a © li

CON TENTS:

——

PAGE.”

Entomological Papers; being chiefly Descriptions of New Ceylon Pes

with observations on their habits, &c, By J. Nietner, Esq. . I

Description of New and Little known Species of Ceylon Nudibranchiate

Molluses, and Zoophytes. By H. F. Kelaart, M.D., F.L.S., &c. 84

Account of the Works of Irrigation constructed by King Prakrama Bahoo,

contained in the Sixty-eighth and Seventy-ninth Chapters of the Maha

Wanso, with Introductory Remarks. By Louis de Zoysa, Esq., Modliar 140

Topographical and Statistical Account of the District of es

By A. Oswald Brodie, Esq. aft AG) een acd, saw)

On the Principles of Singhalese Chronology. Ae the Rey.-C. Alwis igt

Remarks on the supposed identity between Nagasena and ey By

James De Alwis, Esq., Assistant Secretary : 195

An Introductory Paper on the Mele ees of Singhalese Music. ee (ore

Nell, Esq. 5 . 200

A Synopsis of the Saiva Siddantam. By M. cone Esqy, Advocate... 207

Terms of Address and Modes of Salutation in use amongst the Singhalese.

By James De Alwis, Esq., Assistant Secretary 500 on 219

APPENDIX :—Proceedings of Meetings, &c. ... on8 ie ie

Ie. 8

JOURNAL

OF THE

CEYLON BRANCH

OF THE

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY,

1856-61.

VOLUME 11:

—

EDITED BY THE HONORARY SECRETARY.

“THE DESIGN OE THE SOCIETY IS TO INSTITUTE AND PROMOTE ENQUIRIES INTO THE HISTORY,

RELIGION, LITERATURE, ARTS, AND SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE PRESENT ANC FORMER

INHABITANTS_OF THE ISLAND, WITH ITS GEOLOGY, MINEROLOGY, !TS CLIMATE

AND METEOROLOGY, ITS BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY ”

COLOMBO:

PRINTED AT THE “CEYLON OBSERVER? PRESS.

1894,

sy i ¥

Velo ay,

CONTENTS, OF. VOLUME. III.

No. 9.—1856-58.

_ Entomological Papers, being chiefly Descriptions of

Ceylon Coleoptera, with observations on their

habits, &c.—By J. NIETNER, Esq. ...

Description of: new and little-known Species of

Ceylon Nudibranchiate Molluscs, and Zoophytes.

—By EH. F. KELAART, Hsq., M.D. ee

Account of the Works of Irrigation constructed by

King Pardkrama Bahu, contained in the 68th

and 79th Chapters of the Mahawanso, with

Introductory Remarks.—bBy L. DE Zoysa,

Mudalivyar: ah =. sea

Topographical and Statistical Account of nie District

of Nuwarakalawiya.—By A. O. BRODIE, Esq.

No. 10.— 1856-58.

On the Principles of Sinhalese Chronology.—By the

Rev. C. ALWIS

remarks on the Supposed Identity between Nagaséna

and Ndgdrjuna.—By JAMES DE ALWIS, Kisq.,

Assistant Secretary am

An Introductory Paper on the Tag aeieistion of

Sinhalese Music.—By LOUIS NELL, Esq.

A Synopsis of the “‘Saiva Siddantam.”—By M.

COOMARASAMY, Esq., Advocate

Terms of Address and Modes of Salutation in use

amonest the Sinhalese.—By JAMES DE ALWIS,

Hsq., “Assistant Secretary Aes

APPENIDX :—Proceedings of Meetings, sa

No. 11.—1858-59.*

The Laws of the Buddhist Priesthood.—-By the Rev.

D. J. GOGLRLY 5

* Pages 253-276 have been wronely numbered 1-24,

PAGE,

163

Notes on the Mythological Legends of the Sinhalese.

—by J. DE ALWIs, Esq., Assistant Secretary...

A Statistical Enquiry into the state of Crime in

Ceylon.—By J. CAPPER, Esq., Hen Se-

cretary

Sinhalese Rhetorie.—By J. DE mere. Ba, 2s

tant Secretary a

Seripture Botany of Ceylon. Re W. ences ae

Remarks on the Supposed identity between Nagar-

juna and Nagaséna.—By J. DE ALWIS, Usa.

Assistant Secretar y

Expenditure on Public Works in Geslea —By :

CAPPER, Esq., Honorary Secretary . ve

APPENDIX :—Proceedings of Meconee? see

Society's Circular Be, a

Correspondence concerning the Mauritius Kxhi-

bition us ses

Correspondence with the Society of Arts

No. £%.—1860-61.

Health and Disease in Ceylon.—By Boyp Moss, a a

F.R.C.8S 500 wee

Owinamon "By JAMES D’ALWIS, Esq.

Notes on the District of Badulla and its Natural

Products.—By W. C. ONDATJIE, Esq., Assistant

Colonial Surgeon sea

Nhe Difference between the Psi and the Prdkrit-

Magadhi of Vararuchi.—By JAMES D’ALWIS,

Assistant Secretary ee ee

On Health and Diet, with especial reference to

Children and Youths in Ceylon.—By BARCROFT

BOAKE, B.A., Vice-President, Asiatic Society,

Ceylon’ ice

APPENDIX Spocneiines of Siete &C. ps

Letters from Sir J. KE, Tennent and Dr.

Buist to the Athenewn, relative to the

Fresh Water Wells of Jaffna

asl

On oN A Ly

THE CEYLON BRANCH

OF THE

ROYAL ASEATIC SOCIETY.

—

Entomological Papers ; being chiefly Descriptions of New Ceylon

Coleoptera, with such Observations on their habits, &c., as

appear in any way interesting. By J. NIETNER, Es¢.,

Member of the Society of Naturalists of Berlin, Entomological

Society of Stettin, &c. (Nos. L—IV. reprinted. )

No. I.

Introductory Note on the publication of New Species under

disadvantages such as describing entomologists necessarily labour

under in countries remote from the European centres of science.

I little doubt that the following descriptions of new

Coleoptera will meet with anything but approbation from

the entomological world at home. As, however, in spite of

this anticipation of an ungracious reception, I do not for the

present intend to desist from my purpose of publishing such

descriptions, I may as well try to vindicate this measure by

setting forth the reasons which induce me to consider the

difficulties which beset the path of the entomological author

in this country as not insurmountable.

The objections raised against me will be these:—consider-

ing the state entomological literature is still in, that is to

say, considering that it has not, generally speaking, been

condensed into a certain limited and obtainable number of

4 1857. B :

2 Descriptions of New

volumes, as is the case in the higher branches of Zoology

and Botany; that, on the contrary, the bulk of it consists of

fragments which float without order in the misty and un-

fathomable ocean of scientific journals; it is next to impossible

that an individual entomologist abroad should surround him-

self with this shapeless mass of learning, and keep himself by

this or other means, so well informed of the details of the

actual progress of the science, as not to be exposed to mistakes

of one kind or another, but more especially to creating syno-

nymy in attempting to work independently. It will further

be said against me, that not having the facilities and the

wholesome check which arise from the diligent use of extensive

and well named collections, not even having the gratification

of a brother entomologist’s views and opinions on doubtful

cases, it will be impossible even to determine whether an insect

be new or not; and from these reasons (the resumé will be)

entomologists abroad should confine themselves to collecting

and observing the habits of the objects of their attention, but

they should never go to print with matters on which it is an

impossibility for the ablest among them to be quite compe~

tent. These arguments are unfortunately too true, but still,

i think, admit of being mitigated sufficiently to come to final

conclusions less disheartening to the entomological student

abroad, than the above.

First of all, every entomologist gives preference to a

certain order of insects—say Coleoptera—and in this even, in

almost all cases, to one or two particular families. In study-

ing for the publication of new species, under the disadvantages

jast mentioned, he will confine himself to this order, or perhaps

family. Now, although as objected above, the information

existing on this particular branch, is for the most part frag-

mentary, still there are certain families, on which it has

received a tangible shape, through condensation by old hands:

Burmeister’s Lamellicornia, Dejean’s Carabidae, Hrichson’s

Ceylon Coieopiera, &e. 3

Staphylinide, Schoenherr’s Curculionidae, Boheman’s Cassidz,

Westwood’s Pausside, ete., as well as the latter author's

general work on the families, and Lacordaire’s on the genera

Coleopterorum, diligently consulted, go as guides a long way,

and should, although some of them have by the rapid progress

of the science, grown rather antiquated, guard against a

number of mistakes of a systematic nature. As to whether a

beetle be new or not, I admit, that in forming an opinion on

this question, the entomologist, situated as above, will have

quite as much to be guided by a certain tact (not clearly

definable, but understood by scientific men) than by anything

else; and | am forced to concede, that under any circumstances

almost, it is totally impossible to arrive at an indisputable cer-

fainty either the one way or the other. This, however, ex-

cludes by no means the possibility of his forming an opinion

with so much precision as to enable him to pronounce in the

matter witha very high degree of confidence, and all probability

in his favour. In attempting to come to a decision on this

difficult point, he will receive a first superficial idea, from

careful reflection on certain accidental circumstances, such

as size, scarcity, er other peculiarities of the insect in question.

This idea, whichever way it may incline, will then either gain

or lose in strength by diligent reference to his library, until

at length, with a certain amount of tact and judgment, he will

arrive at a result, which under such circumstances, must

earry much weight with it. I shall illustrate this case by an

example:—If, for instance, after collecting five years in Ceylon

generally, and in the Western Province more especially, I

find at the latter place an insect—say the Chlenius pulcher

described below—for the first time—am I] not entitled te

consider it as very scarce? If on consulting my library

I discover nothing which can possibly refer to it (finding that

not a single Chlenius is marked as occurring in Ceylon), are

not the chances greatly in favour of its being an undescribed

4 Descriptions of New

species?* If again, I collect beetles as small and inconspicuous

as the Trichopteryx described below, and consider at the same

time, that, although they are in certain localities of common

occurrence, no professional Coleopterologist has ever collected

before me in this Island; if, moreover, again my library offers

nothing that could possibly refer to them individually (there

being hardly an Asiatic species mentioned ),— am I not under

these circumstances justified in considering them as un-

described? Decidedly.—Cireumstances like these would in-

deed be altogether conclusive, if there was not a chance of

the beetle’s occurring in some neighbouring country, and its

having thence found its way into the normal collections of

Europe. The possibility of such being the case, enhances

the difficulties of the case, of course, very materially; and I

am forced to admit, that the means of overcoming them are

very unreliable. One deficiency descriptions of new species

furnished under these circumstances will almost always have,

* Synonymy is, and always will be, an unavoidable evil to which

descriptive science is liable under any circumstances. My arguments

are merely intended to uphold the possibility to reduce it to such a na-

ture, and to limit it to so small an extent, as to he of little importance

if weighed against the merits the publications in which it occurs may be

possessed of in other respects, and, therefore, to be pardonable. In case,

however, I should eventually ascertain that I am mistaken on this point,

J shall then abandon my pursuits, or at all events, my present mode of

following them up. I feel certain, that every enthusiastic naturalist,

who has travelled in foreign parts, will support my cause, and understand

and appreciate my striving to become the herald of my own discoveries.

I am well aware, that there is more than one way to attain this end,

and that the one I have selected is perhaps not the best ; but circumstances ~

have hitherto barred me from those upon which I might lay myself less

open to censure. In positions like mine only, where they are my prin-

cipal support, books are well tested ; and whoever has tested them under

such circumstances, will know that much of the synonymy created

abroad, is referrible to them, and nof to the student.

Ceylon Coleoptera, §e. 5

namely the comparison (so desirable, if not essential, in large

genera) with another allied and known species, will be

wanting ; but this stands or falls with the system from which

it is inseparable.

I think I have said enough to shew, that the disadvantages

the entomologist encounters here, or in other places similarly

situated, in conscientiously attempting to publish new species

may—(his principal assistance being perseverance, a good li-

brary, and tact—entomological instinct I am almost tempted

to call it}—I am far from saying entirely, be overcome so far

as to expose him, from want of resources in the execution of

his plan, to xo more mistakes than entomologists expose them-

selves to under more favourable circumstances from neglecting

them. But I am not satisfied with obtaining the simple grant

of permission to describe on the spot a part of what he

collects. I claim more for the entomologist abroad :—I wish

to show that he should naturally be expected, nay desired,

to do so; for although he labours under distressing disad-

vantages in some respects, he happily enjoys a proportionate

share of advantages in others. It is unsatisfactory in the

extreme for an enthusiastic entomologist to be obliged to

let his collectings go out of his own hands,—scee others reap

the honors from them, which are to be reaped on such occa-

sions, or perhaps see as it were a gulf close over them,—hear

no more of them, and find himself forgotten. For what is

a mere collector? Let him display as much industry as

possible, he is hardly looked upon as an entomologist, cer-

tainly, as long as he is prevented from publishing anything,

not asa scientific one. Now, if such a man merely desists

from publishing the fruits of his researches from want of re-

sources to assist him to go creditably through such a task,—if

he suffers his collections to go out of his hands, because he istoo

true a lover of science not to sec the credit in a great mea-

sure due to himself reaped rather by another than to hoard

6 Descriptions of New

up his entomological treasures, a useless heap, eventually to

be destroyed by moths and time:—I say, that a man who acts

upon principles like those, finds himself not seldom dishear-

tened in the prosecution of his studies under difficulties such

as I have set forth. If, however, as I have endeavoured to

point out, these difficulties can be overcome toa very consi-

derable extent, is anything more natural than that he should

be the herald of his discoveries himself? Could anything be

more unkind and ungenerous on the part of his scientific

brethren at home, than to oppose and discourage him by their

disapprobation ? I might enlarge on this subject, which has

been a sore one with me for a long time, to a great extent,

but I think this is sufficient to direct the reader into the

train of my ideas and to enable him to follow it up.

I hasten therefore to conclude. As mentioned above, the

Tropical entomologist has a proportionate share of advantages

to balance what falls to his lot of the contrary ; one of these

advantages which he has over his brethren at home is, that

he has an opportunity of seeing and studying alive what can

at home only be examined ina state differing more or less

from that of life. Therefore, if he is enabled and expected to

describe new species, it is moreover highly desirable for the

sake of the promulgation of sound information, that he should

do so, that he should avail hunself of this, his principal ad-

vantage, and describe, fresh from nature, as many of his fa-

vourites and their habits as possible ; and discouraging him

in such an undertaking on any of the above grounds would be

discouraging the progress of science in general.

Ceylon Coleoptera, §c.

1. CHLANIUS pulcher. N.

C. elongatus, subconvexus, subglabratus, sneo-viridis, elytris ob-

scurioribus, limbo pedibusque flavis, subtus piceus. Long. corp. 63 lin.

Caput oblongum nitidissimum, ante oculos 2-impressum. Mentum

dente fortiter excavato. Antenne art.3° quarto sesquilongiore. Thorax

obcordatus basi angustatus quadratus, latitudine antica quarta parte

longior, parce punctulatus, antice lateribus deflexus, postice dorsoque

planus, basi 2-impressus. Elytra striata, ad strias, preecipue apicem

versus, subtilissime pilosa, flavo-marginata. Pedes flavi, spinuliscastaneis.

Abdomen flavo-marginatum.

Specimen singulum m. in ripis Mahze-Oye fluvil prope Negombo cepi.

Distinguished by its elongate shape. The head is of a

bright green colour with the labrum and the mandibles of a

deep, and the antenne and palpi of a light brown, the latter

being darkened towards the end. The thorax is of the same

colour as the head, reflecting a copper hue from the back, its

anterior angles are obtuse, the basal ones being right. The

elytra are of the same greenish copper colour but darker, they

are impressed with longitudinal lines, which are bordered on

each side by a row of minute hairs. They as well as the

abdomen have yellowish margins.

2, CuLmNtius rugulosus. N.

C. subconvexus, subglabratus, thorace occipiteque rugulosis cupreis,

elytris nigro-viridibus, pedibus, elytrorum limbo lunulisque apicalibus

flavis, subtus piceus, abdomine apice margineque flavis. Long. corp.

64 lin.

Caput fronte 2-impressum, subtilissime longitudinaliter rugulosum.

Menti dens laciniis extus rotundatis. Thorax ovatus basi quadratus,

lateribus valde deflexus, postice obsolete 2-impressus, parce punctatus,

‘subtiliter transversimrugulosus. Hlytra striata, striis apicem versus per

‘paria coéunsibus, ad strias pilosa, apice utrinque lunula flava signata.

8 Descriptions of New

Pectus abdomenque picea, hoe segmentis 2 ultimis, pracedento dimidio

margineque flavis.

Specimen unicum f. ubi preecedentem cepi.

The head finely longitudinally, the thorax transversely

rugose ; the latter with rounded and deflexed sides. The

mandibles are of deep brown, the palpi and antenne of

yellowish colour darkened towards the tip. The lobes of the

mentum tooth are externally rounded. The elytra are marked

by two subapical spots of yellowish colour and semilunar

shape, (the back of the lunule being turned towards the

suture.) The strie verge near the apex by twos into each

other. The abdomen is distinguished by having a yellow

margin and apex.

3. SCARITES minor. N.

S. elongatus, niger, nitidus, subtus nigro piceus, pedibus piceis, tarsis,

antennis palpisque castaneis. Long. corp, 5 lin. lat. 14 lin.

Caput subquadratum, ante oculos 2-impressum, pone oculos irreeular-

iter suleatulum. Mandibule valide inter medium et basin fortiter

dilatatee, obtuse dentate, dextera dente obtuso subapicali, supra sub-

tusque longitudinaliter sulcate. Antenne art. 1° sequentium trium-,

2° tertii prope longitudine. Thorax oblongo-quadratus, angulis anteri-

oribus obtusis, posterioribus oblique truncatis. Elytra thoracis capitis-

que prope longitudine, striata, ante medium ad striam 2™ uni-,

apicem versus ad striam 3m 2-punctata, punctis piliferis, basi granulata,

angulis oblique-truncatis. Pedes anteriores tibiis apice extus 5 dentatis,

dentibus 2 ultimis parvis, omnes tarsis subtus leviter excavatis. _

In proy. occid. arenis humidis sub vegetab. putrescent. specimina

nonnulla legi.

Searce, but little distineuished excepting by its small size.

The head is subquadrate, in front with two deep longitudinal

impressions, behind the eyes finely sulcated. The labrum is

of the usual shape, the eyes are not very prominent; the an-

tenn are of about the same length asthe head, the first joint is

about as long as the three following together, the second, which

Ceylon Coleoptera, &c. 9

- is generally longer than the third, is in this case of the same

lenoth, joints 1-4 are naked, 5-11 pilose, increasing towards

the tip gradually in size and thickness, taking at the same

time a subquadratic and depressed shape. The mandibles are

strong, much dilated and dentated from before the middle to

the base, the right one having an additional subapical tooth.

The maxille also are strong, but slightly bent at the apex,

where they are also slightly excavated. The labial palpi have

the last joint longer than the third elongated and elliptic. The

thorax is oblong, with the basal angles obliquely truncated.

The elytra are oval, striated, granulated at the base, and

have, as has also the thorax, a narrow margin. The anterior

tarsi are furnished externally with 5 teeth, the two last ones of

which, however, are very small, the posterior legs are simi-

larly provided, but the teeth are indistinct. The joints of the

tarsi are slightly excavated below. ‘The sides of the body

below are rugose.

4, CLIVINA rugosifrons. N.

C. ferruginea, capite, thorace abdomineque piceis. Long. corp. 44 lin.

lat. 124 lin.

Caput rugosum, inter oculos elevatum, elevatione plana antice profunde

l-impressa. Mentum lobis subtiliter suleatis. Antenne robuste tho-

racis medium vix attingentes, art. ultimo elongato penultimo-, art. 20

tertio sesqui longiore. Thorax subquadratus antice parum angustatus,

elytrorum latitudine, subtus parce punctatus, prosterno sulcato. Elytra

striata, in striis punctata. Pedes tibiis anterioribus apice extus 4 dentatis,

subtus excavatis, reliquis fortiter spinosis, tarsis articulis margine apicali

setoso.

In prov. occid. sub vegetab. putrescent. infrequentissime legi.

A large and distinguished species. The head is very

rugose, the clypeus is contracted behind the apical angles, and

then produced again into another pair of angles. The labrum

is transverse, slightly sinuated in front, with theanglesrounded

and setose. The mentum is quadrate, the lobes rounded at

1857, C

10 Descriptions of New

the apex and slightly suleated, the tooth is strong, of equal

length with lobes and of the typical spearheaded form. The

ligula has the apical angle much elongated, terminating in a

membranaceous bristle which is bifurcate at the tip. The

maxillary palpi have the last joint elongate, cylindrico-conic;

that of the labial ones is still more elongate, elliptic. The

antenna have the basal joints elongate, those towards the tip

rounded. They and the legs are hairy, otherwise the insect

is of a bright polished surface.

5. CuIvINA elongatula. N.

©. elongata, subdepressa, supra nigro-picea, subtus picea, pedibus

elytrorumque margine castaneis, antennis oreque dilutioribus. Long.

corp. vix 8 lin. lat. 2 lin.

Caput triangulare, subtiliter punctato-rugosum. Palpi articulo ultimo

apice leviter truncato. “Thorax oblonge quadratus, infra apicem leviter

sinuosus, parce obsoleteque transversim strigosus. Elytra striata, in striis

punctata, ad striam 5M utrinque 4 punctata. Subtus parce punctata.

Ubi precedentem frequenter legi.

I have not dissected the labium of this species, which, how-

ever, isat once recognised by its depressed, and, in proportion

to its width, very long shape. ‘The labrum, antenne and legs

are so much like those of the former, that they need no further

description.

6. CLIivINA maculata. N.

C. picea, elytris ferrugineis infra medium macula nigra obsolet

ornatis, pedibus intermed. et post. oreque brunneo-testaceis, pedibus ant.

antennisque obscurioribus. Long. corp. 2 lin.

Caput oblonge quadratum, rugosum, costis 5 magis minusve interruptis

ad marginem anteriorem in dentes 4 productis munitum. Palpi art. ulti-

mo basi intus incrassato. Antenne art. 2-3subequalibus. Thorax sub- ©

quadratus leviter rotundatus. Hlytra striata in striis profunde punctata.

Ubi precedentes specimen singulum legi.

As distinguished as the preceding two species. The palpi

and the mentum appear to me of a somewhat extraordimary

Ceylon Coleoptera, §e. Lk

form. ‘The last joint of the former is considerably and more

inflated at the base than in any other Ceylon species that has

hitherto come under my notice, whilst the others are of a very

curved appearance in both the maxillary and labial palpi. The

insect is however, easily distinguished by its general facies,

which is rather like that of a Dyschirius, from which genus,

however, the mentum alone is sufficient to separate it. I may

as well remark here, that, although the Island is well supplied

with Scarites and Clivinas, I have hitherto not discovered a

single Dyschirius, a genus so well represented in Kurope. Of

the three Clivinas just described, single specimens only have

been in my possession for a considerable time. There are

three or four more species met with about Colombo, but these

being of common occurrence, I abstain from describing them

here, as they may possibly be amongst those described by

Putzeys or others from the Indian continent.

7. CEDICHIRUS alatus. N.

Ci. alatus, setosus, nitidus, rufo-testaceus, therace dilutiore, capite,

elytris abdominisque segmentis 3 ultimis nigris; elytris apice 2-maculatis,

maculis rufo-testaceis; pedibus flavis, femoribus apice tibiisque basi

nigrescentibus ; antennis palpisque maxill. basi obscuris, apice testaceis,

reliquis oris partibus rufo-piceis. Long, corp. 32 lin.

CE. pederino Er. simillimus, preter colorum distributionem differt

tamen alis, elytrorum antennarumque articuli ultimi sculptura. An-

tenne art. ultimo penultimo aequali nisi paulo minore, apice fortiter

truncato leviterque excavato. Thorax (i. pederini, dorso punctis

biseriatim impressus, serie interna vel centrali elliptica punctis minori-

bus magis inter se approximatis, externa vel submarginali punctis magnis

distantibus. Hlytra oblonge subquadrata, infra medium rotundata,

thorace dongiora et duple fere ampliora (utrumque elytron thoracis fere

magnitudine), basi parte thoracis adjacente duplo-, infra medium illius

latitudine antica plus tertia parte latiora. Os, pedes et abdomen &.

pederini,

Pederorum more victitare videtur ; in eorum societate in lacus Colomb-

ensis ripis infrequentissime legi; illis minus gracilis atque minus agilic.

12 Descriptions of New

I have not had an opportunity of examining specimens of

either of the three CGidichiri hitherto described. However, I

have before me Erichson’s figure and description of the

Sicilian Qi. pederinus, with which I find my species

strongly to agree. It differs, however, from the former

materially in the following three points, viz. the wings, the

sculpture of the wing-covers, and the last antennal joint.

The fact that this species has wings, would render an

alteration in Erichson’s diagnosis of the genus necessary,

it being characterized therein as apterous. ‘The elytra are

not so much contracted and rounded at the base, and,

being longer than the thorax, have therefore a more ob-

long, subquadratic appearance. As in the above typical

species, they are, however, rounded at the sides and broadset

a little below the middle. They are about twice as broad at

the base as the adjoining part of the thorax; and in their

broadest part rather more than a third broader than the tho-

yax in its. The third point, in which the two species differ,

is the last jomt of the antenne, which, in this case, is strongly

truncated at the tip and slightly excavated. They are further

distinguished by the distribution of the colours, my species

being of a dark yellowish red, thorax lighter, head, elytra and

three last abdominal segments black, elytra with two reddish

spots at the apex, legs yellowish, at the apex of the femora

and base of the tibiz blackish, the mouth is brown, the maxill.

palpi yellowish with the three first joints dark at the base, the

antennz have the six basal joints dark excepting at the apex,

where they, as well as the five remaining ones, are yellowish.

In all other points I find the insect to agree entirely with the

typical Gi. paderinus: the palpi, legs, and anal segment of —

abdomen are of the same structure, the hairy vestiture is ex-

actly the same in the different parts of the body of my species

as it is in the corresponding ones of Erichson’s.

Ceylon Coleoptera, §c. 13

No. Il.

I. AncuistTa, n.g. N. (Fam. CARABID®, trib. LEBIIDZ&.)

Corpus depressum, ovatum. Caput magnum, oculis mediocribus, semi-

globosis, prominulis. Mentum dente magno obtuso, lebis parum breviore,

his extus rotundatis, apice acuminatis. Palpi robusti, maxillares art.

ultimo magno ovato, apice obtuso, labiales art. ultimo valde securiformi.

Ligula cornea apice obtuse acuminata, labri marginem anteriorem attin-

gens. (Paraglosse mihi adhue non dissectee.) Labrum transversim quad_

ratum. Mandibule simplices apice arcuate et acuminate. Antenne

robustz thoracis basin attingentes, art. 1o mediocri, 2° brevi, 30 quarto

paulo longiore, 4-10 subzqualibus, 11° penultimo parum longiore.

Thorax longitudine latior, angulis anticis rotundatis, medio obsolete

angulatus, basi angustatus, quadratus. Elytra apice quadrate truncata.

Pedes robusti tarsis art. 40 profunde bilobo, unguibus fortiter pectinatis.

8. ANCHISTA modesta. N.

A brunneo-testacea, elytris (maculis 2 obsoletis subhumeralibus ex-

ceptis) obscurioribus, oculis nigris, abdomine-piceo. Long. corp. 4 lin.

Caput fronte medio leviter uniimpressa. Thorax profunde longitudi-

naliter canaliculatus, lateribus fortiter depressus. Elytra in regione

media depressa apicem versus parum dilatata, striato-punctata, ad striam

2m punctis 2 majoribus subapicalibus, cum thorace marginata.

Specimen singulum m. prope Colombo nocte ad lumen cepi.

The characteristics of this new genus, are those of the g.

Calleida excepting the ligula which in this case is obtusely

acuminated, the last joint of the maxill. palpi which is obtuse

at the apex, and the thorax, which is not as in Calleida longer

than broad, but the reverse. From Cymindis it would differ

principally in the deeply bilobed fourth tarsal jot, and in

some other minor points, but it is difficult to say what the

true characteristics of this genus are, if even Lacordaire

uses the particle “ou” not less than five times in the diag-

nosis he gives of it in his g. d. Col. It would also appear to

be allied to Plochionus, differing from this g., however, in

the obtuse extremity of the terminal joint of the maxill.

14 Descriptions of New

palpi, and the deeply bilobed fourth tarsal jomt. However,

if Lacordaire’s diagonses are exact, I feel justified in sepa-

rating Anchista from all these genera. Thename “Anchista”

has reference to the affinity of the insect to the two genera just

mentioned, whilst the specific name “ modesta,” refers to its

inconspicuous colours. Amongst its peculiarities weight ought

to be laid upon the plumpness of the palpi, in fact all other

parts of the mouth and even the whole head, which was very

striking to me. |

Like many of my best Carabide, I found this insect at night

on the table-whither it had been attracted by the ight. The

anterior tarsi are dilated and furnished with hairy brushes

below, longest at the apex of the lobes of the fourth joint.

TI. Exxiotia. x. g. N. (FAM. CARABIDS, trib. LEBIIDZ.)

Corpus subconvexum, ovatum. Caput mediocre, oculis maximis.

Mentum leviter transversim emarginatum, edentatum, lobis acuminatis.

Ligula submembranacea apice truncata, paraglossis connatis marginera

anteriorem parum superantibus, obtusis. Palpi elongati, art. ultimo

elliptico, acuminato. Labrum magnum transversum, integrum, mandi-

bulas fere obtegens. Mandibule valide, edentate. Antenne robustee fili-

formes, humeros superantes, art. 10 mediocri, 2° brevi, 3° quinti prope

longitudine, 4° precedente breviore, 2-4 obconicis, 5-10 equalibus,

eylindricis, 110 precedente tertia parte longiore, 4-11 pilosis. Thorax

parvus, capite minor, transversus, longitudine duplo latior ; antice leviter

emarginatus, lateribus elevato-marginatus, ante medium lateribus ro-

tundatus, medio fortiter angulatus, infra medium valde abrupteque

angustatus, basi truncatus, subtus cylindricus. Seutellum leviter

excavatum. LElytra ovata, marginata, apice sat fortiter truncata.

Pedes omnes subzquales, simplices, tenues, tarsis cylindricis art. 3-4

magis minusve trigonis, unguibus simplicibus. Prosternum carinatum,

In honorem Dom. Hon. Walteri Ellioti (Maderaepa) naiuraliste

diligentissimi, meritissimi, nomen imposui.

9. ELLioTiA pallipes. N.

E. supra nigra, nitida, thorace scutelloque rufo-testaceis, labro elytr-

orumque limbo atque sutura brunneo-testaccis; subtus piceus, pectore

Ceylon Coleoptera, Se. 15

rufo-testaceo, pedibus aibidis, his as oreque (palpis obscurioribus

exceptis) testaceis. Long. corp. 2} lin.

Caput ad antennarum Settee et inter oculos utrinque profunde

impressum. Thorax basi rugosus, ante medium utrinque uni-impressus,

linea media longitudinali divisus. Elytra punctato-striata, infra humeros

leviter impressa.

In ripis lacus Colombensis sub veget. putrescent. mens. Jul. non

infrequenter legi. Agilis est et avolare semper expeditus.

A pretty and very interesting little insect, about whose

systematic position Lam not quite satisfied, however I pro-

visionally place it towards the end of the true Lebiide. I

find it most to agree with the descriptions of the g. Penta-

gonica S. G. and Rhombodera R. with neither of which,

however, it is identical. The head is distinguished by the

large and prominent eyes, and fourdeep impressions, two larger

ones at the root of the antennez, two smaller ones eee the

eyes, also by a very distinct neck which connects it with the

thorax; the labrum is large, transverse and entire, with the

angles rounded off and the base narrowed; the mentum is but

slightly transversely emarginated, edentate; the ligula is trun-

cated at the tip, the paraglosse adhere to it, reach a little be-

yond it, and are obtuse at the apex; the palpi are rather long

with the last joint elliptic, acuminate; the antenne are strong,

filiform, and reach beyond the shoulders, joints 5-10 are of

equal length and cylindric, 4-11 are pilose. The most re-

markable part of the insect is, however, the thorax, which is

of a subrhomboidal shape, transverse, smaller than the head,

as broad again as long, it has two strong lateral angles at the

middle, each furnished with a strong bristle, the anterior

part has the sides rounded, the posterior abruptly obliquely

contracted, at the base it is cylindric. As a specific distine-

tion of the thorax, 1 mention, moreover, that a the present

species it is impressed with two deep punctures before the mid-

dle and that it is rugose at the case. The abdomen is slightly

16 Descriptions of New

peduncled. ‘The scutellum is slightly excavated. The elytra

are oval, rather convex and impressed with rows of punctures.

The legs are simple and weak, apparently equal in both

sexes. The anterior tarsi are a little stouter than the rest,

but not dilated nor furnished with any additional clothing

below, the anterior tibia are deeply notched. As to the

colour: the head and wing. covers are black, the latter with

the suture and margin of a light brown and highly polished,

the thorax is reddish, and the legs are whitish. The insect

is very agile, and ever ready to take to its wings. It is of

quite a peculiar appearance, imparted to it by its large eyes,

small curiously shaped thorax and rather plump elytra and

abdomen. I may further mention, that I have observed the

fourth joint of the maxillary palpi to collapse when the speci-

mens become quite dry, so as to give them a different, spoon-

like appearance, apt to mislead any one who has not examined

fresh specimens.

10. TRICHOPFERYX cursitans. N.

T. ovata, subconvexa, pubescens, supra obscure senea, elytris eneo-

brunneis, subtus picea, pedibus oreque testaceis, antennis art. 3-11 ni-

erescentibus. Long. corp. 2/5 lin.

Antennarum clava art. 2 primis ovatis, ultimo conico, acuminato.

Thorax amplissimus, elytris tertia parte minor, convexus, angulis acutis,

basi humeros amplectens, apice angustatus. Elytra subdepressa, sub-

quadrata, apicem versus parum angustata, truncata, abdomine multo

breviora. ‘Tibie medio incrassate. Coxe postice maxime dilatate.

Mesosternum carinatum. :

Sub veget. putrescent. exsiccescentibus in prov. occid. copiosa.

A rather large species, commonly met with in this part of -

_ the Island, under rotting vegetable substances somewhat dried

up. It is very agile and ready to take to its wings, which

are of the beautiful typical construction, about twice the length

of the body, and in dead specimens frequently produced

pe P

Ceylon Coleoptera, &e. 17

behind. These insects vary a little as to shape, some being

more narrowed behind than others, and also as to the exact

number of the abdominal segments left uncovered by the ely-

tra, generally three or four. The head is large, but exhibits

nothing abnormal or extraordinary ; the thorax is very large,

emarginated in front and behind, with the angles acute, the

basal ones enveloping the shoulders; the wing-covers are

subquadratic, with the angles rounded off and a little narrow-

ed behind ; the legs have the tibie incrassated in the middle,

and the posterior coxe very much dilated and distant from

each other; inall other respects they are typical. The shape

of the body is that of an egg, broadest at the shoulders,

gently narrowed towards the apex of the abdomen, and round-

ed off towards the head.

11. TRICHOPTERYX tmmatura. N.

T. precedenti similis, differt tamen colore supra enco-testacea, subtus

testacea, antennarum art. 3-11 nigrescentibus; differt etiam corpore ro-

bustiore, magis quadrato, capite paulo majore, thorace minus convexo,

parum ampliore, elytris abdomen totum vel fere totum cbtegentiis. Pedes,

antenne etc. omnino precedentis. Long. corp. 4 lin.

In preecedentis societate specimina nonnulla legi.

f somewhat the appearance of an immature individual of

the former, but sufficiently distinct to be formed into a new

species. ‘The insect is altogether of a different appearance,

imparted to it by the greater general plumpness of the body,

the larger head, the less convex, but at the same time, pos-

sibly still ampler thorax, the altogether more quadratic shape,

etc. The remark regarding the exact number of abdominal

segments, left uncovered by the elytra, applies to this and all

other species as well. ‘The present one has generally the last

two segments uncovered.

12. TricHoPpTERYX invisiiils. N.

T. ovata, subdepressa, subparallela, pilosa, supra obscure enea, subtus

1857, D

18 Descriptions of New

picea, pedibus, abdomine, antennis oreque testaceis. Long. corp. vix

1/5 lin.

Thorax amplus, elytris sesqui minor, convexus, angulis posticis humeros

vix superantibus. Elytra oblonge quadrata, angulis rotundatis, sub-

depressa, truncata, abdomen totum vel fere totum obtegentia. Coxe pos-

ticee approximate. ‘Tarsi typicis minus elongati, art. 3° praecedentibus

haud multo longiore.

Cum T. cursitante vietitat; frequenter legi.

A very pretty and very distinguished species. Its most

striking peculiarity consists,in the posterior coxe, which are

as little distant from each other as those of the anterior legs,

and almost touch each other, and also in the shortness of the

tarsi. The head with the antenne, the mesosternum, the

tibize, which are incrassated in the middle, the posterior coxe,

with regard to the enlargement, are quite typical. However,

the thorax and elytra differ again from those of T. cursitans,

(which in every respect may be looked upon as the typical

representative of the family in Ceylon, and which is here re-

ferred to as such) the former by the shortness of the posterior

angles, which can hardly be said to envelope the shoulders, the

elytra by being less or not at all narrowed behind, giving an

oblong rather than an oval shape tothe insect. Although in

length only about one half shorter, it is in bulk certainly one

fourth smaller than T. cursitans, and, although probably the

smallest Ceylon beetle, it is distinguished at first sight.

13. Privium subquadratum. N.

P. subquadratum, subconvexum, pilosum, obseure sneo-testaceum,

thorace dilutiore. Long. corp 4 lin.

Caput mediocre. Antennarum clava art. 1° inverte conico, 20 sub-

cylindrico, ultimo elongato-ovato. ‘Thorax convexus, angulis basalibus

humeros fortissime amplectentibus, apicem versus valde rotundatus, apice —

leviter sinuatus. Elytra quadrata, abdomen non totum obtegentia.

Scutellum parvum. Pedes robusti tibiis apicem versus incrassatis, tarsis

art. 3° primi secundique longitudine, his subbilobis subtus penicillatis,

coxis posticis simplicibus distantibus. Mesosternum non ecarinatum.

Ceylon Coleoptera, §c. 19

Ubi precedentes sed infrequenter occurrit.

The g. Ptilium is the repository for all the anomalies of the

family, its characteristics therefore are very vague; but if the

absence of the mesosternal carina and the simplicity of the

posterior coxe, are the determining features amongst them, the

present species, in spite of a variety of anomalies it exhibits

in other respects, belongs to it. The head is of middling size;

the antennz robust with the first joint of the club of the shape

of an inverted cone, the second rather cylindrical, narrowed at

the base, and the last elongate, ovate. The thorax is of very

different structure from that of the foregoing species of the

family, the basal angles being unusually far produced beyond

the shoulders, towards the head it is strongly and rapidly

rounded off, being thus altogether of a semicircular shape,

at the appex it is merely slightly sinuated, and the head is

inserted rather below than in this sinuosity, the whole thorax

moreover is very convex, whilst the elytra are depressed. The

wings vary from the typical form by being fringed with short

simple cilia, instead of those long feathery appendages; they

are moreover without a distinct peduncle, but still folded in

the manner characteristic of the family. The legs are stout

. with the tibie thickest at the tip, the third tarsal joint is of the

length of the preceding two, the latter are somewhat bilobed

and hairy below. The posterior coxe are simple and distant.

The mesosternum without a carina. The whole shape of the

insect is quadratic rather than otherwise.

14. PTENIDIUM macrocephalum. N.

P. ellipticum, subconvexum, nitidum, sparsim pilosum, supra piceo-

zneum, subtus piceum pebibus oreque testaceis. Lone. corp. + lin.

Caput maximum. Antennarum clava elongata articulis ellipticis.

Thorax subquadratus antice posticeque angustatus, basi punctis 4 magnis

profunde impressus. Elytra ovata, medium versus leviter inflata, apice

obtuse acuminata, abdomine longiora et ampliora, punctulis lineis dispo-

20 Descriptions of New

sitis obsoletissimis impressa. Ale corpore plus duplo longiores. Tibi

fortiores spinulose. Tarsi breviores. Prosternum carinatum.

In precedentium societate frequenter lectum.

This is perhaps the prettiest of the five species of the family

just described, and at first sight recognised by the shape of its

body and the polished back. The head is very large. The

thorax is narrowed in front and behind, at the latter place

impressed with four deep not to be overlooked punctures. The

wing-covers are oval, alittle inflated about the middle, rounded

at the apex and longer and wider than the abdomen. The

prosternum is carinated.

It affords me much gratification to be enabled to publish

representatives of three genera of this highly interesting and

probably very extensive and widely distributed family of

pygmics, the South Asiatic representatives of which have

hitherto been entirely unknown. I have no doubt that even

this Island is the abode of a great many more species.

15. Svrenus barbatus. N.

S. elongatus, eneo-niger, nitidus, punctatus, sparsim pubescens, pedibus

palpisque albidis, ore coxisque testaceis, antennis brunnescentibus.

Long. corp. 24 lin.

Caput thorace tertia parte latius, fronte costis 3 abbreviatis, antice

albido-pubescens. Antenne art. 30 sequentium 2 fere longitudine, 3

ultimis elongatis, ellipticis. Palpi max. elongati apice densius pubes-

centes. ‘Thorax cylindricus medio leviter incrassatus, basi subquadratus.

Elytra thorace paulo longiora, sed fere duplo latiora, convexa, ovata.

Abdomen immarginatum. Pedes elongati tenues, tibiis apice tarsisque

fortiter setosis, his art. 49 profunde bilobo. |

In lacus Colomb. ripis specimina nonulla legi.

This as well as the following species belongs to Hrichson’s |

division IT. B. of the g., both having the abdomen immarginate

and the 4th tarsal joint bilobed. Every thing about this

species is elongated. The head is about one third broader

than the thorax, the forehead is slightly excavated with two

Ceylon Coleoptera, &e. 21

elevated ridges running from the root of the antenne a short

distance upwards, a third runs from the crown of the head

down towards the centre of the two former, but all three reach

only about the middle of the head. The part below the

antenn is covered with white hair. The antenne have the

3rd jomt much elongated and the terminal club composed of

elliptic joints. ‘The thorax is rather slender, incrassated at

the middle, gradually narrowed in front but nearly quadratic

behind. ‘The elytra are longer than the thorax, about double

its breadth and oval, being slightly narrowed at the shoulders

and the apex. ‘The legs are long and slender, hairy at the

apex of the tibie and the tarsi, the latter very much so on the

inner side. The insect is of a metallic black color highly

polished; the legs, palpi and the first two antennal joints are

whitish, the tibie and the apex of the palpi being, however

rather darker, joints 3-11 of the antenne are brownish, the

coxe and the mouth are yellowish, the tarsi have a brown

spot at the apex of the first 3 joints, the claws are black. The

insect is punctured all over, but the abdomen, the apical seo-

ments of which are indeed nearly smooth, less so than the rest

of the body, and sparingly covered with small white hairs.

16. Strenus., lacertoides. N.

S. robustus, nigro-eeneus, dense profundeque punctatus, subtus spars-

issime pubescens, pedibus palpisque testaceis, femoribus apice nigre-

scentibus, antennis orequé castancis. Long. corp. 1} lin.

Caput thorace quarta parte latius, fronte 2-costata. Antenne robust

art. 3° quarto paulo longiore, 9-10 globosis, 11° conico. ‘Thorax cylin-

dricus, medio fortius incrassatus, latitudine quarta parte longior, margine

anteriore elevato, basi subquadratus. Elytra thorace longiora, convexa,

humeris prominentibus. Abdomen immarginatum. ‘Tarsi art. 4° pro-

funde bilobo.

In prov. occid. stagnorum ripis rarius occurrit.

About this species every thing isrobust. Itis well distin-

guished by the rounded club-joints of the antenna, the elevated

22 Descriptions of New

anterior margin of the thorax, the prominent shoulders and its

general shortness and plumpness. The forehead is rather more

depressed or excavated than in the former, the two antennal

ridges are shorter, the vertical one is altogether obsolete.

The palpi are robust. The 3rd antennal joint is about one

third longer than the 4th. The thorax is shorter and plumper

than in the former. The elytra are less oval, having the shoul-

ders move prominent and only the apex rounded off or narrow-

ed. The legs are similar to those of the former, but more

robust, less hairy and have the tarsi more cylindric. The

insect 1s of a blackish metal color, the legs and palpi, are

yellowish, the tibie, however, the apex of the palpi and also

joints 1-2 of the antenne rather darker, the femora are

blackish towards the end, the mouth and joints 3-11 of the

antenne are chestnut and the coxe pitch-color. The animal is

densely and deeply punctured all over, very sparingly covered

with small greyish hairs, nearly obsolete on the back but

more distinct below. It is less highly polished than the

former.

17. ANTHICUS quisquiliarius. N..

(A. formicarius, of the first edition. I have changed the name, as

have since perceived that it has been already used by Laferté.)

A. castaneus, capite, abdomine elytrisque piceis, his fascia media trans-

versali interrupta maculisque 6 humeralibus niveis, parce pilosus.

Long. corp. 12 lin.

Caput globosum supra subtusque profunde punctatum, oculis parvis,

Thorax nodoso-pyriformis, infra medium constrictus, parte anteriore

erassiore lin. long. med. profunde divisa, subcordiformi. Elytra elliptica,

Sub veget. putrescent. victitat, prope Colombo rarius legi.

This insect looks uncommonly like an ant. It is easily

distinguished from all other species of the Island partly by

this resemblance, partly by the sculpture of the thorax and

the white fascia across the elytra. ‘The antenne are robust,

Ceylon Coleoptera, &c. 23

thickened towards the tip, the 3 last joints forming a club.

The legs have the femora very much incrassated, the tibiz at

the apex bicalcarate, and the tarsi, especially of the anterior

pair, very hairy below, the 4th joint appears to be slightly

cordiform. The white marks of the shoulders and the fascia

across the wing-covers are composed of white hairs, the

former are rather an interrupted row of these than true

macule, the fascia consists of two halves, one in either

elytron, reaching neither the external margin nor the suture.

The insect is of slow motion.

18. ANTHICUS znsulanus. N.

A. testaceus, abdomine obscuriore, capite thoraceque rufo-testaceis,

elytris fasciis 2 nigris, parce pilosus. Long. corp. 14-13 lin.

Caput globosum oculis mediocribus. Thorax pyriformis, cum capite

supra punctata. Elytra ovata. Tarsi art. 4° bilobo.

Prope Negombo in pratis sat copiosus.

In some of the specimens before me the anterior femora

are furnished with a strong thorn inside having at the same

time the tibie of the same pair of legs slightly emarginated

inside near the apex.

19. MELIGETHES orientalis. N.

M. ovatus, subconvexus, pilosus, supra nigro-sneus, subtus piceus,

pedibus, antennis palpisque maxill. dilutrioribus, tarsis palpisque labial.

brunneo-aureis. Long corp. 1-14 lin.

Mentum transversum planum, punctatum, lobis apice depressis ex-

cavatis, glabris, obtusis. Palpi lab. art. ultimo inflato, ovato; maxill.

art. ultimo apice angustato levissime truncato. Mandibule uni dentate.

Thorax amplus angulis acutis, antice emarginatus, postice pluries sinua-

tus, subtus punctatus. Elytra ovato-quadrata, angulis 4 apicalibus

rotundatis, pygidium haud obtegentia. Pedes validi, femoribus tibi-

isque incrassatis; anteriores tibiis apice intus unispinosis, tarsis art.

1-3 fortiter dilatatis, 1-2 subequalibus transversis, profunde reniformi-

bus, 3° minore, cordato, 4° minimo, subcylindrico; intermed. et post

24 Descriptions of New

tibiis extus spinulosis, tarsis anterioribus similibus sed art. 1-3 minus

dilatatis, cordiformibus. Prosternum marginatum, punctatum, obtuse,

acuminatum. Mesosternum antice carinatum.

Variat magnitudine et colore eeneo-brunnea.

Prope Colombo in floribus per occasionem frequentissime legi.

Of the usual shape and color, but larger than usual, vary-

ing, however, in this respect, some individuals being fully one

third smaller than others. These small individuals, which

occur in the proportion of about 2 to 20, are moreover nearly

always of a brownish metal color instead of a blackish green.

I have been unable to discover any other distinctions. This

difference in size is no criterion as to the sex. The insect

appears of local occurrence or attached to certain plants,

which is nearly the same. I find them in abundance in

the blossoms of Convolvulaceous and Apocynaceous plants

in my garden, which is situated in the west bank of the

lake. The species appears to differ from the typical

Meligethes in the following points: the structure of the

mentum, which I have sufficiently described above, the last

joint of the lab. palpi, which in this case is not truncated, and

the first of the antenne which is externally incrassated as in

Epurea. The antenne are otherwise robust, the club is

firm and hairy. The thorax is. very ample, thinly ciliated

along the upper part of the anterior margin, rather strongly

below. The prosternum is largely developed, marginated,

punctured and obtusely acuminated, overlapping the anterior

part of the mesosternum which (the anterior part) 1s cylin-

dric and carinated. Joints 1-3 of the tarsi are stronely

penicillated below, the penicilla being composed of glanduli-

ferous hairs of a fine golden color.

20. GEORYSSUS gemma. N.

G. pygmnxi statura et magnitudine, supra purpureo zneus, iridescens,

subtus piceus; alatus. Thorax subsemiorbicularis infra apicem constrict-

Ceylon Coleoptera, §e. 25

us, sulco med. long. divisus, lateribus, basi apiceque excavatus, impress-

ionibus 3 majoribus dorsalibus, 2 minoribus lateralibus. Elytra fortissime

costata, costis obtuse dentatis, in interstitils transversim punctato-impressa,

ad humeros profunde excavata, infra medium leviter sinuata. Tibi

extus spinulosz, intus sparsim ciliate.

Prope Negombo in ripis Mahe-Oye fluvil non infrequenter et per

occasionem nocte ad lumen cepi.

Lacordaire and others characterize the g. Georyssus as

having the elytra soldered together and being destitute of

wings. In the present species, however, the elytra are unconnected

and cover wings proportionately larger than in any other beetle I

can at present think of. ‘They are elongated and comparatively

narrow, resembling in shape very much those of a Libellula,

have a few veins at the base and are ciliated at the margin.

I have moreover occasionally taken this insect flying about the

heht at night. The sculpture of the thorax is complicated

and difficult to describe, however, the leading features in it

are these: a subapical sinuosity on either side; a longitudinal

furrow; excavated sides, base and apex; 3 larger dorsal

depressions (1 central, 2 obliquely basal) and 2 smaller lateral

ones at the subapical sinuosities—a short elevated ridge at

the centre of the base separating the 2 basal impressions and

being itself divided by the longitudinal furrow; 2 elevations

separating the anterior part of the basal impressions from that

of the central one (at the middle these 3 depressions are con-

nected); 2 small rugosities near the anterior margin, one on

either side of the longitudinal furrow.

The sculpture of the elytra is less complicated: they have

a deep cavity at the shoulder, a large, but not deep, sinuosity

below the middle, and are obtusely acuminated. The cost

of the back are 11 in number, the suture lying in the central

one. The half of this central costa and the exterior margin

form an elevated border round either elytron. ‘The first and

second on either side run towards the apex but come to a stop

1857. E

26 Descriptions of New

(very abrupt in most, but less so in some specimens,) before

reaching it, the third after having been interrupted near its

base by the subhumeral cavity, runs on but does not reach as

far as the former, the 4th does not leave the region of the

shoulder, the last on either side is very prominent at the base

but soon forms an abrupt declivity and runs on as a low ridge

to below the middle. The back of all these cosiz is obtusely

dentated. The interstices are marked with large, shallow,

transverse impressions. ‘The head of the insect 1s rather large

and even. The mandibles are furnished with an obtuse sub-

apical tooth, the 2 lower thirds are ciliated. The maxille

have the apex of the outer lobe externally enlarged, rounded

off and furnished with 3 strong teeth replaced by cilia on the

inside, the inner lobe is conic and similarly provided with teeth

and cilia, however, much thinner and finer. The maxill. palpi

are robust, the last joint is inflated at the base. ‘The antennal

club is hairy, dark (whilst the remaining joints are yellowish),

conic and somewhat securiform, the 6th joint being inserted

on one side of the 7th, The legsare robust, the tibie slightly

curved, obliquely truncated at the end, furnished with spines

along the outside and with distant cilia along the inner.

21. Hyprocuus lacustris. N.

H. elongatus, subdepressus, supra metallicus, iridescens, subtus piceus

pedibus, antennis, palpis elytrorumque margine magis minusve brunneis,

mento cyaneo. Long. corp. 1-13 lin.

Palpi maxill. robusti art. ultimo elliptico leviter inflato. Mandibulx

apice bifid. Antennarum clava dense pilosa. Thorax oblonge quadratus

basin versus angustatus,basi medio productus, cum capite profunde puncta=

ta. Elytra ad humeros oblique truncata, apicem versus sat fortiter an-

gustata, profunde striato punctata. ‘Tibiee extus spinulose.

Specimina nonnulla in lacu Colomb. legi.

The head is robust, broader than the thorax, the eyes large

and prominent. The femora, the last joint of the maxill. palpi,

the mandibles, and the tarsal joints are dark towards the apex.

Ceylon Coleoptera, §c. 27

22. Hyprous rujiventris. N.

H. ovatus, convexus, supra oleagino-niger, subtus obscure ferrugineus,

pedibus dilute piceis, labro zneo, reliquis oris partibus cum clypeo test-

aceis. Long. corp. 9. lin.

Palpi maxill. articulis apicem versus abruptius incrassatis, art. 3°

quarto sesqui longiore. Antenne art. 7-8 fortiter perfoliatis, ultimo

acuminato. Caput antice utrinque punctulorum serie subsemicirculari

et ad oculorum marginem interiorem impressum. ‘Thorax punctulorum

seriebus 4 lateralibus, 2 subapicalibus obliquis abbreviatis signatus.

Elytra subtiliter striato-punctata. Tarsi omnes unguibus basi fortiter

uni-dentatis. Carina prosternalis cultriformis.

Specimen singulum f. nocte ad lumen cepi.

As far as my resources allow me to ascertain a very anoma-

lous species, having the perfoliated antennz and toothed claws

of a Hydrophilus and the cultriform prosternal carina and

the elytra of a Hydrous, I have placed it in the latter g. on

account of the sharp edge of the prosternal carina, in which

the great distinguishing character of this g. seems to lie, the

same being deeply grooved in Hydrophilus. The insect at-

tracts at once attention by the reddish color of its abdomen.

Tt is of a blackish olive color on the back having however the

clypeus and the anterior margin of the labrum of a yellowish

brown, the latter being otherwise of rather a metallic color.

The remaining parts of the mouth are more or less yellowish.

Joints 1-6 of the antennz are yellowish too with the excep-

tion of the 2nd which is dark, joints 7-9 are blackish and

pubescent. The legs are of a light pitch color. The lower

part of the head is impressed with 2 rather semicircular series

of punctures, similar punctures occurring along the internal

margin ofthe eyes. The thorax is marked with 6 series of

themandon the elytra they are arranged inlines. The sternal

carina is well developed, the prosternal part has a sharp edge,

whilst the mesosternal one is obtuse on the back and the

metasternal part depressed and slightly grooved.

28 Descriptions of New

23. HypRous inconspicuus. N.

H. precedente minus convexus, supra oleagino-niger, subus rufo-piceus,

ore testaceo. Long. corp. 43 lin.

Palpi maxill. art. 20 et 4° subcylindricis, 3° apicem versus sensim

incrassato, sequente tertia parte longiore. Antenne art. 7-8 sub-globosis,

9° magno, ovato. Caput, thorax et elytra ut in precedente sculpta et

signata.

In lacu Colomb. mens. Jun. non infrequenter cepi.

This is in every respecta normal species. The prosternal

carina has a sharp edge, the claws are simple, the antennal

club is composed of rounded joints, the elytra are of the typi-

cal structure, ete. In the latter respect as well as with regard

to the various series of punctures upon head, thorax and

elytra, it resembles the former, the punctures of the elytra are,

however, less distinct. Joints 1-6 of the antenne are yellow-

ish, the club being dark and finely pubescent. The maxill.

palpi have joints 2 and 4 subcylindric, but the intermediate

one thickened towards the tip.

I have not seldom in the month of June taken the pupz of

this species on the banks of the Colombo lake and hatched

them at home. I found them about one inch under ground

and often as far as 12 feet from the edge of the water, but still

i muddy places. ‘Lhe imago is very active, perhaps more se

than any other species of the g.

No. If.

General remarks on the SCYDMANI described below.

In the first number of these papers, I have described a

winged species of Ciédichirus, a g. supposed to be without

organs of flight ; in the second number I have given publicity

to the more important discovery of wings in the single g

Ceylon Coleoptera, &c. 29

which forms the family of the Georyssi, also hitherto supposed

to be apterous; at present I am about to announce to some

and to confirm to others the existence of these organs in the

family of the Scydmenide, a fact, although incomplete, of

more importance than either of the former, considering the

extent of the family and the difference of opinion, which ap-

pears to exist on the subject amongst the most eminent En-

tomological authorities. It is this importance which induces

me to enter more fully on the subject.

Tam not acquainted with the famous monograph of the

family of the Scydmenide by Dr. Schaum; however, from the

manner in which it is quoted by Lacordaire, in his g. d. Col.

-I should infer that these two celebrated authors agree in all

the vital points. In Lacordaire’s diagnosis of the family,

these insects are described as having (with the exception of

the American g. Brathinus, of which Lacordaire is not quite

sure that it belongs to the family) the elytra soldered together

and being destitute of wings. Now, it is scarcely credible

that on a point so easily ascertained as this, any difference of

opinion should exist, still Westwood in his Modern Classifica-

tion of Insects, in describing the same family, makes state-

ments which imply the contrary. However, Lacordaire’s

description, being by 15 years more, in fact, the most recent,

is, from this reason alone, entitled to be considered before all

others ; and looking upon it in this light, that is, as the essence

of all former observations, I shall, for the present, occupy

myself with it alone. According to this description, as men-

tioned aboye, the insects which it regards have the elytra sel-

dered together, and are destitute of wings. This being the case,

I was startled to find that, out of the 13 species described

below, 9 or 10 which I examined in this respect, had neither

the elytra soldered, nor were they destitute of wings—on the

contrary the elytra were unconnected in the middle, and the wings

were nearly double the size of the whole insect and could not pos-

30 Descriptions of New

sibly be overlooked. I would willingly suppose that the 100

species of this family contained in European collections, and

principally derived from Europe and North America, agreed

with Lacordaire’s description, and that the Ceylon species

were exceptions to the general rule, had not Westwood’s obser-

vation, alluded to above, corroborated my own, thus rendering

me suspicious of some unaccountable mistake or oversight

somewhere or other. That this mistake cannot consist in a

slip of the pen, or a misprint in the g. des Coléoptéres quoted

above, is clear from the obvious care which has in every res-

pect been bestowed upon this work, and from the same remarks

being repeated in different words. Where then this mistake

ig, upon what ground it rests—it would, under my circum-

stances, be useless to attempt to unravel. However, it appears

certain to me that some more detailed and positive remarks

on the subject cannot be superfluous, and must be new to

some entomologists. Placing the fullest confidence, as every

one would do without hesitation, in the infallibility of the

description of the Belgian author, it was not likely that I

should have looked for wings at allin the Scydmenide (afamily

to which I have not, until lately, paid much attention) had I

not been struck by seeing the elytra of my S. alatus open,

when handling it with a fine painter’s brush ina drop of water,

it being at the time quite out of the question that the open-

ing could have been effected by pressure. On opening the

elytra fully, I had no difficulty in discovering the wings.

Rendered extremely curious by this discovery—diametrically

opposed to the distinct statement of so great an authority as

the one just alluded to—I now examined other species, and

all with the same result, most of them opening the elytra

without my assistance, in the same manner as 58. alatus, and

I have not the slightest doubt, that when a sufficient number

of specimens will enable me to examine the rest, it will still

be with the same result. That these insects use their organs

Ceylon Coleoptera, §c. 31

of flight may be gathered from the following: at a former

period, I lived in a house situated ina small eminence and

overlooking extensive groves of Cocoanut trees, Cinnamon

gardens, Paddy fields, and patches of jungle. Here I collected

large numbers of Pselaphide, especially HKuplectus, in thin,

scarcely visible spider webs with which the white walls of the

house were covered in certain places—thus forming one large

trap for any thing small flying about. That these had been

caught here when on the wing, there can be no doubt; but I

was much surprised to find with them (what is so common in

more congenial localities, here also,) a considerable number of

Scydmeeni, especially my 8. advolans and pubescens, as they

were said by the most recent authority to be unable to fly,

and the position they then found themselves in, was one they

could not well or would not possibly have got into otherwise

than by flying. From some reason or other, lam ashamed to

say, I did not follow up the matter at the time; but Iam now

certain on the subject, indeed, to remove all doubt and to

settle all disputes, I have just been so fortunate as to take my

S. advolans actually on the wing, flying in my garden in the

evening at sunset.

Having gone so far, I will (in spite of some slight misgiv-

ings of being laughed at for telling an old story with so grave

a face) add a few descriptive words about the organs in ques-

‘tion: The wings of my Scydmeni are ample, about double

the size of the whole insect, oblong, having the margin beauti-

fully ciliated, and, with the exception of a few yellowish veins

at the base, without any visible organs of this kind.

In spite of the difference in their shape, etc., I believe the

species described below to be all genuine Scydmeni as re-

stricted at present; being, however, unacquainted with the

sexual distinctions of these insects (which indeed I believe

not to have been satisfactorily pointed out by any one, and to

differ in different species), I should not be surprised if one or

32 Descriptions of New

two of my species were eventually ascertained to have been

separated upon these grounds alone. However, having been

very reluctant in the admission of new species, it is just as

likely that individuals may hereafter be found united in one

which ought to be separated into two species. But I trust

that neither may happen. The species were all collected by

myself in the immediate neighbourhood of Colombo. I have,

however, no dcubt that they occur all over the 8S. W. of the

Island, which is of a uniform physical character, and perhaps.

occupy a still larger portion of it: indeed, I have taken the

S. pselaphoides in the hills, at an elevation of 3500 feet,

under the bark of trees. None of them are quite common,

on the contrary, of nearly half of them I possess, only one

or two specimens. My S. femoralis I found under the soft,

rotting bark of an Erythrina Indica, S. Ceylanicus and

ovatus, I found dead in spiderwebs, S. graminicola, glanduli-

ferus and pyriformis, I have hitherto exclusively taken in the

sweeping net on the lawns of my garden about sunset; the

other species I have met with indiscriminately in spiderwebs,

under rotting vegetable substances, and in the grass.

After this preamble, which I trust may not be deemed quite

superfluous, [ now enter upon the description of my species,

drawing previously attention to the three very natural and

very distinct groups which they form, and the characteristics

of which will at once be perceptible from the headings given

below. With regard to the first group (A. I. spec. 24-28) I

may mention that the elongated legs, largely developed poste-

rior trochanters and often distinct posterior coxe render the

motions of the insects belonging to it staggering when walking,

which together with their oblong, subdepressed body distin-

guishes them at a glance. I have subdivided them from the

cultriform or gooved mesosternal carina. ‘The second group

(A. II. spec. 29-35) is equally well characterized as the for-

mer by the more robust, pyriform and subconvex body of the

Ceylon Coleoptera, &c. 33

insects. S. pselaphoides in the former and §. advolans in the

present group form connecting links between the two, espe-

cially S. pselaphoides, which in general appearance rather

belongs to the second, upon closer examination, however is

easily ascertained to be an anomalous member of the former.

From the rounded or narrowed occiput I have divided the

second group into two subdivisions, giving preference to the

distinctions to be drawn from this part of the body to those

to be derived from the thorax, which from the variety of

shapes it assumes would naturally suggest itself for that

purpose, but the gradations between the principal forms appear

to me too many, too fine, and therefore too indistinct to adopt

them. As to the third group (B. spec. 36) the insect which

alone forms it amongst those described below, is so different

from any of the others that its peculiarities must strike any

one at first sight. |

A, Species with a thick nech, abrupily formed and immersed in

the thorax. 4,

LI. Fourth joint of the maxiil. palpi not acuminated ; head sub-

quadrato-ovate ; eyes middling or small, finely granulated,

little or not at all prominent ; antenne subapproximate at

the base ; posterior trochanters elongated, incrassated at the

aper ; thorax obovate ; body elongate, subdepressed.

a.) Mesosternal carina slight, simple.

24, SCYDMANUS alatus. N.

S. dilute brunneus, pedibus antennisque dilutioribus, tarsis palpisque

testaceis; pubescens ; Long. corp. 4 lin.

Antenne art. 1° apice bi-acuminato, 3-4 subequalibus, 5 praecedente

majore, 6 longitudine inter 4 et 5, ovato, 7-8 sub:equalibus, 9 majore,

7-9 apice angustatis, tubiformibus, 10-11 ovatis, clavam formantibus, vel

art. 9 globoso, 9-11 clavam formantibus. Palpi maxill. art. ultimo

minimo apice truncato. Mandibulz dente bifido munite, basi fortiter

abrupteque dilatate. Thorax foveis basalibus nullis. Pedes elongati.

1857. F

34. Descriptions of New

1 include in this species individuals with a 2 and others

with a 3-jointed antennal club. The latter are further distin-

guished by having a slight sinuosity in the rounded outline

of the basal angles of the thorax, by having the posterior

part of the metathorax and the base of the abdomen sensibly

incrassated, and the head rather less quadratic than the

former. However, the individuals thus distinguished being

in all other respects exactly like those with the 2-jointed

club, I cannot help looking upon all these distinctions as

sexual ones and uniting the insects in the same species.

The head from the eyes to the neck is of a transverse sub-

quadratic form merging into the oval by the angles being —

rounded off, the anterior part is narrowed. And this is the

typical sculpture of the skull in all the 5 species of this group.

The eyes in the present species are middling. The antennez

are rather approximated at the base and inserted in the

centre of the front under a ridge which runs across it from

eye to eye. The first joint is biacuminated at the apex,

the 5th is longer than the adjoining ones, joints 7-9 in the

individuals with the 2-jointed and 7-8 in those with the

3-jointed club, are of a peculiar construction, being narrowed

at the apex and fitting into each other like the tubes of

a spyglass. ‘The club joints are ovate, flat at the base, the

last is large and obtusely acuminated. I consider the princi-

pal distinguishing character to lie in the remarkable structure

of joints 7-9 of the antenne. The maxill. palpi have joint

2 rather strongly incrassated at the apex, joint 3 obovate,

narrowed at the base, jot 4 very minute, truncated at the

apex. The mandibles are furnished with a bifid tooth and

are strongly and abruptly dilated at the base. The thorax is

of an obovate or obcardato-ovate form, being rather strongly

rounded off before the middle and gradually narrowed below

it; the usual basal impressions are wanting, the posterior

margin has two slight sinuosities, the posterior angles are

Ceylon Coleoptera, Sc. 35

rounded off or obliquely truncated. Scutellum obsolete.

Elytra furnished with a very short elevated ridge at the

shoulder. ‘Legs elongated; coxe large, the 2 posterior ones

rather distant from each other; 2 posterior trochanters much

elongated, incrassated at the tip; apex of tibiz subcylindric,

but not narrowed, and hairy, especially in the 2nd pair;

joints 2-3 of the tarsi of equal size, the first longer, the 4tha

little shorter, 2 anterior tarsi slightly contracted, 2nd and

3rd pair more and more elongated. Penultimate segment of

abdomen with a strong longitudinal groove on the back.

25. SCYDMANUS femoralis. N.

S. statura et magnitudine precedentis; testaceus. Antenne art. 3-4

subzequalibus, 5 precedente longiore, 6-8 gradatim minoribus, subglo-

bosis, 7-8 apice fortius oblique truncatis, 9-11 gradatim majoribus,

subglobosis, calvam formantibus. Palpi maxill. art. ultimo minimo

semigloboso. Thorax magnus obovatus, basi rotundatus, 4 foveolatus.

Elytra apice truncata, 2-sinuata. Pedes femoribus 2 posticis medio

constirctis. :

Of the general appearance of the former but of a light

yellowish color and well distinguished by the large thorax,

truncated elytra and abnormal construction of the 2 posterior

femora. Antenne with joints 7-8 rather strongly obliquely

truncated at the apex, 9-11 forming a club, subglobose, flat

at the base, the last acuminated and slightly cut away or

even excavated on the inside of the apex. Last joint of

maxill. palpi semiglobose, these otherwise the same as in the

former. Thorax and elytra of S. alatus, the former however,

larger, rounded at the posterior margin and with 4 basal

impressions, the latter slightly truncated at the apex and

with a slight sinuosity in the truncature on either side of the

suture. Scutellum very small. Legs with the tibie slightly

bent at the base, the apex as in the former; tarsi with joints

1-4 gradually decreasing in size, first pair contracted and

36 Descriptions of New

furnished with brushes on the inside. ‘The 2 posterior legs

inserted rather distant from each other, the basal part of

abnormal construction: the trochanters are much elongated

and incrassated at the tip whilst the femora are at the place

of the juncture rather abruptly narrowed, bent, and slightly

compressed, they being at the same time thinner than the

adjoining apex of the trochanter the constriction is very

striking.

26. SCYDMZNUS Ceylanicus. N.

S. alati colore, sed major et magis depressus; long. corp. $ lin. Caput

magnum, robustum, thoracis latitudine. Antenne basi non approxim-

ate, art. 3-4 et 5-7 inter se subequalibus, arcum formantibus, 8-10

gradatim majoribus, subglobosis, depressis apice oblique truncatis, 11°

magno, conico, 8-11 longius pilosis, calvam, formantibus. Palpi maxill.

art. 4° minimo, semigloboso. ‘Thorax ovatus, foveis basalibus nullis.

Elytra apice singulatim rotundata. Pedes validi tarsis 2 ant. art. lo

subtus in spinam sat fortem producto.

An anomalous species, especially withregard to the antennz

which are much less approximated at the basethan those of the ©

rest of the species belonging to this group, and with regard

to the two posterior coxe which on the contrary are more

approximated than in any of the species just referred to. The

insect is of the light brown color of the two former, but larger

and more depressed. The head is strikingly large and heavy,

of the width of the thorax, in its hind part, which is strongly

transverse, the oval form is prevailing over that of the square.

Eyes small. Antenne inserted under two strong protuber-

ances rather than under a ridge, their club 4 jointed, joints

3-7 forming an inwards bent section of a circle, joints 8-10

strongly compressed, obliquely truncated (subperfoliated) 11

large, conic. The 3rd joint of the maxill. palpi is of an

oblongo-ovato shape, the external basal angle is prolonged

into a small peduncle inserted in the apex of the 2nd joint,

Ceylon Coleoptera, §e. 37

the 4th joint, about the semiglobose shape of which I am not

quite satisfied, appears to be obliquely inserted in the tip of

the preceding. Thorax oval, of a similar shape to that of

the former, anterior margin slightly emarginated. Scutellum

obsolete. Elytra with the traces of a humeral costa, sepa-

rately rounded off at the apex. Legs strong, 2 posterior coxe

not more distant from each other than the 4 anterior ones;

tibie elongated, bent at the base and apex, at the latter place

slightly narrowed, subcylindric and hairy; tarsi with joints

1-4 subequal, in the first pair strongly contracted, jomt 1 of

this pair preduced in a spine on the inside,

b.) Mesosternal carina middling, grooved.

97. ScyDMENUS intermedius. N.

S. alati statura sed major et robustior, colore obscuriore ; long. corp.

3 lin.

Antenne art. 1° apice bi-acuminato, 2 et 5, 3 et 4,7 et 8 interse

subeequalibus, 6 quarto paulo minore, obovato, 7-8 subglobosis apice

oblique truncatis, 9-11 gradatim majoribus, obovatis, clavam formantibus,

11 acuminato. Palpi maxill. art. 3° obovato, 4° minimo semigloboso.

Thorax subrotundatus, basi 4-foveolatus. Elytra apice singulatim

rotundata. Mesosternum sat fortiter carinatum, carina dorso deplanata,

canaliculata, apice acuminata.

This species stands in the middle between S. alatus and

pselaphoides. To the former it is allied by its general appear-

ance rather than by anything else, differing from it very much

in the structure of the antenne and the mesosternal carina.

To the latter on the contrary it is allied by similarity in the

structure of the said carina, differing, however, from it in

general appearance. The color is that of S. alatus, but a

shade or two darker, the insect being at the same time larger

and altogether more robust. The eyes are small. Antennal —

club 3-jointed, the joints forming it gradually increasing in

38 Descriptions of New

size, obovate, flat at the base, the last acuminated. Scutellum

obsolete. Elytra with 2 slight basal impressions, the trace

of a humeral costa, separately rounded off at the apex, Legs

elongated as usual; 2 posterior cox distant, tibie straight,

subeylindric, but not narrowed at the apex, the 4 anterior

ones hairy ; tarsi with joints 1-4 almost inperceptibly decreas-

ing in size or perhaps 2-3 equal, the anterior ones slightly

contracted, these and the intermediate ones hairy on the in-

side. Mesosternal carina middling, flat on the back with a

shallow but very distinct longitudinal groove or excavation,

anterior part projecting, acuminated,

28. SCYDMANUS pselaphoides. N.

S. subpyriformi-ovatus, subconvexus, magis minusve brunneus, pedibus

antennisque subtestaceis, femoribus apice nigrescentibus, tarsis palpisque

testaceis ; flavo-pubescens ; long. 1-14 lin.

Antenne art. 1° mediocri, apice biacuminato, 2-4 sensim minoribus,

5 et 2, 6 et 3, 7 et 10 inter se subsequalibus, 9-11 clavam formantibus,

6-11 basi transversim, 6-8 apice oblique truncatis, 7-8 compressis. 9-11

obovatis. Mandibule dente bifido munite, basi dilatate et ciliates. Palpi

maxill. art. 3° inverte conico, 4° minimo apice truncato. Thorax obo-

vatus, latitudine quarta parte longiore, basi 4 foveolatus. Elytra apice

singulatim rotundata. Mesosternum precedentis. 3

An anomalous species with regard to its general appearance

which differs considerably from that of the rest of the group,

and makes it, as I have remarked above, the connecting link

between this and the following group. This is the largest

species I have hitherto met with. The system of coloration

is the usual one: more or less deep brown, legs and antenne

lighter, tarsi and palpi quite so. Eyes middling. Antennz

with a 3-jointed club, the joints subglobose, flat on the base,

the last large, conic, joints 6-8 are slightly truncated at the

apex, 7 and 8 being at the same time strongly compressed

have a subperfoliated appearance. The mandibles are fur-

Ceylon Coleoptera, §c. ag

nished with a bifid tooth. The 3rd joint of the maxill. palpi

is of the shape of an inverted cone, the 4th minute and trun-

cated at the apex. The thorax is of an obovate form, about

2 longer than broad, rounded off before and gradually

narrowed below the middle, subquadratic at the base, impres-

sed with 4 fovee or pits, the posterior angles rounded off.

Scutellum minute. Elytra with 2 short humeral costz, sepa-

rately rounded off at the apex. Legs stout; 2 posterior coxz

distant; tibie slightly bent at the base, subcylindric at the

apex, the 4 anterior ones hairy ; tarsi with joints 1-4 gradually

decreasing in size, the anterior ones dilated, the joints trans-

versely triangular, the intermediate pair hairy on the inside.

Mesosternum of the preceding. Metasternum with a slight

longitudinal depression down the middle. Penultimate abdo-

minal segment grooved on the back as in 8. alatus. In the

enlargement of the anterior tarsi lies, as in the other beetles,

undoubtedly a sexual distinction, as it is not equally strong

in all individuals. I may mention here that upon some of

the individuals I found ticks (some g. allied to Ixodes but

not a Gamasus) fastened, one of them having made a wound

such as, supposing it to be inflicted at a corresponding place

and on a proportionate scale, few animals of a higher order,

would, I think, have survived—still this little beetle appeared

perfectly at its ease. The parasite alluded to had fastened

itself right in the centre of the forehead, and the wound it

had inflicted in this, one should imagine most dangerous place,

was a deep hole or pit with a callous border. The latter led

me to infer that the injury was an old one, and the tick being

at the time fastened in it (and this so firmly that I had some

difficulty in detaching it), I felt sure it had been in this posi-

tion for months. The injury was observable under a slight

magnifier, and I think to compare it to one inflicted by a rifle-

ball would be greatly underrating its importance.

40 : Descriptions of New

IT, Fourth joint of the mazxill. palpi acuminated ; mesosternal

carina strongly developed ; eyes large, prominent, coarsely

granulated ; antenne distant at the base ; 2 posterior tro-

chanters simple ; thorax variable; body robust, pyriform,

sub-convex.

a) Occiput rounded.

30. ScypMNmUS advolans. N.

S. long. corp. 3 lin. Antenne art. 3 et 4, 5 et 6 inter se subequal-

ibus, obovatis, 7 majore, subgloboso, 8-10 subglobosis, basi transversim,

apice oblique truncatis cum 11° conico clavam formantibus. Palpi

maxill. art. 3° elongato, inverte conico, 4° mediocri. Mandibule

tenues, medio acuminate 1-dentate, basi abrupte dilatate. Thorax ovato-

rotundatus, apice fortius angustatus, basi leviter 2-sinuatus, 4-foveolatus.

Elytra apice singulatim rotundata.

The insect is of brown color, the antenne lighter, the legs

still more, and the tarsi and palpi quite so, the femora are

dark towards the apex, the head, thorax and suture are oc-

easionally of chestnut color; it is as usual pubescent. The

sculpture of the head in this and the following species not,

as in the preceding, based upon the oblong square or the oval,

but rather upon the form of a ball which in a more or less

compressed state is always perceptible ; in some instances it

is narrowed on one side. In the present species the head is

heavy and subglobose. The eyes are large, prominent and

coarsely granulated. The antennz are inserted distant from

each other under 2 protuberances of the anterior part of the

forehead. The club is 4-jointed, the joints composing it

being flat at the base, and, with the exception of the last,

obliquely cut away at the apex, the last itself being conic.

The maxill. palpi have joint 3 rather elongated and of the

form of an inverted cone, joint 4 middling, acuminated.

The thorax is of a rounded oval shape and rather strongly

narrowed towards the apex, Thescutellum is obsolete. The

Ceylon Coleoptera, &e. 41

elytra have the usual rudimentary coste at the shoulders and

are seperately rounded offat the apex. The legs are middling,

2 posterior cox inserted close together, trochanters all simple,

tibie slightly bent at the base, narrowed and subcylindric at

the tip, the 4 anterior ones hairy, tarsi with joints 2-3 sub-

equal, the first a little longer and the 4th shorter, the 2

anterior ones slightly contracted. I include in this species

some individuals which slightly differ from the foregoing

description, being more robust, covered more densely and

with longer hair, especially on the occiput and thorax, with

the latter rather obconico-ovate and the coste of the elytra

more distant, and moreover occasionally of a chestnut color.

30. SCYDMANUS pubescens. N.

S. praecedente gracilior ; long. corp. 3 lin. Antenne art. 3 et 4, 5 et

6 inter se subzequalibus, subcylindricis, 7° secundo paulo minore, fortiter

cylindrico, 8-10 subglobosis cum 11° conico clavam formantibus. Palpi

maxill. art. 3° inverte conico, 49 minuto. Mandibulee tenues, medio ob-

tuse obsoleteque uni-dentatee, basi abrupte dilatatee. ‘Thorax conicus,

latitudine haud longior, basi 4-foveolatus. Elytra et pedes preecedentis,

tibiis tamen apice leviter arcuatis:

Less robust than the former, and further distinguished from

it by the 7th antennal joint, (the one preceding the club)

which is of a strongly cylindric shape, by the minuteness of

the last joint of the maxillary palpi, the obtuse and nearly

obsolete tooth of the mandibles, the short-conical form of the

thorax, and the tibiee which are slightly bent at the apex.

31. SCYDMA&NUS pygmeus. N.

S. statura et colore precedentis sed longius pubescens et sesqui minor ;

long. corp. 4 lin. Antenne art. 4 et 4, 5 et 6 inter se subsequalibus, 7°

majore, ovato, 8-10 subglobosis, fortius compressis cum 11° clavam for-

mantibus, hoc magno, obconico, apice obtuso. Palpi maxill. art. 20

tenuiore, 3° inverte conico, 4° minuto, Mandibulz obsolete uni-dentate:

1857, G

42 Descriptions of New

Thorax conicus latitudine parum longior, elytris fortiter applicatus, basi

2-sinuatus et 4-foveolatus. Pedes et elytra preecedentis, his tamen am-

plioribus.

Strongly allied to the two preceding species, still very much,

smaller, more compact and covered with longer hair—thus of

rather a different appearance regardless of its size. From 8.

pubescens this species would principally differ in the shape of

the 7th antennal joint, also in that of the 3 first club joints

which are much more compressed and more hairy im 8. pig-

meus. The thorax of the latter is more firmly applied to the

base of the elytra; the latter have a fuller, more robust ap-

pearance about them; the palpi are more slender, and the tooth

of the mandibles is pomted. From §. advolans it would prin-

cipally differ besides in the generalities mentioned above, in

the shape the thorax, and in some of the points in which it

differs from S. pubescens.

6) Occiput narrowed.

32. SCYDMZNUS glanduliferus. N.

S. robustus ; long. corp. 2 lin. Antennee art. 3-7 sensim majoribus,

8-10 globosis, fortiter compressis cum 11° glanduliformi clavam formant-

tbus, longe cihatis. Palpi max. art. 2° tenuiore, 3° inverte conico, 4%

mediocri. Thorax conicus latitudine basali haud longior, elytris fortiter

applicatus, basi 2-impressus, in impressionibus 2-foveolatus.

Of the size of S. advolans and the plump shape and color

of S. pygmeus, the latter being rather lighter than that of S.

advolans; it has the longer (especially on the occiput and

thorax) hairy vesture of the former. The occiput is slightly

narrowed behind. The antennal club is composed of 4 joints,

the 3 first of which are strongly compressed, the 4th being

plump and of the shape of an acorn with its cup, all are strong-

ly ciliated. The thorax is conic, firmly applied to the base of

the elytra, as in the preceding species, depressed, and with two

Ceylon Coleoptera, Sc. 43

pits at the base posterior margin with two sinuosities. The

shoulder ridges of the elytra are short, but rather strongly

marked. The tibiae are narrowed, sub-cylindric and hairy at

the apex. Joints 2-3 of the tarsi are subequal, the anterior

pair more, the intermediate less contracted.

33. SCYDMANUS graminicola. N.

S. gracilior ; long. corp. 2 lin. Antenne art. 3 et 4, 6 et 7, 9 et 10

inter se subzequalibus, 50 adjacentibus paulo longiore, 3-7 subcylindricis,

8 subgloboso, 9-10 fortiter globosis cum 1lo clavam formantibus. Palp1

maxill. art. 3°inverte conico, 4° mediocri. Mandibule apice arcuate,

medio acuminate 1-dentatze, basin versus sensim dilatate. Thorax obcon-

icus basi depressus, 2-sinuatus et 2 foveolatus, rectangulatus, Pedes

tibiis elongatis basi apiceque arcuatis.

Of the usual brown color, legs and antenne lighter, tarsi

and palpi quite so, femora nigrescent at the apex, hairs of occi-

put and thorax rather long. ‘The former slightly narrowed

behind, the head thus of a somewhat rhomboid form. Anten-

nal club composed of 3 joints, the 2 first of which are strongly

globose, the last being acuminated and slightly cut way on

one side at the apex. The mandibles are furnished with an

acuminated tooth at the middle, bent at the apex, and, what

is rather uncommon in this g., gradually enlarged towards the

base. The thorax is obconic, rather longer than broad. The

elytra are somewhat more stretched than usual in this group,

the rudimentary humeral cost are rather prominent, they

are separately rounded off at the apex. ‘Tibiw, more or less

elongated, slightly bent at the base and apex, at the latter

place sub-cylindricand hairy. Tarsi with joints 2-3 subequal,

first pair sightly contracted. A sexual distinction appears to

be expressed in the length of the tibiae, which are less elon-

gated in certain individuals, which are at the same time less

robust than the others. The insect is easily distinguished by

its general appearance.

44 Descriptions of New

34. SCYDMENUS"pyriformis. N.

S. supra castaneus, subtus brunneo-testaceus, pedibus antennisque

dilutioribus, tarsis palpisque flavo-testaceis, antennarum clava nigricante

long. corp. $ lin.

Antenne art. 3-8 fere subequalibus excepto 59 parum longiore, 8°

subgloboso, minore, 9-10 subglobosis majoribus cum 11° acuminato

clavam formantibus. Palpi maxill. art. 80 inverte conico, 4° minuto.

Pedes coxis 2 posticis distantioribus; tibiis 2 anterioribus basi apiceque

leviter arcuatis, reliquis subsimplicibus.

A pretty little species, at once distinguished by its color

which is chestnut, darker at the base and suture of the elytra,

and light, more or less brownish or yellowish, below, the

antenne being of the latter color with a. nigrescent club.

The occiput is slightly narrowed, the head altogether plump,

heavy and transverse. The antennal club is composed of 3

subglobose joints the last of which is acuminated and slightly

cut away on one side as in some of the preceding species.

The thorax is obovate, broadest below the middle and gradu-

ally narrowed towards the apex. ‘The elytra have the usual

2 shoulder-ridges and are rather strongly dehiscent at the

apex. The 2 posterior coxe are rather distant at the base ;

the tibie are slightly angustated and subcylindric at the

apex, the 4 anterior ones hairy, the first pair moreover

slightly bent at the base and apex, but the rest nearly straight.

35. SCYDMNUS angusticeps. N.

S. castaneus, antennis pedibusque dilutioribus, tarsis palpisque

testaceis ; long. corp. 1 lin.

Caput magnum occipite fortiter angustato, subtrigono, hoc cum

thorace longe pilosis. Antenne art. 3 et 4,5 et 6 inter se subequalibus

7-11 gradatim majoribus, vel 9-10 subzequalibus, subglobosis, 8-10 -

leviter depressis cum 110 clavam formantibus. Palpi maxill. art. 20

tenuiore, 3° inverte conico, 4° mediocri conico-acuminato. Thorax

obconicus, basi subquadratus, 2-sinuatus et 4-foveolatus. Elytra costis

2 fortioribus abbreviatis. ‘Tibize subrecte.

Ceylon Coleoptera, &c. 4.5

A handsome species of more or less deep chestnut color

with lighter legs and antenne. The head is large, heavy and

- from the eyes to the neck strongly triangular, the occiput

and thorax are covered with long hair, which adds much

to the peculiar appearance of the insect. The antenne are

thick and robust, the club 4-jointed. The thorax is subqua-

dratic at the base up to the middle and conic towards

the apex. The punctures or pits at the base are 4 in number.

The scutellum is small. The humeral coste are stronger

developed than in any of the other species and traceable

to the middle of the elytra. The tibiz are nearly straight,

subcylindric at the apex, the 4 anterior ones hairy. The

tarsi have joints 2-4 nearly subequal.

B. species without a neck.

36. SCYDM@NUS ovatus. N.

S. ovatus, convexus, brunneus; long. corp. $ lin.

Caput subquadrato-ovatum. Antenne art. 3-11 sensim incrassatis,

- 9-11 subglobosis, depressis cum 11° magno, conico clavam formantibus.

Palpi maxill. art. 4° minuto acuminato. Thorax amplus semiorbicularis,

margine posteriore medio producto, basi 2-foveolatus.

The color of this insect 1s as usual shaded off from brown

to light yellow; however, in other respects it differs materi-

ally from all the preceding species. The body is regularly

oval, thorax and elytra convex, pubescent. The head is

subquadratic-ovate; the eyes rather small, but prominent ;

the neck is altogether wanting. ‘The antenne are at the

base as distant from each other as they can be being inserted

below the eyes; the club is 3-jointed; the joints increase

eradually in size from the 3rd to the 11th. The maxill,

palpi have the 2nd joint slender, the 3rd rather pear-shaped,

the 4th minute and acuminated. The thorax is very ample,

semiorbicular, of the shape and nearly the size of the apical

46 Descriptions of New

half of the elytra, the basal angles are acuminated and slightly

envelope the shoulders, the posterior margin is prolonged in

the middle, towards the scutellum the fovez or basal impres-

sions are 2, and rather distant from each other. Scutellum

obsolete. Elytra with 2 depressions at the base. Tibiz

straight; tarsi with joints 1-4 subequal or very nearly so.

Mesosternal carina middling.

No. IV.

Note on CYCLOSOMUS flexuosus. Fab.

(This insect was erroneously described by me in the first edition of

these papers. However, I retain part of my description, as it notices

some peculiarities of the insect, of which I find no mention made in any

of the works within my reach. It was owing to these peculiarities,

and Lacordaire’s statement that the three known species were of

yellowish and green colour, as well as to having no detailed description

of the C. flex., that I described it as new.)

To judge from what Lacordaire says of this g. in his g.

des Col. (a work upon which, as I have said elsewhere, I look

as containing the essence of all former researches), it would

appear that the present species differs very materially from

the three others hitherto described, namely in the flatness

of the antennal joints, in the serrated edges of the tibial

spurs, in the existence of the tarsal brushes in the male, and

in the color—to say nothing of some other minor distinctions.

The three first of these peculiarities (too important not to

have been noticed by Lacordaire or any other describer of

the g. had they been aware of them) add considerably to the

characteristics which already constitute this g. one of the

most remarkable of the extensive family of the Carabide.

The antennz are strong, stiff and short, reaching hardly

beyond the base of the thorax: joint 1 is of middling size,

Ceylon Coleoptera, &c. A]

2 short, 3-4 are subequal, 5 rather shorter, 6-11 still shorter,

subequal: joints 3-11 are strongly compressed and pubescent,

but only on the narrow side. The tibie are strongly bi-

calcarated at the apex, the inner spur being longer than the

outer one. In all legs these spurs are slightly compressed

and serrated along the two narrow sides. Joints 1-4 of the

anterior male tarsi, are slightly dilated, the apex of the lst,

2nd, and 3rd, being at the same time furnished each with two

small white brushes, below fenced in by spines. In the in-

termed. tarsi of the male, the apical half of joint 1, and joints

2 and 3, are furnished on the inner side with strong brushes

of reddish colour, bordered by rows of spines, the entire lower

surface forming one thick brush, and not two, as in the anterior

pair.

Regarding the habits of these insects, one would feel in-

clined to suspect them to be of a semi-aquatic nature, that is,

the insects to frequent the banks of rivers, or other damp

_ places, and I know that some entomologists are under the

impression, that their mode of living is that of the g. Omo-

phron. However, to my experience, the direct contrary is

the case: they hive in the driest, hottest, and sandiest places that

can be found, where they burrow in the sand, exactly in the man-

ner of the well-known g. of the Amaras. I have of late taken

considerable numbers of them in the Cinnamon Gardens of

Colombo, in holes made by the rooting up of weeds, into

which they had run,and could not escape, the loose sand giving

under them whenever they attempted to do so. When wish-

ing to find them, I had to search the corners of these holes,

where some leaves had usually collected, when I would some-

times dig up eight at a time, not seldom rather deep in the

sand. They are quick of motion, and being thus pursued,

immediately bury themselves in the sand.

The diagnosis as given by Lacordaire requires at all events

48 Deseriptions of New

to be entirely recast, and the g. to be removed from the

tribe (Cratoceride, one of the characteristics of which is the

want of foot-brushes in the male) in which he has placed it.

III. OcutHeEruius. xn. g. N. Fam. CARABIDA, trib,

PAGCNIDZ.

Corpus oblongum, subparallelum, valde depressum. Caput magnum

antice trizonum; oculis magnis, ovatis, prominulis; collo forti. Mentum

subquadrate emarginatum, lobis extus fortiter rotundatis, apice abrupte

acuminatis, dente parvo acuminato. Ligula parva apice quadrate

truncata, libera, paraglossis setiformibus marginem anteriorem longe ~

sperantibus. Palpi robusti art. 4° elongato tenui, acuminato ; maxillares

art. 3° interne, 2° externe incrassato; labiales art. 3° robusto externe

incrassato, 20 parvo, cylindrico. Labrum parvum basi angustatum subtri-

gonum, antice emarginatum. Mandibule elongate, porrecte, trigone,

apice arcuatee, infra medium pluries dentate. Antenne robuste corporis

med. fere attingentes, art. 1° et 11° mediocribus, subzequalibus, 2-4 et

5-10 inter se subsequalibus, illis subcylindricis, his cum 11° ovatis.

_ Thorax subcordatus basi quadratus. Pedunculus brevis. Elytra apice

rotundata. Pedes anteriores tibiis profunde emarginatis tarsis leviter

contractis, art. 1-4 gradatim minoribus, art. 1° subcylindrico, 2-4 sub-

trigonis, hoc subtus apice spino tenui munito, 5° sat magno, unguibus

simplicibus. :

37. OCHTHEPHILUS Ceylanicus.

O. alatus brunneo-testaceus, pedibus palpisque testaceis, tenuiter

pubescens, fronte profunde 2-sulcata; elytris obsolete striatis, in striis

punctatis ; long. corp. 14 lin.

In fluviorum ripis Bembidiorum more victitat.

Apparently allied to Trechus, from which, however, it

would seem to differ in the structure of the palpi, the labrum,

&e. ;

The head is as broad as the thorax, and altogether of about

the same size ; it is strongly triangular from the eyes to the

tip of the mandibles, the forehead is impressed with two deep

longitudinal furrows; the eyes are large, rather oval and

Ceylon Coleoptera, &c. 49

prominent, behind them the head is abruptly contracted into

a thick neck. The antenne are long and thick, reaching

nearly to the middle of the body, joints 1 and 11, 2-4, 5-10

are subequal among themselves, 5-11 oval, 1-4 subcylindric.

The labrum is small, rather triangular being narrowed at its

base, it is emarginated in front with a slight angle in the

middle of the emargination. The mandibles are long, straight,

triangular, bent at the tip only, dentated below the middle,

the one more so than the other. The maxille are thin and

slender, gently bent outwards at the base and inwards at the

apex, the outer lobe corresponding with the inner one in shape

and streneth. ‘The palpi are robust, both the maxillary and

labial ones have joint 4 elongated, thin and acuminated, in

fact needle-shaped, firmly implanted in the preceding one, not

loosely hinged to it. The maxillary ones have joints 3 and 2

robust, the former swollen on the inner, the latter on the outer

side. In the labial ones joint 3 is still plumper than in the

others, but differs in shape by being incrassated on the outer,

instead of the inner side, the second joint being at the same

time quite small and cylindric. The mentum is large and

simple as above described. The ligula is small, oblong, very

slightly narrowed and transversely cut away at the apex, the

paraglosse separate from its sides a little below the anterior

corners, they are setiform and reach much beyond it. The

whole organ is of membranaceous texture, having, however,

a more substantial centre or back. The thorax and elytra are

simple and sufficiently described above. I may add that the

former is divided by a longitudinal furrow and that both are

furnished with a narrow margin atthe sides. The scutellum

is very small, and the abdomen furnished with a short pe-

duncle. The legs are weak, simple, and nearly equal, the

anterior tibiz are deeply notched, the lower margin of the

fourth tarsal joint of the same pair is furnished with a long

1857. H

50 Descriptions of New

thin spine, the apex of which fits in between the claws, as

in Lymneum Steph. I have been unable to discover any

footbrushes or other sexual distinctions in the specimens be-

fore me and therefore conclude that accidentally they are

all females.

The habits of the insect are those of the Bembidia in whose

society it lives upon the banks of rivers, taking like them

readily to its wings. I have found it occasionally in consi-

derable numbers upon the sandy banks of the Maha Oya in

the neighbourhood of Negombo close to the edge of the water.

IV. Creaaris. ». g.N. Fam. CARABIDA, trib, LEBIIDE

vel PERICALID#.

Corpus oblongum valde depressum. Caputmagnumrobustum; oculis

mediocribus, ovatis, sat prominulis; collo breyi. Mentum forma ferri

equini vel trifurecatum (hine n. g. Creagris) lobis angustis, subparallelis,

apice oblique truncatis, angulo interno producto, dente lobis parum bre-

_ viore, tenui, acutissimo. Ligula magna cornea apicem versus dilatata,

apice transversim truncata angulis rotundatis, paraglossis sat robustis

connatis marginem anter. non attingentibus, apice vix liberis, ovatis.

