five

records) and Lower Peirce (two records).

65. Hemidactylus frenatus Duméril & Bibron, 1836

Common House Gecko

Very familiar by sight and sound to all Singaporeans, H. frenatus (together

with Cosymbotes platyurus) is presumably found in every housing block in

Singapore. Within the Nature Reserves, it is usually found on buildings

with light sources.

66. Hemiphyllodactylus typus typus Bleeker, 1860

Dwarf Gecko

This diminutive gecko was found on bushes in MacRitchie (five records).

392 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

A specimen was also collected at Upper Peirce East, from a resam patch

_ that was being cleared. The only recent record outside the Nature Reserves

was at the Mandai mangroves (Lim ef al., 1993b).

ORDER CROCODILIA

Family Crocodylidae

67. Crocodylus porosus Schneider, 1801

Estuarine Crocodile, Saltwater Crocodile

All recent records of this species within the Nature Reserves are probably

of escapees. It has been seen at Upper Seletar Reservoir and MacRitchie

Reservoir.

ORDER TESTUDINATA

Family Emydidae

68. Cuora amboinensis (Daudin, 1802)

Malayan Box Terrapin

Cuora amboinensis 1s the commonest reptile in the survey (133 records). It

is primarily herbivorous and is found in large numbers in the reservoirs

and adjoining streams. Though amphibious, juveniles are apparently entirely

aquatic (Ernst & Barbour, 1989). Existing populations consist of both

indigenous and feral animals, as Buddhist devotees often release the species

on Vesak Day.

69. Heosemys spinosa (Gray, 1831)

Spiny Terrapin, Spiny Hill Terrapin

Our only true forest terrapin, this uncommon species (29 records) was

recorded from all zones. This is the most terrestrial of our turtles. It is

often encountered walking on the forest floor, sometimes not far from

water. A juvenile with a serrated carapace was recorded at Bukit Timah,

indicating a breeding population there. A few examples were caught in

spring-door traps laid out for small mammals.

70. Notochelys platynota (Gray, 1834)

Malayan Flat-shelled Terrapin

This species is easily identified as it has six to seven vertebral scutes. There

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 393

were six records from the survey. It is found in shallow waters, where it

feeds on aquatic plants (Ernst & Barbour, 1989).

71. Siebenrockiella crassicollis (Gray, 1831)

Black Marsh Terrapin, Black Pond Terrapin

This nocturnal species is abundant in the reservoirs and their inlets. It is

largely carnivorous, feeding on snails, worms, shrimps and other

invertebrates. This species is another favourite with Buddhist devotees on

Vesak Day, and released feral animals probably form a substantial part of

the population.

72. Trachemys scripta elegans (Wied, 1839)

Red-eared Terrapin, Common Slider

This feral species is well established in reservoirs and lakes. It is especially

numerous at the Botanic Gardens, where the first author observed one

laying eggs. There were 87 records from the survey, but fortunately, the

species has not established itself in forest streams. This amphibious terrapin

is more at home in the water, but loves to sun itself on floating logs or at

the water’s edge.

Family Trionychidae

73. Amyda cartilaginea (Boddaert, 1770)

Asiatic Soft-shelled Turtle

A large species, A. cartilaginea was mostly recorded from the reservoirs

and adjoining streams (eight records). Adults have carapaces of up to 70

cm in length. This species and Pelodiscus sinensis are often slaughtered to

make turtle soup.

74. Dogania subplana (Geoffroy, 1809)

Forest Soft-shelled Turtle, Malayan Soft-shelled Turtle

Plate 3e

Recently rediscovered in 1989 at Nee Soon, D. subplana is restricted to

clean forest streams. A second record was obtained in 1991 at Rifle Range

Forest (MacRitchie). This attractive turtle has a diagnostic vertebral stripe

and two to three pairs of ocelli on the carapace. Juveniles have a reddish

patch at the sides of the head, which disappear with maturity.

394 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

75. Pelodiscus sinensis (Wiegmann, 1835).

Chinese Soft-shelled Turtle

There were 10 records of this feral species that has established itself in

reservoirs, lakes and canals.

Amphibians

Nomenclature for amphibians generally follows Lim & Lim (1992) and

Berry (1975). For most species, the convention and criteria used in

describing the abundance of amphibians are as follows (numbers indicate

known population size in Singapore):

e Endangered : Occurring in very low numbers (< 30)

e Rare : Occurring in low numbers (30-59)

e Uncommon : Occurring in moderate numbers (60-119)

e Fairly Common : Occurring in high numbers (120-179)

e Common : Occurring in very high numbers (> 179)

During the pre-survey period, 20 indigenous species were recorded.

The survey Period produced 24 species making a total of 25 indigenous

species recorded from 1987 to July 1997 of which 18 are forest species

(72%) and seven others not restricted to forest. The Nature Reserves are

the only refuge for 16 species (64%).

Bukit Timah and Nee Soon are strongholds for threatened amphibians

(Figure 9). Of the 25 indigenous species, 14 (56%) are considered threatened

- seven endangered, four rare and three uncommon. These include the

four localized species, Pelophryne brevipes, Microhyla borneensis,

Theloderma horridum and Rhacophorus bimaculatus. The distribution of

endangered and rare amphibians is mapped out in Figure 10.

