LALILSNI NVINOSHLINS S3iuvud ITLLIBRARI ES SMITHSONIAN _ INSTITUTION NOILNLI

= = ; < a F = < wy z=

ge > 4 re : 4 ra \) ‘3 =

f WY J ro) 3 '@ Wer y 2 oO Se YW Im

iy, 2 g : g 2N& 3

“iy * ee : = = 2%

G = ~ ‘ ‘ Z

= Ww) eee ” ae a

BRARI ES SMITHSONIAN _ INSTITUTION, NOILNILSNI_NVINOSHLINS°$3 tuvugi7_ LIBRAR

w 3 ul B v: d

re = ox =A te 4

=< <x | x =A

te S : 3 - S

Z : : SR :

= *Sa1uVY aI LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILALIL

ig <a = = Si re =z

= ° oO wm °

= ea E Pe) =

b> Ee > = ~ > b~

= - = — =

m Se m z m 2

” om sem =<

3RARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILALILSNI_ NVINOSHLINS S3IMVNSIT LIE RAR

5 =z | = Wy 2 : 2

= z on VJielh foe,

: aN Ee A g Oa

2 re = Y for = z, =

: : a 5 : a

SLOLILSNI NVINOSHLIWS ° _LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN_INSTITUTION

o = d w! &

= << = 2 “S =

= or c a ie me

= on = om” = fee)

| > * ol z : 2 ra

ot oa |

SRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI NVINOSHLIWS Sa1uvugiT_LIBRAR|

z a , = ins

oO a 2} as RX .e)

~ > ps - o Xs i a

= LG a = Aa ‘ . . s >

” Ute m ” pat ” m

; | a rie a . ” NOLLALIL

LNLILSNI NVINOSHLIWS S31NVuaIT mt INSTITUTION, NO

= < = <x ce =

= 4 pf Ay ‘Zz = Z NY; =

3 5 Gf 2 i BGS G

c 2 Ugg : 2 2 %

a 2 a . 2 . ~ 2 :

INSTITUTION NOILALILSNI NVINOSHLINS S31uvugi7_LIBRARI

Ww) > op) = wa >

uw w tu Fe ui oH

— oy _ ped wes ~

Oo . — oO — oe =F

< 3; a < = < =

a a S fc S

af = | a v4 - =

LALILSNINVINOSHLIWS 2SatavudiT LIBRARIES INSTITUTION | NOLLMLIL:

a Q = mo = Z

a 5 a = a =

2 i a a Zz E

m <~N ch m eS m =

W} . =en uw =—_ Bee 1 :

RARITIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. NOILALILSNI_ NVINOSHLINS S31YVUGIT LIBRARI

- = z 2 Ee i t < = -

O 0 Ae WiZ tye. 2 o hes

2 = = Py: Sagi z i

= = >” = > =

i: We == ? ~~, amas Wwe —

SHLIWS SAlYVYdIT LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILLALILSNI_ NVINOSHLIN

= < <<" = ‘ = a

= PS a P Ws = = Ricaem

= 2 NS 5 2 6

Cx ny ° : op) ep) Ww

O » a X oO ro) om a

2 - = a k

> as = > > =

= ” : im a, Zz w

SONIAN INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI NVINOSHLINS S3Iy¥vuait SMITHSONIA

SHLINS SAIYVYUSIT LIBRARIES

“

SONIAN INSTITUTION

NOILNLILSNI

LIBRARIES

NOILNLILSNI

. -

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILOLILSNI NVINOSHLIW

SaINVYUGIT LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN

INSTITUTION NOILNILILSNI

INSTITUTION

Saiuvyudi

INSTITUTION

NOILNLILSNI NVINOSHLINS SS1YVYUSIT LIBRARIES

NVINOSHLINS S3IYVYERIT LIBRARIES

NVINOSHLIWS

VYdIT LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILALILSNI_ NVINOSHLIN

SMITHSONIAN

NYINOSHLIWS

NX |

SMITHSONIAN

SHLINS’ S314

NOILNLILSNI

SONIAN INSTITUTION NOILOLILSNI NVINOSHLINS S31uvudIT LIBRARIES SMITHSONIA

INSTITUTION

SAS

INSTITUTION

Vi Vil

SHLIWS SMITHSONIAN NOLLNLILSNI NVINOSHLIV

S S3IYVYEIT LIBRARIES SMITHSONI

SAIYVYEIT LIBRARIES

SONIAN INSTITUTION NOILOALILSNI

NVINOSHLINS S31iuvuagl LIBRARIES

NVINOSHLINS S3JIY¥VYEIT LIBRARIES

NVINOSHLIW

SMITHSONIAN

Saruvugi

: E

z _

3 2

: :

= =

ep) 17)

8 = b = a s

,, a =

Up > E : : 2 =;

he a (= ox $

g 3 e = 5 = E

Oo as re) an | fe) an

=z aS z ~N 23 Pad eal

SHLINS SSIYVYUSGIT LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILONLILSNI

3 E a ee 8 5 z

WLW oad > = p< >

YE 2 - "2 = z

WS 2 m : m a m

— op) as 22) canis 2)

SONIAN ILSNI NVINOSHLINS S3SIYVYUREIT LIBRARIES SMITHSONIA

= 7) rd a) “as w”

: 5 &: = Wy. \«

=z = y Ap, ad 4 Yh, = : —

: 3 LG? 7 aaN.Y

= 2,77 JY’ & eee ta + PS =

= ar i mah = AN =

“ —™

é =

— » \

s —

: Pay ee

F le a?

: {

‘

{

)

—

‘

eh Ladle

a = at nee I a Ee ie ie Cel ag Cite Ss) iia

ISSN #0071-0733 J O U RNA

of the \

ENTOMOLOGIC.

“7 SOCIETY of

BRITISH COLUMBIA

Issued December 31, 1986

ECONOMIC

R.A. Werner, E.J. Holsten & F.L. Hastings — Evaluation of pine oil for protecting white

spruce from spruce beetle (Coleoptera:Scolytidae) attack

M.T. AliNiazee — The European winter moth as a pest of filberts: damage & chemical control .

~ D. Suomi, J.J. Brown & R.D. Akre — Responses to plant extracts of neonatal codling moth

larvae Cydia pomonella (L.) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae: Olethreutinae)

R.I. Alfaro — Mortality & top-kill in Douglas-fir following defoliation by the western spruce

budworm in British Columbia

I.S. Otvos & R.S. Hunt — Evaluation of three types of barriers to trap winter moth

(Lepidoptera:Geometridae) adults

GENERAL

T.L. Shore & R.I. Alfaro — The spruce budworm, Choristoneura fumiferana

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), in British Columbia

R.J. Cannings — Carnus hemapterus (Diptera:Carnidae) an avian nest parasite new to British

Columbia

C.F. Mayes & B.D. Roitberg — Host discrimination in Rhagoletis berberis

B.S. Lindgren — Trypodendron lineatum (Coleoptera:Scolytidae) breeding in big leaf maple,

Acer macrophyllum

D.R. Gillespie — A simple rearing method for fungus gnats Corynoptera sp. (Diptera:Sciaridae)

with notes on life history

M.T. AliNiazee & J.F. Brunner — Apple maggot in the western United States: a review of its

establishment and current approaches to management

M.T. AliNiazee & R.L. Westcott — Distribution of the apple maggot Rhagoletis pomonella

(Diptera: Tephritidae) in Oregon

G. Henderson & R.D. Akre — Morphology of Myrmecophila manni, a myrmecophilous cricket

(Orthoptera:Gryllidae)

TAXONOMIC

G.G.E. Scudder — Additional Heteroptera new to British Columbia

A.R. Forbes & C.K. Chan — The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 14.

Further additions

A.R. Forbes & C.K. Chan — The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 15.

Further additions

P. Belton, G.S. Anderson & G.L. St. Hilaire — A record of the Surinam cockroach in

Vancouver

ERRATUM

ISSN #0071-0733 J O U RNAL

of the

ENTOMOLOGICAL

SOCIETY of

BRITISH COLUMBIA

Vol. 83 Issued December 31, 1986

ECONOMIC

R.A. Werner, E.J. Holsten & F.L. Hastings — Evaluation of pine oil for protecting white

spruce from spruce beetle (Coleoptera:Scolytidae) attack .............. 0000000000 e ee 3

M.T. AliNiazee — The European winter moth as a pest of filberts: damage & chemical control .. 6

D. Suomi, J.J. Brown & R.D. Akre — Responses to plant extracts of neonatal codling moth

larvae Cydia pomonella (L.) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae:Olethreutinae) .................. 12

R.I. Alfaro — Mortality & top-kill in Douglas-fir following defoliation by the western spruce

budwormnn British: Columbia 22 aac . see acute, as os, ene eee es geek 19

I.S. Otvos & R.S. Hunt — Evaluation of three types of barriers to trap winter moth

(Repidoptera- Geomethdde PadUltS® sx seas ees on ed. Lae eae sw SS Sha Peed cla Has 2,

GENERAL

T.L. Shore & R.I. Alfaro — The spruce budworm, Choristoneura fumiferana

(Lepidoptera: [ortricidae), in British Columbia. & y.< 4.<2+ jagreson ox 01 eh eee Gein s es ee os Sl

R.J. Cannings — Carnus hemapterus (Diptera:Carnidae) an avian nest parasite new to British

UM Datars cap, came tel LG Raney PN das Fs nat AN eel 38

C.F. Mayes & B.D. Roitberg — Host discrimination in Rhagoletis berberis ................ 39

B.S. Lindgren — Trypodendron lineatum (Coleoptera:Scolytidae) breeding in big leaf maple,

VAC CT TLACTODILY ILLEN rete cts ato he oe A CNIS. Nelda BS hac’ 4 av clayey nse, b-siass epee Sco eons “4

D.R. Gillespie — A simple rearing method for fungus gnats Corynoptera sp. (Diptera: Sciaridae)

AVILMINI@tES ONMEe NISUOLY . - UMM: a ars ec ow a aA eas cies, Ait Ads vaaedasar Sse Wa ara aaa eee 45

M.T. AliNiazee & J.F. Brunner — Apple maggot in the western United States: a review of its

establishment and current approaches to management ................00 000 ce eee eee 49

M.T. AliNiazee & R.L. Westcott — Distribution of the apple maggot Rhagoletis pomonella

(Diptera: Tephnitidac)inrOrepon G2 2.22 Sei. are ise 2s ee wee ee es 54

G. Henderson & R.D. Akre — Morphology of Myrmecophila manni, a myrmecophilous cricket

(OrmhopteraGrysidae)) 2 20c te ret ck ee oro rae GaN ea ens 3 2 ine ena ee a7

TAXONOMIC

G.G.E. Scudder — Additional Heteroptera new to British Columbia ...................... 63

A.R. Forbes & C.K. Chan — The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 14.

| SHUT ed eYer ee Y 6 (61106) | anes.” oer a nA a ge age ene ef mere OY Ot err a Ue 66

A.R. Forbes & C.K. Chan — The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 15.

ICE ACCUIOOS ee sereeaeae ee cust ena ete ew eu er ae See a eae are 70

P. Belton, G.S. Anderson & G.L. St. Hilaire — A record of the Surinam cockroach in

VAIN OUIN Sites ce pomteateeren oe nee eee a peeerneee oo, cet Wo comme MG aan sees er ree eases pees 73

PSTN LOIN irr ele Rca a asta oie Beaters ay ae es en ose ts ua Mie ae AP wel Ave ea.cen wae 65

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

DIRECTORS OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

OF BRITISH COLUMBIA FOR 1985-1986

President

Rob Cannings

B.C. Provincial Museum, Victoria

President-Elect

Bernard Roitberg

Simon Fraser University, Burnaby

Past President

Nello Angerilli

Agriculture Canada, Summerland

Secretary-Treasurer

Lee Humble

Pacific Forestry Centre, Victoria

Editorial Committee (Journal)

H. R. MacCarthy R. Ring D. Raworth

Editor (Boreus)

R. Cannings

Directors

C. Guppy (Ist) G. Jamieson (lst) J. Sweeney (2nd)

S. Lindgren (2nd) M. Isman (2nd)

Hon. Auditor

I. Otvos

Regional Director of National Society

R. Cannings

B.C. Provincial Museum, Victoria

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

EVALUATION OF PINE OIL FOR PROTECTING WHITE SPRUCE

FROM SPRUCE BEETLE (COLEOPTERA:SCOLYTIDAE) ATTACK!

R.A. WERNER, E.H. HOLSTEN’ and F.L. HASTINGS:

Institute of Northern Forestry

Pacific Northwest Research Station

USDA Forest Service

Fairbanks, Alaska 99775-5500

ABSTRACT

The effectiveness of two formulations of pine oil (Norpine 65 and BBR-2) in protecting

white spruce from attacks by spruce beetles was tested in south-central Alaska. Fifty

percent of the pheromone-baited trees were protected by Norpine 65 for 1 year after

treatment whereas only 33 % were protected by BBR-2. Baited trees sprayed with Norpine

65 and BBR-2 were attacked less frequently than were baited check trees and sustained a

lower attack density per tree. The percentage of trees protected by Norpine 65 was 13%

greater than those protected by BBR-2. Although 85 % of the trees treated with Norpine 65

were attacked, the attack density was approximately half that of trees treated with BBR-2.

INTRODUCTION

The spruce beetle (Dendroctonus rufipennis [Kirby]) is

the most destructive insect of white spruce (Picea gluaca

[Moench] Voss) in south-central Alaska. Much of the

timber loss during the past 10 yeasrs has been in areas

with high-value trees, such as recreational and residential

areas (Werner and Holsten 1983). Lindane is currently

registered in the United States by the Environmental

Protection Agency for spruce beetle control; however,

forest resource managers and home owners are reluctant

to use lindane because of its high toxicity to mammals and

its persistent residues. For these and other reasons there is

a need to develop methods for protecting high-value,

individual white spruce trees from attack by spruce bee-

tles—methods that are effective and acceptable to the

public. A naturally occurring compound that appears to

repel bark beetles is pine oil. This compound is a by-

product of the sulphate pulping process and is a complex

mixture of naturally occurring derived secondary and

tertiary terpene alcohols and other terpene hydrocarbons.

Norpine 65‘ and BBR-2° are two compounds consisting

of mixtures of terpene hydrocarbons that have been field

tested against ambrosia beetles, Trypodendron lineatum

Olivier, (Nijholt 1980) and Dendroctonus bark beetles

(Nijholt and McMullen 1980, Nijholt et al. 1981, Rich-

mond 1985, McMullen and Safranyik 1985). Neither

compound is currently registered as an insecticide in the

United States.

Nijholt et al. (1981) recorded a 67% reduction in

spruce beetle attacks on white spruce trees treated with

Norpine 65. Richmond (1985) reported that Norpine 65

provided 100% protection to lodgepole pine (Pinus con-

torta var. latifolia Engelm.) from attack by mountain pine

beetle (D. ponderosae Hopkins). In comparison, BBR-2

protected 47 % of the treated trees. BBR-2 and Norpine 65

protected lodgepole pine where mountain pine beetle

populations were low, but the compounds were less effe-

citve when beetle pressure was high (McMullen and

'This article reports the results of research only. Mention of a proprietary

product or pesticide does not constitute an endorsement or a recommenda-

tion for use by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, nor does it imply

registration under FIRFRA, as amended.

2State and Private Forestry, Forest Pest Management, USDA Forest

Service, Anchorage, Alaska 99508.

3Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Southeast Forest Experiment Station,

USDA Forest Service, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 227709.

4Northwest Petrochemical Corp., Anacortes, Washington.

5Safer Agro-chem Ltd., Victoria, British Columbia.

Safranyik 1985).

Field tests were conducted in south-central Alaska to

test Norpine 65 and BBR-? as sprays for protecting white

spruce from attack by spruce beetle. The tests were

conducted in 1983 and 1984 along Kenai Lake in the

Seward Ranger District, Chugach National Forest.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In 1983, 30 uninfested live white spruce trees with an

average diameter at breast height (dbh) of 30.86 + 6.65

cm and an average height of 17.6 + 0.60 m were selected

’ in a northeast aspect stand that was heavily interspersed

with beetle-infested trees. Fifteen trees were randomly

assigned to each of two treatments—BBR-? and untreated

checks. In 1984, 50 uninfested live white spruce were

randomly selected in an area adjacent to the 1983 test site.

Treatments consisted of 40 trees sprayed with Norpine 65

and 10 untreated check trees. Trees were located a mini-

mum of 30 m from other treatment trees. BBR-2 and

Norpine 65 were applied undiluted with a garden-type 8-1

pressure sprayer to the bark surface of the tree bole (2 | per

tree) to a height of 3 m until the bark was thoroughly wet.

To test the effectiveness of the two pine oil formula-

tions, treated and untreated check trees were baited with 1

ml of aggregation pheromone frontalin (Werner and Hol-

sten 1984) for 60 days after treatment. The pheromone

was dispersed from perforated polyethylene vials at-

tached directly to the south side of the trees at breast

height. A 20- by 50-cm piece of wire hardware cloth

(mesh size 6.3 by 6.3 mm) coated with Stikem Special®

was attached to the bole of each tree directly above the

pheromone dispenser to compare the number of spruce

beetles visiting the treated and untreated trees.

Treatment efficacy was computed by recording the

number of attacks on the lower 3 m of the bole and the

number of trees that died after treatment. Trees were

examined at 3 months after treatment to record trap catch

and attack densities in the sticky traps; tree mortality was

recorded at 13 months. Successful attacks were charac-

terized by pitch tubes or entrance holes (Hard et al.

1983). Live trees with no attacks or < 10 attacks/3 m of

lower bole were considered to be protected by the treat-

ment. Analysis of variance and Waller and Duncan’s

Bayes LSD test (Duncan 1975) were used to compare

beetle attack means and sticky trap catch means.

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

"((G/6L ueounq) GS saheg s,uedung pue wal (eM £G0°0 < d) JUadassLp AyQuediyLuBLs you

Que SMOU ULUZLM 49979 aWeS aya Aq PaMO| LO} SaNLeA

- 68

PL +e OL + 8b

eZ + OL PLL + €8

SALLY peaq

yeu)

(v86L) G9-9uULdUON

“9LOq 94 DU JO WE UBMOL DY UO $y9eR7e JO UBqUNU UPSW

"JUaUIZeIU2 UaTJZe SUZUOW EF] passasse APL LePUOW JauL

(€86L) c-uaa

Ay Lpeyuow YUuIadUaq

9943/S49e}7L “ON UPDW

deu./Sa[jaaq “ON uPA

poyoej4e Sddu. °ON

[82249 “ON

"BYSPTV Ul a[}90q sonids Aq youne wos sonids ayYyM BuTjO9}01d UT SUOTe[NULIOJ [10 ouTd Jo ssousAnOIA “LT ATAVL

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986 5

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Spruce beetle populations were extremely high in the

study areas during 1983 and 1984. Eleven of the BBR-2-

treated trees (or 73%) were attacked compared to 14

(93 %) of the untreated check trees. Sixty-seven percent of

the treated trees died within 1 year after treatment com-

pared to 93 % of the check trees. Thirty-four or 85 % of the

Norpine 65-treated trees were attacked compared to 10 or

100% of the check trees. Fifty percent of the treated trees

died compared to 90% of the check trees. Although

significantly more trees treated with Norpine 65 were

attacked than those treated with BBR-2, the severity of

attack was less. There was no difference between treat-

ments in the percentage of check trees attacked. Those

check trees that lived apparently had little beetle pressure

as few beetles were caught in traps and beetle attack

density was < 3 per 3 m of the lower bole.

Trees treated with Norpine 65 caught significantly

fewer beetles and sustained fewer attacks than untreated

checks; trees treated with BBR-2 caught fewer beetles

than checks but had as many beetle attacks (Table 1).

Norpine 65-treated trees that died caught fewer beetles

and had fewer attacks than trees that died in the BBR-2

treatment. There was no difference in the number of

beetles caught and attack densities between trees treated

with Norpine 65 and BBR-2 and that were still living 13

months after treatment.

Norpine 65 provided more protection to white spruce

from attack by spruce beetles than did BBR-2. The mode

of action of pine oil is unknown but evidence suggests it

acts as an olfactory or gustatory repellent. It remains

questionable whether phytotoxicity occurs in some spe-

cies of conifer; phytotoxicity was not evident in this study.

Although both Norpine 65 and BBR-2 provided some

protection to white spruce from beetle attack, the compo-

sition and concentration of active ingredients was un-

known. In addition, variation of active ingredients

probably occurs among batches of pine oil obtained from

different pulping runs, and until the active ingredients are

known and bioassayed, care must be taken in interpreting

field test results.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank John Hard, Danny Lyon, and Ken Zogas,

USDA Forest Service, Fairbanks and Anchorage,

Alaska, for their assistance in collecting field data, and

George Hudak of the Seward Ranger District, Chugach

National Forest, for providing a site for the study. We are

also grateful to Dave Duncan, Northwest Petrochemical

Corporation, for supplying the Norpine 65 and assisting

in the application.

REFERENCES

Duncan, D.B. 1975. ¢ tests and intervals for comparisons suggested by the data. Biometrics. 31: 339-359.

Hard, J.S., R.A. Werner, and E.H. Holsten. 1983. Susceptiblity of white spruce to attack by spruce beetles during the

early years of an outbreak. Can. Jour. For. Res. 13: 678-684.

McMullen, L.H., and L. Safranyik. 1985. Some effects of pine oil on mountain pine beetle (Coleoptera:Scolytidae) at

different population levels. Journ. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia. 82: 29-30.

Niholt, W.W., and L.H. McMullen. 1980. Pine oil prevents mountain pine beetle attack on living lodgepole pine trees.

Can. For. Serv. Bi-Monthly Res. Notes 36: 1-2.

Niholt, W.W., L.H. McMullen, L. Safranyik. 1981. Pine oil protects living trees from attack by three bark beetle

species, Dendroctonus spp. (Coleoptera:Scolytidae). Can. Ent. 113: 337-340.

Richmond, C.E. 1985. Effectiveness of two pine oils for protecting lodgepole pine from attack by mountain pine beetle

(Coleoptera:Scolytidae). Can. Ent. 117: 1445-1446.

Werner, R.A., and E.H. Holsten. 1983. Mortality of white spruce during a spruce beetle outbreak on the Kenai Peninsula

in Alaska. Can. Journ. For. Res. 13: 96-101.

Werner, R.A., and E.H. Holsten. 1984. Scolytidae associated with felled white spruce in Alaska. Can. Ent. 116: 465-

471.

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

THE EUROPEAN WINTER MOTH AS A PEST OF FILBERTS:

DAMAGE AND CHEMICAL CONTROL!

M.T. ALINIAZEE

Department of Entomology

Oregon State University

Corvallis, Oregon 97331

ABSTRACT

Different chemicals and two spray timing dates were evaluated for control of the

European winter moth, Operophtera brumata (L.) in filbert orchards of Oregon.

Data showed that endosulfan, carbaryl, phosalone, diazinon and fenvalerate were

effective against this pest. A Bacillus thuringiensis product, Thuricide HPC was

found to be ineffective. The timing of the spray treatment was critical. Sprays

applied at 90 - 95% egg hatch (April) were much more effective than the sprays

applied at 50 - 60% egg hatch (March). The spray timing seemed to be less critical

for fenvalerate treatment, which was equally effective at both treatment dates.

The damage caused by O. brumata to filbert trees is described.

INTRODUCTION

The European winter moth, Operophtera brumata

(L.), isacommon pest of tree fruits in most of Europe and

parts of Asia. It is widespread across northern Africa,

temperate Eurasia from Scandinavia, Britain and France

to Japan (Ferguson 1978). It was first recorded from

North America in Nova Scotia in 1949 (Smith 1950),

although there is strong indication that the pest might

have been introduced to that province some time before

1930 (Cunningham er al. 1981). In the Pacific North-

west, the first introduction was detected in 1976 on south-

ern Vancouver Island, B.C. (Gillespie et al. 1978), and

by 1978 near Portland, Oregon. However, a close exami-

nation of insect collection records from Oregon indicates

that several males of O. brumata had been collected in

1958 and later in 1973 from Oregon locations (Ferguson

1978).

The biology of O. brumata has been studied by a

number of workers including Cumming (1961), Embree

(1965, 1970), and Smith (1950) from Nova Scotia, Gil-

lespie et al. (1978) from British Columbia, and J.C.

Miller (personal communication) from Oregon. Miller

has shown that O. brumata is well distributed throughout

the northern Willamette Valley, Oregon and seems to

prefer cultivated filberts (hazelnuts), Corylus avellanae

L., although large populations were also noticed on

Prunus (plum), Malus (apples), Pyrus (pear), and Quer-

cus (oak) species. AliNiazee (1981) reported O. brumata

as a new pest of commercial filberts in the Willamette

Valley. Reported here are studies evaluating the effect of

spray timing on the efficacy of some commonly used

filbert insecticides against O. brumata. Damage caused

on filbert trees is also described.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Studies were conducted in a filbert orchard, heavily

infested with winter moth, located in Washington County,

Oregon. The orchard consisted of two (one with 12-year-

old and the other with 30 - 40-year-old) tree blocks,

approximately 4 ha each. The present study was con-

ducted in the young tree block (consisting of mostly

Barcelona and Daviana varieties) because of its conven-

ience for spraying and sampling. The damage observa-

tions were conducted by collecting and examining 50-100

opening buds or terminals at weekly or biweekly intervals

throughout the months of April, May and June. In 1981,

four insecticide treatments (endosulfan, phosalone, car-

baryl, and Bacillus thuringiensis) were compared with

untreated checks, and in the 1982 season, five insecti-

cides (endosulfan, phosalone, carbaryl, diazinon, and

fenvalerate) were tested. Only those compounds which

were registered for use in filbert system were selected for

this study. The effects of different spray dates on the

efficacy of the treatments were determined by applying

chemicals at two different times: March 20 and April 3 in

1981; and March 29 and April 21 in 1982. These dates

were selected to correspond with approximately 50-60%

and 90-95 % egg hatch in the field. The experimental plots

were set up in a randomized block design with single tree

plots separated by an unsprayed guard tree on all four

sides to avoid spray drift. Each treatment was replicated

four times. Sprays were applied during the early morning

hours (6:00-10:00 a.m.) using a power sprayer with hand

gun at a pressure of 250-300 p.s.i. Trees were sprayed to

the point of drip, and ca. 6-8 liters of spray material was

applied/tree.

Pre- and post-treatment counts were made by selecting

10 opening buds or terminals/tree at random at a height of

1.5-2.0 m above ground, approximately at the mid-can-

opy. These terminals were then brought to the laboratory

and examined under a binocular microscope for winter

moth damage. Data were analyzed using ANOVA and the

means were separated using Duncan’s Multiple Range

Test.

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986 7

Fig. 1. Shot-hole leaf feeding damage caused by O. brumata.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Damage. The damage caused by the winter moth larvae

on filbert trees resembles that of other native geometrids,

including the western winter moth, Operophtera occiden-

talis (Hulst) and the Danby’s winter moth O. danbyi

(Hulst). However, both of these species are less common

on filberts, and were rarely found in the present study. On

the contrary, almost all early season damage in the study

orchards was caused by O. brumata. The seasonal cycle

of O. brumata appears to be well synchronized with the

development of filbert trees, making it the most easily

accessible plant for larval damage early in the season.

The larval damage caused by O. brumata was visible as

early as middle to late March during 1981 and 1982, and

continued for another 6-8 weeks. The early damage was

caused by indiscriminate larval feeding on opening buds

in March. Larvae made holes in and fed on the bud

material by boring inside. Both vegetative and fruiting

buds were affected. As the season progressed, the larvae

started to feed on young and newly opened leaves thus

causing a shot-hole effect. (Fig. 1). At this stage, their

feeding damage resembled the damage caused by another

insect, the Syneta beetle Syneta albida Lec., which ap-

pears in the orchards slightly later. The winter moth

damage became more pronounced as the trees started to

grow and form a canopy. Heavily infested trees were

generally full of leaves with holes, and were unable to

provide any shade. Eventually these leaves withered

away and fell, causing defoliation (Fig. 2).

Chemical Control. Data (Tables 1 and 2) show differen-

tial susceptiblity of winter moths to different test chemi-

cals. An examination of the results of different treatment

dates suggests that timing appears to be a critical factor in

chemical control of this pest. For example, in 1981 trials,

the first spray applied on March 20 provided inadequate

control (Table 1). Although the infestations were notice-

ably reduced in all treatments except Bacillus thuringien-

sis (formulation Thuricide HPC), the control achieved

was inadequate to reduce damage. However, perform-

ance of the same insecticides improved substantially

when they were applied on April 3, about two weeks after

the first treatment (Table 2). Among the chemicals tested

in 1981 (Table 2) endosulfan provided excellent control,

followed by carbaryl and phosalone. The microbial insec-

ticide Bacillus thuringiensis was less effective in both

early and late treatments, although its performance also

improved in late treatment plots.

In 1982, two additional chemicals, diazinon and fenva-

lerate were included in the trial and B. thuringiensis was

deleted because of its ineffectiveness in 1981 trials. Data

(Table 3) indicate that endosulfan and fenvalerate both

performed extremely well; the infestation was reduced

from 15% in control to 0% in treated plots. Other tested

chemicals, diazinon, carbaryl and phosalone provided

moderate control. However, statistically non-significant

differences were found among these treatments. Late

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

*TeTTSe_ZeU peye[nuz0OJZ TenQoVv le

*syooTq Apnqas eyy AnoyhnozyA wAozZTun AAA SEM UOTReSASSJUT SYR 3eYR pueR

peqsesJuyT e1eM STeUTULIEZ SYR JO QueDdzed qs Sy 0G peMoYS € TTAdy uO peyZoONpuod juNOoDd queuwjeei1q-9e1d petoog lz

°3S0L

ehuey eTdTAINW s,ueounq butsn (¢go° = q) AQuezezztp ATAueoTJTubts You oze AaqQ eT sues Aq peMOTTOJ suroy /=

qe o’°st q S*Le q G°Le --- "Moeyds psezeserzqun

qe o°ot qe 0°ot q 0°Or [3b C/T ODdH SepTOTAnuL

qe o°ot qe o°st qe o°st g°0 o”F € suoTesoyd

e g°2 esg°2 Be G°L O°T dM OS TAAeqzeD

2 0°0 qe so°L qe o°st G°O dM 0G UeFTNSOpus

skep 72 sXep Lt sep £ TeB ooT/IWV AT STeOTWeYO

ebesog

giz queuzesz3 aeqge STeuTwasy FO UOTReASesuL jUsdASg

“1861 ‘UOsaIO ‘AunoD uo uIYse ‘SOqTY

Ul DIDUNAG DAajydoladQ \SULESE SIPIONIOSUI Pa}do]aS SUIOS JO (QZ YoIePY) JUSUTJeON ATVs Jo AVOUT “Ll AIAVL

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

"TeTzejzeMm pezernuszoz Tenjoy />

*syooTq Apnjs sy ynoyhnozyA wrzoztun AATSA SeM UOTZeASezJUT SYA Wey pue

peysesutT oem STeuTWIE, ey Jo Quedred ads ¢ 70S PeMoUS € TTAdy UO peZoONpUOd ZuUNOD juUSEUTZeeI}-e82d peTood />

“3501

ehuey eTdtziInw s,ueoung butsn (so° = d) quezezzJtp ATQueOTZTUHTS Jou ere ASqRZeT Sues Aq pemo[TTos survey /=

qe s°Lt 0 G°L2 2 0°0S --- yoeyd pe jzeerzqun

q G°22 oq 0°02 q S°Lt /erb c/t DdH SepToOTAnuL

qe o°c qe o°s qe 0°ot S°0 Og € suoTesoud

Be o°2 qe s°¢ qe ¢°Z O°T dM 0S TAIeqzreD

Be o°e eB 0°0 eB 0°0 S°0 dM OS UezZTNsSOpusS

a ek Ne ae ae ec eo ee

skep 2 skep LT skep 14 Teh OOT/IWV AT sTeoOTWeYO

ebesog

zizqueuazeety Tejye STeutuaSz FO uot IeRSesUT JuSorSd

eee ee

‘IQ61 ‘UosaIQ ‘AuUNOD UO}sUTYSeEMA,

“syaq|yy ul pipuinag vsatydosadg¢ \SUTeZE SaPlONdaSUI Po}dI[9S BWOS Jo (¢ [LIdYy) JUoUNVAN aR] Jo ABSA °7 ATAVL

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

"Z86T ‘T2 Ttady juewjzeezz eqeT pue ze6T ‘6% YOTeW pot Tdde quowjeer3 ATaed /z

*4So0L

eHhuey eTdtA3Inw s,ueoung butsn (g0°O = d) QUezezZFTp ATQUeOTITUBTS You ore AaqQjeT sues Aq peMOTTOJ suroW /=

q 0°OT e oT q O°st eB 0°02 --- pe qzeerzqun

Be 0°0O e OT e 0°0 eB 0°02 Z°0 OF p°?Z AeASTeAUSZ

eB 0°O e oT eo°e eB S°LtT S°0 dM OG UOoUTZeTO

O°E e ot eB o°l eB S°Le G°0 oF € sUuOTeSOYUd

Be ove eB SGT e $¢°2 Be $°LzZ O°T dM OS TAAeqAeD

eB 0°0 eB OT eB 0°0 Be S°2e S°O dMOS ues TNsopuse

(6z-4) (12-7) (02-7) (6Z-€) Teb OOT/IV AT STeoTweYyo

quouwjee14-4S0dg quseujee814-91g quswjee714-4S0d queujeet4-810g

/z JUSMZeSTT 97eT /z FUSuZeST ATAeCA ebesog

/> Soqep peyeotTpuT UO UOTISISSsUT JUSoASeg xX

‘ZR6 ‘UOSIAIO ‘AWUNOD UOJSUTYSEAA

“SLIOQ|YJ Ul DIDWNAG ‘CE ISUIESE SAPTONIASUI P9}Da[AS SWIOS Jo AOBdTJJo UO Sayep JUSWIVI) JWSIOTJIp Jo souoNUT °¢ | IAWL

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

Fig. 2. Defoliation of a filbert tree branch caused by O. brumata.

treatment applied on April 21 did reduce the infestation in

almost all treated plots; the performance of endosulfan,

fenvalerate and diazinon was slightly better than carbaryl

and phosalone, although the differences among treat-

ments again were non-significant. The time of the spray

application had little affect on fenvalerate treatment.

Since this synthetic pyrethroid is extremely effective and

long-lasting, the spray timing seems to be less important

than it was with the other compounds.

Treatment timing is a critical factor in determining the

performance of insecticide sprays in all crop systems.

Improper timing causes ineffective control. The early

spray in 1981 was applied at about 50% egg hatch, and the

late spray at about 90% egg hatch. In 1982, the early

spray was applied at about 60-65 % egg hatch and the late

spray near 100% egg hatch. Most growers with O. bru-

mata tend to apply their control treatments as early as

possible (preferably in late March and early April), to

avoid initial bud damage. Data presented here suggest

that although the early treatments would reduce O. bru-

mata populations markedly, they would be ineffective in

controlling late emerging larvae. It appears, therefore,

that spray application during the first two weeks in April

(depending upon the spring temperatures), which corre-

sponds to the late treatment date of this study, might

provide better control using the same chemicals. This

later date would coincide with about 90-95 % egg hatch in

most years. Since the early damage is generally insignifi-

cant, it seems that filbert growers can benefit by waiting

until most eggs have hatched before applying chemical

treatments for O. brumata control.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I express my thanks to Mr. M.D. Shelton for assistance

in these studies. I am specially thankful to Dr. J.C. Miller

for consultation and a critical review of this manuscript.

Dr. R.L. Penrose provided information on O. brumata

egg hatch patterns during the 1981 and 1982 seasons.

REFERENCES

AliNiazee, M.T. 1981. The obliquebanded leafroller and the winter moth: two new pests of Oregon filberts. Proc. Oreg.

Wash. and B.C. Nui Grow. Soc. 66: 98-100.

Cunninghan, J.C., N.V. Tonks and W.J. Kaupp. 1981. Viruses to control winter moth, Operophtera brumata

(Lepidoptera:Geometridae). J. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia. 78: 17-23.

Cumming, F.G. 1961. The distribution, life history and economic importance of the winter moth, Operophtera brumata

in Nova Scotia. Can. Entomol. 93: 135-142.

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

Embree, D.C. 1965. The population dynamics of the winter moth in Nova Scotia, 1954-1962. Mem. Entomol. Soc. Can.

No. 46, 57 pp.

Embree, D.G. 1970. The diurnal and seasonal patterns of hatching of v-inter moth eggs, Operophtera brumata

(Lepidoptera:Geometridae). Can. Entomol. 102: 750-768.

Ferguson, D.C. 1978. Pests not known to occur in the United States of limited distribution. Winter moth, Operophtera

brumata (L.) (Lepidoptera:Geometridae). U.S. Dept. Agric. Coop. Pl. Pest Rep. 3: 687-694.

Gillespie, D.R., T. Finlayson, N.V. Tonks, and D.A. Ross. 1978. Occurrence of the winter moth, Operophtera brumata

(Lepidoptera:Geometridae) on southern Vancouver Island, B.C. Can. Entomol. 110: 223-224.

Smith, C.C. 1950. Notes on the European winter moth in Nova Scotia. Can. Dept. Agric. For Biol. Div., Bi-mon. Prog.

Rep. 6(2):1.

RESPONSES TO PLANT EXTRACTS OF NEONATAL CODLING

MOTH LARVAE, CYDIA POMONELLA (L.),

(LEPIDOPTERA: TORTRICIDAE:OLETHREUTINAE)

DANIEL SUOMI, JOHN J. BROWN and ROGER D. AKRE'

Department of Entomology

Washington State University

Pullman, WA

99164-6432

ABSTRACT

A bioassay was designed to test behavioral responses of neonatal codling moth larvae to

chloroform and methanol extracts of 25 plant species. Chloroform extractable materials

from absinthe wormwood, Artemisia absinthium (L.), rabbitbrush, Chrysothamnus

nauseosus (Pallas), and tansy, Zanacetum vulgare (L.) showed promise as possible feeding

deterrents to neonatal codling moth larvae.

INTRODUCTION

In Washington State approximately half the cost of

controlling arthropod pests in apples is attributable to the

codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.) (Ferro et al. 1975).

Much of the damage occurs as “‘stings’” made by probing

neonatal larvae attempting to penetrate but then not enter-

ing the fruit. This “stinging” behavior might be linked to

incompletely developed chemoreceptors. Immediately

upon eclosion from the egg, larvae may not be able to

recognize the fruit as a potential food source. This ‘‘non-

recognition” phenomenon has been shown by Wiklund

(1973) for early instars of Papilio machaon (L.) and by

Bland (1981) for first instars of acridids. Non-recognition

of food by neonates can lead to wandering activities that

increase their exposure to abiotic and biotic mortality

factors. Asa result, in unsprayed apple orchards, death of

neonatal codling moth larvae reduces the population by

greater proportions than mortalities of any other life stage

(Ferro et al. 1975, MacLellan 1977). Therefore, new

control efforts should be directed to this stage. Disruption

of larval feeding behavior by the use of secondary plant

compounds may increase wandering and thus mortality.

'Washington State Univ., College of Agriculture and Home Economics

Research Center, Scientific Paper 7027. Work done under project number

5405.

We surveyed local plants tor extracts that might modify

the feeding behavior of neonatal codling moth larvae.

Extracts that prevented or interrupted feeding activity

were considered possible sources for feeding deterrents

as defined by Schoonhoven (1982). Twenty-five selected

plant species of eastern Washington and northern Idaho

were collected in the survey. This study concentrated on

neonatal larvae and their feeding behavior rather than on

the long-term development of insects fed on artificial

diets containing the suspected feeding deterrents.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Plant Collection and Extraction

Test plants were collected during the summer of 1982.

Criteria used to select the plants included strong odor,

notable lack of herbivore feeding activity, or literature

references concerning their repellent properties. An ef-

fort was made to include at least one representative from

each of a variety of plant families (Table 1).

Plants chosen appeared healthy and free from visible

signs of disease. Entire plants were collected including a

moist ball of soil around the roots. The roots were

wrapped in moist paper towels and covered with a plastic

bag for transport. Plant samples were either frozen or

extracted within 1 h of collection.

Ten grams of leaves (and flowers, if present) were

weighed, wrapped in plastic, and frozen at ca. -16°C to

preserve plant components without changes in chemical

composition due to enzymatic activity (Draper 1976).

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986 13

Frozen or fresh plant material was ground (<4°C) to a

slurry ina Sorval Omnimixer® in 30 ml of chloroform and

methanol, 2:1 ratio. The slurry was left for 2 h ina

covered flask, then filtered through a Buchner funnel.

Solvents were transferred to a separatory funnel and the

two phases were then collected in vials, flooded with

nitrogen, and stored at -16°C until tested.

Bioassay Design

‘“‘Transparent”’ variety apples (x diam = 5 cm) were

collected in late July, 1982, from an abandoned, un-

sprayed tree near Viola, Idaho in Latah County. Apples

were held at 4°C and used within 6 months. A cork borer

was used to remove 20 (0.8 cm diam, 0.5 cm thick) plugs

from the same apple for each test. Each plug was held by

the epidermis with a suction tube and dipped 3 times in

liquid Paraplast® tissue embedding medium (melting

point 56-57°C) to coat the plug, excluding the epidermis.

Each plug was then placed on a filter paper (2.1 cm) to

facilitate handling during test procedures. Twenty

freshly-prepared plugs were required for each experi-

ment.

A 9 cm plastic petri dish served as the test arena (Fig.

1). A 1.2 cmhole was drilled in the center of the dish and

covered with nylon screen (100 wm mesh) to prevent

escape by the larvae. A section of clear plastic tubing

(I.D. 2.1. cm, 1.2 cm tall), with four 0.3 cm holes drilled

in the base at 90° intervals, was secured over the center

hole. A polyethylene tube (O.D. 1.4cm, I.D. 1.0 cm) for

connecting a vacuum line was glued in place over the 1.2

cm hole on the bottom of the dish. Four 0.3 cm holes were

drilled at 90° intervals in the center of the side wall of the

dish and covered with nylon screen. A thin layer of

vacuum grease was applied to the top lip of the petri dish

and the lid was secured with 3 rubber bands. Five arenas

were placed in a series and vacuum was applied to create

an air flow of 24 cc/sec/arena. The air flow permitted test

larvae to find the apple plugs by following the odor

gradients and also prevented a buildup of odors. Dense

smoke demonstrated that the air flow pattern was uni-

form.

Bioassay Procedure

Three milliliters of chloroform extract were transferred

to a pre-weighed round-bottom flask and flash-evapora-

ted to dryness under vacuum at room temperature. The

flask and residue were re-weighed and enough | % Triton-

X:water was added to make a 1% (w/v) solution of plant

extract. A similar procedure was followed for methanol

extracts, but 1% methanol:water was added to the dry

residue to obtain a 1 % (w/v) solution of plant extract.

Fig. 1 Modified petri dish used for test arena bioassay.

14 J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

The epidermis of the apple plugs was immersed in

weighed test solutions, and excess fluid was allowed to

drain back into the reservoir for several seconds. The

amount of 1% solution adhering to each plug was deter-

mined by re-weighing the test solution reservoir. Plugs to

be used as controls were immersed in 1 % Triton-X: water

mixture (for chloroform extraction tests) or a 1% me-

thanol: water mixture (for methanol extraction tests). In

each arena a plug was placed at each 90° interval with test

and control plugs alternating, for a total of 4 plugs.

Test Animals

The codling moths used for this research were collected

as larvae from unsprayed apple trees near Viola and

reared through two generations on an agar-wheat germ

diet (Howell and Clift 1972). All experiments were con-

ducted in a controlled environment with long day (16h

light:8 h dark) illumination from overhead fluorescent

lighting, a temperature of 29°C + 1°, and RH of 55-60%.

For each test, 10 larvae (< 24 h old) were transferred to

each of 5 arenas. After 24 h the location of each larva was

recorded. Results were analyzed by one-way analysis of

variance (Fisher’s LSD P<0.001). Mortality and feed-

ing behavior were noted.

Feeding Stations

Initially, experiments were conducted to determine the

optimal number of feeding stations necessary to ensure

that neonates would find the apple plugs with minimal

wandering. This was done by varying the number (1 to 4)

of untreated apple plugs in each arena. Four apple plugs

resulted in establishment of 90 % of the larvae. Therefore,

all tests were conducted using 4 stations. In addition,

results obtained while using 4 untreated plugs/arena

showed an even distribution of larvae on each of the

stations with no significant (P< 0.05) feeding preference

for any 1 station. There was also no observed hesitation

by the larvae to feed on any of the feeding stations treated

with either control solvent, 1% Triton-X:water or 1%

methanol: water.

Tests were made of chloroform and methanol extracts

of 25 plants (Table 1). Extracts that reduced feeding on

treated stations to £20% were re-tested (Table 2). Me-

thanol extracts were generally ineffective, and only the

alcohol extract of bittersweet, Solanum dulcamara, was

re-tested. The most promising materials, chloroform ex-

tracts from absinthe wormwood, Artemisia absinthium

(L.), rabbitbrush, Chrysothamnus nauseosus (Pallus),

and tansy, Janacetum vulgare (L.), were then used in a

third series of tests (Table 3).

TABLE 1. Plants from the Palouse area of Washington and Idaho collected and extracted to test for compounds

modifying behavior of neonatal codling moth larvae.’

Date

Family Scientific and common name collected

Pinaceae Abies grandis (Douglas) Vil=235-82

Grand Fir

Pinus monticola (Douglas) VI=23=82

Western White Pine

Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirbel) VI=23-82

Douglas fir

Liliaceae Allium sativum (L. ) VIII-19-82

Garlic

Veratrum californicum (Durand) V1= 23762

False Hellebore

Aristolochiaceae Asarum caudatum (Lindley) V1I-23=82

Wild Ginger

Geraniaceae Geranium viscossissimum (Rydberg) Vite t2262

Sticky Geranium

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

Leguminosae

Labiatae

Cruciferae

Convolvulaceae

Solanaceae

Umbelliferae

Asteraceae

Lupinus argenteus (Pursh)

Silky lupine

Nepeta cataria (L.)

Catnip

Tropaeolum majus (L. )

Nasturtium

Convolvulus arvensis (L. )

Field Bindweed

Solanum dulcamara (L. )

Bittersweet

Capsicum annuum (L. )

Pepper

Conium maculatum (L. )

Poison Hemlock

Achillea millefolium (L. )

Yarrow

Anthemis cotula (L. )

Mayweed

Artemisia absinthium (L. )

Absinthe Wormwood

Chicorium intybus (L. )

Chicory

Chrysothamnus nauseosus (Pallas)

Rabbitbrush

Erigeron canadensis (L. )

Horseweed

Madia glomerata (Hooker)

Tarweed

VI-24-82

[Xe i 9o52

VI-25-82

[Xe 13282

X- 14-82

VI-16-82

VI-Z3-82

IX-17-82

VI-16-82

VII-26-82

IXs 23-62

X= 15-62

VIII-10-82

16 J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

Matricaria matricarioides (Lessing)

Pineapple Weed

Tanacetum vulgare (L.)

Tansy

Taraxacum officinale (Weber)

Dandelion

Tragopogon porrifolius (L.)

Salsify

VII-7-82

IX-6-82

VIII-16-82

VietS=62

“The Pinaceae, Liliaceae, and Aristolochiaceae were collected in Latah

County, Idaho; all others were collected in Whitman County, Washington.

Dyames from Hitchcock and Cronquist (1973).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Because the female codling moth does not always ovi-

posit directly on the young fruit, neonatal larvae are

exposed to many environmental hazards. Thus, these

newly emerged larvae must search for food, resulting ina

depletion of energy resourcs, an increase in exposure to

predation, parasitism, and pathogens and desiccation due

to high temperatures and low relative humidity. These

latter climatic conditions are especially prevalent in the

central basin of Washington. Exposure to these hazardous

situations makes the first larval instar the “‘weak link” in

the life cycle of the codling moth.

Among the 25 plant species tested, a number of extracts

showed considerable promise as feeding deterrents for

neonatal larvae of the codling moth. There were signifi-

cantly (P<0.001) fewer larvae found on the apple plugs

treated with the chloroform extracts of Artemisia absin-

thium, Chrysothamnus nauseosus, and Tanacetum

vulgare than were found on the control plugs treated only

with chloroform. Tanacetum vulgare, for example, is

closely related to the chrysanthemums which are known

for their insecticidal properties (Wodehouse 1971). The

main components of the volatile oil of 77 vulgare were

identified as bicylic monoterpenoids, borneol (Brewer

and Ball 1981), 8-thujone and f-camphor (Gibbs 1974).

The latter repels moths (Windholz et al. 1976), and tansy

extracts have proven to be particularly obnoxious to in-

sects (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 1977). Tansy oil diluted in

alcohol has been used as a mosquito repellent (Crockett

1977).

In addition, a polyacetylene (trans-dehydromatricaria

ester) has been isolated from T. vulgare leaves (Bohlman

et al. 1973). Polyacetylenes are often associated with

composites such as Chrysothamnus nauseosus where

they have been credited with antifeeding activity against

Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Rose et al. 1980). For exam-

ple, dihydromatricaric acid is a polyacetylene that is a

known defense secretion used by a cantharid beetle,

Chauliognathus lecontei (Meinwald et al. 1968). Seven

of the 25 plants tested are known to contain polyacety-

lenes, including Matricaria matricarioides (Lessing)

whose generic name implies “‘a place where something

rotten is generated” (Borrer 1960). Extracts from only 2

of the 7 polyacetylene-containing plants tested, 7: vulgare

and C. nauseosus, exhibited antifeeding activity against

neonatal codling moth larvae. This is not surprising since

sO many insects feed upon plants of the Compositae.

Absinthins, dimeric sesquiterpenoids isolated from Ar-

temisia absinthium, inhibited feeding by larvae of Spo-

doptera littoralis (Boisduval) (Wada and Munakata

1971), and chloroform extracts from this plant deterred

90% of the codling moth larvae from feeding on treated

apple plugs. Sesquiterpenoids from Parabenzoin trilo-

bum (L.) (Wada et al. 1968) and Aneura pinguis (L.)

(Goodwin 1971) have provided antifeedant activity

against several insects, but not all sesquiterpene-contain-

ing plants deter feeding. Achillea millefolium, for in-

stance, is known to contain at least 4 sesquiterpenoid

structures (Yoshiaka et al. 1973), and yet chloroform

extracts of yarrow had no effect on C. pomonella larvae.

Two plants which contained chloroform extracted ma-

terials that were effective feeding deterrents were Vera-

trum californicum (Durand) and Allium sativum (L.). V.

californicum contains teratogenic steroid alkaloids which

cause cyclopian and related cephalic malformations in

lambs born to ewes that ate the plants (Binns et al. 1963).

These defects were also found to occur in other animals

eating the plant (Keller 1975). For this reason, V. cali-

fornicum was viewed as containing potentially hazardous

materials, and was not investigated further.. However,

mixed alkaloidal preparations of Veratrum and Schoeno-

caulon have been used as insecticides (Kingsbury 1964).

A. sativum, garlic, although known to be an effective

insect repellent (Nasseh 1982) was considered too odori-

ferous for pre-harvest application to an apple crop.

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986 17

TABLE 2. Percentage of larvae actively feeding on apple cores treated with chloroform extracts of various plants or

found dead within the arena after 24 h.

% Feeding on

Plant species treated apple cores % Mortality

A. sativum 2 8

A. absinthium 2 10

C. nauseosus A 10

G. viscossissimum 20 8

M. glomerata iz 8

P. monticola 14 12

S$. dulcamara HZ 18

qT. vulgare 3 16

T. majus 12 10

V. californicum 2 4

aWhen only solvent-treated apple cores were used, 90% of the larvae

penetrated the epidermis and mortality averaged 4% for 15 arenas of

10 larvae each.

TABLE 3. Location of 10 larvae placed in each arena after 24 h. Data represent 15 arenas for each plant species.

eaten Plant Species

in Arena A. absinthium C. nauseosus T. vulgare

x Si. x S.D. x Sa Di

Treated Core 2.0/7a 1.03 2.33a 1.05 1.93a 110

Control Core 4.6/7b 0.90 5.0/0 0.96 5.40b i lees by

Wandering 3.27a50 1.28 2.60a 1.24 2.6/a 1.05

Means in the same column followed by the same letter are not significantly

different (P<0.001).

18 J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS KEY WORDS

Critical reviews of the manuscript by D.K. Reed, M.C. Codling moth, neonate, plant extracts, feeding deter-

Klowden, and E.P. Catts are gratefully acknowledged. rents, Artemisia, Chrysothamnus, Tanacetum

This project was supported by grants to J.J. Brown from

the Columbia River Orchards Foundation and Washing-

ton State Department of Agriculture.

REFERENCES

Binns, W., L. James, J. Shupe, and G. Everett. 1963. A congenital cyclopian-type malformation in lambs induced by

maternal ingestion of a range plant, Veratrum californicum. Am. J. Vet. Res. 24: 1164-1174.

Bland, R.G. 1981. Survival and food detection by first instar Melanoplus femurrubrum (Orthoptera: Acrididae). Great

Lakes Entomol. 14: 197-204.

Bohlmann, F., T. Burkhardt, and C. Zdero. 1973. Naturally Occurring Acetylenes. Academic Press: New York. 547 pp.

Borror, D.J. 1960. Dictionary of Word Roots and Combining Forms. Mayfield: Palo Alto, CA. 134 pp.

Brewer, G.J. and H.J. Ball. 1981. A feeding deterrent effect of a water extract of tansy (Janacetum vulgare, Compositae)

on three lepidopterous larvae. J. Kansas Entomol. Soc. 54: 733-736.

Crockett, L.J. 1977. Wildly Successful Plants, A Handbook of North American Weeds. MacMillan: New York. 268 pp.

Draper, S.R. 1976. Biochemical Analysis in Crop Science. Oxford Univ. Press: Oxford, England. 130 pp.

Ferro, D.N., R.R. Sluss, and T.P. Bogyo. 1975. Factors contributing to the biotic potential of the codling moth,

Laspeyresia pomonella (L.) in Washington. Environ. Entomol. 4: 385-391.

Gibbs, R.D. 1974. Chemotaxonomy of flowering plants. Vol. I, p. 89, McGill Queens-Univ. Press: Montreal.

Goodwin, T.W. 1971. Aspects of Terpenoid Chemistry and Biochemistry. Academic Press: London. 441 pp.

Hitchcock, C.L. and A. Cronquist. 1973. Flora of the Pacific Northwest. Univ. Washington Press: Seattle. 730 pp.

Howell, J.F and A.E. Clift. 1972. Rearing codling moth on an artificial diet in trays. J.Econ. Entomol. 65: 888-890.

Keller, R. 1975. Teratogenic effects of cyclopamine and jervine in rats, mice, and hamsters. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med.

149: 302-306.

Kingsbury, J. 1964. Poisonous Plants of the United States and Canada. Prentice Hall: Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 626 pp.

Lewis, W.H. and M.P.F. Elvin-Lewis. 1977. Medical Botany. John Wiley and Sons: New York. 515 pp.

MacLellan, C.R. 1977. Trends of the codling moth (Lepidoptera:Olethreutidae) populations over 12 years on two

cultivars in an insecticide free orchard. Can. Entomol. 109: 1555-1562.

Meinwald, J., Y.C. Meinwald, A.M.Chalmers, and T. Eisner. 1968. Dihydromatricaria acid: Acetylene acid secreted

by soldier beetles. Science 160: 890-892.

Nasseh, M.O. 1982. The effect of crude extracts of garlic on Syrphus corollae (F.), Chrysopa carnea (Steph.), and

Coccinella septempunctata (L.) Z. Agnew. Entomol. 94: 123-126.

Rose, A.F., B.A. Butt, and T. Jermy. 1980. Polyacetylenes from the rabbitbrush, Chrysothamnus nauseosus.

Phytochemistry 19: 563-566.

Schoonhoven, L.M. 1982. Biological aspects of antifeedants. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 31: 57-69.

Wada, K., Y. Enomoto, K. Matsui, and K. Munakata. 1968. Insect antifeedants from Parabenzoin trilobum. Two new

sesquiterpenes, shiromodiol-diacetate and monoacetate. Tetra Letters 45: 4673-4676.

Wada, K. and K. Munakata. 1971. Insect feeding inhibitors in plants. III. Feeding inhibitory activity of terpenoids in

plants. Agr. Biol. Chem. 35: 115-118.

Windholz, M., S. Budavari, L.Y. Stroumtsos, and M.N. Fertig. 1976. The Merck Index, 1735, p. 220, 9th Edition.

Merck: Rahway, NJ. 1313 pp.

Wiklund, C. 1973. Host plant suitability and the mechanism of host selection in larvae of Papilio machaon. Entomol.

Exp. Appl. 16:232-242.

Wodehouse, R.P. 1971. Hayfever Plants. Hafner: New York. 280 pp.

Yoshiaka, H., T.J. Mabry, and B.N. Timmermann. 1973. Sesquiterpene lactones chemistry, NMR and plant distribu-

tion. Univ. of Tokyo Press: Tokyo. 544 pp.

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986 19

MORTALITY AND TOP-KILL IN DOUGLAS-FIR FOLLOWING

DEFOLIATION BY THE WESTERN SPRUCE BUDWORM IN

BRITISH COLUMBIA

RENE I. ALFARO

Canadian Forestry Service

Pacific Forest Research

506 West Burnside Road

Victoria, B.C. V8Z 1M5

ABSTRACT

Surveys of mortality and top-kill caused by the western spruce budworm, Choristoneura

occidentalis Freeman, in 65 stands of Douglas-fir, Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco

are reported. Top-kill was detected in 85% of the stands and 25% of the trees surveyed.

Mortality amounted to 8% and less than 1 % of the trees examined in the Vancouver and

Kamloops Forest Regions, respectively. Both frequency of top-kill and mortality were

related to the number of years defoliation in the stand and were higher on suppressed trees

than on dominant or codominant trees. Younger stands sustained a higher incidence of top-

kill than older stands. Tree mortality was higher on steep slopes than on flat terrain. These

results suggested that top-kill or mortality were the results of physiological stress on the

trees, in addition to the debilitating effects of defoliation.

INTRODUCTION

The western spruce budworm, Choristoneura occiden-

talis Freeman, is a recurrent defoliator of Douglas-fir,

Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco, in British Colum-

bia (B.C.). The earliest documented infestation in B.C.

occurred on southeastern Vancouver Island during the

period 1909-1911 (Harris et al. 1985). Since then, six

other infestations have occurred, mainly in the Pember-

ton, Fraser Canyon and Ashcroft areas.

The effects of budworm defoliation on tree growth in

B.C. are recorded (Alfaro et al. 1982, 1984, 1985;

Thomson et al. 1982; Van Sickle et al. 1983). Noticeable

loss in diameter growth starts in the second year of

defoliation; annual tree rings become progressively

smaller with increasing duration of defoliation (Alfaro et

al. 1982). Growth rate recovery to pre-infestation levels

does not occur immediately after the decline of the infes-

tation, but takes several years. Height growth is severely

affected as well; repeated defoliation results in shorter or

missing internodes or even in dieback or top-kill of the

crown (Shepherd et al. 1977; Van Sickle et al. 1983).

Depending on the severity of the top-kill (length and basal

diameter of the dead part of the stem), large defects may

develop in the bole, thus reducing its merchantability.

The combined effect of height and diameter growth loss

results in tree volume loss (Alfaro et al. 1985). Mortality

is most frequent in trees of small diameter (Alfaro et al.

1982) and appears to be randomly distributed in the stand

(Alfaro et al. 1984).

‘Aerial observers in B.C. classify defoliation severity according to the

following criteria: light: discolored foliage barely visible from the air, some

branch tip and upper crown defoliation apparent; moderate: pronounced

discoloration, noticeably thin foliage, top third of many trees severely

defoliated, some completely stripped; severe: bare branch tips and comple-

tely defoliated tops common, most trees more than 50% defoliated.

These previous studies were generally based on small

samples in terms of the number of stands evaluated.

Therefore, it was not possible to develop damage models

of wide applicability. This report interprets damage sur-

veys of top-kill and tree mortality on 65 Douglas-fir

stands affected by the latest western spruce budworm

epidemic in B.C. This infestation began in 1967, reached

a maximum infestation area in 1976 and, on a reduced

scale, continued in 1985. The surveys were conducted in

1979 by the Forest Insect and Disease Survey (FIDS) of

the Canadian Forestry Service (Fiddick and Van Sickle

1979). Emphasis is on the study of the relationship be-

tween tree mortality or top-kill frequency ona stand basis

versus defoliation history and stand characteristics.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

The areas of defoliation by the western spruce

budworm were obtained from FIDS maps, then 65 stands

of different duration and severity' of defoliation were

selected throughout the infested area (Table 1). Thirty-

seven and twenty-eight stands were in the Vancouver and

Kamloops Forest Regions, respectively. About 100 trees

were examined in each stand as follows: five sampling

points, 20 m apart, were established along a transect line;

at each point, about 20 trees, closest to the point, were

selected. A total of 6594 trees were examined in all

stands.

Each tree was examined to determine whether it was

dead or alive. All trees that had died in recent years (as

opposed to old kills and snags) were assumed to have been

killed by the budworm. The length of top-kill, or severity,

in each tree was estimated with the naked eye or with the

aid of binoculars. Severity was classified as 0 (no top-

kill), > Otolm, > 1lto3m, > 3to5m, > 5m. The

percentage of dead trees (percent mortality) and percent-

20 J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

age of trees top-killed were calculated for each stand. The

factors of slope, age, aspect, elevation, site quality (from

forest cover maps) and number of years of defoliation

were recorded for each stand.

Covariance and regression analysis were used to study

the relationship between percent mortality and top-kill in

the stand and the stand factors. For the analysis, the

percent mortality and top-kill per stand were transformed

to the arcsin (in radians) ‘ Pp .

Regression model selection was based on examination

of the data and residual plots, and on comparison of

correlation coefficients. Only statistically significant

correlation coefficients were reported. Differences in

mean percentage top-kill and mortality by aspect and site

quality were tested by covariance analysis (Dixon and

Massey 1957), adjusting the means by the difference in

number of years of defoliation among aspects or sites.

One stand with high mortality (94 % of the trees dead) was

dropped from the analysis of top-kill data. The qualitative

variables, site and aspect, were introduced in the regres-

sion as indicator or ““dummy”’ variables (Wesolowsky

1976).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Top-kill

Top-kill was detected in 85% of the stands. Forty-one

percent of the stands had between 1 and 20% of the trees

top-killed, 23% had frequencies between 21 and 40%,

12% had 41-60%, and 10% sustained greater than 60%

top-kill (Fig. 1). Twenty-five percent (range 0 to 91%) of

all trees examined in all stands showed top-kill.

Most of the damaged trees were in the > 0 to 1 m top-

kill class (16% of the trees) (Table 2), 5% had top-kill in

the >1 to 3 m length class, 3% inthe >3 to 5 mclass,

and 1% inthe > 5 mclass. The proportion of trees in the

different top-kill classes varied significantly among

crown Classes (Table 2) (x’ test, P<0.01). Percent top-

kill was about the same among dominant and codominant

trees, at20 and 21%, respectively, but it was significantly

higher (x? test, P<0.01) for intermediate trees, at 25%,

and much higher for suppressed trees, which had a 41%

top-kill frequency. The higher incidence of top-kill

among the suppressed trees is probably due to these

TABLE 1. Characteristics of 65 Douglas-fir stands defoliated by the western spruce budworm.

Elevation (m)

Slope (%)

Age (yrs.)

No. yrs. defoliation

Light

Moderate

Severe

All Classes

Mean Minimum Maximum

782 300 1128

21 0 80

76 20 141

3 0 5

1 0 5

5 2 8

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986 21

TABLE 2. Percentages of Douglas-fir trees top-killed, listed by crown class and top-kill severity class (length of crown

killed), in stands defoliated by the western spruce budworm.

Top-kill severity class (m)?

Crown All

Class >o-1 >1- 3 >3-5 >) classes

Dominant 8 6 5 1 20 a

Codominants 10 6 4 1 21a

Intermediate 20 4 1 0 25 b

Suppressed 37 3 0 1 4lc

All crown classes 16 5 3 1 25

The percentage of top-killed trees varied significantly by top-kill

severity and crown class (x?, P<0.01). Percentages within column

followed by the same letter were not statistically different Coe

P>0.05)

N=65 STANDS

PERCENT OF STANOS SAMPLED

) I-20 21-40 41-60 61-80 81-100

PERCENT TOP-KILL IN STAND

Fig. 1. Percentage of stands sampled by top-kill frequency class.

2) J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

having smaller nutrient reserves than dominant or co-

dominant trees and, therefore, being less able to with-

stand insect defoliation. Scott et al. (1980) arrived at a

similar conclusion when studying top-kill frequency in

Douglas-fir and Grand fir, Abies grandis (Dougl.)

Forbes, in central Washington.

Percent top-kill in stands increased with the number of

years of defoliation (Fig. 2). Regression analysis yielded

the following model:

(1) ARCSIN (PTop-kill)’2 = -0.16 +

0.12 [No. years of defoliation]

R? = 0.24 and Se = 0.29, F = 20.0

where PTop-kill = percent top-kill in the stand/

100.

This model indicated that, on average, with 2 to 7 years of

defoliation, the expected top-kill levels in the stand were

1, 4, 10, 18, 28 and 39% respectively. Although the

regression coefficient was significant, a considerable

proportion of the variance remained unexplained. The

regression did not improve when the number of years of

severe defoliation in the stand was included instead of the

number of years of defoliation.

Analysis of covariance indicated that, in addition to the

number of years of defoliation, stand aspect and age

explained a significant portion of the variability of top-

kill percentage. Stands on North, West or South aspects

had significantly lower percent top-kill (13 to 24%) than

East (28%) aspects (Table 3). The reasons for this in-

creased top-kill on East aspects are not clear. Top-kill had

a significant negative correlation with stand age.

Although stands on poor sites had nearly double the

percent top-kill (38%) of stands on medium (20%) or

good sites (21%) (Table 4) the differences were not

statistically significant. Stand elevation or slope did not

influence the percent top-kill in the stand.

Average percentage top-kill was 27 and 18% in the

Vancouver and Kamloops Regions, respectively. How-

ever, after adjustment by the difference in number of

years of defoliation between the two regions, these two

means were not statistically different (Table 5).

Mortality

Mortality was evident in 26 of the 65 stands sampled

(40%) and averaged 4.9% of the trees in all stands

sampled (range 0 to 94%). However, mortality was sig-

nificantly higher in stands located in the Vancouver Dis-

trict, at 8%, than in stands located in the Kamloops

District, which had less than 1 % average mortality. Only

three of the 28 stands in the Kamloops District sustained

TABLE 3. Percent top-kill and tree mortality, listed by aspect, in 65 Douglas-fir stands defoliated by the western spruce

budworm.

No. No. years Tree

Aspect Stands defoliation Top-kill?4(% mortality? (%)

North 8 4.4 13 (19)a 0 (2)a

West 4 5.0 23 (22)a 0 (O)a

South 42 Si2 24 (20)a 7 (6)a

East 11 3.9 28 (39)b 2 (S)a

All aspects 65 4.9 25 4.9

Shown in brackets is the mean top-kill or mortality percent by

aspect after removal of the effect of differences in number of years

of defoliation by covariance analysis.

Top-kill or mortality percentages

within columns followed by the same letter were not statistically different.

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986 23

TABLE 4. Percent top-kill and tree mortality, listed by site quality, in 65 Douglas-fir stands defoliated by the western

spruce budworm.

No. No. years Tree

Site Stands defoliation Top—kill1?(%) mortality?(%) _

Good 10 4.5 22 (25)a 1 (2)a

Medium 45 4.9 20 (20)a 5 (S)a

Poor 10 On 38 (37)a 7 (6)a

All classes 65 4.9 25 4.9

Shown in brackets is the mean top-kill or mortality percent by site

quality after removal of the effect of differences in number of years of

defoliation, by covariance analysis. Top-kill or mortality percentages

were not statistically different by site quality.

PERCENT TOP- KILL IN THE STAND

STANDARD ERROR

OF THE MEAN

100

40 4 b— 7

bo at 17

' 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

NO. YEARS OF DEFOLIATION

Fig. 2. Relationship between the percent top-kill ina Douglas-fir stand and number of years of defoliation by the western

spruce budworm. Number of stands indicated beside each point.

24 J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

mortality. The areas sampled in the Vancouver District

included the steep slopes of the Fraser River Canyon

which often coincide with poor sites and shallow soils.

Trees growing under these conditions are probably under

stress and are more prone to mortality.

Percent mortality also varied by crown class (x° test,

P<0.01, Table 6); suppressed trees suffered a signifi-

cantly higher average mortality (8.4%) than other

classes. Differences in mortality among intermediate

(3.7%) co-dominant (4.7%) and dominant (5.2%) trees

were not statistically significant. Increased mortality in

both suppressed and intermediate classes was reported in

1982 by Alfaro et al. As with top-kill, the higher mortal-

ity in the suppressed trees is probably due to the fact that

these trees are stressed from competition and are there-

fore unable to withstand defoliation.

The following models were developed:

(2) ARCSIN (PMORT)” = -0.24 +

0.075 [No. years of defoliation]

R? = 0.20 and Se = 0.20, F = 15.6

where PMORT = percent top-kill in the stand/

100.

This equation indicated that mortality was expected if

the stand was defoliated for more than 3 years. With 4 to 7

years of defoliation, the expected levels of tree mortality

in the stand were 0.4, 1.8, 4.3 and 7.9%, respectively.

This equation crosses the x-axis at No. years of defolia-

tion = 3.2, therefore it is not defined for durations of

defoliation less than or equal to 3 years. Although this

relationship was significant, it explained only 20% of the

variability in tree mortality in the stand. The correlation

improved significantly when the number of years of se-

vere defoliation was used as a predictor variable.

(3) ARCSIN (PMORT)” = -0.004 +

0.133 [No. years of severe defoliation]

R’ = 0.47 and Se = 0.16, F = 56.9

This equation predicted that, with 1 to 7 years of severe

defoliation, the levels of tree mortality were 2, 7, 15, 25,

38, 51 and 64%, respectively.

Percent mortality appeared to be higher on South (7%)

or East aspects (2%) than on North or West aspects

(negligible mortality) and also higher on medium (5%) or

poor (7%) sites than on good sites (1%) (Tables 3, 4).

However, after removal of the effects of different number

of years of defoliation by covariance analysis, percent

mortality did not differ statistically by site or aspect.

Stepwise multiple regression analysis between percent

tree mortality in the stand and stand elevation, slope,

aspect, age and number of years of defoliation, detected a

significant effect only of slope and number of years of

defoliation. Tree mortality was higher in stands with the

steepest slopes.

CONCLUDING DISCUSSION

The fact that 85% of the stands and 25% of the trees

sampled sustained top-kill suggests that top-kill is a major

cause of growth loss and a source of stem defects in

TABLE 5. Percent top-kill and tree mortality in Douglas-fir stands defoliated by the western spruce budworm in two

forest regions of British Columbia.

Region No. Stands No. Years Top Kill Mortality

Defoliation (%) (%)

Vancouver 37 Ds 27 8.0

Kamloops 28 4 18 0.8

Tota! 65 4, 25 4.9

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986 25

TABLE6. Percentage ot Douglas-fir trees killed by western spruce budworm, listed by crown class, in stands defoliated

by the western spruce budworm.

Tree

Crown Class Total No. trees No. dead trees mortality (%)*

Dominant 1394 72 5.278

Codominant 2208 103 4.7 a

Intermediate 2131 79 3.7 a

Suppressed 861 72 8.4 b

All trees 6594 326 4.9

Mortality percentages within columns followed by the same letter were

not statistically different (x? test, P>0.05)

Douglas-fir defoliated by western spruce budworm. The

negative correlation of top-kill with age, indicative of a

higher susceptibility to top-kill in younger trees, is of

particular importance since large defects in the lower bole

may render any growth above the damaged point non-

merchantable. Douglas-fir mortality averaged about 8%

in the Vancouver District, with 5.2 and 4.7% of the

dominant and codominant trees, respectively, killed by

budworm (Table 6). Since these trees represent the future

crop, mortality caused by budworm, although not so

spectacular as that in eastern forests caused by the eastern

spruce budworm, Choristoneura fumiferana (Clem.),

should also be of concern to the western forest manager.

Higher mortality was recorded among the supressed trees

but because most of these trees would probably die before

harvest, this volume loss can be considered unimportant.

The models presented could be used as a basis for the

hazard rating of stand susceptibility to western spruce

budworm damage and to calculate the possible outcome

of infestations of different durations on particular stands.

The high proportion of the variance that remained unex-

plained is not surprising in a study of this nature and

suggests that other important factors are at work. Tree

susceptibility to top-kill or mortality appears to be related

to astress condition. Other factors causing stress on trees,

such as stand density, presence of other insects or diseases

and climate during defoliation could also be important.

Although this study did not provide statistical proof of

top-kill or mortality variation by aspect or site quality, the

data suggested that trees on steep, South and East slopes,

and on poor sites are more susceptible (Tables 3 and 4).

Further sampling is recommended to clarify this point.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank the Rangers of the Forest Insect and Diseases

Survey, Pacific Forest Research Centre, Canadian For-

estry Service, who collected most of the data.

26 J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

LITERATURE CITED

Alfaro, R.I., G.A. Van Sickle, A.J. Thomson and E. Wegwitz. 1982. Tree mortality and radial growth losses caused by

the western spruce budworm in a Douglas-fir stand in British Columbia. Can. J. For. Res. 12: 780-787.

Alfaro, R.I., T.L. Shore and E. Wegwitz. 1984. Defoliation and mortality caused by western spruce budworm:

variability in a Douglas-fir stand. J. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia 81: 33-38.

Alfaro, R.I., A.J. Thomson and G.A. Van Sickle. 1985. Quantification of Douglas-fir growth losses caused by western

spruce budworm through stem analysis. Can. J. For. Res. 15: 5-9.

Dixon, W.J. and FJ. Massey, Jr. 1957. Introduction to statistical analysis. McGraw-Hill Book Co., 488 p.

Fiddick, R.L. and G.A. Van Sickle. 1979. Forest insect and disease conditons. British Columbia and Yukon/1979. Can.

For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. Inf. Rep. BC-X-200.

Harris, J.W.E., R.I. Alfaro, A.G. Dawson and R.G. Brown. 1985. The spruce budworm in British Columbia 1909-

1983. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. Inf. Rep. BC-X-257.

Scott, D.R.M., P.M. Crimp and R.L. Johnsey. 1980. Growth impacts on host trees due to western spruce budworm

defoliation on the east slope of the Washington Cascades. Canada-U.S. Spruce Budworms Research Program

(CANUSA). Final report for 1979-1980. 111 pp.

Shepherd, R., J.W.E. Harris, G.A. Van Sickle, L. Fiddick and L. McMullen. 1977. Status of western spruce budworm

on Douglas-fir in British Columbia. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent., Pest Report.

Thomson, A.J., R.I. Alfaro, and G.A. Van Sickle. 1982. Evaluating effects of western spruce budworm on Douglas-fir

volume growth. Can. For. Serv. Res. Notes 4: 24-25.

Van Sickle, G.A., R.I. Alfaro, and A.J. Thomson. 1983. Douglas-fir height growth affected by western spruce budworm

defoliation. Can. J. For. Res. 13: 445-450.

Wesolowsky, G.O. 1976. Multiple regression and analysis of variance. John Wiley & Sons. 292 pp.

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986 OF

EVALUATION OF THREE TYPES OF BARRIERS TO TRAP WINTER

MOTH (LEPIDOTPERA:GEOMETRIDAE) ADULTS

IMRE S. OTVOS and RICHARD S. HUNT

Canadian Forestry Service

Pacific Forestry Centre

506 West Burnside Road

Victoria, B.C.

V8Z 1M5

ABSTRACT

Three types of barrier traps, Tanglefoot®, fiberglass and fiberglass sprayed with the

insecticide Raid®, were tested at three locations, on eight trees each per treatment and

location for a total of 72 trees, to determine their efficiency in preventing the flightless

winter moth females from crawling higher up the tree to oviposit. The efficiency of the

barrier was evaluated by counting the number of female winter moth adults caught 10-15

cm above the test barrier. Tanglefoot® was the most effective barrier. An average of 67.1

winter moth females managed to crawl over the fiberglass barrier compared to 3.6 females

over the fiberglass barrier sprayed with Raid® and 1.1 females over the Tanglefoot®

barrier. The differences among the average catches were significant (P<0.01) for the

fiberglass barrier but not between the fiberglass barrier with Raid® and the Tanglefoot®

barrier. We recommend that Tanglefoot® applied over a polyethylene strip, after the bark

crevices have been plugged, be used to prevent winter moth females from crawling under

the barrier. The Tanglefoot® barrier has the added advantages that it is cheap, non-toxic

and, since it reduces or eliminates the need for insecticide application, it is fully

compatible with biological control measures.

RESUME

Trois barriéres (Tanglefoot®, de fibre de verre et de fibre de verre vaporisé d’ insecticide

Raid®) ont été mises a l’essai a trois endroits, chacune sur huit arbres 4 chaque endroit,

pour un total de 72 arbres. Le but de ces essais consistait 4 déterminer dans quelle mesure

ces barriéres pouvaient empécher les arpenteuses tardives femelles, aptéres, de grimper

dans les arbres pour y pondre. Lefficacité des barriéres a été évaluée en fonction du

nombre de femelles adultes capturées 4 10 4 15 cm au-dessus de |’obstacle. C’est la’

barriére Tanglefoot® qui a été jugée la plus efficace. En moyenne, 67,1 arpenteuses ont

réussi a franchir la barriére de fibre de verre; 3,6 la barriére vaporisée au Raid®; et 1,1 la

barriére Tanglefoot®. L’écart entre ces moyennes était significatif (P<0,01) pour la

barriére de fibre de verre, mais non pour les deus autres barri¢res. Nous recommandons

que la barriére Tanglefoot® repose sur une bande de polyéthyléne, aprés obturation des

crevasses de |’écorce pour empécher les arpenteuses de s’y faufiler. La barriére Tangle-

foot® posséde également les avantages d’étre bon marché, non toxique et, puisqu’elle

réduit ou élimine la nécessité d’appliquer un insecticide, d’étre tout a fait compatible avec

les moyens de lutte biologique.

INTRODUCTION

The winter moth, Operophtera brumata (Linnaeus)

(Lepidoptera:Geometridae), an important defoliator of

deciduous forest, shade and fruit trees in Europe, was

accidentally introduced into Nova Scotia in the early

1930s (Embree 1966) and on southern Vancouver Island

before 1972 (Gillespie et al. 1978). By 1977, the winter

moth had reached outbreak proportions on the Saanich

Peninsula of Vancouver Island, causing severe defoliation

on many shade and fruit trees.

In British Columbia, winter moth adults start emerging

from pupae in the ground in November and may be found

until early January. Male moths have functional wings

and locate and mate with the flightless females on the

trunks of trees. Females climb up the trunks and lay eggs

singly or in small clusters under lichens, in bark crevices,

on twigs or similar concealed places. Each female can

produce up to 220 eggs (Embree 1966). The eggs hatch

from late March to April and newly hatched larvae dis-

perse by spinning silken threads and drifting on the wind.

The larvae feed on leaves of a wide range of deciduous

host plants. Fully developed larvae drop from the trees in

late May to early June to pupate in the ground.

One method of winter moth control is to prevent the

females from crawling up the trunk of trees to oviposit.

For years, Tanglefoot bands applied around the tree

trunks have been used (Embree 1966) and other types of

28 J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

banding and combinations thereof have been tried. The

trees, however, can still be infested by the young larvae as

they disperse on silken threads from tree to tree by wind.

In British Columbia, a program was jointly initiated in

1978 by the federal and provincial governments to investi-

gate control measures against the winter moth.

Biological control has been the main thrust of the

program. The same two species of parasitoids, Agrypon

flaveolatum (Gravenhorst) (Hymenoptera:Ichneumni-

dae) and Cyzenis albicans (Fallén) (Diptera: Tachiidae),

that are credited with the control of the winter moth in

Nova Scotia were introduced into British Columbia (Em-

bree and Otvos 1984). Both species became established in

British Columbia and appear to be spreading (I.S. Otvos

unpubl. data).

Other controls evaluated were the use of a bacillus, or

of petrochemical insecticides alone (Tonks et al. 1978) or

in combination with insecticidal soap (Puritch and Con-

drascholl 1985) against the feeding larvae (N.V. Tonks

unpubl. data) besides various barriers to trap adult fe-

males thus preventing them from ovipositing higher in the

tree. The efficacy of some barrier tests is reported here.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Three types of barriers (treatments) were tested: a)

Tanglefoot band, b) fiberglass insulation alone, and c)

fiberglass insulation sprayed with commercially availa-

ble Raid.' At each of the three locations in Greater

Victoria (Cattle Point, Summit Park Reservoir, and Burn-

side Rd. at Mackenzie Ave.) eight randomly selected

Garry oak trees, Quercus garryana Dougl., received an

upper band of Tanglefoot and a lower band of one of the

three treatment barriers (Fig. 1) for a total of 24 trees per

location. The diameter of the trees at breast height

averaged 27.8 cm and ranged from 16.2-43.6 cm.

On all trees receiving the Tanglefoot barrier, an inex-

pensive, butyl-flex caulking compound was applied to the

bark crevices, in a band around the circumference of the

tree with a caulking gun. Then a 6 mil. thick, 20-25 cm

wide polyethylene strip was pulled tightly around the tree

over the caulking and fastened with staples. Care was

'For convenience of the public, brand or trade names are used in this

paper, identified by capitalization. Their use does not constitute an endorse-

ment of the product nor a suggestion that like products are not effective.

a - STICKY BAND

b - FIBERGLASS INSULATION ALONE

c - FIBERGLASS INSULATION + RAID

Fig. 1 Schematic drawings of the three types of barriers and Tanglefoot bands applied to the sample trees.

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986 29

taken to “‘fill”’ all the crevices to prevent winter moths

from crawling underneath the polyethylene. Tanglefoot

was applied on the polyethylene with a spatula in a band

10-15 cm. wide.

In the second treatment, a band of commercially availa-

ble fiberglass insulation without paper backing (about 20

cm wide by 7.6 cm thick) was secured by string to the

trees.

In the last treatment, a similar fiberglass barrier was

sprayed until dripping with Raid every 4-5 days. The

commercially available Raid in pressurized cans, manu-

ra)

we)

orl e c

S ce)

E wl 0 =

os nn +/

a cl +

o = ©

5 1% .

8 ® N

n (Q) ty

3 Bs) re)

5 Gi eet

@} Ga

a) =

2 »

n 30}

5 3)

2 fay

BD +)

S ty ro

o wo! °

a ort] . nN

= fui is 2] eal

2 fa] et °

Ss a0] ep) op}

S ~Q; wo

F 7) | a)

8 = .

& ott 1K Fa)

= ay Tf

s a)

S ‘e) ° wy

n e) fx °

‘= @ 79)

os wee +/

S +|

3. = +

5 & el” Re

3 ill

2 &

5 eo

i. i

a os

Be =

c OQ.

(eo)

om (ob)

+) -

(38) a)

3) ae)

mJ 1S)

(752)2

factured for house and garden use, according to the label

contained: pyrethrins 0.176%, tetramethrin 0.09%,

technical piperony] butoxide 1.25%. All treatment barri-

ers were 1.5 m above the ground.

All trees received a sticky band in an identical manner

to the first treatment, 10-15 cm. above the first barrier

(Fig. 1). In order to prevent adults from crossing the

bands by ‘“‘walking”’ over the bodies of the trapped moths,

the sticky bands were replaced whenever the number of

winter moth adults caught came close to saturating the

band.

fo) re No]

e e 7 ded

>| +| +| a

fo) © Neo) a

° ° e [o¥8)

N Ne) (ve) S

3°)

rs ° Fe) 4)

e = - ea

rat N co) wy)

rl rl =

+ at)

+) +1 ©

+ co)

(se) ° r= fy

e Ne} e® 4)

o>) ro) s

+ ro Ne} cc)

eins

dw)

(eo)

ae)

el aes

uy N _

~~ 9] ~ oO

+1 © a a +/ ©

rs Ne) (oe) id)

aw oOo © ea OV ois

o fw °° 6 ° pes dw)

= ow on ed ‘e)

Gay

(o)

47)

co)

ee e@ aa

oe yo) E

fy 0

40] S

QO, cB) °

©) = WO

42) ord Co UO

orl wn rd W» &

fh + Ee 2

= fe)

“” cQ Ee o

30 J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

All treatments were put in place between November 16

and 19 just as adult winter moth emergence started. The

traps were left in place until January 10, 1985, by which

time emergence had been completed. The numbers of

winter moth females caught in the upper sticky band as

well as those caught in the lower band of (treatment a)

were counted on November 22, 28, December 3, 12, 19

and January 10.

The counts of winter moth adults, trapped in the upper

sticky bands, were transformed to log), (count + 1) to

stabilize the variance. The transformed data were sub-

jected to analyses of variance and Student-Newman-

Keul’s multiple range test (Zar 1974).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

There was high density of winter moth adults at all three

test areas. Totals of 752, 578 and 606 female moths were

trapped on the lower band of the Tanglefoot treatment at

Cattle Point, Summit Park and Burnside Road, respec-

tively (Table 1). Preventing these females from crawling

up the tree trunks to oviposit reduced potential larval

numbers considerably when one considers that a female

lays up to 220 eggs (Embree 1966).

Tanglefoot was the most effective treatment. Based on

counts from the upper sticky band, significantly higher

mean numbers of winter moth females (Table 1) managed

to crawl over the fiberglass barriers (67.1) than over the

fiberglass barrier sprayed with Raid (3.6) or the Tangle-

foot barriers (1.1) (P<0.01). The difference in the aver-

age number of winter moth females caught on the sticky

bands above the latter two barriers was not statistically

significant at the 5% level. Nevertheless, the sticky bar-

rier in this test (treatment a) let through two-thirds fewer

females than the fiberglass barrier sprayed with Raid

(treatment c) (Table 1).

When the moth flight was over, all the traps were easily

removed. Tanglefoot application to the polyethylene had

an advantage over application directly to the bark because

it facilitated the removal of the sticky bands. Caulking

bark crevices eliminated the need for smoothing or scrap-

ing of the bark prior to applying the Tanglefoot and the

caulking was easily removed from the crevices, thus

restoring the bark to its natural condition.

The Tanglefoot band applied to polyethylene strips

secured to the tree over caulked bark crevices is the

recommended, and the most efficient of the barriers

tested in preventing winter moth females from crawling

up the trunks of trees to oviposit. Although the Tanglefoot

is somewhat messy to apply, it is non-toxic to humans and

pets, and is easily removed with paint thinner. Only 17 of

the 96 sticky bands used needed to be replaced and this

was easily done by placing a second band of polyethylene

strip over the first.

The fiberglass barrier sprayed with commercially

available Raid was easier to apply than the sticky band but

it appeared somewhat less effective and was more costly.

Raid had to be reapplied at intervals of 4-5 days during the

whole trapping season and it might need to be applied

nore frequently still following heavy rain.

The cost of plastic, Tanglefoot and caulking applied toa

tree was $0.84 vs. $0.98 for Raid applied to a fiberglass

barrier.

None of the three barriers tested here is harmful to the

introduced parasitoids as they are in the host pupae in the

soil until the following spring when they emerge to lay

their eggs.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Mrs. W. Wilson, Burnside Rd. West and

personnel of the Oak Bay and Victoria Parks for welcom-

ing research on their respective premises; M. Talmon de

l’Armee, J. Vallentgoed and R.O. Wood, for the field

work, and Dr. C. Simmons for the statistical analysis.

REFERENCES

Gillespie, D.R., T. Finlayson, N.V. Tonks and D.H. Ross. 1978. Occurrence of the winter moth, Operophtera brumata

(Lepidoptera:Geometridae), on southern Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Can. Ent. 110: 223-224.

Graham, A.R. 1958. Recoveries of introduced species of parasites of the winter moth, Operophtera brumata (L.)

(Lepidoptera:Geometridae), in Nova Scotia. Can. Ent. 90: 595-596.

Ebree, D.G. 1966. The role of introduced parasites in the control of the winter moth in Nova Scotia. Can. Ent. 98: 1159-

1168.

Embree, D.G. and I.S. Otvos. 1984. Operophtera brumata (L.), winter moth (Lepidoptera:Geometridae). Ch. 61, pp.

353-357. InJ.S. Kelleher and M.A. Hulme (eds.). Biological Control Programmes Against Insects and Weeds in

Canada 1969-1980. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, England.

Puritch, G.S. and S.F. Condrashoff. 1985. Insecticide mixture containing fatty acids. Canadian patent no. 1187409.

Tonks, N.V., P.R. Everson and T.L. Theaker. 1978. Efficacy of insecticides against geometrid larvae. Operophtera

spp., on southern Vancouver Island, British Columbia. J. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia 75: 6-9.

Zar, J.H. 1974. Biostatistical analysis. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 620 pp.

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986 31

THE SPRUCE BUDWORM, CHORISTONEURA FUMIFERANA

(LEPIDOPTERA:TORTRICIDAE), IN BRITISH COLUMBIA

T.L. SHORE and R.I. ALFARO

Canadian Forestry Service

Pacific Forestry Centre

506 W. Burnside Road

Victoria, B.C.

Canada V8Z 1M5

ABSTRACT

The spruce budworm, Choristoneura fumiferana (Clements), causes severe defoliation,

primarily of white spruce, Picea glauca (Moench) Voss, eastern larch, Larix laricina (Du

roi), K. Koch, and alpine fir, Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt, in the Liard River area of

northern British Columbia. Less preferred hosts are black spruce, Picea mariana (Mill.)

B.S.P., and lodgepole pine, Pinus contorta Doug]. Infestations last for many years with

variable defoliation intensity. Defoliation causes extensive top-killing of trees but little

mortality. In addition, mature spruce trees (104 to 144 years old) defoliated from 1959 to

1976 lost an estimated 3 to 4.4% of diameter growth. Tree ring analysis suggested that C.

fumiferana defoliated trees in the Liard River area at least five times since 1869.

Infestations recurred every 14 to 28 years.

RESUME

La tordeuse des bourgeons de 1’épinette (Choristoneura fumiferana [Clemens]) est a

l’origine d’une grave défoliation frappant principalement |’ épinette blanche (Picea glauca

[Moench] Voss), le méléze laricin (Larix laricina[Du Rio] K. Koch) et le sapin subalpin

(Abies lasiocarpa [Hook.] Nutt.) dan la région de la riviére Liard, dans le nord de la

Colombie-Brittanique. D’autres hdtes sont moins toucheés: |’epinette noire (Picea ma-

riana [Mill.] B.S.P.) et le pin tordu (Pinus contorta Dougl.). Les infestations durent de

nombreuses anées et |’intensité de la défoliation est variable. Le dépérissement terminal

des arbres causé par la défoliation est important, mais la mortalité est faible. On a estimé

que des épinettes matures (de 104 a 144 ans) défolées de 1959 a 1976 ont eu une diminution

de 3 42 4,4% de leur accroissement en diamétre. Lanalyse des cernes indique que C.

fumiferana a défolié les arbres de la région de la riviére Liard au moins 5 fois depuis 1869.

Les infestations sont réapparues tous les 14 a 28 ans.

INTRODUCTION

The spruce budworm, Choristoneura fumiferana

(Clements), is a major defoliator of balsam fir, Abies

balsamea (L.) Mill., and white spruce, Picea glauca

(Moench) Voss, in eastern Canada and the United States

(Schmitt et al. 1984). The Choristoneura species found

on coniferous trees in British Columbia was initially

thought to be C. fumiferana. However, three new north-

western species of Choristoneura were described by

Freeman (1967). It is now considered that this genus has

four species which are pests of commercial coniferous

trees in British Columbia: C. occidentalis - the western

spruce budworm, C. biennis - the 2-year-cycle budworm,

C. orae (no common name) and C. fumiferana - the

spruce budworm (Freeman 1967; Dang 1985).

Since it was first reported in 1957 by the Forest Insect

and Disease Survey (FIDS) of the Canadian Forestry

Service, there has been a recurrent infestation of

budworm in the Liard River Basin in the northeastern

corner of British Columbia'. This budworm has since

been confirmed as C. fumiferana (Dang, 1985).

Detailed population and defoliation records were kept

by FIDS on this infestation from 1959 to 1969. Since

1969, reports have been more qualitative than quantita-

tive, due both to the relative remoteness of the location

and to the apparently minor economic significance of this

pest in B.C.

While the spruce budworm in eastern Canada and the

U.S.A. has been well described in the literature, very

little information has been reported on its existence in

western Canada (Furniss and Carolin 1977). This report

brings together information collected by FIDS over the

past 35 years in order to describe the distribution, biology

and damage caused by C. fumiferana in British Colum-

bia.

'Records of this infestation can be found in the annual reports of the

Forest Insect and Disease Survey, Canadian Forestry Service, Pacific For-

estry Centre, Victoria, B.C., which were summarized by Erickson R.D. and

J.F. Loranger. 1983. “History of the population fluctuations and infestations

of important forest insects, in the Prince George Forest Region 1942-1982.”

File Report, Canadian Forestry Service, Pacific Forest Research Centre,

Victoria, B.C., 60 pp.

a2 J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The Forest Insect and Disease Survey has maintained a

national data bank of insect and disease collections from

1949 to date (Harris 1976). Collection records were

examined to determine the relative abundance and host

preference of C. fumiferana in B.C.

Detailed monitoring of the spruce budworm infestation

in the Liard River area was conducted by FIDS at several

locations between kilometres 795 and 866 of the B.C.

section of the Alaska highway from 1959 to 1969. Each

year, 5 to 25 locations were sampled to estimate defolia-

tion intensity. Average percent current defoliation was

visually estimated from the ground using binoculars on

ten dominant or codominant white spruce trees at each

sampling point.

KILOMETRE

BRITISH

COLUMBIA

fe) 40 80km

[a ee a eae

SMITH RIVER

C. FUMIFERANA DEFOLIATION

Surveys conducted after 1969 were less detailed. Based

on ground or aerial examination, defoliation was classed

as light (discolored foliage barely noticeable from a

distance), moderate (pronounced foliage discoloration,

noticeably thin foliage, top third of many trees severely

defoliated, some completely stripped) and severe (bare

branch tips and completely defoliated tops, most trees

more than 50% defoliated).

In 1976, 10 spruce trees were randomly selected for

growth determination at each of three locations along the

Alaska highway (kilometres 827, 858 and 874). The

sample included 29 white spruce and one black spruce,

Picea mariana (Mill.) B.S.P. The ring width pattern of

the single black spruce, in plot 2, was similar to that of the

remaining white spruce in the sample from the area and

was included in the average. Two cores were collected

PRINCE

GEORGE ~

BOREAL BLACK AND WHITE SPRUCE BIOGEOCLIMATIC ZONE

Fig. 1. Maximum extent of spruce budworm infestation and Boreal White and Black Spruce Biogeoclimatic Zone in

British Columbia.

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986 33

from each tree at breast height, using an increment borer.

The cores were dated using dendrochronological meth-

ods (Stokes and Smiley 1968) and ring widths were

measured using an ADDO-X instrument’. A ring width

series versus year was constructed by averaging the data

from the two cores from each tree. Each ring width series

was smoothed using a centered three- or five-year moving

average. The resultant data were plotted and examined to

describe the effect of budworm defoliation on tree growth

and to determine a possible history of infestations in the

area (Alfaro et al. 1982, Blais 1983).

Increment cores were also collected from intermediate

trees of the non-host species trembling aspen, Populus

tremuloides Michx., and white birch, Betula papyrifera

Marsh. To aid in the interpretation of the tree ring series,

weather information for the area was obtained from the

Smith River Airport weather station (Fig. 1) (Anon.

1957-1985).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Description of the Infestation

The spruce budworm in British Columbia follows a

similar life cycle, including the timing of each stage, to

that in eastern Canada. Wood (1965)* described the life

cycle as follows. Eggs are laid in July, in masses on the

needles and hatch in about 12 days. Young larvae over-

winter in hibernaculae under bark scales, lichen or other

protective coverings. In the following May the larvae

2Parker Instruments, Organistan 18, S-21617 Malmo, Sweden.

3Wood R.O. 1965. ““The one-year cycle spruce budworm, Choristoneura

jumiferana (Clem. ), in northeastern British Columbia.” Unpublished report,

Canadian Forestry Service, Forest Insect and Disease Survey, Pacific and

Yukon Region, 8 pp.

100

AVERAGE

PRECIPITATION

AVERAGE DEFOLIATION (%)

emerge and first mine old needles or attack the opening

buds. Subsequent larval feeding is mainly on the current

year’s growth; if, however, this becomes depleted, larvae

will move onto older foliage to feed. Pupation occurs in

late June or early July with the moths emerging in 12-18

days.

The maximum extent of defoliation, as recorded from

ground and aerial observations, was entirely within the

Boreal White and Black Spruce Biogeoclimatic Zone

(Krajina 1965; Annas 1983) (Fig. 1). This zone is limited

to the northeast corner of the province occupying the

lower elevations of the main valleys west of the Rocky

Mountains. It occurs north of approximately 54°N lati-

tude and at elevations ranging from 165 to 1150 m and is

characterized by very cold winters and a relatively short

growing season (Annas 1983).

Defoliation occurred in the area from 1959 (when first

reported) until 1979; however, its intensity was highly

variable over the years. It remained low (23-35%) from

1959 until 1962 (Fig. 2), then increased sharply in 1964

and 1965, when defoliation averaged 90% of the total

foliage. In 1966 there was a reduction in damage (< 10%

defoliation). However, defoliation gradually increased

again until 1969, the last year of detailed record-keeping,

when it averaged 40%. From 1970 until 1975, defoliation

in the area was classified as moderate to severe, with the

exception of 1974, when it was light. Light defoliation

occurred from 1976 to 1978. No visible defoliation was

reported again until 1984 and 1985 (light to moderate).

Based on the percentage of samples containing C.

fumiferana (Fig. 3a) and on the average numbers of larvae

and pupae per positive collection (Fig 3b), white spruce

appeared to be the preferred host followed by eastern

larch, Larix laricina (Du Roi) K. Koch, and alpine fir,

Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt. Less preferred hosts were

black spruce and lodgepole pine, Pinus contorta Doug|.;

however, these two species are also defoliated when

mixed with white spruce.

DEFOLIATION

dj O

—

40 52

= =

-E=

ae OO

rtd

Fig. 2. Average defoliation of the current year’s foliage based on ground observation of dominant and codominant white

spruce trees in the Liard River area. Total annual and 30-year average precipitation as measured at the Smith

River Airport weather station.

34 J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

400

300

200

100

NUMBER OF COLLECTIONS

AVERAGE NUMBER OF LARVAE

PER POSITIVE COLLECTION

WHITE EASTERN ALPINE

SPRUCE LARCH

TOTAL °

BH Positive

1 4%

BLACK LODGEPOLE

FIR SPRUCE PINE

Fig. 3. Incidence of spruce budworm on five tree species in northeastern British Columbia. A) Number of positive

(containing at least | budworm larva or pupa) and total number of collections of larvae and pupae by host tree.

Percentages refer to the percentage of total collections that were positive. B) Average number of larvae and pupae

per positive collection by host tree.

Weather records for these infestation years show little

variation in mean annual high and low temperature but

considerable variation in total annual precipitation. The

years 1964 to 1968 were below the 30-year precipitation

average (Fig. 2), with the year of lowest precipitation,

1965, coinciding with the year of greatest defoliation.

Examination of the deviations from normal precipitation

ona monthly basis for these infestation years showed that

1965 had an unusually dry March through August, a

situation apparently favorable to the development of

budworm infestations (Wellington et al. 1950; Green-

bank 1956; Morris 1963; Thomson et al. 1984).

Effects of defoliation on annual diameter growth

Average ring widths for 1939 to 1976 for the 10 spruce

trees in each locality are shown in Fig. 4. The first

defoliation records for this area date to 1959. However,

ring width declined in 1957 and 1958. Because of a one to

two year lag in ring width reduction after defoliation

(Kleinschmidt et al. 1980, Alfaro et al. 1982), it is

possible that defoliation in the area started in 1956.

Alternatively, it is possible that some climatic factor such

as drought stressed the trees prior to, or concurrent with,

defoliation. Similar decline in birch, a non-host, in plot 2

(Fig. 4), supports the second hypothesis. Also, weather

data from the area indicate 1957 to 1959 as years of below

normal precipitation (Anon. 1957 to 1959).

Both non-host trees (one birch and one aspen) showed

marked increases in ring width commencing one to two

years after the first year of recorded defoliation for the

host (1959). This suggests a release effect on the non-

host, possibly because of increased light resulting from

the defoliation of the host.

Based on the average ring width series for each plot,

loss in diameter was calculated by assuming that growth

during 1957 to 1976 should have been equal to the mean

growth of the 6 years preceding defoliation (1951-1956).

We assumed that the decline in ring width during the loss

period was entirely due to C. fumiferana defoliation and

disregarded any effects of the coincident precipitation

deficits on growth. It is possible that defoliation and

precipitation deficit might have additive effects. We also

disregarded the natural trend of tree ring widths to decline

with age (the rate of ring width decline was very slow in

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

PLOT |

SPRUCE

RING WIDTH (mm)

1939 43 47 SI

1.5

PLOT 3

1.0

SPRUCE

0.5

1939 43 47 SI

aS)

YRS. OF KNOWN DEFOL.

BELOW NORMAL

PRECIPITATION

eee

ASPEN /*

D0). soo" 6S —-6r) 71 5

DS ° -O9URGS. 76 (set lero

YEARS (1939-1976)

Fig. 4. Average annual ring width of 10 spruce trees from three plots in the Liard River area. Also shown for comparison

are ring widths of one aspen and one birch tree. Suspected first year of defoliation (1956) is shown by the arrow.

these mature trees). Thus, our loss estimates must be

considered as a “worst case scenario.” Absolute losses

averaged 10.6, 13.2 and 7.7 mm in plots 1, 2 and 3

respectively; thus percentage losses, relative to the aver-

age diameter the trees could have reached by 1976, were

3.8, 4.4 and 3.0% respectively (Table 1).

Examinations conducted in 1977 of wind fallen trees in

areas affected by the severe defoliation of 1965 indicated

that nearly all of the trees had sustained top-kill averaging

30 to 60 cm in length. Leader recovery from the top-kill in

the form of multiple leaders was evident in most trees.

The significance of defects in the main stem due to top-kill

is greater in young than in mature trees, because defects

can result in a reduction in the merchantable height of the

tree. Tree mortality as a result of persistent budworm

defoliation was rarely found, unlike the situation in east-

ern North America (MacLean et al. 1984).

Possible outbreak chronology for the Liard River

area.

Examination of the annual ring width series disclosed a

distinct pattern of alternating periods of growth increase

and decline (Fig. 5) which recurred every 14 to 28 years

(Table 2). These periods were evident in many trees from

this area (Table 2) and could be attributed to periodic

environmental conditions adverse to growth, to the ef-

fects of recurrent C. fumiferana (or some other pest) or to

both. No pest records exist for this area prior to 1956. A

similar pattern of ring width reduction for the years 1956

to 1976, the years of known defoliation (Figs. 4, 5),

“a

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

Embree, D.C. 1965. The population dynamics of the winter moth in Nova Scotia, 1954-1962. Mem. Entomol. Soc. Can.

No. 46, 57 pp.

Embree, D.G. 1970. The diurnal and seasonal patterns of hatching of v-inter moth eggs, Operophtera brumata

(Lepidoptera:Geometridae). Can. Entomol. 102: 750-768.

Ferguson, D.C. 1978. Pests not known to occur in the United States of limited distribution. Winter moth, Operophtera

brumata (L.) (Lepidoptera:Geometridae). U.S. Dept. Agric. Coop. Pl. Pest Rep. 3: 687-694.

Gillespie, D.R., T. Finlayson, N.V. Tonks, and D.A. Ross. 1978. Occurrence of the winter moth, Operophtera brumata

(Lepidoptera:Geometridae) on southern Vancouver Island, B.C. Can. Entomol. 110: 223-224.

Smith, C.C. 1950. Notes on the European winter moth in Nova Scotia. Can. Dept. Agric. For Biol. Div., Bi-mon. Prog.

Rep. 6(2):1.

RESPONSES TO PLANT EXTRACTS OF NEONATAL CODLING

MOTH LARVAE, CYDIA POMONELLA (L.),

(LEPIDOPTERA:TORTRICIDAE:OLETHREUTINAE)

DANIEL SUOMI, JOHN J. BROWN and ROGER D. AKRE'

Department of Entomology

Washington State University

Pullman, WA

99164-6432

ABSTRACT

A bioassay was designed to test behavioral responses of neonatal codling moth larvae to

chloroform and methanol extracts of 25 plant species. Chloroform extractable materials

from absinthe wormwood, Artemisia absinthium (L.), rabbitbrush, Chrysothamnus

nauseosus (Pallas), and tansy, Janacetum vulgare (L.) showed promise as possible feeding

deterrents to neonatal codling moth larvae.