Palpi maxill. art. 4° claviformi apice fortiter truncato, 3° parvo, 2°

intus excavato; labiales art. 4° subelliptico, truncato. Labrum maxi-

mum, suborbiculatum, convexum. Mandibule parve basi obsolete

unidentatee, labro obtectze. Antennee robustze humeros parum super-

antes submoniliformes art. 1, 3 et 11 longitudine fere subzquali,

mediocribus, 2° parvo, basi cylindrico, apice rotundato, 4-10 subaequal-

ibus, cum 11° ovatis. ‘Thorax parvus, capite sesqui minor, transversus,

longitudine duplo fere latior, infra med. fortius angustatus, basi parum

prolongatus. Pedunculus brevis. Elytra apicem versus leviter dilatata,

apice fortiter subquadrate truncata. Pedes robusti simplices subae-

quales, ant. tibiis profunde excavatis, omnes tarsis brevibus, art. lo

sequentium 2 fere longitudine, subcylindrico-trigono, 2-3 gradatim

minoribus, 2° trigono, 3° transversim trigono, 40 magno, profunde bilobo, .

5 mediocri, unguibus simplicibus, art. 4° subtus dense penicillato.

38. CreEeacris labrosa. N.

C. picea, subtus dilutior, ore antennisque, coxis, trochanteribus, femorum

Ceylon Coleoptera, &c. 51

tibiarumque apice et tarsis brunneis; dense punctata tenuiterque pubes-

cens; elytris striatis; long. corp. 43 lin.

Specimina nonnulla prope Colombo nocte ad lumen cepi.

I consider this scarce and interesting insect to forma pas-

sage between the Lebiide and Pericalide, but am doubtful

_ to which of these two tribes to refer it as, although it partakes

of the characteristics of either, it is at the same time distinct

from either. Distinguished in several respects, its most extra-

ordinary character lies in the curious shape of the mentum.

This is, however, easily described as large, of the shape of a

horseshoe with a long, thin, very pointed tooth in the middle,

the apical half of the sides (lobes) being at the same time

gently dilated, the apex itself being obliquely cut away from

the outer towards the inner side (the inner angle being the

most advanced) and slightly dentated at the edge thus formed.

Or it may also be described as a fork with the outer teeth

somewhat enlarged, truncated at the apex and so forth. The

other parts of the mouth have not much to distinguish them,

with the exception, however, of the labrum which attains a very

extraordinary degree of development, occupying rather more

than one third of the whole head, although the latter itself is large

and heavy. It is of a suborbicular shape, very slightly pro-

duced in front into an obtuse angle, is vaulted, covers the

mandibles, has two longitudinal impressions at the sides of the

base and is highly polished. The head has two impressions in

front of the eyes, is densely punctured and thinly pubescent,

it is strongly but gradually contracted behind the eyes and

formed into a short neck. The antenne are strong and reach

a little beyond the shoulders, joints 1, 3 and 11, are of about

equal length, middling, the former two subcylindric; joint 2 is

small, rounded, 4-10 subequal and with the 11th oval. The

thorax is small, only half as large as the head, rather narrower,

strongly transverse, nearly twice as broad as long, slightly

52 Descriptions of New

emarginated in front, the anterior angles rounded, contracted

below the middle, subquadratic and prolonged at the base,

posterior angles depressed, longitudinally divided by a deep

furrow. The elytra are striated, and, as the thorax, densely

punctured and thinly pubescent. The legs are strong, simple,

and subequal, the anterior tibie are deeply notched, the first

joint of the tarsi is as long as the two succeeding ones together,

subcylindric, the 2nd triangular, the 3rd of a similar but more

transverse form, smaller; all three have the apical angles acu-

minated, the 4th is large and deeply bilobed, the 5th middling,

thin, theclawssimple. Thetarsi are altogether shortand strong,

the first joint is furnished with longer, the 2nd and 3rd with

shorter stiff hair, whilst the 4th is strongly penicillated below..

The anterior tibic are slightly spinose, the others more so.

The legs in all my specimens are exactly the same, and FE

hardly know whether they are males or females. The insect:

has a peculiar, rather strong smell about it, resembling that

of soap.

VY. Heterociossa. 2. g. N. Fam. CaRraBipa, trib.

GALERITIDA.

Corpus oblongum, subparallelum, depressum, tenuiter hirsutum. Caput

mediocre, oculis semiglobosis sat prominulis; collo brevi. Mentum sat

profunde subquadrate emarginatum, lobis magnis extus fortiter rotundatis

apice abrupte acuminatis, dente magno excavato, apice leviter inflecto,.

obtuso, magis minusve profunde sinuato. Ligula subcornea apice libera,

truncata: vel quadrata vel obconica vel leviter bisinuata; paraglossis.

eylindricis, marginem anteriorem longissime superantibus, magis minusve

incurvatis. Palpi hirsuti art. ultimo sat elongato, subcylindrico, apice

truncato vel subtrigono. Labrum transversum antice emarginatum.

Mandibule valide trigone, apice arcuate, basi pluries dentate. An-

tenne robuste corporis med. attingentes, art. 1° incrassato sequentibus

2 longiore, 2° parvo, 3-11 subequalibus. Thorax subcordatus, basi

transversim truncatus leviterque prolongatus. Pedunculus brevis. Ely-

tra apice fortiter subquadrate truncata, costata, costis 16 majoribus, in

Ceylon Coleoptera, §c. 53

interstitiis subtilissime bicostulata, in sulcis (suleo e tribus inter costas

binas majores medio excepto) tenuiter pilosa, in omnibus transversim

rugulosa. Pedes anteriores tibiis sat fortiter emarginatis, tarsis maris

art. 1-3 leviter dilatatis, subtus squamularum seriebus 2 munitis, art. 1°

elongato-trigono, 2-3 rotundato-trigonis, 3° precedente parum minore,

40 parvo, cordato, 3° plus sesquiminore, his omnibus angulis acuminatis,

5° magno, unguibus simplicibus.

This diagnosis may appear somewhat vague, still I have

been unable to express the characteristics of the insects from

which it is drawn in more precise terms, although they have

features quite peculiar to themselves by which they are easily

recognized when once seen.

The points on which the 3 spec. which form this g. more

or less disagree are the following: 1) the labrum: this is more

transverse in H. elegans and less deeply emarginated in H.

ruficollis than in the other 2 spec. respectively—still in all 3

it is emarginated and has moreover the peculiarity of being fur-

nished with bristles at the 2 anterior corners; 2) the mentum:

this is subquadratically emarginated, the lobes being strongly

rounded on the outer side and abruptly acuminated at the

apex, at the base of the emargination it is furnished with a

broad, excavated tooth which is inflected and obtuse at the

apex—so far all three species agree—however, whilst in H.

elegans and ruficollis, this tooth is slightly emarginated at the

apex, it is sharply notched in H. bimaculata, in fact bilobed,

the lobes being large and rounded at the apex. I look upon

this notch, which is sharp but not deep, as a mere variation

from the emargination existing at the apex of the tooth of the

former 2 species; 3) the palpi: these, labial as well as max-

illary ones, have their terminal joint truncated at the apex—

and so far again all 3 species agree—however, whilst this joint

is of elliptic form in the palpi of H. ruficollis, it is in H. ele-

gans only so in the labial ones, that of the maxillary ones being

eylindric at the base. In H. bimaculata finally, this joint is

54 Descriptions of New

rather clubshaped or subtriangular and stronger truncated

than in the former 2 species; 4) thé ligula: this organ is of

subcoriaceous texture, middling size, the shape of an oblong

square, free and transversely truncated at the apex—these

characters are common to all 3 spec. and in H. ruficollis I

have nothing to add to it; however, the anterior margin, which

is straight in this species, is slightly bisinuated in H. elegans,

the outer angles being acute and the central one obtuse. The

heula of H. bimaculata differs from both the former in as far

as it is narrowed towards the apex and depressed towards the

sides and the front, the anterior margin is otherwise cut away

straight, without any sinuosities, but it is rather strongly

armed with bristles. The paraglosse agree in all 3 spec. in

as far as they are highly developed, reach much beyond the

anterior margin of the ligula and are more or less bent inwards.

Their greatest development they assume in H. elegans, in

which they nearly touch each other in front of the anterior

margin, being cylindric and slender at the same time. In H.

ruficollis the paraglosse are somewhat shorter and straighter,

and in H. bimaculata still more so. :

On all other points the 3 spec. perfectly agree, in saying

which I lay particular weight upon the unusual sculpture of

the elytra, and the rather peculiar hairy vesture of the insects,

bearing also in mind their general appearance, proportions,

system of coloration, mode of living, etc. As to the hairy

vesture of certain parts of the body and the sculpture of the

elytra it is true that these are not generally looked upon as

of much importance, however, they appear to me so in this

instance, as they present certain unusual variations, repeated

in all 3 species. The hairy vesture consists in thin yellowish

or reddish hairs thinly seminated over the back and still more

thinly over the whole of the lower surface of the insects, being

at the same time longer at the latter place. This vesture

Ceylon Coleoptera, &e. 5d

acquires its greatest density on the legs, especially the tibie

and tarsi, whilst their uniform presence at the palpi forms

almost a generic character. The elytra are exquisitely sculp-

tured into about 8 larger coste on either of them and into 2

smaller ones between every 2 of these, the furrows thus formed

are finely transversely rugose and (with the exception of the

central furrow between every 2 larger cost) thinly pubescent.

39. HeTEROGLOSSA elegans. N.

H. supra rufo-castanea, capite obscuriore, maculis 2 humeralibus ob-

soletissimis ferrugineis ; subtus dilutior, pedibus, antennis oreque subtes-

taceis, elytris ad angulos apical. extern. testaceis; long. corp. 3} lin.

In lacus Colombensis ripis sub vegetab. putrescent. non infrequenter

cepi.

An agile, pretty little insect of chocolate color and with

its family features about it. Head smooth, polished, above

and below slightly punctured, with two impressions in front of

the eyes, anterior angles of labrum rather acuminated. Tho-

rax deeper and more densely punctured than the head, with

the elytra thinly hirsute, rather strongly emarginated in

front, less so behind, sides, especially at the basal angles, de-

pressed, divided longitudinally by a deep furrow. Scutellum,

like thorax, punctured and hairy. Elytra with the inner

apical angle right and the outer rounded off, largely punctured

within the margin, especially near the apex. Tibie with a

row of larger spines down the outer and a row of smaller ones

down the inner side, 4 calecarated at the apex, the 2 inner

spurs larger.

40. HETEROGLOSSA rujficollis, N.

H. colore precedentis sed obscurior, thorace pectoreque rufo-testaccis,

antennis art. 3 primis nigrescentibus; long. corp. 43 lin.

Cum precedente et per occasionem nocte ad lumen cepi.

56 Descriptions of New

The shape of the body is quite that of the former but the

insect is larger. The head is less distinctly punctured than

in the former and there is an additional impression in the

middle of the forehead. The thorax is also less deeply punc-

tured, but the divisional furrow is more so than in the preced-

ing species. The anterior tibie appear somewhat less deeply

notched. There is nothing else to add to the description that

has not been pointed out already.

41. Hertrerociossa bimaculata, N.

H. subcastanea, thorace dilutiore, capite rufo-testaceo, elytris ante

medium maculis 2 flavis, pedibus abdominisque apice testaceis; long.

corp. 54 lin. variat colore obscuriore et dilutiore.

Ubi precedentes sed infrequenter legi.

Head, with the exception of the forehead, deeply punc-

tured, with two impressions in front of the eyes, anterior angles

of labrum rounded. ‘Thorax densely and deeply punctured,

with elytra thinly pubescent. The latter with a round

yellow spot at the middle of either. This species is capable

of discharging a pungent, blistering liquid of brown color

and strong smell from the anus. I have often handled the

other 2 spec. but observed nothing of the kind. |

Note on Barysomus Gyllenhali. Dej.

A gross oversight of the vesture of the anter. male tarsi and some

incorrect information regarding the insect I received from Europe led

me into the error of describing it as new in the first edition of these

papers. However, having since examined it more closely, i may men-

tion here that joints 2-4 only of the anterior male tarsi are furnished

with squamule below, and not joints 1-4, as stated by other authors.

PAs

Ceylon Coleoptera, &c. 57

No. iV:

Tue TRIGONOTOMID with an elliptic terminal joint of the

palpi are abundantly represented amongst the Ceylon Cara-

bide, thus making amends for the want of other tribes of the

section to which they belong. Ihave now before mea great

many individuals of different species which I have endea-

voured to distribute into genera after the works of Lacor-

daire, Dejean and others of less importance. <A single glance

almost convinced me that they must belong either to Abacetus,

Distrigus or Drimostoma—genera closely allied, and whose

principal, in fact only essential, distinction would appear to

reside in the shape of the mentum-tooth. Ifit is a well estab-

lished fact, as cannot be doubted from the above authors, that

this tooth is pointed in Drimostoma, large, rounded, equalling

the lateral lobes in Abacetus, and large and truncated in Di-

strigus, the species described below could not, as to their

genera, be distributed otherwise than I have done; namely

5 Distrigus and 1 Drimostoma. The species which I have

drawn to the former genus have a large, more or less square

tooth, slightly rounded at the anterior angles. It is impos-

sible to call this tooth pointed in any of the five species ; they

cannot therefore belong to the genus Drimostoma, nor can

any of them be drawn to Abacetus, which genus is moreover

apparently exclusively African. As to the insect which I

have placed in the genus Drimostoma, its mentum-tooth is

not exactly pointed, but it is altogether narrower than in

Distrigus and might well be called “ assez aigué,” as Dejean

describes it. This insect differs, moreover, very materially

in general appearance as well as in its details from my Di-

strigi and I feel sure that it belongs to the genus in which

I have placed it, although it does not quite agree with La-

cordaire’s description—the labrum being emarginated in front,

1857. I

58 Description of New

the second joint of the maxill. palpi exhibiting nothing un-

usual &c. As to the species which I have established, I feel

very certain that they are new and good ones, as it would

appear from the quotations in “ Lacord. Gen. d. Col.” that

since Dejean’s descriptions no new ones of Indian species

have been published.

These insects live in the manner of the European Feronide,

but appear to affect rather damp localities, some of them

take freely to their wings and fly commonly into houses in

the evenings during the rainy weather.

42, DusTricus costatus. N.

D. nigerrimus, nitidus, subtilissime parce punctulatus, ore pedibusque

piceis, tarsis antennisque castaneis, palpis brunneo-testaceis, long. corp.

4? lin.

Capite clypeo fronteque leviter excavatis, hac impressionibus 2 later-

alibus semilunaribus profundissimis rugulisque nonnullis transversis;

mandibulis fortiter sulcatis; menti dente magno excavato; thorace lon-

gitudine parum latiore, breviter obcordato, lateribus rotundato, basin

versus angustato, basi truncato medio leviter emarginato, antice lateribus

fortiter deflexo, dorso posticeque plano, basi longitudinaliter profunde

2-impresso, inter impressionibus leviter transversim rugoso, ad marginem ~

ant. et post. obsolete sulculatc, dorso rugulis nonnullis transversis subtil-

ibus, linea med. longitud. subtili extremis profundis diviso; elytris

profunde striatis, interstitiis fere planis, puncto ad striam 2m medio ob-

soleto; tarsis dorso fortiter 3-costatis; prosterno plano.

Sub quisquiliis in ripis lacus Colombensis communis.

Apparently closely allied to D. impressicollis Dej. How-

ever, if the description given in the Spec. gen. embraces all

the characteristics of this latter spec. mine is undoubtedly

different from it. Dejean says nothing about the costx on the

back of the tarsi which are the principal characteristic in my

spec. nor are such coste of general occurrence or of so little

importance that it could be supposed they had been left

Ceylon Coleoptera, §c. 59

unnoticed by Dej. from these reasons. I cannot possibly call

the thorax of my D. costatus “subquadratic ;” it 1s rounded

at the sides, narrowed behind and cut away atthe base. The

strie of the elytra of my species are not punctured in the

bottom as those of the D. impressicollis are stated tobe. In

mentioning the interantennal impressions Dej. would certainly

not have overlooked the depression in the centre of the fore-

head nor that of the clypeus, which distinguish my insect, had

they existed in the one he described. ‘The former is round,

the latter transverse. I further fail to discover in my spec.

the “‘reflet un peu changeant” of the elytra, and that the

base of the thorax is “‘assez fortement ponctuée et que les

points se confondent souvent ensemble;” nor do I consider

the interstices of the elytra “relevés, presque arrondis,” or

the head “‘un peu rétrécie posterieurement,” the skull is of

the same breadth from the antenne to the occiput.

43. Districus submetalliicus. N.

D. supra niger eneo-micans, nitidus; subtus piceus, pedibus, ore an-

tennisque obscure castaneis, tarsis brunneo-testaceis long. corp. 3 lin.

Capite precedentis sed fronte haud excavato; mandibulis strigosis;

menti dente mediocri; thorace breviter rotundato-obcordato, preecedente

lateribus magis rotundato, antice magis deflexo, postice fortius quadrato,

hic 3-impresso, impressione media lateralibus minus profundaad apicem

prolongata, inter impressionibus punctato longitudinaliterque ruguloso ;

scutello excavato; elytris striatis, ad striam 2 ante medium utrinque

puncto impresso, interstitiis deplanatis; tarsis levibus; prosterno pro-

funde canaliculato.

Ubi precedentem specimen singulum m. cepi.

A4, DisTricus rufo-piceus. N.

D. rufo-piceus, nitidus, pedibus, thoracis elytrorumque margine

testaceis, antennis brunneo-testaceis, mandibulis brunneis, long. corp. 3

lin. 3

Capite inter antennas profunde longitud. 2-impresso, fronte medio

60 Description of New

leviter depresso, labro quadrato-rotundato, mandibulis infra medium

sulcatis, menti dente mediocri, excavato, apice subrotundato ; thorace D.

costati, sed parum brevior, basi 2-impresso, linea media longitud. fere

obsoleta, rugulis nonnullis transversis subtilibus ; scutello, elytris pe-

dibusque precedentis sed elytris puncto ad striam 2m infra medium

obsoleto; prosterno leviter canaliculato.

In ripis lacus Colombensis specimen singulum legi.

45. DisTricus eneus. N.

D. supra eneus, subtus piceus, pedibus dilutioribus, antennis

palpisque rufo-piceis, long. corp. 24—3 lin.

Capite ante oculos profunde oblique 2-suleato, rugulisque nonnullis

transversis, clypeo fronteque sepius leviter depresso, mandibulis leviter

sulcatis, menti dente mediocri; thorace rotundato-obcordato, basi

quadrate truncato, 3-impresso, impressione media minus profunda in

lineam subtilem ad apicem prolongata, inter impressionibus profunde

punctato, antice leviter strigoso, dorso subtiliter transversim ruguloso ;

elytris striatis, ad striam 2m medio distinctius puncto impresso; pro-

sterno sat fortiter canaliculato.

Prope Colombo in arenis subhumidis et nocte ad lumen communis-

simus.

46. Distrieus Dejeani. N.

D. piceo-niger, subtus seepius rufo-piceus, nitidus, capite eneo-micante,

pedibus, elytrorum margine antennisque rufo-piceis, palpis testaceis

long. corp. vix. 23 lin.

Capite inter antennas 2-impresso, fronte leviter excavato, mandibulis

subtiliter sulculatis, mentum przcedentis; thorace robustiore, ut in

precedente sculpto et signato sed antice non strigoso; elytris pedibus-

que precedentis, illorum tamen puncto minus distincto; prosterno fere

plano.

Cum precedente communissime occurrit.

47. Drimostoma Ceylanicum. N.

D. nigro-piceum, nitidum, pedibus piceis, tarsis, antennis oreque, di-

lutioribus, palpis testaceis, long. corp. 2?—38 lin.

Ceylon Coleoptera, &c. 61

Capite ante oculos profunde 2-impresso, labro antice leviter emargi-

nato, mandibulis elongatis, rectis, acutis, levibus, menti dente sat

acuminato, antennis art. 2-4 eradatim longioribus ;* thorace obcordato,

postice fortius angustato, quadrato, levi, basi 2-impresso, linea longitud.

med. diviso, antice impressione semilunari (impressionibus his omnibus

profundioribus) ; elytris striatis, interstitiis parum elevatis ; prosterno

sat fortiter longitud. impresso.

In prov. occid. non frequenter occurrit.

48. CASNONIA punctata. N.

C. supra subtusque (occipite abdomineque exceptis) dense profundeque

punctata, brunneo-picea, elytrorum margine maculisque 2 apicalibus

longitudinalibus cum margine confluentibus brunneo-testaceis, pedibus

flavis, trochanteribus, geniculis tarsisque obscurioribus, ore dilute brun-

neo, antennarum art. 1° palporumque art. 2 basalibus flavis ; long. corp.

3 lin.

Specimina nonnulla mens. Decemb. prope Colombo nocte ad lumen

cepl.

Smaller than the Ophionea cyanocephala. The head is

robust, with two impressions between the antenne and a

third just above them, somewhat of the shape of an inverted

V. Occiput less narrowed than in O. cyanoceph., smooth.

The anterior part of the head deeply punctured. The labrum

is slightly produced in the middle. Thorax much plumper

than in O. cyanoceph., hardly as long as the head, not much

narrower, conic, considerably narrowed and cylindric at the

base, densely and deeply punctured, especially at the base.

Elytra with the shoulders straighter than in O. cyanoceph.,

impressed with rows of deep punctures growing smaller and

shallower towards the apex, with a few small hairs near the

latter part; in the 3rd and 5th interstice three setigerous

punctures, in the 3rd and 4th interstice a longitudinal apical

“In the Distrigi just described, joints 3 and 4 are sub-equal.

62 Description of New

macula of yellowish color flowing together with the margin

which is of the same color, two shallow impressions on either

side, one below the shoulders, the other near theapex. Legs

shorter than in OQ. cyanoceph.

49. CAaAsNONIA pilifera. N.

C. glaberrima, nitidissima (quasi laceca obducia), pilis longis sparsis

vestita, nigra, ore (labro excepto) antennisque brunneis, his apicem versus

dilutioribus, elytris maculis 2 subapicalibus argenteis, pedibus piceis,

femoribus basi albis, trochanteribus obscurioribus, tibiis tarsisque brun-

nescentibus ; long. corp. 32 lin.

Specimina nonnulla cum precedente cepi.

This elegant species is of the same size as the O. cyanoce-

phala, but, with the exception of the elytra and abdomen,

which are shorter and plumper, still more slender and grace-

ful. Head large, very narrow and prolonged behind, much

more so than in O. cyanoceph., with two large shallow im-

pressions between the antenne, and another small one just

above them. Occiput slightly transversely rugose. ‘Thorax

very slender, half as broad as the head, of hardly the same

length, obconic, constricted below the apex, then gradually

increasing in size to below the middle, the base abruptly

narrowed, cylindric and impressed with three deep annuli-

form wrinkles. LElytra about as long as thorax and occiput

together, increasing very sensibly in breadth to below

the middle. ‘The apex is much more obliquely cut away

than in O, cyanoceph. or the preceding species. The shoul-

ders are full and hide the margin, just below them tie elytra

are deeply excavated, showing, moreover, three deep longitu-

dinal impressions in the bottom of either excavation and a

slight yellowish spot, hardly to be distinguished, at the outer

part of it. A round spot of silvery appearance adorns the

hind part of either elytron. ‘There are two rows of long thin

{

‘

Ceylon Coleoptera, &e. 63

hairs, placed at considerable distances from each other, on the

back of either elytron and a third just within the margin;

the same thin hairs are scattered about the thorax, femora,

and elsewhere.. The legs are longer and more slender than

in O. cyanoceph.

The Ophionia cyanocephala is not scarce in this part of

the Island, it affects rather damp, grassy localities where it

mounts upon the stalks of the plants as Helfer has observed

of some species 1n Bengal, but quite different from the ob-

servations Lacordaire has made with regard to the American

spec. of the genus. However, it is much more frequently

taken about the light at night. The 2 spec. just described are

much scarcer. Mr. C. A. Dohrn of Stettin writes to me

that he has received another spec. from me (C. Cypris D.)

which, however, I do not recollect; it would appear to be

smaller than either of the former, black, with white tips to

the antenne.

VI. Symeuyus,2.g.N. Fam. CARAaBIpZ, trib.

FERONIDS.

Corpus robustum oblongo-ovatum, subdepressum. Caput mediocre

postice haud angustatum, oculs mediocribus, sat prominulis, globosis.

Mentum semicirculare profunde emarginatum, dente forti spiniformi,

lobis haud breviore, ligule connato (hinc n. g. Symphyus), profunde

excavato. Ligula subcoriacea inverte trigona, dorso elevato, paraglossis

magnis connatis, eam sat longe superantibus, apice cylindricis. Palpi

art. 49 ovato, apice truncato; maxillares art. 3° elongato. Labrum

parvum profunde angulate emarginatum. Mandibule validissime,

subtrigone, porrecte, una 1-, altera 2-dentata. Antenne filiformes,

humeros parum superantibus, art. 10 mediocri, 2° parvo, 3° sequenti

paulo minore, 4-11 subeequalibus, 5-11 depressis. ‘Thorax subquadrato-

cordatus lateribus rotundatus, basi angustatus, quadratus, angulis pos-

ticis leviter oblique truncatis. Elytra ovata, parallela, apice rotundata

et leviter utrinque sinuata. Pedes mediocres, tibiis ant. leviter dilatatis,

64 Description of New

profunde emarginatis ; intermed. fortiter spinosis ; tarsi art. 1° cylindrico-

trigono, 2-3 trigonis, 4° obcordato, unguiculis simplicibus. (Mas latet).

50. SYMPHYUS unicolor. N.

S. niger, nitidus, glaber, pedibus oreque piceis, long. corp. 82 lin. lat.

3 lin.

Capite inter antennas 2-foveolato, mandibulis sulcatis ; thorace antice

haud, postice vix emarginato, hic 2-impresso, linea longitud. media

diviso, ad marginem posteriorem longitud.—, dorso subtiliter transversim

ruguloso; scutello leviter excavato; elytris striatis, in striis punctatis,

interstitiis vix elevatis, cum thorace anguste marginatis.

Specimen singulum f. prope Colombo mens. Decembr. nocte ad lumen

cepl.

This description is made after a single female individual,

but I have little doubt that the insect belongs to the numer-

ous tribe to which I have referred it, in which it ought perhaps

to be placed near Eccoptogenius Chaud. I am however, not

sure whether the shape of its ligula does not entitle it to a place

amongst the Anchonoderide. I may add to the above de-

scription that the accessory stria of the elytra is present, but

that the puncture usually found upon the 3rd interstice is

wanting. The general appearance of the insect presents no-

thing whatever particular, however, upon further inspection

the deeply notched labrum and the strong porrected mandibles

are very striking. The labrum appears to me of extraordinary

construction: the mentum is large and of semicircular shape,

deeply emarginated, which renders the lobes heavy, rounded

outside and pointed at the tip. In the bottom of this emar-

gination stands a pointed, spinelike tooth, as long as the lobes.

This tooth is deeply excavated or grooved and is clearly seen

to be to its full length soldered together with the basal part

of the ligula; probably the entire mentum is in this manner

connected with the adjoining part of the ligula, but in the

other parts it is not so clearly observable as in the tooth, and

a -

Ceylon Coleoptera, §c. 65

T have not dissected the labrum. The ligula itself is of a

leathery consistence, of the shape of an elongated inverted

triangle with an elevated back, the anterior margin is straight

and somewhat prolonged beyond what would be the sides of

the triangle. The paraglosse are of membranaceous texture,

very broad, adhering to the sides of the ligula to its full

length, taking then a slender, cylindric form and reaching

considerably beyond it, being at the same time slightly bent

inwards.

VII. Catopromus. n.g. N. Fam. CaRaBIDA, trib.

HARPALIDE.

Corpus robustum, ovatum, subconvexum. Caput mediocre subqua-

dratum, postice haud angustatum; oculis minoribus sat prominulis.

Mentum profundius sublunate emarginatum, edentatum, lobis obtusis.

Ligula oblonge quadrata, apicem versus dilatata, apice medio leviter pro-

ducta, libera, paraglossis robustis eam parum superantibus, apice obtusis.

Palpi art. 40 elliptico, apice leviter truncato. Labrum subtransversum,

antice emarginatum, angulis rotundatis. Mandibule valide, una 1-,

altera 2-dentata. Antenne robuste, thoracis basin attingentes, art. 1, 3,

11 et 4-10 inter se subequalibus, 1-2 cylindricis, 30 basi angustato, 4-

11 ovatis, leviter depressis. ‘Thorax transversus, lateribus leviter ro-

tundatus, basi parum angustatus, quadratus, antice leviter emarginatus.

Elytra thorace parum latiora, apice rotundata. Pedes robusti, ant. tibiis

apice leviter dilatatis, profunde emarginatis, tarsis art. 1-4 gradatim

minoribus, 1° subtrigono, 2-4 transversim trigonis, unguiculis validis,

simplicibus, mas art. 1-4 leviter dilatatis, subtus squamulis 2-seriatim

munitis; pedes intermed. et post. tibiis fortiter spinosis, tarsis sumplicibus.

51. CALODROMUS exornatus. N.

C. glaber, nitidus, supra lete viridis, thoracis margine lato elytrorumque

fascia inframarginali testaceis, capite viridi-brunneo, antice brunneo,

scutello cum sutura brunneis, subtus brunneus, pedibus testaceis ; long.

corp. 44—44 lin.

Capite inter antennas 2-impresso, thorace capite quarta parte-, longitu-

dine duplo latiore, basi 2-impresso, leviter rugoso-punctato, linea longitud.

media diviso, cum elytris anguste marginatis ; his profunde striatis,

11857. K

66 | Description of New

Specimina nonnulla mens. Noy. et Decemb. prope Colombo nocte ad

lumen cepi.

Very pretty insects apparently closely allied to the African

go. Bradybenus De}. from which, however, they differ in the

structure of the ligula and in other minor points. They are

quite of the shape of a Harpalus, and I have no doubt that

their habits are those of the latter. Joints 4—11 of the an-

tenne have very much the appearance of grains of rice strung

together. ‘The metallic green color with which the insect is

adorned on the back is very rich: on the elytra it formsa

pattern of two triangles with their tips down, that of the

upper one being immersed in the base of the lower one, and

the apex of the latter being divided. These triangles are

flanked on either side by a broad longitudinal belt of yellow-

ish color. The margin is again green with the exception

of the apex which is occupied by the yellowish belt. The

thorax is green in the centre and yellowish along the sides.

The head is more or less brownish-green, lighter in the

middle, the mouth is brown.

52. Zopuium pubescens. N.

Z. rufo-testaceum, oculis nigris, occipite nigrescente, elytris pubescent-

ibus fuscis maculis 2 subhumeralibus, 1 apicali communi testaceis ornatis ;

long. corp. 32 lin.

Antennis art. 1° capitis vix longitudine; labro integro; palpis art.

ultimo trigono; menti dente magno obtuso, profunde canaliculato ; tho-

race elongato-cordato, capitis latitudine, illo parum-, latitudine duplo

longiore, medio leviter longitudinaliter depresso; elytris subtilissime

dense pubescentibus, obsolete striato-impressis, humeris obsoletis.

Specimina nonulla in prov. occid. nocte ad lumen cepi.

This description does not quite agree with Lacordaire’s

diagonsis of the g. Zophium: the labrum, the tooth of the

mentum are not what they ought to be according to this

Ceylon Coleoptera, &c. 67

author. However, Schmidt-Geebel in his * Col. Birm.” has

already departed from Lacordaire’s formula by describing six

species of Zophium with an entire mentum-tooth, which

according to the former author, would make them Polystichi

rather. The fact is, that this part of the labrum appears to

be variable. In all other respects the insect agrees with

Lacordaire’s description of the g.

The labrum is entire; the first antennal joint is hardly as

long as the head, slightly curved and increasing in thickness

towards the tip, the second joint is very small and rounded,

the rest are subequal, filiform; the tooth of the mentum is very

large, almost equalling the lobes, entire and deeply grooved

at the apex; the maxill. palpi are porrected, the second joint

is as long as the two following together, the fourth, in both

the maxill. and labial ones, is triangular or slightly securi-

form, being obliquely truncated at the tip; the thorax is

elongated cordiform, truncated at the base, the back is

elevated, divided down the middle by an impression, the com-

mencement of the elevation forms two knobs at the base; the

first tarsal joint is as long as the three following together.

Amongst the 300 species of BEMBIDIID& which have been

described from almost all parts of the world, with the excep-

tion of Australia, it would appear there are also none from

Southern Asia. However, since the publication of Lacor-

daire’s G. d. Col. (1854), in which this statement occurs, va-

rious species must have found their way into the Prussian

cabinets with my collections from Bengal and this Island.

In the former country the Carabide are very abundantly

represented and I recollect with pleasure the great variety

of them, from the gigantic Anthia down to the smallest Bem-

bidium, the banks and the sands of the Ganges used to furnish

me when leisurely travelling upon this river some years ago,

68 Description of New

from August te October, just after the rains. Nowhere have

I seen, nor do I expect to see, such swarms of Cicindele-—

their buzzing flight when disturbed was heard like that. of

bees. It appeared to me that they did not quit the sands,

their favourite haunts, when the tide rose, but allowed them-

selves to be covered over by the water, as other semiaquatic

beetles do. Without especially hunting for them, I brought

away with me some 10 species, mostly new, and amongst the

rest of the Carabide as many Bembidia. In this Island, both

in the hills and the plains, there is not a bank of a pond, lake

or river, which has not, as in more northern latitudes, its

Bembidia, and, contrary to what one would expect, they

appear to be more common in the hot low country than in

the cool hill region. The majority of the species described

below may any day be found upon the banks of the Colombo

lake. None of the species which, as I said, must have found

their way with my collections to Berlin and Stettin, and

thence perhaps elsewhere, have, to my knowledge, been de-

scribed; the descriptions given below, must, therefore, I am

fain to believe, be an interesting addition to the literature of

this section of the Carabide, however inferior they may be to

what they might have been had they been produced in Ku-

rope and the insects been collated with allied typical species.

I have none of those typical representatives of the gen. at

hand nor is my recollection of them sufficiently distinct to

permit of my drawing comparisons between them and the

Ceylon insects now before me. Nevertheless, I hope I have

set forth the peculiarities of my species with sufhcient pre-

cision to distinguish them from, or identify them with any

other Cis-himalayan species that may hereafter be described. |

As a hopeless confusion appears to exist amongst the sub-

genera, into which the original genus has been broken up, I

have not attempted to refer my species to any of them for

fear of thereby doing anything but throwing additional light

Ceylon Coleoptera, &e. 69

on the subject. There is no doubt that many more species

exist in this Island and that indeed, as in the case of the Sta-

phylinide, they will eventually be found to be quite as

abundantly represented within the tropics as without.

Nothing but their smallness has hitherto prevented their

discovery.

53. BEMBIDIUM opulentum. N.

B. oblongum, subconvexum, nebuloso-eneum purpureo-micans, elytris

apice sordide testaceis, subtus nigro-piceum, pedibus antennarumque

basi testaceis, ore brunneo; long. corp. 13—2 lin.

Capite inter oculos 2-sulcato, oculis magnis prominulis, labro fortiter

transverso, brevi, integro, mandibulis porrectis, antennis art. 2° sequentibus

parum breviore; thorace transversim cordato antice posticeque truncato,

haud emarginato, depresso, margine basique elevato, medio capite parum

latiore, apicem versus modice—, basin versus fortiusabrupteque angustato,

angulis basalibus fortiter truncatis profundeque foveolatis, linea longitud.

media abbreviata diviso; elytris ovatis humeris obsoletis, profunde striate

punctatis, punctis apicem versus obsoletis, ante et infra medium utrinque

foveolatis, apice lunula magna sordide testacea. Mas latet.

Prope Negombo in ripis Maha-Oye, fluvii, specimina nonnulla cepi.

The insect is of bronze color a purple reflect appearing on

the back in irregular patches as the light may fall upon it.

‘The palpi and the base of the antenne are of yellowish color,

the apex of the 3rd joint of the maxill. palpi, however, as

well as that of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th antennal joint is brown of

which color is also the remaining part of the antenne. The

2nd antennal joint is the shortest, the 3d and 4th are rather

longer than the following. The mandibles are rather straight

and porrected. The sides of the thorax are almost angular

and furnished with a setigerous puncture at the broadest

part, that is just before the middle. There are seven distinct

rows of punctures on either elytron and an accessory one

along the side of the scutellum, the rows decreasing in length

towards the margin and the punctures in depth towards the

70 Description of New

apex, the first row on either side, however, changing before

the apex into a furrow which falls in with that which sepa-

rates the margin from the rest of the elytron. Before and

beyond the middle, in the region of the 3rd row of punctures,

is an excavation containing a puncture which is situated upon

the 3rd interstice. ‘The excavation nearest the base is the

deepest. The apex of the elytra is marked with a spot of

dusty yellowish color prolonged on either side along the

margin which is here rather broad.

If my memory serves me right, the insect resembles the

Tachypus flavipes.

54, BEMBIDIUM truncatum. N.

B. oblongum, valde depressum, brunneo-testaceum, oculis nigris,

pedibus, antennis palpisque pallide testaceis ; long. corp. 13 lin.

Capite magno, thorace quarta parte prope minore, inter antennas

9-foveolato, oculis mediocribus, antennis art. 80 reliquis minore, 4-11

subequalibus fortius ovatis ; thorace breviter cordato, antice posticeque

truncato, haud emarginato, basi subquadrato parum prolongato, foveis

basalibus obsoletis sed linea basali latitud. profunda lineaque longitud.

med. distinctis; elytris oblongis apice transversim truncatis, juxta suturam

utrinque obsolete 1-striatis, ante et infra med. puncto impressis.

In prov. occid. rarius.

The small size, large head and truncated elytra effectually

distinguish this species. ‘The truncated posterior angles of

the thorax and the general appearance induce me to consider

it allied to the preceding species, at all events to approach

nearer to it than to any of the following species. ‘The eyes

are rather small for this g. ‘There are no traces of strie on

the elytra with the exception of one indistinct one along the

suture.

55. BEMBIDIUM tropicum. N.

B. oblongum, depressum, brunneo-testaceum capite brunneo, elytris

dorso nigris cyaneo-micantibus, pedibus, antennis palpisque testaceis ;

long. corp. 14 lin.

Ceylon Coleoptera, §c. 71

Capite inter oculos 2-fovelato-suleato, oculis mediocribus, antennis

fortius filiformibus art. 3° reliquis breviore; thorace breviter transversim

cordato antice posticeque truncato, haud emarginato, basi subquadrato,

anculis basalibus elevatis sed haud foveolatis, linea latitud. basali pro-

funda, infra lineam strigoso, linea media longit. diviso: elytris oblongo-

oyatis utrinque juxta suturam 4-striatis, striis externis et his apicem

versus obsoletis, in siriis punctatis, infra marginem stria profunda

abbreviata, ante medium et apicem in interstitio 4° puncto magno im_

pressis, punctis anteapicalibus piliferis in sulcum ad apicem prolongatis

semicirculum formantibus; tarsis 4 anterioribus art. 4° subtus apice

spinis squamulaceis 2 insiructo.

In prov. occid. copiosum.

Of light brown color, the head darker, the elytra blackish

on the back with a slight blue reflect, the base, sides and

apex brownish. The colors being more or less washed into

each other no distinct pattern is observable. The brownspot

of the apex, however, is generally pretty clearly set off from

the adjoining dark part. The paraglosse are hardly longer

than the ligula which itself is rather large. The antenne are

rather hairy and strongly filirorm, (not, as in most other

species, increasing in thickness towards the apex the joints

growing at the same time more and more oyal), joint 3 is the

shortest, 2 and 4 are rather longer than the other. The back

is impressed with 3-4 distinct strie on either side of the

suture, the external ones being obsolete as are also the re-

maining ones towards the apex. There is an additional deep

stria within the marginal one, extending from the middle to

the apex. Before the middle and before the apex there is a

puncture situated upon the 4th interstice, the anteapical one

of these has a hair in the centre and is prolonged to the apical

angle in the shape of a deep, curved furrow. This being the

case on either side,the two furrows together form a semicircular

figure. The tarsi are each furnished with bristles, especially

at the lower margin of the apex of the joints. In the four

anterior tarsi joint 4 is furnished at that place with two long

72 Description of New

bristles the apex of which fits in at the base of the claws.

These bristles partake somewhat of the nature of squamulz

by being dilated in the shape of a lancet. I have noticed

them occasionally to be bifid at the apex, but I do not think

that they are so always.

56. DBrmBipium triangulare. N.

_B. oblongum, depressum, testaceum capite brunneo, elytris sutura fas-

ciaque lata transversali media nigris, pedibus, palpis antennisque pallide

testaceis his medio fuscescentibus; long. corp. 1 lin.

Pracedenti affine, ejus capite, thorace et tarsis, differt thorace linea

basali punctata, infra lineam vix strigoso; elytris utrinque profunde 6-

punctato- striatis, striis apicem marginemque versus sensim obsoletis, ante

medium in stria 42 puncto impresso, stria inframarginali abbreviata et

impressione semicirculari apicali ut in precedente.

Variat colore obscuriore.

In prov. occid. communissimum.

Very closely allied to the preceding species, however" easily

distinguished by size, color, which is generally lighter than

that of the former, and the deeply striated elytra; the insect

is, Moreover, more common than the former. The prevailing

color of the elytra is not as in the preceding species black,

but it is that of the rest of the body yellowish, with merely

a black suture and black belt across the middle, the edges of

this belt are washed together with the color of the adjoining

parts. The semicircular impression at the apex of the elytra

is the same as in the former, and forms with the abbreviated

inframarginal stria, which is also the same, a triangular figure,

tip down, base open, whence I have derived the name. The

head with the antenne, the tarsi, etc. are those of the former,

as I have said above.

57. Bemprpium Ceylanicum. N.

B. oblongum, depressum, testaceum, oculis nigris, elytris sepissime —

Ceylon Coleoptera, &c. 73

fascia media transversali fusca obsoletissima, pedibus, palpis antennisque

pallide testaceis; long. corp. } lin.

Preecedenti simile, ejus capite, thorace et tarsis, facillime tamen distin-

guendum antennis apicem versus incrassatis articulis magis magisque

ovatis, art. 20 sequente longiore, 3-4 subzqualibus subcylindricis, reli-

quis ovatis; thorace, linea basali fortiter punctata excepta, basi levi;

elytris utrinque juxta suturam leviter 3-punctato-striatis, striis reliquis

et his basi apiceque sensim obsoletis, ante et infra medium ad striam 3m

puncto pilifero impressis, impressione semicirculari apicali ut in prece-

dente sed stria inframarginali non abbreviata.

In prov. occid. communissimum.

Easily distinguished from the former, to which it is allied,

by size, color and the incrassated antenne. The elytra, more-

over, shew only three distinct striz on either side of the suture,

two more, however, being justtraceable. They are obsolete at

the base, apex and towards the margin. Withinthelatterthere

is an additional deep stria, entire, and not as in the preceding

two species only fromthemiddletotheapex. Thesemicircular

impression of the apex, however, isthesame, soare the tarsi, etc.

58. Bempipium Klug. N.

B. ovatum, convexum, eneum, elytris maculis 2 subapicalibus rufo-

flavis, subtus piceum, pedibus dilutioribus, tibiis, tarsis antennarumque

basi testaceis; long. corp. 14 lin.

Capite inter oculos longitud. 2-impresso, oculis maximis, antennis art.

2° sequentibus parum breviore, his subequalibus; thorace transversim

ovato, antice posticeque truncato, haud emarginato, basi abrupte angus-

tato quadrato, angvlis basalibus profunde foveolatis inter foveis punctis

1-seriatim impresso, linea media longit. subtili diviso; elytris ovatis

apicem versus leviter angustatis, utrinque profunde 7-punctato-striatis,

basi leevi, striis apicem versus obsoletis, ante apicem inter strias 3-6 ma-

cula orbiculari rufo-flava apiceque impressione semicirculari.

In prov. occid. et central., hic usque alt. 3500 ped., non infrequenter

legi.

This species ascends from the sea level of the Western

Province to an elevation of 3,500 feet in the hills, where I

807. L

74 ; Description of New

have not unfrequently met it upon the sandy banks of the

Pundhool-Oya, a rocky mountain-stream in the district of Kot-

malie. Its robust, ovate, convex shape places it at once into

a ditterent division from any of the former. It is of bronze

color with two orange colored spots behind, the mouth is brown

vith the exception of the palpi which, together with joints 1

2 of the antenna, are yellowish, joint 3 of the maxill. palpi,

however, is of the general color of the mouth. The labrum.

is square and entire, the 2nd antennal joint is rather shorter

than the rest. ‘The thorax is transversely ovate, that is to

say, ita greatest width is at the middle, not as in a cordate

thorax before it, the fovee are connected by a series of punc-

tures which gradually deepen towards the centre, the longitud.

divisional line is also deeper at the apical extremity than at

the other parts. ‘The elytra are impressed with seven deep fur-

rows on either side deeply punctured at the bottom. These

furrows decrease in length towards the margin and in depth

towards the apex, with the exception, however, of the first

on either side which goes straight down to the apex. At the

latter comparatively smooth place is the semicircular impres-

sion noticed in the three preceding and to be noticed in all the

following species. ‘The base of the elytrais smooth. There

are no traces of punctures, such as are usual in the region of

the 3rd or 4th interstice, observable. The lower side of the

insect is of pitch color, the basal part of the legs and the thighs

are lighter and the tibie and tarsi quite so.

59. BemMBipIuMmM ebeninum. N.

B. ovatum, convexum, nigrum elytris ante apicem maculis 2 rufo- flavis, |

subtus piceum, pedibus palpis antennisque testaceis, his apicem versus —

obscurioribus, reliquis oris partibus brunneis; long. corp. 13 lin.

Preecedenti affine, ejus capite et thorace, facillime tamen distinguendum —

preter colorem antennis fortius filiformibus, elytris levibus juxta sutu-

ram itrinque 2-striatis, strils basi abbreviatis, externa apicem versus

Ceylon Coleoptera, &c. 75

obsoleta, ante et infra medium leviter foveolatis, ante apicem macula

ovata rufo-flava, infra marginem stria profunda apiceque semicirculariter

impressis.

In prov. eccid. non rarum.

Very closely allied to the former and equally pretty.

Hiead and thorax entirely those of the former, the antenna,

however, are more filiform and the divisional line of the thorax

is not deepened at the apical extremity. The elytra are

smooth, with only two striz along the suture on either side, the

rest not being even traceable, both these strie are abbreviated

at the base and the outer one becomes obsolete towards the

apex, the imner one, however, goes fully down to the apex

and falls in with a deep inframarginal furrow which is

wanting in the preceding species; before and beyond the

middle is a small impression, before the apex are two oval

spots of orange color, the apex has the semicircular impression

noticed: 1 in the preceding species.

60. BemprpiumMorientale. WN.

B. fortiter ovatum, convexum, eneum elytris maculis 4 magnis flavis

apice sordide subtestaceis, subtus piceum abdomine brunneo, pedibus,

antennarum basi palpisque Lee testaceis; long. corp. 1} lin.

Capite inter oculos longitud. 2-impresso, oculis maximis, antennis,

art. 3-4 subequalibus, 20 his vix breviore; thorace transverso leviter

ovato, antice posticeque truncato, haud emarginato, leviter angustato,

basi quadrato, 2-foveolato, inter foveis punctis 1-seriatim impressis, linea

longit. media diviso; elytris ovatis apicem versus fortins angustatis,

utrinque profunde 7-striatis, basi levi, striis marginem apicemque versus

magis magisque obsoletis, in stria 3a ante et infra medium puncto

impressis, infra humeros inter striam 5™ et marginem macula ovata, ante

apicem inter striam 2™ et marginem macula obliqua flava, apice sordide

obsoleteque testaceis, hic semicirculariter et infra margimem stria pro-

funda impressis.

Tn prov. occid commune.

eared

Easily distinguished by its strongly oval shape, the

76 Description of New

being hardly contracted at the base and no doubt belonging

to a different sub-genus from the preceding and the following.

The head is quite that of B. Klugiu. The antenne have

the 2nd joint hardly shorter than the 3rd and this and the

following subequal, joints 1-4 are of light yellowish, the rest

of brown color, joint 3 of the maxill. palpi is of dark, the

remaining ones and the labial palpi of pale yellowish color.

The labrum is square, entire and with the rest of the mouth

brown. The mandibles are furnished with 3-4 small teeth

below the middle. ‘The ligula is broader than in any of the

other species. The thorax, besides in shape, is distinguished

by having the fovez removed from the basal angles towards

the centre. The elytra are impressed with seven distinct striz

on either side, the first of which runs down to the apex where

it falls in with the inframarginal one, the rest decrease in

length towards the margin and in depth towards the apex,

beyond the 7th another one is just traceable, beyond this

there is a deep inframarginal one. The apex is impressed

with the semicircular figure which distinguishes all the species

here enumerated, with the exception of B. opulentum and

truncatum. The color of the insect is a dark bright metallic

green variegated with four large yellow spots on the elytra ;

two of these are near the shoulder and of oval shape, the other

two near the apex and oblique, the apex is of a dirty yellowish

color. The lower part of the insect is of pitch color, hghter

towards the apex, the legs are yellowish, darker towards the

base.

61. BemBiIpruM emarginatum. N.

B. ovatum, convexum, piceum, capite dilutiore, elytris ante apicem

maculis 2 rufo-flavis, subtus brunneum, pedibus, antennarum basi palpis-

que testaceis ; long. corp. 1 lin.

Capite antice fortius acuminato, fronte utrinque profunde pluries

sulcata, oculis mediocribus prominulis, labro profunde subangulate emar-

ginato, antennis art. longitudine subequali; thorace breviter cordato

Ceylon Coleoptera, &c. oi!

antice posticeque truncato, non emarginato, basi quadrato, foveis basal-

ibus lineaque longit. media fere obsoletis, linea basali latitud. tamen dis-

tincta ; elytris ovatis juxta suturam utrinque 2-striatis, stria externa basi

apiceque abbreviata, ante et infra medium puncto obsoleto impressis,

ante apicem macula orbiculari rufo-flava apiceque sordide obsoleteque

testaceis, hic semilunariter et infra marginem stria profunda impressis.

Variat colore dilutiore.

In prov. oceid. rarum.

This and the two remaining species are allied amongst each

other, and probably belong to the subg. Lopha. However,

T am less sure of this with regard to the present species than

with regard to the two following.

The head is pointed in front, and the labrum, an unusual

occurrence, deeply notched, two deep furrows run from the

clypeus straight across the forehead to the vertex, and from

their base other smaller ones radiate towards the eyes. Joints

2-5 of the antenna, which, in almost all cases, are of une-

qual length, are not so in the present; the first two or three

joints are yellowish, the rest are brown. Joint 3 of the max.

palpi is dark, the remaining ones and the labial palpi yellowish.

The elytra are impressed with two striz on either side of the

suture, the remaining ones are just traceable. The one next

to the suture goes straight down to the apex, where it falls

in with a deep inframarginal furrow; the 2nd is as usual,

abbreviated. The apex is impressed with the semicircular

figure, and there are two punctures on either side.

62. BEMBIDIUM ornatum. N.

B. ovatum, subconvexum, brunneum, elytris maculis 4 flavis, pedibus,

-antennis palpisque pallide testaceis, long. corp. 1 lin.

Precedenti simile, pretercolorem facillime tamen distincuendum

corpore graciliore, fronte utrinque 2-sulcata, labro integro, elytris infra

humeros et infra marginem utrinque macula orbiculari flava, punctis

nullis.

Variat colore obscuriore et dilutiore et sepius apice sordide testaceo.

In prov. occid. commune.

78 Description of New

Hasily distinguished from the preceding species with which

it agrees in all other respects, no strie are, however, traceable

upon the elytra between the two near the suture and the in-

framarginal furrow.

ANG

63. EMBIDIUM scydmenoides.

B. ovatum, convexum, obscure brunneum, elytris maculis 4 magis min-

usve obsoletis dilutioribus, pedibus, palpis antennarumque art. 2 primis

testaceis, his apice reliquisque obscurioribus; long. corp. 1 lin.

Przcedenti simile, corpore robustiore, fortius ovato magisqué convexo,

thorace basi fortius quadrato facillime distinguendum.

In prov. occid. comimunissimum. :

VIIL Meecarisrerus. n. g: N. Fam. CARABIDA,

trtb. HARPALIDA,

Corpus oblongum, depressum, glabrum. Caput mediocre antice

obtusum. Mentum profunde subquadrate emarginatum, edentatum, lobis

extus rotundatis apice acuminatis. Ligula minima oblonga, paraglossis

magnis connatis eam totam amplectentibus antice rotundatis subcordate

emarginatis. Palpi maxill. art. ultimo subcylindrico apice magis minusye

angustato truncato, lab. eodem obovato truncato. Labrum transversum

antice posticeque angustatum, margine anteriore profundius emarginato

setoso. Clypeusemarginatus. Mandibule valide trigone apice leviter

arcuate, dextera mediocri labro obtecta apice acuminata medio 1-dentata,

sinistra robustiore porrecta (hinc n. g. Megaristerus) apice obtusa medio

2-dentata. Antenne humeros parum superantes, filiformes, art. 20 se-

quente parum breviore, reliquis subequalibus. Thorax rotundato-

cordatus, postice angustatus angulis rotundatis, anticeleviter emarginatus

angulis distinctis. Elytra parallela apice rotundata. Pedes ut in g.

Acupalpo tarsis maris 4 ant. tamen art. 10 subtus nudo.

Victus Harpalorum.

Apparently closely allied to Amblystomus, differing, how-

ever, in the sculpture of the tarsi, the antenne, labrum and _

palpi, and as in the diagnosis as given by Lacordaire in his ¢.

d. Col. the paraglosse of Amblystomus are simply said to be

rounded in front, a further distinction would appear to reside

Oe TS eae ee ee

Ceylon Coleoptera, &c. 79

in the notch which exists in that part of the ae ae of my

g. Megaristerus. Also allied to Acupalpus the sculpture of

the tarsi being exactly the same; in saying which . bear par-

ticularly in mind that the intermediate ones of the male are.

hardly dilated. From this g. however, it is effectually distin-

guished by the shape of the hgula. From both A citletorent®

and Acupalpus, the present g. moreover differs in the vesture

of the four ant. tarsi of the male, the first joint being nahed below,

and in the mandibles the left one of which is much larger and

plamperthan the richt one, protruding from under the labrum,

whilst the latter is hidden by it, the former - at the same

time obtuse at the apex whilst th eek ter is pointed. In the

M. Indicus this peculiar construction sic riking, but in

the other two species it is very much sv, and imparts a curiou

appearance to the head of the insect.

64. MIEGARISTERUS mandibutaris. N.

M. piceo-niger leviter metallescens, subtus brunneus, antennis, tibiis

tarsisque testaceis, ore brunneo; long. corp. 14-2 lin.

Capite inter antennas 2-foveolato, mandibula sinisira robustissima por-

recta, dextera mediocri labro obtecta; thorace basi 2-foveolato, linea

longitud. utrinque abbreviata media diviso, antice lunate impresso;

scutello majore; elytris obsolete striatis, striis juxta suturam distinctior-

ibus, cum thorace parce subtiliterque punctulatis, inter med. et apic. ad

striam 2™ puncto impresso.

Prope Colombo rarus.

65. MEGARISTERUS stenolophoides. N.

M. brunneo-piceus elytris cbscurioribus metallescentibus maculis 4

flavis, margine sutureeque apice brunneis, pedibus, antennarum basi pal-

porumque apice pallide testaceis, ore, mandibulis brunneis exceptis,

testaceo; long. corp. 14 lin.

Preecedenti similis corpore robustiore minus depresso et colore facile

tamen distinguendus. Differt preeterea palpis max. art. 40 minus dis-

tincte, lab. eodem fortius truncato; thorace magis transverso basi ob-

80 Description of New

solete ruguloso; elytris profundius striatis, puncto ad striam 2™ fere

obsoleto, cum thorace haud punctulatis, maculis 4 subobliquis flavis : 2

humeralibus in interstitiis 5-6, 2 subapicalibus in interstitiis 3-4.

Prope Colombo rarus.

66. MeEGARISTERUS Indicus. N.

M. obscure viridi-zeneus elytris maculis 2 humeralibus obliquis pus-

tulisque 2 subapicalibus flavis, subtus brunneus tibiis tarsisque testaceis,

antennarum basi oreque brunneo-testaceis ; long. corp. 14 lin.

Differt a M. mandibulari mandibula sinistra altera vix robustiore,

elytris infra humeros inter marginem et striam 2m macula obliqua intus

angustata ante apicem in interstitio 3° postula parva flavis, apice fortius

quam in precedente rotundatis.

Prope Colombo mihi, Maderaspatani a Dam. Hon. W. Elliot specimina

nonnulla nocte at lumen capta.

IX. Sparurnus 2.g. N. Fam. CARABIDA, trib,

POGONIDA.

Corpus obovatum, subconvexum, glabrum. Caput mediocre antice

trigonum, oculis magnis semiglobosis prominulis, collo brevi. Mentum

transversum profunde quadrate emarginatum, dente sat forti acuto,

lobis intus inter med. et apicem leviter oblique truncatis, extus

rotundatis, apice acuminatis. Ligula minuta elongata, paraglossis

latis connatis eam haud multo superantibus apice intus oblique truncatis

subacuminatis. Palpi art. ultimo conico acuminato, max. art. 30 inverto

ultimo eequali, lab. eodem robustiore. Labrum quadratum antice

profunde emarginatum angulis ant. rotundatis. Mandibule porrecte

trigone apice acuminatee basi dentate. Antenne sat robuste humeros

parum superantes art. 2-3 subequalibus subcylindricis sequentibus

brevioribus, his subsequalibus, obovatis. Thorax transverse sub-

quadratus antice lateribus leviter rotundatus, postice parum angus-

tatus, basi leviter rotundatus, angulis subrectis. Elytra ovata apice

rotundata. Pedes anteriores tibiis profunde emarginatis, tarsis maris —

art. 1-3 leviter dilatatis subtus squamulis munitis, art. 1° subcylindrico

2-3 subrotundatis, 4° subtrigono, unguiculis simplicibus.

Victus Bembidiorum.

Apparently closely allied to Trechus and an aberrant form

Cn a a a ae

Ceylon Coleoptera, &c. 81

of the same tribe to which the latter g. belongs. The mentum

and palpi appear to agree entirely, the insects differ, how-

ever, in the structure of the ligula (which in Spathinus is

entirely that of a Bembidium) and the sculpture and vesture

of the ant. male tarsi. In spite of the latter anomalies, the pre-

eminently characteristic shape of the palpi convinces me that

the insect must find a place where I have put it. It is also

closely allied to my g. Ochthephilus, differing from it, however,

in the ligula, palpi and labrum. The g. name “ Spathinus”

signifies a stageard, and I have chosen it with regard to the

shape of the terminal joint of the palpi. The insects are

common throughout the South-west and West of the Island,

where they live in the manner of the Bembidia, under

decaying vegetable matter, upon the banks of lakes and

rivers, &c.

67. SPATHINUS nigriceps. N.

S. Alatus, tenuiter hirsutus, brunneo-testaceus capite nigro, elytris

apice fuscis, ore, antennis pedibusque testaceis ; long. corp. 1} lin.

Capite inter antennas profundius 2-foveolatus, fronte medio leviter

depressa ; thorace leevi linea longit. media diviso; elytris juxta suturam

obsolete striatis.

68. FEuPLYNES Dohrnii. N.

E. ovatus, subconvexus, rufo-testaceus, oculis nigris, elytris viridibus,

femoribus apice tarsisque geniculis fuscescentibus ; long. corp. vix 43

lin.

Capite inter antennas bifoveolato; antennis art. 2° brevi, reliquis sub-

eequalibus ; palpis art. ultimo subelliptico truncato, labialibus elongatis;

thorace breviter transversim cordato antice posticeque truncato, longi-

tudine sesqui latiore, depresso, lateribus basique elevato, hic leviter

bifoveolato, angulis basalibus subrectis leviter rotundatis, linea med.

longitud. diviso, subtiliter transversim ruguloso ; elytris ovatis leviter

dilatatis thorace duplo fere latioribus, striatis, in regione basali in stria

$a-, ad et infra medium in stria 2a puncto impressis, in regione media

utrinque depressis ante apicem leviter angustatis et sinuatis, apice

1857. | M

82 Description of New

levisseim transversim truncatis angulo interno in spinam producto;

pedibus tibiis fortiter tarsisque 4 posticis dorso modice costatis.

In campis silvisque prov. occid. et in montibus prov. central. usque

alt. 4000 ped. sub vegetab. per occasionem copiose legi.

This insect frequents localities of a very different nature :

I have taken it in great abundance in the Negombo district

in hot, sandy fields under heaps of weeds, &c., but I have also

taken it on the banks of the Colombo lake, and in the damp

forests of Pusilawa, 4,000 feet above the sea, under fallen trees;

its favourite haunt, however, appears to be the former de-

scription of locality. It would appear to be very distinct

from the KE. cyanipennis described by Schmidt-Gebel in his

“« Col. Birm.” in thorax, sculpture of apical part and position

of punctures of elytra, costated 4 post. tarsi, &c. On the

other hand the curious depression of the elytra, which has

much the appearance of being accidental, is the same. (It

occurs also in my g. Anchista.) [am not quite satisfied with

the description of the hgula and tarsi as given by Sch.-G.

The former I shonid call “truncated at the apex, anterior

angles strongly rounded off.” In the insect before me it

is certainly not rounded in the middle—if anything, it is

rather the contrary. The tarsi I should describe thus :—

“ Joints 1—4 of two ant. male tarsi dilated, joint 1 nearly

as long as the two following together, sub-cylindric, joint 2

nearly as long again as the following, elongate-trigone,

jot 3 subtrigone, joint 4 (in all tarsi) bilobed, joints 1-3

furnished below with two series of lamellated papille fenced

in by bristles, jeint 4 densely penicillated ; claws simple.”

itake this opportunity to adda general remark: The

author above quoted at the end of the description of his

E, cyanipennis, quotes a passage from Helfer’s Burmese

Journal, implying “ that the species lived exclusively upon

trees, and that most of the Carabide of that country had the

same habit.” The latter part of this observation I feel in-

Ceylon Coleoptera, Sc. 83

clined to look upon as a rash and unjustifiable assertion on

the part of Helfer. There can be little doubt (and the

above is an additional example) that the Carabide of this

Island have much resemblance to those of Burmah, still my

long experience in it has not furnished me with any instances

of any of them living wpon trees, with the exception of the Tri-

condyle, Collyres and certain Cicindele. The Casnonie and

Ophionez are in the habit of ascending grasses and low herbs,

and certain Lebide and g. Catascopus live under the bark of

trees—this is all. As to the insect described above, although

it appears to adapt itself with facility to a variety of physical

circumstances, and although it takes occasionally to its wings

and flies into houses in the evening, I have never found it

upon trees.

Description of New and Little known Species of Ceylon Nudi-

branchiate Molluscs, and Zoophytes. By E. F. KELAart,

M. D., Staff Surgeon; F. L. S., Honorary Member of the

fioyal Dublin Society, &§c. &c.

HAVING, in the course of my Military service, been now for

the third time stationed in Trincomalie, in Medical charge

of the European Troops in that Garrison, and still finding that

thereis nothing like the careful study of God’s works, to divert

the mind from the contemplation of diseased organic bodies,

especially in this unhealthy and monotonous station, I have

again resumed the researches of my leisure hours, which never

fail to draw from me an earnest prayer that my health may be

spared long enough to conclude these labours in this and other

parts of the Island.

A recent visit to England made me acquainted with the

value of the aquarium, and with the interesting researches of

Messrs. Alder and Handcock, of Gosse, Johnson, and others,

among the soft, gelatinous, marine animals found in European

seas, which have been so much neglected by Indian Na-

turalists, owing to the difficulty either of observing their

natural habits, or of preserving their forms. The curiosity thus

excited was immediately increased, when, after several years

absence, I was again in sight of the magnificent harbour and

bays of Trincomalie. While some of my Ceylon friends

contemplated my return to Trincomalie as a great evil, I

became reconciled to my destination from an inward feeling,

and I hope not an unworthy one, that I was again sent here,

for a good and useful purpose. It is now nearly two years

1858]

Re ee eee ee eet

Ceylon Nudibranchiate Molluscs, and Zoophytes. 85

since I returned to Ceylon, and I have every reason to feel

thankful, that my residence in Trincomalie has enabled me

to prosecute researches in more than one unexplored field

of Natural History. I had for my guide the example of

those great and good men, who deign to look upon even my

labours as worthy of encouragement, and who do not consider

the pursuit of the Naturalist as incompatible with the duties

of a Military Surgeon. Dr. Johnson, himself a successful

Medical practitioner and zealous Naturalist, (in his celebrated

work on British Zoophytes,) observes, in his remarks on

Doctors who are also Naturalists, that “that very activity ot

mind and perspicacity which originated and upheld their sa-

gacity and success as practitioners, were sure to carry them

far in whatever side-path the natural bent of their taste led

them, for the occupation and entertainment of the leisure

hours which the busiest must have, or may create. Idleness has

‘no leisure. ** * There never was a time when it was ne-

cessary to vindicate, to any but the ignorant, the erratic ex-

cursions of medical men into the fields of science and litera-

ture, for assuredly the rank which the profession, as a body,

has taken and holds in public estimation, depends for its pa-

tent, in part at least, on the scientific and hterary character

of its professors; and by continuing to support that character

they will best secure it from the vulgarity of a common

mercature, or the selfishness of a venal quackery. ”

My earliest researches, since my return to Ceylon, were

directed (with the aid of the microscope) to those minute forms

of animal and vegetable life called animaleule, and Dioto-

macee. Ihave already communicated to another channel the

observations I have made among these interesting microsco-

pical creatures, found in fresh and sea water. In this paper,

I propose to communicate to the Ceylon Branch of the Royal

Asiatic Society, my researches among some of the least known,

but most interesting, species of marine animals.

86 Description of New and Little known Species of

Finding that scarcely anything is known of the many naked

Molluscs of this part of the Indian Ocean, I have availed

myself of the present favorable opportunity offered by the

Ceylon Government, for the investigation of the Natural

History of the Pearl Oysters, to extend my researches also

to a numerous family of Mollusca inhabiting these seas, which

though not productive of pearly gems, or affording specimens

for cabinet collections of Conchologists, or of amateur collec-

tors, have attracted considerable attention in Europe, more

especially since the publication of the splendid work of Alder

and Handcock on the British Nudibranchiata.

The marine shells of Ceylon have long been known to the

Naturalist, and they are also familiar to many in Ceylon,

but the soft sea nymphs, or slugs, whose perishable charms

often rival the more lasting beauties of the finest shell, had

scarcely ever been noticed by any Naturalist or friend in the

Island, tili I had placed these creatures in the Vivarium.

They have not only afforded amusement and instruction to

myself, but, I hope, to others also, who have frequently seen

these interesting creatures in their new homes. I must con-

fess that some of my visitors were disappointed at the slimy

nature of these animals, and failed to appreciate the beauty

of many of my pet specimens; others, however, more alive to

the beautiful, and to the wonderful works of God, did not

despise the sea-born slugs, because they were so snail-like in

appearance, and, like the land slugs, destitute of shells. ven

the native shell divers, who procured me most of the living

specimens, expressed their astonishment at the newly unfolded

beauties of these Atta,” or slugs, which they found crawling

on rocks and sea weeds; butit was not till the full formed

Doris, or the sweet little Holis, expanded their tentacles and

plumose gills in the glass Vivarium, that these “men who go

down to the deep” became aware, that the creatures which

* Tamul for sea slugs. a

Ceylon Nudibranchiate Molluscs, and Zoophytes. 87

they so much despise are among the most elegant objects of

the sea, and that, although a shell will preserve its colour for

an almost indefinite period, the rich and variegated colours

of these semi-gelatinous creatures, though shorter lived, are

not less charming, or less worthy of admiration. It may,

therefore, be hoped, that the interest recently created will

continue to be attached to the naked Mollusca of Ceylon, and

that, in a few years, they will be as well known to the Natu-

ralist, as the European species. Although it may be long

before we shall find an Alder or a Handcock to pourtray

gracefully, and faithfully record their characters and habits,

still it will always be gratifying for me to feel, that I was the

pioneer to the labours of others more competent to do justice

to the Ceylon Nudibranchiata.

It has always been my endeavour, though, I must own, often

unsuccessfully, to describe in familiar language to my friends

in Ceylon, the Natural History of animals found in the Island,

and therefore, if I have not attained this object in the following

pages, it will not be from the want of a wish to impart to

others some of the pleasure I have derived in such congenial

pursuits, or from the absence of a desire to be amusing as

well as instructive.

Popular accounts of the Natural History of a country

generally follow a scientific one. But I shall endeavour to

combine both in one communication, for I cannot but suppose

that, among many inquirers, there will be found even a few

who are anxious to dive deeper into the characters of an

animal than its colour or form. Having this object in view,

I cannot introduce the following descriptions of sea slugs, or

sea nymphs, by a more intelligible and useful preface, than an

abridged description of the Anatomy and Physiology of the

Class Nudibranchiata, given in the English Cyclopedia ; pro-

mising, in the course of my own descriptive account of the

species found in Trincomalie, to detail faithfully their habits

and characters,

88 Description of New and Little known Species of

NUDIBRANCHIATA.

A family of Gasteropodous Mollusca, characterized by the possession

of distinct, external and uncovered gills. The species of the family are

all marine, and with few exceptions small in size. They are sometimes,

with other forms of animals, called sea-slugs, arising from the fact that,

like land slugs, they are destitute of shells. Their body is usually

elongated and soft, and attached throughout its whole length to the foot,

or disc, upon which they crawl. They are not unfrequently covered

with a cloak, which in some is strengthened with calcareous spicula. The

head is anterior, and frequently indistinct, having one or two pairs of

tentacles, the upper pair of which are placed on the cloak when it is

present, and behind them the eyes are situated. But the characteristic

peculiarity of these molluscs is the appendages that constitute their

breathing organs, placed upon the back, always symmetrically, in plumes,

tufts or papille, either forming a circle on the central line, or arranged

in rows upon the sides.

None of the Nudibranchiate Mollusca appear to have been known to

the ancients, and even up to the time of Linnzus they remained, with

one or two rare exceptions, entirely unnoticed. It was not until the

appearance of the celebrated “ Memoires” of Cuvier, in the Annales du

Museum, that much attention was drawn to this subject. Since then,

Lamarck and Blainville contributed something to the knowledge of their

physiology and relations, but not much to the number of species.

Although little had been done up to this time by British Naturalists in

augmenting the species of this beautiful family, they have been, since, the

subjects of most accurate and fruitful. research; and the Monograph

now publishing by the Ray Society, on the “ British Nudibranchiate Mol-

lusea,” may be regarded as one of the most remarkable contributions made

to the literature of Natural History during the present century.—Conti-

nental naturalists have also added several new Kuropean species during

the last half century.

With the imperfect knowledge of foreign species that we yet possess,

it is scarcely possible to arrive at any satisfactory conclusion concerning

the general distribution of the Nudibranchiata in the different regions of

the globe. The tropical forms are, as usual, larger and more brilliantly

coloured than those of colder climates, but the notices of extra European

species are so scanty, that we cannot form any idea of their numerical

preponderance. * * * * It cannot be doubted that a great deal of the

apparent deficiency of other genera, in comparison with the Doridide, in

foreign countries, arises from the want of proper examination, and from

the little attention paid by collectors to the less conspicuous forms.*

In 1841, the celebrated Naturalist, M. Sars, announced the discovery,

that these little creatures undergo a metamorphosis, having on their

* Having paid this attention to “less conspicuous forms,” I am enabled to add

considerably to several genera.—kE. IF. K:

Ceylon Nudibranchiate Molluscs, and Zoophytes. 89

exirusion from the egg a very different form and character from those

which they are afterwards destined to assume. In this first stage of their

existence, they have the appearance of small animalcules, swimming freely

through the water by means of two ciliated lobes, and have their body

covered by a nautiloid shell furnished with an operculum. Up to that

time nothing approaching to a distinct metamorphosis had been known to

exist in any of the true Molluscs.

The Nudibranchiata exhibit a high state of organization. They are

all provided with a powerful muscular buccal apparatus, which has, in

some instances, appended to it a gizzard. ‘The oral aperture is guarded

by fleshy lips, and the mouth is furnished with a tongue, bearing a spiny

prehensile membrane, and occasionally with lateral corneous jaws.

The esophagus, stomach, and intestines are well marked; the former

is generally short, and passes from the upper surface of the buccal ass.

The stomach is frequently buried in the liver. The intestine is always

short.

The liver presents two great types of form. In the Doridide and

Tritonide it is entire (excepting in Scyllez, where it is broken up inte

6 or 7 globular masses,) occupying its normal abdominal position ; in the

Holidide it is more or less diffused.

All the Nudibranchs are hermaphrodites, each individual being fur-

nished with male, female, and androgynous parts. These organs, taken

together, are very bulky, and occupy the greater portion of the abdo-

minal cavity. They communicate with a common vestibule, opening

upun a nipple-like process on the right side of the body, and always below

the mantle, when it is present.

The organs of circulation and respiration consist of central organs of

propulsion,—a systematic and portal heart,—arteries, veins, and sinuses

or lacunes; and of laminated, branched, or papilluse branchiz ; arranged

either on the medial line, or along the sides of the back. The flow of

blood is rapid ; the pulsations of the heart varying, in the different species,

from 50 to 100 in the minute.

The nervous system presents a high degree of concentration, perhaps

higher than in any other group of Mollusca,—and is divided into two

very distinct portions ;—one, the cephalic or excito-motor; the second,

the splanchnic or sympathetic ; these two portions intercommunicate at

several points.

All the Nudibranchs are provided with auditory capsules. yes are

also universally present. ‘The dorsal tentacles are the organs of smell,

and, judging from their great development, this sense must be more acute

in most of the Nudibranchs than it is in any other mollusc, with the ex-

ception perhaps of Nauéilus. ‘Touch undoubtedly resides everywhere in

the skin, but is specialised in the oral tentacles and parts about the mouth.

The lips and channel of the mouth are probably the seat of taste.

1858.) | N

90 Description of New and Little known Species of

Their tenacity of life, when kept in confinement, varies much in the

different species, but is greater than in many other marine animals.

Though patient and long-suffering in the endurance of hunger, they

are very voracious. he greater number of them are carnivorous; living

principally upon Zoophytes and Sponges. The Eolides do not scruple

occasionally to devour the weaker among their own brethren.— Abridged

Srom English Cyclopedia.

Hoping that the foregoing anatomical and physiological

account of the Nudibranchiata, will draw more than ordinary

attention to this family of marine creatures (found on almost

every rock and sea weed), I shall proceed to give a descriptive

account of upwards of a hundred species of marine-animals,

including Sea-anemones and Planaria, found in the harbour,

bays, and coves of Trincomalie. I cannot but regret, that not

having with me Ruppel and Khrenberg’s work on species found

in the Red Sea, I am not able to speak positively of all those

herein described as being new toscience. Somemay,perhaps,

have already been described by earlier observers, which, if

ascertained to be the case, I shall only be too glad to take

the earliest opportunity of acknowledging.

In concluding these prefatory remarks, I have to express

my personal obligations to those authorities who have re-

tained my military services in Ceylon, thereby enabling me to

resume my Zoological labours, which were precipitately and

unexpectedly shortened by my removal from the Island.

Trincomahe, —

lst November, 1857.

Ceylon Nudibranchiate Molluscs, and Zoophytes. 91

CEYLON NUDIBRANCHIATE MOLLUSCA.

(NAKED MOLLUSCS. )

Sub-Kingdom. Mo.uusca.

Class. GASTEROPODA.

Order. NuDIBRANCHIATA.

Fam. Doripip.

Branchial plumes surrounding the vent on the medio-dorsal line.

Sub-Family. Doripina. With a cloak.

Genus. Doris. JLinneus.

Animal oblong, covered by a mantle; four tentacles, two

superior or dorsal, clavate or conical, retractile within cavities,

sometimes slightly sheathed. The two inferior or oral tenta-

cles placed on each side of the mouth, they are sometimes

absent or replaced by flat appendages; eye specks immersed

behind the dorsal tentacles, not always visible in the adult;

lingual membrane with numerous lateral teeth; rachis often

edentulous; stomach simple; liver compact; skin strength-

ened with spicula, more or less definitely arranged.

;

Doris Guoriosa. Kel. ¥

Synonym. Doris marginata? Leuchart.

Body nearly three inches long ; oblong, of a pinkish colour

minutely dotted with red and white. Mantle large, oval,

broad, when expanded entirely covering the foot. Back

mottled with pink, red, and yellow, and minutely punctulated

with red and yellow; edged broadly with white, then by a

92 Description of New and Little known Syecies of

rich broad red line; adjoining this is a whitish space, and

carried round the mantle, near the body, is a still more bril-

liant blood red line, with internal club-shaped prolongations

of the same beautiful purple red colour. Interspace and for

about + inch of breadth of the back, the mantle is again

whitish, with shades of purpte and yellow nearer the beauti-

fully mottled back. The underside of mantle has also a

_ broad white edge, the rest brilliantly variegated with dotted

purple, yellow, and red splashes. Branchie 7 or 8, large,

branched; each rising from a separate cavity in a circle about

half an inch from a protruding yellow coloured anal orifice.

Plumes roseus, with red midribs. Dorsal tentacles large,

clavate; apex pointed, slightly truncated, on inner edge lami-

nated; colour pinkish and spotted yellow; ridge of cavity

spotted with yellow and red. Head large, protruding nearly

2 inch from mantle. Mouth near foot, situated in the centre

of an oval projection, and on each side is a long broad toothed

leaflet or oral appendage, red and dotted like the head.

Foot long, broad, with parallel sides, rounded and trans-

versely split in front. It has a broad lemon coloured edge

with transverse strie; the rest pinkish red, not spotted; a

dark purple spot in centre given by the internal viscera.

This is by far the most beautiful species of Doris or Sea

nymph I have ever seen, and none but a good artist could do

justice to its resplendent beauties. The large ample surface

of the mantle, with its soft, snowy white undulating edge,

is best seen when the animal is swimming, and reflecting in

the water the rich red folds near the golden speckled back,

on which is placed a broad circle of rosy coloured feathery

tufts. The live specimen, of which the above is but a faint

description, was found under corals in low water near Fort

Frederick. In another specimen from the same locality, the

white edge of the mantle was replaced by a rich crimson red,

which coalesced with the inner red line, leaving a faint white

Ceylon Nudibranchrate Molluscs, and. Zoophytes. 93

line. Indeed, it is a question, which of the two varieties

looked more beautiful; at night, however, the palm of beauty

was awarded to the red margined specimen. They both

lived for some days in a vivarium. When at rest, the mantle

was turned inwards towards the back; in this position the

white and red lines were hidden by the broad rolls on each

side, displaying the rich profusion of red and yellow dotted

splashes and undulating lines of the under surface of the

mantle. In fact, it then looked lke another species, but it

is only when the mantle is fully expanded and floating on the

water, that the unrivalled charms of this beautiful sea-nymph

is seen to perfection. In the young, the mantle extends

round the head, and may be mistaken for a distinct species.

I have not had an opportunity of seeing the spawn of this

species.

If this splendidly coloured sea nymph is identical with

Leuckart’s species, found in the Red Sea, and named Doris

marginata, I should still prefer retaining the name I have

‘given it, as “‘ Marginata” would apply, equally as well, to

several other species as to this.

Doris MacCartuyi. Kel.

Body nearly 24 inches long; dusky grey. Mantle long,

narrow, dusky grey; bordered with a bright blue line; edge

crenulated, wavy. Dorsal tentacles long, conical, obtusely

pointed ; laminated obliquely, for nearly 2 of its length; of a

pale blue colour with white streaks. Oral tentacles white,

short, broad and rounded. Branchial plumes 12 to 15; ir-

regular, most of them of unequal length; pimnated, and a

few trifurcated; others have a small cluster of plumes rising

from the middle or extremity. Foot white, and nearly as

-long as the mantle.

94 Description of New and Little known Species of

This curious, but elegant species is semi-gelatinous; and

resembles a Gontodoris from its narrow mantle, which scarcely

covers the foot; the body is almost exposed.

I have dedicated this beautiful species to one who has al-

ways encouraged my pursuits in the field of Natural History.

To Sur Charles MacCarthy, the Colonia! Secretary of Ceylon,

I feel grateful for that assistance which his position in the

Island enabled him to give me, whenever required ; and [also

feel thankful to him for the warm interest he has taken in my

employment as Naturalist to investigate the Natural History

of the Pearl Oysters, which has so abruptly been brought to

a conclusion by my professional services being required in

another part of Her Majesty’s dominions,—the rebel polluted

land of India.

Doris Ca@Lestis. Kel. ~/

Body white, 22 inches long; flattened. Mantle coriaceous,

white, clouded with dark purple minute rings, confluent or

continuous with lighter coloured purple rings, set more widely

apart. Dorsal tentacles white, long; apex clavate, lamellated,

slightly truncated on the supericr edge; pale green, tipped

with orange; margin of sheath orange or golden. Oral tenta-

cles long, acutely pointed; white minutely speckled purple.

Branchial plumes 6, long, tripinnated; whitish, ribs purplish

brown, edge of cavity orange. Foot white, shorter than

mantle; grooved; lower lamella notched.

This beautiful purpled clouded Doris is of very retiring

habits; scarcely ever seen moving. Obtainedin August and

September from rocks in Back bay. Ova white, in 3 or 4

broad coils.

Doris Funepris. Kel. \

Body nearly 12 inch long; oblong, convex; of a waxy

Ceylon Nudibranchiate Molluscs, and Zoophytes. 95

white colour, and spotted black. Mantlecoriaceous, granular ;

of an ivory white colour, and ornamented with jet black spot-

ted circles and half rings or imperfect annular spotted figures.

Dorsal tentacles large, clavate; apex black, laminated, without

sheaths. Oral tentacles linear; white, tip black. Branchial

plumes 6, large and drooping, tripinnate; white and shaded

lavender grey; midribs of a dark brown colour. Foot waxy

white ; spotted irregularly on the margin of edges with small

and large linear spots.

This elegant funereal looking Doris is, with the mantle,

about 22 inches long, and 14 broad. Rarely seen. Lives

for a long time in the aquarium. Deposits its ova in broad

convoluted bands, which, when uncoiled, measure nearly 18

inches in leneth. A pair kept in the aquarium were seen to

spawn in July. While one was depositing the band of ova

on the side of the glass globe, the other kept watch, as it were,

by moving in a circle round the former. The whole process

lasted about half an hour.

The spots and markings of some specimens were of a dark

brown colour. In others the spots were of an auburn colour.

Doris GuLENIEL Kel. \/

Semi-gelatinous. Body nearly 14 inch long. Mantle

broad, shorter than foot,—above, white, with a pinkish yellow

shade; a large irregularly waved deep golden coloured patch

on the back, bordered and spotted with purplish red.

The under surface of fore part of mantle, of a beautiful

light purple colour. ‘There is also a purple line on each side

of the white body. Dorsal tentacles white, with golden co-

loured lamin ; long, conicaland pointed. Oral tentacles short,

white. Branchial plumes 7 to 9, short, lanceolate, pinnated ;

white, bordered with golden yellow. Foot pinkish white ;

edge pure white.

96 Description of New and Little known Species of

This beautiful species I have named after my friend the

Rey. Owen Glenie, Colonial Chaplain of Trincomalie, who

was often the cheerful companion of my Zoological pursuits,

and who will, I hope, on my departure from the Island, con-

tinue those researches which he has so well begun.

This is perhaps next to Trevelyana Zeylunica (n. s.) and

Doris Gioriosa, the most remarkably coloured species in Cey-

Jon. Found in the Inner Harbour in deep water, as also at

Cottiar, opposite Fort Frederick.

Doris LEOPARDA. Kel, ~~

Body ¢ inch long, grey spotted. Mantle carneous, granu-

lar; grey, and spotted with dark grey and blackish circular

spots; the latter in the central parts; each spot composed of

smaller spots, separated from each other, by white reticula-

tions, seen more distinctly with the aid of a magnifier. Dorsal

tentacles green; large, broad, ovate, lamellated for nearly

the whole leneth. Oral tentacles short, limear, acutely

pointed. Branchial plumes 6, grey, speckled with darkergrey,

all united for nearly half the length; and the other half fringed

with short plumes of a light green colour. Foot whitish,

speckled; covered by mantle.

This Leopard-spotted Doris is of a regular oval form.

Found in Dutch Bay among Coral rocks.—Ova white.

Doris AMABILIS. el.

Body 4 lines long, oblong, narrow, convex, white, spotted

purple on sides. Mantle smooth, white, and spotted with

purplish crimson spots; beneath white, not spotted. Dorsal

tentacles of moderate length ; apex conical, pointed; closely

lamellated; of a golden yellow colour. LBranchial plumes 5

Ceylon Nudibranchiate Molluscs, and Zoophytes. 97

or 6, small, bi-pinnate; white, with purple spots at their base.

All retracted within a cavity, without arim. Head rounded,

spotted purple, on each side of mouth a short linear tentacle,

white. Foot narrow, longer than the mantle, slightly ex-

panded in front, spotted purple on the upper surface.

This lovely little Doris is rarely found. ‘Two specimens,

obtained in May, are still alive in a finger glass, generally

resting on the side of a stone. At night it crawls out of its

hiding place and creeps along the sides of the glass, and is

sometimes seen floating on the surface of the water on its back.

When touched with a feather it adheres by its foot, and can be

kept dangling in this position by the aid of the mucous thread

secreted by the surface of the foot. Several Eolide were

kept in the same vessel, and it has survived them all, though

attacked repeatedly by the Holis. Ova white, deposited on

side of glass in a thread-like coil.

Doris Fipeuis. Kel. ¥

Body 4 inch long; narrow, convex; white. Mantle oblong,

with parallel sides; shorter than the foot; of a waxy white

solour, the edge lined with red and irregular tooth-like trans-

verse internal prolongations of the same colour; those on sides,

longer, alternated with short ones. Branchial plumes 7 or

8, black; lanceolate, pinnated, few branched at tip. Dorsal

tentacles oblong, flattened, pointed; apex black, lamellated.

Oral tentacles small, acutely pointed. Foot white, narrow,

slightly dilated in front, and pointed posteriorly.

Found on coral rocks at low water mark, in August and

September. This singularly marked species looks, when the

tentacles and branchiz are retracted, like a large bean. Its

jet black plumes and tentacles appear very conspicuous, above

1858. | fo)

98 Description of New and Tattle known Speetes of

the red margined white mantle. It is very tenacious of life

Ova deposited in narrow white coils.

Doris Preciosa. Kel.

Body white, 3 inch long. Mantle pale greenish yellow,

very light coloured on sides, where there is also a blueish

shade; closely speckled with small reddish brown spots;

margin marked with a narrow purple red line and a light

orange shade. Dorsal tentacles short, with reddish purple

apex, clavate, laminated. Oral tentacles triangular, sharp

pointed. Branchie short, pinnated; reddish purple. Foot

white, shorter than mantle,

This gem-like, elegant species, is of the same size as D.

Fidelis, and not unlike it in appearance. The deep blood

red branchial plumes, and the red margined speckled cloak,

sufficiently separate it from the last species. They are both

found in the same locality, and at the same time. The cha-

racters of the young species are also very marked, as in the

adult specimens.

Doris Nivea. Kel.

Body 2 inch long, convex, elliptical, snowy white. Mantle

coriaceous, granular; white, occasionally seen speckled indis-

tinctly with small grey spots. The purplish coloured viscera

seen through the opaline back. Dorsal tentacles pure white,

short, conical, pointed slightly, lamellated at tip. Oral ten-

tacles linear, Branchial plumes 6 or 7, white, bipinnate.

Foot white, shorter than mantle.

This snowy white opaline Doris, is probably only a variety

of Doris pallida of Leuckart, found by Ruppelin the Red

Sea. It has not, however, allits characters; the cloak resem-

bles that of D. repanda in some respects. Ithas white, nerve-.

I ek a ae eee a ee Pe ae

ee ae ee eee

Ceylon Nudibranchiate Molluscs, and Zoophytes. 99

like lines on the margin. I have only seen one specimen,

which lived for a few days.

Doris Marmorata. Kel. #

Body 24 inches long, oblong, convex, coriaceous; white,

speckled reddish brown. Muntle broad and long, covering

the foot; thick, hard, granular; marbled with black and red-

dish brown, and irregularly spotted white. Under surface

white, and mottled with irregular shaped purplish red spots.

Branchial plumes 6, united at base, superior half plumose,

tripinnated, grey and grizzled with brown. Dorsal tentacles

large, clavate, laminated; brownand speckled white. Sheaths

granular. Head small; oral tentacles long, linear, acutely

pomted. Foot white, deeply notched and grooved in front ;

spotted reddish brown.

This large marbled Doris lived only for a few days. They

are found on rocks near Fort Fredrick at low water mark.

Some are of a darker brown colour than cthers.

Doris CrEerisa, Kel.

Body 4 inch long, convex, oval; of a vermillion red colour.

Mantle of a cherry red colour, covering the foot. Branchial

plumes 6 or 7; very small, straight and stiff; bipinnated;

of a crimson red colour. Dorsal tentacles small, conical, la-

mellated, purplish red; speckled white, tip grey. Oral ten-

tacles indistinctly seen. Foot pinkish.

I have only seen one specimen of this exceedingly pretty

species. It lived for several months in a finger glass. It

cannot be mistaken for the young of any other Ceylon species

herein described. Ovared, in 6 narrow tape-like coils. The

ova of D. rubra (miht) are white.

100 Description of New and Little known Species of

Doris Ruropuncrata. Kel,

Body ? inch long, oval, compressed; of a white colour.

Mantle coriaceous; of a light brick red colour, and speckled

with circular spots of a darker reddish brown colour. Bran-

chial plumes 5, small, bipinnate; greyish, speckled rufous.

Dorsal tentacles short, clavate, pointed, laminated, without

sheaths; of a rufous brown colour. Oral tentacles white;

linear, Foot whitish; short, grooved and notched in front,

speckledrusty. Under part of cloak whitish, and also speckled

rusty.

This stiff-looking Doris is occasionally seen in a circular

form. Rarely found, among Pearl Oysters: very tenacious

of life.

Doris Grisea. Kel, <-</

Body 14 inch long, gelatinous. Mantle of a dark ashy

brown colour, closely speckled with reddish brown and white

spots, and two or four longitudinal rows of larger blackish

irregular spots. Tentacles clavate, laminated; ashy brown,

speckled white. Branchial plumes 5, whitish, speckled grey;

tripinnate. Mouth surrounded with a white veil (?) Foot

whitish, spotted reddish brown; notched in the fore part;

covered entirely by the mantle.. Some specimens are more

reddish coloured than others. The young are nearly always

more ashy coloured.

A very common species, found from March to September

in low water, on rocks surrounding Fort Frederick, and also in

the Inner Harbour. Lives a long time in the Aquarium.

Ova white, in 3 or 4 white coils. This Doris can elongate

itself into the shape of a leech.

Ceylon Nudibranchiate Molluscs, and Zoophytes. 101

Doris PAaPiIuuosa. Kel, Vv

Body 2 inch long, white, brown spotted. Mantle coria-

ceous, covered with large papille, each rising from a circular

tubercular base, or ring. Buff, and spotted dark reddish

brown ; a row of larger spots round the margin. A dark

brown line runs from base of tentacles to branchie. Dorsal

tentacles large, apex clavate, laminated, of a light green

colour, speckled white. Oral tentacles short, linear. Foot

whitish and spotted with rusty brown; shorter than mantle.

Branchial plumes 6; short, tripinnated. Posterior three

plumes rusty coloured ; anterior ones whitish.

This species resembles Doris rufopunctata, but its green

dorsal tentacles, and papillose tubercles on mantle, sufficiently

distinguish it from other species, Ova white, laid in 4

narrow waved coils.

Doris Ruspra. Kel. .

Syn. Doris Solea.? Cuv.

Body 14 inch long, oblong, pellucid red, Mantle crimson

red, and maculated with irregularly shaped dark brick red

or purple spots; those on the back larger. Tentacles large,

clavate ; apex red, laminated. Branchiz six, of a light rose

colour ; large, tripinnate. The two anterior ones smaller than

the rest. Foot oblong, broad, of a pinkish red colour ; longer

than mantle; rounded in front and transversely grooved ;

anterior lamina notched in centre. Oral tentacles linear.

With mantle extended, nearly three inches.

This beautiful red species is found in great abundance in

and out of the harbour of Trincomalie; and is generally

seen on mossy rocks a few feet below the surface of the water.

When confined in a glass Vivarium, it becomes, at night,

102. Description of New and Little known Species of

nearly throughout, of a pellucid pinkish white colour, which

hue it retains till dawn, when gradually it assumes its

brilliant red diurnal costume. Spawns in the months of May

and June; ova deposited in 3 or 4 large, white, ribbon-like

convolutions.

Doris Osseosa. Kel. /

Body one inch long. Mantle hard, cartilaginous, granular

and pitted; granules of a whitish colour; on the median line

is a narrow ridge extending from base of tentacles to bran-

chial plumes, which are 4 or 5 in number, emerging hori-

zontally from under the posterior termination of dorsal ridge.

In some specimens there is a large pitted protuberance on

centre of ridge. Dorsal tentacles with large granular sheaths;

apex conical, lamellated; of a pale green colour. Oral ten-

tacles white. Foot small, narrow. Branchial plumes small,

bipinnated.

This curiously formed Doris resembles a piece of bone, or

piece of worm eaten white stone. Its habits are those of the

other Doride. : |

Doris ConsTantria. Kel. ~

Coriaceous. Body #? inch long; light yellow. Mantle

yellowish brown, granular; dark brown spots on edge.

Dorsal tentacles yellow, conical, swollen at the apex, lami-

nated ; tip produced, white. Oral tentacles small, linear.

Branchial plumes whitish, 5 or 6, small, bipinnate. Foot

small, covered by the mantle. Under parts yellowish.

I have only seen one of this species, which lived for many

months ina Vivarium. It came nightly to one of the Oysters,

Ceylon Nudibranchiate Molluscs, and Zoophytes. 103

and apparently fed on the back of the shells, upon the atoms

of life found there.

Doris LuTEoLA. Kel.

Semi-gelatinous. Body # inch long. Mantle granular,

yellowish, and shaded with darker yellow. Dorsal tentacles

long, black, lamellated apex. Oral tentacles short, white.

Branchial plumes long, bipinnate; greenish. Foot white,

shorter than mantle.

This elegant species is found in shallow water; spawns in

October. Ova light green, in 2 narrow tape-like con-

volutions.

Doris VIPERINA. Kel.

Body 2 inches long; white. Mantle coriaceous, oval; co-

vered with short spinous tubercles, of a grey colour; and

beautifully spotted with dark grey and purplish brown spots

having a blueish shade. Under surface of mantle white, with

purplish spots, a purplish line runs near the edge; border trans-

versely streaked. Dorsal tentacles, greenish, long, white,

slightly truncated, laminated clavate tops. Oral tentacles

white; long, pointed. Branchial plumes 6; short, broad,

bipinnate; of a greenish white colour. Foot oblong, entire-

ly covered by the broad oval mantle; white, spotted with

_ smaller purplish spots than those seen on the under surface

_ of mantle.

- Found in deep water, near French Battery.

Doris ATRATA. Kel.

| Body half an inch long, and 4 inch broad; ovate, convex;

| of asmoky black colour. Mantle broad, when expanded

104 Description of New and Little known Species of

covering the foot; smooth, edge semitransparent, the rest jet

black. Branchie 8; small, of a smoky black colour, bipin-

nate; two sets of 4 each, all entering the same cavity round

anus. Hoot long, narrow, rounded in front, slightly project-

ing behind, when in progression; of a pale smoky colour.

Mouth indistinctly seen. Oral tentacles linear. Dorsal ten-

tacles pellucid, with clavate apex; black; tips white, looking

like eyes set on the tentacles. Ova white, in 3 or 4 small

narrow tape-like coils. |

This species may prove to be either identical with Doris

fumata of Leuckart, or D. fumosa of Quoy et Gaym, the lat-

ter more probably, as the remarkable, white tipped tentacles

(always present), could not have passed unobserved by Ruppel.

The branchize however, of D. fumata would appear to corres-

pond with those of the Ceylon species. The next species

too, which I regarded at one time as only a variety of D.

fumata, raust, I think, be considered distinct, as it was not

found in April with D. utrata, but subsequently, when the

latter became scarce.