ORDER GYMNOPHIONA

Family Ichthyophiidae

1. Ichthyophis cf. paucisulcus (Taylor, 1960)

Yellow-banded Caecilian

The only record for CCNR was in 1989 (Lim, 1990a) at Nee Soon. There

are only two other recent records, both from Bukit Timah (Ng et al., 1988;

Ng, 1989). This species is perhaps overlooked, as it lives under soil in the

vicinity of streams.

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 395

No. of species

/ Ll a &

4a i @

Bukit Timah Nee Soon Lower Peirce Mandai Upper Seletar MacRitchie

| Endangered i Rare Uncommon | |

Figure 9. Number of threatened amphibian species in the Nature Reserves.

ORDER ANURA

Family Pelobatidae

2. Megophrys nasuta (Schlegel, 1858)

Malayan Horned Frog, Malayan Horned Toad

There were 16 records of this cryptic frog from the pre-survey period and

36 from the survey period. Although Lim (1994) considered this species to

be uncommon, we are listing it as rare, based on the relatively low number

of records. Furthermore, the main populations are confined to Bukit Timah

(40 records) and Nee Soon (10), with only a single record each from Upper

Seletar and Mandai.

3. Leptobrachium nigrops Berry & Hendrickson, 1963

Black-eyed Litter Frog

This species is common in the Nature Reserves usually near streams or

larger water bodies, it is more often heard than seen,. There were 158

records from the survey period. It has never been recorded far from the

Nature Reserves.

396

Megophrys nasuta

Bufo quadriporcatus

Rana glandulosa

Limnonectes paramacrodon

Rana plicatella

Rhacophorus bimaculatus

SELETAR

RESERVOIR

Ichthyophis cf. paucisulcus

Nyctixalus pictus

Microhyla borneensis

Theloderma horridum

Pelophryne brevipes

Figure 10. Distribution of endangered and rare amphibians.

Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 397

Family Bufonidae

4. Bufo melanostictus Schneider, 1799

Asian Toad, Asiatic Toad

This ubiquitous species is found all over Singapore. It has even managed

to penetrate primary forest in the Nature Reserves, and is especially

common at Bukit Timah (60 records).

5. Bufo quadriporcatus Boulenger, 1887

Four-ridged Toad

A recent discovery from MacRitchie (Lim, 1989a), B. quadriporcatus is

found near swampy areas. A total of eight were recorded in the pre-survey

period, four each at MacRitchie and Nee Soon. During the survey, there

were three more records - two at MacRitchie and one at Nee Soon.

Although Lim (1994) stated that this species is “commonly heard” in Nee

Soon, the authors are of the opinion that it is endangered.

6. Pelophryne brevipes (Peters, 1867)

Saint Andrew’s Cross Toadlet

A primary forest species, P. brevipes, was rediscovered in 1989 at Bukit

Timah, where only two were recorded (Lim, 1990b). There were only two

other records from the past, making this a highly endangered amphibian.

Family Ranidae

7. Limnonectes blythii (Boulenger, 1920)

Malayan Giant Frog, Blyth’s Frog

Our largest indigenous frog, L. blythii can grow to over 20 cm. It is

widespread, but confined to the Nature Reserves. Its habits are very similar

to Limnonectes malesiana.

8. Limnonectes malesiana Kiew, 1984

Malesian Frog

Though uncommon, L. malesiana is widespread and occurs in all zones.

This large species is often encountered sitting in shallow streams or by the

edge of reservoirs within the Nature Reserves.

398 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

9. Limnonectes paramacrodon (Inger, 1966)

Masked Swamp Frog

Plate 4a

This rare species was officially recorded for Singapore in 1988 at Nee

Soon, although a specimen was collected in 1974 at the same locality (Lim,

1989b). There were 26 records in the pre-survey period, all from Nee

Soon. In the survey period, nine records were obtained - eight at Nee Soon

and one from a new locality at Chestnut Track Forest (Mandai).

Limnonectes paramacrodon is dependent on swamp forest habitat.

10. Occidozyga laevis (Giinther, 1859)

Smooth Puddle Frog, Yellow-bellied Puddle Frog

A tiny frog, O. laevis is found in puddles and waterlogged areas. Distinct

morphological variation in different areas was observed, as all frogs from

Upper Seletar North were plain brown with a patch of orange on the

snout.

11. Rana baramica Boettger, 1901

Masked Rough-sided Frog

This species is usually found in marshy areas, but the first author has

recorded one on leaf litter far from water at Bukit Timah. It is widely

distributed in the Nature Reserves, but has not been encountered outside

the Nature Reserves.

12. Rana cancrivora Gravenhorst, 1829

Crab-eating Frog, Mangrove Frog

This frog can tolerate brackish water, and is more commonly found near

the coast, in mangroves, prawn ponds and cultivated land. The young frogs

sold as fish feed in aquarium shops are of this species.

13. Rana chalconota (Schlegel, 1837)

Copper-cheeked Frog, White-lipped Frog

This is without doubt the commonest frog in the Nature Reserves - a total

of 526 records were obtained in the survey. It is easily detected through its

call and is often found on low vegetation.

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 399

14. Rana erythraea (Schlegel, 1837)

Common Greenback, Green Paddy Frog

More aquatic than most other frogs in Singapore, R. erythraea 1s usually

found near open water bodies, never in true forest. It is widespread in the

Nature Reserves.

