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JOURNAL

of the

ENTOMOLOGICAL

SOCIETY of

BRITISH COLUMBIA

Vol. 76 Issued December 31, 1979

ECONOMIC

H. F. MADSEN & B. E. CARTY—Organic pest control: Two years experience

in a commercial apple orchard

D. G. FINLAYSON, A. T. S. WILKINSON & J. R. MacKENZIE—Efficacy

of insecticides against tuber flea bettles, wireworms and

aphids in potatoes

DAVID L. KULHAVY & R. W. STARK—Effects of the antitranspirant Dow

Corning RXEF-4-3561 on arthropods on a

of the caudal appendage in cocoon jumping of Phobocampe sp.

2 : (Hymenoptera:Ichneumonidae:Campopleginae)

oo BOOK REVIEW |

F: North Idaho catchment

io GENERAL

et R. S. VERNON & J. H. BORDEN—H ylemya Antiqua (Meigen):Longevity

As ; and oviposition in the laboratory

et ' ROBERT A. CANNINGS & RICHARD J. CANNINGS—Northerly range

ma extension for Cramptonomyia Spenceri Alexander

a. | (Diptera:Pachyneuridae)

et RONALD L. MAHONEY, JAMES A. MOORE & JOHN A. SCHENK—

=i Validation and refinement of a plant indicator model for

ss | grand fir mortality by the fir engraver

Me KAREN HOSSACK AND ROBERT A. COSTELLO—Predation by

xg Anisogammarus Confervicolus (Amphipoda:Gammaridea) on

ee Aedes Togoi (Diptera:Culicidae)

oa J. W. E. HARRIS & A. F. DAWSON—Predator release ‘program for

td balsam woolly aphid, Adelges Piceae (Homoptera:Adelgidae),

a in British Columbia, 1960-1969

peg D. S. RUTH & A. F. HEDLIN—Observation on a twigminer,

ol Argyresthia Pseudotsuga Freeman (Lepidoptera:Y ponomeutdae),

ea in Douglas Fir seed orchards

Ma J. W. E. HARRIS & A. F. DAWSON—Parasitoids of the western spruce

eae budworm. Choristoneura Occidentalis (Lepidoptera:Tortricidae),

PSs in British Columbia 1977-78

1 . DAVID R. GILLESPIE & THEMLA FINLAYSON—The function

JOURNAL

of the

ENTOMOLOGICAL

SOCIETY of

BRITISH COLUMBIA

Issued December 31, 1979

ECONOMIC

H. F. MADSEN & B. E. CARTY—Organic pest control: Two years experience

in a commercial apple orchard

D. G. FINLAYSON, A. T. S. WILKINSON & J. R. MacKENZIE—Efficacy

of insecticides against tuber flea bettles, wireworms and

aphids in potatoes

DAVID L. KULHAVY & R. W. STARK—Effects of the antitranspirant Dow

CorningRXEF-4-3561 on arthropods on a

North Idaho catchment

GENERAL

R.S. VERNON & J. H. BORDEN—Hylemya A ntiqua (Meigen):Longevity

and oviposition in the laboratory

ROBERT A. CANNINGS & RICHARD J. CANNINGS—Northerly range

extension for Cramptonomyia Spenceri Alexander

(Diptera:Pachyneuridae)

RONALD L. MAHONEY, JAMES A. MOORE & JOHN A. SCHENK—

Validation and refinement of a plant indicator model for

grand fir mortality by the fir engraver

KAREN HOSSACK AND ROBERT A. COSTELLO—Predation by

Anisogammarus Confervicolus (Amphipoda:Gammaridea) on

Aedes Togqoi (Diptera:Culicidae)

J. W. E. HARRIS & A. F. DAWSON—Predator release program for

balsam woolly aphid, Adelges Piceae (Homoptera:Adelgidae),

in British Columbia, 1960-1969

D.S. RUTH & A. F. HEDLIN—Observation on a twigminer,

Argyresthia Pseudotsuga Freeman (Lepidoptera:Y ponomeutdae),

in Douglas Fir seed orchards

J. W. E. HARRIS & A. F. DAWSON—Parasitoids of the western spruce

budworm. Choristoneura Occidentalis (Lepidoptera:Tortricidae),

in British Columbia 1977-78

DAVID R. GILLESPIE & THEMLA FINLAYSON—The function

of the caudal appendage in cocoon jumping of Phobocampe sp.

(Hymenoptera:Ichneumonidae:Campopleginae)

BOOK REVIEW

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), DEc. 31, 1979

Directors of the Entomological Society of

British Columbia for 1979-1980

President

R. ELLIOTT

University of B.C., Vancouver

President-Elect

A. R. FORBES

Research Station, Agriculture Canada

Vancouver

Past President

P. BELTON

Simon Fraser University

Burnaby

Secretary-Treasurer

B. D. FRAZER

6660 N.W. Marine Drive

Vancouver, B.C. V6T 1X2

Editor

H. R. MacCARTHY

Vancouver

Directors

R. A. CANNINGS (lst) L. SAFRANYK (ist) G. MILLER (ist)

D. BATES (2nd) J. McLEAN (2nd)

Regional Director of National Society

J. ARRAND

B.C. Min. of Agriculture, Victoria

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), DEc. 31, 1979 3

ORGANIC PEST CONTROL: TWO YEARS EXPERIENCE

IN A COMMERCIAL APPLE ORCHARD!

H. F. MADSEN AND B.E. CARTY

Agriculture Canada, Research Station,

Summerland, British Columbia VOH 1Z0

ABSTRACT

An orchard under an organic control program was studied for the in-

cidence of pests during 2 years. Sex pheromone traps were used to control

codling moths, Laspeyresia pomonilla (Linnaeus), by removing males. The

only pesticides used in the orchard were petroleum oil at the delayed dormant

period to suppress the overwintering eggs of the European red mite,

Panonychus ulmi (Koch); and Bacillus thuriengiensis to control leafrollers,

Archips argyrospilus (Walker), and Archips rosanus (Linnaeus). Leaf and

fruit samples were taken for all the major pests which attack apples but the

only pests which required treatment were the white apple leafhopper,

Typhlocyba pomaria McAtee in 1977 and the codling moth in 1978. The

failure to control codling moth may result in the curtailment of the organic

program unless supplemental controls can be found.

INTRODUCTION

Considerable experience has been obtained in

British Columbia interior apple orchards on pest

management (Madsen, Peters and Vakenti 1975,

Madsen and Carty 1977). All of the pest-

managed programs so far have depended upon

chemical control when samples indicated a need

for treatment. In 1977, one of our orchardists,

who had been under a pest-managed program

for 4 years, decided to manage his apple orchard

organically. We viewed this move as an oppor-

tunity to evaluate organic control on a commer-

cial basis. The orchardist did not eliminate

pesticides, but restricted their use to petroleum

oils, Bacillus thuriengiensis, and soaps which

are approved as organic pesticides.

METHODS

The isolated orchard of about 5 ha was

bordered by Vaseux Lake on the west and

Highway 97 on the east. A relative of the orchar-

dist had about 2 ha of peaches and apples across

the highway and there were a few apple trees 1

km to the south and an orchard 2 km to the

north. There were three cultivars in the orchard,

‘Spartan’, ‘Red Delicious’ and ‘Golden

Delicious’.

We decided to use pheromone sticky traps to

remove male codling moths, Laspeyresia

pomonella (Linnaeus), since this method had

been successful in an isolated orchard in another

area of the Okanagan Valley (Madsen, Vakenti

and Peters 1976). Pheroncon® 1 CP traps

(Zoecon Corp., Palo Alto, CA) baited with

Pherocon® rubber caps containing 1 mg of

codlemone were used to capture male codling

moths. The traps were installed at a density of

10 per ha because codling moth populations

were similar to those in the orchard where male

removal had been successful. The traps were

‘Contribution No. 499, Research Station, Summerland.

suspended about 1.6 m from the ground, ex-

amined weekly and the captured moths recorded

and removed. The entrapment portion of the

trap was replaced if contaminated and was

changed routinely after 3 months use. The at-

tractant caps were replaced at 4-week intervals.

All major pests were sampled during 1977

and 1978 but because the orchard was under an

organic program, sprays were not necessarily

applied even though an economic threshold level

may have been exceeded. Sampling methods

were the same as those described by Madsen

and Carty (1977) with one exception: a limb tap

sample at full bloom was substituted for the

pink bud cluster sample to assess lepidopterous

pests which attack apples during this period.

Only 2 chemicals were used during 1977 and

1978. One was petroleum oil which was applied

as a delayed dormant spray to reduce popula-

tions of aphids and European red mites,

Panonychus ulmi (Koch), by suppressing their

eggs. The other was Dipel® a 3.2 percent wet-

table powder formulation of Bacillus thuringien-

sis applied at the pink and petal fall stages to

control leafrollers and other lepidoptera.

The final evaluation of the program was

made at harvest where about ™% of the three

apple cultivars were examined in the field for in-

sect damage. All damage was recorded and used

to calculate the percentage of the fruit injured

by insects which attack fruit directly. We esti-

mated the injury caused by pests which attack

leaves and have an indirect effect upon the

apples, by examining the apples for size and

color.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The best way to discuss our data over the 2-

year period is to present the information by pest

species.

Codling Moth — Male codling moth captures

4 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), Dec. 31, 1979

are illustrated in Fig. 1. In 1977, we captured a

total of 166 male moths and the percentage in-

jured fruit, an average of the 3 varieties, was 0.6.

These were encouraging results in the initial

year of male removal, but an infestation of 0.6

presented a potential problem for the following

season. Total male captures during 1978 was

878, a 5-fold increase over the previous year. As

Fig. 1 illustrates, most of the moths were cap-

tured during second generation activity. The

percent injured fruit was 7.0 which is an 11-fold

increase and an unacceptable level in a commer-

cial orchard. These data demonstrate the

resurgence capability of the codling moth and

indicate that male removal is effective only

under special circumstances, of which isolation

is one (Madsen, Vakenti and Peters 1976).

Leafrollers — Two species of leafroller were pre-

sent, the fruittree leafroller, Archips

argyrospilus (Walker), and the European

leafroller, Archips rosanus (Linnaeus). In addi-

tion, heavy populations of Bruce spanworm,

Operophtera bruceata (Hulst) were recorded in

1977. Bruce spanworm is active during the pre-

bloom period and is mainly a blossom and leaf

feeder (McMullen 1973). Since Bacillus thur-

ingiensis is considered an organic pesticide, we

applied 2 sprays, one at the pink stage and one

at the petal fall in both seasons. Samples in-

dicated a need for treatment in 1977, but not in

1978. The orchardist, however, decided to apply

Bacillus in 1978 regardless of our sample and ad-

vice. Injury to the fruit caused by this complex

of lepidoptera was 0.2 percent in both 1977 and

1978 which is excellent control. Although we

were not able to establish a control plot in the or-

chard, injury caused by leafroller was in the

range of 2.0 percent in 1976 following a single

petal fall spray of axinphos-methyl These data

indicate that Bacillus thuringiensis can provide

control of leafroller and Bruce spanworm on ap-

ples although 2 applications are required to pro-

vide protection during the period from pink to

petal fall.

Scale Insects — The samples at harvest showed

no infestation of San Jose _ scale,

Quadraspidiotus perniciosus (Comstock),

although it is abundant in the area. It is pro-

bable that the routine application of petroleum

oil keeps this pest under control.

CODLING MOTH SEX PHEROMONE TRAP CAPTURES

THORSTENSON ORCHARD - OLIVER

TRAP DENSITY - 10/HA.

% Injury - 0.6

= 1.5

Ww 104

n”

> 0:55

2 16 30 13 27

MAY JUNE

3.5

30 orl moths - 878

% Injury - 7.0

az 25

[og

ee 20

215

1 15 29 12 26

MAY JUNE

2.0

| Total moths - 166

JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER

1978

10 24

JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER

1977

25 8 22 5 19

7 21 4 = 18

Fig. 1. Male codling moth captures, 1977-1978, in the Thorstenson Orchard, Vaseaux Lake, Oliver,

B.C

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), Dec. 31, 1979 5

Leafhoppers — The white apple leafhopper,

Typhlocyba pomaria McAtee, exceeded our

treatment level in 1977 and leaf damage was ex-

tensive. At harvest, we were unable to show any

effect upon size or color of the apples as a result

of this heavy infestation. Leafhopper adults

were sO numerous, however, that they were a

nuisance factor to the pickers. In 1978, our

samples showed very few leafhoppers and ex-

amination of leafhopper eggs indicated a high

percentage of parasitism from an unidentified

braconid parasite. This parasite effectively con-

trolled white apple leafhopper so that it was not

a problem during the entire season.

Thrips and Campylomma — The western flower

thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande),

was present in both years, but blossom samples

did not indicate a need for treatment. Injury to

the susceptible ‘Spartan’ variety was negligible.

Campylomma verbasci (Meyer), a fruit feeding

mirid, was present but in very low numbers and

there was no indication of injury to the suscepti-

ble varieties ‘Red Delicious’ and ‘Golden

Delicious’.

Aphids — Rosy apple aphid, Dysaphis plan-

tagina (Passerini) was present on scattered

trees in both seasons, but the orchardist was

able to keep the pest under control by pruning

the infested terminals. Apple aphid, Aphis pomi

DeGeer was noted only on young trees and was

not abundant enough to cause any damage.

Mites — Biological control of the European red

mite and the apple rust mite, Aculus

schlechtenali (Nalepa), occurred in both

seasons. The applications of delayed dormant

petroleum oils assisted by reducing the number

of viable eggs of the European red mite. There

was an excellent ratio of the _ predator,

Typhlodromus occidentalis Nesbitt to the

phytophagous mites and the latter was held well

below a treatment level. Downing and Arrand

(1978) state that a ratio of 10:1, European red

mite to predators, is sufficient to control this

pest; the ratio here was about 5:1 to 8:1

throughout the growing season. The eggs of

European red mite were sampled in December

1978; the counts indicated a very low level of

eggs and thus no need for an oil spray in 1979.

In summary, 2 years of organic control in

this orchard has resulted in satisfactory control

of all pests except white apple leafhopper in 1977

and codling moth in 1978. The codling moth is

the key pest on apples and an infestation of 7.0

percent in 1978 will undoubtedly result in a con-

siderable increase in codling moth in 1979. Our

data indicate that male removal will not sup-

press this population level and that the experi-

ment on organic control will have to be aban-

doned unless supplemental controls for codling

moth are found.

REFERENCES

Downing, R. S. and J. C. Arrand. 1978. Integrated control of orchard mites on apple orchards in

British Columbia. B.C. Ministry of Agriculture 78-1: 1-8.

McMullen, R. D. 1973. The occurrence and control of the Bruce spanworm in the Okanagan Valley,

1972. J. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia 70: 8-10.

Madsen, H. F., F. E. Peters and J. M. Vakenti. 1975. Pest Management: Experiences in six British

Columbia apple orchards. Can. Entomol. 107: 873-877.

Madsen, H. F., J. M. Vakenti, and F. E. Peters. 1976. Codling Moth: Suppression by male removal

with sex pheromone traps in an isolated apple orchard. J. Econ. Entomol. 69: 597-599.

Madsen, H. F. and B. E. Carty. 1977. Pest Management: Four years experience in a commercial ap-

ple orchard. J. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia 74: 3-6.

6 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), DEc. 31, 1979

EFFICACY OF INSECTICIDES AGAINST TUBER FLEA BEETLES,

WIREWORMS AND APHIDS IN POTATOES

D. G. FINLAYSON, A. T. S. WILKINSON AND J. R. MACKENZIE

Research Station, Agriculture Canada

6660 N.W. Marine Drive, Vancouver, B.C. V6T 1X2

ABSTRACT

Soil-incorporated and foliar-applied insecticides, alone and in combination,

were tested in silt loam to control tuber flea beetle, Epitrix tuberis Gent., the

green peach aphid, Myzus persicae (Sulz.) and the wireworm Agriotes

obscurus (L.) Most soil-incorporated band treatments did not give adequate

protection from tuber flea beetles. However, supplemental foliar applications,

July 15 and 30 and August 15, reduced the percentage unmarketable tubers.

to 138% under a heavy infestation in 1977 and to 0% in a lighter infestation in

1978. Fonofos, broadcast and soil-incorporated, gave the best control of

wireworms and of a light infestation of tuber flea beetles. Methamidophos

was the best aphicide.

INTRODUCTION

Carbaryl, a carbamate, and endosulfon, a

chlorinated hydrocarbon, are the only insec-

ticides registered for the control of the tuber flea

beetle, Epitrix tuberis Gent., in British Colum-

bia. When used against light infestations these

two insecticides give acceptable control, but

they do not prevent damage to tubers in moder-

ate and heavy infestations. Field experiments

with both organophosphorous and carbamate

insecticides, applied in band or broadcast with

three supplemental foliar sprays to prevent

damage by larvae of second and third generation

flea beetles, showed that both carbofuran and

fensulfothion gave excellent protection (Fin-

layson et al. 1972). Carbaryl was ineffective

against the heavy infestations in these ex-

periments.

Subsequent experiments (Campbell and Fin-

layson 1976) showed that carbofuran was the

best insecticide for protecting potatoes against

tuber flea beetle larvae, permethrin was ex-

cellent against tuber flea beetles and

methamidophos was the best against aphids

(mainly green peach aphid, Myzus persicae

(Sulz.) ). None was satisfactory against both

aphids and tuber flea beetles. In their experi-

ment endosulfan allowed 53% unmarketable

tubers even though 8 sprays were applied at 10-

day intervals throughout the growing season.

Concurrent experiments against the

wireworm, Agriotes obscurus (L.), showed that

potatoes could be protected with fonofos and

terbufos (Wilkinson et al. 1977). Carbofuran,

previously registered and recommended for

wireworm control in potatoes, was removed

from the Vegetable Production Guide of British

Columbia because of its inability to protect

potatoes against wireworms in alkaline soil

(Wilkinson et al. 1977). Carbofuran 10G for-

mulation was subsequently withdrawn from the

market in British Columbia by the manufac-

turer, F.M.C. of Canada Ltd., following misap-

plication of the formulation which resulted in a

serious duck-kill in 1975.

This paper reports experiments conducted in

1977 and 1978 to compare methods developed

for wireworm control and to determine their ef-

fectiveness in a control program against aphids

and tuber flea beetles.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

At Agassiz, in a silt loam, single-row plots,

10 m long, were randomized within blocks. In

1977 there were 12 blocks with 1 untreated and 9

treated plots; in 1978 there were 8 blocks with 1

untreated and 7 treated plots. Plots were spaced

1 m apart in 1977 and 90 cm in 1978. There were

2 m between blocks. Granules of aldicarb, car-

bofuran 5G, CGA 12223 (0,0-diethyl 0 [1-isopro-

pyl-5-chloro-1,2,4-triazolyl-(3) ] phosphorothio-

ate), chlorfenvinphos, ethoprophos (Mocap® ),

fensulfothion, fonofos, isofenphos, permethrin

and terbufos were applied as 30-cm band treat-

ments at 2 g a.i./10 m row; fonofos was also ap-

plied at 2 ga.i./10 m in the furrow and broadcast

at 5 kg a.i./ha. The band and broadcast applica-

tion were incorporated to 10 cm by rototilling.

Potatoes, cv. Netted Gem, were planted at ap-

proximately 30-cm spacing in the middle of the

treated area immediately after incorporation of

the insecticides. The potatoes were sprayed at

two-week intervals starting in mid July to con-

trol second and third generation tuber flea

beetle and to contain populations of aphids. In

1977 3 blocks were sprayed with carbofuran at

0.5 kg a.i. in 1100 liters of water/ha/application,

3 with methamidophos at the same rate, 3 with

permethrin at 0.2 kg a.i./ha and 3 were left un-

sprayed. In 1978 2 blocks were sprayed with

each of the 3 insecticides and 2 were left un-

sprayed. The plots were treated pre-emerge with

the herbicide metribuzin at 1.12 kg a.i./ha and

top-killed in early September with diquat at 1.12

kga.i./ha.

Efficacy of the treatments was determined

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), DEc. 31, 1979 7

by counting the aphids (1978 only) on an upper

and lower compound leaf from each of 5 plan-

ts/plot at 2-week intervals. Tuber flea beetle and

wireworm (1978 only) damage was assessed

from 50 tubers taken at harvest from each of the

120 plots in 1977 and 64 in 1978. The tubers were

washed and peeled and the numbers of tuber flea

beetle larval tunnels and wireworm feeding-

holes/tuber recorded. Tubers were graded for

larval tunnels: 0, 1-4, 5-9, 10-14, 15-19, and 20

plus. Tubers with 10 or more tunnels were

deemed unmarketable. Tubers with one or more

wireworm holes were considered unmarketable.

Statistical significance was determined by

analysis of variance. The treatment averages

were ranked and compared by Duncan’s

multiple range test (Duncan 1955).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Aphid populations were held to low numbers

when aldicarb was applied as a band treatment

averaging 2 aphids/plot. When permethrin, and

to a lesser degree carbofuran, were added as sup-

plementary foliar sprays to aldicarb-treated

plots the numbers of aphids increased to 64 and

18 respectively. Untreated plots averaged 41

aphids/plot whereas those sprayed with carbo-

furan or permethrin averaged 96 and 271 aphids

respectively. Average numbers of aphids for

untreated and soil-treated plots ranged from 2

(aldicarb) to 41 (untreated) and averaged 22

aphids. When the 3 supplementary foliar sprays

were applied the ranges and averages were: car-

bofuran, 18 (aldicarb) to 117 (fonofos), average

73; permethrin, 64 (aldicarb) to 278 (chlorfen-

vinphos), average 183. The three supplementary

sprays with methamidophos controlled the

aphid population, counts ranged from 0 to 6

aphids/plot with an average of 3. Since

unsprayed plots averaged only 22 aphids it ap-

pears that the numbers of parasites and

predators had been reduced by both carbofuran

and permethrin sprays and possibly even when

sprays of methamidophos were applied.

In 1977 (Table 1) soil-incorporated insec-

ticide treatments alone did not prevent damage

to tubers by larvae of tuber flea beetle. Un-

marketable tubers ranged from 37% (terbofos

band treatment) to 100% (untreated). When

three foliar sprays were applied the percentage

unmarketable tubers was lowered to 13% with

carbofuran and 17% with permethrin. Plots

receiving only sprays with carbofuran or

permethrin to control only the second and third

generations of beetles had 95 and 85% un-

marketable tubers. Methamidophos was not so

effective as carbofuran and permethrin sprays

TABLE 1. Percentage of unmarketable potatoes’ after various soil-incorporated and foliar-applied

insecticides to prevent damage by tuber flea beetle larvae, Agassiz, 1977.

Soil applications

Foliar applications

Carbofuran Methamidophos Permethrin Untreated

Carbofuran, band 29 bed 54 bcde 29 de 7Z2D

CGA 12223, band Do. DE 84 b 62 abc 83D

Fonofos, band 35 bed 65 bed 31 cde 63 be

Fonofos, broadcast 230d 38 de 20 e 66 be

Fonofos, furrow | 5 be 67 bed 62 abc 73 b

Isofenphos, band 26 ed 51 cde 45 bede 55 cde

Mocap, band 35 bed 59 ‘bed 55 abcd 67 be

Permethrin, band bib 82 be 67 ab 83 b

Terbufos, band she iecel 22 e l7 e 37 ec

Untreated 23> a 97 a 85 a 100 a

ol. 9 v2 47.4 b 69.8 a

Average 42.la

"Means in columns followed by the same letter are not significantly different (P = 0.05). Averages of foliar applications were

compared independently.

8 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), Dec. 31, 1979

TABLE 2. Percentage of unmarketable potatoes’ after various soil-incorporated and foliar-applied

insecticides to prevent damage by tuber flea beetle larvae, Agassiz, 1978.

Foliar applications

Soil applications

Carbofuran Methamidophos Permethrin Untreated

Aldicarb, band 6 be 2 «be 3b 93 ab

Chlorfenvinphos, band £2 5D 19 ab 29 a 78 b

Fensulfothion, band Oe 9 be 6 b 76 b

Fonofos, band Zac 6c be Se

Fonofos, broadcast Lad led i: ee 13 d

Isofenphos, band Oe 10 ¢ Le 42 c¢

Terbufos, band 3°¢ oie 4 b 38 c

Untreated 29 a 33 a 2la 95 a

Average 6.6 ¢ 11,9 b 8.3 %¢ 58.3 a

‘Means in columns followed by the same letter are not significantly different (P = 0.05). Averages of foliar applications were com-

pared independently.

TABLE 3. Percentage unmarketable potatoes by wireworms after application of soil-incorporated

insecticides at Agassiz, 1978.

Insecticide and method Unmarketable cuberen

of application (%)

Aldicarb, band 54.8 ab

Fensulfothion, band 40.0 be

Chlorfenvinphos, band 61.3.4

Fonofos, band 21.0*¢cd

Fonofos, broadcast 16.3-d

Isofenphos, band 32.0. ed

Terbufos, band 26.5 ed

Untreated 6/.5 a

‘Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different (P = 0.05).

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), DEc. 31, 1979 9

for preventing damage by second and third in-

star larvae.

In 1978 (Table 2) E. twberis larval damage to

tubers was not so severe as in 1977. Untreated

plots had 95% unmarketable tubers, but three

sprays for second and third generation control

reduced damage to less than 33%. Both the 1977

and 1978 results show the need to control the fir-

st generation beetles. Fonofos broadcast and

soil-incorporated allowed 4% unmarketable

tubers. This was reduced to 1% unmarketable

tubers by 3 applications of any of the foliar

treatments. Soil-incorporated band treatments

with the exception of chlorfenvinphos followed

by the 3 sprays all produced acceptable control

ranging from 88 to 100% marketable tubers.

Again carbofuran and permethrin were equally

effective and both significantly better than

methamidophos.

Although aldicarb applied as a band treat-

ment gave satisfactory control of aphids by

systemic action, its contact activity did not pre-

vent wireworm damage (Table 3). Of the soil-

incorporated treatments, only the fonofos

broadcast treatment with 16% unmarketable

tubers, and possibly band treatments with

fonofos (25% unmarketable tubers), isofenphos

(32% unmarketable) and terbufos (27% un-

marketable) can be considered as possible con-

didate materials for preventing damage to

potatoes by A. obscurus.

In summary, aldicarb is an excellent Sys-

temic aphicide, but appears to lack sufficient ef-

fectiveness against wireworms and possibly

tuber flea beetle even when foliar sprays are ap-

plied against second and third generation

beetles. Fonofos broadcast was the most effec-

tive soil-incorporated insecticide but even it al-

lowed 16% damage by wireworm. Carbofuran

and permethrin were the most effective sprays

against flea beetles, but aphid populations in-

creased when these insecticides were applied.

Methamidophos was the best aphicide and

against a low level infestation of tuber flea

beetle good protection was afforded. However,

under a high level of infestation (1977) the per-

centage of unmarketable tubers from methami-

dophos sprayed plots was not significantly dif-

ferent from that of plots which had no foliar ap-

plications.

REFERENCES

Campbell, C. J., and D. G. Finlayson. 1976. Comparative efficacy of insecticides against tuber flea

beetle and aphids in potatoes in British Columbia. Can. J. Plant Sci. 56: 869-875.

Duncan, D. B. 1955. Multiple range and multiple tests. Biometrics, 11: 1-42.

Finlayson, D. G., M. J. Brown, C. J. Campbell, A. T. S. Wilkinson, and I. H. Williams. 1972. Insecti-

cides against tuber flea bettle on potatoes in British Columbia (Chrysomelidae: Coleoptera).

J. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia, 69:9-13.

Wilkinson, A. T. S., D. G. Finlayson, and C. J. Campbell. 1977. Soil incorporation of insecticides for

control of wireworms in potato land in British Columbia. J. Econ. Entomol. 70: 755-758.

The recent death of Colin Curtis marks the passing of one of British Columbia’s

early authorities on biting insects which affect man, livestock and wildlife.

Formerly a science teacher and a director of audio-visual education in Victoria,

Mr. Curtis was employed at the Federal Department of Agriculture, ‘“‘Mission Flats”

laboratory at Kamloops, from 1948 until his retirement in 1969. During this period he

was engaged in various phases of life-history, identification and control studies in-

volving blackflies, no-see-ums, snipeflies and mosquitoes, as well as spiders. Among

his publications are several pertaining to mosquito control and a Monograph on the

Mosquitoes of British Columbia published by the Provincial Museum.

Mr. Curtis was also widely known among Ham Radio operators, with whom he

kept in regular touch until his recent illness, and, in addition, maintained a knowled-

geable interest in early B.C. steamship and railway history.

His wife Audrey, two sons and four grandchildren are left to mourn.

10 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), Dec. 31, 1979

EFFECTS OF THE ANTITRANSPIRANT

DOW CORNINGRXEF-4-3561 ON ARTHROPODS

ON A NORTH IDAHO CATCHMENT'

DAVID L. KULHAVY? AND R. W. STARK

College of Forestry, Wildlife and Range Sciences

University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho

ABSTRACT R

The effects of an antitranspirant material, Dow Corning’ ‘XEF-4-3561,

applied aerially on arthropods in 1974 were examined.

The only detectable difference (P > .05) noted was of short duration

( < 120 h) in the lower 10% of the treated watershed which received an ex-

cessive application. Only sheets placed in the open had significant arthropod

collections.

INTRODUCTION

The initiation of a field investigation of an

antitranspirant material Dow CorningRXEF-

4-3561 on water yield (Belt et al. 1977) on a north

Idaho catchment provided an opportunity to

investigate whether the material affected

arthropods. Dow Corning Corporation of Mid-

land, Michigan, contracted with the College of

Forestry, Wildlife and Range Sciences, Uni-

versity of Idaho, to conduct these tests.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

On 8 June 1974, from 0800 to 1600 h, 375

litres/hectare of a 5% aqueous emulsion of the

XEF-4-3561 material was applied aerially to a

watershed catchment (Belt et al. 1977) of 26.3

hectares on the Priest River Experimental

Forest 14.4 km N or Priest River, Idaho. An

adjacent catchment was maintained as a con-

trol.

The treated catchment has a northwest

aspect and ranges in elevation from 1049 to

1541 m. Slopes range from 10 to 45%. Soils are

silt loam 1.31 to 1.97 m in depth underlain by

coarse rocks, primarily gneiss. Vegetation was

characteristic of the cedar-hemlock-grand fir

(Thuja plicata Donn, Tsuga heterophylla Sar-

gent and Abies grandis (Douglas) Lindley)

type. The overstory vegetation was 30.5 to

61 m in height with a dense canopy. The sparse

understory was composed of hemlock and red

cedar seedlings and forbs.

Sample cards placed to monitor the disper-

sal of the XEF-4-3561 emulsion indicated do-

sage was reduced by 50% in an area near the

ridge top; and in the lower 10% of the drainage,

a convergence in flight pattern resulted in an

excessive deposit. The bulk of the spray was

intercepted by the canopy (Belt et al. 1977).

‘Supported in part by a grant from Dow Corning Corporation,

Midland, Michigan. Published as contribution No. 175, Forest,

Wildlife and Range Experiment Station, University of Idaho,

Moscow, Idaho.

*Present address: Stephen F. Austin State University, School

of Forestry, Nacogdoches, Texas 75962.

To investigate the effects of the emulsion on

arthropods, the catchment was divided into 3

treatments (T) with 11 replicates in each treat-

ment. A control of 11 replicates was established

in the untreated catchment. Each treatment

consisted of the placement of eleven 1.2 by 1.8

m plastic drop sheets at random intervals in

the catchment.

In treatment 1 (T1) 50% of the sheet was

covered by vegetation; treatment 2 (T2) and

the control had 100% coverage; and treatment

3 (T3) was in the open. At distances of 4 to 11

m, along the roads, the drop sheets were placed

either up or down slope at a distance of 1 to

4m from the road. Each sheet was oriented to

the slope; a small trough was placed at the

bottom of each sheet to catch any arthropods

sliding down the sheet. Moisture did not collect

on the sheets. The sheets were cleared of any

arthropods or debris 24 h before the aerial

application. Each sheet was then checked 24,

48 and 120 h after application. Arthropod fauna

on the sheets were counted, collected and pre-

served in 75% ethanol. Each collection sample

was kept separate and the number, size, fre-

quency, and kind of arthropod recorded.

Samples of 100 sweeps with a standard in-

sect net were taken 24 h before and 24 h after

the aerial application to monitor insect activity

in the vicinity of the collection sheets. The

major taxa and relative abundance were re-

corded.

The data were analyzed using a Kruskal-

Wallis nonparametric test. Treatment means

were compared using Dunn’s multiple com-

parison procedure (Hollander and Wolfe 1973).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A total of 765 arthropods were collected

from the control and treatment drop sheets

from the 24 and 48 h post-application periods.