INTRODUCTION

In Washington State approximately half the cost of

controlling arthropod pests in apples is attributable to the

codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.) (Ferro et al. 1975).

Much of the damage occurs as “‘stings’’ made by probing

neonatal larvae attempting to penetrate but then not enter-

ing the fruit. This “stinging” behavior might be linked to

incompletely developed chemoreceptors. Immediately

upon eclosion from the egg, larvae may not be able to

recognize the fruit as a potential food source. This “‘non-

recognition” phenomenon has been shown by Wiklund

(1973) for early instars of Papilio machaon (L.) and by

Bland (1981) for first instars of acridids. Non-recognition

of food by neonates can lead to wandering activities that

increase their exposure to abiotic and biotic mortality

factors. As a result, in unsprayed apple orchards, death of

neonatal codling moth larvae reduces the population by

greater proportions than mortalities of any other life stage

(Ferro et al. 1975, MacLellan 1977). Therefore, new

control efforts should be directed to this stage. Disruption

of larval feeding behavior by the use of secondary plant

compounds may increase wandering and thus mortality.

‘Washington State Univ., College of Agriculture and Home Economics

Research Center, Scientific Paper 7027. Work done under project number

5405.

We surveyed local plants tor extracts that might modify

the feeding behavior of neonatal codling moth larvae.

Extracts that prevented or interrupted feeding activity

were considered possible sources for feeding deterrents

as defined by Schoonhoven (1982). Twenty-five selected

plant species of eastern Washington and northern Idaho

were collected in the survey. This study concentrated on

neonatal larvae and their feeding behavior rather than on

the long-term development of insects fed on artificial

diets containing the suspected feeding deterrents.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Plant Collection and Extraction

Test plants were collected during the summer of 1982.

Criteria used to select the plants included strong odor,

notable lack of herbivore feeding activity, or literature

references concerning their repellent properties. An ef-

fort was made to include at least one representative from

each of a variety of plant families (Table 1).

Plants chosen appeared healthy and free from visible

signs of disease. Entire plants were collected including a

moist ball of soil around the roots. The roots were

wrapped in moist paper towels and covered with a plastic

bag for transport. Plant samples were either frozen or

extracted within 1 h of collection.

Ten grams of leaves (and flowers, if present) were

weighed, wrapped in plastic, and frozen at ca. -16°C to

preserve plant components without changes in chemical

composition due to enzymatic activity (Draper 1976).

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986 ay,

TABLE 2. Percentage of trees sampled showing annual growth ring reductions attributed to C. fumiferana defoliation in

the Liard River area of British Columbia based on examinations of increment cores from 10 spruce trees in each

plot.

Year of ring Percent of trees showing growth reduction

Earliest Minimum Latest Plot 1 Plot 2 Plot 3

Decline Recovery

1873 1876 1890 70 862 80

1892 1896 1909 70 100% 70

1920 1923 1937 100 80 50

1942 1945 1954 80 90 100

1956 2? _} 100 100 100

a Infestation was still in progress when cores were collected in 1976.

2,3 Based on only 7 and 8 trees, respectively.

REFERENCES

Alfaro, R.I., G.A. Van Sickle, A.J. Thomson and E. Wegwitz. 1982. Tree mortality and radial growth losses caused by

the western spruce budworm in a Douglas-fir stand in British Columbia. Can. J. For. Res. 12: 780-787.

Annas, R.M. 1983. Boreal White and Black Spruce Zone. pp. 254-258. /n Watts S.B. (ed.) Forestry Handbook for

British Columbia. The Forestry Undergraduate Society, Faculty of Forestry, University of British Columbia, 611

PP.

Anonymous. 1957-1985. Monthly Record, Meteorological observations in Canada. Environment Canada, Atmo-

spheric Environment Service.

Blais, J.R. 1983. Trends in the frequency, extent and severity of spruce budworm outbreaks in eastern Canada. Can. J.

For. Res. 13: 539-547.

Dang, P.T. 1985. Key to Adult Males of Conifer-Feeding Species of Choristoneura Lederer (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in

Canada and Alaska. Can. Ent. 117: 1-5.

Freeman, T.N. 1967. On coniferophagous species of Choristoneura (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in North America I:

Some new forms of Choristoneura allied to C. fumiferana. Can. Ent. 99: 449-455.

Furniss, R.L. and V.M. Carolin. 1977. Western Forest Insects. U.S.D.A. For. Serv. Misc. Pub. 1339, 654 pp.

Greenbank, D.O. 1956. The role of climate and dispersal in the initiation of outbreaks of the spruce budworm in New

Brunswick. Can. J. Zool. 34: 453-476.

Harris, J.W.E. 1976. Storage and retrieval of quantitative British Columbia- Yukon Forest Insect and Disease Survey

records. Can. For. Serv., Pac. For. Res. Cent. Inf. Rep., BC-X-120, 30 pp.

Kleinschmidt, $.M., G.L. Baskerville and D.S. Solomon. 1980. Reduction of volume increment in Fir-spruce stands

due to defoliation by spruce budworm. Fac. of Forestry, U. of N. Brunswick. 37 pp.

Krajina, V.J. 1965. Biogeoclimatic zones and classification of British Columbia. in Ecology of Western North America

1: 1-17. Kragina V.J. (editor) Univ. of British Columbia Dept. of Botany.

MacLean, D.A., A.W. Kline and D.R. Lavigne. 1984. Effectiveness of spruce budworm spraying in New Brunswick in

protecting the spruce component of spruce-fir stands. Can. J. For. Res. 14: 163-176.

38 J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

Morris, R.F. (editor). 1963. The dynamics of epidemic spruce budworm populations. Memoirs Ent. Soc. Can. No. 31,

332 pp.

Schmitt, D.M., Grimble, D.G. and Searcy, J.L. 1984. Managing the Spruce Budworm in Eastern North America.

U.S.D.A. Forest Service. Agriculture Handbook No. 620.

Stokes, M.A. and T.L. Smiley. 1968. An introduction to tree-ring dating. U. of Chicago Press, Chicago 73 pp.

Thomson, A.J., R.F. Shepherd, J.W.E. Harris and R.H. Silversides. 1984. Relating weather to outbreaks of western

spruce budworm Choristoneura occidentalis (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in British Columbia. Can. Ent. 116: 375-

381.

Wellington, W.R., J.J. Fettes, K.B. Turner and R.M. Belyea. 1950. Physical and biological indicators of the

development of outbreaks of the spruce budworm. Can. J. Research 28: 308-331.

CARNUS HEMAPTERUS (DIPTERA:CARNIDAE)

AN AVIAN NEST PARASITE NEW TO BRITISH COLUMBIA

RICHARD J. CANNINGS

Cowan Vertebrate Museum

Department of Zoology

University of British Columbia

Vancouver, B.C. V6T 2A9

Carnus hemapterus Nitzsch is an ectoparasite of bird

nestlings found throughout Europe and scattered loca-

tions in North America. (Bequaert 1942, Capelle and

Whitworth 1973). Although Sabrosky (1965) lists it only

from New Brunswick in Canada, Bequaert (1951) did

state that C. hemapterus was also “found in British Col-

umbia...the details...to be published later by the discov-

erers.’ As far as I know, those details were never

published.

While checking a nest of the Northern Saw-whet Owl

Aegolius acadicus) near Osoyoos, B.C. on April 17,

1985, I noticed several small flies crawling over the

newly-hatched nestlings. I collected a few specimens on

April 17, 19, and 21, and on April 25 I took 50 flies off

two nestlings. They were identified as C. hemapterus by

S.G. Cannings and J.F. McAlpine; voucher specimens

are now at the University of British Columbia, Canadian

National Collection, and the University of Guelph.

C. hemapterus has been collected from the nests of a

wide variety of birds, but primarily from those of raptors

and hole-nesting species. I found it to be common in the

Osoyoos area, being present in all of 13 nests of the

European Starling Sturnus vulgaris and two other North-

ern Saw-whet Owl nests that I checked. Further details of

the infestations are being published elsewhere (Cannings,

in press).

REFERENCES

Bequaert, J. 1942. Carnus hemapterus Nitzsch, an ectoparasitic fly of birds, new to America (Diptera). Bull. Brook Ent.

Soc. 37: 140-149.

Bequaert, J. 1951.Carnus hemapterus Nitzsch on a screech owl in Arizona (Diptera). Psyche 58: 157.

Cannings, R.J. in press. Infestations of Carnus hemapterus Nitzsch (Diptera:Carnidae) in Northern Saw-whet Owl

nests. Murrelet.

Capelle, K.J. and T.L. Whitworth. 1973. The distribution and avian hosts of Carnus hemapterus (Diptera: Milichiidae)

in North America. J. Med. Ent. 10: 525-526.

Sabrosky, C. 1965. Milichiidae. P. 728-733 In A. Stone, C.W. Sabrosky, W.W. Wirth, B.H. Foote, and J.R. Coulson

(Eds.), A catalog of the Diptera of America north of Mexico. USDA Agric. Res. Serv., Washington, DC, 1696

Pp.

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986 39

HOST DISCRIMINATION IN RHAGOLETIS BERBERIS

(DIPTERA:TEPHRITIDAE)

CHARLENE F. MAYES and BERNARD D. ROITBERG

Department of Biological Sciences

Simon Fraser University

Burnaby, B.C. V5A 1S6

ABSTRACT

Following oviposition, females of Rhagoletis berberis Curran (Tephritidae), appear to

deposit host marking pheromones on the surface of their host fruit, Mahonia (Berberaci-

dae), and discriminate against such marked hosts when choosing oviposition sites.

Marking is accomplished by dragging the ovipositor on the fruit surface, resulting in the

deposition of a fluid trail. In addition to these findings, females were observed feeding on

the juice of host fruit through punctures made with their ovipositors. Therefore, the

incidence of fly feeding was compared with successful and unsuccessful oviposition.

INTRODUCTION

Host discrimination is defined as the ability to detect

conspecifics (Salt, 1934) and is demonstrated in several

entomophagous and phytophagous parasitic insects (Pro-

kopy, 1982). In some members of the tephritid fruit fly

genus, Rhagoletis, for example, host discrimination is

mediated by the deposition of host marking pheromones

(HMPs) which are laid down in a fluid trail over the fruit

surface following egg-laying. Females foraging for suit-

able oviposition sites detect the presence of HMPs

through contact with receptors on their foretarsi and

generally reject such marked hosts (Prokopy, 1981). The

present study examines the host discrimination behaviour

of females of the tephritid species, Rhagoletis berberis

Curran, as part of a long term study on the population

dynamics of R. berberis and its host Mahonia (Berberaci-

dae) in British Columbia.

Rhagoletis berberis is found in the Okanagan Valley, on

Vancouver Island and in Lower Mainland regions of B.C.

The species is easily distinguished from other members

of the genus by its entirely black body, distinctive ka-

ryotype and wing pattern. Its narrow host range includes

several species of northwestern Mahonia, notably M.

aquifolium and M. nervosa, commonly known as moun-

tain grape and Oregon grape respectively (Bush, 1961).

Adult flies emerge in early summer and can be found at

host sites for several weeks. During this period, mated

females lay eggs in nearly ripe fruit. The pupating larvae

drop from rotting fruit and overwinter in the soil beneath

the host. In the following summer, adults emerge from the

soil, initiating a new cycle of insect-host interaction. Our

rationale for studying host discrimination in R. berberis

is based upon the following:

First, R. berberis larvae are unable to move between

host fruit. Therefore their success as larvae is dependent

upon the choice of host fruit by their mothers. As food

and space within hosts is limited, competition among

larvae within the fruit may be important to larval sur-

vival. Thus, females that mark hosts and avoid laying

eggs in already-occupied fruit may enhance their repro-

ductive fitness.

Second, HMPs are known to operate in at least ten other

species of the Rhagoletis genus (Prokopy, 1981).

Third, certain species of fruit infesting tephritids are

among the world’s most damaging agricultural pests

(Prokopy & Roitberg, 1984). Although not an economic

pest, R. berberis is closely related to the cherry fruit fly,

R. cerasi, acurrent pest in B.C. and the apple maggot fly

R. pomonella, a pest present in Washington State and

feared to be spreading to B.C. Thus, knowledge gleaned

from this system may be utilized in management of those

related deleterious pests.

Finally, elucidation of the oviposition behaviour of R.

berberis should promote our understanding of the popula-

tion dynamics of this fly-fruit system. In addition to host

discrimination behaviour, we report observations of re-

lated behaviour.

METHODS

The present research consisted of field observations

and laboratory experiments for which we utilized two

groups of R. berberis females: wild flies, reared and

observed in nature and flies of wild origin, reared and

observed in the lab.

Field Observations

Three field sites, located in two suburbs of the B.C.

Lower Mainland, were chosen based on host and fly

presence. At each site, we followed wild females individ-

ually as they moved among fruit clusters, documenting

their search, oviposition and fruit surface-dragging beha-

viour with a tape recorder and stop watch. Visited fruit

were dissected in the lab. From the dissections we tab-

luated the number of successful ovipositions (egg(s)

found), unsuccessful ovipositions (no egg found) and the

number of eggs found per fruit. In addition, we noted the

number of fruits dragged upon following oviposition.

Lastly, we picked a random sample of fruit in the field.

Individual infested fruit from this sample and their emer-

gent flies were assigned paired numbers. In each pair, the

weight, head capsule width and pronotal width of the fly

were compared with the diameter of the fruit.

40 J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

Lab Experiments

Flies of wild origin were reared in the lab. We obtained

larvae, from rotting fruit picked the previous summer, in

the following manner: gathered ripe fruit clusters were

brought into the lab and spread out on wire mesh screens

set over trays of moist vermiculite and fine sand. Pupating

larvae dropped from the rotting fruit into the vermiculite

mixture. Collected larvae, stored at 3°C overwintered

until required for the summer’s experimentation. Follow-

ing a warming period, emergence and a maturing period

(ca. 8 days), mated females were separated from males

and placed collectively in a 25 x 25 cm plexiglass-mesh

cage. The flies were fed on a diet of water, sucrose and

yeast hydrolysate (Prokopy, 1971) and were maintained

under fluorescent light, 16L:8D. We conducted lab ex-

periments 6 hours after lights-on to approximate the time

females would forage for oviposition sites in nature. Lab-

reared flies were used for the experiments because wild

flies collected at our field sites did not acclimatize to lab

conditions.

Females were pre-tested prior to the experiments to

ensure their readiness and motivation for egg-laying. To

qualify for the experiments each fly was required to lay a

single egg in each of two uninfested fruits. We transferred

pre-tested females to individual plastic, numbered Di-

xie®-cup cages. Each qualified female was offered, ran-

domly, three types of M. aquifolium fruit atached singly

to the end of a coded probe and placed inside her cage.

The three types offered were: 1. Uninfested fruit (- —), 2.

Egg-infested fruit with surface dragging (+ +) and 3.

Egg infested fruit without surface dragging (+ -—) which

we obtained by removing females from the fruit surface

immediately following oviposition. This was a necessary

step because our field observations indicated that females

will generally drag the fruit surface after oviposition (see

Results).

During the experiments, females that rejected a ran-

dom fruit, i.e., left without attempting oviposition, were

offered an uninfested fruit to ensure that rejection oc-

curred due to fruit quality and not the motivational state of

the fly. If the uninfested fruit was rejected as well, the

previous data for the fly were eliminated. Females rested

5 minutes between each experiment. We dissected the

offered fruit after each experiment.

We recorded the females’ search times on all three fruit

types. We observed that occasionally, females would feed

on the juice of the offered fruit through punctures made

with their ovipositors. The incidence of fly feeding was

therefore compared with successful and unsuccessful

ovipositons.

RESULTS

Field Observations

Females were active in the field from 1100 to 1400

hours and made short flights to nearby fruit clusters or

longer flights to distant bushes. Males, by contrast, were

present from 900 to 1700 hours. They stationed them-

selves on fruit within single clusters and apparently

waited for females. Sightings of both sexes were consid-

erably fewer on overcast or rainy days as compared to

days of full sunlight. Females did not attempt to oviposit

on every fruit they encountered. Females that did attempt

oviposition followed one of two sequences, both of which

began with a search of the fruit surface. After searching,

flies either left the fruit or initiated oviposition. Following

oviposition, they either dragged their ovipositor over the

fruit surface or left. We documented 25 ovipositions, the

mean duration of which was 123.9s(S.E. = 8.178). The

mean duration of ovipositor dragging was 21.6s(S.E. =

3.7, N = 17). On occasion, we observed a fine, thread-

like, fluid trail on the fruit surface after dragging oc-

curred.

Results of the fruit dissections (Table 1) show oviposi-

tor dragging following in 80.6% of successful oviposi-

tions (egg found). Conversely, ovipositor dragging

following in 40% of unsuccessful ovipositions (no egg).

In only one of the 15 successful ovipositions was a fruit

found to contain more than one egg.

Females in the field oviposited in a wide range of fruit

sizes (range: 7.0 - 13.0 mm diameter). No significant

TABLE 1. Comparison by fruit dissection of successful and unsuccessful oviposition attempts and their associations

with HMP dragging by R. berberis in the field.

OVIPOSITION

Drag

Successful (egg) io

Unsuccessful (no egg) 4

Total: 17

POST-OVIPOSITION BEHAVIOUR

No Drag Total

2 15 G-test

6 10 pi ¢502

8 25

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986 65

This species is amember of the subfamily Emesinae. B.

fraterna has an angular or spiniform process on the

clypeus, the pale stripe on the ventral surface of the head

is aS wide as the interocular space and is without a dark

spot ventrally on each side behind the eye. The upper

margin of the pygophore has a broad squarish process,

but there is no erect spine within the upper border.

It is distributed throughout the western, southwestern

and northern United States, Mexico, Cuba, Jamaica,

Colombia and Ecuador (Wygodzinsky 1966).

B.C. material examined: 19, Lytton, 26.vii.1931

(G.J. Spencer); 19, id., 23.viii.1931; 5o” 59, Peace

River, Hwy. 29, 32 km W of Charlie L, 5.viii.1982

(G.G.E.Scudder); lo”, Vancouver, University Endow-

ment Lands, nr. S.W. Marine Drive and 4lst Ave.,

29. viii. 1984 (G.G.E.S.) [UBC].

FAMILY CORIXIDAE

Sagara alternata (Say)

Corixa alternata Say 1825, J. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 4: 329

Sigara (Vermicorixa) alternata, Hungerford 1948, Univ.

Kans. Sci. Bull. 32: 653.

S. alternata has the hemelytra with the postnodal

pruinose area and the claval pruinose area of equal length,

and the thorax with the mesoepimeron narrow (Hunger-

ford 1948).

The species occurs from Nova Scotia to Alberta, and

across most of the United States.

B.C. material examined: lo”, Delta, Burns bog,

2.x.1984 (J. Lancaster); lo” 19, Vancouver, Van Dusen

Botanic Gardens, ornamental pond, 16.iv.1985 (G.G.E.

Scudder) [UBC].

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Research was supported by a grant from the Natural

Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. I

am indebted to the following for assistance with loans and

identification: P.D. Ashlock (University of Kansas), R.

Foottit (Biosystematics Research Centre, Ottawa), R.C.

Froeschner (National Museum of Natural History, Wash-

ington) and A. Jansson (University of Helsinki).

REFERENCES

Barber, H.G. 1949. A new genus in the subfamily Blissinae from Mexico and a new Nysius from the Northwest

(Lygaeidae: Hemiptera-Heteroptera). Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc. 44: 141-144.

Barber, H.G. 1958. A new species of Nysius from Alaska and Alberta, Canada. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 60: 70.

Froeschner, R.C. 1960. Cynidae of the Western Hemisphere. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 111: 337-680.

Hungerford, H.B. 1948. The Corixidae of the Western Hemisphere (Hemiptera). Univ. Kans. Sci. Bull. 32: 1-827.

Kelton, L.A. 1978. The Anthocoridae of Canada and Alaska. Heteroptera: Anthocoridae. The Insects and Arachnids of

Canada, Part 4. Can. Dept. Agric. Publ. 1639, 101 pp.

McDonald, F.J.D. 1974. Revision of the genus Holcostethus in North America (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). J. N.Y. Ent.

Soc. 82: 245-258.

McPherson, J.E. 1982. The Pentatomoidea (Hemiptera) of northeastern North America with emphasis on the fauna of

Illinois. Southern Illinois Univ. Press, Carbondale and Edwardsville, 240 pp.

Rolston, L.H. 1983. A revision of the genus Acrosternum Fieber, subgenus Chinavia Orian, in the Western Hemisphere

(Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). J. N.Y. Ent. Soc. 91: 97-176.

Scudder, G.G.E. 1981. Two new species of Lygaeinae (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae) from Canada. Can. Ent. 113:747-753.

Slater, J.A. 1964. A catalogue of the Lygaeidae of the World. Univ. of Connecticut, Storrs, 2 vols., 1668 pp.

Slater, J.A. and Baranowski, R.M. 1978. How to know the true bugs (Hemiptera-Heteroptera). Wm. C. Brown Co.,

Dubuque, Iowa, 256 pp.

Stoner, D. 1920. The Scutelleridae of lowa. Univ. Iowa Stud. Nat. Hist. 8: 1-140.

Wygodzinsky, P.W. 1966. A monograph of the Emesinae (Reduviidae, Hemiptera). Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 133: 1-

614.

ERRATUM

In Wilkinson, P.R. 1984. Hosts and distribution of Rocky Mountain wood ticks (Dermacentor andersoni) at a tick focus

in British Columbia rangeland, Vol. 81: 57-71, table 2, footnote 1: the entry “1 muskrat on July 20”’, should be ‘‘1 weasel

on July 20”. The name Mustela was somehow transposed into muskrat.

42 J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

TABLE 4. Response of R. berberis females to fruit surface punctures following oviposition attempts.

OVIPOSITION

Successful (egg)

Unsuccessful (no egg)

about and placed their mouth parts into the puncture.

Data from feeding observations (Table 4) show that 70%

of unsuccessful ovipositions were followed by feeding

while only 18% of successful ovipositions were followed

by feeding.

DISCUSSION

First, both field observations and lab experiments indi-

cate that R. berberis females generally follow egg-laying

with ovipositor dragging of the host fruit surface. Most

importantly, lab results indicate that it is not the presence

of an egg but rather the dragging that enables females to

discriminate. Thus, it follows that females detect a sub-

stance deposited on the fruit during dragging. Several

factors give weight to this conclusion: firstly, evidence

for the existence of this substance comes from our obser-

vation of a fine, thread-like trail on the fruit, visible

briefly, following ovipositor dragging. Secondly, the fact

that all pre-tested females readily climbed onto and

searched each fruit type equally, indicates that physical

contact with the fruit surface is necessary for determina-

tion of its quality. Thirdly, contact pheromone markers

are used by several species within the Rhagoletis genus

including R. pomonella, R. cerasi, R. completa, R.

fausta, R. cingulata, R. indifferans, R. mendax, R. cor-

nivora, R. tabellaria and R. basiola (Prokopy, 1981).

Thus, we conclude that R. berberis employs a contact

marking pheromone to aid in host discrimination.

The usage of host marking pheromones is functionally

significant in several ways. HMPs appear to be the only

means by which R. berberis females can detect the pres-

ence of an egg after it has been laid. HMPs signal egg

presence to other foraging females enabling them to avoid

conspecific competition and thereby enhancing their re-

productive fitness. Recent theoretical studies (Roitberg

& Prokopy, 1986) however, suggest the functional signifi-

cance of HMPs is that they signal to the female that laid

FEED

NO FEED

5 26 G-test

14 6 p = ¢.001

the egg initially that it has already exploited a particular

fruit. Therefore, additional eggs should not be laid in the

same fruit to avoid sibling competition for limited food

and space. In either case, as our data suggest, single M.

aquifolium fruits support only one larva, so that rejection

of marked fruit should enhance the fitness of parents

through increased offspring survival. In addition, Price

(1970), suggested that females’ response to HMPs en-

hances foraging efficiency via dispersal of females away

from areas already heavily exploited.

Second, our lack of correlation between fruit diameter

and fly size indicates that competition between larvae

may be far more deleterious than variation in fruit size.

Thus, it is not surprising that females do not appear to

discriminate between different sized fruit for oviposition

sites.

Third, results suggest that the females’ feeding beha-

viour, at fruit surface punctures, has a single functional

significance, that of obtaining nutrients. If this phenome-

non were related to offspring survival we might expect to

observe a high correlation between oviposition and feed-

ing. In fact, feeding rarely followed oviposition.

Finally, we hope knowledge of this HMP system will

help us to reach an overall understanding of tephritid

marking systems. Such an understanding will aid in

future management of both harmless and damaging Rha-

goletis species. Already, recent computer simulation stu-

dies (Roitberg & Angerilli, 1986) show employment of

HMPs in orchards, in conjunction with traps, may pro-

vide effective population control at rates comparable to

chemical biocides.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was supported by funds from an NSERC

Operating Grant and a Simon Fraser University Presi-

dent’s Research Grant to BDR.

REFERENCES

Bush, G.L. 1961. Rhagoletis in North America. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology. 134, No. 11: 508-

= a

Price, P.W. 1970. Trail odours: Recognition by insects parasitic on cocoons. Science. 170: 546-547.

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986 43

Prokopy, R.J. and E.F. Boller. 1971. Artificial egging system for the European cherry fruit fly. Journal of Economic

Entomology. 63: 1413-1417.

Prokopy, R.J. 1981. Oviposition deterring pheromone system of apply maggot flies in: (E.R. Mitchell, Ed.) Manage-

ment of Insect Pests with Semiochemicals. Plenum Publishing Corporation 477-494.

Prokopy, R.J., Roitberg, B.D. and A. Averill. 1982. Chemical mediation of resource partitioning in insects in: (R. Carde

and W. Bell, Eds.) Chemical Ecology of Insects. Chapman and Hall. London. 301-330.

Prokopy, R.J. and B.D. Roitberg. 1984. Foraging behaviour of true fruit flies. American Scientist. 72: 41-49.

Roitberg, B.D. and N. Angerelli. 1986. Management of temperate orchard pests: Applied behavioural ecology.

Agricultural Zoology Reviews. 1: (in press).

Roitberg, B.D. and R.J. Prokopy. 1986. Marking pheromones. Bioscience. (in press).

Salt, G. 1934. Experimental studies in insect parasitism. II. Superparatisism. Proceedings of the Royal Society of

London. Series B. 114: 455-476.

CBE Works for You

The Council of Biology Editors, Inc. serves writers, editors, and

publishers in the biological sciences through its outstanding

membership services and publications, including:

@ CBE Views, a quarterly publication, keeping you

informed of the latest developments in scientific

communication and publishing

@ publications providing valuable assistance for editors and

writers, including the CBE Style Manual, the standard

reference in the biological sciences

@ an annual meeting stressing continuing education and

networking among participants

Find out more about the Council of Biology Editors today!

C) Send me more information about CBE membership.

C) Send me more information about CBE publications.

Return to:

Council of Biology Editors, Inc., Dept. D-86, 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Maryland 20814, (301) 530-7036

Name

Organization

Street Address

City, State, Zip Code

Country — Phone Number (___)

44 J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

TRYPODENDRON LINEATUM (COLEOPTERA:SCOLYTIDAE)

BREEDING IN BIG LEAF MAPLE, ACER MACROPHYLLUM

B. STAFFAN LINDGREN

Phero Tech Inc.

1140 Clark Drive

Vancouver, B.C.

Canada V6T 2A9

The striped ambrosia beetle, Tyrpodendron lineatum

[Olivier], is a holarctic species which normally breeds in

coniferous wood (Lekander et al. 1977; Bright 1976;

Wood 1982). Occasionally it is found in hardwoods, and

in the literature it is recorded from Alnus, Betula, and

Malus (Bright 1976; Nijholt 1981; Wood 1982). This

paper describes successful attack and brood production in

bigleaf maple, Acer macrophyllum.

The attacked maple was found at the MacMillan-

Bloedel Ltd. Mesachie Lake dryland sorting area, situ-

ated just southwest of Cowichan Lake on Vancouver

Island. The tree was wind thrown during the winter 1984-

1985, and attacked in the spring of 1985. The tree was 40-

45 years old, the diameter was 50 cm (dbh), and growth

was fairly vigorous (6.3 + 2.1 mm per year) over the last

5 years. The attack density was 22.5 + 8.2/0.1 m° at

midbole. Brood production was moderate as judged by

the number of pupal galleries. Approximately 300 brood

beetles were collected in an emergence trap from six 30

cm sections taken 3-4 m from the butt end of the tree. The

sections were collected on October 2, and emergence

continued until late October. It is likely that most brood

beetles had already emerged at the time the sections were

collected. Galleries penetrated the wood to a maximum

depth of 7 cm. The ambrosia fungus appeared normal as

judged by the color of the galleries and apparent health of

the brood.

The population of 7? lineatum at the Mesachie Lake

dryland sort is fairly moderate. The attacked maple was

not in the vicinity of any coniferous timber, but there were

two pheromone-baited Lindgren funnel traps (Lindgren

1983) within 5 m of the tree. It is possible that the

pheromone from these traps attracted the beetles and

induced the attack. However, the successful brood pro-

duction would suggest that the condition of the wood was

favorable for the beetles. Therefore it appears that the

attack was natural, demonstrating the adaptability of this

ambrosia beetle.

Specimens of the ambrosia beetles collected in this study

are kept in the insect collection at the Pacific Forestry

Centre, Victoria, B.C.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank S. Krannitz and E. Stokkink for bringing the

attacked maple to my attention; G.H. Cushon for collect-

ing the maple sections and assisting with data collection;

Dr. Donald E. Bright for identification of the beetles; and

J.A. Carlson for reviewing the manuscript. The research

was supported by Contribution Arrangement No. CA

910-4-0016/B-015 from the National Research Council

of Canada, and by an Industrial Post Doctoral Fellowship

from the Science Council of B.C.

REFERENCES

Bright, D.E. 1976. The bark beetles of Canada and Alaska. Canada Department of Agriculture Publication 1576, 241

Pp.

Lekander, B., B. Bejer-Petersen, E. Kangas and A. Bakke. 1977. The distribution of bark beetles in the Nordic

countries. Acta Ent. Fenn. No 32, 36 pp + 78 distribution maps.

Lindgren B.S. 1983. A multiple funnel trap for scolytid beetles (Coleoptera). Can. Ent. 115: 299-302.

Nijholt, W.W. 1981. Ambrosia beetles in alder. Can. For. Serv. Res Notes 1 (2): 12

Wood, S.L. 1982. The bark and ambrosia beetles of North and Central America (Coleoptera:Scolytidae), a taxonomic

review. Great Basin Naturalist No. 6, 1359 pp.

ERRATUM

In Wilkinson, P.R. 1984. Hosts and distribution of Rocky Mountain wood ticks (Dermacentor andersoni) at a tick focus

in British Columbia rangeland, Vol. 81: 57-71, table 2, footnote 1: the entry “1 muskrat on July 20”’, should be ‘‘1 weasel

on July 20”. The name Mustela was somehow transposed into muskrat.

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1906 45

A SIMPLE REARING METHOD FOR FUNGUS GNATS

CORYNOPTERA SP. (DIPTERA:SCIARIDAE) WITH NOTES ON LIFE

HISTORY!

DAVID R. GILLESPIE

Agriculture Canada

Saanichton Research and Plant Quarantine Station

8801 East Saanich Road

Sidney, B.C.

V8L 1H3

ABSTRACT

A method of rearing fungus gnats of Corynoptera sp. (Diptera:Sciaridae) is described,

based on a diet of bean seed and horticultural peat. The gnats completed development from

egg to adult in 13-15 days at 24 + 2° C. Oviposition and longevity were increased by a

honey supplement to the adults.

INTRODUCTION

Various species of fungus gnats (Diptera:Sciaridae) are

common pests in greenhouse crops (Lindquist, Faber and

Casey 1985; Wilkinson and Daugherty 1970a, b). Larvae

reportedly damage the roots of seedlings and mature

plants (Wilkinson and Daugherty 1970a; Dennis 1978),

and adults are a source of annoyance and irritation to

workers and consumers. The species most commonly

reported causing damage in greenhouses is Bradysia

coprophilia (Lintner) (Lindquist, Faber and Casey

1985). Wilkinson and Daugherty (1970a) reported B.

impatiens (Johannsen) feeding on roots of soybean plants

in a greenhouse.

In the fall of 1982 larvae of a species of Sciaridae were

noted feeding on and around the roots of Gerbera jameso-

nii in a greenhouse. These were collected, reared and

subsequently identified as Corynoptera sp. This species

was successfully placed in continuous rearing. The fol-

lowing reports rearing techniques for this species which

may be adaptable to other species of Sciaridae. The life

history of Corynoptera sp. is described.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Rearing

The rearing mixture was prepared by first soaking 100 g

of dried pinto or small red beans in water for 24 h. These

were rinsed under cold running water and ground with

500 ml of water in a blender. The ground beans were then

added to 2 ? of sieved (16 mesh) horticultural peat and

sufficient water was added to produce a moist mixture.

This was stored in the refrigerator at 2°C until needed.

Cylindrical plastic 1 ? refrigerator containers coated on

the outside with black paint were used as rearing contain-

ers. A hole of 2.5 cm diam. in the lid was covered with 80

mesh screen to provide ventilation. Approximately 100

ml of the rearing mix was added to these containers and

‘Contribution No. 290. Saanichton Research and Plant Quarantine Sta-

tion, 8801 East Saanichton Rd., Sidney, B.C.

packed firmly into the bottom. A small quantity of honey

was then smeared on the lid. Twenty-five to 50 1- to 2-

day-old gravid female fungus gnats and an equal quantity

of males were briefly anesthetized with CO, and placed in

the container. Colonies were renewed by anesthetizing

freshly emerged adults in the original container and then

placing the appropriate number into a new container.

Life History

Eggs for life history studies were collected by placing

large numbers of female and male Corynoptera sp. in

sealed containers with moist paper towelling. Eggs were

rinsed from the towelling after 24 h and collected on a 200

mesh screen. Approximately 2000 freshly laid eggs were

put into each of five containers as described above, with

200 ml of rearing mix. These were held at 24 + 5°C. On

the following day and each day thereafter a 10 ml sample

of mix was taken from each container. Samples were

teased apart with dissecting needles. Fungus gnats at all

stages were extracted from the medium by gentle agita-

tion in a 40% sucrose solution as suggested by Fordyce

and Cantelo (1981). They were removed from the solu-

tion as they floated to the surface. This activity was

maintained until no further individuals could be ex-

tracted. All fungus gnats extracted from each sample

were counted and identified by stage, i.e. egg, larva, pupa

or empty pupal case (= adult).

Adult Fecundity and Longevity

The effects of carbohydrate supplement on fecundity

and adult longevity were tested. One freshly-emerged

unmated female and one male were placed in each of 30

inverted, vented petri dishes. Blotting paper discs on the

bottom of the dishes were kept moist throughout. A small

portion of rearing mixture was provided to focus egg

laying. In 15 of the dishes a drop of honey (approximately

0.1 ml) was placed on the blotting paper as a carbohydrate

supplement. Oviposition was assessed daily. Data were

analysed by t-test (= 0.05).

RESULTS

Rearing

The method described was effective for rearing Cor-

ynoptera sp. Cultures have been maintained continuously

for three years with occasional supplementing from wild

stocks collected in greenhouses. Yield of individual cul-

ture vessels ranged from 500 to 1000 insects. A culture

normally took 16 to 18 days to cycle at lab temperatures

18 to 24°C). The rearing mixture developed a luxuriant

covering of mold that rapidly disappeared when the larvae

hatched and began feeding. After the visible fungus had

been consumerd, the larvae turned to the larger bean

pieces left in the mixture as well as the mixture itself. By

the time larval development was complete, the mixture

had been reduced to a rich compost.

Life History

Overall development required slightly less than 13 days to

50% emergence of adults (Fig 1). The egg stage lasted

between | and 2 days. Larval development required 7

days and the pupal stage lasted about 4 days. Emergence

of adults was essentially complete by day 15. Males began

emerging | day before the females (Table I). The male: fe-

male ratio was 1:1.3.

Adult Fecundity and Longevity

Females lived for 7.3 + 1.72 days and laid 149.6 +

42.39 eggs when provided with a honey supplement. In

contrast, females lived only 3.8 + 0.68 days and laid

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

111.1 + 47.18 days without the honey supplement.

Males lived 10.6 + 2.12 days with honey supplement and

4.5 + 0.53 days without honey supplement. All differ-

ences are significant (t-test, p<0.01).

In a separate experiment, all females without mates laid

eggs on the day of death and these eggs were infertile.

Eggs from the mated females in the previous experiment

were generally fertile although the level of fertility was

not checked.

Most of the eggs were laid on day 3 of the experiment in

both honey and no honey treatments (Table II). Without

honey, all oviposition took place in a 3-day span whereas

with honey, oviposition occurred during an 8-day span.

DISCUSSION

The rearing system described above is similar to that of

Wiikinson and Daugherty (1970a). In their studies, Bra-

dysia impatiens was reared on finely ground soybeans

mixed in distilled water. A mixture of ground beans and

distilled water proved too odoriferous for use in a labora-

tory environment, particularly when large numbers were

being reared in vented containers. Other rearing methods

for B. coprophilia used ingredients ranging from a steri-

lized manure/straw mixture inoculated with mushroom

spawn (Thomas 1929) to sterilized, blended grass cut-

tings on agar slants (Kennedy 1973). Horticultural peat

was chosen because it closely simulates the substrate used

by fungus gnats in greenhouses. In addition, it and the

beans are more readily available than the exotic ingredi-

ents.

Fig. 1 Development of Corynoptera sp. over time in a rearing mixture of peat and ground beans.

Oo——————O EGG

6— = = = = — @ LARVA

100 ¢

@----®----@--- @---0@---0_

PERCENT

O--—----O PUPA

@———_® EMERGED

~~ --

—~ M=—

9°10 11 12°18 4 “1S “16> "“iias

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986 47

TABLE I. Cumulative percent emergence of Corynoptera sp. adult males and females from a rearing mixture of peat

and ground beans.

Day Males Females

11 0 0

12 Does es

13 71.0 Base,

14 23/5) rE Oe,

15 Dhue 20

16 Zed, 98.4

17 Sie eT: 99.4

18 100.0 TOs D

TABLE II. Mean daily egg production (S.D.) of Corynoptera sp. females with and without honey supplement.

Wilt Without

Day Honey Honey

N=14 Nes

1 0 0

2 Alte OO) Digs Ke 26h)

3 76 Sea) oe) Go 4 C76 2B)

4 Oe CZe ero 2oa2 (46556 )

5 5 sO Pb) 0

6 Bea 19 .08)) 0

7. So Be ly) 0

8 56 Kids BG) 0

i) Deo. (Ao bo) 0

10 0 0

Grand X TASs 64 2 30) iF sora eal Cy ar bor)

48 J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

The life cycle of Corynoptera sp. is considerably

shorter under our conditions than that of B. coprophilia as

described by Wilkinson and Daugherty (1970b). They

found the optimum for that species to be approximately

20 days at 18.9-30.0°C as opposed to 13 days for Cor.

ynoptera sp. at 24 + 2°C. The apparent increase in

numbers of pupae after day 16 (Fig. 1) was probably

spurious and due perhaps to waterlogging or disintegra-

tion of empty pupal cases.

Kennedy (1973) observed adults of B. impatiens appar-

ently feeding on “ooze” from rearing cultures, although

Wilkinson and Daugherty (1970a) did not observe feed-

ing by adults of this species. I have many times observed

fungus gnat females of undetermined species apparently

feeding on honeydew deposits from Trialeurodes vapora-

riorum (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). It appears from the

feeding experiment that this behavior could increase the

oviposition and lifespan of females, perhaps to the degree

that in cases of whitefly outbreak, fungus gnat popula-

tions should be monitored carefully.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank B.L. Marchand, N. Williams and S. Hart for

technical assistance at various stages of the project, and

J.R. Vockeroth (Agriculture Canada, Biosystematics Re-

search Institute, Ottawa, Ontario) for identification of

specimens.

REFERENCES

Dennis, D.J. 1978. Observations of fungus gnat damage to glasshouse curcubits. N.Z.J. Exp. Agric. 6: 83-84.

Fordyce, C., Jr. and W.W. Cantelo. 1981. Techniques to extract immature stages of Lycoriella mali from mushroom

growing media. J. econ. Ent. 74: 253-254.

Kennedy, M.K. 1973. A culture method for Bradysia impatiens (Diptera:Sciaridae). Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 69: 1163-

1164.

Lindquist, R.K., Faber, W.R., and Casey, M.L. 1985. Effect of various soiless root media and insecticides on fungus

gnats. HortScience 20: 358-360.

Thomas, C.A. 1929. A method for rearing mushroom insects and mites. Entomol. News. 40: 222-225.

Wilkinson, J.D. and Daugherty, D.M. 1970a. The biology and immature stages of Bradysia impatiens (Diptera: Sciari-

dae). Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 63:656-660.

Wilkinson, J.D. and Daugherty, D.M. 1970b. Comparative development of Bradysia impatiens (Diptera:Sciaridae)

under constant and variable temperatures. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 63:1079-1083.

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986 49

APPLE MAGGOT IN THE WESTERN UNITED STATES: A REVIEW

OF ITS ESTABLISHMENT AND CURRENT APPROACHES TO

MANAGEMENT!

M.T. ALINIAZEE’ and J.F. BRUNNER:?

Department of Entomology

Oregon State University

Corvallis, OR 97331

INTRODUCTION

The apple maggot, Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh) has

been a serious pest of apples in the eastern United States

and Canada for over 100 years. (Dean and Chapman,

1973). It is native to the northeastern United States where

it originally infested fruit of hawthorn, Crataegus spp. It

has been found throughout the east coast from Quebec in

the north to as far south as Florida and from the Altantic

sea coast to parts of the Dakotas, Iowa, and eastern Texas,

but not the western United States. In 1979, however, the

apple maggot was reported for the first time from a

backyard tree in Portland, Oregon (AliNiazee and

Penrose, 1981).

Many tourists from the eastern U.S. and Canada visit

the western U.S. every year. California quarantine in-

spection records indicate that apple maggot infested fruit

has been occasionally intercepted at border stations for at

least 30 years. These infested fruits had originated from

many different parts of the United States. An examination

of the Oregon Department of Agriculture (ODA) tephritid

fly collection indicated that an apple maggot fly had been

collected in 1951 at Rowena, near Hood River, Oregon,

ona yellow sticky trap. The specimen had been identified

as the snowberry maggot, R. zephyria Snow, by the ODA

but has recently been re-identified as R. pomonella Ali-

Niazee and Westcott, 1986). It is probable that the apple

maggot has been accidentally introduced to the West

many times during the past decades.

EARLY INTRODUCTION

AND ESTABLISHMENT

The 1979 Portland infestation was found in a backyard

apple tree of unknown variety. Infested fruit was brought

to an extension agent’s office and later identified as apple

maggot based on adult taxonomic characters. Fruit from

this site was heavily infested suggesting that the maggots

had been present for a few years prior to initial detection.

Conversation with the property owner failed to establish

any connection with recent fruit movement from the

midwest or eastern U.S.

‘Scientific paper No. 7081, College of Agriculture Research Centre,

Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164. Oregon Agricultural

Experiment Sta. Tech. Paper, No. 7976.

Professor of Entomology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331

3Associate Entomologist, WSU Free Fruit Research Centre, Wenatchee,

WA. 98801.

A survey conducted in 1980 by the ODA to determine

the apple maggot distribution in Oregon showed that the

apple maggot was limited to the northern Willamette

Valley and an isolated find in the Rogue River Valley near

Phoenix, Oregon (AliNiazee and Penrose, 1981). A

small number of traps placed in southwestern Washington

indicated that apple maggot occurred in and around Van-

couver, Washington. The unexpected wide distribution of

apple maggot in 1980 suggested that it had been in

Oregon for some time.

It is impossible to trace the spread of apple maggot

throughout the west, but some inferences can be made

from its present distribution. The discontinuous distribu-

tion initially observed in Oregon (AliNiazee and Penrose,

1981) in part reflects the discontinuous distribution of

host material and low trap densities used in most surveys.

Where host material is continuous, natural dispersal of

apple maggot had undoubtedly occurred. However, natu-

ral dispersal seems limited to between a few yards and a

few miles annually (Maxwell and Parsons 1968, Maxwell

1968, Phipps and Dirks 1933, Neilson 1971). Given this

constraint, the discontinuity of host material in many

areas of the West, and the present distribution pattern of

apple maggot (Table 1), it is highly probably that much of

the dissemination has resulted from the transport of in-

fested fruit. This mode of dispersal has probably been the

source of isolated infestations in areas like Spokane and

along the Oregon coast.

Climatic conditions of the western United States differ

substantially from those in the East and Midwest, and the

apple maggot has had to adapt to these environmental

constraints. A recently completed study indicates that

environmental conditions of the Willamette Valley and

Oregon coast only marginally satisfy the requirements

for diapause development, and this prolongs emergence

of adults over a long period (AliNiazee, unpublished

date). Fifty percent of the pupae emerged during the first

year, compared with over 80% during the first year in the

eastern U.S. (Dean and Chapman, 1973).

Hot and dry summers are common to many parts of the

western U.S. Relative humidities range from 15-50%

during the daytime with little rainfall occurring during

the months of July, August and September. The impact of

these conditions on adult longevity, oviposition and hatch

are not clearly understood. One of us (M.T. AliNiazee)

observed that during hot, dry periods the flies were easily

agitated and spent considerable time and energy in short

flights. Such conditions would encourage rapid dispersal,

as agitated flies would be more likely to fly to surrounding

trees.

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

(e6205

AJSATY eTquUNTOD pue yseod

(986T) oy HuojTe pezejtos]I) uobeiz0

33093Ss0mM pue seuntig ‘wntd uzeyanos ‘ASTTePA SAQOWeTITM

SozeINT TW uroyzMeH ‘setTddy SPTM uobelz0

(suexyods 3e pe AeTOoOsT)

(eqep *qdun) uojzbutTysem urSQASseMyANOS

azeuunizg uzroyuzmMeEY ‘soe Tddyv OPTM uojbutysem

(*umos °1z0d) OpeAoOTOD uzr9SASeM

Tueas seTtiazseyo PpeZTTeooT OperOTOD

(°wwod °1z9d) OuepI UASeQseeYyANOS

323093S0mM é peztTeooy OUuePL

(*wwos °2z0ed)

ussuehbaor

(*wwod °2z9d)

oouetg UeBIN UASYUAAON pue TeAqQUEed

pue JeTTtW uzoyuAMeH ‘SseTAASyYO optm ATe_ZerSspoW yean

(S86T) BTUIOJTTYD urSYRAON

*Te 3e soor uzoyAmMeY ‘oe Tddy SPTM eBTUIOJTTEO

soouersjoy S1SOH uoTANqTIASTG so ieas

"S9JBIS POUL) UJo}soM OY) UI DjJaUoWOd ‘y JO UOTNGIISIP WIND *T ATAVL

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986 2a

CURRENT STATUS

At present the apple maggot distribution in the West

includes most of the Willamette Valley of Oregon, part of

southern Oregon, a six-county area of northern Califor-

nia, southwestern Washington, and parts of northcentral

Utah. Scattered isolated populations also occur near Spo-

kane, Washington (15 sq. miles), at a number of coastal

locations in Oregon and California, along the Columbia

River Gorge, in southern Idaho and near Grand Junction,

Colorado (Table 1).

Oregon - Apple maggot surveys have been continued

since 1980 by the ODA to determine its distribution in the

state. By 1984 the apple maggot had been recorded in

almost all western Oregon counties (Westcott, personal

communication). It was not, however, uniformly distrib-

uted throughout its range in western Oregon. Although

the Willamette Valley seemed to be generally infested,

there was an allopatric distribution along the coast, con-

fined mostly to urban areas.

In Oregon the two areas of major concern were the

Hood River and Rogue River valleys. The former is the

major apple growing area and the latter the major pear

growing area of the state. Surveys of 1980 indicated the

presence of apple maggot in Cascade Locks, about 32 km

west of Hood River (AliNiazee and Penrose, 1981) and at

Phoenix in southern Oregon. Attempts were made to

eradicate these infestations by weekly spray applications

of phosmet. Surveys in 1981 and 1982 indicated that the

apple maggot had been eradicated from both these sites;

however, other sites in the same general area have since

been found to be infested. Recent trap data showed that

flies are now present at both these sites. For the first time

in 1984 the flies were trapped in the commercial apple

orchards of the Willamette Valley.

In Hood River Valley apple maggot infestations are

localized. The intensive spraying of commercial apple

orchards, the small number of unsprayed apple trees and

low probability of movement into the area by either

natural or human means may account for this condition.

In southern Oregon, however, the apple maggot is widely

distributed. A relative abundance of unsprayed apple

trees increases the potential for successful establishment

in this area. In addition, the volume of people moving

along the principal north-south route through southern

Oregon increases the probability of apple maggot being

spread by human transport of infested fruit.

Washington - The Washington infestation of apple

maggot is perhaps as old as that of Oregon. Vancouver

(Clark County) directly across the Columbia River from

Portland, was found to be infested in 1980 (AliNiazee and

Penrose, 1981). Surveys conducted in 1981 by the Wash-

ington State Department of Agriculture (WSDA) found

the apple maggot throughout southwestern Washington

and into Skamania County at Stevenson. In 1982, an

expanded survey by WSDA detected apple maggots at

additional locations along the Columbia River Gorge and

near Spokane, WA. During 1983 and 1984, catches in

increased trap densities indicated the apple maggot distri-

bution was larger than had been previously assumed.

The infestations near White Salmon and Spokane are of

greatest concern to Washington since they occur near

commercial fruit growing areas. Efforts to eradicate lo-

calized populations at these two locations, using a combi-

nation of host removal and insecticide applications, are

continuing. In 1984 apple maggot flies were trapped for

the first time in commercial apple orchards in southern

Washington. Preventive spray programs were imple-

mented in response to the detections and no infested fruits

were found. Apple maggot detections north of Vancouver

suggest that there is a slow rate of natural spread.

California - The California Department of Food and

Agriculture (CDFA), concerned about Oregon’s apple

maggot infestation, increased their monitoring program

in northern California counties bordering Oregon in 1981

using Pherocon® Am traps at a density of 0.8/km’ in

urban high hazard areas. No flies were trapped during

1981 and 1982.

On August 24, 1983, one apple maggot adult was

trapped near Smith River, Del Norte County, California.

Flies subsequently were found in a number of northern

California counties. The surveys indicated a widespread,

low density infestation on apple and hawthorn at several

locations along the Klamath River as well as the north

coastal area near the Oregon border. A total of 103 adult

flies and 38 larval-infested sites were found in 1983 (Joos

et al. 1984). In 1984 the apple maggot was detected in

three additional counties. The movement of fruit via back

roads is common in this general area and probably facili-

tated the spread of apple maggot.

Utah - Apple maggots were first collected in Utah in

1976 from Malaise traps near Willard Basin of Box Elder

Co. (Jorgensen et al. 1986). However, no flies or fruit

infestations were later reported from the state. In 1983,

adult flies were detected in traps maintained as part of a

cherry fruit fly monitoring program. Flies were detected

on July 6, 1983, in Utah County near Mapleton (Miller,

personal communication). After flies were detected in the

Mapleton area, trap density was increased from 3.8 to 10/

km’, and over 200 flies were trapped in the Mapleton area

during 1983. Apple maggot flies also were detected in

Cache and Davis Counties, but no flies were detected in

other areas, despite heavy trapping (Miller, personal

communication).

Jorgensen (personal communication) reported that ap-

ple maggots had been reared from infested sweet and sour

cherries during 1984 but had not as yet been reared from

apple. Jorgensen et al. (1986) later reported rearing flies

from infested fruit of native hawthorn, Crataegus dougla-

sii.

Colorado - Four specimens of apple maggots were de-

tected near Palisade in a sweet cherry orchard during

1985 (F. Stahl, personal communication). Although the

distribution of the apple maggot in the state is not well

documented, these findings are of concern to the major

tree fruit growing areas near Grand Junction, Colorado.

52 J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

FUTURE OUTLOOK

Based on the distribution pattern discussed above, it

appears that the apple maggot is now well established in

the western United States. It is very difficult to precisely

determine the date of introduction and establishment.

Based on its current distribution and the one fly caught in

1951 from Rowena, Oregon, it appears that apple maggot

probably has been in Oregon for at least 30-40 years. A

changing trend in the emergence rates and a shift of opiine

parasitoids from R. zephyria to R. Pomonella (AliNiazee

1985a) also suggests the presence of apple maggot in the

western U.S. for many years. Further spread of this pest

in the West will depend on a number of factors including

the movement of infested fruit and quarantine restrictions

placed on fruit shipments from infested areas. Unre-

stricted movement of infested fruit greatly increases the

possibility of rapid spread. The occurrence of the pest in

many different environments of the West indicates that it

is capable of surviving in most areas where commercial

apples are produced. Its widespread infestation of cher-

ries (Jorgensen, personal communication) suggests de-

velopment of new host races in the West. Major efforts are

currently underway in Washington, Oregon and Califor-

nia to restrict the movement of the apple maggot and

protect the major apple producing areas.

MANAGEMENT APPROACHES

Eradication - The eradication of apple maggot from

the entire western U.S. seems impractical if not impossi-

ble. It may be too late to attempt even area-wide eradica-

tion on a statewide basis. For example, in western Oregon

and Washington infestations are widespread and largely

confined to hawthorn and abandoned apple trees. These

apple maggot hosts are abundant, with many infested

sites being inaccessible.

In northern California along the Klamath River and

coastal areas, complete eradication will be difficult. Lo-

calized eradication seems feasible and may be a viable

option, particularly if the infestations are near major

apple growing areas. Localized infestations near Hood

River and Cascade Locks were thought to be eradicated

two years ago, but flies were detected again in 1984. In

Washington, successful local eradication was thought to

have been achieved within the town of Klickitat, but apple

maggot was detected again in 1984. It is encouraging that

apple maggot populations in areas where local eradica-

tion is being attempted have steadily declined. Total

eradication of the apple maggot is probably only feasible

where geographic barriers isolate local populations from

more generally infested areas.

Containment - Containment of apple maggot popula-

tions in a given area by creating insecticide treated and/or

host-free buffer zones is an attractive idea. However, the

practical feasibility of such an approach is difficult to

evaluate. Although a half-mile flight range has been

suggested for the apple maggot (Dean and Chapman,

1973), it is possible that under certain conditions flies

may travel longer distances, thus complicating contain-

ment programs. A prerequisite to any containment effort

would be the determination of fly distribution in a given

area. Such distribution maps are not currently available

for all infested areas in the West. Delimiting surveys are

being conducted in California and parts of Oregon, Wash-

ington and Utah. The most likely means of apple maggot

dispersal will be by transport of infested fruit. The impo-

sition of strict quarantines, primarily on non-commercial

fruit, will be critical to the success of containment pro-

grams. Survey programs should be implemented in areas

of the western U.S. where apple maggot has not yet been

detected.

Management - Apple growers in generally infested ar-

eas, such as the Willamette Valley of Oregon, must learn

to live with the apple maggot. Fortunately, apple maggot

control is easily accomplished through application of a

number of insecticides (Hoyt et al. 1982). The biology of

the apple maggot (number of generations, damage, etc.)

in the western United States is similar to that described by

several authors in the eastern United States. However,

distinct phenological differences exist between the east-

ern and the western population. In Oregon and Washing-

ton the apple maggot begins emerging in early July. Peak

emergence occurs in late August or early September

(AliNiazee and Wescott 1986, Tracewski et al. 1985).

Flies are found as late as November, and larvae have been

found in late December. During some years, larvae might

be able to survive the entire winter in more moderate

areas. Sprays applied for control of codling moth, Cydia

pomonella L., will provide partial control of the apple

maggot. However, complete dependence on these sprays

will not provide adequate protection (AliNiazee 1986),

and one or two additional sprays will be required for

commercially acceptable control.

Naturally occurring biological control could play an

important role in management of apple maggot in Ore-

gon. Two opiine parasitoids, Opius downesi Gahan and

O. lectoides Gahan have shifted from the showberry

maggot to the apple maggot population in hawthorn and

have caused reductions in pest density at two study sites in

Oregon (AliNiazee 1985). The life cycle of these parasi-

toids is well synchronized with that of the apple maggot.

More detailed studies are needed, however, to determine

the potential of these and other natural enemies under

commercial orchard conditions. Studies on apple maggot

trapping, sampling and monitoring are also needed.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Sincere thanks are expressed to Drs. R.L. Westcott,

Timothy Miller, Edward Bianco, Clive Jorgensen,

Donald Davis, John Joos, Robert Dowell, Stan Hoyt and

Peter Westigard for their assistance in the preparation of

this manuscript.

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986 53

REFERENCES

AliNiazee, M.T. 1985. Opiine (Hymenoptera:Braconidae) parasitoids of Rhagoletis pomonella and R. zephyria

(Diptera: Tephritidae) in the Willamette Valley, Oregon, Can. Entomol. 117: 163-166.

AliNiazee, M.T. 1986. Managing the apple maggot, Rhagoletis pomonella in the Pacific Northwest: An evaluation of

possible options. Proc. 10 BC/WPRS Symp. on “Fruit Flies of Economic Importance.’ Hamburg, West

Germany, 1984. Pp. 175-182.

AliNiazee, M.T. and R.L. Penrose. 1981. Apple maggot in Oregon: A possible threat to the Northwest apple industry.

Bull. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 27:245-246.

AliNiazee, M.T. and R.L. Westcott. 1986. Distribution of the apple maggot, Rhagoletis pomonella in Oregon. J. Ent.

Soc. Brit. Columbia. 83:52.

Dean, R.W. and P.J. Chapman. 1973. Bionomics of the apple maggot in eastern New York. Search Agriculture 3: 1-64.

Hoyt, S.C., J.R. Leeper, G.C. Brown, and B.A. Croft. 1982. Basic biology and management components for insect

IPM. pp. 93-152. In: B.A. Croft and S.C. Hoyt (ed.). Integrated Management of Insect Pests of Pome and Stone

Fruits. John Wiley and Sons, New York.

Joos, J.L., W.W. Allen and R.A. VanSteenwyk. 1984. Apple maggot: A threat to California’s apple industry. Calif.

Agric. 38:9-11.

Jorgensen, C.D., D.B. Allred, and R.L. Westcott. 1986. Apple maggot (Rhagoletis pomonella) adaptation for cherries

in Utah. Great Basin Natur. (in press).

Maxwell, C.W. 1968. Apple maggot adult dispersion in a New Brunswick apple orchard. J. Econ. Entomol. 61:103-

106.

Maxwell, W.T.A. 1971. Dispersal studies of a natural population of apple maggot adults. J.Econ. Entomol. 64:648-653.

Phipps, C.R. and C.O. Dirks. 1933. Dispersal of apple maggot. J. Econ. Entomol. 25:576-582.

Tracewski, K.T., J.F. Brunner, S.C. Hoyt and S.R. Dewey. 1985. Occurrence and development of Rhagoletis pomonella

(Walsh) in hawthorns in the Pacific Northwest. J. Econ. Entomol. Submitted.

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Floppy disks may now be submitted to the editor. This will help cut publishing costs and reduce typesetting errors. Apple

Macintosh or IBM compatible 5.25 inch floppy disks containing ASCII files are acceptable. All text-formatting codes

must be removed. Floppy disks will be returned, but please keep a backup copy of your own. The original typed

manuscript and two copies must still be submitted.

54 | J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

DISTRIBUTION OF THE APPLE MAGGOT, RHAGOLETIS

POMONELLA (DIPTERA:TEPHRITIDAE)IN OREGON

M.T. ALINIAZEE and R.L. WESTCOTT:

Department of Entomology

Oregon State University

Corvallis, OR 97331

ABSTRACT

Data from a four-year (1981-1984) distributional study suggest that, in Oregon, the

apple maggot Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh) is established in the interior valleys (espe-

cially the Willamette Valley) along the Columbia River Gorge and at isolated locations

along the Oregon coast. An analysis of the general distribution pattern and some earlier

records suggests that the apple maggot may have been in Oregon for nearly four decades.

INTRODUCTION

After the chance discovery of the apple maggot Rhago-

letis pomonella (Walsh) (Diptera: Tephritidae) near Port-

land, Oregon in 1979, a number of questions arose

regarding the distribution and pest status of this insect in

the Pacific Northwest. It was obvious that the entire

western apple growing area, from British Columbia to

California, was threatened by this maggot find. An initial

survey to delimit the distribution was started by the

Oregon Department of Agriculture (ODA) in 1980 and

the results of early surveys were discussed by AliNiazee

and Penrose (1981), and Westcott (1982). A review of the

apple maggot situation in the western United States was

presented by AliNiazee and Brunner (1986). Reported

here is the current distribution of the apple maggot in

Oregon.

METHODS

The distribution studies were conducted by employing

Zoecon’s Pherocon® AM standard traps and periodic

inspection of host fruit for larval finds. During 1980,

trapping studies were mostly confined to a small area in

Portland, but eventually expanded to other areas, espe-

cially in the northern Willamette Valley.

During 1981 anurban grid system was employed in and

around larger inland towns and the coastal cities of Asto-

ria, Coos Bay and Brookings, providing a maximum

density of 4 traps/mi’. Transects were run in the Willa-

mette Valley along portions of Interstate 5 and highways

to the west, from Wilsonville south to Eugene; along I-5

from Eugene to Grants Pass; and along the coast, all at a

rate of 1 trap/mi’. However, in practice this rate was

greatly reduced in some areas due to lack of hosts. In

southwestern Oregon, from Grants Pass southward, the

rate was increased to 2/mi’. In eastern Oregon, major

cities in Klamath, Malheur, Umatilla, Union and Wasco

counties were trapped using the urban grid system. Ap-

‘Professor of Entomology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR

97331, and Survey Entomologist, Oregon Department of Agriculture, Sa-

lem, OR 97305, respectively. Oregon Agricultural Experimental Station

paper no. 7978

proximately 70 traps were placed in native hawthorns,

Crataegus spp., from Wasco county to Umatilla and

Baker counties, to test the hypothesis that a hawthorn race

of apple maggot might be native to the state.

During 1982 the grid trap density was increased to 10

traps/mi’. Western Oregon areas chosen for trapping

included previously untrapped or scantily trapped locali-

ties in the vicinity of I-5, from Eugene southward, and in

Coos and Curry counties. In eastern Oregon, the trapping

studies were conducted for the first time in the major

cities of Crook, Deschutes, Grant and Jefferson counties,

and again in Malheur, Union, Umatilla, and Wasco coun-

ties.

In 1983 efforts were largely confined to areas where the

presence of apple maggot is of concern to commercial

production of apples. In 1984 a similar trapping program

was continued. The rediscovery of apply maggots in

Hood River and the first detection near The Dalles,

Oregon, effected an increase in trap density in these

general areas.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Fig. 1 shows the current distribution of the apple mag-

got in Oregon. Although different symbols are used for

each year, the progression of detections should not be

interpreted to reflect the dispersal rate of R. pomonella,

either natural or artificial. Rather, it is a reflection of

changing trapping patterns and density. Nevertheless,

these data suggest that apple maggot is now well estab-

lished throughout the interior valleys of western Oregon

and parts of southern Oregon. It is also found in the

Columbia River Gorge and, disjunctly, along the coast;

the latter strongly suggesting fly dispersal by movement

of infested fruit.

Although apple maggot has been recorded from Ore-

gon only since 1979, its widespread and sometimes abun-

dant occurrence in western Oregon and some adjacent

areas in Washington suggests an earlier time of establish-

ment. Distributional studies conducted during 1980 and

1981, even, provided a clear picture of this, when a high

percentage of positive trapped sites and observed fly

abundance in the northernmost Willamette Valley (partic-

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986 ye)

Fig. 1. Present distribution of apple maggot in Oregon. Solid circles, 1980; rectangles, 1981; hollow circles, 1982;

solid stars, 1983; hollow stars, 1984.

ularly the greater Portland area) strongly suggested this

region as the point of origin. Given the large human

population in this region and the ease with which infested

apples may be transported via the automobile, this fly

population does not necessarily stem from one source.

It is difficult to ascertain how long the apple maggot has

been in Oregon. A close examination of Oregon Depart-

ment of Agriculture (ODA) records shows that in Septem-

ber 1947, a California border quarantine station

intercepted some apples, allegedly from a backyard tree

in Portland, which were claimed to be infested with apple

maggot. Shortly thereafter, all remaining apples from the

alleged site were inspected and no evidence of apple

maggot was found. During 1948 ODA personnel placed

traps in the suspected host and in apple trees on 33 nearby

properties (40 traps total). Two flies identified as R.

pomonella, apparently by Alan Stone, were recorded.

However, Stone considered the snowberry maggot, R.

zephyria Snow to be a synonym of R. pomonella, and a

snowberry bush infested with R. zephyria was found

across the street from a site where one of the flies was

captured. The specimens in question cannot be located.

From an area ‘“‘approximately !/2 mile x 1 mile” around

the suspect host from 1947, 1174 apples were examined.

56 J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

All were negative except one report as follows: “‘One

apple contained tunnels that might have been made by

apple maggots. No maggots found. No evidence of cod-

ling moth at the core.”’ In our opinion this report, although

submitted as “‘definitely negative in regard to finding of

apple maggots” does not completely rule out the presence

of apple maggots at this site in southeast Portland. Indeed,

this report coupled with the fact that this area is currently

heavily infested with apple maggot, and given the diffi-

culty of detection of an incipient infestation even with

methods available today, would seem to raise more ques-

tions.

Another important fact relates to a specimen in the

ODA collection which had been misidentified as R.

zephyria. This specimen was collected on a yellow sticky

board trap in 1951 near Rowena, in the Columbia River

Gorge area of Wasco county, and has been determined by

one of us (R.L.W.) to be R. pomonella (with an ovipositor

length of 1.15 mm). In our study, apple maggot was first

detected in this area during 1984, the fourth year of

sampling.

The widespread distribution of R. pomonella in Oregon

(Fig. 1), the earlier record as discussed above, and the

abundance and excellent host/parasitoid synchrony of

opiine parasitoids (AliNiazee 1985) which probably

shifted over to R. pomonella from R. zephyria, suggest

that apple maggot has been in Oregon for many years.

REFERENCES CITED

AliNiazee, M.T. 1985. Opiine parasitoids (Hymenoptera:Braconidae) of Rhagoletis pomonella and R. zephyria

(Diptera: Tephritidae) in the Willamette Valley, Oregon. Can. Entomol. 117: 163-166.

AliNiazee, M.T. and R.L. Penrose. 1981. Apple Maggot in Oregon: a possible new threat to the Northwest apple

industry. Bull. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 27: 245-246.

AliNiaze, M.T. and J.F. Brunner. 1986. Apple maggot in the western United States: a review of its establishment and

current approaches to management. J. Ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia. 83: 49.

Westcott, R.L. 1982. Differentiating adults of apple maggot, Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh) from snowberry maggot, R.

zephyria Snow (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Oregon. Pan Pacific Entomol. 58: 25-30.

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986 57

MORPHOLOGY OF MYRMECOPHILA MANNI, A

MYRMECOPHILOUS CRICKET (ORTHOPTERA:GRYLLIDAE)'

GREGG HENDERSON and ROGER D. AKRE’

Department of Entomology

Washington State University

Pullman, WA 99164-6432

ABSTRACT

Scanning electron microscopy showed that the myrmecophilous cricket, Myrmecophila

manni Schimmer, retains many structural features common to typical gryllids and has few

of the morphological features often associated with myrmecophily. However, the mouth

parts, particularly the labrum and epipharynx, are highly modified for strigilation and

trophallaxis. The structure of the ovipositor is unique in that it can expand greatly to permit

the passage of large eggs. This cricket also differs from typical gryllids in having stemmata

instead of compound eyes, a feature probably related to its life inside dark ant nests where it

does not need good vision. Behavioral, rather than morphological, attributes are probably

more important in adapting the crickets for life with ants.

INTRODUCTION

Four species of Myrmecophila Latreille, small (2.3-4.0

mm), apterous crickets, are found in North America

(Hebard 1920). Myrmecophila are the only myrmecophi-

lous crickets known. Inquilines, especially myrme-

cophiles, often share a number of characteristics that

enable them to live in the hostile but energy-rich environ-

ment of the ant nest. Often these adaptations include a

myrmecoid body shape, a hard cuticle, reduction of

certain appendages, and the use of glandular secretions

appeasing to the ants. The degree of morphological

change in myrmecophiles is probably directly related to

the degree with which they have integrated into the colony

(Wilson 1971). Myrmecophila manni Schimmer retains

many of the structural features commonly found in the

family Gryllidae and does not possess many of the adapta-

tions often associated with myrmecophily.

The purpose of this study was to examine the morpho-

logical features of M. manni and to relate these finding to

the crickets’ relationship with their ant hosts.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Eight M. manni were examined by scanning electron

microscopy (SEM). Live specimens were fixed in 2%

osmium tetroxide (OsO,,) for 1h, and then 3% glutaralde-

hyde for 2 h at 4°C. Standard procedures for SEM

preparation followed using an Omar SPC 1500 critical

point dryer, Hummer V gold coater and EPTEC SEM,

equipped with 55 P/N film. Field and laboratory observa-

tion of M. manni behavior were made to support interpre-

tations of the functional morphology revealed by SEM.

‘Scientific Paper Number 7085, Washington State University, College of

Agriculture and Home Economics Research Center, Pullman. Work con-

ducted under project 0037.

Research Assistant and Entomologist, respectively.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Sensory Apparatus

The SEM showed that M. manni has morphological

features commonly found in the family Gryllidae. How-

ever, some pecularities of M. manni may be adaptations to

myrmecophily. The antennae of M. manni are as long as

the body and have a proportionately large scape. The row

of hairs along the scape may help the cricket detect the

source of a stimulus (Fig. 1). That is, when crickets are in

a fixed position it can be demonstrated that they will

follow a visual object with their antennae. The hairs on

the scapes signal the angle the antennae are deflected,

helping pinpoint the stimulus. The sensilla of the anten-

nae occur in a repetitive fashion along the 44 + segments.

Numerous filiform hairs cover the entire surface of the

antennae and probably perceive sound or respond to air

displacement vibrations (Haskell 1960) (Fig. 2).

Coelomic pegs, considered to serve a chemosensory

function, occur at the rate of about 1 per segment.

The cerci, like the antennae, are large in M. manni (Fig

2). They are usually held away from the body giving the

cricket a larger surface area for perception. Their entire

surface is covered with various-sized trichoid sensilla.

The thinner hairs, which are also the longest, are bent by

the slightest breeze. Cercal hairs of grasshoppers respond

to sound frequencies of 30-1000 Hz and can be stimulated

by air moving at 4 cm/sec (Haskell, 1961).

Reduction of appendages is common for myrme-

cophiles. However, M. manni retains its elaborate sensing

structures, suggesting a beneficial function in the ant-

cricket relationship. Behavioral studies show that Myr-

mecophila are often attacked by the host (Wheeler 1900,

Henderson 1985). However, rarely is a cricket caught off

guard and captured by an ant. The antennae and cerci

probably warn the cricket of approaching ants. The

cricket also uses its antennae to mimic the conspecific

antennation used by ants preceeding mutual grooming

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

Fig. 1. Highly magnified SEM showing scape (sc) of the antenna and stemmata (ste). Note the row of hairs along the

scape.

Fig. 2. Typical arrangement of sensory hairs that are found on each of the 44 + segments of the antennae. The hair in the

centre is a coelomic peg, and its chemosensory function is well documented. The trichoid hairs surrounding the

peg are mostly tactile sensing hairs.

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986 59

Fig. 3. Diagram showing the orientation of the cercus to the rest of the body. Two major types of hairs are located here.

The top insert shows filamentous hairs that detect sound or vibration. These hairs are located over most of the

cercal surface. The second type of hair, located only along the first two basal segments, are balloon hairs which

help the insect orient to gravity (Bishof 1974).

Fig. 4. The feeding mechanism of M. manni is modified to increase the efficiency of its feeding habits. Labrum (Ibr),

Ephipharynx (ephy), Galea (ga).

60 J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

Fig. 5. SEM shows the top of the head, cervix, and pronotum of M. manni. The arrow points to a single hair scale, its

serrated nature is shown, greatly enlarged, to the right.

Fig. 6. SEM reveals the expanding nature of the ovipositor of M. manni. This allows for oviposition of large eggs. The

first valvulae (1 vlv) can spread apart and the spiraled egg guide (e.g.) can unspiral, increasing the total surface

area. The third valvulae (3 vlv) are fused and wrap around the sclerotized tips of the second valvulae (2 vlv).

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

and trophallaxis. The length of the antennae aids the

cricket in mimicking these signals which allows the

cricket, in a sense, to parasitize its host. In addition,

observations show that M. manni uses its antennae and

cerci in elaborate displays during mating and intraspeci-

fic aggression (Henderson 1985). Cercal shaking has also

been observed in field crickets and may aid in directing

the female into proper position for copulation (Alexander

1961).

The eyes of M. manni are not compound, as in most

crickets, but are composed of 18 to 20 stemmata located

above each antenna. Visual perception for this type of eye

is believed to be of a coarse mosaic that can only differen-

tiate shapes and sharply contrasting images (Dethier

1943, Meyer Rochow 1974). Morphological regression

of the eyes is associated with myrmecophily (Wilson

1971), and although stemmata are not a regressed form of

compound eye, the end result is much the same. Fine

visual acuity is probably not necessary since the crickets

spend most of their lives inside a dark nest.

Locomotory Apparatus

M. manni are both saltatorial and cursorial, thus they

retain the jumping and running abilities typical of Grylli-

dae. With M. manni retaining sensilla to allow for percep-

tion of approaching ants, it follows that they should retain

their speed and jumping ability to allow for escape.

Wheeler (1900) believed that the complicated zig-zag

path of Myrmecophila was the major factor in allowing

them to live with ants. Observations in the laboratory

revealed that M. manni also retains the ability to lose a

hind leg if seized by an ant. Steiner (1968) was the first to

recognize this adaptation in field crickets as well as some

grasshoppers as a possible means of escape. M. manni

appeared to function normally with a leg missing and

lived as long as intact Myrmecophila (Henderson 1985).

Feeding Apparatus

The mouth parts of M. manni are of the general orthop-

teran type with a large number of chemosensory sensilla

on the tips of the labial and maxillary palpi. However,

SEM revealed that the epipharynx and labrum are modi-

fied in M. manni. The labrum is reduced and the

epipharynx protrudes from beneath it in finger-like pro-

jections, fused proximally and slightly separate distally

(Fig. 4). Epipharyngeal projections of this type are some-

times found in aquatic insects (Haliplidae, Coleoptera,

pers. observ.) and are probably used for scraping food

loose from various substrates.

M. manni strigilate ants and engage them in trophal-

laxis. The brush-like epipharynx appears to be a adapta-

tion for taking this food.

The protruding epipharynx increases the surface area

that comes in contact with the ball of liquid regurgitated

by the ant. The surface tension of the liquid is easily

broken and adheres to the mouth parts of the cricket.

Also, the mandibles are recessed behind the labrum, and

when the cricket scrapes the integument of the ant the

epipharynx may act as a scoop. The galeae, used to pull

food into the mandibular area, have a reticulated surface

and are positioned to sweep any particles scraped by the

mandibles into the epipharynx. Highly modified mouth

parts also occur among those inquilines which are well

integrated into ant colonies (e.g., Pselaphidae, Akre and

Hill 1973).

Odor Camouflage

M. manni are attacked by ants, but they are also found

at the very heart of the ant nest, the brood chamber

(Henderson 1985). One means by which the cricket

attains entrance into the chamber is through behavioral

mimicry. Odor camouflage may be another means. M.

manni are covered with serrated scales on the dorsum of

the head, thorax, and abdomen that may be used to

acquire odors (Figs. 5). Acquisition of the nest odor by

myrmecophiles through mechanical means is common.

Host odors are transferred by histerid beetles associated

with army ants by rubbing their tibial brushes on the ants

(Rettenmeyer 1961, Akre 1968). The myrmecophilous

beetle Myrmecaphodius excavaticollis (Blanchard)

(Scarabaeidae) has recently been found to acquire spe-

cies-specific hydrocarbons from its host by contact, by

grooming behavior, and by ingestion of regurgitated ant

postpharyngeal gland contents (Vander Meer and Wojick

1982). The serrated scales on M. manni might scrape

particles off the walls and galleries of the ant nest during

the cricket’s travels. Wheeler (1900) reported that the

walls and galleries of ant nests are covered with cuticular

lipids deposited by the constant travel of the ants. Al-

though attacks by ants on their cricket guests suggest that

host hydrocarbon acquisition is not fully effective, acqui-

sition of even a small amount of host hydrocarbons may

help in the cricket’s commensal existence.

Reproductive Morphology

Schimmer (1909) found that the ovipositor of Myrme-

cophila has unique articulation as a result of elongation

and fusion of the eighth and ninth terga plurally.

Gorokhov (1980) suggested that the column gave the

ovipositor the ability to extend and retract; a necessary

ability since the insect oviposits eggs nearly one-third as

long as its body. SEM showed that the membranous egg

guide is spiraled (Fig 6). The spiraling permits expansion

of the egg guide, and we suggest that this also is an

adaptation for laying proportionately large eggs. As the

egg travels down the egg guide the spiral opens up giving

the egg the area it needs while still providing a smooth

pathway.

Summary

M. manni is morphologically well equipped for myr-

mecophily. The antennae and cerci are densely clothed

with sensory hairs that quickly detect approaching ants.

This early warning system, coupled with the propensity

of the crickets to run in zig-zag patterns and to jump when

escape by running 1s impossible, ensures that few crickets

are caught by ants. In addition, the large hind legs readily

detach when they are seized by attacking ants, and crick-

ets lacking one hind leg are apparently able to continue to

function normally. These slight morphological modifica-

62 J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

tions, coupled with appropriate behavior, permit these

crickets to integrate into the colonies of their host ants

without much difficulty. Also important is their small size

(2.3 to 4.0 mm) which makes them difficult to catch even

with a determined attack by an ant.

Well integrated myrmecophiles frequently have greatly

modified mouth parts to take advantage of food within the

ant colony, and these crickets are no exception. Their

brush-type epipharynx probably helps sweep food into

the buccal cavity when the cricket is strigilating an ant.

During trophallaxis the large and irregular surface of the

epipharynx may aid in the transfer of the regurgitated

liquid. Much more importantly, it appears that the mim-

icking of recognition signals of the ants enables the

cricket to tap a nearly unlimited resource, the contents of

the crops of foraging workers.

These small crickets have used a minimum of morpho-

logical adaptations and a maximum of behavioral modifi-

cations to integrate themselves into colonies of their host

ants. The number of crickets in these colonies (one nest

harbored over 300 crickets) suggests that they are at least

as successful as myrmecoid inquilines.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We sincerely thank E.P. Catts and P.C. Schroeder for

advice on many aspects of this project. We are grateful to

J. Jenkins, J. Wells, and M.G. Means for assistance in

collecting crickets. We also thank E.P. Catts, P.C. Sch-

roeder, R.W. Sites, and R.S. Zack for critically reviewing

the manuscript and for making numerous suggestions for

improvement. A. Mudge provided untiring technical as-

sistance in the final preparation of the manuscript.

REFERENCES CITED

Akre, R.D. 1968. The behavior of Euxenister and Pulvinister, histerid beetles associated with army ants (Formicidae:

Ecitonini). Pan-Pac Ent. 44: 87-101

Akre, R.D., and Wm. B. Hill. 1973. Behavior of Adranes taylori, a myrmecophilous beetle associated with Lasius

sitkaensis in the Pacific Northwest. (Coleoptera: Pselaphidae; Hymenoptera, Formicidae). J. Kansas Ent. Soc.

46: 526-536.

Alexander, R.D. 1961. Aggressiveness, territoriality and sexual behavior in field crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllidae).

Behaviour 17: 130-225.

Bishof, H.F. 1974. The club-shaped sensilla on the cerci of Gryllus bimaculatus as gravity receptors (Orth. , Gryllidae).

J.Comp. Physiol. 98: 277-288.

Dethier, V.G. 1943. The dioptric apparatus of lateral ocelli. Il. Visual capacities of the ocellus. J. Cell. Comp. Physiol.

22: 115-126.

Gorokhov, A.V. 1982. Morphological peculiarities of crickets of the genera Myrmecophilus Berth. and Eremogryllodes

Chop. and systematic position of the tribe Bothriopylacini (Orthoptera, Gryllidae). Entomol. Obozr. 59: 287-

293),

Haskell, P.T. 1960. The sensory equipment of the migratory locust. Symp. Zool. Soc. Lond. 3: 1-23.

Haskell, P.T. 1961. Insects sounds. H.F. and G. Witherby: London. 189 pp.

Hebard, M. 1920. A revision of North American species of the genus Myrmecophila (Orthoptera; Gryllidae;

Myrmecophilinae). Trans. Am. Entomol. Soc. 49: 91-111.

Henderson, G. 1985. The Biology of Myrmecophila manni Schimmer (Orthoptera: Gryllidae). M.S. Thesis, Washing-

ton State University. 83 pp.

Meyer-Rochow, V.B. 1974. Structure and function of the larval eye of the sawfly, Perga. J. Insect Physiol. 20: 1565-

1591.

Rettenmeyer, C.W. 1961. Arthropods associated with Neotropical army ants with a review of the behavior of these ants

(Arthropoda: Formicidae: Dorylinae). Ph.D. Dissertation, Univ. Kansas. 605 pp.

Schimmer, F. 1909. Beitrag zu einer Monographie der Gryllodeengatung Myrmecophila Latr. Zeitschr. Wissensch.

Zool. 93: 409-534.

Steiner, A.L. 1968. Behavioral interactions between Liris nigra Van Der Linder (Hymenoptera: Sphecidae) and Gryllus

domesticus L. (Orthoptera: Gryllidae). Psyche 75: 256-273.

Vander Meer, R.K. and D.P. Wojcik 1982. Chemical mimicry in the myrmecophilous beetle Myrmecaphodius

excavaticollis. Science 218: 806-808.

Wheeler, W.M. 1900. The habits of Myrmecophila nebrascensis Brunner. Psyche 9: 111-115.

Wilson, E.O. 1971. The insect societies. Belknap/Harvard: Cambridge, MA 548 pp.

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986 63

ADDITIONAL HETEROPTERA NEW TO BRITISH COLUMBIA

G.G.E. SCUDDER

Department of Zoology

University of British Columbia

Vancouver, B.C. V6T 2A9

ABSTRACT

The following 11 species are recorded from British Columbia: Amnestus pallidus,

Holcostethus piceus, Neottiglossa trilineata, Acrosternum hilare, Melanopleurus per-

plexus, Nysius fuscovittatus, Nysius paludicolus, Zeridoneus costalis, Anthocoris confu-

sus, Barce fraterna, and Sigara alternata.

INTRODUCTION

Research on the Heteroptera of British Columbia has

led to the discovery of eleven species new to the province.

These are listed, together with notes on their identifica-

tion and distribution. The genera can be keyed in Slater

and Baranowski (1978). Material is deposited in the

Canadian National Collection, Ottawa [CNC] and the

Spencer Entomological Museum at the University of

British Columbia [UBC].

FAMILY CYDNIDAE

Amnestus pallidus Zimmer

Annectus [sic] pallidus Zimmer 1910, Can. Ent. 42: 166.

A member of the subfamily Amnestinae, which can be

recognized by having the clavi meeting behind the scutel-

lum, forming a commissure about !/3 to '/4 the length of

the scutellum. This small (2-3 mm) pale ferruginous bug

characteristically has the juga each with 5 marginal pegs,

the rostrum not extending beyond the middle coxae and

with segment 3 less than twice as long as segment 1.

The species ranges from Quebec and Ontario and Mas-

sachusetts south to Georgia, and west to Washington and

California (Froeschner 1960; McPherson 1982). It has

been collected on Antennaria plantaginifolia (Composi-

tae) (Stoner 1920).

B.C. material examined: 10” , Westbank, soil sample,

Hypericum area, 24.vi.1955 (Wilson, Wakefield)

[CNC].

FAMILY PENTATOMIDAE

Holcostethus piceus (Dallas)

Pentatoma? piceus Dallas 1852, List Hem. B.M. 1: 236.

Holcostethus piceus, Kirkaldy 1909, Cat. Hem.: 48.

The genus Holcostethus can be keyed in McPherson

(1982), and has been reviewed for North America by

McDonald (1974). H. piceus has a black connexivum

bordered by a narrow yellow margin, abdominal venter

fuscous, antennal segments fuscous except at joints, scu-

tellum with distinct yellow tip and broadly rounded at the

apex, and juga not contiguous in front of tylus.

The species has been recorded from Quebec west to

Alberta, and south to Illinois and Colorado (McPherson

1982). Nothing is known about the life history.

B.C. material examined: 19, Quesnel, 10.vii.1949

(G.J. Spencer) [UBC].

Neottiglossa trilineata (Kirby)

Pentatoma (Neottiglossa) trilineata Kirby 1837, in J.

Richardson, Fauna Boreali-Americana 4: 276.

Neottiglossa trilineata can be keyed in McPherson

(1982). The species has a triangular-shaped head, non-

tumescent juga, with head dorsally black, without a

median yellow line, but with deep punctures.

The range of N. trilineata extends from Nova Scotia,

Quebec, northern Michigan and Nebraska west to British

Columbia and California (McPherson 1982). Nothing is

known about the life history.

B.C. material examined: 12, Prince George, 30 mi E,

18.vii.1970 (G.G.E. Scudder) [UBC]; lo”, Sum-

merland, 26.1x.1932 (A.N. Gartrell) [CNC]; lo” , Sum-

mit Lake, mi 392 Alaska Hwy., 4200’, 31.vii.1959 (R.E.

Leech) [CNC]: 19, Telegraph Creek, Sawmill Lake,

1100’, beside lake, 28.viii.1960 (R. Pilfrey) [CNC].

Acrosternum hilare Say

Pentatoma hilaris Say 1831, Hem. Het. N. Amer. New

Harmony: 5.

Rhapigaster sarpinus Dallas 1851, List Hem. B.M. 1:

276.

Nezara hilaris, Ulher 1878, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.

19 (4): 380.

Acrosternum hilare, Parshley 1915, Psyche 22: 175.

Rolston (1983) has recently reviewed the genus Acros-

ternum in the Western Hemisphere, and shown that all

species belong to the subgenus Chinavia Orian. H. hilare

can be keyed in McPherson (1982) and Rolston (1983).

This large (13-19 mm) green pentatomid has the lateral

margins of the pronotum straight or nearly so, the jugae

equal to tylus in length, and the rostrum reaches at least to

the hind coxae.

H. hilare occurs in Ontario and Quebec, and ranges

apparently throughout the United States (Rolston 1983).

The species has been collected from a wide range of host

plants (see list in McPherson (1982)), and is of some

economic importance (Rolston 1983), having been col-

lected on cotton, peach, pear, apple, apricot, corn, aspar-

agus, grape, cow-pea, cherry, strawberry, plum, tomato,

64 J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

orange, etc. This species is evidently univoltive in the

northern part of the range, overwintering as an adult.

B.C. material examined: 19, Oliver, 4 km N,

6.vi.1981 (S.G. Cannings); lo”, id., ex. Urtica,

18.v.1984 [UBC]. 1o” 1 9 Osoyoos, Haynes Ecol. Res.,

on choke cherry (Prunus virginiana), 12.v.1983 (S.G.

Cannings) [UBC]; lo”, Vaseux L., on mock orange

Philadelphus lewisii), 27.viii.1986 (G.G.E. Scudder)

[UBC].

FAMILY LYGAEIDAE

Melanopleurus perplexus Scudder

Melanopleurus perplexus Scudder 1981, Can. Ent. 113:

Gols

This small (4-6 mm) species can be keyed in Scudder

(1981), being recognized by having a pale spot on the

vertex, black ostiolar peritreme, and dusky hemelytra

with a distinct golden pubescence.

Described originally from Alberta, Manitoba and Sas-

katchewan, the species is now known from British Co-

lumbia.

B.C. material examined: 1°, Peace River, Hwy. 29, 32

km W of Charlie L., 5.viii.1982 (G.G.E. Scudder)

[UBC].

Nysius fuscovittatus Barber

Nysius fuscovittatus Barber 1958, Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash.

60: 70.

This rather large species (o” 4.7 (range 4.4-5.3) mm; ?

5.4 (range 4.7-6.3) mm), characteristically has the ros-

trum extending onto the abdomen, the abdominal sterna

being black. It was described from Alaska and Alberta

(Jasper) (see below). The species also occurs in British

Columbia and the Yukon. I have found N. fuscovittatus to

be associated with Dryas drummondii Rich. (Rosaceae),

and can be collected on the dried seed heads, usually in

large number.

Material examined: BRITISH COLUMBIA: 270” 16

2, Golden, 7 mi E, 1.vii. 1982 (G.G.E. Scudder); 407

289, Liard River, 8.7 kmS, 31.vii. 1982 (G.G.E.S.); 29,

Muncho Lake Prov. Park, Strawberry Flats, 31.vii.1982

(G.G.E.S.); 59, Muncho Lake Prov. Park, Trout R.,

31.vii.1982 (G.G.E.S.); 807% 79, Parson, 11 mi N,

1.viii. 1982 (G.G.E.S.); lo” 39, Peterson Cr., Muncho

L.,20kmS, 1.viii. 1982 (G.G.E.S.); 207 4°, Racing R.,

km 670 Alaska Hwy., 1.viii.1982 (G.G.E.S.); lo” 19,

Stewart, 13.5 km E, Bitter Cr., 23.vii. 1983 (G.G.E.S.);

llo” 159, Stewart, 43 km E, Stromm Cr., 22.vii. 1983

(G.G.E.S.); 1007 99, Stone Mt. Prov. Park, Summit L.,

10.5 km N, 1.viii.1982 (G.G.E.S.) [UBC]. YUKON:

9x” 49, Campbell Hwy., Lapie Canyon, 19.vii.1983

(G.G.E.S.); 60° 79°, Kluane L., mi 1054 Alaska Hwy.,

20.vii.1979 (G.G.E.S.); 7307 499, id., 16.vii.1982;

lo 192, Long’s Cr., 4 km N, km 1863 Alaska Hwy.,

22.vii. 1979 (G.G.E.S.); 160% 339, Ogilvie R., km 293

Dempster Hwy., 65° 55’ N 137° 22’ W, 22.vii.1982

(G.G.E.S.); 1190” 1099, Pine L., km 1626 Alaska

Hwy., 9.vii.1983 (G.G.E.S.); 1307 149, South Canol

Rd., km 218, Lapie Cr., 19.vii. 1983 (G.G.E.S.) [UBC].

Nysius paludicolus Barber

Nysius paludicola Barber 1949, Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc.

44: 144.

This species lives in salt marshes, feeding on Salicor-

nia (Barber 1949). It can be recognized by the rather large

size (5.3 mm), long antennae, long bucculae and the

contracted part of the costal margin which equals the

length of the unicolorous scutellum.

While originally described from Washington and Al-

berta, the Alberta material from Jasper was subsequently

included in the type material of N. fuscovittatus (Barber

1958).

B.C. material examined: 150” 279, Tsawwassen

Beach, 21.vii.1962 (G.G.E. Scudder); lo” 49, id.,

21.Vi- 1965 [UBC].

Zeridoneus costalis (Van Duzee)

Perigenes costalis Van Duzee 1909, Can.Ent. 41: 373.

Zeridoneus costalis, Barber 1918. J.N.Y. Ent. Soc.

26: 45.

This large (6.5-8 mm) ground dwelling Myodochine

Lygaeid is illustrated by Slater and Baranowski (1978). It

lacks a stridulatory area on the abdomen, has only a

shallow constriction between the lobes of the pronotum,

and has the first tarsomere of the hind tarsus 3X the

combined length of the terminal two tarsomeres.

This species is recorded from Alberta to Quebec, and

from Maryland to North and South Dakota (Slater 1964).

B.C. material examined: 1o” 19, Attachie, 4 km E,

5.vili. 1982 (G.G.E.Scudder) [UBC]: 1°, Hudson Hope,

5.viii. 1982 (G.G.E.S.) [UBC]; lo” 19, Peace River, 32

km W of Charlie Lake on Hwy. 29, 5.viii.1982 (R.A.

Cannings) [UBC]; 19, Wasa, 7.vili.1970 (L.A. Kelton)

[CNC].

FAMILY ANTHOCORIDAE

Anthocoris confusus Reuter

Anthocoris confusus Reuter 1884, Monogr. Anthoc.:71.

This species can be keyed in Kelton (1978). It has the

clavus, corium, inner part of embolium and inner angle of

the cuneus pruinose; the rest of the cuneus and costal part

of the embolium is shiny.

The species is a European introduction and in Canada is

most abundant on Fagus, Acer, Tilia, Dentaria and Rosa.

It has been reported from Nova Scotia, Ontario, Prince

Edward Island, Maine and Tennessee (Kelton 1978).

B.C. material examined: 19, Vancouver, 1.v.1977

(G.G.E. Scudder) [UBC].

FAMILY REDUVIIDAE

Barce fraterna Say

Ploiaria fraterna Say 1831, Hem. Het. N. Amer. New

Harmony : 33.

Barce flaterna, Banks 1909, Psyche 16 (3): 47.

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986 65

This species is amember of the subfamily Emesinae. B.

fraterna has an angular or spiniform process on the

clypeus, the pale stripe on the ventral surface of the head

is aS wide as the interocular space and is without a dark

spot ventrally on each side behind the eye. The upper

margin of the pygophore has a broad squarish process,

but there is no erect spine within the upper border.

It is distributed throughout the western, southwestern

and northern United States, Mexico, Cuba, Jamaica,

Colombia and Ecuador (Wygodzinsky 1966).

B.C. material examined: 192, Lytton, 26.vii.1931

(G.J. Spencer); 19, id., 23.viii.1931; So” 59, Peace

River, Hwy. 29, 32 km W of Charlie L, 5.viii. 1982

(G.G.E.Scudder); lo”, Vancouver, University Endow-

ment Lands, nr. S.W. Marine Drive and 4lst Ave.,

29. viii. 1984 (G.G.E.S.) [UBC].

FAMILY CORIXIDAE

Sagara alternata (Say)

Corixa alternata Say 1825, J. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 4: 329

Sigara (Vermicorixa) alternata, Hungerford 1948, Univ.

Kans. Sci. Bull. 32: 653.

S. alternata has the hemelytra with the postnodal

pruinose area and the claval pruinose area of equal length,

and the thorax with the mesoepimeron narrow (Hunger-

ford 1948).

The species occurs from Nova Scotia to Alberta, and

across most of the United States.

B.C. material examined: lo”, Delta, Burns bog,

2.x.1984 (J. Lancaster); 1o” 1 9, Vancouver, Van Dusen

Botanic Gardens, ornamental pond, 16.iv.1985 (G.G.E.

Scudder) [UBC].

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Research was supported by a grant from the Natural

Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. I

am indebted to the following for assistance with loans and

identification: P.D. Ashlock (University of Kansas), R.

Foottit (Biosystematics Research Centre, Ottawa), R.C.

Froeschner (National Museum of Natural History, Wash-

ington) and A. Jansson (University of Helsinki).

REFERENCES

Barber, H.G. 1949. A new genus in the subfamily Blissinae from Mexico and a new Nysius from the Nortirwest

(Lygaeidae: Hemiptera-Heteroptera). Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc. 44: 141-144.

Barber, H.G. 1958. A new species of Nysius from Alaska and Alberta, Canada. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 60: 70.

Froeschner, R.C. 1960. Cynidae of the Western Hemisphere. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 111: 337-680.

Hungerford, H.B. 1948. The Corixidae of the Western Hemisphere (Hemiptera). Univ. Kans. Sci. Bull. 32: 1-827.

Kelton, L.A. 1978. The Anthocoridae of Canada and Alaska. Heteroptera: Anthocoridae. The Insects and Arachnids of

Canada, Part 4. Can. Dept. Agric. Publ. 1639, 101 pp.

McDonald, F.J.D. 1974. Revision of the genus Holcostethus in North America (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). J. N.Y. Ent.

Soc. 82: 245-258.

McPherson, J.E. 1982. The Pentatomoidea (Hemiptera) of northeastern North America with emphasis on the fauna of

Illinois. Southern Illinois Univ. Press, Carbondale and Edwardsville, 240 pp.

Rolston, L.H. 1983. A revision of the genus Acrosternum Fieber, subgenus Chinavia Orian, in the Western Hemisphere

(Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). J. N.Y. Ent. Soc. 91: 97-176.

Scudder, G.G.E. 1981. Two new species of Lygaeinae (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae) from Canada. Can. Ent. 113:747-753.

Slater, J.A. 1964. A catalogue of the Lygaeidae of the World. Univ. of Connecticut, Storrs, 2 vols., 1668 pp.

Slater, J.A. and Baranowski, R.M. 1978. How to know the true bugs (Hemiptera-Heteroptera). Wm. C. Brown Co.,

Dubuque, Iowa, 256 pp.

Stoner, D. 1920. The Scutelleridae of Iowa. Univ. Iowa Stud. Nat. Hist. 8: 1-140.

Wygodzinsky, P.W. 1966. A monograph of the Emesinae (Reduviidae, Hemiptera). Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 133: 1-

614.

ERRATUM

In Wilkinson, P.R. 1984. Hosts and distribution of Rocky Mountain wood ticks (Dermacentor andersoni) at a tick focus

in British Columbia rangeland, Vol. 81: 57-71, table 2, footnote 1: the entry “‘1 muskrat on July 20”’, should be ‘‘1 weasel

on July 20”. The name Mustela was somehow transposed into muskrat.

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

THE APHIDS (HOMOPTERA:APHIDIDAE) OF BRITISH

COLUMBIA

14. FURTHER ADDITIONS

A.R. FORBES and C.K. CHAN

Research Station, Agriculture Canada

Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1X2

ABSTRACT

Twelve species of aphids and new host records are added to the taxonomic list of the

aphids of British Columbia.

INTRODUCTION

Ten previous lists of the aphids of British Columbia

(Forbes, Frazer and MacCarthy 1973; Forbes, Frazer

and Chan 1974; Forbes and Chan 1976, 1978, 1980,

1981, 1983, 1984, 1985; Forbes, Chan and Foottit 1982)

recorded 368 species of aphids collected from 810 hosts

or in traps and comprises 1529 aphid-host plant associa-

tion. The present list adds 12 aphid species (indicated

with an asterisk in the list) and 56 aphid-host plant

associations to the previous lists. Twenty-six of the new

aphid-host plant associations are plant species not re-

corded before. The additions bring the number of known

aphid species in British Columbia to 380. Aphids have

now been collected from 836 different host plants and the

total number of aphid-host plant associations is 1585.

The names of aphids are in conformity with Eastop and

Hille Ris Lambers (1976) and are arranged alphabetically

by species. Eleven new collection sites are tabulated in

Table 1. The location of each collection site can be

determined from Table | or from the tables of localities in

the previous lists. The reference points are the same as

those shown on the map which accompanies the basic list.

TABLE 1. Collection sites of aphids, with airline distances from reference points.

Reference

Point

Locality

Kelowna

Vancouver

Kamloops

Victoria

Vancouver

Kelowna

Kamloops

Vancouver

Apex Mountain

Buckley Bay

Chuwhels Mountain

Falkland

Mill Bay

Port Alberni

Qualicum Beach

Silver Star Prov. Park

Tamarac Park

Westwold

Whonnock

LIST OF SPECIES

*ACERIS (Linnaeus), PERIPHYLLUS

Acer sp.: Agassiz, Jul 13/13 (Wilson 1915).

ADIANTI (Oestlund), SITOBION

Matteuccia struthiopteris: Vancouver (UBC), Apr30/

84.

Polypodium glycyrrhiza: Vancouver (UBC), Apr30/

84.

AETHEOCORNUM Smith & Knowlton,

MACROSIPHUM

Geranium viscosissimum var.viscosissimum: 108

Mile House, Jul26/83.

Distance

ALBIFRONS Essig, MACROSIPHUM

Lupinus arcticus: Apex Mountain, Jul2/83, Jul10/

84; Chuwhels Mountain, Jun29/83, Jul7/84; Cowi-

chan Lake, May 21/84, Jull2/83, Jull6/84;

Diamond Head, Jul20/83, Jul30/84; Mill Bay, Jul

12/83; Nanaimo, May 21/84, Jul12/83, Jul16/84;

Port Alberni, Jul16/84; Princeton, Jul2/83; Silver

Star Provincial Park, Jun30/83; Vancouver (UBC),

Aug 14/84.

Lupinus polyphyllus: Buckley Bay, Jul16/84;

Burnaby, May 24/84, Sep5/84; Burnaby (SFU),

Mar8/84, Jun13/83, Aug28/84, Nov28/83;

Cloverdale, Jul12/83, Jul16/84; Qualicum Beach,

Jul16/84; Tamarac Park, Jul1/83, Jul10/84; West

Vancouver, May 12/84, Jun12/83, Sep13/84, Oct4/

83.

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC.

Lupinus sericeus: Falkland, Jun30/83; Westwold,

Jun30/83.

Lupinus sp.: Burnaby, May31/84, Sep13/84; Man-

ning Park, Jul2/83, Jul10/84; Pender Island, Aug3/

84.

ALNIFOLIAE (Williams), PROCIPHILUS

Amelanchier canadensis: Vancouver (UBC), Jun14/

85.

ALPINA (Gillette & Palmer), KAKIMIA

Mimulus cardinalis: Vancouver (UBC), Aug20/84.

ASCALONICUS Doncaster, MYZUS

Potentilla pensylvanica: Vancouver (UBC), May11/

83.

AVENAE (Fabricius), SITOBION

Hordeum jubatum: Vancouver, Jun25/84.

Luzula nivea: Vancouver (UBC), Jun29/84.

Malus domestica: Vernon, Jul16/13 (Wilson 1915).

BERBERIDIS (Kaltenbach), LIOSOMAPHIS

Mahonia aquifolium: Vancouver, Jun14/85.

CARDUI (Linnaeus), BRACHYCAUDUS

Carduus sp.: Vernon, Jul16/13 (Wilson 1915).

*CARNOSUM (Buckton), MICROLOPHIUM

Urtica dioica: Vernon, Jul16/13 (Wilson 1915).

CERASI (Fabricius), MYZUS

Galium aparine: Vancouver (UBC), Jun15/84.

Prunus sp.: Vancouver, Jul12/13 (Wilson 1915).

CERASIFOLIAE (Fitch), RHOPALOSIPHUM

Prunus virginiana: Vernon, Jul16/13 (Wilson 1915).

CERTUS (Walker), MYZUS

Catharanthus roseus:Vancouver (CDA), May 16/85.

Dianthus barbatus: Vancouver (CDA), MAY 16/85.

Dianthus ‘Scarlet Luminette’: Vancouver (UBC),

Aug 20/84.

*CHANI Robinson, UROLEUCON

Grindelia nana: Vancouver (UBC), Octi/82 (Robin-

son 1985).

CIRCUMFLEXUM (Buckton), AULACORTHUM

Matteuccia struthiopteris: Vancouver (UBC), Apr30/

84.

CITRICOLA van der Goot, APHIS

Stranvaesia davidiana: Vancouver (UBC), Jul10/84.

COWENI (Cockerell), TAMALIA

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi: Vancouver (UBC), Jul18/

85, Aug23/84.

CREELITI Davis, MACROSIPHUM

Medicago sativa: Kamloops, Jun 10/85, Jul3/84,

Jul8/85.

DAPHNIDIS Borner, MACROSIPHUM

Daphne laureola: Vancouver (UBC), Jul10/84.

DORSATUM (Richards), SITOBION

Gaultheria shallon: Vancouver (UBC), May 15/85.

EQUISETI Holman, SITOBION

Equisetum arvense: Vancouver, Jun19/85.

FAGI (Linnaeus), PHYLLAPHIS

Fagus sp.: Agassiz, Jul13/13 (Wilson 1915).

31, 1986 67

FIMBRIATA Richards, FIMBRIAPHIS

Fragaria virginiana ssp. glauca: Vancouver (CDA),

Aug1/85.

Rosa ‘Zephirine Drouhin’: Vancouver (UBC),

May9/85.

FOENICULI (Passerini), HYADAPHIS

Lonicera etrusca: Vancouver (UBC), Jul25/85.

Oenanthe sarmentosa: Pender Island, Aug2/84.

FRAGAEFOLII (Cockerell), CHAETOSIPHON.

Fragaria virginiana ssp. glauca: Vancouver (CDA),

Aug1/85.

FRAGARIAE (Walker), SITOBION

Hordeum jubatum: Vancouver, Jun25/84.

Rubus discolor: Whonnock, May10/84.

*FRIGIDAE (Oestlund), OBTUSICAUDA

Artemisia sp.: Vernon, Jul16/13 (Wilson 1915).

GERANII Gillette & Palmer, AMPHOROPHORA

Geranium viscosissimum var. viscosissimum,; 108

Mile House, Jul26/83.

*GROSSULARIAE (Schule), ERIOSOMA

Ulmus americana: Burnaby, Jul7/84.