Doris ATROVIRIDIS. Kel.

Body 10 lines long, of an invisible green colour. Mantle

broad, undulating, of a greenish black colour; edge streaked

with a pale crimson line. Tentacles and branchie as in

D. atrata. Foot of a pale invisible green. Ova like those of

the preceding species. Some of the specimens had the mantle

indistinctly, but regularly, spotted white; these spots, composed

of several smaller spots round a centre, looked, through a - ~~

magnifier, like little stars.

The young of this species is of a jet black colour, with a

broad brilliant crimson line round edge of manile and foot.

If I had not specimens of different ages to compare with,

Ceylon Nudibranchiate Molluscs, and Zoophytes. 105

and observe the gradual diminution of the intensity of the

red line, till it became almost obsolete in the larger specimens,

I should be inclined to consider the characters of the young

to be those of a distinct species; so very great are the

external characters of the young and older animals. The

presence of the red line in the young of this species, and

its non-existence in the young of D. atrata, still more confirms

me in the opinion already advanced, that they are not identical

species. Both are very sluggish in their habits; generally,

two or more lie locked in each other’s embraces, under a stone

ora coral branch. In confinement they live longer than any

species I have had under observation.

Doris VARIABILIS. Kei.

Body 6 lines long, pellucid green; the red viscera seen

through it. Mantle greenish brown and marked with longitu-

dinal rows of reticulated whitish spots. Dorsal tentacles

clavate, laminated; greenish brown, speckled; tip white.

Branchial plumes 8, small, round a central cavity, tripinnate;

brown, speckled white. Foot pellucid green; shorter than

mantle.

This species is found in great abundance on rocks in Dutch

Bay at low water mark. They vary much in depth of colour;

green however always prevailing. In habits like D. atrata.

Doris EXANTHEMATA. Kel. ki

Body 5 inches long; pinkish or light purple colour.

| Mantle long, broad ; covered with large and small, smooth

| conical and rounded nodules, rising from smooth elevated

| bases. The upper surface is of a deep olive brown colour,

| 1858.) P

106 Description of New and Little known Species of

having several white splashes; edge of a lemon colour.

Under surface of mantle pinkish, and near the body there is

a broad undulating reddish band, terminating abruptly on

each side, below the foot; not unlike in appearance to some

cutaneous disease. Dorsal tentacles long; pinkish and smooth

for 2 of its length, apex clavate, laminated, truncated; of

a pale brown colour. Oral tentacles long, conical; pinkish.

Branchial plumes 6; large, pendant, tripinnated; plumes

pinkish red and speckled white; midribs greenish. Foot

much shorter than mantle, deeply grooved and notched in

front, obtusely pointed posteriorly ; of a light pmk colour,

except the edge which is of a lemon colour with transverse

strie.

The whole animal gives one more the idea of a horrid

disease than the charms of a sea nymph. This species is

semi-gelatinous and very glutinous on the surface, particu-

larly the mantle. When dead it rapidly dissolves, and can-

not be preserved in spirits. ‘The largest specimen I have seen

measured 8 inches long and 5 inches broad. It will not live

more than a few days in the Aquarium. Ova of a beautiful

red colour ; coil 2 inch broad, and 18 inches in length. This

species resembles Doris carbunculosa, but the smooth nodules,

and the red ova of the former will always be sufficient marks

of distinction.

Doris CARBUNCULOSA. Kel.

Body nearly 44 inches long; oblong, oval; of a pinkish

purple colour. Mantle semi-gelatinous, broad and long, and

of an oval form; purplish brown colour, studded with nume-

rous large warty nodules, and larger ones rising from a raised

tubercular ringed base. Nodules of a deeper brown colour ;

some have also a greenish tinge and others are variegated

a Lee ee se ee ee eee are

se SP ee ee

Ceylon Nudibranchiate Moilluses, and Zoophytes. 107

with white. Dorsal tentacles long, produced, clavated, trun-

cated superiorly, laminated; of a pale purplish colour. Mouth

with a small triangular shaped veil. Branchial plumes 5;

large, broad and long; closely tripinnated; of a rusty red

colour, grizzled with white. Foot short, oblong, oval; of a

purplish pink colour; sides of under surface veined and of a

pink colour.

The manile of this inelegant Doris, is not unlike some car-

buncular formation. The under surface is pinkish and

shaded with purple. It is a very unsightly object. The

edge of the mantle of the young is mottled yellow. The

whole animal is nearly 5 inches long, and 34 broad in the

centre. Ova white, deposited in narrow tape-like form in 4

or 5 broad coils. The white ova alone sufficiently distin-

guish this ugly Sea nymph from her rival D. eranthemata.

Doris Intrecta. Kel. «

Body one anda quarterinch long. Mantle warty; of adark

y; 4 s :

brown colour, nearly black; on the medial line is a thick

3 y 3

white pasty line. Dorsal tentacles brown; ciavate laminated.

Oral tentacles long, linear, pointed; of a bright brown colour.

S> »~P 8

Branchial plumes 6, tripinnated ; of a golden brown colour.

Foot golden brown ; narrow, longer than mantle.

This warty Doris is easily distinguished from others of a

y y =

brown colour by its rufous warty mantle, and the dirty white

Ime on back. Even the young have the white dorsal streak.

Very common in low water in the months of September

and October.

Doris LAanucinosa. Kel.

Body 3 inch long; of a pale green colour. Mantle green,

covered with short downy hair. Dorsal tentacles green,

108 Description of New and Little known Species of

lamellated, pubescent. Oral tentacles not observed. Branchiz

10 or 12; small, of a sap green colour, bipinnated. Foot

shorter than mantle ; of a pale green colour, transparent.

Of this downy species I have only seen one specimen. It

lived only a few days. Found near Nicholson’s Cove.

Doris Sponegiosa. Kel, ¥

Semi-gelatinous. Body nearly 3} inches long. Mantle

broad, oval, covering the foot in all parts; of a dull yeilow

brown colour, deeply pitted; margin of pits granular; cavities

spongious. The whole upper surface of mantle looks like

the surface of some species of sponge. Beneath of a darker

yellow brown colour. Dorsal tentacles large, with slightly

truncated, laminated apex, sheaths large, funnel shaped ;

granular. Oral tentacles (?) | Branchial plumes 5, grey,

drooping much; bipinnated. Foot broad, long.

This very curiously formed Doris is found in deep water in the

Inner Harbour. The young may be mistaken for a distinct

species, from the lateral cavities or pits being deeper. The

whole animal is nearly the size of Doris exanthemata.

Doris SrrRiaATaA. Kel. V

Coriaceous. Body 14 inch long. Mantle nearly smooth;

white, with light brown wavy streaks. Under surface white,

with linear wavy streaks near the body. Dorsal tentacles

with short conical laminated apex. Oral tentacles white, linear

pointed. Branchial plumes 5 or 6, small, bipinnated; white,

streaked with brown. Foot pure white, narrow, oblong.

Found in Dutch Bay.

Ceylon Nudibranchiate Molluscs, and Zoophytes. 109

Doris Corrucata. Kel. ¥

Body nearly one inch long, oval whitish. Mantle coria-

ceous, corrugated and studded with small tubercles; those on

the sides larger, and each has a spine; of a pale watery

green colour; black spotted under surface, also greenish and

spotted with small dots. Dorsal tentacles short, open,

greenish, lamellated. Branchial plumes grey ; 7 or 8, short,

pinnated. Foot pale green; narrow; shorter than mantle.

Oral tentacles short, triangular, pointed.

I have seen only one live specimen of this curious Doris,

Doris Picta. Kel. /

Coriaceous. Body 24 inches long. Mantle large, oval,

covering entirely the foot; upper surface granular, of a

yellowish brown colour, splashed with large and small irre-

gular brick red spots; under surface white and near the body

painted with small and large bright red spots. Dorsal ten-

tacles, clavate, laminated, slightly truncated; sheaths large,

granular. Oral tentacles, long, pointed, white, spotted red.

Foot broad, shorter than mantle ; white.

This remarkably painted Doris is found in deep water.

Occasionally it burrows in the sand, where it lies for hours ;—

plumes and dorsal tentacles alone being uncovered.

Doris BELLICOSA. Kel.

Coriaceous. Body 24 inches long. Mantle large, oval,

upper surface granular and covered with small spines; of a

dull brick red, or chocolate colour, and irregularly streaked

with pale yellow. Under surface of mantle white, splashed

and spotted with chocolate. Branchial plumes 6, large, bipin-

110 Description of New and Little known Species of

nated; of a dull rose colour, and speckled yellow in small

specimens. Dorsal tentacles with small clavate, pointed

apex. Oral tentacles white, short, pointed. Foot broad,

oval, of a dark red colour with a pale whitish edge.

Found in deep water in the Inner Harbour of Trincomalie.

The mantle of this species resembles much that of D. picta,

but its spines and chocolate ‘coloured foot sufficiently distin-

guish it from that species, which has a white foot and beau-

tifully painted under side of mantle. They live for many

months in a Vivarium.

Doris CASTANEA. Kel.

Carneous. Body one and a quarter inch long. Mantle

thick, granular and tubercular; of a reddish chestnut colour.

Dorsal tentacles red, short, laminated ; tip produced, whitish.

Oral tentacles short, linear, pointed. Branchial plumes 6 (?)

short, bipinnated’; of a purplish colour. Under parts deep

vermillion red, and speckled with darker red. Foot short, red.

Found near Sober Island, Trincomalie Harbour.

Sub-genus. ONCHIDORIS.

OncuHIDoriIs Luacuu, Blainv.

Carneous. Body oval, about 14 inch long. Mantle gra-

nular and studded with filamentous granules. Those on the

posterior third of mantle often large, and appearing like small

branchial plumes. No dorsal tentacles. Two oral tentacles,

which appear to protrude through notches, from under the

anterior edge of mantle. The foot is broad and nearly

Ceylon Nudibranchiate Molluscs, and Zoophytes. 111

occupies the whole of the under part of mantle. Anus opens

on the under surface of the posterior part of mantle. Orifice

of the organs of generation on the right side.

Found on rocks in the Inner Harbour. I have scarcely

any doubt, that this is the Onchidore described by Blainville

from a specimen seen in the British Museum, whose habitat

was not known.

The colour of the animal is of a light grey, mottled with

black spots in some specimens. In spirits the filamentous

granules are not seen, but when the animal is alive they are

so distinctly, and the contractile character of the filaments

are very observable, especially of the larger ones.

TREVELYANA, 2. 9. ¥

Body without a cloak. Two dorsal tentacles without

sheaths, non-retractile. Mouth in front of head, without

tentacles. Branchie ina circular disc on the back ; non-re-

tractile.

TREVELYANA ZEYLANICA. Kel.

Body 12 inch long, narrow, elevated and inflated near the

branchial plumes ; semi-gelatinous, white and spotted with

small dark orange red spots, set wide apart from each other.

Head rather produced and rounded ; also spotted red. Mouth

circular, small; situated in front, without veil or tentacles.

Branchial plumes 15 or 16, situated on posterior third of

body, round a large disc, in the centre of which is the vent.

Plumes long, downy, closely set; pure white, with a longi-

tudinal bright red streak on the back of each; slightly con-

tractile, but they do not retract into a cavity ; when extended,

they resemble a small tuft of marabout feathers. Genital

112 Description of New and Litile known Species of

orifice in a nipple-like process, situated between the anterior

and middle third of body. Foot long, and broad; terminating

posteriorly in a lancet shaped point, about 4 inch from body ;

white, with a delicate light orange red line on the edge of

the foot; this line is carried partially on each side of head.

Tentacles 2, dorsal; short, conical, pointed; upper half in-

distinctly laminated; ofa light orange red colour at tip; base

colourless, transparent. Ova yellow, deposited in bead-like

coils. They generally deposit the coils on branches of sea

weed. Sometimes, this Doris resembles a miniature fantail

“pigeon; particularly when perched on sea weed, and the

small marabout plumes are elongated.

Found on rocks and sea weed near Sober Island.

This elegant creature does not resemble any of the de-

scribed species. The form of the body is not unlike that

of the genus Ancula. Its nearest approach, in other par-

ticulars, is to Polycera.

I venture to make a distinct genus of this Doris, and

dedicate it to Sir Walter Trevelyan, to whom I am in-

debted so much for the liberal aid he has afforded me in my

researches into the Natural History of Ceylon.

Fam. TRITONIADA.

MELIBa@A. Rang.

Animal elongated, with a narrow, channelled foot and long

slender tail; sides of the back with pairs of tuberculated

lobes, easily deciduous ; tentacles cylindrical, retractile into

long trumpet shaped sheaths: head covered by a lobe-like

veil; sexual orifices behind right tentacle ; excretory behind

first gill on the right side.—( Woodward.)

Pant On pps arae to

ake

7) teed

Cates

ad 7

Lan LE

pag

Pe RA re aioe On

ee):

Wiehe,

HOVE ORANT IG Wan CELA OSE rar

Ceylon Nudibranchiate Molluscs, and Zoophytes. 113

Mpiipaa Viripis. Kel.

Animal gelatinous, transparent, of agreenish vitreous colour.

Body covered with hairy filaments. Head small, nearly cir-

cular, covered with filaments. Veil large and very expansive;

circular opening lined with cilia. Tentacles 2, about 2 of an

inch long; capsule small, covered with filaments. Branchiz

6 or 7 on each side, unequal, wedge shaped; placed alter-

nately; base broad; slightly pedunculated, covered with

cilia and filaments, giving a very hairy appearance; base

brown; the other parts greenish and speckled with dirty

white. Foot narrow, of pinkish colour on edge; and upper

surface covered with short filaments.

Nearly 3 inches long. :

Found on weeds near Inner Harbour; not common; can

swim very actively. The veil over the head is used as a net

doubtless to entangleits prey. ‘The opening is very dilatable.

Deposits its ova in a flat mass; ova white.

SOYLLZA (?) DRacmnAéA. Kel.

Animal green; elongated, narrow. No mantle. 2 tenta-

eles placed anteriorly on side of head; non-retractile; tentacles

folded or cylindrical, slightly granular. On the centre of

- the back there are three unequal! wing-like denticulated lobes,

of a green colour, with tooth-like processes, tipped red; sides

of the posterior half of body also toothed with two lines of

small pointed, red tipped tubercles. Foot. narrow, channel-

led. Mouth protected by two small semi-orbicular flaps or

veils. Orifice on right side. Length nearly one inch.

Ihave some doubts as to the propriety of placing this

species under the genus Scyllea. I could not discover any

tufted branchiz on the surface of the dorsal lobes. I propose

1858.] Q

114 = Description of New and Little known Species of

naming this genus, closely allied to Glaucus, if new, in honor

of Dr. Templeton, late of the Royal Artillery (brother of the

Belfast Naturalist) who has contributed conse to the

Fauna of Ceylon.

I have found only one specimen, on a branch of sea weed.

Tt looked at first like a piece of green weed, but on placing

it in fresh sea water, the lobes expanded and waved about

very briskly. The red tips of the lobes contrasted beauti-

fully with the bright green of the animal. It lived only a

~ few hours.

PoLycera (?) CeyLtonica. Kel.

Body 3 inch long. No distinet mantle. Head covered by

a membranous fimbriated veil; the long filaments slightly

toothed. Veil continuous with a narrow membranous expan-

sion on side of body, which are united at the tail. Large

fimbriated filaments also on sides of body. . A membranous

erest runs on the medial line of back. Dorsal tentacles re-

-tractile in a sheath; clavate, laminated, incurved at the tip:

brown, white tipped. Oral tentacles white ; broad and short.

Branchial plumes 5, short, bipinnated, retractile, placed in a

circle, in the centre of the back, near the third pair of dorsal

filaments. Colour above, bright orange red; beneath whit-

ish, with red specks seen through the transparent foot. Ova,

bright red; im narrow coils. The whole animal is scarcely

one inch long; and its broadest part not more than 2 of

an inch,

I have placed this species, very doubtrully, de the head

of Pelycera. 1 believe there is sufficient reason to make a

new genus of the leading characters of this pretty little

creature. The transparent membranous expansion is fully

extended when the animal swims, which it does, more freely

Ceylon Nudibranchiate Molluscs, and Zoophytes. 115

than any known species. For 10 or 15 minutes it will keep

floating and moving its body like an eel in the water. Very

rare; a few specimens lived for many months in my Vivarium.

Fam. EKoLipaé.

Animal with papillose gills, arranged along the sides of

the back ; tentacles sheathless, non-retractile ; lingual teeth

0. 1.0; ramifications of the stomach and liver extending into

the dorsal papille ; excretory orifices on the right side; skin

smooth, without spicula; no distinct mantle.

Eouis* Husspyi. Kel. ~

Tentacles 4. Both pairs of the same shape and form—

but the anterior ones longer, of a limped orange hue, tipped

with white. Back of a dull orange brown colour; a triangu-

lar white space behind dorsal tentacle. LBranchie numerous,

in 3 rows on each side of body, white and ringed with light

purple, tip white. Foot dilated anteriorily, no lateral pro-

cesses. ;

Rare; named in memory of a departed and beloved com-

panion of my earliest scientific labours.

Eouts Bicotor. Kel. v

Body # inch long, slender; waxy white; a dusky spot on

neck anterior to dorsal tentacles. Dorsal tentacles short,

smooth, transparent white at base; corrugated or laminated

at apex, of a deep orange red colour, becoming darker at

* Ktym. folis, daughter of Adolus.

116 Description of New and Little known Species of

tip. Oral tentacles twice as long; pellucid white through-

out; tapering, curved. Head small, rounded. Branchie

medium sized; narrow, acutely pointed; white with a sub-

terminal orange red ring; apex waxy white. They are set

in 6 or 7 small ‘clusters, the anterior ones composed of 34

or more branchie; the others of two, rarely of three; be-

coming smaller as they. approach the tail. Foot linear;

white, transparent ; slightly expanded in front.

Found among sea weed in Back Bay, Trincomalie.

Eouis ErFFuucEens. Kel. /

Tentacles 4; 2 dorsal moderately long, laminated obliquely ;

dark orange, tipped white. The two anterior ones orange,

with a whitish spot in centre and tipped white, a dark shade

behind dorsal tentacle. Branchie in 5 or 6 clusters on each

side of back. The anterior clusters consisting of 12 or 15

“narrow, obtusely pointed branchie; orange red at base, ring-

ed with white and orange, tip white; a bluish line running

longitudinally for nearly two-thirds of its length.

Found in great number in Dutch Bay, and other parts of

the sea near Fort Frederick. SpawnsinJuneand July. Ova

white, in narrow thready coils.

Eouis Pautinm. Keil. ¥

Tentacles 4. 2 dorsal red, wrinkled. The two terminal

tentacles pinkish, tip red, base white. Branchie reddish,

numerous, short; anterior ones have a whitish central ring,

tipped red. Posterior ones of a redder colour, tips more

broadly tipped with red; the central white ring less distinct.

Foot expanded, with a short, triangular-pointed process.

Length 34 lines.

i ee

Ceylon Nudibranchiate Molluses, and Zoophytes. 117

Eouis Tristis. Kel,

Four tentacles. 2 dorsal, about half the size of the two

anterior ones; white with blackish rings. Body white, an

interrupted blackish line on each side of back. Branchiz

in clusters of three or four ; short, pointed,, white, and ringed

with black. Foot slightly expanded, and notched anteriorly.

Length about 3 lines.

Found on sea weed in one of my Aquaria. Ova white.

Eouis Noputosa. Kel.

Four tentacles; opaque white. Dorsal long, pyramidal

pointed, with three nodular rings ; oral tentacles short, narrow

pointed, white with a yellowish shade. Head and back white.

Branchiz in 5 small clusters on each side; long, nodulai

obtusely pointed ; opaque white and spotted indistinctly with

shght orange brown; base darker. Foot slightly contracted

anteriorly.

Length about 3 an inch.

Eotis SMEDLEYI. Kel. ¥

Dorsal tentacles pyramidal, ringed; of a dusky grey colour.

Oral tentacles long, pointed, white, with a central red ring.

Branchiez in 5 small clusters on each side; the anterior pair

the largest. Papille short, conical; white, and ringed with

_grey. Foot long, with anterior tentacular processes. Length

4 or 5 lines. |

I have named this species in remembrance of one who was

a frequent visitor of my “ Aquarian establishment,” and who

took a warm and friendly interest in all my scientific pursuits.

This small £olis was discovered on some sea weed growing

ina Vivarium.

118 Description of New and Little known Species of

Genus Procronorus. A. and H.

Animal oblong, depressed, pointed behind ; dorsal tentacles

2, linear simple, with eyes at their base, behind; oral tentacles

short ; head covered by a small semi-lunar veil ; mouth with

horny jaws ; gills papillose, on ridges down the sides of the

back and round the head in front ; vent dorsal.— Woodward.

PROCTONOTUS ORIENTALIS. Kel.

Animal semi- gelatinous, greenish. Dorsal tentacles 2, bifur-

cated and retractile. Oral tentacles short, pointed, Bran-

chie, 4 or 5 rows on each side of body, those nearest the body

smaller ; wedge-shaped, rounded superiorly, flattened ; green,

spotted grey and green. Branchix carried round the head

in 2 or 3 rows; middle ones longer, all of the same shape.

Foot broad, long, grooved in foot. Length 24 inches. Ova

white, in waved thread-like coils.

This exceedingly interesting animal may perhaps occupy

a new generic place, as I do not observe the bifurcated dorsal

branchie noticed in the other species of the genus Proctonotus.

When coiled up it looks like a flower, with green petals.

Found in Trincomalie, in May and July.

PTEROCHILUS ViIRIpDIs. Kel.

Animal light green. Length inch. Tentacles two, simple,

long, pointed. Head withsmall laterallobes. Branchiz very

numerous, closely set; long, linear, acutely pointed. Branchiz

green, and spotted with darker green and grey. Foot linear.

Found on sea weeds, and, owing to its colour, not easily

recognised. Lives for a long time in confinement. Ova

green.

Ceylon Nudibranchiate Molluscs, and Zoophytes. OS:

Fam. ELystap@.

Genus. Enysia. Risso.

Animal elliptical, depressed, with wing-like lateral expan-

sions ; tentacles ee with sessile eyes behind them; foot

narrow.

ELYSIA GRANDIFOLIA. Kel.

Head and body light green; white, and occasionally black

spotted. Head and neck naked. Tentacles 2, folded longi-

tudinally, on side of head; bronzed green, tip brown. Buccal

tentacles 2, small. Membranous wing-like expansion on each

side of body; broad anteriorly ; acutely pointed posteriorly,

and united at the tail, Membrane green. Edged witha

black and a golden yellow line. No distinct foot. Orifice on

the back (?) Mouth beneath.

The whole animal gives one the idea of a Panes leaf; and

when moving, that of a butterfly. Found on sea weed. Some

are more than 3 inches long; greatest transverse diameter,

with wings expanded, 24 inches. Distinet veins, filled with

fluid seen on the wings; the heart pulsating on the centre

of the back. I have some doubts as to the propriety of

placing this interesting creature under the head of Elysia.

If on further investigation, it is found that it does not belong

to any known genera, I propose naming it HyDROPSYCHE.

Exiysta Puncrata. Kel. ¥

Smaller than the last species; largest specimen seen

measuring 14 inch. 3

Animal of a lighter green colour. Tentacles dark brown,

120 Description of New and Little known Species of

spotted white. Back whitish green, dotted with black and

green, and spotted like the black. Hdge of mantle black, and _

shaded with golden; under surface of wings tubercular and

dotted black.

Found on sea weed. Not easily distinguished from the

young of £. grandifolia.

ELYSIA Ca@RuULEA. Kel.

This is a very small beautiful species, about 2 inch long ;

when the wings are folded, it is not thicker than a crow’s

quill. Tentacles 2; blue, with a central red ring, tip blackish.

Body and wings blue; under part of head and fore part of

foot red ; edge of wing lined with black and red lines, the

latter outermost.

Found on sea weed, in the Inner Harbour. All three species

have the same generic characters, and doubtless belong to the

same genus.

Order. INFERO-BRANCHIATA.

Genus. PHYLLIDIA. Cuv.

Animal oblong, covered with a coriaceous tuberculated

mantle ; dorsal tentacles clavate, retractile into cavities near —

the front of the mantle; mouth with two tentacles; foot _

broadly oval. Gills forming a series of lamina extending the

entire length of both sides; exeretory orifice in the middle

line, near the posterior end of the back, or between the mantle

and foot ; reproductive organs on the right side ; stomach

simple, membranous.

iad ‘

Puy uirpia Zeyuanicus, Kel, -

Mantle tubercular ; salmon coloured ; three continuous black

BOYS FEREOTES

Keta art

Ceylon Nudibranchiate Molluscs. 121

lines run round the whole length. The internal one broader,

taking within its circuit the dorsal tentacles and anal orifice ;

two other lines run parallel to this all round the mantle;

the outer one narrowest. Dorsal tentacles large, conical,

pointed ; circularly laminated at the upper half, which is of a

black colour. The two oral tentacles small, black. Foot

whitish, notched in front; the blackish viscera seen through.

Branchiz whitish on sides of the body except infront. Anal

opening on a black coloured tube, behind which, there are

A or 5 large tubercles of the same form as those on the other

parts of mantle. Length one inch; 4 inch broad.

Very rare.

Genus. DripHyuLiIpia. Cuv.

Syn. LINGuELLA. Blain.

Animal oblong; mantle ample; gills limited to ke hinder

two-thirds of the body; head with minute tentacles and a

lobe-like veil; vent at the right side, behind the reproduc-

tive orifices? lingual teeth 30. 1. 39.

DIPHYLLIDIA Formosa. Ael. ~

Body pink. Mantle leaf-like; dark purple, with purplish

black shades; edge yellow, streaked longitudinally with golden

yellow, (broad lines alternated with very delicate narrow ones. )

Veil purple black, except the anterior edge: beneath, of

a lively pink colour. Foot pink, grooved in the median line

of posterior half. Branchize buff; a whitish spot on anterior

third of plumes. Dorsaltentacles emerging through notcheson

anterior edge of mantle; tentacles red with blackish tips

and sides. Nooraltentacle, Length 24 inches, 14 inch broad.

1858. | R

122 Description of New and Little known Species of

This very beautiful species is found in deep water. It

occasionally buries itself in sand, with only the head and

tentacles exposed, and lies for hours in this position.

Order. TECTIBRANCHIATA.

_ Animal usually provided with a shell both in the larva

and adult state ; branchie covered by the shell or mantle ;

sexes united.

Fam. PLEUROBRANCHIDA.

Genus. PLEUROBRANCHUS. Cuv.

Animal oblong, fleshy, convex above with a very large and

overspreading mantle. Foot large, equally outspreading, and

thus leaving a wide canal allround the body. Head distinct,

furnished with a veil, uniting on each side with the borders

of the foot, and with two tubular tentacles, which are split

anteriorly ; mouth at the extremity of a proboscis; branchie

composed of a double row of lamella, forming a plume on the

posterior right side, between the mantle and the foot. Anus

carried by a small tube behind the branchie, Organs of :

generation in front. Shell sometimes rudimentary, mem-

branous, with a tolerably distinct apex hidden in the thick-

ness of the mantle.— Woodward.

PLEUROBRANCHUS CITRINUS? Ruppel.v -

Orange red; mantle darker than the other parts of the

animal, and speckled with whitish spots. About 1 inch in

length. Ova reddish, in circular broad coils.

Ceylon Nudibranchiate Molluscs. 123

Very common in Trincomalie. Found in low water, on

coral stones and sea weed, nearly throughout the year.

Spawns in May, June and July.

PLEUROBRANCHUS RETICULATUS? Gmel.

Pale orange red, reticulated mantle, and spotted purple.

About 2incheslong. Found near Fort Frederick, Trinco-

malie, in shallow water, among rocks.

PLEUROBRANCHUS ZEYLANICUS. Kel. .7

Pale yellow, splashed with darker yellow and brown, and

minutely spotted with rusty brown.

About 2 inches long.

Rare ; found in Back bay.

PLEUROBRANCHUS PURPUREUS. Kel.

Deep reddish purple. Mantle very dark purple, and spotted

with still darker purple. There is a bright white zig-zag

line on each side of the back of some large specimens. Length

nearly 6 inches; 4 inches broad. The young is of a lighter

purple, and may be mistaken for another species.

Found in deep water, Trincomalie.

PBIB I LVL IL OLD IOI OI IIT SL

124 Description of New and Litile known Species of

CEYLON ZOOPHYTES.

RADIATA,

Order. PoLypt.

Fam. ACTINIADE.

Animal single, fleshy, elongate or conical, capable of ex-

tending or contracting itself, fixed by its base, but with power

of locomotion, mouth in the middle of the upper disc, very

dilatable, surrounded by one or more rows of tentacula;

oviparous and viviparous; marine.

Genus. AcTINIA. Linneus.

Body conoid or cylindrical, adhering by a broad base; the

space between the mouth and the rim of the upper disc occu-

pied by one or more uninterrupted series of conical, undivided

tubular tentacula, which are entirely retractile.

ACTINIA Warpil. Kel,

Body large, greenish yellow, except the upper-half, which

is of purplish colour and tuberculated ; the other parts nearly

smooth, indistinctly streaked. Disc buff, with darker radiat-

ing lines. Tentacles in 2 or 3 rows, about one inch in length ;

. -. be ee. ae

Ceylon Sea Anemones. 125

narrow, pointed obtusely ; whitish ; base purplish, tip bright

crimson, transversely striped with grey or dark buff.

Height 24 inches. Breadthnearly 2 inches, whenexpanded.

Found in deep water on the oyster banks at Cotteaar,

opposite Fort Frederick.

This handsome species I have dedicated to Six Henry

Ward, Governor of Ceylon, under whose auspices I have

been enabled to prosecute my researches among marine ani-

mals, with more than ordinary success.

ACTINIA TRANCHELLI. rel.

Body short, longitudinally striated with pale green, alter-

nately with lines covered with yellow and white tubercles,

_ small ovular granules round edge of dise. Disk circular, cup

shaped; greenish and rayed with 4 or 5 white lines. Tenta-

clesabout an inch long, set in two rows, narrow, finely pointed,

pellucid, and spotted with opaque, oblong, white and purplish

spots. 14 inch high and ? inch broad. The inner row of

tentacles generally erect, and the outer curving over side of

body.

Found in Dutch Bay. Named in compliment to Miss

Tranchell, of Trincomalie.

AcTINIA Pupica, Kel.

Body opaque white; irregularly striated and spotted with

light crimson. Tentacles few, pellucid white ; short, conical ;

set in two or three rows. Disc pellucid, and streaked with

milky white.

This elegant Anemone, when detached, floats on water

126 Description of New and Little known Species of

like a globe, and may be taken for a species of the genus

Mayas.

Found en small stones in Back Bay, Trincomalee.

ACTINIA PAssiIFLoRA. Kel.

Body semi-carneous, brown. Tentacles few ; short, stout,

truncated, or capped ? purplish white, the longer 5 or 6 have

dark purple base and rings.

This may be a species connecting Capnia with Actinia.

Height 1 to 14 inch, 2 inch broad.

Found near Sammy Rock.

ACTINIA REFULGENS. Kel.

Small, the largest seen scarcely one inch long; body white,

translucent ; tentacles short, in two rows ; brown with golden

spots.

Found on stones in Back Bay, Trincomalie.

Resembling a Zoanthura, but the clear diaphanous body and

the disunited tentacles, at once show this creature to be an

Actinia.

ACTINIA VERMICOSA. Kel,

Very small. Body 3 lines in diameter and 4 lines in

height ; whitish pellucid. Tentacles from 12 to 18, small,

worm-like; golden yellow or dark yellow brown. Very viscid,

When the tentacles are withdrawn this little creature looks

like the larva of an insect; oblong globose, with a golden

coloured head.

dill in =

Ceylon Sea Anemones. 127

AcTINIA Fiuctuosa. Kel.

Body pale, flesh coloured ; indistinctly longitudinally

striated, with white spotted lines ; several rows of pale blue

granules near edge of disc.

Disc waved, tubercular, forming sometimes in triangular

or quadrangular masses,—at other times circular; centre of

disc pale—the rest white with radiating lines.

Tentacles numerous, in 3 rows, pale brown, occasionally

greenish pellucid. The number on inner row fewer ; extreme

point white.

Height 1 inch. Breadth 14 inch.

Found in Back Bay, Trincomalie.

ACTINIA SAMARAGDANA. Kel.

Small, disc of a beautiful bright emerald green, with white

lines or radiating rays. ‘Tentacles numerous, set in3 rows ;

short, oblong, semi-conical, obtusely pointed; whiteat the base;

beyond this, purplish brown, the rest very pellucid, dashed

with purplish and white spots.

Body flesh coloured, longitudinally striated. Two or more

rows of pale green rounded tubercles, on discal margin, in-

ferior to outer rows of tubercles ; at times these granules are

of a white colour.

About 1 inch in diameter, and 2inch high. Found in deep

water, Inner Harbour.

ActiniA Avustinit. Kel.

Body rounded, thick, reddish ; covered with brick red tu-

bercles. Disc pellucid white, or reddish. Oral opening 1?

inch in diameter, margin surrounded with tentacular-like

128 Description of New and Little known Species of

bodies 1n two or three rows. Tentacles numerous, in four rows;

nearly 24 inches long, narrow, acutely pointed; pellucid, white,

spotted on the inner side.) Stands 24 inches high.

This large Anemone is found in great abundance on the

rocks near Fort Frederick in the months of May and June.

Some, entirely free of the brick red colour, are of a pale

greenish white ; others, have the disc one half purple and the

other half grey. It adheres to the finger.

I have named this species in remembrance of a valued

friend, who was one of the founders of the Ceylon Miltary

Medical Officers’ Museum,—Dr. Austin, late of the 97th

Regiment.

On my recent visit to Colombo I obtained many specimens

of a smaller Anemone from Mutwal rocks, closely resembling

this species, but with short tentacles, and without the ad-

hering qualities of the foregoing species. Iam inclined to

believe this to be a distinct species. Colours very change-

able.

Genus. ANTHEA.

Body cylindraceous, adhering by a broad base; tentacula

disposed in circles round the mouth, elongated, tapered, and

incapable of being retracted within the body.

ANTHEA Inprana. Kel. /

Body transparent, almost colourless, globose at base, elon-

gated; a few white spots near disc. Tentacles long, delicate,

finely pointed, set in two rows on the edge of a greenish trans-

parent disc. The inner set of tentacles more than twice as

long as the external row. Tentacles pellucid, indistinctly

ringed, alternately with grey and white. Oral opening sur-

= ee

| 1858.)

Ceylon Sea Anemones. 129

rounded with an elevated hexagonal ring, taking the form of

a cup, on the centre of which is the transverse slit of the

mouth.

This parasitical Anemone is found on Pearl Oysters, in the

Harbour of Trincomalie. It grows very rapidly in the Viva-

rium,— and isa goodguide for ascertaining the quality of the

sea water inwhich itis placed. When the water is impure,

orany animal in it dead and decaying, this Actinia shrivels up

and assumes a dark brown or blackish colour, and as the

water is purified the creature regains its pellucid form.

ANTHEA ARACHNIDA. Kei.

Resembling the A. Indica, but much smaller, and the

disc is spotted black. The tentacles worm-like; pellucid

white, and spotted dusky. Found on rocks and shells.

ANTHEA AUREA., Kel.

This is a very minute species ; when elongated, nearly one

inch high, and scarcely 4 lines in breadth. Body pellucid,

tentacles few, short ; golden yellow.

Found on rocks and shells.

ANTHEA MrLeacrina. Kel. /

Body short, broad, greenish, translucent, slightly tuber-

cular. Tentacles numerous, of moderate length, narrow,

pointed greenish brown, with darker brown rings. Mouth

slightly elevated. Disc pale green.

Height $ inch. Breadth 12 to 2 inches when expanded.

(OP)

130 Description of New or Little known Species of

Found in the Inner Harbour, in deep water, adhering to

Pearl Oyster shells.

ACTINODENDRON ARGENTEA. Kel.

Body white. Disc granular, frosted white. Tentacles

short, acute; silvery white, transverse granulated lines on

inner surface; short pinnules on sides.

Height 3 inch. Breadth one inch. Very rare. Found

in deep water.

ACTINODENDRON ZHYLANICUS. Kel, ¥

Body large, semi-gelatinous, yellow or buff, longitudinally

streaked, alternately with lines of pearly tubercles. Disc

broad, cup shaped, greenish brown, or purple, with numerous

radiating lines of various colours; granular. Tentacles

purplish brown; numerous, in 3 or 4 rows; broad, long,

pointed, crossed on superior surface with white lines, which

are laterally tubercular, or slightly pimnated. A row of large

oval bodies on edge of disc. Heightof the largest specimen

seen 34 inches. Breadth 3 inches. Tentacles 1 to 12 inch

long, all of nearly equal length.

This handsome arborescent Anemone is found on rocks in

the Inner Harbour, in two or three feet of water.

ACTINODENDRON Horouoaia. Keil.

Body white, with pinkish streaks. Disc depressed, circu-

lar, pale brown, granular; a broad pale purplish circle, about

midway between oral opening and tentacles, and on this ring

Ceylon Sea Anemones. Neil

are twelve broad purplish streaks, placed equidistant. Ten-

tacles in 3 rows; short, flattened, pointed; those nearest the

oral opening larger. All have tubercular granules, placed

in transverse rows, from 6 to 8in number. Tentacles yel-

lowish, a few white granules near edge. White tubercular

lines placed in longitudinal rows on surface of body. Body

when elongated about 2+ inches high.

Found at Trincomalie, on small stones, in low water.

ACTINODENDRON VirRipis. Kel,

Body white, with greenish streaks and rows of white gra-

nules. Disc depressed, greenish ; # inch in diameter. Tentacles

short, acutely pointed; granulated on edge ; set in two rows.

Those nearer the disc shorter, a row of larger white spotted

granules on edge of disc.

21 inches high; narrow at middle and base. Trumpet

shaped above.

Distinguished from Horologia from the absence of the pur-

ple zone on disc, and from its longer tentacles. The tuber-

cles too are less swollen, and there is a more marked space

running longitudinally on tentacles.

Found with its body buried in sand in the Harbour of

Trincomalie.

Dioscosoma (Actinodiscus) ? CEyLonica. Kel. v

Body thick, short; pinkish, minutely punctulated with

bright red; near the disc the body is streaked longitudinally

| with closely spotted purplish lines. The body is expanded

| into a cup-like disc, of a bright vermillion red colour, with

radiating white lines. Dise broad, expanded, and covering the

132 Description of New or Little known Species of

whole body, surface covered with small (three or four lines,)

short, conical, truncated tentacles, disposed in rays, running

from oral opening to edge of disc, alternated with shorter

ones which proceed from middle third of disc with two other

shorter ones, on each side, and the whole terminate at the

margin in close compact rays. On each side of oral opening,

isa semi-globular body with a central foramen, which com-

municates with the oviducts. —

The colours of this singular form of Anemone vary much;

at times, it is all of a purplish brown with greenish reflections,

on other occasions the uncovered space of disc is of an earthy

brown colour, or green, and the rays of tentacles either en-

tirely green, or maculated with purple and white.

Breadth of disc when expanded from 4 to 5 inches.

If this Anemone is to be considered of a genus distinct

from Actinia, I think of reinstating the generic term of Acti-

nodiscus, given to a much smaller creature by M. Blainville

for it also, like the species of Leuckart’s Dioscosoma, has two

discs, and the animal, when waiting for its prey, is not unlike

a depressed hour glass in shape. It can withdraw the supe-

rior dise within, when the red spotted body i is seen to be of a

club shaped form.

Preacua Gosser. Kel,

Body semi-carneous, covered by a brownish skin, corru-

gated, narrow and long. Tentacles from 19 to 21, long,

narrow and acutely pointed; either of a green colour, or purple,

marked on superior surface with transverse blue or white

lines, some of which are arrow-shaped. Movth on a conical

eminence. Inferior opening giving passage to ova and excre-

mentitious matter. Length 4 or 5 inches, and about 2 inch

Ceylon Marine Entozou. 133

broad at base, when elongated. Very active in springing ; it

can adhere to sand or stones.

This is, I believe, the second species known of Gosse’s new

genus Peacha, I have dedicated it to the original describer

of the genus. Mr. Gosse’s description led me to observe this

species very closely, although I was at first induced to con-

sider it a species of Edwardsia. The inferior orifice admits

of the passage of a moderate sized probe. The oral orifice

has not that foliated appendage described by Gosse. It is

for him to determine whether this is a generic character.

ZOANTHURA.

ZOANTHURA, sp.—green disc.

Z. Mammalifera.—brown disc.

Being now on the eve of embarkation for India, I have only

time to notice the above two species of Zoanthura, which I trust

will be described by other naturalists who may succeed me.

CEYLON ENTOZOA.

Order. PARENCHYMATA.

This order includes all those Entozoa which have the body

filled with a parenchyma, or pulpy matter, either in a cellular

tissue, or simply in the cavity, in which there is no alimen-

tary apparatus to be discovered, except a few canals, which

carry nourishment to all these parts. The ovaries are also

imbedded in the parenchyma; there is no abdominal cavity,

no intestine, and no vent; and the signs of a nervous system

are few and doubtful.— Cuv.

134 Description of New or Litile known Species of

Fam. TREMADOTEA.

Have the under part furnished with cup-like dises, or

suckers, by which they adhere.

Genus. PLANARIA.

Body flattened, depressed. Like the Flukes (which infest

the liver of sheep), they are bisexual. Very voracious, and

will even feed upon theirownspecies. They multiply rapid-

ly in the ordinary way, and also by division of the body—

even spontaneous division as is alleged. Mutilated parts are

also very readily reproduced, and a partial division of the

body, will even produce an animal with two head or two tails,

according as the anterior or posterior end is cleft. Several

species inhabit the fresh waters, but larger ones are met with

on sea shores.— Cuvier.

The species herein described are all marine, found on rocks

and sea weeds in the harbour and bays of Trincomalie. They

are exceedingly interesting creatures, some rivalling the tribe

of Doridide in colours. They live for a long time in the

Vivarium. The mouth, situated in most of the species near

the anterior third of under part of medial line, opens and

dilates like that of a Sea-Anemone. Ova of most species

white, deposited in thin flakes on rocks and sea weed.

Further investigation will, I believe, lead me to separate

the species into more than two genera ; the majority of species

correspond with 1M. Duge’s DERASTOMA,in which there is one

opening, nearer the anterior edge thanin PLaNaria. The

presence of tentacles, or rudimentary ones, on the anterior edge,

or on the back, will also perhaps form a generic distinction. I

have attached the species without any appearance of ten-

tacular appendages, to anew genus, PENULA, mihi. Themouth

too in this genus is placed nearer the centre of under part.

~~ =e

po oe eee Leen) oe,

Ceylon Marine Entozoa. 135

PLANARIA CEREBRALIS. Kel,

Rudimentary tentacles anterior, formed by two folds of the

margin. Upper surface of a yellowish brown colour and mi-

nutely streaked with fine wavy brown lines; border lined

_ with a black line, streaked with white. Beneath, of a beau-

tiful salmon colour. Mouth large, placed on the anterior

third of lower part of body; the lips are white.

This is the largest species observed, nearly 34 inches long,

and 3 inches broad. Ova greenish white.

PLANARIA VIOLACEHA. Kel.

Tentacles as in last species. Upper surface violet purple

colour, edged with bright yellow. Median line yellowish;

under parts rose coloured.

About 14 inch long, and 3 inch broad. This beautiful

species, in a quiescent state, resembles some variety of pansy.

Ova yellow.

PLANARIA VIRIDIS. Kel. .

Tentacles folded ; green, spotted brown; edge dark grizzly

brown. Under parts paler.

About 14 inch long.

PLANARIA ARMATA. Kel. v

Tentacles folded, but more distinctly formed. Upper sur-

face of a dark purple colour, covered with short, black spines.

Beneath pale purple,smooth. About 13 inch long, and nearly

14 inch broad.

136 Description of New or Little known Species of

PLANARIA PAPILIONIS. Kel, «

Tentacles as in last species, black, white tipped. Upper

surface yellow, covered with small black spines. Beneath pale

yellow. Margin whitish.

Length about 1 inch.

Very like a butterfly moving in the water,

PLANARIA PURPUREA. Kel.

Tentacles rudimentary. Upper surface of a beautiful

purple colour ; beneath paler purple.

About 14 inch long.

PLANARIA Fusca. Kel.

Upper surface dusky brown. Beneath paler brown.

About 14 inch long.

PLANARIA ELEGANS. Kel, /

Tentacles red, situated on the anterior third of mantle.

Upper surface pale yellow, shaded with greenish brown, black

dots; margin black, lined with orange. Beneath whitish.

One and + inch long.

PLANARIA THESEA,. Kel,

Tentacles white, with red tips, rising from depressions, or

cups, placed near the middle third of body. Upper surface

of a chocolate brown colour, edge yellow. Mouth in the

middle, below genital organs. Beneath pale purple.

One and 4 inch long. |

‘3

Ceylon Marine Entozoa. 13%

PLANARIA STRIATA. Kel.

Tentacles rudimentary. Upper surface brownish purple,

streaked with brown. Beneath pale orange brown.

Leneth 24 inches.

PLANARIA MELBAGRINA. Kel,

Tentacles ofan oval form. Medial line reddish, edged with

a black line, the rest striped with broad white and heht

purplish streaks; margin waved and edged with black.

Length 1Zinch. There are two linear appendages on neck,

above eye spots.

PLANARIA UNDULATA. Kei.

Tentacles rudimentary. In medial line purplish, the rest

pale yellow, with undulating lines and spots of purplish

brown ; margin purplish. Length two inches.

PLANARIA AUREA. Kel,

Tentacles two, simple; pointed, rising from the anterior

third of body. Upper surface golden and speckled with white

and brown.

Nearly 24 inches long.

No drawing made of this species.

| PLANARIA DuLcis. Kel. V

Tentacles rudimentary. Body brown in the medial line,

the rest light green, minutely spotted with reddish brown,

Margin white.

Length one inch.

1858. | Ag

138 Description of New or Little known Species of

PLANARIA ZEYLANICA. Kel.

Tentacles rudimentary. Upper surface of a dark purplish

chocolate colour; margin white, with an internal adjoining

orange and black line. Beneath paler.

Length 23 inches, and 14 inch broad.

Very abundant in months of May and June. Ova white.

Genus. PENULA, n. g. Kel. 7

Animal gelatinous, flattened like Planaria, but without

any appearance of tentacular appendages. Mouth placed

beneath, near the central third of body. Lye spots on ante-

rior third of back.

Ruppel figures one species of this form in his Work on

Abyssinia.

PENULA OCELLATA. Kel.

Upper surface pale yellowish brown, with dark brown ocel-

lated spots. Beneath, pale butt. Length 2 inches.

PENULA PuncTatTa. Kei.

White. Above minutely punctulated with reddish brown.

About 12 inch long.

Ceylon Marine Entozoa. 7. 189

PENULA Fuuva. Kel. “

Yellowish, striated transversely.

Length 24 inches.

PENULA ALBA. rel,

White throughout.

Length }}inch. Narrow. Ova of all the species whitish.

Several other species I have no doubt will be yet obtained

from Ceylon.

As these pages are going through the press, I have returned

from Calcutta, and I am now preparing for the Fearl Fishery

at Arripo, where I hope to obtain many curious forms of

Zoophytes.

PPD LDPDALPLALOP DLL I LOI IIIS

140

Account of the works of Irrigation constructed by King Prakrama

Bahoo, contained in the Sixty-eighth and Seventy-ninth chapéers

of the Maha Wanso, with Introductory remarks, by Louts De

Zoysa, Lsq., Modtiar.

Tue following extracts from the Maha Wanso, having re-

ference to works of Irrigation executed in the reign of Prak-

rama Bahii I., (A. D. 1153—1186), may not prove altogether

devoid of interest, in connection with the very able and

interesting papers on the subject of ancient irrigation in

Ceylon, recently published by order of Government. The

Sovereign alluded to is the celebrated ‘Prakrama Bahoo the

Great,’ the constructor of the “Sea of Prakrama,” the invader

of India and Burmah ; and whose reign Mr. Turnour charac-

terizes as “‘ the most martial, enterprizing, and glorious in

Singhalese History.”

The first extract is the 68th chapter of the Maha Wanso,

and contains an account of the efforts made by Prakrama

Baha to promote the cultivation of rice, on his assuming the

Government of the Pihiti Ratia* under the title of Mahadi

Pido (or sub king.) The second extract is a part of the con-

* “The ancient divisions of Ceylon were :—Pihiti Ratta, bounded on the west,

north, and east, by the sea; on the south by the Mahawelli Ganga, and Dedroo Oya

rivers ; it was also sometimes called Raaja Ratta as the ancient capitals were situated

In It.

Ruhunu Ratia, bounded on the west and north by the Mahawelli Ganga, and Ka-

looganga (or Caltura) rivers, and on the east and south by the sea. The mountainous

portion of it was called Malaya Ratta.

Maya Ratta, bounded on the north by the Dedroo Oya, on the east by the Maha-

welliganga and the mountains, on the south by the Kalluganga, and on the west by

the sea.” —(Turnour, Ceylon Almanac, 1834, p. 57.)

Irrigation Works of Prakrama Bahoo. 141

cluding chapter of the reign of the same monarch, and gives

a summary account of the principal public works executed

during his government. It consists of 87 verses, of which the

first 24 relate to the formation of extensive gardens and plan-

tations; the next 26 to the construction of tanks and canals ;

and the last 27 to the erection of various public buildings,

such as dagobas, image houses, preaching halls, inns or houses

for strangers, libraries, theatres, &c. I have only translated

the verses relating to tanks; those which have reference

to canals and water-courses having already been translated

and published by Mr. Turnour in the Ceylon Almanac for

1834.

Ihave not thought it necessary to add any comments of

my own, by way of illustrating the translation; but I may

perhaps be permitted to say a word in reference to the infor-

mation which a passage in the first extract gives respecting

the “ Sea of Praékrama,” to which so much attention has

lately been drawn by the publication of that valuable con-

tribution to the ancient History of Ceylon,—the “ Report

on the Ellahara Canal, by Messrs. Adams, Churchill and

Bailey.”

As stated by these Gentlemen, “ the situation of the Sea

of Prakrama has never hitherto been satisfactorily ascer-

tained.”

Turnour states (vide Ceylon Almanac of 1834, p. 68) that

“the Sea of Prakrama with its embankments of many out-

lets is yet unknown, or at least unnoticed.”

Major Forbes indeed surmised that the series of Lakes con-

nected by the Ellahara Canal, might be the waters to which

the vanity of a king gave his own name, but he adds, that

** until this canal shall have been traced through the Kondu-

ruwawe hills, the extent, and difficulty of such an undertak-

| ing must excite doubts whether it were successfuly accom-

| plished.”

142 Account of the Irrigation Works of

The explorers of the Ellahara Canal, were, however, the

first who declared their belief, that the series of Tanks con-

nected by this canal were the waters which bore the name of

“the Sea of Prakrama.” 3

It does not however appear, that this opinion is corrobo-

rated by the Maha Wanso, since in a passage in the 68th

chapter, mention is made of a particular tank, which was

afterwards called the “ Sea of Prakrama.”

The passage alluded to is the following.

BoVanDMeOocoo 5 od N30 coBene

FAIQMODNVIMHISG SIHowTyjewnanDe

SO MMOBIJocE, RDI OHBadss ”

Atiwa Khuddakan pubbé “ Pandawdpin” cha kariya.

Sanwaddhituchchatayama wittha ratthira pélikan,

Abbhunnata mahawaripatan sajala niggaman,

“Parakkama samuddoti,” woharancha bhirépayi.

‘Moreover having made Panda W api (Panda tank) which was formerly

very small indeed, (into one) containing a body of water great and ex~

ceedingly lofty, having outlets for the water, and an embankment of

greatly increased height, length, breadth, and strength,—he gave it the

name of the ‘Sea of Parakkama.’” *

I am not prepared to say what particular tank is meant by

* [It is somewhat remarkable that the above important passage in the Maha Wanso

should have escaped Mr. Turnour’s researches, since he gives the following account of

the outlets from the “Sea of Prakrama,” which is quoted by the authors of the Report

of the Ellahara Canal. “The king [Prakrama] formed the deep canal called the

Makara Ganga, which flowed from the Makara outlet of the sea of Prakrama: from

the same sea, the great canal Haima Wattee flowing to the Maha-Maigee-Wame.

From the outlet called Samanmal, the canal distinguished by the name of Neela-

Wapane : flowing from the outlet called the Keela-Kara Oodyaane, the Salalawatte

Canal: flowing from the outlet celebrated under the name of Waitra-Watee, the

Waitra-Watee Great Canal: from the southern outlet, the Toongha-badsa Canal :

flowing from the Mangala outlet, the Mangala Ganga Canal : flowing from the eastern

outlet, the Champua Canal: flowing from the same sea to the Poornawardhana Tank,

the Saraswasttee Canal: flowing westward of that (Saraswastee) canal, the Waima-

wattee Canal.” No less than ten outlets are here enumerated, as formed by the king

io convey, in different directions, the accumulated waters of the tank named after

himself. Of these, four appear from their names and description to have been much

larger than the rest. The identification of the Sea of Prakrama, therefore, seems to de-

pend upon the discovery, in Padivel Colum, or any other of the large tanks, of ten out-

Jets corresponding with those mentioned in the above extract —Hd. Ceylon Almanac,

1857, in which work this article was by permission inserted. ]

zz a Mee ’ =. soit aa

Prakrama Bahoo, from the Maha Wanso. 143

« Panda Wapi,” in this passage, as I have not been able to

meet with any information either in the Maha Wanso or in

any other work, which would enable me to identify it with

any degree of certainty. The name Panda Wapi, occurs but

twice in the previous part of the Maha Wanso. King Maha-

dathieko Maha Nago is said to have bestowed the “ Panda

Wapi Wihara,” i. e. “ the Panda Tank Wihara,” on a cer-

tain Samanero, which proves the existence of a tank of that

name so early as A. D. 8. (Vide Turnour’s translation of the

Maha Wanso, p. 214.) The next reference to Panda Wapi is

in the 60th chapter of the Maha Wanso, in which it is men-

tioned as one of the tanks constructed (or prepared) by King

Wijaya Baha I.,* who reigned at Pollonnaruwa A. D. 1071

—1126. Iam, however, inclined to think, that we may re-

cognize the Panda Wapi of the Maha Wanso, in the modern

Padavi or Padavil Colum of the Wanny District.

The reasons which have led me to form this conjecture are,

Ist, the similarity, or rather the identity, of the names; for

the Pali word 508 Wapi, and the Tamil word @ orn Kulam

(erroneously spelt Colom,) both mean tank, so that in fact the

Pali term Panda Wapi is an equivalent for the Tamil, Panda

or Pandi Colom,t which may have been corrupted into Padavi

or Padavil Colum.

* As this part of the Maha Wanso has not been translated into English, I annex a

translation of the verses relating to works of irrigation in this reign.

“The tanks of Mahaheli, Reheru (Sairuwella Maha?) Danta, Katunnaru, Panda

Wapi, Kalagalla, Erandagalla, Dighawatthu, Mandawata, Kittaggabodhi Pabbata,

Walahassa Mahadaragalla Kumbhilasobbha, Pattapasana, and Kanawapi, as_ well as

many other tanks whose embankments had been in ruins, did the king build (and re-

pair,) ever intent on the welfare of the poor. The ruler of the land having constructed

embankments (to prevent inundation) m many rivers, streams, in various parts (of

the Island) rendered the country abundant in food. Having also constructed the canal

Tillawatthu, which had been in ruifts, he filled the tank of Manihera (Minnery) with

| water.”—(vide 60th chapter of the Maha Wanso.)

+ I am aware of the existence of another “Great Tank” bearing the name of

Pandi Colom in the Uvah district, but being situated in the Rhuna Ratta, it could, I

think, be scarcely regarded as the Panda Wapi of the Maha Wanso, if, as I infer from:

the context, it was constructed during the period, when Prakrama Bahu, wes Mahadz

| Pado, or king of Pihiti Ratta.

144 Account of the Irrigation Works of

Secondly, the stupendous size and magnitude of the work.

Sir Emerson Tennent, who gives an interesting account of

this tank in his work entitled “ Christianity in Ceylon,” calls

it © the largest as well as the most perfect of these gigantic works

in Ceylon,” and speaks of it in such terms as would not be

pappropnete in describing sucha tank as “ the Sea of Prak-

rama” must have been.

But the most interesting account, as well as that which

gives us the loftiest ideas of this gigantic work, is that con-

tained in the Governor’s Minute on the Eastern Province.

His Excellency says, that “it is the most wonderful work

that I have yet visited, whether we look to size, difficulties

of execution, or to the time at which these difficulties were

surmounted.” ‘ North of these again, about 40 miles, is

Padiwel Colum, the most gigantic work of all, for the bund which

isin perfect repair, except at the one spot where, in the

course of ages, the waters have forced a passage between it

and the natural hills which it united, is 11 miles long, 30

feet broad at the summit, 180 feet at the base, and 70 feet

high.” “ Padiwel Colum, the greater part of which I rode or

walked over, was formed by the waters of the rivers Morray

Oya and Moonguna Oya, confined to the plain, by the en-

ormous bund whichI have just described. Its construction

must have occupied a million of people for 10 or 15 years.”

The most satisfactory way of settling the question as to the

identity of this tank would probably be by obtaining a fac-

simile and translation of the inscription to which Sir Emerson

Tennent thus alludes, in his note on the tanks, already refer-

red to.

“On the top of the great embankment itself, and close by

the breach, there stands a tall sculptured stone, with two en-

graved compartments, that no doubt record its history, but

the Odear informed us that the characters were Nagari, and

Prakrama Bahoo, from the Maha Wanso. 145

the language Pali, or some unknown tongue, which no one

can now read.”

T have only to add, that my object in submitting the accom-

panying translation, is by no means to advance any hypo-

thesis of my own on the subject, but simply to put parties

competent to decide on the point, in possession of the data

eontained in the hitherto untranslated part of the Maha

Wanso, and especially to aid the investigations of those gen-

tlemen whose meritorious labours have already invested the

subject with so great an interest.

CHAPTER LXVIII.

This sovereign of lofty aspirations, who was well acquainted with fo-

reign countries, thus thought (within himself.)

“In what well governed kingdom is the administration of affairs con=

ducted, without obtaining a knowledge of its means.

“The object of my sovereignty is the advancement of the prosperity of

Religion and the State, having vanquished all enemies. ‘This kingdom

although very small, being filled with great prosperity, I shall by the

superiority of my wisdom, soon bring into such a state as that it will

surpass the greatness of other kingdoms.

“ Conferring appointments on my officers whose advancement is identical

with my own, according to their respective merits, rewarding them with

honours and wealth, causing my own people to settle in various parts

within my dominions from the mountain Samanta Kuta (Adams’ Peak)

as far as the Sea Coast, the cultivation of grain should be carried on in

as many ways as possible.”

Having thus reflected, the King thus addressed his officers.

“In my kingdom are many paddy fields cultivated by means of rain

water, but few indeed are those which are cultivated by means of pe-

rennial streams, and great tanks.

* By rocks, and by many thick forests, by great marshes is the land

covered. )

‘In such a country, let not even a small quantity of water obtained

by rain, go to the sea, without benefitting man.

‘Paddy fields should be formed in every place, excluding those only

that produce gems, gold, and other precious things.

“It does not become persons in our situation to live enjoying our own

ease, and unmindful of the interests of the people. And ye all, be ye

1858.) U

146 Account of the Irrigation Works of

not discouraged, when a necessary, but a difficult work is on hand.

Regard it not indeed as a work of difficulty,’ but following my advice,

accomplish it, without opposing my instructions.”

The highly renowned Monarch, then, ordered the construction of the

great embankment celebrated under the name of Kotta Baddha, which

had long been swept away by the action of the river, leaving behind

nothing but the name, and which indeed h ad baffled the attempts of for-

mer kings (to keep in repair.)

Whereupon the ministers, one and all, represented, in various ways,

the extreme difficulty of the work, and the instability of it, even if it

could be accomplished.

The King rejecting their councils, (temarked) “ What is there that

cannot be done in this world by men of perseverance? Is not the tradition

still current that Rama built a bridge over the great ocean itself, by

means of monkeys ?*

“If I am destined by fortune, to reduce this island under one regal

canopy, and to promote the welfare of the state and religion, then alee

will the commencement of the work see the ncoouplisin a of it also.”

Thus did he of great courage, inspire his ministers with courage.

Before the construction of the embankment, however, the profoundly

wise ruler of the land made, from the mouth of the embankment, as far

as the country of Rattakara, a great canal of great breadth and strength,

and of many périsas FT in depth.

The Protector of the land, having assembled a great many stone ~

cutters, workers in metal, iron-smiths and gold-smiths in the country, and

having employed them in the work cutting stones, got made by them an

embankment of great stablity and solidity, having the interstices of the

stones invisible, like one continued sheet of rock, and having the work of

plastering complete.

On the summit of the great embankment, the pious Rajah placed a

Bo tree, an image house, wad likewise a Dagoba.

The King, by means of this canal, so directed the course of the stream

as to make it discharge itself into the sea.

Having cleared the great jungle on both sides of the canal, he formed

* In reference to the fable in the Ramayana, that Rama, the conqueror of Rawana,

in crossing’ over from India to Ceylon, caused a bridge to be built over the sea, by his

army of Wanaras or monkeys. The reef of sunken rocks which extends across the

Gulf of Manar from Ramisseram on the Coast of Coromandel to Talamanar on the

Coast of Ceylon, is supposed to be the remains of this bridge.

+ “The measure of a man’s reach.” “ Equal to the height, to which he reaches, —

when elevating both arms with fingers extended.” (See Colebrook’s Ametehosie, p.

160.)

-— << -S 3 si

CE ee aT Oe Nae ae ae ee ee ee

Prakrama Bahoo, from the Maha Wanso. 147

paddy fields of many thousands of Wahas* of extent, and converted the

place in truth into a Kotiabaddha, according to the literal meaning of the

term, from the fact of its having Kottabaddahat (perpetual granaries, )

from the two Pali words Kofta, granary, and abaddha, perpetual.

Thereafter the King having dammed up the mouths of the rivers

Sankawaddhamdnd, and Kumbhilawdnd, as far as the Stékara Nijjhara }

(literally Hog cascade, or stream,) and there too, having made a canal,

and conducting the water into the tank of Mahdddragalla, thoroughly

repairing (at the same time) the breaches thereof, including the clearing

of the water-courses, (thus) brought into it a larger body of water than

it had before, and having formed paddy fields from this place as far as

the Stihkara Nijjara, collected paddy.

The King moreover, having made a collection of water in the middle

of the river Jajjara (Dedroo Oya?) and having formed paddy fields, col-

lected vast quantities of grain. :

Moreover, having made Panda Wapi, which was formerly very small

indeed, (into one) containing a body of water, great and exceedingly

lofty, having outlets for the water, and an embankment of greatly increased

height, length, breadth and strength, he gave it the name of ‘the Sea

of Parakkama.”

In an island situated in the middle of it, on the summitof a rock §

the King built a Dhatu gabbho (Dagoba) resembling the peak of Mount

Kaylasa.

* According to the Pali Nighandu of Moggallana.

4 Nellis make 1 Lahassa (or Kurunni)

4 Lahas ,, 1 Drona

4 Dronas ,, 1 Marika

4 Marikas ,, 1 Khari (or Ammonam)

20 Kaharis ,, 1 Waha

+ This is no doubt the Kofta Vella of Brook. The Singhalese word Vellu a=

and the Pali word @)@) Baddha, both mean, an Poni ele,

“From Kotta Vella to Dastotte, a distance of 9 miles, the country is one of the

most delightful I ever recollect seeing on this Island, nearly the whole distance a car-

riage might drive; there are strong marks of many of the plains and paris of the open

country having been cultivated, it abounds in tanks and ravines to facilitate irrigation,

all of which are neglected and broken. ‘The reason the inhabitants assign for this, is

want of people, and money to keep them in order. (Route from Matelle to Trinco-

malie, by way of the Ambanganga, by R. Brook, Esq.)

+ Instead of “as far as the Sukara Nijjhara “cso DeG And SIS EQ 0” some

MSS. read 6 Da Sr084 DS AS BV 0” “the place Sukara Nijjhara.” If this

be the correct reading, the whole passage might be thus translated :

“ Thereafter the King having dammed up, at the junctions of the rivers Sanka-

waddhamana, and Kumbhilawana, the place (called) Sukara Nijjhara &c.”

-_§ lam informed by Mr. Braybrooke, who has visited Padiwel Colum, that there is

a rock in the embankment, called by the natives OHEDaSToss NSE

Deyyanne Kanda, “ God’s Mill,” or “ King’s Hill,” which they believe is haunted by

the spirit of King Mahasen, to whom tradition ascribes the construction of the tank. —

148 Account of the Irrigation Works of

In the middle also“of the tank, he built a royal®palace three stories

high, and of superlative beauty; a palace indeed for the collected joys

of the world.

The following, and many other ruined tanks, and mountam streams

did this benevolent monarch repair, in various parts of his dominions, viz.

the tank of Mahagalla,* the tank of Setthi, likewise that of Wachchat-

tanuka, the tank of Tamba, and the tank of Ambawa, the tank of Girtbé,

the tank of Pdtala, the tank of Mandaka, the tank of Mérawdpi, and the

tanks of Sddiyajgdma, and Tillagulla, also the tank of Mallawalli, the

tank of Kdlakiiti, the tank of Kannikaragalla, and the mountain

stream Buddhagama, the tank of Sukaraggama, (the village of Hogs.)

the tank of Maha Kirala, the tank of Girz, and those of Rakkhamane,

Amballa, and Katunnaru, (the tanks of ) Jallibawa, and Uttarala, and that

of Tintinigama, (the Tamarind village,) the tanks of Dawalawitthi, Kira-

wapi, and Naliannaru, the tank of Karawitthawellatian, likewise that

of Dumbarra. The tanks of Munnaruka, and Sallan, and also the tanks of

Mulawdri, Gerisigama, Polonnarutala and Wisiratthala. .

Draining up great marshes, in the country of Panchaydjana (Pasyodun,

or Pasdum Corle,) he formed paddy fields, and collected paddy.

Allotting lands (for paddy cultivation) in the jungles there, and in-

many other places, calling together the village chiefs, he caused the in-_

habitants to engage themselves in the cultivation of paddy.

In this manner having augmented nine-fold the revenues of the state

from what they were, the wise King caused the country to be so prospe-

rous as never to know the calamities of famine.

He who was skilled in the maxims of Government, wishing that there

should not be even a small spot of land within his dominions inhabited

by men, which should be left unbenefitted, formed many pleasant and de-

lightful gardens, and groves, full of fruit-bearing ‘and flower-bearmg

trees and creepers, of every variety fit for the use of man.

Thus did this sagacious Ruler of the land, cause his small kingdom,

which had attained prosperity, by the superiority of his wisdom, to

surpass other great kingdoms in affiuence.

The 68th chapter of the Maha Wanso, entitled “the Advancement

of the Prosperity of the Kingdom,” composed both to comfort and to

afflict righteous men.

Extract from CHAPTER LXXIX.

This supreme of men, for the purpose of averting the calamities of famine

7) te) b)

constructed many tanks and canals in various parts (of the Island.)

* 1 have no means of ascertaming the Singhalese names of these tanks. If we

had a list of them in Singhalese, we might probably identify most of them.

(| Prakrama Bahoo, from the Maha Wanso. 149

Having turned_the course of the river Kdraganga* by means of a

great stone embankment, and having,,.by means of a great canal called

Akasa Ganga (Celestial river) conducted its broad stream to the Royal

Palace which was a noble one resplendent like the sun,f he constructed

the “ King of Tanks,” ( Wapi Raja) celebrated under the name of “the

Sea of Parakkama,” which was like unto a second ocean, and which con-

tained a perpetual supply of water.

He likewise built the great tank known by the name of the Lake of

Parakkama, having a stone aqueduct constructed over land of ditficult

access. Also the tanks of Mahinda, Ekdha Wapi (literally) “the Tank

of One day,” the Sdgara (Sea){ of Parakkama, and the waterfall of

Kottabaddha.

In many places, the chief of men, built minor tanks, in number one

thousand four hundred and sixty-one. The Ruler of the land con-

structed conduits, and channels of stone, in no less than 300 tanks which

had been in ruins.

The King also repaired many ancient tanks, such as the great tank of

Mamhira (Minnery,) the tank of Mahdddragalla, the tank of Suwanna-

tissa, Duraiissa, and thosenamed Kdlawdpi (Kaldwawa,) and Brahmang-

gama. The tanks called Nalikérathamba, and Rahéra, likewise the

tanks of Giritalla, and Kumbhila Sobbha. The tanks of Kdnawépt,

Padi, and Kati, the tank of Pattapdsana, the tank of Mahana, the

tank of Waadha, and the tank of Mahddanta, the tank of Kdnagdma, and

the tanks of Wira, and Wedleahassa, and that called Stiramdna, the tanks

* Major Forbes states that the river Ambang-anga is jomed “ by a considerable stream,”

called Kalluganga. Might not this be the Karaganga alluded to here? The Pali

form of Kalluganga would be Kalaganga, the only difference between it and Kara

ganga being the substitution of the letter / for r.

+ Instead of, “which was a noble one resplendent like the sun,” (“DO MIS

EBENo”) some MSS. have (“SePannt0EGgT ESMo,” which may be trans-

lated as follows, “‘ made a shining or splendid Island.”

t This is either a clerical mistake, or there were more than one “Sea of Prak-

krama.” While on this subject, I may here notice a very curious passage in the Raja-

Ratnakara, which speaks of the construction by Prakkrama Bahoo, of three great tanks

known by the names “ Maha Samudraya,” “ Bana Samudraya,” and “ Mati” or “Mani

Sagara.”

__ This passage is translated by Upham as follows :—The said king of Ceylon also

rendered his fame great by causing to be made in Ceylon three great lakes, the first of

which was called Maha Samoodra (!.e. great sea,) the second was called Boena Samoo-

dra (1, e. allied to the sea,) and the third was called Made Sawgiriya (i. e. the middling

-sea.)”

It is however, right to add, that this passage is not found in the Saddharma Ratna-

kara, from which the author of Raja Ratnakara, has copied almost verbatim the events

of this reign. Nor indeed is such a passage found in any other work on Ceylon,

which I have seen.

150 Topographical and Statistical Account of

of Pdstinagdma, Kdlawalli, and Kahul/i, and those named Angagdma,

Fillapatthakkhanda, and Maddaga. ‘These tanks which had been in ruins,

did the king restore to their former condition, as well as others of

less note, in number 467.

Tn about one thousand, three hundred and ninety-four tanks, did the king,

who was aproficient in matters of state, effect repairs and improvements.

[For the remainder of this Chapter, see Ceylon Almanac 1854.]

Topographical and Statistical Account of the District of

Noowerchkalawiya. Ly A. OSWALD BRODIE, Lsq.

THE district of Noowerakalawiya may be described as that

portion of Ceylon which is included in the following lines :—

I. One running from a point one mile north of Dambool

to another about five and twenty miles west of Trincomalie.

If. A second from the last mentioned spot to the ninety-

fifth mile post south of Jafina. | es

Tit. <A thirdrunning thence to within six miles of Arripo.

IV. A fourth proceeding thence south-south-east to a

place about twelve miles west of Pomparripoo.

V. A fifth joining this last mentioned point with that

near Dambool.

The area of the district is about 2,900 square miles.

According to the last census returns [1852] the population

is only 32,103, but this is manifestly erroneous, as there are. _

10,910 persons hable to the road tax, and the number of able

bodied persons cannot well be more than one-fifth of the com-

munity. As all these returns are more or less erroneous,

the District of Noowerakalawtya. 151]

(giving the numbers too small, as the headmen persist in

omitting numbers of women and children,) we may safely.

reckon the population at about fifty-five or sixty thousand.

The number of houses appears to be 9,804, which wouid

give 3 one-ninth persons to each house, but it must be ob-

served, that headmen frequently apply the term “ house” to

a range of contiguous dwellings.

The district on the whole is flat, not indeed fiat in the same

sense as the land near Manaar, Jaffna, &c., is flat, but it is

not in any sense mountainous; the general surface consists

of gentle undulations, and here and there isolated peaks or

short ranges of hillsappear. These are most common in lines

north-east and south-west of Dambool, and within twenty

or thirty miles of that place, elsewhere they are of rarer

occurrence and of less elevation. To the north, south, and

south-west of the station, hills entirely disappear. The

southern part of the district forms in fact the extreme

northern verge of the great central mountain mass of Ceylon,

and the isolated hills are outliers thereof.

The whole face of the country, except where occupied by

fields or tanks, is clothed by dense forest; and a large tract

lyme to the south, south-east and south-west of the station

is almost uninhabited. This arises in part from a want of

water, and in part, as has been remarked, to the policy of the

ancient rulers of the Island, who interposed this barrier be-

tween themselves and the marauders who were wont to

infest the maritime districts. There is yet another circum-

stance which probably has not been without its influence, I

refer to the intense dislike which the villagers have, to con-

tact with strangers. So strongly does this feeling still exist,

that we have even now to take the greatest care not to bring

| roads too near to villages, as in this case the people inva-

| riably abandon their dwellings, and migrate to some neigh-

bouring but more secluded spot.

152 Topographical and Statistical Account of

The prevalent rock is gneiss, the colour and structure of which

vary considerably in different localities. It is frequently tra-

versed by veins of quartz and felspar ; but no circumstance of |

interest connected with these has attracted my notice. ‘This

eneiss here, as elsewhere, has a tendency to exfoliate in layers

concentric to the present surfaces, the plates which thus

scale off are of all thicknesses, from two feet downwards.

This peculiarity renders it a matter of ease to split off toler-

ably regular pillars and slabs, and there can be no doubt

that this circumstance has had a very considerable influence

on the character of the national or adopted architecture.

Imbedded in the gneiss, at various places, one finds mag-

nesian limestone, generally of a brilliant white colour and of

a coarse crystalline structure; occasionally it contains crys-

tals of hornblende, and also orange red spots, the composition

of which I have not ascertained. ‘The stone bears a good

polish, and I am now trying it for flooring, a purpose for which

it will, I think, be found well adapted, being clean, cool, cheer-

ful looking, enduring, and ornamental. It is only within the

last couple of years that the majority of the localities where

this mineral occurs has been ascertained, and the discovery

happened most opportunely, as numerous public works are in

progress or contemplation. Hitherto lime has been brought

from Arripo, a distance of forty-four miles.

In the early part of this year, I discovered in the bed of

the Kalaar, about six miles east of the Doric, a number of

fossil shells and corals converted into a beautiful semi-trans-

parent amber coloured mass; the associated nodules of varie-

gated chert also contain numerous petrifactions and casts.

I was unable to examine the beds at leisure, and therefore —

only obtained mutilated specimens, but judging from these, I

should think that these limestone strata belong not to the

present, but to the tertiary formation.

On a late circuit Mr. Quinton pointed out to me consider-

the District of Noowerakalawiya. 153

able quantities of a dark heavy metalliferous stone, which has

all the outward appearance of furnace slag. The native tra-

dition is, that it is the refuse from the forges of giants who

lived of old; but as I have since found it in many places, and

as Mr. Quinton tells me that it is common over a large part

of the Mulletivoe district, Lam inclined to hope that it may

be a natural product, and have instituted inquiries into the

matter.

The soil of the district is generally of a reddish hue (occa-

sionally intensely so), but, where hable to inundation, whether

natural or artificial, it is darker and richer. Potter's clay is

abundant, but so far as I know, none of it is adapted to the

manufacture of the finer kinds of earthenware. The soil, on

the whole, is not unfavourable to cultivation.

There are no natural lakes nor thermal springs in the

district, nor are there any perennial rivers. ‘Fhe following

are the principal streams, andin the wet season contain large

bodies of water.

I, The Dambool and Meerisgone Oyas, take their rise

near Dambool, and with some others of less importance, empty

themselves into the great Kalawewe tank; their united waters

on leaving this assume the name of Kala Oya, which for

many miles forms the boundary between this district and

Seven Korles, and ultimately falls into the sea near Pomp-

arripoo.

If. Kalankootti Ella and Seeyumbelangame Oya, are tri-

butaries of the former, which take their rise some fifteen

miles west of Dambool, and also form, for some miles, the limit

between the same two first mentioned districts.

Til. The Malwathoe Gya; one branch takes its rise from

the great Aervowewe tank, is called there Gall Oya, and a

little lower down Karunagalle Oya; a second branch rises

from the foot of Rittigalle Kande (the first hill in Noowera-

kalawyia) and joms the former a little to the east of the

1858.1 x

154 Topographical and Statistical Account of

Central road. The united stream flows into the deserted tank

of Natchya Dhoowa, which gives it a local name. Still lower

down (that is, in the neighbourhood of Anooradhapoora,) the

river is called Mulwathoe Oya, and flowing to the west-north-

west falls into the Kanedera Oya, two miles south of Kappe-

chie in the Manaar district.

IV. The Kanedera Oya, of which there are two great

branches, the Sangalee Kanedera, taking its rise in Kehndhae

Korle, and Maha Kanedera Oya, in Kanedera Korle. These

unite about three and a half miles west of the Central

road, and this united stream falls ultimately into the sea, near

Arripo, under the name of Arivi Aar or Paar Aar.

V. The Boo Oya or Pee Aar, rises in Kadawath Korle,

forms for some distance the northern limit of this district,

and finally joins the Arivi Aar.

VI. The Yang Oya has its source in the great Hoorooloo

Wewe, and falls into the sea between Trincomalie and Ko-

kelly, being known there as the Kalloo Aar.

Botany, &c.

Though the whole district is covered with jungle, the quan-

tity of useful timber is surprisingly small. In fact this remark

is applicable to Ceylon generally, to a much greater extent

than many imagine. The fact is to be attributed, mainly, to

the great development of the chena system of cultivation,

which is hereafter noticed.

The Dutch were, with regard to the protection of timber, and

also in some other respects, much more provident than the —

English have shewn themselves :—they planted teak forests;

we sell them fora tythe of their value, and then import tim-

ber from abroad.

the District of Noowerakalawyia. 155

The most valuable timber trees of the District are the fol-

lowing.

Paloo.

Halmilill.

Meelli.

Sattinwood (the Booroottoo and Weerunde of the natives)

( Swettenia chlorozxylon. )

Koobook or Koombook ( Terminalia alata. )

Tammana.

Meegaha ( Bassia longifolia. )

Kiri Kohne.

Ebony. |

Of cultivated trees we have the following.

Cocoanut ( Cocosnucifera), which does not succeed nearly

so well as in the Maritime districts. The produce does

not by any means equal the demand; the usual rate of

exchange is two cocoanuts for one seer of rice.

Palmwyrapalm ( Borassus flabelliformis )-; not common ; it

is little prized.

Talipot ( Coryphaumbraculifera ) ; seldom met with, except

in the south-east part of the District.

Jack, rare, though in some villages it bears readily.

Mango, very rare.

Of the smaller fruit bearing trees and plants, the following

are to be met with in gardens; orange, lime, papaw,

pine-apple, murunga, pomegranate, plaintain, brinjal,

(Salanum melongena) ; bandukai, ( Abelmoschus esculen-

tus) ; thampala, (Amaranthus) ; pathola, or snake gourd

(Trichosanthus anguina); besides a few varieties of

gourd, melon, and bean. Onnone of these is the least

care bestowed, and the produce is in every respect in-

ferior. —

The following are some of the plants which I have introduced :

Casuarine,

beard

56 Topographical and Statistical Account of

Sissoo.

Logwood.

American sumach.

Bourbon and New Orleans Cotton.

Madagascar plum.

Nam nam

Leetchee

Cape Cabbage.

Travellers tree.

Date.

Dwarf Cocoanut.

Double pomegranate.

Various species of Stramonium.

Do. Plumbago.

Do. Roses.

Do. Plantains and Bananas.

Teak.

Myrtle; with numerous ornamental plants.

For these Iam chiefly indebted to Mr. Dyke, Agent for

the Province; to his Assistant Mr.'Twynam; to Mr. Thwaites,

Superintendent of the Royal Botanieal Gardens, and to

A. Y. Adams, Esq., of Petoola.

OF all these before mentioned plants, the natives are encou-

raged to take seeds, slips or roots.

PRODUCE OF DISTRICT.

The staple product of the District is Paddy, grown in the

manner usual throughout the low country, that is, in low, gen-

tly sloping lands, irrigated from artificial tanks, some of which

are many miles in extent.

Each village is settled by a little colony, headed by two or

more leaders or elders, ealled Gamerales. :

the District of Noowerakalawiya. loz

After the ground has been cleared of jungle,aline isstretched

down its length, then measuring from the bank, marks are

putin, say at every ten fathoms, and each portion is given toa

villager. If the soil varies greatly in the upper and lower parts

of the field, or if one of these be for any reason preferable to

the other, then each villager (shareholder cr partner is the

common term) will get one share in the upper and one in the

lower part of the field.

To the Gamerales a double portion is given, in considera-

tion of their superior position as village elders. It is to be

observed, that every shareholder has a right to all the land

enclosed within lines running across the field and passing

through the two stakes on the centre line which originally

marked out his portion; that is, each man, commencing

within his own portion at the centre line, may clear to the

right and left till he reaches the high grounds which enclose

the field; but quarrels would instantly arise if he were to

clear either up or down, as it were round the share of another.

So soon as a share is allotted to a man, no matter whether he

clears much or little, he comes under certain obligations; he

must give one share of work to all repairs of the tank, and

to the watching of the fields by night, and to the construction

and up-keep of a ring fence. ‘The original division is never

lost sight of; thus, if two shares, even though they be con-

tiguous, fall into the possession of one man, he will never

talk of having “ one large share,” but of having “ two shares,”

and will give two shares’ work to watching, fencing, and

repairing of the tank; soit 1s also with half or quarter shares.

The first and last shares, those at which the channel from

the tank enters and leaves the field, are generally less pro-

ductive than others. For this reason, and also because there

is a larger quantity of fencing there, these shares, called the

sehelle and pahalle ellepotthes (shares at the upper and lower

water-courses) respectively,are invariably larger than the rest.

158 Topographical and Statistical Account of

It frequently happens, that either before or after sowing,

it is found that the supply of water will not be sufficient to

irrigate the whole field; in such cases the people resort to a

practice called baethme or “ division.” A portion of the field,

of suitable size, is selected, and all the rest is abandoned.

The selected portion is now divided into the same number of

equal shares, as there are original shares in the whole field,

and every original shareholder gets one baethme share for

each original share in the whole field; and this in no way

depends on the amount which he has cleared in his original

share. Thus, suppose a man through idleness has not cleared

any of the ground allotted to him, but has yet given, when

required, labour to fencing, watching, and repair of tank, then

when baethme is resorted to, he will be entitled to a baethme

share, equal to that of his neighbours. It is to be observed,

that the persons whose land is thus selected, do not get

larger allotments than others. Frequently, the selected por-

tion of land is worked in common, and the produce divided

among the peasants according to the number of shares which

they hold in their own right; at other times, it is actually

subdivided, and each reaps the produce of the portion allotted

to him, just as if it were his own ground.

Each such baethme arrangement is binding only for one

erop; when it has been removed, matters revert to their

original position.

Other customs connected with paddy cultivation, are as

follows :— :

If a man’s baethme share is denied to him, then he has a

right to demand a supply of water for his original share; if

he insists upon this, it would in many cases happen that both

his and his neighbours’ crops would die; an amicable arrange-

ment is therefore generally made.

If a man refuses to give his due share of work or money

the District of Noowerakalawyta. 159

to the repair of the work, he cannot lead water to his field

till he has repaid those who laboured for him.

If owing to neglect as to fencing or watching, cattle or

elephants damage the crops, then the man in fault must

make good the loss.

If a man, after being warned that his cattle trespass, fails

to yoke them two and two, or else to tie cross bars to their

necks, he is liable for all damage which they do.

If shareholders neglect to cultivate their fields for any

particular crop, then those who do cultivate are entitled to

select and to cultivate contiguous lands equal in extent to

their own; the object of this is to lighten the labours of watch-

ing, fencing, and irrigation, which would become very harass-

ing if the cultivated portions of the field were isolated.

Several of these rules appear to me admirably adapted for

the people and country. The people are naturally lazy ; here

are stimulants. They are poor, and have not a sufficiency of

wholesome food ; here is security for the land being cultivated

by some one.

There are certain privileges attached to each village, as

for example, the collection of honey throughout all the jungle

attached to it; one half of the game killed ; one out of every

two tusks “ bagged” in these; and the right of fishing the

tank. All these rights give rise to constant squabbles.

The chief varieties of Paddy cultivated in the District are :

eee \tn virgin soil.

Helankalane

Mahawee, for tahwaloo, as it does not die though over-

flowed.

Eliwee (“Sudu and Kalu” white and black, ditto.) ) 2

Kuruwee. | =

Heenettee. S

Murungawee. ies

160 oh opographicad and Statistical Account of

These vary in colour, size and taste. Their most import-

ant distinction, howeyer, refers to the length of time which

they require for attaining maturity ; some take three, some

four, some six months.

There are two crops annually; that sown in December

and reaped in March or April, gives the Mahamohsum ; the

other, sown in May, gives the Yallamohsum in August and

September. Occasionally, when the weather is favourable,

and the preceding harvest has been lost, a crop is taken be-

tween the intervals, and is simply called “ a between two

years crop” (dhae awuruddhe atherae mohsum. )

The return from paddy fields, according to the reports of

the headmen, varies from four to ten-fold; but there can be

no doubt that the crop is frequently much heavier than this

would induce one to suppose.

Another method of cultivating paddy is called tahwaloo: in

this casethe margins of the tanks themselves arecultivated,and

the water for irrigation is raised by means of scoops, such as

are in use at salt pans. ‘This system gives larger returns

than field cultivation, but the requisite labour is greater,

therefore it is not in favour with the Singhalese ; the Moor-

men carry it on to a considerable extent.

A third system of paddy cultivation is on elevated ground,

so called high lands, in exactly the same way as other chena

crops are grown; in this case irrigation is not applicable, and

the crop is totally dependant for moisture on the natural fall

of rain. The return is large, but the risk of losing one’s

labour is great. f

I am sorry to say, that the general food of the people is

not Rice, but Koorakan( Hleusine coracana) which is grown

in chenas. These are pieces of land on which the smaller

trees and brushwood are cut down and burnt, the thicker

branches are in this way merely charred, and being piled

the District of Noowerakalawiya. 161

round the enclosure, form a toleraby good fence. ‘The seed is

sown broad cast, and then covered slightly by aid of that

useful implement, the mamotie. A man can sow and cover

about a seer of koorakan seed in aday. It rarely occurs

that more than two crops are taken from one chena ; after

the last of these has been removed, the jungle is allowed to

grow up and is not again cut till after the lapse of from five

to fifteen years. It is evident that this system must prove

most destructive to timber, as new land is cleared every

-year.

Jn these chenas various other plants, such as millet, &c. ;

as also varieties of gram, &c., are cultivated. One of the most

useful of these so called fine grains, is the thalla of the Sin-

ghalese, (Sesame. Sesamum Orientale,) which yields an oil used

for lamps and in medicines. The price of the seed is about

a penny per seer, and large quanties are sold to Tavulum

people from the low country, and to dealers at Trincomalie

and Higgolle (Matelle.) The people are fond of cultivating

this plant, and if an English merchant would make arrange-

ments for purchasing it here, or at the neighbouring ports,

the cultivation might be increased to a great extent.

Cotton is also grown in chenas, the seed being placed

in the ground along with that of koorakan, which grows

faster, and is removed ere the cotton has approached maturity.

The extents of such lands are always estimated by the quan-

tity of seed koorakan required ; and about four seers of

cotton seed are sown with one of koorakan. The cotton is

sown about October, befcre the monsoon rains setin; the

pods begin to burst in about eight months ; and during the

three following months the produce is gradually removed. If

the plant be cut down at the close of the season, fresh shoots

| appear, and a second crop equal to the first is obtained, if the

| soil be good. From certain memoranda, collected by a pre-

1858, ] ¥

162 Topographical and Statistical Account of

decessor, about fourteen years ago, I glean the following

information regarding a piece of cotton soil.

It measured eight seers of koorakan, which, as before

shewn, is equal to thirty-two of cotton. A man was employed

forty days in cutting down the jungle, twenty more in lop-

ping, and twenty-five in burning it, and removing the rubbish.

The soil being good, the plants attained a height of six feet,

This chena yielded 30 wellys of cotton in the first season,

and this was about four bullocks’ load, worth six shillings and

eight pence per load; the cotton is sold with the seeds un-

removed. }

One person will, in a day, clear a welly from its seed,

and in four days will spin it into thread. This quantity is

sufficient for a piece of cloth ten cubits long, and four spans

broad. A weaver will complete this in three days, and

receives in payment one and a quarter parrahs of koorakan,

or half this quantity of paddy. Itis to be observed, that

there is not and never was a tax on cotton cultivation, so

the above information may be looked upon as tolerably correct.

From it we learn, that in 1838, a man’s labour was freely

given during at least eighty-five days to the working of a

chena, the produce of which sold for £1. 6s. 8d., which

would give about 32d. per diem; but the cultivator, after

reaping his koorakan, had to watch the cotton for nearly

seven months, and had to collect, dry, and pack the pro-

duce.

At present, the people seldom get more than three shillings

for a load of cotton; this is attributed tothe vast quantities

of cloth now imported from India and England.

Being anxious to multiply as much as possible the varieties

of plants on which the people depend, I applied for, and

obtained from Government, two sacks of Bourbon and New

Orleans cotton seed, which I am now distributing among the

eae OA a AS

the District of Noowerakalawiya. 163

people, who, however, shew their wonted apathy on this

occasion also.

High forest land is invariably selected for cotton.

Tobacco, when grown at all, is only found in small gardens,

containing forty or fifty plants.

With regard to chenas generally, it must be observed, that

unlike paddy fields, they belong not to individuals, but to

villages collectively; and it is by amicable arrangements

among themselves, that it is in each season arranged what

portion shall be allotted to each man. As a general rule,

all land from which water drains to the tanks or field of a

certain village belongs to that village ; and to its inhabitants

is reserved the right of cutting chenas within the limits so

defined.

For some reason, which I do not know, chenas are not

portioned off by parallels, but by radiating lines from some

central spot, such as a large tree, boulder, &c.

INHABITANTS.

The mass of the inhabitants are Singhalese, approximating

in manners, feelings,and appearance to the Highlanders, and

not to the degenerate race which swarms in the Maritime

districts, and for whom they entertain a thorough contempt.

Every man is a cultivator or proprietor of land, and I do not

suppose that there isone Singhalese villager whois to any ex-

tent dependant on a trade for livelihood. Many persons are by

caste mechanics, as blacksmiths, goldsmiths, washers, tom-

tom beaters, &c., but the last two bodies alone devote any

attention to their hereditary business, and even their reward

consists not in money, but in land; thus the people of a

village will give a piece of land to some dobies on condition

that they wash for them and attend on occasions of cere-

mony; so it is with tom tom beaters. If a man wishes to

164 Topographical and Statistical Account of

geet a new axeor mamotie, he first of all goesto Trinco-

malee, Anooradhapoora or Manaar, and purchases some

iron; hethen prepares a quantity of charcoal, and taking these,

proceeds to some neighbouring blacksmith, who is brought

into good humour by the gift of some cakes, &c., and is

perhaps ultimately persuaded to undertake the work, which

however proceeds slowly and gravely, several days being occu-

pied in working and talking about the work: all this time the

applicant renders assistance to the smith. I have never been

able to induce a village mechanic to settle here; they like

receiving money wages, but cannot bear regular hours. Of

late, in consequence of public works being commenced, a few

masons and carpenters are to be found at the station; but all

are strangers to the District. To shop-keeping of every sort,

the highland Singhalese have an insuperable objection, and

thusit occurs that the boutiques along the roads areall occupied

by Tamuls, Moormen, or low country people. It is only in such

situations that boutiques are to be found. In the villages them-

selves they are unknown; each man grows his own paddy and

koorakan; has his own cattle; and probably cultivates a few —

vegetables in his garden. If he wants a new cloth, he gives the

cotton from his chena, and also some grain by way of fee toa

weayer, or else he barters the product of his field with some

passing trader, Until of late years bare money was almost

unknown in the District, but is now becoming more com-

mon every day. In all dealings among themselves however, the

natives adhere to the system of barter. The change already

referred to, may be attributed chiefly to the fact that payment

of taxes in kind has been done away with, and that the taxes |

in themselves are heavier. Lam quite aware that many persons -

consider it an absurdity to maintain, that people can be better

off simply because they are taxed, because money is taken

from them ; such is, however, the simple fact. The manner in

the District of Noowerakalawiya. 165

which it works is probably thus. A man knows that he will

shortly have to pay to Government a couple of rupees; none

of his neighbours will pay him for anything in cash, he there-

fore finds it necessary to grow something which he may sell to

strangers, and he soon discovers that, ceterds paribus, the less

bulky these goods are the better, after providing for the daily

wants of himself and his family; he will therefore clear a chena

and cultivate,say Sesame. ‘The produce he then removes to

Trincomalee, and sells for cash. He now finds that the sum he

has received is greater than the amount of tax which he must

pay, and in wandering through the bazaar his fancy is struck

by some gaudy handkerchief, some bright brass vessel, some

china, &c.; he buys the article and returns home. .The sight

of these purchases gives pleasure to his household, and creates

in them new desires and new wants. ‘To gratify and relieve

these, he will in the next season clear a still larger chena, and

so the process continues. The increasing influence of money

is strikingly apparent in the instance of headmen and people

of family, who now care much lessthan heretofore about keep-

ing up large bodiesofdependents. Ina paper on the statistics

of the Putlam District, which I had the honour to transmit

to the Society some years ago, I shewed that the fishers there

were most anxious that the now discontinued fish tax should

be renewed ; and on the whole I believe, that at present the

people ought to be comparatively heavily taxed, not indeed to

such an extent as to discourage them, but to such that they

. may be incited to industry.

The castes arethe same as those in other Districts, with this

exception, that there is one here not general over the Island,

and which is superior to that which is elsewhere considered

the highest, I meanthe Wanne caste, who call themselves Wan-

niwurroo, the latter being a mere honorific. These persons are

the descendants of certain Tamuls who came over from the

166 Topographical and Statistical Account of

continent in the time of Raja Sen, who granted to each exten-

sive tracts of land. ‘They are very numerous here, and very

troublesome, as they will not accept any inferior appointments,

and for the most part think it quite beneath their dignity to

educate themselves. As their claim to fill all the high offices

has been rejected, they now frequently intermarry with

Vellales, and will in all probability soon be incorporated with

that caste. |

Considerable numbers of domesticated V eddahs are to be met

with, but none of those who still retain their primitive wild-

ness reside in the District.

Six or seven villages of the Hastern Division are inhabited

by a set of people who have much the look of Moormen. If

asked to what caste they belong, they reply, “ We are from

Kurenagalle habagoe.” Their neighbours call them “ wagei,” a

name which they do not at alllike. They do not intermarry

with the people of the District, and seek for wives either in their

own villages here, or in those of their comrades in Seven

Korles. They preserve a tradition, that many centuries ago

their forefathers came from Malwar, but do not know where

that placeis. They seem to be a sort of Dhoorias.

The Moormen or Mahommedans occupy numerous villages ;

they are locomotive, enterprizing, fond of trade, and very de-

ceptive. Their love of money is a perfect disease; they are

more robust, intelligent, and bold than the Singhalese, and

are very much disliked and feared by them. |

Many individual Tamuls have settled in the District, but I

am not aware that any one village is exclusively occupied by

them.

A few Caffres and Malays occur here; the former chiefly

discharged soldiers and their offspring; the latter, people,

who as I believe, have some very good reason for living in

secluded spots.

the District of Noowerakalawiya. 167

Two circumstances exercise a most beneficial effect on the

people; the first, that for the last three years there has not been

a single tavern in the District ; the latter, that the ze are no re-

sident Proctors. Of course I donot mean to deny that many

proctors may be good and honest men, nor that such are very

useful; butit is evident, that proctors who would settle in such

a district as this, must be the very refuse of their profession,

and such men would be a curse to the District.

EDUCATION.