At 24 h 375 arthropods were collected; and 390

at 48 h. By 120 h, only 100 identifiable insect

parts were collected on all treatments and the

control. Ninety-two percent of the 24 h sample

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), Dec. 31, 1979 11

TABLE 1. Arthropods collected 24 and 48 hours after an aerial application of 375 l/ha of a 5%

aqueous emulsion of Dow CorningR XEF-4-3561, Priest River Experimental Forest,

Priest River, Idaho, 1974.

Mean + SE!

Treatment 24h 48h

Tl 0.73 + 0.38a 0.45 + 0.3la

T2 1.40 + 0.64 ab 1.63 + 0.66 ab

T3 31.54 + 14.42 b 33.36 +17.52 b

Control 0.36 + 0.28a 0.00 a

‘Means of 11 replicates; means in the same columns followed by the same letter are not significantly different at P << 0.05.

and 94% of the 48 h sample were collected from

drop sheets placed in the open (T3).

Two arachnid orders (Acarina and Araneida)

and 10 insectan orders (Coleoptera, Diptera,

Ephemeroptera, Hemiptera, Homoptera, Hy-

menoptera, Neuroptera, Plecoptera, Trichop-

tera, and Thysanoptera) were represented.

Over 80% of the 24 h sample and about 90%

of the 48 h sample were small, fragile (less than

2 mm) insects. Most were small flies (Diptera)

(72% in the 24 h sample; 82% in the 48 h

sample). Midges (Chironomidae) comprised

35% of the 24 h collection and 40% of the 48 h

collection. Small ground beetles (Carabidae)

represented 12% of the 24 h collection and 7%

of the 48 h collection. The insect species are

being identified and a publication recording

their occurrence will be prepared.

There were no observed differences in the

abundance or composition of the sweep net

samples 24 h before and 24 h after aerial appli-

cation.

Significant mean differences were detected

between the open (T3) and the control and

between T3 and the sheets under full forest

canopy (T2) in both the 24 and 48 h samples

(Table 1).

The greatest insect collections occurred on

sheets in the lower 10% of the drainage which

received an excessive dosage. On three collec-

tion sheets in the open (T3), over 80% of the

24 h collection and 77% of the 48 h collection

was from three drop sheets.

We conclude that there is no appreciable

effect of the compound on insect communities

at the prescribed dosage. The excessive dosage

(not measured) had a slight, temporary effect

in clearings. The lack of any differences in

sweep net collections before and after spray

suggests there is no significant effect on popu-

lation levels.

LITERATURE CITED

Belt, G. H., J. G. King, and H. F. Haupt. 1977. Augmenting summer streamflow by use of a sili-

cone antitranspirant. Water Res. Research 13:267-272.

Hollander, M. and D. A. Wolfe. 1973. Nonparametric statistical methods. John Wiley and Sons,

New York. 503 pp.

12 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), Dec. 31, 1979

HYLEMYA ANTIQUA (MEIGEN)'!: LONGEVITY AND

OVIPOSITION IN THE LABORATORY?

R. S. VERNON: AND J. H. BORDEN

Pestology Centre

Department of Biological Sciences

Simon Fraser University

Burnaby, B.C., Canada

V5A 186

ABSTRACT

In laboratory cultures, some female Hylemya antiqua (Meigen) were still

alive and ovipositing after 66 days, whereas males usually survived no longer

than 50 days. The average lifespan of 12 individually-reared, reproducing

females was 48 days. Oviposition began no earlier than 8 days, and on the

average, 10.5 days after the females emerged. Heavy oviposition by most

females was cyclic, occurring every other day. The mean fecundity/female in

3 cultures was 259.2, 114.5 and 218.4, respectively, but for individually-reared

females, it was 491.5. Variations in diet and environment probably lead to

poor or inconsistent correlation of iaboratory data on longevity and fecundity

with actual events in the field. However, these data provide precise guide-

lines for utilization of H. antiqua in laboratory experiments.

INTRODUCTION

In developing a reliable bioassay to examine

chemical induction of oviposition by the onion

maggot, Hylemya antiqua (Meigen) (Vernon

et al. 1977), an understanding of this insect’s

basic reproductive behavior was required. In

previous observations on the Simon Fraser

University H. antiqua culture, A. Syed (unpub-

lished data‘) estimated the longevity of adult

flies to be 60-70 days, with females still capable

of ovipositing after 2 months. Other studies

have been made on H. antiqua oviposition and

longevity in the laboratory (Perron et al. 1953,

Allen and Askew 1970) and the field (Perron

and Lafrance 1961), but precise data were not

collected on a sequential basis for longevity,

duration and interval of oviposition, fecundity

and oviposition periodicity. These topics were

investigated and the results applied to the

operation of an oviposition bioassay for H. an-

tiqua.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

H. antiqua Culture

Onion maggots used in this study were from

a nondiapausing culture maintained at the

Simon Fraser University Insectary. Larvae

were raised on a diet of carrot powder (30 g),

cellulose powder (2 g), IN HCl (12 ml), methyl

paraben (0.025 g), K sorbate (0.025 g), yeast

(12 g), water (200 ml), yeast hydrolysate (1.0 g)

and Ostoco® multi-vitamins (Charles E. Frosst

~ 1Diptera: Anthomyiidae

?Research supported by Natural Sciences and Engineering

Research Council, Canada, Operating Grant No. A3881.

’Present address: B.C. Coast Vegetable Cooperative Assacia-

tion, 1363 Vulcan Way, Richmond, B.C., V6W 1K4.

‘Preliminary report on insect rearing facilities at Simon

Fraser University, May 31, 1974.

and Co.) (5 drops). This diet differed from that

described by Ticheler (1971) with the addition

of yeast hydrolysate (Allen and Askew 1970)

and multi-vitamins. Adults were fed on a mix-

ture of sugar (10 parts), skim milk powder (10

parts), soya flour (1 part), yeast hydrolysate

(1 part) and Brewer’s yeast (1 part) (Ticheler

1971).

Oviposition and Longevity Studies

Mortality and oviposition in 3 adult cul-

tures were recorded daily to assess adult H.

antiqua longevity and fecundity under labora-

tory conditions. The cultures were stocked with

emergent adults that were allowed to emerge

for 3 days after the first females appeared. The

day of the first adult female (day 1 of the cul-

ture) usually occurred 1-2 days after the first

males emerged. Cultures were started in 1975

on June 13 (Culture A), July 1 (Culture B) and

July 21 (Culture C), and were maintained at

20-28°C and 30-40% RH. The flies were held in

35 x 60 x 50 cm wooden frame cages with Plexi-

glas fronts and wire mesh sides and roofs. Ovi-

position was assessed with 2 onion-baited ovi-

position chambers per cage (Vernon et al. 1977).

Freshly prepared chambers were introduced

twice weekly, beginning on day 4 of the culture,

and filter paper substrates were changed daily.

Food and water-soaked vermiculite were sup-

plied to each culture in 9 cm diameter plastic

dishes, and replenished as required.

To examine longevity, fecundity and oviposi-

tion periodicity more closely, individual females

were observed from shortly after ecdysis until

death. Each of 15 newly emerged females was

placed in 13 x 18 x 17 cm wooden cages with

Plexiglas fronts and screened backs. From the

same culture, 2 males were placed in each cage

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), Dec. 31, 1979 13

to ensure mating. They were replaced if lost or

dead during the first 2 weeks. The cages were

maintained in an environmental chamber at

23°C and 30% RH, with a 16 h light, 8 h dark

fluorescent lighting photoperiod. The tempera-

ture selected was at the lower range used to

maintain H. antiqua adults (23-30°C) by Allen

and Askew (1970). Food and water were provid-

ed for each cage in 4.5 cm diameter plastic

dishes. Oviposition chambers (1/cage) were pro-

vided from the first day onwards and replaced

every 4-5 days. Due to the small cage size, 7 cm

diam. plastic petri dishes with filter paper ovi-

position substrates were used. All cages were

thoroughly inspected daily from the beginning

of the study for oviposition in and around the

oviposition chambers and the food and water

dishes.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

H. antiqua Longevity

Some females were still alive and ovipositing

after 66 days (Figs. 1-6), with males not general-

ly surviving after 50 days. In Culture C, how-

ever, (Fig. 5), 2 males lived for 63 days. Abso-

lute longevity was not determined, since the cul-

tures had to be terminated to make room for

others. Extrapolations from the mortality

graphs suggest that the maximum lifespan of

H. antiqua females under the conditions of the

study is about 70 days.

Of the 17 individually reared females, only

12 were sufficiently long-lived and fecund to be

included in the data given in Figs. 7-18. Of those

females not included, 3 escaped early in the

study, and 1 died after 26 days without oviposi-

tion, even though 60 and 45 well developed

eggs were present in the right and left ovaries,

respectively. Another female, which lived for

53 days, did not begin ovipositing until after

33 days. The average lifespan of the 12 healthy,

reproducing females was 48 days, with a range

of from 34 (Fig. 9) to 60 days (Fig. 15).

These data corroborate laboratory observa-

tions by A. Syed (unpublished data‘) that

H. antiqua, when reared on the diet described

above, live for 60-70 days. When reared on a dif-

ferent artificial diet, male and female H. antiqua

life expectancies ranged from 8-41 days (X=

24.8) and 9-85 days (X = 36.5), respectively

(Allen and Askew 1970). In another study,

females lived as long as 139 days in the labora-

tory, and males for 70 days when reared on

onion (Perron et al. 1953). Under field condi-

tions, the mean longevity of females during 3

successively hotter seasons (3 generations/

season) was, respectively, 84.6, 58.3 and 53.3

days (Perron and Lafrance 1961). Mean male

longevity was less than 2/3 that of the females.

From these studies, it appears that diet and

temperature can influence H. antiqua longevity,

and thus total fecundity, under field and labora-

tory conditions. These factors should, therefore,

be considered important in producing and main-

taining adult insects with comparable vigor for

bioassay purposes.

H. antiqua Oviposition

Oviposition was observed no earlier than 8

days after female emergence in the 3 culture

cages (Figs. 2, 4, 6). It began after 5 days and

was maximal after 12 days in the study by

Allen and Askew (1970). In Cultures A and C,

Oviposition continued as long as the females

lived (66 days), whereas in Culture B, oviposi-

tion ceased after 62 days even though 8 females

still remained. For the 12 individually reared

females, egg laying began, on the average, 10.5

days after emergence (Figs. 7-18), with a range

of from 8 (Fig. 18) to 13 days (Fig. 11). In many

cases, Oviposition continued until just before

death, with one female laying 13 eggs the day

before dying at 60 days (Fig. 17). In 2 instances,

egg laying ceased 8 and 10 days before death

at ages 41 and 45 days, respectively (Figs. 7, 10).

If such post-reproductive individuals were to

remain alive in field populations, they should be

taken into account in population dynamics

studies and in assessment of the reproductive

potential of pest populations.

In Figs. 4, 6 and 7-18, egg production/female

was generally highest between days 10 and 30,

after which oviposition decreased and became

irregular. Culture A (Fig. 2) was exceptional,

maintaining a high rate of oviposition for 20-45

days. Individuals in this culture were much less

crowded than flies in Cultures B and C, and may

have benefited from lower levels of competition

for food, water and oviposition sites.

Oviposition by H. antiqua in the laboratory

was cyclic (Figs. 7-18). Following its onset,

heavy oviposition generally occurred once every

2 days as shown (Figs. 7, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18)

although some females were able to oviposit

heavily for 2 or 3 consecutive days (Figs. 7, 8,

12). This distinctive oviposition rhythm de-

teriorated somewhat as the flies aged, and ovi-

position occurred less frequently. In one case

(Fig. 17), after 36 days oviposition occurred

only once every 3 days with a gradual reduction

in brood size. The average maximum daily pro-

duction for the 12 flies was 52 eggs (range, 40-

81). The average fecundity/female in Cultures

A, B and C were, respectively, 259.2, 114.5 and

218.4 eggs, whereas for the individually reared

females fecundity was 491.5 eggs/female (range

319-841). Under laboratory conditions, Perron

et al. (1953) found females to lay up to 706 eggs.

Allen and Askew (1970), obtained an average

oviposition rate of 343 eggs/female. H. antiqua

Oviposition in the field was considerably lower

(Perron and Lafrance 1961), ranging in a 3 year

study from 57.8 to 24.3 eggs/female. Laboratory

studies on adult fecundity, therefore, do not

directly apply to field populations which en-

14 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), Dec. 31, 1979

FEMALES

MALES

4) cutture A (2) CULTURE A

100 20

50 10

Lu aa)

or =~

5S 0 10 2 30 40 250 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

= x

— 300 =

= CULTURE B 9 (4) CULTURE B

O =

zm 250 =

ie =

LO 200 : 20

= =

(5 150 =F

= <<

> =

= 100 Tm

a Tl

O 50 ahs

Lu =

S 0 10 2 3 4 80 6 7 £ 0 1 2 3 40 50 60 70

300 Y

Z ~\ G) curture c O (6) CULTURE C

250 re

200 20

150

100 10

0 10 20 30 40 «50 60 70 0 10° 20 30 40° 60 “60 ae

TIME (DAYS)

Figs. 1-6. Mortality and oviposition in 3 laboratory-reared cultures of Hylemya antiqua.

counter variability in diet and environmental the response of H. antiqua females to oviposi-

conditions. tion-inducing kairomones (Vernon et al. 1977,

Pierce et al. 1978). Properly reared and nourish-

CONCLUSIONS ed H. antiqua adults are ready for oviposition

The data reported herein were used in the studies between the ages of 10 and 15 days.

development of a bioassay designed to screen Fairly consistent oviposition can be expected

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), DEc. 31, 1979 15

(sAeg ve) 0b

€ ON Ald

(oa)

b ON Als

(padeos3 ‘skeg Ob) 2 ON ANS

(SAV) JWIL

(sAeQ 6S) ZL ON ATS

jo)

NUMBER EGGS LAID

‘gs

2 ON Als

L ON Ald

is)

re)

se)

is)

9 ON Ald 20S

(skeqg rr)

S ON Ald

(sheg 6S) OL ON AlJ

(sAeG 09) 6 ON AIS

Figs. 7-18. Longevity (in parentheses) and fecundity of 12 individually reared Hylemya antiqua

females maintained in 13 x 18 x 17 cm cages under controlled environmental conditions.

from healthy cultures for at least 30 days after

the onset of oviposition. Since a 48 h oviposition

rhythm is in evidence, females should be de-

prived of host odor stimuli for at least a 24 h

period before presenting the test stimuli. This

procedure would ensure that flies are in oviposi-

tion readiness. The duration of an experiment

could be 1 or 3 days, since oviposition would be

expected on these days, but not on the 2nd or

4th days. Since most of the bioassays involve

highly volatile chemicals, and a finite chemical

release system, experiments of longer duration

than 3 days would not be practical, nor would

they be necessary to establish the activity of

candidate stimuli. Ten to 15 females/replicate

would be adequate, since healthy individuals

can each be expected to lay about 40 eggs on the

first and third days, given the proper stimuli.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank A. Syed, H. F. Madsen and D. G.

Finlayson for their assistance and advice.

16 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), Dec. 31, 1979

REFERENCES

Allen, W. R. and W. L. Askew. 1970. A simple technique for mass-rearing the onion maggot (Dip-

tera: Anthomyiidae) on artificial diet. Can. Ent. 102: 1554-1558.

Perron, J. P. and J. Lafrance. 1961. Notes on the life-history of the onion maggot, Hylemya antiqua

(Meig.) (Diptera: Anthomyiidae) reared in field cages. Can. Ent. 93:101-106.

Perron, J. P., J. Lafrance and M. Hudon. 1953. Notes on behavior of the adult of the onion maggot,

Hylemya antiqua ( Meig.) in captivity. Reps. Quebec Soc. Prot. P1. (1950-1951) pp. 144-148.

Pierce, H. D., Jr., R. S. Vernon, J. H. Borden and A. C. Oehlschlager. 1978. Host selection by

Hylemya antiqua (Meigen). Identification of three new attractants and oviposition stimu-

lants. J. Chem. Ecol. 4:65-72.

Ticheler, J. 1971. Rearing of the onion fly, Hylemya antiqua (Meigen) with a view to release of steri-

lized insects. In: Sterility principle for insect control or eradication. (Proc. Symp., Athens,

1970). IAEA, Vienna, pp. 341-346.

Vernon, R. S., J. H. Borden, H. D. Pierce, Jr., and A. C. Oehlschlager. 1977. Host selection by

Hylemya antiqua. Laboratory bioassay and methods of obtaining host volatiles. J. Chem.

Ecol. 3:359-368.

NORTHERLY RANGE EXTENSION FOR

CRAMPTONOMYIA SPENCERI ALEX ANDER

(DIPTERA: PACHYNEURIDAE)

ROBERT A. CANNINGS AND RICHARD J. CANNINGS

Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia

Vancouver, British Columbia

Cramptonomyia spenceri Alexander is a

distinctive nematocerous fly of the Pacific coast,

discovered by Professor G. J. Spencer at Van-

couver on 30 March 1930 (Alexander, 1931;

Jacob, 1937; Vockeroth, 1974). It is the only

described Nearctic and Canadian species of the

family Pachineuridae (McAlpine et al., 1979).

The fly is especially prevalent in red alder

(Alnus rubra) woods where the larva tunnels

under the bark of rotten alder logs (Vockeroth,

1974). Vockeroth lists all the known localities

for Cramptonomyia spenceri. These range from

Wallace Bridge and Castle Rock, Oregon north

to Hope and Mount Seymour, British Columbia.

On 26 March 1979, one of us (RJC) collected

a male Cramptonomyia at Kaien Station, Kaien

Island, 5 km south of Prince Rupert, British

Columbia. This is approximately 700 km north-

west of the previous most northerly locality for

the species. At 1200 h, males were common

among the drift logs and shrubbery along the

railway tracks parallelling the shoreline of the

sea. Stands of red alder grew 20 m away from

the collection site. The weather was warm and

sunny; the temperature was about 12°C. No

adults were observed at the same location on 16

April 1979.

On 10 March 1979, one male, and on 31

March 1979, 21 males and two females were

collected in a pure stand of young red alders

at the University of British Columbia in Van-

couver. Eggs (see Vockeroth, 1974) were found

on rotting alder logs on the latter date; in one

case the egg density was 1 per 2 cm’. On 18

April 1979 no adults were seen at the same loca-

tion: Vockeroth (1974) also noted a disappear-

ance of adults from this Vancouver locality in

the first half of April, 1973.

Although the Prince Rupert record represents

a considerable northerly extension of the known

range of Cramptonomyia spenceri, the above

observations suggest there is little difference

‘in its period of activity at the two latitudes.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Adrian Belshaw, Sydney Cannings and Earl

Mansfield helped in the collecting of Cramptono-

myia at Vancouver. Dr. G. G. E. Scudder read

the manuscript.

REFERENCES

Alexander, C. P. 1931. A new genus and species of Bibionid Diptera. Bull. Brooklyn Entomol. Soc.

26:7-11.

Jacob, J. K. 1937. Winter insects in British Columbia. Diptera: Cramptonomyia spenceri Alexander.

Proc. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia (1936) 33:30-31.

McAlpine, J. F. et al. 1979. Diptera (in) Danks, H. V. (ed.) Canada and its insect fauna. Mem. ent.

Soc. Can. 108:389-424.

Vockeroth, J. R. 1974. Notes on the biology of Cramptonomyia spenceri Alexander (Diptera: Cramp-

tonomyiidae). J. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia 71:38-42.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), Dec. 31, 1979 17

VALIDATION AND REFINEMENT OF A

PLANT INDICATOR MODEL FOR GRAND FIR

MORTALITY BY THE FIR ENGRAVER!

RONALD L. MAHONEY, JAMES A. MOORE, AND JOHN A. SCHENK?

ABSTRACT

A previously developed plant indicator model that estimates grand fir

mortality by the fir engraver was tested in 7 grand fir stands. The observed

and predicted mortality levels were similiar in 5 of the test stands for trees

killed during a 3-year period. A better statistical fit was achieved by refining

the model and its parameters based on a combined set of data from the

original and test stands.

Additional Key Words: Abies grandis, Scolytus ventralis, understory

plants, linear regression, indicator plants.

Recent research on the associated en-

vironmental factors and prediction of mortality

in grand fir, Abies grandis (Dougl.) Lindl.,

caused by the fir engraver, Scolytus ventralis

(LeConte), has provided a preliminary model

(Schenk et al. 1977) that was subsequently

validated and refined (Moore et al. 1978). The

model relates stand composition and average

competitive stress to the occurrence and level of

grand fir mortality by the fir engraver. Concur-

rent with this investigation, other research was

conducted to identify sites associated with the

development of grand fir stands susceptible or

resistant to the fir engraver. A preliminary

plant indicator model was formulated which ac-

counted for a substantial amount of the varia-

tion in fir engraver-caused grand fir mortality

(Schenk et al. 1976). The predictor variable used

in the model is plant group interaction (PGI), a

ratio of the occurrence of two groups of plant

species associated with high or low grand fir

mortality, respectively. A test of that model is

reported here.

The data required to compute PGI were ac-

quired during late summer, 1978, according to

the method specified by Schenk et al. (1976).

Seven independent test stands were sampled by

a randomly located systematic grid of ten

1/300th acre (0.012 ha) circular plots. On each

plot the presence of the specified plant groups

was recorded, and the stand frequency of each

group was calculated. An estimate of grand fir

mortality by the fir engraver was obtained from

the results of a previous study (Moore et al.

1978), which included these stands. The test

stands ranged in area from about 15 to 30 acres

(6 to 12 ha), occupied relatively uniform sites in

terms of topography and prior disturbance, and

had not sustained logging or fire within the past

15 years. Current stand conditions represented a

‘Published with the approval of the Director, Forest, Wildlife

and Range Experiment Station, University of Idaho, Moscow,

Idaho, as Contribution No. 179 Supported in part by MclIntire-

Stennis funds.

"Research Associate, Assistant Professor, and Professor,

respectively, College of Forestry, Wildlife and Range Sciences,

University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho.

range of overstory density and species composi-

tion.

The number of trees killed per acre for each

test stand was predicted by the equation devel-

oped by Schenk et al. (1976):

Y =2.291+0.11le* (1]

where: Y = number of grand fir trees killed per

acre by the fir engraver during a 3-year

period (KTA)

X = plant group interaction (PGI).

Equation [1] produced an r’ of .92, and a stan-

dard error of the estimate of 1.55 trees/acre,

and was significant at «= .05.

Observed mortality and the predictions de-

rived from equation [1] showed poor agreement

(Table 1). These results exemplify some of the

hazards of statistical models derived from a

small sample and limited range of data, regard-

less of statistical fit, and of extrapolative predic-

tions outside the range of the original data set.

However, a 95 percent confidence interval about

each predicted value contained the observed

mortality value for 5 of the 7 test stands.

Stand number 3 sustained considerably

higher observed mortality than predicted by

equation [1]. Equation [1] was derived from

stands where root rot pockets involved less than

15 percent of the total stand area. About 40 per-

cent of the total area of stand number 3 consist-

ed of root rot pockets which contained the bulk

of grand fir mortality by the fir engraver. Conse-

quently, the presence of root-rot infected grand

fir will predispose those trees to attack by the fir

engraver (Partridge and Miller 1972) and cause

mortality in excess of that indicated by -quation

[1] when the infected area in the stand exceeds

15% limit included in the original data set.

Stand number 5 had a PGI value of 9.0909,

which is numerically larger than the highest

PGI value (4.7619) used in equation [1].

However, when the exponential transformation

indicated in equation [1] is applied, these values

become 8874.1692 and 116.9684. This drastic in-

crease in relative numerical value is reflected in

the excessively high predicted value of 987

grand fir trees killed per acre (Table 1). Conse-

18 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), Dec. 31, 1979

TABLE 1. Observed and predicted levels of grand fir mortality by the fir engraver in northern Idaho.

Stand

No. PGI ePGI

1 0.732 2.079

2 0.396 1.486

3 0.297 1.346

4 0.297 1.346

5 9.091 8875.057

6 0.000 1.000

| 0.099 1.104

quently, the mathematical expression that best

fits the developmental data set (exponential

transformation) is obviously unreliable for ex-

trapolative predictions. However, it is notable

that equation [1] performed very well within

the range of development data, excluding the

influence of excessive root rot. Furthermore, the

form of the relationship between PGI and grand

fir mortality by the fir engraver remains similar

for all of the test stands. We omitted stand num-

ber 3 because of excessive root rot from a com-

bined data set that includes the 9 original stands

and 6 of the 7 test stands.

The parameters in equation [1] were

reestimated from the combined data set using

least squares regression. The equation for the

combined data set is:

Y = 3.8420 + 0.0015e % [2]

where: Y and X are as defined in equation [1].

Equation [2] produced an r’ of 0.43 and a

standard error of the estimate of 4.14 trees/acre,

and was significant at « = .05. These statistics

indicate a poorer statistical fit than equation [1].

Thus, other transformations of the independent

variable were tested to better describe the func-

= 1.7861 + 1.9097X

Stems per Acre

Observed Predicted

1.0 2.5

4.1 2.5

11.3 2.5

0.0 2.5

17.0 987.0

2.0 2.3

4.2 2.4

tional relationship. Although a curve form that

includes an upper and lower asymptote is a

biologically reasonable formulation, the

observed data do not include mortality levels ap-

proaching the upper asymptote because the fir

engraver does not kill 100 percent of the grand

fir trees in actuality. Thus, the “‘best’’ statistical

fit for the range of these data was achieved with

an untransformed linear regression dependent

on PGI. The equation is:

Y = 1.7861 + 1.9097X [3]

where: Y and X are as defined in equation [1].

Equation [3] produced an r’ of .86 and a stan-

dard error of the estimate of 2.08 trees/acre, and

was significant at «= .05 (Table 2, Figure 1).

Equation [3] performed very well for the com-

bined data set, with high statistical correlation

and a low standard error of the estimate. This

mathematical expression is also biologically

reasonable because a high value for PGI in-

dicates a site less conducive to the maintenance

of favorable moisture conditions and vigor of

grand fir. The upper and lower limits of PGI

values are 100 and 0, respectively. Equation [3]

would predict respective mortality levels of 190

5 6 7 8 9 10

PGI

Figure 1. The relationship of plant group interaction (PGI) and grand fir trees killed per acre by the

fir engraver (KTA) for 15 stands in northern Idaho, 1978.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), DEc. 31, 1979

TABLE 2. Observed and predicted levels of grand fir mortality by the fir engraver

in 15 northern Idaho stands.

Stems per Acre

PGI Observed Predicted

0.000 2.0 1.8

0.099 0.0 2.0

0.099 4.2 2.0

0.198 2.0 22

0.198 2.0 2.2

0.297 0.0 2.4

0.297 2.0 2.4

0.396 4.1 2.5

0.732 1.0 Be)

0.879 4.0 3.5

0.986 5.0 oon

0.988 3.0 oi

4.286 9.0 10.0

4.762 16.0 11.0

9.091 17.0 19.0

and 1.8 trees per acre. Thus, equation [3] gives

reasonable predictions using the natural ex-

tremes of PGI.

Because the sites were undisturbed for at

least 15 years and also had a mature overstory,

the understory plant community approached

climax in all of the sampled stands. Consequent-

ly, the differences in plant communities are

assumed to reflect site differences rather than

levels of secondary succession due to varying

disturbance. Thus, the procedures to determine

PGI (Schenk et al. 1976) should be applied to

mature grand fir stands with no apparent

ground-level disturbance within at least 15

years. This will help to ensure that the data col-

lected correspond to those conditions sampled in

the current study. The process of testing the

predictions against an independent data set pro-

vides more confidence that equation [3] can pro-

duce information useful for forest management

planning regarding the relative susceptibility of

northern Idaho sites to grand fir mortality by

the fir engraver.

REFERENCES

LITERATURE CITED

Moore, J. A., J. A. Schenk, and C. R. Hatch. 1978. Validation and refinement of a hazard rating

model for fir engraver-caused mortality in grand fir stands. Forest Sci. 24: 309-312.

Partridge, A. D., and D. L. Miller. 1972. Bark beetles and root rots related in Idaho conifers. Plant

Disease Reptr. 56(498-500.

Schenk, J. A., J. A. Moore, D. L. Adams, and R. L. Mahoney. 1977. A preliminary hazard rating of

grand fir stands for mortality by the fir engraver. Forest Sci. 23:103-110.

Schenk, J. A., R. L. Mahoney, J. A. Moore, and D. L. Adams. 1976. Understory plants as indicators

of grand fir mortality due to the fir engraver. J. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia 73:21-24.

20 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), Dec. 31, 1979

PREDATION BY AM/SOGAMMARUS CONFERVICOLUS

(AMPHIPODA: GAMMARIDEA) ON AEDES TOQOI

(DIPTERA:CULICIDAE).

KAREN HOSSACK AND ROBERT A. COSTELLO

British Columbia Ministry of Agrulture

17720-57th Ave., Cloverdale

British Columbia, Canada.

Aedes togoi (Theobald) is native to the

Pacific Coast of Asia where it breeds in saline

rock pools. The first North American report of

Ae. togoi was by Meredith and Phillips (1973)

from Victoria, British Columbia, Canada. Subse-

quent surveyors have collected this mosquito

from rock pools throughout the south western

coast of Canada. The breeding sites in this

study, at Lighthouse Park, West Vancouver,

were supralittoral splash pools of salinity vary-

ing with precipitation and evaporation from 7 to

40 ppt.

While collecting Ae. togoi larvae at these

rock pools we observed an amphipod crustacean,

later identified as A nisogammarus confervicolus

(Stimpson), capturing and feeding upon the

mosquito larvae. The amphipod was found in

most but not all of the pools containing Ae. to-

qgoi larvae and was observed from early June to

late July. A. confervicolus was collected several

times from pools with salinity of at least 37.5

ppt (YSI Model 33 salinity meter), although

Levings et al. (1976) determined the optimum

salinity for adult survival to be less than 29 ppt.

Recorded temperatures during the observation

period varied from 18 to 24°C, considerably

higher than the optimum temperature range for

adult survival of 3 to 10°C determined by Lev-

ings et al.

Anisogammarus confervicolus is the most

common estuarine and brackish-water am-

phipod on the Pacific Coast of Canada. They are

omnivorous, feeding opportunistically on any

suitable organic matter of plant or animal origin

(Bousfield, pers. comm.). The predacious nature

of A. confervicolus was confirmed in the

laboratory. Eleven adult amphipods were main-

tained in 0.8 1 of non-aerated, 37.5 ppt. solution

of aquarium salt and dechlorinated tap water at

23°C for 5 days. No food was provided during

the first 24 h. Thirteen first- and second- instar

Ae. togoi were introduced on the second day and

these were partially or completely consumed in

less than 24 h. Six more first- and second- instar

larvae were introduced on the fourth day. Of

these, 1 second and 2 third instar larvae were

alive after 24 h, suggesting that the smaller lar-

vae were more readily preyed upon. The mos-

quito larvae appeared to be actively sought by

the amphipods and were captured from above

with a swimming-like motion of the amphipod’s

appendages and consumed head first. No am-

phipod mortality was observed. Cannibalism,

reported by Levings et al., was not observed in

this study.

Other authors have reported on amphipods

feeding on mosquito larvae in fresh water

habitats. Baldwin et al. (1955) and James (1961)

observed that Aedes stimulans and Aedes

trichurus larvae in temporary woodland pools

were preyed upon by Crangonyx sp. Affelbeck

(1925) concluded that the most important

natural enemies of larvae of Anopheles bifur-

catus were the crustaceans Gammarus pulex

and Carinogammarus roeselli, and he attributed

the relative scarcity of A. bifurcatus in his study

to the fact that it breeds in streams where these

are abundant. Hinman (1934) experimented

with a small unidentified amphipod which readi-

ly devoured Aedes aegypti larvae, and he

speculated that it might be involved in

regulating natural mosquito populations.

The potential of A. confervicolus as a

predator of brackish-water Culicidae requires

further consideration. In addition to its possible

use as a biological control agent for Ae. togoi, a

potential vector of Japanese B Encephalitis

(McLintock and Iverson, 1975), this amphipod

may be useful in controlling Aedes dorsalis, a

salt marsh mosquito of considerable nuisance

value in south-west British Columbia.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors thank Mark Gardiner for his

technical assistance, Dr. E. L. Bousfield for

identifying the amphipod, and Dr. C. D. Levings

for his helpful comments.

REFERENCES CITED

Affelbeck, V. 1925. Recherches et observations sur les arthropodes pathogenes de l’homme et des

animaux. Ed. Inspectorat Minist. Sante publ., Sarajeva, No. 17, 48 pp. (Rev. appl. Ent. B,

16:178).