HELICHRYSI (Kaltenbach), BRACHYCAUDUS

Cotula australis: Vancouver (UBC), Jun4/85.

Prunus domestica: Vancouver, May31/85.

HUMULI (Schrank), PHORODON

Prunus domestica: Vancouver, Jul25/84.

LACTUCAE (Linnaeus), HYPEROMYZUS

Ribes nigrum ‘Wellington XXX’: Vancouver (UBC),

Nov 16/84.

LUDOVICIANAE (Oestlund),

MACROSIPHONIELLA

Artemisia ludoviciana: Vernon, Jul16/13 (Wilson

1915).

LYTHRI (Schrank), MYZUS

Prunus emarginata: Vancouver (UBC), Aug8/85.

MACROSIPHYM (Wilson), ACYRTHOSIPHON

Amelanchier laevis: Vancouver (UBC), Jul10/84.

MILLEFOLII (de Geer), MACROSIPHONIELLA

Achillea millefolium ‘Cerise Queen’: Vancouver

(UBC), Jun21/85.

Achillea millefolium var. lanulosa: Vancouver

(UBC), Jun21/85, Jul26/85.

NEGUNDINIS (Thomas), PERIPHYLLUS

Acer negundo: Agassiz, Jul13/13 (Wilson 1915).

NYMPHAEAE (Linnaeus), RHOPALOSIPHUM

Capsella bursa-pastoris: Vancouver (CDA), Jun7/

85.

Catharanthus roseus: Vancouver (CDA), Jun7/85.

OBLIQUUS (Cholodkovsky), MINDARUS

Picea sp.: Prince George, Sep18/84.

ORNATUS Laing, MYZUS

Ratibida columnifera: Vancouver (UBC), Nov 16/84.

*PALLIDUM (Oestlund), MACROSIPHUM

Aster sp.: 108 Mile House, Jul27/83.

Erodium cicutarium ssp. cicutarium: Vancouver

(UBC), Jun4/85.

68 J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

PLATANI (Kaltenbach), TINOCALLIS

Ulmus americana: Vancouver, Jul13/84.

*POPULEUM (Kaltenbach), PTEROCOMMA

Populus sp.: Vernon, Jul16/13 (Wilson 1915).

POPULIFOLII (Essig), CHAITOPHORUS

Populus sp. Vernon, Jul16/13 (Wilson 1915).

POPULIFOLII NEGLECTUS Hottes & Frison,

CHAITOPHORUS

Populus nigra ‘Italica’: Vancouver (UBC), Jun11/85,

Jun20/85, Jun25/85.

PRUNI (Geoffroy), HYALOPTERUS

Prunus sp.: Vernon, Jul16/13 (Wilson 1915).

Typha latifolia: Pender Island, Aug3/84.

PTERICOLENS (Patch), SITOBION

Pteridium aquilinum: Pender Island, Aug3/84.

PTERIDIS (Wilson), SITOBION

Pteridium aquilinum: Pender Island, Aug3/84.

PUNCTIPENNIS (Zetterstedt), EUCERAPHIS

Betula sp.: Agassiz, Jul13/13 (Wilson 1915).

RIBISNIGRI (Mosley), NASONOVIA

Lapsana communis: Vancouver, Jun25/85.

ROSAE (Linnaeus), MACROSIPHUM

Rosa centifolia ‘Cristata’: Vancouver (UBC), Aug7/

85.

Rosa sp.: Vancouver, Jul12/13 (Wilson 1915).

ROSARUM (Kaltenbach), MYZAPHIS

Potentilla fruticosa: Vancouver (UBC), Oct31/84.

Potentilla fruticosa ssp. floribunda: Vancouver

(UBC), Jul26/85.

RUBICOLA (Oestlund), ILLINOIA

Rubus sp.: Vancouver, Jul12/13 (Wilson 1915).

*RUDBECKIAE (Fitch), UROLEUCON

Solidago sp.: Vernon, Jul16/13 (Wilson 1915).

RUSSELLAE (Hille Ris Lambers), UROLEUCON

Helichrysum virgineum: Vancouver (UBC), Sep2/

83.

*SANDILANDICUS (Robinson), HYPEROMYZUS

Crepsis sp.: 108 Mile House, Jul26/83.

SANGUICEPS Richards, PTEROCOMMA

Salix exigua: Vancouver (UBC), Apr16/85, May16/

85.

SMITHIAE (Monell), PTEROCOMMA

Populus sp.: Vernon, Jul16/13 (Wilson 1915).

SOLANI (Kaltenbach), AULACORTHUM

Pleione formosana: Vancouver (UBC), Apr16/85.

*SOLIDAGINIS (Fabricius, UROLEUCON

Solidago sp.: Agassiz (Glendenning 1929).

SONCHI (Linnaeus), UROLEUCON

Sonchus arvensis: Abbotsford, Jul25/85.

*SORBI (Kaltenbach), DYSAPHIS

Malus domestica: Agassiz, Jul13/13 (Wilson 1915).

SPYROTHECAE Passerini, PEMPHIGUS

Populus nigra ‘Italica’: Vancouver (UBC), May 22/

85.

STANLEYI Wilson, MACROSIPHUM

Sambucus cerulea: Vancouver, Jull4/13 (Wilson

1915).

Sambucus racemosa sp. pubens var. melanocarpa:

Vancouver (Glendenning 1929).

TANACETARIA (Kaltenbach),

MACROSIPHONIELLA

Tanacetum vulgare: Cloverdale, Aug24/84.

TILIAE (Linnaeus), EUCALLIPTERUS

Tilia americana: Vancouver (UBC), Jun14/85.

TRIRHODUS (Walker), LONGICAUDUS

Aquilegia vulgaris: Vancouver, Jul24/85.

ULMI (Linnaeus), ERIOSOMA

Ulmus americana: Burnaby, Jul17/84.

*VANCOUVERENSE Robinson, UROLEUCON

Solidago canadensis var. salesbrosa: Vancouver

(UBC), Sep13/78 (Robinson 1985).

VARIANS Patch, APHIS

Epilobium angustifolium: 108 Mile House, Jul26/83.

Ribes nigrum ‘Wellington XXX’: Vancouver (UBC),

Aug20/84, Sep1 1/84.

WAKIBAE (Hottes), FIMBRIAPHIS

Rosa ‘Agnes’: Vancouver (UBC), May9/85, May28/

85.

*Aphid species not in the previous lists.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge the following for

valuable aid and advice in identifications: R.L. Blackman

and V.F. Eastop, British Museum (Natural History),

London, England; R. Danielsson, Dept. of Systematics,

Zoological Institute, Lund, Sweden; and A.G. Robinson,

Dept. of Entomology, University of Manitoba, Mani-

toba; and M. Cohen of Simon Fraser University provid-

ing us with his collection data for M. albifrons.

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986 69

REFERENCES

Eastop, V.F., and D. Hille Ris Lambers. 1976. Survey of the world’s aphids. Dr. W. Junk b.v., Publisher, The Hague.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1985. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 13. Further additions. J.

ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 82: 56-58.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1984. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 12. Further additions. J.

ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 81: 72-75.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1983. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 11. Further additions. J.

ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 80: 51-53.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1981. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 9. Further additions. J.

ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 78: 53-54.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1980. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 8. Further additions and

corrections. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 77: 38-42.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1978. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 6. Further additions. J.

ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 75: 47-52.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1976. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 4. Further additions and

corrections. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 73: 57-63.

Forbes, A.R., C.K. Chan and R. Foottit. 1982. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 10. Further

additions. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 79: 75-78

Forbes, A.R., B.D. Frazer and C.K. Chan. 1974. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 3. Additions

and corrections. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 71: 43-49.

Forbes, A.R., B.D. Frazer and H.R. MacCarthy. 1973. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 1. A

basic taxonomic list. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 70: 43-57.

Glendenning, R. 1929. Further additions to the list of aphids of British Columbia. Proc. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia

26: 54-57.

Robinson, A.G. 1985. Annotated list of Uroleucon (Uroleucon, Uromelan, Satula) (Homoptera: Aphididae) of America

north of Mexico, with keys and descriptions of new species. Canad. Ent. 117: 1029-1054.

Wilson, H.F. 1915. Aphid notes from British Columbia. Proc. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia 5:82-85.

70 J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

THE APHIDS (HOMOPTERA: APHIDIDAE) OF BRITISH

COLUMBIA

15. FURTHER ADDITIONS

A.R. FORBES and C.K. CHAN

Research Station, Agriculture Canada

Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1X2

ABSTRACT

Six species of aphids and new host records are added to the taxonomic list of the aphids of

British Columbia.

INTRODUCTION

Eleven previous lists of the aphids of British Columbia

(Forbes, Frazer and MacCarthy 1973; Forbes, Frazer

and Chan 1974; Forbes and Chan 1976, 1978, 1980,

1981, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986; Forbes, Chan and Foottit

1982) recorded 380 species of aphids collected from 836

hosts or in traps and comprises 1586 aphid-host plant

associations. The present list adds 6 aphid species (indi-

cated with an asterisk in the list) and 75 aphid-host plant

associations to the previous lists. Twenty-nine of the new

aphid-host plant associations are plant species not re-

corded before. The additions bring the number of known

aphid species in British Columbia to 386. Aphids have

now been collected from 865 different host plants and the

total number of aphid-host plant associations is 1661.

The aphid names are in accordance with Eastop and

Hille Ris Lambers (1976) and listed alphabetically by

species. Five new collection sites are tabulated in Table 1.

The location of each collection site can be determined

from Table | or from the tables of localities in the previous

papers. The reference points are the same as those shown

on the map which accompanies the basic list.

TABLE 1. Collection sites of aphids, with airline distances from reference points.

Distance

Locality Reference

Point

Alexandria Williams Lake

Eisenhower Junction Kelowna

Garibaldi Provincial Park Vancouver

Rosedale Vancouver

Thetis Island Vancouver

LIST OF SPECIES

ABIETINUM (Walker), ELATOBIUM

Picea engelmannii: Vancouver (UBC), Mar15/85.

ADIANTI (Oestlund), SITOBION

Athyrium filix-femina: Vancouver (UBC) Jul14/83.

ALBIFRONS Essig, MACROSIPHUM

Lupinus sp.: Vancouver (UBC), Sep2/83.

ASCALONICUS Doncaster, MYZUS

Cerastium fontanum ssp. triviale Vancouver, Dec30/

59.

Lactuca sativa: Cloverdale, May 16/85.

Potentilla ‘Gibson’s Scarlet’: Vancouver (UBC),

Nov 14/85.

Rumex crispus: Lulu Island, Mar 24/60.

Senecio cruentus: Vancouver, Apr9/57.

Viola septentrionalis: Vancouver (UBC), Apr16/85.

AVELLANAE (Schrank), CORYLOBIUM

Corylus sp.: Vancouver, Jul28/83.

*AZALEAE (Mason), ILLINOIA

Vaccinium macrocarpon: Vancouver (UBC), Aug29/

83.

NW 64 40

NE 314 196

NE 68 42

SE 82 51

SW 58 36

BERBERIDIS (Kaltenbach), LIOSOMAPHIS

Berberis buxifolia: Vancouver (UBC), Oct1/85.

*BREVISCRIPTUM (Palmer) UROLEUCON

Aster sp.: Eisenhower Junction, Jul26/67.

CALIFORNICUM (Clarke), MACROSIPHUM

Salix triandra: Vancouver (UBC), May23/86.

CAPILANOENSE Robinson, AULACORTHUM

Rubus spectabilis: Vancouver (UBC), May28/86.

CARAGANAE (Cholodkovsky),

ACYRTHOSIPHON

Caragana arborescens: Alexandria, Jul4/48.

CARDUI (Linnaeus), BRACHYCAUDUS

Cirsium vulgare: Thetis Island, Jul1/85.

CASTILLEIAE Sampson, KAKIMIA

Castilleja sp.: Eisenhower Junction, Jul26//67.

CIRCUMFLEXUM (Buckton), AULACORTHUM

Asparagus densiflorus ‘Sprengeri’: Vancouver

(CDA), Jun21/85.

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC.

Berberidopsis corallina: Vancouver (UBC), Oct1/

85.

Crinodendron patagua: Vancouver (UBC), Aug23/

85.

Linnaea borealis: Vancouver (CDA), Mar26/86.

CIRSII (Linnaeus), UROLEUCON

Cirsium arvense: Pender Island, Jull1/85; Rich-

mond, Aug10/65.

Cirsium brevistylum: Pender Island, Jul9/85.

*COWENI Palmer, APHIS

Veratrum viride ssp. eschscholtzii: Garibaldi Provin-

cial Park, Aug9/59.

CYNOSBATI (Oestlund), KAKIMIA

Tellima grandiflora: Vancouver (UBC), Mar5/77.

DAPHNIDIS Borner, MACROSIPHUM

Daphne laureola: Vancouver (UBC), May 19/76,

Jun28/76.

DIRHODUM (Walker), METOPOLOPHIUM

Rosa rugosa ‘Hansa’: Vancouver (UBC), Oct18/85.

ELAEAGNI (del Guercio) CAPITOPHORUS

Phaseolus vulgaris: Rosedale, Jun16/58.

EQUISETI Holman, SITOBION

Equisetum arvense: Vancouver, Aug15/85.

EUPHORBIAE (Thomas), MACROSIPHUM

Apocynum androsaemifolium: Vancouver (UBC),

Jul13/83.

Capsicum frutescens: Vancouver, May 13/59.

Catalpa speciosa: Vancouver, Jun20/83.

Centranthus ruber: Vancouver (UBC), Jul15/83.

Crataegus monogyna ‘Alba’: Vancouver, May30/83.

Deutzia gracilis: Vancouver (UBC), Jul11/83.

Fumaria officinalis: Vancouver (UBC), Jun17/83.

Hypoestes phyllostachya: Vancouver (CDA),

May 15/86.

Kolkwitzia amabilis: Vancouver (UBC), Jun24/83.

Lantana camara: Vancouver (CDA), Apr25/86.

Potentilla fruticosa: Vancouver (UBC), Jul19/83.

Rosa gymnocarpa: Vancouver (UBC), Jul12/84.

Rudbeckia hirta: Vancouver (UBC), Jul15/83.

Taraxacum officinale: Vancouver, Mar11/83.

Vaccinium corymbosum: Vancouver (UBC), Jull2/

83.

Valeriana officinalis: Vancouver (UBC), Jun23/83.

Verbena x hybrida ‘Springtime’: Vancouver (UBC),

Aug26/83.

Yucca sp.: Vancouver, Aug24/83; Vancouver (UBC),

Jul26/83.

FABAE Scopoli, APHIS

Cirsium arvense:Abbotsford, Jul30/51; Agassiz,

Jun30/59.

Phaseolus vulgaris: Abbotsford, Jul13/59;

Brentwood, Jul4/59; Cordova Bay, Aug6/53.

Senecio sp.: Vancouver, Jul7/56.

Vicia faba: Saanich, Jul4/59.

FIMBRIATA Richards, FIMBRIAPHIS

Rosa nutkana: Vancouver (UBC), Jul11/83.

31, 1986 71

FOENICULI (Passerini), HYADAPHIS

Coriandrum sativum ‘Dark Green Italian’: Van-

couver (CDA), Apr15/86.

GENTNERI (Mason), FIMBRIAPHIS

Crataegus x lavallei: Vancouver (UBC), Jul19/84.

Crataegus monogyna ‘Alba’: Vancouver, Jun4/83.

Sorbus americana: Vancouver, Jun28/59.

HELICHRYSI (Kaltenbach), BRACHYCAUDUS

Aster sp.: Vancouver, Jun1/58.

Cirsium vulgare: Thetis Island, Jul1/85.

HOLODISCI Robinson, APHIS

Holodiscus discolor; Vancouver, Jun24/85; Van-

couver (UBC), Jun11/75.

HUMULI (Schrank), PHORODON

Photinia x fraseri: Vancouver, May9/86.

LACTUCAE (Linnaeus), HYPEROMYZUS

Sonchus asper: Vancouver, Jul16/56, Sep5/56.

Sonchus oleraceus: Vancouver, Jul5/56.

LACTUCAE (Passerini), ACYRTHOSIPHON

Lactuca serriola: Vancouver, Sep30/85.

*MACGILLIVRAYAE (Hille Ris Lambers),

ILLINOIA

Chaenomeles japonica: Vancouver, Jul21/76.

MANITOBENSE (Robinson), SITOBION

Cornus sericea: Vancouver (UBC), May28/86.

MILLEFOLII (de Geer), MACROSIPHONIELLA

Achillea ‘Coronation Gold’: Vancouver (UBC),

Jun21/85.

OCHROCENTRI (Cockerell), BIPERSONA

Cirsium sp.: Kamloops, Jul4/53.

ORNATUS Laing, MYZUS

Chaenomeles speciosa: Vancouver, May3/58.

Cirsium arvense: Vancouver (UBC), May23/86.

Crinodendron patagua: Vancouver (UBC), Aug23/

85.

Taraxacum officinale: Vancouver, May 12/58.

OSMARONIAE (Wilson), MACROSIPHUM

Oemleria cerasiformis: Vancouver (UBC), Apr26/

83.

PARVIFOLII Richards, MACROSIPHUM

Vaccinium parvifolium: Vancouver (UBC), Apr5/83.

*PAUCOSENSORIATUM 1(Hille Ris Lambers),

UROLEUCON

Asper: Chilliwack, May 26/58; Kamloops, May2/

57, Jul24/57.

PERSICAE (Sulzer), MYZUS

Aster sp.: Creston, Apr22/59.

Phaseolus vulgarus: Rosedale, Jun16/58.

PISUM (Harris), ACYRTHOSIPHON

Phaseolus vulgaris: Cordova Bay, Aug6/53.

Vicia faba: Saanich, Jul4/59.

(eo: J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

POMI de Geer, APHIS

Pyrus communis: Vancouver, May23/58.

PYRIFOLIAE MacDougall, MACROSIPHON

Capsella bursa-pastoris: Vancouver (CDA), Sep2/

83.

Rosa ‘Beauty Secret’: Vancouver (CDA), Sep2/83.

Sorbus aucuparia: Vancouver, Mar27/83. Apr18/83,

May 15/83, May20/86, Jun23/83.

RHAMNI (Clarke), SITOBION

Rhamnus purshiana: Ladner, May25/66.

RIBISNIGRI (Mosley), NASONOVIA

Cichorium intybus: Pender Island, Jul11/85.

Lapsana communis: Vancouver, Jul24/85.

ROSAE (Linnaeus), MACROSIPHUM

Rosa centifolia ‘Muscosa’: Vancouver (UBC), Aug7/

85.

Rosa eglanteria: Pender Island, Jul9/85.

Rosa ‘Nozomi’: Vancouver (UBC), Oct4/86.

ROSARUM (Kaltenbach), MYZAPHIS

Rosa ‘Agnes’: Vancouver (UBC), Apr19/85.

SCAMMELLI (Mason), ERICAPHIS

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi: Vancouver (UBC), Jul11/

78.

Vaccinium corymbosum: Abbotsford, Jul28/83.

SOLANI (Kaltenbach), AULACORTHUM

Catalpa sp.: Vancouver, Jun19/59.

Chaenomeles speciosa: Vancouver, May3/58.

Potentilla pensylvanica: Vancouver (UBC), May11/

83.

Primula sp.: Vancouver, May23/59.

Pyrus communis: Vancouver, May23/58.

Senecio cruentus: Vancouver, Apr9/57.

Sinningia speciosa: Vancouver, Jul3/58.

SONCHI (Linnaeus), UROLEUCON

Sonchus arvensis: Sea Island, Jul15/59.

Sonchus asper: Vancouver, Jul1/59.

SPIRAECOLA (Patch), ILLINOIA

Spiraea thunbergii: Vancouver (UBC), Jun13/85.

STAPHYLEAE (Koch), RHOPALOSIPHONINUS

Iris sp.: Vancouver (UBC), Apr18/86.

Penstemon ‘Evelyn’: Vancouver (UBC), Apr18/86.

Platycodon grandiflorus ‘Apoyama’: Vancouver

(UBC), Apr18/86.

STELLARIAE Theobald, MACROSIPHUM

Capsella bursa-pastoris: Vancouver (CDA), May20/

86.

Catharanthus roseus: Vancouver (CDA), May20/86.

Dianthus sp.: Chilliwack, Aug13/85.

TARAXACI (Kaltenbach) UROLEUCON

Taraxacum officinale: Vancouver, Jun17/59.

*THOMASI Hille Ris Lambers, CHAETOSIPHON

Rosa rugosa ‘Hansa‘: Vancouver (UBC), May1/85,

Oct18/85.

TILIAE (Linnaeus), EUCALLIPTERUS

Tilia petiolaris: Vancouver (UBC), Aug22/85.

VARIABILIS Richards, BOERNERINA

Alnus viridis ssp. sinuata: Vancouver (UBC), Jun14/

85.

WAKIBAE (Hottes), FIMBRIAPHIS

Rosa rugosa ‘Alba’: Vancouver (UBC), Jun23/83.

Rosa woodsii ssp. woodsii: Vancouver (UBC), Sep2/

83.

*Aphid species not in the previous lists.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to thank Dr. A.G. Robinson, Univer-

sity of Manitoba, Winnipeg, and Drs. R.L. Blackman and

V.F. Eastop, British Museum (Natural History), London,

England for valuable aid and advice in identifications.

REFERENCES

Eastop, V.F., and D. Hille Ris Lambers. 1976. Survey of the world’s aphids. Dr. W. Junk b.v., Publisher, The Hague.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1986. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 14. Further additions. J.

ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 83 (in press).

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1985. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 13. Further additions. J.

ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 82: 56-58.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1984. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 12. Further additions. J.

ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 81: 72-75.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1983. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 11. Further additions. J.

ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 80: 51-53.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1981. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 9. Further additions. J.

ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 78: 53-54.

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986 73

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1980. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 8. Further additions and

corrections. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 77: 38-42.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1978. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 6. Further additions. J.

ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 75: 47-52.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1976. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 4. Further additions and

corrections. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 73: 57-63.

Forbes, A.R., C.K. Chan and R. Foottit. 1982. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 10. Further

additions. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 79: 75-78

Forbes, A.R., B.D. Frazer and C.K. Chan. 1974. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 3. Additions

and corrections. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 71: 43-49.

Forbes, A.R., B.D. Frazer and H.R. MacCarthy. 1973. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 1. A

basic taxonomic list. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 70: 43-57.

A RECORD OF THE SURINAM COCKROACH IN VANCOUVER

P. BELTON, G.S. ANDERSON and G.L. ST.HILAIRE

Centre for Pest Management

Department of Biological Sciences

Simon Fraser University

Burnaby, B.C. V5A 1S6

An adult female cockroach was brought to Simon Fra-

ser University for identification in April 1986. It had been

collected in an office on one of the upper floors of a

highrise block in downtown Vancouver. According to Mr.

Rex Case, the district manager of the pest control com-

pany that serviced this block and a nearby ground-level

shopping centre, these cockroaches had been sufficiently

numerous to cause complaint. In the office, the largest

population seemed to be in a room containing a photocop-

ier near which there was a neglected planter. We later

searched the office but found only fragments of cock-

roaches. The photocopying room did not contain any

food or drink and did not appear to be a suitable habitat for

cockroaches.

The specimen was identified as Pycnoscelis surin-

amensis (L.), an Indomalaysian species that in its intro-

duced North American and European forms is

parthenogenetic. Another unusual characteristic of this

species is that the egg pod is withdrawn into a brood

pouch until hatching, making them effectively vivipar-

ous. They were evidently first identified in Canada in

1938 as a serious pest girdling the stems of roses ina large

greenhouse in Grimsby, Ont. (Anon. 1938), and there isa

casual remark by Mallis (1982) that it was seen in large

numbers in a bird house at the Toronto zoo.

The Surinam cockroach is about 2cm long, obviously

larger than the German cockroach (1 to 1.5cm) and

smaller than the American and Australian cockroaches (3

to 4cm), all of which are more commonly found in

Vancouver. In the specimens we examined, the pronotum

is uniformly dark apart from a narrow anterior yellow

line. The posterior margin of the pronotum is sinuate.

The tibiae and tarsi are relatively short particularly on the

mesothoracic leg and, compared with the commoner

species, the tarsal segments are extremely narrow. The

tibiae are broad and armed with strong, presumably

fossorial, spines. These key characters are shown in Fig.

1. The wings are pale brown and well developed, nor-

mally covering the rather stubby cerci. We assume the

adults can fly but have neither observed this nor seen any

mention of it in the literature.

We believe that these insects have been introduced on

indoor plants imported from the United States. Even if the

plants are brought in without soil it is very likely that a

single small nymph could avoid detection in an appressed

axil or loose fibrous material around a stem. A search was

made in the warehouse of one of the companies that

supplied plants to the shopping centre where the cock-

roaches were found. None was seen or caught with sticky

cockroach traps set around the plants.

We have seen no references to this species as an urban

pest but in view of the proliferation of environmental

planting in offices and shopping malls entomologists

should be aware that it might well become one.

74 J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986

Fig 1. Shape and typical colour patterns (Vancouver area) of a, German; b, Surinam and c, Australian cockroach.

Scale 5mm. Right mesotibiae and tarsi are drawn alongside at higher magnification, scale 1mm.

REFERENCES

Anon. 1938. Canadian Insect Pest Review 16 p. 279. Agriculture Canada.

Mallis, A. 1982. Handbook of Pest Control. p. 129. Franzak & Foster, Cleveland, Ohio.

J. ENTOMOL SOC. BRIT. COLUMBIA 83 (1986), DEC. 31, 1986 75

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

This society has no support except from subscriptions. It has become necessary to

increase the page charge. This has now been set at $45.00. The page charge includes all extras

except coloured illustrations, provided that such extras do not comprise more than 40 % of the

published pages. Coloured illustrations will be charged directly to the author. Authors, not

attached to universities or official institutions, who must pay these charges from their

personal funds and are unable to do so, may apply for assistance when submitting a

manuscript.

Reprints are sold only in even hundreds and at the following prices:

Number of pages 1-4 5-8 9-12 13-16 17-20 9-21-24 =. 25-28

First 100 copies $55.00 78.00 108.00 137.00 174.00 217.00 264.00

Each extra 100 12.00 16.00 20.00 24.00 28.00 32.00 36.00

Author’s discounts (up to 40%) may be granted to authors who certify at the time of

ordering that they are buying reprints at personal expense. Authors ordering personal

reprints in addition to those ordered by an institution will be billed at the rate for extra

hundreds.

Membership is open to anyone with an interest in entomology. Dues are $15.00 per year;

for students $7.50.

Papers for the Journal need not have been presented at meetings of the Entomological

Society of British Columbia, nor is it mandatory, although preferable, that authors be

members of this society. The chief condition for publication is that the paper have some

regional origin, interest, or application.

Contributions should be sent to:

H. R. MacCarthy

6660 N.W. Marine Drive

Vancouver, B.C. V6T 1X2

Manuscripts should be typed double-spaced on one side of white, line-spaced numbered

paper if possible, leaving generous margins. The original and two copies, mailed flat, are

required. Tables should be on separate, numbered sheets, with the caption on the sheet.

Captions for illustrations should also be on separate numbered sheets, but more than one

caption may be on a sheet. Photographs should be glossy prints of good size, clarity and

contrast. Line drawings should be in black ink on good quality white paper.

The style, abbreviations and citations should conform to the Style Manual for Biological

Journals published by the American Institute of Biological Sciences.

BACK NUMBERS

Back numbers of this journal are available from the Secretary-Treasurer, from volume 45

(1949) to the present, at $10.00 per volume. Certain earlier back numbers are also available,

but only on special request to the Secretary-Treasurer.

Address inquiries to:

Dr. L. M. Humble, Secretary-Treasurer

Entomological Society of British Columbia,

c/o 506 West Burnside Road,

Victoria, B.C. V8Z 1M5

JOURNAL

hes =

ENTOMOLOGICAL”

SOCIETY of *

BRITISH COLUMBIA

Issued December 31, 1987

ECONOMIC

Angerilli & Brochu — Some influences of area and pest management on

apple mite populations in the Okanagan Valley of B.C. ..................... 3

Mackenzie, Vernon & Szeto — Efficacy and residues of chlorpyrifos applied

against root maggots attacking cole crops in B.C. ........... 0.00... eee eee 9

Raworth & Merkens — Sampling the twospotted spider mite,

Tetranychus urticae (Acari:Tetranychidae), on commercial strawberries

Halford — Mechanical pencils for microdissection

Safranyik & Linton — Patterns of landing of spruce beetles, Dendroctonus

rufipennis (Coleoptera:Scolytidae), on baited lethal trap trees

Summers & Ruth — Effect of diatomaceous earth, malathion, dimethoate and

permethrin on Leptoglossus occidentalis (Hemiptera:Coreidae), a pest

of conifer seed

Mayer, Johansen, Shanks & Pike — Effects of fenvalerate insecticide on

pollinators

GENERAL

Cozens — Second broods of Pissodes strobi (Coleoptera:Curculionidae) in

previously attacked leaders of interior spruce

Cannings — Chionea macnabeana Alexander, a micropterous crane fly

_ (Diptera:Tipulidae) new to Canada

Cannings & Fisher — Ptilodactyla serricollis (Coleoptera:Ptilodactylidae)

NS er, ice Se 9 8c bo bin we i pase HR Gas Fok G Palace ws 52

Linton, Safranyik, McMullen & Betts — Field techniques for rearing and

marking mountain pine beetle for use in dispersal studies

Sahota, Peet & Ibaraki — Manipulations of egg-gallery length to vary brood

density in spruce beetle, Dendroctonus rufipennis (Coleoptera:Scolytidae):

effects on brood survival and quality

Cannings — The ground mantis, Litaneutria minor (Dictuoptera:Mantidae)

SE SRS OG omens sean Aer ec Nga RR etry SM Kor wciec Pe a an en 64

TAXONOMIC

Forbes & Chan — The aphids (Homoptera:Aphididae) of B.C. 16.

Further additions

Forbes & Chan — The aphids (Homoptera:Aphididae) of B.C. 17. A revised

host plant catalogue

Duncan — An illustrated guide to the identification and distribution of the

species of Dendroctonus Erickson (Coleoptera:Scolytidae) in B.C.

-, NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

ISSN #0071-0733 JOURNAL

of the

ENTOMOLOGICAL

SOCIETY of

BRITISH COLUMBIA

Vol. 84 Issued December 31, 1987

ECONOMIC

Angerilli & Brochu — Some influences of area and pest management on

apple mite populations in the Okanagan Valley of B.C. ..................... 5

Mackenzie, Vernon & Szeto — Efficacy and residues of chlorpyrifos applied

against root maggots attacking cole crops in B.C. ..... 2.2... eee ee ees 2

Raworth & Merkens — Sampling the twospotted spider mite,

Tetranychus urticae (Acari:Tetranychidae), on commercial strawberries ....... 17

Halford — Mechanical pencils for microdissection ...............0.000 eee eeee 19

Safranyik & Linton — Patterns of landing of spruce beetles, Dendroctonus

rufipennis (Coleoptera:Scolytidae), on baited lethal trap trees ............... Z1

Summers & Ruth — Effect of diatomaceous earth, malathion, dimethoate and

permethrin on Leptoglossus occidentalis (Hemiptera:Coreidae), a pest

IMC UIC IIS COMM cam re nee ita ak tre areas ah Anak sacar Aira eevee Geel ae ROG 315,

Mayer, Johansen, Shanks & Pike — Effects of fenvalerate insecticide on

DICH Te UC) SRG oe Pe a ge aa aa ree ae 39

GENERAL

Cozens — Second broods of Pissodes strobi (Coleoptera:Curculionidae) in

previously attacked leaders of interior spruce ............. 0... e ce eee eee 46

Cannings — Chionea macnabeana Alexander, a micropterous crane fly

(Diptera lipulidac): new to Canada 7 ies os cota esis ohm shee we wu a es 50

Cannings & Fisher — Ptilodactyla serricollis (Coleoptera:Ptilodactylidae)

RIE serra eget ec ees ee ae a at Airs ae AA Bi cs aah Suen, a2

Linton, Safranyik, McMullen & Betts — Field techniques for rearing and

marking mountain pine beetle for use in dispersal studies .................. 53

Sahota, Peet & Ibaraki — Manipulations of egg-gallery length to vary brood

density in spruce beetle, Dendroctonus rufipennis (Coleoptera:Scolytidae):

effects on brood survival and quality .........6... 0500 sce cucse cv eeeeees: a7

Cannings — The ground mantis, Litaneutria minor (Dictuoptera:Mantidae)

ATMS ree reece erty lh tah conan pet aah en. @ Aye uns ae eens Gee ee 64

TAXONOMIC

Forbes & Chan — The aphids (Homoptera:Aphididae) of B.C. 16.

Hunter ad anrOns es chee erate tease ays Agi ww ered ace Os dies chee tale oa eas 66

Forbes & Chan — The aphids (Homoptera:Aphididae) of B.C. 17. A revised

NOS planticatalOPMe gs h.i4 Wowace wai eeeateone 44.05.44 as sae bie ude dale xo es de

Duncan — An illustrated guide to the identification and distribution of the

species of Dendroctonus Erickson (Coleoptera:Scolytidae) in B.C. .......... 101

NORGE AO. CONTRIBUTORS «3.0 0cs sea kedatinasicd ee gdicun Simod ere was Baw oad 113

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

DIRECTORS OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

OF BRITISH COLUMBIA FOR 1987-1988

President *

Murray Isman

University of British Columbia, Vancouver

President-Elect

Chris Guppy

B.C. Provincial Museum, Victoria

Past President

Bernard Roitberg

Simon Fraser University, Burnaby

Secretary-Treasurer

Leland Humble

Pacific Forestry Centre, Victoria

Editorial Committee (Journal)

H.R. MacCarthy R. Ring D. Raworth

Editor (Boreus)

R. Cannings

Directors

K. Millar (1st) R. Vernon (ist)

G. Jamieson (2nd) J. Sweeney (3rd) S. Lindgren (3rd)

Hon. Auditor

I. Otvos

Regional Director of National Society

R. Cannings

B.C. Provincial Museum, Victoria

J. ENTomot Soc. Brit. CoLuMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 2

SOME INFLUENCES OF AREA AND PEST MANAGEMENT ON APPLE MITE

POPULATIONS IN THE OKANAGAN VALLEY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

NELLO P. D. ANGERILLI AND LYNN BROCHU

Agriculture Canada, Research Station, Summerland, British Columbia VOH 1Z0

Abstract

Biweekly leaf samples were taken from commercial apple orchards in four main

growing areas, from north to south of the Okanagan Valley, each about 70 km apart,

during the full growing season of 1983. Both phytophagous and predacious mite

distribution and abundance were influenced by the area and four management practices.

Unsprayed orchards had few mites whereas regularly sprayed orchards tended to have

larger mite populations, the species composition and abundance of which varied with

area. The numbers of some species of phytophagous mites appeared to be related to the

species and abundance of predacious mites present in a given orchard.

Introduction

Integrated mite control has been practiced in apple orchards of the Okanagan and Similkameen

Valleys for about 15 years (Downing and Arrand 1976). During that time miticide applications

for the control of European red mite (Panonychus ulmi, (Koch)), McDaniel spidermite

(Tetranychus mcdanieli, McG.) and apple rust mite (Aculus schlectendali (Nalepa)), have

steadily decreased, probably because of the effectiveness of the various species of predacious

mites, primarily in the family Phytoseiidae, which are found in many apple orchards. The

frequency of insecticide application has also decreased, most notably as a result of the

implementation of pest management procedures that have reduced the number of annual

sprays for codling moth (Cydia pomonella (L)) from four or five to two or three. During this

time, growers commented that the integrated mite control program appeared to be most

effective toward the southern end of the growing region. It was not clear if this was a result of

differences in cultural practices, grower tolerance (or intolerance) to phytophagous mites, or a

biogeographical phenomenon related to predator species composition and abundance in

different areas.

Previous work by Anderson and Morgan (1958), Anderson et al. (1958), and Downing

and Moilliet (1971) suggested that of 28 to 30 species of predacious mites found in southern

British Columbia, only three or four species occur in relatively large numbers and are common

in commercial orchards. These authors did not report which areas of the Okanagan Valley were

sampled and there is a suggestion in Anderson and Morgan (1958) that the phytoseiids did not

maintain the phytophagous mite populations at acceptable levels. This conclusion may have

reflected the miticidal properties of the insecticides available to growers at the time. That is,

those compounds may have prevented the development of large and diverse predator

populations.

This study was undertaken to determine the effects of area and thus climate, plus pest

management on the species distribution and abundance of both phytophagous and predacious

mites in Okanagan apple orchards.

Materials and Methods

The growing region was divided into four areas each centered on the principal town:

Vernon, at the extreme north end of the growing region; Kelowna, approximately 70 km to the

south; Summerland (including Penticton) a further 70 km south; and the Osoyoos-Oliver-

Cawston area about the same distance south again and close to the U.S. boundary, referred to

here as Oliver/Osoyoos. After discussions with packing house field persons and private pest

management consultants, orchards were selected in each of the four areas and classified as

abandoned, organic, integrated or traditional. Abandoned orchards usually consisted of a few

trees that had not been tended for at least the previous season. No, or few, synthetic chemical

sprays were applied to organic orchards, but the frequency of chemical applications in

4 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

integrated orchards was limited to those occasions when a pest exceeded a pre-specified

threshold. In some of the integrated orchards that we studied, this resulted in no sprays being

applied for the year of the study. Traditional orchards were sprayed largely on a calendar basis

without reference to the population levels of pest species present. There were at least two

orchards in each classification in each region except for a single abandoned orchard in the

Vernon area.

Mite populations were sampled every two weeks from mid-May to mid-August, 1983 by

randomly selecting 20 leaves per tree from a minimum of 10 trees per orchard. Spur leaves

were used early in the season and current year shoots later. The variety ‘“‘Red Delicious” was

used whenever possible. The leaves were then processed with a mite brushing machine as

described in Morgan et al. (1955) and results were recorded and analyzed on the basis of mites/

20 leaves. Phytophagous mites were identified to species by using a stereo microscope during

the counting. Every 2nd to 5th phytoseiid predacious mite encountered on the counting plate

was mounted in Hoyer’s medium and identified to species using a phase-contrast compound

microscope.

None of the orchards studied received a miticide application, other than dormant oil,

during the season of the study.

The total number (per 20 leaves) of each species of mite found on each sampling occasion

for the duration of the study was subject to a two-way Analysis of Variance (using location and

pest management method as main effects) and the Least Significant Difference test (SAS, Proc

GLM). Data were transformed to log (x+1) when appropriate.

Results and Discussion

Three species of phytophagous mites (P. ulmi, A. schlectendali and T. mcdanieli) were

found in the leaf samples. T. mcdanieli was found so infrequently that it was not included in

any further analyses. Four species of Phytoseiidae (Typhlodromus occidentalis Nesbitt, T.

caudiglans Schuster, T. columbiensis Chant and Amblyseius sp. near herbarius Wainstein were

found reguarly though T. columbiensis was found in only one orchard and in small numbers,

and the Amblyseius sp. was very rare, occurring only in integrated control orchards in the

southern half of the valley.

Contribution No. 651

Table I. Mean (+ standard error) total number of European red mites per 20 leaves after the indicated

number of elapsed days sampled from commercial orchards under four pest management systems in four

areas of the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia in 1983.

Area

Area Days Abandoned Organic Integrated Traditional mean

sss SS — — —— ——— —— —— ——— ————————————————— ee

Vernon 78 °0.7/0.3 58.8/19.9 0.6/0.4 3 4) Sone 4320/12 53.1

Kelowna 7/7 1st/ 055 4.4/1.7 16/025 25e 3 22 470s 112

Summerland 83 0.1/0.1 0.5/023 18.2/6.9 4.8/2.0 52972 112

Oliver/ 84 1.6/0.4 0.0 g Ae Loh RT 5.8/1.6 6.9/2.0 2

Osoyoos

Mean 0.9/0.2 a 14.5/5.9 be 9.9/2.6 be . 26..3/9.8.b

Means followed by the same letter or number are not significantly different

(LSD, P<0.05)

J. ENTOMOL Soc. BriT. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 5

The ERM population was larger in the Vernon area than in the three other areas (Table I)

and populations were higher in traditional, integrated and organic orchards than in abandoned

orchards (Table I). The two-way ANOVA showed a significant interaction effect for area and

pest management system presumably because of the large number of ERM found in the

Vernon orchards. If the Vernon area data are omitted from the analysis there are no significant

area affects and the number of ERM found in integrated orchards is significantly higher than in

the other 3 types (p < 0.01).

There were more rust mites in the Oliver/Osoyoos area than in the three more northerly

areas and in traditional and organic orchards than in either abandoned or integrated orchards

(Table II).

The phytoseiid population was also larger in the Oliver/Osoyoos area than in the other

areas (Table III) but did not appear to differ between orchard types.

As nearly 100% of the growers in the study had applied dormant oil for ERM control at

the beginning of the year, ERM population differences between orchards must be due to

factors other than the use or non-use of dormant control measures. That is, dormant control

using oil probably acts in a density-dependant manner. Only those eggs exposed to the oil fail

to hatch, and in large populations more eggs would be in exposed situations than in small

populations. Therefore we would expect similar egg survival regardless of the size of the egg

population as there are only a limited number of refugia available. Differences in phytoseiid

numbers and species, differences in predator efficiency resulting from species or strain

differences, and differences in climate that might favour one area over the other in terms of rate

of population increase or predation rate could explain differences in ERM populations

between orchards. These influences may act in concert or individually at different times.

Table II. Mean (+ standard error) total number of apple rust mites per 20 leaves after the indicated number

of elapsed days sampled from commercial orchards under four pest management systems in four areas of

the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia in 1983.

Area

Area Days Abandoned Organic Integrated Traditional mean

Vernon 78 804. 8/ 3/507) 1258] 606. 2/ 1372.5/

353.6 1156.1 41.1 409.6 434.3 1

Kelowna 77 54.3/ 2521.7/ 1063.9/ 2348.4/ 1475.3/

25.8 Sll.2 509.8 889.9 358.7 1

Summerland 83 183.7/ 1089.7/ G2 77 23/929] 1189.2/

60.7 790.6 433.7 857.4 B42 0k

Oliver/ 84 1892.9/ 2200.7/ 1809.9/ 6116.1/ 2627.5/

Osoyoos 642.5 869.3 413.1 1735.7 449.7 2

Mean 1065.4/ 2190.8/ 1210.6/ 3045.5/

333.7 a 466.6 b 242.6 a 672.9 b

Means followed by the same letter or number are not significantly

different (LSD, P<0.05)

6 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

Table III. Mean (+ standard error) total number of Phytoseiids per 20 leaves after the indicated number of

elapsed days sampled from commercial orchards under four pest management systems in four areas of the

Okanagan Valley of British Columbia in 1983.

Area Days Abandoned Organic Integrated Traditional foal

Vernon 78 8.0/1.9 7.0/2.4 90.0 0.5/Q. 3c) ye S4' 09. 1

Kelowna 77 1.2/0.7 0 2.2/0.5. 28/068 1054 2ie 0) 4 oH Ole 1

Summerland 83 6.5/2.4 163/0.7 324/125 1.1/0.5. 3.0/0.8), 1

Oliver/ 84 Se J 2vaot. 422/123 © Oso / 2-0 Fey A Ty edie s Sos iy 2 UE beg

Osoyoos

Mean 5.2/1 ew 3.4/0.8 622/122 4.9/1.0

Means followed by the same number are not significantly different

Twenty-nine-year, yearly average maximum and minimum temperatures and yearly

precipitation (Table IV) show that there is a cold to warm temperature gradient from north to

south and a somewhat similar high to low precipitation gradient. However, the Osoyoos area is

intermediate between the Vernon and the other two areas for precipitation. This suggests that

mite population growth should be slower at the north end of the valley than at the south end.

Temperature dependant phenomena such as phytoseiid predation rates should also be lower in

the north than in the south, at least early in the season when temperature differences would be

greatest. Therefore, the same number of phytoseiids should consume more prey per unit time

in the south end of the valley than in the north end. This would allow a peak number of

phytoseiids in the north to be associated with a larger population of ERM than a similar

phytoseiid population in the south.

Table IV. Mean yearly minimum temperature, maximum temperature and rainfall (29-year average) for four

areas of the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia.

Minimum Maximum Rainfall

Area (C) (C) (mm)

Vernon 1.8 12.6 290.4

Kelowna 2a2 13.2 221.9

Summerland 4.0 13.8 21339

Oliver/Osoyoos 4.6 15.9 245.6

Source: Canadian Climate Normals. 1951-1980.

Environment Canada.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 7

Phytoseiid winter mortality is greater in the north than in the south. During the winter of

1985-86 phytoseiid mortality was near 100% in the Kelowna area while it was 80-85% in the

Oliver area. Therefore, phytoseiid populations in the north would be lower at the start of the

year, and may not be so responsive to prey population increases because of the reduced

average temperatures. It is not possible to assess the applicability of this assumption with only

one years data.

Although there are temperature differences between the areas, the variation between

Vernon and Kelowna, for example, is probably not great enough to completely account for the

differences in phytophagous mite populations found. Qualitative differences between predator

populations may be important. T. occidentalis and T. caudiglans were the most abundant

phytoseiids found during this survey. 7. caudiglans comprised only 0.01% of the total

predators found in the Vernon area but was found in varying numbers in the other areas. On

both an area and a management system basis, T. caudiglans was always less abundant than T.

occidentalis (Tables V and VI).

In abandoned orchards, T. caudiglans was the most abundant phytoseiid. It was almost

totally absent from organic and traditional orchards, and was present in variable mumbers in

integrated orchards (Table VI). This relationship was consistent in two of the three areas in

which T. caudiglans was present; it was not found in the integrated control orchards that we

studied in the Summerland area.

Table V. Percent composition by species of Phytoseiidae in commercial apple orchards in four areas of the

Okanagan Valley of British Columbia in 1983.

Percent composition

Typhliodromus Typhlodromus

Area caudiglans occidentalis

Vernon 0.01 99.9

Kelowna 24), 1 (Bree,

Summerland 6.0 94.0

Oliver/Osoyoos oe7 81.3

It has been reported by Downing and Moilliet (1972) that if organophosphate sprays are

terminated, T. caudiglans will competitively displace T. occidentalis but if the sprays are

resumed the reverse occurs. We found an apparent relationship between the relative abundance

of T. caudiglans and the use of organophosphates (such as phosmet, phosalone,

azinphosmethyl) and growing area or no organophosphate use. In effect, organophosphates

essentially exclude T. caudiglans from orchards in the north but not in the south. T. caudiglans

was found in 13 orchards; three in the Kelowna area, three in the Summerland area and the

balance in the South End. No organophosphates were used in those orchards where it was

found outside of the Oliver/Osoyoos area, while phosmet, phosalone or azinphosmethyl! were

used in five of the seven orchards in that area. A study is currently underway to confirm the

possibility that 7. caudiglans may have developed resistance to organophophates in the

southern part of the valley. This could be important if true, because our data and those of others

such as Downing and Moilliet (1972) suggest that 7. caudiglans is superior to T. occidentalis

for the control of ERM.

8 J. ENTOMOL Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

Table VI. Percent composition by species of Phytoseiidae in Okanagan (British Columbia) apple orchards

subject to different pest management strategies in 1983.

Percent composition

Management Typhlodromus Typhlodromus

strategy caudiglans occidentalis

Traditional 1.0 Wipe)

Integrated 2.6 97.4

Organic O52 99.8

Abandoned B2i7 47.3

Further evidence for the superiority of T. caudiglans as a predator comes from observa-

tions made in an orchard with a very low codling moth population that resulted from the sterile

male method of codling moth control of some years earlier. The orchard presented an

opportunity for comparison when it became necessary to spray one half of the orchard for

codling moth control in 1984. In 1983 T. caudiglans made up more than 50% of the phytoseiid

population in this orchard and ERM were barely detectable. In 1984, after azinphosmethyl was

applied, the phytoseiid population in the unsprayed half of the orchard still consisted primarily

of T. caudiglans and ERM were still at very low levels. But T. caudiglans was virtually

eliminated from the sprayed half of the orchard, although T. occidentalis survived. ERM levels

in the sprayed half exceeded economic threshold values for the first time in 6 years (Table VII).

In conclusion, it appears that different growing areas, with their associated climatic

differences and pest management practices can affect the distribution and abundance of both

phytophagous and predacious mites.

Table VII. Percent composition by species of Phytoseiidae (Typhlodromus spp.), mean number of

phytoseiids/20 leaves at peak population levels and European red mite (ERM)/20 leaves at peak population

levels in the Herz orchard, Cawston, B.C during 1983 and 1984.

Percent composition Numbers/20 leaves at peak levels

Year T. caudiglans T. occidentalis Phytoseiidae ERM

1983

unsprayed 68.4 31.6 26.0 220

1984

unsprayed 97.6 234 8.0 30

1984

sprayed 0 100.00 4.0

1386.4

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 9

Acknowledgements

We thank Eric Brodie, Liz Coates, Linda Dale, Frances FitzGibbon, Fran Rab and Don

Logan for technical assistance. We are also grateful to those growers who participated in the

study, gave us permission to use their orchards and took time to tell us about their pest

management activities. We also thank Dr. E. Lindquist of the Biosystematics Research

Institute, Agriculture Canada, and Ms. E. Shaul of the University of Toronto for identifying

Amblyseius sp. near herbarius Wainstein.

References

Anderson, N.H. and C.V. Morgan. 1958. The role of Typhlodromus spp. (Acarina: Phytoseiidae) in British

Columbia apple orchards. Proc. 10th Int. Cong. Ent. 4: 659-665.

Anderson, N.H., C.V. Morgan and D.A. Chant. 1958. Notes on occurrence of Typhlodromus and Phytoseius spp. in

southern British Columbia (Acarina:Phytoseiinae). Can. Ent. 90: 275-279.

Downing, R.S. and T.K. Moilliet. 1971. Occurrence of phytoseiid mites (Acarina:Phytoseiidae) in apple orchards

in south central British Columbia. J. Ent. Soc. B.C. 68: 33-36.

Downing, R.S. and T.K. Moilliet. 1972. Replacement of Typhlodromus occidentalis by T. caudiglans and T. pyri

(Acarina:Phytoseiidae) after cessation of sprays on apple trees. Can. Ent. 104: 937-940.

Downing, R.S. and J. Arrand. 1976. Integrated control of orchard mites on apple in British Columbia. Can. Ent.

108: 77-81.

Morgan, C.V., D.A. Chant, N.H. Anderson and G.L. Ayre. 1955. Methods for estimating orchard mite populations,

especially with the mite brushing machine. Can. Ent. 87: 189-200.

EFFICACY AND RESIDUES OF CHLORPYRIFOS APPLIED AGAINST ROOT

MAGGOTS ATTACKING COLE CROPS IN BRITISH COLUMBIA

J. R. MACKENZIE, R. S. VERNON AND S. Y. SZETO

Agriculture Canada Research Station, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1X2

Abstract

Chlorpyrifos proved to be as effective as chlorfenvinphos, and more effective than

fensulfothion and diazinon for cabbage maggot control in root and stem crucifers. For

short season crops such as cauliflower, broccoli and cabbage, the granular formulation

applied at seeding, followed in 21 days with a single drench of the emulsifiable liquid

formulation was adequate. In Brussels sprouts, the slowest of the stem crucifers to

mature, a minimum of two drench applications were necessary for acceptable control. In

rutabaga, another long season crop, chlorpyrifos 15G applied at seeding followed by 3

drench applications (i.e. at 21 day intervals) after seeding was necessary to produce

rutabagas with acceptable damage levels at harvest. In the sandy-clay loam where these

studies were undertaken, chlorpyrifos applied at the dosage rates and at the times

prescribed for the stem and root crucifers studied did not give rise to appreciable

residues at harvest. These studies show that a pre-harvest interval of 32 days would be

appropriate for the 5 crops studied.

Introduction

The cabbage maggot, Delia radicum (L.), is a chronic and serious pest of cole crops

grown in the Fraser Valley and Vancouver Island regions of B.C. If not adequately controlled,

maggot feeding may kill, weaken or stunt developing plants and reduce yields considerably. In

root crucifers such as rutabaga and turnip, maggots can render the crop unmarketable if more

than slight damage caused by their feeding is evident on the roots at harvest. Research into the

biology and control of this pest pertinent to this growing region has been reported by King and

10 J. ENTOMOL Soc. BriT. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

Forbes (1954,1958); King et al. (1955); Forbes (1962); and Finlayson et al. (1967,1980). Since

the 1950’s, insecticides have been the mainstay of successful maggot control programs in

commercial production in B. C. Initially, chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides were used, until

resistant strains of the maggot were identified in the Pacific Northwest in 1959 (Howitt and

Cole 1962; Finlayson 1962). At present, control of root maggots attacking the stem crucifers,

broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage and cauliflower, relies exclusively on granular and/or

drench applications of organophosphates such as chlorfenvinphos, fensulfothion, and

diazinon. These chemicals, with the addition of phorate and carbofuran, a carbamate, are also

registered for use on root crucifers such as rutabagas and turnips.

Although the arsenal of insecticides currently available against the cabbage maggot

seems adequate, there are in fact problems associated with each registrant. Fensulfothion and

diazinon, for example, have failed in recent years to provide commercially acceptable maggot

control in both the field and seed bed (M. Sweeney, personal communication, Simonet 1981).

Although not verified, an increasing tolerance of the pest to these insecticides is suspected.

Chlorfenvinphos, although still effective, can, under certain environmental conditions, or if

misapplied, reduce germination or stunt seedlings (Mackenzie and Vernon 1984). Phytotox-

icity has also resulted from the improper use of fensulfothion. For the root crucifers,

carbofuran still appears efficacious, however, chronic use of this material can result in the

proliferation of soil bacteria antagonistic to the persistence of this pesticide (Felsot et al.

1981,1982). Where this has occurred, as in Illinois (Felsot 1982), the effective longevity of

carbofuran has been markedly reduced. Locally, there is some evidence that such “‘antagonis-

tic’’ soils are emerging in the muckland soil growing region of Cloverdale. Finally, phorate,

available only in the granular formulation, is restricted to a single application at seeding and is

prohibited from use in highly organic soils. These considerations cast doubt on the current and

future usefulness of these insecticides for cabbage maggot control in B.C. For the B.C. cole

crop industry to remain viable, it is essential to expand the chemical control options available

to growers.

From 1980 to 1986, a number of insecticides were screened for cabbage maggot control

on root and stem crucifers. Of those tested, chlorpyrifos, an organophosphate, appeared to be

as efficacious as the insecticides currently registered, or more so and, because chlorpyrifos is

registered for root maggot control in onions, it is well suited for expedient registration on cole

crops. This paper reports: 1) the efficacy and phytotoxicity of the granular and liquid

formulations of chlorpyrifos in comparison with other candidate insecticides for registration;

2) the optimum rates, number and timing of chlorpyrifos applications for effective use under

B. C. growing conditions; and 3) residues of chlorpyrifos in marketable produce at harvest.

Methods and Materials

Efficacy and Phytotoxicity

Between 1981 and 1986, 20 field studies were carried out at the Abbotsford research sub-

station of Agriculture Canada. With the exception of one cauliflower experiment, which was

transplanted, all crops were direct-seeded in beds of 2 rows spaced 60 cm apart with 120 cm

between rows in adjacent beds. The plants were thinned to 30 cm spacings within the row.

Treatment plots were beds, i.e. row pairs, 7.5 m in length and replicated 4 times in a

randomized block design.

Insecticides were applied to a sandy clay loam either as granules at the time of seeding or

as drenches after seeding. The granular formulations were applied in a 15 cm wide band with a

custom built geared applicator attached to and driven by a hand-pushed Stanhay precision

seeder. Incorporation of the granules to a depth of about 2.0 cm was achieved by the bow-wave

method, where the granule delivery tube is positioned directly in front of the seed coulter.

During seeding the coulter ploughs the granules to either side of the furrow. The dragging-bar

behind the coulter then fills in the furrow and spreads the granules in a band. The rear wheel of

the seeder compacts the treated soil to complete the application. Drenches were applied to the

soil at low pressure with a Solo back-pack sprayer to 10 cm on both sides of the plants in the

row in a volume of 0.7-2 L water/10m row (1,100-3,300 L water/ha). Granular and liquid

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 11

formulation rates are expressed as grams of active ingredient (a.i.) applied to 10 m of seeded

row. Granular treatments included chlorfenvinphos 10G (10% a.i.); terbufos 15G (15% a.i.);

fensulfothion 15G (15% a.i.); diazinon 5G (5% a.i); and chlorpyrifos 15G (15% a.i.). Rates of

chlorpyrifos ranged from 0.9-2.2 g a.i./ 10 m of row in efficacy studies, and from 0.9-3.0 g

a.i./10 m of row in phytotoxicity studies. Rates of the other insecticide granulars are shown in

Table 1 or are mentioned in the Results. Drench treatments included chlorfenvinphos 40 E

(40% a.i.), fensulfothion 6 E (60% a.i.) and diazinon 50 E (50% a.i.). Chlorpyrifos drenches

were prepared from the 4EC and 4E-HF formulations, both containing 40.7% active ingre-

dient. Rates and post-seeding dates of drench applications are shown in Tables 1 and 2, or are

mentioned in the Results.

Treatment efficacy was assessed by rating maggot damage to roots. Plants from each

treatment replicate were uprooted, washed free of soil, and the damage assessed visually using

the method of King and Forbes (1954). Roots with no damage were assigned a value of 0

(=none); | (=slight); 2 (=moderate); 4 (=severe); and 8 (=very severe). The average value for

each treatment was the maggot damage index (D.1.) of that treatment. Rutabagas graded with a

D.I. higher than 1 were considered unmarketable.

Phytotoxicity was assessed by counting the number of emerged seedlings either along the

entire length of seeded row or within a fixed length of row measured mid-way along the total

plot length. Other symptoms of phytotoxicity, such as stunting, leaf cupping, discolouration,

and burning were noted when apparent.

The data were transformed by the square root of x + .5 before analysis of variance.

Residue Analyses

Preparation of Plant Tissue Samples. Plant tissue was analyzed for residues of chlorpyrifos

and its degradative products using the following method. Samples of cabbage, cauliflower,

broccoli, Brussels sprouts, and rutabagas were chopped and thoroughly mixed with a food

processor according to crop, treatment and sampling date. Aliquots of 20 g of plant tissues

were extracted twice with 100 ml of dichloromethane:acetone (3:2, V:V) mixture in a polytron

homogenizer. The extracts were filtered through a Buchner funnel lined with a glass fibre filter

paper. The combined extracts were transferred quantitatively to 500 ml separatory funnels to

allow separation of the two phases. The aqueous phases were separated and re-extracted with

dichloromethane after salting out with sodium chloride. The combined organic phases were

dried on anhydrous sodium sulfate and then evaporated just to dryness in a flash evaporator at

38 C. The residues were dissolved in 10 ml of dichloromethane for chemical derivatization.

Chemical Derivatization of 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol. Crude extracts in dichloromethane

equivalent to 2 g of tissue were transferred into 10 ml graduated glass stoppered reaction tubes,

followed by the addition of 5 drops of etheral solution of diazoethane in a fume hood. They

were thoroughly mixed and allowed to react at room temperature for 30 min. Upon completion

of reaction, 10 drops of keeper (1% OV-1 methyl] silicone in hexane) were added and the

unreacted diazoethane was driven off with a stream of nitrogen. To the reaction products 4 ml

of hexane was added, and mixed thoroughly for further clean-up on a Florisil column.

Clean-up of tissue extracts. Chromatographic columns (30 x 1.1 cm id.) with Teflon

stopcocks were packed from bottom to top, with a glass wool plug, 1.5 cm of anhydrous

Na,SO,, 6 cm of 2% water deactivated Florisil, 1.5 cm anhydrous Na,SO,, and another glass

wool plug. The packed columns were prewashed with 10 ml of dichloromethane followed by

10 ml of hexane. The reaction products were then passed through the clean-up columns and the

resulting eluates were collected. Chlorpyrifos, ethylated 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol

(pyridinol) and 3,5,6-trichloro-2-methoxypyridine (methoxypyridine) were eluted with 25 ml

of 25% dichloromethane in hexane. After the addition of 10 drops of keeper the eluates were

concentrated to about 2 ml in a flash evaporator at 38 C. After the addition of 2 ml of isooctane

the extracts were further concentrated to about 0.5 ml under a stream of nitrogen. The solvent

exchange was repeated twice more and the final volumes were appropriately adjusted with

isooctane before GLC analysis.

12 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. CoLumBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

Gas Chromatography. GLC analyses were made with a Hewlett Packard Model 5890 gas

chromatograph equipped with an electron capture detector for the ethylated 3,5,6-trichloro-2-

pyridinol and 3,5,6-trichloro-2-methoxypyridine; for the chlorpyrifos a Hewlett Packard

Table 1. Efficacy in cauliflower (cv. Elgon) of chlorpyrifos and three insecticides registered for control of

cabbage maggot on stem crucifers, as granules and drenches, Abbotsford, B.C., 1982.

Dosage (g a.i./10 m) Maggot damage index3

Treatment Granular Drench 65 days! 85 days 93 days

Chlorpyrifos 15G

+ 4E (1 drench) 1.3 10 0.1a2 0.4a 0.6a

Chlorfenvinfos 10G

+ 40E (1 drench) 1.7 1.0 0.9ab 0.6a 0.3a

Fensulfothion 15G

+ 6E (1 drench) id 33 2.0 Cd 3.0b 4.4bc

Diazinon 5G

+ 50E (2 drenches) 1.9 145 1.7abc 4.1b 3.6b

Control - - 2.2bC 4.2b 3.7b

1 Days after seeding.

2 Values in each column followed by the same letter are not significantly

different (Duncan's multiple range test, P < 0.05).

3 Damage index: 0O = none; 1 = slight; 2 = moderate; 4 = severe; 8 = very

severe.

Model 5880A gas chromatograph equipped with a flame photometric detector was used. The

capillary columns were 10 m x 0.25 mm i.d. containing cross-linked methyl silicone. The

operating parameters were: detector temperature 300 C for the electron capture detector and

200 C for the flame photometric detector; helium as carrier gas at 70 kPa; 5% methane in argon

at 20 ml/min as makeup gas for the electron capture detector; hydrogen at 100 ml/min, air at

100 ml/min, and nitrogen at 30 ml/min for the flame photometric detector; column temperature

program T, = 85 C, rate 1 = 30 C/min; T, = 165 C, rate 2 = 5 C/min; T3 = 185 C, rate 3 = 20

C/min; T, = 225 C. Under the described chromatographic conditions the absolute retention

times for 3,5,6-trichloro-2-methoxypyridine, ethylated 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol and chlor-

pyrifos were 3.89, 7.01 and 11.65 min respectively.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. CoLtumBiA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 13

Method Evaluation. Plant tissue from the untreated control was fortified with 3,5,6-

trichloro-2-methoxypyridine, 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol and chlorpyrifos at 1.0, 0.1, and 0.01

ppm (fresh wt.). Quadruplicates of the fortified samples at each level were processed and

analyzed as described. The percentage recovery ranged from 81.1% to 96.2%.

Results

Preliminary Studies. In eight experiments from 1981 to 1984, the efficacy of chlorpyrifos

was compared to the efficacy of one or more of the insecticides chlorfenvinphos, fensulfothion

and diazinon, which were registered for stem crucifers. Trends in efficacy observed in these

studies (typified by the study in Table 1) were comparable, regardless of the crop (ie. cabbage,

broccoli or cauliflower).

In the study shown in Table 1, granular formulations of each insecticide were applied at

seeding of cauliflower (cv Elgon), followed by a single drench 16 days later. Diazinon plots

received a second drench 34 days after seeding. Treatments of chlorpyrifos gave control

equivalent to that of chlorfenvinphos, and significantly (P < 0.05) better control than either

fensulfothion or diazinon (Table 1). In this trial, the two drenches of diazinon plus the granular

formulation at seeding did not even reduce the damage below that of untreated plots. Moderate

damage was observed when roots were examined only 31 days after the second diazinon

drench. Root damage observed in plots treated with chlorpyrifos and chlorfenvinphos was

from none to slight, 77 days after the single drench. Similar long-term efficacy was observed in

four studies comparing granular or drench applications of chlorpyrifos and chlorfenvinphos on

direct-seeded broccoli, cauliflower and cabbage.

In 1982, a study was undertaken to further investigate the observed lack of efficacy with

diazinon. Diazinon granules were applied at seeding, to broccoli (cv. Premium Crop), followed

by drenches 17 and 31 days after seeding, using up to twice the registered rates, /.e. 3.4 and

2.67 g a.i./10 m of row for the 5G and 50E formulations, respectively. Roots examined for

maggot damage in diazinon-treated plots 29 days and at harvest 42 days after the last drenches,

were not significantly different from those in the untreated plots. Moderate to severe damage

was observed in all plots at harvest.

Chlorpyrifos Efficacy. A series of studies aimed at identifying the most effective formula-

tions, dosage, and timing of chlorpyrifos applications were conducted from 1984 to1985. With

respect to dosage, chlorpyrifos 15G was tested alone at 0.9, 1.6, and 2.2 g a.1./10 m row, and

the 4E formulation was tested alone in a drench at 1.0 and 2.0 g a.i./10 m. Drenches were

applied 3 days after seeding broccoli, (cv. Premium Crop). Fifty-four days after seeding, root

maggot damage was significantly lower in all plots treated with chlorpyrifos granular or

drench as compared to the untreated plots. Root damage indices were 0.6, 0.4, and 0.1 in plots

treated with the lowest to highest rates of granular chlorpyrifos, respectively, while indices of

1.2 and 0.1 were assessed in plots receiving the lower and higher drench rates, respectively. A

damage index (D.I.) of 3.9 (= severe damage) was recorded in the untreated plots. The

importance of chlorpyrifos 15G dosage on root maggot efficacy is also shown in Table 2 for

three stem crucifers. Applied at 0.9 or 2.2 g a.i./10 m of row, chlorpyrifos-treated plots had

significantly less damage than untreated plots 72, 82 and 88 days after seeding cabbage,

broccoli and Brussels sprouts, respectively. Chlorpyrifos 15G, even at the low rate tested,

resulted in only slight damage (D.I. = 1.7) as compared to severe damage (D.I. = 6.7) in the

untreated plots. In a study conducted in 1981, under an above normal population of cabbage

flies, chlorpyrifos 15G applied at 1.3 g a.i./10 m of row did not provide significantly better

control compared to untreated plots after 65 days.

The effects of timing and number of chlorpyrifos applications on root maggot efficacy are

also shown in Table 2. In these studies, chlorpyrifos 15G and chlorpyrifos 4E-HF (applied in

1-4 drenches) were tested alone or in combination on the stem crucifers cabbage, broccoli and

Brussels sprouts, and on the root crucifer, rutabaga. In all crops, maggot damage indices were

significantly lower in plots treated with chlorpyrifos than in untreated plots. Damage was from

none to slight in cabbage, broccoli and Brussels sprouts plots receiving a granular plus single

drench application, or two drench applications alone, as compared to severe damage in the

14 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

untreated plots. To maintain rutabagas during the 113-day growing period, in the slight

damage category required for marketing, a granular application plus three drench applications

was needed. Four drench applications alone gave between slight and moderate damage. In

another rutabaga study, a slight D.I. of 0.4 was found in plots treated with as few as three

drenches compared to a D.I. of 6.2 in the control. Damage in plots receiving fewer

applications, however, was moderate.

Chlorpyrifos Phytotoxicity. In phytotoxicity studies completed in 1985 and 1986, chlor-

pyrifos 15G did not significantly reduce seedling emergence or reduce vigour when applied at

2.2 g a.i./10 m row to direct-seeded cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, broccoli and rutabaga. In

one 1985 study, however, a 30% reduction in cabbage seedling emergence was observed in

chlorpyrifos plots treated with 0.9 and 2.2 g a.i./10 m row. When this study was repeated in

1986, no reduction in emergence occurred even at a rate of 3.0 g a.i. Chlorpyrifos 4E, applied

to moist soil at 1.0 g a.i./10 m of row in a drench 7 days after seeding did not reduce seedling

emergence of the five crops. Three days after drenching, however, the primary leaves of

cabbage seedlings showed a moderate cupping and bluish discoloration. Broccoli and rutabaga

seedlings suffered milder symptoms, but after 2 weeks no symptoms were noticeable on any of

the crops. In another study, chlorpyrifos 4E applied at 1.0 or 2.0 g a.i./10 m row in a drench 3

days after seeding significantly reduced the emergence of broccoli.

Residues. In the study shown in Table 2, rutabaga samples were taken from the experimental

plots and analyzed for residues of chlorpyrifos and its degradative products. Total residues in

rutabaga tissue sampled from plots treated with four drenches of chlorpyrifos 4E were only

0.06 ppm 17 days after the last application, and 0.05 ppm after 15 days in tissue from plots

treated with granular at seeding and three drenches. Samples of broccoli, Brussels sprouts,

cabbage and cauliflower tissue were analyzed by the same procedure. No residues of

chlorpyrifos or its degradative products were detected in any of the samples of stem crucifers

at harvest.

Discussion. The results from these studies clearly indicate that, in B.C., chlorpyrifos and

chlorfenvinphos provided better protection against cabbage maggot damage than diazinon and

fensulfothion. The possibility that resistance or tolerance to diazinon and fensulfothion is

developing in Delia radicum locally is a subject that warrants further investigation. Chlor-

pyrifos proved to be as efficacious as chlorfenvinphos for cabbage maggot control in all the

major stem crucifers, and showed excellent promise for use in root crucifers. Phytotoxicity

does not appear to be a serious problem with the granular formulation of chlorpyrifos. Applied

as a drench, however, chlorpyrifos did cause some seedling mortality when applied 3 days

after seeding. At that time, seeds were just germinating and would have been in a very

susceptible stage of growth. Drenching with chlorpyrifos 7 days after seeding or thereafter

resulted in only mild symptoms of phytotoxicity which were rapidly outgrown. Usually no

symptoms were observed. When drench-related symptoms of phytotoxicity did occur, they

were associated with conditions of high temperature or drought. In an Ontario study,

chlorpyrifos caused no phytotoxic effects when applied after emergence to cabbage, chinese

cabbage, broccoli, rutabaga, Brussels sprouts or cauliflower at 1.12 and 2.24 Kg a.i./ha (Harris

et al. 1975).

Our studies indicate that for direct-seeded crucifers, combined treatments of chlorpyrifos

granular and emulsifiable liquid formulations consistently provided excellent maggot control.

For short season crops such as cauliflower, broccoli and cabbage, the granular formulation

applied at seeding, followed in 21 days with a single drench of the emulsifiable liquid

formulation would be adequate. In a heavy cabbage maggot infestation, a granular or single

drench application alone would not be sufficient to prevent damage, as was observed in one of

the studies. In Brussels sprouts, the slowest of the stem crucifers to mature, a minimum of two

applications were necessary for acceptable control. Considering the long growing season

requirements of Brussels sprouts, and the potential for late season invasion by cabbage

maggots into developing sprouts (Finlayson and Mackenzie 1979), we think that three

applications would give adequate protection, even in years when high numbers of flies are

J. ENTomMoL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 15

Table 2. Comparison of chlorpyrifos granular and emulsifiable formulations applied at different rates,

schedules and numbers of applications on four major crucifers, Abbotsford, B.C., 1982.

Mean Root Damage Indices

Chlorpyrifos Brussels

treatment Cabbage Broccoli sprouts Rutabagas

15G (0.9 g a.i.) 1.0a! 752 0.5a 82 1.7a 88 NT3

IsGc(Zee-G d.1.) «O.2a 75 l.la 82 1.5a 88 4.6¢ 13

15G + 464

(1 drench) 0.2a 53 0.0a 60 O51a 67 3e0b 93

15G + 4E

(2 drenches) NAS NA NT 2.lab 69

15G + 4E

(3 drenches) NA NA NA 1.0a 44

4E (1 drench) 0.8a 68 0.8a 75 1.6a 80 4.5c 98

4E (2 drenches) Osla 45 O.la 52 0.9a 60 3.06 82

4E (3 drenches) NA NA 0.2a 39 2.3ab 61

4E (4 drenches) NA NA NA 1.6ab 40

Control 6.7b - 4.6b - Ge7D - 6.6d ~

1 Values followed by the same letter are not significantly different (Duncan's

multiple range test, P < 0.05).

2 Days to root examination from last chlorpyrifos application.

3, NT: Not tested.

4 Except where noted, granular treatments were applied at a rate of 2.2 9

a.i./10 m seeded row, drenches at 1.0 g a.i.

S NA: Not applicable since small number of days from seeding to harvest do

not permit this many drench applications.

16 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

laying eggs. In rutabaga, another long season crop often requiring 110 days to mature, the roots

must be virtually free of maggot damage at harvest. Due to the long growing period involved,

and the strict damage limits, chlorpyrifos 15G applied at seeding followed by three drenches at

21 day intervals after seeding, would be necessary to produce rutabagas with no more than

slight damage.

With respect to dosage, chlorpyrifos 15G provided acceptable control, i.e. slight damage,

when applied at 0.9-2.2 g ai/10 m of row. In the U.S., chlorpyrifos 15G is currently

recommended for use on stem crucifers at rates of 0.6-1.4 g a.1./10 m of row, which compares

favourably with our results. Chlorpyrifos 4E at 1.0 g a.i/10 m of row in a drench was

efficacious and economical for post-planting maggot control. In the sandy-clay loam where

these studies were undertaken, chlorpyrifos applied at the dosage rates and at the times

prescribed for the stem and root crucifers studied, would not result in appreciable residues at

harvest. Our studies suggest that pre-harvest intervals of 32 and 28 days would be appropriate

for the 4 stem crucifers tested and for rutabagas, respectively. A 32-day pre-harvest interval is

currently recommended for use of chlorpyrifos on stem crucifers in the U.S.

Recently, chlorpyrifos 4E was granted registration for use as a drench on the stem

crucifers cauliflower, broccoli and cabbage in Canada, and this insecticide is now being used

almost exclusively for maggot control in these crops in B.C. Complete registration of

chlorpyrifos 4E and 15G formulations, to be applied according to the optimal findings reported

herein on stem and root crucifers, is also being sought.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank M. J. Brown for assistance in residue determinations, H. Troelsen and

D.L. Bartel for field assistance, Dr. H. R. MacCarthy for his critical review of the manuscript.

We also thank the Lower Mainland Horticultural Improvement Association and the pesticide

manufacturers for their cooperation and support.

References

Felsot, A. S., Maddox, J. V., and B. Willis. 1981. Enhanced microbial degradation of carbofuran in soils with

histories of Furadan use. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 26: 781-788.

Felsot, A. S., Wilson, J. G., Kuhlman, D. E., and K. L. Steffey. 1982. Rapid dissipation of carbofuran as a limiting

factor in corn rootworn (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) control in fields with histories of continuous

carbofuran use. J. Econ. Entomol. 75: 1098-1103.

Finlayson, D. G., M. D. Noble and H. G. Fulton. 1967. Protection of stem crucifers from cyclodiene-resistant

maggots in sandy loam and peat soils. J. Econ. Entomol. 60(1): 132-137.

Finlayson, D. G. and J. R. Mackenzie. 1979. Combination sprays for control of foliar pests of Brussels sprouts.

Pesticide Research Report, Expert Committee for Pesticide Use in Agriculture.

Finlayson, D. G., J. R. Mackenzie and C. J. Campbell. 1980. Interactions of insecticides, a carabid predator, a

staphylinid parasite, and cabbage maggots in cauliflower. Environ. Entomol. 9: 789-794.

Forbes, A. R. 1962. Oviposition of the cabbage fly, Hylemya brassicae (Bouche) (Diptera: Anthomyiidae) in

coastal British Columbia. Proc. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia 59: 47-49.

Harris, C. R., H. J. Svec, W.W. Sans, A. Hikichi, S. C. Phatak, R. Frank and H. E. Braun. 1975. Efficacy,

phytotoxicity, and persistence of insecticides used as pre- and postplanting treatments for control of

cutworms attacking vegetables in Ontario. Proc. Entomol. Soc. Ont. 105: 65-75.

King, K. M., A. R. Forbes, D. G. Finlayson, H. G. Fulton and A. J. Howitt. 1955. Co-ordinated experiments on

chemical control of root maggots in rutabagas in British Columbia and Washington, 1953. J. Econ. Entomol.

48: 470-473.

King, K. M. and A. R. Forbes. 1954. Control of root maggots in rutabagas. J. Econ. Entomol. 47(4): 607-615.

King, K. M. and A. R. Forbes. 1958. Ten years’ field study of methods of evaluating root maggot damage and its

control by chemicals in early cabbage. Proc. 10th. Int. Cong. of Entomol (Ital). 3: 307-311.

Mackenzie, J. R. and R. S. Vernon. 1984. Efficacy of soil-applied chlorpyrifos granules against root maggots

attacking cole crops. Pesticide Research Report, Expert Committee for Pesticide Use in Agriculture p.84.

Simonet, D. E. 1981. Cabbage maggot control on direct seeded cabbage, 1980. Insecticide and Acaracide Tests.

Ent. Soc. of America Pub., K. Sorensen ed. College Park, Maryland. (6)62.

Sweeney, M. District Horticulturist. British Columbia Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Abbotsford, B.C.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 17

SAMPLING THE TWOSPOTTED SPIDER MITE TETRANYCHUS URTICAE

(ACARI: TETRANYCHIDAE), ON COMMERCIAL STRAWBERRIES

D. A. RAWORTH AND M. MERKENS

Agriculture Canada Research Station,

6660 N.W. Marine Drive, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1X2

A simple, quick and unbiased sampling method has been developed for Tetranychus

urticae Koch on strawberries (Raworth 1986). The method was based on the relationship

between the mean number of T. urticae/leaflet (mtl) and the proportion of leaflets without T.

urticae (p,). Data from small experimental field plots (7x7m) were used to develop the

method. This note describes work conducted to determine if the method could be applied to

large scale commercial fields.

Ten commercial strawberry fields, 0.2 — 5 ha in size, located between Ladner and

Agassiz, British Columbia were sampled at 1-2 week intervals from 15 May to 8 July 1986.

Two people collected a representative sample of mature, fully opened leaflets along non-

overlapping, parallel, diagonal transects. One leaflet was picked every third or fifth row

depending on field width. Headband magnifiers (1.5x magnification) were used to examine the

leaflets for the presence or absence of T. urticae. Once 200 leaflets were sampled, fp, was

calculated and Table 2 from Raworth (1986) was used to determine sample size such that the

precision of the estimate of mtl was maintained at 1 S.E. < 0.2(mtl) for most samples.

Accordingly, an additional 100 or 200 leaflets were picked and examined if f,, exceeded 0.5 or

0.65, respectively. The final estimate of f, was calculated and the time taken to complete the

sample was noted.

An estimate of mtl could be derived from p,, but only if a valid relationship between mtl

and p, still existed given the sampling method described above. To test this assumption, each

sample was stored at 4°C and then examined with a stereomicroscope at 10x magnification to

determine mtl. The relationship between mtl and fp, was compared with Raworth’s (1986)

relationship derived from small field plots (Fig. 1). In the latter study, mtl and p, were

determined by examination of individually bagged leaflets at 15x magnification. There was no

statistical difference (p > 0.05) between the slopes or intercepts of the two regressions. This

suggests that the sampling method described can be used to provide valid estimates of mtl. The

overall regression for Figure 1 may be used to generate a table of f,, with associated mt,

sample sizes and standard errors as described in Raworth (1986), given: regression residual

mean square (RMS)= 0.4167; number of estimates of mtl and p, (NEMP0)=104; mean of log.

(log, (B,)) (MLPO)= —0.3511; sum of squared deviations of log. (-log. (f,)) (SSDLPO)=

173.8; regression intercept Fig. 1 (IMPO)= 2.144; slope Fig. 1 (SMPO)=1.351; intercept of the

mean-variance relationship (Raworth 1986) (IMV)= 2.306; slope of the mean-variance

relationship (SMV)= 1.644; and an algorithm written in FORTRAN (Appendix 1).

18 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

e—p, LABORATORY 1984

4---p, FIELD 1986

log. (MEAN NUMBER OF MITES/LEAFLET)

loge (-loge(Po))

Fic. 1. Mean number of Tetranychus urticae/strawberry leaflet (mtl) as a function of the proportion of

leaflets without T. urticae (f,). Overall regression: Y = 2.144 + 1.351 X (r = 0.939, 102df).

The time taken to sample a field to determine p, increased with the number of leaflets

examined (Eq. 1). The density of T. urticae also affected the sample time significantly (p<0.05)

(Eq. 2). The higher the density the easier it was to see T. urticae, so that less time was used

examining each leaflet.

Y = -1.48 + 0.150 X (r=0.858, 33df) [1]

Y = 4.92 + 0.137 X — 0.127 X, (R=0.884, 32df) [2]

where Y = sample time in minutes

X = total number of leaflets sampled by 2 people

X, = mean number of T. urticae/leaflet

These data suggest that the density of T. urticae may be determined in commercial fields

by examining leaflets for the presence or absence of T. urticae. The sampling time of about

1h/200 leaflets/person was much less than that needed to collect the leaflets and examine them

with a stereomicroscope in the laboratory, a procedure that took up to 10h/200 leaflets/person

depending on the density of T. urticae.

We thank T. Danyk for technical assistance, the British Columbia Ministry of Agriculture

and Fisheries and the Lower Mainland Horticultural Improvement Association for funding the

research, Don Elliott of Applied Bio-Nomics for administering the funds and W. MacDiarmid

for graphics.

Reference

Raworth, D.A. 1986. Sampling statistics and a sampling scheme for the twospotted spider mite, Tetranychus

urticae (Acari: Tetranychidae), on strawberries. Can. Ent. 118: 807-814.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 19

Appendix 1

REAL PO,MEAN,PROP,PROP1,A,B,C,D

2RMS,NEMP0O,MLPO,SSDLPO,IMP0,SMP0O,IMV,SMV

INTEGER NUMS(10)

READ(5,*)RMS,NEMPO,MLPO,SSDLPO,IMPO,IMV,SMV

PO=0.05

DO 100 ITIME=1,19

MEAN=EXP(IMP0+SMP0*(LOG(—1.0*(LOG(P0)))))

A=RMS*((1.0/NEMP0)+((((LOG(—1.0*(LOG(P0))))

2—MLP0)**2)/SSDLP0))

B=((SMPO**2)*(1.0—PO))/(PO*((LOG(PO0))**2))

C=IMV*(MEAN**(SMV-2.0))

PROP2=0. 1

DO 50 I=1,10

PROP1=((LOG(PROP* MEAN+MEAN))/LOG(MEAN))-1.0

D=(PROP1*(LOG(MEAN)))**2

IF(D.GT.A)GOTO 10

NUMS(1)=999999

GOTO 20

10 NUMS()D=IFIX((B+C)/(D-A))

20 PROP=PROP+0. I

50 CONTINUE

WRITE(6,90)PO,MEAN,NUMS

90 FORMAT(’ '7,F5.2,F8.3,110,18,815)

PO=P0+0.5

100 CONTINUE

STOP

END

MECHANICAL PENCILS FOR MICRODISSECTION

S. A. HALFORD

Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia V5A 1S6

Abstract

Replacing the lead of a ‘fine line’ mechanical pencil with an entomological pin

produces a convenient, adjustable probe for microdissection work.

The range of fine lead (0.5 mm) mechanical pencils currently on the market offer an

excellent alternative to homemade handles for microdissection probes. Replacing the lead

with an entomological pin of appropriate size results in a comfortable, well-balanced tool with

a probe length which is readily adjustable to suit the user or application (Fig. 1).

The cheapest all-plastic leadholders may require up to a No. 5 pin for the chuck to grip

adequately, but a moderately-priced pencil with a metal ferrule can grip a No. 2 or even No. 1

pin firmly. Because the pin is retractible (unless bent) probes may be handled easily and safely

when not in use. It is not usually necessary to clip the head from the pin unless an extra long

reach is desired.

20 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

Fic. 1. Heads of three mechanical pencils with lead replaced by Nos. 1 (left) and 4 (middle and right)

entomological pins. Left hand probe adjusted for long working length.

These probes have been used effectively at Simon Fraser University both by professional

entomologists and undergraduate entomology students in laboratories requiring

microdissection.

Acknowledgements

I thank J. H. Borden for his helpful comments on both the probe and manuscript.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 21

PATTERNS OF LANDING OF SPRUCE BEETLES,

DENDROCTONUS RUFIPENNIS (COLEOPTERA: SCOLYTIDAE), ON BAITED

LETHAL TRAP TREES

L. SAFRANYIK AND D. A. LINTON

Canadian Forestry Service, Pacific Forestry Centre, 506 West Burnside Road, Victoria, B.C. V8Z 1M5

Abstract

The distribution of spruce beetles (Dendroctonus rufipennis [Kirby]) landing on lethal

trap trees was studied in each of 2 years. A wire basket and sticky boards on each tree

were used to trap beetles. Significantly more beetles landed on the north side of the

boles than on the other three aspects. The density of beetles that landed increased

sharply to about 1.6-2.4 m above ground and then decreased. A three- parameter

empirical model was used to describe the relationship. On average, about “4 of all the

beetles that landed did so below the maximum height of insecticide treatment (4 m). The

proportion of beetles from the lower 4 m of the bole that were trapped in the wire baskets

ranged from 11% to 57% and averaged 33%. High correlations between numbers of

beetles trapped in wire baskets at the paired trap trees each year, and between beetles

trapped in wire baskets and on corresponding sticky boards showed that catches in the

baskets were good indicators of the total numbers of beetles that landed on trap trees.

Relative heat accumulation in the stand in degree-hours above a base temperature

of 13.3°C during the day was a good indicator of the relative numbers of beetles that

landed on the sticky boards. On typical days, beetles began to land on trap trees in mid-

moming; landings peaked between 1500 hours and 1600 hours and ceased by 2000

hours.

Résumé

La répartition des dendroctones de |’épinette (Dendroctonus rufipennis [Kirby]) se

posant sur des arbres piéges létaux a été étudiée au cours de deux années. Sur chaque

arbre, les dendroctones ont été capturés au moyen d’un panier métallique et de piéges

collants. On a constaté qu’ ils se posaient en nombres significativement plus éléves sur le

cété nord des troncs que sur les trois autres cétés. La densité des dendroctones

augmentait de fagon marquée jusqu’a environ 1,6-2,4 m de hauteur puis diminuait. Un

modéle empirique comportant trois paramétres a permis de décrire la fonction. En

moyenne, les trois quarts environ de tous les dendroctones qui se sont posés |’ ont fait au-

dessous de la hauteur maximale d’application d’ insecticide (4 m). La proportion des

dendroctones qui ont été capturés dans les paniers métalliques 4 4 m ou moins de

hauteur variait de 11 4 57%, la moyenne étant de 33%. Les corrélations élevées

observées entre, d’une part, les nombres de dendroctones capturés dans les paniers

métalliques sur les paires d’arbres pi¢ges chaque année et, d’autre part, les dendroctones

capturés dans les paniers métalliques et sur les panneaux collants correspondants ont

montré que les captures dans les paniers étaient de bons indices des nombres totaux de

dendroctones se posant sur les arbres piéges.

La chaleur accumulée relative dans le peuplement au cours de la journée en degrés-

heures au-dessus d’une température de base de 13,3°C s’est révélée un bon indicateur

des nombres relatifs de dendroctones se posant sur les panneaux collants. Ordinaire-

ment, les arrivées des dendroctones sur les arbres piéges commengaient au milieu de la

matinée, atteignaient un maximum entre 15 et 16 h et cessaient vers 20 h.

Introduction

The spruce beetle (Dendroctonus rufipennis [Kirby]), an indigenous species throughout

the natural range of spruce (Picea sp.) in Canada and the United States, is a highly destructive

pest of mature spruce forests, killing millions of trees during outbreak periods (Dyer 1973).

Beetles of both sexes aggregate at host trees in response to pheromones released by females

following the start of egg gallery excavation. A synthetic pheromone, frontalin, was found to

be effective in inducing attacks on living spruce trees (Dyer and Chapman 1971) and has good

potential for monitoring and manipulating beetle populations. Under endemic conditions

pheromone-baited living trees are usually successfully attacked and treatment with insecticide

22 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

is necessary to save them and to kill the attacking beetles (Dyer 1973, 1975). For monitoring

beetle flight activity and population trends, these lethal trap trees are fitted with wire baskets at

the bases to catch the killed beetles (Dyer 1973). It is assumed that the numbers of beetles in

the baskets are closely related to the numbers that landed.

Spruce beetle broods must overwinter as adults prior to emergence in the late spring or

early summer when they fly and attack new host material (Schmid and Frye 1977). Flight and

attack generally begin when maximum shade temperatures have exceeded the approximate

flight threshold of 14.5°C (Werner and Holsten 1985) to 16°C (Dyer 1973) for several days.

The diurnal flight pattern and flight activity in relation to heat accumulation above the flight

threshold have not previously been investigated.

The objectives of this study were to describe (a) the distribution over time and height of

spruce beetles arriving at lethal trap trees, (b) the relationship between catches in screen

baskets and the numbers of beetles landing on the treated portion of the tree bole, and (c) the

diurnal and directional patterns and the intensity of landing in relation to temperature.

Materials and Methods

Field Procedures. The experiments were carried out in 1979 and 1980 in a stand of mature

spruce (P. glauca (Moench) Voss x P. engelmannii Parry hybrid population), in the Naver

Forest about 65 km southeast of Prince George, British Columbia. Two spruce trees were

prepared as lethal trap trees each year: on 22 May 1979 and on 6 May in 1980. The trap trees,

41.9 cm to 64.3 cm in dbh, were typical of mature trees in the area and located about 2 km

apart, 10-25 m inside the stand. Nearby clearcuts were harvested during the winter of 1974-75

and the slash was no longer suitable for breeding by spruce beetles. One of the trap trees (EA)

was used in both years; the other (EI in 1979) was successfully attacked by spruce beetles

above the treatment height later in the season and was replaced in 1980 with another tree (EH).

The trees were sprayed to run-off with 1% lindane in water to a height of 4 m. Tree

diameter was measured at the maximum spray height in order to estimate the treated bark area.

A basket made from aluminum fly screen was placed around the stem of each tree at a height of

30 cm to catch insects killed by the insecticide. The rim of the basket projected about 60 cm

above ground and 35 cm from the bole of the trees. A 5-ml polyethelene Boston Bottle (from

Bel-Art Products, Pequannock, N.J.) containing 1 ml of a mixture of '4 frontalin and % alpha-

pinene (Dyer and Safranyik 1977) was attached to each tree at 1.35 m. Hardboard panels (20

cm wide, factory-painted a light tan colour on one side, and uniformly coated with Stikem

Special (from Michel and Pelton Co., Emeryville, CA.) were nailed to the north side of each

trap tree. In 1979, the sticky boards extended from 0.6 m (rim of the basket) to the height of

insecticide treatment on tree EI and to 6.0 m on tree EA. In 1980, the sticky boards were

extended from 0.6 m to 6.0 m on both trap trees. The boards were marked at 30-cm intervals to

facilitate tallying of trapped beetles by height level. In 1980, 30 cm x 20 cm sticky boards,

treated as described earlier, were also affixed at the three other cardinal directions at 1.5 m to

study the distribution of spruce beetles around the tree bole.

All baskets were checked and cleared of dead beetles thrice weekly. Insects were

collected and preserved in vials containing 70% alcohol for later identification and counting.

Sticky boards were cleaned and spruce beetles were tallied by 30-cm height intervals each time

the baskets were cleared. In addition, on days when maximum temperatures were expected to

exceed the flight threshold, spruce beetles landing on the sticky boards were tallied hourly

throughout the daily flight period. A few Douglas-fir beetles (D. pseudotsugae Hopk.) may

have been included in the tallies as cross attraction is possible (Dyer and Lawko 1978), but the

absence of any Douglas-fir trees within a kilometre should have made the numbers inconse-

quential. In 1979, hourly records were made on 19 days between 3 June and 6 July and in 1980

on 15 days between 30 May and 15 July.

Temperature was measured with two thermographs inside standard Stevenson screens.

One was set up in a clearcut area, about 50 m from a stand edge and 1 km distant from the

farthest trap tree (EA). The second was located 30 m inside the stand, 80 m from the other

screen.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 23

Analysis. The variation in the numbers of spruce beetles trapped at 1.5 m in the 4 cardinal

directions in the two trap trees was studied by analysis of variance in a randomized block split-

plot design with the daily catches being the replicates. Mean catches per cardinal direction

were compared by Duncan’s Multiple Range Test. The data were converted to +1 prior

to analysis.

Based on visual inspection of graphs showing numbers of trapped spruce beetles (Y) on

the mid-points of height intervals (X = 0.75 m, 1.05 m etc.) on the bole, the following

empirical model was selected to describe the relationship:

Y = CXBexp[-AX] (1)

Where Y is the total number of spruce beetles trapped per 30 cm x 20 cm area; X is

the height in m of mid-points of height intervals on the bole; A,B and C are regression

constants to be estimated. Eq. 1 was fitted by the method of least squares in the

following linearized form:

InY = C’ + B’ 1nX - A’X (2)

Maximum height of landing by spruce beetles was assumed to be at the greater of the two

points (X,,,x) corresponding to an estimated 0.1 trapped beetles per 30 cm x 20 cm area from

Eq. 1. Calculation of X,,,, was required to predict total numbers of landings, and the

proportion of landings below the maximum height of treatment. The total numbers of beetles

landing on a trap tree (T,,,,) during the trapping period was estimated in two ways: (Method 1)

by assuming that the density of beetles trapped at a given height level on the north side is the

same as that on the other three aspects; and (Method 2) by assuming that the densities of

beetles trapped per aspect at 1.5 m relative to the density trapped at the same height on the

north aspect held for all heights up to X,,,,,. In 1979, estimates were made using method 1; the

1980 estimates were made using both methods. Estimates of T,,, were calculated by

multiplying the density of trapped beetles on the north aspect in each 30-cm height interval

i(Yi, Eq. 1, first method) or the weighted density of trapped beetles (Ywi, second method) by

the estimated bark area corresponding to that height interval and summing these products over

all height intervals to X,,,,. Ywi is computed as in Eq. 3.

Ywi = Yi(Y,,/Yn) (3)

where Y ail 1s the mean density of trapped beetles on the four aspects at 1.5 m, Yn is the density

of trapped beetles on the north aspect at 1.5 m, and Yi and Ywi are as defined earlier.

The total numbers of spruce beetles that landed below the maximum height of insecticide

treatment (Tp) was computed in a similar manner to that described for T,,,,. The proportion of

the beetles that landed below the maximum height of insecticide treatment (Ps) was estimated

by the ratio Tp/T,,,, and the proportion of beetles trapped in the wire screen basket (Pb) was

estimated as the ratio of the total catch in the basket (Nb) to Tp. The relationship between the

numbers of beetles trapped in the basket and the numbers of beetles trapped on the sticky

boards below the maximum height of insecticide treatment was analyzed by correlation

analysis.

In selecting the flight threshold temperatures, based on temperature records in the

clearcut area and inside the stand, we compared hourly temperature records with correspond-

ing beetle activity as reflected by the beetles trapped on the sticky boards. The highest

temperatures at which no beetles were trapped in the clearcut (tc) and in the stand (ts) on days

following the first recorded flight were designated as the flight thresholds in open areas and in

the stand, respectively. The relationships between the numbers of beetles trapped on sticky

boards (Ns) and (1) heat accumulation in degree hours (Dh) above the flight threshold

temperature, and (2) successive trapping periods during the day, were examined using

regression analysis. Prior to analysis, both Dh and Ns were expressed as proportions of the

corresponding daily totals in order to compensate for large daily variation in numbers of

trapped beetles due to temperature differences among the overwintering sites.

24 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

Results

Analysis of variance indicated significant differences among blocks (days) (p < 0.01) and

aspects (p < 0.01) in the mean numbers of spruce beetles trapped/day on 20 cm x 30 cm sticky

boards at 1.5 m on the bole (Table 1). The catch ranged between 0 and 140.0 and averaged 78.9

beetles. The catch on the north aspect was significantly larger (p < 0.01) than those on the other

aspects and there were no differences among the east, south and west aspects (Table 2). There

were no significant differences (p > 0.05) in the daily catches of beetles between trees or in the

interaction between trees and aspects.

The numbers of spruce beetles trapped on the north sticky boards increased from a height

of 0.75 m to near 2.0 m and then declined (Table 4). However, the height at which the largest

numbers of beetles were trapped varied among trees and ranged between 1.35 m and 2.25 m.

The empirical model (Eq. 1) gave excellent fit to the relationship between numbers of spruce

beetles trapped per 20 cm x 30 cm area of sticky board and the corresponding mid-point of 30-

cm height intervals on the bole (Table 4, Fig. 1). For tree EA, parameters A and B (parameters

that control the shape of the function) were nearly the same in both years. The height level of

estimated maximum catches (Y,,,,, lable 3) for both trees in 1979 agreed closely with the data

(Table 4), but in 1980 Y__., for both trees was about one height class greater than in the field.

The estimated maximum height on the bole for landing by spruce beetles ranged between 8.0

and 13.7 m; for tree EA, the maximum was about the same each year.

Table 1. Analysis of variance of the numbers of spruce beetles trapped per day on 30 cm x 20 cm sticky

boards attached to the four aspects at 1.5 m of two spruce trees baited with pheromone and treated

with insecticide to 4 m on the bole in 1980. Data were transformed to vx+1 prior to analysis.

Source of variation d.f. Sum Squares Mean Squares F

Blocks (days) 9 169.032 18.781 8.691*x

Trees (T) 1 6.527 6.527 a020

Error I 9 19.449 2.161

Whole units 19 195.008

Aspects (A) 3 29.941 9.980 5.812**

AxT 3 3.495 1.165 chor

Error II 54 92.748 Loy,

Sub units 60 126.184

Total 79 321.190

xx Significant at the 99% probability level; ns = not significant (p > 0.05)

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 25

Table 2. Mean numbers per day and tree (x), sample size (n), and standard deviation (sd) of spruce beetles

trapped in 10 days on 30 cm x 20 cm sticky boards attached to the four aspects of two spruce trees

at 1.5 m on the bole in 1980.

Aspect n x2/ sd

North | 20 18.55" 34.18

East 20 4.20 8.41

South 20 8 25° 17.79

West 20 8.55 17.33

Grand mean 80 9.86 17.18

The estimated number of spruce beetles that landed on the trap trees in the two years,

calculated using method 1, which assumes that there was no difference by aspect in the relative

frequency of landing, ranged from 7,628 to 32,356 (column 9, Table 3). For tree EA in 1979,

the estimated number of landed beetles was more than twice that in 1980. Using method 2,

which assumes that beetles landed on the four aspects with the relative frequencies observed at

1.5 m, in 1980 the estimated total landings were reduced by as much as 65% (column 10, Table

3) compared to the estimates made using method 1.

Assuming that equation | is a reliable descriptor of the density gradient of landing beetles

up the bole, and that beetles land with equal frequency on all aspects, an estimated average of

77% (range 73% - 86%) landed below the maximum height of insecticide treatment (4 m).

Based on the same assumption, an estimated average of 33% (range 11% - 55%) of the beetles

that landed below the maximum height of insecticide treatment (4 m) were caught in the screen

baskets (column 2 as a percentage of column 3, Table 5). On the other hand, based on the

assumption of unequal frequencies of landings on the four aspects, the estimated number of

beetles that landed below 4 m on the bole in 1980 (column 4, Table 5) was less (by 37%) than

the number of beetles caught in the screen basket for tree EA and for tree EH the estimate was

only 14% higher than the numbers caught in the screen basket.

Catches of spruce beetles in screen baskets and on the sticky boards at the two trap trees

were significantly correlated (p < 0.01) in both years with the exception of tree EH in 1980

(Table 6). For this tree, the correlation between trapped beetles in the screen basket and on the

sticky board was not significant (p > 0.05).

The highest temperatures at which no spruce beetles landed on the sticky boards in the

two seasons were 14.4°C in the slash and 13.3°C in the stand. The regressions of relative

numbers of beetles trapped on sticky boards during 1 to 2 hr collecting periods (Y) on the

relative numbers of heat units for the collecting period (X) are given by Eq. 4 (Fig. 2) for stand

temperatures and Eq. 5 for slash temperatures.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

"W G°‘T 3@ peAtesqo asoyy se owes ay} aJeMmM SsqYyZTeYy [Te 3e sqoedse anoj ayy uo sS8uTpUeT

jO satTouenbadj eATJeTe1 ay} 2eYQ BuUTWNSse sdeIq dezq uo paepueT 4eYA Set eeq sonads jo saequnu pajeuUtqjsq _

‘QZoedse yjZ10u 9ey} UO se sjdedse [Te uo s8uTpuUeT jo

AduenbetjZ SATAeTII owes ey} BZuTWNsse ‘soo0l1q det} 9y} UO papueT yey SaeTjeeq sonads jo sasequinu poe zeutysg| iG

(tT °‘baq) potaed Zutdderzy ay} Butanp edejans paeoqg AyoTYS Wd

OZ X Wo O¢ aed peddet}y seTjeeq T°O peqeUtyse ue 02 BuUTpUodsat109 aToq UO (UW) SzZYZTey OMZ Jo 194e2eI3 aU] je

*pedindso0 yozed WNUTXeU paejzeUtysSs ay} YOTYyM ye (W) 4YSTEeY 9Yuy ‘T *by wWorZ (VW/d)- = xeuz az

: ‘b —jdxe = ae

(T *ba) [x¥-]dxe xo = A

Lev 829 L 8°8 88°T 198°0 9LC EEE CLE 'E 88/1°T- 8T O86T-Hd

COL? Cee eT CEL 6£°C 106°0 669° LT? GSS°Z 990°T- 8T O86T-Va

a 9SE cE 0'8 GL°T 866°0 O0E* Lecce 000° 062° c- eT 6161T-Ia

= LVE CE 7° eT 82°? 7ZL°0 008° EL T8S°2 cet’ t- 8T 6261T-VWa

xeul

( xX)

5° “3Sa joe °3Sq yer Teret yoo zu ) d V eZ2Ts ABSR

TiTPay SO2Te9q pepueT “ON ‘qu °xeW _ Soe uot zenbyA oTdues pue dal],

‘(X) 9J0Oq 901) 9y) UO IYsIOY pue (X) spreog Ayons

Wd QZ X WO O¢ UO pedden safiooq sonids Jo siaquinu [e10} ay) 01 | ‘ba BuNIy JOJ sonsueIS “¢ BIQeL

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 2

Table 4. The vertical distribution of trapped spruce beetles on 20-cm-wide sticky boards attached to

the north aspects of two spruce trees baited with pheromone and treated with insecticide in 1979

(trees EA and EI) and 1980 (trees EA and EH). Figures represent total catches over 19 days in 1979

and 15 days in 1980.

Midpoint

of Height Tree and Year

interval (m) EA-1979 EI-1979 EA-1980 EH-1980

—--------- spruce beetles trapped ---.-----~---

0.75 81 203 41 27

1.05 143 332 96 75

1335 235 362 101 120

1.65 365 312 179 97

1.95 356 387 186 97

2.20 461 277 154 19

2559 437 236 142 85

2,809 199 168 151 54

3.15 249 129 108 33

3.45 252 83 105 35

3.75 166 18 114 25

4,05 88 41 125 22

4.35 79 -- 99 24

4.65 106 — 74 26

4.95 132 - 70 19

D425 106 - 44 10

5.55 72 - 45 6

5.85 87 -- 42 iL

Totals 3614 2608 1876 835

28 J. ENTOMOL Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

Table 5. Total numbers of spruce beetles caught in screen baskets (Nb), and the estimated numbers of

spruce beetles that landed (Tp) on the boles of trap trees between the rim of the basket and the

maximum height of insecticide treatment (4 m).

Tree Tot. no. beetles

and year Baskets Landed(1)~" Landed(2)2

(Nb) (Tp) (Tp)

EA-1979 4 511 2) 119 -

E1-1979 2 857 24 694 -

EA-1980 5 359 9 788 3 379

EH-1980 - 2 832 6 562 3 276

Totals 15 559 66 433 6 655

— Estimates based on the same relative frequency of beetles landing

on all aspects of the bole as on the north side.

— Estimates based on the same relative frequencies of beetles landing

at the various aspects on the bole at a given height as those observed at

1. mM.

NO. BEETLES TRAPPED

12 24 36 48 60 7.2 84 96 10.8 12.0

BOLE HEIGHT (m)

Fic. 1. Relationship between total numbers of spruce beetles caught on 20 cm x 30 cm sticky board

areas and height on the bole for trap tree EA in 1980. Solid line is the graph for a three-parameter

model (Table 3) fitted to the data (dots).