About eighteen months ago an English school was set on

foot, and is still maintained. Owing to the liberality of Go-

vernment, no fees are demanded from the scholars, it being con-

sidered that the people must first learn what education is,

before they are asked to pay for it. The number of scholars

is only thirteen, but when a sort of boarding house now in

contemplation shall have been constructed, the number may

be expected to increase considerably.

A Tamul school, supported by private funds, is attended by

a few scholars, but there is a constant succession of new

faces ;—sosoon as a boy can read a little and scrawl his name,

he sets up a boutique.

The best effects have followed from the strict examination

to which applicants for headmanship are subjected, as to their

proficiency in reading, writing, and arithmetic. In the latter

respect, the progress is most marked, and has been assisted by

the distribution of suitable books of instruction.

This being one of the most sacred spots of Ceylon, it might

be expected that I should have much to say regarding the

Boodhist priesthood. Thishowever, isnot the case; the priests

here are ignorant beyond description ; know nothing of their

168 Topographical and Statistical Account of

own history or religion ; and though they say that they have a

copy of the Maha Wanse, acknowledge that they have never

read it. As they do not take the slightest trouble with the

people, and generally disappear until the time of the festivals

approaches (at which period offerings to a large amount are

brought in), the people are heartily wearied of their yoke, and

if no external aid be afforded to the religion, it will soon be

practically extinct. 3

I confess to having an extremely low opinion of the Bood-

hist priesthood. To judge from those whom I have met (the

number is not small,) I think they will be found idle, selfish,

inconsistent, and, ex-officio, discontented.

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION.

There are no navigable or perennial rivers, and no canals

in the District; andthe trade ofthe country will not for a lone

time to come justify Government in altering this stateof mat-

ters. Up till the year 1845 theonly road in this District was

that from Manaar to Anooradhapoora, along which the tappal

has hitherto been carried, About the period mentioned, a

sudden advance was made; a great central route passing from

North to South, and opening the communication between

Jaffna and Kandy, having been surveyed and cleared ; others

leading to Trincomalee and to Putlam were also opened, so

far as they lie within this District. :

That most excellent of laws, the Road Ordinance of 1848,

has here, as elsewhere, effected much good; it is only neces-

sary to remark, that the following works have been carried

out within the last three years.

1, That the Central line between Jaffna and Kandy has

received, general and extensive repairs.

on ee Pate

the District of Noowerakalawiya. 169

2. That a substantial bridge, with three water-ways, has

been constructed over the Sangeelee Kanedera Oya.

3. That the Putlam road has been brought into such a

state of efficiency asthe present nature of the traffic requires.

_ 4. Similar improvements to the Trincomalee road have

also been carried out.

5. Manaar road has received general repair, though no

permanent bridges have been made.

6. A road between Madhawatchee on the Central, and

Horrowepothahne on the Trincomalee road, has been sur-

veyed, traced, andcleared throughout its whole length, though

a few miles are still not available for cart traffic.

7. Anotherline joing Kekeerahwe on the Central, with

Maragahawewe on the Putlam road, has been surveyed, traced,

and opened, throughout about 244 miles of its course.

8. Alinejoming Mahakekeerahwe with Horrowepothah-

ne, (both as above mentioned, has also been traced.)

9. And lastly, a line from this to the Manaar road near

Adapankoolum, has been surveyed, and ina great measure

traced.

The whole amount collected during each year since 1859, is

as follows.

No, Nate

Year. liable. in Money.

ae) S d

1850 LOU ial a8,) 15

1851 10923 | 819; 4

1852 LODO" | Sis3) 5

Oo & &

[Total £] 31950 |2396| 6 | 0 |

‘It will be observed, that the rate of commutation fixed for

1858 | z

170 Topographical and Statistical Account of

six days’ labour, is only one shilling and six-pence; this is just

half of the real proportion, but this arrangement was pur-

posely adopted, on the supposition that hired coolies do more

work than statute labourers; besides which, this system enables

one to concentrate one’s efforts on such roads as most immedi-

ately call for attention. I think however, that these advantages

have been over-estimated, and that the rate of commutation

should have been higher.

Of late years, a good deal has been said about the desira-

bleness of giving to thenatives municipal privileges, and it was

hinted that the Road Ordinance was but the first step in that

direction. In those districts with which I am bestacquainted,

the hopes of the Progresistas have been wofully disap-

pointed; the people frequently not shewing the slightest

interest in§the elections; not recording their votes; not even

taking the trouble to attend.

There being little trade in this District, and the people hav-

ing a great dislike to strangers and to bustle, the Road Ordi-

nance is even now far from popular ; but the more intelligent

villagers are becoming convinced of the advantages which it

secures to them.

CLIMATE.

Some one said long ago, that the climate of Noowerakalawiya

was very deadly ; that the place was asecond Sierra Leone; and

no amount of proof to the contrary has yet dissipated this ab-

surdly erroneous opinion. It is quite possible, that twenty or

thirty years ago, fever was more prevalent than at present ; but

T do not know of anything to warrant the conclusion, that even

at that time it was unhealthy during the greater part of the

year. Situated in a vast plain, which is covered with dense

the District of Noowerakalawiya. 171

wood, and in which there is a multitude of neglected tanks,

the place is certainly no sanitarium, but still I think that

during nine months of the year, it 1s fully as healthy as most

stations. ‘The unhealthy season lasts from the beginning of

December till the end of February, and during this portion

f the year the establishments are allowed to remove else-

where. As the jungle around the station becomes cleared

away, and as the place becomes more healthy, the furlough

allowed is gradually circumscribed, and in the course of a

few years, there will probably be no occasion for an annual

interruption of public business. The fever of Nooweraka-

lawiya is distinguished less by the violence of sudden isolated

attacks, than by its insidiousness and long continuance. One

is never very ill, but neither is one ever very well; one feels

a general listlessness, a sensibility to the effects of draughts,

which gradually debilitates one to a lamentable extent.

Tt is a common remark of the people, that droughts are

much more common now than they used to be twenty or

thirty years ago, and this is (justly, as I believe,) attributed

to the great extension of the chena system, whereby pools,

springs, and marshes are dried, and large surfaces exposed to

the burning rays of the sun. I regret to say, that my manifold

encagements, and frequent absence from the station, have pre-

vented me from making any regular meteorologic observations.

ANTIQUITIES.

Noowerakalawiya has a degree of local celebrity, from

having, during many years, been the residence of the Singha-

lese Rajas. |

We learn from the Maha Wanse, that prince Wijeya

established himself at Tambapanny or Tambaadawiya, near

172 Topographical and Statistical Account of

Putlam, about the year 543 B.C. His successor, in 504

B. C., removed to Wijitapoora in this district ; ‘and Pandik-

kabhayoo who followed in the year 474 B. C., took up his

residence at Anooradhapoora ; and from thistime till A.De729,

Anooradhapoora continued to be the metropolis of Ceylon.

About the year 307 B. C., the thero (saint) Mahindho, son of

Dhamma Soka, Emperor of India, introduced Boodhism into

Ceylon. It was then that the branch of the sacred Bogaha

(Ficus religioso) was brought to, and self-planted at Anoorad-

hapoora; and here, enclosed in a triple terrace of masonry, it

still exists, and still attracts annually thousands of pilgrims

from all parts of the Island, and occasionally also from India,

and even from Siam; and it is here that the yet venerated

Dhootoogamoonoo, about b. C. 161, expended a vastamount of

Jabour in erecting those bee-hive shaped edifices, called d4gobas,

cheityas, or thoopoos, which enshrine relies of the philosopher

Booddhoo ; and whieh, though time has impaired the symmetry

of their form, still tower in solemn grandeur over the surround-

ing forests, and proclaim to the yet distant traveller the locality

of the sacred city. Seven or eight dAgobas of various sizes

are scattered round the station : these with carved step

stones, and altars, pillars, capitals, and images of Hindoo

deities, with long stretches of low mounds and walls, form the

chief antiquities to be found at the station, and attract notice,

rather from their vast number and extent, than from any other

quality they possess. They are interesting, as marking the

period when Singhalese genius and enterprise reached their

zenith; and to the eye of the engineer, the accuracy of the

work is a matter of just admiration. :

The Maha Lohkaposada will much disappoint the visitor.

It consists simply of a solid square of roughly squared slender

pillars, forty in each row, and rising about 9 fect above the

general surface, Hach side of the square is 221 feet, ‘There

the District of Noowerakalawiya. 173

ean be little doubt that these pillars were the mere foundations

of a huge pyramidal wooden structure, nine stories in height,

which must somewhat have resembled the so-called Chinese

porcelain towers, and which, when decorated in the Singhalese

fashion, must have formed a very striking, if not a very beau-

tiful object.

It is umpossible for me here to describe the various antiquities

round the station. Perhaps a future paper may be devoted

to the subject.

Some time ago I commenced a large scale plan of the ground

around the station, but want of leisure has forced me to

abandon the work.

Mihintalae, eight miles east of Ancoradhapoora, ismuchre-

sorted to by pilgrims ; for there stands the oldest of the dago-

bas, and there the great teacher Mahindho expired. A fine

view, stretching probably from sea to sea, and far up to the

Matelle hills, is obtained from the summit.

At Owkonne, about twenty-six miles south of Mihintalae,

there is a colossal erect statue of Boodhoo, about thirty-five

feet in height ; it is cut out of solid rock, to which it remains

partially attached. The right hand is raised as in the act of

benediction.

Wiitapoora, near Owkonne, has been already mentioned, A

siege which it underwent is minutely described inthe Maha

Wanse ; but on enquiry, I could not ascertain the existence of

any walls or other structures, except a small half ruined

dagobah, .

_ Close to the southern extremity of this district, but just

within the limits of Seven Korles, at Sessaeroowe Kande

Vihare, there is a statue of Boodhoo resembling in size and

position that at Owkonne.

Both here and at other parts of the district, I have met with

and copied numerous inscriptions; but regarding these deem

174 Topographical and Statistical Account of

it unnecessary at present to do more than state, that the cha-

racters employed are not to be found in any of the alphabets

in My possession.

FiscaAL ARRANGEMENTS.

This District always formed an integral portion of the Kan-

dian Provinces, being specially entrusted tothe third Dessawe

for the time being. ‘The last of these appears to have been

Thalgahagodde Dissawe, who seems to have resigned about

the year 1833. It was about this time that the District, as it

now exists, wasformed by adding some portions of Matelle and

Seven Korles.

Until a few years ago, the native Headmen consisted of

Maha Wanny Oonahehs, Wanny Moodianses, and Kahria-

korunnas, all these being connected with both the Revenue

and Police Departments. At present we have Divisions,

Korles and Thoolahnes, under Rattemahatmeyas, Korales,and

Lekeemes; of the first there are three, of the second seventeen,

of the third about sixty.

Rattemahatmeyas receive £2 10s. per mensem, besides five

per cent. on the revenue collected from their divisions.

Korales receive five per cent. on their collections, and hold,

free of tax, such lands as they possess within their own Korles.

The Lekeemes, unlike the two other grades, are at present

regarded solely as Police Vidahns. As a matter of fact, how-

ever, they remain, as formerly, general assistants of the

Korales; and this arrangement ought, I think, to be again

formally sanctioned. ‘They hold, free of tax, such of their —

lands as lie within their own thoolahnes, and do not receive

stated salary, nor percentage.

the District of Noowerakalawiya. 175

It is probable that the system of allowing Headmen to hold

land tax free, will soon be altogether done away with. It has

been maintained, probably with the intention of obtaining the

services of men personally interested in their own divisions ;

but this object can be otherwise secured, and a constant source

of demoralization cut off. At present, quantities of land are, to

escape tax, entered in the names of Headmen, who after the

lapse of some years claim, and frequently take possession of

the lands themselves. At the same time, I see no objection

to employing unpaid Headmen, so long as the offices are ea-

gerly sought by the people. The Singhalese love of honour and

distinction, though carried to somewhat unreasonable lengths,

is in itself laudable, and gives a point dappui to those who

wish to elevate the people. In our own country, many offices

unconnected with salary are eagerly contended for, and I see

no reason why the same system should not be followed here.

That unpaid headmen would take bribes is not more true than

that the paid headmen now do so.

The Headmen are, on the whole, inferior in activity and in-

telligence to those of adjoining districts. This may be attri-

buted to the fact, that the people were, until lately, almost

debarred from intercourse with others; that the district was

formed of fragments taken from others, and which are only

beginning to amalgamate into one homogeneous whole; that

the resident Civilians have been frequently changed ; that the

establishment is necessarily broken up annually; and that

formerly the Wannia caste had a sort of monopoly of the head-

menships; and even now, many of these people, while they

_ think that they have a right to be made Korales and Ratte-

_ mahatmeyas as opportunities occur, yet totally neglect their

own education, on the plea that they can pay others to read

and write for them. I think that a bad effect has been

| produced by the unceremonious way in which headmen are

176 Topographical and Statistical Account of

appointed and dismissed; and believe, that Government, in

giving up all sorts of state and ceremony, is gratuitously

throwing away a powerful means of influencing the people.

Whether headmen ought, or ought not, to have more power

than at present, is a matter for serious enquiry, but need not

be entered upon here. 3

REVENUE.

With some trifling exceptions, the sole source of revenue

is the tax on grain.

Formerly this used in part to be paid in kind, (ahmonae)

but this gave rise to so much deception and logs, that the

plan has long since been abandoned. At present the great

majority of the tax is collected by the commutation system.

According to this, the average annual produce of each piece of

land being estimated, the cultivator redeems that portion of

it which would fall to Government. It is to be observed, that

the rate of redemption is fixed very low, it being considered

that the loss thus occurring is more than counterbalanced

by the ease of collection, the fixity of revenue, and the check-

ing of deception. In this opinion I entirely concur, and believe

the commutation system to be eminently advantageous, both

to the rulers and the ruled. The whole process is as follows.

The headmen send in lists of the lands, giving the extent and

probable produce of each share; these lists then may be

compared with those of former years, so as to expose any

fraud, and are then entered in large registers-books: addi-

tional columns, shewing the tithe, in grain and in money, —

being added. There is then drawn out a set of tickets, forming

in fact, a copy of the register; each ticket containing a memo-

randum as to the amount due on each share. After this is

the District of Noowerakalawiya. 14%

“+prepared, the Assistant Agent proceeds to some appointed vil-

lage; the people assemble; those of a certain village are called

forward; the first name is read, the peasant comes forward,

signs the register, and receives the memorandum shewing

what he has to pay, and as the matter proceeds, complaints

as to over estimation, &c. are frequently heard at once, and

the requisite alterations made. After all this is done, another

set of receipts, corresponding to the entries in the registers,

is filled up; each such receipt is given by the headman to

the person whose name is inscribed on it, when he pays the

tax due by him. In this way, the peasant knows beforehand

what he has to give annually, and he cannot be called on by

the Korale to pay twice over, as used formerly to occur not

unfrequently. The headmen, when they bring revenue to

the Cutcherry, give in lists of those from whom they have

received it, and thus, if a headman dies or is dismissed, there

is no difficulty in discovering whois and who is not in arrear.

These commutation settlements are made for periods of five

years. Jt was at one time proposed that they should run for

twenty years, but fortunately this scheme was abandoned, as

also that of allowing the people to redeem their whole grain

tax at ten or twenty years’ purchase.

The taxes from chenas, tahwaloos, and lands which

cultivated at uncertain periods, are collected by estimation,

that is, the growing crop is estimated, and the villager redeems

the tythe at a fixed rate, which is somewhat below the market

value of the grain; at present it is eight pence per parrah,

the market value being from nine pence to a shilling. It is

desirable to check this system so far as circumstances allow, as

it is impossible to prevent deception being carried on to a

great extent,

The execrable system of farming taxes has never been in

use here, and except under very peculiar cir cumstances i

should deplore its introduction.

1858 | 2A

(178 Topographical and Statistical Account of

Fine grains pay no tax, this being a Kandian district ; and

really, when a man is reduced to living on “ Koorakan roh-

ties,” it would be cruelty to tax him. The only thing that

might induce one to lay a tax on these grains would be, the

hope of forcing the people to the cultivation of wholesome

articles of diet. |

It appears that in 1825 the revenue realized from this dis-

trict amounted to the handsome sum of eleven pounds, thirteen

shillmgs and five pence half-penny, and from that time up till

1833, it seems to have averaged only £129. 13s. 5d. ; after this

period, however, it rose steadily and rapidly, and now nearly

if not quite covers the expenses.

Last year | 1852] the grain revenue amounted to £1735. 4s.

54d., and the whole real revenue (exclusive of road tax) to

£1874. 16s. 94d. This year these items amount to £1021

Is. 5d,, and £927. 4s. 42d. respectively.

Two causes will account for this decrease.

1. Within the two previous years almost all arrears had

been collected.

2. Last year murrain prevailed to a lamentable extent, and

so many of the draught cattle died, that large quantities of

land were left uncultivated; and asthe people are naturally im-

provident, they were at once reduced to great distress. On

the other hand, the amount due fer grain commutation by the

settlement just closed, contrasts favourably with that which

preceded it, shewing an increase of £74. 8s. 03d. A slight ex-

amination will leave no doubt that this district is rapidly

increasing in wealth and importance.

CRIME.

The people of Noowerakalawiya are the quietest and most

gentle I have had the fortune to meet. It is true they quar-

rela good deal, but these squabbles are generally of the most

trifling kind ; the parties after exhausting their list of abusive

ee a eee te

“

the District of Noowerakalawiya. 179

terms, pull each other’s hair, then shriek and run away from

each other, and so the matter ceases. Serious assaults, rob-

beries, murdefs, are all but unknown, and during three years

I have not had to punish one native of the district for pilfer-

ing.

Cattle stealing used to prevail to a great extent, but has

been much checked since this matter was placed in the hands

of the District Judges. It is still carried on to some extent on

the borders of Seven Korlesand (latterly ) of Manaar, but three

fourths of the charges now investigated prove utterly false.

The people are fond of litigation, but not I believe to the

same extravagant extent as elsewhere, andnumerous disputes

are settled by reference to the Assistant Agent without going

to the Courts of law at all; and some suchsystem as this seems

to be infinitely the best adapted to the people.

FUTURE PROSPECTS.

The soil on the major part of the District being good, there

can be no doubt that agriculture will receive more and more

attention. Roads are being formed in every direction, and if

Government took up the matter of Tank repair with spirit, I

believe that Noowerakalawiya would profit thereby fully as

much as any district in Ceylon.

DE PDLALDLODLPVPLLPLLLLLVFLILVFIILITIIL_—O—IONF™

i bine reat sles

ONG PHO

jot

pee

On the Principles of Singhalese Chrenology. By the Rev.

C. ALWIs.

Time is that abstract duration which pervades all ages;

without either a commencement or conclusion. It partakes of

many of the most sublime attributes of the Supreme Being,

such as eternity, invisibility, omnipresence, immaterialism,

and so forth. There is some method of computing it amongst

every nation. This computation and adjustment of time

form the principles of Chronology.

The most natural division of time seems to be into that

of days. Day is called in Singhalese dawasa. The interval

between two. successive risings of the Sun is a dawasa.

Seven dawasas are reckoned into one satiya “a week.”

The days of the week, as among many other nations even in

the West, are appropriated to seven gods, and are called by

their names: thus Irida “Sun’s-day,” Sanduda “ Moon’s-day,”

Angaharuwada “ Mar’s-day,” Badada “* Mercury’s-day,” Bra-

haspatinda “ Jupiter’s-day,” Stkurada “ Venus’-day,” and

Senasurada “ Saturn’s-day.”

Dawasa is divided into dawala “the day time,” and

rattriya “the night time.” Dawala is from the rising to the

setting of the Sun; and rattriya begins with the setting

of the Sun and continues till his rising. From the rising of

the Sun to his arrival at the meridian is called pera-waruwa

“ the forenoon ;” and the interval between the meridian and

the setting of the Sun is termed paswaruwa “ the afternoon.”

The noon or midday is called maddahana.

The night is divided into three equal portions called

yama “the watches.” ‘The first watch is called perayama

or hende yamaya. ‘The second or middle watch is called

ise)

1858] 2

182 On the Principles of

maddima yamaya ; and the last watch is called puschima

yamaya, or pandara yamaya. The midnight is called

maddima rattriya. ‘The time during which the rays of the

Sun’s light fall upon the ground before his rising above the

horizon, is termed aluyama, and that of his rising is desig-

nated pandara; the morning in general is called udaya.

The natural day is divided into 60 equal portions, each

being called peya, equal to 24 English minutes. Hach

peya isdivided into 60 winddies, and each winadi into 60

tatparas.

A portion of time consisting of 25 peyasis termed Hora,

answering exactly to the Greek and Roman word hora, an

hour. Astrologers suppose that the same seven gods, to

whom the supervision of the days of the week are appropriated,

preside over each successive seven horas, beginning from that

one to whom the day belongs, but in the following order,

namely, Sun, Venus, Mercury, Moon, Saturn, Jupiter and

Mars. Thus, on Sunday the first hora is of the Sun, the

second is of Venus, and the third is of Mercury, and so forth ;

on Monday the first hora belongs to the Moon, the second to

Saturn, and the third to Jupiter, and so on. |

The firmament studded with constellations and_ stars,

apparently in an incessant motion from Hast to West, is

divided into twelve portions, each called rastya, “a sign.”

The names of these twelve Rasies, together with the time

during which they emerge out of the horizon, are as follows.

NAMES Pp. W. Hee Gay!

Mesaeeiisi vs teecs as WGA tS VON AATICSS cove ves: 4336

WV arsablidess s..c 0s AAS se Daurusese. sss 16453 6.12

Mithuna...... Sei By ALORA G pessontoliermamane 2.) 6g 48

Matakavijsente sd. 5229 ly Canecery..s0..0 2 el | or o6

Ding na, weer less + a 1S) |) We Osgmeeode oes 22 7 nO)

anya diseresrsescee) 4:0 (OTe VITSO,’., nc cet re aloueLS

i ee

Singhalese Chronology. 183

NaMEs. PW: bs ht eae

_ ee ae pens 2 SY fed 2d 9) i eee 1 358 48

Woarchika.... 5 15 | Seorpio........ 2 Gna t

ee 5 29 | Sagitarius 2 iia

Wakcra-_.--.. =... 2 17 | Capricornus.. 2 6 48

Kumbhbu............ 4 43 | Aquarius..... E83 12

We a eb ister: <c2-" 2 1 45 36

_ From this table it appears that all the Rasies are not of

equal size, consequently some iake a longer time than others

im passing through the horizon.

Of the twelve Rasies, that called Singha, “Leo” is ap-

propriated to the Sun, and the one next before it, called

Kataka “Crab,” is given to the Moon; the rest of the

| Basies are appropriated to the -five ancient planets in the

order of their position with regard to the Sun. Thus,

Mithuna and Kanya, the Rasies or signs bordering on each

_ side of the mansions of the Sun and Moon, belong to Mer-

eury. The two beyond these on each side, namely War-

| sabha and Tula, are appropriated to Venus; the two beyond

these, namely Mésa and Wurchika, belong to Mars. The

| next two, Mina and Dhanu, are the mansions of Jupiter, and

_ the remaining two, Makara and Kumbha, belong to Saturn.

The Sun, the Moon, and the Planets, move through

these Rasies in their courses.

| Aurudda “the year, is the time during which the Sun

travels through all the twelve Rasies in his course, beginning

: eycle. The number of the cycle of any given year is found

_ by adding 11 io the given year of Saka {which is 78 years

‘less than the Christian xra) and dividing the sum by 60.

_ The remainder, afier this process, is the number of the cycle

"of the given year ; and if nothing remains, 60 is the cycle.

| The Singhalese haye four zras by which they date the

184 On the Principles of

fa)

year of any event. That which is most familiar to the

generality of the people is the Saka Warusa, which 1s the

year of some King of the continent of Asia, whose name was

Saka, and who was said to be the head of the royal race of

Yawana (Grecian.) The present year (A. D. 1855) is the

777th of the Saka Warusa, 78 years later than the

Christian era.

They use the year of our Lord Jesus Christ in all the

public documents at present; and the imbhabitants of the

towns and their neighbourhood are more familiar with this

than Saka Warusa.

For religious purposes they use Buddha Warusa, the

year from the death of Gautama Buddha, 621 years before

Saka Warusa. Consequently, the present is the 2398th year

of Buddha Warusa. |

In most of the Medical, Astronomical, and other scientific

works of very ancient dates, which we have in Sanskrit from

the Wédas of the Bramins, another era, called Kaliyuga

Warusa,isused. Kaliyuga is the last of the four last yugas or

ages of the world, which, the Singhalese say, have passed.

The commencement of the Kaliyuga was 3179 years prior to

Saka Warusa. The present year of the Kaliyuga is the

4956th. The whole period during which it is to exist is

432,000 years. The yuga or age that preceded Kaliyuga

was called Dwapara, and existed twice as many years as the

Kaliyuga, namely 864,000. The one before that was Tréta,

which existed,1,296,000 years, being three times as many as _

the years of Kaliyuga. And,the one preceding this was.

Kréta, the duration of which was four times that of Kaliyuga,

namely 1,728,000 years. Before these four yugas, the

present Kalpa or the period of the world, is believed to have

existed during 27 divine yugas of an innumerable number

of years.

Singhalese Chronology. 185

The length of a year is 365 days, 15 pxeyas, 31 winadies,

and 15 tatparas. The commencement of the Singhalese

year falls generally about the llth of April. To find the

exact moment at which any given year commences, or the

moment at which the Sun enters into Mésa Rasi, the follow-

ing is the rule. Subtract 1244 from the Saka era, and by

the remainder multiply 365 d. 15 p. 31 w. 15 tat.; and to

the product add 1615536 days 59 p. 45 w. 30 tat.; and then

throw off as many 7 days as possible from the sum. The

commencement of the year or the Sun’s entering into Mésa

Rasi is so many days after Friday, as appears in the re-

mainder of days peyas winadies and tatparas. If there

is no remainder in the place of days, the commencement of

the year is on Friday; if one, on Saturday,and so forth.

Thus, to find the commencement of the present Singhalese

year, the year of Saka 1777 (A. D. 1855), subtract 1244

from 1777 which leaves a remainder 533, by this multi-

ply 365 4.15 p. 31 w. 15 tat., which gives a product

of 19682 days 52 p. 36 w. 15 tat.; then add to this product

1615536 days, 59 p. 45 w. 30 tat, which will give a sum

of 1810219 days, 52 p. 21 w. 45 tat. ; after this, throw off

as many seven days as possible, when there will be

aremainder of 5d. 52p. 21 w. 45 tat. The commence-

ment of the year is thus 5 days after Iriday, namely, on

Wednesday, at 52 peyas and 21 w. 46 tat.: which, accord-

ing to English calculation, is Thursday 2 h. 56’ 42'' a. m.,

or 3 minutes and 18 seconds before 3 a. M.

idasé “the month,” is about the 12th part of a year, and

is of two kinds, the solar and lunar. The solar month is

the time during which the Sun continues in any one of the

12 Rasies, ©

The moment at which the Sun enters into any one of the

twelye Rasies is found by the following rulco :—to the days

186 On the Principles of

peyas and winadies of the Sun’s entering into Mésa Rasi,

add the number of days, peyas and winadies opposite to the

required Rasi in the table below, and leave off, if possible,

seven from the number of days, and the remainder is the

day, peya and winadi after Friday, when the Sun enters

that Kasi.

Do PW

Wharsablaicccccctca sce. 2 D0 ow

NEVE bua ee ees 6 19 44

Katakacicnccsestuceccs 257 56: 22

SIUOVBIlsanee song Shobagoc GH Da Be.

IKeRMVEBsnoocosmcon concoe 2 26 44

OUI Seriesn Goaue. GesORe A Ae eG

WVoumreWikacy.. 4. ce. -e 0 Oe ls

Dhan... ayer a. eee MCR Bi

IM SAY Ate see fs vcccds Cheese 2% 39 30

tama eee 4 6 Soe

JOR ss pomtcee nai ee ise Re 5, 5d: 10

IMCS... .0Seceneese Goeesess Ke loool

Thus, to find the time at which the Sun enters Mithuna

Kasi in the present year, add

Dee. WV,

2520022" a Suns entering into Mesa Rasi

6 19 44 as found opposite Mithuna Rasi

9 12 6

0), ee)

2 12 6. Thatis, on Sunday at 12 p. 6 w.

According to English calculation, 10 h. 50’ 24"' a. m.

* In leaving out the tatparas, if there are 39 or more, one is added to the

winadies.,

Singhalese Chronology. 187

The length of each of the twelve solar months, or the time

during which the Sun continues in any one of the Rasies, is

given in the following Table.

Digs Bis AV

UVES Salento ce sce pe eine cone nO Si) Pe

Warsabha........ aekvece Ble Dal

AVICREMUUINA Acie oso ecesese « BY BG Bis)

TGTIBT Caine ae Sil Asa. bo

UMC slabs ove celcicese te Se 2 0

AGAMA). « carves oc Packs ote BO) i Oe

SINCE Scares 29°. 54

A\WOTeOlTmt ey an neceaneer nee 207 3024

IDM oes eee ce oo osc 29 DOU aS

INK araccten: «cscs Ute Ole Vay.

Herrman Was. 5 hese s acs woe 29 48 33

IVES ose sceatas ui BO ZO: Dl

Lotale.o.. SOO) lisy 184)

From this table it appears, that the Sun does not pass

through every Rasi in an equal length of time; he sojourns

the longest time in Mithuna, being 31 d. 36 p. 38 w.

From thence he continues less and less in every successive

Rasi, until he comes to Makara, where he passes only 29 d.

18 p.7w. From Makara, again, the time of the Sun’s

sojourn in each Rasi successively becomes longer and longer,

till he comes upto Mithuna again. The difference of the

Sun’s longest and shortest sojourn in these two Rasies is

2d. 18 p. 31 w.

The longest day here is said to be 31 p. 22 w., and the

shortest 28 p. 38 w., or according to English reckoning, the

longest day is 12 hours’and 31 minutes, and the shortest

day is 11 hours and 29 minutes. In order to find the

gradual change of the different length of day and night, the

following table is given.

198 On the Principles of

Poy

INDE Streit yuu dome aes 30°") Ox

Wrharshaloase. ces. e. 30 38

ANG tannins ene data nee 31216

Natalee ees sees coins. 3122

Tesla ones enor docuenc 31 10

Garay eee eae «2 + 30 33

SRCUE eR a nbGcnuasorad 30°220

AW sonce lanka eins ce esas 20° 22

Dreyer Gaee et epoesees 28 50

Makara. cise ores, 28 goo

Kuno. ccc: (e aes 20 Oe)

IVI ec asoc cee etnaecns oo, mee

In this table, the length of the day at the time of the

Sun’s entering into each of the 12 Rasies is given; the dif-

ference between this and 60 pxyas being the length of the

night. The length of the day or night in any day interven-

ing between any two days given in the table is more or less

in proportion. ‘This table is, however, constructed upon the

principle that the Sun always sets first at the point in the

Rasi-chakkra “ zodiac” opposite to his position when hie rises

in the eastern horizon. But as the Sun progresses about one-

sixtieth part of a Rasi from the time of his rising to that of

his setting, and as the seventh Rasi, by which he always sets,

is never equal in size tothat by which he rises, there is

always a difference of about 5 winadies ; consequently, the

length of day or night givenin the table occurs always

about 20 days previous to that given in it.

The six months from the Sun’s entering into Kataka is

termed Dakshina-Ayana “ Southern course,” and the other

six months from his entering into Makara, is called Uttara-

Ayana “ Northern course,” because during these months the

Sun seems to travel towards these directions.

Singhalese Chronology. 189

This declination of the Sun is said to cause the general

leneth of a man’s shadow (in the central parts of this Island,)

east on the ground at noon for each one-third of the solar

month, to be the following number of feet ;—viz. :

Monru. No. oF Fr. MontTu. No. or Fr.

Wiésa...6:.. Je 1 1e ila... 225 O17 oe

Warsabha.. If 2 24 Warehika,.~ 35° 4 42

Mithuna... 24 3 24 Dhanu...... 4% 44 44

iMatalkan... 22° 2°13 Makara... 44 4 3h

pimehacs.... 1d. Te 14 iSumbhiaee.. a5 9 O42

Kanya...... 12 2 - 24 Mina. ce. Dee 2 Ve

This portion of the shadow of a man is called Awatchawa,

or more properly, awa ch’haydwa, “ extra shadow.” Thus,

the Awatchawa for the first 10 days of the Sun’s stay in

Mésa, or the 10 days after the 11th of April, is one foot

and a half; for the next 10 days of the same month, it is

one foot, and for the third 10 days it is one and a half. And

for the first 10 days of the solar month of Warsabha, the

extra shadow of a man is one foot and a half; for the next 10

days it is two feet, and for the last 10 days it is two and a

half feet ; and so on.

In consequence of there existing little or no difference in

the aspect of the country at various seasons, the Singhalese

do not recognise the four seasons of the year, as people of

other countries do. The medical and astrological books,

speak, indeed, of six seasons of the year, called Jrtu,

and the religious books make mention of three J/rtus:

but they are of no consequence here, as people do not talk of

them on ordinary occasions.

The Lunar month is the period from the Moon’s passing be-

tween the Sun and earth until she comes again between these

two bodies. The names of the twelve Lunar months begin-

1858] 2 ©

190 _ On the Principles of

ning from that in .which the Sun comes to Mésa, are

as follows:

Corresponding

Solar Month. Lunar Month. English Month.

Mesa \.) Bak April and May

Warshaba Wesak May and June

Mithuna Poson June and July

Kataka Ltisala, July and August

Singha Nikini August and Sept.

Kanya Binara Sept. and Oct.

Tula Wap Oct. and Nov.

Wurchika U Novy. and Deer.

Dhanu Unduwap Dec. and Jan.

Makara Duruthu —_ Jan. and Feb.

Kumbha Nawam Feb. and March.

Mina Meedin March and April

The lunar month does not necessarily begin on the same

day as the solar. It begins with the day after the new

moon. That lunar month in which the Sun enters Mésa

Rasi, or that of which the full moon is nearest to the Sun’s

entering Mésa Rasi, is the first lunar month, Bak Masa.

When there are thirteen full moons in any year, the

additional month is called Adhika Mase, two of the months

being called by the same name.

About Adhika Masé there is at present a controversy, in

which every one of the Budhist, priests of the Island is more

or less engaged. It was originated about 35 years ago, by

Atthadassi Terunanse of Bentotte, who is considered to be

the most learned of the Budhist priests of the day. One.

party maintain that the Adhika Mase, or the additional

month, ought to be in that solar month in which the two

full moons occur ; but the other party say, that the additional

month must be next to A‘sala, and ought to be called the

nen

Singhalese Chronology. 19}

second Alsala, without any regard to, the solar month in

which the two full moons occur.

The lunar month is divided into two portions, each called

pakshé. One, from the day after the new moon to the day

of full moon, is called pura, “increase ;” or purwa paksh2,

“the former part;” or sukla-pakshé, “white part:” and the

other, from the day after the full mocn to the day of new

moon, is called awa, “wane,” or apara-pakshé, “ the latter

part,” or krishna pakshé, “ the black part.” Hach pakshé, is

divided into 15 tithies. The length of a tithi varies from

53 to 67 peyas.

The names of the fifteen tithies from the first, are

Pelawiya, Diyawaka, Tiyawaka, Jalawaka, Wiséniya,

Setawaka, Satawaka, Atawaka, Nawawaka, Dasawaka,

Kkoloswaka, Doloswaka, Teleswaka, Tuduswaka, and Pasa-

loswaka or Amawaka. Of these two names for the last

tithi, Pasaloswaka is the full moon, and Amawaka, the

new moon.

The moon’s path in the firmament is divided into 27

powtions, each called a Nekata, “asterism.” Hach Nekata is

four-ninths of a Rasi, ‘The names of the 27 Nekatas, begin-

ning from the first point of Mésa Rasi, are Aswida, Berana,

Keti, Rehena, Muwasirisa, Ada, Punawasa, Pusa, Astlisa,

Maha, Puwapal, Uttrapal, Hata, Sita, Sa, Wisa, Anura,

Deta, Mula, Puwasala, Uttrasala, Suwana, Denata, Siya-

wasa Puwaputupa, Uttraputupa and Reéwati. The tithi

and nekata of any day or time are those in which the moon

is in her course through the zodiac in that day or time.

The time of the moon’s passing through each Nekata

varies from 53 to 67 pawyas.

The popular notion of the moon’s rising or seiting peya

respectively at day and night of pura and awa, and vice

versa, is twice the number of tithie. So that on the day of

192 On the Principles of

Pelawiya in pura, or the first day of the moon, she rises in

the second peya after it is day, and sets mm the second peya

after it is night, in proportion to what is past out of the

tithi. On Diyawaka ofthe pura, or on the second day of the

moon, she rises in the 4th p. after it is day, and sets in the

4th p. after it is night. On jalawak of Awa, or the

Ath day of the wane, the moon rises at the 8th p. after it is

night, and sets in the &th p. after it is day, and so forth. It

should be noticed, that in general one tithi and nekata

exhibit in one part of the day, and another tithi and nakata

in the next part of the day; and so proportionably the

rising and setting of the moon is changed. Although the

above is the popular notion of the moon’s rising and setting

time, its exact moment is known accurately by the position

of the moon in the Rasi through which she passes, by a

reference to the Nekata of the day in a common Ha,

“the Almanac.” | 3

Each of the four quarter days of the moon is called poya ;

the full moon is called Pasaloswaka poya, and the new moon

Mase poya. ‘The first quarter is called mase giya atawaka

poya, and the last quarter pahaloswaka giya atawaka poya.

In the poya, or quarter days, the Budhists generally refrain

from worldly occupations, and engage theniselves in religious

works, believing, on the authority of Budha, that on these

days the messengers of the god Swkkra or Indra come to the

human world, observe the deeds of the people, record each

man’s actions distinctly in a book, and then carry it to report

to their master.

The Singhalese nse different modes of computing time or a

finding the peya of the day. The most common way, when

the sun or moon 1s visible, is by the shadow of a person cast

on a level ground measured with his own foot. The method

of doing it is thus. Leave off the awatchawa “ the extra

ore, ee

Singhalese Chronoloyy. 193

shadow” as above mentioned, according to the time of the

solar month, then double the remaining number of feet and

add 12 more; and make this sum a divisor, and 180 its

dividend. The quotient is the number of peyas either from

_ the sun-rise, or to the sun-set, as the case may be. If there

be any remainder after the above division, multiply it by 60,

and divide the product by the same divisor for winadies, and

so for tatparas. ‘Thus on the fifteenth day of April, in the

morning, if I see my shadow to be 20 of my feet, I proceed

thus to find the peya. It being only about two days after

the Sun’s entering into Mesa Rasi, the awatchawa is 14 ft.,

which I take off, and the remainder, 18} ft., I multiply by

two, which gives 37, I add to this 12, and the sum left is 49,

J then divide 180 by 49, thus:

49) 180 (3 p.

147

49) 1980 (40 w.

196

49) 1200 (24 tat.

220

196

and find that the time is 3 p. 40 w. 24 t., in the morning,

or, according to the Enelish way, 28’ 10" after 7 a. M.

A more simple way than this, though not so correct, is that

194 On the Principles of Singhalese Chronology.

after taking away the awatchawa “the extra shadow,” the

following numbers of feet stand for each paya, either from

the sun-rise, or to sun-set, as the case may be, namely 84,

49,24, 16, 12,9, 7, 5, 4, 3, 2) 14, 1, 4) 0.9 Ths wetthe

former case 184 ft. after the awatchawa has been taken

away, being between 24 and 16, is between 3 and 4 peyas

from sun-rise.

To reckon the time when the sun cr moon is not visible,

they have a cup called pex-tetiya, made of some kind of

metal, or cocoanut shell, witha small hole in the centre, which

will fillin just in one peya when placed in a vessel of still

water.

The Singhalese speak of the time of the day in a dif-

ferent mode from what the English do. They do notsay, it

is three o’clock, or three on the clock. This mode of expres-

sion must be of a comparatively recent date, as clocks and

watches were not in use ata very remote period. There is

an unidiomatic and corrupt way of speaking of time, among

the Singhalese, in the neighbourhood of towns, inhabited by

Europeans and their descendants; such as, Den Kiyada ?

Pahay?, “How many is it now? Five ?” Meaning, “ What

is the hour now ? Five?” ‘This mode of conversation concern-

‘ing time is unintelligible among the Singhalese people of

the villages, who have less intercourse with. Europeans

and speak the language in its purity. Their question,

in the place of “ What o’clock is it now?” is thus ;—

«“ Den eliwenda (or eliwela or rewenda or rewela) hi

peyada 2?” Wow many peyas is it now to be morning? (or

since morning, or to be night, or since night?) Sometimes, —

speaking with respect to the feet of the shadow of the Sun

or Moon, they say: “ Den Ira (or Handa) mudunata enda

(or herila) dolos piyawaray.”—lt is twelve feet the Sun

(or Moon) to come to the top (or having turned.)

Sa ewer ee,

Remarks on the supposed identity between Nagasena and Nagar-

juna. By JAMES DE ALwis, Esq., Assistant Secretary.

ORIENTAL scholars have long entertained the belief,* that

Nagasena, the hero of Milindapprama, and Nagarjina, the

character who holds a distinguished place in the Raja

Tarangini, were identical. Curiosity, however, led me to

read the original passage on the Cashmirian history, and the

discordance in the rythm of several lines, to examine it

closely. In the course of that examination, I have detected

several grave errors in the construction put upon the passage

in question, which I beg now to record, with the object of

awakening the attention of Oriental scholars, who are better

qualified than myself, to the investigation of a subject,

which is not only interesting but difficult.

The passage in question, which I extract from the Asiatic

Researches, Vol. XV., p. 111, is the following :—

Té turushkanvayddbhuta ; pi punnyashraya nripah

Shuskakshcttradi déséshu ; matha chaittyadi chakkriré.

Prajjiyé rajjyakshané téshin ; prayaKashmira mandalan

Bhodjjya mastésa bowddhanan ; pravrajjyorjita téjasan.

Tatd bhagavatah Sakkya ; Sinhasya puranirvrite

Asmin saha loka dhataw; sarddhan varsha satan hyagat,

Bodhisatvascha déshésmin ; néka bhimisvard bAzt

Sacha Nagar’junah sriman; shadarhatva nasansrayi.

Professor H. H. Wilson, in Appendix VIL. to his Essay

on the Hindu History of Cashmir, thus translates the pas-

sage which I have above extracted:

“ They (Hushka &c.,) of Terushka descent, were princes, asylums of virtue ;

and they founded colleges and planted sacred trees, on Sushca and other places.

During the period of their reign, the whole of Cashmir was the enjoyment of

———

* See Bombay Asiatic Society’s Journal, No. VIII. October 1844, p. 96.

196 Remarks on the supposed identity

Buddhas eminent for austerity. Alter them, when 150 years had elapsed from

the emancipation of the Lord Sacya Singha in this essence of the world, a

Bodhisatwa in this country, named Nagarjuna, was Bhumiswara, (Lord of the

earth,) and he was the asylum of the six Arhatwas.”

The Hon’ble Mr. Turnour, with that zeal in the cause of

oriental research, for which he was eminently distinguished,

and with a view to identify Nagarjuna with Nagaséna, and

to adjust the date here given to that assigned to the latter in

Bhudhistical annals, has* corrected the text in two most

important particulars: Ist, by prefixing a d to sardhan-

varsha-satan, “one hundred and fifty years,” and converting

the passage into dasardhan varsha satan, “ half-a-thousand

years ;? and 2ndly, by giving to the concluding portion of

the Sanscrit quotation, which Professor Wilson has rendered

“ He was the asylum of the six Arahatwas,” a negative sig-

nification—conveying that he did not recognize (2. e. he

denounced) the six Arahatwas; and by identifying them with

the six Tirtakas mentioned in the Milindapprasna. The

entire translation which Mr. Turnour has offered, runs thus:

“They (Hushka, Jushka, Canishka) of Turushka descent were princes,

asylums of virtue, who founded colleges and chetiyas in Suscha and other

countries. During the entire period of their rule, the whole of Cashmir was

under the spiritual controul of ascetic sages, eminent for their rigid piety.

Thereafter, when (half a thousand) five hundred years, had elapsed in this

(land) as well as the whole world, from the period that the sanctified Sakya

Sinha attained Parinirvritii, the pre-eminently endowed Bodhisatwa Nagarjuna,,

became the (spiritual) Lord of this and many other lands, and did not recognize

(¢. e. denounced) the six Arhatwas (who were his contemporaries.)”

Before remarking on the important alterations thus effected

by Mr. Turnour, it may be necessary to examine the original

text, and to notice the fact, that it 1s written in that most

frequent and useful form of Sanscrit verse called the

Anushtubh—a metre “in which the great body of metrical

composition, whether narrative or didactic, exists’—a metre

too, in which “the laws of Manu, the Mahabharata, the

* See Bengal Asiatic Society’s Journal for 1836, p. 530.

between Nagaséna and Nagarjuna. 197

Ramayana and the Puranas are written.” The species under

notice is thus defined :—

“The Anushtubh stanza is divided into four padas of

eight syllables each. In its most regular form, the first foot

is any one except a tribrach, the second may be a dactyl, a

tribrach, cretic or anapest; the other two syllables are in-

differently long or short.”

Another peculiarity in the formation of the Anushtubh is,

“that the fifth syllable of each line is short, the sixth long,

and the seventh alternately long and short; whilst the first

four syllables and the eighth are arbitrary.”

By reducing the passage in question into symbolical

figures, it will be perceived ata glance, that there are three

prosodial errors ;—one in the 2nd line; another in the 11th;

and a third in the 14th; whilst the 12th line, in which it is

stated that a d is omitted before shardan, ani the 16th,

which is said to contain a denunciation of the six Arahatwas,

are Clearly free from prosodial errors. Two of the errors

which I have noticed are of a trifling character, as they may

easily be rectified without adding anything to the sense.

The letter a in api “afterwards,” with which the 2nd line of

this passage commences, is omitted; when added, the line

runs thus :—

Api punnyashraya nripah :— — ~ A — A — A= 8,

The 14th line is thus correctly rendered in the N agarl

version of the Raja Tarangani printed at Calcutta in 1835:

and I at once adopt it, as it is free from error.

Néka bhiimisward bhavat: ~ — ~~ — A—A=8,

In the 11th line there is an unaccountable confusion, both in

the Nagari version, and in the extract published by Pro-

fessor Wilson ; and I confess that it is impossible, without

materially altering the sense, to redeem it from the palpable .

inaccuracy of rendering the 5th a Jong, and the 6th a short

syllable.

1858] 2p

198 femarks on the supposed identity

Asmin saha loka dhataw : ~ A — — A — A A = 8,

I have thus examined the entire passage in reference to the

rythm. It therefore only remains, to consider the correct-

ness or otherwise of the criticisms offered by Mr. Turnour.

With regard to the !2th line—if, as stated by Mr. Tur-

nour, a d with its inherent vowel is introduced, and the

whole line is thereby rendered dasardhan varsha satan hyagat;

it will be perceived that we not only destroy the harmony

of the entire verse, but render the line 9, instead of,—as it

is, and ought to be—8 syllables.

Sardhan varsha satan hyagat: ~~ A ——A— A=8.

Asto the last line,—‘“ shadarhatva na-sanshrayi ;” it is

stated that Professor Wilson has lost sight of the negative

na. Mr. Turnour can scarcely be deemed correct in offering

this criticism ; and on reference to the text we also find that

Professor Wilson has iecorrectly extracted the passage. It

should be (see original) Shadahar vana sanshray?, which

means, “he was one who spent six-days in the wilderness.”

To render the passage as Mr. Turnour has translated, ze.

“he denounced the six Arahatwas”; the word “ arhatwa”

should be either arhatwan, the accusative; or arhatwasya,

the genitive.

The passage given in the Nagari original furnishes no

great objection in point of grammar—certainly none in

regard to rythm; and is altogether such as may be recon-

ciled with the doctrine of Mirddha Samdpatti in Budhism,

by which it was incumbent on the ascetic, who had attained

the state of “ Arahat” to spend six days in seclusion in the

wilderness, and on the seventh to leave it in search of food.

Seeing, therefore, that the two most important coincidences

between the Cashmirian and Budhistical annals to which Mr.

Lurnour refers, do not really exist, it may be inferred, that

his other reasons for the identity of Nagarjiina and Nagaséna,

A Sk eI re eo eal 5 ie

between Nagasena and Nagarjuna. 199

founded especially, as they are—on “ hypothetical reasoning,”

lose much of the weight due to them, if they do not alto-

gether fall to the ground.

I shall, however, postpone a consideration of them to an

early opportunity, contenting myself at present with a trans-

lation of the passage in question, which I append :—

“Tt is said that they (Hushka, Jushka, Kanishka) of

Turuska descent, were princes, who were embued with the

virtue of merit,* and who afterwards founded Colleges,

chétiyas, &c., in Sushkalettrut and other countries. During

the period of their extended reigns} the country of Cashmir

was greatly under the spiritual control of Budhistical ascetics,

preeminent for their rigid piety. Thereafter, when a century

(one hundred years) and a half had elapsed in the essence of

this world, after the sanctified Sdkya Sinha obtained

| Puranirwritie|§ final emancipation, there appeared in this

country a Bhodisat (anéka Bhumishwara) lord of many lands.

This distinguished personage, who was named Nagarjuna,

usually spent six-days (in the week) in the wilderness,”

* “Embued with the virtue of merit” means, that they betook themselves to

a course of religious austerities, by which sin was avoided, and attained a status

for acquiring merit.

+ Sushkaléttra’d:. I have translated Sushkalettra, &c. This isthe form in

which the word occurs in the Nagari version. It may be either one name or two.

And this expression, rendered Shushkakshéstradi by Professor Wilson, may also

stand for one or two names. It may either stand entirely as a name, or be

rendered the Valley (Kshettra) of Sushka, &c.

t “ Extended reigns.” The word prajjiyé rendered by me “ extended,” is

interpreted by Mr. Turnour to mean “ entire,” and it is omitted in the Transla-

tion of Professor Wilson. It is however, remarkable, that this word is ill-adapted

in its present position as an adjective to qualify Rajjyakshane.

§ Puranirwritte. This is undoubtedly “Paranervitta”; and Professor Wilson’s

alteration was as indispensable as correct.

|| Shadahar vana sanshrayé is rendered in Professor Wilson’s extract, Shadar-

hatwa nasanshraye. See my remarks in the Text.

200

An Introductory paper on the Investigation of Singhalese

Music. By Louis NEw, Esq.

THe Ceylon Branch of the Asiatic Society, formed to in-

stitute and promote enquiries into the Arts of Ceylon,

together with the social condition of the present and former

inhabitants of this Island, would embrace within the scope of

those enquiries, the investigation of Singhalese music,—

since, it is peculiar to the Singhalese, and because it is calcu-

lated to throw some light upon the social condition of the

people. Their Music is as peculiar to the Singhalese, as the

music of any other people, to them. The Oriental enjoys

his rude melodies, as heartily as the European, the music of

the West. But the difference is so great between the

barbarous and the civilized art, that the former becomes a

subject of curiosity to the votary of the other. Though, Sin-

ghalese music, therefore, may be of no great intrinsic value,

it is deserving of investigation asa national art, and as an

illustration of the social condition of the Singhalese people.

It is hardly necessary to illustrate this position, by alluding

to the marked characteristics of Scottish and Irish music; or

by contrasting their national character with that of the music:

of Italy. Nor, will it be necessary, to make more than a

passing allusion, to the effects of musical culture in Germany,

in the Tyrol, and in Switzerland. It will not be denied, that .

the influence of music is calculated to take hold of the

affections: nor will its moral influence be denied, when the

value which has been placed on it by Religion, is but for a

moment considered. ‘The investigation of Singhalese music,

therefore, is worthy of the attention of this Society.

Introductory Paper on Singhalese Music. 201

2. With regard to the estimation, in which music was

held, in comparison with other branches of knowledge, it

may be observed ;—That the Rajah Ratnacri, ascribes to a

favorite Singhalese Prince, a knowledge of the following

branches of Eastern Science ;--1. Oratory; 2. General know-

ledge; 3. Grammar ; 4. Poetry; 5. Knowledge of Languages ;

6. Astronomy; 7. Knowledge of giving counsel ; 8. Of obtain-

ing Nirwana; 9. The knowledge of good and evil actions;

10. Of shooting; 11. Of Elephants; 12. Discernment of

thoughts ; 13. Discernment of invisible beings; 14. Know-

ledge of words; 15. Knowledge of history ; 16. Of the law ;

17. Rhetoric; and 18, Medicine. (Upham IT, 99-100.)

It is probable, that had music been held in higher estima-

tion by the partial historian, he would have added it to the

others, by which the memory of Prackramabahoo the 3rd, is

adorned in the page of Singhalese history.

3. It is probable that many attempts have been made to

reduce Singhalese melodies to European notation; but the

silence which has been hitherto preserved on the subject,

must be interpreted as a tacit acknowledgment of failure.

The fullest account of native music and musical instruments,

is that given by Davy, whose work on Ceylon ranks next to

that of Knox for originality and correctness. Davy gives a

description of seven native musical instruments,—l. The

Berrigodea, 2. The Doula, 3. The tom-tom, 4. The Udakea,

5. The Tallea,—6. The Horanawa; and 7. The Vennavah.

It may be here remarked, that all these are Singhalese in-

struments; and that the brother of Sir Humphry Davy, with

the carefulness of a scientific enquirer, has not confounded

them with Malabar instruments, or added any foreign ones

to his enumeration. It would be unadvisable, perhaps, to

incorporate the remarks of Dr. Davy, in this paper, since the

work itself could always be referred to.

202 Introductory Paper

4, My succeeding remarks will be of a more practical

nature, as they were suggested by actual experiments; the

results of which, however, have not been extensive enough

to justify publication.

It will follow from observations already made, that no such

results have been arrived at by writers on Ceylon, as were

obtained by Lane, in his “‘ Modern Egyptians.” He gives a

few instances, in European notation, of Egyptian airs, includ-

ing the “call to prayer” at Cairo, the style of chanting the

Koran, and some specimens of secular songs. In attempting

such results in Ceylon, the very first difficulty would be, the

unsuitableness of the European musical scale to express the

exact nature of the sounds, which form the strains of native

melodies. This is, perhaps, not generally known. To

explain the reason would involve a consideration of the lead -

ing principle of musical acoustics, and of the theory of the

musical scale. But before doing so, a favourite speculation

must be dismissed. It is a favourite method on such enquiries

as the present, to speculate on the probable character of

Hebrew, ancient Egyptian, and Grecian music. This

course, though seemingly going to the root of the matter,

will give no practical results. I believe Iam not incorrect,

in stating, that all certainty in the history of music dates

from the discovery of our modern notation. This may be

described, as, the system of designating musical sounds by

points, distributed on lines and the spaces between them;

which system, when once acquired by a musician, enables

him to read melody and harmony, and to reproduce exactly

what has thus been written. This definition, I believe, will

at once exclude any ancient Eastern notation, as well as the

system of using prosodial feet.

5. The application of the principles of musical-acousties

to this investigation, may be illustrated as follows. We

on Singhalese Music. 203

shall take the instance of a person, endowed with a correct

ear, and possessing a moderate degree of skill in performing

on the German-flute. We shall, also, suppose him to listen,

with curiosity, to the performance of a native musician; and

to endeavour to catch the air being played, on his own

instrument. To any one, who has tried the experiment, it is

needless to foretell its failure. Let us suppose our amateur,

to ask himself the reason, why? The easiest solution of

the difficulty will be found in a comparison of the two

instruments. Not in the finish and perfection of the one,

and the native rudeness of the other; but in the acoustical

proportions of both. He will find, to his surprise, that the

vents of his own instrument are apparently placed in the

most arbitrary manner, with regard to their relative positions ;

while on the other hand, the despised native instrument is

vented with more mathematical regularity. In seeking a

scientific explanation, we should begin from the most

elementary principles.

6. Musical tones are supposed to be the results of erial

vibrations, proceeding from a central vibrating body. Un-

der the influence of the same motive force, the relative

number of vibrations has been found, to be in the inverse

ratio of the dimensions of the vibrating body. Thus, in the

case already considered, the relative number of vibrations

(producing the different notes) is in inverse ratio to the

length of the column of air in the flute. The average

diameter of the flute throughout its length being supposed

to represent an uniform diameter, and beginning by closing

all the vents, as each successive vent is opened, the length

of the column of air in the flute tube is reduced in the same

proportion. Sounding the instrument with the same force, it

will be found, that the shorter the column the more acute is the

note. And, as already stated, the vents being placed at

204 Introductory Paper

irregular distances, the musical sounds produced, are at irre-

gular intervals from each other. But the native instrument,

having its vents bored at regular distances, will emit notes

at regular intervals of acuteness. The reason why the

sounds of the latter are so unpleasant to our ears, will

appear, when we consider the theory of the musical scale.

7. Taking the natural scale of C major, we find, that it

consists of seven unqualified, notes, designated by the seven

first letters of the alphabet, in the following order, C, D, E,

F,G, A, and B. The intervals or musical distances be-

tween these notes are not equal, since those expressed as

=) Se Sh) —9 z

De aw and mB are known as tones; while those ex

E B : es

pressed as = and = are half tones. On examining the

German-flute, the vents will be found to bear a correspond-

ing relation to each other. Besides this peculiarity, it has

been found, that the scale of seven notes, possesses another

inequality. Dividing the scale into two tetrachords, expressed

aS C.D. E. F. and G. A. B.C,—it is asserted, that there is not a

strict mathematical equality between the two divisions.

Though aJl assume this equality for practical purposes, there

seems to be reason to suppose, that in this want of symmetry

is hidden, a key to the difficulty of tuning compound instru-

ments like the Organ and the Piano-forte. And I further

beg to remark, that the necessity for what are called “the

golden rules” of harmony, has probably arisen from the

difference, thus established by nature. There is no doubt,

that the scale of intervals, as above described, is pleasing to

an Eivropean ear. When it is considered, also, that in the

course of improvement, the European instrument must have

resulted by gradual perfection from its rudest and simplest

form,—we should consider it, as the result of endeavours

tested by the criterion of a good ear, and assimilated to the

standard of existing ideas. The native musician, however,

on Singhalese Music. 205

by a timid reliance on mathematical intervals, has established

an unnatural scale, to which his ear has been attuned by the

force of habit. The European instrument is the creature

of science: the native art is the creature of its instrument.

8. The scales of European and native music, are there-

fore, essentially different. And the idea which is sometimes

entertained, that Singhalese music is in the minor keys, is a

libel on the music of the West. European airs, both in the

major and minor scales, are vented by the same instrument.

Thus, there are intermediate vents for the chromatic semi-

tones, introduced in the 8-keyed flute. The notes sounded

by these vents may accidentally coincide with those produced

on a native instrument ; but the acoustic and musical in-

tervals will be found essentially different.

9. It follows from the preceding considerations, that in

investigating Singhalese music, the most perfect native in-

struments should be obtained,—their gamut ascertained ;—

and, if necessary, a new system of notation adopted, every

note of which should have a defined value and relation to

the European musical scales. In obtaining instruments,

Tamul ones should not be confounded with Singhalese.

Tamul music is, I have no hesitation in saying, essentially

diatonic in its character. And I could illustrate this by

quoting an instance of an air, which I have myself heard

sung by Malabars, which has been set to English words, and

also incorporated in a set of Quadrilles by the omnivorous

Jullien. It is well known, also, that Hindoo airs have not

only been written in the European notation, but harmonized;

which latter circumstance alone would be a test of unfailing

efficacy.

10. In conclusion, [ may indicate the means, by which I

consider the investigation, proposed, could be carried out by

this Society.

1858] 25

206 Introductory Paper on Singhalese Music.

Ist. By the addition to the Society’s museum of a com-

plete collection of Singhalese instruments, duly authenticated.

2ndly. By the contribution to the Society’s Journal, of

short accounts of native musical notation.

3rdly. By the reduction to writing, of native melodies,

using, if necessary, a peculiar musical scale.

The enquiry should be carried on with scientific curiosity ;

and the prejudices of the native should not be ridiculed, who

delighted with his tom-tom, stops not, to enquire the cause

of his enjoyment. To him “nothing is so tranquilizing as

sweet poetry and the gentle Udakea.”

207

A Synopsis of the Sdiva Siddéntam. By M. CooMARASAMY,

Lisq., Advocate.

cee eee

OF the various systems of Philosophy in which Hindu

literature abounds, one of the most important is Sdiva Sid-

déntam. Although the doctrines which it propounds are

strictly esoteric, and calculated for the comprehension and

enlightenment only of those who have been initiated into its

mysteries, yet it is this system which forms the groundwork

_whereon the huge fabric of Hindu popular theology is based.

SS ee

lt thus becomes the fountain head, whence the religious creed

of millions of Hindus in India and Ceylon is derived. As

such, it is worthy the attention of the public. The subject

however, is too extensive to be dealt with, in all its ramifi-

eations, within the limits of this contribution, and this crude

attempt will therefore be confined to a rough pencilling out

of the most prominent features of this vast panorama of

literary and metaphysical grandeur.

It aspires to a divine origin, and assumes the authority ofa

direct revelation from God, it being asserted that “ Sivan

(God), through his chamberlain Nani, revealed to Sanat-

kumaran, in consequence of his high devotion, the system of

sacred science, called Raurava Agamam.” This Agamam is

the principal authority on this subject, but the matter con-

tained in it has likewise formed the theses of innumerable

treatises of extensive learning and research, written by some

of the most highly gifted men of genius of both ancient and

modern Hindustan. The Tamil literati of Southern India

have been particularly active in this department of human

208 Synopsis of the

knowledge; and the results of their labour have been handed

down to posterity in works clothed with the best, but the

most difficult, strains of the rich and lofty Shen ‘Tamil.*

Amongst these, Siva Gnana Potham, by Meykanda Néyandr,

Siva Gnana Sitti, by Arunanti Nayanar ; and Stvapprakdsam,

by Umépathi Aséryar, are held in the highest esteem. Our

information will be traced chiefly from these sources.

The style of these writings is didactic, and they contain

the best examples of Hindu dialectics, which, en passant, are

considered by some to be at least an expansion of the syl-

logism of Aristotle, if not the origin thereof. It is no easy.

task even for the learned amongst the Tamils, to understand

fully, and expound clearly and correctly, these elaborate

treatises; and it must be confessed, that the effort to repro-

duce the ideas and sentiments contained in them, in an

Kinglish garb, and in a manner acceptable and interesting to

all, is not less difficult.

Sdiva Siddantam professes to treat of

I. Pathi——Gop.

Ii. Pasu——Souu.

Til. Pésam——t

An accurate and complete knowledge of the nature and

bearings of these three subjects, denominated otherwise,

Tripathértham, is of essential consequence, in the eyes of

Hindu Savans, for the attainment of the only true object of

this life the Mutti, or heavenly bliss in the other.

God, Soul and Pasam are the three eternal and imperish-

able entities, whence the universe and all its chequered

phenomena have sprung forth into existence, and whereinto

all and every one of them will be ultimately resolved.

* There are two kinds of Tamil—the one, High Tamil, called Shen Tamil—

the other, Low Tamil, called Kodun Tamil.

+ (Lit. fetter, chain,) that which keeps the soul originally in a state of bond-

age and ignorance. This will be more fully explained hereafter,

Sdiva Siddantam. 209

Attention will be directed to each of them in their order.

I.. Pattiu—_ —GOD.

Pathi is but one of the many names by which the supreme

God is known to the Hindus. He is also called Brahm,

Parabrahm, Para Sivan. The last term gives the charac-

teristic name to the School of Indian philosophy under notice.

The existence of such a being, as the Creator of the World,

is proved by means of various arguments. One of these

happens to be identical with the argument which was first

advanced by Socrates, but afterwards fully expounded in

Paley’s memorable work on Natural Theology. It is com-

prised in the following stanza from Siva Cinna Sitti.

«« As the whole world which is known under the designa-

tions of He, She, and It, comes into existence (without

having existed previously), exists, and is destroyed, in an

orderly manner, (it follows) that there is one who is the

creator of this world, and who is the beginning and end in

himself. His existence is permanent, and he is in the form

of a spirit freed from (Pdsam) evil from eternity.”

This stanza admits also of a construction from which some

commentators raise a fresh argument for the necessity ofa

ereator of the universe. ‘The reasoning is to the following

Eitect, ; —

1. The world is not eternal: consequenter,

2. It had a commencement and did not exist before such

commencement: Hrgo,

3. It could not have created itself; it requires some cause

ether than itself to bring it into existence.

The nature of God is to the following effect.

“Though God pervades the whole world, yet he is other

than the world; for he is spiritual, and the world is material.

As sound and the tune, so God and the world. As sound

210 Synopsis of the

is to the tune, filling all its notes, so Ged is to the world,

pervading all its forms.

As the fruit and the flavour, so God and the world. <As

flavour pervades all parts of the fruit, so God pervades the

werld from the first.

He is in intimate union with the Soul, yet he is other than

the Soul.

He is eternal, pure, has no equals or superiors.

He has neither qualities, nor names,—is omnipotent; is

omniscient; is the source of understanding to innumerable

souls ; is illimitable in his nature; exists in the shape of

Gndnam (divine wisdom); is the form of happiness; is diffi-

cult of access to unstable worshippers, but is easily approached

by those who worship in the regular course; and shines as

the least of the little and the greatest of the great.”

The proof for the existence of a Creator, and the refutation

of the tenets of Lokéyuther, (the Indian Epicurean philoso-

phers), and of other sects who maintain atheism,and attribute

the world to chance, occupy many stanzas teeming with apt

illustration and ingenious arguments in Siti, The next

subject in order is |

Il. Fasu——-SOUL.

The existence of a soul within the human organism, and

as different from the ‘ mortal coil,’ is established by what is

called “ Olivu,” the rule of exception, in Hindu Logic. The

argument on this subject is as follows : —

A man says “this thing is mine,” “ that thing is not mine.”

Here it is evident that there is a thing owned or not owned,

and a man owning or not owning. In the same manner, it is”

often said “ this is my body,” “thisis my face,” “this is my

hand.” Here it is obvious that there exists something apart

from the body—the face and the hand—and owning them.

Sdaiva Siddantam. 214

This is the soul. Again it is usual to say “ I thought so,”

*T did so,” “Isaid so.” Here also there exists something

other than the thought, the deed, and the saying. This

something is the Soul.

There are also other arguments given for the existence of

the human soul. ‘These are based chiefly on the phenomena

of Death and Sleep. They are to the following effect :—

1, At Death, all animation becomes extinct, though the

human frame is left entire; consequenter,

2. Animation must be traced to some other source than

the human frame.

3. This source is the Human Soul.

As to the nature of the Soul. It is not God, nor an

emanation from God, as the Vedantists hold. It is an indi-

vidual being: an eternal one, being uncreated and immortal.

Souls are not one in essence as some maintain ; but are

manifold and imperishable. In their primordial state they

are not only unintelligent but even unconscious.

The third head of enquiry is

Il. Pésam—( FETTER, CHAIN.)

This Pasam is that which as it were binds the soul to a state

of bondage, unconsciousness and ignorance, in its original

state. It is subdivided into three parts. These are,

1°. Anava Malam.

2°. Maya Malam.

3°. Kanma Malam.

Anava Malam is the source of unconsciousness and igno-

rance to the soul.

Maya Malam is that which operates in the removal of the

unconsciousness and ignorance of the soul, by becoming the

material basis of the universe and Man.

Kanma Malam is the accumulation of merit and demerit

212 Synopsis of the

acquired by the souls in their previous states of development

in organised forms. 3

The term Malam means rust or dirt: the three Malams

forming the rust or dirt of the soul in its original state of

non-development.

Pésam exists from eternity and is imperishable, except so

far as Maya Malam and Kanma Malam are concerned.

When the two latter are removed from the soul, and Anava

Malam loses its strength, then the soul will be liberated

from the grasp of Pdsam, and be ripe for attaining Mutt

or heaven.

JAY.

THE RELATION BETWEEN GOD, SOUL,

AND PASAM.

God exists from eternity, alone, by himself, apart from the

Soul and Pésam. But the two latter are linked in intimate

union with each other—Pdsam enveloping the Soul. This

abnormal condition of the Soul is from eternity. It is un-

accountable. It isa mystery. Here the Soul liesin a state

of bondage, denuded even of thought.—In consequence, it is

miserable and unhappy. ‘This relation of Pasam to the Soul

is analogous to that which subsists between the husk of the

paddy and the rice which it envelopes, or between the rusty

coating and the copper which it conceals.

This link between the Soul and Pasam is not, however,

indissoluble. ‘The chain will be severed —— the soul will

gain its freedom. It will ultimately be drawn away from

the grasp of the Archangel of Evil —— Pasam, and be

received into the bosom of the summum bonum —— God,

Tt will then shine in its true and resplendent glory in the

august presence of the King of the Universe —-— even in

mystic union with Parabrahm. This is Mutt. Here the

;

Séiva Siddadntam. 213

soul does not lose its individuality, nor is it annihilated.

But it exists in aftuvetham —— unity in duality. This is

called sdyucchiyam —— the heaven of the Séiva Stdddntists,

a® Nirwana is that of the Veddniists and Buddhists.

V. MAN.

To break through its thraldom the soul had not the power.

But God, who is “an Ocean of mercy,” pitied the soul in its.

distress. He willed that the soul should be freed from the

clutches of Pdsam, and simultaneously with the will, the fiat

went forth, that the soul should be developed in human

organism, or in other words, that man should be created. In

this manner the soul descends to this universe, for it is here

that the course lies where the soul is to run its race from the

goal of evil— Pdsam, to the goal of good—God. Creation

is not one of the “beautiful plays of God.” It is pregnant

with a serious purport. Its objeet is the deliverance of the

soul; for Pdsam, before it will relax its hold on the soul,

demands satisfaction for the loss it sustains in parting with

it. Thedemand has been met, by summoning this world and

man into existence. And here, when he shall have ‘“‘ balanced

off his demerit by his merit”—his evil deeds by his good

deeds —he will then, and then alone, stand in a position fit

_ for liberation.

The development of the soul in the human organism, is,

according to this system of Philosophy, curious, if not in-

teresting. It views man asa microcosm. All the essential

| constituents of the boundless universe are coiled up likewise

OG condicly in puny man. And as God is the King of

| the universe, so is the Soul, the King of the miniature

| universe—man.

_ Man is said to be composed of ninety-six Tattuvams—a

_word, which like many other technical terms of this school,

does not admit of being rendered in English, although the

214 7 Synopsis of the m

words, “ category, principle, power, organ, property,” ap-

proximate it in meaning. ‘The order in which the Tattu-

vams are evolved from Pathi and Pdsam, their names and

their characteristic properties, and the parts which they dre

intended to play in the human organism, are given with great

minuteness in the works above mentioned. But notice will —

here be taken of only the principal Tattuvams, 4

By the grace of Pathi there was developed from Sutta

mdyei—pure elemental matter which was united with deity

from eternity—Ndtham, the male energy of Pathi. From —

Natham was evolved Vintu, the female. _energy of Pathi.

And from Vintu, Sathakkiyam, in which both the male and

female energies inhere; from Sdthakkiyam, Isuran, the ob-

securing God, and from him, Rudra, the destroying God.

‘These divine developments are associated with the soul with —

a view of prompting it on towards final deliverance. 4

For the use of these developments, and for the purpose of ;

drawing the soul out from its state of unconsciousness, as it ~ a

exists imbedded in Pédsam, into a state of intelligence and -

activity, there are evolved, from the above mentioned Vintu, —

the four Vakku, which may be translated as organic bases of 4

intelligence. These are

1°. Sukkumec.

2°, Peisanti.

3°. Vetkari. >

4°, Mattemer. 2 ’

All Hiese were unfolded from pure elemental matter, and 1 ,

the agency of Pathi. The productions that follow were

drawn out of Pésam—impure elemental matter—and by thes

instrumentality of the divine developments detailed above.

By the grace of Sathékkiyam, there are evolved from

Asutta Mayet, impure elemental matter,

Sdiva Siddantam. © 215

bs 1°. Kdlam—Time.

5 2°, Niyathi—Fate.

°, Kalei—Continency.

Kalam attaches to souls the results of past time, the fruit of

the present time, and whatever is new in future time. M-

. _ yathe will make sure to souls their respective Kanmam, i. e.,

~ the due meed for their good and bad deeds. Kalei operates

to a certain extent in the removal of Pasam.

From Kalei are developed, a

1°, Vittei—the power of thought. And from Vittei,

2°, Radkam—the desire to relish the pleasures of sense,

which was necessary to make the souls eat the fruits

oe of merit and demerit.

Again, by the grace of Rudra, Prucriti is evolved from Halet,

From Pracriti, which is the material basis of the subsequent

. productions, spring the Mukkanam, the three moral pro-

perties, viz.

1°, Sdttu Vikam—(lit. goodness) this prompts the soul to

J divine wisdom; to truth and love.

2°. Rdsathum—(lit. passion). Tere lie the propensities

~ a to pride and selfishness.

3°. Tématham—(iit. darkness) cause of laziness, stupidity,

om drowsiness. 3

Ethe position of the three moral qualities, as they exist un-

developed in Pracriti, is called Avyaktam. From this is

evolved,

1°. Sittam—the thinking principle. From Sittam,

De. Pritti—judement. And from Putt?,

3%. Akangdram—This is the individualizing principle.

This Diongdain i is threefold, viz.

i. 1°. Teisatha —akangdéram,wherefrom manam, (mind) the un-

, derstanding and the five perceptive organs are evolved.

2, Vethar i—akangdram, wherefrom “ the five organs of

ae’

216 °° 3 Synopsis of the

action” are evolved. These are the mouth, the feet,

the hands, and the excretory organs.

3°. Puthadthi—akangadram, wherefrom the five rudimental

elements are evolved. These are Sound, Touch, Form,

Taste, Smell ;—these are called Tanméttiret.

From Sound is evolved ether ; from Touch, air; from Form,

fire; from Taste, water; from Smell, earth.

These are the essential items that make up man, and from

these above enumerated Tattuvams, many other subsidiary

ones are developed to make up the 96 Tattuvams. This part

of the Saiva Siddantam often proves difficult to many, and an

incipient Hindu philosopher devotes the first months of his

ey to an investigation of it. 7 |

The intelligent and active state of the soul is called Same

hiram, when all the 96 Tattuvams are in full vigor and play,

and when the soul takes its seat in the forehead between the 4

eyebrows. Soppanam is the state when a man is asleep.

Here all but twenty-four of the Zattuvams are lulled into

inactivity, and the soul descends to a seat in the neck. It

experiences here only what it had seen in Sékkiram. This is

the phenomenon of dreams. Sulu/ti is the stage below Sop-

panam. Tere the soul exists in the heart in company with

only two Tattuvams—the will and the vital principle. The —

soulisincapable of distinguishing any thing here. Fromthis, ~

the soul drops down into the navel, and exists in the state

called Turiyam,in union with the vital principle alone. Here ‘

it ceases to think. Next belowis the Turiydthitham, where

the soul descends deprived of even the vital principle. This | F |

is Death, ’

The polar star of life is then, according to this Philosophy,

the deliverance of the Pasu from the Pésam. But Pasu soon ©

loses sight of this object. The soul once set in motion in the ) 7

human organism revolyes on from life to death—from death

Sdiva Siddaniam. «(O17

to hfe,—from birth to birth,—from age to age,—ever bounding

away from God, and never rebounding towards him; as if it

were a planet of the solar system actuated by some chance or

other by the centrifugal force alone, without the co-operation

of the centripetal force likewise ; until its wayward course is

arrested and a new direction given to it towards the centre of

the orbit--even Pathi—“‘the Sun of wisdom.” This takes

place at last when the soul’s merit and demerit (kanmam)

have been cancelled, and there is no residue left to be eaten

up at future births. ‘Then there will be a cessation of births,

and the soul will be ripe for liberation. The state of a man

who has arrived at this phase of existence is called Tivira

Saiti nipatham. It is thus described in Sivapprakésam:—

- “For such a man this world will possess no charm. He will

ignore it. He will loathe his own body in the same manner

in which the bearers of a worm-eaten corpse will detest it,

when, on their way to the burial ground, the worms fall on

them. When he finds himself in union with the warring

mental faculties within his bosom, he will feel like an elephant

in the paw of a lion. When hesees that he is in co-operation

with the organs of sense and the organs of action, he will cry

out like a frog in a snake’s mouth. The way in which he

will fear the influence of his family and friends, and leave

them, is like that in which one, who has lain down to rest

without knowing that there was a snake in his bed, will on

awaking and seeing the snake, hasten away with terror; or

like that in which a person whose house is on fire, leaves his

goods and hastens to escape by some way or other which he

sees.” 7 :

The following stanza, from Sina Gndna sitti, gives with

great pathos and beauty (which are however lost in a trans-

lation) the manner in which God will reclaim the lost soul.

“Asa king, whose son had strayed away from him and

THE

218 Synopsis of the Saiva Siddantam.

lived in ignorance of his father amongst the Veddahs (wild ~

men,) will, on discovering the son, exclaim to him ‘Come to

me, oh, thou darling child of mine! and make him a partici-

pator of the happiness that he (the king) himself enjoys; so

even will the Supreme God present himself before the soul

when in distress, from being enmeshed in the net of the five.

Veddahs—senses, and severing the soul from Pasam, will

assimilate it to himself and bless it with his holy feet.”

Such is an imperfect resumé of the Saiva Siddantam. Awe

greater amplification of the subject is reserved for a future ~~

contribution, where the intimate connection that subsists —

between the Sdiva Siddintam and the popular form of reli- |”

gious worship that obtains among the Hindus of the proses

age, will engage our attention.

219

Terms of Address and modes of Salutation tn use amongst the

Singhalese. By James Auwis, /sq., Assistant Secretary.

THERE is not perhaps a greater difficulty experienced by

Europeans* in their intercourse with the Natives of this

¢ ountry, than that of correctly applying the forms of saluta-

tion and address known amongst them. Often have we sup-

_. pressed a smile forced upon us, on hearing European autho-

rities address a peon or other servant thus: “ Pion ara pota

»gen’-enta,” “Mudianseta andagahapan.” “ Aratchita kiyapan,”

~ &e. Frequently, too, have we heard Europeans enquire with

_ indignation, whether certain terms as applied by their Inter-

preters to witnesses were not insulting or offensive. Not

long ago the native portion of an entire Court was much —

amused on hearing counsel in his address to the Court, apply

the term Walawua to indicate the residence of a poor low

easte person, his client. The difficulty of acquiring the

proper use and application of terms of address, so as on the

a one hand not to offend, and on the other not to give too much

- respect, to the person addressed, seems to have been so

greatly felt by Mr. J ustice Stark, that he has devoted con-

siderable attention to the study of the subject. The interest-

ing information which he acquired, he has embodied in a

paper which is found published in the Ceylon Asiatic So-

“ciety's, Journal for 1853. That paper, gives the reader an

imperfect account of the numerous forms of salifiicion and

__address used by the Singhalese. As the topics, however,

~ upon which he has dwelt are very interesting, the writer has

in his observations clad the order of the subjects treated

therein. ?

_* “No people of the East are more critical as to style, or more fastidious as to terms,

“ the natives of Ceylon.” — Tennent’s Christianity in Ceylon, p. 265.

220 Lerms of address in use

Mr. Justice Stark begins with what he considers “ the

fundamental terms of address,” and gives as such six —t6,

tamd, tamusé, tamunnehe, tamunnanseé, and tamunwahanseé—

with the various degrees of respect or disrespect with which

each is associated in the native mind. As pronouns of the

second person derived from the root &) fa, they are certainly

a ie from a ae'y of others, which are now used

s “terms of address ;” but in the enumeration of the latter

ates Mr. Justice Stark has fallen into a few errors. Of

these I may here notice seven omissions, which are pronouns

of the third person, applied as terms of address in the second —

person, viz. GQos umbahé, 6 umba, 29 nuba, ®Q oba,

QAHDASIOX oba-vahansé qQQOHSIJaxd nuba-vahansé and

QQODaeJors muba-vahansé of which the two last only are

noticed by Mr. ‘Stark.

It is unnecessary to remark on the above omitted terms, as

I have fully treated of them in the Sidath-Sangarawa; (see

. pp. 153—168,) but it will be observed, that Mr. Stark is far

from being correct when he states that nubawahansé is the

term now employed in lieu of obavahansé. If he meant, in

reference to the Scriptures, of which a new version is being |

prepared under the auspices of the Bible Society, he was

correct; but if otherwise, I need scarcely remark that oba-

vahansé is the term in universal use amongst the Singhalese.

There is, nevertheless, no objection to the change in the

forthcoming version of the Bible, especially in view of the a

fact, that qQOwsdoes like (OOmeJaced (see extract from _

Ratanawalia, post) is the term frequently found in books. 4

The term DH2I@x vahanse, though now no longer used,

except as an affix, was nevertheless anciently used by itself

to convey what an Englishman would express by “ your

Excellency,” “ your Majesty,” “your Highness,” or “ your

Lordship.” Thus in the Amawatura: ig

amongst the Singhalese. 221

| dT G23 SD. xj DOEHOSEDS OAT MO, MD. ES “‘Please

your Lordship, said he, I will firmly stand by the truth,” &c.

The word vahansé, like many other terms of address, of

which we may mention 2@)* nuda, had not originally a plural

form; although in modern usage @) is affixed to signify

more than one. It was probably this peculiarity which Mr.

Justice Stark failed to notice, when he remarked, at pp. 72,

73, that “the term OMsJor was applied to the Bhudhist

priesthood in an associated or collective capacity, as in the

passage—SxOn OnmesOnwsJaw in the Jatakapota ”—

)where, the reader will observe, five priests are spoken of—an

association of five priests to whom Bhucha delivered his first

_ sermon. t i

Speaking of 2elee4 as an honorific term by itself, which

cannot be called a zronouwn, 1 may here notice a few others of

the kind which convey different and various degrees of

respect to the person addressed. They are ¢@®& adé or

ODI add, OBIE bola, ASIDE bandas ,f used as “ terms of

_address” with @3 to; as y@as GQ@ew Od ‘ Come here

EP fellow; Spee emde QOsYD O29) Monae ‘To whom

didst thou thus speak, you fellow?” ed ASAE MO Ode

HAO OD HDe1c5 ‘Why fellow, did I tell thee to take

the lease ? &c.

These epithets, like the pronoun 659}, are used both in an

affectionateand a contemptuous sense; sometimes by the higher

towards the lower classes; and sometimes also by the lower

classes Howards each other. ‘This promiscuous use, however,

amilitates against the supposition to which Mr. Stark has

adverted, that Qo@ is derived from ©@.:6 ‘ ae ‘rubbish.’

* See Sidath Sangarawa, p. clvii.

t See Ceylon Asiatic aa s Journal, vol. I. p.11. Also Bengal Asiatic So-

erly Recall i ee ne Rev Spence Hardy, “ the priests are called bandaya

hence also the Chinese bonze,) which in Sanscrit signifies a person entitled to

rev erence, from the word bandana,”—Eastern Monachism, p. 11.

1858]

op)

a ed

id)

Terms of address in use

(p. 76.) eQa@ and @AvESI are derived from QE and WEI

respectively, and mean ‘ Behold’~ whence they are used as

vocatives or terms of address. @02050, ©QIGSI, and OS

which are used with D@eax or GB, are terms of regard or

attachment used frequently amongst the lower classes: the

first by- husbands towards their wives et vice versa, and by

ordained priests towards their Sdmanéra pupils, as @o2080

GSS. tantamount to “I say, Master Priest :” the

second, amongst relations, friends, and equals speaking kindly

to each other,* by old people towards their wives et vice

versa; and the third to males alone, as by wives to their

husbands, or by a superior to bis inferior speaking familiarly.

This last, as well as ¢&o ada, I am inclined to believe to be

of Tamul origin.

There is another word @a0, which I shall notice here.

Tt is only used when no other term can be properly applied

to a person either without offence or without conveying too

much respect. The reader should, however, bear in mind not

to confound this word with another of a similar sound Maz

he or yonder person, which is used in familiar intercourse 7

amongst the Singhalese to signify a person near the person

spoken to, or opposite to the person speaking. Like @eo,

20 may be used in the third person, when the degree of

respect due to the person spoken of, is uncertain or unknown.

I may also here notice another-class of words which are

terms of address, other than vocatives, and used as honorifics

to particular individuals, as; “ Mudianse rdlahami,’} ** Mo-

handiram mahatmayé,” “ Lekam mahatmayd,” “ Arachy rala,”

&e. ; but I prefer following the order of the learned writer

before me, who treating of the honorific OmS3ee makes the |

following remarks at p. 69.

* When a native wishes to convey that he is on good terms with another, he

would say :-—“ Why, we address each other wmba and bolan.”

+ The Kandians use Mudianse-mahaimaya, but this is a provincialism.

+ Here, as elsewhere, the references are to Mr. Justice Stark’s Essay on Forms

of Salutation, &c. in the Society’s Journal for 1353.

amongst the Singhalese. 223

> eoeige (wahanse) is added as an affix to the term for God, and

to all the names of God; as also in some relative expressions, as to

Father in the Lord’s prayer, @OGo Gaoesiimeind Apege

plyanan wahanse.

“ But under the word OSESa sO mest eed (Dewianwahanse.) Clough

points out the difference in its use. Innumerable instances, he says,

oceur of the honorific being used in the vocative, in which case it may

be addressed not only to one of these beings (the gods of Swerga,) but

also to a king or any person of rank; but when used in the nominative, it

marks at once the difference between a heathen god and the Supreme

being.”

Mr. Clough it would seem is incorrect in supposing that

QETHSIONSIOW in the nominative alone, conveys the

difference between the Supreme being and a heathen god.

for, the difference is not the less marked in the oblique cases

(except the vocative) owing to the definite form of the ex-

pression; from which circumstance alone are christians ena-

bled to limit its application to the one Jehovah of their faith.

“his distinction, though trifling, nevertheless furnishes the

strongest possible argument in favor of “ the continual recur-

rence of the honorifics in Singhalese translations of the Holy

Seriptures,” which, however, says Mr. Stark “soon offends

Huropeans, and in some cases, as Jehovah wahanse, the affix

almost shocks, coming upon the ear like some discordance in

an otherwise heavenly melody.” If the repetition of honorifics

be, as doubtless it is, offensive to the European ear accus-

tomed to the simplicity of that language, ‘whose soul is bre-

vity;’ the absence of their recurrence is not the less offensive

1o the Singhalese, whose notions of the beauty of a language

are diametrically opposed to those expressed by the bard

of Avon.

It is remarkable that the Singhalese @¢&, like the English

word ‘God,’ is descriptive—the former signifying ‘ splendour’

or ‘ beauty’ or ‘purity’ of the object to which it is applied, as

BOLCAxHey, “The divine majesty of the Sun,” or as in the

24 Terms of address in use

Milindapprasna, simply ecc#@e8co ‘the divinity of the Sun;’

and the latter the ‘ goodness’ of the being who is designated

by that term. Like the English word ‘god,’ the Singhalese

@&8 is also used by us to signify “a prince, a ruler, a magis-

trate, (Exod. xxii. Psal. xcvii.); or any person exalted too

much in estimation, or deified and honored as the chief

god.”—(Phil. 11.) But there is a distinction which some

writers have drawn between devi as applied to a god of

swarga, and the same when used as aterm of address to

kings, &c. It is thus noticed by Mr. Justice Stark in the

following note at p. 70; but without perceiving the difference

in their orthography :—

“The same term Oe€5asdea2-6 3 (Dewianwahansa) is employed

by Mr. Alwis in his Singhalese version of the Hitopadasa as the corres-

ponding phrase for Please your Majesty !”—Sidath Sangarawa.

The reader will however observe, that both in the extract

from the Taipdwansa in my Sidath-Sangarawa, p. cixxv., and

in my Singhalese version of the Hitdpadésa, pp. 205-6,

QEDoDNoOMSIe and ©dO@ee2* are alone used to express

“ His Majesty,” and not eGlesoOnsoad and a6dSa3,

which latter are apphed to the various deities of Swarga.

The words 6&3 pati, 96 indu, 926 indra, QO isuru,

SRDS ishwara, 2) na, S982) ndyaka, each signifying

‘chief, when added to words indicating ‘earth’ are appel-

lations to Kings. Thus, 98523 or O8eS, Qvs3, THe,

OR, DSQH, OECOBRS or QIWOS, Qe, FEHR, OG

2ncen, &c. With a view to gratify the vanity of kings,

who anciently laid claim to universal empire,t they were

* Devi, literally ‘Goddess,’ but applied to a Queen; as the masculine form

Devi is especially the title of a King. Professor Wilson’s Hindu Theatre, II., p. 316.

+ Thus saith Cyrus King of Persia, the Lord God of heaven hath given all king-

doms of the earth.—Ezra i 2; Judith 1. I. See also Luke ii. i. The vain and

‘ flattering titles’ (Job xxxii. 22.) which the Singhalese Kings received in ancient times,

expressive of the most eminent qualities, were many and various—See Burder’s

Oriental Customs, p. 189.

Pere eee es

amongst the Singhalese. 225

so designated; and also o@JS@, BABE, Ss or QS, in

the sense of ‘ Nourisher of the world.’ In the sense of being

‘the chief of men, a king is called s0¢80, or mdse

or 86e, 2500, mdoH, mde, ddd, &c. The

designations for ‘Queen’ arenot many. They are S@eod and

Qaxa& ; and are changed into eOHDaeJ and emMad swegsd,

when applied to a Queen who has been crowned, or an Em-

press. The words odOasJdmnsse and addaas* are

changed into agesjJOneses Déewinwahansa, and oe8s

déwini—(see Sidath Sangarawa, p. 205,) when we intend to

express “ Her Majesty ”; the term for Goddess being usually

@¢8<6 formed like the ancient term for a “princess” 60>

or OG.

In the sense in which it is applied to man, @€® is syno-

nymous with 6225, from whence we have G6EQMMdIONSs

@e ‘His Excellency the Governor, “which~is the title ”

says Mr. Stark, “given by the translators on one occasion to

the Governor of Judea” at Matt. xxvii. 2. The word OWS

©cs9 ‘ He who is great’ is derived from OQnMM pali, and

is equivalent to 6 Jen©@ ‘chief, excellent, high,—but Mr.

Stark is far from being correct when he supposes that ©: 33,

which is derived from the Sanscrit ©2334}, has any relation to

SQ, or to S075 in the line of the Royal poet:

& BD5, 2097153, DOISCHMN0, 033, Oonasi.”

Here 29©:&, from 29© name, and & 83 having, which

means “‘ named ”—has no connection whatever with “ meti.”

Meti Singhalese—metes Greek— mantra Sanscrit—mati Pali,

(mens) mentis Latin, are the words which stand in fraternal

connection with each other, having been probably derived,

like menes, mens, and mind—from the root men ‘to under-

stand.’ From ©J8) the Singhalese have coined a, beautiful

compound ABRBMasOsd syaneQo® for Legislative Council,

and it is fully expressive of the nature and working of the

226 Terms of address in use

particular Deliberative Assembly, for which it is a designation.

Mr. Stark proceeds to an investigation of the Titles and

Titular ranks amongst the Singhalese, and finds nothing of

the nature of the English nobility, (p. 71.) If the learned

writer here refers to the peculiarity of the relation in which

the Nobility of England stands to the Commonalty, he is

right. For Ceylon has no nobility, which, as in England,

sends down members to mingle with the people. Here the

distinction of caste and class is the barrier which divides the

nobleman from the commoner. Whilst there, in England, the

ranks of the nobility are largely recruited from among others,

there is here a wide gulf between them which neither wealth,

interest, nor education enables the plebeian to cross. There

it is regarded as ‘no disparagement for the daughter of a

Duke, nay of a royal Duke, to espouse a distinguished com-

** Ffere it is quite the reverse.f Whilst therefore, there

moner.

are these and other differences which distinguish the English

nobility from all hereditary aristocracies in the world, there is

also some similarity between the English and Singhalese

nobility. As no title raised any one to the rank of ‘ Thane’

amongst the German Saxons, except noble birth and the

possession of land; so amongst the Singhalese, in an early

age, none were regarded as of the nobility who were devoid

of those qualifications.

A long line of ancestry descended from good blood in the

highest caste (the Get wanse, the cultivators or vellalest)

* Macaulay’s History of England, pp. 37, 38.

+ “The marriage of a man with a woman of a superior caste to himself is pro-

hibited, and even carnal connection between the sexes of different castes is penal,-

especially the connection of a higher caste woman with a low-caste man.”—Sawer’s

Kandian Law, p. 26.

{ “The Goi wangsa, Goi gama, Ratte, or Handuruwo, compriseth the Bandara

walrya ; families of the highest rank, who claim descent from Princes.”—Armeur’s

Kandian Law, p. 3.

amongst the Singhalese. 227

alone constituted in Ceylon, the nobility of the land.* Be-

tween good blood and the privileges of the nobility, there was

(for my remarks have reference to the past, when Ceylon was

governed by the Singhalese Kings) an important connection.

The various officers of the state, including Prime Ministers,

Ministers, and Provincial chiefs, were selected from those who

could trace back an honorable descent through many genera-~

tions. ‘They formed the first or chief class of society: and

those who bore titles, as well as those who stood with them

on an equal footing in point of birth, constituted the nobility

of the land. To this body, which increased only with their

families, no accessions were ever made, except as we find,

from two classes of persons. One, the natural children of

Kings and Princes, who were alone entitled to the appellation

of Bandara; and the other, those whom the. Monarch had

honoured by raising to, what Mr. Stark calls, the “ eminent

place” of Situ, (p. 73.) Various instances, as those of

Ghosaka, Pawarika, Mahadana, Sumana, &c., may be ad-

duced from native records, of persons created Sztu, simply

owing to their great wealth.

This may however, appear strange, when we reflect on the

hinderance of caste to the social system in the East. One

would be led also to believe, that something more than mere

wealth was necessary to be entitied to the privileges of this

distinguished title. Not so. ‘here is perhaps not a single

instance on record by which we could find that there was any

other recommendation for this gift of Royalty, except the

great wealth of the recipient. Of course, it is not to be

supposed that this high distinction was conferred on the

* “Tt is the more usual course for the cultivators of the soil to be regarded as

forming the noblest class of the people, next to that who held rank as hereditary prin-

ces; they are the cupatrids ; they form the timoeracy ; and it is from them the rulers of

the state are chosen; as delegates of the King, when the Government is monarchical,

as temporary chiefs, when it is an aristocracy.”— Hardy on Budhism, p. 19.

228 Terms of address in use

chanddla,* the lowest of the low in point of caste; men, who

by reason of their mean birth, were regarded as fit for

nothing but the office of public executioners:f but such of

my readers as are read in Bhudhistical scriptures, know that

Mahadugia “the great beggar,” whose destitute circum-

stances had been like those of Lazarus in the parable of our

Lord, was raised to the nobility, on his acquiring -a great

treasure by his meritorious conduct towards Bhudhism.

There is also an instance in the Ratand walia, of a poor

Situ’s servant acquiring great wealth by reason of his chari-

ties, and of his thereupon being created a sztw or nobleman.

The legend, after describing the nature of his charities and

their result, proceeds thus : —

TINTS oOMOMINO) Onqgodod3 AumEewn. DHodsd

SASCEMEEMNS GONDSA, SOY O85 QDOODi asd Hed

AIDE GOWWI GOONDIHONQD Fidos aneocdeS

SonaGa. eusagQgdso oOonsOWwa #1 RBITass GO

33 QGHDH Wax ae MNDOVEERDA. OSGI Od Ogee

GOOD OVBMAB MNANWWIHNQHIY KQNHNMyd, 8S

@dES omomaOonsd BQYadadiexrds KYMDNI Eg

DQVNNDRNGSANALE goesin.

That is to say :—

«They heaped up the gold in the compound ; and the heap

was about eighty cubits high. The King summoned the

citizens and inquired of them, if there was any other in the

city who owned such an immense wealth. They replied, that

insignificant men could not possess so much, when His Majesty

himself had it not. When the King had heard this reply,

;

* “The Sadol or Chandala is represented as one who is born in the open air;

his parents not being possessed of the smallest hut, where, as he lies among the

pots when his mother goes to cut firewood, he is suckled by the bitch along with

her own pups.”—Hardy on Budhism, p. 86.

t See Wilson’s Hindu Theatre, vol. i. p. 159.