Baldwin, W. F., H. G. James, and H. E. Welch. 1955. A study of predators of mosquito larvae and

pupae with a radioactive tracer. Can. Ent. 87:350-356.

Bousfield, E. L. Personal Communication, National Museums Canada, Museum of Natural Sciences,

Ottawa.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), DEc. 31, 1979 21

Hinman, E. H. 1934. Predators of the Culicidae. I. The predators of larvae and pupae, exclusive of

fish. J. Trop. Med. & Hygiene. 37:145-150.

James, H. G. 1961. Some predators of Aedes stimulans (Walk.) and Aedes trichurus (Dyar)

(Diptera: Culicidae) in woodland pools. Can. J. Zool. 39:533-40.

Levings, C. D., N. G. McDaniel, and E. A. Black. 1976. Laboratory studies on the survival of

Anisogammarus confervicolus and Gammarus setosus (Amphipoda:Gammaridea) in sea

water and bleached kraft pulp mill effluent. Fisheries and Marine Service Canada, Tech. Res.

Series No. 656.

McLintock, J., and J. Iversen. 1975. Mosquitoes and human disease in Canada. Can. Ent.

107:695-704.

Meredith, J., and J. E. Phillips. 1973. Ultrastructure of anal papillae from a seawater mosquito larva

(Aedes togoi Theobald). Can. J. Zool. 51:349-53.

PREDATOR RELEASE PROGRAM FOR BALSAM WOOLLY APHID,

ADELGES PICEAE (HOMOPTERA: ADELGIDABE),

IN BRITISH COLUMBIA, 1960-1969 |

J. W. E. HARRIS AND A. F. DAWSON

Environment Canada

Canadian Forestry Service

Pacific Forest Research Centre

Victoria, B.C. V8Z 1M5

RESUME

Entre 1960 et 1969 on a importé et relaché dans le sud-ouest de la Colom-

bie-Britannique des predateurs du Puceron lanigére du Sapin (Adelges

piceae[Ratz.]),ravageur introduit des A bies spp. Laricobius erichsonii Rosen.

et Pullus impexus (Muls.) se sont établis et on en retrouvait encore en 1978.

De plus, Aphidoletes thompsoni Mohn et Cremifania nigrocellulata Cz. se

sont aussi établis, du moins brievement. Ces parasites, ainsi qu’un complexe

de prédateurs ont réduit ou éliminé quelques infestations de la tige n’ont

pas réduit les ravages du Puceron dans les foréts.

ABSTRACT

Predators of the balsam woolly aphid, Adelges piceae (Ratz.), an intro-

duced pest of Abies spp., were imported and released into southwestern Bri-

tish Columbia from 1960 to 1969. Laricobius erichsonii Rosen. and Pullus

impexus (Muls.) became established and were still found in 1978. Aphido-

letes thompsoni Mohn and Cremifania nigrocellulata Cz. also became estab-

lished, at least briefly. These and a complex of native predators reduced or

eliminated some stem infestations but did not reduce aphid-caused forest

damage.

INTRODUCTION venient release and assessment sites, but such

The balsam woolly aphid, Adelges piceae

(Ratzeburg), has been a serious pest of Abies

species in eastern North America since the early

1900s and, more recently, in the western United

States. In British Columbia, it was first noticed

north of Vancouver in 1958 by the Forest In-

sect and Disease Survey, Canadian Forestry

Service. The protected habitat of the aphid on

the bark of the bole and crown made it difficult

to attack by chemical means and, because it was

a pest introduced without many of its natural

enemies, early control efforts concentrated on

importing these natural enemies from Europe

and western Asia (McGugan and Coppel 1962).

The distribution of A. piceae over the tree is

an important consideration in biological control.

Heavy infestations on the lower bole are con-

concentrations of aphids occur only on a small

number of trees scattered throughout a stand.

Small numbers of woolly aphids, however, are

spread throughout the crowns of many trees

of an infected stand. The ideal predator or pre-

dator complex, therefore, must have a good

searching ability for both crown and stem in-

festations, and must be able to maintain itself

on alternate hosts in situations where the bal-

sam woolly aphid has disappeared or is in very

small numbers. ;

Most of the biological studies and releases

were done in eastern Canada and the western

United States by the respective forest services.

Six species of predaceous Diptera and Coleop-

tera were established in eastern Canada (Clark

et al. 1971) but they did not significantly reduce

damage.

22 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), Dec. 31, 1979

LEGEND

RELEASE

RELEASE AND

RECOVERY

RECOVERY ONLY

ASSESSMENT ONLY

NO. OF TREES

we. INFESTATION

**°° BOUNDARY

)

‘@ Francis

,i~,” Park

Tongford\®

VICTORIA

Fig. 1. Balsam woolly aphid predator release and assessment sites, British Columbia, 1960-1978.

A-Location of infestation and main study areas.

B-Seymour River Valley/Mt. Seymour sites.

C-Rainy River/Witherby Point sites.

D-Langford, Thetis Lake and Francis parks (Victoria) sites.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), DEc. 31, 1979 23

The balsam woolly aphid infestation in Bri-

tish Columbia was confined to a small, moun-

tainous area of mild climate in the southwest

corner of the province (Fig. 1-A); releases of the

most promising predaceous insects were made

even if they failed in eastern Canada. The steep

valleys might better confine small numbers of

insects until they could become established and

multiply, and the milder climate could make

overwintering mortality less of a limiting factor

than in the east. The intent was to introduce a

complex of natural enemies that would sup-

plement native predators, reducing aphid num-

bers and damage, and slowing dispersal to new

areas. Consequently, releases were made from

1960 to 1969 and searches were made for their

progeny up to 1978. It was accepted that if pro-

geny developed and overwintering took place,

and specimens were found by limited searches,

establishment could be concluded.

METHODS

Arrangements for the Commonwealth Insti-

tute of Biological Control to capture and ship

predators to Canada were made by the Ento-

mology Research Institute for Biological Con-

trol, Agriculture, Canada, Belleville, Ontario.

The latter agency reared and held them until

weather conditions were suitable in B.C., even-

tually forwarding them in insulated, cooled con-

tainers to Victoria. Here, they were released in

small shelters attached to trees with heavy

stem populations of aphids. Also in 1968, small

numbers of predators initially were confined in

cages around the boles of stem-infested trees

to encourage immediate establishment of a

known aphid population, and to prevent disper-

sal which might lead to later difficulty in locat-

ing aphid populations.

Releases were at three localities (Fig. 1):

Victoria, Mt. Seymour and the Seymour River

Valley, and along the Rainy River and Witherby

Point roads. Nearly 60,000 specimens of eight

predator species were released (Table 1).

Examinations to determine the status of

released and native predators were carried out

annually up to 1969, and in 1971, 1974 and 1978.

The trees on which predators were released

and nearby stem-infested trees were visited

once or twice each month from April to Septem-

ber. Larvae unidentifiable in the field were

reared to adults on aphid-infested bark in the

laboratory; adult predators were sent to Bio-

systematics Research Institute, Agriculture

Canada, Ottawa, for identification.

Assessment consisted primarily of examin-

ing the basal 6 feet of stem-infested boles with

the aid of a hand lens or battery-illuminated

magnifying glass. Also, at most locations,

several trapping methods were used. Glass-

pane ‘‘window flight traps’’ (1- or 2-ft square)

(Chapman and Kingorn 1957) were hung near

stem-infested trees to catch flying insects. Two

funnel traps of polyethylene film were attached

to the bark of each tree about 2 feet from the

ground; one of the funnels led from the bark

into a glass bottle filled with water, the other

into a flower pot filled with forest litter (Franz

1958). When a glass bottle showed significant

numbers of unidentifiable larvae, the flower pot

was placed in a rearing cage where the larvae

could pupate and adults emerge for identifica-

tion. Corrugated cardboard bands were wrap-

ped around infested boles to trap predators

which pupated in protected locations on the

bark.

RESULTS

Ocular examination of stem-infested bark

was the best method of looking for predators

tested. The window flight traps yielded few pre

dators but the funnel traps caught several

species. The corrugated cardboard bands

trapped pupating syrphids, coccinellids and

Neuroptera, and attracted mites.

Four species of released predators over-

wintered at least once and were regarded as

established (Table 1); Laricobius erichsonii

Rosenhauer (Coleoptera: Derodontidae), Pullus

impexus (Mulsant) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),

Aphidoletes thompsoni Mohn (Diptera: Ceci-

domyiidae) and Cremifania _ nigrocellulata

Czerny (Diptera: Chamaemyiidae). They ap-

parently did not decrease balsam woolly aphid

numbers enough to noticeably lessen damage.

Stem populations did decline in some release

areas, particularly those where L. erichsonii was

released, but such decline also occurred else-

where. Examinations of various infestations

(Harris 1973) indicated that at any one time

only a small percentage of hosts in an area are

stem-infested ; each year a few new trees become

infested and, after several years, recover or die.

L. erichsonii was released at Mt. Seymour

from 1960 to 1963 and was recovered from 1962

to 1965 and again in 1978, 15 years after release.

It also was recovered in the Seymour Valley in

1966 and 1974, 11 km from the nearest release

point on Mt. Seymour, and at Witherby Point

as late as 1974, 6 years after release there. No

recoveries were made from release at Rainy

River or at Victoria, but stem-infested trees

used to assess releases could not be found at

either location in the years following releases.

P. impexus was recovered in the Seymour

Valley up to 1978, 10 years after release there,

but not at Victoria. It also was recovered on

Mt. Seymour, | year after release, but not since.

Although most frequently found on trees with

moderate to heavy stem attack, it also was

recovered from lightly attacked trees. Corrugat-

ed cardboard bands were useful in trapping

pupae; pupation naturally occurs under bark

scales.

A. thompsoni was recovered in fairly high

numbers, 1 year after release, mainly from a

24 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), Dec. 31, 1979

TABLE 1. Predators of the balsam woolly aphid released in British Columbia

1960-1969, with recoveries noted.

Species Location!/ Year of Approx. Year

Release or numbers of

recovery released recovery

DIPTERA:

Aphidoletes thompsoni Mdhn V 1965 1,080 1967

1966 6,850

MS 1962 280

1963 520

Cremifania nigrocellulata Czerny V 1966 140

SV 1968 710 1969

Leucopis n. sp. nr. melanopus SV 1968 27270

Tanas

COLEOPTERA:

Laricobius erichsonii Rosenhauer V 1960 100

1965 610

1968 17770

MS 1960 700 1962-1965

1961 1,430 1978

1963 4,870

SV 1966,1974

WP 1968 1,390 1969

1971

1974

RR 1968 450

Aphidecta obliterata (Linnaeus) Vv 1960 300

1965 660

1968 30

MS 1960 750

1961 1,140

1962 800

1963 2,000

SV 1969 420

RR 1968 1,100

Pullus impexus (Mulsant) V 1965 2,420

1966 18,510

MS 1960 1,240 1961

1963 1,400

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRiT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), DEc. 31, 1979 25

Scymnus pumilio (Weise) MS

HEMIPTERA:

Tetraphleps abdulghani V

Ghauri

Total number of predators released:

1968 2,080 1969

1971

1974

1978

1960 2,930

1365 1,280

599,790

1/Victoria = V, Mt. Seymour = MS, Seymour Valley = SV, Rainy River = RR, Witherby Point = WP

tree at Victoria. Although it also was released

at Mt. Seymour, it was never recovered.

C. nigrocellulata pupae were recovered at

Seymour Lake, 1 year after release, but the

species was not seen again.

Many of the native predators belonged to

groups that were general feeders and would not

be specific to the Adelgidae. The most common

predators were mites, the most distinctive

being Allothrombium mitchelli Davis (Acarina:

Trombidiidae), a large slow-moving red mite

densely covered with velvety setae. The tiny

larvae were occasionally found in large numbers,

one or several attacking individual aphid

nymphs and adults. In one instance, on the

basal 6 ft. of each tree bole about 1,000 indivi-

duals were found on a stem infestation. One was

observed attacking a L. erichsonii larva. An

Anystis species (Acarina: Anystidae), a small

fast-moving red mite, was also common and

occasionally seen feeding on aphids.

The most abundant insect predators were

Hemerobius sp. (Neuroptera: Hemerobiidae),

Chrysopa sp. (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae),

Metasyrphus aberrantis (Curran) and WNeo-

cnemodon rita (Curran) (Diptera: Syrphidae).

The most common predaceous coleopteran was

Scymnus phelpsii Cresson (Coccinellidae). Wax-

covered larvae of this tiny ladybird beetle were

observed frequently on the bark in early spring

near Victoria; they pupated in the corrugated

cardboard traps.

Other common native predators were Leu-

copis sp. (Diptera: Chamaemyiidae), Larico-

bius sp. (Coleoptera: Derodontidae) and Tetra-

phleps latipennis Van Dyke (Hemiptera:

Anthocoridae). Several other species suspected

of being predaceous on Adelges piceae also

were found (Harris et al. 1968). M. aberrantis

larvae occasionally were parasitized by Syr-

phoctonus agilis (Cresson) (Hymenoptera:

Ichneumonidae) and Leucopis sp. by Pachy-

neuron altiscutum Howard and P. syrphi Ash-

mead (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae).

DISCUSSION

Of the four successfully introduced species,

L. erichsonii was the most common, being

readily found in searches of stem-infested bark

up to 1978. It prefers heavy stem populations;

low balsam woolly aphid populations and poor

overwintering conditions in the soil were be-

lieved by Mitchell and Wright (1967) to be the

main factors reducing survival in the western

states. The scarcity of stem infestations in B.C.

probably has been detrimental to establishment,

but L. erichsonii travelled the farthest of any

of the released species, 11 km.

Winter mortality was a major factor affect-

ing Pullus impexus establishment in eastern

Canada (McGugan and Coppel 1962), which

should not be a problem in the west. Aphidoletes

thompsoni may have several generations per

year, attacks the balsam woolly aphid in sum-

mer after populations of Laricocius begin to

decline, can survive at low prey densities and

is said to have a good rate of dispersal (Mitchell

and Wright 1967). All these attributes could

make it useful in B.C. if populations were estab-

lished. Cremifania nigrocellulata has been es-

tablished in eastern Canada but spread was

slow, and it did not persist in light infestations.

The success of this biological control pro-

gram was dependent upon characteristics of the

available species and upon environmental con-

ditions that existed during establishment. The

major factor acting against success probably

was the sporadic nature of balsam woolly aphid

populations. They occur only on Abies, which

often make up a small proportion of a stand, and

stem infestations, on which predators have the

best chance of establishing, were infrequent.

In Victoria, for example, stem infestations could

not be found near the release area 1 year after

release, in spite of intensive searches. Predator

populations may have dispersed and been un-

able to find infestations or, once established and

in the larval stage, may have succumbed from

26 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), Dec. 31, 1979.

starvation because of declining numbers of

woolly aphids.

One possible cause of establishment failure,

low winter temperatures, should not have

affected species already proven in the east,

because in south coastal British Columbia and

particularly on southern Vancouver Island,

temperatures are milder. There may, however,

have been difficulties with unfavorable weather

at critical times, particularly with small delicate

flies such as A. thompsoni and C. nigrocellulata.

Biological control of the balsam woolly

aphid, which is difficult to control economically

by other means, could still reduce aphid popula-

tions and damage if better species were dis-

covered, or if releases were of larger numbers

over a wider area, or if populations were pro-

tected by first releasing in cages. Also, if past

releases were unsuccessful simply because of

bad weather or a scarcity of woolly aphid popu-

lations, similar introductions could be success-

ful given better conditions.

REFERENCES

Chapman, J. A. and J. M. Kinghorn. 1957. Window flight traps for insects. Can. Ent. 87: 46-47.

Clark, R. C., D. O. Greenbank, D. G. Bryant and J. W. E. Harris. 1971. Adelges piceae (Ratz.), bal-

sam woolly aphid (Homoptera: Adelgidae): 113-127, In Biological control programmes

against insects and weeds in Canada 1959-1968. Commonwealth Institute of Biological Con-

trol, Trinidad, Techn. Comm. No. 4.

Franz, J. M. 1958. Studies on Laricobius erichsonii Rosen. (Coleoptera: Derodontidae) a predator on

Chermesids. Entomophaga 3: 109-196.

Harris, J. W. E. 1973. Tree and site characteristics relative to progressive balsam woolly aphid

damage to Abies spp., British Columbia 1959-1970. Pacific Forest Research Centre, Victoria,

Internal Rep. BC-46. 60 pp.

Harris, J. W. E., J. C. V. Holms and A. F. Dawson. 1968. Balsam woolly aphid predator studies,

British Columbia, 1959-1967. Forest Research Lab., Victoria, Inform. Rep. BC-X-23. 18 pp.

McGugan, B. M. and H. C. Coppel. 1962. Biological control of forest insects — 1910-1958: 35-216.

In A review of the biological control attempts against insects and weeds in Canada. Com-

monwealth Inst. of Biological Control, Trinidad, Techn. Comm. No. 2.

Mitchell, R. G. and K. H. Wright. 1967. Foreign predator introductions for control of the balsam

woolly aphid in the Pacific Northwest. J. Econ. Ent. 60: 140-147.

OBSERVATIONS ON A TWIGMINER,

ARG YRESTHIA PSEUDOTSUGA FREEMAN

(LEPIDOPTERA: YPONOMEUTIDAE), IN DOUGLAS-FIR

SEED ORCHARDS

D. S. RUTH AND A. F. HEDLIN

Environment Canada

Canadian Forestry Service

Pacific Forest Research Centre

Victoria, B.C. V8Z 1M5

ABSTRACT

Studies on the twigminer, Argyresthia pseudotsuga Freeman, which

kills new growth on twigs of Douglas-fir, showed that adults oviposited from

mid-April until May on bud scales or on needles close to the buds. Eggs.

hatched in mid-May and larvae continued to mine in the new twigs until late

fall or early winter. The insects pupated by the end of February in chambers

at the bases of the twigs.

RESUME

Les auteurs rapportent que les adultes de la Mineuse, Argyresthia

pseudotsuga Freeman, qui tue la nouvelle croissance sur les ramules de

Douglas taxifolié, pondent depuis la miavril jusqu’en mai sur les écailles des

bourgeons ou sur les aiguilles prés des bourgeons éclos. Les ouefs éclosent a la

mi-mai et les larves continuent de miner sur les nouveaux ramules jusque vers

la fin de l’automne ou au debut de l’hiver. La pupation a lieu a la fin de février

dans des loges aux bases des rameaux.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), DEc. 31, 1979 27

INTRODUCTION

Several species of insects mine twigs and

shoots of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii

(Mirb.) Franco) and, when numerous, may re-

duce the cone-bearing capabilities of trees in

seed orchards. One of the _ twigminers,

Argyresthia pseudotsuga, described by

Freeman in 1972, has been observed for several

years in seed orchards on the Saanich Peninsula

of Vancouver Island. This paper presents in-

formation on the biology of the insect.

LIFE HISTORY AND HABITS

Adult moths emerge in the spring when

Douglas-fir is flowering. In 1976, caged insects

emerged from April 12 to 22. In 1977, moths

were observed in the field from April 25 to May

2. Periods when the various life stages occur are

shown in Fig. 1.

The moth lays eggs singly during April near

the bases of buds (Fig. 2). Although more than 1

egg per bud may be laid, only 1 larva survives.

When the egg hatches in mid-May, the larva

makes a small channel 1.5 to 2 mm long, usually

just above the node and beneath an elongated

bud scale (Fig. 3). The larva moves toward the

base of the twig, mining around the node, then

moves toward the tip of the twig in a spiral

fashion around the new wood. As feeding pro-

gresses, the larva mines the centre of the twig,

forming a gallery (Fig. 4). Twenty-four galleries

averaged 26 mm in length, ranging from 17 to 35

mm. The larva feeds until fall or early winter,

moving to the base of the twig where it con-

structs a pupal gallery 10 to 18 mm long, just

above the node (Fig. 5). The pupal chamber is

walled off from the feeding gallery by tightly

packed frass and boring dust, and an exit hole is

TABLE I. Head capsule widths of the larval instars of 845 Argyresthia pseudotsuga collected

during 1976 and 1977 at the Tahsis Seed Orchard, Saanichton, B.C.

Sample Range Mean Std. Dev

Instar size (mm) (mm) (mm)

I 120 0.15-0.23 0.19+0.03 0.02

II 131 0.23-0.28 0.26+ 0.02 0.01

Ill 165 0.28-0.37 0.32 + 0.04 0.03

IV 232 0.37-0.52 0.42 +.0.04 0.03

V 197 0.53-0.70 0.63 + 0.06 0.04

TABLE II. Numbers of shoots on Douglas-fir trees infested by Argyresthia pseudotsuga,

Tahsis Seed Orchard, Saanichton, B.C. (Upper four whorls only)

Whor!l no. 1 2 3 4

Avg.no shoots 11 104 153 260

Avg. no infested 0.6 2.2 5.5 8.2

shoots per whorl

cut below the wall. The larva then spins a cocoon

below the exit hole. By November 5 and Decem-

ber 6, 8% and 33% respectively, of the larvae

were at the base of the twig. By February 5, 72%

and by March 7, 100%, had pupated. In 1976 and

1977, larvae were present from May 16 to Feb-

ruary 5, completing their development in ap-

proximately 8 months.

Head capsule measurements were from

reared larvae for the first two instars and from

field-collected larvae for the last three. Data in

Table I provide information on larval head cap-

DESCRIPTION OF LIFE STAGES

The adult has a wingspan of 9.5 to 10 mm and

is pearly grey, with a yellowish tinge (Freeman

1972). The egg is 0.34 by 0.57 mm in size (avg of

7 eggs), is elliptical, cream-colored, and has a

reticulate surface. The young larva is about 0.6

mm long and has a pale cream-colored body with

a dark brown head capsule. The fully developed

larva is 5.5 mm long. The pupa is black and is 6

mm long.

sule sizes for the five instars.

Fig. 1. Occurrence of stages of Argyresthia pseudotsuga, Saanichton, B.C.

1979

’

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), DEc. 31

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. CoLUMBIA 76 (1979), Dec. 31, 1979 29

FIGURE CAPTIONS

Fig. 2. Egg of Argyresthia pseudotsuga, on

Douglas-fir needle.

Fig. 3. Channel made by Argyresthia pseudot-

suga larva above node of Douglas-fir twig.

Fig. 4. Larva of Argyresthia pseudotsuga, and

mined Douglas-fir twig.

Fig. 5. Argyresthia pseudotsuga, pupa, exit

hole and mined section of Douglas-fir twig.

Fig. 6. Douglas-fir shoots infested by larvae of

Argyresthia pseudotsuga.

DAMAGE

Larvae kill the new shoots and reduce the

number of potential cone-bearing twigs on trees.

Soon after the insect begins to feed the shoot

becomes flaccid (Fig. 6) and slightly lighter in

color than normal foliage. By mid-July, the

apical portion (%4 to 1%) of the shoot is dead and

dry; the remainder, although severely tunneled,

is still succulent. By November, damage

becomes more obvious because of the pale green

foliage; by spring, the twig has turned brown.

To assess the damage caused by A. pseudot-

suga, the number of attacked twigs was counted

on each of the 4 whorls below the leader, on 24

trees which averaged 3.4 metres in height. The

data in Table II show that although damage to

current growth is not severe, the insect can

destroy potential cone-bearing shoots.

REFERENCE

Freeman T. N. 1972. The coniferous feeding species of Argyresthia in Canada (Lepidoptera:

Yponomeutidae). Can. Ent. 104: 687-697.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BriT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), DEc. 31, 1979

PARASITOIDS OF THE WESTERN SPRUCE BUDWORM,

CHORISTONEURA OCCIDENTALIS

(LEPIDOPTERA: TORTRICIDAE), IN BRITISH COLUMBIA

1977-78

J. W.E. HARRIS AND A. F. DAWSON

Environment Canada

Pacific Forest Research Centre

Canadian Forestry Service

Victoria, B.C. V8Z1M5

RESUME

En 1977, la Tordeuse occidentale de l’Epinette (Choristoneura occiden-

talis Free.), a causé de sérieuses défoliations au Douglas taxifolie (Pseudot-

suga menziesii [Mirb.] Franco) sur 246,000 ha, la plus grande superficie

jamais infestee par la Tordeuse en Colombie-Britannique. La Tordeuse a fait

lobjet d ‘etudes en 1977 et 1978, alors que sa population déclinait; 25 espéces

de parasitdides y ont eté trouvees. Le parasitisme des larves ‘s'est chiffré en

moyenne a 40% au premier stade, a 20% au dernier stade et a 16% (1977) et

25% (1978) au stade pupal. Le parasitisme total a ete de 61% (1977) et 69%

(1978); en 1977, 17% des masses d’oeufs ont ete attaquées. L’incidence de la

maladie a ete tres faible. Le déclin subit de la Tordeuse en 1978 sur toute

l’aire infestée, sans egard aux populations de parasitoides, laisse croire que le

parasitisme n’a pas ete un facteur important. La présence de parasitoides

dans toute l’aire infestée fait supposer qu’en general ils n’auraient pas été

serieusement affectes par les applications de pesticides sur des aires limi-

tees.

ABSTRACT

In 1977, the western spruce budworm, Choristoneura occidentalis Free.,

caused serious defoliation of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii [Mirb.]

Franco) over 246,000 hectares, the largest area ever infested by the budworm

in British Columbia. The budworm was surveyed in 1977 and 1978, as the

population declined; 25 parasitoid species were found. Early-stage larval

parasitism averaged 40%, late-stage 20%, and pupal 16% (1977) and 25%

(1978). Total parasitism was 61% (1977) and 69% (1978); in 1977, 17% of the

egg masses were attacked. Disease incidence was very low. The sudden

decline of the budworm in 1978 over the entire infestation, regardless of

parasitoid populations, suggested that parasitism was not a major factor.

The widespread occurrence of parasitoids throughout the infestation sug-

gests that they would not have been seriously affected overall by pesticide

applications on limited areas.

INTRODUCTION

Changes in populations of the western spruce

budworm, Choristoneura occidentalis Freeman

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), a serious pest of

Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii [Mirbel]

Franco), can be predicted by observing the

various factors that affect them, such as para-

sitoids. Parasitoid populations also are affected

by various factors, one being the pesticides

which are sometimes used against budworms.

Thus there was concern in 1977 for natural con-

trolling agents when a chemical control program

against the budworm was preposed for approxi-

mately 40,500 hectares north of Hope, British

Columbia.

Records from previous infestations in B.C.

showed a complex of natural enemies associated

with budworm populations. Hewitt (1912) pro-

vided an early record from Victoria in 1911, and

Tothill (1923) reported six species of insect

parasitoids controlling an outbreak near Lil-

looet in 1919-1920. Wilkes et al. (1948) reared

44 parasitoid species from Lillooet, and Silver

(1960) reared 14 species from Pemberton, four of

which had not been recorded by Wilkes. The

Forest Insect and Disease Survey (FIDS) at

Victoria recorded at least 30 parasitoid species

attacking C. occidentalis in B.C. since 1949, of

which 11 were not listed by the above authors;

14 species were collected from the proposed

treatment area. In total, at least 59 parasitoid

species were reared from the western spruce

budworm in the Province since 1911.

The current budworm infestation began in

1967, when localized defoliation of Douglas-fir

occurred near Lillooet. Subsequently, the area

of defoliation increased annually until, in 1977,

the budworm had caused defoliation over the

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), Dec. 31, 1979 3]

largest area ever recorded (246,000 hectares)

for this pest in B.C. Prior to 1977 there were no

quantitative parasitoid data available, but in

that year parasitoids were included in a sampl-

ing project designed to assess the control pro-

gram. The sampling procedures and results are

described here.

METHODS

Samples of western spruce budworm were

taken at 72 sites in 12 geographic areas during

1977 and/or 1978, and were examined for para-

sitoids (Fig. 1). Third- and fourth-instar bud-

worm larvae (L3 and L,) were collected from

late May to mid-June; Ls and Lg in late June;

pupae from late June to early July; and eggs

from late July to early August. Overall bud-

worm larval populations were monitored during

the late instar stage by three-tree beatings

(Harris et al. 1972), and by examining branches.

Larvae were reared on an artificial diet in

plastic creamer cups (McMorran 1965), pupae

in empty creamer cups, and egg masses in glass

vials. These were examined frequently and de-

velopment was recorded. Parasitoids reared to

adults were identified at the Pacific Forest Re-

search Centre (PFRC), Victoria, or at the Bio-

systematic Research Institute, Ottawa.

Percent parasitism was determined for each

budworm stage separately and for all stages

combined, for each geographic area. Total para-

sitism was calculated by successively reducing

the initial budworm population by the rate of

parasitism at each sample stage (see formula at

end of Table 2). Mortality from causes other

than parasitism during rearing was as much as

70% at some sites. High temperatures during

transport were probably a significant factor.

Various sites within the infestation had in-

curred from 1 to 8 years of continuous defolia-

tion, according to annual aerial surveys by

FIDS. Sites at which parasitoids were collected

were grouped by age of infestation and the per-

cent larval parasitism was calculated and com-

pared.

To check for disease incidence, larvae and

pupae from 24 locations in 1977 and from 35 in

1978 were sent to the Forest Pest Management

Institute (FPMI), Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario.

Collections also were examined for microspori-

dia at PFRC in 1977.

RESULTS

Twenty-five parasitoid species were found

(Table 1), but only a few were abundant. Each

budworm stage had a different parasitoid com-

plex.

Early-stage larval parasitism averaged over

40%, and ranged from 21 to 100% at different

locations (Table 2). The most common species

were Apanteles fumiferanae Viereck and Glyp-

ta fumiferanae Viereck, with only low numbers

of five other species encountered. Late-stage

larval parasitism averaged over 20% and ranged

from 0 to 71%. Nine species of Diptera were

found on this stage, the most common being

Ceromasia auricaudata Townsend and Win-

themia fumiferanae Tothill.

Total parasitism of both early and late instar

larvae, calculated for 29 plots in 1977, averaged

54%, and ranged from 16 to 99%. In 1978, it

averaged 59% over 20 plots, and ranged from 16

to 95%.

Pupal parasitism averaged 16% in 1977

and 25% in 1978, and ranged from 0 to 75%.

Pupae were parasitized by the ichneumonids

Apechthis ontario Cresson, [toplectis conquisi-

tor Say, Itoplectis quadricingulata Provancher

and Phaeogenes hariolus Cresson.

For 14 plots where both larvae and pupae

were collected in 1977, total parasitism averaged

61%, and ranged from 58 to 99%. For 11 plots

in 1978, parasitism averaged 69%, and ranged

from 37 to 98%

Egg parasitism by Trichogramma minutum

Riley in 1977 averaged 17% for egg masses

affected and 12% of total eggs (Table 3). There

was an average of 1.4 Trichogramma from each

egg, compared to 2.1 reported by Wilkes et al.

(1948) and 2.4 reported by Hewitt (1912).

A larval parasitoid not previously recorded

for B.C. on C. occidentalis was Enytus sp. Four

others not identified to species but which could

be new records were Campoplex sp., Diadegma

sp., and specimens of Campopleginae and Pori-

zontini. Hyperparasites were encountered in

minor numbers: Elasmus atratus Howard para-

sitizing G. fumiferanae, Mesochorus sp. and

Mesochorus tachypus Holmgren parasitizing

A. fumiferanae and Mesopolobus sp. attacking

an unknown host.

Phytodietus fumiferanae Rohwer (Hymen-

optera: Ichneumonidae) and Cyzenis incrassata

Smith (Diptera: Tachinidae) were not found,

although they had been collected by Wilkes et

al. (1948) in large numbers for release in eastern

Canada. The former had been collected by Sil-

ver (1960) near Pemberton, and the latter at

Sumallo River near Hope in 1974. Neither

species was collected by Doganlar and Beirne

(1978) at Yale.

Non-insect parasitoids were of little signifi-

cance in the current infestation. In 1977, a single

Thelonia microsporidium-infested sample was

found at Fountain Valley, and a few larvae on

Mission Mtn. were infected with nuclear-poly-

hedrosis virus. In an isolated patch of defolia-

tion near Revelstoke, however, 30% of the larvae

were infected with a granulosis virus.