15. Rana glandulosa Boulenger, 1882

Rough-sided Frog

Plate 4b

This species was first recorded for Singapore in 1993 from MacRitchie

North. Four examples were recorded then, and the area was subsequently

found to have the largest population (42 records). Ten more individuals

were found in three other zones, making a total of 52 records for the

survey. It is not surprising that previous researchers have missed the species

- most of our records were based on its call, which was learned only during

the survey. Although rather widespread, R. glandulosa is currently recorded

only from CCNR and 1s considered rare.

16. Rana limnocharis Boie, in Wiegmann, 1835

Field Frog, Grass Frog

This very common frog is found in most habitats in Singapore. In urban

areas, it can be encountered in fields, especially after rain. Rana limnocharis

is widespread in the Nature Reserves where it is usually recorded in

disturbed areas like reservoir edges and ditches.

17. Rana plicatella Stoliczka, 1873

Rhinoceros Frog

The main population of R. plicatella occurs at Bukit Timah, where its call,

a slowly rising, quivering warble, is often heard. The species is, however,

still considered rare, as there were only three records outside Bukit Timah

(at Nee Soon). There were a total of seven records from the pre-survey

period and 50 records from the survey period. Rana plicatella is found in

shallow streams and often hides under nearby leaf litter. When disturbed,

it makes quick short hops for cover, and has even been observed to hop

sideways.

400 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Family Rhacophoridae

18. Rhacophorus bimaculatus (Peters, 1867)

Blue-legged Tree Frog

Rhacophorus bimaculatus was first discovered over 30 years ago from the

Nee Soon (Lim & Yang, 1991), but was not recorded again until 1994. The

first author chanced upon the single example at Nee Soon, at the edge of a

forest stream (Lim, 1994a). It was not as brightly coloured as examples

from Malaysia.

19. Nyctixalus pictus (Peters, 1871)

Spotted Tree Frog, Painted Tree Frog

A healthy population of N. pictus holds out in Bukit Timah - a total of 67

records were obtained during the survey period. We only learned to

recognize its calls during the survey at Bukit Timah, and it is suspected

that the species will be found to be more widespread at CCNR, where 6

tadpoles were recorded in 1996 at Nee Soon (T.M. Leong, pers. comm.).

20. Polypedates leucomystax (Boie, in Gravenhorst, 1829)

Common Tree Frog, Four-lined Tree Frog

Polypedates leucomystax is a common species, even in gardens and parks

around Singapore. It can sometimes be found clinging onto walls of houses.

It is most commonly found on low vegetation, and is easily located by its

call. At night, P. /euwcomystax is brown in color, usually with stripes or

spots on the back, but in the daytime, it sometimes turns pale beige.

21. Theloderma horridum (Boulenger, 1903)

Thorny Tree Frog

Plate 4c

Leong et al. (1996) recorded the discovery of this very cryptic rhacophorid.

Five other records were obtained from Taban Valley at Bukit Timah. This

species was found clinging onto tree trunks, 1-2 m from the forest floor. It

is superbly camouflaged against lichen-covered bark. In the day, the frog

probably hides in the canopy, but descends down the trunk at night to look

for food.

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 401

Family Microhylidae

22. Kaloula pulchra Gray, 1831.

Banded Bullfrog, Painted Bullfrog

In urban areas, the bellowing call of this feral species is characteristic after

a downpour. It is beginning to penetrate the Nature Reserves - a total of

13 were recorded during the survey. This frog hides in crevices or burrows

into the sides of ditches during the day. It has also been found hiding 1-2

m above ground, usually in the fork of a tree.

23. Kalophrynus pleurostigma Tschudi, 1838

Black-spotted Sticky Frog

Previously known only from Bukit Timah (Lim & Yang, 1991; Lim & Lim,

1992), K. pleurostigma was first recorded from CCNR in 1993, at MacRitchie

North, where one was found. By the end of the survey, a total of four had

been recorded (two at MacRitchie, one at Nee Soon, and one at Lower

Peirce). Although these are the only records from CCNR, the population

at Bukit Timah was found to be large (70 records). The status of this

primary forest species is hence updated to uncommon. This leaf-litter

species is not dependent on streams and is usually found on the forest

floor. It probably breeds in puddles and any water-filled hole or receptacle,

including the ground cups of pitcher plants (Lim & Lim, 1992). Inger &

Stuebing (1997) reported that K. pleurostigma (in Borneo) feeds mainly on

ants and termites.

24. Microhyla borneensis Parker, 1926

Bornean Narrow-mouthed Frog, Bornean Chorus Frog

Plate 4d

Leong & Chou (1997) reported the first record of this primary forest frog

in Singapore. It is known only from Rifle Range Forest (MacRitchie)

where five were recorded in 1996 (one specimen collected and four others

heard). Tadpoles were also found in the same location. More intensive

work on leaf-litter fauna, will probably produce more records of this species,

and perhaps lead to the discovery of other microhylids.

25. Microhyla butleri Boulenger, 1900

Painted Narrow-mouthed Frog, Painted Chorus Frog

Seldom seen, but actually very common, this species is usually detected

402 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

through its call. Males gather in large calling groups near small pools of

water or ditches.

26. Microhyla heymonsi Vogt, 1911

Dark-sided Narrow-mouthed Frog, Dark-sided Chorus Frog

This species is similar in behaviour to M. butleri, and can often be found

together with it. Likewise, it is very common all around Singapore.