Sree are ee ee

ee ee Le ae ee ee ee ee

amongst the Singhalese. 229

he said that the owner of such wealth was indeed a fit object

for the nobility (Situ);* conferred on him further riches;

hoisted up the white canopy of state; created him a Sttu;

and named him Bahudhana Sitdno, or ‘The great opulent

Situ.’ ”

If therefore, from the fact of a Situ’s being a nobleman by

creation, and of his being thereby entitled to the privilegest

of the Singhalese Nobility, a comparison may be instituted

between an Enelish Baronet and a Singhalese Situ, I trust

my observations in the Sidath Sangarawa, to which Mr.

Stark refers at p. 72, were not misconceived.

It appears from the Mahawansa that the consort of Aséka,

the great Monarch of India, was the daughter of a Situ.

The passage to which I refer is the following: “ While Prince

Asoka was ruling over the Awanti country by the appoint-

ment of his own father, on a journey to Ujjeni he arrived at

Chétiya; and while tarrying there having gained the affec-

tions of the lovely princess Déwi, the daughter of a Setthi,

he lived with her.” Mahawansa, p. 76.

Although the children by this lady were admitted into the

privileges to which princes were usually entitled; yet it

would seem, that upon Asoka’s ascending his father’s throne

of Pataliputtra, Dewi was not crowned ‘ Queen consort.’

* Md & aMdS is still vulgarly used to signify ‘arich man’; as for

instance, speaking of a man hoarding up riches \D ahQQamoS ne ; ROIR

AMDBaDecd It appears from Hindu books also, that a Situ, who is

called in Sanscrit Shrest’he, and whom Professor Wilson designates “Chief of the

Merchants”—perhaps from the circumstance of his opulence—was a nobleman who

took part in the affairs of the State. In the Hindu play denominated The Troy Cart,

_ in Wilson’s Hindu Theatre, vol..i., p. 145, a Shrest’he is introduced as the Judge or

_ “Recorder”? of a Court.

+ This is a proper name, and not a designation implying Queen, as in the following

passage in the Ratnawali, the Hindu play :-—

“ Madam, You justly possess the title of dévi.”

1858. ] 2a

230 Terms of address in use

From this circumstance* we gather, that a Situ was egual im

rank to a Prime Minister, or even Sub-King, but inferior to

the Royal family.

Whilst on the subject of Monarchical councillors, of whom

a Situ was undoubtedly one, we may here glance at the state

of that Council, the want of information regarding which

Mr. Stark remarks at p. 71. But in doing so, it may per-

haps not be out of place to notice a few of the Titles of

address of those who composed the Executive Government

of Lanka.

Although the Government of Ceylon was in the abstract

a despotic Monarchy, where the will of the Sovereign passed

into a law; yet it is remarkable that in ancient times, when

pious and talented princes ruled over the destinies of this

island, nothing of any importance was done or decreed with-

out the advice of the FoosdMOSIAGAS or the Council of

State. Indeed the Institutes of Manu, which formed the

basis of the polity of all Indian Governments, including that

of Ceylon, required that the Sovereign should be assisted

by his Ministers.| Thus, we read in history, that whilst

different parts of the Island which constituted subordinate

principalities, were placed under Uva-ra’jas or “ Sub-Kings,”

the chief kingdom was presided overt by the Maha-raja or

* “The mother of the Thero Mahindu, (son of Asoka) sending her children to

the King’s court, continued to reside herself at the city of Chétiyagiri.” Intro-

duction to the Mahawansa, p. xvii.

+ “ And all that must be done by him (the King) for the protection of his

people with the assistance of good ministers, I will declare to you as the law directs in

due order.” Manu, chap. vii. § 36. “Let them perpetually consult with those Minis- —

ters on peace and war, on his forces, on his revenues, on the protection of his people, —

&c. Having ascertained the several opinions of his councillors, first apart and then

collectively, let him do what is most beneficial for him in public affairs.” —ib. §§ 56, 57.,

{ In the Raja Tarangani these seven officers are stated to be ‘The Justiciary or

Chancellor,” ‘Treasurer,’ ‘ Master of the Military Stores,’ ‘Commander in Chief,’ and

‘Messenger or Ambassador,’ ‘Royal Chaplain,’ and ‘the Chief Astrologer.’—See

Asiatic Researches, xv. p. 21. Also in Manu, § 54. ‘The King must appoint seven or

eight Ministers.’

amongst the Singhalese. 231

Monarch, himself, who had no less than seven Councillors,

or Ministers attached to his Court. In later times, however,

this number was reduced to four; and yet these four,

with the King at their head, formed the Cabal, Cabinet, or

the Privy Council of Ceylon. Collectively, their duty was

to assist the King in the Executive and Legislative functions

of Government, which were vested in the King; but indi-

vidually, they had separate duties assigned to them. The

« Premier” was the Prohita Minister; and when a Brahaman,

he was the domestic Chaplain of Brahaman Kings. He was

to attend on the Kings; that is, he was attached to the

King’s household. One had the care of the Metropolis,

“Home Affairs,” in respect of which he may perhaps be

styled, “the Secretary for the Home Department,” whilst

another was “the Minister for Foreign affairs,” and the dis-

penser of Justice; the latter office being analagous to that of

the Lord Chancellor of England, The foes was “the

Minister of War.”

The Singhalese Ministers of State, latterly, received the.

appellation of “ Adigars,” or “ Adikarans,” from @63* adhi,

“over, above, upon, &c., implying superiority in place;”

and 262) “the instrument in the sense of Executive :” but

little mention of them is made in ancient books, which only

refer to Q. 33 meti or ©5343 mantri “ Councillors.”

It is foreign to my purpose here, to enter into a considera-

_ tion of the different duties attached to them, the perquisites

| to which they were entitled, and the privileges which they

) | enjoyed. In pursuing my investigation of the names of

_ native titles, and their significations, I shall pass on to the

* Officers of the Palace,”+ or the King’s household.

* From this inseparable preposition adhi, we obtain adhipati, a term which may be

properly used to signify “ chairman,” “president,” and even “Judge” or “ Governor.”

+ Davy’s Ceylon, p. 148.

232 Terms of address in use

It consisted of a great many office-bearers. Dr. Davy,

who was indebted for the interesting account which he has

published of these officers to Millawe, the Dissawa of

Wellassa, gives thirty-six. A Gajandyaka Nilama seems to

have been the principal of them. As the term implies, he was

“ the chief over the Elephants ;” and probably his superiority

over the rest arose from the great estimation in which Ele-

phants were anciently held, as one of the DQGdsowsna

or ‘the four constituent armies of War.’ His office was ana-

logous to that of “ The Master of the Horse” in England;

and under him was placed a ékam or “ Recorder,” who

obtained the designation of Kuruwé Lekam, the word ‘ Ku-

ruwe’ signifying his connection with the “‘ Elephant depart-

ment.”

The Maha Aramudal Wannaku Nilama was the “ Lord of

the Treasury,” an office of the highest rank, which corres-

ponded with that of Bandagdrika, and to which anciently

even princes were appointed, as for instance, Prince Ghota-

bhaya.* The Maha Gabadd Nilama, and the Uda Gabada

i flama, were also “Treasurers,” each with distinct duties to

perform. The officer answering to the “ Lord Chamberlain”

of the English Court, may perhaps be identified with the

Hailuwadana Nilame of the Singhalese. He brought to the

King his apparel, his sword, crown, &c. He dressed and

undressed the King, and waited on him for the purpose of

adjusting his dress. The Batwadana Nilama, the officer who

had the management of the royal table, and the Diawadana

Nilama, who superintended the royal bath, were officers who

approach very near to the “Lord Steward” of England.

Under these were many subordinate officers, of whom Saé-

tambies were the people who poured water on the King at his

* See Attanagalawansa, and also Mahawansa.

a eee ee

ee et eae

Seg OTe SD Sa ee aay Se CLS OR, OE

; +9

amongst the Stnghalese. 233

bath, and Pihanardlas were Royal cooks. It is needless to

enter into a minute detail of the names of the other officers.

They are chiefly descriptive of their several occupations.

The reader may obtain a great deal of information on the

subject by a reference to Davy’s History of Ceylon, where

the names are given at length, with an account of the various

duties which the officers performed.

The Ceylon Council of State, and our ancient Court were

not unlike those of the Hindus. From the mention of

various terms which occur in books, we gather that the mem-

bers of whom the Singhalese Court consisted, were the same

that are referred to in the Hindu Plays;* such as, Mantris

or “Councillors,” Dutdst or “ Messengers,” Wadakayds

« Death’s Ministers,”— of which there were two kinds, wild

animals, such as “ Elephants and Horses,’ and Wadakarus

oy)

Nanayak

or “ executioners,’{|— Chara purusas or “ spies,

karus or “ disguised emissaries or informers.” }

* “The Court looks like a Sea;—its councillors

Are deep engulphed in thought ; its tossing waves

Are wrangling Advocates ; its brood of monsters

Are those wild animals—death’s Ministers.—

Attornies skim like wily snakes the surface—

Spies are the shell-fish cowering ’midst its weeds,

And vile Informers, like the hovering curlew

Hang fluttering o’er, then pounce upon their prey !

Pr. Wilson’s Hindu Plays, i. p. 149.

+ This word Pr. Wilson interprets to mean “ attornies,” or “the envoys or repre-

sentatives of the parties.” —Hindu Plays, i. p. 149. Note.

+ ‘Tradition says, that in ancient times in Ceylon, a criminal underwent the same

ordeal that is described in the following passage in the Budhistical annals -—“ In afore-

time, the Wajjian rulers, on a person being brought and presented to them, thus

charged: ‘this is a malefactor, dispose of him accordingly.’ They surrender him to

the Winichchiya mahamatta or ‘ chief Judicial Officer.’ Having examined him, if they

conceive ‘ this man is not a culprit,’ they release him. If they decide, ‘this is a male-

factor,’ without awarding any penalty, they transfer him to the Woharika, ‘learned in

the laws.’ They also having investigated the matter, discharge him, if he be innocent ;

but if he be guilty, there are certain officers called Sutiadhara, ‘maintainers of the

Suttan,’ to whom they transfer him. ‘They also inquire into the matter and discharge

him, if he be innocent ; but if guilty, they transfer him to the Atiakulaka, ‘a Judicial

institution composed of judges from all the eight tribes.’ They also having observed

234 Terms of address in use

Referring to the difference generally between English and

Singhalese officers of Government, Mr. Stark says ;—

“ The Government Agent is sometimes styled Dessave. But there can

be no analogy among officers in systems of Government so very differ-

ent as respects the distribution of official power and duty, as the English

and Singhalese; and it only tends to perpetuate misapprehension to use

the names indiscriminately.”—p. 72.

In the case of Disava being applied to the “ Government

Agent,” no misapprehension results; and in my opinion, a

better designation could hardly be conceived, as one with

which the Singhalese are altogether familiar, and one too,

with which so much respect is associated in the native mind.

A Disdva, or more properly Disdpati, under the Singhalese

Government, was a “provincial chieftain,” who had principally

the management of a province: similarly, the Government

Agent of the Ceylon Government at the present day is the

chief revenue officer of a Province. The analogy between

the two officers is apparent, and the propriety of the native

designation, is therefore unquestionable. There are also

several other Huropean titles to which native terms are pecu-

larly applicable; as for instance @@a© for “ Clerk;” @es

OMNES for “Lieutenant Governor;” QoS 2 for “Trea-

surer;” @22000323 for a “General” or “ The chief of the

Forces ;” DGGMAYLOIT eo@eod “Prince Consort;” Sv2enmea-B

** Ambassador ;” &c. Not so however, as respects certain

other offices which are ill-expressed by any titles of address

known to the Singhalese. Of this class are “ Auditor Gene-

ral,” “ Post Master,” ‘‘ Surveyor General,” “ Secretary,” &c.

ihe same procedure, transfer him to the Senapat? [translated by 'Turnour] ‘the chief

Minister’; he again to the Uparaja, ‘Sub-King’; the Uparaja to the Raja. The

Kung, inquiring into the matter, if he be imocent, releases him; but if he be guilty, he

eauses the Pawenipattahakan ; ‘book of precedents or usages,’ to be propounded.

There it is written,—to him, by whom such a crime is committed, such a punishment is

awarded. The Raja, having measured the culprit’s offence by that standard, pro-

nounces a suitable sentence.”—Turnour’s Budhistical Annals of Ceylon.

a a i i Na Na a te

amongst the Sinyhalese. 235

Yor the last, the Singhaleze in their graver compositions, un-

mixed with English phraseology, adopt the title of @8an0

SSI; but it is apprehended, that it is not fully expressive

of the English term. It is therefore, I believe, that in our

Courts, the English word is adopted: in regard to which

Mr. Stark says;

“The Secretary of the District Court subscribes himself Secretary

Swamtha, which is derived from Swamy or Swamaya, a lord or master.

This appears singularly inappropriate, his proper appellation as Clerk of

Court is certainly unnanse :°’—p. 75.

Here is some misapprehension. The title of the Secretary

in question is simply Sekrataris, (the s being an affix added

in composition for the sake of euphony, as » in Dewiyan) ;

and he does not conclude with any honorific, but with simply

®Oe) wamha, which means “we are,” for “Lam.” Thus it

will be perceived, that the words used by the Secretary, viz.

Sehrataris wamha, were mistaken by Mr. Stark for Secratary

swamiya. If however, the case be as stated by the learned

writer, there is no doubt but that the appellation of lord or

master is “ singularly inappropriate” to a Secretary, as @o0Qe6

O7@03 is unquestionably so to the Government Agent;

who nevertheless uses this high honorific in all his corres-

pondence with his native headmen.* <A Modliar of the Gate,

who was addressed in this style, returned the 6la epistle

to the Government Agent, and addressed him as follows

on the 10th March 1839: “I did not receive it (the letter)

because it was written in a manner disgraceful to me: and I

do not make the least doubt that if you are acquainted with

Singhalese, you would, on looking over the style or phraseo-

logy of that ola, be convinced of the impropriety of the same.”

See translation of the document in the Colombo Cutcherry.

* This practice is reported to have existed for “ twenty-five years” prior to the

date of the letter referred to in the text: See L. De Levera, Attapatto Modliar’s

report, March 14, 1839,

236 Terms of address in use

Whilst on the subject of sewami, I may perhaps here

notice another inaccuracy into which Mr. Stark has fallen, by

rendering Maha-himiya, ‘the great proprietor’; and in sup-

posing that the priest Seriyut was so called from his having

been ‘a great and distinguished author of his time.* Himiya

and

proprietorship and authorship are not convertible terms: nor

here means swamiya, “lord,” and not “ proprietor:

have they such a relation to each other as to render one

term applicable to the other in a secondary sense.

Hamu-duruvé (see Sidath Sangarawa, p. 160,) is derived

from Him, which comes from “Swami”— Sans. It does not

sustain, as stated by Mr. Stark at p. 74, the “ combined sense

of master and instructor;” for it is never used towards a lay

instructor, although it is peculiarly the appellation of the

last of the triad of Budhism, the priesthood. Yet the priest

does not obtain it in his capacity of “teacher” or “in-

structor :” it is given to him owing to his peculiar sanctity,t

as ‘one of the three gems of adoration and worship.’ Fol-

lowing the practice of the Budhists in this respect, the Sin-

ghalese Roman Catholics apply this term (Hamuduruvo) to

their priests.

The designation of a “teacher” is guru, from @d8 -

‘honor,’ ‘respect,’ veneration’; and in that sense it is also

applied to a parent.t Itis used with the affix Ooede@ed and

2295J@%*, when greater honor is intended; yet it is a curious

fact, that the same word 67 when used with the affix

* Probably Mr. Stark fell mto this error by reading Armour’s Kandian law, where

himi (as in lat lumi, ‘domination by right of purchase’) is used in a secondary sense

to mean ‘ right of acquiest, ‘ proprietorship.’

+ “Of those who have no fixed habitation, the priests, the pase Budhas, and the su-

preme Budhas, are the chief.”—Hardy’s translations from Budhist Scriptures.

{ “The father who performs the ceremonies on conception and the like, according to

jaw, and who nourishes the child with his first rice, has the epithet of guru or vene-

rable.” — Institutes of Manu, 11, § 142.

pe a nl ean

amongst the Singhalese. 237

SIS GW, as QO SIS. GS conveys the idea of an instructor

of a mean or low extraction.

Before entering upon an investigation of the terms applied

to the Budhist priesthood, of which Mr. Stark has treated

in different parts of his essay already referred to, I shall here

remark that Mudali, from whence we derive Q&adJ@xs or

Modliar, is of Tamil origin, and means “chief” or “ prin-

cipal.” Amongst the Kandians Mudiansé is not unfrequent

as an agnomen; and they, like the Tamils of India, assume

it without any authority from the Crown. The Maritime

Natives, however, obtain it formally by an act or warrant

from the Governor. In this respect the British Government

follows the example of their predecessors, the Dutch and the

Portuguese.

The Modliars or Chiefs are of two classes, Does@ or ‘ of

the Royal Palace or household,’ (usually called the Gate,

after the Portuguese who gave it the appellation of Porte,

from a misapprehension of the Singhalese word vésala, which

also means “door” or “gate”) and eayadyeq or “ Pro-

vincial Chiefs.” There were originally two other classes,

which are known as 2.0: 6®8 ‘the Royal Equerry,’ and Qe

2090829 or the ‘ Ecclesiastical’ chiefs. To these may be added

a fifth class—a2nJo@G or ‘the District Chiefs.* Under

each were placed different subordinate headmen, called MMo-

handirams, Vidana-Aratchies, Aratchies, Kanganis and Vidans.

The last is derived from the word S&s) ‘commanding,’ or

‘ordering’ and means, as Clough defines it, “the person who

conveys the orders of Government to the people.” Over all

the headmen is placed a “‘ Maha Modliar,” the Maha Nileme

of the Kandians, or “the greatest of the chiefs.” If any

person, whether titled or untitled, can trace his descent to a

Modliar, he is said to be of the Mudeli péeruwa, the correct

——

* For a tolerably correct ‘description of the duties of the chiefs of the Maritime

| Province,’ see Colombo Journal for 1832, p. 262.

1858] 24

238 Terms of address in use

interpretation of which is, “ of the class of Chiefs,” rather than

‘the titled class,” as rendered by Mr. Armour. (See p. 71.)

Besides the ranks and titles which the Natives obtain

from the Crown, there is also a class to which particular

individuals are entitled by reason of birth or position. Of

these we may mention Gamardla,* equal to a “ County

squire” in England, but not held in the same estimation in

Ceylon.t{ He is however of the highest caste (the Vellalas,)

and one who in point of wealth has a competency for his

subsistence. Appuhami ‘is the rank of a “ gentleman,”

of the highest class of the vellales’ who anciently enjoyed

certain privileges which are now denied to them; and Appu

that of the plebeian, equal in its application to “ Mister.”

As honorary terms of address by which persons of different

castes are distinguished, | may mention Handuruwa, confined

to “Vellales”; Nydé to “Smiths”; Henayd to “Washermen” :

Ridi to “ Washerwomen”; Mestr2 to “ Barbers”; Mahabadde

to “Chalias”; Batgamuya to “ Paduas”; Nekati to “ Tomtom-

beaters”; Wehumpuraya to “ Jaggoreros,” &c. &e. Whilst

the above are mere honorary designations of different castes,

there are others which are used as terms of affection and

endearment to persons of low-castes; as for instance, Wena

Mama, “Uncle Hena” to a Washerman; Ridi Nendé, “ Aunt

Ridi” toa Washerwoman, Vaduradla, “ Master Carpenter” to

a Carpenter; &c. &c:

There are also certain terms of respectful designation by

which persons of different trades are distinguished, as for

instance Mandadirala, among Fishers; for the man in charge.

of a part of a fishing net, called Manda; Hannedirala ‘the

owner of the fishing boat,’ or ‘ the chief of the fishing band.’

* This title is rendered ®@ ee Gcs0 Gammudalia, ‘the chief of the village’ in a

Singhalese version of the tale of the King Adahasmuka.

t Mention is made of the election of Gamaralas under the provisions of ‘the Paddy

Lands Irrigation Ordinance ;’ see Proclamation in the Government Gazette of the

24th July 1858.

ald

amongst the Singhatese. 239

Formerly Moormen composed the class of people who were

generally employed as Masters of trading vessels; and they

received, in the sense of Tindal, the appellation of Marak-

halahdye, a term now applied to others who perform the same

office, and also to the Head Moorman.

Whilst the above are the Ranks and Titles of address of

Maritime Native Singhalese, those of Kandians appear to be

diferent, with some exceptions, which are Kérala, Mohottala,

Aratchila, Lékama, and Vidane ; and, says Mr. Justice Stark

in reference to them:

“The above, namely, the Adigars, Dissaves, and Rattemahatmeyas,

were the principal officers under the Singhalese Government; and in the

convention of 1815, entered into after the conquest of Kandy by the

Enelish, for the cessation of hostilities and the settlement of this country

by a formal declaration of the power and principles of the new Govern-

ment, they are mentioned or alluded to as the principal chiefs of the

Kandyan Provinces, and the Mohotale, Corales, Vidahns and others, the

subordinate headmen from the Provinces.”—p. 72.

Lo the above may be added Basnayaka and the Diva Niia-

mes (the word Nilame,* ‘Officer’ alone being sometimes

used as a term of address to a titled person), which are

amongst the titles of Chiefs; and Atukérala, Aratchila,

_Vidana, amongst those of petty headmen. I have already

alluded to Banda, and the original acceptation of the term.

I need only here refer to it, to shew that it is now assumed

by every Kandian of the Vellala caste, in the same manner

that the appellation of Appuhami is affixed to the name of

every Maritime vellala (and frequently of Fishers) without

distinction, and contrary to the original usage, by which only

a gentleman was entitled to it.

I cannot close my remarks on this part of the subject,

“without attracting attention to a mistake into which Mr.

Stark has fallen, in common with a number of European

writers, who consider the Maritime Natives to be distinct

* This, when affixed to Maha, is used to signify an Adigar, or the Maha Modliar.

240 Lerms of address in use

from the Kandians, whom alone they regard as “ the Sinyha-

” Mr. Stark remarks: —

‘The Kandian or hill country is distinguished from the lower or Mari-

time districts, by the same name, Singhalese; and the town of Kandy

lese, strictly so ale cle

Maka Nuwera, the Migalo-polis or great city, the Metropolis. These

names are easily accounted for, but they are recorded as given.”—p. 76.

Now, the Kandians, like all highlanders, are certainly

distinguishable from the Maritime Natives. From the

salubrious air which they inhale amidst their upland hills,

the Kandians are braver and more hardy than the people of

other provinces. ‘The independence which they enjoyed until .

comparatively a short time ago, has tended also to elevate

their general bearing over that of the people of the Southern

and Western Provinces. They have preserved too, their

religion and language without sufferimg much from the

various colonial influences to which the low-landers have

been subjected for three and a half centuries. The latter,

by the change of their religion, occupations, and habits, may

have slightly lost the distinct peculiarities which originally

characterized the entire Singhalese nation; yet the differ-

ences in these respects no more render necessary a distinction

in their nationality, than do the accidents of birth-place, or

other circumstances, which enable us to distinguish an En-

glishman of Northumberland from another of Middlesex or

Yorkshire; or a native of Galle from one born in Colombo.

The difference, however, which has been drawn by Mr. J ustice

Stark, has arisen from a misapprehension of a single circum-

stance. Itis this. When a part of Ceylon fell into the hands

of the Portuguese, and the Singhalese Court was removed.

from Cotta to Kandy, that part of the Singhala’dwipa which

was retained by the Singhalese, was called Sma Singhale

(the appellation by which the Kandian Provinces are known

to this day,) as contradistinguished from the territory of the

Portuguese. The distinction therefore, was one of territory,

not of nationality, It was employed to determine the juris-

amongst the Singhalese. 241

diction of the Singhalese Government from the possessions

of the Portuguese. As the Kandian Provinces alone (which

were retaimed by the Singhalese) became thus universally

known as Singhale, a misapprehension of its cause and origin

led Europeans to distinguish the Muritime Singhalese from

their Kandian neighbours, both of whom are descended from

the same stock, speak the same language, are subject to the

same habits, and are possessed of nearly the same feelings.

Hence the distinction to which reference is made.

There is however one distinction, in respect to their names,

which I may notice here The low country Singhalese have

more names than their Kandian countrymen. Whilst the

genama or “family name,” the bat-kavana-nama, “ the house-

hold term of endearment ”—usually given on the occasion of

giving food to a child for the first time, which is celebrated

by a festival,—and the patabendi nama, or the name which is

assumed on obtaining office, are the same in both countries:

yet the names which distinguish the Kandian from the Mari-

time Singhalese are the Christian and Sur names* of the

latter. ‘The “Sur” names are those which they have bor-

rowed from the Portuguese, such as D’Saram, D’Alwis,

Silva, Perera, Dias, D’Saw, &c. &c., and the example having

been first set by the highest families of the land, the lower

classes have considered it a privilege to be allowed to assume

the like names. As to the Christian names, they are gene-

rally assumed by all classes, both Budhists and Christians,

upon the ceremony of Baptism, of which Sir James Em-

-erson Tennent thus writes, in his work on “ Christianity

in Ceylon.”

“Tt had been declared honorable by the Portuguese to undergo such

a ceremony ; it had been rendered profitable by the Dutch, and after 300

years’ familiarity with the process, the natives were unable to divest

-* In accordance with this practice amongst the Singhalese, the Tamils of Batta-

cotta, have assumed, upon Baptism, such names as Carpenter Rowe, Morgan,

Covington, &c. &c.

242 Terms of address tn use

themselves of the belief that submission to the ceremony was enjoined

by orders from the Civil Government.’—p. 88.

So they believed at first. But Baptism soon became an

indispensable rite in regard to their civil rights. One of the

consequences of this ceremony was, that the name of the party

baptized was registered in the Thombo: and the registration

was of the most paramount impertance to the litigious Singha-

lese. In all matters regarding their inheritance, in all their

contentions on the ground of illegitimacy, and on various

other questions that frequently come before the Courts,

registration, and registration alone, is the best evidence of |

what they seek to establish, or disprove. From the fearful

amount of perjury that is to be found in the Courts, they fear

that without this documentary proof they will fail to es-

tablish their rights: and it 1s therefore (to use the language

of Sir Emerson Tennent in the subsequent part of the

passage that I have just above quoted) that, “when a parent

upbraids his child in anger, he sometimes threatens to dis-

inherit him, by saying, he will blot out his baptism from the

Thombv.” So scrupulous however, are they in respect of this

registration, that actions have often been brought to compel _

the registration of particular patronymies, and to cancel

others to which parties were not entitled.

Thus it will be perceived, that the Singhalese resort to

baptism, not asa religious duty, nor asa ceremony which con-

ferred, as supposed by Sir. Emerson Tennent, “some civil

distinction ;”* but simply as an operation which alone secured

the registration, which they prized so very high.

This leads me to notice a misapprehension under which

Sir Emerson labours, when he thinks that “to the present

day the Singhalese term for the ceremony (Kula-waddanawa)

bears the literal interpretation of ‘admission to rank.’” Not

so. Owing toa notionamongst the maritime Singhalese, that

* See p. 88.

amongst the Singhalese. 243

if they adopt in their families a stranger or an illegitimate

child, after baptizing him “‘in their own name”—which follows

a registration of the baptism in the Thombo—he would, in

the event of their death, be entitled to inherit the property

of “the adoptive parent’s estate ;””*

originally used amongst the Singhalese: but its application

Kula-waddanawa was

at present to the baptism of legitimate children, as well

as natural offspring, and children by adoption, is to be

regarded merely as a species of catachresis in the language.

Kula-waddanawa again, is not “admission into rank ;”

but “admission into family”—a recognition of one’s civil

rights. ‘Thus, the Kula devatéva in the Hindu playst is

the household deity, the “object of hereditary and family

worship,” the domestic god of the Brahamans. In the Sela-

lihinisandesa, the poet directs his winged messenger “ cheer-

fully to remember his household god.”

I presume the notion regarding the “ distinction,” which

it is thought baptism conferred on the native, is without

foundation; and Sir Emerson is equally misinformed, when

he states, that Yo gentigud, which he interprets to mean

“unbaptized wretch,” is applied by budhist to budhist as a

“term of reproach.” Gentigu isa Portuguese word used in

the sense of “gentile,” or “pagan,” and is only applied by

Christians to their Budhist brethren by way of reproach; as

many of the slander cases before the District Court of

Colombo, amply testify. It has no connection whatever

with baptism ; and I may safely affirm, that no native uses it

_ to a co-religionist, much less by a Budhist to one of the same

creed.

“ This is a notion still entertained by many Native Singhalese, although the

_ Dutch law, to which they are now subject, had completely upset the right which

the child of adoption acquired by the Singhalese law.—See Sawer’s Notes on

Kandyan Law, p. 25. —

| ih MORE jo, ale

244 Terms of address in use

I shall now proceed to an investigation of religious titles

or “terms of address” to Budhist priests. On this subject,

the following passage occurs in the essay already so fre-

quently referred to:

‘A generic name for a Budhist priest is said by Bridgnell to be

oS ot eoatoe4 (ganninnanse) probably from some root signifying

learning or wisdom, whence we have Ganesa the Hindu god of wisdom,

ganeya a poetical measure, and ganetiya the science of Arithmetic. But

Clough derives the word differently, and thinks it is an inferior term

applicable to the lowest order of priests.”—p. 75.

In my opinion, both Bridgnell and Clough have failed to

give the correct application of the word Ganninndnse. In

the first place, it is not a generic term for a ‘ Budhist priest’ ;

although people of different creeds (other than Budhists)

vulgarly employ it, as well as the simple Unndnse, to signify

a priest. Sometimes also ‘ gana’ is used without the nanseé in

a contemptuous sense, as POOAaecwmed ! tantamount to

‘look at that ganaya!’ In the next place, it is not “an

inferior term applicable to the lowest order of priests.” It is

properly the designation of the principal or the chief of a

semi-association; “the 2c00et@ lord of a m= class ;”*

or, in the language of Milindu, in the Milindapprasna; the

“head of a sect having fraternities of his own.” Hence it is

clear, that the word is not derived “ from some root slonify-

ing learning or wisdom.” Nor is it from any such imaginary

source that we get Ganisa the Hindu God of wisdom,

ganaya a poetical measure, and gunitaya the science of Arith-

metic. Ganisa and ganaya, like ganninnansé, are both derived

from the same root gana or ‘class’:—the ya in ganaya

* A gana, according to the ceremonial doctrines of Budhism, is a class or semi-

association of not less than two nor more than four priests; and Sanga is an asso-

ciation of any number of priests above four. Thus, the following passage in the

Milindapprasna, referring to the six Arahatwas or Tirthakas, J BOeEsIO’”M

wind sapien Oeda martyhoesOrnsan may be interpreted: “Their

Lordships, the six aforenamed, are hierarchs over [Sanga ] associations, and [gana]

semt-asaoctations,””

amongst the Sin ghalese. 45

being merely an affix for the sake of euphony, and isa in

*ganisa ” being an abbreviation of the word Jswara, or ‘chief,’

whence as ‘ the chief of aclass’ it is applied to the Hindu God

of wisdom. But, ganitaya is derived from gana ‘to count.’

The principal terms, however, for a Budhist Priest are

four; 1, Srawaka from Sri ‘to hear.’ 2, Sramana (Sans. )

Samana (Pali) Mahana (Singhalese), signifying the perform-

ance of ascetism; whence it is probable that the epithet

Samanean, as applied in the religious system of Tartary, is

derived. ‘Sir Emerson Tennent, in his work on “ Chris-

tianity,” has the following note in reference to the use made

of this term by other nations.

“Tt is remarkable that this name (Sameneéro) which to the present

day is preserved as the designation of the Budhist priesthood in Siam

and Ceylon, should be the same by which the Samaneans or Budhists of

‘Bahar are described by Magasthenes, who, B. C. 300, was an ambassador

from Seleucus to their King; and whose lost work on the state of India

at that period is quoted by Strabo and Pliny. The same designation

for the priestheod, Samana, is applied equally by Clemens Alexandrinus

in the second century, and by Porphyry in the fourth.”—p. 216.

Referring to the same use of this word, the Rev. Mr.

Hardy extracts the following passage from’ “ Relation des

Royaumes Bouddhiques,” p. 60, quoted from San tsang fa

sou, liv. xxil. p. 9.

“When the four rivers fall into the sea they no longer retain the

name of river: when men of the four castes become Samanians, they re-

ceive the common name of sons of Sakya (synonymous with bhikchou.)

Eastern Monachism, p. 11.

The word Samana becomes Hamana by the well-known

transformation of s and h; and the last, by a process of meta-

theses, assumes the form of Mahana.* See Sidath-Sangarawa,

* The proper designations of a priest are pabbaja, one separated from secular

life, and Bikku, a mendicant. The common Singhalese term is Mahana, which is

Yepresented as being only a different pronunciation of Samana; one devoted to

religious meditations for the purifying of his own heart.— The Rev, D. J. Gogerly’s

Essays in Reibero’s Ceylon, p, 272.

1858.] 2K

246 Lerms of address in use

p- 7. From Mahana we obtain the word Mahana-unanse or

Mahan’-unanse, which means “ Reverend ascetic”; but not

“ the great one,” as incorrectly interpreted by Mr. Hardy,

probably by confounding it with Maha-unanse.— the great

one, —which is not the “ collective name ” of the priests, but

a designation by which the chief of a Monastery is distin-

guished from amongst several who happen to form an

association, or to be the subject of conversation or writing.

From the Pali word Samana and era, which in composition

becomes néra, we obtain SAmanéra;* and it means a “ young

ascetic,” “a novice” or “pupil of a priest.” Thewords which ©

bear the same meaning, and are applied to Samanéros or

priests who have not received the Upasampada ordination, are

Vatiput and Herana. Many honorifics, which are used

towards the Upasampada priests are inapplicable to the

Sdmanéros. Thus we find in the Singhalese version of the

Milindapprasna, and in one and the same sentence, that a

Samanéra is spoken of as “ Sdmenérayan wahandé” sad

Casdwssex;f anda theraas, “ bikshiin wahanse” 32420

w®esJaes: and where a priest applied “ Saminda” to his own

teacher, a venerable Sdmanero of upwards of 60 years of age,

the propriety of the designation was questioned in the fol-

lowing lines published in the Yatalaba-Sangara, p. 37.

ODO MEQI DAaMAOeKHITIESADIO

DO SHAS HOS ANaCIES SHAK OSNO, Noe}

3. Sthavira (Sans.) Thera (Pali) or Zera (Singhalese,)

means an “Elder.” It is synonymous with yatz; and both

are equally applied to a priest after he has been an Upa-

sampada priest of 10 years standing. Before, however, he

completes his tenth year after ordination, his career is divided

into two periods—the first from the date of ordination till his

* See Clough’s Balawatara, p. 89.

7 Of the Samaneras the ordained elder priests sometimes use the pronouns

Coie and Qste.

amongst the Singhalese. 247

fifth year, and the second from that time until he becomes a

’ During each of the above periods he

thera or “ elder.’

obtains the designation of Nawaka and Majjima respectively.

4, Bikshu (San.) Bikkhu (Pali) Bik (Singhalese) is derived

from Bikshu ‘to beg, literally ‘a beggar’ or ‘ mendicant.’

In a collective sense Sanga is used, and means the whole

order collectively—‘the priesthood,’ ‘an assembly or an associ-

ation of Budhist priests.’ The honorific OosJaxd is usually

applied to Sangaya, bikshu, and there ; and S09S3ax to gana.

There is a peculiar etiquette in the use of terms of ad-

dress amongst the priesthood; which seems to have been

regulated by Budha himself, in the sixth Bhanawara of the

Parinibbana Suttan, where the following passage occurs :—

OEMNSVE DS JFHDODOOVDO A GNDID BYE SVE MQA@H

SNOSTMMDSIMNE MHODIDMHNAIHAI-y snaWs0

DAG AOS SO IPQOsIOOENDSVE VE NAGVDINVAND

DHDOSABMID MG NadsIVGsia NsIanMHnmen

Go ROHsQe Vs naaos ”—

‘ Ananda, although priests are now in the habit of (indiscri-

minately) addressing each other with the term awusd; yet after

my death this practice should not be continued. Ananda by

a senior théra, a junior (priest) should be addressed either by

his personal name, or by his family designation, or by the

appellation of dwusd ; and by a junior (priest) a senior théra

should be addressed bhante ‘ Lord,’ or ‘ Ayasma’ ‘ Longe-

vous.’

‘ Awuso’ is 5.343 Evetni in Singhalese; bhante is OW

SIJO2x vahanse; and Ayasma, which means ‘ Thou who art

longevous’ and approximates in sense to the English epithet

‘Venerable, is @QoQ0OSI Ayubdvan. This last is a term

of address very common amongst the Singhalese, and is fre-

quently employed in addressing persons of rank and age, both

248 Lerms of address in use

priests and laymen. @qa@o0D27 is also the form of saluta-

tion amongst us, and in the sense of wishing one ‘Good

morning’ in Enelish, the Singhalese greet one another—

Ayubowan ‘Long life” This is a salutation which has no

distinction as to rank, caste, or class. It is used by all

indiscriminately, by the highest to the lowest, et vice versa.

It is not a little curious to observe that dwusd (which is

simply a vocative)* has the signification of the English term,

‘Isay:’ this is however an accidental similarity; and the

words are no more derived from the same source, than

gargardyana rela, ACXDNHSLALE (in Milindapprasne) from

“ourgling rill;” or coka coke QSSNAOBNI ES) from eocra coaz.

Speaking of the resemblance in the sounds of words in

different languages, I may here observe that although the

word ebittaya “the attendant of the priest,” bears a great

resemblance to the ebitikos of the Greeks, “a bit boy”

or a ‘stripling, as stated by Mr. Stark at p. 76; yet that

the word itself is derived from ed ‘before,’ ‘front,’ or

‘opposite, and ~23é) ‘ who or which is;’ whence it means

“‘a person who is ever before you;” a “page.” I may also

here intimate my belief that the Hebrew term Tirshatha,

applied as a title to the Governor of Judea under the Per-

sians, and mentioned in Ezra; 1. 63. Neh vu. 65; vii. 9;

has no connection with Bsa) Tirthaka, as hinted by Mr.

Stark. (See Note p. 75.) The former is believed by some

to have been derived from the Persian word signifying harsh,

and by others from a different word meaning ‘fear’; and

thence applied to a Ruler or Governor as the “ dreaded one.” »

But the latter term ‘ Tirthaka’ is from 2&8 ‘to ferry

over; thence applied to a “ Religious teacher,” t from his

being a person who helps mankind to ford the troublous

waters of life. In Ceylon Bhudhistical works, it is used to

* See Clough’s Balawatara, p. 70.

+ Bombay Asiatic Society’s Journal for July 1857, p, 401, et seg.

amongst the Singhalese. 249

signify “a teacher of a sect different from Budhism,” or a

* sectarian,” an “unbeliever ;” oras Mr. Turnour has rendered

it in his Bhudhistical Annals, *‘ one of the antagonist creed.”

To return however to the subject. In accordance with the

injunction of Budha contained in the passage which I have

extracted from the Buddhawansa, the Samanéros, address the

Upasampada priests Qed O35, ONO Henson, on

C7~HVAOWISOWw, or MAOQIOSI; whilst the latter use to-

wards the former 729, QI2089, GOGHAOIS, NIMex,

Gee. As amongst the priests themselves of each class,

there are different appellations. For, (to use the language

of Turnour) “as in the order of ordination one Bikkhu must

be senior to another, an appellation implying equality ap-

pled by a junior to a senior Upasampada ‘is disrestpectful

and irreverent.”*

I shall here notice a peculiarity arising from sectarian

animosity, viz., that the priests of the Siam and Amarapura

sects do not, when they meet, salute each other. Amongst

other peculiarities which distinguish the one from the other,

Imay also here mention the fact, that the Amarapuras

differ from the Siamese by having both their shoulders covered

with a roll of robe. I will not express an opinion as to the

correctness or incorrectness of the innovation: but judging

from the conduct of the fathers of the Budhist faith, the

adjustment of the robe, so as to leave one shoulder bare (as is

the wont of the Siamese sect) seems to be proper, at least in

appearing inanassembly. The reader will find frequent men-

tion of this in Bhudhistical writers. JI shall content myself

_ with three extracts from Turnour’s Pali Bhudhistical Annals,

in the sixth volume of the Bengal Asiatic Society’s Journal.

«The thero Anando who had attained the arathood, also

repaired to the meeting. ‘ How did he go’? Saying to him

self with the greatest delight, adjusting his robes, so as tu leave

* Bengal Asiatic Society’s Journal, vol. vil. p. 1007.

250 Terms of address in use

one shoulder bare,” p. 517. ‘ Having thus imposed on him-

self that office, the venerable Upali rising, adjusting his robe

so as to leave one shoulder bare, and taking up the ivory-

wrought fan, and bowing down to the senior priests, took his

seat on the (pulpit) Dhammdsanan,” p. 519. “ The venera-

ble Anando then rising from his seat, and adjusting his

robes, so as to leave one shoulder bare, and bowing down to

the senior Bhikkhu, took his place in the Dhammasanan,

holding up the ivory-wrought fan.” p. 521.

This is an ascetic rite, probably borrowed from the Inst-

tutes of Manu, where it is laid down, cap. IL, § 193.. “ Let

him always keep his right arm uncovered,—be always de-

cently apparalled, and properly composed,” &c. Again in

cap. IV., § 58, “‘In a temple of consecrated fire, in the

pasture of kine, in the presence of Brahamans, in reciting

the Véda, and in eating his food, let him hold out his right arm

uncovered.”

Reference is made by Mr. Justice Stark to Upali, one of

the priests named in the above extract, and a doubt is ex-

pressed as to whether he was identical with Upali Mahu Situ,

the nobleman whose conversation with Budha is noticed in a

passage from the Amawatura, extracted into my Sidath San-

garawa, p. clvil. They were however different persons.

The priest Upali wasa barber; but the nobleman of the

same name was the follower of a Zirthaka, an heretic. A

brief history of the former is given by the Rev. 8. Hardy

in his work on Budhism, p.p, 231-2; and the same writer —

gives the history of Upali, the /zc or “householder.” 7.

p- 266.

Having noticed the want of identity between the two —

Upalis, I shall proceed to consider what Mr. Stark calls “the

distinguishing terms characteristic of the priest and layman.”

(p. 76.) Inone sense, the words giht and bikhu have the same

distinction which dateus and elerus have; but, generally, they

5% a

<a Be

amongst the Singhatlese. 251

serve to indicate no other difference save that between the

householder and the houseless wanderer, which latter a priest

undoubtedly is, by the rigid vows of his order. From the

Sanserit word G@ (graha) we obtain the term grahapati,

‘lord of the house,’ ‘ landiord;’ beautifully expressive of the

English word host, as contra-distinguished from amutta ‘a

cuest’ or ‘ stranger.’

As applied to the laic only, there are to be found several

honorific terms of address in books ; as for instance emacs,

“O youths,” SSJOS, “ O prosperous,” &c. So also as ap-

plied generally to the ascetic, we have Besammwdmnodad,

a word adopted from the Pali, and which frequently occurs in

the Milindapprasne in the sense of ‘ Hail! Your Worship!’

The names assumed by the Budhist priests are different

from those taken by the laity; e. g., Sangah Rakkhita;

Dhamma Ratana; Samanatissa; Dhammananda; Atthadassa ;

Sumanasara; Sumana; Gunaratana; Jindnanda; Dhamma-

nanda; Dharmarama; Dhammatilaka; Siri-Sumana; Panha-

Sara; Dhammakkanda; Sobhita; Suguna; Ratanapala; &c.,

&c. Some of them are coined, whilst others, like Siddhatta

and Rahula, are those which are found in books. The fol-

lowing passage extracted from the Bhudhawansa, shews the

origin of the word Rahula,which does not signify “ eclipsed,”

as hinted by Mr. Starke at p. 73.

MNVIBOGS AHH GoM Sion Hye@s yoaseso

OMAAGoMBsMISs SOVEC Baxwene esos OID

WOM S08 DIADQOACIGOD VST VSrMNIS PNAH

BOICODGOOOV FDO MBGISMIMo DO Ay) QOOICI

QI. GHODMMNAQE DOA ODA GtaI — BHeww.

That is:—

« At this time, Suddhddana heard that (Yasddara) the

mother of Rahula, had given birth to a son; and, desirous of

_ gladdening his son, sent him a message (to announce the

| event.) The Bhodisat, on receiving the announcement, ex-

262 Terms of address in use

claimed, ‘ A Rahula is born! A tie has been created! When

the king, having inquired what his son had said, was informed

of (tan wachanan) that word G. e. Rahula, the chief word of

his son’s exclamation), Suddhodana said ‘ Let then Rahula

(prince) itself be the name of my grandson from henceforth.”

The names which are used by the Jaic as terms of address

towards the elders of the Budhist church, are generally those

given to their native countries; as for instance Miripenneé,

Karangoda, Bentota, Ambegahapitia, &c., &c. The titles

which were anciently given by the Crown to a chief hierarch

of the Budhist church was Sanga Raja. (See an instance of

this in the extracts inmy Sidath-Sangarawa, p. ccxxvil.) But,

when the Singhalese Government had ceased to exist, the

dignitaries of their church were designated Nayaka and

Anu-ndyaka (“the chief” and the “next chief”) with the

honorific affix of Terun’anse or Unanse.

Treating of the word 62 snsIax, says Mr. Stark :—

The word is not used however to any other than such priests (a thera).

It is not given to Kapuwa or god’s priest; nor to the Yukadura, or devil’s

priest ; nor to the Balikaraya, or planat priest.”—p. 74.

He is quite right. No respect whatever was originally

shewn to the priests of a worship which had not the sanction

of Budhism. Thus a “ devil’s priest” was called Vakka-dasa

(Pali), or Yakdessa (Singhalese), “the devil’s slave.” But,

as corruptions crept into the religious worship of the Island,

from the invasions of Ceylon by the Malabars,* and Yakka

worship was gradually introduced by them, ‘ the slave of the

devil’ became Vakadura, or ‘ the teacher of demonology’: and

the simple Kapuwat ‘ god’s priest,’ was designated ‘Kapurala.’

Necceeees

* See Mr. Silva’s Essay in Reibero’s Ceylon, p. 274, et seq.

+ This word is derived from Kepa 2) ,e3 ‘ to set apart,’ ‘ dedicate ’—it being

usual, when a vow is made to the gods, that as an earnest of one’s obligation, or

the assurance of the fulfilment of one’s vows, to plant a pillar, as it were the

foundation stone of the building to be thereafter erected for the ceremony. Whence

this pillar is called ENeS kap, and the priest who plants it is thence designated

ENGDI ‘ Kapwwda,’

amongst the Singha lese, 953

Even here the reader will observe that the honorifics used are

such as do not convey much respect towards the professors of

the new faith.

The aversion which the Singhalese anciently felt to demo-

nology, and, consequently the contempt with which they

regarded the professors of that faith, viz. the Andi Fakiers,

who were at one time the pest of Ceylon, may be easily

gathered from the Andi mala; a book written with the pro-

fessed object of alienating the affections of the misguided

Natives, who had evinced an attachment to a Pretender to

the Singhalese throne; and of denouncing the faith which he

professed. The writer in reference to the Pretender says

that ‘it would be far profitable to give to a dog that which

is in vain spent for Wilbdwa, the devil’s slave’ &c. :—

SE@DAOsaHedesrmO F{_Daw DO oe MDE

DEPS MRO ¢ HASVS) AHEM cAusiamdIoée

And after an immense deal of reproachful language in

respect of the religion which his hero professed, the writer

thus expresses himself as to the different merits of the wor-

ship of Budhas, gods, men, and devils.

Q) seve D8) Syd a Mr»aojs GCogmMOedonammesu &

HHAIASaasi EveSeqd3s Fagdsa wed gost ar ra)

CY MAAGWIMG NOSIS DEI BaQandrslenr Mavs GOSWSyLM

Ha WROBSEeQ aor aoOeOQiOOrvi/sgsnBaslaqgndaw oO

“Those who worshipped Budha and reached the city of

Niwan, have never fallen into Hell: those who worshipped

“nd offered unto Gods have never failed their reward: those

who served man (Kings of this world) have had their reward

both good and evil: but those who offered unto devils, were

“ever lost both in this as in the next world, and was never

_ benefitted.” —

Another class of terms of address to which reference is

‘made are household words; and Mr. Stark thinks that they

‘are “ generally of a common character, and pot words of

affection or endearment.” p. 75.

1858. ] 21

254 Lerms of address in use

Not so. The terms of endearment amongst the Singha-

lese are nearly as many as those of honor and rank. Take

for instance the ephithets for woman, neglected and degraded

woman. She is sonduru or vami, expressive of what Milton

describes her to be, the 7

“fairest of creation * * and best.”

She is vat? * wealth,” or ‘life of man,’ tantamount to the ex-

pression “ the better half,” as when Milton describes her to be,

“ Part of my soul, I seek thee, and thee claim

My other half,’——

Other terms, like those which Mrs. Malaprop thinks, ‘ profane

expressions of endearment,’ are not wanting amongst us; but

with them, we have no concern here. J may therefore pass

on to different other terms by which woman is designated.

She is pama ‘the tempter ;’ sanda ‘ Moon-like beauty ;’ piya

or hama ‘the darling’ vilast or hatha ‘the very delight of

man. JI am free to admit that the Singhalese, ike other

nations, have not failed to notice the fraility, the weakness,

and the timidity of woman; and to coin words expressive ©

of such qualities. The word Jiri, (Sox given by Mr. Stark, —

at p. 76, being the classic form of the same word,) indicates —

the timidity of her mind, as QQey¢%© tunu-anga expresses the

weakness of her frame; and @c& liya, ‘winding shrub,’ ~

signifies her dependence on man, like 3

“the woodbine, the sweet honey suckle,

Gently entwist, the female ivy so,

Enrings the barky fingers of the elm.”

If in this respect the Singhalese may be accused of want of

gallantry, it is, I apprehend, a charge to which they subject. Ed

themselves in common with the best and most enlightened

nations of the West. The reader will finda precedent in the # :

line where Ovid makes Hero write to Leander, thus :— ei

Ut corpus teneris ita mens infirma puellis. |

In a country where the Natives closely imitate the man= |

ners of the dominant race, one may naturally be inclined |

amongst the Singhalese. 255

fo expect that English epithets of endearment are generally

used by the Singhalese. In my varied intercourse with my

countrymen, I have, however, not known more than one

instance of the kind, and that confined to a dashing young

fellow who had been the domestic servant in an English

family. It is possible, nevertheless, that there are other in-

stances of Natives using Engtish household terms of endear-

ment; but I may venture to assert that the practice is not

general, and that it is not likely to be so hereafter. In the

instance* referred to by me above, the words used were “ My

dear.” A person who proved the fact gave it as “ Dio”;

and between the ignorance of the witness, and the dulness

of the Interpreter, a new word appeared; and the Judge

took it down “ Bui ”—a fact which moreover shows that the

Natives are not familiar with such terms.

I have considered the titles of address given to males. It

may be convenient here to enter into an investigation of

those usually applied to the female sex.

A Lady of distinction, such as the wife of a Modliar, is

DEdodDan9ed 995 or OGDOD €. 8435.15) : she is some-

times addressed by equals D@EDDVONSOM, CROs;

or GQI)23. A lady who is a grade inferior to the last re-

ceives the title of ao3@23. It is however the usual address

of the wife of a Mohandiram or Appohamy, and of the unmar-

ried daughter of a Modliar. GQo~w7 is the title of an Arachy’s

wife, whilst Qme@wl is that of the wife of Kangany, Vidhan

‘or Gamarala; «293 is the honorary designation of a respec-

table Vellala female of the lower classes. It is sometimes

assumed by males of the same standing in society as the

_ females last mentioned, especially in the Southern Province;

* No. 35,800. District Court of Colombo, South, before Judge Langslow, for

eompelling Defendant to marry Plaintiff—a witness stated: “the defendant ad-

_ dressed the plaintiff ‘Ado Hami,’ she him “ Pulle;” and when she called him so,

he called her “bui” (Dear). I believe them to be very endearing terms.”—See

Judge Langslow’s notes of the evidence.

256 Terms of address in use

but it may be observed that it is a term more appropriate to

a female.

In the Kandian Provinces 2)926e09 is the highest title

of a lady of distinction, second only to a 2)®96 or Royal

Princess. QnSOacds, “Her Highness” is the feminiue

form of O@HS9eo, which Mr. Stark says at p. 70, on

the authority of Clough, is equivalent to “ Mr.” The former

may therefore be regarded as equal to Mrs., and is only apphi-

ed to a gentlewoman; whilst ©&)209 is decidedly the

designation of the plebeian female. ©, 3@2) which means,

literally, a “gem,” is the term for “ gentle lass,” although

it is frequently used towards those who have attained a good

old age. This last term which had once fallen into disuse,

is again current throughout the low country, and it is

applied in the same manner in which it was originally done,

by being applied to the ladies amongst the Singhalese.

The above are the honorary titles of the vedlales, all other

castes being entitled to different other designations, such as

SNHTOS and sndd, the wife and daughter respectively

of a ‘smith’; 6@ a ‘ washer woman,’ &c. &c.

My limits forbid my entering more deeply into the subject —

than I have done. I shall therefore proceed to notice a few ©

other matters of interest, to which Mr. Justice Stark alludes

in the essay to which I have so frequently referred. Of 2

these, the terms by which Kandians designate their children —

as to size (p. 76.) demandattention here. Mr. Stark notices q

only two, loku and tikirt, whilst there are no less than five —

words which convey the respective ages of children or

persons ina family. Thus, dohu is the ‘eldest’ of a family; —

madduma or ‘middle’ is the next in gradation or age; huda 7

indicates next ‘small;’ éikiri ‘smaller’ still; and punchi the

‘smallest’ of all. In the maritime country, however, ¢hirt 3 7

is not used; and ¢vBoxnsd ‘ ebittan,’ a term peculiar to the

low country, is a‘ bit-boy,’ as applied to baba or ‘ baby,’ smaller —

than puncha or ‘ little one.’ A

amongst the Stnghalese. 257

The Pali or Tamil word atya, probably derived from the

Sanscrit arya* “the respectable,” is found in the Singhalese ;

and is used by us to signify ‘an elder brother’; and akka, which

is a Sanscrit word for “ mother,” is adopted in the Singha-

lese to designate ‘an elder sister.’ The use of these terms

denote the great respect with which the elder members of a

family are treated amongst the Singhalese; and it is well

known that elder brothers and sisters amongst us are never

mentioned or called by their proper names. When the terms

aiya and akka, assume a more endearing form, they are ex-

pressed ‘alyandi’ and ‘akkandi; and the same termination

(andi) is employed when speaking of a mother respectfully,

as ammandi. ‘The termination, in a similar application of the

words appa, ‘ father,’ and (bala-appa or) bappa ‘ uncle’ is tchz,

as appotchi, bappotchi.

As the above are nominal terms of address peculiar in their

use and application, so there are also nominal terminations

and verbal affixes in the Singhalese, to which I shall allude

here. Of nominal terminations, I may mention a peculiarity

which is not generally understood. It is in reference to the

use of names without honorific affixes. When persons address

each other without honorifics, they change the terminations

of the name from one vowel sound to another. They do so

with a view of conveying respect. Thus for instance podda,

‘little one’ is changed into poddé; Justina to Justiné; Cornis

to Cornisé, &c. Though the latter is the vocative form of

the noun, yet that form is adopted in the other cases also, witha

view to honor the person spoken of. Where, however, no

respect is intended, the proper termination of the name is

alone retained.

There are several verbal affixes. Of them, @232 Stha

denotes the highest respect, as in the passage Gauoqswdw

Worangwnadsay Hagaueaxde. So does Oyo

* See Pr, Wilson’s Hindu Drama, yol, 1, p. 113, note.

258 Terms of address in use

menawa, as in the Lord’s Prayer, ‘ Give us this day our daily

bread.’ padedsodn oI ss esvegg2=O S08.

Speaking of verbal affixes in the imperative mood, to

convey various degrees of respect to the person addressed,

I shall here exhibit a few of the changes which one solitary

word undergoes, when applied to different persons. Take

for instance €SJ ‘ to come:’

1 oddaesdsensje - to kings - FO _ Me.

2 BQed obs - tonoblemen - cmociodsdo.

Z . fbisIo or ao

3 BNIQEd @OJ - to Priesthood- peels)

‘4 - to a Samanéra 2 oo. 5.

4 Ec3enped Gyn heen heed.

5 H@OsMJensjow - toequals- - M@O5).

6 ANAS - - toinferiors - &ac.

(On oOc) - 7 ('° agentleman ) JO or Osseo.

ee < _) or an’ equal, ( a ee Dae

ems hespeutaublen ' SesVoend or G09

9 Sygore z _ or husband. *‘@222@an.

LO 0) GD ev ee) OG0S5,"

ll ses - : familiarly, -<~2oadsjJ@en.

12,08 - - akon) gs

13 eon - -) to menials or) D0. bby

14. @an5 - -> low caste +2ac033,

15 ©fIG or o3e@53) persons. QOooVeHIJ.

In reference to the variety of expressions used amongst

the Singhalese, the following extract from my Sidath San-

gara, p. lxiv., may not be out of place here. 7

“‘ There are numerous words in the Singhalese which are used towards

particular classes of people, e. £4 Ji DOMO SIO ‘ proceed,” is a term

peculiar in its application to the priesthood, whereas GNOBDOOSIO, 2

of the like signification, is applied to the nobility, and G@SJO, Seas, 7

SeCKSHAS, 6 @ to equals and inferiors of different grades.- So —

likewise Deca ‘eat’ is applied to priests, eacsesoa@DajJo

to nobles, a2y2J® to inferiors; and the last, with different modifications,

such as 2 0seJ, MADDGEns, ansoj, mvaslaS, an, J

Svcs, to equals and inferiors.” og

amongst the Singhalese. 259

So various are the modes of address, adopted by the Sin-

ghalese towards particular individuals, that the simple @9

“yes. used in familar intercourse, is changed into Yaw,

when the nobility are addressed ; and into MacnO&, when the

priesthood. The simple 2cy ‘no’ becomes @@3&, under

similar circumstances; and @w0¢& ‘good’ is changed to

ow523 and emedG.

Having thus considered the principal matters to which

Mr. Stark has attracted attention, I shall in the next place

notice the “ modes of reverence ” referred to in the following

paragraph.

“ There are several modes of reverence or obeisance among the Sin-

ghalese, the shoes also off :—placing the right hand on the breast, and

bowing ; joining the hands, raising them thus to the forehead, and bow-

ing ; falling on the knees, and so doing; and prostration on the face upon

the ground.” pp. 80, 81.

No native of the lower orders ever thinks of entering a Wa-

lauwa or “mansion” of a nobleman, without first leaving his

slippers at the gate. This is an ancient custom in the Hast,

which was enforced by Europeans for a very long time. Ben-

net, in his work on Ceylon, p. 100, notices a decision of Go-

vernment* respecting the assumption by natives of shoes and

stockings, which they did to avoid being obliged to leave their

* “My, John Brixius De Zielfa, the present assessor of the District Court of

alee. kL. es who wore shoes and stockings in Court with my unqualified ap-

probation, was refused admission into the Cutcherry with such European append-

ages. That gentleman felt that, as a British subject, he had as great a right to

wear shoes and stockings as those who were of European birth; but as the Col-

lector chose to make a reference to the Governor, which was followed by the most

extraordinary decision, that ‘ His Excellency would not sanction the adoption of

the most comfortable portions of the European and Native costumes; and that the In-

terpreter must choose one or the other; Mz. De Zielfa relinquished his visits to

the Cutcherry, rather than the comforts of his adopted dress.” A writer in the

Calcutta Review, December 1849, p. 381, defends the policy of a similar decision in

India; but the reader will perceive how different are the costumes of the turban-

clad Hindu, and the comb-wearing Singhalese, and therefore how very inap-

plicable are the writer’s remarks to Ceylon, even if they can be justified upen

other grounds: “ How much excitability, for instance, has been shewn (says the

260 Lerms of address in use

slippers at the gates of gentlemen whom they visited; and

we know of instances in Colombo, where natives of the highest

families were refused admission into European houses, because

they departed from the ancient custom of leaving their

slippers at the door. But, happily, the times are changed!

We perceive a great social change in the conduct of Eu-

ropeans towards natives. From the adeption of English

customs we auger happy results, amongst which (although

the remark may excite a smile in certain quarters) I may

almost predict, the abolition of caste-distinctions and class-

prejudices. To proceed:—However stringent was the

original custom in regard to going barefooted in the presence

of the nobility, there seems to have been but little distinc-

tion in the forms of salutation. According to these forms

one is entitled to be saluted (except he be a very low-

caste person) in the same manner that he salutes his

host; for, in the modes of saluting, by clasping the hands,

there is no distinction between the noble aristocrat and the

humble plebeian. The etiquette amongst the Singhalese is,

that a female ought to raise her hands to the forehead, whilst it

suffices if a male should only lift them up so high as the

tip of her fingers might reach his lips. In the Galle Dis-

trict, it is a serious offence not to return the salutation of a

person; and so scrupulous are they in this respect, that

the late first Maha Modliar, Illangekoon of Matura, never

failed to return the compliment to all the Singhalese who

writer) in respect to what has been called ‘the shoe question.’ Taking off the

shoe or slipper, was no custom introduced by the English. It was, and has been,

the established custom of India for ages. If the natives of India claim a conformity

to our customs, let them have it by all means on equal terms. Let them have

their purgris or turbans in the ante-chamber. A native of whatever degree is

perfectly well aware that he cannot call upon a native of high rank, without

submitting to his country’s etiquette; and he will conform to it without a demur,

though he grudges to do so to an European of equal rank. The Bengalis are the

only natives (and only a small section of them) who object to it. Why they do

so object we never could comprehend. The Greeks, a far more independent,

polished, and intellectual people, always left their slippers in the lobby.”

“ai

’

)

amongst the Stnghalese. 261

paid him the respect by bowing with an edili,"—by which is

meant the obeisance made by the clasping of the hands to-

gether. Ofcourse he never raised his hands to the face when

9 Padua ora Tom-Tom beater was the saluter ; but even in the

ease of such persons, he, as is the practice in nearly all the

parts of Ceylon where ancient customs are strictly adhered

to, made an inclination of his hand or hands, as the case

may be, by raising them up in the form of a semi-Salaam

of the Hindus. With regard to others of inferior classes,

no distinction is ever shown by those who correctly under-

stand the etiquette on the subject. A Budhist priest, or

Budha is to be worshipped pasanga pihitawa, (Sxa88B08)

as we read in innumerable passages in the Budhist scrip-

tures, that is, by touching the ground with five parts of the

body of the saluter. ‘his is difficult to be explained with-

out a representation; but if the reader will only fancy a

person falling down on his face,f and then lifting up the

body supported by the forehead, the two elbows, and the

knees—and then putting his clasped-hands to the forehead,

he may perhaps get some conception of a person prostrating

in the manner indicated by pasanga pihita.t

It. is pleasing indeed to see well trained natives make the

usual salutation between man and man; for they do it in as

graceful a manner as a Frenchman makes a bow. On the

contrary, nothing can be more offensive to the sight than

* In the Anjali (Sanscrit) or respectful obeisance, (says Professor Wilson,)

the head is slightiy bowed,.the palms of the hands are brought together, and

raised literally to the middle of the forehead, so that the tips of tke thumbs only

are in contact with it. Hindu Theatre, Vol. 11, p. 108.

+ “I fell at his feet to worship him.” Rev, xix. 10.

} This is the same form of “ worship,” which the Rev. S. Hardy in his Eastern

Monachism, p. 25, describes as being -performed, “ with his forehead to the ground,

and touching the ground with his knees and éoes.” But Mr. Hardy is wrong in

saying that the “toes” should touch the ground. For “ toes,” read “elbows.”

1858 a

262 Terms of address in use

the half-English and half-Singhalese salutation of some, the

nolens-volens nod of others, and the ill-looking bow of that

foreign people whom a Gajabahu made the settlers of the

Alootcoor Korle. Like their outward forms of salutation,

their language, too, is a mixture of Singhalese and foreign

idioms, and is different from that spoken by the real descen-

dants of the Sinha race.

Amongst the Singhalese,'a present of some little thing,

when made by an inferior to a superior, is considered as a

high mark of respect ; and to refuse it is to insult the donor.

The Natives usually take forty leaves of bitel, as the arghya*

of our Hindu neighbours, on visiting their chiefs. A “ pingo,”

or hada of cakes and fruits is not unfrequently presented ; and

this is ornamented with white tender leaves of the cocoanut

palm. Amongst equals, presents are exchanged as a mark

of attention; and, if from a low-caste man, one of a higher

caste receives a favor, the latter shows his respect by

visiting the former with a pingo, which he takes no farther

than the stile of the low-caste man’s garden.

Whilst it is a fact that all classes reciprocrate the com-

mon courtesies of life, it is also a fact, and one worthy of

attention —that the Budhist priests, who receive the homage

of the laic, never return the obeisance of any one.

This is, perhaps, from a notion that as a “son of Budha,”

and indeed, one of ‘ the three gems of adoration,’ the priest is

entitled to the same reverence,t which Budha exacted from

all beings. For, it is stated by that sage, in his first dis-

course in the Pardajika, on being remonstrated by Viranja

against what he considered an unjustifiable departure from

decorum and propriety on the part of Gowtama, by not

* “She comes with an arghya, a present indicative of respect to a superior.

It matters not of what it consists.”"—Wilson’s Hindu Theatre, 1. p. 312.

+ “The protection of the Sangha cannot be received by any one who sits near

a priest without permission.’—Hardy’s Eastern Monachism, p. 210.

=~ we eres

ESS Si ORAS S AS

ah ©

es 6a ee

amongst the Singhalese. 263

reverently saluting venerable Brahmins; such asthe aged,

the honorable, the experienced, and the far advanced in life—

that there was not a single being amongst Brahmas, Gods,

Sramanas, or Brahmins in the whole universe of the

Brahama, the Dewa, and the human worlds, whom he should

reverently salute, in whose presence he should rise, or

whom he should invite to be seated.*

The scriptures, too, receive the same reverence from the

votaries of Budha, which they pay to the priesthood. For,

as Mr. Justice Stark properly observes (see p. 72) “ the

Jdatakapota, or the book of Incarnations is styled JAtaka-pot

whanse.” As to the respectful posture in which the scrip-

tures should be listened to, it is stated in the Léweda-san-

grahya, that “ one should neither sit on high whilst the bana

is read on the ground, nor stand up whilst it is read on

high.”— i ;

CAQSTDO HAV NHAMAIoasd

50, BDGAQCROmaTasl ©

The Rey. S. Hardy thus notices the subject, in his work

on Eastern Monachism.

“The Sramana receives worship from the householder, and he forms

part of the Sangha, in which all Budhists profess to take refuge, when

they repeat the three-fold formula of protection. ‘The priests never

make obeisance to any one, and never pay any outward mark of

respect. In the books, they are represented as using the word fo, a form

of the second person singular that is offensively low, when addressing

Kings, or even deities; all other persons use the honorifie form of

the verb, when addressing them, but they never use it in return; they

receive honor from all beings, in all forms; but they never give it to

any being in any form.”—p. 414.

Mr. Hardy is substantially correct in what he states in

the above extract; but the remark respecting to, as being the

pronoun used by the priest to the layman, requires qualifica-

* The habits of the Singhalese in respect of the outward marks of respect and

attention to Superiors, accord with those of the Hindus; as enjoined by Manu in

his Institutes, ii. § 185.—See also, Zr. Asiatic S&. iii. p. 198., et seq.

264 Terms of address in use

tion. It is possible that this “form of the second person

occurs in books translated from the Pali into the

singular,”

Singhalese; but I have never met with a single passage in

any original Singhalese work in which a priest is made to

address a laic, much less a King, or a God, with a pronoun

“that is offensively low.” ‘The word that I have always met

with in my reading, as the pronoun used by the priest to the

laic (except indeed where the Pali co twan is rendered

literally into Singhalese) is@28 or ©5098, the form of the

second person plural, which I need not inform the reader,

becomes like other terms of address when used in the plural

form, an honorific.*

I shall content myself with five examples :—

1 In the Attangalu-Wansa, Nanda Mahe Thera is

made to address his royal pupil, Srz Sangabo, who was also

his nephew, with @a8 you, thus: gaidHDomss dated

onan J qpisidaslawd O86 NeOnaMd Send oxs

ED, DSCDGHOG SA BEBMQAVIEVIC SI SESIQ MDS

gon PST NOCR BED) OOO’ DET MONS}, ONS) cH

S_B QOD ers GOES EHeMEE QGAiWsIOO rd}

oda edenes 860 HMiGwwengrdoaniBeda...¢r.

“«“ Afterwards, one day, his uncle Nanda Maha Thera recited

pirit to Prince Sri Sangabo, who had attained his majority ;

and, after he had heard Bana, addressed him as follows:

‘ Most noble Prince, (@28) you have now mastered the Bud-

histical doctrines, and also the inferior arts and science.’” &c.

2. The same prince having afterwards refused to assume

* The plural form of the second person may be properly used with the ephithet,

Lord, Master, &c. c. ¢. OS 5) Om9S HkVE QQ s2 Siew LDF oes

CEs, ae ANGE QHYOas9erO QeaSe. « My Lord (address-

ing Budha) did you obtain this unshaken firmness from the goddess of earth?

Are you Sakkra? Axe you Brahma?’—Sarwagnha-gundlankara.,

amongst the Singhalese. 265.

the reigns of Government, is thus addressed by the pr EGS

upon the earnest solicitations of the populace :—

ONBGaACNDEeE Das ae HSadWesia, ke.

“There is much merit that @oy8 you have acquired,” &c.

3. King Milindu is thus addressed by Nagaséna théra in

the Milindapprasna; and this be it remembered is like the

last, a translation from the Pali:—

WDNSCHODAB QSNSIAHDENG GCSEs MDC gama

BeS SOeCowe. “He inquired, ‘ Monarch, where is the

city of (@SG@G) your birth,’” &c.

4, Inthe Tupéwansa the priest Maha-sup is represented

as speaking to King Ajatasastru thus: OHNO CPEnNDacs

Arepdnsassd . HAmasSVa ouedasonS &de0

GEE) DeMAwBEDD QMO SB wdosOssean dys

SLBDEBO OAMMRBwnes MIVWMAD BDVOsJasd

VECHwMS. “ He said, Monarch, danger is to be apprehended

in future to the venerable relics, from (the malignity of) heri-

tics. It is as well, whilst there are kings eminently faithful

5. Mahaséna,a God of Swarga is addressed by Assa-

eupta théra with fepi, “ you,” in the following passage in the

Milindapprasna:—

YO) Besid Ommades CDWHSHaDA aOnFOsacls.

AIS HIND O_QNnaGlaMcasMmns9 GEDBIAeGI Eng}

eS GBedejoOdaw ego Hes DEWLS QAOwnmwen

BO HQWAMTTAD sOMBamarsd QNSWLS QeQOn.

*¢ Hail your divine Majesty Mahasena; we who always

behold with our divine eyes these six heavens besides the

human world, have failed to perceive any one besides yourself,

who is able to defeat King Milindu in his artful dialectics,

and thereby to nourish the religion of Budha.”

I have already made a passing allusion to maq@asdsy

“Long life,” as a term of greeting amongst the Singhalese.

I may here also mention that we use another term which is

266 Terms of address in use

MAS eeZIAMOQEsIOD “may your life be preserved ” ; and it

is not unusual amongst us to bid one—Subagaman, which

literally means “ Fare-well.” The usual mode of taking

leaveamongst the Singhalese, is by asking Awasara, “Leave”—

although amongst equals we frequently say, OOD @a@B8sd

Denese, “I shall go and return,” quite different from the Tamil

Varum, simply, “I will come.”

With the above my observations on the forms of saluta-

tion and modes of address amongst the Singhalese, termi-

nate; but, before I conclude, I cannot forbear making a few

remarks on what Mr. Stark considers the connection between

“3@ “the royal colour,” and “the title of the great.”

“* Nila was thus perhaps what may be called the royal or government

colour, and words of that formation may be so derived. There was a

&E@S (nilame) or Nilleme at the head of several of the departments.

It was the title usually given to any high official, and itis still the title

of the great officer of government in the temples.

“The term in question may, I conceive, be so rendered accordingly.

Thus when the valiant Gaja-bahu Raja, whose city (unlike the banquet

house of a great king as his ministers ignorantly represented) had been

entered by an enemy, and many captives taken, at length resolved on

an expedition for their recovery, he went out from the council with

HEN05¢E09 (neela yéday4) the great officer of war. These words,

however, have been rendered ‘ Neela the giant,’ and ‘the great giant

Neela,’ as if S3@ were a proper name, and not like #3@e5 nileya,

(nilaya) and 3G M@ (nilatala) an office, place or situation,”—p. 79.

There is no more .connection between Mila as a ‘ colour,

and Nila as an ‘ office,—than there is between nzl/ as

the verb, “to be unwilling,” and nil as the noun which

signifies “the shining spark of brass in trying and melting

the ore.” Nor is the appellation of Gajabahts giant, who ~

accompanied him on his expedition to the Solian country,

derived from Mila (blue colour,) any more than is the Wila

Purdna of the serpent God,* or the great Nila, that lofty

* See Asiatic Researches, Vol, xy.

CSS ee ae anal

‘ F eae 3 me

OF RE i a aril Fa iat an ar ae rnc SES

amongst the Singhalese. 267

and sacred mountain of the Ramayana, whose summit was

of pure and bright gold.*

As respects colour Mr. Stark adds.

“The great colour was 43@ (nila) the colour of the sky and ocean,

and like these, indeed, susceptible of many shades from green to dark

blue; but commonly denoting this last, the colour of Vishnu’s garment.

It is to this colour allusion is so often made in the descriptive writings

of the Singhalese poets; as when they sing the praises of feet, soft and

beautiful ‘ as the full blown lotus.’

Henne G@ySS so Gesove

“So also when they speak of ‘lotus hair, and the Goer

(nilanekara) or blue ornament of dark eyes,”—p. 78,

The Singhalese are, doubtless, great admirers of blue as a

“colour”; yet it is not to that colour which allusion is so

often made in the descriptive writings of the poets, as

supposed by Mr. Stark. When in singing the praises of the

feet, the poet compares them to oWOCHSEaS “the full

blown tender lotus,” he only compares them to the broad

formation, and the tenderness, of the flower—by no means

intending to convey its colour. For #06, asa name for the

lotus, is a generic term. It may either be the white or the red

lotus; but it never signifies the Nelumbium speciosum, which is

distinguished by nélupul; as when we speak of a nilupules?,

‘ blue-lotus-eyed,’ a term for ‘woman,’ expressive of her

beauty as ‘belle,’ isin English. The hair, it is true, is com-

pared to blue objects, as the tail of a peacock, and sometimes

to green objects, as the Valesnaria octandra;+ but never, as I

apprehend, to the lotus: and the reason for this, what may

seem to be, a strange comparison is—not that ila, “ blue,”

_is considered to be a “great,” “ government,” or “ royal,”

| colour; but that the Singhalese did not anciently draw a

* The fact however, that one and the same word can in the course of time

assume various forms for various objects, proved as it is by numberless examples,

| requires no further support.—Bopp’s Comp. Gram., p. 16.

+ See my Sidath Sangra, Note ap. p. xcyiii.

268 Terms of address in use

distinction between green, blue, and black. Thus, when we

say, “3@oa00 in respect of our eyes, we do not mean,

“blue ornament of dark eyes,” but simply the darkness

of one’s eyes, or the dimness which one feels on getting a fit

of fainting.

But Mr. Stark is right when he understands the phrase

QYMIO lotus-mouth, as referring to “red lips;” for it is

remarkable that whilst western nations sing the praises of

the lips signifying the mouth, in a limited sense ; the orientals

speak of the mouth in a like sense to signify the lips. M@o

is specifically the “ red lotus,” and in comparing the mouth

to that flower, we only convey the redness of the lips, as the

English bard conveys the same idea, by referring to Coral.

Speaking of tambara Mr. Stark, thinks that “it might well

give occasion to the same name as a designation of the

Island, S»SQS8543 ‘ Tambraparni, red leaf, whence the

classic appellation for Ceylon, Taprobane.”—p. 78.

The origin of this word is no longer a matter for specula-

tion. It is well known that it is derived from Zamba-

vanna, “ copper colour,”—that hue which seems to be held so

sacred amongst the Hindus, that, according to the institutes

of Manu, (Cap. iv. § 130), it is an offence to pass over even

the “shadow of a copper-coloured man”: but Lam glad of

the opportunity thus presented, of correcting an error into

which the learned translator of the Mahawansa has madvert- ~

ently fallen.

Dr. Mill, in recording his opinion on “ this most authentic

History of Ceylon ;” says, in the Bengal Asiatic Society’s

Journal, for December 1836 ;—

“This real origin of the celebrated name Taprobane (Galera may

be thought of the story connected with it in the Mahawansi, and which ..

may seem with greater probability to have arisen from the Tamra-varna, —

or copper colour, of its southern cliffs near Matura, so well known to —

Navigators)—is one of the points of curious and interesting information. —

amongst the Singhalese. 269

which we owe mainly to this publication of Mr ‘Turnour. Whatever

had been before suggested on the probable origin of that name, so little

now known except in these Budhistic Books, as one of the proper names

of the great island of Lanca or Singhala-dwipa, was in the highest degree

forced and improbable (ex. gr. the Hind Tupuvi-Raban; or the Island

of Ravana.”)—p. 830.

Now Dr. Mill was quite right in thinking it was more

probable that this name was derived from témra-varna

(which is tamba-vanna in Pali) “copper colour,” than from

tamba panniyo, “copper palmed,” given in Mr. Turnour’s

version of the Mahawansa. For, it appears that Mr. Turnour

has fallen into this error by taking the text to be Tamba

pannatthu panniyo. And although he has corrected the text

in his Errata, by giving as the correct word Tambavanattha

panayo, he has, nevertheless, failed to rectify the error in the

Translation,—an omission by which he has permitted the

passage to remain thus: —

“At the spot where the seven-hundred men, with the King at their

head, exhausted by (seu sickness, and faint from weakness) had landed

out of the vessel, supporting themselves on the palms of their hands

pressed on the ground, they sat themselves down. Hence, to them the

name of Tambapanniyo (copper-palmed, from the colour of the soil.)

From this circumstance that wilderness obtained the name of Tamba-

panni. From the same cause also this renowned land became cele~

brated (under that name.)—Mahawansa, p. 50.

With all the deference due to the memory of so dis-

tinguished an Orientalist as Mr. Turnour, I venture to offer

the following translation:

«The seven-hundred men, with the king at their head,

who had come from thence, landed out of the vessel—ex-

hausted and faint from weakness; and sat themselves down

by pressing the palms of their hands on the ground. Where-

by their palms became (tamba-vunna, ) copper coloured. From

this circumstance that wilderness obtained the name of Tam-

apanna; and from the same cause also this renowned land

became designated by that name.”

1858] | 2N

270 Terms of address in use

The Tika has the following explanation, to which we

append a Translation; and it fully bears out the correctness

of the text and the conjecture of Dr. Mill.

Tambapanna yaté ahiti—yatd, yasma tamba bhumi-rajéhi phutthatta

tésanpani tambawanno ahési; tatdtasm4 sdpadésdécha évasaddéna gahita-

metta nagarancha ayan dipéchati imé sabbé tambap4nina maka ahésunti

atthd. S

That is:— Tanbapanni yato ahiti, &c.—signifies “ Since by

reason of touching the dust of copper-coloured earth, their

palms became copper coloured; by reason thereof was this

province, the city (built therein), and this Island, designated

Tambapani,” &c.

Having thus ascertained the origin of this classic appel-

lation for Ceylon, I purpose, before concluding, to advert to

an important topic suggested by the following remarks on

the subject by Dr. Mill: — |

‘Whenever corresponding words in the Palz and Singhalese occur,

as they do every where, I believe it will be invariably found that the

latter (the vernacular words of the people of the Kandian and Maritime

provinces of Ceylon,) resemble most closely the Sanscrit original of

both :—whereas the former, the sacred language, takes in all words that

admit of it, the same sort of peculiar variation which belongs to the

tongues of northernmost India,—showing evidently that it was ¢hence,

and not from Ceylon, that the peculiar language as well its institutions of

Budhism came to the Island,—as the Mahawansi itself distinctly asserts.

To take but one out of the many instances that might be alleged, we

may give one of the most remarkable and early names of the Island, viz.

Tamba-pannyo, as the Pali name is given in p. 35 of this specimen of

the Muahawansi, viz. the ‘copper-palmed;” in Sanscrit Tamra-pani.

Now this Sanscrit form, so different from the Pali, is actually the present

Singhalese for the same thing, as 1 was assured by a competent scholar

on the Island; and a very convincing proof that it has ever been so, may .

be seen in the name by which the Island was universally known to

the ancients and to Cosmas Indicopleustes when he visited it, viz.,

TAPROBANE. ‘The Greeks would be just as unlikely, to introduce

this r where it did not exist, as any other languages of India, besides

the northernmost ones would be to drop it where it before existed : but

this is a universal character of the Pracrit and of the present Hindui,

oo Ss ee

a a ee

;

amongst the Singhalese. 271

(as seen in this word, zamba, copper, Kam, “work” for harm, &c. &c.

&c.).—RBeng. A. Society's Journal, vol. v., p. 830.

Without controverting the main position of the learned

Doctor, viz., that there was a connection between the History

of Ceylon before the Christian era, with that of Maghada,

or that part of northern* India which we now call Bihar ;

I may be permitted to remark that the Singhalese resembles

the Pali more than the Sanscrit ;+ and this is the case not

only in respect to the general structure of the language, but

in reference to the particular appellation given to this

“utmost Indian isle, Taprobane.”

For, although Dr. Mill states on the authority of what he

regarded a “competent scholar on the Island”—that “the

Sanscrit form (tamra-pani) so different from the Pali, is

actually the present Singhaleset for the same thing ;”

nevertheless very clear that the Singhalese word, Zammana

for the same place,§ is derived from the Pali, and not from

the Sanscrit.. From the fact, that this Island was anciently

called Taprobane hy Western nations, especially the Greeks,

who, it is probable to suppose, “ would be just as unlikely to

introduce this 7 where it did not exist, as any other nations

of India; besides the Northernmost ones wouid be to drop it

where it before existed ;”—-a presumption doubtless arises in

it is

favor of this name having been of Sanscrit origin. But we

cannot give much weight to this presumption, when the same

facts upon which it is based may render the truth of a different

hypothesis probable, viz., that the Greeks, after the Wijayan

era, were indebted for the name to persons who expressed

* “Our language furnishes us with strong evidence against the supposition

that it belongs to the Southern class of languages.” — Sidath Sangara, p. vii.

J The Singhalese became incorporated with Sanscrit forms only at a very

recent date. See Sidath Sangara, pp. xXx. liii. clxiv.

{ {In Singhalese historical works, Tambapanna is called Tammana; See Raja-

Walia, and Forbes’ Eleven Years in Ceylon, vol. 1. p. 11. Also Upham’s works,

imivol, ii., pp. 174-5.

§ “They returned from their destruction to Tammana-nuwara, or the city of

| Tammana.” — Réjawalia.

272 Terms of address in use

themselves in Sanserit, or in a dialect of Sanscrit origin.*

For, whilst it is quite clear from the writings of the Greeks,

that they were indebted to others} at a comparatively modern

date, (after the Christian era) for the information recorded

by them, it is a fact that ancient rock inscriptions, recorded

in India by the great Monarch Aséka (B. c. 259.) contains

the name Lamba-panni, without the Sanscrit r, and in the

integrity which it occurs in' the Mahawansa ;— and this too,

be it remarked, in a sentence which gives two Sanscrit names,

“* Satiyaputtra ” and “Katalaputra ”—the Pali of which would

be, Satiyaputta and Kutaliputta. I extract the following

passage from the Girnar Inscription.t

« Every where within the conquered Provinces Raja Piya-

dasi, the beloved of the Gods, as well as in the parts occupied

by the faithful, such as Cholu, Pida, Saiiyaputra, and Katali-

putra, even as far as Tambapanni—and moreover, within the

domains of Antiochus the Greek.” &c. &c.

The Singhalese word Yammana, clearly bears greater

affinity to the Pali Zaméapanna, than to the Sanserit Tam-

brapant ; and this relation may be further illustrated by the

greater resemblance between those two languages, than be-

tween the Sanscrit and Singhalese. I propose to exhibit this

by presenting the reader with a number of words; and with

that object i submit the following observations :—

An opinio. seems to prevail that the Sanscrit is entitled

to greater claiias to originality than the Pali; and peculiarities

* “T am inclined to suggest that the name of Tambapani, Tambapanni, Tambra-

panni of the Fali historians, which has been converted into Taprobane by those.

of the Western world, may have had its origin when Vijeya and his followers

made known their first conquest in Lanka to the race from which he was descended,

and from whom he had been expelled ”— Forbes, vol. 1, pp. 10. 11.

} There is a river called Tambrapani in the southern Peninsula of India, and

it is not improbable that the Natives of India pronounced the Pali word (Tam-

bapanni) according to the peculiarity of their own language, and in accordance.

with the name with which they had been already familiar, viz.. Tambrapani.

{ Bengal Asiatic 8. Journal, vol. vii., p. 159.

amongst the Singhatlese. 273

in the formation of the latter language have been exhibited

to show that it is a dialect of the Sanserit, if not immediately

transformed from that language.* Upon so important and

weighty a question—one, on which the learned world is much

too divided—it may not be proper to express an opinion with-

out fully entering into an investigation of the subject: nor is

it necessary for my purpose to doso here. My object at

present is briefly to show the particular relation which the

Singhalese bears to the Pali, and to explain that the Sanscrit

element in the Singhalese, to which Dr. Mill refers in the

paragraph above extracted from his notes, is one of compara-

tively modern introduction.f I shall briefly allude to several

peculiarities.

1. Jt is a phenomenon well known, that in many Sanscrit

words a 2) # is frequently followed by a @ sh; and that in

their corresponding Pali terms, the sh is changed into the

aspirate of k. ‘Thus:

&a%x8 vriksha into O.29Q rukkha, ‘tree.’

£559) kshama into V0 khama, ‘forgiveness.’

€x3< dakshina into €a3a)oH dakkhina, ‘south.’

<26 kshura into QO khara, ‘ razor.’ |

@2585) hshettra into OQox hhetta, ‘ field.’

On comparing the above with their corresponding Sin-

ghalese words, there is clear evidence that the Pali forms

are alone changed into the Singhalese. Thus,

San. Pali. Sine,

Se pcccs) OvssQ Ove *ruk’,

£8 OI HQ) E)©) * kama’,

* «From an examination of the structure of the Cuneiform-Persic, and

Zandic, the oldest forms of the dialects of ancient Persia, it is evident that both

have been derived from the Sanscrit: the relation which they bear to the latter

being analogous to the relation of the Fali or Prakrit to the same—of Italian

to Spanish or Latin.” —Journal of R. A. S. Great Britain and Ireland, vol. xvi,

part I, p. 194.

} See my Stdath-Sangara, p.p. xiviit, clxxxvit,

274 Terms of address in use |

San. Pali. Sing.

655M essa <n espeg ‘dakunu’.

TBO Qo 2n0 ‘kara’.

OSSLY OQ QIN * ket’.

It is unnecessary to multiply examples; but I may men-

tion the following, which easily occur to my mind; 322,

Seiag, Bes ‘an ascetic; O24, Ong), oat ‘eye’; K23,

wena, cei ‘demon’ GOr1ex8, @20sIQ, O04) ‘ niwan’;

C28, CQ, C35) a lack’; eas, e2atD, eal ‘an eye &c.

2. Another phenomenon to which I shall advert, is, that

when the Sanscrit vowel 77, which is not known to the

Pali and Singhalese, is found changed into another vowel in the

Pali, that same vowel is adopted in the Singhalese. Thus,

San. Pah. 3 Sing.

coats ryu CY wu os udu, ‘ direct’. .

©Qas mridu Qs mudu Qe mudu ‘ tender’.

aS rishi Qes ist @% ist ‘a Rishi’. z

cea rédhi 928 iddhti = idu.* ¢

238 prishtha G02 pittha 80 pita ‘back’. E

eae _griha Goss geha @o gé * house’. ’

<3=) dridha ess dalhu é@ dala ‘ coarse’. 5

NID) hrita END) hata are, kala ‘made’. i

wae hrida we hada we hada ‘ heart’.

Ena krimi BB kimi 233 kimi * worm’. €

@ad) mrita 25) mata @6 mala * dead’.

esIne srigtla Bme sigtla Bd sival ‘jackal’.

Qae8 vriksha OvesQ rukkha Ovess ruk ‘ tree’. |

3. It is well known that in the Palithe conjunct ris fre-

quently lost, which is found in the Sanscrit. When this <

is the case, the corresponding words in the Singhalese bear

a greater affinity to the Pali than to the Sanscrit. Thus, o

* A word signifying ‘the power to go through the air.’ ‘

‘f

amongst the Singhalese.

San.

mm tamra

DEM varna

Nox harna

Some parna

¢® ardha

O03) wastra

OQEIa) waktra

SBx irshia

@L5382) Ashetra

aaa shraddha

Pali.

OQ tamba

<n vanna

Aner hanna

| One panna

#2 addha

™s wattha

Dow watta

QWs rssa

OQ khetia

esdo)o saddha

Sing.

Sy@ ‘copper’.

20<5 hana * ear’.

oot pan ‘leaf’.

#) ada ‘half’.

]S) wat * raiment’.

OS) wat < face’.

@es isd ‘ enmity’.

@And) het § field’.

eave seda ‘ faith’.

| which this vowel sound is entirely lost.

oO aga * chief’.

aq) saga ‘ heaven’.

SIG) agga

BWSIG) sagga

oy 2

BOGKD swarga

GOA) sramana SD samana wOs>* ‘priest’.

Qo dharma QDS dhamma €® dam ‘ doctrine’.

4. The semivowel @2& az is unknown to the Pali, as it is

to the Singhalese. When we therefore take Sanscrit words

in which this letter occurs, and compare them with their cor-

responding Paliand Singhalese words, we obtain the same

results to which we have already adverted ; as for example:

San. Pali. Sin.

GOOG aishwarya QU0S Vissaria Q%{Ov isuru ‘ prosperity’.

GODIN airdwana OHO) erdwana OODsd erawanaa name.

GOMEA hailasea 8G hélasd QMDOCH heles a name.

GONE taila ONE tela ONG tel ‘oil’.

GODO vaira @OO vera GOO vera ‘hatred’.

5. The results are precisely the same when we compare

Sanscrit words in which the semivowel ow © occurs with

their corresponding words in the Pali and Singhalese, in

Thus, for instance,

San. Pali. Sing.

| @9%0) owshadha @ae dsadha BH ousu ‘drug’.

Oa gowra GEICO géra C©GNO gora ‘ white’.

* Vide ante, p. 245.

276 Terms of address in use amongst the Singhalese.

San. Pah. Sing.

GA) now SnD. nava 28 neva ‘ship’.

OO BD mowhtiha GS Ben muttika QQ mutu ‘ pearl’.

QO xO® rowrava ©0557 roruva O53O.D réruvaaname.

6. A silent s before certain consonants, which is to be

found in the Sanscrit, is lost in the Pali, except perhaps in

conjunction with v ©; and ,this is exactly the case in their

corresponding Singhalese words. Thus,

san. Pali. Sing.

Desey wastu Drone) watthu | wat ‘riches’.

danced t shandha DID khandha We handa ‘ trunk’.

BNE stambha G82~ thambha ©. ® temba ‘pillar’.

esepS} stuti OSD thuti 22H tut ‘ thank’.

ess asthin «OS atthi 2 eta ‘ bone’.

¢~so ashta ¢OQ attha @® ata ‘eight’.

63aSQ prishtha GO2® pittha GO pita ‘back’.

Gee pushpa 638 puppha Ged pup ‘smell’.

wl sthawira @OO thera 6:26 tera ‘ elder priest’.

ADSS tushti 2288 tutthi 229 tutu * gladness’.

medcn hasta - ASO hattha © hat ‘hand’.

* The Pali &) is changed into eg in the Singhalese, since the former sound -s

is not known to our language. See Sidath Sangara, p. liv.

+ For want cf Sanscrit and Pali types a few Orthographical errors have

been left uncorrected.

PROCEEDINGS OF MEETINGS

OF THE

Pee nwN ASTATIC SOCTETY,

EVENING MEETING,

HELD ON THE 2D OCTOBER 1856.

Present :—C, P. Layard, Esq., W. Skeen, Esq., R. Daw-

son, Esq., Li. de Zoysa, Esq., Dr. Willisford, Captain Dud-

ley, C. Lorenz, Esq., L. Neil, Esq., J.» Dalziel, Esq., M.

Coomarasamy, Esq., J. Neitner, Esq., Rev C. Alwis, Rev.

J. Thurstan and the Assistant Secretary.

Mr. Layard stated, that the object of the Meeting was to

take into consideration the mode in which this Branch of the

Asiatic Society could be revived and set in action. The

gentlemen present were all aware, that owing to different

causes, one of which was the removal from the Island of

several gentlemen of known scientific attainments who took

_an active part in the transactions of the Society, the Insti-

_ tution had been dormant for some time. It was however,

_ thought desirable that an effort should be made to revive it

now, and to obtain for it the support of the public; and it

had been intimated to him, that if the Society should suc-

ceed in obtaining the support so much desired, it would be

in their power to secure the publication of some works of

|Oriental literature of undoubted importance. Mr. Gogerly,

1858] a

li, Appendix :— Proceedings of

whose absence that night he (Mr. Layard) regretted, spoke

ina letter which had been just received, of the assistance,

which the Society might, if properly encouraged, derive from

its Native members. He also referred to Mr. de Alwis,

who was prepared with several papers on subjects of interest,

and to Mr. de Zoysa, whom he thought competent to under-

take the translation of the portion of the Mahawanso, which

had been left untranslated. by Mr. Turnour. Mr. Neitner

had some very valuable papers on the Natural History of the

Island, and he (Mr. L) believed there were others in

the Island, who would, with the opportunity afforded of

doing so, render much assistance in various other branches

of Science. It was therefore necessary, that the Secretary

shculd be instructed to call a General Meeting for the pur-

pose of electing Members and Office bearers. He (Mr. 1.)

had entertained hopes of obtaining for the Society the

services of Captain Oldfield as Secretary; but he regretted

to say that that gentleman, who was prevented from attend-

ing the meeting by an indisposition, had communicated that

his contemplated removal from Colombo would render it

impossible for him to accept the office. He had, however,

kindly promised, that while at Trincomalie, he would at all

times be ready to devote a portion of his time to the Society’s

service. They had therefore, not only to select a gentleman

for the office of Secretary, but also to elect members for a

Committee. It would be desirable, to ask His Excellency

the Governor to be the Patron of the Society, and the

See een ape hh cption

a ie ee 0 ae Aaa os oe ae Soe

Hon’ble the Chief Justice, who he, (Mr. L.) was glad to

find took a deep interest in the Society’s welfare, as Vice-

Patron. Among other matters of difficulty which the

Society had to contend with at present, the want of a place

to transact business in, was perhaps not the least. He, Mr.

Layard, had spoken to several gentlemen on the subject, and

it was suggested by some, that this want might be remedied

Evening Meeting, Oct. 2d, 1856. ill.

by the erection of a stery over the United Service Library.

Indeed he (Mr. Layard) could name gentlemen who had

promised to subscribe £10 each towards the purpose, which

he thought could be easily effected. The Colonial Secretary,

with whom he had also conferred, had expressed his willing-

ness to aid in the promotion of the measure, and if a repre-

sentation were duly made, he (Mr. L.) had no doubt that

they might be able to secure the sanction of the Government

as well as a grant from the Legislature for making such

necessary alteration in the U.S. Library, as should render a

portion of that building available for the use of the Society,

and for a Public Museum. To facilitate the attainment of

the object in view, he had, through the kindness of Mr.

Churchill, procured a plan of the proposed alterations, which

he (Mr. L.) had great pleasure in laying before the Meeting,

Mr. Alwis stated, that owing to certain repairs which the

rooms of the Loan Board had lately undergone, it had become

necessary to remove the Society’s Library and its Museum

(which had been in those Rooms) into an apartment of the

Colonial Secretary’s Office, and that the Society at present

had no place in which they could meet or transact business.