The relationship between the number of

years of defoliation at a location and larval

parasitism was examined for 48 sites; an analy-

sis of variance showed no significant difference

(0.5 level) between parasitism at sites grouped

into five defoliation ages:

32 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), Dec. 31, 1979

COLLECTION SITES

OR ras

@ |978

@ BOTH YEARS

30 km

VANCOUVER

British Columbia

oy _ eee ee

United States

Figure 1. Locations where collections were made for western spruce budworm parasitoids, 1977-1978.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), DEc. 31, 1979 33

Gear onran) NG GR bPAve Colarwwal. The data show epidemic populations peaking

Site eee plots Reciiign in 1958 and again in 1977. The best parasitism

———— record of late instar larvae also peaked in 1958

1-2 10 48 but it was still increasing in 1978. Pupal para-

2-3 10 74 sitism peaked in 1955 and declined sharply in

3-4 ay 60 1958. However, it continued to rise in 1978. In

4-5 6 43 the current infestation, early June larval popula-

5-8 5 69 tions on branches and early July beatings

showed an overall decline of about 60% in 1978

lati in the infestati

Budworm populations in e infestation from the previous year (Table 2).

area have been monitored since 1949 (Fig. 2).

TABLE 1. Western spruce budworm parasitoids reared in British Columbia, 1977-1978.

Parasitoid species Budworm stage No. of parasitoids

from which reared

E parasitoid emerged 1977 1978 V7

Diptera

Sarcophagidae

Agria housei Shewell Pupa 0 3

Tachinidae

Actia interrupta Curran Lé 0 1

Aplomya caesar Aldrich Le 0 2

Ceromasia auricaudata Townsend Le, pupa 8 34 (32)

Hemisturmia tortricis Coquillet Pupa 1 0

Madremyia saundersii Williston Le 0 4 (2)

Phryxe pecosensis Townsend Leé, pupa 1 3

Pseudoperichaeta erecta Coquillet L¢ 0 2

Winthemia fumiferanae Tothill Les pupa 4 35 (4)

Hymenoptera

Braconidae

Apanteles fumiferanae Viereck Lar Ls 123 101 (30)

Elasmidae

Elasmus atratus Howard Hyperparasite 3 0

Ichneumonidae

Apechthis ontario Cresson Pupa 14 1

Campopleginae Ly 0 2

Campoplex sp. L4 2 3

Diadegma sp. Ly 0 1

Enytus sp. Ly 3 2

Glypta fumiferanae Viereck La-Le 124 61 (52)

Itoplectis conguisitor Say Pupa 0 10

Itoplectis guadricingulata Pupa 8 0

Provancher

Mesochorus sp. Hyperparasite 0 38

Mesochorus tachypus Holmgren Hyperparasite 11 12 (26)

Phaeogenes hariolus Cresson Pupa 16 48

Porizontini Lg 1 0

Pteromalidae

Mesopolobus sp. Hyperparasite 0 102/

Trichogrammatidae

Trichogramma minutum Riley Egg 301 =

'/ Brackets indicate the number reared from mass collections taken near Cache Creek.

*/ The 10 Mesopolobus sp. all emerged from one budworm larva.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), Dec. 31, 1979

SLL

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J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BriT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), DEc. 31, 1979

OOL OOL OOL wST3TSseieg % Tednd pue

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se OVE = = zs = = = 0 0 0 x4 6 L 8L6L

OL SOLE = ad “ = = ce 0 0 0 v9 Ld LZ LL6L “ad PTOOTN “Lt

Ov O60L v6 02 8L 0 0 c6 LL 0 S L6 Lt LE 8L6L

SE S662 = = = = = SL v 0 0 VL 8c 6 LL6L “au uosdwoyuL °*OL

O€ See $9 Sl eb 0 0 8S €€ € OL BE v 6 8Lé6élL uoTtTtAed

S8 SSsd 96 SL GZ 0 0 £8 £4 0 0 €8 EL LL LL6t -°PA UTeRUNOT °6

“TTO9 eberjToz c

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J°hAPT /* ATCT Ttednd *3Tsezed SPAICT SCPAICT

ZejsutT aAeASUT xy eednd TeRAIPT ABASUT dReT azeysut AjTazee

a4eT SReT TeAICT JO wStTytTseized ¢ % TeIOL JO wsTtTytTseized ¢ jo wstytserzed %

‘ou Bay -ou bay % TeRIOL

36 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), DEc. 31, 1979

AVERAGE NUMBERS OF BUDWORM LARVAE

PER COLLECTION

sseeeees % PARASITISM OF BUDWORM LARVAE

——— % PARASITISM OF BUDWORM PUPAE

$5 90

a &

oO <

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xe 60 in

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30 ] go

1950 1955 I960

I965 I970 I975

Figure 2. Budworm populations and percent parasitism, 1949-1978, on study areas 1-10. Average

numbers of collections per year = 41.

DISCUSSION

Parasitism of western spruce budworm lar-

vae and pupae generally was high, and there was

considerable variation among areas sampled.

Parasitism, however, did not seem to be related

to the number of years of defoliation in an area.

Budworm populations decreased considerably

in 1978, after 11 years of continuous expansion.

Records of parasitism from earlier infesta-

tions can help us understand the current situa-

tion. Hewitt (1912) believed that parasitoids,

particularly those attacking eggs, effectively

controlled this pest. He found 43% parasitism,

however, compared to 12% in our infestation.

Overall larval parasitism (54 and 59%) in 1977

and 1978, respectively, was similar to that esti-

mated by Tothill (1923) (61%) in the declining

stage of a localized outbreak near Lillooet in

1919. He stated that parasitoids and birds could

reduce populations of the budworm to the point

that bird activities in the following year control-

led the outbreak. Pupal parasitism in the cur-

rent study (23 and 26%) was lower than that

found by Silver (1960), who reported 28 to 62%

from 1954-1958, but none in 1959, the year of

population collapse. However, total larval and

pupal parasitism (61 and 69%) were higher in

1977 and 1978 than that recorded by Wilkes

et al. (1948), who found an average of 11 to 31%

from 1943-1947. In the northwestern U.S.,

McKnight (1971) credited the sudden collapse of

an infestation in Colorado in 1963 to a braconid,

Bracon politiventris Cushman, but this species

was rarely encountered in B.C.

Parasitism reduced budworm populations

but not damage because there usually was an

over-abundance of budworms competing for

limited supplies of foliage, particularly in 1977.

Parasitoid populations were wide-spread

throughout the infestation, so it is unlikely that

pesticide applications over 40,500 ha (17% of the

infected area) would have greatly affected the

parasitoid complex. Since budworm populations

declined markedly over most of the infestation

during 1978, regardless of parasitoid popula-

tions, one concludes that parasitism was not a

major factor causing population collapse.

To confidently interpret current parasitism,

one needs good records from past infestations

for comparison. The existing historical records

of FIDS do not contain adequate parasitoid

data for a good assessment and fewer such

records are being taken each year. This is un-

fortunate because collecting data only during

peak periods when funds are available for emer-

gency situations does not permit us to acquire

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), Dec. 31, 1979

*[ ONS UO SBeIB 0} JOJo1SIequUINN / ;

cL LL Poul LOE LOSL OL G8SL cL OL TWLOL

0 0 0°0 0 8PL 0 BULL 0 G “a YORETICURN °C

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vl Lt G°L Zt LULL LSL 066 8 SP uodueD Joseig °€

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“LL6T ‘AOTY WNJHuIW euUeIZ0YysIIy, Aq ssZo wLIoMpng sonids us19}SeM Jo UISTIISVIe “E TIAVL

38 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), Dec. 31, 1979

information about parasitism in low and rising

populations which could be used in the future to

help predict budworm populations.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank FIDS technicians George Brown

and Robert Duncan for their assistance in super-

vising the collection and rearing of specimens,

and the latter for procuring identification of

specimens through the Biosystematics Re-

search Institute, Agriculture Canada, Ottawa.

We also thank Dave Evans of FIDS for local

identification of many specimens. This study

was done in part under the auspices of the

CANUSA Canada United States Spruce Bud-

worms Program and with considerable assist-

ance from the British Columbia Forest Service,

Protection Branch.

REFERENCES

Doganlar, M. and B. P. Beirne. 1978. Natural enemies of budworms, Choristoneura spp. (Lepidop-

tera: Tortricidae), on Douglas fir near Yale, British Columbia, in 1977. J. Ent. Soc. B.C.

75: 25-26.

Harris, J. W. E., D. G. Collis, and K. M. Magar. 1972. Evaluation of the tree-beating method for

sampling defoliating forest insects. Can. Ent. 104: 723-729.

Hewitt, C. G. 1912. Some of the work of the Division of Entomology in 1911. 42nd Ann. Rept. Ent.

Soc. Ont. 1911: 25-27.

McKnight, M. E. 1971. Biology and habits of Bracon politiventris (Hymenoptera: Braconidae).

Annals Ent. Soc. Amer. 64: 620-624.

McMorran, A. 1965. A synthetic diet for the spruce budworm, Choristoneura fumiferana (Clem.)

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). Can. Ent. 97: 58-62.

Silver, G. T. 1960. Notes on a spruce budworm infestation in British Columbia. Forestry Chron.

36: 362-374.

Tothill, J. D. 1923. Notes on the outbreaks of spruce budworm, forest tent caterpillar and larch saw-

fly in New Brunswick. Proc. Acadian Ent. Soc. 1922, No. 8: 172-179.

Wilkes, A., H. C. Coppel, and W. G. Mathers. 1948. Notes on the insect parasites of the spruce bud-

worm Choristoneura fumiferana (Clem.) in British Columbia. Can. Ent. 80: 138-155.

CBE Style Manual

4th Edition

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Substantially revised, this new edition contains valuable infor- d

mation on article planning and preparation, editorial review of Y

the manuscript, proofreading, and indexing. It delineates

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CBE Style Manual should be readily accessible to anyone

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J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), Dec. 31, 1979 39

THE FUNCTION OF THE CAUDAL APPENDAGE IN COCOON

JUMPING OF PHOBOCAMPE SP.

(HYMENOPTERA: ICHNEUMONIDAE: CAMPOPLEGINAE)

DAVID R. GILLESPIE AND THELMA FINLAYSON!

The early-instar larvae of many species of

Hymenoptera Parasitica have caudal appen-

dages but these usually atrophy by the final

instar (Hagen 1964). Finlayson (1964) described

and illustrated caudal appendages of final-instar

larvae of seven species of Phobocampe and three

species of Meloboris (Ichneumonidae: Campop-

leginae). Caudal appendages of final-instar

larvae were reported by Muesebeck and Parker

(1933) in P. disparis (Vier.) and by Thompson

and Parker (1930) in Sinophorus crassifemur

(Thoms.) (Campopleginae). Clausen (1940)

described cocoon jumping in the genera Bathy-

plectes and Sinophorus [=Eulimneria], Fiske

(1903) and Howard and Fiske (1911) in P. clisio-

campe (Weed) [=A meloctonus and Limnerium],

and Morley (1914) in Spudastica (Campople-

ginae).

Finlayson (1964) reviewed the various func-

tions that have been ascribed to the caudal

appendage by other authors. She noted that the

possession of a final-instar caudal appendage

in species of Phobocampe was coincidental with

cocoon jumping and suggested a relationship

between the two. Subsequently Dr. R. Carlson,

U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C.,

hypothesized that the caudal appendage may

function in cocoon spinning (Pers. Comm.).

The purpose of this paper is to describe the

function of the caudal appendage of the final-

instar larva within the cocoon of an unnamed

species of Phobocampe. The specimens examin-

ed were determined by ourselves and by Dr.

Carlson as an undescribed species. They were

reared from a mixed collection of Operophtera

bruceata (Hulst) and O. brumata (L.) collected

at Victoria, B.C. in May, 1977 and 1978.

The caudal appendage of Phobocampe sp.

(Fig. 1) consists of two discrete sections: an

anterior section that is unsclerotized and fluid-

filled, and of visibly different texture from the

skin; and a posterior section that is heavily-

sclerotized and finely-annulated. The latter is

the caudal appendage described by Finlayson

(1964) from cast skins of various species of

Phobocampe and Meloboris. A re-examination

of the Finlayson specimens showed that there

was an area of textureless skin anterior to the

caudal appendage similar to that shown in

Figure 1.

The entire structure is about 0.4 mm long, or

one-twelfth the length of the larva. The sclero-

‘Graduate Student and Professor, respectively, Department

of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, B.C.

V5A 1S6.

tized section can be moved by inflation and

deflation of the unsclerotized portion. Figure 1

shows the inflated position, and Figure 2 the

relationship between the caudal appendage in

the deflated position and the remainder of the

larva.

Cocoon spinning, as observed in two larvae,

began when the larva had spun a bed of silk on

the substrate. When an obstruction was met,

or when the larva had proceeded about 2 cm,

it stopped and looped its head back over the

abdomen and began to spin a loose net of silk

over its dorsal surface. When a fragile net of

silk had been spun around itself, the larva

reversed its position and began to close up the

spaces between the silk. This process of revers-

ing and further closing the spaces between the

silk net was repeated many times until the

cocoon was complete. The larva moved its head

in a figure-of-eight pattern while spinning. This

whole process took about three days, during

which the cocoon became increasingly hardened

and darkened until the final product had the

consistency of mica. Based upon about 200

examples, cocoons were fine-textured, gray, and

with terminal and sub-terminal, semi-trans-

parent, dark areas (Fig. 3) through which the

larva could be seen. The caudal appendage was

not observed to participate in the cocoon-spin-

ning process.

Cocoon jumping began when the cocoon was

fully formed but was still thin enough for larval

activity to be seen. From a supine position

(Fig. 4), the larva reared its body until the anal

segments and caudal appendage were in contact

with the wall of the cocoon in the sub-terminal

darkened area (Fig. 5). The anal segments were

pushed away from the wall of the cocoon by in-

flation of the caudal appendage which held the

abdomen in place (Fig. 6). When the caudal

appendage was deflated, abdominal segments

4 to 9 were thrown forcefully downwards so that

they struck the ventral rounded portion of the

cocoon, causing the cocoon to jump. The whole

sequence took about one second and happened

not more than once every 5 seconds. The jump

was usually about 2 cm vertically and up to 4 cm

horizontally.

Exposure to light was necessary to initiate

jumping. There was no evidence that tactile or

auditory stimulation was involved. Without a

response to sound or touch, it is unlikely that

cocoon jumping could function as a predator-

or parasite-avoidance mechanism, but solely

for locomotion.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), Dec. 31, 1979

Figs. 1-3. Phobocampe sp.: 1,

the inflated position;

3, cocoon.

2mm

terminal segments of final-instar larva showing caudal appendage in

2, final-instar larva with caudal appendage in the deflated position;

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), Dec. 31, 1979 41

Figs. 4-6. Diagrams of sections of cocoons of Phobocampe sp. showing positions of final-instar

larvae: 4, supine position; 5, anal segments and caudal appendage in contact with cocoon

wall; 6, caudal appendage in inflated position showing anal segments pushed away from

cocoon.

42 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), Dec. 31, 1979

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Centre, Simon Fraser University, for help with

The authors thank Dr. Robert Carlson, U.S. the illustrations of the cocoons; and the Na-

National Museum, Washington, D.C., for tional Research Council, which provided finan-

examining some of the specimens of Phobo- cial support to the junior author through Grant

campe sp. used in this study; the Audio-Visual No. A4657.

REFERENCES

Clausen, C. P. 1940. Entomophagous Insects. McGraw-Hill, New York.

Finlayson, T. 1964. The caudal appendage of final-instar larvae of some Porizontinae (Hymenoptera:

Ichneumonidae). Can. Ent. 96: 1155-1158.

Fiske, W. F. 1903. A study of the parasites of the American tent caterpillar. Tech. Bull. New Hamps.

agric. Exp. Stn 6: 185-230.

Hagen, K. S. 1964. Developmental stages of parasites. In Biological control of insect pests and

weeds. Ed. by P. DeBach, pp. 168-246. Reinhold, New York.

Howard, L. O., and W. F. Fiske. 1911. The importation into the United States of the parasites of

the gipsy moth and the brown-tail moth: a report of progress, with some consideration of

previous concurrent efforts of this kind. Bull. Bur. Ent., U.S. Dept. Agric., No. 91.

Morley, C. 1914. Ichneumons of Great Britain. V. Ophioninae. H. and W. Brown, London.

Muesebeck, C. F. W., and D. L. Parker. 1933. Hyposoter disparis Viereck, an introduced ichneumonid

parasite of the gipsy moth. J. agric. Res. 46:335-347.

Thompson, W. R., and H. L. Parker. 1930. The morphology and biology of Eulimneria crassifemur

an important parasite of the European corn borer. J. agric. Res. 40: 321-345.

Thorpe, W. H. 1932. Experiments upon respiration in the larvae of certain parasitic Hymenoptera.

Proc. R. Soc. Lond. (B) 109: 450-471.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), Dec. 31, 1979 43

BOOK REVIEW

MOSQUITOES OF CALIFORNIA BY R. M. BOHART & R. K. WASHINO

3rd Edition, March 1978, 153pp., 85 figs. $6 U.S., University of California, Division of Agricultural

Sciences, Berkeley, California 94720

This artistically illustrated and inexpensive

book contains much useful information for those

interested in mosquitoes in British Columbia. Of

the 47 species dealt with, 27 are known or ex-

pected to occur in the province; 14 are serious

pests in California and 10 of these are pests here

when their populations get out of hand.

Introductory sections deal with zoo-

geography, pointing out the diverse topography

of the state and the wide variety of habitats

available for mosquitoes; preserving, pinning

and mounting mosquitoes are covered briefly.

This section recommends killing larvae in near-

boiling water which, in my experience, distorts

them more than penetrating killing agents like

KAA. The adults are mounted on the left side

which may seem a trivial point until a particular

patch of scales has to be identified from a mirror

image diagram. Mounting on the right has been

standard in Canada for many years.

Before the keys, there are short sections des-

cribing the characters used to separate adults

and immature stages into genera and species.

The keys to adult females and larvae deal with

the species of all 8 genera together and don’t

work well on specimens from B.C. The key to

adult males, using genitalia, separates the

genera first, then the species and it worked on

the specimens I tested. The key to pupae goes as

far as genera and is the only key I know of to

pupae in our area.

The order of the genera differs from that of

Stone & Knight (1977) but, with one exception,

the generic and specific names conform to their

catalogue. The exception is Aedes cinereus,

whose Californian subspecific name, hemiteleus,

was sunk into synonymy by Carpenter & La

Casse in 1955. Bohart & Washino have raised it

to specific rank on the basis of a marked dif-

ference in male terminalia between European

and American specimens. There are older names

available for a North American species if it

proves to be uniform and distinct.

There are 14 large dorsal views of adult

females. The scale pattern and setae are shown,

but legs and wings are omitted from most. Four

of them are shown in side view and there are

many additional drawings of parts of adults.

Nearly all the larvae are illustrated, including

those common to the state and our province.

The diagrams are admirably clean, with a mini-

mum of shading on sclerotised cuticle. The fine

lateral branches of the setae are omitted as well

as the swimming setae which tend to obscure

the rest of the figure in most handbooks. The

diagrams correspond well with the B.C. larvae

I have examined with the exception of the 6

siphonal setae shown in Culex tarsalis. This may

be an artist’s error since it does not agree with

the written description.

Sections after each species emphasize the

structural and biological differences between

them and similar species. Breeding sites,

behaviour and some details of laboratory rear-

ing are summarized. Notes on their geographical

distribution are followed by valuable informa-

tion about their role in disease transmission.

There are 2 maps showing the spread of in-

secticide resistance in the biting Culex species,

but no discussion of this important topic in the

text. It is perhaps just as well that this state has

a large budget for mosquito research and control

because, particularly in agricultural areas, ex-

pensive biological and physical methods are the

only controls left.

Peter Belton,

Pestology Centre, Biological Sciences,

Simon Fraser University.

44 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 76 (1979), Dec. 31, 1979

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Oat en crt cD tt ee ee ee De et tt tt eT et)

_ SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF

YSTEMATIC AND EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY

(ICSEB-IT)

erties

Second International Congress of Sysetmatic and Evolutionary

- Biology (ICSEB-IT) will be held at the University of

rae ‘British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada, 17-24 July 1980.

Origins and Evolution of The North Pacific Marine Biota

. Evolution of Reproductive Strategies

‘

Ries

en Algae and Land Plant Origins

acromolecular Mechanisms In Evolution of Eukaryotic Cells

Allozymes and Evolution

Somparative Studies of The Genetic Material, DNA

Evolution of Colonizing Species

Rare Species and The Maintenance of Gene Pools

Paleobiology of The Pacific Rim

ssions for contributed papers and for papers in specialized fields,

Paxonomic as well as Methodological will also be organized.

Dr. G. G. E. SCUDDER

Department of Zoology

_ The University of British Columbia

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Vancouver, B.C. V6T 1W5

Canada

OUD OO OO OO OO OO BU BOB 8 OO BPO DOD OE BOE BOBO BOO FUD I 6 DFE OF OD 8 0 PA OF 060

ee |

OO BOO FE BO OO BOD BE BOO BP ODO OB EG OO I OE OO OO PO GE OO OT OOO BP BPO PO OPEB EOI OBOE EF 1F 18 OIF OO

HICABED> | a

—! ree

Vernon Interior Printers Utd. *

i : : v#0071—0733 JOU RNA L \

of the

ENTOMOLOGICAL |

SOCIETY of

BRITISH COLUMBIA

Issued December 31, 1980

ECONOMIC

i vot Balsam Woolly Aphid iB amapi fone -Adelgidae) on ae |

of Abies amabilis ........ Bey a aN alak ela Whois Cigar SE hie Uinta! s eeaye dss « ve 15

AS McLEAN—Survey using pheromone traps, of Gnathotrichus sulcatus

| ene) in fe Vancouver oe a vat arte PERN Yi Ps coe a/S ooo a's 20

A Se dsuitete-Curcuticnidae), fed foliage from none current cultivars

i and advanced selections of strawberry in British Columbia ..................0. 25

OSSENTINE AND H. eS, Sapmmamlacael of crabapple cultivars

_ to attack by the Codling Moth ............... cece cece ceenee ce ceseceeeeacs 27

x GENERAL

R. JUDD AND J. H. BORDEN—Oviposition deterrents for Aedes aegypti

ey MICE OF OIG MAINO . cs ce ek co tc et cee eee tecveecccscesees 30

B.L GILLESPIE AND P. ee epestion of Culex ee in water

Pe EIPCTCINCTCIIPCTALUTES oc 6c. cba cc cc ccc teens ct cto necscwevevesncces 34

R.A. CANNINGS—Dasyhelea ¢ oppressa (Ceratopogonidae) Gi

_ Mycetobia divergens (Anisopodidae): Two diptera

new to British Columbia ........... Saree i tg MeL cases eiaty SOAIe ONC! gia pikhia ahin'e «a 37

TAXONOMIC

i. By REES AND C. K. CHAN —The Aphids ae: Aphididae) of

- a sermyniric nore GPA AG Nee RAD oh PO Oe esi oa evs 24

ISSN#0071—0733 J Oo U it Al A L

of the

ENTOMOLOGICAL

SOCIETY of

BRITISH COLUMBIA

Issued December 31, 1980

ECONOMIC

L. SAFRANYIK AND H. S. WHITNEY—Using explosives to destroy

Mountain Pine Beetle broods in Lodgepole Pine trees

G. S. PURITCH, P. C. NIGAM AND J. R. CARROW—Chemical control

of Balsam Woolly Aphid (Homoptera: Adelgidae) on seedlings

of Abies amabilis

J. A. McLEAN—Survey using pheromone traps, of Gnathotrichus sulcatus

(Col:Scolytidae) in two Vancouver Island dryland sorting areas

W. T. CRAM—Fecundity of the Black Vine Weevil, Otiorhynchus sulcatus

(Coleoptera:Curculionidae), fed foliage from some current cultivars

and advanced selections of strawberry in British Columbia

J. COSSENTINE AND H. MADSEN—Susceptibility of crabapple cultivars

to attack by the Codling Moth

G. J. R. JUDD AND J. H. BORDEN—Oviposition deterrents for Aedes aegypti

in extracts of Lemna Minor

B. I. GILLESPIE AND P. BELTON—Oviposition of Culex pipiens in water

at different temperatures

R. A. CANNINGS—Dasyhelea oppressa (Ceratopogonidae) and

Mycetobia divergens (Anisopodidae): Two diptera

new to British Columbia

TAXONOMIC

A. R. FORBES AND C. K. CHAN—The Aphids (Homoptera:A phididae) of

British Columbia 8. further additions

G. E. HAAS, L. JOHNSON, AND N. WILSON—Siphonaptera from mammals in

Alaska. Supplement IL Southeastern Alaska

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), Dec. 31, 1980

Directors of the Entomological Society of

British Columbia for 1980-1981

President

A. R. FORBES

Research Station, Agriculture Canada, Vancouver

President-Elect

L. SAFRANYIK

Pacific Forest Research Centre, Victoria

Past President

R. ELLIOTT

University of B.C., Vancouver

Secretary-Treasurer

B. D. FRAZER

6660 N.W. Marine Drive

Vancouver, B.C. V6T 1X2

Editor

H. R. MacCARTHY

Vancouver

Directors

V. NEALIS (1st) E. BELTON (ist) L. SAFRANYIK (2nd)

R. A. CANNINGS (2nd) G. MILLER (2nd)

Hon. Auditor

Regional Director of National Society

B. D. FRAZER

Research Station, Agriculture Canada, Vancouver

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), Dec. 31, 1980

USING EXPLOSIVES TO DESTROY MOUNTAIN PINE

BEETLE BROODS IN LODGEPOLE PINE TREES

L. SAFRANYIK AND H. S. WHITNEY

Environment Canada,

Canadian Forestry Service,

Pacific Forest Research Centre,

Victoria, B.C., V8Z 1M5,

Canada.

ABSTRACT

The effectiveness of explosives for the destruction of mountain pine

beetles in individual lodgepole pine trees was investigated. Two types of

detonating cord, and various placements, were tested on infested bolts

and trees, and a plastic explosive was tested on bolts. Explosives killed

broods directly, and indirectly by habitat disruption. Direct effects extended

about 9 cm from the explosion and mortality was inversely related to dis-

tance. Indirect effects via extensive loosening and shedding of bark

caused far greater mortality than direct effects. On trees, summer and fall

treatment was much more effective than spring treatment, regardless of

cord placement. Fall treatment using 10 g/m detonating cord helically

wrapped onto the boles at 10, 20 and 30 cm spacings caused 100%, 98%

and 70% mortality of broods respectively. Generally, vertical placement

of the cord into grooves cut through the bark caused more bark disrup-

tion and therefore, more brood destruction than did helically wrapped cord

placed on the surface.

RESUME

Les auteurs ont etudie l’efficacité d’explosifs pour la destruction du

Dendroctone du Pin ponderosa sur differents Pins lodgepole. Deux types

de fil détonateur, places a divers endroits, ont €té experimentés sur des

grumes et des arbres infestes, puis un explosif au plastique a été essayé sur

des grumes. Les explosifs ont tué les couvees directement, et, indirectement

par la dislocation de l’habitat. Les effets directs se sont étendus a environ

9 cm du lieu de |’explosion et la mortalite etait inversement proportionnelle

a la distance. Les effets indirects par suite du relachement et du déchique-

tage de l’é€corce ont causé une mortalité de loin supérieure aux effets directs.

Sur les arbres, le traitement printanier et estival s’est avere beaucoup plus

efficace que le traitement automnal, peu importe l’emplacement du fil. Le

traitement d’automne, utilisant 10 g/m de fil détonateur enroulé en spirale

sur les grumes espacés, 4 10, 20 et 30 cm, a cause 100%, 98% et 70% respec-

tivement de mortalite des couvees. Géneéralement, lorsque le fil était place

verticalement dans des incisions pratiquees dans |’é€corce, causant ainsi une

plus importante dislocation de l’écorce, on notait une destruction plus

accentuée des couveées que lorsqu’il était dispose en spirale a la surface des

arbres.

INTRODUCTION

Since the turn of the century, there have been

many direct control attempts against mountain

pine beetles (Dendroctonus ponderosae

Hopkins) in lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta

Douglas var. latifolia Englemann), both in

Canada and the United States. The effective-

ness of these control attempts in reducing or

preventing tree mortality was recently review-

ed and questioned (Klein 1979). However,

Whitney et al. (1979) noted that most docu-

mented examples of direct control action have

been directed against epidemic infestations.

Recent advances in understanding the

epidemiology of mountain pine beetle popu-

lations indicate that outbreaks may be avoided

if the populations are kept below a critical

threshold level, especially during periods of

temporary tree stress (Berryman 1979).

Whitney et al. (1979) agreed that prevention

of population buildup is a sound strategy for

which tactics can be developed.

There are only a few published reports of

explosives used for pest control, apart from

pyrotechnics to modify bird behavior (Frings

and Frings 1967). Dynamite has been used

to kill pile worms underwater (Quayle 1942)

and in attempts to control predacious fishes’

4 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), DrEc. 31, 1980

(Kuroki and Komanda 1961). Termite eradica-

tion has been attempted using explosives (Gray

and Buchter 1969) and bee colonies were

reported injured from nearby explosions (Kara

1974). It was observed in 1926 that pupae in

mountain pine beetle galleries were killed only

when in close proximity to exploding TNT

(Klein 1979). Exposing bark beetle broods

by debarking is an effective control procedure,

especially in thin bark pines (Evenden e¢ al.

1943). Bark removal with detonating cord was

used by Taylor (1973) to simulate lightning

strikes on ponderosa pine. We now report on

the biological effects of using detonating cord

to destroy mountain pine beetles directly,

and indirectly by physically disrupting their

habitat. A preliminary report describing the

strategy for using detonating cord and its

effectiveness for bark disruption has_ been

published (Whitney et al. 1979).

METHODS

Experiments testing the effectiveness of

explosives to kill large larvae, pupae and adults

of mountain pine beetle in naturally infested

bolts were carried out during the summer of

1977. These bolts were from Riske Creek, B.C.,

and the tests were conducted on a military

site near Victoria, B.C. This work was followed

between mid-October 1977 and the end of June

1978 by field experiments on direct and indirect

brood mortality caused by different explosives,

placements, and timings of treatments relative

to brood development. Hazards of misfire of

explosives and of ignition of combustible mate-

rial beneath treated trees were reduced by

Fig. 1. Diagram of concussion treatment and sampling design. Five bark samples Tj - T5 and

B, - B5 were taken from each of four aspects (I - IV) following detonation. Bark sample for

control was taken from the protected, below-ground portion of the bolt.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), DEc. 31, 1980 5

employing qualified blasters and a fire sup-

pression crew.

Effect of distance from detonation. In the

first experiment, a naturally infested bolt,

1.5 m long and 30 cm in diameter, was dug

into sand to a depth of 20 cm in an upright

position. Broods were mostly young adults

and pupae. The exposed part of the bolt was

wrapped tightly with a reinforced C-3 yellow

plastic (Military) detonating cord containing

10 g/m of explosive. The cord was wrapped

onto the bolt in a helical pattern at about 20 cm

spacing between wraps. Seven days after det-

onation, three 855 cm? strips of bark, each

3 cm wide and with the long axis running

parallel to the detonating cord, were removed

and sampled for live and dead beetles. The

distances (Xj) between the mid-lines of

strips one to three and the mid-line of the cord

were 1.5, 4.5 and 8.5 cm, respectively. A 756

cm? bark sample, taken from the below-ground

portion of the bolt, at least 15 cm from the

nearest wrap of detonating cord was used as

control and examined in the same manner as

the bark strips. In the second experiment,

six 1.5 m long and 25- to 30-cm-diameter in-

fested bolts were brought to the laboratory

in late August and kept at room temperature

until most of the broods were in late larval

and pupal stages. Four bolts were then selected

randomly and treated as described above. Fol-

lowing treatment, total bark area and area of

remaining undisturbed bark were measured

and the bolts were placed in separate emer-

gence cages at room temperature. The numbers

of emerged beetles were converted to 100 cm?’

for statistical analysis.

Effects of concussion. An infested lodgepole

pine bolt, 1.6 m long and 28 cm is diameter,

was used to determine direct mortality caused

by detonating explosives that were not touch-

ing the bolt. This bolt containing mostly young

adults, was held upright in the firing-hole, as

described previously. Military plastic explosive

C-4 was molded into two cylindrical charges,

about 3 cm thick by 20 cm long, to give an

estimated explosive weight of 170 g/m. These

charges were suspended from a harness fixed

to the top of the bolt so that their centers

were located about mid-distance to the ground

and 50 cm distant from opposite sides of the

log (Fig. 1). Twelve days after detonation, five

15 x 5 cm contiguous bark samples, with long

sides perpendicular to the long axis of the

bolt, were removed from each aspect above

(samples T; - T5) and below (samples By - Bs)

the level of the center of the explosive charge,

two aspects facing the charges and two being

at 90° to the charges. The numbers of dead and

live brood were tallied. A 750 cm? bark sample,

taken from the below-ground portion of the

bolt, was used as a control.