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. CoLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 29

Table 6. Linear correlations (r) between corresponding catches of spruce beetles in screen baskets at

two baited and insecticide-treated spruce trees in 2 years and between numbers of beetles caught in

screen baskets and on 20-cm-wide and 6.0-m-high sticky boards attached to the north sides of the

bole!/

Comparisons re n

1979:

Tree EA & EI baskets 0.64*x 18

EA basket & EA board 0.75* 9

El basket & EI board 0.84*x 9

EA board & EI board 0.89*x 18

1980

Tree EA & EH baskets 0.88*x 21

EA basket and EA board 0.98*x 10

EH basket & EH board 0.11% 10

EA board & EH board 0.56*x 21

a/ Beetles trapped on sticky boards below maximum insecticide treatment

height (4 m) were used in calculating r-values.

2! xx = Significant at p < 0.01, * = significant at p < 0.05, ns = not

Significant.

Y = -0.0036 + 1.037X (4)

n = 142, r2 = 0.689, Sy.x = 0.039

Y = 0.0484 + 0.194% (5)

n = 142, r2 = 0.125, Sy.x' = 0.065

where Y = [No. beetles trapped/tree/collecting period]/[Tot. no. beetles trapped/day]

X = [No. degree hours above threshold temp./collecting period]/[Cumulative degree hours/

day].

30 J. ENtomot Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

= - 0.004 + 1.036 X

S n=143,r2=0.689; Sy:x =0.039

Oo 0.45

a ® @ e@

F 0.30

WwW ® ry

a @ ee.e-

i e e eo0o- @

i 0.15 eee © ee

ao e ee eo ee ry e

: e@e°8 ® re ee

o) eeceee-—@8 © © e

= eqeececeee © © Oe ce e

=a eosecece © — 0 e 1 —_1_1

uw 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20

REL. DEGREE HOURS (Y)

Fic. 2. Relationship between the relative numbers of spruce beetles trapped during 1-2 hr trapping

periods (Y) and the relative numbers of degree-hours above a base temperature in the stand of 13.3°C

(X).

The intercept of Eq. 4 was not significantly different from 0 (p > 0.05) and the intercept of

Eq. 5 was highly significant (p < 0.01). Eq. 4 was forced through the origin and had the

following form (Eq. 6):

Y = 1.005X (6)

On three typical days, spruce beetle landing on the sticky boards started at mid-morning,

peaked between 1500 and 1600 hours and ceased about 2000 hours (Fig. 3).

Discussion

The large variation in the daily catches on sticky boards and in screen baskets 1s directly

related to the effects of temperature on emergence and flight activity. Emergence from

hibernating sites and flight began after shade temperatures exceeded the approximate flight

threshold of 16°C (Dyer 1973) for several days. The spruce beetles trapped in the experimental

area originated mainly from windfelled trees inside the stand and along the margins. Hence,

variation in the temperature conditions of the microsites undoubtedly affected the onset,

magnitude and duration of daily beetle emergence and flight activity.

rs)

i FLIGHT THRESHOLD TEMP.

Ser ers

= 400

Lee)

a) CUMULATIVE

8 TOTAL

> 200

ro)

Te 2 NS ta NS 6 Nit 8 IhS

TIME OF DAY (hrs)

Fic. 3. Average hourly (bars) and cumulative numbers of spruce beetles trapped on sticky boards on

June 04, 12, and 14, 1980 at trap tree EA. Temperature was average for the 3 days; flight threshold

shown = 13.3°C.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 Si

Flying beetles generally follow attractive odours upwind to the source (Borden 1982). As

the wind movement during the daily flight periods was predominantly from the south and

southwest, the significantly greater numbers of beetles trapped on the north aspect at the 1.5 m

level in comparison with the other aspects is partly explained by the search and attack

behaviour of the beetles. The preference for landing on (Shepherd 1960) and attacking the

shady sides of the host material (Dyer and Taylor 1971; Schmid 1977) could also have

increased the catches on the north aspect of the bole. For these reasons, estimates of total

numbers of beetles that landed on a trap tree, and on the boles below the spray height, using

method 1, based on equal relative frequencies of landings on the four aspects (column 9, Table

3; column 3, Table 5) are likely to be maximum estimates. Conversely, corresponding

estimates, using method 2, based on the observed frequencies of landings on the four aspects at

1.5 m (Column 10, Table 3; Column 4, Table 5) are low. This statement is supported by the

observation that at Tree EA in 1980 14% more beetles were caught in the wire baskets (5359)

(Table 5) than the estimated total for all landed beetles (4702) (Table 3). The beetles could

crawl slowly in the stickem, and if some escaped from the small boards, lower predicted total

numbers would result. Given the frequency of examination, and the fact that no stickem-

coated beetles were found on the boles or in the baskets, it is unlikely that any escaped.

Vertical distributions of landings similar to those observed here (Table 4) have been

reported for other bark beetles. Payne and Richerson (1977) found that the vertical distribution

of landing D. frontalis Zimmermann generally increased to 3-5 m and then decreased with

increased trap height on unbaited loblolly pines (Pinus taeda). Avis (1971) found that the

density of D. ponderosae landing on sticky boards or those caught in barrier traps on unbaited

lodgepole pines (P. contorta) increased to a maximum between 2 and 4 m and then decreased

with increasing trap height. Baiting of the host tree can affect the vertical distribution of

landing beetles (Coster et al. 1977; Payne and Richerson 1979), but we had no indication that

this occurred. At 1500 hours on 28 June, 1979, the pheromone bait was removed from tree EA.

During the rest of the same afternoon, a total of 394 spruce beetles were trapped on the sticky

board; the highest density (52) were taken at 2.25 m, the same height level where the

maximum numbers were trapped when the bait was attached to the tree. The possibility that a

few female beetles had penetrated the bark and produced pheromones was considered but no

attacks were found.

The similarity of estimated parameters A and B of Eq. | for tree EA and the similarity of

estimated attack height in both years, despite a large difference in the numbers of trapped

beetles (Table 4), indicate that the vertical density gradient of landing by spruce beetles may be

largely controlled by tree parameters, or by the character of the immediately surrounding

stand, or by both. Beetles searching for suitable host materials tend to fly in the clear bole zone

where there is minimum interference from tree crowns and ground vegetation. The estimated

maxima for height of landing were not related to tree diameter and agreed closely with

reported maxima for height of attack by the spruce beetle (Frye et al. 1977; Schmid and Frye

1977). However, as attack density, in general, is inversely related to height on the bole (Schmid

and Frye 1977), and as attack density rarely exceeds 8 per 20 cm x 30 cm area, large numbers

of beetles must leave the trees for lack of suitable attack sites. This is especially true of the bole

zone where the highest numbers of beetles landed.

Our results show that on average about *4 of the beetles that landed on a trap tree treated

with insecticide up to 4 m, landed on the treated bole surface. Of these about '4 were caught in

the screen basket (15 559/66 443, Table 5). This is a conservative estimate owing to the

method of estimating the total numbers of landed beetles discussed earlier. A main reason for

this low proportion of beetles being caught in the wire baskets is that many of the beetles that

were affected by the insecticide fell outside the baskets (Dyer et al. 1975). There was also

evidence that the proportion of the total beetles that were caught in the wire basket was

inversely related to the total beetles that landed on the bole (Table 5, C2+C3). This indicates

that, perhaps due to increased interference among the beetles or failure to find attack sites, or

both, proportionately more beetles abandoned trees before they were incapacitated by the

pesticide on trees with a high incidence of landings. Although not considered in our

32 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. CoLuMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

experiment, some beetles that fell from bark surfaces located above maximum treatment

height could also have landed in the wire baskets. However, we think that such events were

rare.

Spruce beetle emergence during the day was directly related to accumulated heat (degree-

hours) inside the stand above a threshold temperature of 13.3°C (Fig. 2) and did not vary

significantly within and between years. Beetle emergence during the day was poorly related to

heat accumulation in the slash above a slash temperature threshold of 14.4°C (Eq. 5). Dyer

(1973) reported a flight and attack threshold shade temperature of 15.6°C. We found that some

beetles landed on the sticky boards at stand temperatures as low as 13.9°C and a slash

temperature of 15.0°C. In the experimental area the only major source of beetles was from

scattered windfall inside the stand. There was a difference in the diurnal pattern of temperature

changes between the stand and slash. In the morning (0900 hours to 1200 hours), temperatures

in the slash were up to 4°C higher than in the stand; by late afternoon the temperatures in the

two locations were about the same but by 1900 to 2000 hours temperature in the stand was

higher than in the slash. These are the main reasons why daily heat accumulation above the

threshold temperature in the stand was more strongly related to the numbers of beetles trapped

during the day than heat accumulation in the slash. During a typical day in the experimental

area, landing by beetles began between 0900 hours and 1000 hours, reached its peak between

1500 hours and 1600 hours and ended by about 1900 hours (Fig. 3).

Acknowledgements

We thank Drs. H. Barclay, H.A. Moeck and T.L. Shore for helpful technical reviews of the

manuscript, Mr. S. Glover for editorial comments, Mr. J. Wiens for preparing the figures and

Mr. E. Chatelle for photographic services.

References

Avis, R.W. 1971. Flight and attack patterns of the mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopk.

(Coleoptera: Scolytidae). Grad. Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Forestry, University of British Columbia,

Vancouver, Canada, March 3, 1971. 58 pp.

Borden, J.H. 1982. Aggregation Pheromones. pp. 74-139. Jn Bark Beetles in North American Conifers. J.B.

Mitton and K.B. Sturgeon (Eds.) Univ. of Texas. 527 p. Austin, Tx.

Coster, J.E., T.L. Payne, E.R. Hart and L.J. Edson. 1977. Aggregation of the southern pine beetle in response to

attractive host trees. Environ. Entomol. 6: 725-731.

Dyer, E.D.A. 1973. Spruce beetle aggregated by the synthetic pheromone frontalin. Can. J. For. Res. 3: 486-493.

Dyer, E.D.A. 1975. Frontalin attractant in stands infested by the spruce beetle, Dendroctonus rufipennis

(Coleoptera: Scolytidae). Can. Entomol. 107: 979-988.

Dyer, E.D.A. and J.A. Chapman. 1971. Attack by the spruce beetle induced by frontalin on billets with burrowing

females. Can. Dep. Fish. For. Bi-mon. Res. Notes 27: 10-11.

Dyer, E.D.A. and C.M. Lawko 1978. Effect of seudenol on spruce beetle and Douglas-fir beetle aggregation. Can.

For. Serv. Bi-Monthly Res. Notes 34(5), 30-31.

Dyer, E.D.A. and L. Safranyik. 1977. Assessment of the impact of pheromone- baited spruce trees on a spruce

beetle population (Coleoptera: Scolytidae). Can. Entomol. 109: 77-80.

Dyer, E.D.A. and D.W. Taylor. 1971. Spruce beetle brood production in logging slash and wind-thrown trees in

British Columbia. Can. For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cent. Inf. Rep. BC-X-62.

Frye, R.H., J.M. Schmid, C.K. Lister and P.E. Buffam. 1977. Post-attack injection of Silvisar 510 (cacodylic acid)

in beetle infested spruce trees. Can. Entomol. 109: 1221-1225.

Payne, T.L. and J.V. Richerson. 1979. Management implications of inhibitors for Dendroctonus frontalis

(Coleoptera: Scolytidae). Bulletin de la Sociaetae Entomologique Suisse. 52: 323-331.

Schmid, J.M. 1977. Guidelines for minimizing spruce beetle populations in logging residuals. USDA For. Serv.,

Rocky Mtn. For. Range Expt. Stn., Ft. Collins, CO, Res. Pap. RM-185. 8 pp.

Schmid, J.M. and R.H. Frye. 1977. Spruce beetle in the Rockies. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mtn For. Range

Expt. Stn., Fort Collins, CO, Gen. Tech. Rept. RM-49. 37 pp.

Shepherd, R.F. 1960. Distribution of the Black Hills Beetle over the host tree and factors controlling the attraction

and behaviour of the adult. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of Minnesota, St. Paul, 81 pp.

Werner, R.A. and E. Holsten. 1985. Effects of phloem temperature on development of spruce beetles in Alaska. pp.

155-163. In L. Safranyik (Ed.), Proceedings, IUFRO Conference on the Role of the Host in the Population

Dynamics of Forest Insects, Sept. 4-7, 1983, Banff, Canada. 240 pp.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 33

EFFECT OF DIATOMACEOUS EARTH, MALATHION, DIMETHOATE AND

PERMETHRIN ON LEPTOGLOSSUS OCCIDENTALIS (HEMIPTERA:

COREIDAE): A PEST OF CONIFER SEED!

D. SUMMERS

Silviculture Branch, British Columbia Ministry of Forests & Lands

1450 Government Street, Victoria, B.C. Canada V8W 3E7

D.S. RUTH

Pacific Forestry Centre, Canadian Forestry Service

506 W. Burnside Road, Victoria, B.C. Canada V8Z 1M5

Abstract

Leptoglossus occidentalis Heidemann (Hemiptera:Coreidae) were exposed to

diatomaceous earth, and sprays of dimethoate (0.1 and 1.0% a.i.) and permethrin (0.1%

and 0.01% a.i.) in both laboratory and field tests and to malathion (0.1% a.i.) in a

laboratory test. In field tests, permethrin and dimethoate caused significant (P < .05)

mortality for two weeks after the sprays were applied and permethrin continued to be

effective for a third week. Diatomaceous earth was not effective in field tests or in one of

two laboratory tests. Malathion, dimethoate and permethrin caused significant mortality

in both laboratory tests.

Seed bugs (Leptoglossus spp.; Hemiptera:Coreidae) severely reduce conifer seed crops

by feeding on young conelets or mature seeds (Bradley et al. 1981; DeBarr 1979; Hedlin et al.

1980; Koerber 1963; Ruth 1980). In British Columbia (B.C.), the western conifer seed bug

(Leptoglossus occidentalis Heidemann) has caused seed losses of between 36% and 41% on

Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) (Hedlin et al. 1980; Ruth 1980). While

seed bug populations and damage have not been monitored routinely in Douglas-fir seed

orchards, the bugs are commonly noticed by seed orchard staff around cone harvest. The high

value of seed orchard seed and the potential seed losses to L. occidentalis make the presence of

these insects in orchards of concern.

While numerous insecticides have been tested against seed bugs in the southern United

States (DeBarr 1978; DeBarr and Nord 1978; Nord et al 1984; Nord et al 1985), none has been

tested against L. occidentalis in B.C. (Miller 1980). This paper reports the results of some

initial insecticide screening trials against this insect.

Methods and Materials

A large colony of L. occidentalis at the Pacific Forestry Centre in Victoria, B.C. was

reared from several years of collections around Victoria and Lake Cowichan, B.C. Adult and

fifth-instar seed bugs were selected from this colony for these tests in August and September,

1986. To facilitate handling, the insects were placed in a O°C cold room for between 30 min

and 3 h prior to distribution to the various treatments.

Initial screening tested diatomaceous earth (D.E.) (Diacide Natural Insect Powder®,

International Diatoms Ltd., Waterdown, Ont., a.i. [active ingredient(s)] = diatomaceous earth,

pyrethrin 0.1%, piperonyl butoxide 1.25%) at full strength; malathion (Malathion 50 EC®,

Chipman Inc., Stoney Creek, Ont.) at 0.1% a.i.; dimethoate (Lagon 2E®, Laters Chemicals,

Richmond, B.C.) at 1.0% and 0.1% a.i.; and permethrin (Ambush 50 EC®, Chipman Inc.,

Stoney Creek, Ont.) at 0.1% and 0.01% a.i. All liquids were applied with a 500 ml hand

sprayer. D.E. was applied from its original container: a plastic squeeze duster.

! Trade names and commercial enterprises or products are mentioned solely for information. No endorsement by

the B.C. Ministry of Forests and Lands or the Canadian Forestry Service is implied, nor does it imply that the

uses discussed have been registered. All use of pesticides must be registered by appropriate federal and

provincial agencies before they can be recommended.

34 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

Small, potted Douglas-fir trees were either sprayed to run-off or dusted to the point where

a light film was just visible on the foliage. After the sprays had dried, small twigs with foliage

were clipped off and the clipped end of each twig was put in a small vial containing moist

tissue. The vials were then placed in 1 L plastic containers. Packages of Douglas-fir seed,

covered with gauze, were placed within the foliage to provide food for the insects during the

trial and screened lids were placed on the containers after the insects were introduced. Five

containers with about 20 insects each made up a treatment group for each insecticide. A final

treatment (D.E. direct) consisted of dusting the insects, canister and foliage through the

screened lid. Insects on untreated foliage served as checks.

Following the initial test, both rates of permethrin and dimethoate were tested again. The

procedure was the same as above except that foliage was clipped from open grown Douglas-fir

in the Pacific Forestry Centre arboretum and then sprayed. Concurrently, these insecticides

were applied to lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Doug].) branches in the arboretum. One branch

on each of five trees was sprayed with each mixture. L. occidentalis (about 20/branch) were

caged on the branches the next day in nylon mesh bags. One unsprayed branch on each tree

served as checks. Insects used in the arboretum were replaced at weekly intervals for two more

weeks to test for residual activity of permethrin and the 1.0% rate of dimethoate. All mesh bags

were thoroughly washed between uses.

D.E. was tested further after obtaining a new package. Containers and insects were

prepared as before. D.E. was applied by dusting over open containers and allowing the

subsequent dust cloud to settle as a light film over the contents. This treatment was applied

over either insects and foliage (D.E. direct) or over foliage, with the insects being added

afterward (D.E. residual).

In the arboretum, a mechanical duster was used to dust two lodgepole pine trees and one

Douglas-fir tree with D.E. On each tree, five branches showing a light film of the insecticide

were selected and about 20 L. occidentalis were caged on in mesh bags. Five branches on one

untreated pine served as a check.

Depending on the test, counts of dead and moribund insects were made at two or more of

the following intervals: 24 h, 48 h, 96 h, 1 week, 2 weeks. Except for D.E., tests were

terminated after one week or when all of the treated insects were dead. On D.E. treated

branches, L. occidentalis remained caged for a second week. At the end of each test, tallies

were made of live and dead L. occidentalis in each replicate and counts were pooled by

treatment. Results for each assessment period were analysed by chi-square tests and where the

overall tests were significant, pairwise comparisons were made using the overall degrees of

freedom to determine significance (Fleiss 1981). L. occidentalis is a very active insect and

when escapees made the counts inconsistent, that replicate(s) was not used in the analysis.

Results and Discussion

Cooling the seed bugs at 0°C to ease handling did not appear to harm them. Mortality was

low in all of the checks. This was not unexpected in that late instar and adult L. occidentalis

have been overwintered in the rearing colony outdoors where the temperature occasionally

dips below O°C.

In the initial screening, all sprays caused significant mortality (P < .05) within 24 h after

application (Table 1). Malathion was not so effective as either permethrin or dimethoate in

providing an initial knockdown, however after one week there was no difference between the

sprayed insecticide treatments. Permethrin at 0.01%, had a high initial knockdown within 24 h

but some L. occidentalis had recovered by 48 h. This situation was reversed again by one week

after treatment. This did not occur in the second test (Table 1) where both permethrin and

dimethoate again caused significant mortality (P < .05).

D.E. did not cause significant mortality in the initial tests (Table 1) but did in the second

(Table 2). After discussions with the local distributor, it was concluded that the product used

initially may have absorbed too much moisture and had thus become ineffective. The results

with the fresh product used in the second test seem to bear this out. It caused 85.7% to 97.1%

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 35

Table 1: Percent mortality* of Leptoglossus occidentalis exposed to insecticide treated foliage in containers.

Mortality in First test Mortality in Second test

Treatment n** 24h 48 h 1 week n 24 h 48 h 1 week

check 100 1.0¢ 1.0c 2.0b 100 2.0C 220be 60

D.E. residual 100 Oc Oc 1.0b = = eo =

D.E. direct 100 6.0c 6.0c 13.0b - - - -

malathion 0.1% 61 68.3b 73.7b 860.8a a = =: =

permethrin .012% 80 95.0a 82.4b 93.8a se) 85.9b O1.9a - 89594

permethrin .10% 100 100 a 100 a 100 a 100 100a 100a 100a

dimethoate 0.1% 103 99.1la 100 a 100 a 100 90a 100a 100a

dimethoate 1.0% 100 100a 100 a 100 a 100 95ab 100a 100a

* Based on counts of live and dead insects, percentages followed by the same letter in a column are

not significantly different, P < .05; chi-square test.

** N = number of insects exposed.

mortality within 24 h. Curiously, D.E. application to the insects directly was less effective than

relying on residual activity alone (Table 2). Reasons for this are unclear but it may be because

the cooled immobile insects placed in the “D.E. residual” containers had to move through the

insecticide on the container floor as they ‘“‘woke up’’, as well as through the insecticide on the

foliage where they tended to congregate. The L. occidentalis in the “‘D.E. direct’’ treatment

were mobile and many were on the foliage already. These may have been protected from initial

exposure and did not make so much contact as those having to move around on the container

floor. Either way, D.E. caused an acceptable level of control in the second laboratory test.

D.E. was not effective outside in the arboretum (Table 3). Mortality in all cases remained

at less than 7.5%. Reasons for this failure are not known but at least two factors may have been

involved. Diatomaceous earth acts as a desiccant (Ross 1981) so the greater humidity outside

Table 2: Percent mortality* of Leptoglossus occidentalis exposed to D.E. in containers.

Treatment n 24 h 48 h 1 week & 2 weeks

check 100 Oa Oa 1.0a

Dib. direct 98 85.7b 86.7b 88.7b

D.E. residual 104 97.1le 95. 2c O522¢

* Based on counts of live and dead insects, percentages followed by the same letter in a column are

not significantly different, P < .05; chi-square test.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

‘posodxo sjoosut Jo Joquinu = N xx

‘Jso} arenbs-1yo ‘cg’ > qd ‘Worayjip APUPoTyTUsIs

JOU OJ UUINIOS & UT Joya] oes ay) Aq PAMOT[OJ soseJUdIod ‘s]DOSUI peop puk AT] JO SJUNOD UO paseg x

FOOT FOOT GooTt OOT EQOT FOOT "0°96 OOT SOOT - 0°08 66 -LO*O

uTizyjeurzed

BOOT FOOT 40°86 8 OOT BOOT P6°E6 P6°T6 66 FOOT © PL T6 =86 ZO

uTayjouied -

aes = = = = = ee = BOOT 4e°79 86 (ee 8)

aqeoyjeUtp

qv°OL 16°9¥ EC 86 "6°76 —"1°S q0 86 FOOT 8°68 86 20° T

ojePOYyISUT Pp

%0°T 90 e0 66 462 qo°t qo°T COL 49° cL ye’ Tt $6 WIIyy

skep / Y 6 YU vZ xt shkep YU BY U YZ «xt U 96 GZ xxl quaMjeeI]

499M PATUL AIIM PUOVSS YOOM ASAT A

sutTing AITTeI10_ suting AATTeI10OW suting AiTTeI1OW

‘pordde

QI9M SOPIONSISUT Jaye SyIoM OM) PUR YIaM JUO ‘AEP dUO SayoUeIg UO poded aiaM sjOaSUI Jo sdnoIn

‘sayoueig palean aprondoasut 0} pasodxa sypjuapi920 snssojsojdaT JO ,.AyTeUOul ywWaolag ‘pf IGeL

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 oy

Table 3: Percent mortality* of Leptoglossus occidentalis exposed to D.E. treated branches outdoors.

Treament n 22h 48 h 1 week 2 weeks

check 94 l.la l.la 2.1la Se2a

DE. 72 Oca ra Oa 7.oa

DE. 59 1.78 3.4a 5.la 0.64

D.E. 74 1.4a 1.4a 2./a 6.8a

* Based on counts of live and dead insects, percentages followed by the same letter in a column are not

significantly different, P < .05; chi-square test.

compared to that in the laboratory may have reduced the effectiveness. Also heavy dew formed

each night and 17.2 mm of rain (Environment Canada 1986) fell during the test. A second

factor which may have reduced the efficacy of D.E. is the amount contacting the insects.

Although all of the branches had a visible coating of material on them, this may not have been

enough for the insects to pick up a lethal dose. In the laboratory, the seed bugs were more

confined to treated surfaces.

Both rates of permethrin and dimethoate caused high mortality when L. occidentalis was

exposed to them on branches outside (Table 4). Many insects were moribund on the bottom of

the bags on permethrin treated branches less than 2 h after exposure. Both insecticides caused

100% mortality in less than 96 h (Table 4).

The residual effectiveness of permethrin did not decrease over the three weeks of the test

(Table 4). Both rates caused more than 90% mortality within 24 h and 100% mortality in less

than 96 h in the second and third weeks. This residual activity was aided by the dry weather.

There was little rain (18.3 mm) during the test and most of it (12.4 mm) fell just two days

before the end of the third week. Nord et al. (1984) also reported that permethrin has a long

residual life.

Dimethoate lost some of its effectiveness with time and by the second week of the tests it

was taking longer than permethrin to kill L. occidentalis (Table 4). By the third week

dimethoate did not provide an acceptable level of control.

Conclusions

Our results show that dimethoate and permethrin are effective against L. occidentalis at

the rates used and that permethrin will continue to be effective for more than three weeks after

application. While D.E. was effective against seed bugs in laboratory tests, it was ineffective

outdoors. Increasing the amount of D.E. used or using it under very dry conditions may

improve its efficacy.

Future research should test permethrin and dimethoate in a more operational context.

Demonstrating an increase in filled seeds on cones from trees protected from Leptoglossus

occidentalis could help further quantify both seed bug damage and the efficacy of these

insecticides.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank Dr. G.E. Miller, Mr. J. Konishi and Daphyne Lowe for their review of

the manuscript.

38 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

Literature Cited

Bradley, E.L., B.H. Ebel and K.0. Summerville. 1981. Leptoglossus spp. Observed on Eastern White Pine and

Fraser Fir Cones. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note SE-310.

DeBarr, G.L. 1978. Southwide Tests of Carbofuran for Seedbug Control in Pine Seed Orchards. USDA For. Serv.

Res. Pap. SE-185.

DeBarr, G.L. 1979. Importance of the Seedbugs Leptoglossus corculus (Say) (Hemiptera:Coreidae) and Tetyra

bipunctata (H.-S.) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) and Their Control in Southern Pine Seed Orchards. /n:Bon-

ner, F. (Ed.) Proceedings: A Symposium on Flowering and Seed Development in Trees. Mississippi State

University, May 15-18, 1978. I.U.FR.0. 380 p.

DeBarr, G.L. and J.C. Nord. 1978. Contact Toxicity of 34 Insecticides to Second-Stage Nymphs of Leptoglossus

corculus (Hemiptera:Coreidae). Can. Entomol. 110: 901-906.

Environment Canada. 1986. Weather Record. Times Colonist. Victoria, B.C. Canada. Sept. 5-25, 1986.

Fleiss, J.L. 1981. Statistical Methods for Rates and Proportions. John Wiley and Sons. N.Y. 321 p.

Hedlin, A.F., H.O. Yates III, D.C. Tovar, B.H. Ebel, T.W. Koerber and E.P. Merkel. 1980. Cone and Seed Insects of

North American Conifers. Can. For. Serv./USDA For. Serv./Secr. Agric. Recur. Hidraul., Mexico, Victoria,

B.C.122 p:

Koerber, T.W. 1963. Leptoglossus occidentalis (Hemiptera:Coreidae), a newly discovered pest of coniferous seed.

Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 56: 229-234.

Miller, G.E. 1980. Pest Management in Douglas-fir Seed Orchards in British Columbia: A Problem Analysis. Pest

Management Papers No. 22, April 1980. Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, B.C., Canada.

Nord, J.C., G.L. DeBarr, N.A. Overgaard, W.W. Neel, R.S. Cameron and J.F. Godbee. 1984. High-volume

Applications of Azinphosmethyl, Fenvalerate, Permethrin , and Phosmet for Control of Coneworms

(Lepidoptera:Pyralidae) and Seed Bugs (Hemiptera:Coreidae and Pentatomidae) in Southern Pine Seed

Orchards. J. Econ. Entomol. 77: 1589-1595.

Nord, J.C., G.L. DeBarr, L.R. Barber, J.C. Weatherby and N.A. Overgaard. 1985. Low-volume applications of

azinphosmethyl, fenvalerate and permethrin for control of coneworms (Lepidoptera:Pyralidae) and seed

bugs (Hemiptera:Coreidae and Pentatomidae) In southern pine seed orchards. J. Econ. Entomol. 78:

445-450.

Ross, T.E. 1981. Diatomaceous Earth as a Possible Alternative to Chemical Insecticides. Agric. and Environ. 6:

43-51.

Ruth, D.S. 1980. A Guide to Pests in Douglas-fir Seed Orchards. Environ. Can. C.F.S. BC-X-204.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 39

EFFECTS OF FENVALERATE INSECTICIDE ON POLLINATORS!

D.F. Mayer, C.A. JOHANSEN2, C.H. SHANKS?, AND K.S. PIKE

Department of Entomology, Washington State University-IAREC, Prosser, WA 99350

Abstract

Susceptibility to fenvalerate sprays was greatest for the alfalfa leafcutting bee, Mega-

chile rotundata (Fabr.); least for the honey bee, Apis mellifera L.; and intermediate for

~ the alkali bee, Nomia melanderi Cock. Low temperatures increased the residual toxic

effects of fenvalerate to honey bees. Fenvalerate at 0.22 kg Al/ha had low residual

hazard to bees after one day under Pacific Northwest conditions. Field tests of

fenvalerate on blooming alfalfa, pollen shedding corn, and blooming red raspberry

resulted in reduced bee visitation and low to moderate adult bee mortality.

Introduction

Fenvalerate (Pydrin) (cyano (3-phenoxyphenyl) methyl 4-choloro-alpha-(1-methy]

ethyl) benzeneacetate) is a synthetic pyrethroid available as an emulsifiable concentrate. It

kills as a contact or stomach poison, and is registered for insect control on a relatively large

number of agricultural crops.

This paper reports results of our research conerning the effects of fenvalerate insecticide

on honey bees (Apis mellifera L.), alkali bees (Nomia melanderia Cock.), and alfalfa

leafcutting bees (Megachile rotundata (Fabr.)). Also, we report results of field tests of

fenvalerate effects on honey bees when applied to blooming alfalfa and pollen shedding corn

and effects on honey bees and bumble bees when applied to blooming red raspberry.

Small-Scale Bioassay

Material and Methods. Tests were conducted with fenvalerate on honey bees, alkali bees, and

alfalfa leafcutting bees in 1975 and 1985 (Tables | and 2). Fenvalerate was applied to 0.004-

hectare plots of alfalfa with a Solo backpack boom sprayer, using 1758 g/cm? pressure and 234

liters of water/ha. Field-weathered fenvalerate residual test exposures were replicated four

times with four foliage samples per treatment and time interval. Foliage samples consisting of

ca. 500-cm2 taken from the upper 15-cm portions of plants were cut into 2.5- to 5-cm diameter

plastic petri disk and a circular insert formed from a strip of metal screen (6.7 meshes/cm) 45

cm long and 5 cm wide. In one test, foliage residues were held in the lab in the dark at 10°C and

29°C, and outdoors in 18-35°C variable day-night temperatures and daily sunlight. Residual

toxicity of fenvalerate combined with Bond, (Loveland Industries, Inc., Loveland, CO) or

Biofilm (Kalo, Overland Park, KS), was also tested. Active ingredients in Bond are synthetic

latex and primary aliphatic oxyalkylated alcohol. Active ingredient in Biofilm is alkylary]

polyoxyethylenate.

Worker honey bees were obtained from top supers of colonies and anesthetized with CO,

to facilitate handling. Leafcutting bee and alkali bee prepupae in leaf piece cells and soil cores,

respectively, were incubated at 29.5° to 31°C and 60% relative humidity. Emerging adults

were trapped in canisters fitted with screen funnels and chilled to facilitate handling. Residual

test exposures were replicated four times by caging 60 to 75 worker honey bees, 25 to 40

leafcutting bees, and 15 to 20 alkali bees with each of four foliage samples per treatment and

time interval. Bees were maintained in cages at 29.5°C/60% RH and fed syrup prepared from

50% sucrose and water in a cotton wad (5 by 5 cm). Bee mortality was determined after 24-

hours.

1. Scientific Paper No. 7733, Washington State University, College of Agriculture and Home Economics Research

Center. Work done under Projects 0742 and 1957.

2. 1135 Oak Ct., Coeur d’Alene, ID 83814.

3. Washington State University, Southwestern Washington Research Unit, Vancouver, WA 98665.

40 J. ENTOMOL Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

Results and Discussion. Table 1 presents the combined means of tests done in 1975 and 1985.

The honey bee was more tolerant of fenvalerate than the other species. The mortality sequence

was typical, in that alfalfa leafcutting bees were most susceptible, alkali bees were intermedi-

ate in susceptibility, and honey bees least susceptible to fenvalerate. Bee susceptibility is a

function of size or surface/volume ratio which is related to chance adherence of residues to the

body of a foraging bee (Johansen et al., 1983). The mortality of bioassay bees in 24 hours

continuous contact with foliage samples decreased as the age of residues increased. One day

was required for residues of the 0.22 rate to degenerate to result in low mortality to honey bees.

Table 1. Mortalities of honey bees, alfalfa leafcutting bees, and alkali bees exposed to different age

residues and rates of fenvalerate 2.4 EC applied to 0.004-ha plots of alfalfa. Bees confined with treated

alfalfa for bioassay mortalities. Pullman and Prosser, WA. 1975, 1985.

24 hr % mortalities of bees

Materials Rate kg Al/ha Caged with treated foliage,

Age of residues

2 hr 8 hr 24 hr

Alkali Bees

Fenvalerate O11 64a 18a --

Fenvalerate 0.43 100 b 96 b --

Untreated check -- 8 °c Sate --

Honey Bees

Fenvalerate On! 57a 17a --

Fenvalerate Goe2 41 b 25 b 22a

Fenvalerate + Bond O22 46 -0Z 37D TC 9b

Fenvalerate + Biofilm O32Z2 + 2 Oz 44 b 14a 18a

Fenvalerate 0.43 100° ¢ 97 d --

Untreated check -- 1 d 21ers si il

Leafcutting Bees

Fenvalerate O.11 82a 39a --

Fenvalerate 0.22 92ab 63 b --

Fenvalerate + Bond O22) + 6 0z 87ab 67 b --

Fenvalerate 0.43 100 b 96 Cc --

Untreated check -- 6 C¢ Ya --

Means within a column for each test followed by the same letter are not

significantly different (P = 0.05; Duncan's [1951] multiple range test).

The addition of a proprietary sticker did not reduce honey bee mortality in the 2-hour

residue tests, but did in the 8 hour tests. Adding Bond significantly reduced honey bee

mortality. Mayer et al. (1987) showed that Bond also reduces bee mortality when combined

with other insecticides.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 4]

The effects of temperature and sunlight on activity of fenvalerate against honey bees are

shown in Table 2. Two and eight hour residues held at 10°C and 29°C caused significantly

more mortality than residues held in variable day-night temperatures (18°C-35°C) and daily

sunlight. Therefore, fenvalerate residues may be more toxic to honey bees for a longer period

of time when used under cool, cloudy conditions.

Field Test — Alfalfa

Materials and Methods. In 1978, fenvalerate was tested for been toxicity and effects on

honey bee foraging activity on blooming alfalfa in a 4-ha field near Pullman, WA. Fenvalerate

2.4 EC was applied by airplane at 0.22 kg Al/ha/93.4 liters of water/ha at 6 a.m. A separate

Table 2. Mortalities of honey bees exposed to different age residues of fenvalerate 2.4 EC (0.22 kg Al/ha)

applied to 0.004-ha plots of alfalfa and foliage held at different environmental conditions. Bees confined

with treated foliage for bioassay mortalities. Prosser, WA. 1986.

24 hr % mortalities of bees

Caged with treated foliage

Aqe of residues

Treatment 2 hr 8 hr 24 hr

Fenvalerate

10°C - dark 70a 96a 9a

29°C - dark 76a 58 b 5a

18°-35°C daily sunlight 49 b 40 c¢ 9a

Untreated check siege 2 d la

Means within a column for each test followed by the same letter are not

significantly different (P = 0.05; Duncan's [1951] multiple range test).

4-ha field several km away served as an untreated check. Two honey bee colonies with Todd

dead bee traps were located adjacent to each field. The number of dead honey bees was

recorded daily before and after application. Numbers of honey bees/23 m2 of foraging alfalfa

were counted after the application. Colony conditions were evaluated before and after the

application.

Results and Discussion. Table 3 presents the results of fenvalerate on blooming alfalfa. The

application reduced numbers of foraging honey bees to zero, 5 h after application though

numbers returned to normal 32 h after application. The application caused no increase in the

number of dead bees and no harm to the colonies.

Moffett et al. (1982) found fenvalerate at 0.11 kg Al/ha did not cause any honey bee

mortality, and bee visits to alfalfa flowers were 70% less on the afternoon after the

applications. They also reported that fenvalerate applied at 0.4 kg Al/ha to a blooming alfalfa

field did not seriously affect honey bee colonies.

Field Tests — Raspberries

Materials and Methods. In 1985, field tests of fenvalerate were conducted on honey bees on

blooming red raspberries near Vancouver, WA. Fenvalerate 2.4 EC was applied at 0.22 kg Al/

ha by ground with a hooded-boom sprayer at 8 p.m. Foliage samples taken after application

42 J. ENToMoL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

Table 3. Effect on honey bees ‘of early morning application by air of fenvalerate 2.4 EC (0.22 kg Al/ha)

applied to a 4-ha field of blooming alfalfa. Pullman, WA 1978.

Number dead bees/colony Number HB/23 mé

Sightings

Pre-

Material treatment Post-treatment Post-treatment

24 hr 48 hr 72 hr 5 hr LOs hve 3Zehir

Fenvalerate 36 22 23 35 0 6 20

Untreated check 34 70 14 43 19 0021 18

were used to bioassay bee mortality. A battery-operated vacuum aspirator (Clinch, 1971) was

used to collect 40 honey bees and 40 bumble bees foraging raspberry bloom in the plots. They

were captured from the plots at different times after application and confined in the standard

small cages for mortality determinations. Bee numbers and behavior in the plots were

assessed at different times during the days after application. A stopwatch was used to

determine the amount of time 100 individual bees spent working a berry flower before and 17

hours after the fenvalerate application. Test 1 was used to determine the amount of time 100

individual bees spent working a berry flower before and 17 hours after the fenvalerate

application. Test 1 was on a 0.02-ha plot of ‘Meeker’ red raspberry and a separate 0.02-ha plot

was left untreated. Two honey bee colonies were placed adjacent to the field seven days before

application. Test 2 was on a 0.2-ha field of ‘Amity’ raspberry which was the only variety

blooming during that time. In Test 2, honey bee mortality was assessed using Todd dead bee

traps in two colonies placed adjacent to the field several days before application.

Results and Discussion. In Test 1, fenvalerate had no effect on the number of foraging honey

bees, based on bee counts 14 h post-treatment (Table 4). In Test 2, foraging honey bees were

reduced 19% 14h after application though numbers returned to normal by 16h. A mean of 40

Table 4. Effect of evening ground application of fenvalerate 2.4 EC (0.22 kg Al/ha) to blooming red

raspberry on honey bees and bumble bees. Test | on 0.02-ha plot of ‘Meeker.’ Test 2 on 0.2-ha plot of

‘Amity.’ Vancouver, WA. 1985.

% bees in treated plots compared to untreated

at_ indicated hours after application

12 hr 14 hr 16 hr 20° hr 24 hr

Test 1 honey bees == r25 LZ 115 --

Test 2 honey bees 33 81 120 91 130

bumble bees i 33 47 39 8

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 43

Table 5. Mortalities of bees exposed to different age residues of fenvalerate 2.4 EC applied (0.22 kg Al/ha)

to blooming red raspberry. Test 1 on 0.02-ha plot of ‘Meeker.’ Test 2 on 0.2-ha plot of ‘Amity.’ Bees

confined with treated foliage for bioassay mortalities. Vancouver, WA. 1985.

24 hr % mortalities of bees

Caged with treated foliage

Age of residues

Bumble

Honey bees bees

Material IZ nr 15 hr 18 hr 24 hr 48 hr 18 hr

Test 1 fenvalerate -- 83a 36a -- 24a --

untreated check -- 2D 2b -- 2D --

Test 2 fenvalerate 30a -~ 17a 15a -- 100a

untreated check 1 b -- 1 b 0b i 2500

Means within a column for each test followed by the same letter are not

significantly different (P = 0.05; Duncan's [1951] multiple range test)

dead bees per day were captured in the Todd traps before application. At one and two days after

application, 31 and 21 dead bees were caught respectivly — well below normal die-off levels

(mayer and Johansen, 1983). In Test 2, bumble bee foragers were greatly reduced by the

application for up to one day. On the ‘Amity’ raspberry, individual bees spent a mean of 14

(range 7 to 35) sec collecting nectar from a flower pre-treatment; at 17 h post-treatment, the

mean dropped to 8.9 (range 4 to 23) sec. We have seen this decrease in the amount of time

individual bees spend working blossoms following insecticide applications (unpublished

data), but the mechanism involved in such behavior is not known.

Raspberry foliage showed honey bee mortality decreased as residual time increased, but

there was significant mortality at one day post-treatment (Table 5). Honey bees in the cages

showed an aversion to treated raspberry by clumping together as far away from the treated

foliage as possible. We have not observed this repellent type behavior with other insecticides

in caged trials with alfalfa treated foliage or with fenvalerate treated alfalfa foliage. Bumble

bees did not show this behavior. However, bumble bee poisoning was acute; the 18 hr residues

caused 100% mortality.

Foraging honey bees captured in the fenvalerate treated plots had significant mortality up

to 20 h post-treatment, but bumble bees captured from field treated plots showed no mortality

(Table 6).

Field Tests — Corn

In 1980 and 1986, fenvalerate was tested for bee toxicity on pollen-shedding ‘Jubilee’

corn in 0.5-ha fields near Prosser, WA. In 1980, fenvalerate 2.4 EC was applied by helicopter

before 7 a.m. on four different dates, using 0.22 kg Al/ha in 45 liters of water. In 1986,

fenvalerate 2.4 EC was applied by airplane before 7 a.m. on four different dates, using 0.22 kg

Al/ha in 51 oz of water (ULV rates). In both years, 0.5-ha fields 0.5 km away served as the

untreated check. A daily record was maintained on the number of bees foraging in the field

based on one to two 8-min counts on 365 m of row recorded between 10 a.m. and | p.m. Two

strong, healthy, honey bee colonies with Todd dead bee traps attached, were placed adjacent to

each field three days before the first application. The numbers of dead honey bees were

recorded daily before and after the applications. Colony conditions were evaluated during the

test.

44 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

Table 6. Mortalities of bees foraging on blooming red raspberry with different age residues of fenvalerate

2.4 EC applied (0.22 kg Al/ha). Test 1 on 0.02-ha plot of ‘Meeker.’ Test 2 on 0.2-ha plot of ‘Amity.’

Foraging bees collected from flowers and confined without foliage in small cages for mortality

determinations. Vancouver, WA. 1985.

24 hr % mortalities of bees

Age of residues

Bumble bees

Materia | 13 hr 15 hr 20 hr 96 hr 14 hr 20 hr

Test 1 fenvalerate -- 20a 40a 0 -- --

untreated check -- 10 'b 20 b 0 -- --

Test 2 fenvalerate 77a -- 35a -- 0 0

untreated check 25 5b -- 10 b --

Means within a column for each test followed by the same letter are not

significantly different (P = 0.05; Duncan's [1951] multiple range test).

Results and Discussion. Bee mortality and bee foraging numbers for the sweet corn trials are

shown in Table 7. Pre-application and one day post-application comparisons revealed dead bee

counts increased two-fold with fenvalerate, but were still considered low based on the range of

normal bee die-off (Mayer and Johansen, 1983). Fenvalerate applications reduced the number

of honey bees foraging the corn for pollen.

Discussion

It is evident from these studies that fenvalerate is toxic to varying degrees to the bee

species studies. Others have reported similar findings. For example, honey bee colonies

exposed to beeswax foundation impregnated with 1,000 ppm fenvalerate had poor egg hatch

and very low survival through the sealed brood stage (Stoner et al., 1985). However, in a study

by Stoner et al., (1984), where fenvalerate was fed at the rate of 100 ppm to honey bee

colonies, noticeable toxicity was observed, but not sufficient to pose a serious threat to honey

bees. Atkins et al., (1981) reported fenvalerate was highly toxic to honey bees present in the

field during applications, though there was no residual toxicity at 1 day post-treatment. In our

studies, the residual degradation time in hours (RT) required to bring bee mortality down to

25% in cage test exposures to field-weathered spray deposits applied at standard rates, was

slightly more than 8 h for the four bee species we evaluated. Materials with an RT 25 of 8 h or

less are useful in terms of bee safety, if applied judiciously, i.e. if applied during the late

evening or at night.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 45

Table 7. Effect on honey bees of early morning applications by air of fenvalerate (0.22 kg Al/ha) applied

to a 0.5-ha field of pollen shedding corn. Prosser, WA. 1986.

No. HB/365 m of row Number dead bees/colony

Treatment Post-treatment Pre-treatment Post-treatment

24 hr 48 hr 24 hr 48 hr

1980!

Fenvalerate 111 115 -- 24 15

Untreated check 428 361 -- 16 Bi

1986¢

Fenvalerate 6 -- 30 66 42

Untreated check 12 -- 3 26

teenvalerate applied 29 July and 3, 7, 11 August.

fenvalerage applied 29 July and 1, 4, 7 August.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Washington Alfalfa Seed Commission and the Washington Red Raspberry

Commision for partial funding of this reseach. The help of Jeff Lunden and Lora Rathbone is

gratefully acknowledged.

References

Atkins, E.L., D. Kellum, and K.W. Atkins. 1981. Reducing pesticide hazards to honey bees: Mortality prediction

techniques and integrated management strategies. Univ. Calif. Leaflet 1883. 23 pp.

Clinch, P.G. 1971. A battery-operated vacuum device for collecting insects unharmed. NZ Entomol. 5: 28-30.

Duncan, D.B. 1951. A significant test for differences between marked treatments in an analysis of variance. VA J.

Sci. 2: 171-189.

Johansen, C.A., D.F. Mayer, J.D. Eves, and C.W. Kious. 1983. Pesticides and bees. Environ. Entomol. 12(5):

1513-1518.

Mayer, D.F. and C.A. Johansen. 1983. Occurrence of honey bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae) poisoning in eastern

Washington. Environ. Entomol. 12(2): 317-320.

Mayer, D.F., C.A. Johansen, J.D. Lunden, and Lora Rathbone. 1987. Chemical stickers and bee mortality. Amer.

Bee J. (In press).

Moffett, J.O., A. Stoner, and R.M. Ahring. 1982. Effect of fenvalerate applications on honey bees in flowering

alfalfa. Southwest. Entomol. 7(2): 111-115.

Stoner, J.P., W.T. Wilson, and J.O. Moffett. 1984. Effect of long-term feeding of low doses of fenvalerate or

fluvalinate in sucrose syrup on honey bees in standard-size field colonies. J. Georgia Entomol. Soc. 19(4):

490-498.

Stoner, A., W.T. Wilson, and Jack Harvey. 1985. Honey bee exposure to beeswax foundation impregnated with

fenvalerate or carbaryl. Amer. Bee. J. 125(7): 513-516.

46 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

SECOND BROODS OF PISSODES STROBI (COLEOPTERA: CURCULIONIDAE)

IN PREVIOUSLY ATTACKED LEADERS OF INTERIOR SPRUCE

RussEL D. COZENS

British Columbia Forest Service, Prince George Forest Region, Prince George, British Columbia,

Canada V2L 3H9-

Abstract

Oviposition and successful brood production by spruce weevil, Pissodes strobi, were

observed below the previous year’s attacked, dead leader in as many as 19.5 percent of

current attacked trees in a 15-year-old plantation of interior spruce. This occurrence

may have significant impacts upon weevil survey and control programmes and,

ultimately, the regime under which the stand will be managed.

During the establishment of a trial investigating the feasibility of silvicultural control of

spruce weevil, Pissodes strobi Peck (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), unusual oviposition behav-

iour and brood development of this weevil was observed in leaders which had been attacked in

the previous year. These observations were made in a 15-year-old plantation of interior spruce

(Picea glauca x engelmannii), located approximately 50 km east of Prince George, British

Columbia. Clearcut harvesting of the area took place in 1969. The plantation was established

in the spring of 1971, using 2+1 bareroot interior spruce stock, following a broadcast burn in

the fall of 1970.

The spruce weevil attacks and kills the terminal shoot of young spruce trees ranging in

height from | - 15 m, and occasionally to over 25 m. Lateral branches are then forced to

compete for apical dominance. This commonly results in multiple or crooked stems which can

represent losses to merchantable tree volume and value. The overtopping of attacked trees by

healthy coniferous trees and competing deciduous trees may result in mortality from competi-

tion (Stevenson 1967; Wood and McMullen 1983).

Table I. Occurrence of re-infestation of previously infested spruce leaders by Pissodes strobi,

expressed in relation to current attacks, in a 15-year-old interior spruce plantation, 50 km east of

Prince George, B.C.

Previously uninfested leaders Reinfested leaders

Attack Av. emerging Av. emerging

year nl adults per leader nl adults per leader

(range) (range)

1984 50 3.98 (0-14) a 3.00 ( - )

1985 71 5.72 (0-24) 5 4.00 (0-8)

1986 59 3.12 (0-19) 16 6.25 (0-31)

TOTAL 180 5.26 (0-24) 22 5.82 (0-31)

A ‘n' will not be consistent with the attacks represented in Table I since

some trees were too tall to determine adult emergence and some leaders

were heavily damaged by birds feeding upon maturing brood.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 47

Adult spruce weevils emerge from their overwintering locations in the duff soon after the

snow disappears and the site is warmed to above 6°C (Sullivan 1959). The weevils crawl up

potential host trees, to begin feeding, immediately after their emergence from hibernation.

Stevenson (1967) observed that feeding on stems that had been attacked the previous year

occurred only in the uppermost living tissues. Overhulser and Gara (1975) reported that

weevils were found initially only on brood trees. However, with the first day of temperatures

conducive to adult flight, weevils were also observed on trees attacked two years earlier and on

those trees being attacked for the first time. They also noted that flight occurred from the

previous year’s dead leader on brood trees towards leaders which promised suitable feeding

and oviposition sites. Spruce trees have not generally been considered as available for reattack

by the spruce weevil for at least two years after their terminals have been killed. This is the

time necessary for the tree to produce a new leader with characteristics attractive to the weevil

(Alfaro 1982). Commonly, the longest, thickest leaders presenting a vertical silhouette have

been found to be the most likely to be attacked (VanderSar and Borden 1977; Kline and

Mitchell 1979; Wood and McMullen 1983). It has been documented by several authors (Silver

1968; VanderSar and Borden 1977; Alfaro 1982; Alfaro and Borden 1985) that spruce trees,

once initially attacked, appeared to be pre-disposed to further attacks on the resultant multiple

terminals. The favoured feeding, mating and oviposition site has been determined to be the tip

of the previous year’s leader(s) below the terminal bud (Gara et al. 1971; Overhulser and Gara

1975; VanderSar and Borden 1977; Wood and McMullen 1983).

The author observed, in 1984, 1985 and 1986, abnormal infestation behaviour of spruce

weevils. In addition to the occurrence of spring feeding below the previous year’s dead leader,

Oviposition sites were evident in several of the trees examined (1984 - 2 trees; 1985 - 7 trees;

1986 - 16 trees) (Table I). Current year’s feeding and oviposition locations were identified by

fresh resin flow from the area of activity below the dead leader. The oviposition punctures

were distinguished from feeding punctures, which are normal on such leaders, by the presence

of a fecal cap over those in which oviposition occurred (Stevenson 1967; Silver 1968). Further

confirmation of oviposition was by the presence of adult exit holes below the oviposition

punctures in question (Fig. 1). Hulme et a/. (1986) determined that the lethal temperature for P.

strobi in sitka spruce, Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr., to be near —16°C. Earlier observations

(unpublished data) had demonstrated that spruce weevil brood would not overwinter suc-

cessfully in leaders in the geographic area of the study plots. The emerging adults thus could

not be progeny of the previous year’s attack. Dissection of similarly attacked leaders collected

from outside of the study plots revealed an area between the successive year’s attacks in which

no larval activity was evident. Average brood production from re-infested leaders was slightly

more than that from normally infested leaders; 5.82 adults per leader (range 0-31) vs. 5.26

adults produced per normally attacked leader (range 0-24) (Table II). Total brood production

per re-infested leader was almost 250% of that of a singly infested leader; 12.6 adults emerging

per leader (range 0-39) vs. 5.26 adults emerging per singly infested leader (range 0—24) (Table

IT).

Table II. Adult Pissodes strobi emergence from previously uninfested and reinfested spruce leaders in

a 15-year-old interior spruce plantation, 50 km east of Prince George, B.C.

Total number Total number Number of attacks on Number of attacks

Attack of trees of current previously unattacked below previously Percent

year examined attacks leaders attacked leaders reattack

1984 5383 87 85 2 2:3

1985 5383 92 85 7 7.6

1986 5383 82 66 16 1925

48 J. ENTOMOL Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

Oviposition

Site

Emergence

Site

Qviposition

Site

Emergence

Site

J. ENtomot Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 49

Table II]. Average emergence from single infestations and multiple infestations of spruce leaders by

Pissodes strobi in a 15-year-old interior spruce plantation, 50 km east of Prince George, B.C.

Single infestations Re-infested leaders

nl Av. emerging adults al Av. emerging adults

(range)

(range) Initial

infestation Re-infestation Total

180 5.26 (0-24) 20 6.4 (0-24) 6.2 (0-31) 12.6 (0-39)

‘n' will not be consistent with the attacks represented in Table I since some

trees were too tall to determine adult emergence and some leaders were heavily

damaged by birds feeding upon maturing brood. ‘n‘ will not be consistent with

the attacks represented in Table II since it was necessary to determine adult

emergence from both the initial infestation and re-infestation.

The occurrence of successful re-infestation by the spruce weevil is of significance in both

survey and control activities. Based on the information from these observations, up to 20

percent of the previous year’s infested leaders may be re-infested. Since the identification of

currently infested spruce trees is by the drooping or dead current leader, depending upon the

time in the year of examination, nearly 20 percent of current attacks may well be overlooked

by conventional detection methods. This could result in the non-recognition and non-treatment

of sufficient numbers of potential adults to perpetuate a reduced but active weevil population

in a young spruce stand. Therefore, a major decision must be made prior to the start of any

survey or control programme: either all previous year’s infested trees must be inspected

carefully for re-infestation, and subsequently treated; or, the exclusion of any re-infested

leaders from control treatment must be accepted in conjunction with the potential conse-

quences of the decision. This decision must be made by the forest manager with full realization

and acceptance of both the immediate and possible long term effects upon stand development.

References

Alfaro, R.I. 1982. Fifty year-old spruce plantations with a history of intense weevil attack. /. Entomol. Soc. British

Columbia 79: 62-65.

Alfaro, R.I. and J.H. Borden. 1985. Factors determining the feeding of the white pine weevil (Coleoptera:

Curculionidae) on its coastal British Columbia host, Sitka spruce. Proc. Ent. Soc. Ont. Suppl. 116: 63-66.

Gara, R.I., R.L. Carlson and B.F. Hrutfiord. 1971. Influence of some physical and host factors on the behaviour of

the Sitka spruce weevil, Pissodes sitchensis, in southwestern Washington. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 64: 467-471.

Hulme, M.A., A.F. Dawson and J.W.E. Harris. 1986. Exploiting cold hardiness to separate Pissodes strobi (Peck)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae) from associated insects in leaders of Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr. Can. Ent.

118: 1115-1122.

Kline, L.N. and R.G. Mitchell. 1979. Insects affecting twigs, terminals and buds. In Forest Insect Survey and

Control. ed. J.A. Rudinsky. O.S.U. Book Stores Inc. 472 pp.

Overhulser, D.L. and R.I. Gara. 1975. Spring flight and adult activity of the white pine weevil, Pissodes strobi

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae), on Sitka spruce in western Washington. Can. Ent. 107: 251-256.

Silver, G.T. 1968. Studies on Sitka spruce weevil, Pissodes sitchensis, in British Columbia. Can. Ent. 100: 93-110.

Stevenson, R.E. 1967. Notes on the biology of the Engelmann spruce weevil Pissodes engelmanni (Curculionidae:

Coleoptera) and its parasites and predators. Can. Ent. 99: 201-213.

Sullivan, C.R. 1959. The effect of light and temperature on the behaviour of adults of the white pine weevil,

Pissodes strobi Peck. Can. Ent. 91(4): 213-231.

VanderSar, T.J.D. and J.H. Borden. 1977. Visual orientation of Pissodes strobi Peck (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

in relation to host selection behaviour. Can. J. Zool. 55: 2042-2049.

Wood, R.O. and L.H. McMullen. 1983. Spruce weevil in British Columbia. Environment Canada. Canadian

Forestry Service. Pacific Forest Research Centre. Forest Pest Leaflet #2. 4pp.

50 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. CoLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

CHIONEA MACNABEANA ALEXANDER, A MICROPTEROUS CRANE FLY

(DIPTERA: TIPULIDAE) NEW TO CANADA

S. G. CANNINGS

Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 2A9

Abstract

The flightless crane fly, Chionea macnabeana Alexander, is reported from Canada for

the first time: several specimens were collected in Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir

forest in the North Cascade Mountains of Manning Park, British Columbia.

Introduction

The genus Chionea is a fascinating group of flightless crane flies best known for their

winter appearances, when they stride over the snow at dusk when the temperature hovers

around 0°C. The North American species were recently treated by Byers (1983) in an excellent

and thorough revision. Byers (1983) records five species in Canada: C. albertensis Alexander,

C. obtusa Byers and C. alexandriana Garrett from the west and C. scita Walker and C. valga

Harris in the east. In his monograph, Byers suggests that two additional species, C. macna-

beana Alexander and C. nivicola Doane, may range into southern British Columbia.

On 6 March 1983, while on a skiing trip up Fat Dog Creek, Manning Park, B.C., I

collected a single male specimen of a Chionea species unfamiliar to me. Although it

superficially resembled C. alexandriana in the shape of the ninth tergum, it was yellowish in

colour rather than brown like C. alexandriana, and its antennae had ten rather than three or

four flagellomeres. Its legs were covered in stout, black setae. It occurred to me that this might

be the undescribed male of C. macnabeana, so I sent it to Dr. Byers for confirmation. He

assured me that it was C. macnabeana, but he had just described the male from a specimen

collected in Oregon (Byers 1983). On 31 December 1983 and 1 January 1984, eleven

additional specimens were collected from the same area.

Material Examined

BRITISH COLUMBIA: Manning Provincial Park, Fat Dog Creek, 40°08’N 120°49’W,

1400-1450 m, 6.ii1.1983, 1 male, S. G. Cannings (Canadian National Collection, Ottawa);

ibid., 1400-1500 m, 31.xii.1983, 1 male, 1 female, H. and A. Brock (Snow Entomological

Museum, U. of Kansas, Lawrence); ibid., 2 males, 1 female, R. J. Cannings (Spencer

Entomological Museum, UBC); ibid., 3 males, 2 females, S.G. Cannings (UBC); Manning

Provincial Park, Big Ben Trail [headwaters of Similkameen R.], 1.1.1984, S. G. Cannings

(UBC).

J. ENTOMOL Soc. BrRiT. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 51

Discussion

C. macnabeana is an apparently rare species of the coastal mountains of the Pacific

Northwest. Only three specimens had been collected previously; these were found near

Tillamook, Oregon, in the Sentinel Hills, Oregon, and on the Olympic Peninsula of Washing-

ton State, all on the other slopes of the northern Coast Ranges. Two were found at low

elevations in coastal forest and one was in subalpine forest at 5200-5500’.

The Manning Park individuals were crawling across snow in a subalpine forest of

Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmanni) and subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) at 1400-1500 m.

The first one found was on a shady, steep, north-facing slope; the sky was clear with a

temperature of 2°C. Most of the others were captured on the same slope on an overcast day

when the temperature was about —1°C, but one was low on an east-facing slope. The common

Chionea of the immediate area is C. alexandriana; C. albertensis is also present, but in much

lower numbers.

This area is on the crest of the North Cascade Mountains, so the habitat 1s somewhat of a

hybrid between coast and interior subalpine forests. It is colder and drier than coastal subalpine

areas, but is still strongly affected by moist Pacific air masses and receives about 3-4 m of

snow annually.

As is typical for the genus, the individuals seem to vary greatly in size, although the small

sample size limits the ranges seen: males range from 6.0 to 8.5 mm long with hind femora from

3.8 to 5.8 mm, whereas females are from 7.6 to 8.7 mm long with hind femora from 3.6 to 4.0

mm.

Entomologists in the southern interior of British Columbia should watch for C. nivicola, a

species which resembles somewhat the brown, slender-legged C. albertensis but differs from

that species by its shorter antennae of only eight or nine segments (six or seven flagellomeres).

In Washington and Oregon, C. nivicola inhabits open forests from about 740 to 1850 m

elevation (Byers 1983).

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Dr. George Byers for confirming the identification and criticizing

the manuscript. Hugh and Aileen Brock and Dick Cannings helped collect the specimens, and

Dr. G. G. E. Scudder read the manuscript.

Reference

Byers, G. W. 1983. The crane fly genus Chionea in North America. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 52(6): 59-195.

52 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

PTILODACTYLA SERRICOLLIS (COLEOPTERA: PTILODACTYLIDAE) IN

BRITISH COLUMBIA

ROBERT A. CANNINGS

British Columbia Provincial Museum, Victoria, British Columbia V8V 1X4

JENNIFER G. FISHER

3811 Miramontes Drive, Victoria, British Columbia V8N 4L1

The Ptilodactylidae (Toed-winged Beetles) contains about 35 genera and 300 species

according to recent definitions of the family (Lawrence 1982). Such definitions are much

broader than those published by Arnett (1968, 1983). It is primarily a tropical family.

Adults of the Ptilodactylidae are ‘2-16 mm (usually 4-12 mm) in length, oblong to

elongate, and glabrous or clothed with fine hairs. The antennae range from serrate to pectinate,

and are usually more highly modified in males...”” (Lawrence 1982). In Ptilodactyla the

antennae are | 1-segmented, serrate in the female, pectinate in the male; in the latter, segments

4-10 each bear a long, narrow basal process (Arnett 1968).

Adults are found on vegetation, often in marshy areas, and frequently are attracted to

lights at night. The larvae live in leaf litter, rotting logs, damp soil and debris at the edge of

streams (Arnett 1968, Lawrence 1982).

On 20 July 1979 one of us (JGF) collected a male and female Ptilodactyla serricollis

(Say) on the garden patio of an apartment building adjacent to Beacon Hill Park, Victoria, B.C.

P. serricollis is one of the more common species of the family in North America. It is

recorded from the eastern United States (Arnett 1983) and from Québec (Chagnon and Robert

1962) and Ontario (Evans 1904). All specimens in the Canadian National Collection (Agricul-

ture Canada, Ottawa) are from Québec and Ontario (LeSage, in litt.).

Since specimens of Ptilodactyla are “rather commonly transported as larvae in green-

house potting soils” (J. B. Stribling, in /itt.), it is probable that the two specimens were merely

adventives from eastern North America. Potted plants and nursery stock were abundant around

the collection site. Nevertheless, the possibility of small populations of P. serricollis becoming

established on the Pacific coast should not be discounted.

Acknowledgements

Walter Lazorko (Vancouver) first identified the specimens; James Stribling (Department

of Entomology, Ohio State University) confirmed the identification. Syd Cannings (Depart-

ment of Zoology, University of British Columbia) and Laurent LeSage (Biosystematics

Research Institute, Agriculture Canada) commented on the manuscript.

References

Arnett, R. H., Jr. 1968. The Beetles of the United States. The American Entomological Institute, Ann Arbor.

Arnett, R. H., Jr. 1983. Checklist of the Beetles of North and Central America and the West Indies. Vol. 3. The

Scarab Beetles, Buprestid Beetles and related groups. Flora and Fauna Publications, Gainesville.

Chagnon, G. and A. Robert. 1962. P. 195 in Principaux Coléoptéres de la Province de Québec (2éme édition). Les

Presses de |’Université de Montréal.

Evans, J. D. 1904. Insects collected at light during the season of 1904. Entomological Society of Ontario Annual

Report No. 35: 82-85.

Lawrence, J. F. 1982. Coleoptera. Pp. 482-553 in Synopsis and Classification of Living Organisms. Vol. 2. (Sybil

P. Parker, ed.). McGraw-Hill Inc., Toronto.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 53

FIELD TECHNIQUES FOR REARING AND MARKING MOUNTAIN PINE

BEETLE FOR USE IN DISPERSAL STUDIES

D. A. LINTON, L. SAFRANYIK, L. H. MCMULLEN, R. BETTS

Pacific Forestry Centre, 506 West Burnside Road, Victoria, B.C. V8Z 1MS5

Abstract

Mountain pine beetles, Dendroctonus ponderosae, were marked with fluorescent (Day-

Glo) powders in vacuum chambers and on powder-covered brood trees in the field for

use in release-recapture studies of dispersal behavior. A large wall tent was used as a

field insectary to accelerate late stages of development of large numbers of beetles in

naturally infested bolts of lodgepole pine. Up to 28% of the marked beetles which flew

were recovered from lethal trap trees. Beetles self-marked on powdered brood trees

were captured in barrier traps in predicted proportions.

Résumé

Des dendroctones du pin ponderosa ont été marqués 4 |’aide de poudres fluorescentes

(Day-Glo) dans des chambres a dépression ainsi que sur des arbres foyers couverts de

poudre sur le terrain pour des études par libération-recapture du comportement de

dispersion. Une grande tente canadienne a été employée comme insectarium sur le

terrain pour accélérer les derniers stades de développement des grands nombres de

dendroctones se trouvant dans des billons de pins tordus infestés naturellement. Jusqu’a

28% des dendroctones marqués qui s’étaient envolés ont été retrouvés dans des arbres

piéges létaux. Les dendroctones qui s’étaient marqués eux-mémes sur les arbres foyers

couverts de poudre ont été capturés dans des piéges dans les proportions prévues.

Introduction

A series of release-recapture field experiments to study the dispersal of mountain pine

beetles, Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopk., (mpb) required development of techniques for

rearing, marking, releasing, and subsequently recapturing large numbers of these insects. The

experiments were carried out from 1982 to 1985 in the Cariboo Forest Region of B.C. near

Riske Creek.

Fluorescent powders have been used extensively as markers on insects and are usually

non toxic, readily available, and inexpensive (Gangwere et al. 1964; Gara 1967; Moffitt and

Albano 1972; Schmitz 1980). Techniques have been described for applying powders to large

numbers of moths or flies quickly and reliably using a vacuum dusting chamber (Dunn and

Mechalas 1963; Moffitt and Albano 1972). We used similar chambers made from 6-mm-thick

plexiglass (Fig. 1) to dust up to 250 adult mpb placed on the bottom of the chamber at one time

using 0.5 g of dust.

In the absence of a permanent insectary, mpb were partially force-reared in a large wall

tent which incorporated a specially constructed door consisting of a large window above a cold

trap for capturing live beetles soon after emergence. Storage, handling, and release and

recapture methods used in 1982 and 1983 are described. Also presented is a new and simple

method of marking beetles (tested in 1983 and used in experiments in 1984 and 1985) by

applying fluorescent powder to brood trees before emergence. The powders are shown to have

no apparent effect on dispersal behavior or longevity of mpb up to the time of release and they

persist through pre-flight handling, dispersal flight, and handling subsequent to recapture. Full

results of the dispersal experiments will be reported elsewhere.

54 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. CoLuMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

AIR INTAKE

— VACUUM LINE

STOPPER

PIGMENT

HOLDER

VACUUM

CHAMBER

18.5 cm

SEAL

ms | BASE vA

Fic. 1. Vacuum dusting chamber (Dunn & Mechalas 1963: Moffitt & Albano 1973).

Rearing

In early June, 1982 and 1983, 15-20 infested lodgepole pine, Pinus contorta var. latifolia

Dougl., were felled, and the lower 2-7 m were sawn into 1 m lengths. All logs were examined

for density of live mpb brood, and the most heavily infested logs (93 in 1982, 90 in 1983) were

piled between heavy posts driven into the ground within a 3 m x 4 m area which had been

cleared of debris and vegetation. The log pile was made up to fit withina 3 mx4mx2m

canvas wall tent having 1-m-high walls, leaving at least 25 cm of clearance on all sides. The

tent was erected over the log pile and was covered by an opaque plastic tarpaulin fly suspended

about 25 cm above the roof.

The tent was left closed on all but the hottest days, when end flaps were opened to prevent

possible lethally high temperatures. A 3000-btu catalytic propane heater (Coleman model #

9446-510) was used during cool weather and at night. A thermograph in the tent recorded

temperatures (Fig. 2).

Brood development in the logs was monitored every few days by removing small areas of

bark. In late June tenerals were found and a sloped clear plastic window with a rectangular

sheet metal funnel at the bottom was installed on a plywood frame in the west-facing tent door.

The funnel fed into a portable 12 V refrigerator (Koolatron mod. 10) which was operated on

the “‘max cold”’ setting 24 hours a day using an AC adapter and line (110 V) current. The

original lid of the refrigerator was removed and replaced with an insulated plywood lid having

a 7.5 cm square center hole which fitted tightly around the funnel tube. The temperature inside

the refrigerator remained between | and 5 °C, which was cool enough to rapidly immobilize

the trapped beetles. The metal heat exchanger portion of the bottom of the refrigerator

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

DEGREES CELSIUS

) ow

i.e) Oo

fo)

' \ witb

re) .

° 30 ; /

x< t i)

@ / }

= '

ui 20 ! \

re) / i

: !

2 EMERGENCE ' '

TENT 4 \

Ke) / oe

J ss

fs / ‘\

e777 N49 af

7 bt

5 10 15 20 25 30 4

JULY 1982 AUGUST

Fic. 2. ABOVE. Solid line = maximum temperatures attained inside the rearing tent. Dotted line = average

ambient temperatures. BELOW. Solid line = emergence of mpb from rearing tent. Dotted line = total

catches of wild mpb at trap trees. All data recorded Jul-Aug, 1982.

compartment was lined with tightly fitted cardboard to prevent insects from freezing from

direct contact; crumpled paper towel was also placed in the bottom to provide climbing

surfaces, thus minimizing crowding which results in insects injuring one another. When newly

emerged photopositive beetles attempted to fly out of the tent they struck the plastic barrier,

and fell into the cold trap. In 1982, 45,415 beetles were collected between July 8 and August 4.

In 1983, approximately 25,000 beetles were collected between June 14 and July 24.

The cold trap was cleared of insects daily (more often during peak emergence). Beetles

were kept cool until counted by hand into lots of 250 in preparation for vacuum dusting.

Beetles having obvious injuries or malformations were discarded.

Vacuum Dusting

To distinguish beetles released on different days or plots, we used four colors: corona

magenta, Saturn yellow, arc yellow, and horizon blue (Day-Glo Corp, Cleveland, Ohio). These

colors were chosen for ease of separation under UV light. After dusting, the beetles in lots of

up to 1000 were stored for periods of up to 10 days in 1 L of fresh lodgepole pine sawdust

(from a chainsaw operated with no chain oil) in plastic 4-L ice cream pails in a refrigerator

56 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. CoLumBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

(4°C). After storage, the fluorescent dust was no longer visible to the naked eye, but was easily

recognized under a dissecting microscope (16x) in a darkened room using long-wave UV

illumination provided by a fluorescent tube (Sylvania FIST8-BLB) held 5-10 cm from the

insects. To prevent loss of night vision due to glare, and to maximize the intensity of light on

the microscope stage, it was necessary to shade the fluorescent tube.

Release — Recapture Studies, 1982

On July 15, 1982 at 14:15 Pacific Daylight Time, 2750 each of marked and unmarked

mpb were released from two sites in a lodgepole pine forest near Riske Creek, B.C. The peak

flight of wild beetles in the area occurred July 26-28. The pails containing beetles were

removed from the refrigerator at 08:30 and transported to the release site where they were kept

shaded until needed. At the time of release at each site, the beetles and their storage sawdust

were spread evenly on the upper surfaces of two release platforms (one for marked beetles, the

other for unmarked). A layer of fresh pine excelsior 5-10 cm thick (made by chain-saw ripping

a log with an unoiled chain) was sprinkled over the top of the sawdust to provide many

locations for takeoffs. The release platforms consisted of three concentric squares of 6-mm

plywood, one above the other separated by 1.5-cm spacers. The largest (bottom) square was

120 cm, the smallest (top) 60 cm. The top surface had a rim 7.5 cm high and 1.5 cm wide set

back 1 cm from the edge. The rim prevented sawdust from blowing off, and the multiple steps

provided many edges for takeoffs. The platforms were supported | m above the ground on a

pole structure. Insect screen was suspended below the platforms to catch nonflying beetles

which fell. Another screen was suspended 1.5 m above the platforms to provide partial shade

to prevent overheating.

Ateach site, four trap lines were established, one in each cardinal direction radiating from

the plot center. The traps were approximately 10, 29, 85 and 250 m from the center. The traps

consisted of two trees sprayed to a height of 4 m with 2% Sevin (prepared from Sevin SL in

water) and basketed at the base with wire screening to trap poisoned beetles. Each tree was

baited with (a) 0.5 ml of both transverbenol and mycrene in separate size 00 polyethylene Been

capsules (J.B. EM Services Inc., Dorval, Quebec) and (b) four virgin females caged on 600-

cm? slabs of fresh lodgepole pine. In addition, a 30-cm? window trap (Chapman and Kinghorn

1958) was hung 1.5 m high facing the plot center, 45 cm from each tree bole. Traps were

checked and cleared every 3 h during the day for several days after a release. Trapped mpb

were placed in 70% alcohol in vials and examined in the lab as described above.

On the two sites, 24.3% and 28.0% of the marked beetles that flew were recaptured

during the first 3 days after release. Comparable figures for the unmarked beetles were 34.5%

and 47.6%. The relatively larger proportion of unmarked beetles trapped possibly indicates

that even though most of the wild beetles were not ready to fly, some flight of wild beetles

occurred, more on one of the plots, during the trapping period (Fig. 2). Alternatively,

differences in the detectability under blacklight or washing in alcohol of different colored

fluorescent powders could also explain this result. These factors need further investigation.

During cloudy periods, the beetles tended to drop from the excelsior and conceal

themselves in the sawdust on the platform surface. If the platforms were left unattended, the

beetles remaining on the platform were subject to predation by birds (species unknown).

Dragonflies were observed capturing and eating mpb as they flew from the platforms.

Five and seven percent of the marked released beetles failed to fly on the two plots and the

corresponding figures for unmarked beetles were 6% and 7%. On average, 1% of the marked

beetles and 2% of the unmarked beetles were dead on the flight platform. Thus, marking did

not increase mortality or physical injury over that resulting from normal handling of emerged

beetles.

These results indicate that marked and unmarked beetles behaved similarly under our

experimental conditions; marking did not have a significant effect on mortality up to release or

ability to take flight. More marked beetles than unmarked beetles may have been lost during

dispersal flight. The vacuum method is well suited to quick marking of large numbers of

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 ay

beetles. The marking is not lost when the beetles are stored in sawdust but there was some

transfer of powder onto unmarked individuals when trapped beetles were collected in alcohol

and the vials were agitated. However, this problem does not appear to introduce a serious bias

into identification of tagged beetles and can be minimized by reducing the volume of alcohol

in the collecting vials.

Self-Dusting

Gara (1967) marked Dendroctonus frontalis and Schmitz (1980) marked Ips pini in the

field by forcing the insects to walk across tables or platforms coated with fluorescent powders.

Laboratory trials had shown us that mpb emerging from logs heavily dusted with

fluorescent powders became marked similarly to those treated in vacuum dusters. In the field

shortly before mpb emerged, we applied the powders to brood trees using a gasoline-powered

backpack sprayer (Holder, Supra-Neu 40) equipped with a dusting adapter (Marino Inc.)

instead of the normal spray wand. Approximately 250 g of dust was used to treat a 30-cm-dbh

pine to a height of 2.0 m. Care was taken to blow the dust into bark crevices, and to uniformly

cover the boles.

Clear plastic barrier traps were used to capture beetles as they dispersed into the

surrounding forest. Collections were made daily throughout the flight period and were handled

as described above. Sampling of brood trees in plot areas in 1985 revealed a total population of

approximately 56,000 mpb expected to emerge from 639 attacked trees in an isolated 5.86-ha

stand of lodgepole pine. Based on the same sampling, approximately 4800 mpb were expected

to emerge from 47 dusted trees. Based on the above figures, 8.6% of the beetles captured

should have been marked. The total trap catch in 1985 was 162 mpb, 15 of which (9.3%) were

marked. The extra marked beetles are probably a result of having the dusted trees close to the

trap locations, and the percentage of beetles recovered indicates that performance of the

marking system was excellent.

Summary

The marking and handling techniques described have proven valuable tools for the study

of mountain pine beetle dispersal. The low toxicity, ease of application, and ease of

examination using common equipment make fluorescent powders attractive for field use. The

mass rearing of mpb in a tent provided up to 50,000 mpb with a total loss from handling or

other factors of only 7% up to the time of release. Marking beetles with fluorescent dust using

either technique did not apparently alter their dispersal behavior or increase mortality prior to

flight.

References

Chapman, J.A., and J. Kinghorn. 1958. Studies of flight and attack activity of the ambrosia beetle, Trypodendron

lineatum (Oliv.), and other scolytids. Can. Ent. 90: 362-372.

Dunn, Paul H., and Byron J. Mechalas. 1963. An easily constructed vacuum duster. J. Econ. Ent. 56(6): 899.

Gangwere, S.K., W. Chavin, and F.C. Evans. 1964. Methods of marking insects, with special regard to Orthoptera

(Sens. Lat.). Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 57: 662-669.

Gara, R.I., 1967. Studies on the attack behavior of the southern pine beetle. I. The spreading and collapse of

outbreaks. Contrib. Boyce Thompson Inst. 23(10): 349-354.

Moffitt, H.R. and D.J. Albano. 1972. Vacuum application of fluorescent powders as markers for adult codling

moths. Econ. Ent. 65: 882-884.

Schmitz, R.F. 1980. Dispersal of pine engraver beetles in second growth ponderosa pine forests. Jn Proceedings of

the Second IUFRO Conference on Dispersal of Forest Insects: Evaluation, Theory and Management

Implications. Edited by A.A. Berryman and L. Safranyik. Sandpoint, Idaho August 27-31, 1979.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

CBE STYLE MANUAL

Fifth Edition

A guide for Authors, Editors, and Publishers in

the Biological Sciences

Widely accepted and recommended as _ the

standard reference for journals and books in the

biological sciences

Special features of this newly updated and greatly expanded edition include:

Preparation’’ section for easier © cross-listing of ‘‘Abbreviations

reference; and Symbols’’;

**Style in Special Fields’’; and much more...

CONTENTS: Ethical conduct in authorship and publication © Planning the

communication ¢ Writing the article ¢ Prose style for scientific writing ¢

References © Illustrative materials ¢ Editorial review of manuscripts ¢

Application of copyright law ¢ Manuscript into print © Proof correction ©

Indexing ® General style conventions @ Style in special fields © Abbreviations

and symbols ¢ Word usage ® Secondary services for literature searching @

Useful references with annotations ¢ Subject index

ISBN: 0-914340-04-2; clothbound; publication date: September 1983; trim

size 6 x 9 inches; 324 pages

Regular Price: $24.00 (10% discount on 10 or more copies delivered to one

address)

CBE Member Price: $21.50 (single copy paid by personal check)

Terms of Sale: All sales final; no returns.

Prepayment required; U.S. currency drawn on a U.S. bank.

Price includes BOOK RATE postage.

For faster delivery--first class, air mail, or UPS available at additional

charge (book weight 1 Ib 9 oz).

Maryland residents, please add 5% sales tax.

Mail your order with payment to:

COUNCIL OF BIOLOGY EDITORS, INC.

9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20814

J. ENTOMOL Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 59

MANIPULATIONS OF EGG-GALLERY LENGTH TO VARY BROOD DENSITY

IN SPRUCE BEETLE DENDROCTONUS RUFIPENNIS (COLEOPTERA:

SCOLYTIDAE): EFFECTS ON BROOD SURVIVAL AND QUALITY

T. S. SaAHota, F. G. PEET AND A. IBARAKI

Canadian Forestry Service, Pacific Forestry Centre, Victoria, British Columbia, V8Z 1MS5

Abstract

Different brood densities were produced under a constant bark surface area of the spruce

host, by excising egg-producing female Dendroctonus rufipennis from the host material

after they had excavated galleries of specified lengths. This procedure allowed a

constant attack density. The numbers of adult progeny produced/cm of egg-gallery were

significantly greater from bark slabs with short galleries and low densities: the sizes

(pronotal widths) of adult progeny of both sexes were also significantly greater from

low than from high densities; and the distribution patterns of chromatin differed

significantly among high, medium and low densities.

Résumé

Les auteurs ont obtenu différentes densités d’oeufs sous une section constante d’écorce

de l’épinette hdte en retirant des femelles ovipares de Dendroctonus rufipennis du tissu

hdte aprés qu’elles aient creusé des galeries de longueur déterminée. Cette méthode

permet d’obtenir une densité d’invasion constante. Le nombre de descendants adultes

produit par centimetre de galerie de ponte était beaucoup plus élevae dans les sections

d’écorce a galeries courtes et a densité d’oeufs faible; la taille argeur du pronotum) des

descendants adultes des deux sexes étaient également beaucoup plus élevée lorsque la

densité des oeufs était faible. De plus, les modes de répartition de la chromatine

différaient énormément selon qu’elle provenait d’oeufs a forte, moyenne ou faible

densité.

Introduction

In population dynamics studies of bark beetles, the effect of density on brood production

has been studied mostly in relation to the attack density of the parent beetles (McMullen and

Atkins 1961; Cole 1962; Reid 1963; Berryman and pienaar 1973). Studying this relationship

Carries practical advantages in that the attack density can be readily determined in natural

stands without destroying the sample and variations in attack density can be easily created in

controlled experiments. Such experiments, however, do not discriminate between reduced

brood production due to fewer parent beetles (McMullen and Atkins 1961; Thomson and

Sahota 1981) and that due to brood density and competition among the progeny. Some

experiments, using this approach, have related brood quality, such as adult size in the brood, to

the density of parental attack (Reid 1962; McGhehey 1971; Safranyik and Linton 1985).

Possibly, the effect of attack density on brood is indirect, emanating through changes in brood

density.

Cole (1973) isolated the effects of brood density on the quality of the brood as shown by

their reproductive capacity when mature. Varying the density of Dendroctonus ponderosae

larvae on a phloem diet showed that increased density and competition among larvae led to

reduced reproductive capacity in the resulting adult females. In the present paper, we have

isolated the effects of brood density from those of parental attack density among progeny

raised on the natural host diet. Survival and individual size of the brood adults are reported.

Also reported are cytological differences among the brood from the various density classes as

indicators of differences in population quality.

Materials and Methods

The spruce beetles, Dendroctonus rufipennis (Kirby) used in this study were collected

from a natural endemic field population near Hixon, British Columbia as well as the

laboratory-reared progeny of these beetles. The bolts of host trees containing adult beetles

were collected from the field and stored in the laboratory at O°C (+1°C) from October to April.

60 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. CoLumBiIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

In May the bolts were transferred to cages at room temperature leading to emergence of the

beetles. Fresh host material was obtained from the beetle collection site by cutting a spruce tree

(Picea engelmannii Parry) of 34-cm-dbh. Bark-bearing slabs measuring 30 cm x 20 cm x 5cm

thick were cut out of the bole. Surfaces without bark were coated with molten paraffin wax to

avoid excessive moisture loss.

Each female beetle was introduced 5 cm from one end of each slab by making a small

hole in the bark and confined there with a gelatin capsule. The male followed the female one

day later. Infested slabs were maintained at 18.3 + 1°C, each standing on its beetle-containing

end to encourage directional gallery production by the beetles. This arrangement was used to

produce three sets of slabs (9-10 slabs/set) containing parental galleries of 6.8 cm, 9.8 cm and

12.8 cm while the bark surface areas of all the slabs remained identical. The required gallery

length was achieved by X-raying the slabs and excising the female at the proper point. Beetle

excision was carried out by cutting about | cm x | cm piece of the bark. This opening was

sealed with molten paraffin after removal of the female. It was not possible, however, to excise

each beetle at precisely the specified gallery length. Eighteen slabs were started for each

density level; 9-10 of these were successfully colonized for each level. The three brood

densities resulting from these galleries were designated as low, medium and high respectively.

The slabs containing the parental galleries and eggs were kept at 18.3°C. In September, when

the progeny had reached the adult stage, the slabs were placed at 0°C for over-wintering. The

slabs were peeled to remove the adult progeny in May of the following year. The total parental

gallery length, the egg-gallery length (total parental gallery - initial egg free gallery) and the

number of adults produced in each slab were recorded. The pronotal widths of all progeny

were measured and their sexes determined.

Cytological investigations relating to quality differences among progeny from different

densities were carried out by analysing digitized images of fat body nuclei (Sahota et al. 1984).

Ten to 15 females from each density group were fixed in 3 parts ethanol: | part acetic acid for

2h. Their abdomens were slit open to facilitate penetration of fixative. The fat body was

stained in situ with Fuelgen stain after a 20 min hydrolysis with 3.5N HC1 at 37°C. The fat

body cells were spread on microscopic slides as described by Farris et al. (1982).

Digitized images of fat body nuclei were created by scanning the samples at 570 nm using

a Zeiss SMP5 microphotometer system on line to a PDP 11/34 minicomputer. This process

measures the light transmitted through every 0.25 tum square of the scanned area producing a

matrix of numbers or the digitized image. Materials other than nuclei in the digitized images

were removed by editing. Seventy-five variables were mathematically derived from each of

the edited images. Derivation of these variables or features along with the scanning and editing

procedures are described in Peet and Sahota (1984, 1985) and Sahota et al. (1986).

For analysis of data dealing with gallery lengths, progeny produced, and average

individual size of the progeny at various densities, we used ANOVA followed by Newman-

Keul’s multiple range test. The relationship between the adult progeny per unit of egg-gallery

length at various densities was examined by regression analysis.

To investigate cytological differences among progeny groups from different densities, the

three features with the highest merit value for discriminating among the three density classes

were selected by the computer. These included a histogram feature (HISTO4) and two

transition probability features (TRPR23 and TRPR61). Histogram features examine the

probability of the pixels of a nucleus belonging to a given optical density bin of a 20-bin

histogram generated from the optical densities of all the pixels comprising the nucleus.

HIST04 refers to the fourth bin of such a histogram. Transition probabilities relate to the

degree of change of optical density between a pixel and its eight immediate neighbours. A

detailed description of these and other features is given in Peet and Sahota (1984). We applied

discriminant analysis (Cooley and Lohnes 1971; Duda and Hart 1973) to the above three

features of the three cell populations. These methods generated a set of axes that maximized

the distances between the distributions representing various populations and minimized the

distances within each distribution. The 99% confidence ellipses were drawn with respect to the

first two of these new variables as the two axes. A more detailed description of this application

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 61

of discriminant analysis is given in Sahota et al. (1986).

Results and Discussion

Changes in brood density per 20 cm x 30 cm bark surface created by the variations in the

length of egg-gallery resulted in changes in the pronotal widths of brood members as well as

their survival to the adult stage. There was a significant decrease (p < 0.01) in the pronotal

widths with increasing brood density in both sexes (Table 1). This is similar to the results

obtained by varying the attack density (Safranyik and Linton 1985). The three groups of egg-

gallery lengths created for producing the three brood density classes were significantly

different from each other (P < 0.05). However, the number of adult progeny per slab or per cm

of the egg-gallery differed significantly between high and low densities but neither differed

from the medium density (P > 0.05) (Table 1).

When adult progeny per unit length of the egg-gallery was plotted against the length of

such galleries (Fig. 1), it was shown that increased egg-gallery length and competition led to a

decrease of adult progeny produced per cm of this gallery. The relationship depicted in this

figure was significant at the 95% confidence level. Thus it appears that the range of brood

densities created in the experiment produced biological effects of competition on brood

survival. Safranyik and Linton (1985) concluded that fewer adults produced per unit length of

the egg-gallery with increasing density was due to brood mortality. In their experiments,

however, differences in brood density were created by varying the attack density of parent

beetles per unit area of bark surface. Their argument that the decrease in adult progeny per unit

gallery length was not due to a decrease in egg production, was based on the demonstration by

Thomson and Sahota (1981) that competition among parent beetles does not alter the number

of eggs deposited per unit egg-gallery length. The present results are in agreement with those

of Sefranyik and Linton (1985) but provide more direct evidence to show that the decrease in

adult progeny produced per unit length of the egg-gallery was solely due to brood competition

as parental attack density was constant in these experiments. It may be pointed out that in most

of the slabs less than 70% of the phloem was used by the brood. In two of the slabs nearly 90%

of the phloem had been used.

ADULT PROG. /cm OF GALLERY LENGTH

GALLERY LENGTH (cm)

Fig. 1. Influence of egg-gallery length (brood density) on the survival per cm of egg gallery of Dendroctonus

rufipennis brood in 30 cm x 20 cm of bark surface area.

62 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

Table 1. Egg-gallery lengths of the parent adults and some characteristics of their adult progeny raised at three

brood density levels on 30cm x 20cm slabs of Picea engelmanni.

Brood Density Level

High Medium Low

No. of parental ) 9 10

egg-galleries

Egg-gallery 8.8l a 6.01 b 3.72, C

Lengths (cm) (0.40) (0.02) (0.41)

Adult progeny 42.8 ab 38.7 be 23.8 ¢

per bark slab (4.9) (5.0) (2.4)

Brood adults produced 4.81 ab 6.15 be 7.09 c

per cm. of egg-gallery (0.42) (0.88) (0.91)

Pronotal widths of Female 2.14 a 2.29 b 2-38 ¢

brood adults (mm) (0.004) (0.005) (0.01)

Male 2.09 a | 2.29 b 2.34 ¢

(0.003) (0.007) (0.01)

Note: Numbers within brackets show the standard error of the means they are associated with. Means followed by

the same letters within each row are not significently different at 95% level (Newman-Keul’s multiple range test).

Effects of the brood density on the “population quality”’ of the progeny were investigated

by examining individual size (pronotal width) in the progeny and changes created in the

distribution patterns of chromatin (DNA). Increase in brood density created by the increase in

length of the egg-galleries resulted in a significant reduction of the individual size of the

progeny of both sexes (Table 1). Brood density also produced cytological changes in the fat

body nuclei which reveal significant differences among the progeny from the three brood

density classes. Fig. 2 shows the 99% confidence ellipses of the means of the progeny from the

three density classes. These ellipses are based on the three features with the highest merit value

derived from the distribution pattern of chromatin. Chromatin distribution pattern have been

used to demonstrate small differences among cell and insect populations (Bartels and Wied

1977; Bartels and Olson 1980; Sahota et al. 1984). Furthermore, Sahota et al. (1986) have

shown that changes in the functions of the differentiating follicular epithelial cells are

accompanied by changes in the chromatin distribution patterns and that the treatments leading

to blockage of functional differentiation of these cells also block changes in chromatin

distribution patterns, thus providing evidence for a relationship between chromatin distribu-

tion pattern and cell function.

The results presented in this paper show that the influences of brood density on the

survival and quality of the progeny are similar to those created in response to attack density

(See Safranyik and Linton 1985). It appears that attack density effects are produced indirectly

through brood density as a result of competition. The results also show that analysis of

chromatin distribution patterns can detect population quality differences created by brood

density and competition. Sahota et al. (1984) have pointed out that population quality

differences related to reproductive capacity may result from the influence of a variety of

factors such as environment, genetics, competition, disease, etc. However, chromatin distribu-

tion patterns resulting from the influence of these factors may be different. Thus, density-

related distribution patterns of chromatin in broods provide further information required to

build a comprehensive picture of chromatin distribution patterns in relation to population

quality and reproduction.

J. ENToMoL Soc. Brit. CoLumBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 63

DISCRIMINANT VARIABLE |

2 4 6 8

MEDIUM

DISCRIMINANT VARIABLE 2

Fig. 2. Ninety-nine percent confidence ellipses of the means of distribution of the Dendroctonus rufipennis

broods raised under three different densities. These distributions are based on patterns of chromatin distribution.

References

Bartels, PH. and G.L. Wied. 1977. Computer analysis and biomedical interpretation of microscopic images;

current problems and future directions. Proc. IEEE. 65: 252-262.

Bartels, P.H. and G.B. Olson. 1980. Computer analysis of lymphocyte images. in Methods in Cell Separation. N.

Catsimpoolas (ED.) 3: pp. 1-67. Plenum Press, New York.

Berryman, A.A. and L.V. Pienaar. 1973. Simulation of intraspecific competition and survival of Scolytus ventralis

broods (Coleoptera: Scolytidae). Environ. Ent. 2: 447-459.

Cle, W.E. 1962. The effects of intraspecific competition within mountain pine beetle broods under laboratory

conditions. Intermountain Forest Range Exp. Stn., Res. Note No. 97. 4 pp.

Cole, W.E. 1973. Crowding effects among single-age larvae of mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae

(Coleoptera: Scolytidae). Environ. Ent. 2: 185-293.

Cooley, W.W. and P.R. Lohnes. 1971. Multivariate Data Analysis. pp. 1-364. John Wiley and Sons, New York.

Duda, R.O. and P-E. Hart. 1973. Pattern Classification and Scene Analysis. pp. 114-228. John Wiley and Sons,

New York.

Farris, S.H., T.S. Sahota, A. Ibaraki and A.J. Thomson. 1982. Use of pectinase to dissociate plant nuclei for squash

preparation. Effect of hydration procedures. Stain Technol. 57: 283-288.

McGhehey, J.H. 1971. Female size and egg production of the mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae

Hopkins. Northern Forest Research Centre, Edmonton, Alberta. Information Rep. NOR-X-9, 18 pp,

McMullen, L.H. and M.D. Atkins. 1961. Intraspecific competition as a factor in the natural control of the Douglas-

fir beetle. For. Sci. 7: 197-203.

Peet, FG. and T.S. Sahota. 1984. A computer assisted cell identification system. Anal. Quantit. Cytol. 6: 59-70.

Peet, F.G. and T.S. Sahota. 1985. Surface curvature as a measure of image texture. IEEE. Trans. Pattern Anal.

Machine Intell. PAMI. 7: 734-738.

Reid, R.W. 1962. Biology of the mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins, in the East Kootenay

region of British Columbia. II. Behaviour in the host, fecundity and internal changes in the female. Can. Ent.

94: 605-613.

Reid, R.W. 1963. Biology of the mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins, in the East Kootenay

region of British Columbia. III. Interaction between the beetle and its host, with emphasis on brood mortality

and survival. Can. Ent. 95: 225-238.

Safranyik, L. and D.A. Linton. 1985. Influence of competition on size, brood production and sex ratio in spruce

beetles (Coleoptera: Scolytidae). J. Ent. Soc. B.C. 82: 52-56.

Sahota, T.S., RG. Peet and P.H. Bartels. 1984. Progress towards early detection of population quality differences

in bark beetles (Coleoptera: Scolytidae). Can. Ent. 116: 481-486.

Sahota, T.S., F.G. Peet, A. Ibaraki and S.H. Farris. 1986. Chromatin distribution pattern and cell functioning. Can.

J. Zool. 64: 1908-1913.

Thomson, A.J. and T.S. Sahota. 1981. Competition and population quality in Dendroctonus rufipennis (Coleop-

tera: Scolytidae). Can. Ent. 113: 177-183.

64 J. ENTOMOL Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

THE GROUND MANTIS, LITANEUTRIA MINOR (DICTUOPTERA: MANTIDAE)

IN BRITISH COLUMBIA

ROBERT A. CANNINGS

British Columbia Provincial Museum, Victoria, B.C. V8V 1X4

Abstract

The status of the Ground Mantis, Litaneutria minor (Scudder), in British Columbia and

Canada is discussed, and brief notes on its natural history are given. Characteristics for

separating this species, the only native Canadian mantis, from the introduced and

sympatric Mantis religiosa L., are tabulated.

Only three species of Mantidae (Dictuoptera) are known from Canada, representing two

subfamilies. The Mantinae include the European Praying Mantis, Mantis religiosa L., and the

Chinese Mantis, Tenodera aridifolia sinensis Saussure; the Amelinae are represented by the

Ground Mantis, Litaneutria minor (Scudder). M. religiosa and T. aridifolia sinensis were

introduced into the eastern United States in the 1890s and subsequently spread to southern

Ontario and Quebec (Kevan 1979). The former was also introduced into the southern

Okanagan Valley of British Columbia for biological control purposes in 1938 and 1939

(Buckell 1941). For many years it apparently was rather scarce, and few specimens were

collected; since the 1970s, however, the population has been frequently observed between

Okanagan Falls and Osoyoos. Both brown and green colour phases occur there.

Litaneutria minor is widespread in the drier regions of North America from Mexico,

Texas and California north to North Dakota and British Columbia (Essig 1926, Vickery and

Kevan 1983, 1986). It is the only mantid native to Canada, where it is rather rare and seldom

collected, being known only from the southern Okanagan Valley in British Columbia. Vickery

and Kevan (1983) note that although the species is not yet recorded from Manitoba,

Saskatchewan, or Alberta, it may be expected to appear in the southernmost parts of these

provinces.

Canadian Material Examined. BRITISH COLUMBIA: Oliver, 1000’, 12.viii.1953, 2

males (D.F. Hardwick) (CNC); ibid., 18.viti,1953, 4 males (D.F. Hardwick) (CNC); ibid.,

30.vili.1953, 1 male (D.F. Hardwick) (CNC); Oliver, 9 mi S - Haynes Lease Ecological

Reserve, 1.x.1963, 1 female in funnel trap (W.B. Preston) (specimen apparently donated to

Spencer Entomological Museum U.B.C., but cannot now be located); Oliver, east bench 1100’,

29.viii.1920, 1 female - head,prothorax, one foreleg only (E. Hearle) (CNC); Osoyoos, Haynes

Point Prov. Park, 24.viii.1986, 1 male at light inside changeroom (M. Sarell) (BCPM).

The above records represent all but two of the Canadian specimens known to me. Vickery

and Kevan (1983) list two males collected at Oliver (1000’) on 17 and 18 July 1953 by J.E.H.

Martin and D.F. Hardwick, respectively. The specimens were received by the Lyman

Entomological Museum, McGill University on exchange from the Canadian National Collec-

tion; they are now in poor condition (D.. McE. Kevan, pers. comm.). Habitats, habitat and life

history are summarized by Vickery and Kevan (1983, 1086). Litaneutria is a ground-dweller,

but sometimes is found on low vegetation; Hearle’s specimen (Osoyoos, 1920) was collected

on a sage brush (Buckell 1922). In Texas, Roberts (1937) found the mantid mostly on low,

rocky ridges sparsely clothed with bunchgrass. It can run with great agility and is often

difficult to capture (Essig 1926), but pan traps are often effective (Barnum 1964, Vickery and

Kevan 1983, 1986). The gravid female collected by W.B. Preston at Oliver in 1963 was

captured in a funnel trap designed to collect rattlesnakes. Flying males are often attracted to

lights; all of the 11 males collected in Canada were collected at or near lights in July and

August.

Small egg masses, about 7 mm long and rather rectangular in shape are deposited on the

stems of low shrubs. These eggs overwinter in our area, and hatch in 185 to 205 days after

laying. Nymphs mature in about 13 weeks. Roberts (1937) recorded males living up to 47 days

and females up to 156 days.

J. ENToMoL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec: 31, 1987 65

The two species of mantids in British Columbia’s Okanagan Valley are sympatric at least

from Oliver south to the International Boundary. They can be separated by the characteristics

listed in Table 1.

Table 1. Some characteristics separating Litaneutria minor from Mantis religiosa

Setae on antennae

Length and anterior Wing

Species of adult Colour margin of development

tegmina of male

Litaneutria minor less than 35 mm __ buff to dark brown present females brachypterous (teg-

imina equal to, or less than, 1.3

length of abdomen); males usu-

ally fully winged; male usually

with dark spot on hindwing

Mantis religiosa more than 35 mm light brown or green absent both sexes fully winged

Acknowledgements

I thank R. Foottit, Biosystematics Research Centre, Ottawa, for the loan of specimens

from the CNC. W. B. Preston, Manitoba Museum of Man and Nature, Winnipeg, supplied

information concerning specimens he has collected. G. G. E. Scudder, D. K. McE. Kevan, and

W. B. Preston commented on the manuscript.

References

Barnum, A.H. 1964. Orthoptera of the Nevada test site. Brigham Young Univ. Sci. Bull. (Biol.) 4: 1-134.

Buckell, E.R. 1922. A list of the Orthoptera and Dermaptera recorded from British Columbia prior to the year

1922, with annotations. Proc. ent. Soc. British Columbia 20: 3-41.

Buckell, E.R. 1941. Field crops and garden insects of the season 1940 in British Columbia. Can. Insect Pest Rey.

19: 81-84.

Essig, E.O. 1926. Insects of western North America. Macmillan, New York. 1035 pp.

Kevan, D.K. McE. 1979. Dictuoptera. Pp. 314-316 in H.V. Danks (ed.) Canada and its insect fauna. Mem. ent Soc.

Canada 108: 1-573.

Roberts, R.A. 1937. Biology of the Minor Mantid, Litaneutria minor Scudder (Orthoptera: Mantidae). Ann. ent.

Soc. Amer. 30: 111-121.

Vickery, V.R. and D.K. McE. Kevan. 1983. A monograph of the Orthopteroid insects of Canada and adjacent

regions. Vol. 1. Mem. Lyman Ent. Mus. and Res. Lab. 13: xxii + iv + 657 p.

Vickery, V.R. and D.K. McE. Kevan. 1986. The Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Related Insects of Canada and

Adjacent Regions. Ulonata: Dermaptera, Cheleutoptera, Notoptera, Dictuoptera, Grylloptera, and Orthop-

tera. The Insects and Arachnids of Canada. Part 14. Research Branch, Agriculture Canada Publication 1777.

981 pp.

ADDENDUM

As this paper was going to press, I captured a female Litaneutria at the Haynes Lease Ecological

Reserve, located at the north end of Osoyoos Lake. It was sitting in the open on a dirt road at 16:00 h

PDT on 24 August 1987. The specimen is in the collection of the B.C. Provincial Museum,

Victoria.

66 J. ENtromot Soc. Brit. CoLuMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

THE APHIDS (HOMOPTERA: APHIDIDAE) OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

16. FURTHER ADDITIONS

A. R. FORBES AND C. K. CHAN

Research Station, Agriculture Canada, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1X2

ABSTRACT

Six species of aphids and new host records are added to the taxonomic list of the aphids

of British Columbia.

INTRODUCTION

Twelve previous lists of the aphids of British Columbia (Forbes, Frazer and MacCarthy

1973; Forbes, Frazer and Chan 1974; Forbes and Chan 1976, 1978, 1980, 1981, 1983, 1984,

1985, 1986a, 1986b; Forbes, Chan and Foottit 1982) recorded 386 species of aphids collected

from 865 hosts or in traps and comprises 1660 aphid-host plant associations. The present list

adds 6 aphid species (indicated with an asterisk in the list) and 104 aphid-host plant

associations to the previous lists. Fifty-four of the new aphid-host plant associations are plant

species not recorded before. The additions bring the number of known aphid species in British

Columbia to 392. Aphids have now been collected from 919 different host plants and the total

number of aphid-host plant associations is 1764.

The aphid names are listed alphabetically by species and are in conformity with Eastop

and Hille Ris Lambers (1976). Seven new collection sites are tabulated in Table 1. The location

of each collection site can be determined from Table | or from the tables of localities in the

previous papers. The reference points are the same as those shown on the map which

accompanies the basic list (Forbes, Frazer and MacCarthy 1973).

LIST OF SPECIES

ABIETINUM (Walker), ELATOBIUM

Picea pungens: Vancouver, Apr3/58.

*ABSINTHII (Linnaeus), MACROSIPHONIELLA

Artemisia arborescens ‘Powis Castle’: Vancouver (UBC), Aug29/86.

AEGOPODIH (Scopoli), CAVARIELLA

Sium suave: Sea Island, Jul15/59.

AGATHONICA Hottes, AMPHOROPHORA

Rubus idaeus: Abbotsford, Jul23/74.

ALBIFRONS Essig, MACROSIPHUM

Lupinus arboreus: Vancouver (UBC), Feb9/87, Aug29/86.

ALNIFOLIAE (Williams), PROCIPHILUS

Amelanchier sp. : Soda Creek, Jun16/56.

ANNULATUS (Hartig), TUBERCULATUS

Quercus garryana: Vancouver (UBC), Jun19/59.

ARUNDINARIAE (Essig), TAKECALLIS

Pseudosasa japonica: Vancouver (UBC), Jan7/87, Dec20/86.

ASCALONICUS Doncaster, MYZUS

Baccharis magellanica: Vancouver (UBC), Feb19/87.

Crocus sp.: Vancouver, May23/59.

Dahlia sp.: Vancouver, Apr13/58.

Draba borealis: Vancouver (UBC), Apr3/86.