Owing to the causes to which Mr. Layard had referred, the

Society had been dormant for some time past. Its last Gene-

ral Meetine was held so far back as February 1854, and no

Committee Meeting had been convened since the 17th August

of that year. The Proceedings of those Meetings would be

found published in the Society’s Journal for 1853-54, which

had yet to be issued to the subscribers. It was, however, gra-

tifying to notice, that owing tothe hberality of Government,

and the kindness of the gentleman who presided over its Print-

ing Hstablishment, the last volume of the Journal, which con-

tained several interesting papers, extending over 300 pages,

had been printed without any expense to the Society. It

was attributable to this circumstance, that they were able to

1V. Appendix :—Proceedings of

find on reference to the accounts of the Treasurer, a balance,

though a trifling one, in favour of the Society. It amounted

to £8 7s. 3d., and would doubtless have been larger, had the

subscriptions of the two past years been collected. The

omission to do this was not unintentional. 4 was considered,

that while the operations of the Society were unavoidably

suspended, it was neither just nor fair to call upon subscribers

to pay. Ifit be the wish of this Meeting that these opera-

tions should be revived, it was not only necessary to select

a Secretary, but also desirable to place at the disposal of the

Society a room in which its Library might be placed, and its

proceedings held.

After some desultory conversation, in which several gentle-

men took part, Mr. Dawson remarked, that public support

should not be solicited, until the Society bad been completely

reorganized. It was most necessary to hold a Meeting, and

to appoint a Committee, before an application could be made

with anything like reason, either for the assistance of Govern-

ment or of the public. With regard to the proposal to build

a story over the Library, he (Mr. Dawson) feared that it

was not a practicable one. The Library was public pro-

perty, and although we might contribute to the erection of

an upper story, the building itself would remain vested in

the public, and not in the Society. He would therefore pro-

pose, that the Secretary might be instructed temporarily to

rent a house inthe Fort, and he thought that the funds of

the Society, though small, would enable them to do so, until

other arrangements could be made by which the Society

might be enabled to obtain a permanent place for the des-.

patch of business.

It was then Resolved:

1.—That Mr. Dawson be kindly requested to look for and

engage a building in the Fort, in which the Society might be

accommodated for the present. (Mr. Dawson expressed his

assent).

}

General Meeting, Oct. 11th, 1856. Via

2.—That the Assistant Secretary be instructed to convene

a General Meeting of the Society for Saturday the 11th

instant, at 4 Pp. M. (Dr. Willisford kindly promised to allow his

house for the proposed Meeting, which was accepted.)

3.—That a deputation consisting of Mr. C. P. Layard,

Dr. Willisford, Mr. Dawson, The Rev. Mr. Thurstan, Mr. J.

Alwis, Mr. Coomarasamy, and Mr. Lorenz, be requested to

wait on His Excellency the Governor, The Hon/’ble the

Chief Justice,and the Hon’ble the Major General, and to

request them to join the Society, and to allow themselves to

be nominated the Patron and Vice-Patrons of the Society

respectively : (assented to by the Gentlemen nominated as a

deputation. )

JAS. ALWIS,

Asst. Secretary.

POLLS

GENERAL MEETING, HELD 11TH OCTOBER 1856.

Present :—The Reverend D. J. Gogerly, in the Chair.

The Rev. J. D. Palm, C. P. Layard, Ksq., J. Bailey, Esq.,

George Lee, Esq., L. de Zoysa, Esq., M.Coomarasamy, Esq.,

R. Dawson, Esq., Capt. Dudley, W. Skeen, HEsq., C. A.

Lorenz, Esq., Dr. Willisford, J. Neitner, Esq., and the

Assistant Secretary.

Read the proceedings of the last Evening Meeting. Mr.

Layard said, that in accordance with the 3rd Resolution just

read, he had spoken to His Excellency the Governor intimat-

ing to him, on behalf of the Society, that a deputation was

appointed to wait upon him, and that His Excellency ex-

pressed his willingness to receive them ata time which he

would afterwards appoint. Mr. Dawson said, that he had

made inquiries, and had engaged at a rental of £1 per month,

two rooms behind the Chamber of Commerce, and that in his

vi. Appendix :—Proceedings of

opinion they were sufficient to hold the Society’s Museum

and Library. If however, they were deemed insufficient to

hold the Society’s General Meetings, he had no doubt that

the Chamber of Commerce would, on such occasions, gladly

accommodate the Society within their Rooms. esolved,

that the rooms engaged by Mr. Dawson be rented on behalf

of the Society at £1 per month, commencing from the Ist

November next. ;

The Assistant Secretary laid before the Meeting a Memo-

randum in which the Committee of 1854 resolved to dis-

continue the services of the Society’s Taxidermist, and to

appoint a peon atasalary of £1 per month, stating at the

same time, that the Suciety had no peon at present, and

that it would be desirable to engage one, especially to tale

charge of the Society’s new rooms.

Mr. Skeen drew the attention of the Meeting to the state

of the Society’s finances, and laid on the Table the accounts,

shewing a balance in favour of the Society, of £8 7s. 3d.

Read a letter from the Secretary of the Auckland Museum

to Mr. Dawson, requesting that that gentleman would use

his influence with the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic

Society, to forward to the Institution first mentioned, some

of the productions of this Island.

Resolved, on the suggestion of Captain Dudley, that a letter

be written to Colonel Hope, requesting that he would be

pleased to communicate to this Society the result of his

Meteorological observations,

The following Gentlemen were then proposed and elected

Members of the Society.

iste « Proposed by R. Dawson, Esq.

: Ma AO “4 Seconded by C. P. Layard, Esq.

§ Proposed by Dr. Willisford.

J. Neitn Jit Oe

Neitner, Esq ? Seconded by R. Dawson, Esq.

;

is ee TR eR CN ee ag ee eee ee eS

General Meeting, Oct. 11th, 1856. Vil.

§ Proposed by C. P. Layard, Esq.

"? Seconded by R. Dawson, Esq.

Proposed by C. P. Layard, Esq.

eee LOPE... { ae by R. pean Esq. ;

¢ Proposed by C. P. Layard, Esq.

"d Seconded by R. Dawson, Esq.

§ Proposed by C. P. Layard, Esq.

"t Seconded by R. Dawson, Esq.

§ Proposed by J. Alwis, Esq.

"Y Seconded by C. A. Lorenz, Esq.

Proposed by J. Alwis, E'sq.

ee by R. Dawson, Esq.

The Rev. ¢ Proposed by R. Dawson, Esq.

J. Thurstan .2 Seconded by C. P. Layard, Esq.

Major T. Skinner

F. Churchill, Esq.

Captain Gosset

L. Nell, Esq.

H. Ball, Esq.

The Office bearers and Committee, with the Patron and

Vice-Patrons of the Society for the current year, commenc-

ing from this date, were then nominated and appointed as

follows :—

Patron.

His Excellency the Governor of Ceylon.

Vice- Patrons.

The Hon’ble the Major General.

Sir William Carpenter Rowe, Chief Justice.

The Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of Colombo.

President.

The Hon'ble C.J. MacCarthy, Esq.

Vice-President.

The Rey. D. J. Gogerly.

Secretary.

Dr. Willisford.

Vill. Appendix :— Proceedings of

Assistant Secretary.

James Alwis, Esq.

Treasurer.

C. A. Lorenz, Esq.

Librarian, Curator, and Corresponding Secretary.

J. Neitner, Esq.

COMMITTEE.

George Lee, Esq. Dr. J. B. Misso.

C. P. Layard, Esq. L. de Zoysa, Esq.

M. Coomarasamy, Esq. kk. Dawson, Esq.

Major Skinner. L. Nell, Esq.

W. Skeen, Esq. | Rev. J. Thurstan.

The Assistant Secretary laid on the table two papers

which he proposed to read, viz. a translation of the Attanagala

wansa, or the History of three Kings, comprising an account

of King Sangatissa, during whose reign was set up the

so-called “glass pinnacle” which was at present a subject

of much inquiry in England. Also a paper on “ The

Titles of Address amongst the Singhalese.”

Mr. Layard presented a paper on the “ Principles of Sin-

ghalese Chronology,” by the Rev. C. Alwis. Mr. Neitner

stated, that he had several Entomological papers to present

to the Society, and that he would be glad if steps were taken

at once for their speedy publication.

The Chairman remarked, that according to the Rules of

the Society, it was desirable to submit all papers toa Read- —

ing Committee for their approval, before their publication —

could be sanctioned.

Resolved, that owing to the lateness of the hour, the subject

of the appointment of a Reading Committee be deferred till —

the next General Meeting.

General Meeting, Nov. 11th, 1856. 1X

Resoived, that the Treasurer be requested to collect sub-

scriptions for the current year, commencing from the Ist

instant, and that the next General Meeting be held in the

course of November next.

The business of the Meeting having ended,a vote of

thanks was given to the Chairman, and the Meeting

separated.

D. J. GOGERLY.

GENERAL MEETING, HELD 1ITH NOVEMBER 1856.

Present :—The Rev. D. J. Gogerly in the Chair.

L. Nell, Esq. , M. Coomarasamy, Esq., C. P. Layard, Esq.,

J. Bailey, Esq., W.Skeen, Esq., C. A. Lorenz, Esq., L.

De Zoysa, Esq., Rev. J. D. Palm, Rev. J. Thurstan, the

Secretary and Assistant Secretary.

The proceedings of the Meetings of October 11th and

November Ist, having been read and explained, the Secre-

tary called attention to the Resolution of the 11th October,

referring to the appointment of a Reading Committee.

Resolved, that the following gentlemen be requested to act

as such :—M. Coomarasamy, Esq., The Rev. D. J. Gogerly,

L. Nell, Esq., J. Neitner, Esq., J. De Alwis, Esq.

Resolved, that the following gentleman be elected as Cor-

‘responding Member of this Society, Dandries De Silva Goo-

-neratne, Mohandiram of Bentotte.

| Proposed by C. Lorenz, Esq.

Seconded by H. Muttukistna, Esq.

Resolved, that the Rev. B. Boake be elected as Ordinary

Member of this Society.

_ Proposed by C. P. Layard, Esq.

Seconded by J. Bailey, Esq.

Ax. De Alwis then procceded to read his Papers, entitled

Ks Appendix :—Froceedings of

‘s* Native Title of Address,” and “ The Attanagala wansa.”

Resolved, that these papers be referred to the Reading

Committee.

Mr. Coomarasamy having read a paper entitled a “ Synopsis

of the Saiva Siddantam, or The Religious Philosophy of the

Hindoos.” Resolved, that it be referred to the Reading

Committee for report.

The first No. of the Society’s Journal being out of print,

and frequent applications being made for the same, it was

resolved that Mr. Skeen be requested to reprint the first

No., and to furnish 100 copies to the Society.

Jas. ALWIS.

Assistant Secretary.

PEALE

GENERAL MEETING, HELD 27TH FEBRUARY 1857.

Present :—The Rev. B. Boake in the Chair.

J. Neitner, Esq., C. P. Layard, Esq., W. Skeen, Esq.,

H. Muttukistna, Esq., L. Nell, Esq., M. Coomarasamy, Esq.,

Rey. J. Kats, L. De Zoysa, Esq., and the Secretary.

The Minutes of the last Meeting having been read, and

confirmed.

Mr. C. P. Layard suggested, that as some of the specimens

of Natural History were evidently falling into decay, the

Secretary be authorized to incur any necessary charges in |

maintaining them.

The question having been discussed, it was resolved

accordingly. |

Resolved, that Messrs. Layard, Neitner, Skeen and Willis-

ford, be appointed a Sub-Committee to arrange and report on —

the Library and Museum.

Annual Meeting, Jan. 21st, 1858. Mas

L. Leisching, Esq., having been proposed by C. P. Layard,

Hsq., and seconded by J. Neitner, Esq.

He was elected accordingly.

Kh. W. WILLISFORD,

Secretary.

ANNUAL MEETING, HELD 21ST JANUARY 1858.

Present :—Dr. F. H. Kelaart, in the Chair.

The Rev. B. Boake, M. Coomarasamy, Esq., J. Aiwis,

Bsq., L. De Zoysa, Esq., Dr. Willisford, W. Skeen, Esq.,

and J. Capper, Esq.

The Minutes of the last Meeting having been read, the

Secretary proceeded to read the Report of the Committee

for the past year.

The Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society was re-

organized in October 1856, and having secured rooms for its

Library and Museum, affording far greater accommodation

than had previcusly been the case, has now 37 resident

and 32 non-resident Members. ‘To this number, it is hoped

tnere will be many accessions in the course of the present

year. The return to Ceylon of Mr. Capper, one of the

originators of the Society, is an event from which the Com-

‘taittee augur many and permanent benefits. His former

services are sufficiently conspicuous to need more than a

passing observation. The palmy days of the Society were

those in which that gentleman officiated as Secretary with

unflagging interest, and the most constant attention. To

the same duties he has kindly signified his willingness again

to devote his leisure and abilities; and the Committee have

_the greatest satisfaction in submitting his name as Secretary,

among the List of Office-bearers for the ensuing year, con-

sulle Appendix :—Proceedings of

jointly with Mr. Alwis, to whom the Society owes consider-

able obligation for his present services.

From other causes also, the Committee anticipate for the

future a more vigorous action in this branch of the Royal

Asiatic Society. During the construction of the Railway, and

from the contemplated sojourn in the Island of an enlarged

Military force, many scientific gentlemen will probably

arrive, from whose enlightened research much may be ex-

pected, and who will doubtless gladly avail themselves of

the facilities afforded by this Society for the Pe ean and

publication of their investigations.

From the Treasurer’s account it will be perceived, that the

income of the Society for the last 14 months has been £47

1s. 9d., exclusive of subseriptions not yet collected. Of the

amount already collected, £25 16s. 5d. have been expended,

leaving a balance of £21 5s. 4d. in the Treasurer’s hands,

Against this balance, however, there is a hability of nearly

£14, for house rent, for which, as yet, no demand has

been made; and considering that the purchase of several —

new works on Oriental Literature is thought desirable, the

necessity for increased aid in the way of donations and

subscriptions is manifest. Indeed, were it not for the libe- —

rality of the Government.in permitting the Journal of the —

Society to be printed free of expense at the Government s

Press, the funds of the Society could not have borne the —

outlay necessary for the publication of its papers. This ~

arrangement, however, while it has had the effect of saving 3

considerable expenditure, and has enabled the Committee to

issue their Journals in a superior style, is yet attended with

gome inconvenience, which the Committee hope, with the

sanction of the Society, they will shortly be able to obviate,

The inconvenience alluded to, 1s the delay, which from the a

large amount of work required for Government purposes, *

necessarily demanding the immediate attention of that estab-

Annual Meeting, Jan. 2\st, 1858. Xi.

lishment, inevitably takes place in the issue of the Society’s

Journal. To this cause is attributable the non-appearance

of a reprint of the Ist Number of the Society’s Journal,

which had been resolved upon, and of which copies are not

now to be had, and the delay that has arisen in the publica-

tion of the 4th Number of the new series, of which only 100

pages have been completed. To remedy this evil, it is pro-

posed that the Society should engage a Compositor, to be

employed under Mr. Skeen upon the papers now in hand,

so as to enable him to issue the forthcoming Number at an

early date.

Your Committee bring this subject thus prominently be-

fore the Society, as they have had several applications for

complete sets of the Journals, not only from subscribers,

and scientific gentlemen visiting Ceylon, but also from

Oriental scholars in England, which they have been un-

able to comply with, from the cause already stated.

The Journal now in course of publication will contain a

larger amount of information than any of its predecessors,

and of a character interesting alike to the scholar, the anti-

quary, and the man of science. It will consist of papers by

Mr. Neitner, describing numerous new species of Ceylon

Coleoptera; a Translation of certain chapters of the Maha-

wanse, describing the magnificent works for Irrigation con-

structed by King Parakkrama Bahoo, A. D., 1153-1186,

with an Introduction and Notes by Mr. De Zoysa; a Transla-

tionof the Attanagalawansa, or the life of Sri Sangala, with an

Introduction and Notes by Mr. J. Alwis; an Essay on Hindu

Philosophy, by M. Coomarasamy ; a Paper on the Singhalese

Method of computing Time, by the Rev. C. Alwis; anda

Paper on Honorary Titles and Modes of Salutation among

the Singhalese, by Mr. J. Alwis:—to which it 1s pro-

posed to add, a Paper on Singhalese Music by Mr. L. Nell;

one on new and interesting species of Nudibranchiate Mol-

XIV Appendix: — Proceedings of

luses, Sea Anemones and Planaria, found in the Harbour of

Trincomalie, by Dr. Kelaart; and also a paper by Mr. J.

Alwis, on the supposed identity between Nagasena, of Bud-

histical Annals, and Nagarjuna, the character who holds a

distinguished place in the Raja Tarangini. The three last

papers will be read to the Society, and the Committee have

no doubt but they will be found of sufficient interest to be

submitted to the Committee of Papers with a view to their

publication.

Your Committee desire to bring to the notice of the So-

ciety, the state of its Library and Museum.

In addition to the Reports and Medals of the Great

Exhibition of 1851, entrusted to the Society, the Committee

have to acknowledge the presentation by His Excellency

The Governor, of sixteen volumes of the original prospec-

tusses of the various exhibitors; the Reports and Medals of

the Paris Exhibition, awarded to this Island; and the

Report, &c., of the Madras Exhibition. They also beg to

acknowledge the receipt of many valuable works in the

course of the past year.

These presentations and donations invest your Society

with a character and importance which it is desirable to

maintain. As the only Literary and Scientific Institution

in the Island, the value of its Library cannot be over esti-

mated. ‘Travellers from several parts of Europe, to some of

whom your Committee have lately afforded access, have

thankfully acknowledged its worth. And to the Scholar

and the Orientalist it affords a fund of iowa which is —

elsewhere sought in vain.

In view of these considerations, therefore, your Committee

recommend the purchase of all works having reference to

Ceylon, with which the Library has not as yet been fur-

nished ; and also the acquisition of many Oriental works of

undoubted interest and usefulness, among which may be

Annual Meeting, Jan. 21st, 1858. XV.

enumerated, several of Professor Wilson’s publications, in-

eluding his Sanscrit Dictionary, and Grammar, and the

Laleta Vestra, the legendary Life of Budhu, now publishing

in the Bibliotheca Indica at Calcutta.

The Society's Museum, the Committee regret to state,

has, for some time past, from the want of a Curator, been

greatly neglected. This want they hope to remedy, by the

appointment to that office of a gentleman who has signified

his willingness to discharge the duties of the appointment

until the Society may be in a position to effect better arrange-

ments. Considering how rich Ceylon is in natural produc-

tions, it is to be lamented that the funds of the Society will

not allow of the appointment of a salaried Curator and

Taxidermist.

The Committee see no reason why Ceylon should not,

aided by Government, obtain a Museum, similar to those

which now flourish in South Africa, and in the P residencies

of India. The report of the former has been forwarded to

your Society, by order of His Excellency the Governor of

the Cape, with a letter from Mr. Edgar Layard, the Curator,

in which he expresses a hope that “ the Society may be dis-

posed to sanction a system of mutual exchange.”

The Committee would, in conclusion, urge upon the Mem-

bers individually the desirableness of increased efforts on

behalf of the Society.

To the resident Members in Colombo they would recom-

mend the resumption of the Evening Meetings, from which

in times past much benefit was derived. In the language of

a former Report, they “have a sensible influence on the

prosperity of the Society, tending as they do, to the opening

up of new subjects of enquiry, and generally imparting ad-

ditional vigour to the efforts of its Members.”

(FE. W. WILuISsFoRD.

Joint Secretaries -

mee | de Awe:

XVl. Appendix :—Proceedings of

TREASURER’S ACCOUNT.

1856. 1856.

Bee oie esa ae

Novy. and Decr., Reccipts...... 32 7 9 | Nov. and Dee. Disbursements 8 14 9

1857. 1857.

Jany. to Decr. Do. 1414 0 | Jany. to Decr. Do. UT eS

Balancenn handess ke eee en i

£47 1-9 AY {TG

C. A. Lorenz, Treasurer.

The Report having been adopted,—It was resolved, that

Mr. Skeen be authorised to engage Compositors at the So-

ciety’s cost to hasten forward the Journal.

The Secretary and Librarian were authorised to purchase

any new works on Ceylon, and to submit any others for pur-

chase to the Committee.

The following Gentlemen were then ballotted for, and

declared elected as Members of this Society.

Ra ’ Proposed by J. Alwis, Esq.

J Maitiond Lets oe by W. Sheen, Esq.

J. i Marks Bey Proposed by J. Capper, Esq.

Seconded by the Rev. B. Boake.

F. J. De Saram, Esq. § Proposed by Dr. Mee

7 ¢ Seconded by Dr. F. Kelaart.

Proposed by Dr. Willisford.

C. Kriekenbeck, Esq.

she Tiga somes 1 Seconded by J. Alwis, Esq.

Bo Moran Es —§ Proposed by J. Alwis, Esq.

uae er anee a U Seconded by J. Capper, Esq.

ne ee 7

J, Ae Dunumiile Bee roposed by M. Coomar ‘asaya |

Seconded by J. Alwis, Esq.

i — § Proposed by Dr. Willisford.

E. Ormiston, Esq. . $ :

ston eel ? Seconded by J. Capper, Esq.

eens Nee

Annual Meeting, Jan. 21st, 1858. XVIl.

The Secretary laid on the table the letters from the Cape |

Society of Natural History, and the New Zealand and

Batavian Society, and it was resolved that he be instructed

to reply to them forthwith with copies of the Society’s

Journal.

The following Members were then proposed and elected as

the Office bearers for the current year.

Patron.

His Excellency the Governor.

Vice-Patrons.

The Honorable Major General Lockyer.

The Honorable Sir C. J. MacCarthy, Colonial Secretary.

The Right Rev. The Lord Bishop of Colombo.

The Honorable Sir W. Carpenter Rowe, Chief Justice.

President.

The Rev. D. J. Gogerly.

Vice-President.

The Rev. B. Boake.

Secretary.

J. Capper, Esq.

Assistant Secretary and Librarian.

James Alwis, Esq.

Treasurer.

C. A. Lorenz, Esq.

Curator.

J. Maitland, Esq.

XVlil. Appendix :—Proceedings of

COMMITTEE.

C. P. Layard, Esq. R. Dawson, Esq.

Dr. F. W. Willisford. Captain Dudley.

Geo. Lee, Esq. J. HO. Marsh, Esq.

M. Coomarasamy, Esq. L. de Zoysa, Esq. |

The Rev. B. Boake. L, Nell, Esq.

W. Skeen, Esq. | |

COMMITTEE OF PAPERS. |

The Rev. D. J. Gogerly. | L. de Zoysa, Esq. |

The Rey. B. Boake. James Alwis, Esq.

C. A. Lorenz, Esq. M. Coomarasamy, Esq.

Louis Nell, Esq.

Donations to the Library during the year 1857:

Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, vols. VIL. and VIII. q

Smithsonian Report for 1854. d

Eighth Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution.

Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus. :

Bombay Asiatic Society’s Journal for July 1857.

Same for October 1844. )

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain, No. XY. j

part 2. : 4

8. Two Maps of Assyria and of ancient Nimroud.

9. Atlas of Geological Papers of Western India.

10. Geological Papers on Western India.

1]. Constitution and Bye-laws of the New Orleans Academy of ~

bo —

. .

Sciences. 4

12. The Hand-book of Singhalese Conversation, presented by the 4

Rev. C. Alwis. — :.

Donations through the Government of Ceylon during ~

1850: .

16 vols. Exhibitors’ Prospectuses of Exhibition of 1851.

1 do. Catalogue of Paris Universal Exhibition of 18565.

1 do. Catalogue of Works on the Great Exhibition of 1851.

1 do. Jury Reports on the Exhibition of 1855.

‘Annual Meeting, Jan, 21st, 1858. XIX.

First Report of the Commissioners for the Exhibition of 1851.

Third do. . do. do.

Report of the Management of the British part of the Paris Exhibition.

Report of the Juries of the Madras Exhibition.

Official Descriptive Catalogue of do.

Report of the Madras Exhibition of Raw products.

Madras Exhibition Catalogue 1855.

Official Catalogue of the French Exhibition.

Report of the Cape Exhibition in 1855.

Report of the Committee thereon.

3 Certificates for Island of Ceylon, by the Paris Exhibition.

4 Medals—three Bronze and one Silver.

wife anifrae siete

mv - a Mit \

JOURNAL

CEYLON BRANCH -

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.

1896-98.

VOL. III.—PART I.

DESIGN OF THE SOCIETY 1S TO INSTITUTE AND PROMOTE ENQUIRIES INTO THE HISTORY,

RELIGION, LITERATURE, ARTS, AND SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE PRESENT AND FORMER

_ INHABITANTS OF THE ISLAND, WITH ITS GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, ITS CLIMATE

AND METEOROLOGY, ITS BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY.”

: COLOMBO :

PRINTED AT THE “TIMES OF CEYLON” PRESS.

JOURNAL

A OF THE

CEYLON BRANCH

OF THE:

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.

1896-99.

VOL. III.—PART I.

No. 9.

[DITED BY THE HONORARY SECRETARY.

% ‘THE DESIGN OF THE SOCIETY IS TO INSTITUTE AND PROMOTE ENQUIRIES INTO THE HISTORY,

: RELIGION, LITERATURE, ARTS, AND SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE PRESENT AND FORMER

INHABITANTS OF THE ISLAND, WITH ITS GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, ITS CLIMATE

AND METEOROLOGY, ITS BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY.”

COLOMBO:

PRINTED AT THE “TIMES OF CHYLON” PRHSS.

1883.

CONTENTS.

Entomological Papers, being chiefly Descriptions of Ceylon

Coleoptera, with observations on their habits, &c¢.—

By J. NIETNER, Hsq.

Description of new and little-known Species of Ceylon

Nudibranchiate Molluscs, and pe ehy a EEF:

KELA4RT, Esq., M.D.

_ Account of the Works of Irrigation constructed by King

| Parakrama Bahu, contained in the 68th and 79th

Chapters of the Mahawanso, with Introductory Re-

| marks.—By L. Dz Zoysa, Mudaliyar

_ Topographical and Statistical Account of the District of

| _Nuwarakalawiya.—By A. O. Bropts, Esq.

PAGE.

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.

CEYLON BRANCH.

HNTOMOLOGICAL PAPERS; BEING CHIEFLY DES-

CRIPTIONS OF NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA,

WITH SUCH OBSERVATIONS ON THEIR HABITS, &C., AS

APPEAR IN ANY WAY INTERESTING.

By J. Nietner, Esa.,

‘Member of the Society of Naturalists of Berlin, Entomological

Society of Stettin, &c.,

No, I.

Introductory Note on the publication of New Species under

disadvantages such as describing Entomologists necessarily

labour under in countries remote from Huropean centres

| of science.

I uirrTLe doubt that the following descriptions of new

Coleopiera will meet with anything but approbation from the

Entomological world at home. As, however, in spite of this

anticipation of an ungracious reception, I do not for the

present intend to desist from my purpose of publishing such

descriptions, I may as well try to vindicate this measure by

setting forth the reasons which induce me to consider the -

difficulties which beset the path of the entomological author

‘in this country as not insurmountable.

_ The objections raised against me will be these :—consider-

jing the state Entomological literature is still in—that is to

2 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). [Vol. ITI.

say, considering that it has not, generally speaking, been

condensed into a certain limited and obtainable number of

volumes, as is the case in the higher branches of Zoology

and Botany; that, on the contrary, the bulk of it consists of

fragments which float without order in the misty and un-

fathomable ocean of scientific journals ; it is next to impossible

that an individual entomologist abroad should surround himself

with this shapeless mass of learning, ana keep himself, by this,

or other means, so well informed of the details of the actual

progress of the science, as not to be exposed to mistakes of one

kind or another, but more specially to creating synonymy * in

attempting to work independently. It will further be said

against me, that not having the facilities and the wholesome

check which arise from the diligent use of extensive and well-

named collections, not even having the gratification of a

brother entomologist’s views and opinions on doubtful cases,

it will be impossible even to determine whether an insect be

new or not; and from these reasons (the résumé will be)

~ entomologists abroad should ‘confine themselves to collecting

and observing the habits of the objects of their attention, but

* Synonymy is, and always will be, an unavoidable evil to which

descriptive science is liable under any circumstances. My arguments

are merely intended to uphold the possibility to reduce it to such a na-

ture, and to limit it to so small an extent, as to be of little importance

if weighed against the merits the publications in which it oecurs may be

possessed of in other respects, and, therefore, to be pardonable. In case,

however, I should eventually ascertain that I am mistaken on this point,

I shall then abandon my pursuits, or at all events, my present mode of

following them up. I feel certain, that every enthusiastic naturalist,

who has travelled in foreign parts, will support my cause, and understand

and appreciate my striving to become the herald of my own discoveries,

IT am well aware that thereis more than one way to attain this end,

and that theone I have selected is perhaps not the best; but circum-

stances have hitherto barred me from those upon which I might lay

myself less open to censure. Ina position like mine only, where they are

my principal support, books are well tested; and whoever has tested

them under such circumstances, will know that much of the synonymy

created abroad, is referable to them, and not to the student.

No. 9.—1856-8.] NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. 3

they should never go to print with matters on which it is an

impossibility for the ablest among them to be quite compe-

tent. These arguments are unfortunately too true, but still,

TI think, admit of being mitigated sufficiently to come to final

conclusions less disheartening to the entomological student

abroad than the above.

First of all, every entomologist gives preference to a certain

order of insects—say Coleoptera—and in this even, in almost

all cases, to one or two particular families. In studying for

the publication of new species, under the disadvantages just

mentioned, he will confine himself to this order, or perhaps

family. Now, although as objected above, the information

existing on'this particular branch, is for the most part frag-

mentary, still there are certain families, on which it has

received tangible shape, through condensation by old hands :—

Burmeister’s Lamellicornia, Dejean’s Carabide, Hrichson’s

Staphylinde, Schoenherr’s Curcultonidce, Boheman’s Casside,

Westwood’s Pausside, etc., as well as the latter author’s

general work on the families, and Lacordaire’s on the general

Coleopterorum, diligently consulted, go as guides a long way,

and should, although some of them have by the rapid progress

of the science grown rather antiquated, guard against a

number of mistakes of a systematic nature.

As to whether a beetle be new or not, I admit that in

_ forming an opinion on this question, the entomologist, situated

as above, will have quite as much to be guided by a certain tact

(not clearly definable, but understood by scientific men) than

by anything else; and I am forced to concede that under any

circumstances almost, it is totally impossible to arrive at an

indisputable certainty either the one way or the other. This,

however, excludes by no means the possibility of his forming an

Opinion with so much precision’ as to enable him to pronounce

in the matter with a very high degree of confidence and all pro-

bability in his favour. In attempting to come to a decision on

this difficult point, he will receive a first superficial idea, from

careful reflection on certain accidental circumstances, such

as size, scarcity, or other peculiarities of the insect in question,

et JOURNAL 'R. A. S. (CEYLON). _—*([/Vol.. TIE.

This idea, whichever way it may incline, will then either gain

or lose in strength by diligent reference to his library, until

at length, with a certain amount of tact and judgment, he will —

arrive at a result which, under such circumstances, must

carry much weight with it.

I shall illustrate this case by an example. If, for instance,

_ after collecting five years in Ceylon generally, and in the

Western Province more especially, I find at the latter place an

insect—say the. Chlenius pulcher described below—for the

first time—am I not entitled to consider it as very scarce? If

on consulting my library I discover nothing which can possibly

refer to it (finding that not a single Chlenius is marked as

_ occurring in Ceylon), are not the chances greatly in favour of

its being an undescribed species? If, again, I collect beetles

as small and inconspicuous as the Trichopteryx described below,

and consider at the same time, that, although they are in

certain localities of common occurrence, no professional Cole-

opterologist has ever collected them before me in this Island ; if

moreover, again, my library offers nothing that could possibly

refer to them individually (there being hardly an Asiatic

species mentioned),—am I: not under these circumstances

justified in considering them as undescribed? Decidedly.

Circumstances like these would indeed be altogether conclusive,

if there was not a chance of the beetle occurring in some

neighbouring country, and its having thence found its way

into the normal collections of Europe. The possibility of such

being the case, enhances the difficulties of the case of course

very materially; and I am forced to admit that the means of

overcoming them are very unreliable. One deficiency, des-

criptions of new species furnished under these circumstances,

will almost always have: namely, the comparison (so desirable,

if not essential, in large genera) with another allied and

known species, will be wanting; but this stands or falls with

the system from which it is inseparable.

I think I have said enough to shew, that the disadvantages

the entomologist encounters here, or in other places similarly

situated, in conscientiously attempting to publish new species

No. 9.—1856-8.] NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. 8

may (his principal assistance being perseverance, a good

library, and tact—entomological instinct I am almost tempted

to call it)—I am far from saying entirely,—be overcome so far

as to expose him, from want of resources in the execution of

his plan, to no more mistakes then entomologists expose them-

selves to under more favourable circumstances from neglecting

them,

But I am not satisfied with obtaining the simple grant

of permission to describe on the spot a part of what he

collects. I claim more for the entomologist abroad. I wish

to show that he should naturally be expected, nay desired,

to do so; for although he labours under distressing disad-

vantages in some respects, he happily enjoys a proportionate

share of advantages in others. It is unsatisfactory in the

extreme for an enthusiastic entomologist to be obliged to

let his collections go out of his own hands,—see others reap

the honors from them, which are to be reaped on such occa-

sions,—or perhaps see as it were a gulf close over them, hear

no more of them, and find himself forgotten. For what is

a mere collector? Let him display as much industry as

possible, he is hardly looked upon as an entomologist—cer-

tainly, aslong as he is prevented from publishing anything,

not as ascientific one. Now, if such a man merely desists

from publishing the fruits of his researches from want of

resources to assist him to go creditably through such a task, —if

he suffers his collections to go out of his hands, because he is too

true a lover of science not to see the credit in a great mea-

sure due to himself reaped rather by another than to hoard

up his entomological treasures, a useless heap, eventually to

be destroyed by moths and time—I say, that a man who acts

upon principles like those, finds himself not seldom dishear-

tened in the prosecution of his studies under difficulties such

as I have set forth. If, however, as I have endeavoured to

point out, these difficulties can be overcome to a very consid-

erable extent, is anything more natural than that he should

be the herald of his discoveries himself? Could anything be

more unkind and ungenerous on the part of his scientific

6 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON.) [Vol. IIT.

brethren at home, than to oppose and discourage him by their

disapprobation ?

I might enlarge on this subject, which has been a sore one

with me for a long time, to a great extent, but I think this is

sufficient to direct the reader into the train of my ideas and to

enable him to follow it up. | :

I hasten therefore to conclude. As mentioned above, the

Tropical entomologist has a proportionate share of advantages

to balance what falls to his lot of the contrary; one of these ©

advantages which he has over his brethren at home is, that

he has an opportunity of seeing and studying alive what can

at home only be examined in state differing more or less

from that of life. Therefore, if he is enubled and expected to

describe new species, itis moreover highly desirable for the

sake of the promulgation of svwnd information, that he should

do so, that he should avail himself of this, his principal

advantage, and describe, fresh from nature, as many of his

favourites and their habits as possible; and discouraging him

in such an undortaking on any of the above grounds would be

discouraging the progress of science in general,

1. CHLANIUS PULCHER. N.

C. elongatus, subconvexus, subglabratus, zneo-viridis, elytris ob-

scurioribus, limbo pedibusque flavis, subtus piceus. Long. corp. 63 lin. !

Caput oblongum nitidissimum, ante oculos 2-impressum. Mentum

dente fortiter excavato. Antenne art.3°- quarto sesqui longiore. Thorax

obcordatus basi angustatus quadratus, latitudine antica quarta parte

longior, parce punctulatus, antice lateribus deflexus, postice dorsoque

planus, basi 2-impressus. Elytra striata, ad strias, preecipue apicem

versus, subtillssime pilosa,flavo-marginata. Pedes flavi,spinulis castaneis.

Abdomen flavo-marginatum.

Specimen singulum m. in ripis Mahex-Oye fluvii prope Negombo cepi.

Distinguished by its elongate shape. The head is of a

bright green colour with the labrum and the mandibles of a

_ deep, and the antenne and palpi of a light brown, the latter

being darkened towards the end. The thorax is of the same

colour as the head, reflecting a copper hue from the back, its

anterior angles are obtuse, tha basal ones being righte

No. 9.—1856-8.| NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. 7

elytra are of the same greenish copper colour but darker; they

are impressed with longitudinal lines, which are bordered on

each side by a row of minute hairs. ‘They as well as the

abdomen have yellowish margins.

9. CHLANIUS REGULOSUS. NN.

C. subconyexus, subglabratus, thorace occipiteque rugulosis cupreis,

elytris nigro-viridibus, pedibus elytrorum limbo lunulisque apicalibus

flavis, subtus piceus, abdomine apice margineque flavis. Long. corp.

64 lin.

Caput fronte 2-impressum subtilissime longitudinaliter rugulosum.

Menti dens laciniis extus rotundatis. Thorax ovatus basi quadratus

lateribus valde deflexus, postice obsolete 2-impressus, parce punctatus,

subtiliter transversim rugulosus. Elytra striata, staiis apicem versus per

paria coéunsibus, ad strias, pilosa, apice utrinque lunula flava signata.

Pectus abdomenque picea, hoc, segmentis 2 ultimis, preecedento dimido

margineque flavis,

Specimen unicum f. ubi preecedentem cepi.

The head finely longitudinal, the thorax transversely

rugose; the latter with rounded and deflexed sides The

mandibles are of deep brown, the palpi and antennz of

yellowish colour darkened towards the tip. The lobes of the

mentum tooth are externally rounded. ‘The elytra are marked

by two subapical spots of yellowish colour and semilunar

shape (the back of the lunule being turned towards the

suture). The striae verge near the apex by twos into each

other. The abdomen is distinguished by having a yellow

margin and apex.

3. ScCARITES MINOR. UN.

S. elongatus, niger, nitidus, subtus nigro piceus, pedibus piceis, tarsis,

antennis palpisque castaneis. Long corp. 5 lin. lat. 14 lin.

Caput subquadratum, ante oculos 2-impressum. pone oculos irregular.

iter sulcatulum. Mandibule valide inter medium et basin fortiter

dilatatz, obtuse dentate, dextera dente obtuso subapicali, supra sub-

tusque longitudinaliter suleatze. Antenne art. 1° sequentium trium.,

2° tertii prope longitudine. Thorax oblongo-quadratus, angulis anteri-

oribus obtusis, posterioribus oblique truncatis. Hlytra thoracis capitis-

que prope longitudine, striata, ante medium ad sitriam 2m uni-

apicem versus ad striam 3™ 2-punctata, punctis piliferis, basi granulata,

8 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). [ Vol. ITT.

angulis oblique-truncatis. Pedes anteriores tibiis apice extus 5 dentatis,

dentibus 2 ultimis parvis, omnes tarsis subtus leviter excavatis.

In proy. occid, arenis humidis sub vegetab. putrescent. specimina

nonnulla legi.

Scarce, but little distinguished excepting by its small size.

The head is subquadrate, in front with two deep longitudinal

impressions, behind the eyes finely suleated, The labrum is

of the usual shape, the eyes are not very prominent. The an-

tenn are of about the same length as the head; the first joint is.

about as long as the three following together; the second, which .

is generally longer than the third, is in this case of the same

length, joints 1-4 are naked, 5-11 pilose, increasing towards

the tip gradually in size and thickness, taking at the same

time a subquadratic and depressed shape. The mandibles are

strong, much dilated and dentated from before the middle to

the base, the right one having additional subapical tooth.

The maxille also are strong, but slightly bent at the apex,

where they are also slightly excavated. ‘The labial palpi have

the last joint longer than third, elongated and elliptic. The

thorax is oblong, with the basal angles obliquely truncated.

The elytra are oval, striated, granulated at the base, and

have, as has also the thorax, a narrow margin, The anterior

tarsi are furnished externally with five teeth, the two last ones

of which, however, are very small. The posterior legs are simi-

larly provided, but the teeth are indistinct, The joints of the

tarsi are slightly excavated below. The sides, of the body

below are rugose. | i

4. CQLIVINA RUGOSIFRONS. NV.

C ferruginea, capite, thorace abdomineque piceis. Long. corp. 44 lin.

lat 14 lin.

Caput rugosum, inter oculos elevatum, elevatione plana antice profunde

l-impressa. Mentum lobis subtiliter suleatis. Antenne robustze tho-

racis medium vix attingentes, art, ultimo elongato penultimo-, art. 2°

tertio sesqui longiore. Thorax subquadratus antice parum angustatus,

elytrorum latitudine, subtus parce punctatus, prosterno sulcato, Hlytra

striata, in striis punctata. Pedes tibiis anterioribus apice axtus 4 dentatis,

subtus excavatis, reliquis fortiter spinosis, tarsis articulis margine apicali

setOso.

In prov. occid. sub vegetab. putrescent. infrequentissime legi:

No, 9.—1856-8.] NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. -)

A large and distinguished species. The head is very

rugose, the clypeus is contracted behind the apical angles, and

then produced again into another pair of angles, The labrura

is transverse, slightly sinuated in front, with the angles rounded

and setose. The mentum is quadrate, the lobes rounded at

the apex and slightly sulcated, the tooth is strong, of equal

length with lobes, and of the typical spear-headed form. The

ligula has the apical angle much elongated, terminating in a

membranaceous bristle which is bifurcate at the tip. The

maxillary palpi have the last joint elongate, cylindrico-conic :

that of the labial ones is still more elongate, elliptic. The

antenne have the basal joints elongate, those towards the tip

rounded. They and the legs are hairy, otherwise the insect

is of a bright polished surface.

5, CLIVINA ELONGATULA. JN.

‘C. elongata, subdepressa, supra nigro-picea, subtus picea, pedibus

elytrorumque margine castanies, antennis oreque dilutioribus. Long.

corp. vix 3 lin. lat, 3 lin.

Caput triangulare, subtiliter punctato-rugosum. Palpiarticulo ultimo

apice leviter truncato. Thorax oblonge quadratus, infra apicem leviter

sinuosus, parce obsoleteque transversim strigosus. Hlytra striata, in striis

punctata, ad striam 3™ utrinque 4 punctata. Subtus parce punctata.

_ Hbi reecedentem frequenter legi.

I have not dissected the labium of this species, which, how-

ever, is at once recognised by its depressed and, in proportion

to its width, very long shape. The labrum, antenne, and legs,

are so much like those of the former, that they need no further —

description.

6. Cuivina MacuLaATa. N,

C. picea, elytris ferrugineis infra medium macula nigra obsolet

ornatis, pedibus intermed, et post. oreque brunneo-testaceis, pedibus ant.

antennisque obscuricribus. Long corp. 2 lin.

_ Caput oblonge quadratum, rugosum, costis 5 magis minusve interruptis

ad marginem anteriorem in dentes 4 productis munitum. Palpiart. ulti-

mo basi intus inerassatto. Antenne art. 2-3 subequalibus. Thorax sub-

quadratus leviter rotundatus. Hlytrastriata in striis profunde punctata.

Ubi preecedentes specimen singulum leg.

10 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). [Vol. ITT.

As distinguished as the preceding two species. The palpi

and the mentum appear to me of a somewhat extraordmary

form. The last joint of the former is considerably and more

inflated at the base than in any other Ceylon species that has

hitherto come under my notice, whilst the others are of a very

curved appearance in both the maxillary and labial palpi. The

insect is, however, easily distinguished by its general facies,

which is rather like that of a Dyschirtus ; from which genus,

however, the mentum alone is sufficient to separate it. ‘I may

as well remark here, that, although the Island is well supplied

with Scarites and Clivinas, | have hitherto not discovered a

single Dyschir‘us, a genus so well represented in Hurope. Of

the three Clivinas, just described, single specimens only have

been in my possession for a considerable time. There are

three or four more species met with about Colombo, but these

being of common occurrence, I abstain from describing them

here, as they may possibly be amongst those described by

Putzeys or others from the Indian continent,

7. CHXpIcHIRUS ALATUS. LN.

Ci. alatus, setosus, nitidus, rufo-testaceus, thorace dilutiore, capite,

elytris abdominisque segmentis 3 ultimis nigris; elytris apice 2 maculatis,

maculis rufo-testaceis; pedibus flavis, femoribus apice. tibiisque basi

nigrescentibus ; antennis palpisque maxill. basi obscuris, apice testaceis,

reliquis oris partibus rufo-piceis. Long. corp 32 lin.

@. pederino Er. similimus, preter colorum distributionem differt

tamen alis, elytrorum antennarumque articuli ultimi sculptura. An-

tenn art. ultimo penultimo aequali nisi paulo minore, apice fortiter

truncato leviterque excavato. Thorax (i. pederini, dorso punctis

biseriatim impressus, serie interna vel centrali elliptica punctis minori-

bus magis inter se approximatis, externa vel submarginali punctis magnis

distantibus. Hlytra oblonge subquadrata, infra medium rotundata,

thorace longiora et duplo fere amplior (utrumque elytrum thoracis fere

magnitudine), basi parte thoracis adjacente duplo-, infra medium illius

latitudine antica plus tertia parte latiora. Os, pedes et abdomen CH.

peederini. |

Peederorum more victitare videtur; in eorum societate in lacus Colomb-

ensis ripis infrequentissime legi; illis minus gracilis atque minus agilis.

I-have not had an opportunity of examining specimens of

either of the three Gdichirt hitherto described. However, I

No. 9.—1]856-8.] NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. 11.

have before me Erichson’s figure and description of the

Sicilian C!. pederinus, with which I find my species

strongly to agree. It differs, however, from the former

materially in the following three points, viz., the wings, the

sculpture of the wing-covers, and the last antennal joint.

The fact that this species has wings, would render an

alteration in Erichson’s diagnosis of the genus necessary,

it being characterized therein as ‘‘ apterous”. The elytra are

not so much contracted and rounded at the base, and,

being longer than the thorax, have therefore a more ob-

long, subquadratic appearance. As in the above typical

species, they are, however, rounded at the sides and broadset

a little below the middle. They are about twice as broad at

the base as the adjoining part of the thorax; and in their

broadest part rather more than a third broader than the tho-

rax in its. The third point, in which the two species differ,

is the last joint of the antennz, which, in this case, is strongly

truncated at the tip and slightly excavated. They are further

distinguished by the distribution of the colours, my species

being of a dark yellowish red, thorax lighter, head, elytra and

three last abdominal segments black, elytra with two reddish

spots at the apex, legs yellowish, at the apex of the femora

and base of the tibize blackish, the mouth is brown, the maxill.

palpi yellowish with the three first joints dark at the base, the

antenne have the six basal joinis dark excepting at the apex,

where they, as well as the five remaining ones, are yellowish.

In all other points I find the insect to agree entirely with the

typical G4, pelerinus: the palpi, legs, and anal segment of

abdomen are of the same structure, the hairy vestiture is ex-

actly the same in the different parts of the body of my species

as it is in the corresponding ones of Hrichson’s.

12 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON), [Vol. TEL.

No. If.

T. ANCHISTA, n.'g. JN.

Fam. CARABIDA.

Trib. Lrsiipaz.

Corpus depressum, ovatum. Caputmagnum,oculis mediocribus, semi-

globosis, prominulis. Mentum dente magno obtuso, lobis parum breviore,.

his extus rotundatis, apice acuminatis.® Palpi robusti, maxillares art.

ultimo magno ovato, apice obtuso, labiales art. ultimo valde securiformi..

Ligula cornea apice obtuse acuminata, labrri marginem anteriorem attin-

gens. (Paraglossee mihi adhuc non dissectze,) Labrum, transversim quad-. —

ratum. Mandibule simplices apice arcuate et ocuminate. Antenne

robuste thoracis basin attingentes, art. 1° mediocri, 2° brevi, 3° quarto

paulo longiore, 4-10 subzqualibus, Fie penultimo parum longiore.

Thorax longitudine latior, angulis anticis rotundatis, medio obsolete.

angulatus, basi angustatus, quadratus. LHlytra apice quadrate truncata,

Pedes robusti tarsis art. 4° profnnde bilobo, unguibus fortiter pectinatis.

8, ANCHISTA MopEsTA, JN.

A brunneo-testacea, elytris, (maculis 2 obsoletis subhumeralibus ex-.

ceptis) obscurioribus, oculis nigris, abdomine piceo. Long corp 4 lin.

Caput fronte medio leviter uniimpressa, Thorax profunde longitudi-.

naliter canaliculatus, lateribus fortiter depressus, Elytra in regione

media depressa apicem versus parum dilatata, striato-punctata, ad striam

2m punctis 2 majoribus subapicalibus, cum thorace- marginata..

Specimen singulum m. prope Colombo nocte ad 1umen cepi.

The characteristics of this new genus are those of the e.

Calleida, excepting the ligula which in this ease is obtusely

acuminated, the last joint of the maxill. palpi which is obtuse

at the apex, and the thorax, which is not as in Calleida longer —

than broad, but the reverse. From Cymindis it would differ

principally in the deeply bilobed fourth tarsal joint, and in

some other minor points, but it is difficult to say what the

true characteristics of this genus are, if even Lacordaire

uses the particle ‘‘ou”’ not less than five times in the diag-

nosis he gives of it in his g.d. Col. Jt would also appear to

be allied to Plochionus, differing from this g., however, in

the obtuse extremity of the terminal joint of the maxill.

palpi, and the deeply bilobed fourth tarsal joint, However,

if Lacordaire’s diagnoses are exact, I feel justified in sepa-

rating Anchista from all these genera, The name “ Anchista”,

No. 9.—1856-8.]| NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. 13.

has reference to the affinity of the-insect tothe two genera just:

mentioned, whilst the specific name. “‘ modesta,’’ refers to its

inconspicuous colours. Amongst its. peculiarities weight onght

to be laid upon the plumpness of the palpi, in fact all other

parts of the mouth and even the whole head, which was very-

striking to me.

Like many of my best. Carabide I found this insect at night.

on the table, whither it had been, attracted by the light. The

anterior tarsi are dilated and furnished with hairy brushes.

below, longest at the apex of the lobes of the fourth joint,

Ele BrLiotia. %. g. NV.

Fam, CARABIDA,

Trib. LEBtuDaz,

Corpus. subconvexum, ovatum. Caput mediocre, aculis maximis..

Mentum leviter transversim emarginatum, edentatum, lobis acuminatis.

Ligula submembranacea apice truncata, paraglossis connatis marginem

anteriorem parum superantibus, obtusis, Palpi elongati, art. ultimo

elliptico, acuminate. Labrum magnum transversum, integrum, mandi-.

bulas fere obtegens. Mandibule valide, edentate. Antenne robuste fili-

formes, humeros, superantes, art. 1° mediocri, 2° brevi, 3° quinti popre.

longitudine, 4° prcoecedente breviore, 2-4 obconicis, 5-10 sequalibus,

eylindricis, 1l° precedente tertia parte longiore, 4-1] pilosis. Thorax

parvus, capite minor, transversus, longitudine duplo latior ; antice leviter-

emarginatus, lateribus elevato-marginatus, ante medium, lateribus ro-.

tundatus, medio fortiter angulatus, infra modium valde abrupteque

angustatus, basi truncatus, subtus cylindricus. Secutellum leviter:

excavatum. Hlytra ovata, marginata, apice sat fortiter truncata.

Pedes omnes: subaquales, simplices, tenues, tarsis cplindricis art. 3-4

‘magis minusve trigonis, unguibussimplicibus, Prosternum carinatum.

In. honorem, Dom. Hon. Walteri Ellicti (Maderaspatani), naturalist.

diligentissimi, meritissimi, nomen imposul.

9, ELLIoTIA PALLIPES. NV.

E. supra nigra, nitida, thorace scutelloque rufo-testaceis, labro elytr-

orumque limbo atque sutura brunneo-testaceis ; subtus piceus, pectore

rufo-testaceo, pedibus albidis, his geniculis:oreque (palpis obscurioribus:

exceptis) testaceis. Long. corp. 24 lin.

Caput ad antennarum insertionem et inter oculos utrinque profunde

impressum. Thorax basi rugosus, ante medium utrinque uni-impressus,

linea media longitudinali divisus. Hlytra punctato-striata, infra humeros.

leviter impressa,

14 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON.) [Vol. IIT.

In ripis lacus Colombensis sub veget. putrescent. mens. Jul. non

infrequenter legi. Agilis est et avolare semper expeditus.

A pretty and very interesting little insect, about whose

systematic position I am not quite satisfied; however, I pro-

visionally place it towards the end of the true Lebiude, I

find it most to agree with the descriptions of the g. Penta-

gonica S. G. and Khombodera R., with neither of which,

however, it is identical, The head is distinguished by the

large and prominent eyes, and four deep impressions, two larger.

ones at the root of the antennz, two smaller ones between the

eyes, also by a very distinct neck which connects it with the

thorax; the labrum is large, transverse and entire, with the

angles rounded off and the base narrowed; the mentum is but

slightly transversely emarginated, edentate ; the ligula is trun-

cated at the tip, the paraglossee adhere to it, reach a little be-

yond it, and are obtuse at the apex; the palpi are rather long

with the last jcint elliptic, acuminate; the antenne are strong,

filiform, and reach beyond the shoulders, joints 5-10 are of

equal length and cylindric, 4-11 are pilose, The most re-

markable part of the insect 1s, however, the thorax, which is

of a subrhomboidal shape, transverse, smaller than the head,

as broad again as long; it has two strong lateral angles at the

middle, each furnished with a strong bristle, the anterior

part has the sides rounded, the posterior abruptly obliquely

eoutracted, at the base it is cylindric. As a specific distinc-

tion of the thorax, | mention, moreover, that in the present

species it is impressed with two deep punctures before the mid-

dle and that it is rugose at the case. The abdomen is slightly

peduncled. The scutellum is slightly excavated. The elytra

are oval, rather convex and impressed with rows of punctures.

The legs are simple and weak, apparently equal in both

sexes. The anterior tarsi are little stouter than the rest,

but not dilated nor furnished with any additional clothing

below; the anterior tibize are deeply notched. As to the

colour: the head and wing covers are black, the latter with

the suture and margin of a light brown and highly polished,

the thorax is reddish, and the legs are whitish. The insect

No. 9.—1856-8 |] NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. 15

is very agile, and ever ready to take to its wings. It is of

quite a peculiar appearance, imparted to it by its large eyes,

small curiously shaped thorax and rather plump elytra and

abdomen. I may further mention, that 1 have observed the

fourth joint of the maxillary palpi to collapse when the speci-

mens become quite dry, so as to give them a different, spoon-

like appearance, apt to mislead any one who has not examined

fresh specimens.

10, TrRIcHOPTERYX cuURSITANS. WN.

T. ovata, subconvexa, pubescens, supra obscure exnea, elytris erieo-

brunneis, subtus picea, pedibus ofeque testaceis, antennis art. 3-11 ni-

grescentibus. Long. corp. 2/5 lin.

Antennarum elava art 2 primis ovatis, ultimo conico, acwminato.

Thorax amplissimus, elytris tertid parte minor, convexas, angulis acutis,

basi humeros amplectens, apice angustatus. Elytra subdepressa, sub-

quadrata, apicem versus parum angustata, truncata, abdomine multo

breviora ‘Tibize medie incrassatz. Coxe posticas maxime dilatate.

Mesosternum carinatum.

Sub veget. putrescent. exsiccescentibus in prov. occid. copiosa.

A rather large species, commonly met with in this part of

the Island, under rotting vegetable substances somewhat dried

up. It is very agile and ready to take to its wings, which

are of the beautiful typical construction, about twice the length

of the body, and in dead specimens frequently produced

behind. These insects vary a little as to shape, some being

more narrowed behind than others, and also as to the exact

number of the abdominal segments left uncovered by the ely-

tra, generally three or four. The head is large, but exhibits

nothing abnormal or extraordinary ; the thorax is very large,

emarginated in front and behind, with the angles acute, the

basal ones enveloping the shoulders; the wing-covers are

subquadratic, with the angles rounded off and a little narrowed

behind; the legs have the tibize incrassated in the middle,

and the posterior coxa very much dilated and distant from

each other; in all other respects they are typical. The shape

of the body is that of an egg, broadest at the shoulders,

gently narrowed towards the apex of the abdomen, and round-

ed off towards the head.

16 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). [Vol. ITl.

11. TRICHOPTERYX IMMATURA. JN,

T. preecedenti similis, differt tamen colore supra eneo-testacea, subtus

testacea, antennarum ast. 3-11 nigrescentibus; differt etiam corpore ro-

bustiore, magis quadrato, capite paulo majore, thorace minus convexo,

parum ampliore, clytris abdomen totum vel fere totum obtegent. Pedes,

‘antenne etc. onynino precedentis. Long. corp. } lin.

In precedentis societate specimina nonnulla legi.

Of somewhat the appearance of an immature individual of

‘the former, but sufficiently distinct to be formed into a new

species. The insect is altogether of a different appearance, —

imparted to it by the greater general plumpness of the body,

the larger thead, the less convex, but at the same time pos-

sibly still ampler, thorax, the altogether more quadratic shape,

‘etc. The remark regarding the exact number of abdominal

segments, left uncovered by the elytra, applies to this and all

other species as well. The present one has generally the last

two segments uncovered.

12. ‘TRICHOPTERYX INVISIBILIS. lV.

'T. ovata, subdepressa, subparallela, pilosa, supra obscure czenea, subtus

picea, pédibus, abdomine, antennis oreque testaceis. Long. corp. vix

1/5 lin. ,

Thorax amplus, elytris sesqui minor, convexus, angulis posticis humeros

vix superantibus. EHlytra oblonge quadrata, angulis rotundatis, sub-

depressa, truncata, abdomen totum vel fere totum obtegentia. Coxe pos-

ticee approximate, ‘Tarsi typicis minus elongati, art. 3° przcedentibus

haud multo longiore.

Cum T. cursitante victitat; frequenter legi.

A very pretty and very distinguished species. Its most

striking peculiarity consists in the posterior coxee, which are

little distant from each other as those of the anterior legs,

and almost touch each other, and also in the shortness of the

tarsi. The head with the antenne, the mesosternum, the

tibize, which are incrassated in the middle, the posterior coxe,

with regard to the enlargement, are quite typical. However,

the thorax and elytra differ again from those of 7’. cursitans,

(which in every respect may be looked upon as the typical

representative of the family in Ceylon, and which is here re-

ferred to as such) the former by the shortness of the posterior

No. 9.—1856-8.] NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. 17

angles, which can hardly be said to envelope the shoulders, the

elytra, by being less or not at all narrowed behind, giving an

oblong rather than an oval shape to the insect. Although in

length only about one-half shorter, it is in bulk certainly one-

fourth smaller than T. cursitans, and, although probably the

smallest Cey!on beetle, it is distinguished at first sight.

13. PTILIUM SUBQUADRATUM. JN.

P. subquadratum, subconvexum, pilosum, obscure zxneo-test aceum,

thorace dilutiore, Long. corp, i lin.

Caput mediocre. Antennarum clava art. lo inverte conico, 2° sub-

eylindrico, ultimo elongato-ovato. Thorax convexus, angulis basalibus

humeros fortissime amplectentibus, apicem versus valde rotundatus, apice

leviter sinuatus. Elytra quadrata, abdomen non totum obtegentia.

Scutellum parvum. Pedes robusti tibiis apicem versus incrassatis, tarsis

art. 3° primi secundique longitudine, his subbilobis subtus penicillatis,

cexis posticis simplicibus distantibus. Mesosternum non carinatum.

Ubi precedentes sed infrequenter occurrit

The g Ptiliwm is the repository for all the anomalies of the

family, its characteristics therefore are very vague; but if the

absence of the mesosternal carina and the simplicity of the

posterior coxe are the determining features amongst them, the

present species, in spite of a variety of anomalies it exhibits

in other respects, belongs to it. The head is of middling size ;

the antenne robust with the first joint of the club of the shape

of an inverted cone, the second rather cylindrical, narrowed at

the base, and the last elongate, ovate. The thorax is of very

different structure from that of the foregoing species of the

family, the basal angles being unusually far produced beyond

the shoulders; towards the head it is strongly and rapidly

rounded off, being thus altogether of a semi-circular shape;

at the apex it is merely slightly sinuated, and the head is

inserted rather below than in this sinuosity ; the whole thorax

moreover is very convex, whilst the elytraare depressed. The

wings vary from the typical form by being fringed with short

simple cilia, instead of those long feathery appendages; they

are moreover without a distinct peduncle, but still folded in

the manner characteristic of the family. The legs are stout

18 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). {Vol. TT.

with the tibiee thickest at the tip; the third tarsal joint is of the

length of the preceding two; the latter are somewhat bilobed

and hairy below. The posterior coxe are simple and distant,

The mesosternum without a carina. The whele shape of the

insect is quadratic rather than otherwise.

14, PTENIDIUM MACROCEPHALUM. WN,

P. ellipticum, subconvexum, nitidam, sparsim pilosum, supra piceo-

gneum, subtus piceum pebibus oreque testaceis. Long. corp. 3 lin.

Caput maximum. Antennarum clava elongata articulis ellipticis.

Thorax subquadratus antice posticeque angustatus, basi. punctis 4 magnis

profunde impressus. Elytra ovata, medium versus leviter inflata, apice

obtuse acuminata, abdomine longiora et ampliora, punctulis lineis dispo-

sitis obsoletissimis impressa. Als corpore plus duplolongiores. Tibiz

fortiores spinulose. Tarsi breviores. Prosternum carinatum.

In przecedentium societate frequenter lectum.

This is perhaps the prettiest of the five species of the family

just described, and at first sight recognised by the shape of its

body and the polished back. The head is very large. The

thorax is narrowed in front and behind, at the latter place

impressed with four deep not to be overlooked punctures. The

wing-covers are oval, a little inflated about the middle, rounded

at the apex, and longer and wider than the abdomen. The

prosternum is carinated. —

It affords me much gratification to be enabled to publish

representatives of three genera of this highly interesting and

probably very extensive and widely-distributed family of

pygmies, the South Asiatic representatives of which have

hitherto been entirely unknown. I have no doubt that even

this Island is the abode of a great many more species. .

15. STENUS BARBATUS. JN,

S. elongatus, eneo-niger, nitidus, punctatus, sparsim pubescens, pedibus

palpisque albidis, ore coxisque testaceis, antennis brumnescentibus.

Long. corp. 24 lin.

Caput thorace tertid parte latius, fronte costis 3 abbreviatis, antice

albido-pubescens. Antenne art. 3° sequentium 2 fere longitudine, 3

ultimis elongatis, ellipticis. Palpi max. elongati apice densius pubes-

centes. Thorax cylindricus medeo leyiter incrassatus, basi subquadratus.

No. 9:—1856-8.] NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. Ie

Elytra thorace paulo longiora, sed fere duplo latiora, convexa, ovata.

Abdomen immarginatum. Pedes elongati tenues, tibiis apice tarsisque

fortiter setosis, his art. 4° profunde bilobo. |

In lacus Colomb. ripis specimina nonulla legi.

This as well as the following species belongs to Hrichson’s

division I. B: of the g., both having the abdomen immarginate

and the fourth tarsal joint bilobed. Everything about this

species is elongated. ‘The head is about one-third broader

than the thorax, the forehead is slightly excavated with two

elevated ridges running from the root of the antennz a short

distance upwards, a third runs from the crown of the head

- down towards the centre of the two former, but ali three reach

only about the middle of the head, The part below the

antenne is covered with white hair. The antennze have the

third joint much elongated and the terminal club composed of

elliptic joints, The thorax is rather slender, incrassated at

the middle, gradually narrowed in front but nearly quadratic

behind. The elytra are longer than the thorax, about double

its breadth and oval, being slightly narrowed at the shoulders

and the apex. The legs are long and slender, hairy at the

apex of the tibie and the tarsi, the latter very much so on the

inner side. The-insect is of a metallic black color, highly

polished; the legs, palpi and the first two antennal joints are

whitish, the tibie and the apex of the palpi being, however

rather darker, joints 3-11 of the antenne are brownish, the

coxe and the. mouth are yellowish, the tarsi have a brown

spot at the apex of the first three joints, the claws are black. The

insect is punctured all over, but the abdomen, the apical seg-

ments of which are indeed nearly smooth, less so than the rest

of the body, and sparingly covered with small white hairs,

16. STENUS LACERTOIDES. NN.

S: robustus, nigro-zeneus, dense profundeque punctatus, subtus spars-

issime pubescens, pedibus palpisque testaceis femoribus apice nigre-

scentibus, antennis oreque castaneis. Long cerp. 1} lin.

Caput thorace quarta parte latius, fronte 2.costata. Antenne robuste

art. 3° quarto paulo longiore, 9-10 giobosis, 11° conico. Thorax cylin-

dricus, medio fortius mcrassatus, latitudine quarta parte longior, margine

20 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). Vol. ITT.

anteriore elevato, basi subquadratus. Hlytra thorace longiora, convexa,

humeris prominentibus. Abdomen immarginatum. ‘Tarsi art. 4° pro-.

funde bilobo.

In prov. occid. stagnorum ripis rarius occurrit.

About this species everything is robust. It is well distin-

guished by the rounded club-joints of the antennz, the elevated

anterior margin of the thorax, the promiment shoulders, and its

general shortness and plumpness. ‘The forehead is rather more

depressed or excavated than in the former, the two antennal

ridges are shorter, the vertical one is altogether obsolete. |

The palpi are robust. The third antennal joint is about one

third longer than the fourth. The thorax is shorter and plumper

than in the former, The elytraare less oval, having the shoul-

ders more prominent and only the apex rounded off or narrow-

ed. The legs are similar to those of the former, but more

robust, less hairy, and have the tarsi more cylindric. The

insect is of a blackish metal color, the legs and palpi are

yellowish, the tibize, however, the apex of the palpi, and aiso

joints 1-2 of the antenneze rather darker; the femora are

blackish towards the end, the mouth and joints 3-11 of the

antennee are chesnut, and the coxe pitch-color. The animal is

densely and deeply punctured all over, very sparingly covered

with small greyish hairs, nearly obsolete on the back but

more distinct below. It is less highly polished than the

former.

17. ANTHICUS QUISQUILIARIUS.* JN.

A: castaneus, capite, abdomine elytrisque piceis, his fascia media trans-

versali interrupta maculisque 6 humeralibus niveis, parce pilosus,-

Long. corp. 1 lin.

Caput globosum, supra subtusque profundo punctatum, oculis parvis.

Thorax nodoso-pyriformis, infra medium constrictus, parte anteriore

crassiore lin, long. med. profunde divisa, subcordiformi. Hlytra elliptica.

Sub veget. putrescent. victitat, prope Colombo rarius legi,

* A formicarius, of the first edition. I have changed the name, as 1

have since perceived that it has been already used by Laferteé.

No. 9.—1856-8.] NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. or

This insect looks uncommonly like an ant. It is easily

distinguished from all other species of the Island, partly by

this resemblance, partly by the sculpture of the thorax and’

the white fascia across the elytra. The antennz are robust,

thickened towards the tip, the three last joints forming a club,

The legs have the femora very much incrassated, the tibize at

the apex bicalcarate, and the tarsi, especially of the anterior

pair, very hairy below, the fourth joint appears to be slightly.

cordiform. The white marks of the shoulders and the fascia

across the wing-covers are composed of white hairs, the-

former are. rather an interrupted: row of tnese than true-

maculz, the fascia consists of two halves, one in either:

elytron, reaching neither the external margin nor the suture..

The insect is of slow motion.

18. ANTHICUS INSULANUS. VN.

A. testaceus, abdomine obscuriore, capite thoraceque rafo-testaceis,

elytris fasciis 2 nigris, parce pilosus. Long. corp. 13-14 lin.

Caput globosum oculis mediocribus. Thorax pyriformis, cum capite:

Supra punctata. LHlytra ovata. Tarsi art. 4° bilobo

Prope Negombo. im pratis.sat copiosus.

In some: of the specimens before- me the anterior femora

are furnished with a strong thorn inside, having at the same

time the tibiz of the same pair of legs slightly emarginated

inside near the apex.

19, MeiaetHes OrIENTALIS. N.

M. ovatus, subconvexus, pilosus, supra nigro-zneus, subtus piceus,

pedibus, antennis palpisque maxill. dilutrioribus, tarsis palpisque labial..

brunneo-aureis. ong. corp, 1-14 lin,

Mentum transversum planum, punctatum, lobis apice-depressis ex-

cavatis, glabris obtusis. Palpi lab. art. ultimo,inflato, ovato ; maxill

art. ultimo apice angustato levissime truncato, Mandibule-uni dentate,

Thorax amplus angulis acutis, antice emarginatus, postice pluries sinua.

tus, subtus punctatus. Hlytra ovato-quadrata, angulis 4. apicalibus

rotundatis, pygidium haud obtegentia. Pedes: validi, femoribus tibi-

isque incrassatis; anteriores tibiis apice intus unispinosis, tarsis art.

1-3 fortiter dilatatis, 1-2 subsequalibus transversis, profunde reniform.

ibus, 3° minore, cordato, 4° minimo, subcylindrico ; intermed. et post

22 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON.) ~~FVol. TIT:

tibiis extus spinulosis, tarsis anterioribus similibus sed art. 1-3 minus

dilatatis, cordiformibus. Prosternum marginatum, punctatum, obtuse,:

acuminatum. Mesosternum antice carinatum.

Variat magnitudine et colore zneo-brunnea.

Prope Columbo in floribus per occasionem frequentissime legi.

Of the usual shape and color, but larger than usual,—vary-.

ing, however, in this respect, some individuals being fully one-

third smaller than others. Those small individuals, which

occur in the proportion of about 2 to 20, are, moreover, nearly

always of a brownish metal colobr-instead of a blackish green.

I have been unable to discover any other distinctions. This

difference in size is no criterion as to the sex. The insect

appears of local occurrence, or attached to certain plants,

which is nearly the same. I find them in abundance in

the blossoms of Convolvulaceous and Apocynaceous plants

in my garden, which. is situated on the west bank of the

lake. The species appears to differ from the typical

Meligethes in the following points: the structure of the

mentum, which I have sufficiently described above, the last

joint of the lab. palpi, which in this case is not truncated, and

the first of the antenne, which is externally incrassated as in

Hpurea. The antenne are otherwise robust, the club is

firm and hairy. The thorax is very ample, thinly ciliated

along the upper part of the anterior margin, rather strongly

below. The prosternum is largely developed, marginated,

punctured and obtusely acuminated, overlapping the anterior

part of the, mesosternum which (the anterior part) is cylin-

dric and carinated. Joints 1-3 of the tarsi are strongly

penicillated below, the penicilla, being composed of glanduli- |

ferous hairs of a fine golden color.

20. GroRYSssUS GemMMa. UN.

G. pygmai staturd eb magnitudine, supra purpureo,zneus, iridescens,

subtus piceus ; alatus. Thorax subsemiorbicularis infra apicem constrict-

us, suleco med. long. divisus, lateribus, basi apiceque excavatus, impress-

ionibus 3 majoribus dorsalibus, 2 minoribus lateralibus. Elytra fortissime

costata, costis obtuse dentatis, in interstitiis transversim punctato-impressa,

ad humeros profunde excavata, infra medium leviter sinuata; Tibiz

extus spinulose, intus sparsim ciliatee,

No. 9.—1856-8.] NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. 28

Prope Negombo in ripis Mahx-Oyz fluvii non infrequenter et per

occasionem nocti ad lumen cepi

Lacordaire and others characterize the g. Georyssus as

having'the elytra soldered together and being destitute cf

wings. In the present species, however, the elytra are unconnected

and cover wings proportionately larger than in any other beetle I

can at present think of. They are elongated and comparatively

narrow, resembling in shape very much those of a Lrbellula,

have a few veins at the base, and are ciliated at the margin.

I have moreover occasionally taken this insect flying about the

light at night. The sculpture of the thorax is complicated

and difficult to describe, However, the leading features in it

are these: a subapical sinuosity on either side; a longitudinal

furrow; excavated sides, base and apex; three larger dorsal

depressions (one central, two obliquely basal) and two smaller

laternal ones at the subapical sinuosities—a short elevated ridge

at the centre of the base separating the two basal impressions

and being itself divided by the longitudinal furrow; two eleva-

tions separating the anterior part of the basal impressions from

that of the central one (at the middle these three depressions

are connected); two small rugosities near the anterior margin,

one on either side of the longitudinal furrow.

The sculpture of the elytra.is less complicated. They have

a deep cavity at the shoulder, a large but not deep sinuosity

below the middle, and are obtusely acuminated. The cost

of the back are 11 in number, the suture lying in the central

one. The half of this central costa and the exterior margin

form an elevated border round either elytron. The first and

second on either side run towards the apex, but come to a stop

(very abrupt in most, but less so in some specimens) before

reaching it; the third, after having been interrupted near its

base by the subhumeral cavity, runs on but does not reach as

far as the former; the fourth does not leave the region of the

shoulder; the last on either side is very prominent at the base,

but soon forms an abrupt declivity and runs on as a lowridge

to below the middle, The back of all these costz is obtusely

dentated. The interstices are marked with large, shallow,

24 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). [Vol. ITT.

transverse impressions. The head of the insect is rather large

‘and even. The mandibles are furnished with an obtuse sub-

‘apical tooth, the two lower thirds are ciliated. The maxillz

have the apex of the outer lobe externally enlarged, rounded

-off, and furnished with three strong teeth replaced by cilia on the

inside; the inner lobe is conic and similarly provided with teeth

and cilia, however, much thinner aud finer. The maxill. palpi

‘are robust, the last joint ts inflated at the base. The antennal

‘Club is hairy, dark ‘whilst the remaining joints are yellowish), ~

conic, and somewhat securiform, the sixth joint being inserted on

‘one side of the seventh. The legs are robust, the tibiz slightly

curved, obliquely truncated at the end, furnished with spines

along the outside, and with distant cilia along the inner.

21. Hyprocuus tacustris. N.

H. elongatus, subdepressus, supra metallicus, iridescens, subtus piceus,

“pedibus, antennis, palpis elytrorumque margine magis minusve brun-

‘neis, mento cyaneo. Long. corp. 1-13 lin.

Palpi maxill. robusti art: ultimo elliptico leviter inflate. Mandibulz

‘apice bifide. Antennarum clava dense pilosa. Thorax oblonge qua-

‘dratus basin versus angustatns, basi medio productus, cum capite pro-

funde punctata Elytra ad humeros oblique truncata, apicem versus

sat fortiter angustata, profunde striato punctata. Tibia extus

‘spinulosee, |

Specimina nonnulla in locu Colomb. legi.

The head is robust, broader than the thorax, the eyes late

and prominent. The femora, the last joint of the maxill. palpi,

the mandibles, and the tarsal joints are dark towards the apex

22. HypROUS RUFIVENTRIs. JN.

H. ovatus, convexus, supra oleagino-niger, subtus obscure ferrugineus,

pedibus dilute piceis, labro eneo, reliquis oris partibus cum clypeo test-

aceis. Long. corp. 9 lin.

Palpi maxill. articulis apicem versus abruptius incragsatis, art 3°

quarto sesqui longiore, Antenne art. 7-8 fortiter perfoliatis, ultimo

acuminato. Caput antice utrinque punctulorum serie subsemicireulari

et ad oculoruam marginem interioremimpressum, Thorax punctulorum

seriebus 4 lateralibus, 2 subapicalibus obliquis abbreviatis signatus,

Elytra subtiliter striato-punctata. Tarsi omnes unguibus basi fortiter

uni-dentatis. Carina prosternalis cultriformis.

Specimen singulum f. nocte ad lumen cepi.

No. §9.—1856-8.] NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. 25

As far as my resources allow me to ascertain, a very anoma-

lous species, having the perfoliated antennz and toothed claws

of a Hydrophilus and the cultriform prosternal carina and

the elytra of a Hydrous. I have placed it in the latter g. on

account of the sharp edge of the prosternal carina, in which

the great distinguishing character of this g. seems to lie, the

same being deeply grooved in Hydrophilus. The insect attracts

attention at once by the reddish color of its abdomen. It

is of a blackish olive color on the back, having, however, the

clypeus and the anterior margin of the labrum of a yellowish

brown, the latter being otherwise of rather a metallic color.

The remaining parts of the mouth are more or less yellowish.

Joints 1-6 of the antenne are yellowish too, with the excep-

aon of the second which is dark: joints 7-9 are blackish and

pubescent. The legs are of alight pitch color. The lower

part of the head is impressed with two rather semicircular series

of punctures, similar punctures occurring along the internal

margin of the eyes. The thorax is marked with six series of

them and on the elytra they are arrangedinlines. The sternal

carina is well developed, the prosternal part has a sharp edge,

whilst the mesosternal one is cbtuse on the back, and the

metasternal part depressed and slightly grooved.

93. HYDROUS INCONSPIcUUs. JA.

H. precedente minus convexus, supra oleagino-niger, subtus rufo-

Piceus, ore testaceo. Long. corp. 44 Jin.

Palpi maxill. art. 2° et 4° subcylindricis, 3° apicem versus sensim

incrassato, sequente tertia parte longiore. Antenne art. 7-8 sub-globosis,

9° magno, ovato. Caput, thorax et elytra, ut in precedente sculpta et

signata.

In lacu Colomb. mens. Jun. non infrequenter cepi.

This is in every respect a normal species. The prosternal

earina has a sharp edge, the claws are simple, the antennal

club is composed of rounded joints, the elytra are of the typi-

cal structure, &c. In the latter respect as well as with regard

to the various series of punctures upon head, thorax and

elytra, it resembles the former; the punctures of the elytra are,

however, less distinct, Joints 1-6 of the antenneare yellowish,

26 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON.) [Vol. III.

the club being dark and finely pubescent. The maxill. palpi

have joints 2 and 4 subcylindric, but the intermediate one

thickened towards the tip.

I have not seldom in the month of June taken the pupe of

this species on the banks of the Colombo lake and hatched

them at home. I found them about one inch under ground

and often as far as 12 feet from the edge of the water, but still

in muddy places. The imago is very active, perhaps more so

than any other species of the g.

No. III.

General Remarks on the SCYDMANI.

In the first number of these Papers, I have described a

winged species of Mdichirus, a g. supposed to be without

organs of flight; in the second number I have given publicity

to the more important discovery of wings in the single g.

which forms the family of the Georyssi, also hitherto supposed

to be apterous.

At present I am about to announce to some and to confirm

to others the existence of these organs in the family of the

Scydmenide, a fact, although incomplete, of more importance

than either of the former, considering the extent of the family

and the difference of opinion, which appears to exist on the

subject amongst the most eminent Entomological authorities.

It is this importance which induces me to enter more fully on —

the subject.

[am not acquainted with the famous monograph of the

family of the Scydmeenide by Dr. Schaum. Fromthe manner,

however, in which it is quoted by Lacordaire, in his g. d. Ool.

I should infer that these two celebrated authors agree in all

the vital points. In Lacordaire’s diagnosis of the family,

these insects are described as having (with the exception of

the American g. Brathinus, of which Lacordaire is not quite

sure that it belongs to the family) the elytra soldered together,

and being destitute of wings, Now, it is scarcely credible

No. 9.—1856-8 | NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. 27

that on a point so easily ascertained as this, any difference of

opinion should exist; still, Westwood, in his ‘“‘ Modern Classifi-

cation of Insects,” in describing the same family, makes state-

ments which imply the contrary. However, Lacordaire’s

description, being by 15 years,—more in fact, —the most recent,

is, from this reason alone, entitled to be considered before all

others; and, looking upon itin this light, that is, as the essence

of ali former observations, I shall, for the present, occupy

myself with it alone.

According to this description, as mentioned above, the

insects which it regards have the elytra soldered together, and

are destitute of wings. ‘This being the case, I was startled to

find that, out of the thirteen species described below, nine or

ten which I examined in this respect, had neither the elytra

soldered, nor were they destitute of wings—on the contrary

the elytra were unconnected in the middle, and the wings were

nearly double the size of the whole insect and could not possibly

be overlooked. 1 would willingly suppose that the 100 species

of this family contained in Huropean collections, and princi-

‘pally derived frora Hurope and North America, agreed with

Lacordaire’s description, and that the Ceylon species were

exceptions to the general rule, had not Westwood’s observation,

alluded to above, corroborated my own, thus rendering me

suspicious of some unaccountable mistake or oversight some-

where or other, That this mistake cannot consist in a slip of

the pen, or a misprint in the g. des Coléoptéres quoted above,

is clear from the obvious care which has in every respect been

bestowed upon this work, and from the same remarks being

repeated in different words.

Where then this mistake is,—upon what ground it rests—it

would, under my circumstances, be useless to attempt to

unravel. However, it appears certain to me that some more

detailed and positive remarks on the subject cannot be super-

fluous, and must be new to some entomologists.

Placing the fullest confidence, as every one would do without

hesitation, in the infallibility of the description of the Belgian

author, it was not likely that I should have looked for wings

28 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). (Vol. TL. .

at allin the Scydmontde (a family to which I have not, until

lately, paid much attention) had I not been struck by seeing

the elytra of my S. alatus open, when handling it with a fine

painter’s brush in a drop of water, it being at the time quite

out of the question that the opening could have been effected

by pressure. On opening the elytra fully, I had no difficulty

in discovering the wings.

Rendered extremely curious by this discovery—diametri-

cally opposed to the distinct statement of so great an authority

as the one just alluded to—I now examined other species, and

all with the same result, most of them opening the elytra

without my assistance, in the same manner as 8, alatus; and

T have not the slightest doubt that, when a sufficient number

of specimens will enable me to examine the rest, it will still

be with the same result.

That these insects use their organs of flight may be gathered

from the following. Ata former period, [ lived in a house

situated on a small eminence and overlooking extensive groves

of cocoanut trees, cinnamon gardens, paddy fields, and patches

of jungle. Here I collected large numbers of Pselaphide,

especially Huplectus, in thin, scarcely visible, spider webs, with

which the white walls of the house were covered in certain

places—thus forming one large trap for anything small flying

about. That these had been caught here when on the wing

there can be no doubt; but I was much surprised to find with

them (what is so common in more congenial localities, here

also,) a considerable number of Scydmcni, especially my

S. advolans and pubescens, as they were said by the most

recent authority to be unable to fly, and the position they

hen found themselves in, was one they could not well, or

ould not possibly, have got into otherwise than by flying.

-rom some reason or other, [am ashamed to aay, I did not

follow up the matter at the time; but | am now certain on

the subject. Indeed, to remove all doubt and to settle all

disputes, I have just.been so fortunate as to take my S. advolans

actually on the wing, flying in my garden in the evening at

sunses, |

Se ee en ee ee ae ne ee ee

No. 9.—1856-8.] NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. 29

Having gone so far, I will (in spite of some slight misgiv- ©

ings of being laughed at for telling an old story with so grave

a face) add a few descriptive words about the organs in ques-

tion. The wings of my Scydmeni are ample, about double

the size of the whole insect, oblong, having the margin beauti-

fully ciliated, and, with the exception of a few yellowish veins

at the base, without any visible organs of this kind.

In spite of the difference in their shape, etc., I believe the

species described bélow to be all genuine Scydmeni as re-

stricted at present. Being, however, unacquainted with the

sexual distinctions of these insects (which indeed I believe

not to have been satisfactorily pointed out by any one, and to

differ in different species), | should not be surprised if one or

two of my species were eventually ascertained to have been

separated upon these grounds alone. However, having been

very reluctant in the admission of new species, it is just as

likely that individuals may hereafter be found united in one

which ought to be separated into two species. But I trust

that neither may happen.

The species were all collected Ly myself in the immediate

neighbourhood of Colombo. JI have, however, no donbi that

they occur all over the S. W. of the Island, which is of a uni-

form physical character, and perhaps occupy a still larger

portion of it. Indeed, I have taken the S. pselaphoides in

the hills, at an elevation of 3,500 feet, under the bark of

trees, None of them are quite common; on the contrary, of

nearly half of them I possess only one or two specimens,

My 8S. femoralis I found under the soft, rotting bark of an

Erythrina Indica: S. Ceylanicus and ovatus, I found dead in

spiderwebs: S. graminicola, glanduliferus and pyriformis, I

have hitherto exclusively taken in the sweeping net on the

lawns of my garden about sunset: the other species I have ~

met with indiscriminately in spiderwebs, under rotting vege-

table substances, and in the grass.

After this preamble, which I trust may not be deemed quite

superfluous, I now enter upon the description.of my species,

drawing previously attention to the three very natural and

30 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON.) [Vol. IIT

very distinct groups which they form, and the characteristics

of which will at once be perceptible from the headings given

below.

With regard to the first group (A. i. spec. 24-28) I may

mention that the elongated legs, largely developed poste-

rior trochanters, and often distinct posterior coxe, render the

motions of the insects belonging to it staggering when walking,

which together with their oblong, subdepressed body distin-

guishes them ataglance. I have subdivided them from the

cultriform or grooved mesosternal carina,

The second group (A. ii. spec. 29-35) is equally well cha-

racterized as the former by the more robust, pyriform and

subconvex body of the insects. SS. pselaphoides in the former

and §. advolans in the present group, form connecting links

between the two; especially S. pselaphoides, which in general

appearance rather belongs to the second, upon closer exam-

ination, however, is easily ascertained to be an anomalous

member of the former.

From the rounded or narrowed occiput I have divided the

second group into two subdivisions, giving preference to the

distinctions to be drawn from this part of the body to those

to be derived from the thorax, which from the variety of

shapes it assumes would naturally suggest itself for that

purpose ; but the gradations between the principal forms appear

to me too many, five, and therefore too indistinct to adopt

them. a a

As to the third group (B. spec. 36) the insect which alone

forms it amongst those described below, is so different from

any of the others that is peculiarities must strike any one at

first sight,

Species with a thick neck, abruptly formed and immersed. in

the thorax.

Fourth joint of the maaill. palpi not acuminated ; head sub-

quadrato-ovate ; eyes middling or small, finely granulated,

No. 9.—1856-8.] NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. 3t

little or not at all prominent; antennce subapproximate at

the base; posterior trochanters elongated, incrassated at the —

apex; thorax obovate ; body elongate, subdepressed,

(a.)

Mesosternal carina slight, sumple.

24, ScypMANus ALatus. WN.

S. dilute brunneus, pedibus antennisque dilutioribns, tarsis palpisque

testaceis; pubescens. Long. corp. % lin.

Antenne art. lo apice bi-acuminato, 3-4 subzqualibus, 5 precedente

majore, 6 longitudine inter 4 et 5, ovato, 7-8 subzqualibus, 9 majore.

7-9 apice angustatis, tubiformibus, 10-11 ovatis, clavam formantibus, vel

art. 9 globoso, 9-11 clavam formantibus. Palpi maxill. art. ultimo

minimo apice truncato. Mandibule dente bifido munite, basi fortiter

abrupteque dilatate. Thorax foveis basalibus nullis. Pedes elongati.

I include in this species individuals with a two, and others

with athree, jointed antennal club. The latter are further dis-

tinguished by having a slight sinuosity in the rounded outline

of the basal angles of the thorax: by having the posterior

part of the metathorax and the base of the abdomen sensibly

incrassated: and the head rather less quadratic than the

former. However, the individuals thus distinguished being

in all other respects exactly like those with the two-jointed

club, I cannot help looking upon all these distinctions as

sexual ones and uniting the insects in the same species.

The head from the eyes to the neck is of a transverse sub-

quadratic form merging into the oval by the angles being

rounded off; the anterior part is narrowed. And this is the

typical sculpture of the skull in all the five species of this group.

The eyes in the present species are middling. The antennz

are rather approximated at the base, and inserted in the

centre of the front under a ridge which runs across it from

eye to eye. The first joint is biacuminated at the apex:

the fifth is longer than the adjoining ones: joints 7-9 in the

individuals with the two-jointed and 7-8 in those with the

three-jointed club, are of a peculiar construction, being narrow-

ed at the apex and fitting into each other like the tubes of

32 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). fivol! TEE

aspyglass. The club joints are ovate, flat at the base; the

last is large and obtusely acuminated. I consider the princi-

pal distinguishing character to lie in the remarkable structure

of joints 7-9 of the antennz. The mazxill. palpi have joint

2 rather strongly incrassated at the apex, joint 3 obovate,

narrowed at the base, joint 4 very minute, truncated at the

apex. The mandibles are furnished with a bifid tooth and

are strongly and abruptly dilated at the base, The thorax is

of an obovate or obcardato-ovate form, being rather strongly

rounded off before the middie and gradually narrowed below

it; the usual basal impressions are wanting, the posterior

margin has two slight sinuosities, the posterior angles are

rounded off or obliquely truncated. Scutellum obsolete.

Kilytra furnished with a very short elevated ridge at the

shoulder. Legs elongated ; coxe large, the two posterior ones

rather distant from each other ; two posterior trochanters much

elongated, incrassated at the tip; apex of tibies subcylindric,

but not narrowed, and hairy, especially in the 2nd pair;

joints 2-3 of the tarsi of equal size, the first longer, the 4th a

little shorter; two anterior tarsi slightly contracted, 2nd and

3rd pair more and more elongated. Penultimate segment of

abdomen with strong longitudinal groove on the back.

25. SCYDMANUS FEMORALIS. JN.

S. staturd et magnitudine pracedentis ; testaceus. Antenne art. 3-4

subequalibus, 5 precedente longiore, 6-6 gradatim minoribus, subglo-

bosis, 7-8 apice fortius oblique truncatis, 9-11 gradatim majoribus,

subglobosis, clavam formantibus. Palpi maxill. art. ultimo minimo

semigloboso. Thorax magnus ohovatus, basi rotundatus, 4 foveolatus. —

Hlytra apice truncata, 2-sinuata. Pedes femoribus 2 posticis medio

constrictis.

Of the general appearance of the former, but of a light

yellowish colour, and well distinguished by the large thorax,

truncated elytra, and abnormal construction of the 2 posterior

femora. Antenne with joints 7-8 rather strongly obliquely

truncated at the apex, 9-11 forming aclub, subglobose, flat

at the base, the last acuminated and slightly cut away or

even excavated on the inside of the apex. Last joint of

No. 9.—1856-8.] NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. 35

maxill, palpi semiglobose, these otherwise the same as in the

former, Thorax and elytra of S. alatus, the former, however,

larger, rounded at the posterior margin, and with four basal

impressions, the later slightly truncated at the apex and

with slight sinuosity in the truncature on either side of the

suture. Scutellum very small. Legs with the tibiz slightly

bent at the base, the apex as in the former; tarsi with joints

1-4 gradually decreasing in size, first pair contracted and

furnished with brushes on the inside. The two posterior legs

inserted rather distant from each other, the basal part of

abnormal construction; the trochanters much elongated

and incrassated at the tip, whilst the femora at the place

of the juncture rather abruptly narrowed, bent, and slightly

compressed,—they being, at the same time, thinner than the

adjoining apex of the trochanter; the constriction very

striking.

96. ScYyDM@NuUS CErYLANIcus., JV.

S. alati colore, sed major et magis depressus ; long. corp. 2lin. Caput

magnum, robustum, thoracis latitudine. Antenne basi non approxim-

ate, art. 3-4 et 5-7 inter se subequalibus, arcum formantibus, 8-10

gradatim majoribus, subglobosis, depressis apice oblique truncatis, 11°

magno, conico, 8-11 longius pilosis, clavam formantibus. Palpi maxill.

art. 4° minimo, semigloboso. Thorax ovatus, foveis basalibus nullis.

Elytra apice singulatim rotundata. Pedes validi tarsis 2 ant. art.

lo subtus in spvnam sat fortem producto

An anomalous species, especially with regard to the antennee

which are much less approximated at the base than those of the

rest of the species belonging to this group, and with regard

to the two posterior cox, which, on the contrary, are more

approximated than in any of the species just referred to. The

insect is of the light brown color of the two former, but larger

and more depressed. The head is strikingly large and heavy,

of the width of the thorax, in its hind part, which is strongly

transverse, the oval form is prevailing over that of the square.

Eyes small. Antennz inserted under two strong protuber-

ances rather than under a ridge, their club four jointed, joints

3-7 forming an inwards-bent section of a circle, joints 8-10

34 ; JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IIT.

strongly compressed, obliquely truncated (subperfoliated), 11

large, conic. The 3rd joint of the maxill. palpi is of an

oblongo-ovato shape, the external basal angle is prolonged

into a small peduncle inserted in the apex of the 2nd joint,

the 4th joint, (about the semiglobose shape of which I am not

quite satisfied), appears to be obliquely inserted in the tip of

the preceding. ‘Thorax oval, of a similar shape to that of

the former, anterior margin slightly emarginated. Scutellum

obsolete. Elytra with the traces of a humeral costa, sepa-

rately rounded off at the apex. Legs strong, 2 posterior coxs

not more distant from each other than the 4 anterior ones;

tibiee elongated, bent at the base and apex, at the latter place

slightly narrowed, subcylindric and hairy; tarsi with joints

1-4 subequal, in the first pair strongly contracted, joint 1 of

this pair produced in a spine on the inside.

(6)

Mesosternal carina middling, grooved.

27. SCYDMANUS INTERMEDIUs. N.

S. alati statura sed major et robustior, eolore obscuriore ; long. corp.

3 jin, ,

Antenz art. lo apice bi-acuminato, 2 et 5, 3 et 4, 7 et 8 inter se

subeequalibus, 6 quarto paulo minore, obovato, 7-8 subglobosis apice

oblique truncatis, 9-11 gradatim majoribus, obovatis, clavam formant-

ibus, 11 acuminato. Palpi maxill. art. 3° obovato, 4° minimo semi-globoso.

Thorax subrotundatus, basi 4-foveolatus. Hlytra apice singulatim

rotundata. Mesosternum sat fortiter carinatum carina dorso deplanata —

canaliculata, apice acuminata.

This species stands in the middle between S. alatus and

pselaphoides, ‘To the former it is allied by its general appear-

ance rather than by anything else, differing from it very much

in the structure of the antennz: and the mesosternal carina.

To the latter on the contrary it is allied by similarity in the —

structure of the said carina, differing, however, from it in

general appearance. The color is that of S. alatus, but a

shade or two darker, the insect being at the same time larger _

and altogether more robust. The eyes are small. Antennal

No. 9.—1856-8.] NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. ; 35

club three-jointed, the joints forming it gradually increasing in

size, obovate, flat at the base, the last acuminated, Scutellum

obsolete. Hlytra with two slight basal impressions, the trace

of a humeral costa, separately rounded off at the apex. Legs

elongated as usual; two posterior cox distant, tibice straight,

subcylindric, but not narrowed at the apex, the four anterior

ones hairy ; tarsi with joints 1-4 almost inperceptibly decreas-_

ing in size—or perhaps 2-3 equal,—the anterior ones slightly

contracted: these and the intermediate ones hairy on the in-

side. Mesosternal carina middling, flat on the back with a

shallow but very distinct longitudinal groove or excavation,

anterior part projecting, acuminated.

28. SCYDMAENUS PSELAPHOIDES. NN.

S. subpyriformi-ovatus, subconvexus, magis minusve brunneus, pedibus

antennisque subtestaceis, femoribusapice nigrescentibus, tarsis palpisque

testaceis; flavo-pubscens; long. 13 lin.

Antenne art. 1° medivcri, apice biacuminato, 2-4 sensim minoribus,

5 et 2, et 3, 7 et 10 inter se subequalibus, 9-11 clavam formantibus,

6-11 basi transversim, 6-8 apice oblique truncatis, 7-8compressis. 9-11

obovatis. Mandibulz dente bifido munitz, basi dilatatz et ciliate.

Palpi maxill. art. 3° inverte conico, 4° minimo apice truncato. Thorax

-obovatus, latitudine quarta parte longiore, basi 4 foveolatus. Hlytra

apice singulatim rotundata. Mesosternum preecedentis.

An anomalous species with regard to its general appearance

which differs considerably from that of the rest of the group,

and makes it, as I have remarked above, the connecting link

between this and the following group. This is the largest

species I have hitherto met with. The system of coloration

is the usual one: more or less deep brown, legs and antennz

lighter, tarsi and palpi quite so. Hyes middling. Antenne

with a three-jointed club, the joints 6-8 are slightly truncated at

the apex, 7 and 8 being at the same time strongly compressed

have a subperfoliated appearance. The mandibles are fur-

nished with a bifid tooth. The 3rd joint of the maxill. palpi

is of the shape of an inverted cone, the 4th minute and trun-

cated at the apex. The thorax is of an obovate form, about

one quarter longer than broad, rounded off before and gradually

narrowed below the middle, subquadratic at the base, impres-

36 JOURNAL R. AOS. (CEYLON.) [ Vol. ik

sed with four fovez or pits, the posterior angles rounded off.