Effect of a mesh-work pattern of detonating

cord. An infested lodgepole pine bolt, 1.6 m long

by 28 cm diameter, was used for determining

brood mortality under bark islands left on the

bolt following detonation. The bolt was held

in an upright position, as described, and 10 g/m

military cord was fixed vertically to its four

sides and also wrapped around it in a helical

pattern, as described earlier. Bark islands left

on the bolt after firing were measured for area

and sampled for dead and live broods, 7 days

after detonation. A 1735 cm? bark sample taken

from the below-ground portion of the bolt at

least 15 cm from the nearest wrap of detonat-

ing cord was used as the control. Spring treat-

ment using vertical and helical placement, groov-

ing, tamping, and two cord types. The experi-

ments were conducted in mid-April, 1978, near

Riske Creek, B.C. The experiment on vertical

placement of the detonating cord compared two

types of cords, Scuf-Flex® and No-Flash-50® ,

that have about the same explosive force as

the military C-3 cord. No-Flash-50® is a low

fire hazard cord. Scuf-Flex® was placed on the

surface and in shallow grooves, tamped and

untamped (Fig. 2A-C). No-Flash-50® was

similarly placed, but without tamping. For

convenience, only the lower 2.0 m of the tree

boles were used. Cords were placed at about

20 cm intervals around the circumference of

the boles. Grooves through the bark and

phloem, were cut with a small chainsaw and

Plasterers’ putty (joint filler) was used for

tamping. For the untamped detonations, cords

were held in place by a few wrappings of flag-

ging tape. Each of the six treatment combina-

tions were applied at random to three infested

lodgepole pines, ranging from 27.4 to 36.2 cm

in dbh. Following detonation, trees were

photographed and bark removal and disruption

were assessed visually from the photos, and

by direct observation on June 20, 1978.

Helical wrapping of Scuf-Flex® was applied

without grooving or tamping to the lower boles

of six infested lodgepole pines at 20 cm spacing,

in the manner described. Following detonation,

results were evaluated, as described for the

experiment with vertical placement.

Fall treatment using helical placement of

detonating cord. In late October 1977, on about

5 hectares near Riske Creek, B.C. five groups

(blocks) of eight infested lodgepole pine trees

each were chosen to have similar diameter,

bark characteristics, attack intensity and

attack success. Within the blocks two trees

were assigned at random to each of four bark

disruption treatments. Treatments 1 to 3 cor-

responded to helical wrappings with 10 g/m

Scuf Flex® detonating cord at, 10, 20 and

30 cm spacings between wraps. Treatment 4,

no detonating cord, was the control. The helical

wrapping was made in the same manner as

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), DEc. 31, 1980

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J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), DEc. 31, 1980 7

TABLE 1. Mortality of mountain pine beetle broods in 3-cm-wide bark strips parallel to

detonating cord that was wrapped onto the bolt in a helical pattern with 20 cm spacings.

Mid-distance of strip No. brood Proportion

(X, ) from explosive Live dead Totals dead(p,) p; x Dead

(cm)

es) 0 110 110 1.000 110.000

4.5 11 118 129 Oo 107.938

8.5. 151 65 216 0.301 19.560

Control 88 16 104 0.154 26402

Totals 250 309 529 2392900

p= 309/559 = 0.5528 b702807

xo _ 239.960-170.807

0.5528 (1-0.5528)

described in Whitney et al. (1979). Trees were

sampled prior to treatment by removing one

20x30 cm bark sample from each of the NE

and SW aspects at the 1.35 m height and tally-

ing the live brood by stages of development.

Following brood sampling, branches were clear-

ed from each sample tree to a height of 3.3 m;

cord was wrapped onto the cleared bole and

detonated. The treated portions of the boles

were then individually covered with wire net-

ting cages to prevent woodpecker predation.

The cages were removed June 20, 1978, when

most of the broods had become pupae and

teneral adults. Post-treatment sampling was

done on the same aspects as the pre-treatment

sampling using the same size bark samples,

located 10 cm below the pre-treatment samples.

Brood counts from the two aspect-samples

taken per tree were combined.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Effect of distance from detonation. Upon fir-

ing, the detonating cord removed a strip of

bark 0.5 to 1.5 cm wide where it contacted the

bolt. A few larger pieces of bark were also

blasted off (Fig. 3A). Margins of the strip

were charred and tiny fragments of cord-casing

and bark were embedded in exposed sapwood.

Bark was loosened up to 1.5 cm from the edges

of the strip. Young adults and pupae adjacent

to the disrupted margin were physically injured

to varying degrees. Some were dismembered

(Fig. 3B) and others were moist as though

body fluids had issued from ruptured inter-

segmental membranes. Brood mortality de-

creased significantly (p < 0.01) with increasing

distance from the detonating cord (Table 1).

The slope of the regression of the proportion

dead (p) on an index of mid-distances

(zj = (x;/1.5)?) for bark strips one to three was

= 279.7 3 with J°df, Gp << O0.01)

significantly different (p < 0.01); from zero

(Cochran 1954), the equation being pj; =1.0674-

.0239z;. Assuming that the pj; for the control

(0.154) in Table 1 is a good estimate of natural

mortality, we can derive an estimate of the

maximum distance (x;,) of treatment effective-

ness (i.e., the distance beyond which the treat-

ment had no effect. on mortality) by substitut-

ing 0.154 for p; in the equation and solving for

xj. Thus, xm=9.3 cm. This finding indicates

that even if little or no bark was blasted off

by the detonating cord, some mortality could

be expected up to about 9 cm from the location

of the explosive.

The four bolts in the second experiment

had an average of 41.9% of the bark removed

by the 10 g/m explosive, and bark removal

ranged from 20% to 67.2% on individual bolts

(Column 3, Table 2). In addition to bark re-

moval, bark disruption in terms of loosening

and shedding of bark was also extensive. How-

ever, the area of loose bark on the treated

bolts was not determined. An average of 0.44

adults /100 cm? residual bark emerged from

the treated bolts, or 7.8% of the density that

had emerged from the control bolts (Columns 5

and 6, Table, 2). Based on total bark area of

the treated bolts, average survival was only

4.8% of that in the control bolts.

Survival in the treated bolts of the second

experiment was considerably lower than in the

aforementioned identically treated bolt of the

first experiment. The most probable reasons

for this difference are that the single treated

bolt contained broods on the verge of emer-

gence, and bark was dry, tightly appressed to

the surface, and very little was removed by the

treatment. This bolt was sampled 1 week after

treatment and contained a high proportion of

young adults (90%), whereas the four treated

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), DEc. 31, 1980

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a “nf

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Fig. 3. Destruction of late spring brood habitat and injury of young adult mountain pine beetles

caused by firing detonating cord wrapped on the bark surface. A. Strip of bark removed by

explosion exposed the sapwood directly beneath detonating cord, B. Mangled young adult

(arrow) near the margin of disrupted bark.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), DEc. 31, 1980

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10 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), DEc. 31, 1980

TABLE 3. Mortality of mountain pine beetle broods on the four sides of a 1.6 m lodgepole pine bolt

that had two 20-cm-long plastic charges detonated on opposite sides, 50 cm from bolt (Fig. 1).

No. brood Proportion

Treatment Live Dead Total dead (p;) p, x Dead

Facing explo- Side l 24 69 93 0.742 51.194

sive charge Side 2 1 4 5 0.800 3.200

90° from explo- Side 3 27 89 116 0.767. 68.284

sive charge Side 4 20 89 109 0.816 72.670

Control 65 33 98 0.337 TD S12

coe a eee

Totals 137 284 421 206 .460

p= 284/421=.6746 191.582

a/ Sides 1 + 2 and 3 + 4 designate respectively, all samples taken on the

two sides of the bolt facing the explosive charge and all samples taken on the

other two sides.

X” = 206.460 - 191.582 = 67.75 with 4 df (p < 0.01)

0.6764. (1-0.6764)

2 CGaithin sides) = 2222298 — 195-050 291.72 with 3 di(p > 00)

Oo Tee

bolts contained mostly large larvae and pupae

at the time of treatment and were kept in cages

for over a month before the broods matured

and emerged. In the first experiment, nearly

all adults appeared dead within about a 5-cm

bark strip adjacent to the detonating cord, but

their bodies were not broken. By the next day,

a high proportion of the beetles had revived

and moved about normally. However, the long-

term effects of this injury may have been fatal.

Effects of concussion. Average brood mor-

tality did not vary significantly within samples

on the four sides of the bolt treated with plastic

explosive on two sides. However, the chi-square

TABLE 4. Mortality of mountain pine beetle broods in bark samples located at different distances

from the center of explosive charge on a 1.6 m lodgepole pine bolt (Fig. 1).

Sample location

on bolt4

Mortality (%)

Control

a See Fig. l.

41.46

92.8

87.8

97.4

100.0

94.3

63.6

1822

oae7

b Each figure represents an average over the

four sides of the bolt.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), DEc. 31, 1980

TABLE 5. Size of bark islands and mountain pine beetle mortality on an infested lodgepole pine

bolt following detonation of 10 g/m detonating cord placed vertically and helically with 20 cm:

spacing.

Bark Island No. brood Proportion

area (cm2) Live Dead Totar dead (p;) p, x Dead

50.0 0 il 1 1.000 1.000

b23861 0 1 1 1.000 1.000

VO7 7 0 LI 11 1.000 11.000

22520 i 30 Sul 0.968 29.022

265.6 1 13 14 0.928 12.074

174321 Control) 25 28 53 O.o28 14.792

Total 27 84 111 68.896

p = 84/111=0.7567 63.568

= 684.896 - 63.568

0.75667 (1-0-7567)

Te Ganthen bark islands)

value within treatments and control was sig-

nificantly different (p < 0.01) (Table 3). These

results indicate that mortality in the control

was significantly less than treatment mortality

and that lethal concussion from the explosion

travelled around the entire circumference of

the bolt, within the section that was sampled.

The explosion did not remove bark, but split

it longitudinally 10-15 cm on both sides near

the center of the detonation. In the three

samples closest to the center of the explosion,

below and above center, the broods suffered

nearly complete mortality on all four sides

of the bolt (Table 4). Mortality declined rapidly

with distance beyond the third samples T3 - B3,

which were located 15 cm from the center of

the explosive charge, and it was not signifi-

cantly different from control mortality in the

samples located farthest (20-25 cm) from the

center of the explosion. Eighty-three percent

of the brood were young adults. Since the bolt

was sampled 12 days after treatment, the re-

sults reflect only direct mortality.

Effects of a mesh-work pattern of detonating

cord. Bark islands left following treatment

with military C-3 cord placed vertically and heli-

cally, ranged from 50.0 to 265.6 cm? (Table 5).

There was a significant difference in brood

mortality (p < 0.01) within bark islands and

control, but not within bark islands when

control was excluded. Thus mortality in the

control was significantly different from that

in the bark islands. There was an indication

that mortality was inversely related to the size

of the bark islands (pj vs. bark island size,

= 28.95 with 5 df (p<0.01).

_ 54.1040 - 54.0689- 1.04 with 4 df (p>0.05).

0.9655 (1-0.9655)

Table 5), but this relation was not tested be-

cause too few beetles were found in some bark

islands. Even though the largest bark island

was 66% of the area of the mesh formed by

the detonating cord, brood mortality was

severe. Seventy-seven percent of the brood

were young adults and there were too few

larvae and pupae for testing for differences

in mortality between them and the adults.

Spring treatment using vertical and _ helical

placement, grooving, tamping, and two cord

types. No-Flash-50® placed in vertical grooves

cut through the bark at 20 cm intervals around

the circumference of the lower boles of infested

lodgepole pine was just as effective in removing

and loosening bark as was Scuf-Flex® (Fig.

4 A, B). There was no observable flash on

detonation of the No-Flash-50® cord and _ it

was apparent that this cord would be advan-

tageous in high fire hazard conditions. Exten-

sive loosening and shedding of the bark by

either cord was apparent immediately following

detonation, but bark deterioration was even

more pronounced at the end of June, just a

few weeks before the beginning of beetle emer-

gence (Fig. 4 C). Exceptions were patches of

dry bark that had been worked by woodpeckers

prior to treatment, this bark adhered tightly

to the sapwood and the treatment caused little

bark loosening or removal. Ridgy bark and ex-

tensive scarring of the lower bole tended to

reduce the bark disruption. However, broods

were sparse in these bark types; therefore, it

was unlikely that they would contribute signifi-

cantly to population growth. On ungrooved

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), DEc. 31, 1980 '

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J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), Dec. 31, 1980 13

bark, the treatments caused considerably less

immediate bark disruption, but the end of June

(10 weeks later) much bark flaring and loosen-

ing was evident. Grooving of the bark, how-

ever, was definitely superior in causing

immediate extensive bark disruption and

subsequent bark deterioration through wea-

thering.

Tamping of Scuf-Flex® detonating cord into

grooves cut into the bark (Fig. 5A) increased

bark loosening and removal, compared to the

untamped cord placed into grooves, but tamp-

ing Scuf-Flex® on the surface of ungrooved

bark was much less effective than the tamped

or untamped cord placed in grooves (Figs.

4A, 5B). Tamping, however, required much

joint filler and was especially difficult and

time consuming to apply onto ungrooved

bark.

Fall treatment using helical placement of

detonating cord. Results of this experiment

are summarized in Table 6. There were no

statistically significant differences among

the treatments in average tree dbh, attack

density or fall brood density, nor was there

significant correlation between any of these

variables and spring brood density. Therefore,

in the analysis of variance of spring brood den-

sity (Table 7), these variables were not used

as co-variates. The 10-cm spacing treatment

was omitted because it caused complete mor-

tality. There were significant differences,

(p < 0.05) in live brood density among the

five blocks (groups of treated trees) as well as

between the pairs of trees to which the treat-

ments were applied within blocks. Since the

treated trees did not differ in dbh, attack

density or fall brood density, it is likely that

block to block differences in survival are due

to site- and tree-specific bark characteristics

that affected the sub-cortical brood habitat,

as well as the degree of bark disuption by the

treatments (Fig. 6).

There were significant differences (p < 0.01)

among all combinations of treatments for mean

spring brood density (Column 8, Table 6).

Mortality (Column 10, Table 6) decreased with

increased detonating cord spacing. However,

the fall to spring mortality shown in Column

10, Table 6, was caused by treatment effects

plus natural factors, the most important of

which was winter mortality. These two classes

of mortality factors are not mutually exclusive

and if we assume they acted independently

the probability of an individual beetle’s death

(pd) can be expressed in terms of the proba-

bility of death from the treatment (p;) and

natural factors (pn) as follows:

Pd = pt + Pn- pt xpn.

Solving for pt; pt = (Pq-Pn)/(1- pn). Estimates

of pd and the pp values are given by the mor-

tality figures in Column 10, Table 6, for control

and various spacing treatments, respectively.

The percent control figures owing to treatment

(Column 12, Table 6) were obtained by calculat-

ing pt from the above equation for each spacing

treatment and multiplying the result by 100.

Thus, even the 20 cm spacing of detonating

cord caused nearly complete mortality (98%)

acting alone but the estimated mortality caused

by 30 cm spacing was only about 70%. The

20 cm spacing of detonating cord caused similar

mortality as the same treatment applied to four

bolts in the preliminary experiment (Column

7, Table 2). These findings indicate that 10 g/m

Scuf-Flex® detonating cord, wrapped onto

the infested bole with 20 cm spacing between

wraps, is effective in destroying mountain pine

TABLE 7. Analysis of variance of the effects of detonating 10 g/m ‘Scuf-Flex’® detonating cord,

helically wrapped at 3 spacings on mountain pine beetle survival in lodgepole pine. Survival

was measured in spring following fall treatment.

Source of variation DE Sum squares Mean squares F-value

Blocks (areas) 4 3718.80 927.70 4.82%

Treatments 2 9518.70 4759.35 24 .69**

Sampling error 15 £3103'5/0 877.91 4.55%

Experimental error 8 1542.10 192677

Total 29

mortality.

Sp ~ O05.

**¥ p < 0.01.

Canadian Safety Fuses Ltd.

27,948.30

The 10-cm spacing treatment was omitted because it caused complete

14 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), Dec. 31, 1980

beetle broods in individual trees when applied

during the fall season.

In the field spring treatment with Scuf-

Flex® helically wrapped, at 20 cm spacing only

superficially scored the bark, removing none

(Fig. 7). This was in marked contrast to appli-

cat.on of the same treatment in the previous

fall, which ultimately resulted in extensive

bark loosening and shedding (Fig. 7B). The

main reason for this difference was that by

spring the dried bark of infested trees adhered

tighter to the wood than in the fall (Reid et al.

1967). Therefore, generally much more exten-

sive dark disruption would be required to cause

the same mortality as by fall treatment. In

the spring period, 10 g/m detonating cord,

placed in vertical grooves cut through the bark

at 20 cm intervals, will generally cause exten-

sive bark removal and loosening and probably

destroy directly a high proportion of the

broods. However, until a tool is developed to

groove bark and apply the tamping material,

or a self-tamped detonating cord is developed,

spring treatment will be limited by time-

consuming application.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Fleet Diving Unit (Pacific)

Canada Department of National Defense,

Victoria, B.C., for providing explosives, and

consultative, blasting and firing range services;

The British Columbia Ministry of Forests,

Riske Creek Ranger Station, for blasting ser-

vices and a stand-by fire supression capability;

and Canadian Industries Limited, Vancouver,

B.C., for providing ‘No-Flash-50® detonating

cord.

LITERATURE CITED

BERRYMAN, A.A. 1979. A synoptic model of lodgepole pine/mountain pine beetle interaction and

its potential application in forest management. In: Theory and Practice of Mountain Pine

Beetle Management in Lodgepole Pine Forests. Symposium Proceedings. Forest, Wildlife

and Range Experiment Station, University of Idaho, Moscow. April 25-27, 1978.

COCHRAN, W. G. 1954. Some methods for strengthening the common X? tests. Biometrics 10:

417-451.

EVENDEN, J. C., W. D. Bedard and G. R. Struble. 1943. The mountain pine beetle, an important

enemy of western pines. U.S.D.A. Circ. 664.

FRINGS, H. and M. Frings. 1967. Behavioral manipulation (Visual, mechanical and acoustical).

In: Pest Control, Biological, Physical and Selected Chemical Methods. W. W. Kilgore and

R. L. Doutt, Eds. Academic Press, NY pp.477.

GRAY, B. and J. Buchter. 1969. Termite eradication in Araucaria plantations in New Guinea.

Comm. For. Rev. 48: 201-207.

KARA, V. 1974. Injuries to Colonies from explosion (Apis mellifera), Vcelarstvi 27; 198.

KLEIN, W. H. 1979. Strategies and tactics for reducing losses in lodgepole pine to the mountain

pine beetle by chemical and mechanical means. In: Theory and practice of Mountain Pine

Beetle Management in Lodgepole Pine Forests. Symposium Proceedings. Forest, Wildlife

and Range Experiment Station, University of Idaho, Moscow. April 25-27, 1978.

KUROKI, T. and K. Kumanda. 1961. The effects of underwater explosions for the purpose of

killing predacious fishes. Bull. Fac. Fish. Hokkaido Univ. 12: 16-31.

QUAYLE, D. B. 1942. The use of dynamite in teredo control. Can. Fisheries Research Board.

Progr. Rept. Pacific Coast Stations. No. 51.

REID, R. W., H. S. Whitney and J. A. Watson. 1967. Reactions of lodgepole pine to attack by

Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins and blue stain fungi. Can. J. Bot. 45: 1115-1126.

TAYLOR, A. R. 1973. Ecological aspects of lightning in forests. Proc. Ann. Tall Timbers Fire

Ecol. Conf., Mar. 22-23, Tallahassee, Florida.

WHITNEY, H. S., L. Safranyik, S. J. Muraro and E. D. A. Dyer. 1979. In defence of the concept

of direct control of mountain pine beetle populations in lodgepole pine: Some modern ap-

proaches. In: Theory and Practice of Mountain Pine Beetle Management in Lodgepole Pine

Forests. Symposium Proceedings. Forest, Wildlife and Range Experiment Station, Univer-

sity of Idaho, Moscow. April 25-27, 1978.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), DEc. 31, 1980 15

CHEMICAL CONTROL OF BALSAM WOOLLY APHID

(HOMOPTERA: ADELGIDAE) ON SEEDLINGS OF

ABIES AMABILIS

GEORGE S. PURITCH', P.C. NIGAM? AND J. R. CARROW:

ABSTRACT

Assessment was made of the effectiveness of four insecticides for eradi-

cating Adelges piceae (Ratz.) from Abies seedlings. Seedlings with over-

wintering immature aphids were top dipped in the insecticides in fall or

spring (before or after cold storage), while those with mature, egg laying

aphids were treated in spring. The overwintering immature aphids ‘were

completely killed by all of the insecticides and it was recommended that

any one of the following treatments would provide sanitation of Abies from

aphid during this stage: 1.0% propoxur suspension; 2.0% carbaryl suspen-

sion; 2.0% Insecticidal Soap solution; 0.5% permethrin emulsion. Treat-

ment of mature aphids was less effective due to relative tolerance of bwa

eggs and it was recommended that treatment during this stage of the aphid

be avoided.

RESUME

On a évalue l’efficacite de quatre insecticides a éradiquer Adelges piceae

(Ratz) des semis d’Abies. Les semis chez lesquels s’étaient installés des

pucerons non adultes pour passer l’hiver ont éte trempes par le haut dans

les insecticides a l’automne ou au printemps (avant ou aprés entreposage a

froid), alors que ceux abritant des pucerons adultes aptes a la ponte ont

eté traités au printemps. Les pucerons non adultes ont tous été tués par

les insecticides, d’ou la recommandation que n’importe lequel des traite-

ments subsequents fournirait une protection 4 Abies contre les pucerons 4

ce stade de développement: suspension de propoxur a 1%, suspension de car-

baryl a 2%, solution de savon insecticide 4 2% et émultion de permithrine

a 0,5%. Le traitement s’est avéré moins efficace contre les pucerons adultes

et les auteurs ont recommandé d’éviter de les traiter 4 ce stade.

INTRODUCTION

Balsam woolly aphid (bwa), Adelges piceae

(Ratz.), is a serious pest of the true fir (Balch

1952) and has caused substantial damage to

fir stands in Washington, Oregon and British

Columbia (Vyse 1971). In response to the

potential threat caused by bwa to the Abies

inventory in the province, regulations were

enacted in 1966 which quarantined all nursery

stock, prohibited the seeding of any new Abies

spp. and restricted the movement of logs (B.C.

Order-In-Council 460, B.C. Reg. 58/66, 1966).

Recently these regulations were revised to per-

mit growers to plant Abies (B.C. Order-In-

Council 44, B.C. Reg 7/77, 1977). However,

in order to minimize the possibility of bwa

spread, it was specified that all growing stock

be treated with suitable insecticides prior to

transportation to the outplanting sites.

Chemical control studies of bwa (Hopewell

and Bryant 1966, 1969; Randall, Hopewell and

‘Environment Canada, Canadian Forestry Service, Pacific

Forest Research Centre, 506 West Burnside Road, Victoria,

British Columbia, V8Z 1M5.

*Canadian Forestry Service, Forest Pest Management In-

stitute, P.O. Box 490, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, P6Z 5M7.

*Ministry of Natural Resources, Forest Resources,

Parliament Buildings, Toronto, Ontario, M7A 1W3.

Nigam 1967; Nigam 1972; Puritch and Talmon

de l’Armee 1974; Puritch 1975) and other

adelgids (Campbell and Balderston 1972a,

1972b) indicate that there are several insec-

ticides which could be used to eliminate bwa

from Abies growing stock and provide a sanita-

tion treatment. Hopewell and Bryant (1966)

treated 10 m-high Abies balsamea (L.) Mill

with 8 insecticides in 16 different formulations

and reported that propoxur gave the highest

bwa mortality. They later reported that it

performed very well in a subsequent field trial

(Hopewell and Bryant 1969). Propoxur was also

rated as one of the best insecticides for ground

application of bwa in an assessment of 27

chemicals (Randall, Hopewell and Nigam 1967),

although it was ineffective in an aerial applica-

tion (Nigam 1972). Carbaryl, another carba-

mate, has been highly effective in controlling

two other adelgid species: Adelges abietis (1.)

(Campbell and Balderston 1972b) and Adelges

cooleyi (Gillette) (Campbell and Balderston

1972a). Besides these carbamates, certain fatty

acid derivatives have been found capable of con-

troling bwa. Puritch and Talmon de |’Armee

(1974) and Puritch (1975) reported that the 18-

carbon unsaturated fatty acids, primarily oleic,

16 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), DEc. 31, 1980

and their potassium salts were toxic to all in-

stars of the aphid, including the overwintering

neosistens. Recently, investigations have shown

that certain synthetic pyrethroids, including

permethrin, are effective against various aphid

species (Nigam, personal communication).

It was decided, therefore, to assess these

four promising insecticides; viz. propoxur, car-

baryl, insecticidal fatty acid salts (soaps) and

permethrin as treatments for sanitizing Abies

seedlings against bwa. Since seedlings are

usually transported in late fall or early spring,

after cold storage, assessments were made on

the overwintering populations in October or

April. In addition, treatments were applied

to mature, egg-laying aphids in the spring.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Abies amabilis (Dougl.) Forbes seedlings,

obtained from the Campbell River Nursery,

were used for all tests. Seedlings were 2-0 bare-

root or 1-0 container grown stock and were

potted at 4 or 5 per pot. Plants were main-

tained in the greenhouse during summer and in-

fested with bwa by laying eggs and crawlers

on top of the foliage.

A. Overwintering, Immature Aphids.

Treatments on the overwintering aphids were

applied either in the fall or spring (Table 1).

For the fall treatment, seedlings were uprooted

and bundled in groups of 20. Each bundle was

then top-dipped up to the roots in the designat-

ed insecticide, drained and allowed to dry at

room temperature for 24 h. Bundles were select-

ed at random for treatment and four bundles

were assigned to each concentration of each

treatment. The following treatments were

used: propoxur 4.0, 2.0, 1.0%; carbaryl, 6.0,

4.0, 2.0%; Safer’s Insecticidal Soap (Safer Agro

Chem Ltd.), 2.0% and permethrin, 2.0, 1.0, 0.5%.

Treatment Group

Ae Overwintering Immature Aphids

le. Fall treatment

2. Spring treatment

B. Mature Aphids

1. 1978

2.) 2979

Propoxur and carbaryl concentrations were

prepared from 70% and 85% wettable powders,

respectively, while Insecticide Soap concentra-

tions were prepared from 50% liquid concentrate

and permethrin from 50% emulsifiable concen-

trate. After treatment, bundles were temporari-

ly repotted until January when they, along with :

untreated seedlings reserved for spring treat-

ment, were uprooted, placed in B.C. Forest Ser-

vice boxes and stored at 0°C. In March 1977,

all seedlings were taken out of storage; the fall

seedlings were repotted at 4 per pot, while the

remaining untreated seedlings, were treated

with the same treatment-concentration as the

fall group (with the exception of propoxur) and

were also repotted. Propoxur concentrations, in

the spring, were prepared from 12.8% emulsi-

fiable concentrate rather than the wettable pow-

der and were applied at 4% and at 1.75 and

0.93% rather than 2.0 and 1.0%.

Assessment of aphid populations was carried

out in April (Table 1). Aphid mortality was

assessed by recording the number of living and

dead aphids present on the terminal bud, one

lateral bud and one node from two seedlings

selected at random from each pot. For each

treatment-concentration, total number of seed-

lings assessed varied from-36 to 46 and the

number of aphids averaged 563.

B. Mature Aphids

Treatments were applied to aphids in the egg

laying stage during March of 1978 and 1979

(Table 1). Concentrations tested are listed in

Table 2, with the 1979 treatments marked with

an asterisk. In these tests, seedlings were

planted at 4 per pot and treatments were ap-

plied by inverting the pots and top dipping

the seedlings up to the root collar. Sixteen pots

(64 seedlings) were used per treatment concen-

tration and 48 pots were used as water-treated

Time of Time of

Treatment Assessment

October 1976 April 1977

March 1977 April 1977

March 1978 April 1978

March 1979 April 1979

TABLE 1. Schedule of insecticide treatment for balsam woolly aphid control.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), DEc. 31, 1980 17

checks. Assessment of aphid populations was RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

done in April, a month after treatment, in A. Overwintering, Immature Aphids

the manner previously described, on half (32) All concentrations in all treatments in the

of all treated seedlings. Egg numbers were fall and spring groups gave total mortality of

recorded as high ( > 20) medium (10 to 20) or ' the overwintering aphids. These aphids were

low (1 to 10) for each seedling. Egg viability primarily in the neosistens stage, although a

was assessed by collecting the eggs and allow- few had developed as far as 2nd or 3rd instars

ing them to hatch on filter paper in pertidishes. prior to the spring treatment. With the excep-

Aphid mortality in all tests was corrected ac- tion of the 4% propoxur prepared from the

cording to Abbott’s formula (Abbott 1925). emulsifiable concentrate, which caused slight

Insecticide Concentration (%) Number of Aphids Mortality (%) Corrected Amo unt

(All Instars) v4 Mortality2 of

ALIVE DEAD Eggs

Control (H20) 1 437 52 10.6 H3

2 499 45 8.3 H

3 472 50 9.6 H

4xl 408 48 10.5 16

5% 226 20 8.1 L

6* 363 31 7.9 i

Propoxur 0.50 0 521 100.0 L(-)4

0.25 0 486 100.0 L

0. 10* 0 466 100.0 ib

0.025 226 331 55.4 H

0.025* 23 497 94.9 L

0.01% 281 347 48.9 L

Carbaryl 1.00 5 Sai, 99.4 L(-)

0.50 10 560 98.1 L

0.05 290 212 35.8 M

0.05* 90 141 Di/ieul L

0.025% 211 169 39.0 6

0.01* 467 51 0.0 jb

Insecticidal Soap 2.00 33 384 90.7 0

1.50 5 392 98.6 0

1.00 12 499 97.4 0

1.00* 200 562 Vile i

0.50% 295 27 42.7 M

0.10% 646 267 Didier: H

Permethrin 0.25 0 560 100.0 L(-)

0.10 0 532 100.0 L

0.01 12 436 97.0 L

0.01% 64 368 83.7 L

0.005* 61 296 Sle.2 Jb

0.0025* 154 155 45.3 1:

fra

*Denotes 1979 treatment; no asterisk denotes 1978 treatment.

Mortality corrected according to Abbott's formula (Abbott 1925).

P P

re = a Pp. * 100 where Py = corrected mortality, P,. = control mortality

c (average control mortality used in calculation) and P, =

observed mortality.

ies)

L = low egg numbers (1 to 10), M = medium egg numbers (10 to 20) and H = high egg

numbers (>20).

(-) eggs nonviable when tested, absence of mark indicates eggs viable when tested.

TABLE 2. Effect of insecticidal application on mortality of balsam woolly aphids infesting

Abies amabilis seedlings. Aphids were treated during the adult, egg laying stage in spring.

18 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), DEc. 31, 1980

foliar damage, there was no evidence of phyto-

toxicity. Controls of the fall and spring groups

had 68 and 63% aphid mortality, a situation

that may have resulted from the storage condi-

tions and frequent repotting of the seedlings.

Thus all four insecticides could provide a suit-

able sanitizing treatment if applied to bwa dur-

ing its immature, overwintering stage, either

before or after cold storage. This stage mainly

occurs during December to February in south-

western British Columbia (McMullen and

Skovsgaard 1972).

B. Mature Aphids

Effects of the various concentrations of the

four insecticides tested are summarized in

Table 2. Only 0.25% permethrin and 0.5% pro-

poxur gave 100% aphid mortality and killed all

the eggs. Lower concentrations of these com-

pounds, viz. 0.1% permethrin and 0.25 and

0.1% propoxur, gave 100% aphid mortality but

left viable eggs. No eggs were observed in three

of the higher concentrations of Insecticidal

Soap. Since this insecticide is not completely

ovicidal at these concentrations (Puritch 1975),

the eggs possibly hatched and developed into

neosistens in the interval between treatment

and assessment. A similar situation likely

occurred in the lower concentrations of the

other three insecticides, thereby decreasing

the true percentage mortality by 1 or 2 points.

It should be noted that in a previous test

using a portable spraying chamber, applica-

tion of 5% propoxur at a dosage rate of 11.23

1/ha caused 61% mortality to eggs, while caus-

ing 100% mortality to adult aphids (Nigam,

unpublished results). The difference between

these and present results may be due to differ-

ences in spraying and dipping techniques.

However, they indicate the relative tolerance of

eggs to insecticidal treatment compared to

aphids. Therefore, the safest time to treat

seedlings for bwa would be during the over-

wintering stages when no eggs are present.

If, owing to some unforeseen reason, spraying

at this time cannot take place, treatments

should be applied 14 days apart to bracket the

egg hatching stage of 12 days (Atkins 1972).