Draba ruaxes: Vancouver (UBC), Mar15/85.

Lilium x hollandicum: Vancouver (UBC), May1/58.

Phacelia heterophylla: Vancouver (UBC), Apr3/86.

Stellaria media: Lulu Island, Mar24/60; Vancouver, Dec30/59.

AVELLANAE (Schrank), CORYLOBIUM

Corylus cornuta var. californica: Vancouver, Apr16/85, Jun2/86.

J. ENtomot Soc. Brit. CoLumsiaA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 67

AVENAE (Fabricius), SITOBION

Capsella bursa-pastoris: Vancouver (CDA), Jan20/87.

BAKERI (Cowen), NEARCTAPHIS

Malus sylvestris: Oliver, May 1/40.

BRASSICAE (Linnaeus), BREVICORY NE

Brassica napobrassica group: Creston, Oct2/57.

Brassica oleracea botrytis group: Chilliwack, Sep4/57.

CAPILANOENSE Robinson, AULACORTHUM

Rubus spectabilis: Vancouver (UBC), May29/86.

CARNOSUM (Buckton), MICROLOPHIUM

Urtica dioica: Peace Arch Park, Aug4/86.

CERTUS (Walker), MYZUS

Capsella bursa-pastoris: Vancouver (CDA), Dec30/86.

Gomphrena globosa: Vancouver (CDA), Dec30/86.

*CHRYSANTHEMI (Theobald), PLEOTRICHOPHORUS

Chrysanthemum balsamita: Vancouver (UBC), Aug1/86.

CIRCUMFLEXUM (Buckton), AULACORTHUM

Apium graveolens: Vancouver (CDA), Jan20/87.

Atropa belladonna: Vancouver (CDA), Jan22/87.

Corydalis aurea ssp. aurea: Vancouver (CDA), Oct17/85.

Crocus sp.: Vancouver, May23/59.

Fuchsia x hybrida ‘Jack Shahan’: Vancouver (UBC), Aug1/86.

Impatiens wallerana ‘Futura Wildrose’: Vancouver (UBC), Aug1/86.

Iris sp.: Vancouver, Jun29/58.

Linnaea borealis: Vancouver (CDA), Oct17/85.

Lonicera ‘Dropmore Scarlet’: Vancouver (CDA), Oct17/85.

Schizostylis coccinea: Vancouver (CDA), Oct17/85.

Vaccinium corymbosum: Vancouver (CDA), Oct17/85.

TABLE 1. Collection sites of aphids, with airline distances from reference points.

Locality Reference Distance

Point Dir km mi

Bowen Island Vancouver NW 22 14

Chehalis River Vancouver NE 82 a1

Choate Vancouver NE 146 91

Harrison Hot Springs Vancouver E 102 64

Peace Arch Park Vancouver S) 23 33

Sasquatch Provincial Park Vancouver E 110 69

Smithers Prince Rupert NE 216 136

68 J. ENTomMoL Soc. Brit. CoLumMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

CORYLI (Goeze), MYZOCALLIS

Corylus sp.: Vancouver, Jun22/56, Oct13/57, Nov1/57.

COWENI (Cockerell), TAMALIA

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi: Vancouver (UBC), Jun13/85.

*CRATAEGI (Monell), UTAMPHOROPHORA

Crataegus x lavallei: Vancouver (UBC), Jun19/84.

CREELII Davis, MACROSIPHUM

Chenopodium murale: Vancouver (CDA), Jan30/87.

*CRYSTLEAE SSP BARTHOLOMEWI (Essig), ILLINOIA

Lonicera involucrata: Chehalis River, Jun30/86.

DAPHNIDIS Borner, MACROSIPHUM

Daphne laureola: Vancouver (UBC), Apr2/86.

DIRHODUM (Walker), METOPOLOPHIUM

Rosa rugosa ‘Rubra’: Vancouver (UBC), Apr2/86.

EQUISETI Holman, SITOBION

Equisetum arvense: Vancouver, Oct21/85.

EQUISETICOLA Ossiannilsson, APHIS

Equisetum arvense: Vancouver, Jun9/84.

EUPHORBIAE (Thomas), MACROSIPHUM

Chenopodium murale: Vancouver (CDA), Dec30/86.

Solanum tuberosum: Alexandria, Aug!7/66; Quesnel, Aug17/66; Smithers, Jul22/57.

FABAE Scopoli, APHIS

Lilium philadelphicum var. andinum: Vancouver, Ju15/71.

Tripleurospermum maritimum: Vancouver (UBC), Jul1 1/84.

FAGI (Linnaeus), PHYLLAPHIS

Fagus sylvatica ‘Atropunicea’: Milner, Jun6/58.

Fagus sylvatica ‘Pendula’: Trout Creek, Sep3/65.

FIMBRIATA Richards, FIMBRIAPHIS

Fragaria x ananassa ‘Totem’: Abbotsford, Aug7/86.

FOENICULI (Passerini), HYADAPHIS

Lonicera involucrata: Ladner, May25/66.

Lonicera pyrenaica: Vancouver (UBC), Oct20/86.

FRAGAEFOLII (Cockerell), CHAETOSIPHON

Fragaria sp.: Richmond, Apr14/65, Apr29/65, May31/65.

FRAGARIAE (Walker), SITOBION

Holcus lanatus: Richmond, Aug2/64.

GILLETTEI Davidson, EUCERAPHIS

Alnus rubra: Mount Seymour, May20/73.

*GNAPHALODES (Palmer), PLEOTRICHOPHORUS

Artemisia stelleriana: Vancouver (UBC), Aug29/86.

HELICHRYSI (Kaltenbach), BRACHYCAUDUS

Antirrhinum majus: Chilliwack, May4/58.

Salvia officinalis: Vancouver (UBC), Jun15/84.

HIPPOPHAES (Walker), CAPITOPHORUS

Polygonum persicaria: Vancouver (UBC), Aug13/86.

IDAEI van der Goot, APHIS

Rubus idaeus: Vancouver, Jun10/86.

KONOI Takahashi, CAVARIELLA

Apium graveolens: Cloverdale, Jul 1/86.

LACTUCAE (Linnaeus), HYPEROMYZUS

Ribes magellanica: Vancouver (UBC), Oct1/85.

LANIGERUM (Hausmann), ERIOSOMA

Malus fusca: Ladner, May25/66.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 69

LATYSIPHON (Davidson), RHOPALOSIPHONINUS

Gladiolus sp.: Vancouver, Mar22/60.

LONICERAE (Siebold), RHOPALOMYZUS

Lonicera pyrenaica: Vancouver (UBC), Oct20/86.

MAIDIS (Fitch), RHOPALOSIPHUM

Capsella bursa-pastoris: Vancouver (CDA), Dec20/86.

MANITOBENSE (Robinson), SITOBION

Cornus sericea: Vancouver (UBC), Sep4/86.

MILLEFOLII (de Geer), MACROSIPHONIELLA

Achillea millefolium: Bowen Island, Aug13/86; Vancouver (UBC), Sep23/75.

Achillea millefolium var. borealis: Vancouver (UBC), Oct20/86.

NYMPHAEAE (Linnaeus), RHOPALOSIPHUM

Capsella bursa-pastoris: Agassiz, Jul12/56.

ORNATUS Laing, MYZUS

Campsis x tagliabuana ‘Madame Galen’: Vancouver (UBC), Aug14/85.

Ceratostigma willmottianum: Vancouver (UBC), Sep3/85.

Chamomilla suaveolens: Vancouver, Apr7/60.

Cirsium arvense: Vancouver (UBC), Jan7/87.

Coleus blumei: Vancouver, May10O/59.

Dahlia sp.: Vancouver, Apr13/58.

Lamium amplexicaule: Vancouver (UBC), Jan22/60.

PADI (Linnaeus), RHOPALOSIPHUM

Capsella bursa-pastoris: Vancouver (CDA), Dec20/86.

Stipa elegantissima: Vancouver (UBC), Feb19/87.

PARVIFOLII Richards, MACROSIPHUM

Vaccinium parvifolium: Vancouver (UBC), Apr8/86.

PATRICIAE (Robinson), ILLINOIA

Tsuga heterophylla: North Vancouver, Aug25/71.

*PENDERUM Robinson, UROLEUCON

Grindelia integrifolia: Pender Island, Jul9/85 (Robinson 1986); Vancouver (UBC),

Oct25/85, Nov4/85.

PERSICAE (Sulzer), MYZUS

Amaranthus retroflexus: Chilliwack, Jun17/58.

Brassica napobrassica group: Chilliwack, Aug22/57; Creston, Oct2/57.

Brassica oleracea botrytis group: Agassiz, Jun9/58.

Brassica rapa: Agassiz, Jul12/56.

Capsella bursa-pastoris: Creston, May28/58; Pemberton, Sep2/86; Vancouver (UBC),

Jan22/60; Westham Island, Sep10/86.

Cucurbita sp.: Vancouver, Jun20/58.

Dahlia sp.: Vancouver, Apr13/58.

Digitalis lanata: Saanich, Ju16/59.

Hibiscus sabdariffa: Vancouver (UBC), Jan5/59.

Nicotiana tabacum: Vancouver (UBC), Aug29/58.

Plantago major: Pemberton, Sep2/86.

Raphanus raphanistrum: Pemberton, Sep2/86.

Solanum tuberosum: Alexandria, Aug!7/66; Chilliwack, May22/58; Kelowna,

Aug18/54; Lulu Island, Sep18/56; Pemberton, Sep2/86.

Zinnia elegans: Vancouver, Jun3/56.

PISUM (Harris), ACYRTHOSIPHON

Cytisus scoparius: Vancouver, Jul21/58.

PLANTAGINEA (Passerini), DYSAPHIS

Malus sylvestris: Penticton, Ju127/57.

POMI de Geer, APHIS

Cotoneaster franchetii: Vancouver, Jul12/57.

70 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. CoLumsia 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

PRUNI (Geoffroy), HYALOPTERUS

Prunus domestica: Chilliwack, Ju123/86.

PUNCTATUS (Monell), MYZOCALLIS

Quercus garryana: Vancouver (UBC), Jun19/59.

PUNCTIPENNIS (Zetterstedt), EUCERAPHIS

Alnus viridis ssp. sinuata: Vancouver (UBC), Sep3/86.

RHAMNI (Clarke), SITOBION

Rhamnus purshiana: Vancouver (UBC), May23/86.

RIBIS (Linnaeus), CRYPTOMYZUS

Ribes magellanica: Vancouver (UBC), Oct1/85.

RIEHMI (Borner), THERIOAPHIS

Medicago sativa: Lister, Aug25/58.

ROBINIAE (Gillette), APPENDISETA

Robinia pseudoacacia: Harrison Hot Springs, Aug13/86.

ROSAE (Linnaeus), MACROSIPHUM

Rosa ‘White Dawn’: Vancouver, Ju123/86.

ROSARUM (Kaltenbach), MYZAPHIS

Rosa rugosa: Vancouver (UBC), May23/86.

SANGUICEPS Richards, PPEROCOMMA

Salix scouleriana: Vancouver (UBC), Apr3/74.

SOLANI (Kaltenbach), AULACORTHUM

Alstroemeria chilensis: Vancouver (UBC), Feb19/87.

Amaranthus retroflexus: Chilliwack, Jun17/58.

Anagallis monelli: Vancouver (UBC), Feb18/87.

Antirrhinum majus: Chilliwack, May4/58.

Aguilegia caerulea var. ochroleuca: Vancouver (UBC), Feb19/87.

Artemisia absinthium: Vancouver (UBC), May23/86.

Baccharis magellanica: Vancouver (UBC), Feb19/87.

Citrullus lanatus: Vancouver, Sep26/86.

Conium maculatum: Vancouver (UBC), May23/86.

Dahlia sp.: Vancouver, Apr13/58.

Eucryphia lucida: Vancouver (UBC), Feb18/87.

Fragaria chiloensis: Vancouver (UBC), Feb19/87.

Grindelia integrifolia: Vancouver (UBC), Nov4/85.

Tris sp.: Vancouver, Jun29/58.

Iris tectorum: Vancouver (UBC), Feb19/87.

Lamium amplexicaule: Vancouver, Jan22/60.

Linnaea borealis: Vancouver (UBC), May6/86.

Lycium chinense: Vancouver (UBC), May23/86.

Lycopersicon lycopersicum: Vancouver, Jun22/61.

Nicandra physalodes: Vancouver (UBC), Feb28/58.

Papaver alpinum ‘Plena’: Vancouver (UBC), Feb18/87.

Parthenocissus quinquefolia: Vancouver, Jun22/84.

Plantago rubrifolia: Vancouver (UBC), May23/86.

Primula parryi: Vancouver (UBC), Feb19/87.

Senecio canus: Vancouver (UBC), May23/86.

Solanum tuberosum: Boundary Bay, Mar24/60; Chilliwack, May22/58.

Stellaria media: Vancouver, Dec30/59.

Tanacetum vulgare: Vancouver (UBC), May23/86.

Tripleurospermum maritimum: Vancouver (UBC), Ju111/84.

SPIRAEAE (MacGillivray), ILLINOIA

Spiraea douglasii: Abbotsford, Jun16/65.

SPIRAECOLA (Patch), ILLINOIA

Spiraea thunbergii: Vancouver (UBC), May6/86.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 vA

SPYROTHECAE Passerini, PEMPHIGUS

Populus nigra ‘Italica’: Sasquatch Provincial Park, Aug13/86.

STAPHYLEAE (Koch), RHOPALOSIPHONINUS

Astilbe microphylla: Vancouver (UBC), Apr18/86.

Cardiocrinum giganteum: Vancouver (UBC), Apr18/86.

Geranium ‘Ballerina’: Vancouver (UBC), Apr18/86.

Helleborus orientalis: Vancouver (UBC), Apr18/86.

Parthenocissus quinquefolia: Vancouver, Jun22/84.

Viburnum farreri ‘Bowles’: Vancouver (UBC), Apr18/86.

STELLARIAE Theobald, MACROSIPHUM

Catharanthus roseus: Vancouver (CDA), Oct13/86.

Rheum rhabarbarum ‘Victoria’: Vancouver (CDA), Oct10/86.

TANACETARIA (Kaltenbach), MACROSIPHONIELLA

Chrysanthemum balsamita: Vancouver (UBC), Aug1/86.

Chrysanthemum parthenium: Vancouver (UBC), Aug1/86.

Matricaria perforata: Vancouver (UBC), Sep22/86.

Tanacetum vulgare: Choate, Jul124/67.

TESTUDINACEUS (Fernie), PERIPHYLLUS

Acer macrophyllum: Vancouver (UBC), May10/74.

TILIAE (Linnaeus), EUCALLIPTERUS

Tilia americana: Vancouver (UBC), Sep25/86.

VANCOUVERENSE Robinson, UROLEUCON

Solidago missouriensis var. missouriensis: Vancouver (UBC), Oct20/86.

VARIABILIS Richards, BOERNERINA

Alnus viridis ssp. sinuata: Vancouver (UBC), Sep3/86.

VARIANS Patch, APHIS

Ribes magellanica: Vancouver (UBC), Oct1/85.

WALSHII (Monell), MYZOCALLIS

Quercus sp.: Vancouver, Sep21/59.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to thank Dr. A.G. Robinson, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg for

valuable aid and advice in identifications.

REFERENCES

Eastop, V.F., and D. Hille Ris Lambers. 1976. Survey of the world’s aphids. Dr. W. Junk b.v., Publisher, The

Hague.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1986a. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 15. Further

additions. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 83: 70-73.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1986b. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 14. Further

additions. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 83 : 66-69.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1985. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 13. Further

additions. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 82: 56-58.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1984. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 12. Further

additions. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 81: 72-75.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1983. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 11. Further

additions. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 80: 51-53.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1981. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 9. Further additions.

J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 78: 53-54.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1980. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 8. Further additions

and corrections. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 77: 38-42.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1978. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 6. Further additions.

J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 75: 47-52.

TD. J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1976. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 4. Further additions

and corrections. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 73: 57-63.

Forbes, A.R., C.K. Chan and R. Foottit. 1982. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 10.

Further additions. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 79: 75-78.

Forbes, A.R., B.D. Frazer and C.K. Chan. 1974. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 3.

Additions and corrections. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 71: 43-49.

Forbes, A.R., B.D. Frazer and H.R. MacCarthy. 1973. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 1.

A basic taxonomic list. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 70: 43-57.

Robinson, A.G. 1986. Annotated list of Uroleucon (Lambersius) (Homoptera: Aphididae) of America north of

Mexico, with a key and descriptions of new species. Canad. Ent. 118: 559-570.

THE APHIDS (HOMOPTERA:APHIDIDAE) OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

17. A REVISED HOST PLANT CATALOGUE

A. R. FORBES AND C. K. CHAN

Research Station, Agriculture Canada, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1X2

ABSTRACT

A host plant catalogue of 919 species and the associated aphids collected in British

Columbia is presented.

INTRODUCTION

This host plant catalogue includes all of the aphids recorded in British Columbia (Forbes,

Frazer and MacCarthy 1973; Forbes, Frazer and Chan 1974; Forbes and Chan 1976, 1978b,

1980, 1981, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986a, 1986b, 1987; Forbes, Chan and Foottit 1982) that were

actually colonizing hosts. It supercedes previous ones (Forbes and Chan 1978a; Forbes and

Frazer 1973).

Names of native plants are based on Anonymous (1982); Crabbe, Jermy and Mikel

(1975); Hitchcock and Cronquist (1973); Schofield (1969); and Taylor and MacBryde (1977).

Names of cultivated plants are based on Anonymous (1976); and Fernald (1970). The plant

hosts are listed alphabetically by genus, species and variety with a cross index of common

names and family names. The aphids colonizing each host are given alphabetically by genus

and species. Their names are in conformity with Eastop and Hille Ris Lambers (1976).

This catalogue was compiled by computer using a Fortran program (Raworth and Frazer

1976).

HOST PLANT CATALOGUE

Abelia x ‘Edward Goucher’ Abies sp. Fir ( F. Pinaceae )

Edward Goucher Abelia ( F. Caprifoliaceae ) Cinara confinis

Myzus ornatus Cinara sonata

Abies balsamea Balsam Fir ( F. Pinaceae ) Acer cappadocicum

Cinara curvipes Cappadocian Maple ( F. Aceraceae )

Cinara occidentalis Periphyllus testudinaceus

Abies grandis Grand Fir ( F. Pinaceae ) Acer circinatum Vine Maple ( F. Aceraceae )

Cinara confinis Periphyllus californiensis

Cinara curvipes Periphyllus lyropictus

Cinara occidentalis Periphyllus testudinaceus

Cinara sonata Acer ginnala Amur Maple ( F. Aceraceae )

Mindarus abietinus Periphyllus testudinaceus

Mindarus victoria Acer glabrum

Abies lasiocarpa Alpine Fir ( F. Pinaceae ) Rocky Mountain Maple ( F. Aceraceae )

Cinara confinis Drepanosiphum platanoidis

Cinara curvipes Periphyllus brevispinosus

Abies sibirica Siberian Fir ( F. Pinaceae ) Acer glabrum var. douglasii

Cinara occidentalis Douglas Maple ( F. Aceraceae )

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), DEc.

Periphyllus testudinaceus

Acer macrophyllum

Broadleaf Maple ( F. Aceraceae )

Drepanosiphum platanoidis

Periphyllus californiensis

Periphyllus lyropictus

Periphyllus testudinaceus

Acer negundo Box-Elder ( F. Aceraceae )

Drepanosiphum platanoidis

Periphyllus californiensis

Periphyllus negundinis

Periphyllus testudinaceus

Acer palmatum

Japanese Maple ( F. Aceraceae )

Periphyllus testudinaceus

Acer platanoides

Norway Maple ( F. Aceraceae )

Drepanosiphum platanoidis

Periphyllus lyropictus

Periphyllus testudinaceus

Acer rubrum Red Maple ( F. Aceraceae

Periphyllus testudinaceus

Acer saccharinum

Silver Maple ( F. Aceraceae

Periphyllus testudinaceus

Acer sp. Maple ( F. Aceraceae

Drepanosiphum platanoidis

Periphyllus aceris

Periphyllus californiensis

Periphyllus lyropictus

Periphyllus testudinaceus

Achillea ‘Coronation Gold’

Coronation Gold Yarrow ( F. Compositae )

Macrosiphoniella millefolii

Achillea millefolium

Common Yarrow ( F. Compositae )

Macrosiphoniella millefolii

Uroleucon achilleae

Achillea millefolium var. borealis

Northern Yarrow ( F. Compositae )

Macrosiphoniella millefolii

Achillea millefolium ‘Cerise Queen’

Cerise Queen Yarrow ( F. Compositae )

Macrosiphoniella millefolii

Achillea millefolium var. lanulosa

Western Yarrow ( F. Compositae )

Macrosiphoniella millefolii

Aegopodium podograria

Goutweed ( F. Umbelliferae )

Cavariella aegopodii

Hyadaphis foeniculi

Aeschynanthus radicans

Lipstick Plant ( F. Gesneriaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Aesculus hippocastanum

Horse Chestnut ( F. Hippocastanaceae )

Periphyllus testudinaceus

Aethionema schistosum

Turkey Stone Cress ( F. Cruciferae )

Myzus persicae

Agropyron repens

31, 1987 73

Couch Grass ( F. Gramineae )

Sipha elegans

Tetraneura ulmi

Utamphorophora humboldti

Agropyron sp. Wheat Grass ( F. Gramineae )

Sipha elegans

Sitobion avenae

Agrostis stolonifera var. palustris

Creeping Bent Grass ( F. Gramineae )

Sipha glyceriae

Alcea rosea

Myzus persicae

Alchemilla mollis

Soft Lady’s Mantle ( F. Rosaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Myzus ascalonicus

Alchemilla vulgaris

Common Lady’s Mantle ( F. Rosaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Aulacorthum solani

Myzus ornatus

Alisma plantago-aquatica

American Waterplantain ( F. Alismataceae )

Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae

Allium cepa Onion ( F. Liliaceae )

Myzus ascalonicus

Allium schoenoprasum

Myzus ascalonicus

Allium tuberosum

Chinese Chive ( F. Liliaceae )

Myzus persicae

Alnus incana ssp. tenuifolia

Thin-Leaved Mountain Alder ( F. Betulaceae )

Oestlundiella flava

Pterocallis alnifoliae

Alnus rubra Red Alder ( F. Betulaceae )

Euceraphis gillettei

Euceraphis punctipennis

Pterocallis alni

Alnus sp.

Boernerina variabilis

Euceraphis gillettei

Oestlundiella flava

Pterocallis alni

Alnus viridis ssp. sinuata

Sitka Mountain Alder ( F. Betulaceae )

Boernerina variabilis

Euceraphis punctipennis

Euceraphis sitchensis

Aloe barbadensis Barbados Aloe ( F. Liliaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Aloysia triphylla

Lemon Verbena ( F. Verbenaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Myzus persicae

Alstroemeria aurantiaca

Yellow Alstroemeria ( F. Amaryllidaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Myzus ornatus

Alstroemeria chilensis

Chilean Alstroemeria ( F. Amaryllidaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Hollyhock ( F. Malvaceae )

Chive ( F. Liliaceae )

Alder ( F. Betulaceae )

74 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

Althaea sp.

Uroleucon eoessigi

Alyogyne huegelii

Huegel’s Hibiscus ( F. Malvaceae )

Myzus persicae

Alyssum montanum

Mountain Alyssum ( F. Cruciferae )

Myzus ascalonicus

Alyssum murale Yellow-Tuft ( F. Cruciferae )

Myzus ornatus

Amaranthus retroflexus

Redroot Pigweed ( F. Amaranthaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Myzus persicae

Amelanchier alnifolia

Western Serviceberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Acyrthosiphon macrosiphum

Prociphilus alnifoliae

Amelanchier canadensis

Shadblow Serviceberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Acyrthosiphon macrosiphum

Aphis fabae

Aphis pomi

Prociphilus alnifoliae

Amelanchier laevis

Allegheny Serviceberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Acyrthosiphon macrosiphum

Fimbriaphis gentneri

Amelanchier ovalis

European Serviceberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Fimbriaphis gentneri

Amelanchier sp. Serviceberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Nearctaphis sensoriata

Prociphilus alnifoliae

Prociphilus corrugatans

Amsinckia intermedia

Fiddle-Neck ( F. Boraginaceae )

Pleotrichophorus amsinckii

Anagallis monelli

Monell Pimpernel ( F. Primulaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Anaphalis margaritacea

Pearly Everlasting ( F. Compositae )

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Illinoia richardsi

Uroleucon russellae

Androsace sarmentosa

Rock-Jasmine ( F. Primulaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Anemone halleri

Haller Anemone ( F. Ranunculaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Myzus ascalonicus

Anemone pulsatilla

European Pasqueflower ( F. Ranunculaceae )

Myzus ascalonicus

Anethum graveolens

Cavariella aegopodii

Angelica genuflexa

Kneeling Angelica ( F. Umbelliferae )

Cavariella aegopodii

Antennaria neglecta var. attenuata

Field Pussytoes ( F. Compositae )

Althaea ( F. Malvaceae )

Dill ( F. Umbelliferae )

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Antennaria umbrinella

Dusky Brown Pussytoes ( F. Compositae )

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Anthericum liliago

St-Bernard’s Lily ( F. Liliaceae )

Myzus persicae

Anthoxanthum odoratum

Sweet Vernal Grass ( F. Gramineae )

Sitobion fragariae

Antirrhinum majus

Common Snapdragon ( F. Scrophulariaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Aphelandra squarrosa

Zebra Plant ( F. Acanthaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Apium graveolens Celery ( F. Umbelliferae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Aulacorthum solani

Cavariella konoi

Hyadaphis foeniculi

Macrosiphum stellariae

Myzus persicae

Apocynum androsaemifolium

Common Dogbane ( F. Apocynaceae )

Aphis fabae

Aulacorthum solani

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus ornatus

Myzus persicae

Rhopalosiphoninus staphyleae

Aquilegia alpina

Alpine Columbine ( F. Ranunculaceae )

Kakimia aquilegiae

Aquilegia caerulea var. ochroleuca

White-Sepal Colorado Columbine

( F. Ranunculaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Aquilegia chrysantha

Golden Columbine ( F. Ranunculaceae )

Kakimia aquilegiae

Aquilegia formosa

Sitka Columbine ( F. Ranunculaceae )

Kakimia aquilegiae

Aquilegia olympica

Caucasus Columbine ( F. Ranunculaceae )

Myzus ornatus

Aquilegia sp. Columbine ( F. Ranunculaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Kakimia aquilegiae

Longicaudus trirhodus

Aquilegia vulgaris

Garden Columbine ( F. Ranunculaceae )

Aphis fabae

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Aulacorthum solani

Kakimia aquilegiae

Longicaudus trirhodus

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus ascalonicus

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 is:

Arabis caucasica Wall Rockcress ( F. Cruciferae )

Myzus ascalonicus

Myzus ornatus

Aralia elata

Japanese Angelica-Tree ( F. Araliaceae )

Aphis fabae

Myzus persicae

Rhopalosiphoninus staphyleae

Arbutus menziesii

Pacific Madrone ( F. Ericaceae )

Wahlgreniella nervata

Wahlgreniella nervata arbuti

Arbutus unedo Strawberry Tree ( F. Ericaceae )

Wahlgreniella nervata

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi

Bearberry ( F. Ericaceae )

Aphis fabae

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Aulacorthum solani

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Ericaphis scammelli

Fimbriaphis fimbriata

Myzus ascalonicus

Myzus ornatus

Rhopalosiphoninus staphyleae

Tamalia coweni

Wahlgreniella vaccinii

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi ‘Point Reyes’

‘Point Reyes’ Bearberry ( F. Ericaceae )

Wahlgreniella nervata

Arnica amplexicaulis

Clasping Arnica ( F. Compositae )

Illinoia davidsoni

Arnica chamissonis

Chamisso’s Arnica ( F. Compositae )

Myzus ornatus

Arnica latifolia var. gracilis

Broad-Leaved Arnica ( F. Compositae )

Myzus ascalonicus

Arrhenatherum elatius ‘Variegatum’

Variegated Oat Grass ( F. Gramineae )

Metopolophium dirhodum

Sipha glyceriae

Sitobion avenae

Artemisia absinthium Absinthe ( F. Compositae )

Aulacorthum solani

Artemisia arborescens ‘Powis Castle’

Powis Castle Shrubby Sagebrush

(_F. Compositae )

Macrosiphoniella absinthii

Artemisia ludoviciana

Western Mugwort ( F. Compositae )

Macrosiphoniella ludovicianae

Artemisia sp. Sagebrush ( F. Compositae )

Obtusicauda frigidae

Artemisia stelleriana

Hoary Mugwort ( F. Compositae )

Pleotrichophorus gnaphalodes

Artemisia tridentata

Common Sagebrush ( F. Compositae )

Aphis canae

Microsiphoniella oregonensis

Obtusicauda artemisiae

Asclepias speciosa

Showy Milkweed ( F. Asclepiadaceae )

Aphis asclepiadis

Myzus persicae

Asclepias tuberosa

Butterfly Weed ( F. Asclepiadaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Asparagus densiflorus ‘Sprenger’

Sprenger Asparagus ( F. Liliaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Brachycolus asparagi

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus persicae

Asparagus officinalis

Garden Asparagus ( F. Liliaceae )

Aphis fabae

Aphis helianthi

Brachycolus asparagi

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Macrosiphum stellariae

Myzus persicae

Sitobion avenae

Aster alpinus Alpine Aster ( F. Compositae )

Macrosiphum subviride

Aster foliaceus var. cusickii

Leafy-Bracted Aster ( F. Compositae )

Aulacorthum solani

Aster sp. Aster ( F. Compositae )

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Macrosiphum pallidum

Myzus persicae

Uroleucon ambrosiae

Uroleucon breviscriptum

Uroleucon paucosensoriatum

Astilbe microphylla

Small-Leaved False Goat’s Beard

( F. Saxifragaceae )

Rhopalosiphoninus staphyleae

Athyrium distentifolium var. americanum

Alpine Lady Fern ( F. Aspleniaceae )

Sitobion adianti

Athyrium filix-femina

Lady Fern ( F. Aspleniaceae )

Sitobion adianti

Athyrium filix-femina ssp. cyclosorum

Common Lady Fern ( F. Aspleniaceae )

Sitobion adianti

Atropa belladonna Belladonna ( F. Solanaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Aubrieta deltoidea

Purple Rock-Cress ( F. Cruciferae )

Myzus ascalonicus

Myzus ornatus

Myzus persicae

Aucuba japonica

Japanese Aucuba ( F. Cornaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Myzus ascalonicus

Aucuba japonica ‘Variegata’

Gold-Dust Tree ( F. Cornaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Avena Sativa Oat ( F. Gramineae )

16 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

Metopolophium dirhodum

Rhopalosiphum padi

Sitobion avenae

Baccharis magellanica

Magellan Baccharis ( F. Compositae )

Aulacorthum solani

Myzus ascalonicus

Balsamorhiza sagittata

Arrowleaf Balsamroot ( F. Compositae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Barbarea orthoceras

American Winter Cress ( F. Cruciferae )

Myzus ornatus

Barbarea verna

Early Winter Cress ( F. Cruciferae )

Myzus ornatus

Begonia cucullata var. hookeri

Wax Begonia ( F. Begoniaceae )

Aphis gossypii

Myzus ornatus

Bellis perennis English Daisy ( F. Compositae )

Aulacorthum solani

Myzus ascalonicus

Myzus ornatus

Berberidopsis corallina

Coral Berberidopsis ( F. Flacourtiaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Berberis buxifolia

Magellan Barberry ( F. Berberidaceae )

Liosomaphis berberidis

Berberis x hybrido-gagnepainii

False Black Barberry ( F. Berberidaceae )

Liosomaphis berberidis

Berberis thunbergii

Japanese Barberry ( F. Berberidaceae )

Liosomaphis berberidis

Berberis verruculosa

Warty Barberry ( F. Berberidaceae )

Liosomaphis berberidis

Beta vulgaris Sugar Beet ( F. Chenopodiaceae )

Aphis fabae

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Macrosiphum stellariae

Myzus persicae

Pemphigus betae

Betula occidentalis

Western Birch ( F. Betulaceae )

Calaphis betulaefoliae

Euceraphis punctipennis

Symydobius intermedius

Betula papyrifera Paper Birch ( F. Betulaceae )

Asiphum tremulae

Calaphis betulicola

Callipterinella callipterus

Callipterinella minutissima

Euceraphis punctipennis

Betula papyrifera var. papyrifera

Common Paper Birch ( F. Betulaceae )

Euceraphis punctipennis

Betula pendula Weeping Birch ( F. Betulaceae )

Betulaphis quadrituberculata

Calaphis betulicola

Euceraphis punctipennis

Betula pendula ‘Dalecarlica’

Dalecarlica Weeping Birch ( F. Betulaceae )

Callipterinella callipterus

Euceraphis punctipennis

Betula sp. Birch ( F. Betulaceae )

Betulaphis aurea

Betulaphis brevipilosa

Betulaphis helvetica

Betulaphis quadrituberculata

Calaphis betulaecolens

Calaphis betulicola

Calaphis flava

Euceraphis gillettei

Euceraphis punctipennis

Hamamelistes spinosus :

Bidens cernua

Smooth Beggartick ( F. Compositae )

Aphis fabae

Myzus persicae

Bletia sp.

Myzus ascalonicus

Myzus persicae

Brassica juncea ‘Florida Broadleaf’

Florida Broadleaf Mustard ( F. Cruciferae )

Brevicoryne brassicae

Rhopalosipheninus staphyleae

Brassica napobrassica group

Rutabaga ( F. Cruciferae )

Brevicoryne brassicae

Myzus persicae

Brassica oleracea acephala group

Kale ( F. Cruciferae )

Bletia ( F. Orchidaceae )

Brevicoryne brassicae

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Brassica oleracea botrytis group

Broccoli ( F. Cruciferae )

Brevicoryne brassicae

Myzus persicae

Brassica oleracea var. capitata

Cabbage ( F. Cruciferae )

Brevicoryne brassicae

Myzus persicae

Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera

Brussels Sprouts ( F. Cruciferae )

Brevicoryne brassicae

Lipaphis erysimi

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus persicae

Brassica oleracea ‘Waltham 29’

Waltham 29 Broccoli ( F. Cruciferae )

Brevicoryne brassicae

Myzus persicae

Brassica ‘Osaka Red’

Ornamental Kale ( F. Cruciferae )

Brevicoryne brassicae

Brassica pekinensis Pe-Tsai ( F. Cruciferae )

Brevicoryne brassicae

Rhopalosiphoninus staphyleae

Brassica rapa Field Mustard ( F. Cruciferae )

Myzus persicae

Brassica rapa ssp. campestris

Bird Rape ( F. Cruciferae )

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 V

Lipaphis erysimi

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus persicae

Brassica rapa var. lorifolia

Turnip ( F. Cruciferae )

Brevicoryne brassicae

Brassica sp. Mustard ( F. Cruciferae )

Myzus persicae

Bromus ciliatus

Fringed Brome Grass ( F. Gramineae )

Sitobion fragariae

Buddleja davidii

Orange-Eye Butterflybush ( F. Buddlejaceae )

Myzus ornatus

Myzus persicae

Calamagrostis sp. Reed Grass ( F. Gramineae )

Sitobion fragariae

Calceolaria crenatiflora

Slipperwort ( F. Scrophulariaceae )

Myzus persicae

Calendula officinalis

Pot-Marigold ( F. Compositae )

Aphis fabae

Myzus persicae

Callistephus chinensis

China Aster ( F. Compositae )

Aphis fabae

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus persicae

Callitriche stagnalis

Pond Water-Starwort ( F. Callitrichaceae )

Myzodium knowltoni

Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae

Calluna vulgaris Scotch Heather ( F. Ericaceae )

Aphis callunae

Caltha sp. Marsh Marigold ( F. Ranunculaceae )

Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae

Calycanthus fertilis

Pale Sweetshrub ( F. Calycanthaceae )

Aphis citricola

Calystegia sepium

Hedge Bindweed ( F. Convolvulaceae )

Myzus persicae

Campanula persicifolia

Peachleaf Bellflower ( F. Campanulaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Myzus ornatus

Campanula portenschlagiana

Dalmatian Bellflower ( F. Campanulaceae )

Myzus ascalonicus

Campsis x tagliabuana ‘Madame Galen’

Clinging Vine ( F. Bignoniaceae )

Myzus ornatus

Cannabis sativa True Hemp ( F. Cannabaceae )

Myzus persicae

Capsella bursa-pastoris

Shepherd’s Purse ( F. Cruciferae )

Aphis fabae

Aulacorthum solani

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Macrosiphum pyrifoliae

Macrosiphum Sstellariae

Myzus ascalonicus

Myzus certus

Myzus persicae

Nasonovia ribisnigri

Rhopalosiphoninus staphyleae

Rhopalosiphum maidis

Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae

Rhopalosiphum padi

Sitobion avenae

Capsicum frutescens

Tabasco Pepper ( F. Solanaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Capsicum sp. Pepper ( F. Solanaceae )

Myzus persicae

Caragana arborescens

Siberian Peashrub ( F. Leguminosae )

Acyrthosiphon caraganae

Caragana pygmaea

Pygmy Peashrub ( F. Leguminosae )

Acyrthosiphon caraganae

Cardamine oligosperma

Little Western Bitter Cress ( F. Cruciferae )

Myzus ascalonicus

Cardiocrinum giganteum

Giant-Lily ( F. Liliaceae )

Rhopalosiphoninus staphyleae

Carduus sp. Plumeless Thistle ( F. Compositae )

Brachycaudus cardui

Carex capitata ssp. capitata

Capitate Sedge ( F. Cyperaceae )

Glabromyzus schlingeri

Sitobion fragariae

Carex concinnoides

Northwestern Sedge ( F. Cyperaceae )

Rhopalosiphum padi

Carex flava var. flava

Yellow-Fruited Sedge ( F. Cyperaceae )

Sitobion fragariae

Carex geyeri Elk Sedge ( F. Cyperaceae )

Ceruraphis eriophori

Carex glareosa ssp. glareosa

Clustered Sedge ( F. Cyperaceae )

Ceruraphis eriophori

Thripsaphis verrucosa

Carex leporina Harefoot Sedge ( F. Cyperaceae )

Ceruraphis eriophori

Glabromyzus schlingeri

Carex limosa Shore Sedge ( F. Cyperaceae )

Ceruraphis eriophori

Glabromyzus schlingeri

Carex mertensii Mertens’ Sedge ( F. Cyperaceae )

Byrsocryptoides polunini

Carex pendula Sedge Grass ( F. Cyperaceae )

Ceruraphis eriophori

Rhopalosiphum padi

Thripsaphis verrucosa

Carex sitchensis Sitka Sedge ( F. Cyperaceae )

Ceruraphis eriophori

Thripsaphis cyperi

Carex sp. Sedge ( F. Cyperaceae )

78 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dsc. 31, 1987

Ceruraphis eriophori

Iziphya umbella

Sitobion caricis

Thripsaphis cyperi

Thripsaphis verrucosa

Carpinus betulus

European Hornbeam ( F. Betulaceae )

Myzocallis carpini

Carpinus betulus ‘Fastigiata’

Pyramidal European Hornbean ( F. Betulaceae )

Myzocallis carpini

Castanea dentata American Chestnut

( F. Fagaceae )

Myzocallis castanicola

Castanea sp. Chestnut ( F. Fagaceae )

Myzocallis castanicola

Castilleja miniata

Common Red Indian Paintbrush

( F. Scrophulariaceae )

Kakimia castilleiae

Castilleja sp

Indian Paintbrush ( F. Scrophulariaceae )

Kakimia castilleiae

Catalpa sp. Indian Bean ( F. Bignoniaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Catalpa speciosa

Western Catalpa ( F. Bignoniaceae )

Aphis fabae

Aulacorthum solani

Ceruraphis eriophori

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus ornatus

Nasonovia ribisnigri

Rhopalosiphum padi

Catharanthus roseus

Rose Periwinkle ( F. Apocynaceae )

Aphis fabae

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Macrosiphum stellariae

Myzus certus

Nasonovia ribisnigri

Rhopalosiphoninus staphyleae

Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae

Ceanothus sanguineus

Wild Lilac ( F. Rhamnaceae )

Aphis ceanothi

Ceanothus velutinus

Sticky Laurel ( F. Rhamnaceae )

Aphis ceanothi

Centaurea diffusa

Diffuse Knapweed ( F. Compositae )

Aphis armoraciae

Centranthus ruber

Red Valerian ( F. Valerianaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Cerastium fontanum ssp. triviale

Mouse-Ear Chickweed ( F. Caryophyllaceae )

Myzus ascalonicus

Cerastium tomentosum

Snow-In-Summer ( F. Caryophyllaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Ceratostigma willmottianum

Chinese Plumbago ( F. Plumbaginaceae )

Myzus ornatus

Chaenomeles japonica

Lesser Flowering Quince ( F. Rosaceae )

Aphis pomi

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Illinoia macgillivrayae

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Rhopalosiphum insertum

Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae

Chaenomeles speciosa

Japanese Quince ( F. Rosaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Myzus ornatus

Chamaecyparis lawsoniana

Lawson Falsecypress ( F. Cupressaceae )

Illinoia morrisoni

Chamaecyparis pisifera

Sawara Falsecypress ( F. Cupressaceae )

Illinoia morrisoni

Chamaecyparis pisifera ‘Boulevard’

Boulevard Sawara Falsecypress

( F. Cupressaceae )

Illinoia morrisoni

Chamaecyparis pisifera ‘Filifera’

Thread Sawara Falsecypress ( F. Cupressaceae )

Illinoia morrisoni

Chamaecyparis pisifera ‘Plumosa’

Plume Sawara Falsecypress ( F. Cupressaceae )

[llinoia morrisoni

Chamaecyparis pisifera ‘Squarrosa’

Moss Sawara Falsecypress ( F. Cupressaceae )

Illinoia morrisoni

Chamomilla suaveolens

Pineapple Weed ( F. Compositae )

Aphis fabae

Aulacorthum solani

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus ornatus

Myzus persicae

Chenopodium album

Lamb’s Quarters ( F. Chenopodiaceae )

Aphis fabae

Hayhurstia atriplicis

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus persicae

Pemphigus populivenae

Chenopodium capitatum

Strawberry-Blite Goosefoot

( F. Chenopodiaceae )

Aphis fabae

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Chenopodium glaucum

Oak-Leaved Goosefoot ( F. Chenopodiaceae )

Aphis fabae

Hayhurstia atriplicis

Chenopodium murale

Nettle-Leaved Goosefoot ( F. Chenopodiaceae ).

Macrosiphum creelii

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Chenopodium quinoa

J. ENToMoL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), DEc.

Quinoa ( F. Chenopodiaceae )

Aphis fabae

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Chrysanthemum balsamita

Costmary ( F. Compositae )

Macrosiphoniella tanacetaria

Pleotrichophorus chrysanthemi

Chrysanthemum frutescens

Marguerite ( F. Compositae )

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Chrysanthemum leucanthemum

Ox-Eye Daisy ( F. Compositae )

Macrosiphoniella millefolii

Myzus ornatus

Chrysanthemum x morifolium

Florist’s Chrysanthemum ( F. Compositae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Aulacorthum solani

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Macrosiphoniella sanborni

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus ornatus

Myzus persicae

Chrysanthemum parthenium

Feverfew ( F. Compositae )

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Macrosiphoniella tanacetaria

Chrysothamnus nauseosus

Rabbit Bush ( F. Compositae )

Aphis chrysothamni

Cichorium intybus

Common Chichory ( F. Compositae )

Nasonovia ribisnigri

Cinna latifolia Woodreed Grass ( F. Gramineae )

Rhopalosiphum padi

Sitobion fragariae

Cirsium arvense Canada Thistle ( F. Compositae )

Aphis fabae

Brachycaudus cardui

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus ornatus

Uroleucon cirsii

Cirsium brevistylum

Indian Thistle ( F. Compositae )

Capitophorus elaeagni

Uroleucon cirsii

Cirsium sp. Thistle ( F. Compositae )

Bipersona ochrocentri

Uroleucon cirsii

Cirsium undulatum

Wavy-Leaved Thistle ( F. Compositae )

Brachycaudus cardui

Cirsium vulgare Bull Thistle ( F. Compositae )

Bipersona ochrocentri

Brachycaudus cardui

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Cistus ladanifer Gum Rock-Rose ( F. Cistaceae )

Myzus ornatus

Myzus persicae

Cistus laurifolius

Laurel Rock-Rose ( F. Cistaceae )

Myzus persicae

31, 1987 7

Citrullus lanatus Watermelon ( F. Cucurbitaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Citrus maxima Shaddock ( F. Rutaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Citrus sp. Citrus ( F. Rutaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Clarkia pulchella_ Pinkfairies ( F. Onagraceae )

Myzus ornatus

Claytonia sibirica var. sibirica

Siberian Spring-Beauty ( F. Portulacaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus ascalonicus

Myzus persicae

Clematis ‘Nelly Moser’

Nelly Moser Clematis ( F. Ranunculaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Coleus blumei Painted Nettle ( F. Labiatae )

Myzus ornatus

Collinsia grandiflora

Bluelips ( F. Scrophulariaceae )

Myzus ornatus

Myzus persicae

Colutea arborescens

Bladder-Senna ( F. Leguminosae )

Acyrthosiphon caraganae

Myzus ascalonicus

Colutea melanocalyx

Black Bladder-Senna ( F. Leguminosae )

Acyrthosiphon caraganae

Conium maculatum

Poison Hemlock ( F. Umbelliferae )

Aulacorthum solani

Convolvulus arvensis

Dwarf Bindweed ( F. Convolvulaceae )

Myzus persicae

Conyza canadensis var. canadensis

Canadian Fleabane ( F. Compositae )

Aphis lugentis

Corallorhiza striata

Striped Coralroot ( F. Orchidaceae )

Macrosiphum corallorhizae

Cordyline terminalis ‘Hybrida’

Hybrid Ti ( F. Agavaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Coriandrum sativum

Chinese Parsley ( F. Umbelliferae )

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Myzus persicae

Coriandrum sativum ‘Dark Green Italian’

Dark Green Italian Parsley ( F. Umbelliferae )

Hyadaphis foeniculi

Cornus alba ‘Argenteo-marginata’

Creamedge Tatarian Dogwood ( F. Cornaceae )

Aphis salicariae

Cornus alba ‘Sibirica’

Siberian Dogwood ( F. Cornaceae )

Anoecia corni

Sitobion manitobense

Cornus ‘Eddie’s White Wonder’

Eddie White Wonder Dogwood ( F. Cornaceae )

Aphis salicariae

Cornus florida

80 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

Flowering Dogwood ( F. Cornaceae )

Aphis salicariae

Cornus florida ‘Pluribracteata’

Double Flowering Dogwood ( F. Cornaceae )

Aphis salicariae

Cornus kousa Japanese Dogwood ( F, Cornaceae )

Aphis salicariae

Cornus mas

Corelian-Cherry Dogwood ( F. Cornaceae )

Aphis salicariae

Corus nuttalli

Western Flowering Dogwood ( F. Cornaceae )

Anoecia corni

Aphis salicariae

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Cornus purpusii Silky Dogwood ( F. Cornaceae )

Anoecia corni

Aphis salicariae

Cornus racemosa Gray Dogwood ( F. Cornaceae )

Aphis salicariae

Cornus sanguinea

Bloodtwig Dogwood ( F. Cornaceae )

Anoecia corni

Aphis salicariae

Cornus sericea

Red-Osier Dogwood ( F. Cornaceae )

Anoecia corni

Aphis helianthi

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Sitobion manitobense

Coronilla valentina ssp. glauca

Gray Valentine Crown-Vetch ( F. Leguminosae )

Myzus ornatus

Cortaderia selloana

Pampas Grass ( F. Gramineae )

Hyalopterus pruni

Sitobion fragariae

Corydalis aurea ssp. aurea

Golden Corydalis ( F. Fumariaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Aulacorthum solani

Corylus avellana Hazelnut ( F. Betulaceae )

Myzocallis coryli

Corylus cornuta

Beaked Hazelnut ( F. Betulaceae )

Illinoia spiraeae

Myzocallis coryli

Corylus cornuta var. californica

California Filbert ( F. Betulaceae )

Corylobium avellanae

Macrosiphum coryli

Macrosiphum pseudocoryli

Myzocallis coryli

Corylus maxima ‘Purpurea’

Purple Filbert ( F. Betulaceae )

Corylobium avellanae

Myzocallis coryli

Corylus sp. Filbert ( F. Betulaceae )

Corylobium avellanae

Myzocallis coryli

Cotoneaster bullatus

Hollyberry Cotoneaster ( F. Rosaceae )

Aphis pomi

Cotoneaster dammeri

Bearberry Cotoneaster ( F. Rosaceae )

Aphis pomi

Cotoneaster franchetii

Franchet’s Cotoneaster ( F. Rosaceae )

Aphis pomi

Cotoneaster henryanus

Henry’s Cotoneaster ( F. Rosaceae )

Aphis pomi

Cotoneaster horizontalis

Rock Cotoneaster ( F. Rosaceae )

Aphis pomi

Cotoneaster salicifolius ‘Repens’

Creeping Willowleaf Cotoneaster ( F. Rosaceae )

Aphis pomi

Cotoneaster sp.

Aphis pomi

Eriosoma lanigerum

Cotula australis

Australian Cotula ( F. Compositae )

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Myzus ascalonicus

Crataegus douglasii

Douglas Hawthorn ( F. Rosaceae )

Aphis pomi

Fimbriaphis gentneri

Nearctaphis bakeri

Nearctaphis sclerosa

Crataegus laevigata ‘Paul’s Scarlet’

Paul’s Scarlet Hawthorn ( EF. Rosaceae )

Aphis pomi

Fimbriaphis gentneri

Metopolophium dirhodum

Crataegus x lavallei :

Lavalle Hawthorn ( F. Rosaceae )

Fimbriaphis gentneri

Utamphorophora crataegi

Crataegus monogyna

Singleseed Hawthorn ( F. Rosaceae )

Aphis pomi

Fimbriaphis gentneri

Crataegus monogyna ‘Alba’

White Singleseed Hawthorn ( F. Rosaceae )

Aphis pomi

Fimbriaphis gentneri

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Crataegus sp. Hawthorn ( F. Rosaceae )

Aphis pomi

Metopolophium dirhodum

Nearctaphis crataegifoliae

Nearctaphis sclerosa

Rhopalosiphum insertum

Crepis sp. Hawk’s-Beard ( F. Compositae )

Hyperomyzus sandilandicus

Crinodendron patagua

White Lily Tree ( F. Elaeocarpaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Myzus ornatus

Crocosmia x crocosmiiflora

Cotoneaster ( F. Rosaceae )

J. ENTOMOL Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 81

Montbretia ( F. Iridaceae )

Aphis fabae

Crocus sp. Crocus ( F. Iridaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Myzus ascalonicus

Crossandra infundibuliformis

Funnel-Form Firecracker Flower

( F. Acanthaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Myzus persicae

Cryptogramma crispa

Parsley Fern ( F. Adiantaceae )

Sitobion woodsiae

Cucumis sativus Cucumber ( F. Cucurbitaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Cucurbita sp. Squash ( F. Cucurbitaceae )

Myzus persicae

Cupressocyparis leylandii

Leyland Cypress ( F. Cupressaceae )

Illinoia morrisoni

Cuscuta sp.

Myzus persicae

Cuscuta subinclusa

Long-Flowered Dodder ( F. Cuscutaceae )

Aphis fabae

Cyclamen persicum

Florist’s Cyclamen ( F. Primulaceae )

Aphis gossypii

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Cymbidium sp. Boat Orchid ( F. Orchidaceae )

Myzus ornatus

Cynara scolymus Artichoke ( F. Compositae )

_Myzus persicae

Cyperus alternifolius

Umbrella Plant ( F. Cyperaceae )

Rhopalosiphum padi

Cytisus austriacus

Southern Broom ( F. Leguminosae )

Acyrthosiphon pisum

Aphis cytisorum

Cytisus hirsutus var. demissus

Dwarf Broom ( F. Leguminosae )

Aphis cytisorum

Cytisus scoparius

Scotch Broom ( F. Leguminosae )

Acyrthosiphon pisum

Ctenocallis setosus

Daboecia cantabrica Irish-Heath ( F. Ericaceae )

Illinoia lambersi

Daboecia cantabrica ‘Alba’

White Irish-Heath ( F. Ericaceae )

Illinoia lambersi

Daboecia cantabrica ‘Atropurpurea’

Purple Irish-Heath ( F. Ericaceae )

Illinoia lambersi

Daboecia cantabrica ‘Praegerae’

Rosy Irish-Heath ( F. Ericaceae )

Illinoia lambersi

Dactylis glomerata

Orchard Grass ( F. Gramineae )

Hyalopteroides humilis

Rhopalomyzus lonicerae

Dodder ( F. Cuscutaceae )

Rhopalosiphum musae

Sitobion avenae

Dahlia sp.

Aulacorthum solani

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus ascalonicus

Myzus ornatus

Myzus persicae

Daphne x burkwoodii ‘Somerset’

Burkwood Daphne ( F. Thymelaeaceae )

Macrosiphum daphnidis

Daphne cneorum

Garland Flower ( F. Thymelaeaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Daphne laureola

Spurge-Laurel ( F. Thymelaeaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Macrosiphum daphnidis

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Datura inoxia

Downy Thorn Apple ( F. Solanaceae )

Myzus persicae

Datura stramonium

Common Thorn Apple ( F. Solanaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus persicae

Nasonovia ribisnigri

Rhopalosiphoninus staphyleae

Daucus carota Carrot ( F. Umbelliferae )

Aulacorthum solani

Cavariella aegopodii

Macrosiphum stellariae

Myzus persicae

Delphinium x cultorum

Perennial Delphinium ( F. Ranunculaceae )

Kakimia wahinkae

Deutzia gracilis

Slender Deutzia ( F. Hydrangeaceae )

Aphis fabae

Aulacorthum solani

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Rhopalosiphoninus hydrangeae

Deutzia x rosea ‘Carminea’

Rosepanicle Deutzia ( F. Hydrangeaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus ornatus

Deutzia scabra ‘Candidissima’

Candidissima Deutzia ( F. Hydrangeaceae )

Myzus ornatus

Dianthus alpinus

Alpine Pink ( F. Caryophyllaceae )

Macrosiphum stellariae

Dianthus barbatus

Sweet William ( F. Caryophyllaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Macrosiphum stellariae

Myzus certus

Dianthus caryophyllus

Carnation ( F. Caryophyllaceae )

Myzus persicae

Dianthus deltoides

Dahlia ( F. Compositae )

82 J. ENTOMOL Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

Maiden Pink ( F. Caryophyllaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus ascalonicus

Dianthus graniticus

Granite Pink ( F. Caryophyllaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Myzus ascalonicus

Dianthus microlepis

Microlepis Pink ( F. Caryophyllaceae )

Myzus ascalonicus

Dianthus ‘Scarlet Luminette’

Scarlet Luminette Pink ( F. Caryophyllaceae )

Macrosiphum stellariae

Myzus certus

Dianthus sp. Pink ( F. Caryophyllaceae )

Macrosiphum stellariae

Dicentra formosa ssp. formosa

Pacific Bleedingheart ( F. Fumariaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Dicentra formosa ssp. oregana

Oregon Bleedingheart ( F. Fumariaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Dieffenbachia maculata

Spotted Dumb Cane ( F. Araceae )

Aphis gossypii

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Myzus ornatus

Digitalis lanata

Grecian Foxglove ( F. Scrophulariaceae )

Myzus persicae

Digitalis purpurea

Common Foxglove ( F. Scrophulariaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Dipsacus fullonum ssp. fullonum

Fuller’s Teasel ( F. Dipsacaceae )

Macrosiphum rosae

Draba borealis

Northern Whitlow-Grass ( F. Cruciferae )

Myzus ascalonicus

Draba ruaxes

Wind-River Whitlow-Grass ( F. Cruciferae )

Myzus ascalonicus

Elodea canadensis

Canadian Waterweed ( F. Hydrocharitaceae )

Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae

Elymus mollis var. mollis

Dune Wild Rye Grass ( F. Gramineae )

Sitobion avenae

Enkianthus campanulatus

Redvein Enkianthus ( F. Ericaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Epidendrum ibaguense

Buttonhole Orchid ( F. Orchidaceae )

Myzus persicae

Epilobium alpinum

Alpine Willow-Herb ( F. Onagraceae )

Aphis varians

Epilobium angustifolium

Fireweed ( F. Onagraceae )

Aphis praeterita

Aphis salicariae

Aphis varians

Macrosiphum fuscicornis

Epilobium ciliatum

Purple-Leaved Willow-Herb ( F. Onagraceae )

Aphis epilobii

Myzus persicae

Epilobium sp. Willow-Herb ( F. Onagraceae )

Aphis salicariae

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Epiphyllum sp. Orchid Cactus ( F. Cactaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Myzus ornatus

Equisetum arvense

Common Horsetail ( F. Equisetaceae )

Aphis equiseticola

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Sitobion avenae

Sitobion equiseti

Erigeron speciosus

Showy Fleabane ( F. Compositae )

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Myzus ascalonicus

Erigeron speciosus var. macranthus

Large-Flower Showy Fleabane ( F. Compositae )

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Eriogonum compositum

Northern Buckwheat ( F. Polygonaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Erodium cicutarium ssp. cicutarium

Common Stork’s-Bill ( F. Geraniaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Macrosiphum pallidum

Myzus ascalonicus

Eryngium maritimum

Sea Holly ( F. Umbelliferae )

Aulacorthum solani

Myzus ascalonicus

Escallonia x langleyensis

Hybrid Escallonia ( F. Grossulariaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Eucryphia lucida

Shining Eucryphia ( F. Eucryphiaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Euonymus alata

Winged Spindle Tree ( F. Celastraceae )

Aphis fabae

Euonymus europaea

European Spindle Tree ( F. Celastraceae )

Aphis fabae

Euonymus fortunei “Kewensis’

Kewensis Clinging Vine ( F. Celastraceae )

Myzus ascalonicus

Euonymus japonica ‘Albo-marginata’

Pearl Edge Euonymus ( F. Celastraceae )

Myzus persicae

Euonymus latifolia

Broadleaf Spindle Tree ( F. Celastraceae )

Aphis fabae

Euphorbia lathyris

Caper Spurge ( F. Euphorbiaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Euphorbia pelpus

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 83

Petty Spurge ( F. Euphorbiaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Myzus ornatus

Fagus grandifolia American Beech ( F. Fagaceae)

Phyllaphis fagi

Fagus sp.

Phyllaphis fagi

Fagus sylvatica European Beech ( F. Fagaceae )

Phyllaphis fagi

Fagus sylvatica ‘Atropunicea’

Copper Beech ( F. Fagaceae )

Phyllaphis fagi

Fagus sylvatica ‘Borneyensis’

Fountainlike European Beech ( F. Fagaceae )

Phyllaphis fagi

Fagus sylvatica ‘Pendula’

Weeping Beech ( F. Fagaceae )

Phyllaphis fagi

Fallopia convolvulus

Black Bindweed ( F. Polygonaceae )

Myzus persicae

Fatsia japonica

Aphis fabae

Festuca brachyphylla

Alpine Fescue ( F. Gramineae )

Rhopalosiphum padi

Sipha glyceriae

Sitobion fragariae

Ficus carica Common Fig ( F. Moraceae )

Aphis fabae

Foeniculum vulgare var. dulce

Florence Fennel ( F. Umbelliferae )

Cavariella aegopodii

Forsythia x intermedia

Border Forsythia ( F. Oleaceae )

Myzus ornatus

Forsythia sp. Forsythia ( F. Oleaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Fragaria x ananassa

Pineapple Strawberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Aphis forbesi

Aulacorthum solani

Chaetosiphon fragaefolii

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus ascalonicus

Fragaria x ananassa ‘Fort Laramie’

Fort Laramie Strawberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Chaetosiphon fragaefolii

Fimbriaphis fimbriata

Sitobion fragariae

Fragaria x ananassa ‘Hecker’

Hecker Strawberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Fimbriaphis fimbriata

Fragaria x ananassa ‘Olympus’

Olympus Strawberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Fimbriaphis fimbriata

Sitobion fragariae

Fragaria x ananassa ‘Ozark Beauty’

Ozark Beauty Strawberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Fimbriaphis fimbriata

Sitobion fragariae

Fragaria x ananassa ‘Quinalt’

Beech ( F. Fagaceae )

Japan Fatsia ( F. Araliaceae )

Quinalt Strawberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Chaetosiphon fragaefolii

Fimbriaphis fimbriata

Sitobion fragariae

Fragaria x ananassa ‘Shuksan’

Shuksan Strawberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Fimbriaphis fimbriata

Fragaria x ananassa ‘Sweetheart’

Sweetheart Strawberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Chaetosiphon fragaefolii

Fimbriaphis fimbriata

Myzus ornatus

Sitobion fragariae

Fragaria x ananassa ‘Totem’

Totem Strawberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Fimbriaphis fimbriata

Myzus ornatus

Sitobion fragariae

Fragaria chiloensis

Beach Strawberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Fragaria sp. Strawberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Acyrthosiphon malvae rogersii

Acyrthosiphon pisum

Chaetosiphon fragaefolii

Fimbriaphis fimbriata

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus ascalonicus

Myzus ornatus

Myzus persicae

Fragaria vesca Woods Strawberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Myzus ornatus

Myzus persicae

Fragaria vesca ‘Alpine’

Alpine Woods Strawberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Myzus ornatus

Fragaria vesca ‘Alpine Alexandria’

Alpine Alexandria Strawberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Chaetosiphon fragaefolii

Fimbriaphis fimbriata

Myzus ornatus

Sitobion fragariae

Fragaria vesca ssp. bracteata

Wild Strawberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Aphis forbesi

Fragaria vesca ‘Semperflorens’

Always-Flowered Woods Strawberry

( F. Rosaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Fragaria vesca ‘Yellow Alpine’

Yellow Alpine Strawberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Chaetosiphon fragaefolii

Myzus ornatus

Fragaria virginiana

Virginia Strawberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Chaetosiphon fragaefolii

Fragaria virginiana ssp. glauca

Blueleaf Strawberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Chaetosiphon fragaefolii

Fimbriaphis fimbriata

84 J. ENTOMOL Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

Fraxinus excelsior European Ash ( F. Oleaceae )

Prociphilus fraxinifolii

Fraxinus nigra Black Ash ( F. Oleaceae )

Prociphilus fraxinifolii

Fraxinus ornus Flowering Ash ( F. Oleaceae )

Prociphilus fraxinifolii

Fuchsia x hybrida

Common Fuchsia ( F. Onagraceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Fuchsia x hybrida ‘Jack Shahan’

Jack Shahan Common Fuchsia ( F. Onagraceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Fuchsia magellanica

Hardy Fuchsia ( F. Onagraceae )

Myzus ornatus

Fuchsia sp.

Aulacorthum solani

Myzus ornatus

Fumaria officinalis

Common Fumitory ( F. Fumariaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Galega officinalis

Fuchsia ( F. Onagraceae )

Goat’s Rue

( F. Leguminosae )

Aulacorthum solani

Galeopsis tetrahit Hemp Nettle ( F. Labiatae )

Cryptomyzus ribis

Galium aparine Cleavers ( F. Rubiaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus cerasi

Myzus ornatus

Myzus persicae

Galium mollugo White Bedstraw ( F. Rubiaceae )

Aphis fabae

Myzus cerasi

Myzus ornatus

Gardenia jasminoides

Common Gardenia ( F. Rubiaceae )

Aphis gossypli

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Myzus ornatus

Gaultheria shallon

Illinoia lambersi

Sitobion dorsatum

Geranium ‘Ballerina’

Ballerina Crane’s-Bill ( F. Geraniaceae )

Rhopalosiphoninus staphyleae

Geranium dalmaticum

Dalmatia Crane’s-Bill ( F. Geraniaceae )

Acyrthosiphon malvae

Geranium molle

Dove’s-Foot Crane’s-Bill ( F. Geraniaceae )

Myzus ascalonicus

Geranium renardii

Caucasus Crane’s-Bill ( F. Geraniaceae )

Myzus ornatus

Geranium sp. _Crane’s-Bill ( F. Geraniaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Geranium viscosissimum var. viscosissimum

Sticky Purple Crane’s-Bill ( F. Geraniaceae )

Amphorophora geranii

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Salal ( F. Ericaceae )

Macrosiphum aetheocornum

Geum aleppicum Yellow Avens ( F. Rosaceae )

Myzus ornatus

Geum macrophyllum

Large-Leaved Avens ( F. Rosaceae )

Amphorophora rossi

Aulacorthum solani

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus ascalonicus

Geum schofieldii

Queen Charlotte Avens ( F. Rosaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus ornatus

Ginkgo biloba

Maidenhair Tree € F. Ginkgoaceae )

Rhopalosiphum padi

Gladiolus x hortulanus

Garden Gladiolus ( F. Iridaceae )

Aphis fabae

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Gladiolus sp. Gladiolus ( F. Iridaceae )

Myzus ornatus

Rhopalosiphoninus latysiphon

Gnaphalium uliginosum

Cudweed ( F. Compositae )

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Gomphrena globosa

Globe Amaranth ( F. Amaranthaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus certus

Myzus persicae

Rhopalosiphoninus staphyleae

Grindelia integrifolia

Entire-Leaved Gumweed ( F. Compositae )

Aulacorthum solani

Uroleucon erigeronensis

Uroleucon penderum

Grindelia nana Low Gumweed ( F. Compositae )

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Uroleucon chani

Gynura aurantiaca Velvet-Plant ( F, Compositae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus ornatus

Halesia carolina

Carolina Silverbell ( F. Styracaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus ornatus

Hebe sp.

Myzus persicae

Hedera canariensis ‘Canary Cream’

Canary Cream Algerian Ivy ( F. Araliaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Hedera helix

Aphis fabae

Aphis hederae

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Hedera sp. Ivy ( F Araliaceae )

Aphis nasturtii

Helianthemum nummularium

Rock Rose ( F. Cistaceae )

Hebe ( F. Scrophulariaceae )

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Deéc. 31, 1987 85

Myzus ornatus

Helianthus annuus

Common Sunflower ( F. Compositae )

Aphis helianthi

Helianthus sp.

Aphis helianthi

Helichrysum virgineum

Virgin Everlasting ( F. Compositae )

Uroleucon russellae

Helleborus niger

Christmas Rose ( F. Ranunculaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Helleborus orientalis

Lenten Rose ( F. Ranunculaceae )

Rhopalosiphoninus staphyleae

Heracleum sphondylium ssp. montanum

Cow Parsnip ( F. Umbelliferae )

Aphis heraclella

Aulacorthum solani

Cavariella pastinacae

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus ascalonicus

Hesperis matronalis

Sweet Rocket ( F. Cruciferae )

Myzus ascalonicus

Heterotheca villosa var. villosa

Hairy Golden-Aster ( F. Compositae )

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Heuchera micrantha var. diversifolia

Small-Flowered Alumroot ( F. Saxifragaceae )

Kakimia heucherae

Hibiscus calyphyllus

Lemon- Yellow Hibiscus ( F. Malvaceae )

~ Aulacorthum solani

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis

Chinese Hibiscus ( F. Malvaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus persicae

Hibiscus sabdariffa

Myzus persicae

Hibiscus sp.

Myzus persicae

Hieracium aurantiacum

Orange Hawkweed ( F. Compositae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Hieracium murorum

Wall Hawkweed ( F. Compositae )

Nasonovia ribisnigri

Hieracium scouleri var. scouleri

Scouler’s Hawkweed ( F. Compositae )

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Nasonovia ribisnigri

Hierochloe odorata ssp. hirta

Common Sweet Grass ( F. Gramineae )

Sitobion fragariae

Hippophae rhamnoides

Sallow Thorn ( F. Elaeagnaceae )

Capitophorus hippophaes

Holcus lanatus Velvet Grass ( F. Gramineae )

Hyalopteroides humilis

Sunflower ( F. Compositae )

Roselle ( F. Malvaceae )

Hibiscus ( F. Malvaceae )

Sitobion fragariae

Holodiscus discolor Ocean-Spray ( F. Rosaceae )

Aphis craccivora

Aphis fabae

Aphis holodisci

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Hordeum brachyantherum

Meadow Barley ( F. Gramineae )

Sipha glyceriae

Sitobion fragariae

Hordeum jubatum Foxtail Barley ( F. Gramineae )

Sitobion avenae

Sitobion fragariae

Hordeum vulgare Barley ( F. Gramineae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Metopolophium dirhodum

Rhopalosiphum maidis

Rhopalosiphum padi

Sitobion avenae

Sitobion fragariae

Hosta sieboldiana

Siebold Plantainlily ( F. Liliaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Hosta undulata

Wavy-Leaved Plantainlily ( F. Liliaceae )

Aphis fabae

Humulus lupulus Common Hop ( F. Moraceae )

Phorodon humuli

Hypericum patulum ‘Hidcote’

Hidcote St-John’s-Wort ( F. Guttiferae )

Myzus ornatus

Wahlgreniella nervata

Hypericum perforatum

Common St-John’s-Wort ( F. Guttiferae )

Aulacorthum solani

Hypochoeris radicata

Spotted Cat’s Ear ( F. Compositae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus ascalonicus

Myzus ornatus

Uroleucon ambrosiae

Hypoestes phyllostachya

Polka-Dot-Plant ( F. Acanthaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Ilex x altaclarensis

Altaclara Holly ( F. Aquifoliaceae )

Illinoia lambersi

Macrosiphum rosae

Ilex aquifolium English Holly ( F. Aquifoliaceae )

Aphis fabae

Aulacorthum solani

Illinoia lambersi

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Macrosiphum rosae

Ilex aquifolium ‘Aureo-marginata’

Yellowedge English Holly ( F. Aquifoliaceae )

Illinoia lambersi

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Ilex glabra Inkberry ( F. Aquifoliaceae )

Macrosiphum rosae

Ilex integra Mochi Tree ( F. Aquifoliaceae )

86 J. ENTOMOL Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

Macrosiphum rosae

Impatiens glandulifera

Indian Balsam ( F. Balsaminaceae )

Aphis fabae

Impatiens sp. Snapweed ( F. Balsaminaceae )

Aphis gossypii

Myzus ornatus

Impatiens wallerana Zanzibar Balsam

( F. Balsaminaceae )

Myzus persicae

Impatiens wallerana ‘Futura Wildrose’

Futura Wildrose Zanzibar Balsam

( F. Balsaminaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Incarvillea mairei var. grandiflora

Bigflower Incarvillea ( F. Bignoniaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Iris gatesii Gatesii Iris ( F. Iridaceae )

Myrus persicae

Iris kaempferi Japanese Iris ( F. Iridaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Iris setosa Arctic Iris ( F. Iridaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus ornatus

Iris sp. Iris ( F. Iridaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Aulacorthum solani

Dysaphis tulipae

Rhopalosiphoninus staphyleae

Iris tectorum Wall Iris ( F. Iridaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Jacaranda acutifolia

Sharpleaf Jacaranda ( F. Bignoniaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Jasione montana

Mountain Jasione ( F. Campanulaceae )

Myzus ascalonicus

Juglans regia English Walnut ( F. Juglandaceae )

Callaphis juglandis

Juglans sp. Walnut ( F. Juglandaceae )

Chromaphis juglandicola

Juncus articulatus Jointed Rush ( F. Juncaceae )

Schizaphis palustris

Sitobion avenae

Sitobion fragariae

Juncus bufonius

Sitobion avenae

Sitobion fragariae

Juncus effusus var. pacificus

Pacific Common Rush ( F. Juncaceae )

Glabromyzus schlingeri

Juncus tenuis Slender Rush ( F. Juncaceae )

Schizaphis palustris

Juniperus chinensis ‘Pfitzeriana’

Pyramid Chinese Juniper ( F. Cupressaceae )

Cinara juniperi

[llinoia morrisoni

Juniperus sabina Savin Juniper ( F. Cupressaceae )

Illinoia morrisoni

Juniperus scopulorum

Rocky Mountain Juniper ( F. Cupressaceae )

Toad Rush ( F. Juncaceae )

Cinara sabinae

Juniperus squamata ‘Meyeri’

Meyer Singleseed Juniper ( F. Cupressaceae )

Cinara juniperi

Illinoia morrisoni

Juniperus virginiana

Red Cedar ( F. Cupressaceae )

[llinoia morrisoni

Kalmia latifolia ‘Alba’

White Mountain Laurel ( F. Ericaceae )

Fimbriaphis wakibae

Kolkwitzia amabilis

Beautybush ( F. Caprifoliaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Laburnum anagyroides

Golden Chain ( F. Leguminosae )

Aphis craccivora

Laburnum x watereri

Waterer Laburnum ( F. Leguminosae )

Aphis cytisorum

Lactuca biennis

Tall Blue Lettuce ( F Compositae )

Uroleucon pseudambrosiae

Lactuca sativa Garden Lettuce ( F. Compositae )

Aphis fabae

Aulacorthum solani

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus ascalonicus

Myzus persicae

Nasonovia ribisnigri

Pemphigus betae

Pemphigus populivenae

Uroleucon sonchi

Lactuca serriola Prickly Lettuce ( F. Compositae )

Acyrthosiphon lactucae

Lactuca sp. Lettuce ( F. Compositae )

Acyrthosiphon lactucae

Myzus ascalonicus

Myzus ornatus

Nasonovia ribisnigri

Lactuca tatarica ssp. pulchella

Blue-Flowered Lettuce ( F. Compositae )

Hyperomyzus lactucae

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Lamium amplexicaule

Henbit Dead-Nettle ( F. Labiatae )

Aulacorthum solani

Myzus ornatus

Lantana camara Yellow Sage ( F. Verbenaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Lapsana communis Nipplewort ( F. Compositae )

Aulacorthum solani

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus ornatus

Nasonovia ribisnigri

Larix occidentalis Western Larch ( F. Pinaceae )

Cinara laricifoliae

Lathyrus japonicus var. glaber

Beach Pea ( F. Leguminosae )

Acyrthosiphon pisum

Macrosiphum creelti

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), DeEc. 31, 1987 87

Lathyrus nevadensis ssp. lanceolatus

Nuttall’s Peavine ( F. Leguminosae )

Nearctaphis sclerosa

Lembotropis nigricans

Black Broom ( F. Leguminosae )

Acyrthosiphon pisum

Leontopodium alpinum

Edelweiss ( F. Compositae )

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Leonurus cardiaca

Common Motherwort ( F. Labiatae )

Myzus ornatus

Leucothoe fontanesiana

Doghobble ( F. Ericaceae )

Illinoia rhokalaza

Lewisia cantelowil

Cantelowii Lewisia ( F. Portulacaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Ligustrum vulgare Common Privet ( F. Oleaceae )

Myzus ligustri

Lilium auratum Gold-Banded Lily ( F. Liliaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Lilium ‘Cinnabar’ Cinnabar Lily ( F. Liliaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Myzus ascalonicus

Lilium x hollandicum

Candlestick Lily ( F. Liliaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Myzus ascalonicus

Lilium longiflorum Trumpet Lily ( F. Liliaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Lilium mackliniae Mackline Lily ( F. Liliaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Lilium philadelphicum var. andinum

Wood Lily ( F. Liliaceae )

Aphis fabae

Lilium speciosum Showy Lily ( F. Liliaceae )

Myzus ascalonicus

Lilium szovitsianum Szovitz Lily ( F. Liliaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Linnaea borealis Twinflower ( F. Caprifoliaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Aulacorthum solani

Liquidambar styraciflua

Sweetgum ( F. Hamamelidaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Myzus ornatus

Liriodendron tulipifera

Tulip Tree ( F. Magnoliaceae )

Aphis fabae

Fimbriaphis fimbriata

Ayalopterus pruni

Illinoia liriodendri

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus cerasi

Rhopalosiphum insertum

Lolium perenne

Perennial Rye Grass ( F. Gramineae )

Sitobion fragariae

Lomatium dissectum var. multifidum

Fern-Leaved Lomatium ( F. Umbelliferae )

Cavariella aegopodii

Lomatium nudicaule

Barestem Lomatium ( F. Umbelliferae )

Aphis fabae

Cavariella aegopodii

Hyadaphis foeniculi

Lonicera ciliosa

Orange Honeysuckle ( F. Caprifoliaceae )

Hyadaphis foeniculi

Lonicera ‘Dropmore Scarlet’

Dropmore Scarlet Honeysuckle

( F. Caprifoliaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Hyadaphis foeniculi

Rhopalomyzus lonicerae

Lonicera etrusca

Etruscan Honeysuckle ( F. Caprifoliaceae )

Hyadaphis foeniculi

Lonicera involucrata

Black Twin-Berry ( F. Caprifoliaceae )

Delphiniobium canadense

Hyadaphis foeniculi

Illinoia crystleae

Illinoia crystleae ssp. bartholomewi

Lonicera pyrenaica

Pyrenean Honeysuckle ( F. Caprifoliaceae )

Hyadaphis foeniculi

Rhopalomyzus lonicerae

Lunaria annua Money Plant ( F. Cruciferae )

Aphis fabae

Lupinus arboreus Bush Lupine ( F. Leguminosae )

Macrosiphum albifrons

Lupinus arcticus

Arctic Lupine ( F. Leguminosae )

Macrosiphum albifrons

Lupinus argenteus var. argenteus

Silvery Lupine ( F. Leguminosae )

Macrosiphum albifrons

Lupinus nootkatensis var. nootkatensis

Nootka Lupine ( F. Leguminosae )

Macrosiphum albifrons

Lupinus polyphyllus

Big-Leaved Lupine ( F. Leguminosae )

Macrosiphum albifrons

Lupinus rivularis

Streambank Lupine ( F. Leguminosae )

Macrosiphum albifrons

Lupinus sericeus Silky Lupine ( F. Leguminosae )

Macrosiphum albifrons

Lupinus sp. Perennial Lupine ( F. Leguminosae )

Acyrthosiphon pisum

Aphis lupini

Macrosiphum albifrons

Luzula arctica ssp. latifolia

Arctic Wood-Rush ( F. Juncaceae )

Glabromyzus schlingeri

Luzula nivea Snowy Wood-Rush ( F. Juncaceae )

Glabromyzus schlingeri

Sitobion avenae

Lycium chinense

Chinese Matrimony Vine ( F. Solanaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

88 J. ENTomMo_ Soc. Brit. CoLuMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

Lycopersicon lycopersicum

Tomato ( F. Solanaceae )

Aphis fabae

Aulacorthum solani

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Lysichiton camtschatcense

Kamchatka Skunk Cabbage ( F. Araceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Lysimachia punctata

Yellow Loosestrife ( F Primulaceae )

Aphis fabae

Aulacorthum solani

Magnolia sieboldii

Oyama Magnolia ( F. Magnoliaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Mahonia aquifolium

Tall Oregon-Grape ( F. Berberidaceae )

Liosomaphis berberidis

Mahonia repens

Creeping Oregon-Grape ( F. Berberidaceae )

Liosomaphis berberidis

Maianthemum kamtschaticum

Wild Lily-Of-The-Valley ( F. Liliaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Malus coronaria

Wild Sweet Crabapple ( F. Rosaceae )

Aphis pomi

Malus fusca Western Crabapple ( F. Rosaceae )

Eriosoma lanigerum

Malus ioensis Prairie Crabapple ( F. Rosaceae )

Aphis pomi

Dysaphis plantaginea

Rhopalosiphum insertum

Malus pumila Common Apple ( F. Rosaceae )

Dysaphis plantaginea

Dysaphis sorbi

Eriosoma lanigerum

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Rhopalosiphum insertum

Sitobion avenae

Malus sp

Ornamental & Table Crabapple ( F. Rosaceae )

Aphis pomi

Dysaphis plantaginea

Rhopalosiphum insertum

Malus sylvestris Apple ( F. Rosaceae )

Aphis pomi

Dysaphis plantaginea

Nearctaphis bakeri

Marsilea vestita

Hairy Pepperwort ( F. Marsileaceae )

Myzus persicae

Matricaria perforata

Scentless Mayweed ( F. Compositae )

Macrosiphoniella tanacetaria

Matteuccia struthiopteris

Ostrich Fern ( F. Aspleniaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Sitobion adianti

Meconopsis betonicifolia

Blue Poppy ( F. Papaveraceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Myzus ascalonicus

Meconopsis cambrica

Welsh Poppy ( F. Papaveraceae )

Aphis fabae

Meconopsis paniculata

Nepal Poppy ( F. Papaveraceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Myzus persicae

Medicago sativa Alfalfa ( F. Leguminosae )

Acyrthosiphon pisum

Macrosiphum creelit

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus persicae

Therioaphis riehmi

Melilotus alba

White Sweet Clover ( F. Leguminosae )

Acyrthosiphon pisum

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Therioaphis riehmi

Melilotus officinalis

Yellow Sweet Clover ( F. Leguminosae )

Acyrthosiphon pisum

Melilotus sp. Sweet Clover ( F. Leguminosae )

Acyrthosiphon pisum

Mentha arvensis ssp. borealis

Field Mint ( F. Labiatae )

Aulacorthum solani

Capitophorus elaeagni

Ovatus crataegarius

Mentha spicata

Myzus ornatus

Mentzelia sp. Blazing-Star ( F. Loasaceae )

Macrosiphum mentzeliae

Menziesia ferruginea ssp. glabella

Smooth Pacific Menziesia ( F. Ericaceae )

Illinoia menziesiae

Mertensia paniculata var. borealis

Smooth-Panicled Mertensia ( F. Boraginaceae )

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Mespilus germanica Medlar ( F. Rosaceae )

Fimbriaphis gentneri

Rhopalosiphum insertum

Mikania scandens

Climbing Hempweed ( F. Compositae )

Myzus persicae

Mimulus cardinalis

Scarlet Monkey Flower ( F. Scrophulariaceae )

Kakimia alpina

Morus alba White Mulberry ( F. Moraceae )

Aphis citricola

Myosotis arvensis

Field Forget-Me-Not ( F. Boraginaceae )

Aphis fabae

Aulacorthum solani

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus ascalonicus

Myzus ornatus

Spearmint ( F. Labiatae )

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 89

Myrica californica

California Bayberry ( F. Myricaceae )

Aphis fabae

Myrica gale Sweet Gale ( F. Myricaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Nasturtium officinale

Common Water Cress ( F. Cruciferae )

Myzus cerasi

Nemophila menziesii var. discoidalis

Baby Blue-Eyes ( F. Hydrophyllaceae )

Myzus persicae

Nepeta cataria

Aulacorthum solani

Myzus ornatus

Nephrolepis exaltata “Bostoniensis’

Boston Fern ( F. Davalliaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Nicandra physalodes

Apple-Of-Peru ( F. Solanaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Nicotiana sp.

Aphis nasturtii

Nicotiana tabacum

Myzus persicae

Nothofagus antarctica

Antarctic Falsebeech ( F. Fagaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Nuphar lutea ssp. polysepala

Indian Pond Lily ( F. Nymphaeaceae )

Macrosiphum audeni

Nuphar sp. Cow Lily ( KF Nymphaeaceae )

Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae

Nymphaea sp. Water Lily ( F. Nymphaeaceae )

Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae

Oemleria cerasiformis

Indian-Plum ( F. Rosaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Macrosiphum osmaroniae

Oenanthe sarmentosa

Water Parsley ( F. Umbelliferae )

Cavariella aegopodii

Hyadaphis foeniculi

Oenothera erythrosepala

Red-Sepaled Evening Primrose ( F. Onagraceae )

Myzus ornatus

Origanum vulgare

Myzus ornatus

Ovatus crataegarius

Osmorhiza chilensis

Sweet Cicely ( F. Umbelliferae )

Myzus ascalonicus

Osmunda regalis Royal Fern ( F. Osmundaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Aulacorthum solani

Oxalis corniculata

Creeping Yellow Wood-Sorrel ( F. Oxalidaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Myzus ornatus

Oxalis deppei Good-Luck Leaf ( F. Oxalidaceae )

Aphis fabae

Papaver alpinum ‘Plena’

Catnip ( F. Labiatae )

Tobacco ( F. Solanaceae )

Marjoram ( F. Labiatae )

Plena Alpine Poppy ( F. Papaveraceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Papaver orientale

Oriental Poppy ( F. Papaveraceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Aulacorthum solani

Papaver rhoeas Corn Poppy ( F. Papaveraceae )

Aphis fabae

Parahebe catarractae

Parahebe ( F. Scrophulariaceae )

Myzus ornatus

Parthenium hysterophorus

Santa Maria Feverfew ( F. Compositae )

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Parthenocissus quinquefolia

Virginia Creeper ( F. Vitaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Rhopalosiphoninus staphyleae

Pastinaca sativa Parsnip ( F. Umbelliferae )

Aphis heraclella

Cavariella aegopodii

Paulownia tomentosa

Royal Paulownia ( F. Scrophulariaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Paxistima myrsinites

Oregon Boxwood ( F. Celastraceae )

Wahlgreniella nervata arbuti

Pelargonium x hortorum

Fish Geranium ( F. Geraniaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Pellaea glabella var. simplex

Smooth Cliff-Brake ( F. Adiantaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Sitobion adianti

Penstemon ‘Evelyn’

Evelyn Beard-Tongue ( F. Scrophulariaceae )

Rhopalosiphoninus staphyleae

Pereskia aculeata

Barbados Gooseberry ( F. Cactaceae )

Myzus ornatus

Petroselinum crispum Parsley ( F. Umbelliferae )

Cavariella aegopodii

Myzus ornatus

Petunia ‘Coral Satin’

Coral Satin Petunia ( F. Solanaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Phacelia heterophylla

Diverse-Leaved Phacelia ( F. Hydrophyllaceae )

Myzus ascalonicus

Phacelia sericea ssp. sericea

Silky Phacelia ( F. Hydrophyllaceae )

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Phalaris arundinacea

Reed Canary Grass ( F. Gramineae )

Sitobion fragariae

Phaseolus vulgaris

Kidney Bean ( F. Leguminosae )

Acyrthosiphon pisum

Aphis fabae

Capitophorus elaeagni

Myzus persicae

90 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

Philadelphus lewisii

Lewis’ Mock Orange ( F. Hydrangeaceae )

Aphis fabae

Aulacorthum solani

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Glendenningia philadelphi

Illinoia spiraeae

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus ornatus

Myzus persicae

Philadelphus sp

Mock Orange ( F. Hydrangeaceae )

Aphis fabae

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Philadelphus x virginalis

Virginalis Mock Orange ( F. Hydrangeaceae )

Aphis fabae

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus ornatus

Myzus persicae

Philodendron hastatum

Spadeleaf Philodendron ( F. Araceae )

Myzus ornatus

Phlox paniculata

Perennial Phlox ( F. Polemoniaceae )

Aphis fabae

Myzus ascalonicus

Phlox subulata Moss Phlox ( F. Polemoniaceae )

Myzus ascalonicus

Photinia x fraseri

Fraser Photinia ( F. Rosaceae )

Aphis pomi

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Phorodon humuli

Phragmites australis ssp. australis

Common Reed ( F. Gramineae )

Hyalopterus pruni

Physalis alkekengi

Chinese Lantern ( F. Solanaceae )

Aphis fabae

Myzus persicae

Physocarpus capitatus

Pacific Ninebark ( F. Rosaceae )

Utamphorophora humboldti

Physocarpus malvaceus

Mallow Ninebark ( F. Rosaceae )

Utamphorophora humboldti

Picea abies Norway Spruce ( F. Pinaceae )

Cinara braggii

Picea engelmannii

Engelmann Spruce ( F. Pinaceae )

Cinara obscura

Cinara saskensis

Elatobium abietinum

Picea glauca White Spruce ( F. Pinaceae )

Cinara costata

Cinara hottesi

Picea pungens

Cinara braggii

Cinara coloradensis

Blue Spruce ( F. Pinaceae )

Cinara costata

Elatobium abietinum

Picea sitchensis Sitka Spruce ( F. Pinaceae )

Cinara braggii

Cinara coloradensis

Cinara fornacula

Cinara nigripes

Cinara vandykei

Elatobium abietinum

Mindarus obliquus

Picea sp.

Aphis craccivora

Cinara caudelli

Cinara fornacula

Elatobium abietinum

Mindarus obliquus

Pieris japonica

Japanese Andromeda ( F. Ericaceae )

Aulacorthum pterinigrum

Macrosiphum parvifolii

Wahlgreniella nervata

Pilularia globulifera Pillwort ( F. Marsileaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Pinus albicaulis Whitebark Pine ( F. Pinaceae )

Cinara inscripta

Cinara medispinosa

Cinara oregoni

Pinus contorta var. contorta

Shore Pine ( F. Pinaceae )

Spruce ( F. Pinaceae )

Aphis pomi

Cinara brevispinosa

Cinara ferrisi

Cinara medispinosa

Cinara murrayanae

Mindarus abietinus

Pinus contorta var. latifolia

Lodgepole Pine ( F. Pinaceae )

Cinara braggii

Cinara brevispinosa

Cinara medispinosa

Cinara murrayanae

Cinara pergandei

Mindarus abietinus

Pinus monticola

Western White Pine ( F. Pinaceae )

Cinara ferrisi

Cinara kuchea

Cinara murrayanae

Pinus nigra Austrian Pine ( F. Pinaceae )

Cinara pinea

Pinus ponderosa Ponderosa Pine ( F. Pinaceae )

Cinara arizonica

Cinara medispinosa

Cinara ponderosae

Cinara thatcheri

Essigella gillettei

Euceraphis gillettei

Schizolachnus curvispinosus

Schizolachnus piniradiatae

Pinus sylvestris Scots Pine ( F. Pinaceae )

Cinara pinea

Schizolachnus pineti

J. ENToMoL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 9]

Pisum sativum Garden Pea ( F. Leguminosae )

Myzus persicae

Pisum sativum var. arvense

Field Pea ( F. Leguminosae )

Acyrthosiphon pisum

Plantago lanceolata Ribgrass ( F. Plantaginaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus ascalonicus

Plantago major

Common Plantain ( F. Plantaginaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus persicae

Plantago rubrifolia

Red-Leaved Plantain ( F. Plantaginaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Platycodon grandiflorus ‘Apoyama’

Apoyama Balloon Flower ( F. Campanulaceae )

Rhopalosiphoninus staphyleae

Pleione formosana

Formosa Pleione ( F. Orchidaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Pleione sp. Pleione ( F. Orchidaceae )

Myzus ascalonicus

Myzus persicae

Poa annua Low Spear Grass ( F. Gramineae )

Rhopalomyzus poae

Poa glauca Glaucous Blue Grass ( F. Gramineae )

Rhopalosiphum padi

Sipha glyceriae

Sitobion avenae

Sitobion fragariae

Utamphorophora humboldti

Poa pratensis

Kentucky Blue Grass ( F. Gramineae )

Sipha glyceriae

Sitobion fragariae

Poa pratensis ssp. agassizensis

Agassiz Blue Grass ( F. Gramineae )

Sitobion fragariae

Poa sp. Meadow Grass ( F. Gramineae )

Rhopalosiphum padiformis

Pogonatum urnigerum

Urn Bearded Moss ( F. Polytrichaceae )

Myzodium modestum

Polemonium carneum

Salmon Polemonium ( F. Polemoniaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Polemonium nellitum

Nellitum Polemonium ( F. Polemoniaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus persicae

Polygonum lapathifolium

Curltop Lady’s Thumb ( F. Polygonaceae )

Capitophorus hippophaes

Polygonum persicaria

Lady’s Thumb ( F. Polygonaceae )

Aphis fabae

Capitophorus hippophaes

Polypodium glycyrrhiza

Licorice Fern ( F. Polypodiaceae )

Sitobion adianti

Polypogon monspeliensis

Rabbitfoot Polypogon ( F. Gramineae )

Metopolophium dirhodum

Sitobion avenae

Polystichum lonchitis

Mountain Holly Fern ( F. Aspleniaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Polystichum munitum

Sword Fern ( F. Aspleniaceae )

Aulacorthum capilanoense

Aulacorthum solani

Sitobion adianti

Sitobion ptericolens

Polytrichum commune

Common Haircap Moss ( F. Polytrichaceae )

Myzodium modestum

Polytrichum juniperinum

Juniper Haircap Moss ( F. Polytrichaceae )

Myzodium modestum

Populus balsamifera

Balsam Poplar ( F. Salicaceae )

Pterocomma bicolor

Populus grandidentata

Large-Toothed Aspen ( F. Salicaceae )

Chaitophorus populifolii neglectus

Populus nigra ‘Italica’

Lombardy Poplar ( F. Salicaceae )

Chaitophorus populifolii neglectus

Pemphigus bursarius

Pemphigus spyrothecae

Pterocomma bicolor

Populus sp. Poplar ( F. Salicaceae )

Chaitophorus populicola

Chaitophorus populifolii

Chaitophorus stevensis

Mordwilkoja vagabunda

Pemphigus monophagus

Pemphigus populivenae

Pterocomma bicolor

Pterocomma populeum

Pterocomma salicis

Pterocomma smithiae

Thecabius populiconduplifolius

Populus tremuloides

Trembling Aspen ( F. Salicaceae )

Aphis maculatae

Chaitophorus populicola

Chaitophorus populifolii

Chaitophorus populifolii neglectus

Pachypappa sacculi

Populus trichocarpa

Black Cottonwood ( F. Salicaceae )

Chaitophorus populicola

Chaitophorus populifolii

Pemphigus populicaulis

Pemphigus populivenae

Pterocomma bicolor

Pterocomma smithiae

Thecabius gravicornis

Thecabius populimonilis

Portulaca oleracea

92 J. ENTOMOL Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

Common Purslane ( F. Portulacaceae )

Myzus persicae

Potentilla anserina Silver Weed ( F. Rosaceae )

Chaetosiphon fragaefolii

Chaetosiphon potentillae

Potentilla argyrophylla ‘Leucochroa’

Silverleaved Cinquefoil ( F. Rosaceae )

Metopolophium dirhodum

Potentilla atrosanguinea

Himalayan Cinquefoil ( F. Rosaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Potentilla fruticosa

Shrubby Cinquefoil ( F. Rosaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzaphis rosarum

Potentilla fruticosa ssp. floribunda

Full-Of-Flower Shrubby Cinquefoil

( F. Rosaceae )

Myzaphis rosarum

Potentilla fruticosa ‘Red Ace’

Red Ace Shrubby Cinquefoil ( F. Rosaceae )

Myzaphis rosarum

Potentilla ‘Gibson’s Scarlet’

Gibson’s Scarlet Cinquefoil ( F. Rosaceae )

Myzus ascalonicus

Potentilla gracilis var. glabrata

Smooth Graceful Cinquefoil ( F. Rosaceae )

Myzus ascalonicus

Potentilla gracilis var. gracilis

Graceful Cinquefoil ( F. Rosaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Potentilla pensylvanica

Pennsylvania Cinquefoil ( F. Rosaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Myzus ascalonicus

Primula alpicola ssp. luna

Moonlight Primrose ( F. Primulaceae )

Myzus ornatus

Primula auricula

Auricula Primrose ( F. Primulaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Primula denticulata

Himalayan Primrose ( F. Primulaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Primula juliae ‘Wanda’

Wanda Primrose ( F. Primulaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Primula parryi Parry Primrose ( F. Primulaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Primula sp. Primrose ( F. Primulaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Aulacorthum solani

Myzus ornatus

Primula veris Cowslip Primrose ( F. Primulaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Primula vialii Littons Primrose ( F. Primulaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Prunus avium Sweet Cherry ( F. Rosaceae )

Hyalopterus pruni

Myzus cerasi

Nearctaphis bakeri

Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae

Prunus cerasifera Cherry Plum ( F. Rosaceae )

Myzus cerasi

Prunus cerasifera ‘Atropurpurea’

Pissard Plum ( F. Rosaceae )

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Phorodon humuli

Prunus cerasus

Myzus cerasi

Prunus domestica Garden Plum ( F. Rosaceae )

Brachycaudus cardui

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Hyalopterus pruni

Myzus lythri

Myzus persicae

Nearctaphis bakeri

Phorodon humuli

Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae

Rhopalosiphum padi

Prunus emarginata Bitter Cherry ( F. Rosaceae )

Myzus cerasi

Myzus lythri

Prunus japonica

Japanese Bush Cherry ( F. Rosaceae )

Phorodon humuli

Prunus persica

Aphis pomi

Myzus persicae

Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae

Prunus ‘Royal Anne’

Royal Anne Flowering Cherry ( F. Rosaceae )

Myzus cerasi

Prunus serrulata ‘Kwanzan’

Kwanzan Japanese Flowering Cherry

( F Rosaceae )

Sour Cherry ( F. Rosaceae )

Peach ( F. Rosaceae )

Myzus cerasi

Prunus serrulata ‘Shiro-fugen’

Victoria Japanese Flowering Cherry

( F. Rosaceae )

Myzus cerasi

Prunus sp. Cherry ( F. Rosaceae )

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Hyalopterus pruni

Myzus cerasi

Rhopalosiphum cerasifoliae

Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae

Prunus virginiana

Common Chokecherry ( F. Rosaceae )

Asiphonaphis pruni

Rhopalosiphum cerasifoliae

Rhopalosiphum padi

Prunus virginiana ssp. demissa

Western Chokecherry ( F. Rosaceae )

Rhopalosiphum cerasifoliae

Pseudosasa japonica

Arrow Bamboo ( F. Gramineae )

Takecallis arundinariae

Pseudotsuga menziesii Douglas Fir ( F. Pinaceae )

Aphis fabae mordvilkoi

Cinara pseudotaxifoliae

Cinara pseudotsugae

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 93

Cinara splendens

Essigella wilsoni

Pteridium aquilinum

Bracken Fern ( F. Dennstaedtiaceae )

Sitobion ptericolens

Sitobion pteridis

Pterocarya stenoptera

Chinese Wingnut ( F. Juglandaceae )

Aphis fabae

Brachycaudus cardui

Pulmonaria officinalis

Jerusalem Sage ( F. Boraginaceae )

Myzus ascalonicus

Pyracantha crenulata ‘Flava’

Yellow Nepal Firethorn ( F. Rosaceae )

Aphis pomi

Pyrus communis

Aphis pomi

Aulacorthum solani

Quercus coccinea Scarlet Oak ( F. Fagaceae )

Myzocallis multisetis

Quercus garryana Garry Oak ( FE. Fagaceae )

Myzocallis punctatus

Thelaxes californica

Tuberculatus annulatus

Tuberculatus columbiae

Quercus macrocarpa Bur Oak ( F. Fagaceae )

Myzocallis punctatus

Quercus prinus Chestnut Oak ( F. Fagaceae )

Myzocallis punctatus

Thelaxes californica

Quercus robur English Oak ( F. Fagaceae )

Tuberculatus annulatus

Quercus robur ‘Fastigiata’

Upright English Oak ( F. Fagaceae )

Tuberculatus annulatus

Quercus rubra Red Oak ( F. Fagaceae )

Myzocallis occultus

Myzocallis walshii

Quercus sp.

Myzocallis walshii

Thelaxes californica

Tuberculatus annulatus

Ranunculus acris

Tall Buttercup ( F. Ranunculaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Myzus persicae

Ranunculus occidentalis

Western Buttercup ( F. Ranunculaceae )

Myzus ascalonicus

Myzus ornatus

Rhopalosiphum padi

Thecabius affinis

Ranunculus sp. Buttercup ( F. Ranunculaceae )

Aphis fabae

Myzus ornatus

Myzus persicae

Raphanus raphanistrum Charlock ( F. Cruciferae )

Myzus persicae

Pear ( F. Rosaceae )

Oak ( F. Fagaceae )

Raphanus sativus Radish ( F. Cruciferae )

Brevicoryne brassicae

Ratibida columnifera

Prairie Coneflower ( F. Compositae )

Myzus ornatus

Reynoutria japonica

Japanese Knotweed ( F. Polygonaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Rhamnus purshiana Cascara ( F. Rhamnaceae )

Sitobion rhamni

Rheum palmatum

Palmate-Leaved Rhubarb ( F. Polygonaceae )

Myzus ornatus

Rheum rhabarbarum Rhubarb ( F. Polygonaceae )

Aphis fabae

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus ascalonicus

Myzus ornatus

Myzus persicae

Rheum rhabarbarum ‘Victoria’

Victoria Rhubarb ( F. Polygonaceae )

Macrosiphum stellariae

Rhododendron ‘Directeur Moerlands’

Directeur Moerlands Azalea

( F. Ericaceae )

Illinoia lambersi

Rhododendron ‘Elizabeth’

Elizabeth Rhododendron ( F. Ericaceae )

Illinoia lambersi

Rhododendron ‘Glacier’

Glacier Azalea ( F. Ericaceae )

Illinoia lambersi

Rhododendron luteum

Pontic Azalea ( F. Ericaceae )

Illinoia lambersi

Rhododendron molle

Chinese Azalea ( F. Ericaceae )

Illinoia lambersi

Rhododendron ‘Princess Elizabeth’

Princess Elizabeth Rhododendron ( F. Ericaceae )

Illinoia lambersi

Rhododendron sp. Rhododendron ( F. Ericaceae )

Brachycaudus cardui

Illinoia lambersi

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Ribes divaricatum

Coastal Black Gooseberry ( F. Grossulariaceae )

Kakimia cynosbati

Ribes lacustre

Swamp Gooseberry ( F. Grossulariaceae )

Aphis neomexicana

Kakimia cynosbati

Macrosiphum bisensoriatum

Ribes laxiflorum

Trailing Black Currant ( F. Grossulariaceae )

Aphis neomexicana

Cryptomyzus galeopsidis

Hyperomyzus lactucae

Ribes magellanica

94 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. CoLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

Magellan Currant ( F. Grossulariaceae )

Aphis varians

Cryptomyzus ribis

Hyperomyzus lactucae

Ribes nigrum

European Black Currant ( F. Grossulariaceae )

Cryptomyzus galeopsidis

Hyperomyzus lactucae

Nasonovia ribisnigri

Ribes nigrum ‘Wellington XXX’

Wellington XXX European Black Currant

( F Grossulariaceae )

Aphis varians

Hyperomyzus lactucae

Ribes sanguineum

Red Flowering Currant ( F. Grossulariaceae )

Aphis neomexicana

Kakimia muesebecki

Ribes sativum Red Currant ( F. Grossulariaceae )

Cryptomyzus galeopsidis

Cryptomyzus ribis

Ribes sp. Currant ( F. Grossulariaceae )

Cryptomyzus ribis

Ribes uva-crispa

English Gooseberry ( F. Grossulariaceae )

Cryptomyzus ribis

Robinia pseudoacacia

Black Locust ( F Leguminosae )

Acyrthosiphon pisum

Appendiseta robiniae

Robinia pseudoacacia ‘Inermis’

Mop-Head Acacia ( F. Leguminosae )

Appendiseta robiniae

Robinia sp. False Acacia ( F. Leguminosae )

Appendiseta robiniae

Rosa ‘Agnes’ Agnes Rose ( F. Rosaceae )

Fimbriaphis wakibae

Myzaphis rosarum

Rosa ‘Beauty Secret’

Beauty Secret Miniature Rose ( F. Rosaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Macrosiphum pyrifoliae

Rosa centifolia ‘Cristata’

Mossy Cabbage Rose ( F. Rosaceae )

Macrosiphum rosae

Rosa centifolia ‘Muscosa’

Moss Rose ( F. Rosaceae )

Macrosiphum rosae

Rosa ‘Coral Dawn’

Coral Dawn Rose ( F. Rosaceae )

Macrosiphum rosae

Metopolophium dirhodum

Rosa eglanteria Eglantine ( F. Rosaceae )

Macrosiphum rosae

Rosa ‘Golden Showers’

Golden Showers Rose ( F. Rosaceae )

Macrosiphum rosae

Rosa gymnocarpa Baldhip Rose ( F. Rosaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Rosa ‘Handel’ Handel Rose ( F. Rosaceae )

Macrosiphum rosae

Rosa ‘Lichtkonigin Lucia’

Lichtkonigin Lucia Rose ( F.

Macrosiphum rosae

Rosa ‘Mimi’ Mimi Rose ( F.

Macrosiphum rosae

Rosa ‘Nozomi’ Nozomi Rose ( F.

Macrosiphum rosae

Rosa nutkana Nootka Rose ( F.

Eomacrosiphon nigromaculosum

Fimbriaphis fimbriata

Metopolophium dirhodum

Placoaphis siphunculata

Rosa nutkana var. nutkana

Nootka Rose ( F.

Placoaphis siphunculata

Rosa rugosa Turkestan Rose ( F.

Chaetosiphon tetrarhodum

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Macrosiphum rosae

Metopolophium dirhodum

Myzaphis rosarum

Rosa rugosa ‘Alba’

White Turkestan Rose ( F.

Chaetosiphon fragaefolii

Fimbriaphis wakibae

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus ornatus

Placoaphis siphunculata

Rosa rugosa ‘Hansa’

Hansa Turkestan Rose ( F.

Chaetosiphon thomasi

Macrosiphum rosae

Metopolophium dirhodum

Placoaphis siphunculata

Rosa rugosa ‘Rubra’

Red Turkestan Rose ( F.

Metopolophium dirhodum

Placoaphis siphunculata

Rosa sp. Rose ( F.