Discussion

The Nature Reserves are the only protected refuges for the incredible

diversity of flora and fauna that survives in rain forest. Yet, in this century,

very few studies of our rain forest fauna have been carried out. The few

projects that have been conducted at BT'NR were usually short-term,

sporadic and narrow in scope. In recent years, there has been a notable

increase in observer effort to document sightings of fauna, especially

mammals, reptiles and amphibians. However, no long-term research projects

had been initiated until this survey. It is therefore not surprising that so

many species have been “missing” in recent decades.

Comparing data from the pre-survey period to that from the survey

period indicates that casual observation alone is insufficient to have a good

picture of the diversity, abundance and distribution of mammal, reptile

and amphibian species. One reason is that many species are not easily

observed, let alone identified, in the field (e.g., bats and murids). For

instance, because proper studies on bats had not been conducted for about

70 years, 20 out of the 25 species in Yang et al. (1990) were listed as

indeterminate. Yet, Pottie (1996) reported the rediscoveries of nine

microchiropterans, as well as the addition of two new species to Singapore’s

checklist! In addition, three megachiropterans were also rediscovered in

the same project.

Another reason is that most species are also nocturnal, making

detection even more difficult, and species with small, localized populations

are easily overlooked. Only sufficient time in the field, using proper survey

techniques, would help us better understand the present situation regarding

our mammals, reptiles and amphibians.

The survey has certainly been successful in updating our knowledge

on the mammals, reptiles and amphibians. Data collected on forest species,

especially mammals, are the most thorough in a few decades. Coupled

with data from the pre-survey period, the survey has given us a good

baseline assessment of the current diversity, abundance and distribution of

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 403

species in the Nature Reserves. Of the 141 indigenous species recorded, 74

are forest species (52%) that are highly dependent on forest habitats for

their survival. About 85% of these species are locally threatened with

extinction and their future survival will depend greatly on the sound

management and protection of Nature Reserves. Their abundance and

distribution are good indicators of the condition of our forests and indeed

the health of our Nature Reserves.

Diversity and distribution

The Nature Reserves still have a very high diversity of indigenous mammals,

reptiles and amphibians (141 species), representing about 86% of all species

that are known to still exist in Singapore. Of the six zones, Bukit Timah,

Nee Soon and MacRitchie are the best known and have received good

coverage by researchers and casual observers throughout the past decade.

They are the most diverse in terms of species occurring, and support the

most number of threatened species. This is not surprising as these zones

hold the bulk of primary habitats left in the Nature Reserves.

1. Bukit Timah

Bukit Timah is probably the best-known nature site in Singapore and has

received fairly good coverage by researchers and casual observers, both in

the past and in recent times. Research has, however, been largely confined

to specific studies such as that on Macaca fascicularis (Corlett & Lucas,

1995).

About half of Bukit Timah supports original Coastal Hill Dipterocarp

Forest, the only forest of this kind in Singapore. This habitat, together with

the adjacent secondary habitats, is most important as a major refuge for a

large diversity of indigenous species including a high number that are

threatened. With 50 threatened species recorded, Bukit Timah is the most

vital zone for mammal, reptile and amphibian species. It is home to ten

localized species and the main populations of seven other species. This is

astounding as Bukit Timah is one of the smallest zones.

2. Nee Soon Zone

Nee Soon includes the only primary freshwater swamp forest left in

Singapore, as well as good tracts of primary lowland dipterocarp forest at

Three-Stone Hill and Nee Soon East. It is the second most important area

for indigenous mammals, reptiles and amphibians (89 species), as well as

404 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

threatened species (46 species). Nee Soon also has the second highest

number of localized species with six species that are currently not known

to occur outside this zone. In addition, Nee Soon holds the main populations

for three species that were only discovered within the last decade. The

whole zone is therefore vital as a core area for the northern half of CCNR.

3. MacRitchie Zone

The most substantial stands of primary lowland dipterocarp forest (over

250 ha) are to be found within this zone, at MacRitchie North and Thomson

Ridge. There is also a 160-ha freshwater swamp forest, which is distinct

from that at Nee Soon. Together, they form the core area for the southern

half of CCNR. However, the other sectors in MacRitchie are also important,

as they consist mainly of mature secondary forest. Given time, these areas

will be comparable to the primary vegetation.

MacRitchie has the third highest diversity of indigenous species (88

species) and threatened species (40 species). With two discoveries and

three localized species, MacRitchie is unquestionably a key area for

mammals, reptiles and amphibians.

4. Lower Peirce Zone

The diversity of indigenous species at Lower Peirce is surprisingly impressive

(77 species), when we consider that it is a relatively small area, consisting

mainly of secondary forest. One obvious reason for this is that Lower

Peirce is basically continuous with Nee Soon. For example, Presbytis

femoralis has “colonized” Lower Peirce from Nee Soon with perhaps two

troops in the zone. For many other threatened species at Nee Soon, Lower

Peirce represents a natural extension to their range, and offers opportunities

for expansion of their populations.

The large number of road-kill records at Old Upper Thomson Road

is unfortunate but interesting — it indicates that animals, especially snakes,

are regularly crossing to and from the adjacent unprotected woodland.

5. Upper Seletar Zone

Prior to the survey, there were very few mammal, reptile and amphibian

records from Upper Seletar. Furthermore, most of the pre-survey records

came from the Singapore Zoological Gardens and its vicinity.

Upper Seletar is highly fragmented, and except for a few patches,

the forest is mainly secondary in nature. Even so, its mammal and amphibian

diversities are comparable to MacRitchie. This is largely due to the fact

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 405

that the zone also contains substantial areas of abandoned agricultural

land where a good number of non-forest species were recorded. Still, Upper

Seletar has a good number of threatened species, including four localized

species.