CONCLUSIONS

It is recommended, on the basis of these

results, that sanitization of Abies spp. nursery

stock from bwa take place by dipping seedlings

during the overwintering stage of the aphid

with any one of the following treatments:

1. 1.0% propoxur suspension

2. 2.0% carbaryl suspension

3. 2.0% Insecticidal Soap solution

4. 0.5% permethrin emulsion

Treatment during the summer, when bwa

eggs are present, should be avoided wherever

possible, but if essential, should be applied at

least twice over a 2-week period.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors thank Messrs R. Betts and M.

Talmon de |’Armee for their technical assist-

ance.

REFERENCES

Abbott, W. S. 1925. A method of computing the effectiveness of an insecticide. J. Econ. Ent. 18:

265-267.

Atkins, M. D. 1972. Developmental variability among laboratory reared balsam woolly aphid

(Hemiptera: Chermidae). Can. Ent. 104‘: 203-208.

Balch, R. E. 1952. Studies of the balsam woolly aphid, Adelges piceae (Ratz.) and its effects on

balsam fir, Abies balsamea (L.). Mill. Can. Dept. Agric. Publ. 867. Ottawa.

Campbell, R. L., and C. P. Balderston. 1972a. Insecticidal control of Adelges cooleyi on Douglas-

fir in Ohio, with notes on biology. J. Econ. Ent. 65: 912-914.

Campbell, R. L., and C. P. Balderston. 1972b. Insecticidal control of eastern spruce gall aphid

during autumn in Ohio. J. Econ. Ent. 65: 1745-1746.

Hopewell, W. W., and D. G. Bryant. 1966. Tests of various insecticides for chemical control of the

balsam woolly aphid in Newfoundland, 1965. Dept. Forestry, Bi-Mon. Prog. Rept. 22( (2): 1.

Hopewell, W. W., and D. G. Bryant. 1969. Chemical control of Adelges piceae (Homoptera:

Adelgidae) in Newfoundland, 1967. Can. Ent. 101: 1112-1114.

McMullen, L. H. and J. P. Skovsaard. 1972. Seasonal history of the balsam woolly aphid in coastal

British Columbia. J. Ent. Soc. B.C. 69: 33-40.

Nigam, P. C. 1972. Summary of toxicity of insecticides and chemical control studies against bal-

sam woolly aphid. Environ. Can., Can. For. Serv. CCRI Inf. Rpt. CC-X-26 pp. 7.

Puritch, G. S. 1975. The toxic effects of fatty acids and their salts on the balsam woolly aphid.

Can. J. For. Res. 5: 515-522.

Puritch, G. S., and M. Talmon de l’Armee. 1974. Biocidal effect of fatty acids and soaps on the

balsam woolly aphid. Environ. Can., Can. For. Serv. Bi-mon. Res. Notes 30: 35-36.

Randall, A. P., W. W. Hopewell, and P. C. Nigam. 1967. Chemical control studies on the balsam

woolly aphid (Adelges piceae (Ratz.)). Bi-mon. Res. Notes Dep. For. Rural Dev. 23: 18-19.

Vyse, A. H. 1971. Balsam woolly aphid, a potential threat to the B.C. forests. Can. For. Serv.

P.F.R.C. Inf. Rep. BC-X-61.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), DEc. 31, 1980 19

BOOK REVIEW

Kono, T., and C. S. Papp. 1977. Handbook of Agricultural Pests, Sacramento, California

Dept. of Food and Agriculture. 205 pp., paperback.

This is not a Handbuch in the traditional Ger-

man sense, a compendium, leather bound in 14

volumes. It is a handbook in the Anglo-Saxon

sense, one that comes readily to hand, pocket-

sized, usable at anytime, in any place. It is

an admirable little book with a forword by G. T.

Okumura of the California Dept. of Food and

Agriculture, who points out that it is intended

to help agriculturists, farm advisors, students,

and pest identifiers. It is a refinement of a man-

ual prepared in 1976 for survey biologists tak-

ing a one-day training course, covering corn,

alfalfa, clovers, barley, oats, rye, wheat, soy-

bean, citrus and home gardens in the western

U.S. and Hawaii. Since many of the pests are

widespread, the book can help identifiers else-

where. There is an impressive list of acknow-

ledgements which includes the names of 42

scientists from several countries. The indexes

list common names grouped by types and scien-

tific names alphabetically, and the all-import-

ant illustrations are well drawn and printed,

with a few exceptions, of good, useful size.

Wherever possible the authors put the descrip-

tions, often very short, on the same or the fac-

ing page with the appropriate illustration. This

wastes a little paper but makes the book more

usable. For the insects and mites there are very

brief, introductory sections on life-cycles, char-

acteristics, importance, collecting, mounting,

and identifying.

Seven aphids are listed with their recent

changes of names but wisely they are discussed

under the old names. The aphids are first keyed

in simplified form into four subfamilies, as in

M. A. Palmer’s Aphids of the Rocky Mountain

Region, but only the 13 genera of Aphidinae

and 2 of Eriostomatinae are dealt with in

detail. Where necessary there are sub-keys to

viviparous females, alate and _ apterous.

Twenty-nine references are cited. A single key

with 26 references is enough for the 21 spp. of

thrips but the 27 spp. of mites are less straight-

forward, covering 5 spp. of Eriophyoids, 1

Eupodid, 1 Acarid, 2 Tenupalpids, and 18

Tetranychids, with 19 references. Ten slugs

and 12 snails are keyed, drawn, and described,

with instructions for preservation and 26

references.

There is no indication of price for non-

Californians.

H. R. MacCarthy

Simon Fraser University

20 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), Dec. 31, 1980

SURVEY USING PHEROMONE TRAPS, OF GNA THOTRICHUS

SULCATUS (COL: SCOLYTIDAE) IN TWO VANCOUVER ISLAND

DRYLAND SORTING AREAS

J. A. MCLEAN

Faculty of Forestry,

University of British Columbia,

Vancouver, B.C.

ABSTRACT

Forty-eight traps baited with the aggregation pheromone, sulcatol, were

placed in two dryland sorting areas on Vancouver Island, B.C. during 1977.

A late summer peak flight of the ambrosia beetle Gnathotrichus sulcatus,

was recorded in both areas. Trap sites with the greatest catches of G. sul-

catus showed where suppression traps would be most effective.

An ambrosia beetle Gnathotrichus sulcatus

(LeConte), is one of three major ambrosia

beetle species in British Columbia. It normally

attacks recently downed conifers in Pacific

Northwest forests (Furniss and Carolin 1977),

but may also attack green lumber and can com-

plete its life cycle therein (McLean and Borden

1975a). G. sulcatus has been intercepted in ex-

port markets (Milligan 1970; Bain 1974), and

the presence of boring beetles in export ship-

ments of lumber can result in costly quarantine

actions (Graham and Boyes 1950).

McBride (1950) showed that even a light am-

brosia beetle attack on better grade logs could

cause a considerable loss in lumber values. A

further study by McBride and Kinghorn (1960)

showed that the average loss was $5.25 per M

fbm. Updating this figure to January 1, 1978

values, Dobie (1978) estimated that moderate

attack could cause degrade of $5.87 per M

fom (Fir Grade 3 log), to $33.87 per M fbm

(Fir Grade 2 log). Degrade and manufacturing

losses in the plywood industry as a conse-

quence of the activity of ambrosia beetles, have

not been well quantified but are nonetheless

serious.

When G. sulcatus males attack logs they pro-

duce the aggregation pheromone, sulcatol (6-

methyl-5-hepten-2-ol), (Borden and Stokkink

1973; Byrne et al. 1974). This pheromone has

since been used for surveying and suppressing

pest populations in the large Chemainus saw-

mill (McLean and Borden 1975b, 1977, 1979).

In 1977, a fall survey of four MacMillan Bloedel

Ltd. dryland sorting areas (DLS) on Vancouver

Island, which regularly supply logs to the

Chemainus sawmill showed that populations of

G. sulcatus were present in all the areas. The

greatest numbers per trap-day were found at

the Shawnigan DLS. Relatively high catches

were also recorded at Eve River, Port McNeil

and Northwest Bay (Fig. 1). Catches at the

Chemainus sawmill during the same period

were also high (McLean 1980). The objective of

this study was to determine the seasonal and

spatial occurrence of G. sulcatus in the Shawni-

gan and Port McNeil DLS.

METHODS

The survey traps, constructed by company

personnel, were panels of fibreglass insect

screening, 90 x 66 cm, attached top and bottom

to 3 x 2 cm lumber, each supported by a dowel

2.5 cm diam. and 1.3 m long, inserted into a

25 cm long iron waterpipe driven into the

ground. The screening was coated on both sides

with Stikem Special® . Sulcatol was released

from an open plastic bottle taped to the sup-

port doweling.

The traps were set out at 28 locations in the

Shawnigan DLS and at 19 in the Port McNeil

DLS, on June 1 and 2, 1978, respectively. Traps

were cleared of ambrosia beetles about every 2

weeks and repaired or replaced when necessary.

The sulcatol was renewed at the same time. Col-

lections at Port McNeil were concluded on

September 30 and at Shawnigan on October

31. The beetles were counted and identified

to species and sex in the laboratory.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

More than 33,000 G. sulcatus were captured

at the Port McNeil DLS and over 17,000 at the

Shawnigan DLS. The greatest catches at Port

McNeil DLS were in late August (13,526) and

early September (10,204), and at Shawnigan

DLS in mid-September (10,426). The traps were

set out too late to disclose the date and magni-

tude of the spring flight (Prebble and Graham

1957; McLean and Borden 1975b, 1977, 1979).

The highest catches at Port McNeil DLS

were from trap sites 1, 7, 8 and 16. (Fig 2).

When the catch for each trap was expressed

as a percentage of the total for each collecting

period, traps 7 and 8 were seen to have cap-

tured a significantly greater proportion of

beetles than other traps (Scheffe’s Test,

P< 0.05). Traps 7 and 8 were close to a pile of

mixed cull logs and slabs which may have

already been infested by G. sulcatus and so

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), DEc. 31, 1980 21

Figure 1: Map of Vancouver Island showing locations of the Chemainus sawmill and dryland sort-

ing areas surveyed with sulcatol-baited traps in the fall of 1977. PM = Port McNeil, ER =

Eve River, NW = Northwest Bay and SL = Shawnigan.

produced additional brood beetles. Tree species

in the pile included western hemlock, amabilis

fir, western red cedar and yellow cedar (G.

Farris', pers. com.). Although the DLS was

resurfaced during mid-August and there were

few logs in the sort area, 1100 beetles were

captured, a similar number to catches in pre-

vious weeks. A check of the sex ratio of 100

beetles from each of the forest and DLS sides

of traps 4 and 7 in the September 1 and 2 collec-

tion, showed the same proportion of males and

females on each side of the trap indicating that

there were no sex-related differences between

the two populations of different origins of

the G. sulcatus. The ratios of 9:2for traps 4

and 7 were 1.75 and 1.15 respectively. Female

G. sulcatus are more responsive to sulcatol

‘/Port McNeil Division, MacMillan Bloedel Ltd.

than the males (Borden and Stokkink 1973)

so that the higher proportion of females on

trap 4 may indicate that it was further from the

source of beetles than trap 7.

At the Shawnigan DLS, many more G. sul-

catus were captured on the traps around the

southwest margin than in other areas (Fig. 3).

Traps 18-21 captured 8487 beetles, or about

half of the total. No statistical analysis of the

data was made because of many missing data

resulting from accidental destruction of some

traps. The southwest margin would be the

most shaded during the late afternoon when

G. sulcatus is most active (Rudinsky and

Daterman 1964). G. sulcatus flies when tem-

peratures are above 25°C and light intensities

are below 2000 fc (Rudinsky and Schneider

1969). The physical parameters of this part of

22 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), DEc. 31, 1980

No.

BEETLES

(OOOs)

@— trap positions

perimeter of dry land sorting area

Figure 2: Map of the Port McNeil dryland sorting area (DLS) showing location of 19 sulcatol-

baited sticky traps. Height of histogram indicates total catch of G. sulcatus at each trap

from June 2 to September 30, 1978.

the margin at flight time may have contributed

to the increased numbers of beetles captured.

The traps confirmed the occurrence of the

late summer peak flight and identified sites of

major G. sulcatus activity around two dryland

sorting areas. Suppression traps (McLean and

Borden 1979) could be set out on these sites to

intercept flying G. sulcatus and so protect logs

in the DLS and reduce the numbers of G. sul-

catus being transported to the sawmill. A

reduced number of survey traps should also be

operated to check whether the population of

G. sulcatus populations are similarly distri-

buted from year to year.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I acknowledge with thanks the help and

encouragement of: G. Westarp, Regional

Forester, MacMillan Bloedel Ltd., Nanaimo;

G. Farris, R. Cavill, A. Koch, J. Leesing, Port

McNeil Division; J. Lavis, E. Stokkink, Shaw-

nigan Division; and J. Zanuncio, U.B.C. I

thank J. H. Borden and P. Hall for their com-

ments on the manuscript.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), DEc. 31, 1980 23

. 4

- : PAVED SORTING 4

24 LQ Be 3

: AR WLP & No.

as NSE BEETLES >

NZ (000’s)

50 m

@ trap position

eee es ae a ---- perimeter of dry land

L 2 ae eee 27 sorting area

17 _ a @

Figure 3: Map of the Shawnigan dryland sorting area (DLS) showing location of 28 sulcatol-

baited sticky traps. Height of histogram indicates total catch of G. sulcatus at each trap,

from June 1 to October 31, 1978.

REFERENCES

Bain, J. 1974. Overseas wood- and bark-boring insects intercepted in New Zealand ports. N.Z.

For. Serv. Tech. Pap. No. 61. 24 pp.

Borden, J. H. and E. Stokkink. 1973. Laboratory investigation of secondary attraction in

Gnathotrichus sulcatus (Coleoptera: Scolytidae). Can. J. Zool. 51: 469-73.

Byrne, K. J.. A. A. Swigar, R. M. Silverstein, J. H. Borden, and E. Stokkink. 1974. Sulcatol;

population aggregation pheromone in the scolytid beetle, Gnathotrichus sulcatus. J. Insect

Physiol. 20: 1895-1900.

Dobie, J. 1978. Ambrosia beetles have expensive tastes. Can. For. Serv. Report BC-P-24. 5 pp.

Furniss, R. L., and V. M. Carolin. 1977. Western Forest Insects. U.S.D.A. Misc. Publ. 1339.

651 pp.

Graham, K., and E. C. Boyes. 1950. Pinworms in lumber. B.C. Lumberman 35 (8):42, 106.

McBride, C. F. 1950. The effect of ambrosia beetle damage upon lumber value. B.C. Lumberman,

35(9):46-8, 122-8.

McBride, C. F. and J. M. Kinghorn. 1960. Lumber degrade caused by ambrosia beetles. B.C. Lum-

berman, 44(7):40-52.

McLean, J. A. 1980. Tracing the origins of a sawmill population of an ambrosia beetle, Gnatho-

trichus sulcatus, with X-ray energy spectrometry. Proc. I.U.F.R.O. Conf. Dispersal of

Forest Insects: Evaluation, theory and management implications. Idaho, 1979. (in press).

McLean, J. A. and J. H. Borden. 1975a. Gnathotrichus sulcatus attack and breeding in freshly-

sawn lumber. J. Econ. Ent. 68:605-6.

24 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), Dec. 31, 1980

1975b. Survey for Gnathotrichus sulcatus (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) in a commercial sawmill

with the pheromone, sulcatol. Can. J. For. Res. 5:586-91.

1977. Suppression of Gnathotrichus sulcatus with sulcatol-baited traps in a commercial

sawmill and notes of the occurrence of G. retusus and Trypodendron lineatum. Can. J. For.

Res. 7:348-56.

___ 1979. An operational pheromone-based program for an ambrosia beetle, Gnathotrichus

sulcatus, in a commercial sawmill. J. Econ. Ent. 72: 165-72.

Milligan, R. H. 1970. Overseas wood- and bark-boring insects intercepted at New Zealand ports.

N.Z. For. Serv. Tech. Pap. 57. 80 pp.

Prebble, M. L. and K. Graham. 1957. Studies of attack by ambrosia beetles in softwood logs on

Vancouver Island, British Columbia. For. Sci. 3: 90-112.

Rudinsky, J. A. and G.E. Daterman. 1964. Field studies on flight patterns and olfactory responses

of ambrosia beetles in Douglas-fir forests of western Oregon. Can. Ent. 96: 1339-52.

Rudinsky, J. A. and I. Schneider. 1969. Effects of light intensity on the flight pattern of two

Gnathotrichus (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) species. Can. Ent. 101:1248-55.

TWO SPECIES OF LEPIDOPTERA ASSOCIATED WITH

SEMI-AQUATIC UMBELLIFERAE, AND THEIR PARASITES,

IN BRITISH COLUMBIA

A survey of defoliators of aquatic and semi-

aquatic plants was made as part of a larger

study of the possible effects plants might have

on the development and survival of mosquito

larvae. The family Umbelliferae was of interest

because of the known toxic semi-aquatic mem-

bers (e.g. water hemlock) and _ because

members are commercial crops. It was thought

possible that shared species of defoliators and

their associated parasites might be found.

Larval Lepidoptera were collected in Richmond

and Pitt Meadows, B.C. from Heracleum lana-

tum Michx., cow parsnip, and Cicuta douglasii

(DC.) Coult. and Rose, water hemlock, which is

toxic to animals. The larvae were reared in

the laboratory. Depressaria pastinacella

(Duponchel) was reared from cow parsnip and

D. angustati Clke. from water hemlock. It ap-

pears that this is a new host record for D. an-

gustati as the only literature reference reports

that the type specimens were taken from

Lomatium angustatum (Coult. and Rose)

(Clark, 1941, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 90:33).

No parasites emerged from the 200 larvae of

D. pastinacella that were reared. This is un-

fortunate as the species can cause economic

damage to parsnip and carrot seed crops. Two

species of parasites (6 specimens of Onco-

phanes betulae Mues. from a single larva and

1 Phaeogenes sp. from a second larva) emerged

from the 35 D. angustati larvae that were

laboratory reared. — N D. P. Angerilli, Pest-

ology Centre, Simon Fraser University, Burn-

aby, B.C.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), Dec. 31, 1980 25

FECUNDITY OF THE BLACK VINE WEEVIL, OTIORHYNCHUS

SULCATUS (COLEOPTERA:CURCULIONIDAE), FED

FOLIAGE FROM SOME CURRENT CULTIVARS AND

ADVANCED SELECTIONS OF STRAWBERRY IN

BRITISH COLUMBIA

W. T. CRAM

Agriculture Canada Research Station

6660 N.W. Marine Drive, Vancouver, B.C. V6T 1X2

ABSTRACT

Adults of the black vine weevil, Otiorhynchus sulcatus (F.), kept indivi-

dually in plastic vials in the laboratory were fed foliage picked from straw-

berry cultivars or selections in one field of the British Columbia strawberry

breeding program at Abbotsford. The source of foliage had no significant in-

fluence of preoviposition period, weight gain, or amount of foliage con-

sumed. However, there were significant differences in the number of eggs

laid during a ten-week period and in the number of larvae that hatched. The

fewest eggs were laid and larvae hatched when weevils fed on the new culti-

var Tyee and the selection BC 73-9-79. The other foliage sources in order of

increasing numbers of eggs were BC 70-22-82, Totem, BC 69-5-34, Shuksan,

and BC 70-20R-15.

INTRODUCTION

In earlier laboratory studies the fecundity of

the black vine weevil, Otiorhynchus sulcatus

(F.), was affected when adults were fed on

different cultivars of highbush blueberry (Cram

1970). This paper reports the results from feed-

ing adult O. sulcatus in the laboratory on ex-

cised foliage of some current cultivars and

advanced selections from the British Columbia

strawberry breeding program at Abbotsford.

METHODS

Newly emerged adults of O. sulcatus were

collected from a grower’s field of Totem straw-

berries at Abbotsford on June 14, 1978. Ninety-

one were selected for uniformity of weight

and these were judged to be recently emerged

from the soil on the basis of the softness and

light brown colour of their sterna. Fresh foliage

was picked from plants grown in replicated

trials of cultivars and advanced selections in

the B.C. strawberry breeding program at

Abbotsford and kept overnight in closed plastic

bags in a refrigerator. One leaflet was fed to

each weevil in 16-dram plastic snap-cap pill

vials (35-80 mm). There were 13 replicates for

each of 3 cultivars and 4 advanced selections.

Fresh foliage was picked and fed weekly when

clean vials were also provided. The trays of

vials were kept at room temperature in the

laboratory. The consumption of leaf tissue was

recorded weekly by overlaying the old foliage

on a grid and counting the number of 5 x 5 mm

squares judged to be consumed. All weevils

were weighed after 3 weeks and individual

daily records were kept on the preoviposition

periods. After oviposition began, the eggs were

counted weekly at least 3 days and at most 10

days after they were laid to determine the

viability of the eggs by the number that dark-

ened (Cram and Pearson 1965). In the last 4

weeks the eggs were allowed to hatch and both

eggs and larvae were counted.

RESULTS

All results are summarized in Table 1. There

was no significant difference in weight gain dur-

ing the first 3 weeks nor in the preoviposition

periods or leaf area consumed. There were

significant differences in total and brown viable

eggs and also in the number of larvae in the last

4 weeks. When fed the newly named cultivar,

Tyee (Daubeny 1980), the weevils showed a

significant reduction in fecundity and egg

viability over those fed the standard cultivars,

Totem and Shuksan. The selection BC 73-9-79

also resulted in low egg viability. On the selec-

tion BC 70-20R-15 weevils produced twice

the fecundity and 4 times the larvae in the last

4 weeks than they did on Tyee. These results

indicate that for the black vine weevil there

are significant differences in the nutritional

status of foliage from various strawberry cul-

tivars and selections.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Dr. H. A. Daubeny, plant breeder, kindly

allowed samples of foliage to be picked from his

plots and Mr. Keith Friedman, summer student

assistant, recorded much of the data.

26 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), Dec. 31, 1980

TABLE 1. Means of weight gains in first 3 weeks, preoviposition periods, leaf areas consumed,

all eggs and brown eggs laid, larvae hatched in the last 4 weeks and survivors of 13 O. sulcatus

adults fed individually in the laboratory on excised leaflets of 3 cultivars and 4 selections of

strawberry! from June 14 to September 26 in 1978.

Means of

Leaf Larvae No. of

Cultivar 3-wk wt. Preov. area All Brown last survivors

or gain period consumed eggs eggs 4 wks OL

selection mg days cm2 no « no. no. adults

Tyee L5el 43 30 3il ‘a 187 a 4la 8

BC 73-9-79 11.9 45 32 392 ab 168 a 33a 10

BC 70-22-82 60 48 31 459 abc 298 ab 98 b eS

Totem sale 40 Seb 496 bcd 310 ab Li be 9

BC 69-5-34 TE Sia2 41 Sul 558 cd 871 be 109 be 13

Shuksan Nyse 43 32 602 cd 354 be 124 be 8

BC 70-20R-15 13.4 43 Sul 640 d A538 aC Lis? axe: 12

1/ Foliage was obtained from plants grown at Abbotsford, B.C. in the Buc:

Strawberry breeding program.

2/ Means in the same column followed by the same letter are not significantly

different at P = ..05.

; REFERENCES

Cram, W. T. 1970. Unacceptability of cultivars of highbush blueberry by adult black vine weevils

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae). J. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia 67:3-6.

Cram, W. T. and W. D. Pearson. 1965. Fecundity of the black vine weevil, Brachyrhinus sulcatus

(F.), fed on foliage of blueberry, cranberry and weeds from peat bogs. Proc. Entomol. Soc.

Brit. Columbia 62:25-27.

Daubeny, H. A. 1980. Tyee strawberry. Can. J. Plant Sci. 60:743-746.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), DEc. 31, 1980 27

SUSCEPTIBILITY OF CRABAPPLE CULTIVARS TO ATTACK

BY THE CODLING MOTH

JOAN COSSENTINE AND HAROLD MADSEN!

Agriculture Canada, Research Station

Summerland, British Columbia

ABSTRACT

A repository block of ornamental crabapples containing 87 cultivars was

left unsprayed and evaluated for resistance to the colding moth, Laspeyresia

pomonella (L.). Although there were considerable differences in suscepti-

bility, none of the cultivars was resistant to codling moth attack. A number

of trees escaped injury from the first generation, but all showed entries

from the second generation in August.

INTRODUCTION

Crabapples have long been known as hosts

of the codling moth, Laspeyresia pomonella

(L.) (Buckhurst 1921; Quist and Ward 1976).

Recent developments in codling moth control

by the sterility method and the possibility of

eradication (Proverbs 1971) makes reinfesta-

tion from hosts such as crabapples an impor-

tant factor since they are commonly used on

streets and in gardens as ornamentals. A crab-

apple cultivar resistant to codling moth would

be desirable as an ornamental in apple produc-

ing areas and would greatly reduce an im-

portant source of infestation. Cutwright and

Morrison (1935) have discussed varietal sus-

ceptibility of apples to codling moth and de

Sarasola (1976) reported an apple cultivar,

resistant to codling moth, which was developed

from crabapple.

The Research Station, Summerland, main-

tains a crabapple repository containing 87

cultivars and this paper reports on their sus-

ceptibility to attack by the codling moth.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The crabapple cultivar orchard is a 2.4 m x

2.4 m planting with 87 cultivars randomly dis-

tributed. One side adjoins a block of young

apple trees and the other three sides face open

fields. The orchard receives an annual routine

codling moth spray, but no sprays were applied

in 1979. Two sex pheromone traps were in-

stalled in the orchard to monitor codling moth

populations, and moths were recorded and re-

moved from the traps weekly. During the sea-

son, a total of 62 first generation males and

85 second generation males were captured.

This level was considered high enough to en-

sure an infestation.

It was recognized from the outset that there

would be differences in susceptibility to codling

moth attack by the different cultivars due to

a number of factors. These included time and

density of fruit set, fruit size, relative firmness

‘Contribution No. 508, Summerland Research Station.

of fruit, fruit color, and thickness of epidermis.

Since we were looking for complete resistance

to codling moth, any cultivar that showed in-

fested fruit from either first or second genera-

tion codling moth was rated as susceptible. It

was not possible to secure data on relative sus-

ceptibility of the cultivars because each culti-

var was represented by only one tree, conse-

quently there were no replicates. As the

crabapple fruits were either purple or green, the

role of these two colors in susceptibility was

also evaluated.

The trees were carefully examined for codling

moth entries at 2 periods during the season,

the first, after 10 July for first generation

entries and the second, after 20 August for

second generation entries. The number of fruit

per tree were quite variable, therefore we

searched for entries for 30 minutes on each tree,

from the ground and from a ladder. The number

of entries were recorded for each cultivar and a

sample of infested fruit was collected from each

tree and dissected to ensure that codling moth

larvae were present in the infested crabapples.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The crabapple cultivars and the number of

codling moth entries are summarized in Table

1. None of the 87 cultivars showed resistance

to codling moth although there was consider-

able variation in the number of entries. A few

of the cultivars failed to set fruit and two trees

(M. Scheideckeri and Red Jade) showed no lar-

val entries, but had been damaged by cultivat-

ing equipment and the tree limbs were prostate

on the ground. Several cultivars had no first

brood entries and most of these had either

very small fruit or very hard fruit. None of the

cultivars escaped injury from the _ second

generation.

Color did not play a role in susceptibility,

as entries in red-purple cultivars were not

significantly different at the 5 percent level

from green varieties (one-tail T test P < 0.05).

Since none of 87 crabapple cultivars was

resistant to codling moth, the chance of finding

28 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), Dec. 31, 1980

a resistant cultivar seems remote. Some of the might be more vulnerable had they not been in

crabapples that had relatively few entries proximity to apparently preferred cultivars.

TABLE 1. Susceptibility of crabapples to attack by the codling moth.

Codling moth entries

Pruue Fruit

Variety Color set generation 1? generation 2b

Mbit tiert green heavy 0 6

Mary Currelly purple medium 5 6

Dolgo green heavy 3 7

Almey purple medium 6 9

M. Sargentii green medium i 13

Makamik purple medium 1 £2

Sissipuk purple medium 0 7

M. purpurea Lemoinei purple medium Me 2

Ferril's Crimson purple medium 2 3

Wisley purple medium 3 Z

Geneva purple light 0 2

Van Eseltine no EruLt = = =

Amisk purple medium ut 8

Sundog purple medium iL 24

Tomiko no’ £FuLe a = =

M. purpurea Aldenhamensis purple light 2 4

Prairie Rose green light 0 2

Cowichan purple heavy 2 26

M. Scheideckeri© green medium 0 0

Dorothea green medium 2 9

Hopa purple light z 8

M. floribunda rosea purple medium 2 16

M. spectabilis 33-15 green heavy 0) 5

Garnet 33-28 green light 0 8

M. fusca 33-30 purple medium 1 6

M. transitoria 33-17 green medium 7 42

M. purpurea purple medium 3 AL

M. spectabilis plena green light al de

M. robusta persicifolia green medium 8 74

M. brevipes green medium 3 63

M. robusta fastigiata green medium 0 7

Profusion purple heavy 0 jfak

Kingsmere purple medium 2 3

Oekonomierat Echtermeyer green heavy Z 19

Cheals Crimson green heavy 7 3L

Purple Wave purple medium 0) 3

Irene green medium ) 45

M. Columbia green heavy 3 47

M. baccata mandshurica purple heavy a's 2

M.spectabi lis (33-33 green heavy 0 Ea

M. spectabilis Riversii green heavy 9 105

M. denticulata green medium 8 163

M. Soulardii green medium 5 Jal)

M. micromalus no fruit 7 e i

Wabiskaw purple medium 3 25

M. pumila paradisiaca green heavy 0 2)

foleus aureus

Prince George's green heavy 3 76

Linda green heavy 0 3

Jay Darling purple light 0 5

M. ioensis green light 2 8

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), DEc. 31, 1980

Variety

Yellow Siberian

Oporto

- sylvestris plena

- prunifolia_ macrocarpa

- robusta erecta

M. sylvestris

Kings Crab

Marshall Oyama

Wynema

Liset

Pattie

Patricia

Evelyn

Flame

Veitch's Scarlet

Crimson Brilliant

Sutherland

Strathmore

Red Silver

Stirling Apple

Selkirk

Garry

M. coronoria Charlottae

Leslie

Jubilee

Red Jade©

55-71080

\5)-o2—117

aD-O2-1 14

55-74-02

55-—59-11'6

Exzellenz Thiel

31-0-91; 59-82-01

30-8-65; 55-61-06

no name

Royalty

FruLe Fruit

color set

green medium

purple heavy

green medium

green light

green heavy

green medium

purple heavy

green heavy

purple light

green heavy

no fruit =

purple heavy

purple medium

purple light

green medium

purple heavy

purple medium

NOME

purple medium

purple Pion

purple medium

green medium

purple heavy

no fruit =

green medium

green heavy

green light

no LLUuLe =

Codling moth entries

: a

generation 1

nie

ibs:

PRR wOrFPILONnNODOdoadOMNwl_ rRFwnNnofraandtlnod

generation gb

“Examined in the field starting July 10.

Examined in the field starting Aug. 20.

“Tree damaged, limbs prostrate on ground.

REFERENCES

Buckhurst, A. S. 1921. The codling moth (Cydia pomonella Linn.) its life history in England. Fruit

Grower, Florist and Mkt. Gdnr. 52( 1352): 642-643.

Cutwright, C. R. and H. E. Morrison. 1935. Varietal susceptibility to codling moth injury. J. Econ.

Entomol. 28: 107-109.

de Sarasola, Maria D. R. Campi. 1976. Apple resistance to Carpocapsa pomonella and Grapholita:

molesta, some behavioral aspects. Bull. Genet. Inst. Fitotech. Castlegar 9: 21-26.

Proverbs, M. D. 1971. Orchard assessment of radiation-sterilized moths for control of Laspeyresia

pomonella (L.) in British Columbia. In Application of Induced Sterility for Control of Lepi-

dopterous Populations. Int. Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna: 117-133.

Quist, J. A. and J. P. Ward. 1976. The status of 3 species of Olethreutidae and 3 species of

Tortricidae retrieved in pheromone traps from 2 urban areas in Eastern Colorado. Proc. No.

Central Br. Entomol. Soc. Am 31: 39.

30 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), Dec. 31, 1980

OVIPOSITION DETERRENTS FOR AEDES AEG YPTT

IN EXTRACTS OF LEMNA MINOR?