Chaetosiphon fragaefolii

Chaetosiphon tetrarhodum

Fimbriaphis fimbriata

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Macrosiphum rosae

Maculolachnus sijpkensi

Metopolophium dirhodum

Myzus persicae

Placoaphis siphunculata

Pseudocercidis rosae

Pterocallis alni

Wahlgreniella nervata

Rosa ‘Westerland’

Rosaceae )

Westerland Rose ( F. Rosaceae )

Metopolophium dirhodum

Rosa ‘White Dawn’

White Dawn Rose ( F. Rosaceae )

Macrosiphum rosae

Rosa woodsii ssp. woodsii

Woods’ Rose ( F. Rosaceae )

Fimbriaphis wakibae

Macrosiphum rosae

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 95

Rosa ‘Zephirine Drouhin’

Zephirine Drouhin Rose ( F. Rosaceae )

Fimbriaphis fimbriata

Rosmarinus officinalis

Rosemary ( F. Labiatae )

Myzus ornatus

Rubus discolor

Himalaya Blackberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Amphorophora parviflori

Sitobion fragariae

Rubus idaeus Red Raspberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Amphorophora agathonica

Aphis idaei

Aulacorthum solani

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Sitobion fragariae

Rubus idaeus ssp. melanolasius

American Red Raspberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Amphorophora agathonica

Illinoia rubicola

Rubus laciniatus

Cut-Leaved Blackberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Sitobion fragariae

Rubus x loganobaccus

Loganberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Aphis idaei

Rubus occidentalis

Blackcap Raspberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Amphorophora agathonica

Rubus parviflorus

Thimbleberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Amphorophora parviflori

Illinoia davidsoni

Illinoia maxima

Myzus ornatus

Rubus sp.

Illinoia rubicola

Sitobion fragariae

Rubus spectabilis Salmonberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Amphorophora forbesi

Aulacorthum capilanoense

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Rubus ursinus ssp. macropetalus

Pacific Trailing Blackberry ( F. Rosaceae )

Amphorophora parviflori

Amphorophora rubitoxica

Rudbeckia hirta

Black-Eyed Susan ( F. Compositae )

Aphis fabae

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Rumex acetosella

Sheep Sorrel ( F. Polygonaceae )

Brachycaudus rumexicolens

Myzus ascalonicus

Pemphigus populivenae

Rumex crispus Curled Dock ( F. Polygonaceae )

Aphis rumicis

Myzus ascalonicus

Rumex obtusifolius ssp. obtusifolius

Broad-Leaved Dock ( F. Polygonaceae )

Bramble ( F. Rosaceae )

Brachycaudus rumexicolens

Myzus persicae

Saintpaulia ionantha

Common African Violet ( F. Gesneriaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Idiopterus nephrelepidis

Saintpaulia sp. African Violet ( F. Gesneriaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Salicornia europaea

Sand-Fire ( F. Chenopodiaceae )

Sitobion salicicornii

Salix acutifolia ‘Pendulifolia’

Weeping Sharp-Leaved Willow

( F. Salicaceae )

Aphis farinosa

Cavariella konoi

Salix babylonica

Weeping Willow ( F. Salicaceae )

Pterocomma sanguiceps

Pterocomma smithiae

Salix exigua

Silver-Leaved Willow ( F. Salicaceae )

Chaitophorus macrostachyae

Pterocomma sanguiceps

Salix fragilis Brittle Willow ( F. Salicaceae )

Pterocomma smithiae

Salix lanata Woolly Willow ( F. Salicaceae )

Myzus ornatus

Salix lasiandra Pacific Willow ( F. Salicaceae )

Cavariella konoi

Cavariella pastinacae

Macrosiphum californicum

Pterocomma smithiae

Salix scouleriana

Scouler’s Willow ( F. Salicaceae )

Aphis farinosa

Macrosiphum californicum

Pterocomma salicis

Pterocomma sanguiceps

Salix sitchensis Sitka Willow ( F. Salicaceae )

Aphis farinosa

Salix sp.

Aphis farinosa

Cavariella pastinacae

Chaitophorus macrostachyae

Chaitophorus monelli

Chaitophorus nigrae

Chaitophorus pustuiatus

Chaitophorus viminalis

Fullawaya bulbosa

Macrosiphum californicum

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Plocamaphis flocculosa

Pterocomma bicolor

Pterocomma pilosum

Pterocomma salicis

Pterocomma sanguiceps

Tuberolachnus salignus

Salix triandra Almond Willow ( F. Salicaceae )

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Macrosiphum californicum

Willow ( F. Salicaceae )

96 J. ENTOMOL Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

Salvia officinalis Common Sage ( F. Labiatae )

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Sambucus cerulea Blue Elder ( F. Caprifoliaceae )

Macrosiphum stanleyi

Sambucus racemosa ssp. pubens var. arborescens

Coastal American Red Elder ( F. Caprifoliaceae )

Aphis sambuci

Macrosiphum stanleyi

Sambucus racemosa ssp. pubens var. leucocarpa

Eastern American Red Elder ( F. Caprifoliaceae )

Aphis sambuci

Macrosiphum stanleyi

Sambucus racemosa ssp. pubens var. melanocarpa

American Black-Fruited Elder (F. Caprifoliaceae)

Macrosiphum stanleyi

Sanvitalia procumbens

Creeping Zinnia ( F. Compositae )

Aphis fabae

Sassafras albidum

Aphis fabae

Saururus cernuus

Common Lizardtail ( F. Saururaceae )

Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae

Schefflera octophylla

Eight-Leaved Umbrella Tree ( F. Araliaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Schizostylis coccinea

Crimson Flag ( F. Iridaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Scirpus lacustris ssp. validus var. validus

Softstem Bulrush ( F. Cyperaceae )

Sitobion avenae

Sitobion fragariae

Scirpus microcarpus

Small-Flowered Bulrush ( F. Cyperaceae )

Ceruraphis eriophori

Scirpus sp. Bulrush ( F. Cyperaceae )

Rhopalosiphum padi

Secale cereale

Rhopalosiphum padi

Sitobion avenae

Sedum anglicum

English Stonecrop ( F. Crassulaceae )

Aphis sedi

Sedum lanceolatum var. nesioticum

Lance-Leaved Stonecrop ( F. Crassulaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Sedum sp. Stonecrop ( F. Crassulaceae )

Aphis sedi

Senecio canus Woolly Ragwort ( F. Compositae )

Aulacorthum solani

Senecio cineraria Dusty-Miller ( F. Compositae )

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Senecio cruentus

Florist’s Cineraria ( F. Compositae )

Aulacorthum solani

Myzus ascalonicus

Senecio jacobaea

Tansy Ragwort ( F. Compositae )

Sassafras ( F. Lauraceae )

Rye ( F. Gramineae )

Aphis lugentis

Geoica utricularia

Senecio sp. Groundsel ( F. Compositae )

Aphis fabae

Aphis lugentis

Senecio vulgaris

Common Groundsel ( F. Compositae )

Brachycaudus cardui

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus ornatus

Myzus persicae

Sequoiadendron giganteum

Giant Sequoia ( F. Taxodiaceae )

Illinoia morrisoni

Silene alba ssp. alba

White Campion ( F. Caryophyllaceae )

Aphis fabae

Myzus persicae

Silene noctiflora Night-Flowering Catchfly

( F. Caryophyllaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Sinningia speciosa Gloxinia ( F. Gesneriaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Sisymbrium officinale

Tall Hedge Mustard ( F. Cruciferae )

Lipaphis erysimi

Myzus ascalonicus

Myzus persicae

Sitobion fragariae

Sisymbrium sp. Hedge Mustard ( F. Cruciferae )

Myzus persicae

Sitanion hystrix var. hystrix

Bottlebrush Squirreltail Grass ( F. Gramineae )

Sitobion fragariae

Sium suave Water Parsnip ( F. Umbelliferae )

Aphis heraclella

Cavariella aegopodii

Smilacina stellata

Star-Flowered Solomon’s Seal ( F. Liliaceae )

Sitobion insulare yagasogae

Solanum nigrum Nightshade ( F. Solanaceae )

Myzus persicae

Solanum tuberosum

Aphis fabae

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Aulacorthum solani

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus persicae

Rhopalosiphoninus latysiphon

Solidago canadensis

Canadian Goldenrod ( F. Compositae )

Uroleucon erigeronensis

Uroleucon nigrotuberculatum

Solidago canadensis var. salesbrosa

Creek Goldenrod ( F. Compositae )

Uroleucon vancouverense

Solidago missouriensis var. missouriensis

Missouri Goldenrod ( F. Compositae )

Uroleucon vancouverense

Potato ( F. Solanaceae )

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), DEC

Solidago sp. Goldenrod ( F. Compositae )

Uroleucon gigantiphagum

Uroleucon rudbeckiae

Uroleucon solidaginis

Sonchus arvensis

Perennial Sowthistle ( F Compositae )

Hyperomyzus lactucae

Hyperomyzus pallidus

Uroleucon sonchi

Sonchus asper Spiny Sowthistle ( F. Compositae )

Aphis fabae

Hyperomyzus lactucae

Uroleucon sonchi

Sonchus oleraceus

Annual Sowthistle ( F. Compositae )

Hyperomyzus lactucae

Sonchus sp. Sowthistle ( F. Compositae )

Hyperomyzus lactucae

Myzus ascalonicus

Sophora japonica

Japanese Pagoda Tree ( F. Leguminosae )

Appendiseta robiniae

Sorbus americana

American Mountain Ash ( F. Rosaceae )

Fimbriaphis gentneri

Sorbus aucuparia Rowan Tree ( F. Rosaceae )

Aphis pomi

Macrosiohum pyrifoliae

Myzus ornatus

Nearctaphis californica

Sorbus aucuparia ‘Edulis’

Moravian Rowan Tree ( F. Rosaceae )

Aphis pomi

Sorbus scopulina

Wild Mountain Ash ( F. Rosaceae )

Nearctaphis yohoensis

Sorbus sitchensis

Sitka Mountain Ash ( F. Rosaceae )

Toxopterella drepanosiphoides

Sorbus sitchensis ssp. grayi

Western Sitka Mountain Ash ( F. Rosaceae )

Macrosiphum pyrifoliae

Spartium junceum

Spanish Broom ( F. Leguminosae )

Aphis craccivora

Spergularia rubra

Red Sandwort ( F. Caryophyllaceae )

Myzus certus

Myzus persicae

Spinacia oleracea Spinach ( F. Chenopodiaceae )

Aphis fabae

Spiraea x arguta

Garland Spirea ( F. Rosaceae )

Illinoia spiraeae

Spiraea x bumalda

Bumalda Spirea ( F. Rosaceae )

Illinoia spiraeae

Spiraea douglasii Hardhack ( F. Rosaceae )

Eoessigia longicauda

Illinoia spiraeae

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

ole lod oF.

Spiraea sp.

Eoessigia longicauda

Spiraea thunbergii

Thunberg Spirea ( F. Rosaceae )

Illinoia spiraecola

Stellaria media

Common Chickweed ( F. Caryophyllaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Myzus ascalonicus

Myzus persicae

Stellaria sp. Chickweed ( F. Caryophyllaceae )

Myzus ascalonicus

Stipa elegantissima

Australian Needle Grass ( F. Gramineae )

Rhopalosiphum padi

Stranvaesia davidiana

Chinese Stranvaesia ( F. Rosaceae )

Aphis citricola

Styrax obassia

Fragrant Snowbell ( F. Styracaceae )

Aphis fabae

Symphoricarpos albus

Common Snowberry ( F. Caprifoliaceae )

Aphthargelia symphoricarpi

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Tagetes erecta African Marigold ( F. Compositae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Tagetes tenuifolia ‘Pumila’

Dwarf Marigoid ( F. Compositae )

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Tanacetum bipinnatum ssp. huronense

Western Dune Tansy ( F. Compositae )

Macrosiphoniella tanacetaria

Tanacetum vulgare Tansy ( F. Compositae )

Aulacorthum solani

Macrosiphoniella tanacetaria

Taraxacum officinale

Common Dandelion ( F. Compositae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus ascalonicus

Myzus ornatus

Trama rara

Uroleucon taraxaci

Tellima grandiflora

Tall Fringecup ( F. Saxifragaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Kakimia cynosbati

Teucrium canadense ssp. viscidum

American Germander ( F. Labiatae )

Myzus persicae

Thuja plicata

Western Red Cedar ( F. Cupressaceae )

Illinoia morrisoni

Thujopsis dolabrata

Hiba Arborvitae ( F. Cupressaceae )

Illinoia patriciae

Thymus pseudolanuginosus

Woolly Mother-Of-Thyme ( F. Labiatae )

Myzus ornatus

Tilia americana American Linden ( F. Tiliaceae )

Spirea ( F. Rosaceae )

98 J. ENTromMot Soc. Brit. CoLumBiA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

Aulacorthum solani

Eucallipterus tiliae

Tilia petiolaris

Weeping White Linden ( F. Tiliaceae )

Eucallipterus tiliae

Tilia sp.

Eucallipterus tiliae

Tolmiea menziesii

Thousand-Mothers ( F. Saxifragaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Tricyrtis hirta Hairy Toad Lily ( F. Liliaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Trientalis latifolia

Broad-Leaved Starflower ( F. Plumbaginaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Myzus persicae

Trifolium dubium

Suckling Clover ( F. Leguminosae )

Myzus ornatus

Trifolium pratense Red Clover ( F. Leguminosae )

Acyrthosiphon pisum

Aulacorthum solani

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Myzus ornatus

Nearctaphis sensoriata

Trifolium sp. Clover ( F. Leguminosae )

Acyrthosiphon pisum

Nearctaphis bakeri

Triglochin maritimum

Seaside Arrow-Grass ( F. Juncaginaceae )

Sitobion avenae

Tripleurospermum maritimum

Seashore Schultz-Bip ( F. Compositae )

Aphis fabae

Aulacorthum solani

Trisetum spicatum

Spike Trisetum ( F. Gramineae )

Sitobion fragariae

Triteleia hyacinthina

Wild Hyacinth ( F. Amaryllidaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Triticum x aestivum

Cultivated Wheat ( F Gramineae )

Rhopalosiphum padi

Sitobion avenae

Tropaeolum majus

Common Nasturtium ( F. Tropaeolaceae )

Aphis fabae

Aulacorthum solani

Tsuga heterophylla

Western Hemlock ( F. Pinaceae )

Cinara pilicornis

Cinara tsugae

Illinoia patriciae

Tulipa gesneriana Tulip ( F. Liliaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Aulacorthum solani

Dysaphis tulipae

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus persicae

Rhopalosiphoninus staphyleae

Linden ( F. Tiliaceae )

Typha latifolia Common Cattail ( F. Typhaceae )

Hyalopterus pruni

Rhopalosiphum enigmae

Ulmus americana American Elm ( F. Ulmaceae )

Eriosoma americanum

Eridsoma grossulariae

Eriosoma ulmi

Myzocallis walshii

Tinocallis platani

Ulmus glabra ‘Camperdownii’

Camperdown Elm ( F. Ulmaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Ulmus sp.

Eriosoma americanum

Tinocallis ulmifolii

Unknown sp.

Illinoia magna

Unknown sp.

Aulacorthum solani

Diuraphis nodulus

Forda marginata

Geoica utricularia

Jacksonia papillata

Rhopalomyzus poae

Rhopalosiphum padi

Sipha elegans

Sitobion avenae

Sitobion fragariae

Tetraneura ulmi

Uroleucon taraxaci

Utamphorophora humboldti

Unknown sp. ( F Leguminosae )

Nearctaphis crataegifoliae

Unknown sp. ( F. Polypodiaceae )

Idiopterus nephrelepidis

Urtica dioica Stinging Nettle ( F Urticaceae )

Microlophium carnosum

Urtica dioica ssp. gracilis var. lyallii

Lyall’s Nettle ( F. Urticaceae )

Amphorophora urtica

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Vaccinium corymbosum

Highbush Blueberry ( F. Ericaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Ericaphis scammelli

Fimbriaphis fimbriata

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Vaccinium macrocarpon

Cranberry ( F. Ericaceae )

Elm ( F. Ulmaceae )

( F. Compositae )

( F. Gramineae )

Illinoia azaleae

Vaccinium macrocarpon ‘McFarlin’

McFarlin Cranberry ( F. Ericaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Vaccinium parvifolium

Red Huckleberry ( F. Ericaceae )

Macrosiphum parvifolii

Vaccinium sp. Blueberry ( F. Ericaceae )

Aulacorthum pterinigrum

Fimbriaphis fimbriata

Valeriana officinalis

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), DEc.

Common Valerian ( F. Valerianaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Veratrum viride ssp. eschscholtzii

Green False Hellebore ( F. Liliaceae )

Aphis coweni

Verbena ‘Coral Reef’

Coral Reef Verbena ( F. Verbenaceae )

Myzus ornatus

Myzus persicae

Verbena x hybrida

Garden Verbena ( F. Verbenaceae )

Brachycaudus helichrysi

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Verbena x hybrida ‘Springtime’

Springtime Garden Verbena ( F. Verbenaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Verbena ‘Ideal Florist’

Ideal Florist Verbena ( F. Verbenaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Verbena ‘Sangria’

Sangria Verbena ( F. Verbenaceae )

Ovatus crataegarius

Verbesina encelioides

Butter Daisy ( F. Compositae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Viburnum x bodnantense

Bodnantense Viburnum ( F. Caprifoliaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Ceruraphis eriophori

Myzus ascalonicus

Myzus ornatus

Viburnum edule

High Bush Cranberry ( F. Caprifoliaceae )

Acyrthosiphon macrosiphum

Aphis fabae

Prociphilus xylostei

Viburnum farreri ‘Bowles’

Bowles Fragrant Viburnum ( F. Caprifoliaceae )

Rhopalosiphoninus staphyleae

Viburnum opulus ssp. trilobum

American Bush Cranberry ( F. Caprifoliaceae )

Aphis fabae

Ceruraphis eriophori

Ceruraphis viburnicola

Viburnum sargentii “Flavum’

Yellow Sargent Cranberry ( F. Caprifoliaceae )

Ceruraphis eriophori

Vicia faba Broad Bean ( F. Leguminosae )

Acyrthosiphon pisum

Aphis fabae

Macrosiphum creelii

Myzus persicae

31, 1987 99

Vicia sativa var. angustifolia

Narrow-Leaved Vetch ( F. Leguminosae )

Acyrthosiphon pisum

Aulacorthum solani

Vinca major Big Periwinkle ( F. Apocynaceae )

Aulacorthum solani

Vinca minor

Common Periwinkle ( F. Apocynaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Rhopalosiphoninus staphyleae

Viola septentrionalis

Northern Blue Violet ( F. Violaceae )

Myzus ascalonicus

Viola sp.

Myzus ascalonicus

Rhopalosiphoninus latysiphon

Viola tricolor

European Wild Pansy ( F. Violaceae )

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Myzus ascalonicus

Myzus ornatus

Myzus persicae

Vulpia myuros var. hirsuta

Rattail Vulpia ( F. Gramineae )

Sitobion avenae

Weigela ‘Eva Rathke’

Eva Rathke Weigela ( F. Caprifoliaceae )

Myzus ornatus

Woodsia scopulina var. scopulina

Rocky Mountain Woodsia ( F. Aspleniaceae )

Sitobion woodsiae

Yucca filamentosa Adam’s Needle ( F. Liliaceae )

Aphis fabae

Aulacorthum circumflexum

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus persicae

Rhopalosiphoninus staphyleae

Yucca sp. Yucca ( F. Liliaceae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Rhopalosiphoninus staphyleae

Zea mays Corn ( F. Gramineae )

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Rhopalosiphum maidis

Rhopalosiphum padi

Sitobion avenae

Zigadenus sp. Deathcamus ( F. Liliaceae )

Macrosiphum kiowanepus

Zigadenus venenosus var. gramineus

Grass-Leaved Deathcamas ( F. Liliaceae )

Macrosiphum kiowanepus

Zinnia elegans Common Zinnia ( F. Compositae )

Aphis fabae

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

Myzus persicae

Violet ( F. Violaceae )

100 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Our sincere thanks to Dr. D.A. Raworth who modified the computer program used for

compiling this catalogue.

REFERENCES

Anonymous. 1982. National list of scientific plant names. Vol. 1. List of plant names. SCS-TP-159. U. S. D.A.

Anonymous. 1976. Hortus Third: A concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada.

MacMillan Publishing Co., Inc. N.Y. Collier MacMillan Publishers, Lond.

Crabbe, J.A., A.C. Jermy and J.T. Mickel. 1975. A new generic sequence for the pteridophyte herbarium. Fern

Gaz. 11 (2&3): 141-162.

Eastop, V.F., and D. Hille Ris Lambers. 1976. Survey of the world’s aphids. Dr. W. Junk b.v., Publisher, The

Hague.

Fernald, M.L. 1970. Gray’s manual of botany, 8th. ed. Rev. R.C. Rollins. Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1987. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 16. Further

additions. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 84 (in press).

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1986a. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 15. Further

additions. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 83: 70-73.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1986b. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 14. Further

additions. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 83: 66-69.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1985. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 13. Further

additions. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 82: 56-58.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1984. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 12. Further

additions. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 81: 72-75.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1983. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 11. Further

additions. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 80: 51-53.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1981. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 9. Further additions.

J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 78: 53-54.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1980. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 8. Further additions

and corrections. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 77: 38-42.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1978a. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 7. A revised host

plant catalogue. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 75: 53-67.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1978b. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 6. Further

additions. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 75: 47-52.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1976. The aphids (Homoptera:Aphididae) of British Columbia. 4. Further additions

and corrections. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 73: 57-63.

Forbes, A.R., C.K. Chan and R. Foottit. 1982. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 10.

Further additions. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 79: 75-78.

Forbes, A.R., and B.D. Frazer. 1973. The aphids (Homoptera:Aphididae) of British Columbia. 2. A host plant

catalogue. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 70: 58-68.

Forbes, A.R., B.D. Frazer and C.K. Chan. 1974. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 3.

Additions and corrections. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 71: 43-49.

Forbes, A.R., B.D. Frazer and H.R. MacCarthy. 1973. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of British Columbia.

1. A basic taxonomic list. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia 70: 43-57.

Hitchcock, C.L., and A. Cronquist. 1973. Flora of the Pacific Northwest. Univ. of Washington Press, Seattle &

London. 730 pp.

Raworth, D.A., and B.D. Frazer. 1976. Compilation of taxonomic catalogues by computer. J. ent. Soc. Brit.

Columbia 73: 63-67.

Schofield, W.B. 1969. Some common mosses of British Columbia. Handbook No. 28. Brit. Columbia Prov. Mus.

262 pp.

Taylor, R.L., and B. MacBryde. 1977. Vascular plants of British Columbia — A descriptive resource inventory.

Tech. Bull. No. 4. The botanical garden. Univ. of B.C.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 101

AN ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO THE IDENTIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTION

OF THE SPECIES OF DENDROCTONUS ERICHSON (COLEOPTERA:

SCOLYTIDAE) IN BRITISH COLUMBIA

Bos DUNCAN

Pacific Forestry Centre, 506 West Burnside Road, Victoria, B.C. V8Z 1M5

Abstract

An illustrated key is presented separating adults of the eight species of Dendroctonus

Erichson occurring in British Columbia. Punctation on the episternal area of the

prothorax and crenulations on the discal area of the elytra are used to provide reliable

diagnoses of five species (D. murrayanae, D. rufipennis, D. punctatus, D. simplex, D.

pseudotsugae) which could previously be distinguished only with considerable diffi-

culty. Scanning electron micrographs illustrate these characters and simplify interpreta-

tion of the key. Distribution maps are provided which show many previously

unpublished range extensions.

Résumé

Cet ouvrage présente une clé illustrée permettant de distinguer les adultes de huit

espéces de Dendroctonus Erichson se retrouvant en Colombie-Britannique. L’auteur se

fonde sur les ponctuations de la partie épisternale du prothorax et sur les crénulations de

la région discale de |’élytre pour identifier de fagon fiable cing espées (D. murrayanae,

D. rufipennis, D. punctatus, D. simplex, D. pseudotsugae) qui étaient auparavant tres

difficiles ga distinguer. Des photographies de microscope électronique a balayage

illustrent ces caractéristiques et facilitent l’interprétation. Des cartes des aires de

répartition ont été ajoutées et montrent des aires d’extension autrefois inconnues.

Introduction

Eight species of Dendroctonus Erichson occur in British Columbia: D. brevicomis

LeConte, D. ponderosae Hopkins, D. valens LeConte, D. punctatus LeConte, D. murrayanae

Hopkins, D. rufipennis (Kirby), D. simplex LeConte and D. pseudotsugae Hopkins. Identifica-

tion of the last five of these species is somewhat daunting using available keys. Wood (1963,

1982) and Bright (1976) distinguish them on the basis of differences in the size, density and

distinctness of the punctures and granules on the frons.

The use of these characters on the frons has resulted in considerable difficulty and

confusion in providing reliable identifications because of the relatively minor differences

between species and the considerable variation within species. In this paper, differences in

punctation in the episternal area of the prothorax and in the crenulation on the discal area of the

elytra are presented as alternative characters which reliably separate these species. To

eliminate possible confusion and simplify use of the key, each critical character is illustrated

with a scanning electron micrograph. Characters used in this guide are easily observed at 100X

or less magnification.

Distribution maps of locality records within British Columbia, as determined from Forest

Insect and Disease Survey records, are included for each species. Numerous range extensions

are noted.

Methods and Materials

Several adult beetles of each species were prepared for scanning electron microscope

study as follows: 1) dry specimens were mounted on stubs and oriented so that the features to

be studied could be readily viewed: 2) each specimen was sputter coated with gold-palladium

for 6 min using a Hummer V sputter coater; 3) specimens were viewed using a Jeol 35C SEM

set at 15 KV and at magnifications ranging from S5OX to 200X. Following a detailed

examination of external morphological features, micrographs were taken to illustrate potential

diagnostic characters. The search for useful characters included all areas of the external

morphology but was concentrated primarily on the frons, pronotum and elytra. Constancy of

102 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. CoLumBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

each character was confirmed by stereo microscopic viewing of an additional 40 specimens of

each species under diffuse light at 100-200X magnification.

Beetles examined in this study were selected to include specimens collected throughout

the known geographic distribution of each species and on all of the host tree species attacked in

British Columbia. Specimens examined are deposited in the Forest Insect and Disease Survey

collection, Pacific Forestry Centre, Canadian Forestry Service, Victoria, British Columbia.

Results and Discussion

The keys and descriptions provided by Wood (1963, 1982) and Bright (1976) provide

distinctive, readily observable characters to reliably separate D. brevicomis, D. ponderosae,

and D. valens. The remaining five species occurring in British Columbia are difficult to

identify using their keys. The following key and diagnostic notes present alternative mor-

phological features by which these five species can be reliably separated.

Glossary

Crenulate: rounded surface projections rising to a ridge.

Declivity: the steeply sloping posterior face of the elytra.

Discal area: central area, on elytra refers to anterodorsal area of elytra.

Elytra: chitinous forewings of beetles serve as coverings for hind wings.

Episternal area: posteroventral area of prothorax.

Epistomal process: flattened prominence at the base of the frons.

Frons: front part of head extending from epistoma to the upper level of the

eyes.

Granulate: a surface bearing granules.

Granule: acute or blunt prominence on a surface.

Interspace: the area between two elytral striae.

Puncture: small impression on the surface of a body.

Rugulose: wrinkled, marked with coarse elevations.

Stria: punctured, impressed line on the elytra.

Tubercle: knoblike prominence or a course granule.

Vertex: top of insect head, between the eyes.

Key to the Species of Dendroctonus in British Columbia

1. Frons with deep median groove extending from near epistomal process to vertex; lateral

areas of frons somewhat protuberant and, in the male, armed with tubercles (fig. 1); length

2.525 OMNI INUS DONDETOSG «ars = tgs Me a ee ee eee brevicomis LeConte

Frons without deep median groove or protuberant lateral areas; frons of male not armed

with tubercles (figs: 2) 2. stains & fee eae i kee a is a Ghee 2

2. Interspaces on elytral declivity minutely rugulose (fig. 3) 3.7-6.5 mm; in Pinus (occa-

sionally in“ Picea im epidemics) wees a toc neon ee ie a ponderosae Hopkins

Interspaces on elytral declivity not minutely rugulose (figs. 4,7,8) ............... 3

3. Upper margin of all declivital interspace punctures granulate (fig. 4); episternal area of

prothorax coarsely granulate (fig. 9); body uniformly reddish brown; 5.4 - 9.0 mm; in

PINUS PIC CO crt tier Ries gaat eae moana ed EG sae ee eee valens LeConte

Upper margin of many to most declivital interspace punctures not granulate (figs. 5,6,7,8),

episternal area of prothorax not granulate to minutely so (figs. 10, 11, 12); body not

uniformly reddish brown 64 95 bi (G68 skeet Te ee 4

4. Declivital striae weakly to moderately impressed, if at all; declivital interspace | weakly to

moderately elevated, interspace 2 not impressed and nearly as wide or wider than

J. ENTomMot Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 103

interspace | or 3 (fig. 5); lateral margins of epistomal process moderately oblique (less than

Sa cesrees from honzontal) (fs. 13) tac..565 4086. 2S be eae oa ee a we 5

Declivital striae strongly impressed; declivital interspace | strongly elevated, interspace 2

weakly impressed and much narrower than interspace | or 3 (fig. 6); lateral margins of

epistomal process strongly oblique (about 80° from horizontal) (fig. 14) .......... 7

5. Punctures in episternal area of prothorax, distinctly marginate (figs. 10, 11) ....... 6

Punctures in episternal area of prothorax, lack a distinct margin anterodorsally (fig. 12).

BA eM: WV ICCO. x34 Gaba tk bk ai wea Baan ka Ss B48 4 rufipennis (Kirby)

6. Strial punctures on declivity small (average <.15X interspace width) (fig. 7) body black

with reddish brown elytra; 5.0-7.3 mm; in Pinus contorta ..... murrayanae Hopkins

Strial punctures on declivity large (average 2.25X interspace width) (fig. 8); body

uniformly dark brown; 6.0-7.5 mm; in Picea .............2.06. punctatus LeConte

7. A few transverse crenulations on sutural interspace of disc (average 5 crenulations/10 strial

punctures) (fig. 15); diameter of strial punctures on disc average 2.6X sutural interspace

width; frons moderately protuberant; 3.4-5.0 mm; in Larix laricina .... simplex LeConte

Many transverse crenulations on sutural interspace of disc (average 10 crenulations/10

strial punctures) (fig. 16); diameter of strial punctures on disc average <.45 X sutural

interspace width; frons strongly protuberant; 4.7-7.0 mm; in Pseudotsuga menziesii

occasionally Larix occidentalis ....... 060 eee pseudotsugae Hopkins

Diagnostic Notes

Dendroctonus punctatus (figs. 8,11): This species is closely related to D. murrayanae and

D. rufipennis from which it is reliably distinguished by the very large strial punctures on the

declivity. The diameter of the strial punctures in punctatus are on average =.25X the interspace

width. By comparison, these punctures are on average <.20X the interspace width in rufipennis

and <.15X in murrayanae. As well, punctatus can be distinguished from rufipennis by the size

and margination of punctures in the episternal area of the prothorax. The episternal punctures

in punctatus are large and clearly marginate whereas those of rufipennis are small and lack a

distinct margin anterodorsally. Other less definitive diagnostic features include body color and

granulation on the frons. Mature punctatus have a dark brown pronotum and elytra. By

contrast, mature rufipennis are either uniformly black or have a black pronotum and reddish

brown elytra (immature rufipennis are somewhat lighter and may resemble punctatus); mature

murrayanae have a black pronotum and reddish brown elytra. The frons of punctatus is

smooth and polished with relatively little granular development; the frons of rufipennis is

typically strongly granulate, however, the frons of murrayanae often has reduced granulation

and may closely resemble punctatus.

Dendroctonus murrayanae (figs 5,7,10,13): This species is distinguished from punctatus

by the very small strial punctures on the declivity (average diameter <.15X the interspace

width versus 2.25X interspace width in punctatus) and by the black pronotum and reddish

brown elytra compared to an almost uniformly dark brown body in punctatus. From rufipennis

it differs by the size, shape and margination of punctures in the episternal area of the prothorax.

The episternal punctures of murrayanae are large, shallow, flat bottomed and distinctly

marginate around their entire perimeter whereas those of rufipennis are small, deep and the

bottom slopes up anterodorsally from the base of the seta to form an indistinct to barely distinct

anterodorsal margin.

104 J. ENTOMOL Soc. BrIT. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

Dendroctonus rufipennis (fig. 12): This species is distinguished from both murrayanae

and punctatus by the much smaller indistinctly margined punctures in the episternal area of the

prothorax. It also differs from punctatus by body color (uniformly black or black pronotum

with reddish brown elytra of rufipennis versus uniformly dark brown body of punctatus) and

by smaller strial punctures on the declivity (average diameter <.20X interspace width versus

>.25X interspace width).

Dendroctonus simplex (figs. 6,15): This species is similar to D. pseudotsugae from which

it is readily distinguished by a much reduced degree of crenulation on the discal area of the

elytra (average 5 crenulations/10 strial punctures) and by the relatively large strial punctures

on the disc (average diameter 2.6 X sutural interspace width). It also differs by having much

larger pronotal punctures. Other less reliable characters include a less protuberant frons and

smaller body (3.4-5.5 mm).

Dendroctonus pseudotsugae (fig. 16): This species is closely allied to D. simplex from

which it is distinguished by a much greater degree of crenulation on the discal area of the elytra

(average 10 crenulations/10 strial punctures in discal area) and by the relatively small strial

punctures on the disc (average diameter <.45 X sutural interspace width). The pronotal

punctures of pseudotsugae are much smaller. Other less distinctive characters include a more

protuberant frons and larger body size (4.4-7.0 mm).

Distribution

Locality records [plotted in Figs. 17-24] are based on Forest Insect and Disease Survey,

Pacific Region collection records. Extensions to the known geographic distribution (Bright

1976; Wood 1982) within British Columbia are documented for several species. D. punctatus

is now known to occur widely in the interior of British Columbia (Mackenzie, Likely,

Howser). It was previously known in British Columbia from a single collection near the Yukon

border. D. murrayanae previously recorded only from south central to south eastern British

Columbia is now known to occur west to the coast range (Anahim Lake, Smithers, Atlin) and

north into the Yukon. Other notable range extensions include D. pseudotsugae which occurs

north of 54° (Fort St. James), D. valens whose range occurs north to 54° (Prince George) and

D. ponderosae which occurs west to Terrace and north to 56° (Meziadin Lake).

Acknowledgements

I am particularly indebted to L. Manning, scanning electron microscopist at PFC, Victoria

for much advice and help in securing the micrographs used in this paper. I also wish to thank

my colleague L. Humble for critical review of the manuscript.

References

Bright, D.E. 1976. The insects and arachnids of Canada. Part 2. The Bark Beetles of Canada and Alaska

(Coleoptera; Scolytidae). Agric. Can. Publ. 1576. 241 pp.

Wood, S.L. 1963. A revision of the bark beetle genus Dendroctonus Erichson (Coleoptera: Scolytidae).

Illustrated. Great Basin Nat. 23(1-2): 1-117.

Wood, S.L. 1982. The bark and ambrosia beetles of North and Central America (Coleoptera: Scolytidae), a

taxomonic monograph, Great Basin Nat. Memoirs No. 1. 1359 pp.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 105

Ye ipl

pt MO ZL y

ype jot

YO",

Fic. 2. D. murrayanae, lacks deep groove on frons

Fic. 4. D. valens, granulate punctures on declivity

OO de

Vliyyyy

Wht. ts

ivity

We, Mm,

Within

ly rugulose decl

, minute

Fic. 1. D. brevicomis, deep median groove on frons

Fic. 3. D. ponderosae

J. ENTomot Soc. Brit. CoLumBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

106

AWAIpOap ‘sniojound -q °g ‘Oly

AWAI[Iep ‘apudkd..unu “Gq ‘1 “Ol

AWAISop ‘apupkpsanu *q °s

‘O14

107

J. ENtomo Soc. Brit. CotumBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

soinjound ajeursreur AjOuNsIpul Suliesq evare [euajsida aje[nuess uOU

‘suuadyns ‘G ‘Z] “DI

somjound ojeursrew ApOUNsIp SuLeaq vore jeutaisida aye[nue13 uOoU ‘apUDADAUNW ‘Gq ‘OI “DIA

;

Monnhsciditiny

soinjound sjeursiew APOUNSIp Sulieoq Bore [eutojsida aJe[nueIZ uoU

‘snjpjound ‘gq ‘[{ ‘Old

xeioyjoid JO wore [eutajsidd ayejnueizs Ajasieod ‘suajpa ‘Gg 6 ‘DIA

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

108

ssao0id jeustajsida jo

Bole [BOSIP aje[nuaId A[SuoNs

apsnsjopnasd

OF 314

sedis

Seen

uigiew anbijqo A[suoNs ‘apsnsjopnasd ‘q ‘p| ‘DIA

x .

Bale [BOSIP ajeynudiO Ajaye1apoul ‘xajdiuis

ssaooid jeusaystda Jo ulssew anbijgo Ajaiesopowl ‘anupdnsinu

CI “Old

‘€] “Sl

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 109

Fic. 17. D. brevicomis, distribution

Fic. 18. D. ponderosae, distribution

110 J. ENTOMOL Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

19 \

Fic. 19. D. valens, distribution _

20 * Ae

Fic. 20 D. rufipennis, distribution

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 111

Fic. 21. D. murrayanae, distribution

Fic. 22. D. punctatus, distribution

112 J. ENTomMoL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987

Fic. 23. D. simplex, distribution

Fic. 24. D. pseudotsugae, distribution

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 84 (1987), Dec. 31, 1987 113

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

This society has no support except from subscriptions. It has become necessary to increase

the page charge. This has now been set at $45.00. The page charge includes all extras except

coloured illustrations, provided that such extras do not comprise more than 40% of the published

pages. Coloured illustrations will be charged directly to the author. Authors, not attached to

universities or official institutions, who must pay these charges from their personal funds and

are unable to do so, may apply for assistance when submitting a manuscript.

Reprints are sold only in even hundreds and at the following prices:

Number of pages 1-4 5-8 9-12 13-16 17-20 21-24 25-28

First 100 copies $55.00 78.00 108.00 137.00 174.00 217.00 264.00

Each extra 100 12.00 16.00 20.00 24.00 28.00 32.00 36.00

Author’s discounts (up to 40%) may be granted to authors who certify at the time of

ordering that they are buying reprints at personal expense. Authors ordering personal reprints in

addition to those ordered by an institution will be billed at the rate for extra hundreds.

Membership is open to anyone with an interest in entomology. Dues are $15.00 per year;

for students $7.50.

Papers for the Journal need not have been presented at meetings of the Entomological

Society of British Columbia, nor is it mandatory, although preferable, that authors be members

of this society. The chief condition for publication is that the paper have some regional origin,

interest, or application.

Contributions should be sent to:

H.R. MacCarthy

6660 N.W. Marine Drive

Vancouver, B.C. V6T 1X2

Manuscripts should be typed double-spaced on one side of white, line-spaced numbered

paper if possible, leaving generous margins. The original and two copies, mailed flat, are

required. Tables should be on separate, numbered sheets, with the caption on the sheet. Captions

for illustrations should ‘also be on separate numbered sheets, but more than one caption may be

on a sheet. Photographs should be glossy prints of good size, clarity and contrast. Line drawings

should be in black ink on good quality white paper.

The style, abbreviations and citations should conform to the Style Manual for Biological

Journals published by the American Institute of Biological Sciences.

BACK NUMBERS

Back numbers of this journal are available from the Secretary-Treasurer, from volume 45

(1949) to the present, at $10.00 per volume. Certain earlier back numbers are also available, but

only on special request to the Secretary-Treasurer.

Address inquiries to:

Dr. L.M. Humble, Secretary-Treasurer

Entomological Society of British Columbia,

c/o 506 West Burnside Road,

Victoria, B.C. V8Z 1M5

JOURNAL — ~

of the

ENTOMOLOGICAL ¢°’e >

SOCIETY of

- BRITISH COLUMBIA

Issued August 31, 1988

ECONOMIC

by the western spruce beeper babi eaila sod a woreda CANE ahere eta iter Wile wee ald

n, habla Linton & Betts ~ - Survival of self-marked mountain pine

: Chane & Bergvinson ~ Assessment of two pine ail treatments to protect

ids of lodgepole pine from attack by the mountain pine beetle ............ 28

McLean ~ Semiochemicals for capturing the ambrosia beetle,

cerrado lineatum, in ey ae Bidens traps in British Columbia .........

| 2 Western cherry fruit fly (Diptera:Tephritidae): efficacy of

Bt te COMTI TADS. is) ee kk Sh ee see oe si ciatwele as dicey 53

wap _ GENERAL

itberg ~ Comparative flight dynamics of knapweed gall flies, Urophora

‘Dondale & Ring ~ Additions to the revised checklist of the spiders

‘aneae) er ena MAINTE 003) oes cles ha Win haa ela Rdeherd Wik Wialacce cue RY bs Wea. 77

s& Chan ~ The aphids (Homoptera:Aphididae) of British Columbia 18,

{ Rae & pinches ~ A new host-plant in B.C. for Rhopalosiphum

ii, rise MAAOTROMICTAVADIMNGAG), 2 ).5 5550 'c ilu len Ge Si ee Pode Qe a divin la duels fie 98

Re BUFORS i UN lie a 99

ISSN #0071-0733 JOURNAL

of the ae

ENTOMOLOGICAL 4; .,

SOCIETY of .

BRITISH COLUMBIA ~~. ~~

Vol. 85 Issued August 31, 1988

ECONOMIC

Mackenzie, Vernon & Szeto ~ Efficacy and residues of foliar sprays against the

lettuce aphid, Nasonovia ribisnigri (Homoptera:Aphididae), on crisphead lettuce ....... 3

Mackenzie & Vernon ~ Sampling for distribution of the lettuce aphid Nasonovia

ribisnigri (Homoptera:Aphididae), in fields and within heads ................ 10

Shore, Alfaro & Harris ~ Comparison of binocular and cut-branch methods for

estimating budworm defoliation of Douglas-fir .................-....00000- 15

Shore & Alfaro ~ Predicting Douglas-fir defoliation from the percentage of buds

infested by the westem Spruce budworm .<. 2. 6. se. 04 <0856 5.543 s0¢4e00004 21

McMullen, Safranyik, Linton & Betts ~ Survival of self-marked mountain pine

beetles emerged from logs dusted with fluorescent powder ................. 25

Borden, Chong & Bergvinson ~ Assessment of two pine oil treatments to protect

stands of lodgepole pine from attack by the mountain pine beetle ............ 28

Salom & McLean ~ Semiochemicals for capturing the ambrosia beetle,

Trypodendron lineatum, in multiple-funnel traps in British Columbia ......... 34

Hard, Shea & Holsten ~ field trials of fenvalerate and acephate to control

spruce bud midge, Dasyneura swainei (Diptera:Cecidomyiidae) .............. 40

Wells, Cone & Conant ~ Chemical and biological control of Erythroneura leaf-

hoppers on Vitis vinifera in southcentral Washington ..................00005 45

Burditt ~ Western cherry fruit fly (Diptera:Tephritidae): efficacy of

homemade and commercial traps .......... 0... ccc eect eens 53

GENERAL

Roitberg ~ Comparative flight dynamics of knapweed gall flies, Urophora

quadrifasciata and U. affinis (Diptera:Tephritidae) ...............0 000. eee 58

Salloum & Isman ~ Comparative larval growth of the variegated cutworm,

Peridromia saucia, from a laboratory colony and a wild population .......... 64

Mayer & Lunden ~ Foraging behavior of honey bees on Manchurian crabapple

AMG UNEG WIDE CIOUS ADDIE istic ayo) Feet ica lentes aces Aaland + WeeeGno Heit eaten es 67

Gillespie & Ramey ~ Life history and cold storage of Amblyseius cucumeris

CGxcanita:Phy{OSeldae) 5 2 co dacadedeneis$t oars thee d deeb sen are tadsn 71

TAXONOMIC

West, Dondale & Ring ~ Additions to the revised checklist of the spiders

(Araneae). of British Columbia ....44. 2. «hawaii esse caceceeeeecbaeesaagees dA

Forbes & Chan ~ The aphids (Homoptera:Aphididae) of British Columbia 18.

FAUT Tact CULTS Waseda 2 orale hee Aa erncd dw Sos BS aye hie tna es sandr, ee eo 87

MacRae & Winchester ~ A new host-plant in B.C. for Rhopalosiphum

nymphaeae (Homoptera:Aphididae) ........... 00. c cece cece cee e eens 98

NOTICE, TO CONTRIBUTORS i462 4.5 oct seas wh ve oe se dasd wa ee ve ee eae bet 29

4ij 7 f

ety

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

DIRECTORS OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

OF BRITISH COLUMBIA FOR 1987-1988

President

Murray Isman

University of British Columbia, Vancouver

President-Elect

Chris Guppy

Royal B.C. Museum, Victoria

Past President

Bernard Roitberg

Simon Fraser University, Burnaby

Secretary-Treasurer

Leland Humble

Pacific Forestry Centre, Victoria

Editorial Committee (Journal)

H.R. MacCarthy R. Ring D. Raworth

Editor (Boreus)

R. Cannings

Directors

K. Millar (1st) R. Vernon (lst)

D. Raworth (2nd) J. Cossentine (2nd) R. Smith (2nd)

Hon. Auditor

I. Otvos

Regional Director of National Society

R. Cannings

Royal B.C. Museum, Victoria

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 3

EFFICACY AND RESIDUES OF FOLIAR SPRAYS AGAINST THE LETTUCE

APHID, NASONOVIA RIBISNIGRI (HOMOPTERA:APHIDIDAE), ON

CRISPHEAD LETTUCE

JOHN R. MACKENZIE, ROBERT S. VERNON AND SUNNY Y. SZETO

AGRICULTURE CANADA RESEARCH STATION,

VANCOUVER B. C.

V6T 1X2

ABSTRACT

The systemic insecticides disulfoton, oxydemeton-methyl and demeton, were highly

effective in controlling the lettuce aphid, Nasonovia ribisnigri (Mosley) (Homop-

tera: Aphididae), when sprayed on crisphead lettuce at the early stage of heading. Total

residues of disulfoton, applied at 1.12 kg Al/ha and oxydemeton-methy] at 0.56 kg Al/

ha, diminished to less than 0.06 ppm 28 days after application, making these compounds

strong candidates to replace the discontinued demeton. The local systemic compounds

pirimicarb and methamidophos were intermediate in effectiveness between the sys-

temics listed and contact insecticides such as endosulfan, mevinphos and parathion

when applied to lettuce before the heading stage. Seven methods of applying meth-

amidophos at 1.1 kg Al/ha all provided equally significant levels of lettuce aphid

control.

INTRODUCTION

The lettuce aphid, Nasonovia ribisnigri (Mosley), has been a serious pest of crisphead

lettuce in the lower Fraser Valley of B.C. since 1981 (Forbes and Mackenzie 1982). Unlike

other lettuce infesting aphids, N. ribisnigri is particularly difficult to control at the heading

stage with contact-action foliar sprays, since the preferred feeding niche of this pest is

sheltered inside the head.

In 1982, several growers reported inadequate aphid control from certain insecticides

registered for use against aphids on lettuce. Preliminary efficacy trials substantiated these

reports (Mackenzie et al. 1982). These trials also showed that weekly applications of

methamidophos alternately with pirimicarb, both local systemics, and interrupted at the start of

heading by a single application of demeton, a systemic, would give excellent control of the

lettuce aphid. This approach (B. C. Ministry of Agriculture and Food 1983) was adopted by

growers following registration of pirimicarb in 1983. The demeton application was of key

importance in that it provided systemic control of aphids protected within the newly-

developing head. The overall effectiveness of this spray schedule, however, was threatened

when demeton was withdrawn from the market in 1986.

In preliminary trials, disulfoton, a systemic, was highly efficacious when applied as a

foliar spray to pre-heading lettuce. Total residues of disulfoton sprayed at a rate of 1.0 and 2.0

kg Al/ha just before the start of heading fell to less than the present tolerance level of 0.5 ppm

in heads sampled 13 days later (Szeto et al. 1983). The primary objective of this study was to

evaluate disulfoton as a suitable systemic replacement for demeton. Efficacy and residue

studies were conducted for disulfoton, as well as for oxydemeton-methyl, a systemic

compound structurally similar to demeton. These candidates were assessed for lettuce aphid

control alongside a number of insecticides currently registered for use on lettuce.

A secondary objective of this study was to investigate the effect of different spray

application techniques on aphid control. Several sprayer settings were compared for control

efficacy using methamidophos at two stages of heading.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Field trials were conducted at the Abbotsford Research Sub-station in 1985 and 1986. In

all trials, crisphead lettuce, cv. Ithaca, was precision-seeded in beds, 1.75 m wide by 4 m long,

with 4 rows per bed and 35 cm between rows. Adjacent and end-to-end beds were at least 1 m

apart. Each bed was assigned a spray treatment, and each treatment was replicated four times,

in a randomized complete block design.

4 J. ENTomot Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), Auc. 31, 1988

Sprays were applied with a hand-pushed, CO,-pressurized boom sprayer (R and D

Sprayers Inc., Opelousas, La.). In the efficacy and residue trials, the spray boom was

positioned 50 cm above ground and equipped with three, D4-25 hollow-cone nozzles

(Spraying Systems Co., Wheaton, III.) spaced 60 cm apart. Treatments were delivered in 600 L

of water/ha without spreader-sticker at a pressure of 690 kPa. Control plots were sprayed with

water alone.

In all trials, treatments were assessed by examining four or six plants artificially infested

with lab-reared N. ribisnigri (i.e. at least one infested plant/row in each bed). Plants of uniform

size were arbitrarily selected for infestation within the centre 3 m of each bed. Treatments were

assessed by cutting off marked plants at ground level and inspecting all leaves closely in the

field for aphids.

TABLE 1. Efficacy of sprayed insecticides applied to lettuce on 29 July before the start of

heading for control of N. ribisnigri, Abbotsford B.C., 1986.

Number of Lettuce Aphids

Alatae Apterae Total

Rate pel wemeted seer

Treatment (kg Al/ha) 1 Aug. | 5 Aug. 1Aug. 5 Aug. 1 Aug. 5 Aug.

Demeton 240 EC 0.56 8 4 9 23 17a° 27 ab

Disulfoton 720 EC 1.12 3 4 1 7 4a ia

Endosulfan 4 EC 0.84 3 12 28 46 31a 58 bcd

Methamidophos 480 EC 1.10 2 10 7 33 9a 43 abcd

Mevinphos 6 EC 0.25 9 15 14 100 23a 115 €e

Parathion 800 EC 0.34 6 ae 24 64 30a 76 cd

Pirimicarb 50 WP 0.25 5 16 5 17 10a 33 abc

Check - 21 14 83 68 104b 82d

1 Examination date.

2 Numbers within a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different according to

Duncan's multiple range test, P< .05.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 5

Insecticide Efficacy: Pre-Heading Spray Trial

The efficacy of disulfoton was compared with that of demeton and other registered

lettuce insecticides in a lettuce planting seeded 19 June, 1986. Just after thinning on 17 July,

five lab-reared N. ribisnigri apterae were released onto each of four plants selected in each

replicate. A subsequent release of 20 more aphids/plant was made on 24 July. Five days after

the second release, spray treatments were applied on the early morning of 29 July before the

plants had started heading (Table 1). Aphid mortality was assessed on two occasions. Two of

the four infested plants/replicate were examined on | August (X = 10 leaves/plant), and again

on 5 August (X = 12 leaves/plant) prior to the onset of heading.

Insecticide Efficacy: At-Heading Spray Trial

Two rates of disulfoton and one of oxydemeton-methyl were compared with the

registered insecticides demeton and endosulfan in a lettuce planting seeded 2 July, 1985. On 13

and 16 August, just after the start of head formation (X = 15 leaves/plant), ten apterae were

released onto each of six plants selected in each replicate. After the second release, the aphids

were allowed four days to become established on the plants (X = 18 leaves/plant) before sprays

were applied on the evening of 20 August (Table 2). Aphid mortality was assessed in the field

on 22 and 23 August by close inspection of all 24 infested plants/treatment.

Residue Analyses: Disulfoton and Oxydemeton-methyl

The degradation of disulfoton and oxydemeton-methyl residues were monitored in

lettuce plantings seeded on 10 and 20 June, and 2 July, 1985 (plantings 1, 2 and 3 respectively).

Sprays were applied in the evening of 20 August, 1985 (Table 3) when planting 1 was

approximately a week from maturity, planting 2 was in the early heading stage, and planting 3

was at a Stage just before heading.

TABLE 2. Efficacy of sprayed insecticides applied to lettuce on 20 August at the start of head

development for control of N. ribisnigri, Abbotsford B.C., 1985.

Total No. of Lettuce Aphids! Percent

Rate Aphid

Treatment (kg Al/ha) Alive Dead Total Mortality

Disulfoton 720 EC 0.56 13 a@ 43NS° 56 NS 76.8

Disulfoton 720 EC 1.12 4a 71 75 95.0

Oxydemeton-methyl 240 EC 0.56 8a 54 62 87.1

Demeton 240 EC 0.56 14 ab 35 48 72.9

Endosulfan 4 EC 0.84 22 ab 47 69 68.1

Check ~ 65 b 8 73 11.0

L 2 Days after spray application.

Numbers within a column followed by the same letter were not significantly different according to

Duncan's multiple range test, P< .05.

: NS: none of the numbers within a column were significantly different according to analysis of

variance (ANOVA), P< .05.

6 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

TABLE 3. Residues of disulfoton and oxydemeton-methyl after foliar spray in three lettuce

plantings at different stages of growth, Abbotsford B.C., 1985.

Treatment Days From Residues in ppm (Fresh Weight)

and Rate Planting Spray Date to

(kg Al/ha) Number Sample Date DSO5! = DOASOs' Total

A. Disulfoton

1.12 6 1.69 0.83 2:52

1.12 15 0.13 0.27 0.40

1.12 3 28 TR2 0.01 0.01

Check 1 6 0.01 0.03 0.04

Check 2 15 ND2 TR TR

Check 3 28 ND ND ND

B. Oxydemeton-methy! _ ODMSO23 >

0.56 6 - 5.84 -

0.56 2 15 - 1.36 -

0.56 3 28 - 0.06 -

Check 1-3 as above - ND ~

1 DSOo: disulfoton sulfoxide; DOASOz: disultoton oxygen analogue sulfone.

2 TR: trace amount of residue detected; ND: no residue detected.

3 ODMSOb: oxydemeton-methyl sulfone. Residues of the parent compound i.e. oxydemeton-

methyl, were oxidized to the sulfone which then represented the total amount of residue in the

crop.

One plant was arbitrarily selected for residue analysis from the centre 3 m of each of the 4

rows/bed (n = 16 plants/treatment). Pooled samples from each replicate were separately

analyzed. Planting 1 was sampled 6 days post-spray; planting 2, 15 days post-spray; and

planting 3, 28 days post-spray. Only the three outermost wrapper leaves from the selected

plants were analyzed. Total residues of disulfoton were determined by a modification of the

method reported by Szeto and Brown (1982). In the modified method, all toxic oxidative

metabolites were further oxidized with KMnO, to their sulfones, and recoveries were better

than 90%.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 7

Influence of Application Protocol on Insecticide Efficacy

The importance of seven different spray application protocols in controlling N. ribisnigri

with methamidophos, a registered insecticide, were tested in trials seeded on 12 and 23 June,

1986 (trials 1 and 2 respectively). In the application protocol considered optimum for lettuce

aphid control, the sprayer was configured to deliver 600 L of water/ha at a pressure of 690 kPa,

using 4 hollow-cone nozzles (orifice size D4-25), each positioned 50 cm above each row.

These were used as reference settings (RS) to each of the remaining six protocols tested in

which we introduced a single variable from the reference settings. Specifically, the variables

were: 1) RS with three nozzles per bed (45 cm apart); 2) RS with nozzles 100 cm above each

row; 3) RS spraying at 345 kPa; 4) RS applying 1200 L of water/ha; 5) RS with four flat fan

nozzles (size 8003); and 6) RS with spreader-sticker (Super Spread, Reichold-Niagara

Chemical Co. Burlington, Ont.). Methamidophos was applied at a rate of 1.1 kg Al/ha in all

treatments except the check plots which received water alone applied at the reference settings.

On 25 and 29-30 July, ten lab-reared apterae were released onto each of four arbitrarily

selected plants in the centre 3 m of each bed. After the second release, aphids were allowed

eight days to become established on the plants before sprays were applied on the early morning

of 8 August. Trials 1 and 2 were both in the heading stage (i.e. X = 21 and 16 leaves/plant,

respectively) when the plants were examined on 11 and 12 August.

RESULTS

Insecticide Efficacy: Pre-Heading Spray Trial

Although a total of 400 aphids were released in each treatment, only 104 were counted in

check plots two days after spraying. The drop in aphid numbers could have been a result of a

sudden change in environment between the rearing facility and the field, physical dislodging

of aphids from plants by water applied to the check plots, natural predation, or a combination

of these. Nevertheless, differences between the check plots and insecticide treatments were

discernable (Table 1).

All treatments significantly (P< 0.05) reduced total aphid numbers compared with check

plots when aphid mortality was assessed three days after application. Significant differences

between insecticides did not occur at that time, although aphid numbers were higher in plots

sprayed with the contact insecticides parathion or endosulfan. Disulfoton was providing

significantly (P < 0.05) better control than the check, parathion, endosulfan or mevinphos

treatments when they were assessed seven days post-spray. This indicates that disulfoton will

provide better residual control of N. ribisnigri than the registered contact insecticides

commonly used on lettuce. Methamidophos, pirimicarb and demeton were intermediate in

control between disulfoton and the contact insecticides.

Insecticide Efficacy: At-Heading Spray Trial

Plots treated with disulfoton at 0.56 and 1.12 kg Al/ha and oxydemeton-methy] at 0.56 kg

Al/ha, had significantly (P < 0.05) fewer surviving aphids than in the check plots (Table 2).

Although there were no significant differences between insecticide treatments in numbers of

surviving aphids, disulfoton and oxydemeton-methy] at the higher rates provided the highest

percent mortality.

Residue Analyses

In a previous trial, head wrapper leaves and 2.5 cm thick vertical slices from the middle of

lettuce heads were analyzed for disulfoton residues (Szeto et al. 1985a). Residue levels were

lower in the head slice samples two days after treatment than in head wrapper leaves 14 days

after treatment. The wrapper leaves likely contained higher residues since they were directly

sprayed with disulfoton. Therefore, sampling of only head wrapper leaves in the present study

provides an overestimation of residues in the total head, and thus is a more conservative

approach to determining potential residue hazard in lettuce.

The degradation of residues after application of disulfoton and oxydemeton-methyl are

shown in Table 3. Total residues detected in lettuce sprayed with disulfoton at 1.12 kg Al/ha

were below 0.5 ppm 15 days post-spray and 0.01 ppm 28 days post-spray. Trace amounts of

disulfoton residues found in check plots six days post spray are likely due to low level spray

drift. Total oxydemeton-methyl residues were only 0.06 ppm 28 days post-spray.

8 J. ENTomMoL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

Influence of Application Protocol on Insecticide Efficacy

The degree of aphid control achieved with methamidophos applied using seven applica-

tion protocols did not significantly differ between protocols (Table 4) in either of the two

plantings treated at heading. Significant (P < 0.05) differences, however, did occur between

the seven protocols and the check plots. When counts of aphids from the two plantings were

totalled, the highest numbers were found in plots sprayed with either four fan nozzles or three

hollow cone nozzles. Nozzle style and number/bed, therefore, may be more important in

achieving acceptable control than the other sprayer configurations tested. The fewest aphids

were found in plots sprayed either at the reference settings or in plots which received twice the

volume of water in the spray mix than the reference volume. These data also show a difference

in aphid control between treatments applied at different stages of head development. In

planting | (late heading), a total of 60 aphids were found in treated plots compared with only

29 in planting 2 (early heading).

TABLE 4. Comparison of several sprayer configurations for control of N. ribisnigri with

methamidophos, Abbotsford B.C., 1986.

Number of Lettuce Aphids

Alatae Apterae Total

Total

Treatment 1 2 1 2 1 2 of 1 and 2

Reference Settings? 2 0 2 2 4a3 2a 6

3 Nozzles 8 6 5 2 13a 8a 21

High Boom 6 0 S 3 lla 3a 14

Low Pressure 2 2 2 2 4a 4a 8

High Volume 2 1 3 0 5a 1a 6

Fan Nozzles 8 1 4 9 12a 10a 22

Sticker Added 2 1 9 0 11a 1a 12

Check 3 9 99 141 102b 150b 252

1 Planting number. Planting No. 1 was seeded on 12 June, Planting No. 2 on 23 June, 1986.

2 See text for an elaboration on the sprayer settings.

3 Numbers within a column followed by the same letter were not significantly different according to

Duncan's multiple range test, P< .05.

DISCUSSION

Since a serious outbreak of lettuce aphids in 1982, the Lower Fraser Valley market has

imposed a zero threshold for living or dead aphids on harvested head lettuce. Successful

control of the lettuce aphid is dependent on routinely and accurately timing specific insecticide

sprays with specific stages of crop growth (Mackenzie 1986). Prior to heading, when plants are

small and aphids more exposed to insecticide sprays, local systemics such as methamidophos

and pirimicarb can achieve almost complete aphid control (Mackenzie 1986). As shown in this

study, the local systemics mentioned provided better control than did a number of commonly

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 9

used contact-action insecticides (Table 1). It is reasonable to assume that local systemics

applied routinely and at optimal sprayer settings to lettuce in the pre-heading stage will

provide the complete aphid control necessary up to the heading stage.

If aphids are present when the heads begin to form, they are protected within the enclosed

leaves from foliar sprays and cannot be completely controlled thereafter. Incomplete aphid

control at the heading stage has been observed when growers used non-prescribed insecticides,

applied the insecticides incorrectly, or omitted key spray applications. The prescribed use of

demeton at the early stage of heading (B. C. Ministry of Agriculture and Food 1983) was to

provide systemic control of any aphids not controlled during the pre-heading stage of plant

growth. The demeton application, followed by additional routine applications of meth-

amidophos and pirimicarb has proven to be highly efficacious in keeping lettuce heads free

from aphids until harvest. Since the manufacture of demeton was discontinued in 1986, the

continuing success of the spray program now depends on replacing demeton with an equally

efficacious systemic insecticide. The present study shows that disulfoton (Tables 1 and 2) and

oxydemeton-methyl (Table 2) are equal to, or better than demeton in controlling lettuce aphids

at the early stages of heading. In addition, data presented here, and other data (Szeto et al.

1985a and 1985b) indicate that residues of disulfoton fall below the maximum residue limit of

0.5 ppm in lettuce within 28 days of foliar application, and that total residues of oxydemeton-

methyl fall to 0.13 ppm. Since heading usually begins about 35 days before harvest, a single

application of either disulfoton or oxydemeton-methyl in place of demeton would allow

sufficient time for total residues of either insecticide to decline well below allowable limits in

harvested heads.

It appears from the spray application protocol study that differences in sprayer configura-

tion may give rise to some variation in efficacy. Although differences in control levels between

protocols were small (Table 4) even minor differences are important when virtually complete

aphid control is needed. Therefore, in addition to the correct selection and timing of insecticide

sprays, attention should be paid to selecting sprayer configurations that will provide the best

control.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to thank Marilyn J. Brown for assistance with residue determinations,

Henry Troelsen for field preparation, Margaret Sweeney and Donna Bartel for technical

assistance, and Dr. H. R. MacCarthy for his critical review of the manuscript. We also thank

the pesticide manufacturers for their cooperation and support.

REFERENCES

British Columbia Ministry of Agriculture and Food. 1983. Vegetable Production Guide for Commercial Growers.

Victoria, B.C.

Forbes, A.R. and J.R. Mackenzie. 1982. The lettuce aphid, Nasonovia ribisnigri (Homoptera: Aphididae)

damaging lettuce crops in British Columbia. J. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia 79: 28-31.

Mackenzie, J.R., R.S. Vernon, S.Y. Szeto, and M.J. Brown. 1982. Lettuce aphid control with foliar sprays.

Pesticide Research Report, Expert Committee for Pesticide Use in Agriculture.

Mackenzie, J.R. 1986. Improved insect pest management for crisphead lettuce grown in S.W. British Columbia.

Master of Pest Management Professional Paper, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, B.C.

Szeto, S.Y. and M.J. Brown. 1982. Gas-liquid chromatographic methods for the determination of disulfoton,

phorate, oxydemeton-methyl, and their toxic metabolites in asparagus tissue and soil. J. Agric. Food Chem.

30(6):1082 -1086.

Szeto, S.Y., J.R. Mackenzie, M.J. Brown, and R.S. Vernon. 1983. The degradation of disulfoton in lettuce after

applications for control of the lettuce aphid, Nasonovia ribisnigri (Mosley) J. environ. Sci. Health. B18(6):

725 - 734.

Szeto, S.Y., R.S Vernon, and J.R. Mackenzie. 1985a. Residues of disulfoton inlettuce after foliar application -

Study I. Pesticide Research Report, Expert Committee for Pesticide Use in Agriculture.

Szeto, S.Y., R.S Vernon, and J.R. Mackenzie. 1985b. Residues of oxydemeton-methyl in lettuce after foliar

application - Study I. Pesticide Research Report, Expert Committee for Pesticide Use in Agriculture.

10 J. ENTomMov Soc. Brit. CoLumsia 85 (1988), Auc. 31, 1988

SAMPLING FOR DISTRIBUTION OF THE LETTUCE APHID, NASONOVIA

RIBISNIGRI (HOMOPTERA: APHIDIDAE), IN FIELDS AND WITHIN HEADS

J. R. MACKENZIE AND R. S. VERNON

RESEARCH STATION, AGRICULTURE CANADA

VANCOUVER, BRITISH COLUMBIA,

V6T 1X2

ABSTRACT

The lettuce aphid, Nasonovia ribisnigri (Mosley), is the most serious pest of crisphead

lettuce in the lower Fraser Valley of British Columbia. To develop an efficient

monitoring program, several fields of commercially grown head lettuce (cv. Ithaca)

were inspected to determine the spatial distribution of the aphids. Infested plants were

scattered in the fields but most often were near the margins. Therefore, to monitor for

infestations, sampling should be confined to plants around the perimeters of commercial

lettuce fields. Distribution within the heads was studied by infesting young plants and

inspecting the leaves individually at harvest. Significantly more lettuce aphids were

found on the wrapper leaves and just inside the lettuce heads than on the outer or the

innermost leaves.

INTRODUCTION

The lettuce aphid, Nasonovia ribisnigri (Mosley), is at present the most serious insect

pest of field-grown, crisphead lettuce in the lower Fraser Valley of British Columbia. The

morphology and local life history of this aphid was described by Forbes and Mackenzie

(1982). The aphid, which has not yet been documented as a pest elsewhere in North America,

first appeared as a pest on lettuce in British Columbia late in the 1981 growing season, when

the crop losses on three farms amounted to $20,000 (Cdn.). In 1982, all lower Fraser Valley

growers were affected, and a $2,000,000 reduction in marketable heads occurred. Unlike other

lettuce-infesting aphids such as the green peach aphid, Myzus persicae (Sulzer), and the potato

aphid, Macrosiphum euphorbiae (Thomas), that prefer the older, outer leaves of head lettuce,

N. ribisnigri colonizes leaves inside the developing heads. Once inside the heads, the aphids

cannot be controlled with available aphicides, and their presence at harvest makes the lettuce

unmarketable (Forbes and Mackenzie 1982). Since 1982, the market tolerance for aphids of

any species on harvested lettuce heads in the lower Fraser Valley has been set at zero.

To ensure that commercial lettuce remained aphid-free until harvest, a stringent spray

routine was undertaken by the affected growers in 1983. The program involved weekly

applications of local systemic aphicides, pirimicarb and methamidophos, interrupted by a

single pre-heading application of the fully systemic aphicide, demeton. This procedure,

although intensive, has successfully prevented further crop losses.

For the spray program, monitoring was needed to give the growers current information on

outbreaks and the efficacy of the control measures. With available manpower limited to one

person, and a zero market tolerance for lettuce aphids, the monitoring program was designed to

locate infested plants quickly and efficiently.

This paper examines the distribution of lettuce aphids in order to identify infested areas

within the fields. The distribution of lettuce aphids within the plants was examined to identify

their preferred niche. The method of sampling developed optimized efficiency of sampling

and precision of results under the given constraints on manpower and the market tolerance for

aphids.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Field Distribution

Distribution of the aphid in the field was studied by intensively sampling 4 commercial-

scale plantings of crisphead lettuce (cv. Ithaca) near Cloverdale, an agricultural region with

highly organic soil in the lower Fraser Valley of B.C. Here lettuce is normally planted in raised

beds, with four rows of lettuce in each bed. The rows are 35 cm apart, the bed centers 175 cm

apart, and the plants within rows thinned to 30 cm spacings. When samples were taken all four

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 set

fields were at stages of growth between thinning (about five leaves per plant) and head

initiation (about 15 leaves per plant).

Field 1 (31 beds by 120 m long; 0.65 ha) was seeded July 16, 1982 and was not sprayed

before being sampled at the nine-leaf stage on 18 August. Every third bed was sampled (i.e.

beds 1, 4, 7, .... 31), with one plant being removed from the center of each 20 m interval along

each bed. Each plant was selected at random from among the four rows per bed, and

destructively examined for aphids. Aphid counts were expressed as the number of living

aphids/plant at each sample site. :

Fields 2-4 were sampled during an outbreak of lettuce aphids in 1984. In these fields, four

adjacent plants, one per row, were examined in situ midway along each 10 m of bed. Since

Fields 2-4 were sprayed prior to sampling, both living and dead aphids were recorded. Field 2

(21 beds by 220 m long; 0.81 ha) was sampled at the 13 leaf stage on 17 July along five beds.

Aphid counts were expressed as the number of living and dead aphids/plant on four plants at

each sample site. In Field 3, (28 beds by 210 m long; 1.03 ha), four evenly spaced beds were

sampled at the 11 and 13 leaf stage, respectively, on 12 July. In these fields, the number of

infested plants of the four examined at each sample site were recorded. A total of 66 plants

were examined in Field 1, 460 in Field 2, 384 in Field 3, and 272 in Field 4.

For Fields 1-4, the spatial distribution data were summed by columns (beds) and rows

(intervals from which samples were taken along the bed), analyzed by ANOVA and compared

by Duncan’s multiple range test (Duncan, 1955) when appropriate. Fields 1-4 are equated with

Figures 1-4.

Chi-square (Maxwell 1961) was used (P = 0.05) to determine differences between sites

near the margins of Fields 1-4 (outer sites) and those located near the centres of the fields

(inner sites). In Field 1, for example, the outer sites were those in the two outermost beds and

the samples taken close to the ends of non-peripheral beds. Inner sites were all those

remaining. In all four fields, data were subjected to log transformation before analysis.

In 1982, 26 commercial plantings were monitored for lettuce aphids. The plantings were

about 200 m long and ranged from 13-20 beds in width. Within each planting, the two

outermost beds and a bed mid-way between the other two were sampled. Within 50 m intervals

along each sampled bed, a plant was arbitrarily chosen and destructively examined. The data

from all the plantings were compiled and expressed as the mean number of infested plants/50

m interval/outside or inside sites.

Distribution Within Plants

Crisphead lettuce, (cv. Ithaca), was seeded on 22 June, 1984 at Abbotsford, B.C. in a 0.12

ha field. The field was divided into four blocks, and within each block 26 plants were selected

at random and marked; on 5, 9, 13, and 16 July five lettuce aphids were released on each of the

marked plants to simulate an interval of recurring aphid migration and to ensure plants were

colonized. Releases were made before the plants had produced five secondary leaves, well

before the heading stage. At harvest (29 August), 6-7 plants from each block were examined

by sequentially numbering and inspecting each plant leaf for lettuce aphids. The outermost leaf

was leaf number 1, and the average number of leaves/plant was 32 (range 27-33). The

cumulative number of aphids found alive on each leaf of the plants examined was averaged

and expressed as the mean number of aphids/leaf number x, where x ranged from 1 to 33.

The aphid numbers within the plants were stratified according to the main leaf types

comprising a lettuce plant at harvest: the loose outer leaves (1 to 12); the wrapper leaves (13 to

17); and the head leaves (18 to 33). Aphid counts were compiled by leaf type, analyzed by

ANOVA, and compared by Duncan’s multiple range test (Duncan 1955).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Distribution Within Fields

In Fields 1-4, (Figs. la-4a, respectively), an analysis of variance between rows and

columns was conducted and differences compared by Duncan’s multiple range test. Either no

significant differences were apparent (Field 4), or significantly (P < 0.05) greater numbers of

aphids or infested plants were found in one or more outer rows or columns (Fields 1, 2 and 3).

J. ENToMoL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

ILIS/SGIHdV

ns Kyy

> INIMUIVNUUINUNAINUALALALALALAUA

WS SSS NY a YX

eet eee

{* RES

= ve )

IW '

AS DBRRREY

. SS \

+ oO

+—

9 \ /

Sas <N \ { {

‘ v

ILIS /SLNV 1d

Co INIUIOUVNANUEAUAUAUOUNNALAEALULUAU

= 2 i)

JLIS/SLNV1d G3ILSIINI X

yes $

RUILIIIS

G UZ

eal Wi

gases

(>)

Qj1LSI4NI

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 13

Figs. 1-4. Infestation of fields of crisphead lettuce by N. ribisnigri in the lower Fraser Valley of

British Columbia.

Fig. 1a) Counts of living aphids on four plants/sample site, using 66 plants in all

from Field 1, at the 9-leaf stage, 18 Aug., 1982; 1b) Chi-square comparison of mean

numbers of aphids/inner vs outer field sites; 2a) Counts of living and dead aphids on

four plants/sample site, using 460 plants in all from Field 2, at the 13-leaf stage, 17

July, 1984;2b) As for Fig. 1b; 3a) Counts of infested plants out of four/sample site

using 384 plants in all from Field 3, at the 11-leaf stage, 12 July, 1984; 3b) Chi-

square comparison of mean numbers of infested plants/inner vs outer field sites; 4a)

Counts of infested plants out of four/sample site using 272 plants in all from Field 4,

at the 13-leaf stage, 12 July, 1984; 4b) As for Fig. 3b.

Overall, the number of instances in which an outer row or column had significantly more

aphids or infested plants than an inner row or column was 14 in contrast to only 3 for the

opposite case. When the data were examined on the average numbers of aphids or infested

plants found near the outer as compared to the inner sites, more infested plants were found at

the margins of all fields (Figs. 1b-4b). Only in Field 1, however, were there significantly more

aphids at peripheral sites (y? = 3.841; df = 1, P < 0.05).

Records from 26 monitored commercial plantings in 1982 (unpublished data) confirmed

that outer sites of plantings tended to be more heavily infested than inner sites. Overall, the

average number of infested plants found at outer sites (0.35) was 25% greater than the number

of infested plants found well inside the fields (0.26).

Distribution Within Plants

A total of 3,592 lettuce aphids were counted in the 26 infested plants examined at harvest.

Of this total, 430 (12%) were found on the outer leaves, 2,111 (59%) on the wrapper leaves,

and 1,051 (29%) were found within the heads (Fig. 5). Significantly more aphids were found

on the five wrapper leaves and first five head leaves than on the outer leaves or innermost head

leaves. Where the occasional plant was infested with both lettuce and green peach aphids, we

observed a well defined transition from the latter on the outer leaves, to the former on the

wrapper leaves, at about leaf 13. The preferred habitats of these 2 species in lettuce appear to

be quite distinct. On lettuce inspected before the heading stage in several commercial

LOOSE OUTER LEAVES

wearer

‘Mn

1 +) 9 13 17 21 25 29 33

OUTERMOST LEAF INNERMOST LEAF

X APHIDS/LEAF

Fig. 5. Mean numbers of N. ribisnigri observed on leaves of 26 crisphead lettuce plants (cv.

Ithaca) at harvest, 68 days after seeding. Groups of leaves marked with the same letter

are not significantly different (Duncan’s multiple range test: P < 0.05).

14 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. CoLuMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

plantings, N. ribisnigri alates or apterae were most frequently observed on the youngest leaves

near the middle of the plants.

Sampling Program for N. ribisnigri

The studies of field distribution reported here indicated that samples taken along the

outermost beds on either side of a lettuce planting would be equal to, or better than, samples

taken within a planting for detecting plants infested with N. ribisnigri. Since the market

tolerance for all aphids is zero, and manpower for sampling is often severely limited,

restricting monitoring to the perimeters of plantings would be efficient and overestimate the

mean population of the entire planting.

The study of aphid distribution in plants showed that lettuce may be infested by M.

persicae on the outer leaves and N. ribisnigri on the middle and inner leaves. Since the zero

tolerance applies to all aphid species, lettuce plants must be completely inspected in situ, for all

species living above-ground. A method of non-destructive sampling is required, since many

samples may be taken between thinning and heading in commercial plantings (Dun 1984).

This can be accomplished with moderate ease prior to the heading stage by gently prying apart

the leaves for inspection. Once the head begins to form, however, plants can only be

effectively examined destructively, requiring that sampling intensity be either reduced or

stopped to avoid direct crop losses. The usefulness of monitoring after heading is questionable

anyway, since N. ribisnigri infestations cannot be controlled once heads have formed.

In 1984, an industry-wide pilot monitoring program was implemented in the lower Fraser

Valley, with about 127 lettuce plantings (a cumulative total of 560 ha) being examined for

aphids over a 4-month period by a single person (Dun 1984). Four lettuce plants were

examined in situ every 10 m along the outer perimeters of each planting from the thinning to

the heading stage. This routine allowed the worker to visit each planting at least once a week,

to inspect 100-150 plants/visit. This sample size was adequate, since the objective of

monitoring was to ensure that pre-scheduled sprays (British Columbia Ministry of Agriculture

and Food 1984) were being applied correctly and at the right time, rather than to determine if

sprays were needed. In 1984, the sampling approach was very effective in locating aphids in

lettuce in early stages of infestation, and unsatisfactory spray routines were identified and

corrected. Since 1984, growers following the advice resulting from this sampling strategy have

prevented crop loss attributed to aphids.

If the present level of aphid control on lettuce is maintained, it is likely that the strict

intolerance for aphid infested lettuce at harvest will eventually be relaxed. Once this occurs, it

will be possible to modify the existing monitoring program to assist growers in witholding

insecticide sprays, and reducing the total number of sprays applied to a lettuce crop. A

sequential sampling program based on more conservative action thresholds has been proposed

by Mackenzie (1986). The proposed program reduces labour in years of high N. ribisnigri

infestation, and reduces the number of sprays applied in years of low infestation.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Cloverdale Produce Farms and the lower Fraser Valley lettuce growers for their

cooperation; D. Bartel, J. Brookes, D. Dyck and B. Johnston for help in the field; W.

MacDiarmid for figure preparation, and B. Frazer and H.R. MacCarthy for their critical

reviews. Financial assistance was provided by the Province of British Columbia, D.A.T.E.

(Demonstration of Agricultural Technology and Economics) Project No. 99, 1982.

REFERENCES

British Columbia Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. 1984. Vegetable production guide for commercial

growers. Victoria, B.C.

Dun, W. 1984. The application of IPM to lettuce production in B.C. Demonstration of Agricultural Technology

and Economics Project No. 99, Unpub. report. B.C. Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Surrey, B.C.

Duncan, D. B. 1955. Multiple range and multiple F tests. Biometrics 11: 1-42.

Forbes, A. R., and J. R. Mackenzie. 1982. The lettuce aphid, N. ribisnigri (Homoptera: Aphididae) damaging

lettuce crops in British Columbia. J. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia 79: 28-31.

Mackenzie, J. R. 1986. Improved insect pest management for crisphead lettuce grown in S. W. British Columbia.

Master of Pest Management Professional Paper, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, B.C.

Maxwell, A. E. 1961. Analysing quantitative data. John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. CoLumsiA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 15

COMPARISON OF BINOCULAR AND CUT-BRANCH METHODS FOR

ESTIMATING BUDWORM DEFOLIATION OF DOUGLAS-FIR

T.L. SHorE, R.I. ALFARO AND J.W.E. HARRIS

CANADIAN FORESTRY SERVICE

PACIFIC FORESTRY CENTRE

506 W. BURNSIDE RD.

VICTORIA B.C. V8A 1MS5

Abstract

Defoliation caused by the western spruce budworm, Choristoneura occidentalis Free-

man, was estimated on 91 Douglas-fir trees Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca (Beissn.)

Franco, by both close examination of cut-branches and by observation with binoculars.

For individual trees the accuracy attained with the binoculars was within 23% for

current year’s and 19% for foliage of all ages, with respect to the estimates made from

cut branches. Inaccuracy was found to be mainly due to lack of precision as bias was

minimal. When the trees were assigned, by each method, into the broad defoliation

classes of light (1-25%), moderate (26-65%), and severe (66-100%), as used in forest

insect surveys in British Columbia, the results agreed in 89% of the trees studied for

defoliation estimates of current foliage and 68% of the trees for defoliation of total

foliage. Classification of the location averages into severity classes agreed for all 5

locations studied for damage to current and total foliage. We concluded that the

binocular method is a quick and useful means of classifying stands into broad

defoliation severity classes, but is not suitable if a high degree of accuracy and precision

is needed.

Résumé

Par l’examen physique de branches coupées et |’examen a la jumelle, on a évalué la

défoliation causée par la tordeuse occidentale de |’épinette (Choristoneura occidentalis

Freeman) a 91 douglas taxifoliés (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca [Beissn.] Franco).

pour chaque arbre, la fidélité des évaluations a la jumelle ne s’écartait pas de plus de 23

%, pour le feuillage de l’année, et de 19 %, pour le feuillage total (feuillage de tous les

ages), des évaluations sur les branches coupées. Il a été constaté que |’inexactitude est

principalement liée au manque de précision, car l’erreur systématique est minime.

Lorsqu’on on distribué les arbres dans les grandes classes de défoliation (légére [1-25

% |, modérée [26-65 %] et grave [66-100] %), de l’inventaire des insectes forestiers en

Colombie-Britannique, les résultats concordaient pour 89 % des arbres évalués pour la

défoliation du feuillage total. En outre, le classement de cinq stations selon les mémes

critéres a donné dans chaque cas un résultat identique, pour les deux types de feuillage.

La jumelle est donc un moyen rapide et utile de classer les peuplements en grandes

classes de défoliation, mais elle ne convient pas lorsqu’on recherche une fidélité et une

précision élevées.

INTRODUCTION

Forest defoliator damage depends on the intensity and duration of the defoliation (Alfaro

et al. 1982; Alfaro 1985). For this reason workers in forest pest management are often

confronted with the need to measure the intensity of defoliation of individual trees or stands.

Several methods for individual trees have been developed and used to estimate defolia-

tion by the eastern spruce budworm Choristoneura fumiferana (Clem.) in Canada (Sanders

1980; Dorais and Kettela 1982). The methods involving removal of branches and evaluation of

defoliation by foliage age class (cut-branch method) (e.g. Fettes 1950) are considered to be the

most accurate (MacLean and Lidstone 1982). These methods have the disadvantages of being

slow, laborious and of needing cumbersome field equipment. They produce estimates that are

unnecessarily precise for some survey purposes. More rapid estimates of percentage defolia-

tion can be obtained by visual examination of the standing tree using the naked eye or

binoculars. These estimates are relatively crude and subjective.

The purpose of this study was to examine how estimates of defoliation of Douglas-fir

Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca (Beissn.) Franco caused by the western spruce budworm C.

16 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

occidentalis (Freeman), and made by a trained observer using binoculars, compared in

accuracy and precision with estimates made by the cut-branch method.

METHODS

Both binocular and cut-branch estimates were made on a total of 91 Douglas-fir trees at

five locations (Table 1), during late July and early August, 1980. The areas selected had a

history of recent budworm damage and the trees sampled represented a wide range of

defoliation intensities. These locations were located between the towns of Ashcroft and

Clinton.

Binocular method

The upper crown half of each tree was scanned by an experienced observer using 7 X 50

binoculars. Separate estimates, to the nearest 5%, were made of the percentage defoliation of

current year’s (1980) and of older foliage (1979 and before).

Cut-branch method

Table 1. Number, mean diameter at breast height (DBH) and height of Douglas-

fir trees sampled at five locations in British Columbia.

No. of Mean (4 s.e.)

Location Trees D.B.H. (cm) Height (m)

1. Veasy Lake 20 12.6 (0.5) 8.4 (0.2)

2. Hart Ridge 18 16.7 (0.6) 9.4 (0.3)

3. Loon Lake 19 15.0 (0.7) 9.0 (0.2)

4. Dude Ranch 10 14.8 (0.6) 10.1 (1.5)

5. Highland Valley 24 15.3 (0.9) 8.6 (0.4)

All Locations 91 14.9 (0.4) 9.0 (0.2)

Two 50 cm branches were cut from opposite aspects of the upper half of each tree crown.

Defoliation was then separately estimated for each of the last three foliage age classes: current

(grown in 1980), 1-year-old (grown in 1979), and 2-year-old (grown in 1978). All shoots in

each of these age classes were counted and individually assigned to one of the following

percentage defoliation classes (adapted from Fettes 1970), 0, 1-10, 11-20, 21-30, 31-40, 41-50,

51-60, 61-70, 71-80, 81-90, 91-99, 100. The average defoliation for each of the 1978-1980

foliage age classes on each branch was calculated as the average of the defoliation classes of

all shoots on the branch. For foliage grown in 1977 and before, shoots were not examined

individually, but assigned as a whole to one of the 12 defoliation classes. Defoliation estimates

of both branches were averaged to yield a single estimate for each foliage age class per tree.

Calculation of average tree defoliation

Average defoliation for each tree, by both binocular and branch methods, was calculated

by weighting the defoliation measurement of each foliage age class by the proportion of the

tree’s foliage in that age class. We assumed that the amount of foliage in each age class was

proportional to the number of shoots in that class. The number of shoots was counted on each

branch sample for the last three foliage age classes (1978-1980). The number of shoots in the

remaining foliage age classes in each branch were estimated by calculating, based on the

available shoot counts, the average ratio of the number of shoots in one year to the number of

shoots in the previous year. Separate ratios were developed for each locality; they varied from

1.2 to 1.6, and the average ratio for all localities combined was 1.4 (Table 2). Because of the

branching pattern of Douglas-fir, the number of shoots in one age class is always greater than

the number in the previous year’s class. The method assumes that the ratios are constant from

one year to the next.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 17

Table 2. Average ratio of the number of shoots in one foliage age class to the

number of shoots in the previous foliage age class, and percentage of all

shoots in 50-cm branches by foliage age class in young interior Douglas-

fir at five locations in British Columbia.

Percentage of shoots by foliage age class

Location Ratio

Current 1-year-old 2-year-old >2-year-old

l es) 25.4 24.2 16.6 33.8

2 1.3 23.0 23.4 16.0 37.6

3 1.4 30.2 232) 16.1 30.4

+ ey 24.4 21.0 16.1 3555

5) 1.6 SES 255 15.9 21.4

All 1.4 29.0 23.8 16.1 31.1

For each branch, the number of shoots in the 1977 age class was calculated by dividing

the shoot counts for 1978 by the average ratio for the locality where the branch was collected.

The resulting number of shoots was again divided by the same ratio to obtain the 1976 shoot

counts. This iterative process was repeated until the calculated shoot counts equaled | shoot,

i.e. the initiation of the branch. This usually occurred after the calculation of the 6th or 7th

foliage age class, which are the commonly observed number of age classes for Douglas-fir in

interior British Columbia. Finally, shoot counts for all age classes in each branch were totaled

and the percentages of this total that consisted of current shoots (1980), 1 year-old shoots, 2

year-old shoots and shoots older than two years were calculated (Table 2) and used as

weighting factors in the tree defoliation calculations for both binocular and cut-branch

estimates.

The binocular and cut-branch estimates of defoliation of both current year’s and total

foliage were compared using Freese’s test of accuracy (Freese 1960) in which the accuracy of a

new measuring technique is compared against an established or “‘true’”’ method. In this study

the binocular method was considered the new technique and the cut-branch the established

method; cut-branch estimates are usually considered more accurate than binocular estimates

(Fettes 1950; MacLean and Morgan 1981; MacLean and Lidstone 1982).

In the discussion that follows we use the terms “‘bias”’, ‘‘precision”’ and ‘“‘accuracy”’ as

defined in Freese (1962) where bias is a systematic distortion, accuracy refers to the success of

estimating the true value of a quantity, and precision refers to the clustering of sample values

around their own average. Accuracy, or closeness to the true value, may be absent because of

bias, lack of precision or both.

As recommended by Freese (1960), the accuracy test was performed after removal of the

bias. For this purpose, the linear regressions of the binocular estimates on the cut-branch

estimates were calculated for both the current and total defoliation estimates. Then, the

following 72 value was tested against the tabular y2(P = 0.05) (Freese (1960).

x? n-2)4£ = Residual SS/ o2

where:

Residual SS = the regression residual sum of squares

oO” = the hypothesized variance calculated as:

o2 = E2/t2

where:

E = required accuracy (expressed in the same units as the mean)

t = standard normal deviate

18 J. ENTOMOL Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

In this study, the binocular method was considered accurate if it provided estimates that

were within 10% of the cut-branch estimates (E = 10%).

After testing the accuracy using the 10% defoliation criterion selected (E), Freese’s

equation was rearranged, solving for E, to determine the accuracy achieved by the binocular

estimates, as compared with the cut-branch estimates, for each location.

RESULTS

The average foliage distribution by age class for all locations (Table 2) agreed very

closely with Silver’s (1962) estimates for coastal Douglas-fir P. menziesii var. meeenziesii

(Mirb.) Franco of 28, 23, 17, and 32% for current, 1 year-old, 2 year-old, and older foliage,

respectively. Mitchell (1974) found a larger proportion of current and 1 year-old foliage than in

Silver’s or our study with his comparative values of 43, 28, 18, and 11%. Differences in

branching pattern due to tree age, size or location may account for the variation in results.

The regression of the binocular estimates on the cut-branch estimates showed a strong

relationship between the two variables for both current and total foliage (Fig.1). The binocular

estimates showed a slightly negative bias with respect ot the cut-branch estimates indicating

that 12% and 7.5%, respectively, of current year’s and total foliage was defoliated as detected

by the cut-branch method, before any defoliation was detected using binoculars (Fig.1).

a) CURRENT FOLIAGE ° ce

90 2e

b) ALL FOLIAGE » 8°

PERCENTAGE DEFOLIATION - BINOCULAR

10 30 50 70 90

PERCENTAGE DEFOLIATION - CUT-BRANCH

Figure 1. Regression of the estimates of western spruce budworm defoliation on

91 Douglas-fir trees, using the binocular method, on estimates made

using the cut-branch method.

a. Current Year’s Foliage: y = -13.3 + 1.09x; R? = 0.67

b. total foliage: y = -7.1 + 0.942x; R2 = 0.78

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 19

The binocular method failed to meet our accuracy requirement of + 10% of the

defoliation as estimated by the cut-branch method, based on Freese’s test. The accuracy

obtained with the binocular method, after elimination of bias, was 23% for current year’s and

19% for total foliage.

The difference between the two methods varied by location from 0.3 to 15.6% defoliation

(average 4%) for current year’s foliage, and from 4.5 to 15.9% (average 11%) for total foliage

(Table 3). Estimates of mean defoliation for all locations were lower using the binocular

method than the cut-branch method. Standard errors were consistently higher with the

binocular than the cut-branch method (Table 3).

Table 3. Binocular and cut-branch estimates of interior Douglas-fir defoliation by

the western spruce budworm at five locations in British Columbia.

Estimated Mean Percentage Defoliation (s.e.)

Current Year’s Foliage Total Foliage

Local’ .o= +i cance Te. a a

Cut-branch Binocular Diff. Cut-branch Binocular Diff.

93.6 (1.6) 91.8 (3.6) 18 82.9 (2.1) 67.1 (4.2) 15.8

99.2 (0.4) 97.5 (1.5) Ve FS E321) OO C38) et 29

84.0 (3.1) 68.4 (4.8) 15.6 47.2 (3.4) 38.5 (3.2) 8.7

99.8 (0.1); 99:5 (0:5) 0.3 82.8 (4.6) 77.8 (5.7) 4.5

T7122) 13.55) 4.0 55.5 (4.3) 47.5 (4.9) 8.0

89.1 (1.8) 84.1 (2.4) 5.0 67.8 (2.3) 56.8 (2.40 11.0

FUAURwWNe

—

The two methods were compared for estimation of defoliation in broad severity classes of

light (1-25%), moderate (26-65%), and severe (66-100%), as used by the Forest Insect and

Disease Survey of the Canadian Forestry Service in British Columbia. Eighty-one (89%) and

62 (68%) of the 91 trees for current year’s and total foliage, respectively, were assigned to the

same class using the two methods.

When classification was based on the average defoliation of the sampled trees for a

location, as is the usual practice, there was complete agreement between the two methods as to

the assigned defoliation class for all locations for both current and total foliage (Table 3).

DISCUSSION

The accuracy obtained with the binocular estimates of defoliation on individual trees,

relative to the cut-branch method, was lower than the arbitrary 10% set as a threshold in this

study. Bias in the relationship between the two estimates of defoliation was minimal (i.e.

intercept not significantly different from zero, slope not significantly different from 1, t-ratio p

> 0.05); therefore much of the lack of accuracy can be attributed to poor precision. In other

words, on the average the binocular method will provide an unbiased estimate of mean

defoliation as determined by the cut-branch method, but estimates for individual trees may

fluctuate widely.

Our relative accuracy of 22.6% for defoliation of current year’s Douglas-fir foliage by the

western spruce budworm compares with 16.8% obtained in a comparison of mid-crown ocular

estimates with cut-branch estimates for the eastern spruce budworm on balsam fir, Abies

balsamea (L.) Mill. (MacLean and Lidstone 1982). In that study there was a bias towards

overestimating defoliation on individual trees with the ocular method, especially at low levels

of defoliation. The difference between the two studies in terms of bias may be due to the

different tree and insect species involved, differences in individual observer bias or sample

size. When mean current year’s defoliation for a location was estimated using the two different

methods the two studies produced similar results; MacLean and Lidstone (1982) found the cut-

branch estimates averaged 8% higher than the ocular estimates whereas we found they

averaged 5% higher (Table 3).

20 J. ENToMoL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

Bias and precision may vary with the observer. MacLean and Lidstone (1982) found that

an experienced observer was generally 5 to 10% closer to the “‘true’’ value than an

inexperienced observer. They also found consistent bias between the defoliation estimates

made by three pairs of observers. Silver (1959) on the other hand, found that only one out of 5

observers was consistently biased while the estimates of the other 4 observers fluctuated

around the average plot defoliation. We found that defoliation estimates made by our

experienced observer were relatively unbiased with respect to the ‘“‘true”’ mean, but we did not

test differences between observers.

Our results indicate that the binocular method will not produce accurate or precise

estimates of current or total defoliation for individual trees, as determined by the cut-branch

method. However, mean defoliation estimates for a plot or location, based on a number of

trees, showed fairly good agreement between the two methods. Similarly, the assignment into

broad defoliation classes by the two methods did not result in close agreement for individual

trees, especially for total foliage, but was acceptable for location averages. As most general

surveys are based on the average defoliation of a number of trees, and because of the economy

of time and labour, the binocular method is acceptable for this purpose.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors greatly appreciate the technical assistance of R.G. Brown and K. Finck.

REFERENCES

Alfaro, R.I. 1985. Factors affecting loss in radial growth of Douglas-fir caused by western spruce budworm

defoliation. Jn C.J. Sanders, R.W. Stark, E.J. Mullins, and J. Murphy (Eds.), Recent advances in spruce

budworms research. Proc. of the CANUSA spruce budworms Research Symposium, Bangor, Maine, Sept.

16-20, 1984, pp. 251-252.

Alfaro, R.I.,G.A. Van Sickle, A.J. Thomson and E. Wegwitz. 1982. Tree mortality and radial growth losses caused

by the western spruce budworm in a Douglas-fir stand in British Columbia. Can. J. For. Res. 12: 780-787.

Dorais, L. and E.G. Kettela. 1982. A review of entomological survey and assessment techniques used in regional

spruce budworm, Choristoneura fumiferana (Clem., surveys and in the assessment of operational spray

programs. Eastern Spruce Budworm Council, Government of Quebec. 43 pp.

Fettes, J.H. 1950. Investigations of sampling techniques for population studies of the spruce budworm on balsam

fir in Ontario. Forest Insect Laboratory, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario. Annual Technical Report. 4 pp.

Freese, F. 1960. Testing accuracy. Forest Science 7: 139-145.

Freese, F. 1962. Elementary Forest Sampling. U.S.D.A. For. Serv. Handbook 232, 191 pp.

MacLean, D.A. and M.G. Morgan. 1981. The use of phyllotaxis in estimating defoliation of individual balsam fir

shoots. Can. For. Serv. Res. Notes 1: 12-14.

MacLean, D.A. and R.G. Lidstone. 1982. Defoliation by spruce budworm: estimation by ocular and shoot-count

methods and variability among branches, trees and stands. Can. J. For. Res. 12: 582-594.

Mitchell, R.G. 1974. Estimation of needle populations on young, open-grown Douglas-fir by regression and life

table analysis. U.S.D.A. For. Serv. Res. Pap. PNW-181.

Sanders, C.J. 1980. A summary of current techniques used for sampling spruce budworm populations and

estimating defoliation in eastern Canada. Environment Canada, Can. For. Serv., Great lakes Forest Research

Centre, Report 0-X-306, 33 pp.

Silver, G.T. 1959. Indivudual differences in estimating defoliation. Can. Dep. Agric. Bi-monthly Prog. Rep.

15(3):3:

Silver, G.T. 1962. The distribution of Douglas-fir foliage by age. Forestry Chronicle 38: 433-438.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 21

PREDICTING DOUGLAS-FIR DEFOLIATION FROM

THE PERCENTAGE OF BUDS INFESTED BY

THE WESTERN SPRUCE BUDWORM

T.L. SHORE AND R.I. ALFARO

CANADIAN FORESTRY SERVICE

PACIFIC FORESTRY CENTRE

506 WEsT BURNSIDE ROAD

VicTorIiA, B.C., CANADA

V8Z 1M5

Abstract

Based on samples from 12 locations collected in British Columbia between 1977 and

1982, a regression model was developed for the relationship between percentage of

buds of Douglas-fir, Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco, infested by western spruce

budworm (WSB), Choristoneura occidentalis (Freeman), and the resulting stand

defoliation. This relationship can be used to assess the budworm population in the early

spring, either as a pre-treatment check or to predict damage.

Résumé

A partir d’échantillons prélevés dans 12 localités de la Colombie-Britannique entre

1977 et 1982, un modéle de régression a été construit pour corréler le pourcentage de

bourgeons du douglas taxifolié (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) infestés par la

tordeuse occidentale de |’épinette (Choristoneura occidentalis [Freeman]), ainsi que la

défoliation résultante des peuplements. Cette corrélation peut servir 4 évaluer les

effectifs de la tordeuse au début du printemps, soit pour la vérification de prétraitement,

soit pour la prévision des dégats.

INTRODUCTION

The western spruce budworm (WSB), Choristoneura occidentalis (Freeman) (Lepidop-

tera:Tortricidae), is a chronic pest of Douglas-fir, Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco, in

British Columbia (Harris et al. 1985). The defoliation resulting from larval feeding can cause a

serious loss of wood volume through growth reduction and mortality (Alfaro et al. 1982).

There is a relationship between severity of defoliation and damage to the tree (Alfaro 1986).

The life cycle of the WSB in British Columbia is, briefly, as follows. Eggs, laid in early

August, hatch within 12 days and the larvae seek shelter under lichen or bark scales. There

they spin hibernaculae in which the overwinter as second instar larvae. In May they begin to

mine needles or expanding flower and foliage buds. On completion of six instars they pupate

in late June to mid-July; adults emerge 12-18 days later (Unger 1986).

In order to treat infestations of this insect with pesticides, infested areas must be ranked in

terms of priority for treatment. Factors that are considered in assigning a priority ranking to a

stand are the stand value and the expected losses: the latter being related to the severity of

defoliation. Treatments are usually aimed at controlling the most destructive stages, larval

instars 5 and 6.

Methods of predicting expected defoliation based on pheromone trap catches, samples of

eggs masses, overwintering larvae or early spring larvae, have been investigated (Carolin and

Coulter 1972; Twardus 1985) and some of these, especially egg mass counts, are used

routinely as predictive indices (Shore 1985). However, pheromone trap catches have not yet

been calibrated for predicting subsequent defoliation in British Columbia and, as with egg

mass sampling, are so far removed in time from the damaging feeding state that various

mortality factors may reduce budworm populations and seriously affect predictions. Sampling

overwintering larvae is laborious because a chemical wash is required to extract the tiny larvae

from their hibernaculae, and since this method has not been fully developed and calibrated for

WSB it is seldom used (Twardus 1985).

DA J. ENTOMOL Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

Sampling larval instars 3 and 4, in the early spring, as they infest the opening buds,

provides a pre-treatment estimate of the population density after fall and winter mortality.

Larvae of WSB infest buds just prior to, or as, they are opening. This is a time of relative

population stability for about 10 days (Carolin and Coulter 1972; Twardus 1985), when

temperatures are cool at nights, development is slow and larval mortality is low. These make

ideal conditions for sampling if carefully timed (Morris 1955; Carolin and Coulter 1972).

It is the purpose of this paper to present information on the relationship between the

percentage of Douglas-fir buds infested by WSB and subsequent defoliation, and to show how

the relationship can be used to improve the management of this serious forest pest.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Douglas-fir trees were sampled repeatedly at 12 locations between 1977 and 1982. A total of

60 estimates of percentage of WSB-infested buds and resultant defoliation were obtained (all

locations were not sampled every year). The estimates were made by removing mid-crown

branch tips, using pole pruners, until 100 buds were examined on each of three dominant or

codominant trees. The percentage of infested buds for the location was then calculated as the

average of the three individual tree estimates. In late summer of the same year, after WSB

larval feeding ended, defoliation was assessed for the location by examining 10 dominant or

codominant trees selected at random. The percentage defoliation of current year’s foliage was

estimated separately for the upper-, mid-, and lower-crown levels using binoculars. The

defoliation per tree was calculated as the average of the three crown level estimates, and the

defoliation per stand as the average of the 10 single tree estimates.

The relationship between the percentage of infested buds and subsequent defoliation was

examined using a number of linear and non-linear regression models. Prior to the regression

analysis the data were tested for autocorrelation using the Durbin-Watson statistic which

indicated no significant autocorrelation (P>0.05). The models that best fitted the data were

selected based on comparisons of R2 and F values, and on examination of plot residuals.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Preliminary analysis indicated a statistically significant relationship between percent defolia-

tion and the percentage of infested buds. However, it was observed that in the final year or two

of an infestation there could be a high percentage of infested buds, but little or no defoliation.

This was the result of high WSB mortality in the period following bud sampling. The

relationship was re-examined omitting those cases where the population had collapsed

following sampling, leaving 46 sample points.

After examination of many possible regression models the one that best fitted the data

was:

In (Defoliation + 1) = A + B In (Buds + 1) iF]

where In = natural logarithm

Defoliation = average tree defoliation (%) per location

Buds = % buds infested by WSB per location

A = -0.3491

B = 1.2053

R2 = 0.76, F = 136.8, MSE = 0.667, P < 0.01, N = 46

However, the simple linear model (Fig. 1):

Defoliation = A + B (Buds) [2]

where A = -0.189

B = 1.835

Defoliation and buds are defined as above

R2 = 0.68, F = 94.4, MSE = 0.319, P < 0.01, N = 46

also gave an acceptable fit.

Since we omitted the sample points from locations where the WSB population collapsed

following sampling, our method will overestimate defoliation in such cases and therefore,

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 23

i a

> 80

WwW

2 60

rok

ao =

og 40

s WwW

fa)

= 20

BUDS INFESTED (%)

EV eRe Se ee,

— LIGHT ———>|+———_ MODERATE

Figure 1. The relationship between the percentage of Douglas-fir buds infested by

western spruce budworm and subsequent average tree defoliation; y =

-0.189 + 1.835x, R2 = 0.68 (---- = 95% confidence limits). Thresholds

for light, moderate and severe defoliation are shown.

provides a worst case scenario. This does not decrease its usefulness for pre-treatment

classification of potential stand defoliation.

Working in eastern Oregon, Carolin and Coulter (1972) developed a linear relationship to

predict a current year’s defoliation from the number of larvae per 1000 buds. For comparison,

we transformed their data to percentage of infested buds by dividing the independent variable

by 10. We assumed from their methods that they were sampling primarily larvae infested buds.

Our linear model was remarkably similar to that found by Carolin and Coulter (1972) (Fig.2).

For this reason and for simplicity of use and understanding we recommend the use of the linear

model [2], even though the logarithmic model fitted the data slightly better.