6. Mandai Zone

As Mandai is rather inaccessible, records for this zone were practically

non-existent prior to the survey (one indigenous species). During the survey,

even though fieldwork was confined to a few trails, Mandai produced the

greatest increase in diversity (52 indigenous species). In fact, Mandai has

the highest mammal diversity (24 species) in CCNR. Reptile diversity was,

however, very low — this was probably due to the lack of motorable roads

and hence road-kill records. As much of the zone is still unexplored, many

more species will definitely be recorded with continued surveys and casual

visits.

For survey purposes, Mandai was designated as a separate zone, but

in actuality, it is totally continuous with Nee Soon. Together with Lower

Peirce, they comprise the largest contiguous rain forest in Singapore and

one of the core areas for mammal, reptile and amphibian conservation.

The importance of this cannot be over-emphasized — the combined species

diversity accounts for over 80% of CCNR’s total checklist.

Abundance

A remarkable 80 species (57%) are considered threatened. These include

four subspecies unique to Singapore, and 24 localized species. In addition,

about 35 species (25%) had only five or less records within the past decade

for the whole of Singapore! This highlights the urgent need to increase

conservation efforts to turn the tide. Measures to set aside core areas for

the sole purpose of conservation and enhancing existing populations should

be seriously looked into.

A few species are, however, deemed to be overly abundant within

the Nature Reserves. These include Tupaia glis, Cynopterus brachyotis,

Macaca fascicularis, Sundasciurus tenuis and Rattus annandalei. In

Peninsular Malaysia, densities for these species within the forest are

generally much lower. The exceptionally successful trappings of 7. glis,

and R. annandalei indicate a dominance of these species on the forest

floor. The pressing question is whether the populations of these species

are detrimental to rarer species like Presbytis femoralis, Rhinosciurus

laticaudatus, Maxomys surifer and M. rajah.

406 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Conclusions

Mammal, reptile and amphibian diversity in the Nature Reserves is still

very high in relation to other nature areas in Singapore. The key areas for

conservation are Bukit Timah, Nee Soon and MacRitchie, based on their

high species diversity and the significantly greater number of threatened

species. They should be set aside as core zones, with the incorporation of

Mandai and Lower Peirce, which are contiguous with Nee Soon. This

extended area has a higher carrying capacity than the key areas alone, and

will allow mammal, reptile and amphibian populations within to thrive and

flourish. Furthermore, Lower Peirce is especially important for snakes,

and Mandai though insufficiently surveyed, has already shown its

importance for mammal conservation.

Acknowledgements

The contribution of committee members of the Vertebrate Study Group

(Yeo Suay Hwee, Lee King Li, Ng Bee Choo, Kieu Kim Sen, Kelvin Lim,

Timothy Pwee, and Cheryl Chia) was invaluable to the planning and

execution of this massive survey. We appreciate NParks for giving us the

opportunity to participate in the Nature Reserves survey. Special thanks

to Sharon Chan, Lena Chan, Cheryl Chia, Saifuddin Suran, and Chew

Ping Ting for their patience and assistance in working with us throughout

the survey. GIS maps were painstakingly produced by Cheryl Chia and

Chew Ping Ting. Richard Corlett, as NParks’ Coordinating Consultant,

gave important advice and suggestions. This project would have been

impossible without the help of the daily-rated employees at Bukit Timah —

they did a tremendous job in setting up and collecting traps in the field.

Kelvin Lim was instrumental in the identification of species through

photographs and specimens. We are indebted to Yang Chang Man and the

rest of her staff at Zoological Reference Collection for allowing us to

access specimens. Field surveys would not have been possible without the

time and effort put in by many volunteers who joined us in our nocturnal

sessions. The more regular participants were Lee King Li, Yeo Suay

Hwee, Andrew Tay, Timothy Pwee, Kieu Kim Sen, Wang Luan Keng,

Cheryl Chia, Saifuddin Suran, Benjamin Lee, Goh Yue Yun, Margie Hall,

Lim Lea Cheen, Ng Bee Choo, Leong Tzi Ming, Chew Ping Ting, Richard

Frazier, Goh Si Guim, Tan Tze Siong, Tan Hang Chong, Debra Yeo, Billy

Kon and Lyndon Gan. We would also like to extend our thanks to all

others who helped in the field in one way or another. And finally, thanks

to all contributors to the Vertebrate Study Group’s newsletter, Pangolin,

which provided additional data accumulated over the past decade.

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 407

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Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 413

Appendix 1. Records of Mammals, Reptiles and Amphibians (1987-

1998).