G. J. R. JUDD AND J. H. BORDEN

Pestology Centre

Department of Biological Sciences

Simon Fraser University

Burnaby, B.C., Canada

V5A 186

ABSTRACT

Dual choice bioassays demonstrated that water and methanolic extracts

of Lemna minor L., in aqueous solution, deterred oviposition by Aedes

aegypti L. The methanolic extracts were active at concentrations of 1000

and 10,000 PPM but were inactive at 1, 10, and 100 PPM. Pentane extracts

and L. minor culture water showed no activity. None of the extracts bio-

assayed were biologically active against Culex pipiens L. Experiments in

which physical contact with the extracts was prevented, provide evidence

that a volatile chemical emanating from the extract is responsible for the

deterrency.

INTRODUCTION

Investigations into the possible insecticidal

properties of plants have disclosed that certain

aquatic plants are detrimental to the develop-

ment of mosquito larvae, while others can

apparently prevent oviposition (Matheson and

Hinman 1929; Matheson 1930; Furlow and

Hays 1972; Angerilli 1977). Among the latter

are several species of Lemnaceae, the duck-

weeks. In field experiments almost no volunteer

egg rafts or larvae occurred in artificial ponds

containing Lemna minor L., and in the labora-

tory, extracts of L. minor deterred oviposition

by Aedes aegypti L. (Angerilli 1977).

Our objectives were: to confirm the oviposi-

tion deterrent activity of L. minor under labor-

atory conditions to A. aegypti and Culex

pipiens L., to measure the sensitivity of any

biologically active fractions, and to determine

if the activity is the result of volatile or non

volatile chemicals.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Extraction of Plant Material

Samples of L. minor were collected from a

drainage ditch in Cloverdale, B.C., thoroughly

washed in tap water and cultured in laboratory

aquaria filled with distilled water.

Water extracts were prepared by grinding 1 g

(wet wt.) samples of the plant in an electric

blender and suspending the ground material in

100 ml of distilled water. This solution was

filtered once through a Whatman No. 1 filter

paper disk (4.5 cm dia.) in a Buchner funnel

to remove any unsoluble material. Culture

water was taken from the aquaria and filtered’

as above for use in bioassays.

‘Diptera: Culicidae.

7A rales: Lemnaceae.

’Research supported by the British Columbia Ministry of

Agriculture.

For the organic solvent extractions, plants

were ground in the electric blender, frozen at

-60 C and freeze dried. Plant powder in 10 g (dry

wt.) quantities, was extracted with 300 ml of

pentane followed by extraction with 300 ml of

methanol for 24 h/solvent in a Soxhlet appara-

tus (reagent grade solvents, Fisher Scientific

Co.). Solvents were removed from the extracts

using a rotary evaporator. Methanolic extract

residues were weighed and dissolved in distilled

water to produce a stock solution of 1 g ex-

tract/100 ml water or 10,000 PPM of crude

extract. A portion of this solution was serially

diluted with distilled water producing concen-

trations of 1, 10, 100 and 1000 PPM. Pentane

extracts were weighed and dissolved in 10 ml

of a 1% (by wt.) Tween 80 emulsifying solution

(Fisher Scientific Co.), and then diluted with

distilled water to 10,000 PPM crude extract.

These solutions were filtered as before and

all were stored in stoppered vials at 4 C until

needed for bioassays.

Bioassay Procedures

A. aegypti and C. pipiens were obtained

from colonies maintained at Simon Fraser

University and reared by the methods of Ger-

berg (1970), Gillespie and Belton (1980) and

McLintock (1960) since 1966 and 1974, re-

spectively. Bioassays with A. aegypti were per-

formed in 15 x 15 x 17 cm cages, with four

wooden sides, screen rears and Plexiglas

fronts; C. pipiens were bioassayed in 25 x 25 x

45 cm wooden frame screen cages with Plexi-

glas fronts because they will not oviposit when

kept in cages of less than 28,000 cm® (Gerberg

1970). Mosquitoes in each bioassay were reared

from the same batch of eggs. At approximately

10 days of age, adult mosquitoes were blood

fed on a caged guinea pig and then released

into test cages. A 10% sucrose solution in a

25 ml Erlenmeyer flask stoppered with a dental

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), DEc. 31, 1980 31

TABLE I. Effects of extracts and culture water of Lemna minor on

oviposition rates in Aedes aegypti and Culex pipiens.

No. of No. of

Exper. Treatment EXEraACE x NOs Of X No. of

No. Replicates Insects / Choices Concentration Eggs Egg Rafts

Replicate (PPM) A. aegypti? C. pipiens %

1 10 5 Culture water -- 106.0 ns FOmIiS

Control 15 344 .8

2 10 10 Water Ext. 10,000 39, 5*** Oe S

Control 574.4 ae

3 S) 5 Pentane Ext. 10,000 8.0 ns ---

Control 5iOe4

4 10 5 Methanolic Ext. 10,000 2.5%** 74°ns

Control 136.6 Eas:

5 5 5 Methanolic Ext. 10,000 ~O*** ---

Control 119.4

5 5 Methanolic Ext. 1,000 26.2** ---

Con tre! 149.8

5 5 Methanolic Ext. 100 60.4 ns ---

Control 54.2

5 5 Methanolic Ext. 10 66—6msS ---

Control 92-8

5 5 Methanolic Ext. 1 62.2 ns ---

Control 128

“significant difference (t-Test)

cotton wick provided a food source throughout

the bioassays. Insects were held in test cages

for 4-5 days preceding experiments to assure

their ovipositional readiness. All tests were

carried out in an environmental chamber at

23 C, 30-40% RH, and a 16:8 h light:dark

photoperiodic regime. The cages were evenly

spaced on a 1 x 2.3 m shelf, 60 cm below 3

banks of fluorescent lights.

Test solutions were bioassayed for possible

Oviposition deterrency in a dual choice system.

Distilled water served as a control in all tests.

Oviposition containers consisted of 50 ml pyrex

beakers lined with paper towelling and wrapped

in black vinyl tape. The 2 containers were posi-

tioned in the centre of each cage 10 cm apart,

and their positions were randomized in each

replicate cage. Tests were concluded after 48 h

and the mean number of eggs or egg rafts per

treatment were calculated.

Experiments

Three sets of experiments were performed.

The first series tested the oviposition deterrent

between paired experimental and control means

indicated by: *** = P < 0.001 ; ** = P < 0.01

; nS = no Significant difference.

activity of water, methanol, and pentane ex-

tracts of L. minor, as well as L. minor culture

water to both A. aegypti and C. pipiens.

To determine the sensitivity of the methan-

olic extract, solutions containing 1, 10, 100,

1000 and 10,000 PPM of the crude extract were

bioassayed with A. aegypti.

To investigate the role of olfaction in oviposi-

tion deterrency, methanolic extracts, in 20 ml

aliquots, were presented to test insects in 3

types of oviposition containers, each exposing

the extract to different degrees. The first was

a completely exposed, open beaker as described

above. The second was identical with the addi-

tion of a gauze barrier placed 1 cm above the

extract surface. In the third, extracts were

placed in 25 ml gauze covered vials, then set

singly in the centres of the open type oviposi-

tion containers. The outer beakers were filled

with distilled water to the same height as in the

absence of the inner vial. Control beakers with

distilled water were treated in the same way,

for the respective treatments.

32 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), DEc. 31, 1980

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A water extract of L. minor significantly

deterred oviposition by A. aegypti, but was

ineffective against C. pipiens (Table 1). The

culture water was biologically inactive against

either mosquito species (Table 1). These results

indicate that while the active fraction is water

soluble, it is either absent from the culture

water, or is at concentations too low to be

effective. More time for a culture to develop,

or physical damage to the plants may be neces-

sary to make water inhabited by L. minor

unsuitable for oviposition in the field as found

by Angerilli (1977).

In Experiments 3-4 (Table 1) oviposition by

A. aegypti was deterred by the methanolic

extract but the pentane extract showed no

significant activity. The activity of the water

and methanolic extracts demonstrate the polar

nature of the active principle(s). The methan-

olic extract was inactive against C. pipiens.

Variability between replicates contributed to

the non _ significant results obtained for

C. pipiens. A treatment effect for the methan-

olic extract was significant at concentrations

of 1000 and 10,000 PPM (Table 1, Exp. 5).

The rate of oviposition was negatively correlat-

ed with increasing extract concentration

(r = -0.899, P < 0.05).

If the deterrent mechanism is an olfactory

response, a treatment effect should occur when

the extract cannot be contacted by the test

insects. This effect was demonstrated (Table

II). However, the extract’s deterrent activity

was increasingly apparent as exposure increas-

ed, suggesting the probable ‘involvement of

gustatory, tactile or visual cues in the insects’

response. Using Dethier et al.’s (1960) terms

and definitions, L, minor extracts which cause

a negative oviposition response can be referred

to as oviposition deterrents, although this last

experiment suggests they may also act as

oviposition repellents.

These experiments do not totally exclude

the possible involvement of microorganisms in

producing oviposition repellents in the extract

solutions (Kramer and Mulla 1979). It may be

that chemicals responsible for the observed re-

sults are produced by certain microorganisms

that utilize organic matter in the test solutions

as a substrate. To eliminate any effect that

microorganisms may have, bioassays could

be conducted for a shorter length of time at

periods of peak oviposition.

L. minor clearly deters C. pipiens infestation

of ponds in nature (Angerilli 1977). However,

the lack of activity from any of the extracts

against C. pipiens in this study, indicates that

chemical deterrents probably play a minor role

in this deterrency. Light intensity, water sur-

face reflectance and surface texture can all

influence natural mosquito oviposition behavior

(Belton 1967; Snow 1971). Furthermore, Fur-

low and Hays (1972) concluded that species

of Lemnaceae prevent oviposition of mosqui-

toes by forming a continuoys surface mat.

The relatively high concentrations of crude

extract needed to elicit a response from

A. aegypti and the lack of activity against

C. pipiens suggest that further chemical isola-

tion and identification of the active principle(s)

would probably be unwarranted.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank A. Syed and B. I. Gillespie for

supplying the insects and Mr. R. I. Alfaro for

his assistance and advice.

TABLE II. Effect of Z. minor methanolic extract (10,000 PPM) exposed to varying degrees on rate

of oviposition by Aedes aegypti. N = 5 replicates with 5 insects/replicate.

Oviposition

Containers

Open beaker, with L. minor extract

in water and fully exposed allowing

perception by vision, olfaction, touch

and contact chemoreception.

Open beaker, with a gauze disk 1 cm

above L. minor extract water solution.

Olfaction and contact chemoreception

of extract possible through uptake in

paper towelling liner around periphery

of beaker.

= a

X No. Eggs

Open beaker, with gauze covered L. minor

extract solution in a vial in the centre,

No contact

Surrounded by distilled water.

Experimental Control

9. Bree 139::2

17.8%** 119.6

51 0* 957.0

other than olfactory with extract possible.

“significant difference (t-Test) between experimental and control means

indicated by: *** = P 0.001; ** = P 0.01; * = P 0.05.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BriIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), Dec. 31, 1980 33

REFERENCES CITED

Angerilli, N. P. D. C. 1977. Some influences of aquatic plants on the development and survival

of mosquito populations. Ph.D. dissertation. Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, B.C. 141 p.

Belton, P. 1967. The effect of illumination and pool brightness on oviposition by Culex restuans

(Theo.) in the field. Mosq. News 27: 66-68.

Dethier, V. G.. L. B. Browne and C. N. Smith. 1960. The designation of chemicals in terms of

the responses they elicit from insects. J. Econ. Ent. 53: 134-136.

Furlow, B. M. and K. L. Hays. 1972. Some influences of the aquatic vegetation on the species

and number of Culicidae (Diptera) in small pools of water. Mosq. News 32:595-599.

Gerberg, E. J. (ed.). 1970. Manual for mosquito rearing and experimental techniques. Amer. Mosq.

Control. Bull. No. 5.

Gillespie, B. I. and P. Belton. 1980. Fecundity of Aedes aegypti (L.) as affected by rearing tempera-

ture of the larval stages. Mosq. News (in press).

Kramer, W. L. and M. S. Mulla. 1979. Oviposition attractants and repellents of mosquitoes: Ovi-

position responses of Culex mosquitoes to organic infusions. Environ. Ent. 8:1111-1117.

Matheson, R. and E. H. Hinman. 1929. Further studies on Chara spp. and other aquatic plants

in relation to mosquito breeding. Amer. J. Trop. Med. 9:249-266.

Matheson, R. 1930. The utilization of aquatic plants as aids in mosquito control. Amer. Nat.

64: 56-85.

McLintock, J. 1960. Simplified method for maintaining Culex pipiens Linnaeus in the laboratory

(Diptera: Culicidae). Mosq. News 20:27-29.

Snow, W. F. 1971. The spectral sensitivity of Aedes aegypti (L.) at oviposition. Bull Ent. Res.

60: 683-696.

OBITUARY

Paul M. Eide (1906-1980)

Mr. Eide, well known economic entomologist, formerly with the old Bureau of

Entomology, USDA, and later with Washington State University died unexpectedly

April 22nd at his home in Mt. Vernon, Washington from a heart attack. He is

survived by his wife, Grace; a daughter, Judith Widen of Seattle; a brother, Dr. Carl

Eide of St. Paul; a sister, Eleanor Henderson of El Paso; and several nieces and

nephews.

Hide received his B.S. and M.S. degrees in entomology at WSU. While with the

USDA he assisted in the development of the first use of DDT in the United States

during the war years at Orlando, Florida, in cooperation with the Armed Services,

researching insects attacking man and animals.Later, he was stationed at the

Washington State University campus, Pullman, where he initiated research on the

Cherry Fruitfly, a new pest of cherries found in the Yakima Valley. Paul was then

Assistant and Associate Entomologist respectively at the Northwestern Washington

Research and Extension Unit, Mt. Vernon. He retired from WSU in 1971 but main-

tained an office at the Research Unit and continued to serve the farmers in the area

on a voluntary basis until his death.

Paul was a keen observer of insect life and had sound judgment. He was well re-

spected by his peers and by a large following of farmers and fieldmen, especially

in the Skagit Valley of Washington. He had a keen sense of humor and got along

well with his colleagues. He had the amusing habit of belittling his true knowledge.

When asked about an entomological problem he would first answer, ‘I really don’t

know,” but when urged for a specific answer, he would then carefully and in

considerable detail tell all you wanted to know.

His expertise was largely in developing controls for insect pests attacking vege-

.tables and small fruits in northwestern Washington. Recently, at an annual Pacific

Northwestern Vegetable Insect Conference at Portland, Paul received an award for

the longest continued attendance — 32 years.

Horace S. Telford

Dept. of Entomology

Washington State University

Pullman, WA 99164

34 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), DEc. 31, 1980

OVIPOSITION OF CULEX PIPIENS

IN WATER AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES

B. I. GILLESPIE AND P. BELTON

Department of Biological Sciences

Simon Fraser University

Burnaby, B.C., Canada

V5A 1S6

ABSTRACT

At 20C air temperature, female Culex pipiens L. laid the greatest number of

egg rafts at water temperatures between 20 and 25C. They laid very few at

15 or 35C even when given no alternative site. The possibility is discussed

of manipulating temperature in a mosquito control programme.

INTRODUCTION

It was once thought that mosquitoes scat-

tered their eggs indiscriminately but that in a

given habitat, only certain species were able to

survive. Field studies have failed to support

this idea; in fact, larvae in a given breeding

site correspond to the eggs found there (Bates

1940). It is more likely that the restriction of

given species to a certain type of larval habitat

results from selective oviposition (Wallis 1954).

Cx. pipiens L., from a recently colonised local

population, was used in this study. The species

was probably introduced into the Vancouver

area early in this century. It now lays egg

rafts in stagnant drainage ditches, sewage

lagoons and a variety of temporary pools and

artificial containers and it can be a pest in

late summer when it enters houses and bites.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Eggs were obtained as needed from a colony

of Cx.. pipiens maintained at Simon Fraser

University since 1974. The colony was started

from larvae collected at Richmond, B.C., by

Angerilli (1977) and reared continuously since,

using McLintock’s method (1960).

When adults were needed for experiments,

egg rafts were taken from the main colonies

and the larvae were reared in 2000ml of distilled

water in an enamel tray, 40 x 25 x 4.5 cm deep.

Finely-ground Tetramin and ground baker’s

yeast was provided, using the quantities sug-

gested by Gerberg et al. (1969).

The pupae were placed in emergence cages

18 x 12 x 16cm high. Adults were provided

with a 10% sucrose solution and the RH was

maintained at 60 to 65% by immersing a paper

towel wick in a beaker of water.

Oviposition experiments were conducted in a

windowless plywood cage of 182 x 61 x 122

cm. The two oviposition sites were at opposite

ends of the cage. Each consisted of a bowl, 17

cm in diam and 8.5 cm deep, containing 1000

ml of distilled water, a heater with a thermos-

tat, a thermometer, and a temperature probe

leading to a chart recorder. The bowl rested on

a cold water circulating chamber. With this

arrangement we were able to set the tempera-

ture of the water above or below that of the

room and could regulate it within 1C.

For each experiment 200 to 300 adults of each

sex were introduced into the plywood cage. A

100 ml Erlenmeyer flask in front of each ovipo-

sition site contained 10% sucrose solution and

was stoppered with cotton wicks. After 1 week

a restrained, shaved guinea pig was placed in

the cage on.4 consecutive nights so that the

female mosquitoes could obtain blood meals.

Egg rafts were collected over the next 10

days. Each raft was counted as an oviposition

event but the eggs in the rafts were not

individually counted as their number was found

by Wallis (1954) to be independent of the suit-

ability of the water at the breeding site.

A set of experiments was run with both sites

at constant water temperatures of 15, 20, 25,

30 and 35C, one experiment at each tempera-

ture. In another set, duplicate tests were run

with each of the following different pairs of

temperatures, 15 & 20, 15 & 25, 20 & 25, 20 &

30 and 25 & 30.

The data were changed to proportions of total

rafts laid and were transformed using the arc

sine square root, before the data were subjected

to analysis of variance followed by a Student-

Newman-Keuls multiple range test.

RESULTS

When the temperature of the water at the

two oviposition sites was the same, their posi-

tion had no statistically significant effect on

the proportion of egg rafts laid. The total num-

bers of egg rafts laid at the 5 temperatures

were:

DegreesC 15 20 25 30 35

Numbers 4 44 68 37 10

When the two oviposition sites were at dif-

ferent temperatures there was a similar trend

for more rafts to be laid in the middle range of

temperatures. To allow for differences in the

total numbers of rafts laid in the replicated

experiments, proportions of the rafts found at

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), DEc. 31, 1980 35

15 20

15 25

PROPORTION OF EGG RAFTS

20 25

20 30

25 30

TEMPERATURE C

PAIRS

Fig. 1. Mean proportion of egg rafts laid at paired sites held at the temperatures indicated. Means

and 90% confidence intervals (vertical lines at the top of each bar) were retransformed

from arc sine square roots. Statistical analysis indicates three different responses: J where

significantly more rafts were laid at the higher temperature, JJ where there was no signifi-

cant difference in their numbers and J// where significantly more were laid at the lower

temperature.

each of the two temperatures were tested

statistically. The results are shown in the bar

graphs of figure 1. Differences between the

pairs labelled J and J// are all significant.

When the lower temperature was 15C, the

higher temperature had the most egg rafts

(fig. 1, Z). When the temperatures were 20

and 25C the proportion of rafts laid at the two

sites showed differences no greater than those

found in the experiments with both sites at the

same temperature (Fig. 1, 7). When the higher

temperature was 30C, the lower temperatures

had the most rafts (Fig. 1, IJ).

DISCUSSION

Very few egg rafts were found in water at 15

and 35C. Wallis (1954) stated that Culex mos-

quitoes ‘“‘do not oviposit in water that is

unacceptable to them” and found no Cx. pip-

iens rafts in water with a salinity greater than

0.5%. Bellamy and Corbet (1974) found resorp-

tion of eggs by Cx. tarsalis in unfavourable

conditions.

The simplest explanation for our results

was a difference in the probability of oviposi-

tion at different temperatures. Rafts were sel-

dom laid at 15 or 35C; the females evidently

36 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), DEc. 31, 1980

resorbed their eggs or died without laying.

Most rafts were laid at the intermediate tem-

peratures of 20 and 25C.

Because these trends were similar, whether

the mosquitoes had a choice or not, and because

some rafts were always laid in the water having.

a less favourable temperature, it seems unlikely

that the temperatures of the two oviposition

sites were actually compared.

As the air temperature was maintained at

20 + 1C, the mosquitoes may have been com-

paring air and water temperatures, laying most

rafts at water temperatures up to 5C above

air temperature. These results, however, do not

rule out the possibility that they have an inter-

nal absolute thermometer to measure water

temperature directly. Tests at different air

temperatures would be needed to resolve this

question.

It has been suggested that artificial pools

could be used to determine the presence and

abundance of disease-carrying mosquitoes

(Belton 1967, Smith & Jones 1972). Oviposi-

tion surveys using small containers already of-

fer an economical, rapid and sensitive method

for determining the presence of adult Aedes

aegypti in the field (Fay & Eliason 1966).

Knowledge of the favourable range of water

temperatures shown here, could be used to in-

crease oviposition in artificial pools. Heated

pools have potential for use in an integrated

control programme, either as a sensitive sur-

veying method or perhaps ‘as traps in which

large numbers of immature stages could be

eliminated with little hazard to the environment.

REFERENCES

Angerilli, N. P. D. 1977. Some influences of aquatic plants on the development and survival of

mosquito populations. Ph.D. Thesis. Simon Fraser University.

Bates, M. 1940. Oviposition experiments with Anopheline mosquitoes.

20: 569-583.

Belton, P. 1967. The effect of illumination and pool brightness on oviposition by Culex restuans

(Theo.) in the field. Mosq.News 27:66-68.

Fay, R. W. and D. A. Eliason. 1966. A preferred oviposition site as a surveillance method for

Aedes aegypti. Mosq.News 26: 531-535.

Gerberg, E. J.. T. M. Hopkins and J. W. Gentry. 1969. Mass rearing of Culex pipiens L. Mosq.

News 29: 382-385.

McLintock, J. 1960. Simplified method for maintaining Culex pipiens Linnaeus in the laboratory

(Diptera: Culicidae). Mosq.News 20: 27-29.

Smith, W. W. and D. W. Jones. 1972. Use of artificial pools for determining presence, abundance

and oviposition preferences of Culex nigripalpus Theobald in the field. Mosq.News 32:

244-245.

Wallis, R. C. 1954. A study of oviposition activity of mosquitoes. Ann.J.Hyg. 60: 135-168.

Ann.J.trop.Med.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), Dec. 31, 1980 37

DASYHELEA OPPRESSA (CERATOPOGONIDAE) AND

MYCETOBIA DIVERGENS (ANISOPODIDAE): TWO DIPTERA

NEW TO BRITISH COLUMBIA

ROBERT A. CANNINGS

Entomology Division

British Columbia Provincial Museum

Victoria, B.C. V8V 1X4

ABSTRACT

Larvae and pupae of Dasyhelea oppressa Thomsen and Mycetobia diver-

gens Walker were found in the sap on the ulcerated trunk of a horse-chest-

nut tree in Vancouver, B.C. Adults of both species were reared from these

collections. This record is the first for D. oppressa west of Manitoba in Can-

ada and Iowa in the United States and for M. divergens the first record west

of Alberta and Arizona.

The Diptera fauna associated with trees is,

for the most part, poorly known (Teskey, 1976).

This is especially true for the British Columbia

fauna. A sap-covered wound on a horse-chest-

nut tree (Aesculus hippocastaneum L.) in

Vancouver, B.C. yielded the larvae and pupae of

Dasyhelea oppressa Thomsen and Mycetobia

divergens Walker, two nematocerous species

previously unknown in British Columbia. The

tree, growing beside a city street, was about

10 m high and 45 cm dbh. On the well-shaded

northern side of the trunk a 0.1 m? mass of sap

and organic material oozed over and under

an area of broken bark 2 m from the ground.

The larvae and pupae of both species were

heavily concentrated in this sap.

On 15 May 1979, final instar larvae and

pupae of D. oppressa and M. divergens were

collected and brought into the laboratory.

Adults of D. oppressa emerged 10 days later

and continued to do so for several days, but no

adult M. divergens appeared. Another collec-

tion made on 25 July 1979 from the same tree

yielded a single adult of M. divergens, and on

26 July a number of pupae and adults were

obtained from the surface of the sap. Addition-

al adults emerged from this collection on 29

July.

Dasyhelea oppressa is considered a common

eastern North American species ranging from

Wisconsin to Quebec and south to Florida

(Waugh and Wirth, 1976). Stone et al. (1965)

include Iowa and Forster (in litt.) notes that

the species has recently been found in New

Brunswick and at Churchill, Manitoba. Within

this range D. oppressa has been reared from

tree holes and from the sap oozing from wound-

ed trees, especially American Elm (Ulmus

americana L.) and various oaks (Quercus sp.)

(Waugh and Wirth, 1976). The larvae are sap-

rophagous (Thomsen, 1937). The adults, as

far as is known, are not among those cerato-

pogonid species that suck blood, but rather

feed on honeydew or visit flowers for nectar

(Waugh and Wirth, 1976). :

Mycetobia divergens is the only North

American member of the genus and has been

collected in the United States from Maine to

Colorado and south to Arizona and Florida

(Stone et al., 1965). Teskey (1976 and in litt.)

states that in Alberta the larva has been found

inhabiting the larval galleries of the weevil

Hylobius in lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta

Dougl.). Evidently it has similar feeding habits

to those of D. oppressa.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Brian Emmett and Richard Cannings

for making the collections of larvae and pupae.

Drs. L. Forster, H. J. Teskey and J. R.

Vockeroth (Biosystematics Research Institute,

Ottawa) identified the specimens.

REFERENCES

Stone, A., C. W. Sabrosky, W. W. Wirth, R. H. Foote and J. R. Coulson. 1965. A catalogue of the

Diptera of North America north of Mexico. U. S. Dept. Agriculture, Washington.

Teskey, H. J. 1976. Diptera larvae associated with trees in North America. Mem. Entomol. Soc.

Can. 100:1-53.

Thomsen, L. C. 1937. Aquatic Diptera. Part V. Ceratopogonidae. Mem. Cornel Univ. agric. Exp.

Stn. 210: 57-80.

Waugh, W. T. and W. W. Wirth. 1976. A revision of the genus Dasyhelea Kieffer of the eastern

United States north of Florida (Diptera:Ceratopogonidae). Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer.

69(2):219-247.

38 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), DEc. 31, 1980

THE APHIDS (HOMOPTERA:APHIDIDAE)

OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

8. FURTHER ADDITIONS

A. R. FORBES AND C. K. CHAN

Research Station, Agriculture Canada

Vancouver, British Columbia

ABSTRACT

Twenty-four species of aphids and new host records are added to the

taxonomic list of the aphids of British Columbia.

INTRODUCTION *ALNIFOLIAE (Fitch), PTEROCALLIS

Four previous lists of the aphids of British Alnus incana ssp tenuifolia: Vancouver

Columbia (Forbes, Frazer and MacCarthy (UBC), Jul 22/77.

1973; Forbes, Frazer and Chan 1974; Forbes AQUILEGIAE (Essig), KAKIMIA

and Chan 1976, 1978) recorded 302 species. Aquilegia chrysantha: Vancouver (UBC),

This includes aphids collected from 514 hosts Jul 11/78.

or in traps and comprises 964 aphid-host plant Aquilegia vulgaris: Vancouver, Jun 2/78.

associations. ASCALONICUS Doncaster, MYZUS

The present list adds 24 species of aphids Alyssum montanum: Vancouver (UBC),

(indicated with an asterisk in the list) and 165 May 30/78.

aphid-host plant associations to the previous Anemone halleri: Vancouver (UBC), May

lists. Ninety-seven of the new aphid-host plant 30/78.

associations are plant species not in the pre- Aquilegia vulgaris: Vancouver, Jun 2/78.

vious lists. The additions bring the number Aruabis caucasica: Vancouver (UBC), Mar

of known aphid species in British Columbia to 29/77.

326. Aphids have now been collected from 611 Bletia sp: Vancouver (UBC), Feb 15/77,

different host plants and the total number of (In Greenhouse).

ahid-host plant associations is 1129. Campanula portenschlagiana: Vancouver

Aphids are listed alphabetically by species. (UBC), May 30/78.

The names are in conformity with Eastop and Dahlia sp: North Vancouver, Jun 14/77.

Hille Ris Lambers (1976). The location of each Dianthus graniticus: Vancouver (UBC),

collection site can be determined from Table 1 May 30/78.

or from tables of localities in previous lists. Dianthus microlepis: Vancouver (UBC),

The reference points are the same as those May 30/78.

shown on the map which accompanies the basic Euonymus fortunei ‘Kewensis’: Vancouver

list. (UBC), May 30/78.

TABLE 1. Localities where aphids were col-

lected, with airline distances from

reference points.

Reference Distance

Locality Point Dir. km mi

Beaverdell Kelowna SE 53 33

Coquitlam Vancouver E 27 17

Diamond Head Vancouver NE 72 45

Legate Creek Prince Rupert NE 129 80

Richter Pass Creston W 230 143

Shannon Falls Vancouver N 40 25

Springhouse Williams Lake S 24 15

LIST OF SPECIES Jasione montana: Vancouver (UBC), May

. 30/78.

AEGOPODII (Scopoli), CAVARIELLA Phlox subulata: Vancouver (UBC), May

Aegopodium podograria: Vancouver, Jul 30/78.

12/77, Jul 28/77. Pleione sp: Vancouver (UBC), Feb 15/77,

AGATHONICA Hottes, AMPHOROPHORA (In Greenhouse).

Rubus idaeus ssp melanolasius: Vancouver *ASCLEPIADIS Fitch APHIS

(CDA) Jul 15/76. Asclepias speciosa: Penticton, Aug 24/78.

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), DEc. 31, 1980 39

AVENAE (Fabricius) SITOBION

Dactylis glomerata: Vancouver (UBC), Jun

14/77.

Elymus mollis var mollis: Saanich, Jul 24/77.

Poa glauca: Vancouver (UBC) Jul 22/77.

Polypogon monspeliensis: Vancouver (UBC),

Jul 22/77.

Vulpia myuros var hirsuta: Vancouver (UBC),

Jun 14/77.

BERBERIDIS (Kaltenbach), LIOSOMAPHIS

Mahonia repens: Vancouver (UBC), Jul 11/78.

*BETAE Doane, PEMPHIGUS

Beta vulgaris: Vancouver, Mar 1/78.

*BROMI Robinson, CRYPTAPHIS

Trap: Penticton, May 31/76, June 7/76.

CALLIPTERUS (Hartig), CALLIPTERINELLA

Betula papyrifera: Vancouver (UBC), Oct

7/76.

CARAGANAE (Cholodkovsky),

ACYRTHOSIPHON

Caragana pygmaea: Vancouver (UBC),

Jun 10/77.

CARDUI (Linnaeus), BRACHYCAUDUS

Rhododendron sp: Vancouver, May 23/78.

*CAUDELLI (Wilson), CINARA

Picae sp: Kaslo, Jul 7/03, (Wilson 1919).

CERASI (Fabricius), MYZUS

Galium aparine: Vancouver (UBC), Jun 16/78.

CIRCUMFLEXUM (Buckton), AULACORTHUM

Aquilegia vulgaris: Vancouver, Jun 2/78.

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi: Vancouver

(CDA), Nov. 19/79.

Saintpauliaionantha: Vancouver (CDA),

Oct 18/78, (In Greenhouse).

CORYLI (Goeze), MY ZOCALLIS

Corylus maxima ‘Purpurea’: Vancouver

(UBC), Nov 7/77.

CURVIPES (Patch), CINARA

Abies lasiocarpa: Beaverdell, Aug 23/78.

DIRHODUM (Walker), METOPOLOPHIUM

Polypogon monspeliensis: Vancouver (UBC),

Jul 22/77.

*DREPANOSIPHOIDES MacGillivray & Bradley,

TOXOPTERELLA

Sorbus sitchenis: Legate Creek, Jul 19/55,

(MacGillivray & Bradley 1961).

ERIOPHORI (Walker), CERURAPHIS

Carex glareosa ssp glareosa: Vancouver

(UBC), Jul 22/77.

Viburnum sargentii ‘Flavum’: Vancouver

(UBC), Apr 21/77.

EUPHORBIAE (Thomas), MACROSIPHUM

Aphelandra squarrosa: Vancouver, Jun

10/79, Oct 20/78.

Aquilegia vulgaris: Vancouver, Jun 2/78.

Catharanthus roseus: Vancouver (CDA),

Jul 20/77.

Dianthus deltoides: Vancouver (UBC),

May 30/78.

Dicentra formosa ssp oregana: Vancouver

(UBC), Jul 13/78.