These relationships can be used to develop broad defoliation severity classes correspond-

ing to ranges of percentage of infested buds. Based on our models, we calculated the

percentage of buds infested that result in the defoliation severity classes used in British

Columbia by the Forest Insect and Disease Survey of the Canadian Forestry Service (Table 1).

We compared the defoliation severity predictions based on our models with data for 57

stands in British Columbia collected between 1984 and 1986, where average percentage of

buds infested and subsequent estimates of stand defoliation severity from the air were

available. Although our method was based on ground observations of defoliation, and the

aerial estimates of defoliation use more subjective criteria (Shore 1985), a comparison is

useful. Our linear model accurately predicted aerial defoliation severity class for 32 stands

(56%), it overestimated in 22 stands (39%) and underestimated in 3 stands (5%). The

corresponding predictions for the logarithmic model agreed in 65%, overestimated in 30%,

and underestimated in 5% of the stands. This suggests that defoliation is rated lower by the

Table 1. Percentage of buds infested by western spruce budworm and expected

defoliation of Douglas-fir

Buds infested (%) Expected defoliation

Linear Logarithmic Class Percent

0 0 none 0

1-13 1-19 light 1-25

14-35 20-41 moderate 26-65

36-100 42-100 severe 66-100

24 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

ABC

100

S 60

| od

Oo 40

WWJ

(ja)

10 20 30 40 5O 60 70

BUDS INFESTED (%)

Figure 2. A comparison of three models to describe the relationship between the

percentage of Douglas-fir buds infested by western spruce budworm

and subsequent average tree defoliation. A = linear model in Fig. 1, B =

Carolin and Coulter (1972), C = logarithmic model (see text).

aerial classification system than it is from the ground. The higher classification thresholds

produced by the logarithmic model agree more closely with aerial defoliation estimates that do

those of the linear model.

The timing of sampling for percentage of infested buds is critical. Shepherd (1983)

described the relationship between temperature (in degree days), bud and WSB development

for some interior locations in British Columbia. He found that larvae averaged instar 2.9 and

were beginning to penetrate the buds at approximately 265 degree-days (over a 5° C threshold)

and remain in their protective feeding sites, consuming the expanding foliage, until the buds

reach stage 6 (372 degree-days). Sampling should be conducted when the buds are in stages 3

to 6, described by Shepherd (1983) (which includes photographs) as follows:

stage 3-white scale stage: bud all light brown or yellow, scales separated to reveal white

layers underneath.

stage 4-columnar stage: bud columnar shape with a rounded tip, green needles visible

beneath semi-transparent scales.

stage 5-split stage: bud split open to reveal green needles, bud cap may still be present,

needles still tight together.

stage 6-brush stage: bud cap gone, needles flaring but little shoot growth so needles

appear to arise from one location

Feeding in the buds occurs for a period of about 3-4 weeks (Shepherd 1983).

In the event of a budworm infestation, managers are faced with the task of preparing for a

possible spray operation several months ahead of the damage. In order to provide enough time

for this complex operation, preliminary spray plans should be based on egg mass surveys

conducted in the fall (Shore 1985; Carolin and Coulter 1972; Twardus 1985). Sampling

infested buds in the spring for predicting expected current foliage defoliation, should serve a

useful purpose for refining the spray plans by, for example, avoiding the treatment of areas

where the population has collapsed through winter mortality.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Forest Insect and Disease Survey of the Canadian Forestry Service at Pacific

Forestry Centre for making these data available to us.

REFERENCES

Alfaro, R.I. 1986. Douglas-fir mortality and top-kill caused by the western spruce budworm in British Columbia.

J. Ent. Soc. B.C. 83:19-26.

Alfaro, R.I.,G.A. Van Sickle, A.J. Thomson and E. Wegwitz. 1982. Tree mortality and radial growth losses caused

J. ENToMoL Soc. Brit. CoLumBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 25

by the western spruce budworm in a Douglas-fir stand in British Columbia. Can. J. For. Res. 12: 780-787.

Carolin V.M. and W.K. Coulter. 1972. Sampling populations of western spruce budworm and predicting

defoliation on Douglas-fir in eastern Oregon. U.S.D.A. for. Serv. Res. Pap. PNW-149. 38 pp.

Harris J.W.E., R.I. Alfaro, A.F. Dawson and R.G. Brown. 1985. The western spruce budworm in British Columbia

1909-1983. Can. for. Serv. Pac. For. Cent. Inf. Rep. BC-X-257. 32 pp.

Morris R.F. 1955. Development of sampling techniques for forest insect defoliators, with special reference to the

spruce budworm. Can. J. Zool. 33: 225-294.

Shepherd R.F. 1983. A technique to study phenological interactions between douglas-fir buds and emerging

second instar western spruce budworm. /n R.L. Talerico and M. Montgomery (Editors). Forest defoliator-

host interactions: A comparison between gypsy moth and spruce budworms. Conference Proceedings.

U.S.D.A. For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rept. NE-85. 141 pp.

Shore T.L. 1985. General Instructions Manual: Forest Insect and Disease Survey, Canadian Forestry Service,

Pacific and Yukon Region. Unpublished report. 125 pp.

Twardus D.B. 1985. Surveys and sampling methods for population and damage assesment. /n Brooks M.H., J.J.

Colbert, R.G. Mitchell and R.W. Stark (Technical coordinators). U.S.D.A. for. Serv. Cooperative State

Research Service, Tech. Bull. No. 1695. 111 pp.

Unger L.S. 1986. Spruce budworms in British Columbia. Can. For. Serv., Pac. For. Cent., For. Pest Leafl. 31, 4 pp.

SURVIVAL OF SELF-MARKED MOUNTAIN PINE BEETLES EMERGED

FORM LOGS DUSTED WITH FLUORESCENT POWDER

L.H. McCMULLEN, L. SAFRANYIK, D.A. LINTON, AND R. BETTS

PACIFIC FORESTRY CENTRE

CANADIAN FORESTRY SERVICE

506 WEsT BURNSIDE ROAD

VICTORIA, B.C.

V8 IM5

Abstract

Mountain pine beetles, Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopk. (Coleoptera: Scolytidae), were

allowed to emerge in the laboratory from naturally infested lodgepole pine bolts, which

had been heavily dusted with dry fluorescent (Day-Glo) powder. Emergent beetles were

collected daily and stored at 5°C. Mortality was assessed daily for 21 days, after which

the insects were killed. All dead beetles were examined under UV light for the presence

and degree of marking. The survival of marked beetles was compared to that of

unmarked beetles from control bolts. Analysis of variance showed no difference in

mortality rate due to the treatment.

Résumé

On a épandu abondamment une poudre fluorescente sache (Day-Glo) sur des billes de

pin tordu infestés naturellement par des dendroctones du pin ponderosa (Dendroctonus

ponderosae Hopk.) Coleoptera: Scolytidae). On a recueilli chaque jour les ensectes

émergents et on les a placés dans une enceinte réfrigérée a 5°C. On a contrdlé la

mortalité chaque jour pendant 21 jours, puis on a tué les insectes. On a examiné tous les

insectes morts sous un éclairage UV pour connaitre le degré de marquage. On a comparé

la survie des insectes marqués a celle d’insectes non marqués ayant émergé des billes

témoins. D’aprés |’analyse de la variance, le tratiement n’a eu aucun effet sur le taux de

mortalité.

INTRODUCTION

An ongoing series of field experiments to study the dispersal behavior of mountain pine

beetles (mpb), Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopk., was begun in 1982 near Riske Creek, in the

Cariboo Forest Region of B.C. These experiments required the development of techniques

suitable for field-marking large numbers of emergent mpb used in release-recapture

experiments.

Fluorescent powders have been used extensively as markers on insects and are usually

non-toxic, readily available and inexpensive (Gangwere et al 1964; Gara 1967; Moffitt and

Albano 1972; Schmitz 1980). Powders have been applied to insects using vacuum chambers

(Dunn and Michalas 1963; Moffitt and Albano 1972; Linton et al 1987), or the insects have

26 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), Auc. 31, 1988

been allowed to dust themselves on release platforms (Gara 1976; Schmitz 1980). An

alternative method for applying the powder was sought which did not involve handling the

insects. The method proposed and used in 1984 and 1985 (Linton et al 1987) was to apply a

heavy coating of fluorescent powder to the lower boles of infested lodgepole pine trees, Pinus

contorta Dougl. var latifolia Englm. when the brood adults were ready to emerge and begin

their dispersal flight. It was thought that the beetles would become coated with the dust while

they moved around on the bark surface prior to taking flight. This experiment was carried out

to determine whether or not emergent mpb would pick up enough fluorescent powder to

become reliably marked, and how the survival of the self- marked beetles compared to

unmarked beetles.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Six infested lodgepole pine bolts (24-30 cm in diameter and 15-22 cm in length) were

collected in fall, 1982 near Riske Creek. The bolts were transported to outdoor storage in

Victoria and waxed on both ends to prevent desiccation. In January, 1983, the bolts were

brought into the laboratory. The insects were in the late larval stages and in winter dormancy.

The bolts were kept at 20 + 2 °C until most of the brood had developed to the adult stage and

were ready to emerge. Three of the bolts were selected randomly for treatment, the remainder

were controls. Treatment consisted fo uniformly coating the entire bark surface of each bolt

with fluorescent powder (Day-Glo Corp., Cleveland, Ohio 44103, #A-21 Corona Magenta) by

blowing the dust from an aspirator made from a 250-ml vacuum flask connected to the lab air

supply at 100 kPa. Approximately 50g of powder were applied to each bolt. All six bolts were

then placed separately in darkened cages with light traps for emergents, and were held at room

temperature. Emergent mpb were collected from the light traps daily and placed in vials in a

refrigerator (5°C). Each day’s collection was examined for mortality every day for 21 days,

which was considered adequate for the purpose of the experiment, as under natural conditions

flight, attack and brood establishment are normally completed within 3 weeks of emergence.

At the end of the 21 day experimental period, the remaining live beetles were killed.

After death, each beetle from the treated bolts was examined for the presence and degree

of marking using the naked eye or a dissecting microscope (16X) in a darkened room with

short-wave ultra violet (UV) lamp (Pin-Ray Quartz Lamp, Ultra Violet Porducts Inc., San

Gabriel, Calif. 91778) held 5-10 cm from the insects. (It is necessary to protect the eyes with

effective filter goggles when using these lamps.) The degree of marking on each insect was

classified into one of the following categories: none, light, medium, or heavy. Heavily marked

insects were easily seen by the naked eye in normal daylight or using the UV lamp. Medium

marking was visible only with the UV, but magnification was not always necessary. color was

easily seen on most of the insects’ dorsal or ventral surfaces using the microscope. Light

marking was not visible to the naked eye, and only seen with difficulty using the microscope;

often only a few grains of powder were present, usually on the ventral surfaces concentrated in

sutures and declivities. Beetles from dusted bolts having no visible marking were classified as

having “‘none.’’ Emergents from the unmarked bolts formed the control group.

Mortality was analysed by ANOVA in a split-plot design with two treatments (dusted vs

undusted) and three time durations (1-7 days, 8-14 days, 15-21 days). Differences in mortality

among groups of beetles with different degrees of self-marking, and variation in the relative

proportions of beetles with different degrees of self-marking among the replicates were

examined by x? analysis.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

On average, of the 765 and 683 beetles that emerged from treated and control bolts,

respectively, 0.7% and 1%, 2.5% and 1.3%, 5.5% and 5.7% died within the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd

week after emergence. Of the beetles that emerged from the treated bolts, 758 (99.1%) were

marked. Of the marked beetles, 43 (5.6%) were heavily marked, 204 (26.7%) were medium,

and 511 (66.8%) were light. The relative proportions of beetles in the four marking degree

categories were not significantly different among the three replicates (bolts) (y76df=10.43,

J. ENTOMOL Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 27

p=0.11). Analysis of variance indicated that the mortality of emerged beetles increased

significantly with time, but there was no significant difference between the controls and

treatments, or in the interaction of treatment x time (Table 1).

In mortality among beetles that emerged from treated bolts, there was no interaction

between storage duration and degree or marking (X¥7,4=4.41, p=0.63); mortality, however, did

increase with the degree of marking (722,,=116.37, p<0.001). Average mortality in the light,

medium and heavy marking classes was 2.7%, 15.7% and 51.2%. As average mortality was

not statistically significant between treatment and control (Table 1), the finding above appears

to indicate that beetles of reduced viability may have spent more time on the treated bark than

did more active beetles and thus become more heavily marked, or were less able to cleanse

themselves of the powder. We have observed that beetles which do not readily fly, tend to

spend considerably more time on the bark following emergence than beetles which are good

fliers. Furthermore, we have found in several experiments using marked and unmarked

beetles, that there are usually between 1 and 8% which will not fly (Linton et al. 1987, and

unpublished data). The apparent association between the degree of self-marking and viability

requires further investigation.

These results indicate that there was no statistically significant difference in survival in

the laboratory between self-marked or control beetles for the first three weeks after emergence.

Table 1. Analysis of variance of percent mortality by treatment and storage interval following

emergence of mountain pine beetles from bolts of lodgepole pine dusted with

fluorescent powder and from undusted bolts.

Source df Sum Mean F-value®

squares squares

Replication 2 9.1892 4.5936 <n 8

(bolts)

Treatments 1 1.7422 1.7422 <1 n.8.

(dusted vs undusted)(D)

Error I 2 40.6834 20.3417

Major plots 5 51.6148

Time intervals 2 282.5391 141.2695 35.08°"

CT)

DxT 2 18.2290 9.1145 2.26 n.8.

Error II 8 o2.2184 4.0273

Total 17 384.6013

a. Percentages were transformed to arcsine sqrt x prior to analysis. n.s. = not significant;

** = significant at p<0.01.

28 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

REFERENCES

Dunn, Paul H., and Byron J. Machalas. 1963. An easily constructed vacuum duster. J. Econ. Ent. 56: 899.

Gangwere, S.K., W. Chavin, and F.C. Evans. 1964. Methods of marking insects, with special regard to Orthoptera

(Sens. Lat.) Ann. Ent. Soc. Am. 57: 662-669.

Gara, R.I. 1976. Studies on the attack behavior of the southern pine beetle. I. The spreading and collapse of

outbreaks. Contrib. Boyce Thompson Inst. 23: 349-354.

Linton, D.A., L. Safranyik, L.H. McMullen and R. Betts. 1987. Field Techniques for rearing and marking

mountain pine beetle for use in dispersal studies. J. Ent. Soc. B.C. 84: 53-57.

Moffitt, H.R. and D.J. Albano. 1972. Vacuum application of fluorescent powders as markers for adult codling

moths. J. Econ. Ent. 65: 882-884.

Schmitz, R.F. 1980. Dispersal of pine engraver beetles in second growth ponderosa pine forests. Jn Proceedings of

the second IUFRO conference on dispersal of forest insects: evaluation, theory and management implica-

tions. A.A. Berrymand and L. Safranyik, eds. Sandpoint, Idaho, August 27-31, 1979.

ASSESSMENT OF TWO PINE OIL TREATMENTS TO PROTECT STANDS OF

LODGEPOLE PINE FROM ATTACK BY THE MOUNTAIN PINE BEETLE

J.H. BoRDEN, L.J. CHONG AND D.J. BERGVINSON

CENTRE FOR PEST MANAGEMENT

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY

BURNABY, B.C. V5A 1S6

Abstract

Pine oil (Norpine-65) was evaluated as an infestation deterrent for the mountain pine

beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins, in a high hazard forest of lodgepole pine,

Pinus contorta var. latifolia Engelmann. Two experimental treatments were tested, each

in four, 9 ha, square blocks (replicates): 1) spraying trees in a grid at 50 m centres with

1.8 L of pine oil/tree, and 2) creating a “‘barrier’’ consisting of a double line of pine oil-

sprayed trees, 25 m apart, 25 m within the block boundary. There were significantly-

reduced ratios of newly-infested (green) trees to the previous year’s infested (red) trees

in both treatments compared to control blocks. However, neither treatment prevented

beetles from attacking semiochemical-baited trees 75 m inside the block boundaries,

and neither treatment is recommended for operational use. At maximum costs/ha of

$22.04 and $43.39 (Can.) for grid and barrier treatments, respectively, the operational

use of a repellent, or an insecticide would approach cost effectiveness if it reduced new

infestations of D. ponderosae by | or 2 trees/ha, respectively.

INTRODUCTION

Pine oil is a commercially-available by-product of the pulp and paper industry. When

sprayed on the boles of trees or on logs, it has repeatedly been shown completely or partially to

deter attack by scolytid beetles (Nijholt 1980; Nijholt and McMullen 1980; Nijholt et al. 1981;

Richmond 1985; McMullan and Safranyik 1985; Berisford et al. 1986; O’Donnell et al. 1986;

Werner et al. 1986). Nijholt et al. (1981) reported that attack by the mountain pine beetle,

Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins, was deterred up to 10 m from pine oil-treated lodgepole

pines, Pinus contorta var. latifolia Engelmann. This result suggested that pine oil might have

potential in protecting large blocks of forest from attack by the beetles. However, McMullen

and Safranyik (1985) did not induce such protection by affixing pine oil-impregnated fibre

boards on trees or distributing them on the forest floor.!

Our objective was to test pine oil on an operational basis to determine if it could be used

to protect high hazard stands from attack by the mountain pine beetle. Several criteria had to

be met in such a program: 1) the stands had to have minimal infestations; 2) there had to be

sufficient mountain pine beetle infestation in the adjacent forest to threaten each treated block;

3) the pine oil treatment had to be simple enough for regular forestry crews to carry out; 4) the

pattern of treated trees had to be set up so that large blocks could be treated in a reasonably

short time; and 5) the treatments had to be cost-effective.

' McMullen, L.H. and L. Safranyik. 1983. Effect of pine oil distributed in fibre board on the

ground for protecting lodgepole pine from mountain pine beetle attack. Can. For. Serv., Pac.

For. Res. Cen., Victoria, B.C.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AucG. 31, 1988 29

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Twelve, 9 ha blocks, 300 x 300 m, were selected along the Ketchan Road, west of

Summers Creek, approximately 25 - 35 km southeast of Merritt, B.C. in the Merritt Timber

Supply Area. The stands were chosen on the basis of predominance of pine, age class 5

(81-100 years-old) or higher, and site quality (predominately medium to good). There was

minimal infestation recorded in the area occupied by the blocks by B.C. Forest Service

surveys, but the blocks were threatened by invasion of mountain pine beetles from a large

infestation in the Summers Creek Valley and vigorous small infestations on the plateau where

the blocks were situated.

Three treatments were selected (Fig. 1): 1) an untreated control; 2) a grid treatment, in

which 36 lodgepole pines at 50 m centres within the block (4 trees per ha) were treated with

pine oil; and 3) a “‘barrier”’ treatment in which there were 72 pine oil-treated trees in two lines,

25 m apart, with the outer line 25 m inside the block boundary.

From 9-17 May, 1984, the blocks were laid out and randomly assigned to treatment, all

treatment trees were marked, their diameters at breast height (dbh) taken, and lines between

trees marked with plastic flagging. (None of these procedures would be required in an

operational program). The mean dbh + S.E. of the trees marked for pine oil treatment in the

grid blocks was 27.5 + 0.5 cm, and in the barrier blocks 27.7 + 0.4 cm.

Pine oil treatments were applied from 23 - 25 June, 1984. Marked trees were sprayed to

run-off up to a height of 4.5 m with Norpine 65 (Northwest Petrochemical, Anacortes,

Washington). Spraying was done with a hand-pressurized, backpack sprayer (Solo Klein-

motoren GMbH, Sindelfingen, West Germany) fitted with a 1.2 m extension wand and a flat

fan nozzle oriented vertically. A mean +S.E. of 1.80 +0.03 L of pine oil was used/tree in the 8

treated blocks.

At a distance of 75 m from the boundaries of each block, 12 trees, 50 m apart (Fig. 1),

were baited with mountain pine beetle tree baits (Phero Tech Inc., Vancouver, B.C.) comprised

of myrcene, trans-verbenol and exo-brevicomin released at 17.6, 1.0 and 0.2 mg/24 h,

respectively. A baited tree has a maximum range of approximately 50 m within a well-stocked

stand? (personal observation).

Therefore, it was unlikely that these trees would attract beetles into the blocks, but rather

that they would arrest beetles that flew through the pine oil barrier or grid, 1.e., they measured

the efficacy of the treatments. The mean dbh + S.E. of baited trees in the control, grid and

barrier blocks were 27.5 + 0.8, 27.7 + 1.0 and 28.8 + 0.9 cm, respectively.

The efficacy of the treatments was assessed from 15 - 19 October, 1984. Every lodgepole

pine tree in each 9 ha block was examined for attack by D. ponderosae. If a tree was attacked,

the attack density was counted in two, 20 x 40 cm frames on opposite sides of the tree at eye

level. The location of each attacked tree was plotted on a grid map.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Efficacy

The pine oil applications, particularly the grid treatment, created a distinct odor through-

out the treated blocks. This odor was still apparent to the human nose in temperatures <0’ C in

October, 1984, 4 mo after treatment. However, neither the barrier, nor the grid treatment

deterred D. ponderosae from attacking many of the baited trees and those adjacent to them

2 Heath, D. 1986. Assessment of operational pheromone-based containment programs for

mountain pine beetle control in the Cariboo Forest Region. B.C. For. Serv. Int. Rept. PM-

C-1.

30 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

CONTROL BARRIER

KEY

e Baited Tree Attacked

Baited Tree +3 Nearby

3 Trees Attacked

o Baited Tree Not Attacked

» Single Tree Attacked

4 Red Tree

100 m

Fig. 1 Layout of 9 ha control blocks and barrier and grid pine oil treatment blocks, showing

placement of pine oil-treated trees, semiochemical-baited trees, and attack by the

mountain pine beetle (4 replicates superimposed for each treatment).

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 31

(Fig. 1), an attack pattern commonly observed in tree-baiting programs (Borden et al. 1986).

Although newly-attacked trees occurred as close as 4-5 m to trees treated with pine oil

(Fig. 1) not one of the 432 pine oil-treated trees sustained a single attack by D. ponderosae.

Thus, the treated trees were probably protected from the beetle, a result in keeping with those

of other investigations with Norpine-65 (Nijholt et al. 1981; Richmond 1985; McMullen and

Safranyik 1985).

There were no significant differences between treatments in the numbers of trees attacked

or in attack densities on newly-infested, green trees (Table 1). However, in both the barrier and

grid treatments, there were reduced green:red ratios, i.e., there were fewer newly-attacked,

green trees for each tree with red-colored foliage attacked in the previous year (Table 1).

Thus the treatments did appear to reduce the intensity of the infestation, compared to

what it might have been. The supposition is that some of the beetles emerging from the few red

trees were induced to leave the treated blocks, and that dispersing beetles either entered the

treated blocks at a lesser rate than the control blocks, or were deterred from remaining within

them.

Table 1 Numbers of trees attacked by D. ponderosae, attack density and ratios of

newly-attacked (green) trees to previous year’s (red) trees in 9 ha blocks

untreated or subjected to one of two pine oil treatments. N=4 replicates

per treatment.

No. of trees attacked Attack density

(all blocks combined)@ on green trees Green: red

ratios (all)

Treatment Red Green (x + S.E.)9 blocks combined)°

Control 4 81 58.9 + 5.2 20.3 a

Barrier 13 76 58.2 + 4.9 4.8b

Grid 13 G2 44.7+4.9 5.5 b

aANOVA P between treatment means >0.5 in both cases.

bANOVA P= 0.15.

CRatios followed by the same letter are not significantly different, Newman Keuls test

modified for proportional data (Zar 1984), P < 0.05.

Operational Feasibility

The pine oil treatments and semiochemical baiting took three full days with a 5-person

crew: two sprayers, two packers to replenish the spray tanks, and one person to bait trees and

tag pine oil-treated trees as “‘pesticide treated” in accordance with B.C. Ministry of the

Environment requirements. In an operational program, the latter person would be used in

advance of the sprayers to compass, chain and flag the lines, to mark treatment trees and to pre-

tag them as “pesticide treated.”

32 J. ENTromoc Soc. Brit. CoLumsiaA 85 (1988), Auc. 31, 1988

Approximately 144 trees were treated/8 h day, not including travel to the area, but

including travel between sites. On the actual blocks, a 36-tree grid required a mean of 95 min,

i.e. 2.6 min/tree. The corresponding treatment time for a 72-tree barrier block was 145 min or

2.0 min/tree, somewhat less/tree than required for a grid block because of the shorter walking

distances.

Table 2 Costs in Canadian dollars at 1987 rates for grid and barrier pine oil

treatments on a per tree and per ha basis.

Costs@

Units and items evaluated Grid Treatment Barrier Treatment

EXPENDITURES PER TREE

Labor, incl. 35% benefits?

Crew Chief $ .77 $ .59

Crew Members 2.48 1.92

Subtotal $3.25 $2.51

Pine Oil, 1.8 L per tree 1.38 1.38

Other materials, incl.

flagging, tree-marking,

paint and labels 88 .63

Total cost per tree 5.51 $4.52

EXPENDITURES PER HA

Sha $22.04 $43.39

10 ha $22.04 $36.16

20 ha $22.04 $2742

4Costs do not include capital outlay for such items as spray equipment and packing

tanks. Costs for grid treatment on a per ha basis are constant because of a fixed density

of 4 trees/ha. Costs for barrier treatment decline as area increases because there are 24,

40 and 60 trees for areas of 5, 10 and 20 ha, respectively.

bBased on B.C. Forest Service 1987 rates for Forestry Technician (FT)-3 (crew chief)

and FT-1 (crew members).

J. ENTOMOL Soc. BrRiT. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 33

At the above labor requirements and treatment times/tree, the cost of a grid treatment

would be $5.51/tree or $22.04/ ha (Table 2). The barrier treatment would cost $4.52/tree;

costs/ha would be higher, but decreasing as the size of the block increased (Table 2).

The lack of complete exclusion of attack with these pine oil treatments suggests that they

will not be operationally implemented. However, the cost figures would apply equally well to

a similar program which used a more effective repellent, or employed semiochemical-baited

trees surface-treated with a toxic insecticide (Smith 1986). If implemented on a grid basis, the

latter treatment might have considerable potential in reducing infestation levels within

moderately-attacked stands. In either case as it costs a minimum of $20.00 to dispose of an

attacked tree by felling and burning (P.M. Hall, pers. comm.) prices of approximately $20.00

and $40.00 per ha would be cost effective if the treatment reduced the incidence of newly

attacked, green trees by 1 or 2 trees per ha, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Although potentially cost-effective and operationally feasible, neither the grid nor the

barrier treatments with pine oil met the objective of reducing D. ponderosae attacks below the

critical level of 2.2 mass-attacked trees/ha which would require remedial treatment (Safranyik

et al. 1974). Therefore, we conclude that pine oil as formulated and deployed by us should not

be recommended for operational use in protecting high hazard stands of lodgepole pine. This

limitation, however, does not preclude its use in protecting individual trees.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank T.E. Lacey for technical assistance, Northwest Petrochemical Corp. for

donation of Norpine-65, and the Merritt Forest District, B.C. Forest Service for welcoming

research on their premises. The research was supported by the Science Council of B.C., Grant

#1 (RC-10) and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council, Canada, Grant

#A3881.

REFERENCES

Berisford, C.W., U.E. Brady, C.W. Fatzinger and B.H. Ebel. 1986. Evaluation of a repellent for prevention of

attacks by three species of southern pine bark beetles. J. Entomol. Sci. 21:316-318.

Borden, J.H., L.J. Chong and T.E. Lacey. 1986. Pre-logging baiting with semiochemicals for the mountain pine

beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae, in high hazard stands of lodgepole pine. For. Chron. 62:20-23.

McMullen, L.H. and L. Safranyik. 1985. Some effects of pine oil on mountain pine beetle (Coleop-

tera:Scolytidae) at different population levels. J. Entomol. Soc. B.C. 82:29-30.

Nijholt, W.W. 1980. Pine oil and oleic acid delay and reduce attacks on logs by ambrosia beetles (Coleop-

tera:Scolytidae). Can. Entomol. 112:199-204.

Nijholt, W.W. and L.H. McMullen. 1980. Pine oil prevents mountain pine beetle attack on living lodgepole pine

trees. Can. Dept. Env., Can. For. Serv. Bi-Mon. Res. Notes 36:1-2.

Niholt, W.W., L.H. McMullen and L. Safranyik. 1981. Pine oil protects living trees from attack by three bark

beetle species, Dendroctonus spp. (Coleoptera:Scolytidae). Can. Entomol. 113:337-340.

O’Donnell, B.P., T.L. Payne and K.D. Walsh. 1986. Effect of pine oil on landing and attack by the southern pine

beetle (Coleoptera:Scolytidae). J. Entomol. Sci. 21:319-321.

Richmond, C.E. 1985. Effectiveness of two pine oils for protecting lodgepole pine from attack by mountain pine

beetle (Coleoptera:Scolytidae). Can. Entomol. 117:1445-1446.

Safranyik, L. 1974. Management of lodgepole pine to reduce losses from the mountain pine beetle. Env. Can.,

For. Serv. Pac. For. Res. Cen. For. Tech. Rept. No. 1.

Smith, R.H. 1986. Trapping western pine beetles with baited toxic trees. USDA, For. Ser. Res. Note PSW-382.

Werner, R.A., E.H. Holsten and F.L. Hastings. 1986. Evaluation of pine oil for protecting white spruce from

spruce beetle (Coleoptera:Scolytidae) attack. J. Entomol. Soc. B.C. 83:3-5.

Zar, JH. 1984. Biostatistical analysis, 2nd ed. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

3 B.C. Forest Service, Protection Branch, 1450 Government St., Victoria, B.C. V8W 3E7

34 J. ENTomMo_ Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

SEMIOCHEMICALS FOR CAPTURING THE AMBROSIA BEETLE,

TRYPODENDRON LINEATUM, IN MULTIPLE-FUNNEL

TRAPS IN BRITISH COLUMBIA

Scott M. SALOM AND JOHN A. MCLEAN

DEPARTMENT OF FOREST SCIENCES

UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

VANCOUVER, B.C. V6T 1W5

Abstract

The host attractants, ethanol and alpha-pinene, and the aggregation pheromone, lineatin,

were tested alone and in all combinations for attracting the ambrosia beetle, Trypo-

dendron lineatum (Olivier), to Lindgren multiple-funnel traps in a forest setting. A

laboratory study examined the flight responses of T. /ineatum to various release rates of

ethanol and lineatin, alone and in combination, in a wind tunnel. Lineatin was the only

effective chemical in attracting the beetles to the traps in both studies. There were no

synergistic effects from adding ethanol or a-pinene, alone or together, to lineatin-baited

traps in the field. The responses of both sexes in the wind tunnel were highest at lineatin

release rates of 8 and 64 ug/24 h. A decrease in response occurred at 512 ug/24 h.

INTRODUCTION

The ambrosia beetle, Trypodendron lineatum (Olivier), like most species of the family

Scolytidae, relies on its olfactory perception of chemicals for host attraction and mating

(Borden 1985). Because this insect is a major pest of logged timber on the Pacific coast of

British Columbia, a substantial effort has been put into identifying and quantifying the

chemicals and the combinations to which the beetle responds. This has resulted in improved

methodology in surveying and managing the pest (Borden and McLean 1981; Lindgren et al.

1983).

Three chemicals have been identified as attractants for T. /ineatum in North America;

ethanol (Moeck 1970, 1971) and a@-pinene (Nijholt and Schonerr 1976) as host attractants, and

lineatin, a tri-cyclic ketal (MacConnell et al. 1977; Borden et al. 1979) as the aggregation

pheromone. Combinations of these chemicals, for use in trapping programs, have been

investigated in Europe and western North America where T. Jineatum occurs. Borden et al.

(1982) confirmed reports from Europe that ethanol, o-pinene, and lineatin acted syner-

gistically in attracting T. lineatum. However, they found that ethanol and a@-pinene did not

enhance the attraction of TJ. lineatum to sticky wire mesh or drainpipe traps in British

Columbia. In contrast, Shore and McLean (1983) found that ethanol and a-pinene together did

act synergistically with lineatin in attracting T. lineatum adults to drainpipe traps.

The different results may be attributed to several factors. Firstly, Borden et al. (1982)

used release rates of ethanol and a@-pinene 3-6 and 2-3 times greater, respectively, than did

Shore and McLean (1983). Secondly, Shore and McLean (1983) actually tested for interac-

tions between the semiochemicals of Gnathotrichus sulcatus (LeConte) and T. lineatum.

These interactions may have influenced beetle response to traps baited only with T. lineatum

semiochemicals. In addition, the latter authors did not differentiate the effects of ethanol and

Q-pinene in their treatments.

The conflicting results of these studies, along with the development and widespread use

of the multiple-funnel trap (Lindgren 1983), prompted us to investigate the importance of

these semiochemicals in attracting T. lineatum to the efficient new traps. We set out to

determine: 1) the optimal combination of semiochemicals needed for attraction (Bedard and

Wood 1981; Pearce et al. 1975; Renwick 1970) and 2) their optimal release rates (Baker and

Linn 1984; Schlyter et al. 1987). We designed a field experiment to see which combination of

semiochemicals resulted in the highest number of beetles caught, and a wind tunnel study to

compare the number of T. lineatum caught in traps baited with the pheromone and a host

attractant, using various combinations and release rates.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AucG. 31, 1988 35

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Experiment 1

An 8 X 8 Latin square design (Steel and Torrie 1960) was used to test the attraction of T.

lineatum to Lindgren multiple-funnel traps, unbaited and baited with ethanol, a-pinene, and

lineatin, alone and in combinations. For each trapping period, which averaged 4 days, traps

were assigned new positions randomly so that after eight trapping intervals, all the treatments

had been in each of the eight positions once. This was used to control any possible effects of

time and position on the trap catches.

The semiochemical release devices used and their placement in the funnel traps were

consistent with the procedures used in commercial mass-trapping programs along the B.C.

coast at the time of the study!. Ethanol (95%) was released from a 40 mL plastic container

with a 1 mm-diam-aperture (release rate = 75mg/24 h), placed in the middle funnel of the traps.

Alpha-pinene was released from a 4.5 mL glass bottle with a 4 mm-diam-aperture (release rate

= 30 mg/24 h), also placed in the middle funnel. A slow-release lineatin lure? (release rate =

100 ug/24 h) was set in both the top and bottom funnels of the traps.

The traps were placed about 25 m apart in a forested site near a large log boom storage

area, on the North Arm of the Fraser River in Vancouver, B.C. The experiment was run from

May 12 - June 12, 1985. The traps were checked daily and every time any of the traps caught

about 100 beetles, all the traps were emptied and moved to a new, randomly assigned position.

The beetles were counted and sexed for each trapping period of the test.

The data were transformed by x’= log,,(x+1) and analyzed by analysis of variance

(ANOVA) and the Student-Newman-Keuls test (SNK)(P < 0.05) using U.B.C. ANOVAR

(Greig and Osterlin 1978).

Experiment 2

The attraction of beetles to funnel traps baited with various release rates of ethanol and

lineatin, was studied in 1987 in a wind tunnel described by Angerilli and McLean (1984), but

since shortened to 3.6 m in length, while the width and height remained at 1.2 m each. The

tunnel was fitted with activated charcoal and dust filters. Cool white fluorescent lights (660 W

each), situated 2 m above the tunnel, were turned on because 7. /ineatum normally flies during

the daylight. The acrylic plastic ceiling of the tunnel was covered with cellulose acetate to

minimize glare and diffuse the illumination. Windspeed in the tunnel was maintained at 15

cm/sec, and the temperature averaged 23 + 2° C.

Three 8-funnel traps were placed in the upwind section of the tunnel, 0.5 m from the

screen. The three traps provided a larger plume of semiochemicals within the tunnel than

could be achieved with a single trap.

Treatments for testing the reponse of T. /ineatum in the wind tunnel included 4 lineatin

release rates (0, 8, 64, and 512 ug/24 h), each tested in all combinations with 3 release rates of

95% ethanol (0, 75, and 150 mg/24 h). This resulted in 12 combinations of lineatin and ethanol

treatments. The 0,0 release rate was the control treatment.

Slow-release lineatin lures were used, in the form of Hercon controlled release dispensers

(Kydonieus and Beroza 1981), with release rates based on lure size (7.0 ug/24 h/cm2)!. The

lures were aged for one week at ambient temperatures to allow the release rates to stabilize.

Six lures were used in each lineatin treatment. A lure was placed in the top and bottom of each

trap. The size of each lure used for release rates of 8, 64, and 512 ug/24 h, were 0.19, 1.51, and

12.2 cm?, respectively.

Ethanol was released from the same device described in experiment |. For release rate

treatments of 75 mg/24h, one lure was placed in the central trap, and for treatments of 150

mg/24 h, one lure was placed in each of the outer traps.

Traps used for the control treatments were not the same as those used for the baited

treatments. To see if baited traps carried residue, a comparative test was run to compare beetle

response to these traps following bait removal, with the response to the control traps.

The beetles used in this study had been collected during the spring of 1987 with lineatin-

baited multiple-funnel traps at the same field site used in experiment 1. Beetles were collected

daily and placed in | L plastic containers with moistened cloth towels. The containers were

stored in a walk-in cooler at 4° C under a 14:10 h (L:D) photoperiod. The containers were

ees twice weekly to monitor moisture levels. These beetles survived for more than 100

ays.

1 Phero Tech. Inc., 1140 Clark Dr., Vancouver, B.C. V5L 3K3.

2 Biolure Reg. TM Consep Membranes of Bend, Oregon.

36 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuGc. 31, 1988

a a

9) MALES | = b

IAA

. 14 Fl

30 a7, {__} fa}

al ly | 150

20:

Tal | ni

10 t

i ) “

I 0 =

=| O 8 64 5iZ ay

S if

: y

O lJ

ad Cp)

a a b S

(B) FEMALES | : :

wal

30 g

150 ale

20 LJ

LINEATIN RELEASE RATES (UG/24 H)

Figure 1. Mean percent (+) SE of T. lineatum caught in traps in response to combinations of

varied release rates of lineatin and ethanol in a wind tunnel: A) Males and B)

Females. Lineatin release rate columns, pooled across ethanol treatments, with the

same letter are not significantly different (SNK; P < 0.05).

J. ENtomot Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 37

Prior to testing, the beetles were removed from the plastic containers and selected for

testing based on their healthy appearance (i.e. presence of all body parts) and their ability to

walk normally. The selected beetles were then placed in petri dishes with cloth towels and

stored at 4° C until needed for the test, always on the same day. The beetles were given a warm-

up period of 15 min at room temperature prior to release. The beetles were released from a

horizontal tray, 35 cm above the tunnel floor, 1.5 m downwind from the traps.

A 4 X 3 factorial experiment was set up as a randomized complete block design with days

serving as blocks. Males and females were tested separately. Because of the large number of

treatments, one replication was tested per day for each of 15 experimental days. For each

replication, 25 beetles were released and allowed 10 min to respond. The percentage of beetles

caught in the traps was used as the dependent variable. The arc sine transformed data were

analyzed by ANOVA and mean separation between treatments was carried out with the SNK

test (P < 0.05) (SAS 1985).

RESULTS

Experiment 1

The number of 7. lineatum caught differed significantly with trapping period (F; 45 =

13.3; P kw 0.01), but not with trap position (F, 4, = 0.8; P 0.05), demonstrating the importance

of the Latin square design in providing confidence that position was not a significant source of

variation. Traps baited with lineatin caught significantly more beetles than traps not baited

with this chemical (Table 1). Traps baited with ethanol and o-pinene showed no significant

differences in catch when compared with the unbaited trap. Ethanol and a@-pinene combined

with lineatin did not enhance the catch of beetles, and in fact, resulted in a slightly lower catch

than the treatment with lineatin alone.

Experiment 2

The number of T. /ineatum caught in funnel traps in the wind tunnel was not significantly

affected by the presence of ethanol either for males (F, ,54 = 0.4; P 0.05) or females (F, 154 =

1.4; P 0.05). In contrast, a significant increase in the number of beetles caught did occur with

the presence of lineatin for both males (F3,,54 = 61.9; P< 0.01) and females (F; , 54 = 32.0; P<

0.01).

Males responded best at the lowest release rates of lineatin with an average trap catch of

23.5 and 21.6% for the 8 and 64 ug/24 h release rates, respectively (Figure 1A). A significant

reduction in response occurred at 512 ug/24 h with a mean catch of 16.6% of the beetles tested.

Despite somewhat lower catches, similar responses were found for females (Figure 1B), in

which the highest catches, 20.0 and 16.1%, were obtained at 8 and 64 ug/24 h, respectively.

Mean catch at 512 ug/24 h was 14.3 %, a significantly lower response than for the 8 ug

treatment.

Table 1. Response by Trypodendron lineatum to semiochemical-baited funnel

traps set in a forest from May - June, 1985.

Mean Catch/Trap/ Sampling Period

Bait Males Females Total

Control (unbaited) 0.3 b! 0.1 b 0.4 b

Ethanol (E) 2.3 b 3.4 b 5.7 b

Alpha-pinene (P) 0.8 b 0.5 b 1.3b

E+P 0.4 b 0.6 b 1.0 b

Lineatin (L) 735.0 a 616.0 a 1351.0 a

L+E 415.9 a 438.5 a 854.4 a

L+P 590.1 a 328.6 a 918.7 a

L+E+P 510.9 a 466.8 a 977.7 a

1 Means followed by the same letter not significantly different (SNK; P < 0.05).

38 J. ENTOMOL Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

No significant differences in response by T. lineatum were observed between the control

traps and unbaited traps that had previously held ethanol and lineatin during the experiment

(F572 = 0.9; P 0.05). Thus, there was no evidence for contamination of the traps.

DISCUSSION

The hypothesis supporting the use of ethanol in trapping ambrosia beetles is that it acts as

an arrestant/boring stimulant for beetles in close proximity to a suitable host (McLean and

Borden 1977). Drainpipe traps require that beetles land on the trap and crawl through small

diam holes in order to enter the trap (Bakke 1983). This contrasts with the immediate

knockdown capture of beetles in funnel traps (Lindgren 1983). Our data suggest that there is

no gain in adding ethanol and/or a-pinene baits to funnel traps, as the lineatin alone is

sufficient to attract T. lineatum close enough to the trap for capture.

It is possible that ethanol and a@-pinene may be important in attracting T. lineatum to

funnel traps, but that the dispensers normally used for releasing them may account for our

results. This is being investigated (Cushon unpublished)?. Nevertheless, the same dispensers

were shown to be effective in enhancing the attraction of T. /ineatum in Europe as well as

another ambrosia beetle species, Gnathotrichus sulcatus (LeConte) to sticky wire mesh traps

(Borden et al. 1982).

Response of T. /ineatum to various release rates of lineatin has been previously examined

in a field setting in British Columbia by Lindgren et al. (1983). They found that the number of

beetles caught on cylindrical traps baited with lineatin, increased as release rates increased,

from 10-40 ug/24h, and remained the same between 40 and 800 ug/24h. In a later experiment

from the same paper, release rates of 40 ug/24h were found to be optimal for funnel traps, yet a

release rate of only 10 ug/24 h of lineatin was adequate as long as the remaining lineatin (30

ug/24 h) was placed within 1.5 - 2 m of the trap. Our results in the wind tunnel with low release

rates correspond well with those from Lindgren et al. (1983). However, a decrease in response

was observed in the wind tunnel at the higher release rates. The differences in sensitivity of the

beetles at the higher rates may have resulted from artificial factors imposed by the wind tunnel,

such as an enclosed environment and a constant, unidirectional air flow. Both factors resulted

in continuous exposure of the beetles to the pheromone, whereas in the field, pheromone

plumes are often broken up by turbulence and wind shifts (Fares et al. 1980), resulting in non-

continuous exposure. For these reasons and because the lures weaken with age, it is probably

best for mass-trapping in the field to keep the release rates of lineatin higher than for studying

beetle flight behavior in the wind tunnel.

Host volatiles may well be important in initial host recognition by T. /ineatum in a natural

forest situation. However, from our results, lineatin baits alone appear to be sufficient for

running an effective mass-trapping program with Lindgren funnel traps around log booms and

dryland sorts, where host volatiles are likely to be present anyway. The expense and extra

labor involved in maintaining the ethanol and a-pinene baits would not seem to be necessary

for maintaining effective mass-trapping programs for T. lineatum in British Columbia.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank L. Friskie, J. Glaubitz, and J. Northrop for their assistance, and Drs. B.S.

Lindgren and H.R. MacCarthy for their review of the manuscript. This research was supported

by funding from a NRC-PILP project sponsored by Phero Tech Ltd. of Vancouver, and an

operating grant from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.

3 Mr. Geoff Cushon, Research Technician, Phero Tech. Inc., 1140 Clark Dr. Vancouver, B.C.

VSL 3K3.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 39

REFERENCES

Angerilli, N. and J.A. McLean. 1984. Windtunnel and field observations of western spruce budworm responses to

pheromone-baited traps. J. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia. 81:10-16.

Baker, T.C. and C.E. Linn, Jr. 1984. Wind tunnels in pheromone research. /n Hummel, H.E. and T.A. Miller.

(Eds.). Techniques in Pheromone research. Springer-Verlag, New York. pp. 75-110.

Bakke, A. 1983. Dosage response of the ambrosia beetle Trypodendron lineatum (Olivier) (Coleop-

tera:Scolytidae) to semiochemicals. Z. ang. Ent. 95:158-161.

Bedard, W.D. and D.L. Wood. 1981. Suppression of Dendroctonus brevicomis by using a mass-trapping tactic. In

Mitchell, E.R. (Ed.). Management of Insect Pests With Semiochemicals: Concepts and Practice. Plenum

Press, New York. pp. 103-114.

Borden, J.H. 1985. Aggregation pheromones. /n Behavior. Kerkut, G.A. (Ed.). Vol 9. /n Comprehensive Insect

Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology. Kerkut, G.A. and LI. Gilbert (Eds.). Pergamon Press,

Oxford. pp. 257-285.

Borden, J.H. and J.A. McLean. 1981. Pheromone-based suppression of ambrosia beetles in industrial timber

processing area. Jn Mitchell, E.R. (Ed.). Management of Insect Pests With Semiochemicals: Concepts and

Practice. Plenum Press, New York. pp. 133-154.

Borden, J.H., J.R. Handley, B.D. Johnston, J.G. Macconnell, R.M. Silverstein, K.N. Slessor, A.A. Swigar, and

D.T.W. Wong. 1979. Synthesis and field testing of 4,6,6-lineatin, the aggregation pheromone of

Trypodendron lineatum (Coleoptera, Scolytidae). J. Chem. Ecol. 5:681-689.

Borden, J.H., C.J. King, S. Lindgren, L. Chong, D.R. Gray, A.C. OehIschlager, K.N. Slessor, and H.D. Pierce, Jr.

1982. Variation in response of Trypodendron lineatum from two continents to semiochemicals and trap

form. Environ. Entomol. 11:403-408.

Fares, Y., P.J.H. Sharpe, and C.E. Magnuson. 1980. Pheromone dispersion in forests. J. Theor. Biol. 84:335-359.

Greig, M. and D. Osterlin. 1978. U.B.C. ANOVAR: Analysis of Variance and Covariance. Adapted from

Brigham Young University Documentation. 69 pp.

Kydonieus, A.F. and M. Beroza. 1981. The hercon dispenser formulation and recent test results. Jn Mitchell, E.R.

(Ed.). Management of Insect Pests With Semiochemicals: Concepts and Practice. Plenum Press, New York.

pp. 445-454.

Lindgren, B.S. 1983. A multiple funnel trap for scolytid beetles (Coleoptera). Can. Ent. 115:299-302.

Lindgren, B.S., J.H. Borden, L. Chong, L.M. Friskie, and B.B. Orr. 1983. Factors influencing the efficiency of

pheromone-baited traps for three species of ambrosia beetles (Coleoptera: Scolytidae). Can. Ent.

115:303-313;

MacConnell, J.G., J.H. Borden, R.M. Silverstein, and E. Stokkink. 1977. Isolation and tentative identification of

lineatin, a pheromone from the frass of Trypodendron lineatum (Coleoptera: SColytidae). J. Chem. Ecol.

5:549-561.

McLean, J.A. and J.H. Borden. 1977. Attack by Gnathotrichus sulcatus (Coleoptera:Scolytidae) on stumps and

felled trees baited with sulcatol and ethanol. Can. Ent. 109:675-686.

Moeck, H.A. 1970. Ethanol as the primary attractant for the ambrosia beetle Trypodendron lineatum (Coleoptera:

Scolytidae). Can. Ent. 102:985-995.

Moeck, H.A. 1971. Field test of ethanol as a scolytid attractant. Can. Dept. Fish. and For. Bi-Mon. Res. Notes.

27(2):11-12.

Nijholt, W.W. and J. Schonherr. 1976. Chemical response behavior of scolytids in West Germany and western

Canada. Environ. Canada, Bi-mon. Res. Notes. 32:31-32.

Pearce, G.T., W.E. Gore, R.M. Silverstein, J.W. Peacock, R.A. Cuthbert, G.N. Lanier, and J.B. Simeone. 1975.

Chemical attractants for the smaller European elm bark beetle Scolytus multistriatus (Coleop-

tera:Scolytidae). J. Chem. Ecol. 1:115-124.

Renwick, J.A.A. 1970. Chemical aspects of bark beetle aggregation. Symp. on population Attractants. Contrib.

Boyce Thompson Inst. 24:337-341.

SAS Institute. 1985. SAS user’s guide: Statistics. SAS Institute, Cary, N.C.

Schlyter, F., J.A. Byers, and J. Lofqvist. 1987. Attraction to pheromone sources of different quantity, quality, and

spacing: Density-regulation mechanisms in bark beetle [ps typographus. J. Chem. Ecol. 13: 1503-1523.

Shore, T.L. and J.A. McLean. 1983. A further evaluation of the interactions between the pheromones and two

host kairomones of the ambrosia beetles Trypodendron lineatum and Gnathotrichus sulcatus (Coleop-

tera:Scolytidae). Can. Ent. 115:1-5.

Steel, R.G.D. and J.H. Torrie. 1960. Principles and Procedures in Statistics. McGraw-Hill, New York. 481 pp.

40 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

FIELD TRIALS OF FENVALERATE AND ACEPHATE TO CONTROL SPRUCE

BUD MIDGE, DASYNEURA SWAINEI (DIPTERA: CECIDOMYIIDAE)

JOHN Harp!, Patrick SHEA2, AND EDWARD HOLSTEN?

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, FOREST SERVICE

1PaciFIC NORTHWEST RESEARCH STATION, ANCHORAGE, AK 99501.

2PACIFIC SOUTHWEST FOREST AND RANGE EXPERIMENT STATION, BERKELEY CA 94704

3FOREST PEST MANAGEMENT, STATE AND PRIVATE FORESTRY, ANCHORAGE, AK 99501

ABSTRACT

Three concentrations each of fenvalerate and acephate were tested for efficacy against

the spruce bud midge on black and white spruce in southcentral Alaska in 1985. Only

the highest concentration of fenvalerate (0.025 percent), which is currently registered

with the United States Environmental Protection Agency for forest use, provided

significant protection.

INTRODUCTION

The spruce bud midge, Dasyneura (Rhabdophaga) swainei Felt, kills terminal and lateral

vegetative buds of white spruce, Picea glauca (Moench) Voss, and black spruce, P. mariana

(Mill.) B.S.P. (Furniss and Carolin 1977). Larvae emerge from eggs deposited on newly

developing shoots, crawl to the shoot tips, and enter the host through the bases of new needles

(Cerezke 1972, Clark 1952). Successful larvae migrate through shoot tissue to newly formed

buds, feed on and kill the bud apical meristem, and overwinter usually singly in the still living,

galled buds. Adults emerge in the spring from pupae in the galled buds and lay eggs as new

shoots begin to elongate. The buds soon die, but they persist as gray, weathered, swollen galls.

Loss of terminal buds may result in reduced height growth (Cerezke 1972) and stem

deformity because multiple leaders develop from lateral buds. Such effects are undesirable in

trees grown for timber because reduced height growth in seedlings and saplings can delay

height dominance over competing vegetation, and repeated stem deformities cause defects in

harvested posts, poles, and logs.

This experiment was intended to determine whether registered concentrations (or

formulations) of fenvalerate and acephate for control of seed, cone, and needlemining insects

would effectively reduce damage by spruce bud midges. Fenvalerate, a synthetic pyrethroid,

was chosen because of its low toxicity to vertebrates, except fish and amphibians, and its high

toxicity to insects. It is rainfast on host foliage if applied as Pydrin® Emulsible Concentrate!

diluted in water. Acephate was chosen because it is partially systemic (Lyon 1973), has low

vertebrate toxicity, and is highly toxic to insects. If applied as Orthene® Tree and Ornamental

Spray dissolved in water, some of the active ingredient is presumably absorbed within several

hours by the host foliage and translocated to internal feeding sites of insects (Crisp et al. 1978),

such as new needles.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The area selected for the test was denuded by fire in 1959 but had revegetated naturally

with black spruce and white spruce seedlings.

A total of 105 spruce seedlings ranging from 0.7 to 2.0 m in height and infested by spruce

bud midge were examined, selected and labeled with numbered tags. Eleven trees were white

spruce and 94 were black spruce. All were formerly infested and most had multiple leaders.

The trial was completely randomized. Fifteen trees, selected by numbers using a

calculator programmed to generate random numbers, were assigned to each of 7 treatments.

Treatments were: a) 0.025%2, b) 0.0125%, and c) 0.00625% fenvalerate aqueous

dilutions; d) 1.0%3, e)0.5%, and f)0.25% acephate aqueous solutions; and g) controls, without

treatment. Insecticide formulations were mixed with water at ratios shown in Table 1.

The trees were treated after shoot elongation had begun, and formulations were applied

by backpack hydraulic sprayer until runoff. Spray treatments were applied on 26 June, 1985

during still, clear weather in this order: f), e), d), c), b), and a). The sprayer was rinsed with

water between treatments and with water and Nutrasol® between the acephate and fenvalerate

treatments.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 4]

The trees were re-examined after bud flush on 17 June, 1986 to assess the efficacy of the

insecticide treatments. The terminal bud formed in 1986 on the dominant leader of each tree

was classified as infested or uninfested. Buds that were swollen and rosetted in a manner

characteristic of bud midge damage (Clark 1952) and that did not form shoots in 1986, were

considered infested. For comparison, the terminus of each leader dominant at the end of the

1984 growing season was examined. If a new leader had grown from the terminal bud in 1985,

it was classified as uninfested. If the terminal bud formed in 1984 was dead and galled in a

manner typical of bud midge infested buds, it was classified as infested. Furthermore, the

upper 25 terminal buds combined on primary, secondary, and tertiary shoots of each test tree

were Classified as uninfested, currently infested, or formerly infested.

Numbers of infested terminal buds on the upper 25 primary, secondary, and tertiary

shoots before and after treatment were analyzed by analysis of variance (ANOV). Post-

treatment results were compared by Bonferroni’s multiple pairwise comparison t-test with

Alpha = 0.05. Data were also analyzed through analysis of covariance (ANCOV) using

numbers of buds infested in 1984 or earlier as the covariate. Proportions of trees with an

infested leader terminal bud were analyzed by paired treatments for significant differences by

computing a critical Z statistic* with Alpha = 0.05. In the analysis of proportions, the condition

of only one bud per tree, the terminal bud on the dominant leader, was considered.

Table 1. Insecticide concentrations and formulations in water, Alaska, 1985.

Insecticide Treatment Concentration Formulation in water

percent fl oz/gal ml/1

Fenvalerate! a) 0.025 0.110 0.860

b) 0.125 0.055 0.430

Cc) 0.0625 0.028 0.215

percent oz/gal g/l

Acephate? d) 1.00 0.107 0.799

e) 0.50 0.053 0.400

f) 0.25 0.027 0.200

1 Pydrin® 2.4 Emulsible Concentrate

2 Orthene® Tree and Ornamental Spray

! Trade names of commercial products are mentioned solely for information. No endorsement

by the U.S. Department of Agriculture is implied.

2 Highest concentration has U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Registration No 201-401

for forest use.

3 Highest concentration has U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Registration No.

239-2427-AA for general use.

4 Pyaiks

* (Faby Fa) FOP)

Where P; is the proportion of trees with their leader terminal bud attacked in treatment i, and

n; is the number of tree replicates for treatment i.

42 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), Auc. 31, 1988

Table 2. Effect of fenvalerate and acephate treatments on incidence of spruce bud midge in

terminal buds, Alaska, 1985.

Treatment Insecticide Infested terminal buds

concentration Mean number + SE on Proportion on

upper 25 shoots leaders only

percent pre-1985 1985! 1984 1985

Fenvalerate 0.025 3.93 + 0.69 a2 153: O41 a 0.73 0.13 c3

0.0125 3.40 + 0.49 a 1.80 + 0.49 ab 0.67 0.27 cd

0.00625 3.67 + 0.58 a 2.80 + 0.63 ab 0.67 0.53 cd

Control 0.00000 3.47 + 0.61 a 4.13 + 0.84 b 0.73 0.60 d

Acephate 1.00 2.60 + 0.65 a 3.53 £ 0:65 Db 0.93 0.47 cd

0.50 4.00 + 0.32 a 3.27 + 0.59 b 0.67 O.27 ¢

0.25 4.33 + 0.60 a 2.93 + 0.63 b 0.80 0.47 cd

Control 0.00 3.47 + 0.61 a 4.13 + 0.84 b 0.73 0.60 d

! For fenvalerate, ANOV F = 3.64, P=0.01; ANCOV F = 3.67, P=0.01. For acephate, ANOV

F = 0.55, P = 0.65; ANCOV F = 0.70, P = 0.59.

2 Means followed by the same letter in the same subcolumn were not significantly different at

Alpha = 0.05.

3 Proportions followed by the same letter were not significantly different at a confidence

coefficient of 0.95.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AucG. 31, 1988 43

Cee

ODN

~a3

°o a4

.~ ™

nH 2

aay

c¢ 2

Se,

)

,o 2 6

ge]

e325

“= 6

seu“

cE o

= oS

5698 2

ass

om O

>» Oo

= 0 .00625 .0125 025

Fenvalerate concentration (percent)

Figure 1. Upper: Mean number of posttreatment infested terminal buds on the upper 25

primary, secondary, and tertiary shoots combined, for fenvalerate treated and

control trees. Vertical bars span + 1 standard error.

Lower: Proportion of fenvalerate treated and control trees that had the terminal bud

on the dominant leader infested in 1985.

a4 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

RESULTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Only one white spruce received acephate treatment and one received the most concen-

trated fenvalerate treatment. The remaining nine white spruce were divided equally among the

two less-concentrated fenvalerate treatments and the controls. Pretreatment mean number of

infested buds was not significantly different for white and black spruce (for acephate and

controls, F = 0.01, P > 0.75; for fenvalerate-treated trees and controls, F = 0.41, p > 0.50).

Posttreatment mean number of infested buds, which were analyzed only for the three

treatments that had more than one white spruce per treatment, were not significantly different

for white and black spruce (for the 0.0125% fenvalerate treatment, F = 1.37, P > 0.25; for the

0.00625% fenvalerate treatment, F = 0.79, P > 0.25; and for the controls, F = 0.14, P > 0.50).

Analysis of Variance of data pooled for both species indicated no significant differences

in prespray numbers of infested buds among treatments (Table 2). Furthermore, use of

prespray numbers of infested buds as the covariate had essentially no effect on results of

posttreatment analysis. The only treatment that provided significant protection from the spruce

bud midge was 0.025% fenvalerate. Acephate could have washed off because of its solubility

in water and poor rainfastness (Robertson and Boelter 1979, Haverty and Robertson 1982).

But acephate’s reputed systemic insecticidal activity may also be inoperative when sprayed on

spruce, evidenced by Sundaram and Hopewell (1976) who failed to recover significant

amounts of acephate or its systemic metabolite from spruce foliage after simulated aerial spray

application.

We recommend that future insecticide trials for control of spruce bud midge include

proven systemic insecticides, such as dimethoate and metasystox, and additional rainfast

compounds, such as carbaryl and permethrin, that are a ready registered for use against other

forest pests. We do not recommend testing higher concentrations of fenvalerate because results

of this trial suggest that the maximum-effect dose has been closely approached at the 0.025%

concentration (Fig. 1. Upper and lower).

REFERENCES

Cerezke, H. F. 1972. Observations on the distribution of the spruce bud midge (Rhabdophaga swainei Felt) in

black and white spruce crowns and its effect on height growth. Can. J. For. Res. 2: 69-72.

Clark, J. 1952. The spruce bud midge, Rhabdophaga swainei Felt (Cecidomy iidae: Diptera) Can. Entomol. 84:

87-89.

Crisp, C.E., T.W. Koerber, C.E. Richmond, and B.H. Roettgering. 1978. Acropetal translocation of acephate into

terminal shoots of Jeffrey pine for control of western pine shoot borer. In: Proc. Symp. on Systemic Chem.

Treatments in Tree Culture. Oct. 9-11, 1978, East Lansing, MI. p. 307-324.

Furniss, R.L., and V.M. Carolin. 1977. Western Forest Insects. USDA For. Serv. Misc. Pub. No. 1339. Sup. Doc.

Washington, D.C., 654 p.

Haverty, M.I., and J.L. Robertson. 1982. Laboratory bioassays for selecting candidate insecticides and application

rates for field tests on the western spruce budworm. J. Econ. Entomol. 17: 179-182.

Lyon, R.L. 1973. Reports from the Insecticide Evaluation Project. PSW-2203. USDA For. Serv., Pacific

Southwest Forest and Range Exp. Stn., Berkeley, CA 5 p.

Robertson, J.L., and L.H. Boelter. 1979. Toxicity of insecticides to Douglas-fir tussock moth, Orgyia pseudot-

sugata (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae). II. Residual toxicity and rainfastness. Can. Entomol. 111: 1161-1175.

Sundaram, K.MS., and W.W. Hopewell. 1976. Distribution, persistence and translocation of Orthene in spruce

trees after simulated aerial spray application. Environment Canada, Chem. Control Res. Inst. Rep. CC-

X-121.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 45

CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF ERYTHRONEURA

LEAFHOPPERS ON VITIS VINIFERA IN SOUTHCENTRAL WASHINGTON

J. D. WELLS!, W. W. CONE AND M. M. CONANT

IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE RESEARCH AND EXTENSION CENTER

WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY

PROSSER, WASHINGTON 99350

ABSTRACT

Fenpropathrin (56 g [AI]/ha) and dimethoate (1681 g [AI]/ha) controlled the western

grape leafhopper, Erythroneura elegantula Osborn. Arthropod predators were collected

on wine grapes, Vitis vinifera (L.). Most were of uncertain importance in the regulation

of Erythroneura spp. populations. The greatest source of leafhopper egg mortality is

parasitization by the mymarid wasp, Anagrus epos Girault. Vineyards grown in isolated

areas (10-20 Km from other irrigated areas) are subject to leafhopper injury in the

absence of the parasitoid which requires a continuous supply of leafhopper eggs. The

concept of infesting French prune, Prunus domestica L., with non-pestiferous

Erythroneura prunicola as a winter refugium for A. epos is advanced as an approach to

biological control of Erythroneura spp. in isolated areas.

KEY WORDS: Erythroneura elegantula, Erythroneura ziczac, Vitis vinifera, Anagrus

epos, parasitoid, leafhopper control, wine grape pest management

INTRODUCTION

Control of the western grape leafhopper (WGLH), Erythroneura elegantula Osborn, has

been investigated extensively for many years, particularly in California. Excessive application

of pesticides to control WGLH in California led to both insecticide resistance in the leafhopper

(Doutt and Smith 1971) and tetranychid mite outbreaks (Flaherty and Huffaker 1970).

Problems from unnecessary sprays were avoided after it was established that Thompson

seedless vines grown for wine production suffered no economic loss from a mean of 20 first

generation nymphs per leaf and 10-15 second and third generation nymphs per leaf (Jensen et

al. 1969). Most Washington wine grape growers use these threshold levels. Pacific Northwest

Extension recommends parathion, demeton, azinphosmethyl, oxydemetonmethy]l, or phosdrin

for control of “‘leafhoppers”’ on Vitis spp. (Capizzi et al. 1987). In addition, dimethoate is

registered for leafhopper control in Washington. The British Columbia Ministry of Agriculture

recommends carbaryl, azinphosmethyl, or endosulfan for control of Virginia creeper leafhop-

per (VCLH), Erythroneura ziczac Walsh, on Vitis spp. (J. Vielvoye 1985 pers. comm.).

Jensen and Flaherty (1981) listed several WGLH predators and parasitoids. Although

many predators and parasitoids are known in the Pacific Northwest, the association of these

beneficial arthropods with young wine grape vineyards in isolated areas of the region has not

been determined. Since 1982, Washington wine grape pest management specialists have found

parasitized WGLH eggs and suspected the mymarid wasp Anagrus epos Girault. This species

attacks a variety of typhlocybine leafhoppers including Typhlocyba pomaria McAtee, T.

quercus (F.), Edwardsiana prunicola (Edwards), E. rosae (L.), Erythroneura plena Beamer

(Mulla, 1956); Dikrella cruentata (Gillette), E. elegantula (Doutt and Nakata 1973); Dikrella

californica Lawson (Williams 1984); and E. ziczac (McKenzie and Beirne 1972).

Girault (1911) described A. epos from a specimen collected on a windowpane in Illinois.

Mulla (1956) illustrated the immature forms. A. epos completes about three generations for

every one of the WGLH (Doutt and Nakata 1973) and had an intrinsic rate of increase about

twice that of the leafhopper (Williams 1984). A. epos parasitism reached 70% in samples of

VCLH eggs in British Columbia (McKenzie and Beirne 1972). Cate (1975) observed that

parasitism in two California vineyards increased from 7.5 and 23.4% of first generation

WGLH eggs, to 70 and 88% in late season.

'Present address: Dept. of Biological Sciences, Univ. of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL

60680.

46 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

Doutt and Nakata (1973) first considered using A. epos regulation of WGLH to reduce

pesticide applications that were triggering pesticide resistance and spider mite outbreaks.

The purpose of this study was: 1) to evaluate insecticides for control of Erythroneura

leafhoppers on Vitis vinifera (L.), 2) to determine the presence of predators or parasitoids and

their influence on leafhopper density, and 3) to determine if economic leafhopper injury is

associated with isolation from A. epos.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Pesticide evaluation. In 1984, a commercial Riesling vineyard was used to test the effect

of dimethoate on a mixed population of WGLH and VCLH. The vineyard rows ran north-

south. The 10 rows on the west edge were left unsprayed. Two unsprayed plots of 25 and 29

vines were established at the northwest and southwest corners of the vineyard, respectively.

Five unsprayed rows were left between the control plots and the sprayed vines. Two sprayed

plots of 30 vines were established, one at the north and one at the south edge of the sprayed

vines. Dimethoate 25% wettable powder (WP) was applied on 30 June using a Degania®

sprayer operating at 23,000 g/cm? at a rate of 1702.5 g (AI) in 470 liters H,O/ha. Four rows

were treated with each pass.

Erythroneura spp. population density was sampled without replacement by counting the

number of nymphs on the underside of one shaded leaf picked from each of 30 vines.

Table 1. Mean number of Erythroneura spp. nymphs underside of V. vinifera var. Riesling leaf

treated with dimethoate 25% WP®, Cold Creek, Washington, 1984

Days post-application untreated (n=54) treated (n=60)

- | 22.3 28.7

7 5.8 0.1

19 0.9 0.1

26 09 0.0

33 0.3 0.0

40 0.1 0.0

47 0.8 0.0

57 0.8 0.1

61 1.4 0.0

69 0.6 0.8

7S 0.2 0.2

82 0.2 0.2

89 0.1 0.1

96 0.0 0.1

a 1702 g (AI) applied in 470 liters H,O/ha.

In 1985 and 1986, plots were established in a block of Chenin Blanc grapes located at

Washington State University, Irrigated Agriculture Research and Extension Center (WSU-

IAREC), Prosser, WA. Plots consisted of six vines and were replicated four times in a

randomized complete block design. In 1985, dimethoate, fenpropathrin and cloethocarb were

evaluated. Rates are listed in Table 2. Treatments in 1986 included dimethoate and fen-

propathrin (rates listed in Table 3). Pretreatment counts were made | August (1985) and 8 July

(1986). Applications were made 5 August (1985), 15 July and 22 August (1986) using an air

blast sprayer operated at 21,000 gm/cm2. Plot rows were sprayed from both sides using a total

volume of 1870 1 H,O/ha. Cross row contamination was avoided by using only the nozzles on

one side of the sprayer with the spray directed against a canvas shield, 2.6 m high and 3.7 m

long, pulled by a tractor in the adjacent row (Grimes and Cone 1985).

WGLH population density was sampled with replacement by counting the number of

nymphs on the underside of 10 leaves, approximately breast height, from each of six vines per

plot 1985 and 1986. Data were subjected to analysis of variance and means were compared

using Duncan’s multiple range test (Duncan 1955).

J. ENTromot Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 AT

Table 2. Effect of pesticides on WGLH on V. vinifera var. Chenin blanc, IAREC, Prosser, WA

1985. Mean number nymphs/underside of 60 leaves

Rate Mean number nymphs Mean number nymphs

Treatment (g Al/ha)@ 4 days post-application> 24 days post-application

Unsprayed ---- 16.0 a 11.0a

Cloethocarb 50% WP 141.9 4.5b 9.8ab

i 233.8 1.3b 5.3ab

a 567.5 0.0b 3.3b

Dimethoate 25% WP 2270.0 0.8 b 5.0ab

Fenpropathrin 2.4% EC 227.0 0.0b 3.3b

a All materials were applied in 1870 liters H,O/ha.

b Column means followed by the same letter are not significantly different DMRT, P < .01.

Survey for arthropod predators and parasitoids. Leaf and sweep net samples were

collected from V. vinifera grapes during the 1983 and 1984 growing seasons at WSU-IAREC

and Cold Creek, WA. Leaf and sweep net samples were taken in September and October 1984

from 12 vineyards throughout southcentral Washington. At least 50 m of each vineyard margin

was sampled with a sweep net and a minimum of 200 leaves sampled from each location at

each sampling date. Leaves were examined for the presence of Erythroneura immatures and

evidence (see methods under Anagrus parasitism) of A. epos. The sweep net samples were

sorted for predators or parasitoids which were pinned, labeled and prepared for identification.

Cicadellidae species were determined using the keys of Oman (1949) and Beirne (1956). Other

specimens were sent to appropriate authorities for identification (see acknowledgment).

Voucher specimens were placed in the M. T. James Insect Museum at Washington State

University, Pullman.

Anagrus parasitism. Two vineyards observed to have high numbers of A. epos were

sampled for their incidence of egg parasitism. One hundred shaded leaves were picked from

WGLH infested vines 3.2 km north of Grandview, WA on 4 October 1984, and from caged and

uncaged Grenache vines with both WGLH and VCLH at IAREC on 27 September 1984. The

cages had been installed in July using saran screen of 12.5 X 12.5 strands/cm? (Bioquip Corp.

El Segundo, CA). The effect of the cages on A. epos movement was unknown. The sampled

leaves were examined under a dissecting microscope (20X). To determine the incidence of

parasitism, eggs containing visible Anagrus larvae were counted as parasitized. Young A. epos

larvae just beginning develpment in its Erythroneura host cannot be recognized so those eggs

were not counted as parasitized. In addition, emergence holes in leaf tissue were counted.

Wasp emergence holes were circular whereas normal leafhopper emergence left a narrow slit

in the leaf tissue (Fig.1). The difference between the circular holes and the narrow slits

provided a clear postemergence method for distinguishing between normal and parasitized

eggs. Since only Anagrus epos were recovered from reared material, we assumed the

emergence holes to be produced by that species.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Pesticide evaluation. The mean number of Erythroneura spp. nymphs per leaf on vines

treated with dimethoate in 1984 are compared with untreated vines (Table 1). Erythroneura

nymph density dropped dramatically and remained low in both the sprayed and unsprayed

plots. Pesticide drift into the control plots was observed at the time of application and may

have caused the drop in nymphal density observed in all experimental plots. Although nymph

density was low in both treated and untreated areas, numbers were slightly higher in the

untreated area after 7 days and remained slightly higher throughout the test period. Nymphal

density on nearby untreated Grenache vines increased during the same period until the vines

were defoliated.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), Auc. 31, 1988

S \

~~.

normal emergence hole of

it-l

western grape leafhoppers (A) and the circular hole of

(B).

the sl

aring

ifera leaves comp

tis Vv

SEM of Vi

]

Figure

id Anagrus epos

its parasitol

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. CoLuMBIA 85 (1988), Auc. 31, 1988 49

The mean number of WGLH nymphs per 60 leaves in each treatment in 1985 is given in

Table 2. Four days post-treatment, nymphal density was significantly lower in all pesticide

treated plots compared with unsprayed plots. Twenty-four days post-treatment, only vines

sprayed with fenpropathrin and the highest concentration of cloethocarb (560.7 g [AI]/ha) had

nymphal densities significantly lower than the unsprayed vines.

In 1986, three rates of fenpropathrin were compared with dimethoate and an untreated

check. Leafhopper nymphs were counted weekly from early July until harvest in September

(Table 3). The number of leafhopper nymphs were about equal in all plots on July 8 before the

first application was made. Fenpropathrin at 56, 112, and 224 g (AlD)/ha provided excellent

control of western grape leafhopper. A few nymphs appeared in the plots treated with 56 g

(AlI)/ha after one month. Plots treated with dimethoate at 1681 g (AI)/ha had reduced numbers

of nymphs two days after treatment but they were not significantly different from the untreated

check. Nymphs appeared in dimethoate treated plots after one month. A second application

was made to treatment plots on August 22 in anticipation of a fall increase and based on

increasing numbers in the untreated plots. The fall population increase did not develop.

Survey for predators and parasitoids. Many arthropod predators were found on V.

vinifera in southcentral Washington (Table 4). An unidentified salticid spider was the only

species observed to prey on Erythroneura nymphs. Many of the predators found, however,

prey on Erythroneura spp. elsewhere (Knowlton, 1946; McKenzie and Beirne, 1972; Jensen

and Flaherty, 1981) and probably do so in Washington. Hemerobiid adults were found on V.

vinifera at the end of the growing season, but were not collected in this survey. The mite fauna

on V. vinifera were not considered, but Anystis agilis (Banks), known to prey on WGLH

(Jensen and Flaherty 1981), is found on several Washington crops (W. W. Cone, unpublished

data). It appears that predation on either WGLH or VCLH is isolated and sporadic with no

consistent predator-prey relationships.

Anagrus parasitism. The greatest source of egg mortality for WGLH or VCLH seemed to

be parasitization by Anagrus epos. No adult or nymphal parasitoids of Erythroneura spp. were

found in this study. The incidence of A. epos parasitism (12 Sept 1984) on uncaged vines at an

IAREC vineyard was 83.2% (322 of 387 eggs) and 74% (276 of 373 eggs) at a vineyard 3.2 km

north of Grandview, WA. Parasitism of eggs laid in clusters by VCLH or those laid singly by

either VCLH or WGLH appeared equal.

Although some vineyards in the study area developed high numbers of A. epos late in the

season, early season A. epos activity is important in regulating WGLH populations (Doutt and

Nakata, 1973) and should be investigated more closely in the Pacific Northwest. Since the

wasp requires a continuous supply of host eggs, it cannot overwinter in Washington vineyards.

Doutt and Nakata (1973) found that vineyards within 3.2 km of natural Rubus spp. stands, with

their year-round supply of Dikrella cruentata eggs, typically did not need chemical control

measures. In Washington, vineyards established in desert locations, far from A. epos, displayed

the worst WGLH problems. Growers close to A. epos overwintering sites needed only to

recognize that fact and avoid the calendar-dictated spray schedule. In British Columbia,

VCLH in vineyards near overwintering refuges such as wild Rosa sp. or apple, experienced A.

epos parasitism one month earlier than vineyards surrounded by desert (McKenzie and Beirne,

1972).

Early efforts to bring wasps to isolated vineyards by planting Rubus spp. failed when the

interior of the blackberry stands became too dry to support Dikrella sp. (Jensen and Flaherty,

1981). This problem may be resolved as horticultural practices are refined (Williams, 1984).

Kido et al. (1984) found that orchards of French prune, Prunus domestica L., orchards with the

non-pestiferous FE. prunicola can supply sufficient A. epos to control WGLH in adjacent

vineyards.

The concept of establishing winter refuges for A. epos may be very useful for biological

control of Erythroneura spp., particularly where vineyards are isolated from other irrigated

areas. Varieties of Prunus domestica might be investigated for production of Erythroneura

spp. and A. epos and then planted near isolated V. vinifera vineyards where they would serve as

an early season source of A. epos. Surveys of several Italian prune orchards in the vicinity of

IAREC indicated high populations of E. prunicola.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

01/6

°(10°0 & d ‘LUNG) WerezZEp ATJUPOTJTUSTS Jou <Ie 19}9}eT sUeS ay Aq pamMoTTOsS sues BEN ECOR

*SoutT} anojy poyeottderz sjotd *‘7z 3ny pue ct Arne pore,

q1°? 96° U9°€1 GViI1°8 q 1° C670. 42 2G qd €°€ eB gl -- pe zeerjuy

eB 0 eB 0 B€°O 8 7°0 eB 0 eB 0 ® T°0 q €°l eB €°9 1891 22eoyIoUTG

eB 0 eB 0 eB 0 eB 0 eB 0 2 0 eB 0 eB 0 Bag 972

Bz 0 Be 0 eB 0 eB 0 eB 0 eB 0 eB 0 an) Bog ZIT

eB 0 Be 0 eBc'0 6 T°0 2 0 eB 0 Be 0 eB 0 B gl 9¢ utayjedoiduag

7/6 LZ/8 02/8 ST/8 L/8 o€/Z 9Z/L rae 8/Z (eu/[Iv] 3) quoujzeel],

Fanos OR LLU nas o7eyY

9861 “VM “JOSSOld ‘OFUVI-NSM e'SOplonoesul YM poyeos sodeis ourlq

uIUdYD Jo sjo[d ul soaea] QI Jod sydwAu saddoujes] odeis usajsom Jo Joquinu ues ‘¢ 21qeL

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AucG. 31, 1988 51

Table 4. Arthropod predators collected on V. vinifera in southcentral Washington, 1984

ARACHNIDA HEMIPTERA

Thomisidae Anthocoridae

Xysticus sp. Orius tristicolor (White)

Salticidae® Reduviidae

Oxyopidae Sinea diadema (F.)

Oxyopes sp.” Lygaeidae

Tetragnathidae~ Geocoris pallens Stal

Any phaenidae® Nabidae

Araneidae

Nabis alternatus Parshley

Argiope trifaseiuta (Forskal)

COLEOPTERA

Coccinellidae

Hippodamia convergens Guérin-Méneville

Coccinella transversoguttata Falderman

Stethorus punctum picipes Casey

Hyperaspis dissoluta nevadica Casey

NEUROPTERA

Chrysopidae

Chrysopa nigricornis Burmeister

eee

Specimens were immature and could not be identified further.

52 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Scientific Paper No. 7821. Project No. 1765. College of Agriculture and Home Economics,

Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164. This research was supported in part by a

grant from the Washington Wine Advisory Council and is part of a dissertation submitted by J.

D. Wells in partial fulfillment of an M.S. requirement by the Dept. of Entomology and the

Graduate School of Washington State University. We thank J. Coddington, M. E. Schauff, and

R. E. Gordon of the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, R. S. Zack, WSU, and L. W. Hepner,

Mississippi State Univ. for identification of arthropods collected in this study. We also thank

Drs. K. S. Pike, D. F. Mayer and G. L. Piper for critical review of this manuscript.

REFERENCES

Beirne, B. P. 1956. Leafhoppers (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) of Canada and Alaska. Can. Entomol. Suppl. 2. 180 p.

Cate, J. R. 1975. Ecology of Erythroneura elegantula Osborn in grape ecosystems in California. Unpubl. Ph.D.

Thesis, Univ. Calif. Berkeley. 349 p.

Capizzi, J., G. Fisher, H. Homan, C. Baird, A. Antonelli, and D. Mayer. 1987. Pacific Northwest Insect Control

Handbook. Cooperative Extension of Oregon, Idaho, and Washington. 316 p.

Doutt, R. L. and R. F. Smith. 1971. The pesticide syndrome-diagnosis and suggested prophylaxis, pp. 3-15. In C.

B. Huffaker (ed.), Biological Control. Plenum, New York. 511 p.

Doutt, R. L. and J. Nakata. 1973. The Rubus leafhopper and its egg parasitoid: an endemic biotic system useful in

grape-pest management. Environ. Entomol. 2: 381-386.

Duncan, D. B. 1955. Multiple range and multiple F tests. Biometrics 11:1-42.

Flaherty, D. L. and C. B. Huffaker. 1970. Biological control of Pacific mites and Willamette mites in San Joaquin

vineyards. I. Role of Metaseiulus occidentalis. Hilgardia 40: 267-308.

Girault, A. A. 1911. Description of North American Mymaridae with synonymic and other notes on described

genera and species. Am. Entomol. Soc. Trans. 37: 253-324.

Grimes, E. W. and W. W. Cone. 1985. Control of the grape mealybug, Pseudococcus maritimus (Ehrhorn),

(Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) on Concord grape in Washington. J. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia 82:3-6.

Jensen, F. L., D. L. Flaherty, and L. Chiarappa. 1969. Population densities and economic injury levels of grape

leafhopper. Calif. Agric. 23(4): 9-10.

Jensen, F. L. and D. L. Flaherty. 1981. Grape leafhopper, pp. 98-110. /n D. L. Flaherty, F. L. Jensen, A. N.

Kasimatis, H. Kido, and W. J. Moller (eds.). Grape Pest Management. Div. Agric. Sci. Univ. Calif. Pub.

4105. 312 p.

Kido, H., D. L. Hiahedy: D. F. Bosch and K. A. Valero. 1984. French prune trees as overwintering sites for the

grape leafhopper egg parasite. Am. J. Enol. Vit. 35: 156-160.

Knowlton, G. F. 1946. Deraeocoris brevis feeding observations. Bull. Brooklyn Entomol. Soc. 41: 100-101.

McKenzie, L. M. and B. P. Beirne. 1972. A grape leafhopper, Erythroneura ziczac (Homoptera: Cicadellidae), and

its mymarid (Hymenoptera) egg-parasite in the Okanagan Valley, British Columbia. Can. Entomol. 104:

1229-1233.

Mulla, M. S. 1956. Two mymarid parasites attacking Typhlocyba species in California. J. Econ. Entomol. 49:

438-441.

Oman, P. W. 1949. The nearctic leafhoppers (Homoptera: Cicadellidae), a generic classification and checklist.

Entomol. Soc. Wash. Mem. 3. 253 p.

Williams, D. W. 1984. Ecology of a blackberry-leafhopper-parasite system and its relevance to California grape

agroecosystems. Hilgardia 52: 1-33.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 53

WESTERN CHERRY FRUIT FLY

(DIPTERA: TEPHRITIDAE):

EFFICACY OF HOMEMADE AND COMMERCIAL TRAPS

A.K. BurpitT, JR.

YAKIMA AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH LABORATORY,

AGRICULTURE RESEARCH SERVICE

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

YAKIMA, WASHINGTON 98902

Abstract

Populations of western cherry fruit flies (WCFF), Rhagoletis indifferens Curran, were

monitored at weekly intervals during the flight periods from 1982 through 1985 in an

unsprayed experimental orchard planting near Moxee, Washington. Yellow Pherocon

AM (apple maggot) traps usually caught more WCFF than McPhail, Rebell and other

traps tested. Most of the traps also caught large numbers of other species of flies, which

obscured the presence of WCFF. A bell-shaped trap constructed from the top of a plastic

soft drink bottle, painted saturn yellow and baited with the Pherocon AM bait caught the

largest numbers of WCFF but very few other species of flies.

Key words: Rhagoletis indifferens, attractants, baits, flies, McPhail traps, Diptera.

INTRODUCTION

Traps have been used to monitor fruit fly populations for many years. Frick (1952)

reported that an inverted waxed food carton containing ammonium carbonate as a bait and

coated on the inside surface with a sticky material was effective in catching cherry fruit flies in

Washington. Banham (1973) compared the effectiveness of yellow sticky boards, bait pans

containing glycine-lye and cartons containing ammonium carbonate and found that double

faced sticky boards with Staley bait mixed in the Stikem were more attractive to western

cherry fruit fly (WCFF), Rhagoletis indifferens Curran, than other combinations tested.

AliNiazee (1978, 1981) showed that in the Pacific Northwest various kinds of traps could be

used to time management programs for the WCFF. Monitoring fly populations has resulted in

control with fewer sprays. Yellow sticky board traps, such as the Pherocon® AM (apple

maggot) trap (Zoecon Corp., Palo Alto, CA), have been used to monitor WCFF populations in

cherry orchards and to determine when to apply sprays based on first fly catch and seasonal

distribution of fly catch (AliNaizee 1978).

The yellow sticky board trap is not specific for fruit flies. It attracts numerous other

species of flies that clutter the trap and may obscure any fruit flies present (Howitt & Connor

1965, Moore 1969). This can be a serious problem for detection of the first fruit flies present in

an orchard. Prokopy (1975) found that a cone-shaped yellow sticky trap attracted as many of

the eastern cherry fruit fly, Rhagoletis cingulata (Loew), and did not attract as many other

large insects as did the yellow rectangular traps.

This paper reports results of research to evaluate the effectiveness of commercial and

experimental trap designs for attracting WCFF but not other non-economic species of Diptera.

METHODS

WCFF populations in an isolated stone fruit orchard at the Plant Quarantine Station,

Moxee, WA, were monitored from 1982 through 1985, using Pherocon AM traps as well as

experimental traps of various designs. Ammonium carbonate was applied as a bait and

Tanglefoot spray as a sticky material to some of the traps and AM bait and sticky material

supplied by Zoecon Corp. to other traps. Usually the experimental traps were painted saturn

yellow (Day Glo Color Corp., Cleveland, Ohio).

The orchard consisted of a mixed planting, including 24 seedling cherry trees and 38

bearing cherry trees of different cultivars, as well as numerous plum, peach and apricot trees.

The eastern edge of the orchard was bordered by pear and apple trees; the other borders were

open sagebrush rangeland. Traps were randomized in blocks and usually placed approximately

2 m high on the south side of the cherry trees. At weekly intervals the traps were moved to the

next cherry tree in the row or succession. Traps were rebaited and Tanglefoot added weekly or

as needed. The number of WCFF per trap was determined weekly.

54 J. ENTomo_ Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

Trap catches were transformed to log (x+1) for analysis of variance and significant

differences (P < 0.05) among treatment means were determined using Duncan’s (1955) new

multiple range test.

In 1982 traps of 23 experimental or commercial designs were tested, mostly one trap per

tree, replicated at least two times. These included Pherocon AM, Rebell® (Swiss Federal

Research Station, Wadenswil, Switzerland) and McPhail (Steyskal 1977) traps for comparison

of efficacy. Twelve of the homemade traps were sprayed with Tanglefoot and sprinkled with

ammonium carbonate as bait. Six of the homemade traps were funnels (7 to 15 cm diameter)

fitted with plastic vials containing ammonium carbonate on the funnel stem. These 18 traps

were painted saturn yeilow. Two of the Tanglefoot sprayed traps were painted arc yellow (Day

Glo Color Corp.). At least two traps of each type were placed in the orchard. Most of the traps

were in the orchard from May 26 until Oct. 6, 1982.

In 1983 four experiments were conducted in which two different traps were placed in

each tree. At weekly intervals, traps on the west side of each tree were moved to the adjacent

tree on the south, and those on the east side were moved to the tree on the north. A total of 116

traps of various designs were placed in 58 trees from May 12 until Oct. 6, 1983. Most of the

homemade traps were similar to those tested in 1982. However, in some experiments bait and/

or sticker supplied by Zoecon Corp. was substituted for ammonium carbonate and/or

Tanglefoot. Also, two of the experiments were replicated four times and two were replicated

twice.

In 1984 eight of the more promising trap designs, based on observations made in previous

years, were selected for further tests. One trap was placed in each tree, replicated five times in

a split plot design. Each week the traps were removed and returned to the laboratory where the

number of WCFF were counted. A duplicate set of traps was used to replace the traps as they

were removed. The replacements were placed in the next succeeding tree, moving south in a

row and from west to east in adjacent rows.

In 1985 only the Pherocon AM and the trap made from the bell-shaped section of a soft

drink bottle (bell trap) were tested (Fig. 1). The latter traps were baited with Zoecon AM bait

and sticker. Eight Pherocon and 16 bell traps were tested individually in 24 trees. Traps were

moved to the next succeeding tree at weekly intervals.

RESULTS

During the period from 1982 to 1985 over 30,000 WCFF were removed from the orchard

as shown in Table 1. In each year, more than 50% of the WCFF were trapped during a two-

week period: the first two weeks of July in 1982, the last week of June and the first week of

July in 1983 and 1984, and the last two weeks of June in 1985 (Table 1).

Each year the number of WCFF trapped declined rapidly in July and August. However, a

few flies continued to be caught each week up to the end of September. The WCFF usually has

a single generation each year, overwintering as pupae. Other research on WCFF from the

Yakima area (Burditt unpublished data) has demonstrated that each year a few pupae do not

enter diapause, resulting in emergence of second generation adults in August and September.

Response of WCFF to six types of traps in 1982 and 1983 (Table 2) showed that the

Pherocon AM trap caught the most flies each year. However, the differences between

responses generally were not statistically significant. In 1982 the Rebell trap and in 1983 the

McPhail and bell traps caught significantly fewer WCFF than did the Pherocon AM trap. All

but the Pherocon AM trap were baited with ammonium carbonate. In 1983 paired Pherocon

and homemade traps baited with ammonium carbonate caught significantly fewer WCFF

(40.3 flies per trap per season) than similar traps baited with the Zeocon AM bait (219.3). Most

of the homemade traps caught very few WCFF and were discarded from future tests.

In 1984 the bell and Rebell traps were baited with Zoecon AM bait. These traps caught

significantly more WCFF than the Pherocon AM trap and a funnel trap which was baited using

ammonium carbonate (Table 2). When Pherocon traps were baited with ammonium carbonate

and treated with Tanglefoot they caught significantly fewer WCFF (35.0 flies per trap per

season) than did Pherocon AM traps (207.4) or Pherocon traps baited with ammonium

carbonate and treated with Zoecon sticky material (265.6).

In 1985 the 24 traps caught a total of 4117 WCFF. The Pherocon AM traps caught

significantly fewer WCFF (114.1 flies per trap per season) than the 2 sets of bell traps (192.8

and 207.8 flies respecctively) which were baited with the Zoecon AM bait and the Zoecon

sticky material (Table 2).

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AucG. 31, 1988 55

Burditt: Western cherry Fruit Fly Traps

Fig 1. Trap for western cherry fruit flies (WCFF), made from bell-shaped upper part of a soft

drink bottle.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. CoLumBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

Table 1. Numbers of western cherry fruit flies trapped per week in an orchard at

Moxee, WA.

Number of flies trapped

Week 1982 1983 1984 1985

1 (June) 94 17 104

2 5 399 794 545

5 30 979 2206 1071

4 530 3247 3889 1312

5 (July) 1371 2981 3286 615

6 1581 1580 1549 443 _

7 859 451 992 53

8 454 44 391 24

9 (August) 193 l 104 4

10 54 8 24 0

11 17 2 6 0

12 9 9 15 0

13 8 22 4 0

14 (September) 12 41 8 0

15 7 23 3

16 2 12 11

17 l 10 2

18 (October) 4 cians

Total 5133 9907 11301 4117

Table 2. Response of western cherry fruit fly to six trap designs in 1982 - 1985, at

Moxee, WA.

Flies per trap per season

Traps 1982 1983 1984 1985

Pherocon AM 553.3 a 103.3 a 207.4 b 114.1 b

Funnel 311.5 ab 98.0 a 40.4 b NT

McPhail 202.0 ab 15.0 b NT * NT

Board 109.5 ab 70.8 ab NT NT

Bell 116.5 ab 2.5-D 478.8 a ** 200.3 a **

Rebell 28.0 b 57.0 ab 483.2 a ** NT

Means followed by the same letter within a column are not significantly different

(P < 0.05; Duncan’s [1955] multiple range test).

* NT = not tested.

** Traps baited with Zoecon AM bait and sticky material

J. ENTomMoL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 57

Observations showed that the Pherocon AM, McPhail and plastic board traps caught

large numbers of other, non-economic, species of Diptera. These interfered with finding and

counting WCFF that were present on the traps. In 1984 the bell trap caught only 24 large

specimens of other Diptera in contrast to over 20 times as many specimens on the other traps.

In 1985 the number of other Diptera caught was determined twice, each for a week. The

Pherocon AM traps caught a mean of 49.3 specimens of other Diptera per week compared to

2.7 and 1.8 other Diptera per week for the two sets of bell traps, respectively.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The use of sticky board traps, such as the Pherocon AM type trap, has been recognized for

many years as a technique for monitoring fruit fly populations and for guidance in application

of sprays for control of these pests. Monitoring requires that traps catch fruit flies when they

initially emerge from the puparia and that low populations of fruit flies be detected. Large

numbers of other species of non-economic Diptera may obscure the presence of the species

being sought. Therefore, an ideal trap would be specific for WCFF. In this study a bell trap

baited with Zeocon AM bait and sticker met these requirements. It caught WCFF early in the

season, usually caught as many as or more WCFF than the other types of traps and caught

significantly fewer non-target species of Diptera than other trap designs tested. Further tests

are needed to determine if the bell trap would be effective in attracting other species of fruit

flies such as the black cherry fruit fly, R. fausta (Osten Sacken).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I thank Richard Short and Pat Wilson for their assistance in operating the traps and

Zoecon Corporation for supplying some of the traps and bait used in the experiment.

REFERENCES CITED

AliNaizee, M.T. 1978. The Western Cherry Fruit Fly, Rhagoletis indifferens (Diptera: Tephritidae) 3. Developing a

management program by utilizing attractant traps as monitoring devices. Canad. Entomol. 110: 1113-1139.

AliNaizee, M.T. 1981. Improved control of the Western Cherry Fruit Fly, Rhagoletis indifferens (Dipt.:

Tephritidae), based on area-wide monitoring. J. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia 78: 27-33.

Banham, F.L. 1973. An evaluation of traps for the western cherry fruit fly (Diptera: Tephritidae). J. Entomol. Soc.

Brit. Columbia 70: 13-16.

Duncan, D.B. 1955. Multiple range and multiple F tests. Biometrics 11: 1-42.

Frick, K.E. 1952. Determining emergence of the cherry fruit fly with ammonium carbonate bait traps. J. Econ.

Entomol. 45: 262-263.

Howitt, A.J., and L.J. Connor. 1965. The response of Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh) adults and other insects to trap

boards baited with protein hydrolysate baits. Proc. Entomol. Soc. Ont. 95: 134-136.

Moore, R.C. 1969. Attractiveness of baited and unbaited lures to apple maggot and beneficial flies. J. Econ.

Entomol. 62: 1076-1078.

Prokopy, R.J. 1975. Selective new trap for Rhagoletis cingulata and R. pomonella flies. Environ. Entomol. 4:

420-424.

Steyskal, G.C. 1977. History and use of the McPhail trap. Fl. Entomol. 60: 11-16.

58 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

COMPARATIVE FLIGHT DYNAMICS OF KNAPWEED GALL FLIES

UROPHORA QUADRIFASCIATA AND U. AFFINIS(DIPTERA:TEPHRITIDAE)

BERNARD D. ROITBERG

CENTRE FOR PEST MANAGEMENT

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY

BURNABY, BC CANADA VS5A 1S6

Abstract

By using laboratory flight mills, I tested the hypothesis that the differential distributions

of knapweed gall flies, Urophora quadrifasciata and U. affinis, among knapweed sites

can be predicted by the flight propensity and endurance of the flies. Results from tests

did not support the prediction that the former species displays the greater propensity for

flight and endurance. I discuss several reasons supporting the values obtained and their

validity for use in interspecific comparisons. Finally, I point to the danger of extrapolat-

ing laboratory behaviour to the field.

INTRODUCTION

The distribution of insects in space is likely to be some function of the distribution of their

resources (Karieva 1985) as well as their propensity (Jones 1977; Roitberg et al. 1984) and

ability (Ralph 1977; Roitberg et al. 1979) to move among resources and resource sites.

An apt example of differential distribution among similar resource sites is represented by

two species of palaearctic tephritid flies in British Columbia. The larvae of Urophora

quadrifasciata (Meigen) and U. affinis Frauenfeld induce galls and feed within the seed heads

of diffuse knapweed (Centaurea diffusa Lam.). Adults of both species were released into

knapweed-infested sites in the interior of BC during the early 1970’s to control the spread of

this highly pestiferous host (Harris and Myers 1984). Following release, however, each species

has displayed different spatial distributions, within and between sites. Urophora affinis

typically achieves moderately high population levels and low rates of spread between sites. By

contrast, U. quadrifasciata is generally found at low population densities, but spreads rapidly

and can be found at remote resource sites (Harris and Myers 1984; Story and Nowierski 1984).

Within-site differences in the spread of these flies has been explained in terms of differential

use of seed heads (Berube 1980). Here, I propose an hypothesis to explain the different inter-

site spread rates of the two species:

H, : Urophora quadrifasciata displays greater flight propensity and endurance than U.

affinis.

If it was supported, this hypothesis could explain differential fly distribution purely on the

basis of emigration tendency. Such differences have been demonstrated among closely related

species of milkweed bug and in different geographic populations within the same species

(Dingle 1978). In this paper, I describe a test of the differential flight hypothesis that uses

laboratory flight mills.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

All experiments were conducted in the laboratory with wild-type, lab-maintained flies.

To obtain the flies, knapweed seed heads were collected during November 1985 from

roadsides near Penticton, BC. The seed heads, some of which were infested with overwinter-

ing Urophora larvae, were then held at 2°C for several months. Following this, the seed heads

were held at ca. 20°C for several weeks until the flies emerged. Emergent flies were placed in

15 X 15 X 15 cm plexiglas-screen cages and were provided with water and food (sugar +

enzymatic yeast hydrolysate (Prokopy and Boller 1971)) ad lib, and knapweed stems which

served as resting and mating sites for the flies.

Upon reaching 11 + 1 days-of-age, mature female flies were removed from the mainte-

nance cages and then placed in petri dishes with water and abundant food for 2 h prior to

testing. Then the flies were individually placed in glass vials and held at -5°C for ca. 30 s or

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 59

until they became immobile. The chilled flies were then attached at the dorsal thorax, to flight

mills as described in Roitberg et al. (1984). Tarsal contact was provided by a glass microscope

slide. To induce flight, tarsal contact was removed within a few seconds after it appeared that

the flies had recovered from chilling. If no flight occurred, tarsal contact was reinstated and

then again removed. If the fly still did not initiate flight, that trial was terminated. Similar

procedures were employed to induce further flight from flies that initiated but terminated

flights.

I chose 11-day-old females for testing because, at that age, flies had mated and had been

reproductively mature for several days. Since flies had been deprived of oviposition sites I

reasoned that they would be more likely to display flight response (e.g. Roitberg et al. 1984)

thus providing a larger data base for comparing fliers of both species. This was an appropriate

decision since my comparison of flight parameters were not absolute measures of field

performance.

Flight propensity was indexed as the distance flown by individuals (number of 1 m

revolutions) during the initial flight only. Flight endurance, by contrast, was indexed as the

total distance flown until individuals refused to fly further following two tarsal-contact

removals.

Following completion of each flight trial, the fly was frozen and then placed in a

desiccator. Desiccated flies were weighed and their wing areas were measured through

employment of an Apple™ Computer Graphics Tablet.

RESULTS

Frequency distributions of initial flight distances are shown in Fig. 1. Contrary to

predictions, U. quadrifasciata did not fly significantly further during initial flights than did U.

affinis (k = 84.3 m+ 45.3 SE, n= 28 vs. x = 161.8 m+59.1 SE, n=51; p>0.5 Mann Whitney

U). Most initial flights covered less than 100 m for both species (U. quadrifasciata, 25/30; U.

affinis, 38/51).

As with initial flight, and again contrary to the prediction, U. quadrifasciata covered less

distance during total flight than did U. affinis (x = 140.1 m + 62.1 SE vs. x = 381.5 m + 108.0

SE; p > 0.05 Mann Whitney U). While the majority of total-distance flights again covered less

than 100 m, (U. quadrifasciata, 24/30; U. affinis, 31/51) the distribution had an extended tail

for U. affinis, with a small proportion of flies covering more than 500 m (U. quadrifascita,

2/30; U. affinis 10/ 50) (Fig. 2).

No significant correlations were found between the size characteristics of the flies and

their initial or total flight distances. Two parameters, dry weight and wing loading (= weight/

wing area) vs. initial and total distance had little explanatory power as shown by the values

below, all of which are NS:

U. quadrifasciata U. affinis

Dry weight _ vs. intial distance r = 0.06 r = 0.06

vs. total distance r= 0.11 r= 0.16

Wing loading vs. initial distance r = 0.17 r = 0.02

vs. total distance r= 0.14 r = 0.08

DISCUSSION

Tethered flight can be a reliable, qualitative means of comparing inherent vagility within

and among populations and species of insects (Davis 1981; Nakamori and Simizu 1983;

Roitberg et al. 1984; Dingle and Evans 1987). For both species of fly studied here, the

distributions of flight distance were leptokurtic (1.e. skewed toward short distance ), acommon

feature of many insect species (Davis 1980). Thus, the results reported here probably reflect

relative within-field differences in vagility for these two Urophora species.

The conclusion is that species-specific vagility in Urophora quadrifasciata and U. affinis

does not explain their differential distributions among knapweed sites. Indeed, U. affinis, the

species which I predicted would display lower flight propensity and endurance, actually

appeared to be more vagile than its congener. There are reasons for being cautious about

60 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

generalizing from these results, in that each individual was tested only once (Davis 1980) anda

single age class was tested, but given the restricted set of conditions employed, the experimen-

tal design seems appropriate and the conclusions warranted.

A possible explanation of my results is that the flight mill itself caused some bias in the

flight propensity and endurance estimates. Since U. quadrifasicata is the somewhat smaller

species (Fig. 3), any friction within the mill system should have a greater impact on its flight. I

100

l; U. AFFINIS

y MM U. QUADRIFASCIATA

_t 60 Uy;

= y

me ly

5 |F

NR 404 %

20 y

eee.

INITIAL DISTANCE FLOWN (M)

Fig. 1 Frequency distributions of initial flight distances by tethered U. quadrifasciata and U. affinis females.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 61

tested this hypothesis by comparing the proportion of flights greater than 100 m (= long flight)

among the different size classes of flies in both species. The results showed that long flights

were independent of fly size in both species (U. quadrifasciata ¥? = 2.29, df = 3, NS; U. affinis

x7 = 6.6, df = 8, NS). Since even the smallest individual within the smaller species appeared

equally likely to engage in long flight, I concluded that the mill estimates are not biased against

size.

100

(Zi) U. AFFINIS

= 160 Mm U. QUADRIFASCIATA

/-—

—

N40

EQN

“SO SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS SSSR

TOTAL DISTANCE FLOWN (M)

Fig. 2 Frequency distributions of total flight distances by tethered U. quadrifasciata and U. affinis females.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

U, AFFINIS

Mm U. QUADRIFASCIATA

WLOL 40 %

NSS SASS SSA SSS SSS

SSS SASS

NINA EE, y

OL;— loy

201~).

O06. lo

O93, y,

Os 19

Ofoyme Ie

Oo, lp

Op le

SSAA SSS

SSS SSS

RMAQAAAN

NAN

We >

SIZE RANGE (mgX107*)

(dry weight (mg x 10-2) of female U. quadrifasciata and U.

Fig. 3 Frequency distributions for weight classes

affinis.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 63

The demonstration of size class independence from long flight tendency is at odds with

the finding of Roff (1977), who showed that, for Drosophila melanogaster, it was the larger

individuals that were most prone to disperse from release sites. Similarly, Dingle et al. (1980)

documented a positive relationship between body size and tethered flight distance both

between species of milkweed bugs (Oncopeltus spp.) and within populations of Oncopeltus

fasciatus. My results do indicate that, it is indeed the larger of the two Urophora species that

may be more prone to engage in long tethered flight. Field samples, however, indicate the

opposite trend (Myers and Harris 1984), which points to the danger of extrapolating lab

behaviour to the field.

A more realistic explanation regarding the counterintuitive results reported here derives

from Myers and Harris’ (1980) observation of the distributions of U. quadrifasciata and U.

affinis galls among plants. They reported that, although U. quadrifasciata displayed “‘better

dispersion”’ among sites, that their within-plant distributions were more clumped than those of

U. affinis. Thus, testing vagility on flight mills possibly ignores some crucial behavioral

feature which causes U. quadrifasciata to switch from a within plant “‘clumper” to an active

disperser.

Myers and Harris (1980) cite Gilbert’s (1977) observation that analysis of insect

distributions does not identify causal mechanisms, but might identify insect behaviors

deserving further study. A corollary that arises from this study is that investigation of flight

behaviour (i.e. movement) does not necessarily lead to indentification of insect distribution.