Cervus unicolor

[Cynopterus brachyotis {75 |54__| 137 | 109 |209 | 96 | 680 _|

[Emballonuramonticola 16 =| | S| | |

Co pe ee omen ee ea oa ee Oa a Ee

[Hylopetes spadicems | | LL ds

ol ipa a a el a a A

[Macaca fascicularis {335 [272 | 81_|55__ [int | 604_| 1488 |

|Manisjavanica tt

xomys raj Tapes aa bles (de

eon aie | ee | SI Maly ae eae ES

2 Ee eae se ane ee

[Myotis adverus | S| 20740 89 | 156

[Myotis muricola 638 | S| 33_ | 100 | a

oe iar ree «ee Dean MRS lee Si Er

sl ule oemmeae eae 2a inane Sa a Rl

2 es ge Sm Oe (eee ea ae Gil i

[Paradoxurus hermaphroditus |_| fat 3 |S

(eon ome 02a ees aa a Med Ml Fe"

[Presbytisfemoratis | as, ft ||| 287

[Preropus vampyrus S736 102 | 183

[Ratus annandatei__— tt’ | 52 | 55 [22 [20 [66 | 322

Peecemrecirent 7? Cee yrs

os SES) Sy ae ee ete le (am CER Cade Ati Ka

Peer oy pie ft |S p

peer et Pa

414 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

pond

Sundasciurus tenuis

soni

Aer

enor

init

Mins:

dees

batt

Rabe

= rm ia) | we | & — _

mn oo

—I

—_ =i Wind | Nd — & | Ww

4. -—_ = 1 to =)

— ie 2) \O

bad fon B& | Re | w |r Ce

(oe) 1? 2)

Ahaetulla prasina Rigen

Amyda cartilaginea fs le

i) —_—

bo — |} OW ao WwW ~ tN =

bo \O Ww =

Mm | BO —

Boiga jaspidea

Bronchocela cristatella

Calamaria schlegeli

as)

Chrysopelea paradisi

wo | nn nN nN |= wo

Cosymbotes craspedotus

NY Mle | wel

Po eo a one

Cuora amboinensis

Cyrtodactylus quadrivirgatus

Re | Re i) m= |} hd }]Mms NO [dO |] W

Nn nn

—

Syne) Gy iG) QD

9 AS =~ S = = is)

a ~ S oy as) ~ =—

S S S$ | G >

& im) eo lass:

Tie 5 ee S =

se ~ Ss = ” ~~.

og S = |= en ee 8

~ ~~ “” io S ~—~

a = ~ ~ =

a H AS ® [>

So = x >=

= g, = {8 a | >

Sie SES -

is) = lS a a)

SBS ce BESS 2.

& 5 -

> 8

Re | bo Ble | ntrR|]4 oS)

(oe) oS So

Dasia olivacea

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 415

77)

uw [rr =

—"

tn | m | ww |r ) —

j=)

“Ijin —

7 A a ol — | nl — —_ i ni |

bho

oe no bho —_— | Pe fe — |e | ~

i) oo

—_—

“a

[Homalopsisbuccata | 2S]

aap balindetas | dt See [att

eae ee ee ee

Se RS

/Mabuya mulifasciaa (3388 2833 | aa

2 ea Fe a eee

Eas a ee ee

[Notochelys platynota |

[Ophiophagus hannah |

[Ophites subcinctus |

[Psammodynastes pictus |

416 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

77)

_ |) — —

— — w

[Xenochrophis piscator |

[Xenochrophis trianguligerus ||

[Xenopetisnimicotor |) a la

[Bufo melanosticus 0 (24 [7339/33 | 166

[Rufeguadriporeatus | | | i) eae

[ichithyophis ct. paucindeus ta ||

[Kalophrynus pleurostigma |_| ta | | ff

36 130d

Limnonectes malesiana

Limnonectes paramacrodon

Megophrys nasuta

Microhyla borneensis

Microhyla butleri

Microhyla heymonsi

Nyctixalus pictus

Occidozyga laevis

Pelophryne brevipes

Polypedates leucomystax

Rana baramica

—

(oe) N | Nn re TW tleR tre

Hw lVwnwlTaan}]- oo i)

i) ~~] | CO eS) =

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 417

ispecies! GE [priins “temp [us| me | total |

NE ee ee

Eaecgereml VAY ae 2) | 12 | 99 | say ao

des el

429 [8 |i |s2_| 257

eo beni CANES cD VE

Mn chai a aa

Rhacophorus bimaculatus

aE aR PO

o>)

418

Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Appendix 2. Checklist of Mammals, Reptiles and Amphibians of

the Nature Reserves.

Key to Symbols

Conservation Status (CS)

En — Endangered

Ra —- Rare

Un - Uncommon

Fc — Fairly Common

Co —- Common

In — Indeterminate

Species Status (SS)

R - Resident

FR - Feral (Reintroduced)

FE - Feral (Exotic)

V - Visitor

FS - Forest Specialist

ES - Endemic Subspecies

LS - Localized Species

Sighting Record (SR)

D - Discovery

ReD - Recent Discovery

R - Rediscovery

ReR - Recent Rediscovery

A. Mammals

No. Species

1. Arctogalidia trivirgata

2. Callosciurus notatus

3. Canis familiaris

4. Cervus unicolor

5. Cheiromeles torquatus

6. Crocidura cf. fuliginosa

7. Cynocephalus variegatus

8. Cynopterus brachyotis

9. Emballonura monticola

10. Eonycteris spelaea

11. Hylopetes spadiceus

12. lomys horsfieldii

13. Macaca fascicularis

14. Manis javanica

15. Maxomys rajah

16. Maxomys surifer

17. Muntiacus muntjak

18. Myotis adversus

19. Myotis muricola

20. Nycteris tragata

21. Nycticebus coucang

22. Paguma larvata

23. Paradoxurus hermaphroditus

24. Penthetor lucasi

25. ?Pipistrellus sp.