Enkianthus campanulatus: Vancouver (UBC),

May 30/79.

Eriogonum compositum: Vancouver (UBC),

Jul 13/78.

Galium aparine: Vancouver (UBC), Jun

16/78.

Geum schofieldii: Vancouver (UBC), Jul

13/78.

Iris setosa: Vancouver (UBC), Jul 13/78.

Lewisia cantelowii: Vancouver (UBC), Jul

13/78.

Myrica gale: Vancouver (UBC), Jul 11/78,

Jul 23/78.

Polemonium carneum: Vancouver (UBC),

May 25/79.

Polemonium nellitum: Vancouver (UBC), Jul

11/78.

Potentilla atrosanguinea: Vancouver (UBC),

May 25/79.

Rhododendron sp: Vancouver, May 23/78.

Rosa rugosa ‘Alba’ Vancouver (UBC),

May 10/77.

Sedum lanceolatum var nesioticum:

Vancouver (UBC), Jul 4/78.

Silene noctiflora Clearwater, Jun 28/78.

FABAE Scopoli APHIS

Aquilegia vulgaris: Vancouver, Jun 2/78.

Aralia elata: Vancouver (UBC), Jun 3/76.

Myrica californica: Vancouver (UBC), Jul

11/78.

Silene alba ssp alba: Vancouver (UBC),

Jul 11/78.

FAGI (Linnaeus), PHYLLAPHIS

Fagus sylvatica ‘Borneyensis‘: Vancouver

(UBC), Apr 30/76.

FOENICULI (Passerini), HYADAPHIS

Aegopodium podograria: Vancouver, Jul

12747.

*FORMICARIA von Heyden, FORDA

Trap: Summerland, Jun 14/76.

FRAGAEFOLII (Cockerell), CHAETOSIPHON

Rosa rugosa ‘Alba’: Vancouver (UBC),

May 30/78, Oct 31/77.

FRAGARIAE (Walker), SITOBION

Anthoxanthum odoratum: Vancouver

(UBC), Jun 9/77.

Carex flava var flava: Vancouver (UBC),

Jul 22/77.

Festuca brachyphylla: Vancouver (UBC),

Jul 22/77.

Hordeum brachyantherum: Vancouver (UBC),

Jul 22/77.

Lolium perenne: Vancouver (UBC), Jun 14/77.

Phalaris arundinacea: Vancouver (UBC),

Jun 9/77.

Poa glauca: Vancouver (UBC), Jul 22/77.

Poa pratensis: Vancouver (UBC), Jun 9/77.

*FRAXINIFOLII (Riley), PROCIPHILUS

Fraxinus nigra: Vancouver (UBC), Mar 15/78,

Nov 4/77.

Fraxinus ornus: Vancouver (UBC), Apr 11/78,

Oct 28/77.

40 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), DEc. 31, 1980

GLYCERIAE (Kaltenbach), SIPHA

Festuca brachyphylla: Vancouver (UBC),

Jul 22/77.

Hordeum brachyantherum: Vancouver (UBC),

Jul 22/77.

Poa glauca: Vancouver (UBC), Jul 22/77.

Poa pratensis: Vancouver (UBC), Jun 9/77.

*GOSSYPII Glover, APHIS

Begonia cucullata var hookeri: Vancouver,

Oct. 3/76.

Impatiens sp: Vancouver, Oct 12/76.

HELICHRYSI (Kaltenbach), BRACHYCAUDUS

Chrysanthemum parthenium: Vancouver

(UBC), Feb 2/77, (In Greenhouse).

Potentilla atrosanguinea: Vancouver (UBC),

May 25/79.

*HIERACICOLA (Hille Ris Lambers),

UROLEUCON

Trap: Penticton, Jul 19/76, Jul 26/76.

HUMBOLDTI (Essig), UTAMPHOROPHORA

Poa glauca: Vancouver (UBC), Jul 22/77.

JUNIPERI (de Geer), CINARA

Juniperus chinensis ‘Pfitzeriana’: Vancouver

(UBC), Jun 2/78.

KIOWANEPUS (Hottes), MACROSIPHUM

Zigadenus venenosus var gramineus: Spring-

house, Jul 7/75.

*LONICERAE (Siebold), RHOPALOMYZUS

Trap: Summerland, Sep 21/76.

*MINUTISSIMA (Stroyan), CALLIPTERINELLA

Betula papyrifera: Vancouver (UBC), Oct

31/77, Nov 4/75.

MORRISONI (Swain), ILLINOIA

Juniperus chinensis ‘Pfitzeriana’: Vancouver

(UBC), Jun 2/78.

Juniperus sabina: Vancouver (UBC), Jun

2/78.

Juniperus virginiana: Vancouver (UBC),

Jul 13/78.

NASTURTII Kaltenbach, APHIS

Hedera sp: Vancouver, Feb 14/77.

NERVATA (Gillette), WAHLGRENIELLA

Arbutus unedo: Vancouver (UBC), Apr

7/78, Jun 8/78.

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi ‘Point Reyes’:

Vancouver (UBC), Jul 11/78.

*NERVATA ARBUTI (Davidson),

WAHLGRENIELLA

Arbutus menziesii: Vancouver (UBC),

May 30/78.

Paxistima myrsinites: Vancouver (UBC),

June 25/79.

*NIGRAICENTRUS Richards, CHAITOPHORUS

Trap: Summerland, Jun 28/76.

*OREGONENSIS (Wilson), MICROSIPHONIELLA

Artemisia tridentata: Richter Pass, May

24/78.

ORNATUS Laing, MYZUS

Alyssum murale: Vancouver (UBC), Jul

13/78.

Aquilegia olympica: Vancouver (UBC), Jul

13/78.

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi: Vancouver CDA),

Nov 19/76.

Barbarea verna: Vancouver (UBC), Apr 21/78.

Cistus ladanifer: Vancouver (UBC), Jul 11/78.

Collinsia grandiflora: Vancouver (UBC), Aprl

1/77, (In Greenhouse).

Deutzia scabra ‘Candidissima’: Vancouver

(UBC), June 19/78.

Epiphyllum sp: Vancouver, May 10/59.

Galium aparine: Vancouver (UBC), Jun 16/78.

Geranium renardii: Vancouver (UBC),

Jul 11/78.

Geum schofieldii: Vancouver (UBC), Jul

13/78.

Iris setosa: Vancouver (UBC), Jul 13/78.

Oenothera erythrosepala: Vancouver (UBC),

Jul 22/77.

Pereskia aculeata: North Vancouver, May

10/77,

Rubus parviflorus: Vancouver, Jun 13/77.

Salix lanata: Vancouver (UBC), Jul 11/78.

Trifolium dubium: Vancouver (UBC), Jun

2/78.

PADI (Linnaeus), RHOPALOSIPHUM

Carex concinnoides: Vancouver (UBC),

Jul 22/78.

Cyperus alternifolius* Coquitlam, Apr 26/77.

Festuca brachyphylla: Vancouver (UBC),

Jul 22/77.

Poa glauca: Vancouver (UBC), Jul 22/77.

PARVIFOLII Richards, MACROSIPHUM

Vaccinium parvifolium: Vancouver (UBC),

May 22/79, May 31/79, Jun 25/79.

PATRICIAE (Robinson), ILLINOIA

Thujopsis dolabrata; Vancouver (UBC),

Jun 2/78.

PERSICAE (Sulzer), MYZUS

Alcea rosea: Vancouver, Jul 21/76.

Asclepias speciosa: Vancouver (CDA),

Oct 17/78.

Asparagus sprengeri: Vancouver (UBC), Feb

14/77, (In Greenhouse).

Aubrieta deltoidea: Vancouver (UBC), Jan

27/77.

Bletia sp: Vancouver (UBC), Feb 15/77, (In

Greenhouse).

Cistus ladanifer: Vancouver (UBC), Jul 11/78.

Cistus laurifolius: Vancouver (UBC), Jul

11/78.

Collinsia grandiflora: Vancouver (UBC), Mar

15/77, Apr 1/77, (In Greenhouse).

Hebe sp: Vancouver (UBC), Feb. 14/77,

(In Greenhouse).

Impatiens wallerana: Vancouver (UBC), Mar

8/77, (In Greenhouse).

Marsilea vestita; Vancouver (UBC), Apr

1/77, (In Greenhouse).

Nemophila menziesii var discoidalis: Van-

couver (UBC), Feb 16/77, (In Greenhouse).

Pleione sp: Vancouver (UBC), Feb 15/77,

(In Greenhouse).

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), Dec. 31, 1980 4l

Polemonium nellitum: Vancouver (UBC),

Jul 11/78.

Teucrium canadense ssp viscidum: Vancou-

ver (UBC), Feb 16/77, (In Greenhouse).

PISUM (Harris), ACYRTHOSIPHON

Lembotropis nigricans: Vancouver (UBC),

Jul 11/78.

Trifolium pratense; Vancouver (CDA), Oct

17/78, (In Greenhouse).

*POLUNINI (Stroyan), BYRSOCRYPTOIDES

Carex mertensii: Diamond Head, Aug 13/74,

(Foottit & Mackauer 1980); Shannon Falls,

Jun 26/65, Sep 15/74, (Foottit & Mackauer

1980).

POMI de Geer, APHIS

Sorbus aucuparia ‘Edulis’: Vancouver (UBC),

Aug 3/78.

POPULIFOLII NEGLECTUS Hottes & Frison,

CHAITOPHORUS

Populus grandidentata: Vancouver

(UBC), Oct 31/77.

PUNCTIPENNIS (Zetterstedt), EUCERAPHIS

Betula papyrifera: Vancouver (UBC), Oct

7/76, Nov 9/78.

*PUSILLUS Hottes & Frison, CHAITOPHORUS

Trap: Penticton, Jul 19/76.

*ROSARUM (Kaltenbach), MYZAPHIS

Potentilla fructicosa: Vancouver (UBC), Jul

13/78.

*SACCULI (Gillette), PACHYPAPPA

Populus tremuloides: Kaslo, Jun 23/03,

(MacDougall 1926).

*SALICINIGER (Knowlton), CHAITOPHORUS

Trap: Summerland, Jul 12/76.

*SCAMMELLI (Mason), ERICAPHIS

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi: Vancouver (UBC),

May 20/75.

SIPHUNCULATA Richards, PLACOAPHIS

Rosa nutkana: Vancouver (UBC), May 2/78.

Rosa rugosa ‘Alba’: Vancouver (UBC), Apr

7/78, May 10/77, May 30/78, Oct 31/77.

SOLANI (Kaltenbach), AULACORTHUM

Alstroemeria aurantiaca: Vancouver (UBC),

May 30/78.

Anemone halleri: Vancouver (UBC), May

30/78.

Aquilegia vulgaris: Vancouver, Jun 2/78.

Cerastium tomentosum: Richmond, Jun 3/78.

Dahlia sp: North Vancouver, Jun 14/77.

Dianthus graniticus: Vancouver (UBC), May

30/78.

Fuchsia sp: Vancouver, Aug 23/78.

Lamium amplexicaule: Vancouver (UBC),

Mar 18/77.

Lilium mackliniae: Vancouver (UBC), Jun

2) do:

Magnolia sieboldii: Vancouver (UBC), Jun

19/78.

Rubus idaeus: Vancouver (CDA), Sep 20/78,

Oct 10/78, (In Greenhouse).

Tolmiea menziesii: Surrey, Feb 16/77.

Ulmus glabra ‘Camperdownii’: Vancouver

(UBC), Jun 9/77.

STAPHYLEAE (Koch), RHOPALOSIPHONINUS

Aralia elata: Vancouver (UBC), Jun 3/76.

Yucca filamentosa: Vancouver (UBC), Sep

9/78.

TANACETARIA (Kaltenbach),

MACROSIPHONIELLA

Tanacetum bipinnatum ssp huronense:

Vancouver (UBC), Jul 22/77.

TESTUDINACEUS (Fernie), PERIPH YLLUS

Acer saccharinum: Vancouver (UBC), May

30/78.

*ULMICOLA (Fitch), COLOPHA

Trap: Summerland, Sep 23/75.

VERRUCOSA Gillette, THRIPSAPHIS

Carex glareosa ssp glareosa: Vancouver

(UBC), Jul 22/77.

*VICTORIA Essig, MINDARUS

Abies grandis: Victoria, Jun 7/38, (Essig

1939).

*WAKIBAE (Hottes), FIMBRIAPHIS

Kalmia latifolia ‘Alba’: Vancouver (UBC),

Jun 20/78.

WALSHII (Monell), MYZOCALLIS

Ulmus americana: Vancouver (UBC),

Aug 3/78.

*Aphid species not in the previous lists.

REFERENCES

Eastop, V. F., and D. Hille Ris Lambers. 1976. Survey of the world’s aphids. Dr. W. Junk b.v.,

Publisher, The Hague.

Essig, E. O. 1939. A new aphid of the genus Mindarus from white fir in B.C. (Homoptera,

Aphididae). Pan-Pacific Entomol. 15(3):105-110.

Foottit, R., and M. Mackauer. 1980. The alate virginopara of Gharesia polunini (Homoptera:

Aphidoidea) with notes on the biology. Canad. Ent. 112(1): 47-50.

Forbes, A. R., and C. K. Chan. 1978. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia.

6. Further additions. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 75: 47-52.

Forbes, A. R. and C. K. Chan. 1976. The aphids (Homoptera:Aphididae) of British Columbia.

4. Further additions and corrections. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 73: 57-63.

Forbes, A. R., B. D. Frazer and C. K. Chan. 1974. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British

Coiumbia. 3. Additions and corrections. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 71:43-49.

Forbes, A. R., B. D. Frazer and H. R. MacCarthy. 1973. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of

British Columbia. 1. A basic taxonomic list. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 70: 43-57.

42 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), DEc. 31, 1980

MacDougall, A. P. 1926. An American species of the genus Pachypappella Baker (Hom. Aph.).

Bull. Brooklyn Entomol. Soc. 21(3):119-123.

MacGillivray, M. E., and G. A. Bradley. 1961. A new subgenus and species of Toxopterella Hille

Ris Lambers (Homoptera: Aphididae), from Sorbus. Canad. Ent. 93(11):999-1005.

Wilson, H. F. 1919. Some new lachnids of the genus Lachniella. Canad. Ent. 51(2):41-47.

BOOK REVIEW

THE MOSQUITOES OF CANADA

D. M. Wood, P. T. Dang and R. A. Ellis. 1979. Publication 1686. Research Branch,

Agriculture Canada, Ottawa. 390pp., 75 plates and maps, 203 text figs.

This book, the sixth in the praiseworthy

series of Insects and Arachnids of Canada, has

already received several favourable reviews.

Since it introduces a number of innovative and

some controversial ideas, no apology is needed

for reviewing it again with particular reference

to our fauna in British Columbia.

The seven introductory sections are packed

with information that any entomologist should

find useful. My only serious criticism of the

volume begins in the part dealing with anat-

omy, where five essential diagrams, showing

the positions of taxonomically important setae,

are crowded into a space of 12 x 17cm. Admit-

tedly, the format of the series is octavo (15 x

23 cm), but most of these diagrams could have

covered a full page to advantage. The plates

showing parts of the larva, the adult thorax

and the male terminalia of each species could

also have been larger; I believe such accurate

and artistic work deserves a full quarto page in

the style of Carpenter & La Casse. Special praise

is due to the airbrush expert who transformed

the photographs of tarsal claws into works

of art. There is no explanation of why Aedes

nigripes is singled out to have its thoracic setae

drawn on P1. 37. This may confuse someone

comparing it with impiger which, although

blessed with a similar crop of these outgrowths,

appears naked on Pl. 31. I was interested to

see several well-known taxonomists turn the

book upside-down to study Figs. 10 & 11 where

the male terminalia are drawn with the anterior

at the top of the page for the first time in over

a century. Some of the terminology applied to

the sclerites of the thorax is new and is being

generally accepted, but I wish the authors had

also revised the terms, hypostigmal and sub-

spiracular that refer to different areas of the

mesothoracic anepisternum. It has never been

clear to me why the Greek area should be im-

mediately, and the Latin-some distance, below

the spiracle.

For British Columbian users the keys work

satisfactorily. The use of ‘‘hand lens only”

characters for the larvae is admirable and, for

the first time, I have found it possible to iden-

tify field-collected female aedines with reason-

able confidence, although in the lower main-

land it is still possible to confuse punctor, abor-

iginis and hexodontus without a _ reference

collection of reared adults.

An errant numeral in the key to male aedines

was pointed out in the Bull.Ent.Soc.Can.:

couplet 13 should lead to 14 & 19 not 14 & 18

and couplet 17 should lead to 18 not to fitchii.

Some other inconsistencies should also be cor-

rected; for example the numbering of the wing

veins. They differ in the initial description

(p.34) and in the similar aedines, dorsalis and

melanimon which have acquired two extra

branches of the Media. References to meso-

thoracic seta 1-M being branched only in the

larvae of campestris, dorsalis and schizopinax

are misleading. There are other species in which

this seta is branched, but in no other is it as

long as head setae 5 & 6-C. In melanimon, the

description of siphon seta 1-S does not corres-

pond with the figure and in spencerii both is

its description and figure differ from Table 3.

Also in Table 3, the lengths of seta 3-M and 4-P

appear to be reversed and there are a few other

typographical slips where setae S, X, M and P

are confused; in context, however, their mean-

ing is usually clear. The correct reference is

given for Hearle’s description of A. pacificensis

but the date is misprinted on p.151. There was

perhaps some difference of opinion between the

authors on the spelling of the name Degeer,

which Ellis & Brust (1973) defend. All refer-

ences in this book are to De Geer, including,

wrongly, that to the above paper.

Peter Belton

Pestology Centre, Biological Sciences

Simon Fraser University

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), DEc. 31, 1980 43

SIPHONAPTERA FROM MAMMALS IN ALASKA.

SUPPLEMENT II.

SOUTHEASTERN ALASKA

GLENN E. HAAS', LOYAL JOHNSON?, AND NIXON WILSON:

ABSTRACT

Eleven taxa are treated in this first annotated check list of mammal fleas

of Alaska east of longitude 141° west. Twelve new records of six taxa are

listed including the first record of Myodopsylla gentilis J & R for south-

eastern Alaska. Associations with 12 species of wild mammals, the Norway

rat, dog, and man are listed. The zoogeographic position of southeastern

Alaska as a pathway and a destination of two Vancouverian taxa and seven

Vancouverian-Cordilleran taxa is related to Alaska west of 141° and to

British Columbia. Ranges of Monopsyllus ciliatus protinus (Jordan) and

possibly Hystrichopsylla dippiei spinata Holland were extended to Baranof

Island by transplants of red squirrels and martens, respectively.

INTRODUCTION

Mammal fleas of British Columbia and

Alaska are among the better known North

American Siphonaptera. Holland (1949a, 1963)

listed 78 species for British Columbia and 34

for Alaska. Other records augmented the Alas-

kan list to 39 species, but prior to our studies,

only 8 species were known to occur in south-

eastern Alaska. We added the cat flea (Haas

et al. 1978), a bear flea (Haas et al. 1979) anda

bat flea (reported here). Thus, we present a

check list of only 11 species despite the im-

portance of southeastern Alaska in the distri-

bution patterns of northwestern North Ameri-

can fleas. Doubtless several additional species

will be discovered when other wild mammals

are examined.

In this report southeastern Alaska is con-

sidered to be the narrow strip of coastal low-

land, nearby islands, and bordering mountains

lying east of longitude 141° west. Climatologi-

cally this rugged region is dominated by mari-

time influences, characterized by small tem-

perature variations, high humidity, frequent

fog, considerable cloudiness, and abundant

precipitation (Watson 1959). The two main

vegetation types are coastal spruce-hemlock

forests and alpine tundra (Viereck and Little

1972). The mammal fauna consists of elements

found in other regions of Alaska, the Yukon

Territory, and British Columbia (Manville and

Young 1965; Youngman 1975; Cowan and

Guiguet 1965). Transplants have extended the

ranges of certain species and imports have

added others (Elkins and Nelson 1954; Burris

and McKnight 1973; Manville and Young

1965).

‘404 Santa Fe Ave., No. 104, Flagstaff, Az, U.S.A. 86001.

*State of Alaska Department of Fish and Game, P.O. Box

499, Sitka, AK, U.S.A. 99835.

*Department of Biology, University of Northern Iowa, Cedar

Falls, IA, U.S.A. 50613.

Materials and methods are as used in pre

vious studies (Haas et al. 1978, 1979). The re-

sults are presented in a similar style, but the

host-flea list includes records from previous

reports.

host-flea list approx. here...

ANNOTATED LIST

Pulicidae

1. Ctenocephalides felis felis (Bouche)

Cosmopolitan and probably introduced on

domestic cats and dogs. The first collection was

in 1976 from a dog in Sitka (Haas et al. 1978),

and the second was in 1978 from man in Juneau

(Haas et al. 1979).

Hystrichopsyllidae

2. Hystrichopsylla dippiei spinata Holland

Holland (1957) recorded a female of this

species from Ketchikan. We were able to place

females to subspecies after collecting males.

We recorded two males and four females on

martens from Baranof and Magoun Islands

(Haas et al. 1978) and one female from a mink

on Baranof Island (Haas et al. 1979).

Record — Baranof Island: one female, on

marten, 24.XII.1977, L. Johnson.

3. Hystrichopsylla occidentalis occidentalis

Holland

Recorded by Holland (1957) from Prince of

Wales Island (one female) and Juneau (two

males). Campos and Stark (1979) mapped

these records and provided drawings of sterna

VIII and IX of a Juneau male but uninten-

tionally omitted some data. Holland (in litt.)

informed us that the two males from Juneau

(Salmon Creek) were collected from a Norway

rat on 20.X1I.1953 by R. B. Williams. The com-

mon hosts of this subspecies in southcentral

Alaska are shrews, red backed voles, and tundra

voles (Haas et al. 1979).

44 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), Dec. 31, 1980

Mammalian hosts of fleas in the annotated list

Sorex vagrans Baird

Myotis lucifugus (LeConte)

Tamiasciurus hudsonicus (Erxleben)

Peromyscus maniculatus (Wagner)

Peromyscus sitkensis Merriam

Clethrionomys rutilus Pallas

Microtus oeconomus (Pallas)

Microtus sp.

Rattus norvegicus (Berkenhout)

Zapus hudsonius (Zimmermann)

Canis familiaris L.

Ursus arctos L.

Martes americana (Turton)

Mustela vison Schreber

Lutra canadensis (Schreber )

Homo sapiens L.

Vagrant Shrew: 3*, 7

Little Brown Myotis: 6

Red Squirrel: 8

Deer Mouse: 9

Sitka Mouse: 4, 9

Northern Red-backed Vole: 7

Tundra Vole (nest): 3

Vole: 5

Norway Rat: 3

Meadow Jumping Mouse: 7

Dog: 1

Grizzly Bear: 10

Marten: 2, 8, 11

Mink: 2, 8, 11

River Otter: 11

Man: 1

*Species of fleas as numbered in the list.

The new locality record on Baranof Island

is very near Katlian Bay where the H. dippiei

spinata female was collected from a mink (Haas

et al. 1979). The only published sympatric

locality is Vancouver, British Columbia (Hol-

land 1957). Our male specimen of H. o. occi-

dentalis was the only flea we found in a tundra

vole nest under a partly buried log in a grassy

meadow where we also trapped two uninfested

tundra voles. The soil surrounding the cup-

shaped nest was moist, but the inner part of

the nest was dry. The infested shrew was trap-

ped in a grassy meadow populated by many

shrews and long-tailed voles (Microtus longi-

caudus (Merriam)).

Records — Baranof Island, Sitka, 13.6 km

N (Katlian River): one male, tundra vole nest,

16.V1I.1979, G. E. H. & L. J. Yakutat, 4.4 km

SE: one female, on a vagrant shrew, 21.V1.1979.

4. Catallagia charlottensis (Baker)

According to Holland (1963) this species has

a distribution similar to that of H. 0. occiden-

talis but is found mostly on Peromyscus mice.

Our specimens infested a Sitka mouse trapped

in a mature Sitka spruce forest.

Record — Baranof Island, Sitka, 8.8 km N

(Starrigavan Creek): two males, one female,

on Sitka mouse, 16.VI.1979.

5. Delotelis hollandi Smit

The only collection data for this microtine

flea are those of Smit (1953) for a partially

castrated male: Salmon Creek (5.6 km N of

Juneau), Microtus sp., 30.1V.1950, R. B. Wil-

liams. Smit (1952), however, mentioned having

additional specimens from Alaska that he did

not include in the type series when he described

D. hollandi.

Ischnopsyllidae

6. Myodopsylla gentilis Jordan and

Rothschild

Our record of this western bat flea is the

first for southeastern Alaska.

Record — Admiralty Island, Hood Bay:

one female, on a little brown myotis, 1.VI.1979,

Ceratophyllidae

7. Megabothris abantis (Rothschild)

This western flea of voles and jumping mice

was mapped south of latitude 60° by Hopla

(1965), but the data were not included. We

collected three jumping mice on 21 June and

one on 22 June; all were infested with an aver-

age of four M. abantis. Holland (1963) consider-

ed the long-tailed vole to be a common host

of this flea, but none of the seven we trapped

in small grassy meadows near Yakutat on 21

June 1979 was infested. The infested jumping

mice and shrew were trapped nearby in a moist,

sedgy meadow. The infested red-backed vole

was trapped in a willow thicket at another

locality.

Records — Yakutat, 4.4 km SE: one female,

on northern red-backed vole, 21.VI.1979; 6.0

km SE: one female, on a vagrant shrew,

21.VI.1979, G. E. H. & S. Strange; two males,

seven females, 21.VI.1979, and three males,

four females, 22.VI.1979, on meadow jumping

mice, G. E.H.&S.S.

8. Monopsyllus ciliatus protinus (Jordan)

This Pacific coast flea is a parasite of red

squirrels in Alaska and is known from Juneau,

Salmon Creek, Ketchikan, and Baranof Island

(Johnson 1961; Jellison and Senger 1976;

Hopla 1965; Haas et al. 1978). Other hosts were

mink and marten. Johnson’s monograph of the

genus includes a drawing of the clasper of a

male from Juneau.

9. Opisodasys keeni (Baker)

This is a flea of Peromyscus mice that Hol-

land (1963) reported to occur from extreme

southwest (sic) Alaska, including Prince of

J. ENTOMOL. Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), Dec. 31, 1980 45

Wales Island, to California; on deer and Sitka

mice. Manville and Young (1965) stated that in

Alaska, Sitka mice are known only from Bar-

anof, Chichagof, Warren, Duke, Coronation,

and Forrester Islands: other specified islands

and the mainland west to Glacier Bay are popu-

lated by deer mice.

Record — Admiralty Island, Hood Bay: two

females, on deer mouse, 1.VI.1979, L. J.

Vermipsyllidae

10. Chaetopsylla tuberculaticeps (Bezzi)

This flea was collected recently from grizzly

bears on Admiralty and Chichagof Islands

(Haas et al. 1979).

11. Chaetopsylla floridensis (1. Fox)

The first collection of this mustelid flea in

southeastern Alaska was a series of six speci-

mens from mink, Ketchikan, January 1962

(Hopla 1965). Recently we obtained additional

specimens from marten, mink, and river otter

on Baranof Island and from mink on Admir-

alty Island (Haas et al. 1978, 1979).

DISCUSSION

Scudder (1979) reviewed many classification

systems of geographic distributions of flora

and fauna as a service to entomologists seeking

patterns for fitting locality records. He also

recognized the problem of apparent lack of

agreement of distributions of many insect taxa

with the various zoogeographic divisions. Hol-

and (1958) classified northern fleas according

to six different distribution patterns. He re-

fined his classification system when he special-

ized on fleas of Alaska and emphasized that

certain species of fleas have distributions that

do not coincide with those of their preferred

hosts (Holland 1963).

A classification of mammal fleas of south-

eastern Alaska modified from Holland (1963)

is as follows:

Cosmopolitan 1. C. f. felis

Holarctic 10. C. tuberculaticeps (France

to Montana)

Nearctic

Vancouverian

4. C. charlottensis

8. M. c. protinus (Western

species )

Vancouverian-Cordilleran

2. H. d. spinata (Transcontin-

ental species)

3. H. o. occidentalis (Western

species)

. D. hollandi (Western genus)

. M. gentilis

. M. abantis

. O. keeni

11. C. floridensis

The distinction between Vancouverian and

Cordilleran fleas fades at higher latitudes.

OIG OH

Some mammals that are montane in southern

parts of their ranges tend to occur at low eleva-

tions farther north. Hopla (1965) concentrated

on Alaska west of the Yukon Territory and he

classified the fleas according to the Biotic Pro-

vinces of Dice. Thus, certain of Holland’s (1963)

Vancouverian (nos. 3, 4, 8, 9) and Cordilleran

Group B fleas (nos. 5, 7) became grouped as

members of the same Biotic Province, the Sit-

kan, and Hopla named this assemblage Pacific

Northwest for the probable origin of its

members. He also included M. gentilis (no. 6).

“The Sitkan Biotic Province encompasses

southeastern Alaska and extends west along

the gulf coast to the west shore of Cook Inlet

(Hopla 1965). Six fleas of southeastern Alaska

range beyond, i.e. to the southwest (nos. 3, 4,

7), west (nos. 6, 7), and north into the interior

(nos. 7, 10, 11). Three others (nos. 1, 5, 8) range

to or almost to Cook Inlet. Only two (nos. 2,

9) apparently reach the northern limits of their

ranges in southeastern Alaska. All Nearctic

taxa (except perhaps no. 11, C. floridensis)

must have advanced northwestward from their

refugia south of British Columbia as ice age

glaciers retreated (Holland 1963; Hopla 1965).

Man has enlarged the distributions of fleas

in southeastern Alaska by transplanting and

possibly by importing mammals. Norway rats

and house mice were introduced and establish-

ed in several localities (Manville and Young

1965), but no fleas specific to these rodents

are recorded. One Norway rat and one rat’s nest

collected in Sitka, June 1979, were uninfested.

Transplants of red squirrels from Juneau to

Baranof and Chichagof Islands in 1930 and

1931 (Elkins and Nelson 1954; Burris and Mc-

Knight 1973), however, doubtless resulted in

establishment of M. c. protinus on _ these

islands, although there are no records for

Chichagof. Transplants of martens were made

from 1934 to 1952 from several localities in

southeastern and southcentral Alaska to Prince

of Wales, Baranof, and Chichagof Islands

(Elkins and Nelson 1954; Burris and McKnight

1973). If H. d. spinata cannot be collected

from localities between Baranof Island and

Revillagigedo Island, then apparently this flea

was introduced to Baranof Island on martens.

In conclusion, southeastern Alaska is

important in distribution patterns of north-

western North American mammal fleas

primarily as both pathway and destination of

eight or nine Nearctic taxa that advanced north

from their refugia south of British Columbia

after the last ice age ended. All but two or three

mammal fleas of southeastern Alaska, there-

fore, are merely range extensions of members

of the British Columbia fauna. This concept

supports Scudder’s (1979) remark that there

is little evidence of a distinctive Sitkan fauna.

In fact, we expect that additions of indigenous

46 J. ENTOMOL. Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 77 (1980), DEc. 31, 1980

fleas to the southeastern Alaskan faunal list continuing help with our flea studies; R. Ball

will be of taxa already recorded for British and S. Strange, Yakutat, and Dr. G. R.

Columbia by Holland (1949a, 1949b, 1954, Markham, Sitka, for assisting with field work;

1958). M. J. Smolen, Carnegie Museum of Natural

History, Pittsburgh, PA, for identifying the

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS shrews; and M. K. Gorham for typing the

We thank Dr. G. P. Holland, Ottawa, for his manuscript.

REFERENCES

Burris, O. E. and D. E. McKnight. 1973. Game transplants in Alaska. Alaska Dep. Fish Game

Wildl. Tech. Bull. No. 4, 57 pp.

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description of a new subspecies (Siphonaptera: Hystrichopsyllidae). J. Med. Ent. 15:431-444.

Cowan, I. McT. and C. J. Guiguet. 1965. The Mammals of British Columbia. Third ed. (rev.). Brit.

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Elkins, W. A. and U. C. Nelson. 1954. Wildlife introductions and transplants in Alaska. Proc.

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Haas, G. E., R. E. Barrett and N. Wilson. 1978. Siphonaptera from mammals in Alaska. Can. J.

Zool. 56:333-338.

Haas, G. E., T. Rumfelt, L. Johnson and N. Wilson. 1979. Siphonaptera from mammals in Alaska.

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Holland, G. P. 1949a. A revised check list of the fleas of British Columbia. Ent. Soc. Brit. Columb.

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(Siphonaptera: Hystrichopsyllidae: Neopsyllinae). Can. Ent. 86:381-384.

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