Scutellum minute Elytra with two short humeral coste, sepa-

rately rounded off atthe apex. Legs stout; two posterior cox

distant; tibiz slightly bent at the base, subcylindric at the apex,

the four anterior ones hairy; tarsi with joints 1-4 gradually

decreasing in size, the anterior ones dilated, the joints trans-

versely triangular, the intermediate pair hairy on the inside.

Mesosternum of the preceding. Metasternum with a slight

longitudinal depression down the middle. Penultimate abdo-

minal segment grooved on the back asin S. alatus. In the

enlargement of: the anterior tarsi lies, as in the other beetles,

undoubtedly a sexual distinction, as it is not equally strong

in all individuals. ;

I may mention here that upon some of the inviduals I

found ticks (some g. allied to Iodes but nota Gamasus)

fastened, one of them having made a wound such as, supposing

it to be inflicted at a corresponding place and on a proportionate

scale, few animals of a higher order, would, I think, have

survived. Still this little beetle appeared perfectly at its ease.

The parasite alluded to had fastened itself right in the centre

of the forehead, and the wound it had inflicted in this,—one

would imagine most dangerous place,—was a deep hole or pit

with a callous border, The latter led me to infer that the

injury was an old one, and the tick being at the time fastened

in it (and this so firmly that I had some difficulty in detaching

it), [ felt sure it had been in this position for months. The

injury was observable under a slight magnifier, and I think to —

compare it to one inflicted by a rifle-bali would be greatly

underrating its importance.

ii.

Fourth joint of the maxill. palpi acuminated ; mesosternal

carina strongly developed; eyes large, prominent, coarsely

granuluted ; antennce distant at the base; 2 postertor tro-

chanters simple ; thorax variable ; body robust, pyriform,

sub-convew.

(a)

Occiput rounded.

‘

ban

fad IP ih s

No. 9.—1856-8.] NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. 37

30. ScYDMNZUS ADVOLANS. WN.

S. long. corp. 3 lin. Antenne art. 3 et 4,5 et 6 inter se subzqual-

ibus, obovatis, 7 majore, subgloboso, 8-10 subglobosis, basi transversim,

apice oblique truncatis cum lle conico clavam formantibus. Palpi

maxill. art. 3° elongato, inverte conico, 4° mediocri. Mandibulz

tenues, medio acuminate 1-dentate, basi abrupte dilatate. Thorax

ovato-rotundatus, apice fortius angustatus, basi leviter 2-sinuatus,

5-foveolatus. Hlytra apice singulatim rotundata.

The insect is of brown color, the antenne lighter, the legs

still more, and the tarsi and palpi quite so, the femora are

dark towards the apex, the head, thorax and suture are oc-

casionally of chestnut color. It is, as usual, pubescent. The

sculpture of the head in this and the following species not,

as in the preceding, based upon the oblong square or the oval,

but rather upon the form of a ball, which, in a more or less

compressed state, is always perceptible ; in some instances it

is narrowed on one side. In the present species the head is

heavy and subglobose. The eyes are large, prominent and

coarsely granulated. The antenne are inserted distant from

each other under two protuberances of the anterior part of the

forehead. The club is 4-jointed, the joints composing it

being flat at the base, and, with the exception of the last,

obliquely cut away at the apex, the last itself being conic.

The maxill. palpi have joint 3 rather elongated and of the

form of an inverted cone, joint 4 middling, acuminated.

The thorax is of a rounded oval shape and rather strongly

narrowed towards the apex, The scutellum is obsolete. The

elytra have the usual rudimentary costz at the shoulders and

are separately rounded off at the apex, The legs are middling,

2 posterior coxz inserted close together, trochanters all simple,

tibize shghtly bent at the base, narrowed and subcylindric at

the tip, the 4 anterior ones hairy, tarsi with joints 2-3 sub-

equal, the first a little longer and the 4th shorter, the two

anterior ones slightly contracted.

I include in this species some individuals which slightly

differ from the foregoing description, being more robust,

covered more densely and with longer hair, especially on the

38 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). (Vol. IT1.

occiput and thorax, with the latter rather obconico-ovate and

the costee of the elytra more distant, and moreover occasionally

of a chestnut color. 3

30. ScyDMANUS PUBESCENS. JN.

S. precedente gracilior; long. corp. ¥ lin. Antenne art. 3 et 4, 5 et

6 inter se subequalibus subcylindricis, 7° secundo paulo minore, fortiter

cylindrico, 8-10 subglobosis cum 11° conico clavam formantibus, Palpi

maxill. art. 3° inverte conico, 4° minuto. Mandibule tenues, medio ob-

tuse obsoleteque uni-dentatz, basi abrupte dilatate. Thorax conicus,

latitudine haud longior basi 4-foveolatus. Elytra et pedes preecedentis,

tibiis tamen apice leviter arcuatis.

Less robust than the former, and further distinguished from

it by the 7th antennal joint, (the one preceding the club)

which is of a strongly cylindric shape, by the minuteness of

the last joint of the maxillary palpi, the {obtuse and nearly

obsolete tooth of the mandibles, the short-conical form of the

thorax, and the tibiz which are slightly bent at the apex.

31. ScyDMANUS PyemMzus. NN.

S. statura et colore praecedentis sed longius pubescens et sesqui minor;

iong. corp. 4lin. Antenne art. 4 et 4,5 et 6 inter se subzqualibus,

7° majore, ovato, 8-10 subglobosis, fortius compressis 11° clavam for-

mantibus, hoe magno, obconico, apice obtuso. Palpi maxill. art. 20

tenuiore, 3° inverte conico, 4° minuto. Mandibulze obsolete uni-dentatz

Thorax conicus latitudine parum longior, elytris fortiter applicatus, basi

2-sinuatus et}4-foveolatus. Pedes et elytra precedentis, his tamen am-

plioribus,

Strongly allied to the two preceding species, still very much

smaller, more compact and covered with longer hair—thus of

rather a different appearance regardless of its size. From 8.

pubescens this species would principally differ in the shape of

the 7th antennal joint, also in that of the first three club joints

which are much more compressed and more hairy in S. pig-

meus. ‘lhe thorax of the latter is more firmly applied to the:

base of the elytra; the latter have a fuller, more robust ap-

pearance about them; the palpiare more slender, and the tooth

of the mandibles is pointed. From S, advolans it would prin-

No. 9.—1856-8.| NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. 39

cipally differ besides in the generalities mentioned above, in

the shape of the thorax, and in some of the points in which it

differs from S. pubescens.

Occiput narrowed.

32. ScCYDMANUS GLANDULIFERUS. N,

S. robustus; long. corp. # lin. Antenne art, 3-7 sensim majoribus,

8-10 globosis, fortiter compressis cum 11° glanduliformi clavam formant-

ibus, longe ciliatis. Palpi max. art. 2° tenuiore, 3° inverte conico, 4°

mediocri. Thorax conicus latitudine basali haud longior, elytris fortiter

applicatus, basi 2-impressus, in impressionibus 2-foveolatus.

Of the size of S. advolans and the plump shape and color

of S. pygmeus, the latter being rather lighter than that of S.

advolons; it has the longer (especially on the occiput and

thorax) hairy vesture of the former. The occiput is slightly

narrowed behind. The antennal club is composed of four joints,

the first three of which are strongly compressed, the 4th being

plump and of the shape of an acorn with its cup; all are strong-

ly ciliated. The thorax is conic, firmly applied to the base of

the elytra, as in the preceding species, depressed, and with two

pits at the base posterior margin with two sinuosities. The

shoulder ridges of the elytra are short, but rather strongly

marked. ‘The tibiz are narrowed, sub-cylindric and hairy at

the apex. Joints 2-3 of the tarsi are subequal, the anterior

pair more, the intermediate less, contracted.

33. SCYDMANUS GRAMINICOLA WN.

S. gracilior; long. corp. 3? lin. Antenne art. 3 et 4, 6 et 7, 9 et 10

inter se subaequalibus, 5° adjacentibus paulo longiore, 3-7 subcylindricis,

8 subgloboso, 9-10 fortiter globosis cum 11° clavam formantibus. Palpi

maxill. art. 3° inverte conico, 4° mediocri. Mandibule apice arcuate,

medio acuminate 1-dentatz, basin versus sensim dilatate. Thorax obcon-

icus basi depressus, 2-sinuatus et 2 foveolatus, rectangulatus. Pedes

tibits elongatis basi apiceque arcuatis.

Of the usual brown color, legs and antenne lighter, tarsi

and palpi quite so, femora nigrescent at the apex, hairs of occi-

put and thorax rather long. The former slightly narrowed

40 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON.) [ Vol. IIf.

behind, the head thus of a somewhat rhomboid form. Antennal

club composed of three joints, the first two of which are strongly

globose, the last being acuminated and slightly cut away on

one side at the apex. The mandibles are furnished with an

acuminated tooth at the middle, bent at the apex, and, what

is rather uncommon in this g., gradually enlarged towards the

base. The thorax is obconic, rather longer than broad. The

elytra are somewhat more stretched than usual in this group,

the rudimentary humeral costz are rather prominent, they

are separately rounded off at the apex. Tuibiz, more or less

elongated, slightly bent at the base and apex, at the latter

place sub-cylindric and hairy. Tarsi with joints 2-3 subequal,

first pair slightly contracted. A sexual distinction appears to

be expressed in the length of the tibize, which are less elon-

gated in certain individuals, which are at the same time less

robust than the others, The insect is easily distinguished by

its general appearance.

34. ScyDMANUS PYRIFORMIS, NN.

S. supra castaneus, subtus brunneo-testaceus, pedibus antennisque

dilutioribus, tarsis palpisque flavo-testaceis, antennarum clava nigricante

long. corp. 4 lin.

Antenne art. 3-8 fere subequalibus excepto 5° parum longiore, 8°

subgloboso, minore, 9-10 subglobosis majoribus cum 11° acuminato

clavam formantibus. Palpi maxill. art. 3° inverte conico, 4° minuto.

Pedes coxis 2 posticis distantioribus; tibiis 2 anterioribus basi apicequé

leviter arcuatis, reliquis subsimplicibus.

A pretty little species, at once distinguished by its color, —

which is chestnut, darker at the base and suture of the elytra,

and light, more or less brownish or yellowish below, the

antennz being of the latter color with a nigrescent club.

The occiput is slightly narrowed, the head altogether plump,

heavy and transverse. The antennal club is composed of 3

subglobose joints the last of which is acuminated and slightly

cut away on one side as in some of the preceding species.

The thorax is obovate, broadest below the middle and gradu-

ally narrowed towards the apex. The elytra have the usual

two shoulder-ridges and are rather strongly dehiscent at the

oe ee Te eS eee Oe ny

we eS

No. 9.—1856-8.] NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. Al

apex. The two posterior cox are rather distant at the base ;

the tibiz are slightly angustated and subcylindric at the

apex, the four anterior ones hairy, the first pair, moreover,,

slightly bent at the base and apex, but the rest nearly straight

35. ScyDMANUS ANGUSTICEPS. NV.

S. castaneus, antennis pedibusque dilutioribus, tarsis palpisque

testaceis ; long. corp. 1 lin.

Caput magnum occipite fortiter angustato, subtrigono, hoe cum

thorace longe pilosis, Antenne art. 3 et 4, 5 et 6 inter se subsequalibus,

7-11 gradatim majoribus, vel 9-10 subequalibus, subglobosis, 8-10

leviter depressis cum 11lo clavam formantibus. Palpi maxill. art. 2°

tenuiore, 3° inverte conico, 4° mediocri conico-acuminato. Thorax

obconicus, basi subquadratus, 2-sinuatus et 4-foveolatus. Hlytra costis

2 fortioribus abbreviatis. Tibize subrecte.

A handsome species of more or less deep chestnut color

with lighter legs and antennz, The head is large, heavy, and

from the eyes to the neck strongly triangular; the occiput

and thorax are covered with long hair, which adds much

to the peculiar appearance of the insect. The antenne are

thick and robust, the club four-jointed.- The thorax is subqua-

dratic at the base up to the middle and conic towards.

the apex. The punctures or pits at the base are four in number.

The scutellum is small. The humeral coste# are stronger

developed than in any of the other species, and traceable.

to the middle of the elytra. The tibie are nearly straight :

subcylindric at the apex: the four anterior ones hairy. The.

tarsi have joints 2-4 nearly subequal,

Species without a neck.

| 36. ScypManus ovatus. NV.

S. ovatus, convexus, brunneus; long, corp. $ lin.

Caput subquadrato-ovatum. Antenne art. 3-11 sensim incrassatis,

9-11 subglobosis, depressis cum 11° magno, conico clavam formantibus.

Palpi maxill. art. 4° minutoacuminato. Thorax amplius semiorbicularis,

margine posteriore medio producto, basi 2-foveolatus.

The color of this insect is, as usual, shaded off from brown

to light yellow. However, in other respects it differs materially

42 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IT,

from all the preceding species. The body is_ regularly

oval, thorax and elytra convex, pubescent. The head is

subquadratic-ovate the eyes rather small but prominent,

the neck is altogether wanting. The antenne are at the

base as distant from each other as they can be, being inserted

below the eyes; the club is three-jointed; the joints increase

gradually in size from the third to the eleventh. The maxill.

palpi have the second joint slender, the third rather pear-shaped,

the fourth minute and acuminated. The thorax is very ample, —

semiorbicular, of the shape and nearly the size of the apical

half of the elytra, the basal angles are acuminated and slightly

envelope the shoulders, the posterior margin is prolonged in

the middle, towards the scutellum the foveze or basal impres-

sions are two, and rather distant from each other. Scutellum

obsolete. Elytra with two depressions at the base. Tibize

straight; tarsi with joints 1-4 subequal or very nearly so.

Mesosternal carina middling.

No. IV.

CYcLosoMUs FLExuosuS. Fab. *

To judge from what Lacordaire says of this g.in his g,

des Col,—a work upon which, as I have said elsewhere, I look

as containing the essence of all former researches—it would

appear that the present species differs very materially from

the three others hitherto described, namely, in the flatness _

of the antennal joints, in the serrated edges of the tibial

spurs, in the existence of the tarsal brushes in the male, and

* This insect was erroneously described by me in the first edition of

these Papers. However, I retain part of my description, as it notices

some peculiarities of the insect, of which I find no mention made in any

of the works within my reach. It was owing to these peculiarities,

and Lacordaire’s statement that the three known species were of

yellowish and green colour, as well as to having no detailed description

of the C. flex., that I described it as new.

Cetra = oy

Reyhire, yy é

No. 9.—1856-8.] NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. 43

in the color—to say nothing of some other minor distinctions.

The first three of these peculiarities—too important not to

have been noticed by Lacordaire or any other describer of

the g. had they been aware of them—add considerably to the

characteristics which already constitute this g. one of the

most remarkable of the extensive family of the Carabide,

The antenne are strong, stiff and short, reaching hardly

beyond the base of the thorax: joint 1 is of middling size,

_ 2 short, 3-4 are subequal, 5 rather shorter, 6-11 still shorter,

subequal: joints 3-11 are strongly compressed and pubescent,

but only on the narrow side. The tibiz are strongly bi-

ealcarated at the apex, the inner spur being longer than the

outer one. In all legs these spurs are slightly compressed

and serrated along the two narrow sides. Joints 1-4 of the

anterior male tarsi, are slightly dilated, the apex of the first,

second, and third, being at the same time furnished each with

two small white brushes, below fenced in by spines. In the in-

termed, tarsi of the male, the apical half of joint 1, and joints

2 and 3, are furnished on the inner side with strong brushes

of reddish colour, bordered by rows of spines, the entire lower

surface forming one thick brush, and not two, as in the anterior

pair.

Regarding the habits of these insects, one would feel in-

clined to suspect them to be of a semi-aquatic nature, that is,

the insects to frequent the banks of rivers, or other damp

places; and I know that some entomologists are under the

impression, that their mode of living is that of the g. Omo-

phron. However, in my experience, the direct contrary is

the case. They live in the driest, hottest, and, sandtest places that

can be found, where they burrow wm the sand, exactly in the man-

ner of the well-known g. of the Amaras. I have of late taken

considerable numbers of them in the Cinnamon Gardens of

Colombo, in holes made by the rooting up of weeds, into

which they had run, and could not escape, the loose sand giving

under them whenever they attempted todo so. When wishing

to find them, I had to search the corners of these holes, where

some leaves had usually collected, when I would sometimes

44 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON.) [Vol. IIT.

dig up eight at a time, not seldom rather deep in the

sand, They are quick of motion, and being thus pursued,

immediately bury themselves in the sand.

The diagnosis as given by Lacordaire requires at all events

to be entirely recast, and the g. to be removed from the

tribe Cratoceride, (one of the characteristics of which is the

want of foot-brushes in the male) in which he has placed it.

III. OcHTHEPHILUS, n.g. WN.

Fam. CARABIDA.

Trib. PAGONIDA,

Corpus oblongum, subparallelum, valde depressam. Caput magnum

antice trigonum; oculis magnis, ovatis, prominulis; collo forti

Mentum subquadrate emarginatum, lobis extus fortiter rotundatis,

apice abrupte acuminatis, dente parvo acuminato. Ligula parva apice

quadrate truncata, libera, paraglossis setiformibus marginem anteri-

orem longe sperantibus. Palpi robusti art. 4° elongato tenui, acumi-

nato; maxillares art. 3° interne, 2° externe incrassato; labiales art. 3°

robusto externe incrassato, 2° parvo, cylindrico. Labrum parvum basi,

angustatum subtrigonum, antice emarginatum. Mandibule elongate,

porrectz, trigone, apice arcuate, infra medium pluries dentate.

Antenne robust corporis med. fere attingentes, art. 1° et 11° medio-

cribus, subeequalibus, 2-4 et 5-10 inter se subzequalibus, illis subeylin-

dricis, his cum 11° ovatis. Thorax subeordatus basi quadratus. Ped-

unculus brevis. Hlytra apice rotundata. Pedes anteriores tibiis

profunde emarginatis tarsis leviter contractis, art 1-4 gradatim

minoribus, art. 1° subcylindrico, 2-4 subtrigonis, hoc subtus apice spino

tenui munito, 5° sat magno, unguibus simplicibus.

37. OcHTHEPHILUS CEYLANICUS.

QO. alatus brunneo-testaceus, pedibus palpisque testaceis, tenciter

pubescens, fronte profunde 2-sulcata ; elytris obsolete striatis, in striis

punctatis; long. corp, 13 lin.

In fluviorum ripis Bembidiorum more victitat.

Apparently allied to Trechus, from which, however, it

would seem to differ in the structure of the palpi, the labrum,

&c.

The head is as broad as the thorax, and altogether of about

the same size. It is strongly triangular from the eyes to the

tip of the mandibles, the forehead is impressed with two deep

No. 9.—1856-8,] NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. 45

longitudinal furrows; the eyes are large, rather oval and

prominent; behind them the head is abruptly contracted into

a thick neck. The antennz are long and thick, reaching

nearly to the middle of the body, joints 1 and 11, 2-4, 5-10

are subequal among themselves, 5-11 oval, 1-4 subcylindric.

The labrum is small, rather triangular, being narrowed at its

base, it is emarginated in front with a slight angle in the

middle of the emargination. The mandibles are long, straight,

triangular, bent at the tip only, dentated below the middle,

the one more so than the other. The maxillz are thin and

slender, gently bent outwards at the base and inwards at the

apex, the outer lobe corresponding with the inner one in shape

and strength, The palpi are robust, both the maxillary and

labial ones have joint 4 elongated, thin and acuminated, in

fact needle-shaped, firmly implanted in the preceding one, not

loosely hinged to it. The maxillary ones have joints 3 and 2

robust, the former swollen on the inner, the latter on the outer

side. In the labial ones joint 3 is still plumper than in the

others, but differs in shape by being incrassated on the outer,

instead of the inner side, the second joint being at the same

time quite small and cylindric, The mentum is large and

simple as above described. The ligula is small, oblong, very

slightly narrowed and transversely cut away at the apex, the

paraglossze separate from its sides a little below the anterior

corners, they are setiform and reach much beyond it. The

whole organ is of membranaceous texture: having, however,

a more substantial centre or back. The thorax and elytra are

simple and sufficiently described above. I may add that the

former is divided by a longitudinal furrow and that both are

furnished with a narrow margin at the sides. The scutellum

is very small, and the abdomen furnished with a short pe-

duncle. The legs are weak, simple, and nearly equal, the

anterior tibize are deeply notched, the lower margin of the

fourth tarsal joint of the same pair is furnished with a long

thin spine, the apex of which fits in between the claws, as

in Lymneum Steph. I have been unable to discover any

footbrushes or other sexual distinctions, in the specimens be-

4G JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON.) [Vol. TET.

fore me and therefore conclude that accidentally they are

all females.

The habits of the insect are those of the Bembidia, in whose

society it lives upon the banks of rivers, taking, like them,

readily to its wings. I have found it occasionally in consi-

derable numbers upon the sandy banks of the Maha Oya in

the neighbourhood of Negombo close to the edge of the water.

IV. Creaeris,n.g. LV.

Fam. CARABIDA.

Trib, LEBIIDA vel PERICALIDA:

Corpus oblongum valde depressum. Caput magnum robustum ; oculis

mediocribus, ovatis, sat prominulis; collo brevi. Mentum forma ferri

equini vel trifurcatum (hinc n. g. Creagris) lobis angustis, subparallelis,

apice oblique truncatis, angulo interno producto, dente lobis parum bre-

viore, tenui, acutissimo. Ligula magna cornea apicem versus dilatata,

apice transversim truncata angulis rotundatis, paraglossis sat robustis

connatis marginem anter. non attingentibus, apice vix liberis, ovatis-

Palpi maxill. art 4° claviformi apice fertiter truncato, 3° parvo, 2°

intus excavato; labiales art. 4° subelliptico, truncato. Labrum maxi.

mum, suborbiculatum, convexum. Mandibule parve basi obsolete

unidentatz, labro obtecte. Antennze robusta humeros parum super-

antes submoniliformes art. 1, 3 et 11 longitudine fere subequali,

mediocribus, 2° parvo, basi cylindrico, apice rotundato, 4-10 subsqual-

ibus, cum 11° ovatis. Thorax parvus, capite sesqui minor, transversus,

longitudine duplo fere latior, infra med. fortius angustatus, basi parum

prolongatus. Pedunculus brevis. Hlytra apicem versus leviter dilatata,

apice fortiter subquadrate truncata. Pedes robusti simplices sube-

quales, ant. tibiis profunde excavatis, omnes tarsis brevibus, art. 1°

sequentium 2 fere longitudine, subcylindrico-trigono, 2-3 gradatim

minoribus, 2° trigono, 3° transversim trigono, 4° magno, profunde bilobo, -

5 medioeri, unguibus, simplicibus, art. 4° subtus dense penicillato.

38. CREAGRIS LABROSA. NN.

C. picea,subtus dilutior,ore antennisque, coxis,trochanteribus, femorum

tibiarumque apice et tarsis brunneis ; dense punctata tenniterque pubes-

cens ; elytris striatis ; long. crop. 43 lin.

Specimina nonnulla prope Colombo nocte ad lumen cepi.

I consider this scarce and interesting insect to form a pas-

sage between the Lebitde and Pericalide, but am doubtful

No. 9—1856-8.| NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. | 4G

to which of these two tribes to refer it as, although it partakes

of the characteristics of either, it is at the same time distinct

from both. Distinguished in several respects, its most extra-

ordinary character lies in the curious shape of the mentum.

This is, however, easily described as large, of the shape of a

horseshoe with a long, thin, very pointed tooth in the middle,

the apical half of the sides (lobes) being at the same time

gently dilated, the apex itself being obliquely cut away from

the outer towards the inner side—the inner angle being the

most advanced, and slightly dentated at the edge thus formed.

Or it may also be described asa fork with the outer teeth

somewhat enlarged, truncated at the apex and so forth. The

other parts of the mouth have not much to distinguish them,

with the exception, however, of the labrum which attains a very

‘extraordinary degree of development, occupying rather more

than one third of the whole head, although the latter itself is large

and heavy. Itis of a suborbicular shape, very slightly pro-

duced in front into an obtuse angle, is vaulted, covers the

mandibles, has two longitudinal impressions at the sides of the

base and is highly polished. The head has two impressions in

front of the eyes, is densely punctured and thinly pubescent,

it is strongly but gradually contracted behind the eyes and

formed into a short neck. The antenne are strong and reach

a little beyond the shoulders, joints 1, 3 and 11, are of about

equal length, middling, the former two subcylindric; joint 2 is

small, rounded, 4-10 sub-equal and with 11 oval. The

thorax is small, only half as large as the head, rather narrower,

strongly transverse, nearly twice as broad as long, slightly

emarginated in front, the anterior angles rounded, contracted

below the middle, subquadratic and prolonged at the base,

posterior angles depressed, longitudinally divided by a deep

furrow. The elytra are striated, and, as the thorax densely

punctured and thinly pubescent. The legs are strong, simple,

and subequal, the anterior tibiz are deeply notched, the first

joint of the tarsiis as long as the two succeeding ones together,

subcylindric, the second triangular, the third of a similar but

more transverse form, smaller ; all three haye the apical angles

48 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). [Vol. TI.

acuminated, the fourth is large and deeply bilobed, the fifth

middling, thin, the clawssimple, The tarsi are altogether short

and strong, the first joint is furnished with longer, the second

and third with shorter stiff hair, whilst the fourth is strongly

penicillated below. The anterior tibiz are slightly spinose, —

the others more so, |

The legs in all my specimens are exactly the same, and I

hardly know whether they are males or females. The insect

has @ peculiar, rather strong smell about it, resembling that

of soap.

V. Heteroenossa,n.g. N.

Fam. CARABIDA.

Trib. GALERITIDA,

Corpus oblongum, subparallelum, depressum, tenuiter hirsutum, Caput

mediocre, oculis semiglobosis sat prominulis; collo brevi. Mentum sat

profunde subquadrate emarginatum, lobis magnis extus fortiter rotundatis

apice abrupte acuminatis, dente magno excavato, apice leviter inflecto,

obtuso, magis minusve profunde sinuato. Ligula subcornea apice libera,

truncata: vel quadrata vel obconica vel leviter bisinuata; paraglossis

cylindricis, marginem anteriorem longissime superantibus, magis minusve

incurvatis. Palpi hirsuti art. ultimo sat elongato, subcylindrico, apice

truncato vel subtrigono. Labrum transversum antice emarginatum.

Mandibule valid trigonsz, apice arcuate, basi pluries dentate. An-

tenne robuste corporis med. attingentes, art. 1° incrassato sequentibus

2 longiore, 2° parvo, 3-11 subequalibus. Thorax subcordatus, basi

transversim truncatus leviterque prolongatus. Pedunculus brevis. Ely-

tra apice fortiter subquadrate truncata, costata costis 16 majoribus, in

interstitiis subtilissime bicostulata, in sulcis (sulco e tribus inter costas —

binas majores medio excepto) tenuiter pilosa, in omnibus transversim

rugulosa, Pedes anteriores tibiis sat fortiter emarginatis, tarsis maris

art. 1-3 leviter dilatatis, subtus squamularum sericebus 2 munitis, art. 1°

elongato-trigono, 2-3 rotundato-trigonis, 3° precedente parum minore,

40 parvo, cordato, 3° plus sesqui minore, his omnibus angulis acuminatis,

5° magno, unguibus simplicibus.

This diagnosis may appear somewhat vague, still I have

been unable to express the characteristics of the insects from

which it is drawn in more precise terms, although they have

features quite peculiar to themselves by which they are easily

recognised when once seen.

No. 9—1856-8.] NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. 49

The points on which the three species which form this genus

more or less disagree are the following :—

1) The labrum—is more transverse in H, elegans and less

deeply emarginated in H. ruficollis than in the other two

species respectively—still in all three it is emarginated, and

has moreover the peculiarity of being furnished with bristles at

the two anterior corners,

2) The mentum—is subquadratically emarginated, the

lobes being strongly rounded on the outer side and abrupily

acuminated at the apex. At the base of the emargination it

is furnished with a broad, excavated tooth, which is inflected

and obtuse at the apex. So far all three species agree.

However, whilst in H. elegans and rufieollis, this tooth is

slightly emarginated at the apex, it is sharply notched in

H. bimaculata,—in fact bilobed, the lobes being large and

rounded at the apex. I look upon this notch, which is sharp.

but not deep, as a mere variation from the emargination

existing at the apex of the tooth of the two former species.

3) The palpi—labial as well as maxillary have their ter-

minal joint truncated at the apex—and so far again all three

species agree. However, whilst this joint is of elliptic form

in the palpi of: A, rujicollis, it is in H. elegans only so in the

labial ones, that of the maxillary ones being cylindric at the

base. In H. bimaculata finally, this joint is rather clubshaped

or subtriangular and more strongly truncated than in the two.

former species.

4) The ligula—is of subcoriaceous texture, middling size,

the shape of an oblong square, free and transversely truncated

at the apex. These characters are common to all three species

and in H, ruficollis I have nothing to add to it. However,

the anterior margin, which is straight in this species, is

slightly bisinuated in H. elegans, the outer angles being

acute and the central one obtuse. The ligula of H, bimaculata

differs from both the former in as far as it is narrowed

towards the apex and depressed towards the sides and the

front, the anterior margin is otherwise cut away straight, -

without any sinuosities, but it is rather strongly armed with

50 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IIT. 4

bristles. The paraglossas agree in -all three species in as far

as they are highly developed, reach much beyond the anterior

margin of the ligula and are more or less bent inwards.

Their greatest development they assume in H. elegans, in

which they nearly touch each other in front of the anterior

margin, being cylindric and ‘slender at the same time. In H.

ruficollis the paraglossee are somewhat shorter and straighter,

and in A, bimaculata still more so.

On all other points the three species perfectly agree ; in saying q

which I lay particular weight upon the unusual sculpture of

the elytra, and the rather peculiar hairy vesture of the insects,

bearing also in mind their general appearance, proportions,

system of coloration, mode of living, etc. As to the hairy

vesture of certain parts of the body and the sculpture of the

elytra, it is true that these are not generally looked upon as

of much importance; however, they appear to me so in this

instance, as they present certain unusual variations, repeated

in ali three species. The hairy vesture consists in thin yellowish

or reddish hairs, thinly seminated over the back, and still more ©

thinly over the whole of the lower surface of the insects, being

at the same time longer at the latter place. This vesture ~

acquires its greatest density on the legs, especially the tibize —

and tarsi, whilst their uniform presence at the palpi forms —

almost a generic character. The elytra are exquisitely sculp- —

tured into about eight larger coste on either of them and into ©

two smaller ones between every two of these; the furrows thus

formed are finely transversely rugose and—with the exception

of the central furrow between every two larger coste—thinly —

pubescent.

39. HETEROGLOSSA ELEGANS, WN.

H. supra rufo-castanea, capite obscuriore, maculis 2 humeralibus ob-

soletissimis ferrugineis ; subtus dilutior, pedibus, antennis oreque subtes-

taceis, elytris ad angulos apical. extern. testaceis; long. corp. 3$ lin.

In lacus Colombensis ripis sub vegetab. putrescent. non infrequenter — ‘

cepl.

An agile, pretty little insect of chocolate color and with :

its family features about it. Head smooth, polished, above ~

No. 9.—1856-8.| NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. 51

and below slightly punctured, with two impressions in front of

the eyes, anterior angles of labrum rather acuminated. Tho-

rax deeper and more densely punctured than the head, with

the elytra thinly hirsute, rather strongly emarginated in

front, less so behind, sides, especially at the basal angles, de-

pressed, divided longitudinally by a deep furrow. Scutellum,

like thorax, punctured and hairy. LElytra with the inner

apical angle right and the outer rounded off, largely punctured

within the margin, especially near the apex. Tibiee with a

row of larger spines down the outer and a row of smaller ones

down the inner side, four calcarated at the apex, the two inner

spurs larger.

40, HETEROGLOSSA RUFICOLLIS. LV.

H. colore preecedentis sed obscurior, thorace pectoreque rufo-testaceis,

antennis art. 3 primis nigrescentibus; long. corp. 44 lin.

Cum przecedente et per occasionem nocte ad lumen cepi.

The shape of the body is quite that of the former but the

insect is larger. The head is less distinctly punctured than

in the former, and there is an additional impression in the

middle of the forehead. The thorax is also less deeply punc-

_ tured, but the divisional furrow is more so than in the preced-

ing species. The anterior tibize appear somewhat less deeply

notched. There is nothing else to add to the description that

has not been pointed out already.

41, HETEROGLOSSA BIMACULATA, WN.

HH. subeastanea, thorace dilutiore, capite rufo-testaceo, elytris ante

medium maculis 2 flavis, pedibus abdominisque apice testaceis ; long.

corp. 54 lin. variat colore obscuriore et dilutiore.

Ubi preecedentes sed infrequenter legi.

Head, with the exception of the forehead, deeply punc-

tured, with two impressions in front of the eyes, anterior angles

of labrum rounded. Thorax densely and deeply punctured,

with elytra thinly pubescent. The latter with a round

yellow spot at the middle of either. This species is capable

of discharging a pungent, blistering liquid of brown color

52 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). ~ [Vol. TIL.

and strong smell from the anus. I have often handled the

other two species but observed nothing of the kind.

No. V.

‘THE TRIGONOTOMID® with an elliptic terminal joint of the

palpi are abundantly represented amongst the Ceylon Cara- ——

bide, thus making amends for the want of other tribes of the

section to which they belong. I have now before me a great

many individuals of different species which I have endea~

-voured to distribute into genera after the works of Lacor-

daire, Dejean and others of less importance.

A single glance almost convinced mo that they must belong

either to Abacetus, Distrigus, or Drimostoma—genera closely

allied, and whose principal, (in fact only essential), distinction

would appear to reside in the shape of the mentum-tooth. If —

it is a well established fact, which cannot be doubted, from the

above authors, that this tooth is pointed in Drimostoma,—large, —

rounded, equalling the lateral lobes in Abacetus,—and large and ~

truncated in Distrigus,—the species described below could not, |

as to their genera, be distributed otherwise than I have done, —

namely, five Distrigi and one Drimostoma. The species whichI ~

have drawn to the former genus havea large, more or less square

tooth, slightly rounded at the anterior angles. It is impos- q

sible to call this tooth of the five species pointed in any way;

they cannot therefore belong to the genus Drimostoma ; nor can a

any of them be drawn to Abacetus, which genus is moreover

apparently oxclusively African, As to the insect which 1

FE Barysomus Gyllenhali Dej. A gross oversight of the vesture of

the anter. male tarsi and some incorrect information regarding the

insect I received from Europe led me into the error of describing it-as —

new in the first edition of these papers. However, having since ~

examined it more closely, I may mention here that joints 2-4 only of

the anterior male tarsi are furnished with squamule below, and nob

joints 1-4, as stated by other authors. a.

No. 9.—1856-8. ] NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA, 53

have placed in the genus Drimostoma, its mentum-tooth is

not exactly pointed, but it is altogether narrower than in

Distrigus and might well be called ‘“‘ assez atqué,’’ as Dejean

describes it, This insect differs, moreover, very materially

in general appearance as well as in its details from my Dis-

trigi; and I feel sure that it belongs to the genus in which

I have placed it, although it does not quite agree with La-

cordaire’s description—the labrum being emarginated in front,

the second joint of the maxill. palpi exhibiting nothing un-

usual, &c. As to the species which I have established, I feel

very certain that they are new and good ones, as it would

appear from the quotations in Lacordaire “ Gen. d. Ool.” that

since Dejean’s descriptions no new ones of Indian species

have been published.

These insects live in the manner of the Huropean Feronide,

but appear to affect rather damp localities, some of them

- take freely to their wings and fly commonly into houses in

the evenings during the rainy weather.

42, Distriacus costatus. WN.

D. nigerrimus, nitidus, subtilissime parce punctulatus, ore pedibusque

piceis, tarsis antennisque castaneis, palpis brunneo-testaceis, long. corp.

43 lin,

Capite elypeo fronteque leviter excavatis, hac impressionibus 2 later-

alibus semilunaribus profundissimis rugulisque nonnullis transversis ;

mandibulis fortiter sulcatis ; menti dente magno excavato; thorace lon-

gitudine parum latiore, breviter obcordato, lateribus rotundato, basin

versus angustato, basi truncato medio leviter emarginato, antice lateribus

fortiter deflexo, dorso posticeque plano, basi longitudinaliter profunde

2-impresso, inter impressionibus leviter transversim rugoso, ad marginem

ant. et post. obsolete sulculato, dorso rugulis nonnullis transversis subtil-

ibus, linea med. longitud. subtili extremis profundis diviso; elytris

profunde striatis, interstitiis fere planis, puncto ad striam 2™ medio ob-

soleto; éarsis dorso fortiter 3-costatis ; prosterno plano.

Sub quisquiliis in ripis lacus Colombensis communis.

Apparently closely allied to D. impressicollis, Dey. How-

ever, if the description given in the Spec. gen. embraces all

the characteristics of this latter species mine is undoubtedly

different from it. Dejean says nothing about the costa on the

54 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON.) [Vol. ITT.

back of the tarsi which are the principal characteristics in my

species, nor are such costee of general occurrence or of so little

importance that it couid be supposed they had heen left

unnoticed by Dejean from these reasons. I cannot possibly call

the thorax of my D. costatus “ subquadratic;” it is rounded

at the sides, narrowed behind, and cut away at the base. The

strize of the elytra of my species are not punctured in the bot-

tom, as those of the D.impressicollis are stated to be. In men-

tioning the inter-antennal impressions Dejean would certainly -

not have overlooked the depression in the centre of the fore-

head nor that of the clypeus, which distinguish my insect, had

they existed in the one he described. The former is round :

the latter transverse. I further fail to discover in my species

the ‘“reflet un peu changeant” of the elytra, and that the

base of the thorax is ‘“‘assez fortement ponctuée et que les

points se confondent souvent ensemble; nor do I consider

the interstices of the elytra ‘‘relevés, presque arrondis,’” or

the head *“‘un pew rétrécte posterieurement;” the skull is of

the same breadth from the antennee to the occiput.

43, DISTRIGUS SUBMETALLICUS, NN.

D. supra niger sneo-micans, nitidus; subtus piceus, pedibus, ore an-

tennisque obscure castaneis, tarsis brunneo-testaceis long. corp. 3 lin.

Capite preecedentis sed fronte haud excavato; mandibulis strigosis ;

menti dente mediocri ; thorace breviter rotundato-obeordato, praecedente

lateribus magis rotundato, antice magis deflexo, postice fortius quadrato,

hie 38-impresso, impressione media lateralibus minus profunda ad apicem

prolongata, inter impressionibus punctato longitudinaliterque ruguloso ;

scutello excavato; elytris striatis, ad striam 2™ ante medium utrinque _

puncto impresso, interstitiis deplanatis ; tarsis levibus; prosterno pro-

funde canaliculato.

Ubi preecedentem specimen singulum m, cepi.

44, DISTRIGUS RUFO-PICEUS, VN.

D. rufo-piceus, nitidus, pedibus,- thoracis elytrorumque margine

testaceis, antennis brunneo-testaceis, mandibulis brunneis, long. corp. 3

lin. :

Capite inter antennas profunde longitud. 2-impresso, fronte medio

leviter depresso, labro quadrato-rotundato, mandibulis infra medium

sulcatis, menti dente mediocri, excavato, apice subrotundato; thoraceD.

No. 9.—1856-8,] NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. 55

costati, sed parum brevior, basi 2-impresso, linea media longitud. fere

obsoleta, rungulis nonnullis transversis subtilibus; scutello, elytris pe-

dibusque przcedentis sed elytris puncto ad striam 2™ infra medium

obsoleto ; prosterno leviter canaliculato.

In ripis lacus Colombensis specimen singulum legi.

45. Distriaus @NEus. JN.

D. supra eeneus, subtus piceus, pedibus dilutioribus, antennis

-palpisque rufo-piceis, long. corp. 24—3 lin.

Capite ante oculos profunde oblique 2-sulcato, rugulisque nonnullis

transversis, clypeo fronteque szpius leviter depresso, mandibulis leviter

suleatis, menti dente mediocri; thorace rotundato-obcordato, basi

quadrate truncato, 3-impresso, impressione media minus profunda in

lineam subtilem ad apicem prolongata, inter impressionibus profunde

punctata, antice leviter strigoso, dorso subtiliter transversim ruguloso;

elytris striatis, ad striam 2™ medio distinctius puncto impresso ; pros-

terno sat fortiter canaliculato.

Prope Colombo in arenis subhumidis et nocte ad lumen communis-

simus.

46, Distriaus DresEani. N.

_D. piceo-niger, subtus sepius rufo-piceus, nitidus, capite zneo-micante,

pedibus, elytrorum margine antennisque rufo-piceis, palpis testaceis

long. corp. vix. 24 lin.

Capite inter antennas 2-impresso, fronte leviter excavato, mandibulis

subtiliter suleulatis, mentum precedentis; thorace robustiore, ut in

preecedente sculpto et signato sed antice non strigoso ; elytris pedibus-

que precedentis, illoruam tamen puncto minus distincto ; prosterno fere

plano. !

Cum precedente communissime occurrit.

47. DRimostomMa CrEYLANICUM, JN.

_ D. nigro-piceum, nitidum, pedibus piceis, tarsis, antennis oreque, di-

lutioribus, palpis testaceis, long. corp. 2?—3 lin.

Capite ante oculos profunde 2-impresso, labro antice leviter emargi-

nato, mandibulis elongatis, rectis, acutis, levibus, menti dente sat

acuminato, antennis art. 2-4 gradatim longioribus ; * thorace obcordato,

postice fortius angustato, quadrato, levi, basi 2-impresso, lenea longitud.

med. diviso, antice impressione semilunari (impressionibus his omnibus

-* In the Distrigi just described, joints 3 and 4 are sub-equal.,

56 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON.) ~- [Vol. III.

profundioribus) ; elytris striatis, interstitiis parum elevatis; prosterno

sat fortiter longitud. impresso.

In prov. occid. non frequenter occurrit.

48, CAsNoNIA PuNcTATA. WN.

C. supra subtusque (occipite abdomineque exceptis) dense profundeque

punctata, brunneo-picea, elytrorum margine maculisque 2 apicalibus »

longitudinalique cum margine confluentibus brunneo-testaceis, pedibus

flavis, trochanteribus, geniculis tarsisque obscurioribus, ore dilute brun-

neo, antennarum art. 1° palporumgue art. 2 basalibus flavis; long. corp.

3 lin.

Specimina nonnulla mens. Decemhb. prope Colombo nocte ad lumen

eepi.

Smaller than the Ophionea cyanocephala. The head is

robust, with two impressions between the antennze and a

third just above them, somewhat of the shape of an inverted

V. Occiput less narrowed than in O. eyanoceph., smooth.

The anterior part of the head deeply punctured. The labrum

is lightly produced in the middle. Thorax much plumper

than in O. cyanoceph., hardly as long as the head, not much

narrower, conic, considerably narrowed and cylindric at the

base, densely and deeply punctured, especially at the base.

HKlytra with the shoulders straighter than in O. cyanoceph.,

impressed with rows of deep punctures growing smaller and

shallower towards the apex, with a few small hairs near the

latter part; in the third and fifth interstice three setigerous

punctures, in the third and fourth interstice a longitudinal apical

macula of yellowish color flowing together with the margin

has cicglat Me Bitte fat: 6 Baoulg

which is of the same color, two shallow impressions on either — |

side, one below the shoulders, the other near the apex. Legs

shorter than in O. cyanoceph.

49. CASNONIA PILIFERA. N,

C. glabearima, nitidissimi (quasi lacca obducta), pilis longis sparsis

vestita, nigra, ore (labro excepto) antennisque brunneis, his apicem versus

-dilutioribus, elytris maculis 2 subapicalibus argenteis, pedibus piceis,

femoribus basi albis, trochanteribus obscurioribus, tibiis tarsisque brun-

nescentibus ; long. corp. 3? lin,

Specimina nonnulla cum precedente cepi.

No. 9.—1856-8,] NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. 57

This elegant species is of the same size as the O. cyano-

_ cephala, but, with the exception of the elytra and abdomen,

which are shorter and plumper, still more slender and grace-

ful. Head large, very narrow and prolonged behind, much

more so than in O, cyanocephala, with two large shallow im-

pressions between the antenne, and another small one just

above them. Occiput slightly transversely rugose. Thorax

very slender, half as broad as the head, of hardly the same

length, cbconic, constricted below the apex, then gradually

increasing in size to below the middle, the base abruptly

narrowed, cylindric and impressed with three deep annuli-

form wrinkles. Hlytra about as long as thorax and occiput

together, increasing very sensibly in breadth to below

the middle. The apex is. much more obliquely cut away

than in O. cyanocephala or the preceding species. The shoul-

ders are full and hide the margin. Just below them the elytra

are deeply excavated ; showing, moreover, three deep longitu-

dinal impressions in the bottom of either excavation and a

slight yellowish spot, hardly to be distinguished, at the outer

part of it. A round spot of silvery appearance adorns the

hind part of either elytron. There are two rows of long thin

hairs, placed at considerable distances from each other, on the

back of either elytron and a third just within the margin 3

the same thin hairs are scattered about the thorax, femora,

and elsewhere. The legs are longer and more slender than

in O. cyanocephala.

The Ophionia cyanocephala is not scarce in this part of

the Island. It affects rather damp, grassy localities, where it

mounts upon the stalks of the plants, as Helfer has observed

of some species in Bengal, but quite different from the ob-

servations Lacordaire has made with regard to the American

species of the genus. However, it is much more frequently

taken about the light at night. The two species just described

‘are much scarcer. Mr. C. A. Dohrn of Stettin writes to me

that he has received another species from me (Cypris D.) which,

however, I do not recollect. It would appear to be smaller than

either of the former, black, with white tips to the antennz.

58 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IEE.

VI. Sympuyvs,n.g. N.

Ham, CARABIDA,

Trib, FERONIDZ,

Corpus robustum oblongo-ovatum, subdepressum. Caput mediocre

postice haud angustatum, oculis mediocribus, sat prominulis, globosis.

Mentum semicirculare profunde emarginatum, dente forti spiniformi,

lobis haud breviore, ligule cannato (hine n. g. Symphyus), profunde

excavato. Ligula subcoriacea inverte trigona, dorso elevato, paraglossis

magnis cunnatis, eam sat longe superantibus, apice cylindricis. Palpi

art. 4° ovato, apice truncato; maxillares art. 3° elongato. Labrum

parvum profunde angulate emarginatum. Mandibule validissime,

subtrigone, porrecte, una 1-, altera 2-dentata. Antenne: filiformes,.

humeros parum superantibus, art. lo mediocri, 2° parvo, 3° sequenti

paulo minore, 4-11 subzequalibus, 5-11 depressis. Thorax subquadrato-

cordatus lateribus rotundatus, basi angustatus, quadratus, angulis pos-

ticis leviter oblique truncatis. Elytra ovata, parallela, apice rotundata

et leviter utrinque sinuata. Pedes mediocres, tibiis ant. leviter dilatatis,

profunde emarginatis ; intermed. fortiter spinosis ; tarsi art. 1° cylindrico-

trigono, 2-3 trigonis, 4° obcordato, unguiculis simplicibus. (Mas latet).

50. SYMPHYUS UNICOLOR. WN.

S. niger, nitidus, glaber, pedibus oreque piceis, long. corp. 8} lin. lat.

3 lin.

Capite inter antennas 2-foveolato, mandibulis suleatis; thorace antice

haud, postice vix emarginato, hic 2-impresso, linea longitud. media

diviso, ad marginem posteriorem longitud.—, dorso subtiliter transversim

ruguloso; scutello leviter exeavato; elytris striatis, in striis punctatis,

interstitiis vix elevatis, cum thorace anguste marginatis.

Specimen singulum f. prope Colombo mens. Decembr. nocte ad lumen

cepi.

This description is made from a single female individual, —

but I have little doubt that the insect belongs to the numer-

ous tribe to which I have referred it; in which it ought perhaps

to be placed near Hecoptogenius Ohaud. Iam, however, not

sure whether the shape of its ligula does not entitle it to a place

amongst the Anchonoderide. I may add to the above des-

cription that the accessory stria of the elytra is present, but

that the puncture usually found upon the third interstice is

wanting. ‘The general appearance of the insect presents no-

thing whatever particular. However, upon further inspection

No. 9.—1856-8.] NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA, 59

the deeply notched labrum and the strong porrected mandibles

are very striking. The labrum appears to me of extraordinary

construction; the mentum is large and of semicircular shape,

deeply emarginated, which renders the lobes heavy, rounded

outside, and pointed at the tip. In the bottom of this emar-

gination stands a pointed, spinelike tooth, as long as the lobes,

This tooth is deeply excavated or grooved and is clearly seen

to be to its full length soldered together with the basal part

of the ligula. Probably the entire mentum is in this manner

connected with the adjoining part of the ligula; but in the

ether parts it is not so clearly observable as in the tooth, and

IT have not dissected the labrum. The ligula itself is of a

leathery consistence, of the shape of an elongated inverted

triangle with an elevated back, the anterior margin is straight

and somewhat prolonged beyond what would be the sides of

the triangle. The paraglossz are of membranaceous texture,

very broad, adhering to the sides of the ligula to its full

length, taking then a slender, cylindric form and reaching

considerably beyond it, being at the same time slightly bent

inwards,

VII. Catopromus,x2.g. N.

Fam, COARABIDA.

Trib. HARPALIDA.

Corpus robustum, ovatum, subconvexum. Caput mediocre subqua-

dratum, postice haud angustatum; oculis minoribus sat prominulis.

Mentum profundius sublunate emarginatum, edentatum, lobis obtusis,

Ligula oblonge quadrata, apicem versus dilatata, apice medio leviter pro-

ducta, libera, paraglossis robustis eam parum superantibus, apice obtusis.

Palpi art. 4° elliptico, apice leviter truncato. Labrum subtransversum,

antice emarginatum, angulis rotundatis. Mandibule valide, una l1-,

altera 2-dentata. Antenne robuste, thoracis basin attingentes, art. 1, 3,

11 et 4-10 inter se subsequalibus, 1-2 cylindricis, 3° basi angustato, 4-

11 ovatis, leviter depressis. Thorax transversus, lateribus leviter ro-

tundatus, basi parum angustatus, quadratus, antice leviter emarginatus.

Elytra thorace parum latiora, apice rotundata. Pedes robusti, ant. tibiis

apice leviter dilatatis, profunde emarginatis, tarsis art. 1-4 gradatim

minoribus, 1° subtrigono, 2-4 transversim trigonis, unguiculis validis,

simplicibus, mas art. 1-4 leviter dilatatis, subtus squamulis 2-seriatim

munitis; pedes intermed., et post. tibiis fortiter spinosis, tarsis simplicibus,

60 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). [Vol. ITT.

51. CALODROMUS ExoRNATUS. WN.

C. glaber, nitidus, supraleete viridis, thoracis margine lato elytrorumque

fascia inframarginali testaceis, capite viridi-brunneo, antice brunneo,

scutello cum sutura brunneis, subtus brunneus, pedibus testaceis; long.

corp. 43—43 lin.

Capite inter antennas 2-impresso, thorace capite quarta parte-, longitu-

dine duplo latiore, basi 2-impresso, leviter rugoso-punctato, linea longitud.

media diviso, cum elytris anguste marginatis; his profunde striatis.

Specimina nonnulla mens. Nov, et Decemb. prope Colombo nocte ad

lumen cepi.

Very pretty insects apparently closely allied to the African

genus Bradybenus Dej. from which, however, they differ in the

structure of the ligula and in other minor points. They are

quite of the shape of a Harpalus, and I have no doubt that

their habits are those of the latter. Joints 4—11 of the an-

tenn have very much the appearance of grains of rice strung

together. The metallic green color with which the insect is

adorned on the back is very rich; on the elytra it forms a

pattern of two triangles with their tips down, that of the

upper one being immersed in the base of the lower one, and

the apex of the latter being divided. These triangles are

flanked on either side by a broad longitudinal belt of yellow-

ish color. The margin is again green with the exception

of the apex which is occupied by the yellowish belt. The

thorax is green in the centre and yellowish along the sides.

The head is more or less brownish-green, lighter in the

middle; the mouth is brown.

52. ZoPHIUM PUBESCENS. NN.

Z. rufo-testaceum, oculis nigris, occipite nigrescente, elytris pubescent-

ibus fuscis maculis 2 subhumeralibus, 1 apicali communi testaceis ornatis;

long. corp. 3? lin.

Antennis art. 1° capitis vix longitudine; labro integro; palpis art.

ultimo trigono; menti dente magno obtuso, profunde canaliculato; tho-

race elongato-cordato, capitis latitudine, illo parum-, latitudine duplo

longiore, medio leviter longitudinaliter depresso; elytris subtilissime —

dense pubescentibus, obsolete striato-impressis, humeris obsoletis.

Specimina nonulla in prov. occid, nocte ad lumen cepi.

“i

No. 9,—1856-8.] NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. 61

This description does not quite agree with Lacordaire’s

diagnosis of the genus Zophium The labrum, the tooth of the

mentum are not what they ought to be according to this

author. However, Schmidt-Gcoebel in his ‘‘ Col. Birm.” has

already departed from Lacordaire’s formula by describing six

species of Zophia with an entire mentum-tooth, which,

according to the former author, would make them Polystiche

rather. The fact is, that this part of the labrum appears to

be variable. In all other respects the insect agrees with

Lacordaire’s description of the genus.

The labrum is entire; the first antennal joint is hardly as

‘long as the head, slightly curved and increasing in thickness

towards the tip, the second joint is very small and rounded,

the rest are subequal, filiform; the tooth of the mentum is very

large, almost equalling the lobes, entire and deeply grooved

at the apex; the maxill, palpi are porrected, the second joint

is as long as the two following together, the fourth, in both

the maxill. and labial ones, is triangular or slightly securi-.

form, being obliquely truncated at the tip; the thorax is

elongated cordiform, truncated at the base, the back is

elevated, divided down the middle by an impression, the com-

mencement of the elevation forms two knobs at the base; the

first tarsal joint is as long as the three following together.

Amongst the 300 species of BEMBIDIIDA which have been

described from almost all parts of the world, with the excep-

tion of Australia, it would appear there are also none from

Southern Asia. However, since the publication of Lacor-

daire’s “G. d. Col.” (1854), in which this statement occurs, va-

rious species must have found their way into the Prussian

cabinets with my collections from Bengal and this Island.

In the former country the Carabide are very abundantly

represented, and I recollect with pleasure the great variety

of them, from the gigantic Anthia down to the smallest Bem-

‘bidiwm, the banks and the sands of the Ganges used to furnish

me when leisurely travelling upon this river some years ago,

62 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON.) [Vol. III.

from August to October, just after the rains. Nowhere have

I seen, nor do I expect to see, such swarms of Cicindele.

Their buzzing flight when disturbed was heard like that of

bees. It appeared to me that they did not quit the sands,

their favourite haunts, when the tide rose, but allowed them-

selves to be covered over by the water, as other semiaquatic

beetles do. Without especially hunting for them, I brought

away with me some ten species, mostly new, and amongst the

rest of the Carabide as many Bembidia.

Tu this Island, both in the hills and the plains, there is not

a bank of a pond, lake or river, which has not, as in more

northern latitudes, its Bembidia, and, contrary to what one

would expect, they appear to be more common in the hot

low country than in the cool hill region.

The majority of the species described below may any day

be found upon the banks of the Colombo;lake. None of the

species, (which, as I said, must have found their way with

my collections to Berlin and Stettin, and thence perhaps

elsewhere,) have, to my knowledge, been described. The

descriptions given below, must, therefore, I am fain to believe,

be an interesting addition to the literature of this section of

the Carabide, however inferior they may be to what they

might have been had they been produced in Europe had the

insects been collated with allied typical species. I have none

of those typical representatives of the genus at hand nor is

my recollection of them sufficiently distinct to permit of my

drawing comparisons between them and the Ceylon insects

now before me, Nevertheless, I hope I have set forth —

the peculiarities of my species with sufficient precision to

distinguish them from, or identify them with, any other

Cis-Himalayan species that may hereafter be described. As

hopeless confusion appears to exist amongst the sub-genera,

into which the original genus has been broken up, I have

not attempted to refer my species to any of them, for fear

of thereby doing anything but throwing additional light on

the subject, There is no doubt that many more species

exist in this Island, and that indeed, as in the case of the Sta-

No. 9=1856-8.] NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. 63

phylinide, they will eventually be found to be quite as abund-

antly represented within the tropics as without. Nothing

but their smallness has hitherto prevented their discovery.

53. BEMBIDIUM OPULENTUM. J.

B. oblongum, subconvexum, nebuloso-zeneum purpureo-micans, elytris

apice sordide testaceis, subtus nigro-piceum, pedibus antennarumque

basi testaceis, ore brunneo; long. corp. 13—2 lin.

Capite inter oculos 2-sulcato, oculis magnis prominulis, labro fortiter

trausverso, brevi, integro, mandibulis porrectis, antennis art. 2° sequentibus

parum breviore; thorace transversim cordato antice posticeque truncato,

haud emarginato, depresso, margine basique elevato, medio capite parum

latiore, apicem versus modice—, basin versus fortius abrupteque angustato,

angulis basalibus fortiter truncatis profundeque foveolatis, linea longitud.

media abbreviata diviso ; elytris ovatis humeris obsoletis, profunde striate

punctatis, punctis apicem versus obsoletis, ante et infra medio utrinque

foveolatis, apice lunula magna sordide testacea. Mas latet.

Prope Negombo in ripis Maha-Oya, fluvii, specimina nonnulla cepi.

The insect is of bronze color, a purple reflect appearing on

the back in irregular patches as the light may fall upon it.

The palpi and the base of the antenne are of yellowish color, the

apex of the third joint of the maxill. palpi, however, as well as

that of the second, third and fourth antennal joint is brown, of

which color is also the remaining part of the antennae. The

second antennal joint is the shortest, the third and fourth are

rather longer than the following, ‘The mandibles are rather

straight and porrected. ‘The sides of the thorax are almost an-

gular and furnished with a setigerous puncture at the broadest

part, that is, just beforethe middle. There are seven distinct

rows of punctures on either elytron and an accessory one

along the side of the scutellum, the rows decreasing in length

towards the margin and the punctures in depth towards the

apex, the first row on either side; changing however, before

the apex into a furrow which falls in with that which sepa-

aates the margin from the rest of the elytron. Before and

beyond the middle, in the region of the third row of punctures,

is an excavation containing a puncture which is situated upon

_ the third interstice. The excavation nearest the base is the

deepest, The apex of the elytra is marked with a spot of

64 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON.) [ Vol. ITT,

dirty yellowish color prolonged on either, side along the

margin, which is here rather broad.

If my memory serves me right, the insect resembles the

Tachypus flavipes. ,

54, BEMBIDIUM TRUNCATUM. JV.

B. oblongum, valde depressum, brunneo-testaceum, oculis nigris,

pedibus, antennis palpisque pallide testaceis ; long. corp. 14 lin,

Capite magno, thorace quarté parte prope minore, inter antennas

2-foveolato, oculis mediocribus, antennis art. 3° reliquis minore, 4-11 -

subzequalibus fortius ovatis ; thorace breviter cordato, antice posticeque

truncato, haud emarginato, basi subquadrato parum prolongato, foveis

basalibus obsoletis sed linea basali latitud. profunda lineaque longitud.

med. distinctis; elytris oblongis apice transversim truncatis, juxta suturam

utrinque obsolete 1-striatis, ante et infra med. puncto impressis.

In prov. occid. rarius.

The small size, large head and truncated elytra effectually

distinguish this species. The truncated posterior angles of.

the thorax and the general appearance induce me to consider

it allied to the preceding species, at all events to approach

nearer to it than to any of the following species. The eyes

are rather small for this genus. There are no traces of striz on

the elytra with the exception of one indistinct one along the

suture.

55, BEMBIDIUM TROPICUM. WN.

B. oblongum, depressum, brunneo-testaceum capite brunneo, elytris:

dorso nigris cyaneo-micantibus, pedibus, antennis palpisque testaceis ;

long. corp. 13 lin.

Capite inter oculos 2-fovelato- sulcato, oculis mediocribus, antennis

fortius filiformibus art. 3° reliquis breviore ; thorace breviter transversim

cordato antice posticeque truncato, haud emarginato, basi subquadrato

angulis basalibus elevatis sed haud foveolatis, linea latitud. basali pro-

funda, infra lineam strigoso, linea media longit. diviso; elytris oblongo- —

ovatis utrinque juxta suturam 4-striatis, striis externis et his apicem

versus obsoletis, in striis punctatis, infra marginem stria profunda

abbreviata, ante medium et apicem in interstitio 4° puncto magno im-

pressis, punctis anteapicalibus piliferis in suleum ad apicem prolongatis

semicirculum formantibus; tarsis 4 auterioribus art. 4° subtus apice

spinis squamulaceis 2 instructo.

In proy. occid. copiosum.

Tae

ere

No. 9.—1856-8.] NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. 65

Of light brown color, the head darker, the elytra blackish

on the back with a slight blue reflect, the base, sides and

apex brownish; the colors being more or less washed into

each other no distinct pattern is observable. The brown spot

of the apex, however, is generally pretty clearly set off from

the adjoining dark part. The paraglosse are hardly longer

than the ligula which itself is rather large. The antenne are

rather hairy and strongly filiform, (not, as in most other

Species, increasing in thickness towards the apex, the joints

growing at the same time more and more oval); joint 3 is the

shortest, 2 and 4 are rather longer than the other. The back

is impressed with three to four distinct striz on either side of

the suture, the external ones being obsolete as are also the re-

-maining ones towards the apex. There is an additional deep

stria within the marginal one, extending from the middle to

the apex. Before the middle, and before the apex, there is a

_ puncture situated upon the fourth interstice ; the anteapical one

of these has a hair in the centre and is prolonged to the apical

angle i in the shape of a deep, curved furrow. This being the

| case on either side, the two furrows together form a semicircular

figure. The tarsi are each furnished with bristles, especially

at the lower margin of the apex of the joints. In the four

anterior tarsi joint 4 is furnished at that place with two long

bristles the apex of which fits in at the base of the claws.

These bristles partake somewhat of the nature of squamule

by being dilated in the shape of a lancet. I have noticed

‘them occasionally to be bifid at the apex, but I do not think

that they are so always.

56. BEMBIDIUM TRIANGULARE. WN.

B. oblongum, depressum, testaceum, capite brunneo, elytris sutura fas-

\eiaque lata transversali media nigris pedibus, palpis antennisque pallide

testaceis his medio fuscescentibus ; long. corp. 1. lin.

_ Praecedenti affine, ejus capite, thorace et tarsis, differt thorace linea

‘basali punctata, infra lineam vix strigoso ; elytris utrinque profunde 6-

punctato-striatis, striis apidem marginemque versus Bensim obsgoletis, ante

medium in stria4¢ puncto impresso, stria inframarginali abbreviata et

jimpressione semicirculari apicali ut in precedente.

66 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). [Vol. Tit.

Variat colore obsecuriore. In prov. occid. communissimum.

Very closely allied to the preceding species; easily distin-

guished however by size, color—which is generally lighter than

that of the former,—and the deeply striated elytra. The insect

is, moreover, more common than the former. The prevailing

color of the elytra is not, asin the preceding species, black,

* Dut it is that of the rest of the body, yellowish, with merel

@ black suture and black belt across the middle; the edges of

this belt are washed together with the color of the adjoining

parts. The semicircular impression at the apex of the elytra

is the same as in the former, and forms with the abbreviated

inframarginal stria, (which is also the same,) a triangular fi cure,

tip down, base open, whence I have derived the name. The

head with the antenne, tarsi, etc, are those of the former,

as I have said above.

57. Bemeprpium Ceynanicum, N.

B. oblongum, depressum, testaceum, oculis nigris, elytris sepissime

fascia media transversali fusca a pedibus, palpis antennisque

pallide testaceis; long. corp. # lin.

Precedenti simile, ejus capite, thorace et tardie, facillime tamen di-

stinguendum antennis apicem versus incrassatis articulis magis magisque

ovatis, art. 2° sequente longiore, 3-4 subzqualibus subcylindricis, reli-

quis ovatis; thorace, linea basali fortiter punctata excepta, basi leevi ;

elytris. utrinque juxta suturam leviter 3-punctato-striatis, striis reliquis

et his basi apiceque sensim obsoletis, ante et infra medium ad striam 3™

puncto pilifero impressis, impressione semicirculari apicali ut in preece-

dente sed stria inframarginali‘non abbreviata.

In prov. occid. communissimum.

Easily distinguished from the former to which it is allied,

‘by size, color and the incrassated antennz. The elytra, more-

over, shew only three distinct strize on either side of the suture,

two more, however, being just traceable, They are obsolete at

the base, apex and towards the margin. Within the latter

there is an additional deep stria, entire, and not, as in the

‘preceding two species, only from the middle to the apex. The

semicircular impression of the apex, however,-is the same,

so are the tarsi, etc.

No. 9.—1856-8.] NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. Gy:

58. Bempiptum Kiveu. WN..

B. ovatum, convexum, w#neum, elytris maculis 2 subapicalibus ruso-

flavis, subtus piceum, pedibus dilutioribus, tibiis, tarsis antennarumque

basi testaceis; long. corp. 1} lin.

Capite inter oculos longitud. 2-impresso, oculis maximis, antennis art.

2° sequentibus param breviore, his subzqualibus ; thorace transversim

ovato, antice posticeque truncato, haud emarginato, basi abrupte angus-

tato quadrato, angulis basalibus profunde foveolatis inter foveis punctis

l-seriatim impresso, linea media longit. subtili diviso ; elytris ovatis

apicem versus leviter angustatis, utrinque profunde 7-punctato-striatis,

basi levi, striis apicem versus obsoletis, ante apicem inter strias 3-6 ma- -

cula orbiculari rufo-flava apiceque impressione semicirculari.

A; Tn prov. occid. et central., hic usque alt. 3500 ped., non infrequenter

egi.

This species ascends from the sea level of the Western

Province to an elevation of 3,500 feet in the hills, where 1

have not unfrequently met it upon: the sandy banks of the

Pundalu-Oya, a rocky. mountain-stream in the district of

Kotmalé. Its robust, ovate, convex shape places it at once in

a different divisionfrom any of the former. It is of bronze

color with two.orange colored spots behind, the mouth is brown

with the exception of: the palpi, which, together with joints 1

and 2 of the antenne, are yellowish, joint 3 of the maxill. palpi,

however, is of the general color of the mouth. The labrum

is Square.and entire, the second antennal joint is rather shorter

than the rest; The thorax. is transversely ovate, that is to

say, its greatest width is at the middle, not as. in a cordate

thorax, before it, the foves are connected by a series of punc-

tures which gradually deepen towards the centre, the longitud.

divisional line is also deeper at the apical extremity than at _

the other parts. The elytra are impressed with seven deep fur--

rows on either side deeply punctured-at-the bottom, These.

_ furrows decrease in length towards the margin and in depth

towards the apex, with the exception, however, of the first

on either side, which go straight down tothe apex, At the

latter comparatively smooth. place is the semicircular impres-

sion noticed in the three preceding, and to be noticed in all the

following species. The base of the elytrais smooth. There

68 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON.) [Vol. ITf..

are no traces of punctures, such as are usual in the region of

the third or fourth interstice, observable. The lower side of

the insect is of pitch color, the basal part of the legs and the:

thighs are lighter and the tibie and tarsi quite light.

59. BEMBIDIUM EBENINUM. WN.

B. ovatum, convexum, nigrum elytris ante apicem maculis 2 rufo-flavis,.

subtus piceum, pedibus palpis antennisque testaceis, his apicem versus:

obscurioribus, reliquis oris partibus brunneis; long. corp. 14 lin.

Preecedenti affine, ejus capite et thorace, facillime tamen distinguendum:

preter colorem antennis fortius filiformibus, elytris levibus juxta sutu-

ram utrinque 2-striatis, striis basi abbreviatis, externa apicem versus:

obsoleta, ante et infra medium leviter foveolatis, ante apicem macula

ovata rufo-flava, infra marginem stria profunda apiceque semicirculariter

impressis..

In prov. occid, non rarum.

Very closely allied to the former and equally pretty.

Head and thorax entirely those of the former, the antenna,

however, are more filiform and the divisional line of the thorax

is not deepened at the apical extremity, The elytra are

smooth, with only two striz along the suture on either side, the:

rest not being even traceable. Both these striz are abbreviated

at the base and the outer one becomes obsolete towards the

apex; the inner one, however, goes fully down to the apex,

and falls in with a deep inframarginal furrow which is

wanting in the preceding species. Before and beyond the

middle is a small impression, before the apex are two oval

spots of orange color; the apex has the semicircular i impression

noticed in the preceding species.

60. BErMBIDIUM ORIENTALE. WN.

B. fortiter ovatum, convexum, sneum elytris maculis 4 magnis flavis:

apice sordide subtestaceis subtus piceum abdomine brunneo, pedibus,

antennarum basi palpisque pallide testaceis ; long. corp. 1} lin.

Capite inter oculos longitud. 2-impresso, oculis maximis, antennis,

art. 3-4 subeequalibus, 2° his vix breviore; thorace transverso leviter

ovato, antice posticeque truncato, haud emarginato, leviter angustato,

basi quadrato, 2-foveolato, inter foveis punctis 1-seriatim impressis, linea

longit. media diviso; elytris ovatis apicem versus fortius angustatis,

utrinque profuude 7-striatis, basi levi, striis marginem apicemque versus

No. 9.—1856-8.] NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA, 69

magis magisque obsoletis, in stria 32 ante et infra medium puncto

mpressis, infra humeros inter striam 5™ et marginem macula ovata, ante

apicem inter striam 2™ et marginem macula obliqua flava, apice sordide

obsoleteque testaceis, hic semicirculariter et infra marginem stria pro-

fanda impressis.

In prov. occid. commune.

Hasily distinguished by its strongly oval shape, the thorax

being hardly contracted at the base and no doubt belonging

to a different sub-genus from the preceding and the following.

The head is quite that of B. Klugit. The antennz have

the second joint hardly shorter than the third and this and the

following subequal, joints 1-4, are of light yellowish, the rest

ef brown color, joint 3 of the maxill. palpi is of dark, the

remaining ones and the labial palpi of pale yellowish, color.

The labrum is square, entire, and, with the rest of the mouth,

brown. The mandibles are furnished with 3-4 small teeth

below the middle. The ligula is broader than in any of the

other species. The thorax, besides in shape, is distinguished

by having the fovese removed from the basal angles towards

the centre. The elytra areimpressed with seven distinct striz

on either side, the first of which runs down to the apex where

it falls in with the inframarginal one, the rest decrease in

length towards the margin and in depth towards the apex,

beyond the seventh another one is just traceable, beyond this:

there is a deep inframarginal one, The apex is impressed

with the semicircular figure which distinguishes all the species:

here enumerated, with the exception of B. opulentum and

truncatum. ‘The color of the insect is a dark bright metallic

green variegated with four large yellow spots on the elytra;

two of these are near the shoulder and of oval shape, the other

two near the apex and oblique; the apex is of a dirty yellowish

color. The lower part of the insect is of pitch color, lighter

towards the apex, the legs are yellowish, darker towards the

base.

61. BEMBIDIUM EMARGINATUM. N.

B. ovatum, convexum, picoum, capite dilutiore, elytris ante apicem

maculis 2 rufo-flavis, subtus brunneum, pedibus, antennarum basi palpis-

que testaceis ; long. corp. 1 lin.

70 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). [Vol.. ITke.

Capite antice fortius acuminato, fronte. utrinque profunde pluries _

sulcata, oculis mediocribus prominulis, labro profunde subangulate emar- -

gimato, antennis art. longitudine subzequali; thorace breviter cordato .

antice posticeque truncato, non emarginato, basi quadrato foveis basal-_

ibus lineaque longit. media fere obsoletis, linea basali latitud. tamen dis- —

tincta ; elytris ovatis juxta suturam utrinque 2-striatis, stria externa basi.

apiceque abbreviata, ante et infra medium puncto obsoleto impressis, —

ante apicem macula orbiculari rufo-flava apiceque sordide obsoleteque -

testaceis, hie semilunariter et infra marginem stria profunda impressis. _

Variat colore dilutiore. In prov. occid. rarum. :

This. and: the two remaining species are. allied to each

other, and probably belong to the subgenus Lopha. However,

J-am less sure of this with regard to the present species than

with regard to the two following,

The head is pointed in front, and the ihren unusual .

occurrence—deeply notched. Two deep furrows run from the

clypeus straight across the forehead to the vertex, and from.

their base other smaller ones radiate towards the eyes. Joints.

2-5 of the antenne, which, in almost all cases, are of une-~-

qual length, are not so in the present; the first two or three.

joints are yellowish, the rest are brown. Joint 3.of the maxill;.

palpi is dark, the remaining ones and the labial palpi yellowish.

The elytra are impressed with two. striz on either side of the-

suture, fhe remaining ones.are just traceable. The one next.

to the suture. goes straight down to the apex, where it falls.

in with a deep inframarginal furrow ;. the second is as usual,

abbreviated. The apex is impressed with the semicircular.

figure, and there are two punctures on either side..

62. BEMBIDIUM ORNATUM. WN..

B. ovatum, subconvexum, brunneum, elytris maculis 4 flavis, pedibus, .

antennis palpisque pallide testaceis, long. corp. 1 lin.

Preecedenti simile, pratercolorem facillime tamen distinguendum

corpore graciliore, fronte utrinque 2-sulcata, labro integro, elytris infra

humeros et. infra marginem utrinque macula orbiculari flava, punctis.

nullis.

Variat colore obscuriore et dilutiore et szpius apice sordide testaceo..

In prov. occid.. commune.

Hasily distinguish from the preceding species with which.

it agrees in all other respects; no striz are, however, traceable.

“No. 9.—1856-8.] NEW CHYLON COLEOPTERA. 71

“upon the elytra between the two near the suture and the in-

“framarginal furrow.

-§3. BeMBIDIUM SCYDMmNoIpEs, WN.

B. ovatum, convexum, obscure brunneum, elytris maculis 4magis min-

~usve obsoletis diluticribus, pedibus, palpis antennarumque art. 2 primis

“testaceis, his apice reliquisque obscurioribus ; long. corp. 1 lin.

Preecedenti simile, corpore robustiore, fortius ovato magisque convexo,

“thorace basi fortius quadrato facillime distinguendum,

-In prov. occid. communissimum.

‘VIII. Mauaaristerus, ng. WN.

Fam. CARABIDA.

Trib, HARPALIDA.

“Corpus oblongum, depressum, glabrum. Caput mediocre aritice

“obtusum. Mentum profunde subquadrate emarginatum, edentatum, lobis

~extus rotundatis apice acuminatis. Ligula minima oblonga paraglossis

~magnis connatis eam totam amplectentibus antice rotundatis subcordate

“emarginatis. Palpimaxill. art. ultimo subcylindrico apice magis minusve

~angustato truncato, lab. eodem obovato truneato. Labrum transversum

~antice posticeque angustatum, margine anteriore profundius emarginato

-setoso. Clypeus emarginatus. Mandibule valide trigone apice leviter

> arcuate, dextera mediocri labra obtecta apice acuminata tedio 1-dentata,

ginistra robustiere porrecta (hinc n. g. Megaristerus) apice obtusa medio

.2-dentata. Antennz humeros parum superantes, filiformes, art. 2° se-

*quente parum breviore, reliquis subzqualibus. Thorax rotundato-

~cordatus, postice angustatus angulis rotundatis, antice leviter emarginatus

-angulis distinctis. Elytra parallela apice rotundata. Pedes ut in g.

-Acupalpo tarsis maris 4.ant, tamen 1° subtus nudo.

Victus Harpalorum.

Apparently closely allied to Amblystomus, differing, how-

sever, in the sculpture of the tarsi, the antenns, labrum and

palpi, and, asin the diagsnosis given by Lacordaire in his g.

-d. Col. the paraglosse of Amblystomus are simply said to be

‘rounded in front, a further distinction would appear to reside

in the notch which“exists in that part of the paraglosse of my

genus Megaristerus. Also allied to Acupalpus the sculpture of

‘the tarsi being exactly the same; in saying which I bear par-

‘ticularly in mind that the intermediate ones of the male are

hardly dilated. From this genus however, it is effectually dis-

72 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON.) [Vol. ITI.

tinguished by the shape of the ligula. From both Amblystomus

and Acupalpus, the present genus moreover differs in the vesture

of the four ant. tarsi of the male, the first joint being naked below

and in the mandibles, the left one of which is much larger and

plumper than the right one, protruding from under the labrum,

whilst the latter is hidden by it, the former is at the same

time obtuse at the apex whilst the latter is pointed. In the

M. Indicus this peculiar construction is hardly striking, but in

‘the other two species it is very noticeable, and imparts a curious —

‘appearance to the head of the insect.

64, -MEGARISTERUS MANDIBULARIS. JV.

M. piceo-niger leviter metallescens, subtus brunneus, antennis, tibiis

tarsisque testaceis, ore brunneo; long. corp 14-2 lin.

Capite inter antennas 2-foveolato, mandibula sinistra robustissima por-

‘recta, dextera mediocri labro obtecta; thorace basi 2-foveolato, linea

Jongitud. utringue abbreviata media diviso, antice lunate impresso ;

-scutello majore; elytris obsolete striatis, striis juxta suturam distinctior-

abus, cum thorace parce subtiliterque punctulatis, inter med. et apic. ad

-gtriam 2™ puncto impresso.

Prope Colombo rarus.

65. MEGARISTERUS STENOLOPHOIDES. JV.

M. brunneo-piceus elytris ebscurioribus metallescentibus maculis 4

flavis, margine suturzque apice brunneis, pedibus, antennarum basi pal-

porumque apice pallide testaceis, ore, Hee ts brunneis ae

4%estaceo; leng. corp. 13 lin.

Preecedenti similis corpore robustiore minus depresso et colore facile

tamen distinguendus, Differt prawterea palpis max. art. 4° minus dis-

tincte, lab. eodem fortius truncato; thorace magis transverso basi ob-

selete ruguloso; elytris profundius striatis, puncte ad striam 2™ fere

‘obsoleto, com thorace haud punctulatis, maculis 4 subobliquis flavis: 2

hhumeralibus in interstitiis 5-6, 2 subapicalibus in interstitiis 3-4,

Prope Colombo rarus.

66. MEGARISTERUS INDIcUS, JN.

M. obscure viridi-eeneus elytris maculis 2 humeralibus obliquis pus-

talisque 2 subapicalibus flavis, sabtus brunneus tibiis tarsisque testaccis,

antennarum basi oreque brunneo-testaceis; long. corp. 1} lin.

Differt a M. mandibulari mandibula sinistra altera vix robustiore;

elytris infra humeros inter marginem et striam 2™ macula obliqua intus

No. 9,—1856-8.] NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. 73

augustata ante apicem in interstitio 3° postula parva flavis, apice fortius

quam in precedente rotundatis.

Prope Colombo mihi, Maderaspatani a Dam. Hon. W. Elliott specimina

nonnulla nocte ad lumen capta.

IX. SPATHINUS, 7. g. iV.

Fam. CARABIDZA,

Trib. Pogonipz.

Corpus obovatum, sub.conyexum, glabrum. Caput mediocre antice

trigonum, oculis magnis semiglobosis prominulis, colio brevi. Mentum

transversum profunde quadrate emarginatum, deute sat forti acuto, lobis

intus inter med. et apicem leviter oblique truncatis, extus rotundatis,

apice acuminatis. Ligula minuta elongata, paraglossis latis connatis eam

hand multo superantibus apice intus oblique truncatis subacuminatis.

Palpi art. ultimo conico acuminato, max. art. 3° inverto ultimo sequali,

lab. eodum robustiore. Labrum quadratum antice profunde emargina-

tum angulis ant. rotundatis. Mandibule porrecte trigonee apice acumi-

natee basi dentate. Antenne sat robuste humeros parum superantes art.

2-3 subeequalibus, obovatis. Thorax transverse subquadratus antice

lateribus leviter rotundatus, angulis subrectis. Elytra ovata apice rotun-

data. Pedes anteriores tibiis profunde emarginatis, tarsis moris art. 1-3

leviter dilatatis subtus squemulis munitis, art, 1° subcylindrico 2-3

subrotondatis, 4° subtrigono, unguiculis simplicibus.

Victus Bembidiorum.

Apparently closely allied to Trechus and an aberrant form

of the same tribe to which the latter genus belongs. The mentum

and palpt appear to agree entirely. The insects differ, how-

ever, in the structure of the ligula (which in Spathinus is

entirely that of a Bembidium), and the sculpture and vesture

of the ant. male tarsi. In spite of the latter anomalies, the

preeminently characteristic ‘shape of the palpi convinces me

that the insect must find a place where I have putit. It is also

closely allied to my genus Ochthephilus, liffering from it, however,

in the ligula, palpi and labrum. The generic name ‘“ Spathinus”’

signifies ‘a staggard, and I have chosen it with regard to the

shape of the terminal joint of the palpi. The insects are

common throughout the South-West and West of the Island,

where they live in the manner of the Bembidia, under

decaying vegetable matter, upon the banks of lakes, and

rivers, «e.

74 JOURNAL RB. A, 8. (CEYLON), fVol, TIE

67, SPATHINUS NIGRICEPS. JV.

S. Alatus, tenuiter hirsutus, brunneo-testaceus, capite nigro, elytris

apice fuscis, ore, antennis pedibusque testaceis ; long. corp. 14 lin.

Capite inter antennas profundius 2-foveolatus, fronte medio leviter

depress4 ; thorace levi linea longit. media diviso ; elytris juxta suturam

obsolete striatis.

68. EUPLYNES Donrnin J,

EK. ovatus, subconvexus, rufo-testaceus, oculis nigris, elytris viridibus,

femoribus apice tarsisque geniculis fuscescentibus ; long. corp. vix 44

lin.

Capite inter antennas bifoveolato ; antennis art. 2° brevi, reliquis sub-

eequalibus ; palpis art. ultimo sub-elliptico truncato, labialibus elongatis ;

thorace breviter transversim cordato antice posticeque truncato, longi-

tudine sesqui latiore, depresso, lateribus basique elevato, hic leviter

bifoveolato, angulis basalibus subrectis leviter rotundatis, linea med.

ongitud,. diviso, subtiliter transversim ruguloso ; elytris ovatis leviter

dilatatis thorace duplo fere latioribus, striatis, in regione basali in stria

3°, ad et infra medium in stria 2° puncto impressis, in regione media

utrinque depressis ante apicem leviter angustatis et sinuatis, apice

levissemi transversim truncatis angulo interno in spinam producto ;

pedibus tibiis fortiter tarsisque 4 posticis dorso modice costatis.

In campis silvisque prov. occid, et in montibus prov. central. usque alt.

4000 ped. sub vegetab. per oceasionem copiose legi.

This insect frequents localities of a very different nature :

T have taken it in great abundance in the Negombo district

in hot, sandy, fields, under heaps of weeds, &c.; but I have

also taken it on the banks of the Colombo lake, and in the

damp forests of Pussellawa, 4,000 feet above the sea, under

fallen trees. Its favourite haunt, however, appears to be the

former description of locality. It would appear to be very

distinct from the /¢. Cyanipennis described by Schmidt-Geebel

in his “ Col. Birm.” in thorax, sculpture of apical part, and

position of punctures of elytra, costated four post. tarsi, &e.

On the other hand the curious depression of the elytra, which

has much the appearance of being accidental, is the same.

It occurs also in my genus Anchista. I am not quite satisfied

with thedeseription of the ligula and tarsi as given by Schmidt-

Goebel. The former I should call “truncated at the apex, anterior

No. 9.—1856-8.] NEW CEYLON COLEOPTERA. 75

_ angles strongly rounded off.” In the insect before me it is

certainly not rounded in the middle: if anything, it is rather

_ the contrary. The tarsi I should describe thus :—“ Joints 1—4

_ of two ant. male tarsi dilated ; joint 1 nearly as long as the

_ two following together, sub-cylindric ; joint 2 nearly as long

_ again as the following, elongate-trigone ; joint 3 sub-trigone ;

joint 4 (in all tarsi) bilobed ; joints 1-3 furnished below with

two series of lamellated papille fenced in by bristles; joint 4

densely penicillated ; claws simple.”

I take this opportunity to add a general remark. The author

_ above quoted at the end of the description of his 4. Cyani-

| pennis, quotes a passage from Helfer’s Burmese Journal, im-

plying that the species lived exclusively upon trees, and

that most of the Carabide of that country had the same habit.

| The latter part of this observation I feel inclined to look upon

' as a rash and unjustifiable assertion on the part of Helfer.

» There can be little doubt (and the above is an‘ additional

4 example) that the Carabidw of this Island have much resem-

' blance to those of Burma. Still my long experience in it has

* not furnished me with any instances of any of them living

upon trees, with the exception of the Tricondyle, Collyres and

- certain Cicindele. The Casnonie and Ophionee are in the

{ habit of ascending grasses and low herbs, and certain Lebude

and genus Catascopus live under the bark of trees. This is all

_ As to the insect described above, although it appears to adapt

” itself with facility to a variety of physical circumstances, and

_ although it takes occasionally to its wings and flies into houses -

- in the evening, I have never found it upon trees.

76 JOURNAL R.A. S. (CEYLON. ) Poles, Lie

NEW AND LITTLE KNOWN SPHCIES OF CHYLON

NUDIBRANCHIATE MOLLUSCS, AND

ZOOPHYTES.

By E. F. Ketaart, M.D., Starr Surcuon, F. L. 8.

Havina, in the course of my Military service, been now for

the third time stationed in Trincomalie, in Medical charge of

the European Troops in that Garrison, and still finding that

there is nothing like the careful study of God’s works to divert

the mind from the contemplation of diseased organic bodies,

especially in this unhealthy and monotonous station, I have

again resumed the researches of my leisure hours, which never

fail to draw from me an earnest prayer that my health may be

spared long enough to conclude these labours in this and other

parts of the Island.

A recent visit to Kngland made me acquainted with the value

of the aquarium, and with the interesting researches of Messrs.

Alder and Handcock, of Gosse, Johnson, and others, among the

soft, gelatinous, marine animals found in European seas, which

have been so much neglected by Indian Naturalists, owing to

the difficulty either of observing their natural habits, or of

preserving their forms. The curiosity thus excited was imme-

diately increased, when, after several years absence, I was again

in sight of the magnificent harbour and bays of Trincomalie.

While some of my Ceylon friends contemplated my return to

Trincomalie as a great evil, I became reconciled to my destina-

tion from an inward feelimg—and I hope not an unworthy one—

that I was again sent here, for a good and useful purpose.

It is now nearly two years since I returned to Ceylon, and I have

eyery reason to feel thankful, that my residence in Trincomalie

No. 9.—1856-8.] CEYLON NUDIBRANCHIATA, Kc. v7

has enabled me to prosecute researches in more than one unex-

plored field of Natural History. I had for my guide the example

of those great and good men, who deign to look upon even my

labours as worthy of encouragement, and who do not consider

the pursuit of the Naturalist as incompatible with the duties of

a Military Surgeon. Dr. Johnson, himself a successful Medical

practitioner and zealous Naturalist, (in his celebrated work on

British Zoophytes,) observes, in his remarks on Doctors who are

also Naturalists, that ‘that very activity of mind and perspica-

city which originated and upheld their sagacity and success as

practitioners, were sure to carry them far in whatever side-path

the natural bent of their taste led them, for the occupation and

entertainment of the leisure hours which the busiest must have,

or may create. Idleness has no leisure. * * There never

was a time when it was necessary to vindicate, to any but the

ignorant, the erratic excursions of medical men into the fields

of science and literature ; for assuredly the rank which the

profession, as a body, has taken and holds in public estimation,

depends for its patent, in part at least, on the scientific and

literary character of its professors ; and by continuing to

support that character they will best secure it from the vul-

garity of a common mercature, or the selfishness of a venal

quackery.”

My earliest researches, since my return to Ceylon, were

directed (with the aid of the microscope) to those minute forms

of animal and vegetable life called animalcule, and Diotomacec.

IT have already communicated to another channel the observa-

tions | have made among these interesting microscopical crea-

tures, found in fresh and sea water. In this paper, I propose to

communicate to the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,

my researches among some of the least known, but most

interesting, species of marine animals.

Finding that scarcely anything is known of the many naked

Molluses of this part of the Indian Ocean, I have availed myself

of the present favorable opportunity offered by the Ceylon

Government, for the investigation of the Natural History of the

Pearl Oysters, to extend my researches also to a numerous family

78 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON. ) [ Vol. TET.

of Mollusca inhabiting these seas, which though not productive

of pearly gems, or affording specimens for cabinet collections

of Conchologists, or of amateur collectors, have attracted

considerable attention in Hurope, more especially since the

publication of the splendid work of Alder and Handcock

on the British Nudibranchiata.

The marine shells of Ceylon have long been known to the

Naturalist, and they are also familiar to many in Ceylon, but.

the soft sea nymphs, or slugs, whose perishable charms often

rival the more lasting beauties of the finest shell, had scarcely

ever been noticed by any Naturalist or friend in the Island, till

I had placed these creatures in the Vivarium.. They have not

only afforded amusement and instruction to myself, but, I hope,

to others also, who have frequently seen these interesting

creatures in their new homes. I must confess that some of my

visitors were disappointed at the slimy nature of these animals,

and failed to appreciate the beauty of many of my pet speci-

mens. Others, however, more alive to the beautiful and to the

wonderful works of God, did not despise the sea-born slugs,

because they were so snail-like in appearance, and, like the land

slugs, destitute of shells. Even the native shell divers, who

procured me most of the living specimens, expressed their

astonishment at the newly unfolded beauties of these ““Addai,’™ or

slugs, which they found crawling on rocks and sea-weeds ; but

it was not till the full formed Doris, or the sweet little /olis,

expanded their tentacles and plumose gills in the glass Vivarium,

that these ‘men who go down to the deep’ became aware, that

the creatures which they so much despise are among the most

elegant objects of the sea, and that, although a shell will pre-

serve its colour for an almost indefinite period, the rich and

variegated colours of these semi-gelatinous creatures, though

shorter lived, are not less charming, or less worthy of admira-

tion. It may, therefore, be hoped, that the interest recently

created will continue to be attached to the naked Mollusca of

Ceylon, and, that, in a few years, they will be as well known to

*T ston ‘sea-slug.’

No, 9.—1856-8.] cnrnon NupIBRANCHIATA, Ac. 79

the Naturalist as the European species. Although it may be

long before we shall find an Alder or a Handcock to pourtray

gracefully, and faithfully record their characters and habits,

still it will always be gratifying for me to feel, that I was the

pioneer to the labours of others more competent to do justice to

the Ceylon Nudibranchiata.

It has always been my endeavour, (though, I must own, often

unsuccessfully,) to describe in familiar language to my friends in

Ceylon, the Natural History of animals found in the Island, and

therefore, if I have not attained this object in the following

pages, it will not be from the want of a wish to impart to others

some of the pleasure I have derived in such congenial pursuits

or from the absence of a desire to be amusing as well as

instructive.

Popular accounts of the Natural History of a country gener.

ally follow a scientific one. But I shall endeavour to combine

both in one communication, for I cannot but suppose that,

among many inquirers, there will be found even a few who are

anxious to dive deeper into the characters of an animal than its

eolour or form. Having this object in view, I cannot introduce

the following descriptions of sea slugs, or sea nymphs, by a

more intelligible and useful preface, than an abridged description

of the Anatomy and Physiology of the Class Nudibranchiata,

given in the English Cyclopeedia ; promising, in the course of

my own descriptive account of the species found in Trincomalie,

to detail faithfully their habits and characters.

NUDIBRANCHIATA.

A family of Gasteropodous Mollusca, characterised by the possession of

distinct, external and uncovered gills. The species of the family are all

_ marine, and with few exceptions small in size. They are sometimes, with

other forms of animals, called sea-slugs, arising from the fact that, like

land slugs. they are destitute of shells. Their body is usually elongated

and soft, and attached throughout its whole length to the foot, or disc,

upon which they crawl. They are not unfrequently covered with a

cloak, which in some is strengthened with calcareous spicula. The head

is anterior, and frequently indistinct, having one or two pairs of tentacles,

the upper pair of which are placed on the cloak when it is present,

80 JOURNAL R. A, 8. (ORYLON,) PVol, if.

and behind them the eyes are situated. But the characteristic pecu-

larity of these Molluses is the appendages that constitute their breathing

organs, placed upon the back, always symmetrically, in plumes, tufis |

or papille, either forming a circle on the central line, or arranged in rows

upon the sides.

None of the Nudibranchiate Mollusca appear to have been known to

the ancients, and even up to the time of Linnzus they remained, with

one or two rare exceptions, entirely unnoticed. It was not until the

appearauce of the celebrated “ Memoires” of Cuvier, in the Annales du

Museum, that much attention was drawn to this subject. Since then,

Lamarck and Blainville contributed something to the knowledge of, their

physiology and relations, but not much to the number of species.

Although little had been done up to this time by British Naturalists in

augmenting the species of this beautiful family, they have been, since,

the subjects of most accurate and fruitful research ; and the monograph

now publishing by the Ray Society, on the “ British Nudibranchiate

Mollusca,” may be regarded as one of the most remarkable contributions

made to the literature of Natural History during the present century.

Continental naturalists have also added several new European species

during the last half century.

With the imperfect knowledge of foreign species that we yet possess

it is scarcely possible to arrive at any satisfactory conclusion concerning

the general distribution of the Nudibranchiata in the different regions of

the globe. The tropical forms are, as usual, larger and more brilliantly

coloured than those of colder climates, but the notices of extra European

species are so scanty, that we cannot form any idea of their numerical

preponderance. * * * * It cannot be doubted that a great deal of

the apparent deficiency of other genera, in comparison with the Doridide,

in foreign countries, arises from the want of proper examination,

and from the little attention paid by collectors to the less conspicuous

forms.*

In 1841, the celebrated Naturalist, M. Sars, announced the discovery, |

that these little creatures undergo a metamorphosis, having on their |

extrusion from the egy a very different form and character from those |

which they are afterwards destined to assume. In this first stage of |

their existence, they have the appearance of small animalcules, swimming |

freely through the water by means of two ciliated lobes, and have their |

body covered by a nautiloid shell furnished with an operculum. Up to |

* Having paid this attention to “less conspicuous forms,” J am ‘enabled to |

add considerably to several genera,—KH. I’. K.

No. 9.—1856-8.] CEYLON NUDIBRANOHIATA, &o. 81

that time nothing approaching toa distinct metamorphosis had been

known to exist in any of the true Molluscs.

The Nudibranchiata exhibit a high state of organization. They are all

provided with a powerful muscular buccal apparatus, which has, in some

instances, appended to it a gizzard. The oral aperture is guarded by

fleshy lips, and the mouth is furnished with a tongue, bearing a spiny

prehensile membrane, and occasionally with lateral corneous jaws.

The cesophagus, stomach, and intestines are well marked ; the former

is generaliy short, and passes from the upper surface of the buccal mass.

The stomach is frequently buried in the liver. The intestine is always

short.

The liver presents two great types of form. In the Doridide and

Tritonide it is entire (excepting in Scyllew, where it is broken up into

6 or 7 globular masses), occupying its normal abdominal position ; in the

Holidide it is more or less diffused,

All the Nudibranchs are hermapbrodites, each individual being fur-

nished with male, female, and androgynous parts. These organs, taken

together, are very bulky, and occupy the greater portion of the abdominal

cavity. They communicate with a common vestibule, opening upon

a nipple-like process on the right side of the body, and always below the

mantle, when it is present.

The organs of circulation and respiration consist of central organs of

propulsion,—a systematic and portal heart,—arteries, veins, and sinuses

or lacanes ; and of laminated, branched, or papillose branchiv ; arranged

either on the medial line, or along the sides of the back. The fluw of

blood is rapid; the pulsations of the heart varying, in the different

species, from 50 to 100 in the minute.

The nervous system presents a high degree of concentration, perhaps

higher than in any other group of J/ollusca,—and is divided into two

very distinct portions :—one, the cephalic or excito-motor ; the second,

the splanchnic or sympathetic ; these two portions intercommunicate at

several points.

_ All the Nudibranchs are provided with auditory capsules. Eyes are

also universally present. The dorsal tentacles are the organs of smell,

and, judging from their great development, this sense must be more acute

in most of the Nudibranchs than it is in any other Mollusc, with the

exception perhaps of Nautilus. Touch undoubtedly resides every-

where in the skin, but it is specialised in the oral tentacles and parts

about the mouth. The lips and channel of the mouth are probably the

seat of taste.