Inherent tendencies must be considered against the ecological setting in which they are

defined.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was supported by an NSERC, Canada operating grant and a Simon Fraser

University President’s Research Grant. I thank Richard Hamelin, Phil Lee, Chris Steeger and

Julie Brooks for providing excellent assistance, Peter Belton for technical advice and Bob

Lalonde and Yves Carriere for comments on an earlier version of the MS.

REFERENCES

Berube, D.E. 1980. Interspecific competition between Urophora affinis and U. quadrifasciata (Diptera: Tep-

hritidae) for oviposition sites on diffuse knapweed (Centaurea diffusa: Compositae). Zeit. fur ang. Entomol.

90: 299-306.

Davis, M.A. 1980. Why are most insects short fliers? Evol. Theory 5: 103-111.

Davis, M.A. 1981. The flight capacity of dispersing milkweed beetles, Tetraopes tetraopthalmus. Ann. Entomol.

Soc. Amer. 74: 385-386.

Dingle, H., N. Blakley, and E.R. Miller. 1980. Variation in body size and flight performance in milkweed bugs

(Oncopeltus). Evol. 34: 371-385.

Dingle, H. and Evans, K.E. 1987. Responses in flight to selection on wing length in non-migratory milkweed bugs,

Oncopeltus fasciatus. Ent. exp. app. 45: 289-296.

Gilbert, N. 1977. Appendix to: Movement patterns and egg distributions in cabbage butterflies. J. Anim. Ecol. 46:

195-212.

Harris, P. and J.H. Myers. 1984. Centaurea diffusa Lam. and C. maculosa Lam. s. lat., diffuse and spotted

knapweed. /n J.S. Kelleher and M.A. Holmes, Biological Control Programmes Against Insects and Weeds in

Canada. C.A.B., England.

Jones, R.E. 1977. Movement patterns and egg distribution in cabbage butterflies. J. Anim. Ecol. 46: 195-212.

Karieva, P. 1985. Finding and losing host plants by Phyllotreta : patch size and surrounding habitat. Ecol. 66:

1809-1816.

Myers, J.H. and P. Harris. 1980. Distribution of Urophora galls in flower heads of diffuse and spotted knapweed in

British Columbia. J. Appl. Ecol. 17: 359-67.

Nakamori, H. and Simizu, K. 1983. Comparison of the flight ability between wild and mass-reared melon fly,

Dacus cucurbitae Coquillett (Diptera: Tephritidae). Appl. Ent. Zool. 18: 371-81.

Prokopy, R.J. and E.F. Boller. 1971. Artificial egging system for the European cherry fruit fly. J. Econ. Entomol.

63: 1413-1417.

Ralph, C.P. 1977. Effect of host plant density on populations of a specialized seed-feeding bug, Oncopeltus

fasciatus. Ecol. 58: 799-809.

Roff, D.A. 1977. Dispersal in dipterans: its costs and consequences. J. Anim. Ecol. 46: 443-456.

64 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. CoLumsiA 85 (1988), Auc. 31, 1988

Roitberg, B.D., J.H. Myers and B.D. Frazer. 1979. The influence of predators on the movement of apterous pea

aphids between plants. J. Anim. Ecol. 49: 111-122.

Roitberg, B.D., R.S. Cairl and R.J. Prokopy. 1984. Oviposition deterring pheromone influences dispersal distance

in tephritid fruit flies. Ent. exp. appl. 35: 217-220.

Story, J.M. and R.M. Nowierski. 1984. Increase and dispersal of Urophora affinis (Diptera: Tephritidae) on

spotted knapweed in Western Montana. Enivron. Entomol. 13: 1151-1156.

COMPARATIVE LARVAL GROWTH OF THE VARIEGATED CUTWORM,

PERIDROMA SAUCIA, FROM A LABORATORY COLONY AND A WILD

POPULATION

GREG S. SALLOUM! AND Murray B. ISMAN

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT SCIENCE

UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

VANCOUVER, B.C., CANADA V6T 2A2

Abstract

Larval growth of variegated cutworms from a laboratory colony (maintained for over 12

generations) was compared with that of the F, generation of field-collected larvae on an

artificial medium. After eleven days of feeding, larvae from the wild population

weighed, on average, over three times as much as those from the laboratory colony.

However, when larvae from each population were reared on media spiked with an

inhibitory plant extract, the degree of growth inhibition relative to their respective

controls was equivalent.

INTRODUCTION

Insects from laboratory colonies are commonly used in both basic and applied research,

especially in studies of pesticidal efficacy where large numbers of uniformly aged individuals

are required for bioassay. One implicit assumption underlying such studies is that the response

of insects from the laboratory colony is representative of that expected of insects from wild

populations. Unfortunately, maintenance of a laboratory colony of insects often results in

inadvertant selection of genotypes and phenotypes which diverge from the colony founders of

natural origin. Often this fact is overlooked, and the insects chosen for the study are those

which can be conveniently produced in the laboratory setting (Berenbaum 1986).

In our laboratory, we have been using a laboratory colony of the variegated cutworm,

Peridroma saucia (Hbn.)(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), for bioassay of natural insecticides and

antifeedants (Isman and Proksch 1985). This species was selected because it is a polyphagous

pest of occasional economic importance throughout North America (Simonet et al. 1981), and

because it is relatively easy to maintain in the laboratory in continuous culture. In the present

study, we compared larval growth and survival of cutworms from a two-year-old laboratory

colony with those of the F, generation of field-collected larvae.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The laboratory colony, maintained for over 12 generations, was founded from pupae

supplied by Dr. G. Ayer, Agriculture Canada, Winnipeg. They were taken from a laboratory

colony maintained at Winnipeg for at least one year. The field population in our study

consisted of the offspring of larvae collected from cabbage plants growing at the Department

of Plant Science field laboratory on the University of British Columbia campus in Vancouver,

as well as from unsprayed gardens in the Kitsilano district.

Larvae were reared on an artificial medium (BioServ Inc., Frenchtown, NJ, no. 9682) as

described previously (Isman and Rodriguez 1983). In the first experiment, neonate larvae from

each population were reared on the standard diet for 11 days and then weighed. In the second

experiment, neonate larvae from each population were reared on either the standard diet

treated with 95% aqueous ethanol, or a diet spiked with an ethanolic extract from foliage of big

basin sagebrush, Artemsia tridentata, at 50% of natural concentration (dwt/dwt). For each

‘Present address: Safer Ltd., 6761 Kirkpatrick Crescent, R.R. 3, Victoria, B.C. V8X 3X1

J. ENTOMOL Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 65

treatment group, 30 neonate larvae were reared individually in 30 mL plastic cups with a diet

cube of approx. 1 g fwt. The cups were placed in a plastic box lined with moistened paper

towels to maintain high relative humidity, and the box was placed inside a growth chamber at

27° and 16:8 LD. Larvae were again weighed following 11 days of feeding.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results of the first experiment are shown in Table 1. Cutworms from the wild

population were almost three times heavier after 11 days than were larvae from the laboratory

colony. Although we did not collect precise data, larvae from the wild population pupated

earlier and produced heavier pupae than their cohorts from the laboratory colony. These results

suggest that the laboratory environment may have either selected for slower growing and

smaller individuals or may have a general fitness-reducing effect. If larval growth rates are

linked to alleles present in wild populations, the quality of laboratory colonies may be

improved by careful introduction of wild stock to the colony, a practice which is frequently

done (Berenbaum 1986). On the other hand, introduction of wild stock may also introduce

natural disease to the laboratory colony. Natural populations of P. saucia are known to harbor a

nuclear polyhedrosis virus (Harper 1970), which requires labor-intensive precautions to

manage it if introduced to the laboratory colony.

Table I. Mean larval weight (S.D.) of neonate varigated cutworm, Peridroma saucia, feeding

on artificial diet for 11 days.

Source n Larval weight (mg)

Laboratory 66 63.7 (21.5)a'

Field 66 183.6 (34.6)b

1 Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different, Foo 95 1 139)=5/71.8

Larval growth is one important determinant of fitness for an insect population. Plants

produce a plethora of natural chemicals which are capable of inhibiting larval growth when

admixed with artificial media (e.g. Freedman et al. 1979). We established that among extracts

of weedy Asteraceae growing in British Columbia, those of A. tridentata were extremely

inhibitory to growth of variegated cutworms (Salloum and Isman 1988).

The results of the second experiment, including diets spiked with an extract of A.

tridentata, are shown in Table 2. This bioassay confirmed that larvae from the wild population

grew faster than those from the laboratory colony. However, the plant extract was equally

inhibitory to both populations of cutworms, inhibiting larval growth by approximately 75%

relative to controls in each case (Table 2). This latter result suggests that relative comparisons

of growth inhibition from our laboratory colony appear to be valid. It justifies the continued

use of our laboratory colony as a bioassay tool for screening additional plants and pure plant

chemicals in the search for potential pest control materials.

66 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

Table II. Mean larval weight (S.D.) of an F, field collected population of Peridroma saucia

compared to the laboratory colony fed the standard diet and diet containing a growth

inhibitor!.

Diet treatment %Survival Mean Iarval

Larval culture (n=30) weight (mg) %RC*

Standard diet

Lab colony 90 56.9 (27.9)

Field colony 100 136.6 (43.6)

Growth inhibitor diet

Lab colony 90 13.5 (8.7) 23.7

Field colony 80 34.8 (14.7) 25.5

1 50% ethanolic extract (dwt/dwt) from big basin sagebrush, Artemisia tridentata

2 % of respective control fed standard diet

Two-way Analysis of Variance

Source of Variation DF ss F Probability

Model 3 16.9 25.6 0.0001

between populations 1 8.3 37.8 0.0001

between diets 1 7.5° 34.0 0.0001

popul. * diets 1 0.2 0.8 0.3833

Error 104 22.9

a Sum of squares of larval growth are adjusted for mortality

It should be noted that our results may not necessarily be applicable to other species. A

recent evaluation of resistance in Bermuda grass, Cynodon dactylon, to the fall armyworm,

Spodoptera frugiperda, indicated that two laboratory strains of the pest of different geographic

origins responded quite differently to four varieties of the host plant tested (Pashley et al.

1987). Such results indicate that investigators employing laboratory colonies should peri-

Odically compare bioassay performance of their test species to that of wild conspecifics.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank S. Schwab for technical assistance, and D. Champagne for comments on an

earlier draft. Supported by an Operating Grant from NSERC(A2729) to M.B.I.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 67

REFERENCES

Berenbaum, M. 1986. Postingestive effects of phytochemicals on insects: On Paracelsus and plant products.

pp.121-153. In: J.R. Miller and T.A. Miller (eds.). Insect-Plant Interactions. Springer-Verlag, New York.

Freedman, B., L.J. Nowak, W.F. Kwolek, E.C. Berry and W.D. Guthrie. 1979. A bioassay for plant-derived pest

control agents using the European corn borer. J. Econ. Entomol. 72: 541-545.

Harper, J.D. 1970. Laboratory production of Peridroma saucia and its nuclear polyhedrosis virus. J. Econ.

Entomol. 63: 1633-1634.

Isman, M.B. and P. Proksch. 1985. Deterrent and insecticidal chromenes and benzofurans from Encelia

(Asteraceae). Phytochem. 24: 1949-1951.

Isman, M.B. and E. Rodriguez. 1983. Larval growth inhibitors from species of Parthenium (Asteraceae).

Phytochem. 22: 2709-2713.

Pashley, D.P., S.S. Quisenberry and T. Jamjanya. 1987. Impact of fall armyworm (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) host

strains on the evaluation of Bermuda grass resistance. J. Econ. Entomol. 80: 1127-1120.

Simonet, D.E., S.L. Clement, W.L. Rubink and R.W. Rings. 1981. Temperature requirements for development and

oviposition of Peridroma saucia (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Can. Ent. 113: 891-897.

Salloum, G.S. and M.B. Isman. 1988. Crude extracts of asteraceous weeds: growth inhibitors for the variegated

cutworm. J. Chem. Ecol., press.

FORAGING BEHAVIOR OF HONEY BEES ON MANCHURIAN CRABAPPLE

AND RED DELICIOUS APPLE!

D.F. MAYER AND J.D. LUNDEN

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY

WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY, [AREC

PROSSER, WA 99350

Abstract

‘Manchurian’ crabapple pollinizer trees bloomed several days before red ‘Delicious’

trees. Of the honey bees collecting nectar, 98% foraged from the top of ‘Manchurian’

flowers but only 44% topworked ‘Delicious’ flowers. Topworkers spent less time per

flower on ‘Manchurian’ than on ‘Delicious’. Individual bees foraging from the side of

the flower on ‘Delicious’ spent even less time per flower than topworkers.

INTRODUCTION

‘Delicious’ apple (Malus sylvestris Mill.) requires cross-pollination before setting fruit,

so suitable pollinizer varieties must be planted throughout the orchard. Honeybee (Apis

mellifera L.) pollinators are recommended for pollen transfer between varieties. The number

and placement of pollinizer trees required for best production are largely determined by the

foraging habits of honeybees, which tend to work along tree rows rather than cross the aisle

spaces (Mayer et al., 1986). Good pollinizers must bloom at the same time and have pollen

compatible with the main variety. In addition, bee behavior must be compatible between

varieties.

Pollinizers planted as every third tree in every third row ensure that each main-variety

tree is adjacent to a pollinizer but minimizes the number of pollinizers. Having every second

tree in every row a pollinizer ensures maximum pollination, but is not economically practical.

Pollinizers take up usable production space in the orchard. An alternative planting

arrangement being tested in apple orchards uses flowering crabapples. (Williams and Church,

1983; Mayer et al. 1986). Crabapple pollinizers are planted between main variety trees every

72 to 120 m in each row with adjacent rows offset. They take up minimal space and their sole

function is to provide pollen. Honey bee behavior on crabapple pollinizers and main varieties

must be compatible for maximum pollination. The objective of this study was to compare the

foraging behavior of honeybees on ‘Manchurian’ crabapple and ‘Delicious’.

'Scientific Paper No. 7704, Washington State University, College of Agriculture and Home

Economics Research Center. Work done under Project 0742.

68 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

Material and Methods

Data on honeybee foraging behavior were collected during bloom from 1982 through

1984 in a 9-ha block of ‘Oregon Spur Red Delicious.’ Part (0.05-ha) of the block was

interplanted every 72 m in each row with ‘Manchurian’ crabapple as a pollinizer. The

‘Delicious’ trees were planted in 1978 and the ‘Manchurian’ crabapple in 1980.

Foraging honeybees were observed every second day during the study. Our classification

of honeybee behavior was similar to that used by others (Free, 1970; Robinson and Fell, 1981;

Kuhn and Ambrose, 1982). Nectar foraging topworkers put all their legs on the stamens and

touched the stigma; sideworkers put at least the metathoracic legs on the petals and took nectar

without touching the stigma. Pollen collectors scrabbled for pollen on the anthers and touched

the stigma.

Counts were made by randomly moving through the test block. The frequency and times

of each type of foraging behavior was recorded for a minimum of 500 visits by individual bees

per apple variety each year. Only one observation was made per honeybee, and data were

collected noting the time taken by a nectar collector to visit five flowers. Bee numbers were

determined by slowly moving around 10 individual trees and counting the number of bees seen

foraging in one minute. Percent total bloom was estimated on different dates for both varieties.

Untransformed data were analyzed as a randomized design by analysis of variance with

Duncan’s (1951) multiple range test used for mean separations.

Foraging bee pollen collectors and %

of nectar collectors topworking

10 40 60 80 100

% OPEN BLOOM

Fig 1. Comparison of topworking and pollen collecting behavior of honey bees at various

bloom stages of ‘Manchurian’ crabapple and ‘Delicious’ apple.em=a=m=asma=0 TOp-

working on ‘Manchurian’; eseseseseses Topworking on Red Delicious;

ese eeseeee Pollen collectors on ‘Manchurian’; amm__ Pollen collectors on

Red Delicious.

J. ENTomMoL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 69

Results and Discussion

On ‘Manchurian’ crabapple, most of the nectar collectors were topworkers (Table 1).

This behavior remained consistent as bloom progressed (Fig.1). Honeybees learn to sidework,

taking nectar without touching the stigma and a pollinizer variety may contribute to a higher

than normal percent of sideworkers on ‘Delicious’ (Robinson, 1979). Therefore, a flower

shape and structure that encourages topworkers is desirable in a pollinizer since topworkers

contact the stigma and accomplish pollination (Free, 1970). ‘Manchurian’ possesses this

character.

On ‘Delicious,’ less than half of the nectar collectors were topworkers (Table 1) and as

bloom progressed, the number of topworking bees decreased (Fig 1). Other observers have

noted increases in sideworking behavior as bloom progresses, and we found our ratio of

topworkers to be comparable to theirs (Kuhm and Ambrose, 1982; DeGrandi-Hoffman et al.,

1985).

Percent pollen collectors was variable between years for both cultivars although the

overall means were not significantly different (Table 1). We suspect the ratio of pollen

collectors to be determined by the amount of brood in a colony, which varies from year to year,

rather than by the crop. We observed an increase in percent pollen collectors on ‘Delicious’ but

little change on ‘Manchurian’ crabapple as bloom progressed (Fig. 1). On ‘Delicious’,

DeGrandi-Hoffman et al. (1985) reported fewer pollen collectors as bloom progressed while

Kuhn and Ambrose (1982) observed no changes.

The times required for sideworkers to take nectar, pollen collectors to work a flower, and

one nectar collector to visit five flowers was not significantly different between ‘Manchurian’

crabapple and ‘Delicious’ (Table 1). We are aware of no other reports on time requirements for

these events. There was little difference in these aspects of bee behavior between the two

cultivars, except that topworkers worked faster on ‘Manchurian’ crabapple than on ‘Deli-

cious’. ‘Manchurian’ crabapple did not contribute to any adverse bee behavior.

The times for top- and sideworkers to work a flower were not significantly different on

‘Manchurian’ crabapple, but were on ‘Delicious’. Sideworkers on ‘Delicious’ took about half

the time to work a flower as topworkers (Table 1). Kuhn and Ambrose (1982) suggested that

the predominance of sideworkers on ‘Delicious’ may be due to less energy expenditure needed

for this type of nectar collecting. We suggest that sideworkers are more efficient since they can

collect nectar faster than topworkers.

‘Manchurian’ crabapple generally blooms several days ahead of ‘Delicious’. This is a

desirable pollinizer characteristic. In 1982, it was at 20% bloom 10 days earlier than

‘Delicious’, but after the ‘Manchurian’ crabapple trees were more than two years old, the

difference was only three days. ‘Manchurian’ crabapple trees had more bloom and more bees

foraging than ‘Delicious’ trees (Table 2). The peak number of bee foragers coincided with full

(90%) bloom.

Differences in bee behavior and bloom dates between ‘Manchurian’ crabapple and

‘Delicious’ were observed. None of these events appeared detrimental to the use of *‘Man-

churian’ crabapple as a pollinizer for ‘Delicious’.

Table 2. Comparison of blooming dates of ‘Manchurian’ crabapple and

‘Delicious’ apple.

20% bloom open 90% bloom open 80% petal fall

Red Red Red

Year Manchurian Delicious Manchurian Delicious Manchurian Delicious

1982 S5/1 (O)* S/11 (0.3) 5/11 (31) 5/14 (2) 5/16 =(6) 5/17 (5)

9834/27 (18) 4730 (3) 3/3 @7) 3/3 °A0) 5/7 U1) 5/7 @)

1984 5/7 (5) 5/10 (6) 5/12 (28) 5/14 (9) S/15 (23) 5/8 = (4)

“Numbers in brackets are number of honey bees per tree per minute.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

"jSO] O8UeI

gfdnjnw [[¢6[] s,ueoung ‘(co'9 = dq) JasJAIJIp APUBSIJIUSIS JOU dIe Joyo] SURES ay) Aq POMOT[OJ ULUNIOS & UIYM SURI

La gS RL Ol 209 ire | ®6C PIL q9¢ br ues

4 c Ol 69 O'¢el lg 69 I¢ 60 vs6l

GS OCI v9 Cll Cl ¢8 c9 8e c86l

es 66 c°9 Vl OV 09 vs 9V c86l

SNOLIOd,

bO¢ PTT 869 ers BCC e8L eC 886 uel

vs v8 oL 6L fe £8 v 96 vsel

8S Srl £9 16 vl 98 Cc 86 c86l

ae 8°6 OL 18 ve 99 I 66 c86l

ajddeqeio .ueLinyoueyy,

SIOMOTJ $10}D9][O9 SUTYIOM SUTYIOM SIOJDITJOI ~=—s—- SIOJOTTOO SUTYIOM SUTYIOM Teak

¢ SIA udT[Og opis do} udT[Od TROON opis do}

0} 90q | SIOJDIT[OO IeIOIN SIOBCIOJ [PIO], SI0}D9TJOD IBIDIN

(spuoses) ow], (%) Awanoy

‘gjdde .snotorjaq, pue ajddeqeis ,uetmyouey,, UO saaqKouoy JO JOIARYaq BUISeIO. “[ QUT.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We wish to thank the Washington Tree Fruit Research Commission for making this

research possible.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 71

REFERENCES

DeGrandi-Hoffman, G., R. Hoppingarner, and K.K. Baker. 1985. The influence of honeybee “‘sideworking”’

behavior on cross-pollination and fruit set in apple. HortSci. 20(3): 397-99.

Duncan, D.B. 1951. A significance test for differences between marked treatments in an analysis of variance. VA

Jescin 2: 171-189.

Free, J.B. 1970. Insect pollination of crops. Academic Press, New York.

Kuhm, E.D., and J.T. Ambrose. 1982. Foraging behavior of honeybees on ‘Golden Delicious’ and ‘Delicious’

apple. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 107(3): 391-395.

Robinson, W.S. 1979. Effect of apple cultivar on foraging behavior and pollen transfer by honey bees. J. Amer.

Soc. Hort. Sci. 104(5): 596-598.

Robinson, W.S., and R.D. Fell. 1981. Effect of honeybee foraging behaviors on ‘Delicious’ apple set and

development. HortSci. 16: 326-328.

Mayer, D.F., C.A. Johansen, and D.M. Burgett. 1986. Bee pollination of tree fruits. PNW Coop. Ext. PNW 0282.

10 pp.

Williams, R.R., and R.M. Church. 1983. Growth and flowering of ornamental Malus pollinators in apple orchards.

J.Hort. Sci. 58 (3): 337-342.

LIFE HISTORY AND COLD STORAGE OF

AMBLYSEIUS CUCUMERIS (ACARINA:PHYTOSEIIDAE)

Davip R. GILLESPIE

AGRICULTURE CANADA, RESEARCH STATION

AGAssiz, B.C. VOM 1A0

AND

. CaROL A. RAMEY

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY

UNIVERSITY OF VICTORIA

VICTORIA, B.C.

Contribution No. 366, Agriculture Canada, Research Station,

P.O. Box 1000, Agassiz, British Columbia, Canada VOM 1A0

Abstract

Details were determined for the life history of the phytoseiid mite, Amblyseius

cucumeris, with first-instar western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis, as prey. A.

cucumeris completed development in 11.09, 8.74 and 6.25 days at 20, 25 and 30°C

respectively. This is slightly longer than reported for A. cucumeris by other authors

using eggs of Tetranychus mites as prey. The mean egg production was 1.5 + 0.99 eggs

per day. In cold storage tests, after 10 weeks, 63% of A. cucumeris survived at 9°C,

1.2% survived at 2°C and 0% survived at -8°C.

INTRODUCTION

The predatory mite, Amblyseius cucumeris Oudemans (Acarina:Phytoseiidae), is a

potential biological agent for various species of thrips (Thysanoptera) on greenhouse cucum-

bers and peppers (Ramakers 1983; De Klerk & Ramakers 1986). Previous work on the biology

and life history of A. cucumeris was done using eggs of various tetranychid mite species (eg.

El-Badry & Zaher, 1961, Kolodochka 1985). This did not allow for possibly different effects

72 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. CoLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

of an insect host on predator performance, and since thrips appear to be the primary prey of A.

cucumeris it was advisable to study its biology on those prey. In addition previous studies have

not addressed the effects of temperature on life history. Since temperature can have a dramatic

impact on the duration of life stages, the performance of A. cucumeris under a range of

temperatures typical for greenhouse vegetable culture should be evaluated.

A. cucumeris can be mass reared on grain mites, Acarus spp. (Acarina:Acaridae) in bran

in numbers approaching 10° per litre of bran (Ramakers & van Lieburg, 1982). The ability to

raise a biological control agent in such large numbers makes long term storage of colonies

feasible.

Here we report details of the life history of A. cucumeris at various temperatures with

Frankliniella occidentalis (Thysanoptera:Thripidae) as prey, as well as results of cold storage

experiments with A. cucumeris.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Amblyseius cucumeris, originally obtained from Koppert B.V. in Holland, were reared as

described by Ramakers & van Lieburg (1982), in bran with the grain mite, Acarus siro L., and

a mold mite, Tyrophagus sp. as hosts. Fresh A. cucumeris eggs were collected from cultures by

placing a 2 cm x 2 cm square of black felt in the rearing containers. Eggs deposited on the felt

during a 6 h were collected-.and placed individually on 1 cm diameter disks of bean leaf on a

pad of absorbent cotton saturated with water in a petri dish. These were placed in incubators at

20, 25, 30 or 35°C. First-instar Frankliniella occidentalis (3-5) were provided daily as food.

Mites were observed daily for the presence of cast skins, indicating a molt, until they reached

the adult stage.

Oviposition was observed for 10 days in eight freshly mated A. cucumeris females which

were approximately 24 h old at mating. These were placed individually on 2 cm diameter leaf

disks at 20°C as described above:and provided daily with fresh thrips nymphs. The eggs were

counted and removed daily.

To test cold storage, a 1.5 ml sample of bran from a culture containing 25 mites/ml was

transferred from a source culture into a 50 ml plastic snap cap vial. Lids with 1 cm holes drilled

in them placed over disks of paper towel over the vials allowed for ventilation. Seven vials

were placed in each of 12 plastic bags. A wet paper towel was placed in each bag to maintain

humidity, and bags were sealed with sponge stoppers held in place with twist ties. Three bags

were placed at 9°C, and six at 2°C. After one week three bags were moved from 2°C to -8°C.

The vials in the three remaining bags were processed immediately as described below, for

controls.

One vial was removed from each bag at two week intervals. Vials and contents were

allowed to return to room temperature for at least two hours. Vial contents were flushed

through 50 and 200 mesh sieves with running tap water. The contents of the 200 mesh sieve

were washed with water into a counting dish and the number of living and dead mites were

counted under a stereomicroscope. The percentage survival was calculated as [Number

alive/(number alive + number dead)] x 100.

After counting each sample, ten living mites were individually transferred from the

counting dish to leaf cages on a bean leaf and supplied with thrips nymphs for food. These

were maintained until A. cucumeris eggs were observed.

J. ENtomot Soc. Brit. CoLumBiA 85 (1988), AuGc. 31, 1988 73

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The average time for development of A. cucumeris from egg to adult decreased from 11.1

days at 20°C to 6.3 days at 30°C (Table 1). The time spent in each life stage decreased as

temperature increased from 20°C to 30°C. At 35°C the eggs hatched in less than 2 days but the

larvae died within 24 h and none moulted to protonymph.

Total Time

Deutonymph

3.60+0.84

2.06+0.43

2.00+0.82

3.1740.38

2.4240.72

2.00+0.82

ele,

(oe)

aa)

QA.

1 20LUe02

1.1520. 36

Frankliniella occidentalis nymphs at 3 temperatures.

0.36+0.50

Table 1. Development time of Amblyseius cucumeris (mean + standard deviation (n)) fed on

2.9440.77

SPs aban ya

1.89+0.27

74 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

ro) ro) ro)

oO =) i= be nm

oO Oo ay) ro)

ro)

[TT]

mamas

rT]

“—™N

U .

[‘T] wo

[T]

Y ww a

©)

[T]

Cc 7 =

y a

Ww D

Figure 1. Regression of inverse of developmental time for A. cucumeris vs temperature of

rearing. Equation of line: y = -0.0537 + 0.007 x (r = 0.97).

Ths,

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. CoLumBiA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

<—

<—_

—

06)

i i

Lil

i Sr

(6)

‘=

' ge

4 +

O O

WAIASNS4

Figure 2. Percent survival of Amblyseius cucumeris stored in bran at 9, 2 and -8°C.

716 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. CoLuMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

El-Badry and Zaher (1961) found a development time of 0.7 days (larva), 1.5 days

(protonymph) and 1.4 days (deutonymph) for A. cucumeris reared on eggs of Tetranychus

cinnibarinus eggs at 29°C. Kolodochka (1985) reported a development time of 6.25 days and

6.29 days for A. cucumeris males and females, respectively, reared on Tetranychus sp. eggs at

26°C. In both cases, the development times were somewhat shorter than those reported here.

This may be due to the somewhat greater amount of energy required to capture and kill a thrips

larva than that for a Tetranychus egg. F. occidentalis larvae were observed defending

themselves against A. cucumeris in the same manner described for Thrips tabaci by Bakker

and Sabelis (1986).

The threshold temperature for development, as determined by regressing the inverse of

development time against temperature and extrapolating (Figure 1), is 7.7°C. This indicates

that A. cucumeris is able to reproduce and develop across the range of normal greenhouse

temperatures, and suggests that it may even be useful in temperate climates in field crop

situations where thrips are pests.

Copulation was observed in eight pairs of A. cucumeris. The time from copulation until

eggs were laid was 3.2 + 0.83 days. The number of eggs laid by each female per day ranged

from 0 to six with two being the most common. The mean egg production for the eight mites

was 1.5 + 0.99 eggs per female per day. This is comparable to an egg production of 1.6 per

female per day for A. cucumeris eggs (El-Badry & Zaher 1961). It was not possible to observe

oviposition over the life span of the females because most of them became entangled in the

water-soaked cotton pads in the petri dishes and drowned.

In cold storage at 9°C, A. cucumeris survival decreased from 86.9% after 2 weeks to 63%

after 10 weeks (Figure 2). At 2°C, a maximum-minimum thermometer placed in the

refrigerator showed that the temperature decreased to -2°C on several occasions between the

second and sixth week. At -8°C survival was 0% after 2 weeks when sampling was

discontinued. All mites that survived cold storage were observed feeding within 24 hours of

rewarming, and eggs were produced within 3 days. These results indicate that A. cucumeris

cannot survive temperatures of less than 0°C. However, long-term storage of several weeks is

possible at 9°C with relatively little mortality.

In summary, A. cucumeris will feed, develop and reproduce on F. occidentalis. It requires

slightly longer to complete development with F. occidentalis nymphs as prey than with

Tetranychus eggs. The ability to feed on alternate hosts, particularly mite eggs and pollen

suggest that it could survive in a greenhouse in the absence of thrips as noted by De Klerk and

Ramakers (1986). The ability of A. cucumeris to survive cold storage at 9°C for up to 14 weeks

will facilitate mass production and transportation of this useful predator.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank J. Seed for technical assistance.

REFERENCES

BAKKER, F.M. and M.W. SABELIS. 1986. Attack success of Amblyseius mckenziei and the stage related

defensive capacity of thrips larvae. Med. Fac. Landbouww. Rijksuniv. Gent. 51(3a)): 1041-1044.

DE KLERK, M.-L. and P.M.J. RAMAKERS. 1986. Monitoring population densities of the Phytoseiid predator

Amblyseius cucumeris and its prey after large scale introductions to control Thrips tabaci on sweet pepper.

Med. Fac. Landbouww. Rijksuniv. Gent. 51(3a): 1045-1048.

EL-BADRY, E.A. and M.A. ZAHER. 1961. Life-history of the predator mite Typhlodromus (Amblyseius)

cucumeris Oudemans. Bull. Soc. Ent. Egypte. XLV: 427-434.

HEMING, B.S. 1985. Thrips (Thysanoptera) in Alberta. Agriculture and Forestry Bull. 8(2): 19-24.

KOLODOCHKA, L.A. 1985. [Pre-adult development of some species of predacious Phytoseiid mites.] Bio-

control News and Inf. 6(2030): 56-59, (in Russian).

RAMAKERS, P.M.J. and VAN LIEBURG, M.J. 1982. Start of commercial production and introduction of

Amblyseius mckenzei Sch. and Pr. (Acarina:Phytoseiidae) for control of Thrips tabaci Lind. (Thysanop-

tera:Thripidae) in glasshouses. Med. Fac. Landbouww. Rijksuniv. Gent. 47: 541-545.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 77

ADDITIONS TO THE REVISED CHECKLIST OF THE SPIDERS (ARANEAE)

OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

R.C. West!, C.D. DONDALE? AND R.A.RING?

14034 GLANFORD AVENUE

VICTORIA, BRITISH COLUMBIA

V8Z 3Z6

2BIOSYSTEMATICS RESEARCH INSTITUTE, RESEARCH BRANCH

AGRICULTURE CANADA, OTTAWA, ONTARIO

K1A 0C6

3DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY

UNIVERSITY OF VICTORIA

VICTORIA, BRITISH COLUMBIA

V8W 2Y2

INTRODUCTION

This list forms an addendum to “‘A Revised Checklist of the Spiders (Araneae) of British

Columbia” by West et al. (1984), J. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia 81: 80-90. It adheres to the

same sequence and format of presentation as its antecedent, thus only the additional informa-

tion will be presented. The list contains 137 new species for B.C., and includes one new

species for North America, Lessertia dentichelis (Simon) (family Erigonidae) and one new

family for B.C., Nesticidae containing the single species Nesticus silvestrii Fage.

The main specimen collectors were Mr. Donald J. Buckle, Dr. Robert T. Holmberg, Mr.

Malcolm Martin and the first author, R. West. The authors wish to thank Mr. J.H. Redner for

identifications and the addition of species represented in the Canadian National Collection.

New Family of Spiders in British Columbia

Suborder Opisthothelae

Infraorder Araneomorphae

Nesticidae

S.L. — Specimen Locations

Bennett — Mr. Robert G. Bennett, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario

CAS. — California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, California

Holmberg — Dr. Robert T. Holmberg, Athabasca, Alberta

Maddison — Dr. Wayne P. Maddison, Harvard University, Cambridge,

Massachusetts

Martin — Mr. Malcolm E. Martin, Vernon, B.C.

Det. — Determined by

Bennett — Mr. R.G. Bennett

Bishop — Mr. S.C. Bishop

Bragg — Mr. P.D. Bragg

Buckle — Mr. D.J. Buckle

Crosby — Mr. C.R. Crosby

Cutler — Dr. B. Cutler

78 J. ENToMoL Soc. Brit. CoLumsia 85 (1988), Auc. 31, 1988

Family Dictynidae

Dictyna brevitarsus Emerton. Johnson Bay (Babine Lake)

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Dondale

Dictyna chitina Gertsch. Meadow Mtn. (Kaslo) 7000'

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Dondale

Dictyna subpinicola Ivie. Vernon

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Redner

Dictyna tridentata Bishop & Ruderman. Johnson Bay (Babine Lake), Victoria

S.L.: CNC, UVIC

Det.: Dondale

Family Pholcidae

Psilochorus sp., near hesperus Gertsch & Ivie. Osoyoos

S.L.: Buckle, Holmberg

Det.: Buckle

Family Theridiidae

Euryopis sp., funebris (Hentz) group. 8 mi S. of Peachland

S.L.: Buckle, Holmberg

Det.: Buckle

Euryopis scriptipes Banks. Vernon

S.L.: Martin

Det.: Dondale

Thymoites camano (Levi). '2 mi. N. of Francis Prov. Park, Victoria

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Redner

Theridion bimaculatum (Linnaeus). Vernon, Victoria, Vancouver, Burns Bog, Delta, 9 mi.

N. of Enderby, Kamloops, Terrace, Burnaby, Sardis,

Goldstream Prov. Park, Pacific Rim Natl. Park.

S.L.: UVIC, Martin, Bragg, CNC

Det.: Dondale, Redner, Bragg, Leech

Theridion sp near pictum (Walckenaer). Parksville

S.L.: Buckle, Holmberg

Det.: Buckle

Theridion petraeum L. Koch. Summerland, Haynes Point, Cache Creek, Kamloops

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Buckle, Dondale, Redner

Theridion tinctum (Walckenaer). Victoria, Vancouver

S.L.: UVIC, CNC

Det.: Dondale

Theridion varians Hahn. Vancouver, Pitt Meadows, Haney, Beaver Lake Park (Victoria),

Victoria, Mesachie Lake

S.L.: Bragg, Buckle, Holmberg, CNC

Det.: Leech, Levi, Buckle, Dondale

Theridula emertoni Levi. Upper Shuswap River Ecol. Reserve, N. of Lumby, Prince

George

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Dondale

Enoplognatha thoracica (Hahn). Victoria

S.L.: UVIC, CNC

Det.: Dondale

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 v2

Robertus fuscus (Emerton). Johnson Bay (Babine Lake), Pinkut Creek, Racing River, Mile

419 Alaska Hwy.

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Dondale

Family Nesticidae

Nesticus silvestrii Fage. Sidney

S.L.: AMNH

Det.: Gertsch

Family Linyphiidae

Centromerus longibulbus (Emerton). 9 mi. N. of Enderby, near Cherryville, near Lumby

S.L27 CNC

Det.: Dondale, Redner

Meioneta emertoni Roewer. Departure Bay, Vancouver

S.L.: MCZ

Det.: van Helsdingen

Meioneta pallida (Emerton). Departure Bay

S.L.: MCZ

Det.: Emerton, van Helsdingen

Pimoa haden Chamberlin & Ivie. Kimberley, near Kuskanook

S.L.: Holmberg, Buckle

Det.: Buckle

Microlinyphia impigra (O.P.-Cambridge). Johnson Bay (Babine Lake)

S.L:: ‘CNC

Det.: Redner

Microlinyphia mandibulata (Emerton). 2 mi. S. of Donald Landing (Babine Lake)

S.E,2 CNC

Det.: Redner

Microlinyphia pusilla (Sundevall). Johnson Bay (Babine Lake), Emerald Lake, 1 mi. S. of

Donald Landing (Babine Lake)

S.L.: CNC, UVIC, Holmberg, Buckle

Det.: Dondale, Buckle

Lepthyphantes alpinus (Emerton). '2 mi. W. of Johnson Bay (Babine Lake)

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Redner

Lepthyphantes calcaratus (Emerton). Johnson Bay (Babine Lake), Liard Hotsprings

(Alaska Hwy.)

5S. -CNG

Det.: Dondale, Redner

Lepthyphantes chamberlini Schenkel. Johnson Bay (Babine Lake), Pink Mtn. (Alaska

Hwy.)

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Dondale

Lepthyphantes intricatus (Emerton). Vernon, Revelstoke, Johnson Bay (Babine Lake), near

Cherryville, Pinkut Creek

S.L.: CNC, Martin

Det.: Redner, Dondale

Lepthyphantes lyricus Zorsch. Lake Cowichan, Ucluelet, Mesachie Lake, Terrace (Spring

Creek), Saanich Peninsula, Mt. Revelstoke Natl. Park

Si (GNG

Det.: Redner

Lepthyphantes pollicaris Zorsch. Manning Prov. Park (Valley View)

S22 CNC

Det.: Dondale

Lepthyphantes washingtoni Zorsch. 17.5 km S. of Sikanni River (Alaska Hwy.) Pink Mtn.

(Alaska Hwy.)

80 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), Auc. 31, 1988

8:.0,: CNC

Det.: Redner

Lepthyphantes zelatus Zorsch. Johnson Bay (Babine Lake)

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Redner

Lepthyphantes zibus Zorsch. Comox, '2 mi. N. of Francis Prov. Park, Victoria, Witty’s

Lagoon, Metchosin, Goldstream Prov. Park, Lake Cow-

ichan, Cassiope Lake, Brooks Peninsula, Frederick Island,

7.9 Km N.W. of Queen Charlotte City (Queen Charlotte

Island)

S:Bs-CNC

Det.: Redner

Bathyphantes anceps Kulczynski. 1 mi. S. of Donald Landing (Babine Lake)

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Dondale

Bathyphantes canadensis (Emerton). Johnson Bay (Babine Lake)

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Dondale

Bathyphantes pullatus (O.P.-Cambridge). Johnson Bay (Babine Lake),

S.L.: UVIC

Det.: Dondale

Bathyphantes rufulus Hackman. Johnson Bay (Babine Lake)

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Dondale

Linyphantes aeronauticus (Petrunkevitch). Vancouver, Victoria, Summerland

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Dondale, Redner

Linyphantes nehalem Chamberlin & Ivie. near Sumas, Burnaby Mtn.

S.L.: Buckle, Holmberg, CNC

Det.: Buckle, Redner

Linyphantes nigrescens Chamberlin & Ivie. Lake Cowichan

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Dondale

Eulaira dela Chamberlin & Ivie. Goldstream Park, Pitt Meadows, Upper Shuswap River

(N. of Lumby), Mission City, Mesachie Lake, Manning

Prov. Park

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Dondale

Eulaira microtarsus (Emerton). Manning Prov. Park (Skyline Trail), Johnson Bay (Babine

Lake), 1 mi. S. of Donald Landing (Babine Lake)

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Dondale, Redner

Eulaira simplex (Chamberlin). Terrace

S.L.: AMNH

Det.: Chamberlin, Ivie

Aphileta misera (Pickard-Cambridge). Revelstoke (Wap Lake)

S22 - CNC

Det.: Dondale

Porrhomma sp. North Vancouver, Johnson Bay (Babine Lake)

S.L.: Buckle, Holmberg, CNC

Det.: Buckle, Dondale

Oreonetides filicatus (Crosby). Wap Lake, 20 mi. W. of Golden, 12 mi. W. of Revelstoke

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Dondale, Redner

Oreonetides rotundus (Emerton). 9 mi. N. of Enderby

S.L.: CNC, Martin

Det.: Redner

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 81

Oreonetides vaginatus (Thorell). Summit Lake, Pink Mtn. (Alaska Hwy.), 17.5 km S. of

Sikanni River, Liard Hotsprings (Alaska Hwy.)

S.Le CNC

Det.: Redner

Poeciloneta canionis Chamberlin & Ivie. Pine Pass (80 mi. W. of Dawson Creek 5500’),

100 Km E. of Prince George (Hwy. 16)

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Redner

Poeciloneta globosa (Wider). Summit Lake, Pink Mtn. (Alaska Hwy.)

S.L.; ENC

Det.: Redner

Microneta viaria (Blackwall). Mt. Douglas Park (Victoria), Vancouver, Johnson Bay

(Babine Lake)

S.L.: CNC, UVIC, Bragg

Det.: Dondale, Leech

Family Erigonidae

Ceraticelus rowensis Levi & Levi. Kingfisher Creek, N. of Enderby

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Dondale

Ceratinopsis aleuticus Holm. Victoria

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Dondale

Ceratinopsis stativa (Simon). Tetsa River (mi. 378 Alaska Hwy.)

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Redner

Diplocephalus cuneatus (Emerton). Johnson Bay (Babine Lake), Liard Hotsprings (Alaska

Hwy.)

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Redner

Enidia subarctica (Chamberlin & Ivie). Summit Lake (Alaska Hwy.)

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Redner

Eperigone holda Chamberlin & Ivie. Victoria area

S.L.: ?

Det.: Millidge

Eperigone paludosa Millidge. Goldstream Prov. Park

S.L.: ?

Det.: Millidge

Eperigone taibo Chamberlin & Ivie. Vancouver Island

Sie

Det.: Millidge

Erigone atra Blackwall. Summit Lake (Alaska Hwy.)

S.L.: Buckle, Holmberg, CNC

Det.: Buckle, Redner

Erigone sp., near blaesa Crosby & Bishop. Kamloops, Osoyoos

S.L.: Buckle, Holmberg

Det.: Buckle

Erigone dentigera (Pickard-Cambridge). Burnaby Mtn., Vancouver, Johnson Bay (Babine

Lake)

S.L.: UVIC, CNC, Bragg, Buckle, Holmberg

Det.: Buckle, Dondale, Leech

Erigone labra Crosby & Bishop. Masset

S.L.: AMNH?

Det.: Crosby, Bishop

82 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. CoLumsia 85 (1988), Auc. 31, 1988

Erigone metlakatla Crosby & Bishop. Metlakatla, Vancouver

S.L.: Bragg, AMNH?

Det.: Leech, Crosby, Bishop

Erigone sp., psychrophila Thorell group. Burnaby Mtn., Haney, Wickaninnish

S.L.: Buckle, Holmberg

Det.: Buckle

Erigone zographica Crosby & Bishop. Cathedral Prov. Park (Quiniscoe Lake)

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Dondale

Metopobactrus pacificus Emerton. Terrace

S.L.: CNC (type specimen)

Det.: Emerton

Pocadicnemis americana Millidge. 9 mi. N. of Enderby

S.L.: Martin

Det.: Redner

Spirembolus abnormis Millidge. Wellington

S.L.: AMNH

Det.: Millidge (1980), Redner

Spirembolus monticolens (Chamberlin). near Summerland, Johnson Bay (Babine Lake),

mi. N. of Francis Prov. Park, Victoria

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Millidge (1980), Redner

Spirembolus mundus Chamberlin & Ivie. Two locations on ‘‘Vancouver Island’’, see

Millidge 1980

oy Dears

Det.: Millidge (1980)

Tachygyna exilis Millidge. 19.8 mi. W. of Princeton,

11 mi. W. of Allison Pass, Manning Prov. Park

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Millidge

Tachygyna proba Millidge. 11 mi. W. of Allison Pass, Manning Prov. Park

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Millidge

Tapinocyba idahona Chamberlin. 10 mi. N.W. of Oliver

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Redner

Tapinocyba matanuskae Chamberlin & Ivie. 17.5 km S. of Sikanni River (Alaska Hwy.),

head of Tagish Lake, Liard Hotsprings

(Alaska Hwy.)

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Redner

Tapinocyba parva (Kulczynski). Johnson Bay (Babine Lake)

SL CNC

Det.: Redner

Walckenaeria columbia Millidge. Manning Prov. Park

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Millidge

Walckenaeria communis (Emerton). Johnson Bay (Babine Lake), Summit Lake (Alaska

Hwy.), Tetsa River (mi. 878 Alaska Hwy.), Yoho

National Park, 9 mi. N. of Enderby, 17.5 km S. of

Sikanni River (Alaska Hwy.)

S02 CNC

Det.: Millidge, Redner

Walckenaeria cornuella (Chamberlin & Ivie). Haney, 20 mi. E. of Revelstoke, W. of

Dawson Inlet, Pine Pass, Johnson Bay

(Babine Lake), 7.9 km N.W. Queen Char-

lotte City, near Cherryville

J. ENTOMOL Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 83

S.L.: Buckle, Holmberg, CNC, UVIC

Det.: Buckle, Dondale, Millidge, Redner

Walckenaeria fusciceps Millidge. Fletcher Lake

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Redner

Walckenaeria holmi Millidge. 17.5 km S. of Sikanni River (Alaska Hwy.), Tetsa River (mi.

378 Alaska Hwy.), Summit Lake (Alaska Hwy.)

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Redner

Walckenaeria lepida (Kulczynski). Liard Hotsprings (Alaska Hwy.)

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Redner

Walckenaeria monoceras (Chamberlin & Ivie). 40 mi. E. of Vernon

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Redner

Walckenaeria tricornis Emerton). Liard Hotsprings (Alaska Hwy.), Summit Lake (Alaska

Hwy.), Tetsa River and 17.5 km S. of Sikanni River

(Alaska Hwy.), '2 mi. W. of Johnson Bay (Babine Lake)

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Redner

Walckenaeria vigilax (Blackwall). Meadow Mtn. (Kaslo) 7000’

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Dondale

Lophomma columbia Chamberlin. W. side of Saanich Inlet (20 mi. N. of Victoria),

Cameron Lake

s.L: CNC

Det.: Redner

Grammonota angusta Dondale. Liard Hotsprings (Alaska Hwy.)

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Redner

Grammonota gigas Banks. 9 mi. N. of Enderby

S.L.: Martin, CNC

Det.: Redner

Grammonota kincaidi Banks. Burnaby, Saanich

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Redner

Wabasso cacuminatus Millidge. 17.5 km S. of Sikanni River (Alaska Hwy.)

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Millidge

Tmeticus ornatus Emerton. Johnson Bay (Babine Lake), Mt. St. Paul (mi. 392 Alaska

Hwy.)

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Dondale

Baryphyma kulczynski (Jeskov). Johnson Bay (Babine Lake)

SL CNG

Det.: Dondale

Latithorax obtusus (Emerton). Cathedral Prov. Park (Quiniscoe Lake)

SEs CNC

Det.: Dondale

Lessertia dentichelis (Simon). Victoria

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Dondale

Family Araneidae

Araniella cucurbitina (Clerck). Johnson Bay (Babine Lake)

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Dondale

84 J. ENTomMoL Soc. Brit. CoLuMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

Family Agelenidae

Cybaeota concolor Chamberlin & Ivie. W. side of Saanich Inlet

S.L.: AMNH

Det.: Chamberlin, Ivie, Bennett

Cybaeota shasta Chamberlin & Ivie. [C. vancouverana and C. wasatchensis are junior

synonyms of C. shasta] Sidney, Bowser, Cowichan

Lake, Kyuquot, Victoria, Shawnigan Lake, Gold-

stream Prov. Park, Francis Prov. Park

S.L.: AMNH, CNC, Bennett

Det.: Bennett, Chamberlin, Ivie

Cicurina sp., intermedia Chamberlin & Ivie group. 4 mi. N. of Osoyoos

S.L.: Buckle, Holmberg

Det.: Buckle

Calymmaria monicae Chamberlin & Ivie. Lillooet

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Gertsch

Calymmaria nana (Simon). 20 mi. N. of Victoria, Cowichan River (Cabin Pool)

S.L.: AMNH, CNC

Det.: Chamberlin, Ivie, Dondale

Calymmaria suprema Chamberlin & Ivie. Goldstream Prov. Park

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Heiss

Ethobuella tuonops Chamberlin & Ivie. Sidney, '2 mi. N. of Francis Prov. Park, Victoria

S.L.: AMNH, CNC

Det.: Chamberlin, Ivie, Redner

Novalena intermedia (Chamberlin & Gertsch). S. Pender Island, Goldstream Prov. Park

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Dondale

Family Mimetidae

Ero canionis Chamberlin & Ivie. Burnaby

S.L.: Holmberg, Buckle

Det.: Buckle

Family Lycosidae

Pirata canadensis Dondale & Redner. 9 mi. N. of Enderby

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Redner

Actosa raptor (Kylczynski). 9 mi. N. of Enderby

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Redner

Pardosa anomela Gertsch. near Cherryville

S.L.: Martin

Det.: Dondale

Hogna frondicola (Emerton). Vernon

S.L.: Martin

Det.: Redner

Family Gnaphosidae

Gnaphosa sp. Platnick & Shadab. near Snohomish, Haney

S.L.: Buckle, Holmberg

Det.: Buckle

Callilepsis eremella Chamberlin. Summerland

S.L.: Buckle, Holmberg, CNC

Det.: Buckle, Dondale

Drassyllus saphes Chamberlin. Osoyoos

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Dondale

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

Zelotes exiquoides Platnick & Shadab. Telegraph Creek

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Platnick, Dondale

Nodocion rufithoracicus Worley. Victoria

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Dondale

Micaria aenea Thorell. Fountain Valley (near Lillooet), Manning Prov. Park, 20 mi. E. of

Revelstoke, Summit Lake, Yoho Natl. Park

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Platnick

Micaria alpina L. Koch. Summit Lake

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Platnick

Micaria coloradensis Banks. Apex Mtn. (near Keremeos)

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Platnick

Micaria constricta Emerton. Apex Mtn. (near Keremeos), Brooks Peninsula, 16 km W. of

Barkerville, Manning Prov. Park, Mt. Arrowsmith, Prairie

Hills (Selkirk Mtns.), Summit Lake

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Platnick

Micaria foxi Gertsch. Summerland

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Platnick

Micaria idana Platnick & Shadab. Apex Mtn. (near Keremeos), Manning Prov. Park

(Valley View)

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Platnick, Dondale

Micaria longipes Emerton. Koocanusa Lake

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Platnick

Micaria riggsi Gertsch. Apex Mtn. (near Keremeos), Salmon Arm

SL (ENE

Det.: Platnick

Micaria rossica Thorell. Apex Mtn. (near Keremeos), Comox, Fort Nelson, Goldstream

Prov. Park, Kamloops, Prairie Hills (Selkirk Mtns.), Sparwood,

Terrace, Victoria

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Platnick

Family Clubionidae

Clubiona furcata Emerton. Johnson Bay (Babine Lake)

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Redner

Clubiona kastoni Gertsch. Pitt Meadows, Haney, Osoyoos Lake, Wellington

S.L.: Buckle, Holmberg, CNC

Det.: Buckle, Dondale

Trachelas californicus Banks. Parksville

S.L.: Buckle

Det.: Buckle

Family Thomisidae

Xysticus ellipticus Thurnbull et al. Enderby

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Redner

Thanatus vulgaris Simon. Victoria

9b. CNG, UVIC

Det.: Dondale

86 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

Family Philodromidae

Ebo parabolis Schick. Osoyoos

S.L.. CNC

Det.: Dondale

Family Salticidae

Habronattus captiosus (Gertsch). Mouth of Trout River at Liard River (km 789 Alaska

Hwy.)

S.L.: Maddison

Det.: Griswold

Habronattus decorus (Blackwall). Creston

S.L.: CAS

Det.: Griswold

Sitticus fasciger (Simon). Johnson Bay (Babine Lake)

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Dondale

Tutelina similis (Banks). Vernon

S.L.: CNC, Martin

Det.: Redner

Eris militaris (Hentz). [synonym of E. marginata] Pouce Coupe, Cowichan, Lumby,

Creston, Parksville, Victoria, Sparwood, Kelowna, Kamloops,

Vernon, Salmon Arm, Nicola, North Vancouver, Enderby

S.L.: UBC, UVIC, BCPM

Det.: Dondale

Metaphidippus flavipedes (Peckham and Peckham). Kettle River, Christina Lake, 3 mi.

N.E. of Field

S.L.: Charles, Holmberg, Buckle

Det.: Dondale, Buckle

Synageles canadensis Cutler. Prince George

S.L.: Leech Collection

Det.: Cutler

Synageles leechi Culter. Oliver

S.L.: CNC

Det.: Cutler

Synageles occidentalis Cutler. Christiana

S.L.: Maddison Collection

Det.: Cutler

REFERENCES

Roth, Vincent D. 1985. Spider Genera of North America, with Keys to Families and Genera and a Guide to

Literature. Privately published by the author. Available from American Arachnological Society, c/o Dr. Jon

Reiskind, Dept. of Zool., Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611 Price $10.00 (U.S. Funds).

J. ENTomMovL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 87

THE APHIDS (HOMOPTERA:APHIDIDAE) OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

18. FURTHER ADDITIONS

A.R. FORBES AND C.K. CHAN

RESEARCH STATION, AGRICULTURE CANADA

VANCOUVER, BRITISH COLUMBIA, V6T 1X2

Abstract

Five species of aphids and new host records are added to the taxonomic list of the aphids

of British Columbia.

INTRODUCTION

Thirteen previous lists of the aphids of British Columbia (Forbes, Frazer and MacCarthy

1973; Forbes, Frazer and Chan 1974; Forbes and Chan 1976, 1978, 1980, 1981, 1983, 1984,

1985, 1986a, 1986b, 1987; Forbes, Chan and Foottit 1982) recorded 392 species of aphids

collected from 919 hosts or in traps. The records include 1764 aphid-host plant associations.

The present list adds 5 aphid species (indicated with an asterisk in the list) and 279 aphid-host

plant associations to the previous lists. One hundred and thirty-three of the new aphid-host

plant associations are plant species not recorded before. The additions bring the number of

known aphid species in British Columbia to 397. Aphids have now been collected from 1052

different host plants and the total number of aphid-host plant associations is 2043.

The aphid names are listed alphabetically by species and are in conformity with Eastop and

Hille Ris Lambers (1976), except Sitobion dorsatum (Richards) has been changed back to

Aulacorthum dorsatum Richards based on karyotyping (2n = 12, R.L. Blackman, personal

communication). Two new collection sites are tabulated in Table I. The location of each

collection site can be determined from Table I or from the tables of localities in the previous

papers. The reference points are the same as those shown on the map which accompanies the

basic list (Forbes, Frazer and MacCarthy 1973).

Table 1. Collection sites of aphids, with airline distances from reference points.

Distance

Locality Reference Point Dir km mi

Buntzen Lake Vancouver NE 32 20

Ellison Lake Kamloops SE 70 44

LIST OF SPECIES

ABIETINUM (Walker), ELATOBIUM

Picea glauca: Surrey, Oct19/87.

ABSINTHII (Linnaeus), MACROSIPHONIELLA

Artemisia arborescens ‘Powis Castle’: Vancouver (UBC), Aug20/87.

AEGOPODII (Scopoli), CAVARIELLA

Anthriscus cerefolium: Vancouver (CDA), Dec15/87.

Hedera helix: Vancouver (UBC), May14/58

Phygelius aequalis ‘Yellow Trumpet’: Vancouver (UBC), Nov27/87.

AGATHONICA Hottes, AMPHOROPHORA

Rubus idaeus: Abbotsford, Jul9/59; Chilliwack, Jul8/59; Sardis, Jun15/59.

Rubus occidentalis ‘Munger’: Vancouver (CDA), Jan22/88.

ALBIFRONS Essig, MACROSIPHUM

Lupinus arboreus: Vancouver (UBC), May6/87, Dec7/87.

Lupinus nootkatensis var. nootkatensis: Vancouver (UBC), May6/87.

ALNI (de Geer), PTEROCALLIS

Alnus rubra: Buntzen Lake, Jul25/87; Tofino, Aug7/87; Vancouver (UBC), Aug28/87.

88 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuGc. 31, 1988

ANNULATUS (Hartig), TUBERCULATUS

Quercus robur: Vancouver (UBC), Jul23/87.

ASCALONICUS Doncaster, MYZUS

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi: Vancouver (UBC), Jun19/87.

Capsella bursa-pastoris: Bowen Island, Jun23/87.

Clematis orientalis ‘Bill Mackenzie’: Vancouver (UBC), Nov19/87, Nov27/87.

Dicentra formosa ssp. formosa: Vancouver (UBC), May6/87.

Fragaria x ananassa ‘Burlington’: Vancouver (UBC), Aug20/87.

Fragaria x ananassa ‘Totem’: Vancouver (UBC), Apr8/87.

Geum rivale: Vancouver (UBC), Dec7/87.

Liriope muscari ‘Silvery Sunproof’: Vancouver (UBC), Nov27/87.

Malva pusilla: Vancouver (UBC), Mar10/87.

Potentilla rubricaulus: Vancouver (UBC), Dec7/87.

Solidago missouriensis var. missouriensis: Vancouver (UBC), May6/87.

ATRIPLICIS (Linnaeus), HAYHURSTIA

Amaranthus retroflexus: Soda Creek, Jul16/57.

AVELLANAE (Schrank), CORYLOBIUM

Corylus cornuta var. californica: Vancouver, May16/87, Jun9/87.

AVENAE (Fabricius), SITOBION

Dactylis glomerata: Vancouver, May27/87.

Danthonia carphoides: Vancouver (UBC), Nov27/87.

Tris pallida ‘Variegata’: Vancouver (UBC), Sep10/87.

BERBERIDIS (Kaltenbach), LIOSOMAPHIS

Berberis buxifolia: Burnaby, Sep12/87.

*BETULAE (Koch), EUCERAPHIS

Betula pendula: Vancouver (UBC), Nov12/87.

BRASSICAE (Linnaeus), BREVICORYNE

Capsella bursa-pastoris: Richmond, Jul17/87; Vancouver (UBC), Nov12/87.

Raphanus sativus: Richmond, Jul9/87.

CALIFORNICA Hille Ris Lambers, NEARCTAPHIS

Sorbus aucuparia: Vancouver, Jul6/86.

CANADENSE (Robinson), DELPHINIOBIUM

Lonicera involucrata: Tofino, Aug6/87.

CAPILANOENSE Robinson, AULACORTHUM

Rubus spectabilis: North Vancouver, Jul15/65; Vancouver, Jun3/87, Jun22/87; Vancouver

(UBC), Jun4/87.

CARDUI (Linnaeus), BRACHYCAUDUS

Arctium minus: Keremeos, Jul28/67.

Senecio vulgaris: Vancouver (UBC), Jan14/87.

CARPINI (Koch), MYZOCALLIS

Carpinus betulus: Vancouver, Nov26/87.

CERASI (Fabricius), MYZUS

Prunus serrulata ‘Kwanzan’: Vancouver (UBC), Apr28/87.

CERTUS (Walker), MYZUS

Anthriscus cerefolium: Vancouver (CDA), Jan12/88.

Rheum rhabarbarum “Victoria”: Vancouver (CDA), Aug19/87.

CIRCUMFLEXUM (Buckton), AULACORTHUM

Akebia quinata: Vancouver (UBC), May5/87, Nov24/87.

Anthriscus cerefolium: Vancouver (CDA), Dec15/87.

Aquilegia ‘Mrs Scott Elliott’: Vancouver (UBC), Jun4/87.

Arachis hypogaea: Vancouver (CDA), Sep21/87.

Claytonia sibirica var. sibirica: Vancouver (CDA), Dec15/87.

Fragaria x ananassa ‘Totem’: Vancouver (UBC), Aug18/87.

Fragaria vesca ‘Semperflorens’: Vancouver (CDA), Sep21/87.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. BriT. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

Gaultheria shallon: Vancouver (UBC), May19/87.

Hypericum calycinum: Vancouver (UBC), Apr8/87, Jun4/87.

Malus sylvestris: Vancouver (UBC), Apr15/87, May15/87.

Onoclea sensibilis: Vancouver (UBC), May12/87.

Oxalis corniculata: Vancouver (UBC), Jun22/87.

Pernettya mucronata ‘Pink Pearl’: Vancouver (UBC), Apr6/87.

Physalis pubescens: Vancouver (CDA), Dec1 1/87.

Pityrogramma triangularis var. triangularis: Vancouver (UBC), May12/87.

Polystichum lonchitis: Vancouver (UBC), May12/87.

Ranunculus occidentalis: Vancouver, Jun10/87.

Salvia splendens ‘St John’s Fire’: Vancouver (UBC), Jun22/87.

Taraxacum officinale: Vancouver (UBC), Apr8/87.

Vaccinium corymbosum ‘Blue Haven’: Vancouver (UBC), Jun4/87.

Vaccinium macrocarpon ‘McFarlin’: Vancouver (UBC), May15/87.

Vaccinium vitis-idaea ssp. minus: Vancouver (UBC), Apr6/87.

CORNI (Fabricius), ANOECIA

Fuchsia x hybrida: Vancouver, Aug26/87.

Philadelphus lewisii: Vancouver, Aug26/87.

Rosa rugosa ‘Alba’: Vancouver, Aug26/87.

CORYLI (Goeze), MYZOCALLIS

Corylus cornuta: Vancouver (UBC), Jun4/87.

COWENI (Cockerell), TAMALIA

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi: Vancouver (UBC), May12/87, Jun19/87, Aug6/87.

CRATAEGARIUS (Walker), OVATUS

Mentha sp.: Vancouver (UBC), Jun12/87.

Mentha spicata: Vancouver (UBC), Jun15/87.

*CRATAEGIFOLIAE SSP OCCIDENTALIS Hille Ris Lambers, NEARCTAPHIS

Prunus avium ‘Mazzard’: Vancouver (UBC), Sep15/87.

CRYSTLEAE SSP BARTHOLOMEWI (Essig), ILLINOIA

Lonicera involucrata: Tofino, Aug6/87.

CYTISORUM Hartig, APHIS

Cytisus scoparius: Bowen Island, May18/87; Tofino, Aug7/87.

DAPHNIDIS Borner, MACROSIPHUM

Daphne x burkwoodii ‘Somerset’: Vancouver (UBC), Nov19/87.

Daphne laureola: Vancouver (UBC), May29/87.

Daphne x mantensiana: Vancouver (UBC), Oct9/87.

DAVIDSONI (Mason), ILLINOIA

Arnica sp.: Garibaldi Provincial Park, Aug3/59.

DIRHODUM (Walker), METOPOLOPHIUM

Rosa rugosa ‘Hansa’: Vancouver (UBC), Oct30/87.

Rosa ‘White Grootendorst’: Vancouver (UBC), Apr10/87.

Zea mays ‘Sunny Vee’: Vancouver (CDA), Jan22/88.

DORSATUM Richards, AULACORTHUM

Gaultheria shallon: Vancouver (UBC), May5/87, May19/87.

EPILOBI Kaltenbach, APHIS

Epilobium ciliatum: Williams Lake, Aug4/58.

EQUISETI Holman, SITOBION

Equisetum arvense: Vancouver, Jun27/87.

ERIGERONENSIS (Thomas), UROLEUCON

Conyza canadensis var. canadensis: Vancouver (UBC), Sep29/87.

EUPHORBIAE (Thomas), MACROSIPHUM

Amaranthus retroflexus: Brentwood, Aug5/S9.

FABAE Scopoli, APHIS

Abutilon ‘Moon Chimes’: Vancouver (UBC), Jul23/87, Oct7/87.

90 J. ENToMOoL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

Allium ampeloprasum porrum group: Brentwood, Jul5/59.

Amaranthus retroflexus: Brentwood, Aug5/59.

Cucurbita pepo: Vancouver, Sep19/58.

Dipsacus fullonum ssp. fullonum: Vancouver (UBC), Aug1/86.

Impatiens capensis Vernon, Sep29/42.

Liriodendron tulipifera: Vancouver (UBC), Sep3/86.

FAGI (Linnaeus), PHYLLAPHIS

Fagus sylvatica ‘Purpurea Pendula’: Vancouver (UBC), Jun3/87.

Fagus sylvatica ‘Zlatia’: Vancouver (UBC), Jun3/87.

FARINOSA Gmelin, APHIS

Salix sp.: Vancouver, May20/87, May26/87.

FIMBRIATA Richards, FIMBRIAPHIS

Capsella bursa-pastoris: Vancouver (CDA), May25/87.

Fragaria x ananassa ‘Totem’: Abbotsford, Jan21/88.

Fragaria vesca ‘Semperflorens’: Vancouver (CDA), May22/87.

Rosa ‘Beauty Secret’: Vancouver (CDA), May22/87.

FLAVA (Davidson), OESTLUNDIELLA

Alnus rubra: Vancouver (UBC), Jul30/87, Aug28/87.

FOENICULI (Passerini), HYADAPHIS

Anthriscus cerefolium: Vancouver (CDA), Sep15/87.

Daucus carota: Vancouver (CDA), Dec14/87.

Lonicera japonica: Vancouver (CDA), Jan22/88.

Lonicera sempervirens ‘Flava’: Vancouver (UBC), May6/87, Nov14/85.

FRAGAEFOLII (Cockerell), CHAETOSIPHON

Fragaria x ananassa ‘Totem’: Abbotsford, Nov2/87; Vancouver (UBC), Apr8/87,

May 14/87.

Fragaria vesca ‘Semperflorens’ : Vancouver (UBC), Apr8/87.

FRAGARIAE (Walker), SITOBION

Rubus discolor: Vancouver, May4/87, May6/87.

GALEOPSIDIS (Kaltenbach), CRYPTOMYZUS

Galeopsis tetrahit: Surrey, Jul10/56.

GENTNERI (Mason) FIMBRIAPHIS

Amelanchier laevis: Vancouver (UBC), Sep22/87.

Crataegus monogyna ‘Alba’: Vancouver, Jun9/87.

Photinia x fraseri: Vancouver, May6/87, Jun8/87.

GILLETTE! Davidson, EUCERAPHIS

Alnus rubra: Tofino, Aug6/87, Aug7/87; Vancouver (UBC), Sep4/87.

HELIANTHI Monell, APHIS

Helianthus annuus: Kamloops, Aug13/34, Sep5/57.

Oplopanax horridus: Vancouver (UBC), Apr10/59, Jun27/56.

HELICHRYSI (Kaltenbach), BRACHYCAUDUS

Achillea millefolium: Victoria, Jull2/60.

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi: Vancouver (UBC), May5/87, May 12/87.

Conyza canadensis var. canadensis: Vancouver (UBC), Dec30/86.

Erigeron acris ssp. politus: Vancouver (UBC), Nov19/87.

Gnaphalium uliginosum: Vancouver, Jun24/87.

Lupinus nootkatensis var. nootkatensis: Vancouver (UBC), May6/87.

Pelargonium denticulatum: Vancouver (UBC), Jun12/87.

Salix lanata: Vancouver (UBC), Apr22/87.

Solidago missouriensis var. missouriensis: Vancouver (UBC), May6/87.

Tanacetum vulgare: Vancouver, May6/87.

Vinca major: Vancouver (UBC), May6/87.

HERACLELLA Davis, APHIS

Conium maculatum: Prince George, Aug10/55

Heracleum sphondylium ssp. montanum: Manning Park, Aug20/87.

J. ENToMot Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

HIPPOPHAES (Walker), CAPITOPHORUS

Polygonum persicaria: Richmond, Jul29/87

HUMULI (Schrank), PHORODON

Humulus lupulus: Vancouver, May24/87.

IDAEI van der Goot, APHIS

Rubus idaeus: Vancouver, May28/60.

Rubus ideaus ssp. melanolasius: Vancouver, Aug3/56

INSERTUM (Walker), RHOPALOSIPHUM

Malus sylvestris: Penticton, Jul27/67.

LACTUCAE (Linnaeus), HYPEROMYZUS

Lactuca serriola: Tofino, Aug9/87.

Sonchus asper: Vancouver (UBC), Nov11/87.

Sonchus oleraceus: Vancouver, Jun27/87.

LACTUCAE (Passerini), ACYRTHOSIPHON

Lactuca serriola: Richmond, Jul10/87.

LIRIODENDRI (Monell), ILLINOIA

Liriodendron tulipifera:: Vancouver, Aug21/87.

LONGICAUDA (Richards), EOESSIGIA

Spiraea douglasii: Vancouver, Jul8/87.

Spiraea douglasii ssp. menziesii: Vancouver (UBC), Nov19/87.

MACROSIPHUM (Wilson), ACYRTHOSIPHON

Amelanchier laevis: Vancouver (UBC), Sep2/87.

MAIDIS (Fitch), RHOPALOSIPHUM

Avena sativa: Vancouver (CDA), Jan22/88.

MALVAE (Mosley), ACYRTHOSIPHON

Geranium sp.: Chilcotin. Jun1 1/31.

MAXIMA (Mason), ILLINOIA

Rubus parviflorus: Vancouver (UBC), May24/56.

MODESTUM (Hottes), MYZODIUM

Polytrichum juniperinum: Vancouver (UBC), Jul13/87.

NERVATA (Gillette), WAHLGRENIELLA

Arbutus menziesii: Vancouver (UBC), Dec7/87.

NYMPHAEAE (Linnaeus), RHOPALOSIPHUM

Actinidia chinensis ‘Hayward’: Vancouver (UBC), Sep15/87.

Alisma plantago-aquatica: Vancouver, Aug28/87, Sep2/87.

Callitriche stagnalis: Vancouver (UBC), Sep] 1/87.

Menyanthes trifoliata: Vancouver, Aug28/57.

Myriophyllum spicatum: Ellison Lake, Aug1&/86.

Prunus avium ‘Mazzard’: Vancouver (UBC), Sep15/87.

*OLIVEI Moran, UROLEUCON

Aster sp.: Vancouver, Jun18/57.

ORNATUS Laing, MYZUS

Akebia quinata: Vancouver (UBC), Nov24/87.

Arabidopsis thaliana: Vancouver (UBC), Apr10/87.

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi: Vancouver (UBC), Feb25/87.

Chrysanthemum balsamita: Vancouver (UBC), Jun12/87.

Chrysanthemum leucanthemum: Bowen Island, Jun22/87.

Cichorium intybus: Vancouver (UBC), Jun26/87.

Clematis orientalis ‘Bill Mackenzie’: Vancouver (UBC), Nov19/87, Nov27/87.

Diascia rigescens: Vancouver (UBC), Dec7/87.

Epilobium ciliatum: Vancouver (UBC), Jul16/87.

Erigeron acris ssp. politus: Vancouver (UBC), Nov19/87.

Erodium cicutarium ssp. cicutarium: Vancouver (UBC), Dec8/87.

Fragaria x ananassa ‘Totem’: Vancouver (UBC), May14/87.

92 J. ENTOMOL Soc. BRIT. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

Fritillaria crassifolia: Vancouver (UBC), Apr8/87.

Garrya elliptica: Vancouver (UBC), Jan13/88.

Geum rivale: Vancouver (UBC), Dec7/87.

Gnaphalium uliginosum: Vancouver, Jun24/87.

Helichrysum bracteatum: Vancouver (UBC), Sep29/87.

Lilium candidum: Vancouver (UBC), Apr8/87.

Meconopsis cambrica: Vancouver (UBC), Dec8/87.

Oxalis corniculata: Vancouver (UBC), Jun22/87.

Pernettya mucronata ‘Pink Pearl’: Vancouver (UBC), Apr6/87, May15/87.

Pernettya mucronata ‘White Pearl’: Vancouver (UBC), May6/87.

Potentilla caulescens: Vancouver (UBC), Dec7/87.

Potentilla fruticosa: Vancouver (UBC), Dec8/87.

Rhinopetalum bucharium: Vancouver (UBC), Apr8/87.

Rumex acetosella: Vancouver (UBC), May5/87, May6/87.

Salvia officinalis: Vancouver (UBC), Jun12/87.

Salvia officinalis ‘Aurea’: Vancouver (UBC), Nov27/87.

Salvia splendens ‘St John’s Fire’: Vancouver (UBC), Jun22/87.

Sanguisorba officinalis ssp. microcephala: Vancouver (UBC), Nov19/87.

Sonchus oleraceus: Vancouver (UBC), Jul6/87.

Tulipa bakeri: Vancouver (UBC), Apr22/87.

Vaccinium corymbosum ‘Northsky” : Vancouver (UBC), Jun4/87.

Vaccinium macrocarpon ‘McFarlin’: Vancouver (UBC), May15/87.

Vaccinium vitis-idaea ssp. minus: Vancouver (UBC), Apr6/87.

Vinca major: Vancouver (UBC), May6/87.

PADI (Linnaeus), RHOPALOSIPHUM

Liriope muscari ‘Silvery Sunproof’: Vancouver (UBC), Nov27/87.

Zea mays: Vancouver (UBC), Aug28/59.

PARVIFLORI Hill, AMPHOROPHORA

Rubus parviflorus: Vancouver, May15/79.

PARVIFOLII Richards, MACROSIPHUM

Pernettya mucronata “Pink Pearl’: Vancouver (CDA), Apr21/87.

Vaccinium parvifolium: Vancouver (UBC), Apr22/87, Jun4/87.

PASTINACAE (Linnaeus), CAVARIELLA

Heracleum sphondylium ssp. montanum: Manning Park, Aug20/87.

PENDERUM Robinson, UROLEUCON

Grindelia integrifolia: Point Atkinson, May5/57.

PERSICAE (Sulzer), MYZUS

Amaranthus retroflexus: Pemberton, Sep20/87.

Anthriscus cerefolium: Vancouver (CDA), Jan22/88.

Antirrhinum majus: Victoria, Apr4/58.

Beta vulgaris cicla group: Vancouver (UBC), Sep15/87.

Capsella bursa-pastoris: Pemberton, Sep20/87; Vancouver (UBC), Nov12/87.

Galeopsis tetrahit: Pemberton, Sep20/87.

Malva neglecta: Vancouver (UBC), Nov27/87, Dec7/87.

Nasturtium officinale: Pemberton, Sep20/87.

Physalis pubescens: Vancouver (CDA), Dec15/87.

Prunus avium ‘Mazzard’: Vancouver (UBC), Sep15/87.

Rumex crispus: Pemberton, Sep20/87.

Solanum nigrum: Pemberton, Sep20/87.

Solanum tuberosum: Pemberton, Sep3/87.

PINETI (Fabricius), SCHIZOLACHNUS

Pinus mugo: Lulu Island, Jun7/61

PISUM (Harris), ACYRTHOSIPHON

Cytisus scoparius: Tofino, Aug7/87.

Phaseolus vulgaris: Brentwood, Jul4/59.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 93

PLANTAGINEA (Passerini), DYSAPHIS

Malus sylvestris: Penticton, Jul27/67; Vancouver (UBC), May22/57.

PLATANOIDIS (Schrank), DREPANOSIPHUM

Acer saccharum ssp. grandidentatum: Vancouver (UBC), Oct20/87.

*POLARIS Hille Ris Lambers, MYZUS

Cerastium fontanum ssp. triviale: Vancouver, Dec30/59.

POMI de Geer, APHIS

Chaenomeles speciosa: Vancouver, Jul20/58.

Crataegus monogyna ‘Alba’: Vancouver, Jun9/87.

Sorbus aucuparia: Vancouver, Jul6/86.

POPULIVENAE Fitch, PEMPHIGUS

Rumex acetosella: Vancouver (UBC), May5/87.

PRUNI (Geoffroy), HYALOPTERUS

Typha orientalis: Vancouver (UBC), Aug20/87.

PTERINIGRUM Richards, AULACORTHUM

Akebia quinata: Vancouver (UBC), Nov24/87.

Pieris japonica: Richmond, May23/67.

Rosa ‘Beauty Secret’: Vancouver (CDA), Dec8/87.

Vaccinium parvifolium: Tofino, Aug5/87.

RHAMNI (Clarke), SITOBION

Rhamnus purshiana: Vancouver (UBC), Aug12/87.

RIBIS (Linnaeus), CRYPTOMYZUS

Ribes sativum ‘Red Lake’: Vancouver (UBC), Jul23/87.

RIBISNIGRI (Mosley), NASONOVIA

Cichorium intybus: Vancouver (UBC), Jun26/87, Aug1/86.

Crepis capillaris: Richmond, Jul9/87.

Lactuca sativa: Cloverdale, May21/87; Vancouver, Sep11/87.

Lactuca serriola: Richmond, Jul17/87.

ROBINIAE (Gillette), APPENDISETA

Robinia pseudoacacia: Vancouver, May24/87.

ROSAE (Linnaeus), MACROSIPHUM

Centranthus ruber: Vancouver (UBC), Jun12/87, Jun26/87.

Centranthus ruber ‘Atrococcineus’: Vancouver (UBC), May25/87.

Dipsacus fullonum ssp. fullonum: Vancouver (UBC), Aug1/86.

Rosa ‘A 22’: Vancouver (UBC), Apr10/87, Apr29/87, May29/87, Jun25/87.

Rosa ‘Admiral Rodney’: Vancouver (UBC), Mar6/87.

Rosa ‘Agnes’: Vancouver (UBC), Aug12/87.

Rosa ‘Amatsu Otome’: Vancouver (UBC), Aug5/87, Sep2/87.

Rosa canina: Vancouver (UBC), May25/87.

Rosa ‘Chicago Peace’: Vancouver (UBC), Jan14/87.

Rosa damascena: Vancouver (UBC), Apr10/87.

Rosa ‘Electron’: Vancouver (UBC), Sep2/87.

Rosa ‘Florentina’: Vancouver (UBC), Sep2/87.

Rosa helenae: Vancouver (UBC), May29/87.

Rosa ‘Iceberg’: Vancouver (UBC), Sep2/87.

Rosa ‘L 57’: Vancouver (UBC), Apr10/87.

Rosa ‘L 85’: Vancouver (UBC), Apr10/87, Nov2/87.

Rosa ‘Matangi’: Vancouver (UBC), Feb25/87.

Rosa ‘Mr. Chips’: Vancouver (UBC), Mar6/87.

Rosa nutkana: Vancouver (UBC), May29/87.

Rosa ‘Old Master’: Vancouver (UBC), Aug5/87.

Rosa rubrifolia: Vancouver (UBC), May29/87, Jun25/87.

Rosa rugosa ‘Alba’: Vancouver (UBC), May5/87, May29/87, Sep10/87.

Rosa ‘Sympathie’: Vancouver (UBC), Apr10/87.

Rosa ‘U O 4’: Vancouver (UBC), Apr29/87.

94 J. ENTomot Soc. Brit. CoLumsia 85 (1988), Auc. 31, 1988

Rosa virginiana: Vancouver (UBC), Apr29/87.

Rosa wichuraiana: Vancouver (UBC), Jun25/87.

Valeriana officinalis: Vancouver (UBC), Jun12/87.

ROSARUM (Kaltenbach), MYZAPHIS

Fragaria x ananassa ‘Totem’: Vancouver (CDA), Jan22/88.

Potentilla fruticosa: Vancouver, Sep12/87; Vancouver (UBC), Dec8/87.

Rosa ‘A 22’: Vancouver (UBC), Aug5/87.

Rosa ‘Beauty Secret: Vancouver (CDA), Nov13/87.

Rosa ‘Eddie’s Jewel’: Vancouver (UBC), Jun25/87.

Rosa luciae var. onoei ‘Yakushima Bara’: Vancouver (UBC), Nov19/87, Nov27/87.

RUSSELLAE (Hille Ris Lambers) VROLEUCON

Anaphalis margaritacea: Tofino, Aug6/87.

SALICARIAE Koch, APHIS

Cornus alba’ Argenteo-marginata’: Vancouver (UBC), May21/59.

Cornus capitata: Vancouver (UBC), May21/59.

SALIGNUS (Gmelin), TUBEROLACHNUS

Salix sp.: Vancouver (UBC), Oct31/41.

SCLEROSA (Richards) NEARCTAPHIS

Crataegus douglasii: Vancouver (UBC), Jun27/56.

SEDI Kaltenbach, APHIS -

Sedum spectabile: Vancouver, Nov10/87.

SOLANI (Kaltenbach), AULACORTHUM

Akebia quinata: Vancouver (UBC), May5/87.

Anchusa capensis: Vancouver (UBC), May25/87, Jun12/87.

Callistemon pallidus: Vancouver (UBC), Feb19/87.

Capsella bursa-pastoris: Bowen Island, Jun21/87, Jun23/87.

Cichorium intybus: Vancouver (UBC), Jun26/87.

Claytonia sibirica var. sibirica: Vancouver (CDA), Jan22/88.

Conyza canadensis var. canadensis: Vancouver (UBC), Dec30/86.

Digitalis lutea: Vancouver (UBC), May6/87.

Disporum hookeri var. oreganum: Vancouver (UBC), Apr14/87.

Fragaria x ananassa ‘Totem’: Vancouver (UBC), May14/87.

Fritillaria crassifolia: Vancouver (UBC), Apr8/87.

Fuchsia magellanica: Vancouver, Aug26/87.

Gaultheria shallon: Vancouver (UBC), May5/87.

Geranium molle: Bowen Island, Jun22/87.

Geranium viscosissimum var. viscosissimum: Vancouver (UBC), Apr3/86.

Geum peruvianum: Vancouver (UBC), Feb18/87.

Geum rivale: Vancouver (UBC), Dec7/87.

Gnaphalium uliginosum: Vancouver, Jun24/87.

Gomphrena globosa: Vancouver (CDA), Sep18/87.

Tris longipetala: Vancouver (UBC), Feb19/87.

Leucothoe fontanesiana: Vancouver (UBC), May19/87.

Limonium latifolium ‘Violetta’: Vancouver (UBC), Nov27/87.

Mentha spicata: Vancouver (UBC), Jun15/87.

Monarda fistulosa var. menthifolia: Vancouver (UBC), Jun12/87.

Morina coulteriana: Vancouver (UBC), Feb18/87.

Nicotiana glauca: Vancouver (CDA), Jan22/88.

Onoclea sensibilis: Vancouver (UBC), May12/87.

Pelargonium denticulatum: Vancouver (UBC), Jun12/87.

Pernettya mucronata ‘White Pearl’: Vancouver (UBC), May6/87.

Petasites palmatus: Vancouver, Jun22/87.

Physalis pubescens: Nancouver (CDA), Dec11/87.

Pieris japonica: Richmond, Jun15/87.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. CoLuMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 95

Polypodium glycyrrhiza: Vancouver (UBC), Aug5/87.

Potentilla rubricaulus: Vancouver (UBC), Dec7/87.

Prunus laurocerasus: Vancouver, May12/87.

Romneya coulteri: Vancouver (UBC), Jun12/87, Jun26/87.

Rubus calycinoides: Vancouver (UBC), Apr24/87.

Ruta graveolens: Vancouver (UBC), May25/87.

Ruta graveolens ‘Variegata’: Vancouver (UBC), May25/87.

Salvia officinalis: Vancouver (UBC), Jun12/87.

Sanguisorba officinalis ssp. microcephala: Vancouver (UBC), Nov19/87.

Santolina chamaecyparissus: Vancouver (UBC), Jun12/87.

Senecio abrotanifolius: Vancouver (UBC), Feb18/87.

Sibiraea altaiensis: Vancouver (UBC), Feb19/87.

Symphoricarpos albus: Vancouver, May4/87.

Verbena x hybrida: Vancouver (UBC), Aug1/86.

Viola tricolor: Vancouver (UBC), Jun12/87.

SPIRAEAE (MacGillivray), ILLINOIA

Spiraea douglasii: Vancouver, Jul8/87.

SPYROTHECAE Passerini, PEMPHIGUS

Populus nigra ‘Italica’: Langley, Aug6/87.

STANLEYI Wilson, MACROSIPHUM

Sambucus racemosa ssp. pubens var. arborescens: Bowen Island, Jul22/67; Vancouver

(UBC), May6/87.

STAPHYLEAE (Koch), RHOPALOSIPHONINUS

Anagallis monelli: Vancouver (UBC), Feb18/87.

Anemone chinensis: Vancouver (UBC), Feb18/87.

Aquilegia caerulea var. ochroleuca: Vancouver (UBC), Feb19/87.

Arum korolkowii: Vancouver (UBC), Feb18/87.

Campanula rotundifolia: Vancouver (UBC), Feb18/87.

Campanula sartorii: Vancouver (UBC), Feb18/87.

Convolvulus althaeoides: Vancouver (UBC), Feb18/87.

Cyclamen cilicium: Vancouver (UBC), Feb18/87.

Dianthus deltoides: Vancouver (UBC), Feb19/87.

Erysimum wilczekianum: Vancouver (UBC), Feb19/87.

Fragaria chiloensis: Vancouver (UBC), Feb19/87.

Geum peruvianum: Vancouver (UBC), Feb18/87.

Goniolimon speciosum: Vancouver (UBC), Feb18/87.

Helleborus lividus: Vancouver (UBC), Feb18/87.

Helleborus niger: Vancouver (UBC), Feb18/87.

Hemerocallis sp. : Vancouver (UBC), Feb19/87.

Incarvillea olgae: Vancouver (UBC), Feb18/87.

Tris longipetala: Vancouver (UBC), Feb19/87

Lilium formosanum var. pricei: Vancouver (UBC), Feb18/87.

Linum perenne ssp. lewisii: Vancouver (UBC), Feb18/87.

Luzula banksiana: Vancouver (UBC), Feb18/87.

Morina coulteriana: Vancouver (UBC), Feb18/87.

Oenothera odorata: Vancouver (UBC), Feb18/87.

Oenothera pilosella: Vancouver (UBC), Feb18/87.

06 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

Oenothera rosea: Vancouver (UBC), Feb18/87.

Papaver alpinum ‘Plena’: Vancouver (UBC), Feb18/87.

Pardanthopsis dichotoma: Vancouver (UBC), Feb18/87.

Phuopsis stylosa: Vancouver (UBC), Feb18/87.

Polemonium caeruleum ssp. amygdalinum: Vancouver (UBC), Feb18/87.

Pratia nummularia: Vancouver (UBC), Feb19/87.

Primula parryi: Vancouver (UBC), Feb19/87.

Salix vestita: Vancouver (UBC), Feb19/87.

Senecio abrotanifolius: Vancouver (UBC), Feb18/87.

Typha orientalis: Vancouver (UBC), Feb19/87.

Waldsteinia fragarioides: Vancouver (UBC), Feb18/87.

STELLARIAE Theobald, MACROSIPHUM

Anthriscus cerefolium: ‘Vancouver (CDA), Jan12/88.

Gomphrena globosa: Vancouver (CDA), Jan22/88.

*TENUICAUDA Bartholomew, MACROSIPHUM

Apium graveolens: Vancouver (CDA), Sep9/87.

Capsella bursa-pastoris: Vancouver (CDA), Sep9/87.

Urtica dioica: Peace Arch Park, Aug3/87

TESTUDINACEUS (Fernie), PERIPHYLLUS

Acer saccharum ssp. grandidentatum: Vancouver (UBC), Oct20/87.

TILIAE (Linnaeus), EUCALLIPTERUS

Tilia platyphyllos ‘Lacinia’: Vancouver (UBC), Aug8/56.

ULMI (Linnaeus), ERIOSOMA

Ulmus americana: Vancouver (UBC), May22/58.

VARIANS Patch, APHIS

Epilobium angustifolium: Kamloops, Aug11/54; Tofino, Aug9/87.

WAKIBAE (Hottes), FIMBRIAPHIS

Capsella bursa-pastoris: Vancouver (CDA), Mar15/87.

Fragaria x ananassa ‘Totem’: Vancouver (CDA), Mar15/87.

Fragaria vesca’ Semperflorens’: Vancouver (CDA), Mar15/87.

Rosa ‘Beauty Secret’: Vancouver (CDA), Mar15/87.

Rosa rugosa ‘Hansa’: Vancouver (UBC), Oct30/87.

XYLOSTEI (de Geer), PROCIPHILUS

Picea engelmannii: Nelson, Nov20/87.

Picea glauca: Quesnel, Oct6/87.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to thank Dr. A.G. Robinson, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg and Dr. R.L.

Blackman, British Museum (Natural History), London, England for valuable aid and advice in

identification.

J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

REFERENCES

Eastop, V.F., and D. Hille Ris Lambers. 1976. Survey of the world’s aphids.

Dr. W. Junk b.v., Publisher, The Hague.

Forbes, A.R. and C.K. Chan. 1987. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of

British Columbia. 16. Further additions. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia

84:66-72.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1986a. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of

British Columbia. 15. Further additions. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia

83:70-73.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1986b. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae)

of British Columbia. 14. Further additions. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia

83:66-69.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1985. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of

British Columbia. 13. Further additions. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia

82:56-58.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1984. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of

British Columbia. 12. Further additions. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia

81:72-75

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1983. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of

British Columbia. 11. Further additions. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia

80:51-53.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1981. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of

British Columbia. 9. Further additions. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia

78:53-54

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1980. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of

British Columbia. 8. Further additions and corrections. J. ent. Soc.

Brit. Columbia 77:38-42.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1978. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of

British Columbia. 6. Further additions. J. ent. Soc. Brit. Columbia

75:47-52.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1976. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of

British Columbia. 4. Further additions and corrections. J. ent. Soc.

Brit. Columbia 73:57-63.

Forbes, A.R., C.K. Chan and R.G. Foottit. 1982. The aphids (Homoptera:

Aphididae) of British Columbia. 10. Further additions. J. ent. Soc.

Brit. Columbia 79:75-78.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1974. The aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) of

British Columbia. 3. Additions and corrections. J. ent. Soc. Brit.

Columbia 71:43-49.

Forbes, A.R., B.D. Frazer and H.R. MacCarthy. 1973. The aphids (Homop-

tera: Aphididae) of British Columbia. 1. A basic taxonomic list. J. ent.

Soc. Brit. Columbia 70:43-57.

98 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

A NEW HOST-PLANT IN B.C. FOR RHOPALOSIPHUM NYMPHAEAE

(HOMOPTERA: APHIDIDAE)

I.V. MACRAE AND N.N. WINCHESTER

DEPT. OF BIOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF VICTORIA

VICTORIA, B.C. V8W 2Y2

In June, 1986, while sampling insects from Eurasian watermilfoil, Myriophyllum spicatum,

to evaluate possible biocontrol agents, adult Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae (L.) (Homop-

tera: Aphididae) were recovered from submerged plants in Ellison Lake, Kelowna, B.C. These

insects were well established on the plant with probosces inserted into the stem. Individuals

were observed daily for two weeks, during which reproduction occurred although the adults

remained submerged, cradling bubbles of air between their legs.

R. nymphaeae were also found in samples of M. spicatum taken from Long Lake in

Nanaimo, B.C. These insects were placed into an aquarium and fed fresh M. spicatum at

irregular intervals. During a two month period they reproduced and alternated between feeding

on the submerged plants and spending time on the surface. R. nymphaeae may be draining air

from the plant’s lacunal spaces, located throughout the stem, in much the same manner as that

reported for an aquatic weevil. Litodactylus leucogaster (Buckingham et al., 1981).

This is the first report of R. nymphaeae from M. spicatum in B.C. although it has been

reported from two other submerged aquatic plants, Callitriche stagnalis and Elodea cana-

densis (Forbes and Chan, 1987). This species has been reported from M. spicatum in the

southern United States (Balciunas, 1982).

R. nymphaeae has been suggested as a possible biocontrol for aquatic weeds in the past

(John and Nair, 1983). This species, however, has a broad host range (Sarup et al., 1973), is not

an obligate aquatic, and has been reported as vectoring at least one commercially important

mosiac virus from aquatic to terrestrial plants (Wyman et al., 1979). For these reasons, R.

nymphaeae may not be suitable as a biocontrol agent

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Dr. R. Foottit of B.R.I. for identification of specimens.

REFERENCES

Balciunas, J.K. 1982. Insects and Other Macroinvertebrates Associated With Eurasian Watermilfoil in the United

States. Tech. Rep. A-82-5. U.S. Army Engineers Waterways Expt. Stat., C.E., Vicksburg, Miss. 94 pp.

Buckingham, G.R., Bennett, C.A., and B.M. Ross. 1981. Investigation of Two Insect Species for Control of

Eurasian Watermilfoil. Tech. Rep. A-81-4. U.S. Army Engineers Waterways Expt. Stat., C.E., Vicksburg,

Miss.

Forbes, A.R., and C.K. Chan. 1987. The aphids (Homoptera:Aphididae) of British Columbia 17. A revised host

plant catalogue. J. entomol Soc. Brit. Columbia 84: 72-100.

John, K.C., and N.B. Nair. 1983. Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae (Homoptera: Aphididae), a control agent for

Salvinia molesta. Entomol. Mon. 7(3): 381-384.

Sarup, P., Singh, D.S., and R. Lal. 1973. Relative resistance of various aphids infesting terrestrial and aquatic

plants to some important pesticides. Indian J. Entomol. 33: 131-135.

Wyman, J.A., Toscano, N.C., Kido, K., Johnson, H., and K.S. Mayberry. 1979. Effects of mulching on the spread

of aphid transmitted watermelon mosaic virus to summer squash. J. Econ. Entomol. 72: 139-143.

J. ENToMoL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988 99

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

This society has no support except from subscriptions. It has become necessary to increase

the page charge. This has now been set at $45.00. The page charge includes all extras except

coloured illustrations, provided that such extras do not comprise more than 40% of the published

pages. Coloured illustrations will be charged directly to the author. Authors, not attached to

universities or official institutions, who must pay these charges from their personal funds and

are unable to do so, may apply for assistance when submitting a manuscript.

Reprints are sold only in even hundreds and at the following prices:

Number of pages 1-4 5-8 9-12 13-16 17-20 21-24 25-28

First 100 copies $55.00 78.00 108.00 137.00 174.00 217.00 264.00

Each extra 100 12.00 16.00 20.00 24.00 28.00 32.00 36.00

Author’s discounts (up to 40%) may be granted to authors who certify at the time of

ordering that they are buying reprints at personal expense. Authors ordering personal reprints in

addition to those ordered by an institution will be billed at the rate for extra hundreds.

Membership is open to anyone with an interest in entomology. Dues are $15.00 per year;

for students $7.50.

Papers for the Journal need not have been presented at meetings of the Entomological

Society of British Columbia, nor is it mandatory, although preferable, that authors be members

of this society. The chief condition for publication is that the paper have some regional origin,

interest, or application.

Contributions should be sent to:

H.R. MacCarthy

6660 N.W. Marine Drive

Vancouver, B.C. V6T 1X2

Manuscripts should be typed double-spaced on one side of white, line-spaced numbered

paper if possible, leaving generous margins. The original and two copies, mailed flat, are

required. Tables should be on separate, numbered sheets, with the caption on the sheet. Captions

for illustrations should also be on separate numbered sheets, but more than one caption may be

on a sheet. Photographs should be glossy prints of good size, clarity and contrast. Line drawings

should be in black ink on good quality white paper.

The style, abbreviations arid citations should conform to the Style Manual for Biological

Journals published by the American Institute of Biological Sciences.

BACK NUMBERS

Back numbers of this journal are available from the Secretary-Treasurer, from volume 45

(1949) to the present, at $10.00 per volume. Certain earlier back numbers are also available, but

only on special request to the Secretary-Treasurer.

Address inquiries to:

Dr. L.M. Humble, Secretary-Treasurer

Entomological Society of British Columbia,

c/o 506 West Burnside Road,

Victoria, B.C. V8Z 1M5

100 J. ENTOMOL Soc. Brit. COLUMBIA 85 (1988), AuG. 31, 1988

CBE MEMBERS NOW SAVE 20%

NEW!

Illustrating Science:

Standards for Publication

Announcing CBE’s newest book—the result of eight years of work by

editors, illustrators, photographers, publishers, and printers.

Illustrating Science presents specific standards and guidelines for

publication of illustrated scientific material. You’ll use it as a

definitive reference when creating, publishing or printing scientific

illustrations. It will help you achieve the finest, most effective

illustrations possible.

With more than 120 illustrations, including 32 in full color, this

important new book covers scientific illustrations with an unmatched

thoroughness.

CONTENTS: Prepress: Getting an Illustration Ready to Print ¢ Aspects of

the Publishing Process Affecting Illustrations ¢ Preparation of Artwork ¢

Continuous Tone Photographs and Halftone Printing @ Color Printing @

Materials and Handling @ Standards, Illustrations, and Quality Criteria e

Legal and Ethical Considerations @ Glossary of Terms in Scientific

Illustration ¢ Annotated Bibliography @ Index

Illustrating Science is a valuable reference addition to your

professional bookshelf. Order your copy today!

ES GE GG GC Gs a Ge Ge Ge es Ge Ge Ge GG Ge GG Ge Ge ee as

It’s easy to order Illustrating Science: Standards for Publication. Just indicate the number of copies you

want and multiply by the appropriate price. Mail your order today!

Please send me copies of Illustrating Science: Standards for Publication

(ISBN: 0-914340-05-0; clothbound; 1988; 7” x 10”; 308 pages).

@ $49.95 (regular price) $

@ $39.95 (CBE member price) $

Subtotal $

Maryland residents, add 5% sales tax +

TOTAL $

Name

Organization

City, State, Zip Code

Country ae ee = Phones( )

SATISFACTION GUARANTEED: CBE guarantees your satisfaction. If you are not satisfied, return the book in

original condition within 30 days for refund (shipping and handling charges will be deducted).

TERMS: All orders must be prepaid in U.S. currency drawn on a U.S. bank. Prices include book-rate postage. Add

$3.00 per book for UPS delivery, available within the continental U.S. only. Include street address, rather than a p.o.

box, for UPS delivery. Maryland residents, add 5% sales tax. This offer is available for a limited time only.

Mail your order with payment to:

Council of Biology Editors, Inc. ¢ Dept. 88Z @ 9650 Rockville Pike ¢ Bethesda, Maryland 20814 @ (301) 530-7036

A =] < QS O (UGyf% as) Xe S|] Y GZ ze FWFEQAA VY \

cab ss/ = ~D = “yy = Xo ae Ss ay? Fo AS = \NG

AWUSS = “ Ee 4 = = = . S TG

ep) . =

VINOSHLINS —S3 lYvVYdit_ LIBRARI ES SMITHSONIAN _ INSTITUTION SO NVINOSH

ek ra z > ete

XS ie oe ce «W o YM wwNR

a ar a 5 : a

ras) -— co ~ —

mae a ar Oo — a

a S J =z me = q

INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI NVINOSHLINS S31YVYsIT LIBRARIES SMITHS

a = - ~ = a 2 |

seal = a .

wo oe oo — w —

_ 2 ~ 5 7 5

> i- > : Lo > rung

“2 = = WWE a Fe,

m Z m \ Se m nr 9

IVINOSHLINS SaiuvyYgI1T LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI NVINOS

: wn : = * phd = ie My) | = ;

= z at ae yam ar ee

r re) < oO NS ee 2 O 4

g a 8 2 wi 8 g

Zz Eas = FE AS = =

> = aN = = NN >" =

> Ww = = 77) oi = w”

MITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILALILSNI_NVINOSHLINS Sa IYVYdIT LIBRARIES

= = 79)

tty, = mi FF ud S ws

‘en < c y = e: <

= = 2 i = ca

re) = fo) on rat co.

> a = a z vi |

IWINOSHLINS SJ3IuVvud ae BRARI ES_ SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI NVINOS

. Pad cout a! — — Ry oo

rae > - » > ras > WY

- z a a = ai

. £ wo = uw = Ww

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILALILSNI Sj SAIUVEGIILLIBRARIES |,

= NG g ne = , ys wee” =

2 ay A 2 S$ GiYE = S

= 2 Uy = 2 Gy = =

eT ie: a

NWINOSHLINS S3INYVUGIT LIBRARI ES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION tS NVINOS

ese 7) = = :

a 4 a . a o 4 gn,

< a < 3 72. < re &

fe 4 sa a We =

co = oO ~ co ue

pits Oo _ oO ~ fe)

fet ead = — = J z

SMITHSONIAN _ INSTITUTION NOILALILSNI _ ~Saldvudi1 LIBRARIES SMITH

” i = ~ ro) ~ oO

og = w = ow = 4

_ = re) > “9 = ¢

~ > a > i ke > = V7,

; 2 = si - = —— Uj

rn Z a z a :

NVINOSHLINS S3IYvyaII a BRARI ES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILALILSNI _ NVINOS

Z . z ‘ 2 z Nea = Wy <

ar | NY = “ Lf <

: z : 2 \o i Y%3

Zz E = i Wy a 7 &

>" = \ = = oom >" =

z 7) uw “ z 7

INSTITUTION NOILALILSNI_ NVINOSHLINS Sa byvddil LIBRARI ES SMITHS

= “s =

= EXE), uJ tt 3 a =

4 OR : = Na: : :

aii | 2 a <x ee \ << = <

(C \Ne, Je] er ~\ oe S on

\ = GYby Re NX ay, Gf is i Oe, NS SJ orm - * oot

W@W 5 wv 5s ae CUS S ee lf

* = Fi w” ;

vud Yo BRARI ES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILMLILSNI_NVINOSHLIWS $3 iuVvud

a : é u 2 &

= co . = cc = a

a. <x 5 Cc < c <

= : - oa = :

re) a O a oO —.

- as a —! va a

PUTION _NOILNLILSNI Ceo ieee hh SV EA TES SiH HSONIAN othe Tibar 10

o a 2 @ w

5 e = ~ > 2

~ > re > — >

= 2 ~ = a ZS

b = o - a * =

pat w sisi = w = 7)

LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILOLILSNI NVINOSHLINS S3iu¥vud

= ” zs nw z a) ;

< “ < * = TY ££ =

z N =i a > yy = .

x : O 7

E Wy 2 = S\S Z » Me E 4

77) os 2 a roe z 7) z

TUTION NOILALILSNI_ NVINOSHLINS S43 lYUVYdit LIBRARI ES SMITHSONIAN _INSTITUTIO

Me = us rr WW , 2

= = a a w » a

-- 4 << a < sre.

= Wa) SY Ea Wu) 5.0 §:

Oo S ~ fo) = fe)

er 2 =! = wl S

YUdIT LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI NVINOSHLINS S3I1YVUS

i. & om re i oe. a

ow — a@ = w —

Pe = tof = = a =

> = a L, a rm ai =

= Gy = = 7 =

mn ROE 2 Gn See” & " g

w — o_— * —

TUTION | RPERAILSN! NVINOSHIINS 93 idvud Mul BRARI ES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTIC

. = =< = of he = < &

) = z a "ee 4 ra

RS OG: 2 a 2 2 g

NN S = =. rE Z .

VUGIT_ LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI NVINOSHLIWS

z = S <

4 é.

S = 2 AN

O O et

z 2 a

TUTION NOILALILSNI_ NVINOSHLINS S3SIYVYUEIT LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN _INSTITUTIC

LiF

i7T LIBRARIES

INSTITUTION

INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI

Saruvugit

Saruvug

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILALILSNI NVINOSHLINS S3iyvug

vugiy LIBRARIES

“w

7 IAN

#" NOILNLILSNI_ NVINOSHLINS

NVINOSHLINS S3IYVUEITLIBRARIES

NVINOSHLIWS

SMITHSONIAN

NWINOSHLIWS

LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTIC

Vln

G 7, be

FRARIES SMITHSONIAN

-RARIES

INLILSNI

LALILSNI

RARIES

INLILSNI