26. Presbytis femoralis

27. Pteropus vampyrus

28. Rattus annandalei

29. Rattus exulans

30. Rattus rattus

31. Rattus tiomanicus

32. Ratufa affinis

Common Name CS SS SR

Small-toothed Palm Civet En R R

Plantain Squirrel Co R, ES

Feral Dog Co FE

Sambar FR, FS, LS

Naked Bat En R, LS

South-east Asian White-toothed Shrew En R

Malayan Colugo Fe R, FS

Lesser Dog-faced Fruit Bat Co R

Lesser Sheath-tailed Bat En R, FSS R

Cave Nectar Bat Un R ReR

Red-cheeked Flying Squirrel En R, FS, LS D

Horsfield’s Flying Squirrel En R, FS, LS R

Long-tailed Macaque Co R

Sunda Pangolin En R

Brown Spiny Rat En R, FS D

Red Spiny Rat In R, BS, BS,

Common Barking Deer FR, FS, LS

Grey Large-footed Myotis Co R ReR

Whiskered Myotis Co R

Hollow-faced Bat En R, FS, LS D

Slow Loris En R, FS

Masked Palm Civet En R, FS R

Common Palm Civet Un R

Dusky Fruit Bat En RK, FS, LS R

Pipistrelle A Un R 2R

Banded Leaf Monkey En R, FS

Large Flying Fox Un V

Annandale’s Rat Co R

Polynesian Rat Co R

House Rat Co R

Malaysian Wood Rat Un R

Cream-coloured Giant Squirrel En R, FS, ES

EOE

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians

A. Mammals

No. Species

33. Rhinolophus lepidus

34. Rhinolophus luctus

35. Rhinolophus trifoliatus

36. Rhinosciurus laticaudatus

37. Scotophilus kuhlii

38. Suncus murinus

39. Sundasciurus tenuis

40. Taphozous saccolaimus

41. Tragulus javanicus

42. Tupaia glis

43. Tylonycteris pachypus

44. Tylonycteris robustula

45. Viverra tangalunga

B. Reptiles

No. Species

1. Ahaetulla fasciolata

2. Ahaetulla prasina

3. Amyda cartilaginea

4. Aphaniotis fusca

5. Boiga cynodon

6. Boiga dendrophila

7. Boiga jaspidea

8. Bronchocela cristatella

9. Calamaria lumbricoidea

10. Calamaria schlegeli

11. Calotes versicolor

12. Chrysopelea paradisi

13. Chrysopelea pelias

14. Cnemaspis kendalli

15. Cosymbotes craspedotus

16. Cosymbotes platyurus

17. Crocodylus porosus

18. Cuora amboinensis

19. Cyrtodactylus cf. consobrinus

20. Cyrtodactylus quadrivirgatus

21. Dasia cf. grisea

22. Dasia olivacea

23. Dendrelaphis caudolineatus

24. Dendrelaphis formosus

25. Dendrelaphis pictus

26. Dogania subplana

27. Draco melanopogon

28. Draco volans

Common Name

Blyth’s Horseshoe Bat

Great Woolly Horseshoe Bat

Trefoil Horseshoe Bat

Shrew-faced Ground Squirrel

Lesser Asiatic Yellow House Bat

House Shrew

Slender Squirrel

Pouched Tomb Bat

Lesser Mousedeer

Common Treeshrew

Lesser Bamboo Bat

Greater Bamboo Bat

Malay Civet

Common Name

Speckle-headed Whip Snake

Oriental Whip Snake

Malayan Soft-shelled Turtle

Earless Agamid

Dog-toothed Cat Snake

Yellow-ringed Cat Snake

Jasper’s Cat Snake

Green Crested Lizard

Variable Reed Snake

Pink-headed Reed Snake

Changeable Lizard

Paradise Tree Snake

Twin-barred Tree Snake

Kendall’s Rock Gecko

Frilly Gecko

Flat-tailed Gecko

Estuarine Crocodile

Malayan Box Terrapin

Banded Bent-toed Gecko

Marbled Bent-toed Gecko

Brown Tree Skink

Olive Tree Skink

Striped Bronzeback

Elegant Bronzeback

Painted Bronzeback

Forest Soft-shelled Turtle

Black-bearded Flying Dragon

Common Flying Dragon

Fe Wo a See al eel ps po

age ee

iF 2) Fa)

ee 2

—~A

DAP DPW A DY

era) lz [alg i eae

‘MNHANNWM

R, FS

i eae as es zo!

mwNM

419

, ES, LS: ReR

ReR

, ES

»LS

ReD

<LS ReD

ReR

420

B. Reptiles

No. Species

. Dryocalamus subannulatus

. Dryophiops rubescens

. Elaphe flavolineata

. Gehyra mutilata

. Gekko monarchus

. Gekko smithi

. Gonyosoma oxycephala

. Hemidactylus frenatus

. Hemiphyllodactylus typus

. Heosemys spinosa

. Homalopsis buccata

. Liopeltis baliodeirus

. Lipinia cf. vittigera

. Lygosoma sp.

. Mabuya multifasciata

. Mabuya rugifera

. Macropisthodon rhodomelas

. Maticora bivirgata

. Maticora intestinalis

. Naja sumatrana

. Notochelys platynota

. Oligodon octolineatus

. Oligodon signatus

. Ophiophagus hannah

. Ophites aulicus

. Ophites subcinctus

. Pelodiscus sinensis

. Psammodynastes pictus

. Pseudorhabdion longiceps

. Ptyas carinatus

. Ptyas korros

. Python reticulatus

. Ramphotyphlops braminus

. Rhadophis subminiatus

. Riopa bowringi

. Sibynophis melanocephalus

. Siebenrockiella crassicollis

. Trachemys scripta

. Tropidolaemus wagleri

. Varanus nebulosus

. Varanus salvator

. Xenelaphis hexagonotus

. Xenochrophis maculatus

. Xenochrophis piscator

. Xenochrophis trianguligerus

Common Name

Saddled Tree Snake

Keel-bellied Whip Snake

Common Racer

Four-clawed Gecko

Spotted House Gecko

Large Forest Gecko

Red-tailed Racer

Common House Gecko

Dwarf Gecko

Spiny Terrapin

Puff-faced Water Snake

Orange-bellied Ringneck

Yellow-striped Skink

Supple Skink A

Common Sun Skink

Striped Sun Skink

Blue-necked Keelback

Blue Malayan Coral Snake

Banded Malayan Coral Snake

Black Spitting Cobra

Malayan Flat-shelled Terrapin

Striped Kukri Snake

Barred Kukri Snake

King Cobra

Common Wolf Snake

Banded Wolf Snake

Chinese Soft-shelled Turtle

Painted Mock Viper

Dwarf Reed Snake

Keeled Rat Snake

Indo-Chinese Rat Snake

Reticulated Python

Common Blind Snake

Red-necked Keelback

Garden Supple Skink

Black-headed Collared Snake

Black Marsh Terrapin

Red-eared Terrapin

Wagler’s Pit Viper

Clouded Monitor

Malayan Water Monitor

Malayan Brown Snake

Spotted Keelback

Chequered Keelback

Triangle Keelback

Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

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Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 421

B. Reptiles

No. Species Common Name CS SS SR

74. Xenopeltis unicolor Sunbeam Snake Fe R

75. Zaocys fuscus White-bellied Rat Snake En RBS US R

C. Amphibians

No. Species Common Name CS SS SR

1. Bufo melanostictus Asian Toad Co R

2. Bufo quadriporcatus Four-ridged Toad En R, FS ReD

3. Ichthyophis cf. paucisulcus —_ Yellow-banded Caecilian En RFS

4. Kalophrynus pleurostigma Black-spotted Sticky Frog Un RES

5. Kaloula pulchra Banded Bullfrog Co FE

6. Leptobrachium nigrops Black-eyed Litter Frog Fe Ky ES

7. Limnonectes blythii Malayan Giant Frog Fe R, FS

8. Limnonectes malesiana Malesian Frog Un R, FS

9. Limnonectes paramacrodon Masked Swamp Frog Ra R, FS ReD

10. Megophrys nasuta Malayan Horned Frog En R, FS

11. Microhyla borneensis Bornean Narrow-mouthed Frog — En R; FS, LS D

12. Microhyla butleri Painted Narrow-mouthed Frog Co R

13. Microhyla heymonsi Dark-sided Narrow-mouthed Frog Co R

14. Nyctixalus pictus Spotted Tree Frog Ra R, FS

15. Occidozyga laevis Smooth Puddle Frog Fe RFS

16. Pelophryne brevipes Saint Andrew’s Cross Toadlet En RFS) LS ReR

17. Polypedates leucomystax Common Tree Frog Co R

18. Rana baramica Masked Rough-sided Frog Un R, FS

19. Rana cancrivora Crab-eating Frog Co ae

20. Rana chalconota Copper-cheeked Frog Co R,FS

21. Rana erythraea Common Greenback Co R

22. Rana glandulosa Rough-sided Frog Ra R, FS D

23. Rana limnocharis Field Frog Co R

24. Rana plicatella Rhinoceros Frog Ra R, FS

25. Rhacophorus bimaculatus __ Blue-legged Tree Frog En R, FS,LS R

26. Theloderma horridum Thorny Bush Frog En RSLS D

422 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Shirley Pottie

Lee King Li

Plate Ib

Plate la

obert Teo

Lee King Li

Plate Ic.

Plate 1. Some of the endangered mammals found in the Nature Reserves. a. Penthetor lucasi

(Dusky Fruit Bat). b. Nycteris tragata (Hollow-faced Bat). ¢. Rhinolophus trifoliatus (Trefoil

Horseshoe Bat). d. Rhinolophus luctus (Great Woolly Horseshoe Bat).

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Mammals, reptiles and amphibians

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424 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)

Lee King Li

Robert Teo

Plate 3a

Plate

Robert Teo

Plate 3d

Plate 3e

Plate 3. Some of the endangered reptiles found in the Nature Reserves. a. Dryocalamus

subannulatus (Saddled Tree Snake). b. Xenochrophis trianguligerus (Triangle Keelback). c.

Cosymbotes craspedotus (Frilly Gecko). d. Cyrtodactylus cf. consobrinus (Banded Bent-toed

Gecko). e. Dogania subplana (Forest Soft-shelled Turtle).

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 425

Lee King Li

Plate 4b. Lee King Li

Plate 4a

Lee King Li

Plate 4d. Leong Tzi Ming

Plate 4c.

Plate 4. Rare (a—b) and endangered (c—d) amphibians found in the Nature Reserves. a.

Limnonectes paramacrodon (Masked Swamp Frog). b. Rana glandulosa (Rough-sided Frog).

c. Theloderma horridum (Thorny Tree Frog). d. Microhyla borneensis (Bornean Narrow-

mouthed Frog).

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