82 JOURNAL RB. A, 8. (CEYLON.) [Vol. ITI.

“Their ten city of life, when kept. in confinement, varies much in the

different species, but is greater than in many other marine animals.

Though patient and long-suffering in the endurance of hunger, they

are very voracious. The greater number of them are carnivorous ; living

principally upon Zoophytes and Sponges. The EKolides do not scruple

occasicnally to devour the weaker among their own brethren.—4 bridged

From English Cyclopedia.

Hoping that the foregoing anatomical and physiological

account of the Nudibranchiata, will draw more than ordinary

attention to this family of marine creatures (found on almost

every rock and sea weed), I shall proceed to give a descriptive

account of upwards of a hundred species of marine-animals,

including Sea-anemones and Planaria, found in the harbour, bays,

and coves of Trincomalie. I cannot but regret, that not having

with me Ruppel and Ehrenberg’s work on species found in the

Red Sea, lam not able to speak positively of all those herein

described as being new to science. Some may, perhaps, have

already been described by earlier observers, which, if ascertained

to be the case, I shall only be too glad to take the earliest

opportunity of acknowledging.

In concluding these prefatory remarks, I have to express my

personal obligations to those authorities who have retained my

military services in Ceylon, thereby enabling me to resume my

Zoological labours, which were precipitately and unexpectedly

shortened by my removal from the Island.

Trincomalie,

Ist November, 1857.

No. 9.—1856-8.] CEYLON NUDIBRANCHIATA, &c. 83

CEYLON NUDIBRANCHIATA MOLLUSCA.

(NAKED MOLLUSCS.)

Sub-Kingdom. — Motiusca.

Class. (FASTEROPODA.

Order. NUDIBRANCHIATA.

Fam. DoRIDID &.

Branchial plumes surrounding the vent on the medio-dorsal line.

Sub-Family. Dortpina. With a cloak.

Genus Doris. Linneus.

Animal oblong, covered by a mantle; four tentacles, two

superior or dorsal, clavate or conical, retractile within cavities,

sometimes slightly sheathed. ‘The two inferior or oral tentacles

placed on each side of the mouth, sometimes absent or replaced

by flat appendages ; eye specks immersed behind the dorsal

tentacles, not always visible in the adult; lingual membrane

with numerous lateral teeth; rachis often edentulous ;

stomach simple ; liver compact ; skin strengthened with spicula,

more or less definitely arranged.

DoRIs GLORIOSA. Kel.

Synonym. Doris MARGINATA? Leuckart.

Body nearly 3 inches long; oblong, of a pinkish colour

minutely dotted with red and white. Mantle large, oval, broad,

when expanded entirely covering the foot. Back mottled with

pink, red and yellow, and minutely punctulated with red and

S4 JOURNAL R. A. §. (CEYLON.) i Vol. Le

yellow, edged broadly with white, then by a rich broad red

ine avon this is a whitish space, and carried round the

mantle, near the body, isa still more brillant blood red Ime,

with internal club-shaped prolongations of the same beautiful

purple red colour. Interspace andfor about a quarter of an

inch of breadth of the back, the mantle is again whitish, with

shades of purple and yellow nearer the beautifully mottled back.

The underside of mantle has also a broad white edge, the rest

brilhantly variegated with dotted purple, yellow and red splashes.

Branchiz 7 or 8, large, branched ; each rising from a separate

eavity-in a circle about half an inch from a protruding yellow

coloured anal orifice. Plumes roseus, with red midribs. Dorsal

tentacles large, clavate ; apex pointed, slightly truncated, on

inner edge laminated ; colour pinkish and_ spotted yellow ;

ridge of cavity spotted with yellow and red. Head large,

protruding nearly three-quarters of an inch from mantle. Mouth

near foot, situated in the centre of an. oval projection, and on

each side a long broad toothed leaflet or oral appendage, red and

dotted like the head. Footlong, broad, with parallel sides, rounded

and transversely split in front. Jt has a broad lemon coloured

edge with transverse strie ; the rest pinkish red, not spotted ;

a dark purple spot in centre given by the internal viscera.

This is by far the most beautiful species of Doris or se

nymph I have ever seen, and none but a good artist could

ilo justice to its resplendent beauties. The lanes ample surface of

the mantle, with its soft, snowy white Sins a edge, is best

seen when the animal is swimming, and reflecting in the water

the rich red folds near the golden speckled Back! on which is

placed a broad circle of rosy coloured feathery tufts. The live

specimen, of which the above is but a faint description, was

found under corals in low water near Fort Frederick. “In

another specimen from the same locality, the white edge of the

-nantle was replaced by a rich crimgon red, which oualbsead

with the inner red line, leaving a faint hit line. Indeed,

it is a question which is the two varieties looked more beak

titul; at night, however, the palm of beauty was awarded to

the red margined specimen. They both lived for some days in

No. 9.—1856-8.] CEYLON NUDIBRANCHIATA, &c. 89

a vivarium. When at rest, the mantle was turned inwards

towards the back ; in this position the white and red lines were

hidden by the broad rolls on each side, displaying the rich

profusion of red and yellow dotted splashes and undulating lines

of the under surface of the mantle. In fact, it then looked like

another species, but it is only when the mantle is fully expanded

and floating on the water, that the unrivalled charms of this

beautiful sea nymph is seen to perfection. In the young, the

mantle extends round the head, and may be mistaken for a

distinct species. I have not. had an opportunity of seeing the

spawn of this species.

If this splendidly coloured sea nymph is identical with

Leuckart’s species, found in the Red Sea, and named Doris

marginata, I should still prefer retaining the name I have given

it, as “‘ marginata’ would apply, equally as well, to several other

Species as to this.

Doris MacCartuyr. el.

Body nearly 24 inches long; dusky grey. Mantle long,

narrow, dusky grey ; bordered with a bright blue line ; edge

erenulated, wavy. Dorsal tentacles long, conical, obtusely

pointed ; laminated obliquely, for nearly two-thirds of. its

length ; of a pale blue colour with white streaks. Oral tentacles

white, short, broad and rounded. Branchial plumes 12 to 15 ;

irregular, most of them of unequal length ; pinnated, anda few

trifureated ; others have a small cluster of plumes rising from

‘the middle or extremity. Foot white, and nearly as long as

the mantle.

This curious, but elegant species is semi-gelatinous ; and

resembles a Goniodoris from its narrow mantle, which scarcely

covers the foot ; the body is almost exposed.

I have dedicated this beautiful species to one who has always

encouraged my pursuits in the field of Natural History. To

Sir Charles MacCarthy, the Colonial Secretary of Ceylon, I

feel grateful for that assistance which his position in the Island

enabled him to give me, whenever required ; and I also feel

86 JOURNAL R. A. &. (CBYLON.) PVol nie

thankful to him for the warm interest he has taken in my

employment as Naturalist, to investigate the Natural History of

the Pearl Oysters, which has so abruptly been brought toa

conclusion by my professional services being required in another

part of Her Majesty’s dominions,—the rebel polluted land of

India. 3

DoRIS C@LESTIS. el.

Body white, 22 inches long ; flattened. Mantle coriaceous,

white, clouded with dark purple minute rings, confluent or

continuous with lighter coloured purple rings, set more widely

apart. Dorsal tentacles white, long ; apex clavate, lamellated,

slightly truncated on the superior edge ; pale green, tipped with

orange; margin of sheath orange or golden. Oral tentacles

long, acutely pointed ; white, minutely speckled with purple.

Branchial plumes 6, long, tripinnated ; whitish, ribs purplish

brown, edge of cavity orange. Foot white, shorter than

mantle ; grooved ; lower lamella notched.

This beautiful purpled clouded Doris is of very retiring

habits ; scarcely ever seen moving. Obtained im August and

September from rocks in Back Bay. Ova white, in three or

four broad coils. |

DoRIS FUNEBRIS. Kel.

Body nearly 12 inch long ; oblong, convex ; of a waxy white

colour, and spotted black. Mantle coriaceous, granular ; of an

ivory white colour, and ornamented with jet black spotted

circles and half rings or imperfect annular spotted figures.

Dorsal tentacles large, clavate ; apex black, laminated, without

sheaths. Oral tentacles linear ; white. tip black. Branchial

plumes 6, large and drooping, tri-pimnate ; white and shaded

2 id ‘ alr a 7 a \

lavender grey ; midribs of a dark brown colour. Foot waxy

white ; spotted irregularly on the margin of edges with small

and large linear spots.

This elegant funereal looking Doris is, with the mantle, about

22 inches long, and 15 broad. Rarely seen. Lives for a long

No. 9.—1856-8.] OEYLON NUDIBRANCHIATA, &¢. 87

time in the aquarium. Deposits its ova in broad convoluted

bands, which, when uncoiled, measure nearly 18 inches in length.

A pair kept in the aquarium were seen to spawn inJuly. While

one was depositing the band of ova on the side of the glass globe,

the other kept watch, as it were, by moving ina circle round

the former. The whole process lasted about half an hour.

The spots and markings of some specimens were of a dark

brown colour. In others the spots were of an auburn colour.

Doris GLENIEI. Kel.

Semi-gelatinous. Body nearly 14 inch long. Mantle broad,

shorter than foot,—above, white, with a pinkish yellow shade ;

a large irregularly waved deep golden coloured patch on

the back, bordered and spotted with purplish red. The

under surface of fore part of mantle, of a beautiful light

purple colour. ‘There is also a purple line on each side of

the white body. Dorsal tentacles white, with golden coloured

lamine ; long, conical and pointed. Oral tentacles short,

white. Branchial plumes 7 to 9, short, lanceolate, pinnated ;

white, bordered with golden yellow. Foot pinkish white ; edge

pure white.

This beautiful species I have named after my friend the

Rey. Owen Glenie, Colonial Chaplain of Trincomalie, who was

often the cheerful companion of my zoological pursuits, and

who will, I hope, on my departure from the Island, continue

_ those researches which he has so well begun.

This is perhaps next to Trevelyana Zeylanica (n. s.) and Doris

_ Gloriosa, the most remarkably coloured species in Ceylon.

Pound in the Inner Harbour in deep water, as also at Kottiar,

opposite Fort Frederick.

DORIS LEOPARDA. Kei.

4 s e Le a a D)

Body @ inch long, grey spotted. Mantle carneous, granular ;

grey, and spotted with dark erey and blackish circular spots ;

the latter in the central parts ; cach spot composed of smaller

Spots, separated from each other by white reticulations, seen

88 JOURNAL RB. A, 8. (CEYLON), — (Vol. ITI.

more distinctly with the aid of a magnifier. Dorsal tentacles

green ; large, broad, ovate, lamellated for nearly the whole

length. Oral tentacles short, linear, acutely pointed. Branchial

plumes 6, grey, speckled with darker grey, all united for nearly

half the length ; the other half fringed with short plumes

of a light green colour. Foot whitish, speckled ; covered by

mantle

This Leopard-spotted Doris is of a regular oval form. Found

in Dutch Bay among coral rocks.—Ova white.

DoRIS AMABILIS. Kel.

Body 4 lines long, oblong, narrow, convex, white, spotted

purple on sides. Mantle smooth, white, and spotted with

purplish crimson spots ; beneath white, not spotted. Dorsal

tentacles of moderate length ; apex conical, pointed ; closely

lamellated ; of a golden yellow colour. Branchial plumes 5 or

6, small, bi-pinnate ; white, with purple spots at their base.

All retracted within a cavity, without a rim. Head rounded,

spotted purple, on each side of mouth a short linear tentacle,

white. Foot narrow, longer than the mantle, slightly expanded

in front, spotted purple on the upper surface.

This lovely little Joris is rarely found. Two specimens,

obtained in May, are still alive in a finger glass, generally

resting on the side of astone. At night they crawl out of their

hiding place and creep along the sides of the glass, and are

sometimes seen floating on the surface of the water on their

back. When touched with a feather they adhere by their foot,

and can be kept dangling in this position by the aid of the

mucous thread secreted by the surface of the foot. Several Lolide

were kept in the same vessel, and they have survived them all,

though attacked repeatedly by the Holis. Ova white, deposited

on side of glass in a thread-like coil.

Doris FIDELIS. Kel.

Body 2 inch long ; narrow, conyex ; white. Mantle oblong,

with parallel sides ; shorter than the foot ; of a waxy white

colour, the edge lined with red and irregular tooth-like transverse

No. 9.—1856-8.] CEYLON NUDIBRANCHIATA, &C. 89

internal prolongations of the same colour; those on sides,

longer, alternated with short ones. Branchial plumes 7 or 8,

black ; lanceolate, pinnated, few branched at tip. Dorsal tentacles

oblong, flattened, pointed; apex black, lamellated. Oral

tentacles small, acutely pointed. Foot white, narrow, slightly

dilated in front, and pointed posteriorly.

Found on coral rocks at low water mark, in August and

September. This singularly marked species looks, when the

tentacles and branchiez are retracted, like a large bean. Its

jet black plumes and tentacles appear very conspicuous above

the red margined white mantle. It is very tenacious of life,

Ova deposited in narrow white coils.

Doris preciosa. Kel.

Body white, 2 inch long. Mantle pale greenish yellow, very

light coloured on sides, where there is also a blueish shade ;

closely speckled with small reddish-brown spots ; margin

marked with a narrow purple red line and a light orange shade.

Dorsal tentacles short, with reddish-purple apex, clavate,

laminated. Oral tentacles triangular, sharp pointed. Branchize

short, pinnated ; reddish-purple. Foot white, shorter than

mantle.

This gem-like elegant species, is of the same size as D.

Fidelis, and not unlike it in appearance. The deep blood-red

branchial plumes, and the red margined speckled cloak,

sufficiently separate it from the last species. They are both found

in the same locality, and at the same time. The characters

of the young species are also very marked, as in the adult

specimens.

DoRIS NIVEA. Kel.

Body 2 inch long, convex, elliptical, snowy white. Mantle

coriaceous, granular; white, occasionally seen speckled

indistinctly with small grey spots. The purplish coloured viscera

seen through the opaline back. Dorsal tentacles pure white,

short, conical, pointed slightly, lamellated at tip. Oral tentacles

linear. Branchial plumes 6 or 7, white, bi-pinnate. Foot white,

shorter than mantle.

90 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON. ) [Mol Side

This snowy white opaline Doris, is probably only a variety —

of Doris pallida of Leuckart, found by Ruppel in the Red

Sea. It has not, however, all its characters ; the cloak resembles

that of D.repanda in some respects. It has white, nerve-like

lines on the margin. I have only seen one specimen, which

lived for a few days.

DoRIS MARMORATA. Kel.

Body 23 inches long, oblong, convex, coriaceous ; white,

speckled reddish-brown. Mantle broad and long, covering

the foot; thick, hard, granular; marbled with black and reddish-

brown, and irregularly spotted white. Under surface white,

and mottled with irregular shaped purplish-red spots. Branchial

plumes 6, united at base, superior half plumose, tri-pinnated,

grey and grizzled with brown. Dorsal tentacles large, clavate,

laminated ; brown and speckled white. Sheaths granular.

Head small ; oral tentacles long, linear, acutely pointed. Foot

white, deeply notched and grooved in front; spotted reddish-

brown.

This large marbled Doris lived only forafew days. They

are found on rocks near Fort Frederick at low-water mark.

Some are of a darker brown colour than others.

DoRIS CERISA. Kel.

Body 4 inch long, convex, oval ; of a vermillion-red colour.

Mantle of a cherry-red colour, covering the foot. Branchial

plumes 6 or 7 ; very small, straight and stiff ; bi-pinnated ; of a

erimson-red colour. Dorsal tentacles small, conical, lamellated,

purplishred ; speckled white, tip grey. Oral tentacles indistinctly

seen. Foot pinkish.

I have only seen one specimen of this exceedingly pretty

species. It lived for several months in a finger-glass. It

eannot be mistaken for the young of any other Ceylon species

herein described. Ova red, in six narrow tape-like coils, The

ova of D. rubra (nihi) are white.

No. 9.—1856-8.] | cCHYLON NUDIBRANCHIATA, &C. 91

Doris RUFOPUNOTATA. el.

Body 2 inch long, oval, compressed ; of a white colour.

Mantle coriaceous ; of a light brick-red colour, and speckled

with circular spots of a darker reddish-brown colour. Branchial

plumes 5 small, bi-pinnate ; greyish, speckled rufous. Dorsal

tentacles short, clavate, pointed, laminated, without sheaths ;

of a rufous brown colour. Oral tentacles white ; linear.

Foot whitish ; short, grooved and notched in front, speckled

rusty. Under part of cloak whitish, and also speckled rusty.

This stiff-looking Doris is occasionally seen in a circular

form. Rarely found, among Pearl Oysters ; very tenacious of

life.

DoRIS GRISEA. Kel.

Body 14 inch long, gelatinous. Mantle of a dark ashy-

brown colour, closely speckled with reddish brown and white

spots, and two or four longitudinal rows of larger blackish

irregular spots. Tentacles clavate, laminated ; ashy-brown

speckled white. Branchial plumes 5 whitish, speckled grey ;

tri-pinnate. Mouth surrounded with a white veil (?) Foot

whitish, spotted reddish-brown ; notched in the fore part ;

covered entirely by the mantle. Some specimens are more

reddish-coloured than others. The young are nearly always

more ashy-coloured.

A very common species, found from March to September

in low water, on rocks surrounding Fort Frederick, and also

in the Inner Harbour. Lives a long time in the aquarium.

Ova white, in three or four white coils. This Doris can elongate

itself into the shape of a leech.

DoRIS PAPILLOSA. Kel.

Body ? inch long, white, brown spotted. Mantle coriaceous,

covered with large papille, each rising from a circular

tubercular base, or ring. Buff, and spotted dark reddish-brown ;

a row of larger spots round the margin. A dark brown line

‘Tuns from base of tentacles to branchie. Dorsal tentacles

JOURNAL R, A, 8, CORYLON,) (Vol, f11,

Fa ae

large, apex clavate, laminated, of a light green colour, speckled

white. Oral tentacles short, linear. Foot whitish and spotted

with rusty-brown ; shorter than mantle. Branchial plumes 6;

short, tri-pinnated. Posterior three plumes rusty-coloured ;

anterior ones whitish.

This species resembles Doris rufopunctata, but its green

dorsal tentacles, and papillose tubercles on mantle, sufficiently

distinguish it from other species. Ova white, laid in four -

narrow waved coils.

Doris RuBRA. Kel.

Syn. Doris sotea. ? Cuv.

Body 14 inch long, oblong, pellucid-red. Mantle crimson-

red, and maculated with irregularly shaped dark brick-red-or

purple spots ; those on the back larger. Tentacles large, clavate;

apex red, laminated. Branchie 6, of a light rose colour ; large,

tri-pinnate. The two anterior ones smaller than the rest.

Foot oblong, broad, of a pinkish-red colour ; longer than mantle;

rounded in front and transversely grooved ; anterior lamina

notched in centre. Oral tentacles linear; mantle extended,

nearly three inches.

This beautiful red species is found in great abundance in

and out of the harbour of Trincomalie ; and is generally seen

on mossy rocks a few feet below the surface of the water.

When confined in a glass vivarium, it becomes, at night,

nearly throughout, of a pellucid pinkish-white colour, which

hue it retains till dawn, when gradually it assumes the brilliant

red diurnal costume. Spawns in the months of May and

June ; ova deposited in three or four large, white, ribbon-like

convolutions.

DoRIS OssEosA. Kel.

Body 1 inch long. Mantle hard, cartilaginous, granular

and pitted ; granules of a whitish colour ; on the median line

is a narrow ridge extending from base of tentacles to branchial

plumes, which are four or five in number, emerging horizontally

No. 9.—1856-8.) OBYLON NUDIBRANOHIATA, &0. 3

from under the posterior termination of dorsal ridge. In

some specimens there is a large pitted protuberance on centre

of ridge. Dorsal tentacles with large granular sheaths ;

apex conical, lamellated; of a pale green colour. Oral

tentacles white. Foot small, narrow. Branchial plumes small,

bi-pinnated.

This curiously formed Doris resembles a piece of bone, or

piece of worm-eaten white stone. Its habits are those of the

other Doride.

Doris Constantia. Kel.

Coriaceous. Body ? inch long; light yellow. Manile

yellowish-brown, granular ; dark brown spots on edge. Dorsal

tentacles yellow, conical, swollen at the apex, laminated ; tip

produced, white. Oral tentacles small, linear. Branchial plumes

whitish, five or six, small, bi-pinnate. Foot small, covered by the

mantle. Under parts yellowish.

I have only seen one of this species, which lived for many

months ina vivarium. It came nightly to one of the oysters,

and apparently fed on the back of the shells, upon the atoms of

life found there.

Doris LUTEOLA. Kel.

Semi-gelatinous. Body # inch long. Mantle granular,

yellowish, and shaded with darker yellow. Dorsal tentacles

long, black, lamellated apex. Oral tentacles short, white.

Branchial plumes long, bi-pinnate, greenish. Foot white,

shorter than mantle.

This elegant species is found in shallow water ; spawns in

October. Ova light green, in two narrow tape-like convolutions,

DORIS VIPERINA. Kel.

_ Body 2 inches long; white. Mantle coriaceous, oval ;

covered with short spinous tubercles, of a grey colour ; and

beautifully spotted with dark grey and purplish brown spots

having a blueish shade. Under surfaceof mantle white, with

94 JOURNAL BR. A. 8. (CEYLON.) (Vol: TE.

purplish spots, a purplish line runs near the edge; border

transversely streaked. Dorsal tentacles, greenish, long, white,

slightly truncated, laminated clavate tops. Oral tentacles white ;

long, pointed. Branchial plumes 6; short, broad, bi-pinnate ;

of a greenish white colour. Foot oblong, entirely covered by

the broad oval mantle ; white, spotted with smaller purplish

spots than those seen onthe under surface of mantle.

Found in deep water, near French Battery.

Doris ATRATA. Kel.

Body $4 inch long, and 4 inch broad; ovate, convex ;

of a smoky-black colour. Mantle broad, when expanded

covering the foot ; smooth, edge semi-transparent, the rest jet-

black. Branchize 8 ; small, ofa smoky-black colour, bi-pinnate ;

two sets of 4 each, all entering the same cavity round anus.

Foot long, narrow, rounded in front, slightly projecting

behind when in progression ; of a pale smoky colour. Mouth

indistinctly seen. Oral tentacles linear. Dorsal tentacles

pellucid, with clavate apex ; black ; tips white, looking like eyes

set on the tentacles. Ova white, in three or four small narrow

tape-like coils.

This species may prove to be either identical with Doris

fumata of Leuckart, or D. fumosa of “Quoy et Gaym,” the

latter more probably, as the remarkable, white tipped tentacles

(always present), could not have passed unobserved by Ruppel.

The branchie however, of J. fumata would appear to correspond

with those of the Ceylon species. The next species too, which I

regarded at one time as only a variety of D. fumata, must, I

think, be considered distinct, as it was not found in April with

D. atrata, but subsequently, when the latter became scarce.

DoRIS ATROVIRIDIS. Kel.

Body 10 lines long, of an invisible-green colour. Mantle

broad, undulating, of a greenish-black colour ; edge streaked

with a pale crimson line. Tentacles and branchie as in

D. atratu. Foot of a pale invisible-green. Ova like those of

No. 9.—1856-8.] CEYLON NUDIBRANCHIATA, &0. 95

the preceding species. Some of the specimens had the mantle

indistinctly, but reoularly, spotted white ; these spots, composed

of several smaller spots round a centre, looked, through a

magnifier, like little stars.

The young of this species is of a jet-black colour, with a broad

brillant crimson line round edge of mantle and foot, If I had

not specimens of different ages to compare with, and observe

the gradual diminution of the intensity of the red line, till it

became almost obsolete in the larger specimens, I should-be

inclmed to consider the characters of the young to be those of

a distinct species ; so very great are the external characters of

the young and older animals. The presence of the red line in

the young of this species, and its non-existence in the young of

D. atrata, still mere confirms me in the opinion already

advanced, that they are not identical species. Both are very

sluggish in their habits; generally, two or more lie locked in

each other’s embraces, under a stone or a coral branch. In

confinement they live longer than any species I have had under

observation. |

DoRIS VARIABILIS. Kel.

Body 6 lines long, pellucid green ; the red viscera seen through

it. Mantle greenish-brown, and marked with longitudinal rows

of reticulated whitish spots. Dorsal tentacles clavate, laminated ;

greenish-brown, speckled ; tip white. Branchial plumes 8,

small, round a central cavity, tri-pinnate ; brown, speckled white.

Foot pellucid-green ; shorter than mantle.

This species is found in great abundance on rocks in Dutch

Bay at low-water mark. They vary much in depth of colour ;

ereen, however, always prevailing. In habits, like D. atrata.

DoRIS EXANTHEMATA, el.

_ Body 5 inches long ; pinkish or light purple colour. Mantle

long, broad ; covered with large and small, smooth conical and

rounded nodules, rising from smooth elevated bases. The upper

surface is of a deep olive-brown colour, having several white

splashes; edge of a lemon colour. Under surface of mantle

96 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON.) Vol. TT:

pinkish, and near the body there is a broad undulating reddish

band, terminating abruptly on each side below the foot, not

unlike in appearance to some cutaneous disease. Dorsal tentacles

long ; pinkish and smooth for two-thirds of itslength, apex clavate,

laminated, truncated ; of a pale brown colour. Oral tentacles

long, conical ; pinkish. Branchial plumes 6 ; large, pendant

tri-pinnated ; plumes pinkish-red and speckled-white ; midribs

greenish. Foot much shorter than mantle, deeply grooved and

notched in front, obtusely pointed posteriorly ; of a light pink

colour, except the edge which is of a lemon colour with transverse

strie.

The whole animal gives one more the idea of a horrid disease

than the charms of asea nymph, This species is semi-gelatinous

and very glutinous on the surface, particularly the mantle.

When dead it rapidly dissolves, and cannot be preserved in

spirits. The largest specimen I have seen measured 8 inches

long and 5 inches broad, It will not live more than a few

days in the aquarium. Ova of a beautiful red colour ; coil

2 inch broad, and 18 inches in length. This species

resembles Doris carbunculosa, but the smooth nodules, and

the red ova, of the former will always be sufficient marks of

distinction.

DORIS CARBUNCULOSA. Kel.

Body nearly 44 inches long; oblong, oval: of a pinkish-

purple colour. Mantle semi-gelatinous, broad and long, and of

an oval form ; purplish-brown colour, studded with numerous

large warty nodules, and larger ones rising from a raised

tubercular ringed base. Nodules of a deeper brown colour ;

some have also a greenish tinge and others are variegated with

white. Dorsal tentacles long, produced, clavated, truncated

superiorly, laminated ; of a pale purplish colour. Mouth with

a small triangular-shaped veil. Branchial plumes 5; large,

broad and long ; closely tri-pimnated ; of a rusty-red colour,

grizzled with white. Foot short, oblong, oval ; of a purplish-

pink colour ; sides of under surface yeined and of a pink

colour.

No. 9.—1856-8.] CEYLON NUDIBRANOHIATA, &c. 97

The mantle of this inelegant Doris, is not unlike some

earbuncular formation. The under surface is pinkish and shaded

with purple. It isa very unsightly object. The edge of the

mantle of the young is mottled-yellow. The whole animal is

nearly 5 inches long, and 34 broad in the centre. Ova white,

deposited in narrow tape-like form in four or five broad coils.

The white ova alone sufficiently distinguish this ugly sea-nymph

from her rival D. eranthemata.

Doris IntTECTA. Kel.

Body 1} inch long. Mantle warty ; of a dark-brown colour,

nearly black ; on the medial line is a thick white pasty line.

Dorsal tentacles brown ; clavate, laminated. Oral tentacles long,

linear, pointed ; of a bright-brown colour. Branchial plumes 6,

tri-pinnated ; of a golden-brown colour. Foot golden-brown ;

_ narrow, longer than manile.

This warty Doris is easily distinguished from others ofa

brown colour by its rufous warty mantle, and the dirty-white

line on back. Even the young have the white dorsal streak.

Very common in low water in the months of September and

October.

DORIS LANUGINOSA. Kel.

Body 4 inch long; of a pale-green colour. Mantle green,

covered with short downy hair. Dorsal tentacles green, lamel-

lated, pubescent. Oral tentacles not observed. Branchiz 10

or 12; small, of a sap-green colour, bi-pinnated. Foot shorter

_ than mantle ; of a pale-green colour, transparent.

Of this downy species I have only seen one specimen. It

lived only a few days. Found near Nicholson’s Cove.

Doris sponaiosa. Kel.

Semi-gelatinous. Body nearly 384 inches long. Mantle

broad, oval, covering the foot in all parts; of a dull yellow-

brown colour, deeply pitted ; margin of pits granular ; cavities

-spongious. The whole upper surface of mantle looks like the

98 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (OEYLON.) [Vol, Tir}

surface of some species of sponge. Beneath of a darker yellow-

brown colour. Dorsal tentacles large, with slightly truncated,

laminated apex, sheaths large, funnel-shaped ; granular. Oral

tentacles (?). Branchial plumes 5, grey, drooping much ;

bi-pinnated. Foot broad, long. |

This very curiously formed Doris is found in deep water in

the Inner Harbour. The young may be mistaken for a

distinct species, from the lateral cavities or pits being deeper.

The whole animal is nearly the size of D. exanthemata.

Doris STRIATA. Kel.

Coriaceous. Body 14 inch long. Mantle nearly smooth ;_

white, with light-brown wavy streaks. Under surface white,

with linear wavy streaks near the body. Dorsal tentacles with

short conical, laminated apex. Oral tentacles white, linear,

pointed. Branchial plumes 5 or 6, small, bi-pinnated ; white,

streaked with brown. i oot pure white, narrow, oblong. Found —

in Dutch Bay.

DoRISs CORRUGATA. Kel.

Body nearly 1 inch long, oval, whitish. Mantle coriaceous,

corrugated, and studded with small tubercles ; those on the

sides larger, and each has a spine; of a pale watery-green ~

colour ; black spotted under surface, also greenish and spotted

with small dots. Dorsal tentacles short, open, greenish,

lamellated. Branchial plumes grey ; 7 or 8, short, pinnated.

Foot pale-green ; narrow ; shorter than mantle. Oral tentacles

short, triangular, pointed. ; 7

[ have seen only one live specimen of this curious Doris.

Doris prota. Kel.

covering entirely the foot : ; upper surface granular, of a yellow isle t

brown colour, splashed with large and shel ‘creouile brick-red —

Spots 5 dee surface white, and near the huge painted with —

small and large bright red spots. Dorsal tentacles clavate &

Coriaceous. Body 24 inches long. Mantle large, . oval,

No. 9.—1856-8.] NEW CHYLON NUDIBRANOHIATA, WC. 99

laminated, slightly truncated ; sheaths large, granular. Oral

tentacles long, pointed ; white, spotted red. Foot broad, shorter

than mantle ; white.

This remarkably painted Doris is found in deep water.

Occasionally it burrows in the sand, where it lies for hours,—

plumes and dorsal tentacles alone being uncovered.

DoRIS BELLICOSA. Kel.

Coriaceous. Body 21 inches long. Mantle large, oval,

upper surface granular, and covered with small spines; of a

dull brick-red, or chocolate colour, and irregularly streaked

with pale-yellow. Under surface of mantle white, splashed

and spotted with chocolate. Branchial plumes 6, large, bi-pin-

nated ; of a dull-rose colour, and speckled yellow in small

specimens. Dorsal tentacles with small clavate, pointed, apex.

Oral tentacles white, short, pointed. Foot broad, oval, of a

dark-red colour with a pale whitish edge.

Found in deep water in the Inner Harbour of Trincomalie.

The mantle of this species resembles much that of D. picta,

but its spines and chocolate-coloured foot sufficiently

distinguish it from that species, which has a white foot and

beautifully painted under-side of mantle. They live for many

months in a vivarium,

DoRIS CASTANEA. Kel.

Carneous. Body 1} inch long. Mantle thick, granular and

tubercular : of a reddish-chestnut colour. Dorsal tentacles red,

short, laminated ; tip produced, whitish. Oral tentacles short,

linear, pointed. Branchial plumes 6 (?), short, bi-pinnated ; of

a purplish colour. Under parts deep vermillion-red, and

speckled with darker red. Foot short, red,

Found near Sober Islaiid, Trincomalie Harbour.

100 JOURNAL &. A, 8. (GEYLON.) [ Vol. Ii.

Sub-genus. ONCHIDORIS.

Oncuiporis Leacut, Blainv.

Carneous. Body oval, about 14 inch long. Mantle granular

and studded with filamentous granules. Those on the posterior

third of mantle often large, and appearing like small branchial

plumes. No dorsal tentacles. Two oral tentacles, which appear

to protrude through notches, from under the anterior edge of

mantle. The foot is broad and nearly occupies the whole of

the under part of mantle. Anus opens on the under surface of

the posterior part of mantle. Orifice of the organs of generation

on the right side.

Found on rocks inthe Inner Harbour. I have scarcely any

doubt, that this is the Onchidore described by Blainville from

a specimen seen in the British Museum, whose habitat was not

known.

The colour of the animal is of a light-grey, mottled with

black spots in some specimens. In spirits the filamentous granules

are not seen, but when the animal is alive they are so distinctly,

and the contractile character of the filaments are very observable,

especially of the larger ones.

TREVELYANA, n. g.

Body without acloak. Two dorsal tentacles without sheaths,

non-retractile. Mouth in front of head, without tentacles.

Branchiz in a circular dise on the back ; non-retractile.

TREVELYANA ZBYLANICA. Kel.

Body 12 inch long, narrow, elevated and inflated near the

branchial plumes ; semi-gelatinous, white and spotted with

small dark orange-red spots, set wide apart from each other.

Head rather produced and rounded ; also spotted red. Mouth

circular, small; situated in front, without veil or tentacles.

Branchial plumes 15 or 16, situated on posterior third of body,

round a large dise, in the centre of which is the vent. Plumes

long, downy, closely set; pure white, with a longitudinal

No, 9.—1856-8.] NEW CEYLON NUDIBRANCHIATA, Kc. 101

bright red streak on the back of each ; slightly contractile,

but they do not retract into a cavity ; when extended, they

resemble a small tuft of marabout feathers. Genital orifice in a

nipple-like process, situated between the anterior and middle-

third of body. Foot long, and broad ; terminating posteriorly

in a lancet-shaped point, about + inch from body ; white, with

a delicate light orange-red line on the edge of the foot ; this

line is carried partially on each side of head. Tentacles 2,

dorsal ; short, conical, pointed ; upper half indistinctly laminated;

of a light orange-red colour at tip ; base colourless, transparent.

Ova yellow, deposited in bead-like coils. They generally deposit

the coils on branches of sea-weed. Sometimes this Doris

resembles a miniature fan-tail pigeon ; particularly when

perched on sea-weed, and the small marabout plumes are

elongated.

Found on rocks and sea-weed near Sober Island.

This elegant creature does not resemble any of the described

-species. The form of the body is not unlike that of the genus

Ancula. Its nearest approach, in other particulars, is to

Polycera.

I venture to make a distinct genus of this Doris, and dedicate

it to Sir Walter Trevelyan, to whom Iam indebted so much

for the liberal aid he has afforded me in my researches into

the Natural History of Ceylon.

Fam. ‘TRITONIADA.

Meuisawa. Lang.

‘Animal elongated, with a narrow, channelled foot, and long

slender tail ; sides of the back with pairs of tuberculated lobes,

easily deciduous ; tentacles cylindrical, retractile into long

trumpet-shaped sheaths ; head covered by a lobe-like veil ;

sexual orifices behind right tentacle ; excretory behind first

gill on the right side—( Woodward.)

102 JOURNAL BR. A. 8. (CHYLON.) (Vol. TI.

MeLIBeA VIRIDIS. Sel.

Animal gelatinous, transparent, of a greenish vitreous colour.

Body covered with hairy filaments. Head small, nearly

circular, covered with filaments. Veil large, and very

expansive ; circular opening lined with cilia. Tentacles 2,

about 2 inch long; capsule small, covered with filaments.

Branchie 6 or 7 on each side, unequal, wedge-shaped;

placed alternately ; base broad ; slightly pedunculated, covered

with cilia and filaments, giving a very hairy appearance ; base

brown ; the other parts greenish and speckled with dirty white.

Foot narrow, of pinkish colour on edge, and upper surface

covered with short filaments.

Nearly 3 inches long.

Found on weeds near Inner Harbour; not common; can

swim very actively. The veil over the head is used as a net

doubtless to entangle its prey. The opening is very dilatable.

Deposits its ova in a flat mass ; ova white.

ScytL/a (?) Dracamna. Kel.

Animal green ; elongated, narrow. No mantle. Two tenta-

cles placed anteriorly on side of head ; non retractile ; tentacles

folded or cylindrical, slightly granular. On the centre of the —

back there are three unequal wing-like denticulated lobes, of a

green colour, with a tooth-like processes, tipped red ; sides of

the posterior half of body also toothed with two lines of small,

pointed, red-tipped tubercles. Foot narrow, channelled. Mouth

protected by two small semi-orbicular flaps or veils. Orifice on

right side. Length nearly 1 inch.

I have some doubts as to the propriety of placing this species

under the genus Syellea. I could not discover any tufted

branchiz on the surface of the dorsal lobes. I propose naming

this genus, closely allied to Glaucus, if new, in honor of Dr.

Templeton, late of the Royal Artillery (brother of the Belfast

Naturalist) who has contributed considerably to the Fauna of ~

Ceylon.

No, 9.—1856-8.] NEW CEYLON NUDIBRANCHIATA, &c. 108

I have found only one specimen on a branch of sea-weed. It

looked at first like a piece of green. weed, but on placing it in

fresh sea water, the lobes expanded and waved about very briskly.

The red tips of the lobes contrasted beautifully with the bright

green of the animal. It lived only a few hours.

POLYCERA (?) ZEYLANICA. Kel,

Body 4 inch long. No distinct mantle. Head covered by a

membranous fimbriated veil ; the long filaments slightly toothed.

Veil continuous with a narrow membranous expansion on side

of body, which are united at the tail, Large fimbriated filaments

also on sides of body. A membranous crest runs on the medial

line of back. Dorsal tentacles retractile in a sheath ; clavate,

laminated, incurved at the tip; brown, white tipped. Oral

tentacles white ; broad and short. Branchial plumes 5, short,

bi-pinnated, retractile, placed in a circle, in the centre of the

back, near the third pair of dorsal filaments. Colour above,

bright orange-red; beneath whitish, with red specks seen

through the transparent foot. Ova, bright red; in narrow

coils. The whole animal is scarcely 1 inch long; and its

broadest part not more than # of an inch.

I have placed this species, very doubtfully, under the head of

Polycera. I believe there is sufficient reason to make a new

genus of the leading characters of this pretty little creature,

The transparent membranous expansion is fully extended when

the animal swims, which it does, more freely than any known

species. For10or 15 minutes it will keep floating and moving

its body like an eel in the water. Very rare ; a few specimens

lived for many months in my vivarium.

Fam. AoLIDz.

Animal with pzupillose gills, arranged along the sides of the

back ; tentacles sheathless, non-retractile ; lingual teeth 0. 1.0 :

ramifications of the stomach and liver extending into the dorsal

papilla ; excretory orifices on the right side; skin smooth,

without spicula ; no distinct mantle.

104 JOURNAL R. A, 8, (ORYLON.) [Vol. III.

/fouis™ Husszyi. Kel.

Tentacles 4. Both pairs of the same shape and form ; but

the anterior ones longer, of a limped-orange hue, tipped with

white. Back of a dull orange-brown colour ; a triangular

white space behind dorsal tentacle. Branchize numerous, in

8 rows on each side of body, white and ringed with light

purple, tip white. Foot dilated anteriorily ; no lateral

processes.

Rare; named in memory of a departed and beloved companion

of my earliest scientific labours.

ZLOLIS BICOLOR. Kel.

Body 2 inch long, slender ; waxy-white; a dusky spot on

neck anterior to dorsal tentacles. Dorsal tentacles short, smooth,

transparent white at base ; corrugated or laminated at apex,

of a deep. orange-red colour, becoming darker at tip. Oral

tentacles twice as long ; pellucid-white throughout ; tapering,

curved. Head small, rounded. Branchie medium sized ;

narrow, acutely pointed ; white with a subterminal orange-red

ring ; apex waxy-white. They are set in 6 or 7 small clusters,

the anterior ones composed of 34 or more branchiz ; the others

of two, rarely of three ; becoming smaller as they approach the

tail. Foot linear; white, transparent ; slightly expanded in

front. |

Found among sea weed in Back Bay, Trincomalie.

ALOLIS EFFULGENS. Kel.

Tentacles 4; 2 dorsal moderately long, laminated obliquely ;

dark-orange, tipped white. The two anterior ones orange, with

a whitish spot in centre and tipped white, a dark shade behind

dorsal tentacle. Branchie in 5 or 6 clusters on each side of

back. The anterior clusters consisting of 12 or 15 narrow

* Ktym, -Afolis, daughter of Molus.

q 7

=| S56 GS Risers ee EE ae weet REAR ENE operant pi ie

WO, 8.—=1956-8.| SEW ORYLON NUDIBRANCHTATA, do. 105

obtusely Oto branchiz + orange-red at base, ringed with

white and orange, tip white ; a bluish line running Ibneitadinally

for nearly two-thirds of its length.

Found in great number in Dutch Bay, and other parts of the

sea near Fort Frederick. Spawns in June and July. Ova

white, in narrow thready coils.

ZAKOLIS “PAULINE. Kel.

Tentacles 4; two dorsal, red, wrinkled. The two terminal

tentacles pinkish, tip red, base white. Branchise reddish,

numerous, short; anterior ones have a whitish central ring,

tipped red ; posterior ones of a redder colour, tips more

broadly tipped with red; the central white ring less distinct.

Foot expanded, iia hack triangular-pointed process. Dength

d+ lines.

AMOLIS TRISTIS. Kel

Tentacles 4; two dorsal, about half the size of the two

‘anterior ones ; white with blackish rings. Body white, an

interrupted blackish line on each side of back. Branchie in

clusters of 8 or 4; short, pointed, white, and ringed with

black. Foot slightly expanded, and notched anteriorly. Length

about 3 lines.

Found on sea-weed in one of my Aquaria. Ova white.

ALOLIS NODULOSA. Kel.

Tentacles 4 ; opaque-white. Dorsal long, pyramidal,

pointed, with three nodular rings ; oral tentacles short, narrow,

pointed, white with a yellowish shade. Head and back white.

Branchize in five-small clusters on each side ; long, nodular,

obtusely pointed ; opaque-white and spotted indistinctly with

slight orange-brown ; base darker. Foot slightly contracted

anteriorly.

Length about 4 inch.

106 JOURNAL R. A. 8S. (CEYLON.) PY¥ol- Ti:

ALOLIS SMEDLEYI! Kel.

Dorsal tentacles pyramidal, ringed ; of a dusky grey colour.

Oral tentacles long, pointed, white, with a central red ring.

Branchiz in five small clusters on each side ; the anterior

pair largest. Papille short, conical ; white, and ringed with

grey. F oot long, with anterior tentacular processes Length

4 or 5 lines.

if have named this species in remembrance of one who was a

frequent visitor of my ‘ Aquarian establishment,’ and who

took a warm and friendly interest in all my scientific pursuits.

This small Aolis was discovered on some sea-weed growing in

a Vivarium.

Genus. Proctonotus. A. and #H.

Animal oblong, depressed, pointed behind ; dorsal tentacles

2, linear, simple, with eyes at base, behind; oral tentacles

short ; head covered by a small semi-lunar veil; mouth with

horny jaws; gills papillose, on ridges down the sides of the back

and round the head in front ; vent dorsal.— Woodward.

~ Proctonotus ORIENTALIS. Kel.

Animal semi-gelatinous, greenish. Dorsal tentacles 2,

bifurcated and retractile. Oral tentacles short, pointed.

Branchiee, four or five rows on each side of body, those nearest

the body smaller ; wedge-shaped, rounded superiorly, flattened ;

green, spotted grey and green. Branchiee carried round the

head in two or three rows ; middle ones longer, all of the same

shape. Foot broad, long, grooved in foot. Length 24 inches.

Ova white, in wav ed thread-like coils. :

This exceedingly interesting animal may perhaps oceupy a

new generic place, as I do not observe the bifurcated dorsal

branche noticed in the other species of the genus Proctonotus-

When coiled up it looks like a flower, with green petals.

Found in Trincomalie, in May and July.

Pa ie

No. 9,--1856-8.] NEW CEYLON NUDIBRANCHTATA, &¢. 107

PTEROCHILUS viRIpIs. Kel.

Animal light-green. Length 4 inch. Tentacles 2, simple,

Jong, pointed. Head with small lateral lobes. Branchize very

numerous, closely set ; long, linear, acutely pointed. Branchize

green, and spotted with darker green and grey. Foot linear.

Found on sea-weeds, and, owing to its colour, not easily

recognised. ives for a long time in confinement. Ova

green. t

Fam. HEuysiapa@.

Genus. Euysra. Risso.

Animal elliptical, depressed, with wing-like lateral expan-

sions ; tentacles simple, with sessile eyes behind them ; foot

narrow. —

ELYSIA GRANDIFOLIA. Kel.

Head and body light-green, white, and occasionally black

spotted. Head and neck naked. Tentacles 2, folded longitu-

dinally, on side of head ; bronzed-green, tip brown. Buccal

tentacles 2, small. Membranous wing-like expansion on each

side of body ; broad anteriorly ; acutely pointed posteriorly,

and united at the tail. Membrane green, edged with a black

and a golden yellow line. No distinct foot. Orifice on the

back (?). Mouth beneath.

The whole animal gives one the idea of a large leaf; and,

when moving, that of a butterfly. Found on sea-weed. Some

are more than 3 inches long; greatest transverse diameter,

with wings expanded, 24 inches. Distinct veins, filled with

fluid seen on the wings ;the heart pulsating on the centre of

the back. I have some doubts as to the propriety of placing

_ this interesting creature under the head of Elysia. Ifon further

‘investigation, it is found that it does not belong to any known

genera, I propose naming it HyDRoPsYcHE.

Enysita puncrata. Kel.

Smaller than the last species ; largest specimen seen measur-

ing 14 inch.

108 JOURNAL R. A. 8 (CEYLON.) F Vol. TU )

Animal of a lighter green colour. Tentacles dark-brown,

spotted white. Back whitish-green, dotted with black and

green, and spotted like the back. Edge of mantle black, and

shaded with golden; under surface of wings tubercular and

dotted black.

Found on sea-weed. Not easily distinguished from the young

of HL. grandifolia.

ELYSIA C@RULEA. Kel.

This is a very small, beautiful species, about # inch long ;

when the wings are folded, it is not thicker than a crow’s

quill. Tentacles 2; blue, witha central red ring, tip blackish.

Body and wings blue; under part of head, and fore part of

foot, red ; edge of wing Jined with black and red lines, the latter

outermost. |

Found on sea-weed, in the Inner Harbour. All three species —

have the same generic characters, and doubtless belong to the

same genus.

Order. INFERO-BRANCHIATA.

Genus. PHYLLIDIA. Cur.

Animal oblong, covered with a coriaceous tuberculated —

mantle ; dorsal tentacles clavate, retractile into cavities near

the front of the mantle ; mouth with two tentacles ; foot broadly —

oval. Gills forming a series of lamina extending the entire

length of both sides ; excretory orifice in the middle line,

near the posterior end of the back, or between the mantle

and foot ; reproductive organs on the right side ; stomach simple,

membranous.

PHYLLIDIA ZEYLANICUS. ~—Kel.

Mantle tubercular ; salmon coloured ; three continuous black —

lines run round the whole length. The internal one broader, —

‘

No, 9.—1856-8.] NEW CEYLON NuDrBRANcHIATA, ko, 109

taking within its circuit the dorsal tentacles and anal orifice ;

two other lines run parallel to this all round the mantle - the

outer one narrowest. Dorsal tentacles large, conical, pointed ;

eircularly laminated at the upper half, which is of a black

colour. The two oral tentacles small, black. Foot whitish,

notched in front ; the blackish viscera seen through. Branchize

whitish on sides of the body except in front. Anal opening

on a black coloured tube, behind which there are four or five

large tubercles of the same form as those on the other parts of

mantle. Length 1 inch ; 3 inch broad.

Very rare.

Genus. DIPHYLLIDIA. Cuwv.

Syn. lLiyeverta. Blain.

Animal oblong ; mantle ample ; gills limited to the hinder

two-thirds of the body ; bead with minute tentacles and a lobe-

like veil ; vent at the right side, behind the reproductive

orifices ? lingual teeth 30. 1. 30.

DIPHYLLIDIA FORMOSA. Sel,

Body pink. Mantle leaf-like ; dark-purple, with purplish

black shades; edge yellow, streaked longitudinally with golden

| yellow, broad lines alternated with very delicate narrow ones.

Veil purple-black, except the anterior edge; beneath, of a

lively pink colour. Foot pink, grooved in the median line of

- posterior half. Branchice buff; a whitish spot on anterior third

of plumes. Dorsal tentacles emerging through notches on

anterior edge of mantle; tentacles red with blackish tips and

sides, No oral tentacle. Length 24 inches, 14 inch broad.

_ This very beautiful species is found in deep water. It

occasionally buries itself in sand, with only the head and

_ tentacles exposed, and lies for hours in this position.

Se yer

£10 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON. ) [ Vol. bbe

Order. TECTI-BRANCHIATA.

Animal usually provided with a shell both in the larva and

adult state ; branchiz covered by the shell or mantle ; sexes

united.

Fam. PLEURO-BRANCHID A.

Genus. PLEUROBRANCHUS. Cuv.

Animal oblong, fleshy, convex above with a very large and

overspreading mantle. Foot large, equally outspreading, and

thus leaving a wide canal all round the body. Head distinct,

furnished with a veil, uniting on each side with the borders

of the foot, and with two tubular tentacles, which are split

anteriorly ; mouth at the extremity of a proboscis ; branchize

composed of a double row of lamella, forming a plume on the —

posterior right side, between the mantle and the foot. Anus

carried by a small tube behind the branchie. Organs of —

generationin front. Shell sometimes rudimentary, membranous,

with a tolerably distinct apex hidden in the thickness of the

mantle.— Woodward. |

PLEUROBRANCHUS OCITRINUS? Ruppel.

Orange-red ; mantle darker than the other parts of the

animal, and speckled with whitish spots. About 1 inch in

length. Ova reddish, in circular broad coils.

Very common in Trincomalie. Found in low-water, on

coral stones and sea-weed, nearly throughout the year. Spawns —

in May, June and July.

PLEUROBRANCHUS RETICULATUS ? Gel.

Pale orange-red, reticulated mantle, and spotted purple.

About2incheslong. Foundnear Fort Frederick, Trincomalie,

in shallow water among rocks.

‘No. 9.—1856-8.] NEW CEYLON NUDIBRANCHIATA, Kc. 111

PLEUROBRANCHUS ZRYLANICUS. Kel.

Pale yellow, splashed with darker yellow and brown, and

minutely spotted with rusty-brown.

About 2 inches long.

Rare ; feund in Rock bay.

PLEUROBRANCHUS PURPUREUS. Kel.

Deep reddish-purple Mantle very dark-purple, and spotted

with still darker purple. There is a bright white zig-zag line

on each side of the back of some large specimens. Length

nearly 6 inches ; 4 inches broad. The young is of a lighter

.purple, and may be mistaken for another species.

Found in deep water, Trincomalie.

Lig FOURNAL i. A. 8 (OHYLGN.) EVOL: Baya

CEYLON ZOOPHYTES.

RADIATA.

Order. PoLypt.

Fam. AcTINIADA.

Animal single, fleshy, elongate or conical, capable of extend-

ing or contracting itself, fixed by its base, but with power of -

locomotion, mouth in the middle of the upper disc, very dilatable,

surrounded by one or more rows of tentacula ; oviparous and

viviparous ; marine.

Genus. AOTINIA. Linneus.

Body conoid or cylindrical, adhermg by a broad base ; the

space between the mouth and the rim of the upper dise

occupied by one or more uninterrupted series of conical,

undivided tubular tentacula, which are entirely retractile.

Actinia Warpi. Kel.

Body large, greenish-yellow, except the upper half, which is

of purplish colour and tuberculated ; the other parts nearly

smooth, indistinctly streaked. Disc buff, with darker radiating

lines. Tentacles in two or three rows, about 1 inch in length,

narrow, pointed obtusely ; whitish ; base purplish, tip bright

crimson, transversely striped with grey or dark buff.

Height 24 inches. Breadth nearly 2 inches, when expanded.

Found in deep water on the oyster banks at Cottear, opposite

Fort Frederick. M

This handsome species I have dedicated to Sir Henry Ward, —

Governor of Ceylon, under’ whose auspices I have been enabled

No, 9.—1856-8.] NEW CEYLON SEA ANEMONES. 113

to prosecute my researches among marine animals, with more

than ordinary success.

Actints TRANCHELLI. Kel.

Body short, longitudinally striated with pale-green, alternately

with lines covered with yellow and white tubercules, small ovular

granules round edge of disc. Disc circular, cup-shaped ;

greenish and rayed with four or five white lines. Tentacles about

an inch long, set in two rows, narrow, finely pointed, pellucid,

and spotted with opaque, oblong, white and purplish spots ;

14 inch high and 3 inch broad. The inner row of tentacles

generally erect, and the outer curving over side of body.

Found in Dutch Bay. Named in compliment to Miss

Tranchell, of Trincomalie.

ACTINIA PUDICA. Kel.

Body opaque-white ; irregularly striated and spotted with

light-crimson. Tentacles few, pellucid-white ; short, conical ;

set in two or three rows. Disc pellucid, and streaked with

~ milky-white.

This elegant anemone, when detached, floats on water like

a globe, and may be taken for a species of the genus Mayas.

Found on small stones in Back Bay, Trincomalie.

ACTINIA PASSIFLORA.

Body semi-carneous, brown. Tentacles few; short, stout,

truncated, or capped (?) ; purplish-white, the longer five or six

have dark-purple base and rings.

_ This may be a species connecting Capnia with Actinia.

Height 1 to 14 inch; 2 inch broad.

Found near Sdmi Rock.

ACTINIA REFULGENS. el.

_ Small, the largest seen scarcely one inch long ; body white,

| translucent ; tentacles short, in two rows ; brown with golden

; Spots. |

114 JOURNAL R. A, & (CEYLON. ) EVol. 1,

Found on stones in Back Bay, Trincomalie.

Resembling a Zoanthura, but the clear diaphanous body and

the disunited tentacles, at once show this creature to be an

Actinia.

AOTINIA VERMICOSA. Kel.

Very small. Body 3 lines in diameter and 4 lines in

height ; whitish-pellucid. Tentacles from twelve to eighteen,

small, worm-like ; golden-yellow or dark yellow-brown. Very

viscid. When the tentacles are withdrawn this little creature

looks like the larva of an insect ; oblong globuse, with a golden

coloured head. : |

AOTINIA FLUCTUOSA. Kel.

Body pale, flesh-coloured ; indistinctly longitudinally striated,

with white spotted lines ; several rows pale-blue pram

near edge of disc. |

Disc waved, tubercular, forming sometimes in triangular or

quadrangular masses, at other times circular; centre of dise

pale, the rest white with radiating lines.

Tentacles numerous, in three rows, pale-brown, occasionally —

greenish-pellucid. The number on inner row fewer; extreme

point white. }

Height 1 inch. Breadth 1+ inch.

Found in Back Bay, Trincomalie.

ACTINIA SAMARAGDANA, Kel.

Small, dise of a beautiful bright emerald-green, with white

lines or radiating rays. Tentacles numerous, set in three rows ;

short, oblong, semi-conical, obtusely pointed ; white at the base;

beyond this, purplish-brown, the rest very pellucid, dashed

with purplish and white spots.

Body flesh-coloured, longitudinally striated. Two or more

rows of pale-green rounded tubercules, on discal margin, —

inferior to outer rows of tubercules; at times these eranules -

are of a white colour, ‘ an

No. 9.—1856-8.] NEW CEYLON SEA ANEMONES. 115

- About 1 inch in diameter, and ? inch high. Found in deep

water, Inner Harbour.

Actinia Austin. Kel.

Body rounded, thick, reddish ; covered with brick-red tuber-

ecules. Disc pellucid-white, or reddish. Oral opening 12 inch

in diameter, margin surrounded with tentacular-like bodies in

two or three rows. Tentacles numerous, in four rows ; nearly

_ 24 inches long, narrow, acutely pointed ;_ pellucid-white, spotted

on the inner side. Stands 24 inches high.

This large anemone is found in great abundance on the rocks

near Fort Frederick in the months of May and June. Some,

entirely free of the brick-red colour, are of a pale greenish-

white ; others, have the disc one half purple and the other half

orey. It adheres to the finger.

I have named this species in remembrance of a valued friend,

who was one of the founders of the Ceylon Military Medical

_ Officers’ Museum,—Dr. Austin, late of the 97th Regiment.

On my recent visit to Colombo, I obtained many specimens

of a smaller anemone from Mutwal rocks, closely resembling

this species, but with short tentacles, and without the adhering —

qualities of the foregoing species. I am inclined to believe this

to be a distinct species. Colours very changeable.

Genus. ANTHEA.

Body cylindraceous, adhering by a broad base ; tentacula

disposed in circles round the mouth, elongated, tapered, and

incapable of being retracted within the body.

ANTHEA INDIANA. Kel.

_ Body transparent, almost colourless, globose at base, elon-

gated ; a few white spots near disc. Tentacles long, delicate,

finely pointed, set in two rows on the edge of a greenish

transparent disc. The imner set of tentacles more than twice as

long as the external row. Tentacles pellucid, indistinctly

winged, alternately with grey and. white. Oral opening

116 JOURNAL R. A. &. (CEYLON.) [Vol. IIL.

surrounded with an elevated hexagonal ring, taking the form of

a cup, on the centre of which is the transverse slit of the

mouth. |

This parasitical anemone is found on Pearl Oysters, in the

Harbour of Trincomalie. It grows very rapidly in the Viva-

rium, and is a good guide for ascertaining the quality of the

sea water in which it is placed. When the water is impure,

or any animal in it dead and decaying, this Actinia shrivels

up and assumes a dark-brown or blackish colour, and as the

water is purified the creature regains its pellucid form,

ANTHEA ARACHNIDA. Kel.

Resembling the A. Indica, but much smaller, and the disc

is spotted black. The tentacles worm-like ; pellucid-white, and

spotted dusky. Found on rocks and shells.

ANTHEA AUREA. Kel.

This is a very minute species ; when elongated, nearly one inch

high, and scarcely four lines in breadth. Body pellucid, tentacles

few, short ; golden-yellow.

Found on rocks and shells.

ANTHEA MELEAGRINA. Kel.

Body short, broad, greenish, translucent, slightly tubercular.

Tentacles numerous, of moderate length, narrow, pointed ;

greenish-brown, with darker brown rings. Mouth slightly

elevated. Disc pale-green.

Height $ inch. Breadth 13 to 2 inches when expanded.

Found in the Inner Harbour, in deep water, adhering to —

Pearl Oyster shells.

ACTINODENDRON ARGENTEA. Kel.

Body white. Disc granular, frosted white. Tentacles short,

acute ; silvery-white, transverse granulated lines on inner surface;

short pinnules on sides.

No. 9.—1856-8.] NEW CEYLON SEA ANEMONES. 117

Height 4 inch, breadth Linch. Very rare. Found in deep-

water.

ACTINODENDRON ZEYLANiCUs. Kel.

Body large, semi-gelatinous, yellow or buff, longitudinally

streaked, alternately with lines of pearly tubercules. Disc broad,

cup-shaped, greenish-brown, or purple, with numerous radiating

lines of various colours; granular. Tentacles purplish-brown ;

numerous, in three or four rows ; broad, long, pointed, crossed

on superior surface with white lines, which are laterally tuber-

cular, or slightly pinnated. A row of large oval bodies on

edge of disc. Height of the largest specimen seen 34 inches.

Breadth 3 inches. Tentacles 1 to 12 inch long, all of nearly

equal length.

This handsome arborescent anemone is found on rocks in the

Inner Harbour, in two or three feet of water.

ACTINODENDRON HOROLOGIA. Kel.

Body white, with pinkish streaks. Disc depressed, circular,

pale-brown, granular; a broad pale purplish circle, about

midway between oral opening and tentacles, and on this ring are

twelve broad purplish streaks, placed equidistant. Tentacles in

three rows ; short, flattened, pointed ; those nearest the oral

opening larger. All have tubercular granules, placed in trans-

verse rows, from six to eightin number. Tentacles yellowish, a

_ few white granules near edge. White tubercular lines placed in

longitudinal rows on surface of body. Body when elongated

about 24 inches high.

Found at Trincomalie, on small stones, in low-water.

ACTINODENDRON VIRIDIS. Kel.

Body white, with greenish streaks and rows of white granules.

Dise depressed, greenish ; 2 inch in diameter. Tentacles short,

acutely pointed ; granulated on edge ; set in two rows. Those

nearer the disc shorter, a row of larger white-spotted granules

on edge of disc. |

118 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON.) FVok Tae

In height 24 inches ; narrow at middle and base. Trumpet-

shaped above.

Distinguished from Horologia by the absence of the purple

zone on disc, and from its longer tentacles. The tubercules too

are less swollen, and there is a more marked space running

longitudinally on tentacles.

Found with its body buried in sand in the Harbour of

Trincomalie.

Droscosoma (Acrinopiscus) ? ZeYLANICA. Jel.

Body thick, short; pinkish, minutely punctulated with bright-

red; near the disc the body is streaked longitudinally with

closely spotted purplish lines. The body is expanded imtoa

cup-like disc, of a bright vermillion-red colour, with radiating

white lines. Disc broad, expanded, and covering the whole

body, surface covered with small lines (three or four,) short,

conical, truncated, tentacles, disposed in rays, running from oral

opening to edge of disc, alternated with shorter ones which

proceed from middle-third of dise with two other shorter ones,

on each side, and the whole terminate at the margin in close

compact rays. On each side of oral opening, is a semi-globular

body with a central foramen, which communicates with the

oviducts.

The colours of this singular form of anemone vary much ; at

times, it is all of a purplish-brown with greenish reflections, on

other occasions the uncovered space of disc is of an earthy-

brown colour, or green, and the rays of tentacles either entirely,

green, or aaealated hy purple and white.

Breadth or disc when expanded from 4 to 5 inches.

If this anemone is to be considered of a genus distinct from

Actinia, I think of reinstating the generic term of Actinodiscus,

given to a much smaller ce by M. Blainville, for it also,

Tiles the species of Leuckart’s Dioscosoma, has two discs, and the —

animal, when waiting for its prey, is oe unlike a depressed

hour glass inshape. It can withdraw the superior disc within,

when the red-spotted body is seen to be of a club-shaped

form. %

, >

ales

“en

No, 9.—1856-8.] NEW CEYLON SEA ANEMONES 119

PEAcHA GossEr. Kel.

Body semi-carneous, covered by a brownish skin, corrugated,

narrow and long. Tentacles from nineteen to twenty-one, long,

narrow, and acutely pointed ; either ofa green colour, or purple,

marked on superior surface with transverse blue or white lines,

some of which are narrow-shaped. Mouth on a conical eminence.

Inferior opening giving passage to ova and excrementitious

matter. Length 4 or 5 inches, and about 2? inch broad at

base, when elongated. Very active in springing ; it can adhere

_ to sand or stones.

This is, I believe, the second species known of Gosse’s new

genus Peacha. I have dedicated it to the original describer

of the genus. Mr. Gosse’s description led me to observe

this species very closely, although I was at first induced to

‘consider it, a species of Hdwardsia. The inferior orifice admits

of the passage of a moderate sized probe. The oral orifice has

not that foliated appendage described by Gosse. It is for him

to determine whether this is a generic character.

ZOANTHURA.

ZOANTHURA, sp.—green disc.

Z. MAMMALIFERA.—brown disc.

Being now on the eve of embarkation for India, I have

only time to notice the above two species of Zoanthura,

which I trust will be described by other naturalists who may

sueceed me.

120 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON.) [Vol. II

CHYLON ENTOZOA.

Order. PARENCHYMATA.

This order includes all those Entozoa which have the body

filled with a parenchyma, or pulpy matter, either in a cellular

tissue, or simply in the cavity, in which there is no alimentary

apparatus to be discovered, except a few canals, which carry

nourishment to all these parts. The ovaries are also imbedded

in the parenchyma ; there is no abdominal cavity, no intestine,

and‘no vent; and the signs of a nervous system are few and

doubtful.— Cuv.

Fam. TREMADOTEA.

Have the under part furnished with cup-like dises, or suckers,

by which they adhere.

Genus. PLANARIA.

Body flattened, depressed. Like the Flukes (which infest the

liver of sheep), they are bi-sexual. Very voracious, and will

even feed upon their own species. They multiply rapidly in

the ordinary way, and also by division of the body—even

spontaneous division as is alleged. Mutilated parts are also

very readily reproduced, and a partial division of the body,

will even produce an animal with two heads or two tails,

according as the anterior or posterior end is cleft. Several —

species inhabit the fresh waters, but larger ones are met with

on sea shores.—Cuv.

The species herein described are all marine, found on rocks

and sea-weeds in the harbour and bays of Trincomalie. They

are exceedingly interesting creatures, some rivalling the tribe

of Doridide in colours. They live for a long time in the

Vivarium. The mouth, situated in most of the species near

the anterior third of under part of medial line, opens and dilates

like that of a sea-anemone. Ova of most species white, deposited —

in thin flakes on rocks and sea=weed:

on eek

No. 9.—1856-8.| CEYLON MARINE ENTOZOA. 121

Further investigation will, I believe, lead me to separate

the species into more than two genera ; the majority of species

correspond with M. Dugé’s Derastoma in which there is one

opening, nearer the anterior edge than in Planaria The

presence of tentacles, or rudimentary ones, on the anterior

edge, or on the back, will also perhaps form a generic

distinction. I have attached the species without any appearance

of tentacular appendages to a new genus (mihi), Penula.

The mouth too in this genus is placed nearer the centre of

under part.

PLANARIA CEREBRALIS. Kel.

Rudimentary tentacles anterior, formed by two folds of the

margin. Upper surface of a yellowish-brown colour and

minutely streaked with fine wavy brown lines ; border lined

with a black line, streaked with white. Beneath, of a beautiful

salmon colour. Mouth large, placed on the anterior third of

lower part of body ; lips white.

This is the largest species observed, nearly 34 inches long,

and 3 inches broad. Ova greenish-white.

PLANARIA VIOLAGHA. Kel.

Tentacles, as in last species. Upper surface violet-purple

eolour, edged with bright-yellow. Median line yellowish ;

under parts rose coloured.

About 1} inch long, and ? inch broad. This beautiful

species, in a quiescent state, resembles some variety of pansy.

Ova yellow.

PLANARIA VIRIDIS. el.

Tentacles folded ; green, spotted brown ; edge dark grizzly -

brown. Under parts paler.

About 14 inch long.

122 JOURNAL R. A. & (CEYLON.) (Vol. Tie

PLANARIA ARMATA. Kel.

Tentacles folded, but more distinctly formed. Upper surface |

of a dark-purple colour, covered with short, black spines.

Beneath pale-purple, emagoeh About 14 inch ene and ae

13 inch broad. | |

PLANARIA PAPILIONIS. Kel,

Tentacles as in last species, black, white tipped. Upper surface |

yellow, covered with small black spines. Beneath pale-yellow. |

Margin whitish. |

Length about 1 inch.

Very like a butterfly moving in the water.

PLANARIA PURPUREA. Kel.

Tentacles rudimentary. Upper surface of a anal pu

colour ; beneath paler purple.

About 14 inch long.

PLANARIA FUSOA. Kel,

Upper surface dusky-brown. Beneath paler brown.

About 14 inch long.

PLANARIA ELEGANS. Kel.

Tentacles red, situated on the anterior third of mantle, |

Upper surface pale-yellow, shaded with greenish brown, black |

dots ; margin black, lined with orange. Beneath whitish. |

Length 14 inch.

PLANARIA THESEA. Kel.

Tentacles white, with red tips, rising from depressions, or |

cups, placed near the middle third of body. Upper surface of |

a chocolate-brown colour, edge yellow. Mouth in the mid dle, |

below genital organs. Beneath pale-purple. a

Length 14 inch. : ea

No. 9.—1856-8.] CEYLON MARINE ENTOZOA. 123

PLANARIA STRIATA. Kel.

Tentacles rudimentary. Upper surface brownish-purple,

streaked with brown. Beneath pale orange-brown.

Length 24 inches.

PLANARIA MELEAGRINA. Kel.

Tentacles of an oval form. Medial line reddish, edged with

a black line, the rest striped with broad white and light purplish

streaks ; margin waved and edged with black. Length 13

inch. There are two linear appendages on neck, above eye

spots.

PLANARIA UNDULATA. Kel.

Tentacles rudimentary. In medial line purplish, the rest

pale-yellow, with undulating lines and spots of purplish-brown ;

margin purplish. Length 2 inches.

PLANARIA AUREA. Kel.

Tentacles two, simple ; pointed, rising from the anterior third

of body. Upper surface golden and speckled with white and

brown. © |

Nearly 24 inches long.

No drawing made of this species.

PLANARIA DULCIS. Kel.

_ Tentacles rudimentary. Body brown in the medial line, the

| rest light-green, minutely spotted with reddish brown. Margin

white.

Length 1 inch.

| PLANARIA ZEYLANICA. el.

Tentacles rudimentary. Upper surface of a dark purplish

chocolate colour; margin white, with an internal adjoining

orange and black line. Beneath paler.

Length 24 inches, and 14 inch broad.

Very abundant in months of May and June. Ova white.

124. JOURNAL RB. A. S. (CEYLON.) fVol. TI.

Genus. Prnuta, n. g. Kel.

Animal gelatinous, flattened like Planaria, but without any ©

appearance of tentacular appendages. Mouth placed beneath, —

near the central third of body. Hye spots on anterior third of

back.

Ruppel figures one species of this form in his work on

Abyssinia.

PENULA OCELLATA. Kel.

Upper surface pale yellowish-brown, with dark-brown ocellated

spots. Beneath, pale-buff. Length 2 inches.

PENULA PUNOTATA. ‘el.

White. Above minutely punctulated with reddish-brown.

About 12 inch long.

PENULA FULVA. . Kel,

Yellowish, striated transversely.

Length 24 inches.

PENULA ALBA. Kel.

White throughout.

Length 14 inch. Narrow. Ova of all the species whitish.

Several other species, I have no doubt, will be yet obtained

from Ceylon.

ere ee, rere

As these pages are going through the press, I have returned

from Calcutta, and [ am now preparing for the Pearl Fishery

at Aripo, where I hope to obtain many curious forms of

Zoophytes.

DBD LPP LPP DIP PILI PADI DAI

SF.

_ No. 9.—1856-8.] 1RRIGATION WORKS OF PARAKRAMA BABU. 125

ACCOUNT OF THE WORKS OF IRRIGATION

CONSTRUCTED BY KING PARAKRAMA

BAHU, CONTAINED IN THE SIXTY-

EIGHTH AND SEVENTY-NINTH

CHAPTERS OF THE MAHA-

WANSO, WITH INTRODUCTORY

REMARKS.

By Lovis Dz Zoysa, MupatiyAr.

THE following extracts from the Mahawanso, having reference

to works of Irrigation executed in the reign of Pardkrama

Bahu I., (A. D. 1153—1186), may not prove altogether devoid

of interest, in connection with the very able and interesting

Papers on the subject of ancient irrigation in Ceylon, recently

published by order of Government. The Sovereign alluded to

is the celebrated Pardkrama Bahu the Great, the constructor

of the ‘Sea of Parakrama,” the invader of India and Burma ;

and whose reign Mr. Turnour characterizes as “‘ the most martial,

enterprizing, and glorious in Sinhalese History.”

The first extract is the 68th Chapter of the Mahawayso,

and contains an account of the efforts made by Parakrama

Bahu to promote the cultivation of rice, on his assuming the

government of the Pihiti-rata* under the title of Mahadi

* The ancient divisions of Ceylon were :—Pihili-rata, bounded on

the west, north, and east, by the sea; on the south by the Mahaweli-

ganga, and Deduru-oya rivers; it was also sometimes called Rdja-rafa

as the ancient capitals were situated in it: Huhunu-rata, bounded on the

west and north by the M4haweli-ganga, and Kalu-ganga (or Kalutara)

rivers, and on the east and south by the sea. The mountainous portion

of it was called Malaya-rata: Madyd-rata, bounded on the north by the

Deduru-oya, on the cast by the Mah4weli-gapga and the mountains, on

the south by the Kalu-ganga, and on the west by the sea.’--Turnour’s

Ceylon Almanac, 1834, p. 57.

126 JOURNAL BR. A. §. (CEYLON. ) (fy ole rik

pado or sub-king. The second extract is a part of the

concluding Chapter of the reign of the same monarch, and

gives a summary account of the principal public works executed

during his government. It consists of 87 verses, of which the

first 24 relate to the formation of extensive gardens and plan-

tations ; the next 26 to the construction of tanks and canals ;

and the last 27 to the erection of various public buildings,

such as ddgabas, image houses, preaching halls, inns or houses”

for strangers, libraries, theatres, &c. I have only translated

the verses relating to tanks; those which have reference to

canals and water-courses having already been translated and

published by Mr. Turnour in the Ceylon Almanac for 1834.

I have not thought it necessary to add any comments of my

own, by way of illustrating the translation; but 1 may perhaps

bé permitted to say a word in reference to the information —

which a passage in the first extract gives respecting the “Sea

of Pardkrama,” to which so much attention has lately been

drawn by the publication of that valuable contribution to the

ancient history of Ceylon,—the ‘Report on the Hllahara

Canal, by Messrs. Adams, Churchill and Bailey.”

As stated by these gentlemen, “the situation of the ‘ Sea

of Pardkrama’ has never hitherto been satisfactorily ascertained.”

Turnour states (vide Ceylon Almanac of 1834, p. 68) that

“the ‘Sea of Pardkrama’ withits embankments of many outlets —

is yet unknown, or at least unnoticed.”

Major Forbes indeed surmised that the series of lakes

connected by the Hllahara Canal, might be the waters to

which the vanity of a King gave his own name, but he adds,

that “until this canal shall have been traced through the —

Konduruwawe hills, the extent and difficulty of such an —

undertaking must excite doubts whether it were successfully

accomplished,”

The explorers of the Hllahara Canal were, however, the first

who declared their belief, that the series of tanks connected

by this canal were the waters which bore the name of the

“Sea of Parakrama.”

Biba

No. 9.—1856-8.] IRRIGATION WORKS OF PARAKRAMA BAHU. 127

It does not, however, appear that this opinion is corroborated

by the Mahawanso, since in a passage in the 68th chapter,

mention is made of a particular tank, which was afterwards

ealled the “ Sea of Parakrama.”

The passage alluded to is the following :—

&B2QeeMe GoD CHOBOD da,

BoVAsGMOWOo na GOs EssIb6agGso

SADOSID O2DIS Bo F0 KVCHANOHE

BIAMMO WHOGS 3 G VIMISDB » Go,

Atiwa khuddakay pubbé Pandawapificha kariya.

Sanwaddhituchchatayama wittharatthira palikan,

Abbhunnata mahawaripatan sajala niggaman,

Parakkama samuddoti, woharafichabhiropayi.

“ Moreover, having made Parda-wapr (Panda tank), which was

formerly very small indeed, (into one) containing a body of water

great and exceedingly lofty, having outlets for the water, and an

embankment of greatly increased height, length, breadth, and

streneth, he gave it the name of the ‘Sea of Parakrama.’ ” *

———

* [It is somewhat remarkable that the above important passage in the

Mahawanso should have escaped Mr, Turnour’s researches, since he gives

the following account of the outlets from the “ Sea of Pardkrama,” which

is quoted by the authors of the Report of the Ellahara Canal. ‘The

King [Parakrama]| formed the deep canal called the Makara-ganga, which

flowed from the Makara outlet of the sea of Pardkrama ; from the same

sea, the great canal Hema-wati flowing to the Maha-megha-wana.

From the outlet called Samanmal, the canal distinguished by the name of

Nila-wana : flowing from the outlet called the Kila-karu-udyana

the Salalawatti Canal: flowing from the outlet celebrated under the

name of Waitra-wati, the Waitra-wati Great Canal: from the south-

ern outlet, the Tunga-badsa Canal: flowing from the Mangala outlet,

the Mangala-ganga Canal flowing from the eastern outlet, the Champa

Canal; flowing from the same sea to the Purnawardhana Tank, the

Saraswati Oanal: flowing westward of that (Saraswati) canal, the

Wenumati Canal.” No less than ten outlets are here enumerated, as

formed by the King to convey, in different directions, the accumulated

waters of the tank named after himself. Of these, four appear from

their names and description to have been much larger than the rest. The

identification of “the Sea of Parakrama,” therefore, seems to depend upon

the discovery, in Padavil-kulam, or any other of the large tanks, of ten

outlets corresponding with those mentioned in the above extract.—

| Ed. Ceylon Almanac, 1857, in which work this article was by

| permission inserted. |

128 JOURNAL BR. A. 8. (OEYLON.) [Vol. III.

Iam not prepared to say what particular tank is meant by

Panda-wapi, in this passage, as I have not been able to

meet with any information, either in the Mahdawanso or in

any other work, which would enabie me to identify it with any

degree of certainty. The name Panda-wapi occurs but twice

in the previous part of the Mahawanso. King Mahadathiko

Maha Nago is said to have bestowed the “ Panda-wapi Vi-

hara,” i.e. ‘the Panda Tank Vihéra,’ on a certain Sdmanero,

which proves the existence of a tank of that name so early as

A.D.8. (vide Turnour’s translation of the Mahawanso, p. 214.)

The next reference to Panda-wépi is in the 60th Chapter of the

Mahawanso, in which it is mentioned as one of the tanks

constructed, or prepared, by King Wijaya Bahu I.,* who

reigned at Polonnaruwa A. D. 1071—1126. I am, however,

inclined to think that we may recognize the Panda-wapi of

the Mahawanso in the modern Padavi, or Padavil-kulam of

the Wanni district.

The reasons which have led me to form this conjecture are,

first, the similarity, or rather the identity, of the names ; for

the Pali word 208, wdpi, and the Tamil word Garr, kulam,

erroneously spelt Colom, both mean ‘tank’ so that in fact the

Pali term Punda-wdpi is an equivalent for the Tamil, Panda

* As this part of the Mah4wanso has not been translated into English,

I annex a translation of the verses relating to works of irrigation in this

reign.

“The tanks of Mahaheli, Sareheru, Maha MDanta, Katunnaru,

Panda-wapi, Kallagalla, Erandagalla, Dighawatthu, Mandawata, Kit-

taggabodhi Pabbata, Walahassa Mahadaragalla Kumbhilasobbha,

Pattapasana, and Kénawéapi, as well as many other tanks whose embank-

ments had been in ruins, did the King build (and repair,) ever intent on

the welfare of the poor. The ruler of the land having constructed

embankments (to prevent inundation) in many rivers, streams, in various

parts (of the Island) rendered the country abundant in food. Having

also constructed the canal Tillawathu, which had been in ruins, he filled —

the tank of Manihira (Minnery) with water.’—Vide 60th Chapter of —

the Mahawaysv, ;

No. 9.—1856-8.] IRRIGATION WORKS OF PARAKRAMA BAHU. 129

or Pandi-kulam,* which may have been corrupted into Padavi

or Padavil-kulam ; secondly, the stupendous size and magnitude

of the work.

Sir Hmerson Tennent, who gives an interesting account of

this tank in his work entitled “‘ Christianity in Ceylon,” calls

it “ the largest as well as the most perfect of these gigantic works

in Ceylon,’ and speaks of it in such terms as would not be

inappropriate in describing such a tank as the “ Sea of

‘Pardkrama” must have been.

But the most interesting account, as well as that which gives

us the loftiest ideas of this gigantic work, is that contained in

the Governor’s Minute on the Hastern Province.

His Excellency says: “It is the most wonderful work

that I have yet visited, whether we look to size, difficulties

of execution, or to the time at which these difficulties were

surmounted..........North of these again, about 40 miles, is

Padavil-kulam, the most gigantic work of all, for the bund, which

is in perfect repair, (except at the one spot where in the course

of ages the waters have forced a passage between it and the

natural hills which it united,) is 11 miles long, 30 feet broad

at the summut, 180 feet at the base, and 70 feet high......Pada-

wil-kulam, the greater part of which I rode or walked over,

was formed by the waters of the rivers Mora-oya and Mun-

gunu-oya, confined to the plain, by the enormous bund which I

have just described. Tis construction must have occupied a million

; of people for 10 or 15 years.” |

| The most satisfactory way of settling the question as to the

identity of this tank, would probably be by obtaining a facsimile

‘and translation of the inscription, to which Sir Hmerson

Tennent thus alludes in his note on the tanks already

referred to. _

—

| *Tam aware of the existence of another ‘“‘ Great Tank’ bearing the

}mame of Pandi-kulam in the U'va district, but being situated in the

| fuhunu-rata, it could, 1 think, be scarcely regarded as the Panda-wapi

(of the Mahdwanso, if, as Linfer from the context, it was constructed

‘during the period, when Parakrama Bahu, was Mahddi-pddo, or king of

| Pihiti-rata.

130 JOURNAL R, A. 8, (CEYLON.) [Vols IIE

“On the top of the great embankment itself, and close by

the breach, there stands a tall sculptured stone, with two |

engraved compartments, that no doubt record its history, but

the Udaiyar informed us that the characters were Nggari, and the

lancuage Pali, or some unknown tongue which no one can

now read.” :

I have only to add, that my object in submitting the

accompanying translation is by no means to advance any

hypothesis of my own on this subject, but simply to put parties

competent to decide on the point in possession of the data

contained in the hitherto untranslated part of the Mahawanso,

and especially to aid the investigations of those gentlemen whose

meritorious labours have already invested the subject with so

great an interest.

CHAPTER LXVIII.

This Sovereign of lofty aspirations, who was well acquainted with

foreign countries, thus thought within himself :

“In what well-governed kingdom is the administration of affairs con- |

ducted without obtaining a knowledge of its means ? os

“The object of my sovereignty is the advancement of the prosperity

of Religion and the State, having vanquished all enemies. This kingdom,

although very small, being filled with great prosperity, 1 shali by the

superiority of my wisdom, soon bring into sucha state as that it will

surpass the greatness of other kingdoms. ;

“ Conferring appointments on my officers, whose advancementisidentical |

with my own, according to their respective merits rewarding them |

with honors aud wealih ; causing my own people to settle in various

parts within my dominions, from the mountain Samania-kija (Adam’s |

Peak) as far as the sea coast, the cultivation of grain should be carried |

on in as many ways as possible.”

Having thus reflected, the King thus addressed his officers :

‘‘In my kingdom are many paddy fields cultivated by means of rain |

water, but few indeed are those which are cultivated by means of peren= /|

nialatreams and great tanks. P|

No. 9.—1856-8.] IRRIGATION WORKS OF PARAKRAMA BAHU. 131

“ By rocks, and by many thick forests, by great marshes is the land

covered.

“Tn such a country, let not even a small quantity of water obtained by

rain, go to the sea, without benefiting man.

“Paddy fields should be formed in every place, excluding those only

that produce gems, gold, and other precious things.

“Tt does not become persons in our situation to live enjoying our own

ease, and unmindful of the interests of the people. And ye all, be ye

not discouraged, when a necessary, but a dfficult work is on hand.

Regard it not indeed as a work of difficulty, but following my advice

accomplish it, without opposing my instructions.”

The highly renowned Monarch then ordered the construction of the

great embankment celebrated under the nameof Kotiha-baddha, which

had long been swept away by the action of the river, leaving behind

nothing but the name, and which indeed had baffled the attempts of

former Kings to keep in repair.

_ Whereupon the ministers, one and all, represented in various ways the

extreme difficulty of the work, and the instability of it, even if it could be

accomplished.

The King rejecting their counsels, remarked :—‘‘ What is there

that cannot be done in this world by men of perseverance? Is not the

tradition still current that Rama builta bridge over the great ocean itself,

by means of monkeys ?*

“Tf I am destined by fortune, to reduce this Island under one regal

canopy, and to promote the welfare of the State and Religion, then, ee

will the commencement of the work see the accomplishment of it aieoe

Thus did he of great courage inspire his ministers with courage.

Before the construction of the embankment, however, the profoundiy

wise ruler of the land made, from the mouth of the embankment, as far

as the country of Ralthakara, a great canal of erent breadth and strength,

and of many porisas 7 in depth.

| The Protector of the land, having assembled a great many stone cutters,

| workers in metal, iron-smiths and gold-smiths in the country, and having

“In reference to the fable in the Ramayana, that Rama, the conqueror

of fei wana, in crossing over from India to Ceylon, caused a bridge to be

| built over the sea, by his army of Wanaras or monkeys. The reef of

| sunken rocks which extends across the Gulf of Mannar from Ramisseram

| on the coast of Coromandel to Talaimannér on the coast of Ceylon, is

| supposed to be the remains of this bridge.

+ “The measure of a man’s reach....... Equal to the height, to which

| he reaches, when elevating both arms with fingers extended. 3 (See Cole-

| brook’s Amar akosha, p. 160.)

182 JOURNAL RB. A. 8. (CEYLON. ) (Vol! Tit

employed them in the work of cutting stones, got made by them an embank-

ment of great stability and solidity, having the interstices of the stones

invisible, like one continued sheet of rock, and having the work of

plastering complete.

On the summit of the great embankment, the pious Raja placed a

Bo tree, an image house, and likewise a dagaba.

The King, by means of this canal, so directed the course of the stream

as to make it discharge itself into the sea.

Having cleared the great jungle on both sides of the canal, he formed

paddy fields of many thousands of Wahas* of extent and converted the

place in truth intoa Kolthabaddha, according to the literal meaning of the

term, from the fact of its having Kotthabaddhas,” ‘perpetual yranaries,”

from the two Pali words hoftha, ‘ granary,’ and abaddha, ‘ perpetual.’

Thereafter the King having dammed up the mouths of the rivers

Sankhawaddhamind, and Kumbhilawdna, as far as the Sikara Nyjharat

(literally ‘hog-cascade,’ or ‘stream,’); and there too, having made a canal

and conducting the water into the tank of Mahdddragalla, thoroughly

repairing, at the same time, the breaches thereof, including the clearing

of the water-courses, (thus) brought it into a larger body of water than it

had before, and having formed paddy fields from this place as far as the

Sukara Nijjhara, collected paddy.

“ According to the Pali Nighandu of Moggallana.

4 Nelis make 1 Lahasa (or Kuruni

4 Lahas 09 LeDrona

4 Dronas ,,. 1 Marika

4 Marikas ,, 1 Khari or Amunam

20 Kharis ,, 1 Waha

t+ This is no doubt the Kofta-vélla of Brook. The Sinhalese word,

ofEe, vélla, and the Pali word A®, baddha, both mean ‘ embankment.’

“ From Koftta-vella to Dastota, a distance of 9 miles, the country is

one of the most delightful I ever recollect seeing on this Island, nearly

the whole distance a carriage might drive; there are strong marks of

the plains and parts of the open country having been cultivated, it

abounds in tanks and ravines to facilitate irrigation, all of which are

neglected and broken. The reason the inhabitants assign for this, is

want of people, and money to keep them inorder. (Route from Matale

to Trincomalie, by way of the Amban-ganga, by R, Brook, Esq.)

+ Instead of ‘co® gad Reseado” “as far as the Stikara Nijjhara”

some MSS. read “Q2ad0 2nd wWelaad>” “the place Stkara Nijjhara.”

Tf this be the correct reading, the whole passage might be thus

translated : ‘‘ Thereafter the King having dammed up, at the junctions —

of the rivers Sankhawaddhamana, and Kumbhilawdna, the place called

Stkara Nijjhara, &c.” ‘

No. 9.—1856-8.] IRRIGATION WORKS or PARAKRAMA BAHU. 132

The King, moreover, having made a collection of water in the middle of

the river Jajjava (Deduru-oya ?) and having formed paddy fields, collect-

ed vast quantities of orain.

Moreover, having made Panda-wapi, which was formerly very small

indeed, (into one) containing a body of water, great and exceedingly

lofty, having outlets for the water, and an embankment of greatly in-

creased height, length, breadth and strength, he gave it the name of the

“Sea of Pardkrama.”

Tn an island situated in the middle of it, on the summit of a rock”

the King built a Dhdtu-gabbho (Dagaba) resembling the peak of Mount

Kailasa.

In the middle also of the tank, he built a Royal Palace three stories

high, and of superlative beauty : 2 palace indeed for the collected joys of

the world.

The following, and many other ruined tanks and mountain streams did

this benevolent monarch repair, in various parts of his dominions, viz., the

tank of Mahdgalla,+ the tank of Sefthi, likewise that of Chhattunnata

the tank of Tamba, and the tank of Ambawala, the tank of Giribd, the tank

of Patala, the tank of Mandika, the tank of Mérawdpi, and the tanks of

Sadiyaggama and Tilagulla, also the tank of Malawalli, the tank of

Kalikittakandaka, the tank of Kanikaragalla, and the mountain stream

Buddhagama, the tank of Sikaragama, (‘the village of hogs,’) the tank of

Maha-kirala, the tank of Giri, aud those of Rakkhamana, Ambdla, and

Katunnaru, the tanks of Jallibdwa and Uttardla, and that of Tintinigama,

( the tamarind village,’) the tank of Dhawalawitthi, Kira-wapi, and Nalan-

naru, the tank of Karawitthawilatta, likewise that of Dumbaragama. The

tanks of Miimaru, and Salakas, and also the tanks of Miulawari, Girisi-

gama, Polonnarutala and Wisiratthala,

_ Draining up great marshes, in the country of Panchaydjana (Pasyddun,

or Pasdun-kéralé,) he formed paddy fields, and collected paddy.

Allotting lands for paddy cultivation in the jungles there, and in

many other places, calling together the village chiefs, he caused the

inhabitants to engage themselves in the cultivation of paddy.

* Tam informed by Mr. Braybrooke, who has visited Padavil-kulam

that there is a rock in the embankment, called by the natives @elastast

ame, Deviyanné-kanda, ‘“God’s Hill,” or “ King’s Hill,” which they

believe is haunted by the spirit of King Mahasen, to whom tradition

ascribes the construction of the tank:

I have no means of ascertaizing the Sinhalese names of these tanks.

If we had a list of them in Sinhalese, we might probably identify most

of them,

134 JOURNAL BR. A. 8. (CEYLON.) fVol. TH.

In this manner, having augmented nine-fold the revenues of the State

from what they were, the wise King caused the country to beso prosperous

as never to know the calamities of famine.

He, who was so skilled in the maxims of Government, wishing that

there should not be evenasmall spot of land within his dominions

inhabited by men, which should be left unbenefited, formed many

pleasant and delightful gardens and groves, full of fruit-bearing and

flower-bearing trees and creepers of every variety, fit for the use of man.

Thus did this sagacious Ruler of the land, cause his small kingdom,

which had attained prosperity, by the superiority of his wisdom, to

surpass other great kingdoms in affluence.

The 98th chapter of the Mahdwanso, entitled “the Advancement of

the Prosperity of the Kingdom,” composed both to comfort and to afflict

righteous men.

Extract from CHAPTER LXXTIX.

This supreme of men, for the purpose of averting the calamities of

famine, constructed many tanks and canals in various parts of the Island.

Having turned the course of the river Kara-ganga* by means of a great

stone embankment, and having by means of a great canal, called A'kasa-

ganga, ‘ Celestial river,’ conducted its broad stream to the Royal Palace,

which was a noble one, resplendent like the sun,f he constructed the

“ King of Tanks,” (Wdpi-rdja) celebrated under the name of the

“Sea of Pardkrama,” which was like unto a second ocean, and which

contained a perpetual supply of water. |

He likewise built the great tank known by the name of the “ Lake

of Pardkrama,’ having an inaccessible stone aqueduct of 100 cubits.

Also the tanks of Mahinda, Ekdha-wdpi, (literally) ‘“‘ the Tank

** Major Forbes states that the river Amban-ganga is joined “ by a con-

siderable stream,’ called Kalu-ganga. Might not this be the Kdraganga

alluded to here? The Pali form of Kalu-ganga would be Kadla-ganga,

the only difference between it and Kadra-ganga being the substitution of

the letter / for 7.

+ Instead of, “which was a noble one, resplendent like the sun,”

(* Déengo€eay.”’) some MSS. have “ eanemog3oEemMo,” which may

be translated ‘making a shining or splendid Island.” - . zi

No. 9.—1856-8.] IRRIGATION WORKS OF PARAKRAMA BAHU. 135

of one day,” the Sdgara (‘Sea’) of Pardkrama,* and the waterfall of

Kotthabaddha.

In many places, the chief of men, built minor tanks in number, one

thousand four hundred and seventy-one. The Ruler of the land constructed

conduits, and channels of stone, in no less than 300 tanks which had been

in ruins.

The King also repaired many ancient tanks, such as the great tank of

Manihira (Minnéry,) the tank of Mahdddragalla, the tank of Swwanna-

tissa, Duratissa, and those named Kadla-wdpi (Kalawewa,) and Brahmana-

gama. The tanks called Ndlikératthamba, and Rehéra, likewise the tanks

of Giritalia, and Kumbhila Sobbha. The tanks of Kana-wdpi, Padi and

Katigama, the tank of Pattapdsdna, the tank of Mahanna, the tank of

Mahanamamattaka, the tank of Waddhana, and the tank of Mahadanta,

the tank of Kanagama, and the tanks of Wira, and Walahassa, and

that called Swramdna, the tanks of Pdsdnagama, Kdlawalli, and Kahalii,

and those named Angagama, Hillapattakkanda, and Madagu. ‘These

tanks which had been in ruins, did the King restore to their former

condition, as well as others of less note, in number 467.

In about one thousand three hundred and ninety-five tanks, did the

king, who was a proficient in matters of State, effect repairs and improve-

ments.

[For the remainder of this Chapter, see Ceylon Almanac, 1884.]

* This is either a clerical mistake, or there were more than one ‘Sea

of Parakrama.’”’ While on this subject, | may here notice a very curious

passage in the Raja Ratndkara, which speaks of the construction by

Parakrama Baku, of three great tanks known by the names “ Maha Samu-

draya,’ “ Bana Samudraya,” and “ Mati” or “‘ Mani Sagara.”

This passage is translated by Upham as follows :—“ The said king of

Ceylon also rendered his fame great by causing to be made in Ceylon

three great lakes, the first of which was called Mahé Samudra (i. e. allied

to i sea,) and the third was called Meda Sagaraya (i.e. the middling

sea.)”’

Ti is however, right to add, that this passage is not fouud in the Sad-

dharma Ratnakara, from which the author of Raja Ratndkara, has copied,

almost verbatim, the events of thisreigu. Nor indeed is such a passage

- found in any other work on Ceylon, which I have seen,

136 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON.) [Vol TER

TOPOGRAPHICAL AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF

THE DISTRICT OF NUWARAKALAWIYA.

By A. Oswatp Bropiz, Hse.

THE district of Nuwarakaléwiya may be described as that

portion of Ceylon which is included in the following lines :—

I. One running from a point one mile north of Dambulla

to another about five and twenty miles west of Trincomalie.

II. A second from the last mentioned spot to the ninety-_

fifth mile post south of Jaffna.

IfI. A third running thence to within six wales of Arippu.

IV. A fourth proceeding thence south-south-east to a place.

about twelve miles west of Pomparrippu.

V. A fifth joining this last mentioned point with that near

Dambulla. |

The area of the district is about 2,900 square imiles.

According to the last census returns (1852) the population

is only 82,103, but this is manifestly erroneous, as there are

10,910 persons liable to the road tax, and the number of able

bodied persons cannot well be more than one-fifth of the

community. As all these returns are more or less erroneous,

(giving the numbers too small, as the headmen persist in

omitting numbers of women and children,) we may safely

reckon the population at about fifty-five or sixty thousand.

The number of houses appear to be 9,804, which would give

g ‘th persons to each house, but it must be observed, that ~

headmen frequently apply te term “house” to a range of

contiguous dwellings. 2

| has had a very considerable influence on the character cf the

No. 9.—1856-8.] DISTRICT oF NUWARAKALAWIYA. 137

The district on the whole is flat, not, indeed, flat in the same

sense as the land near Manndr, Jaffna, &c., is flat, but it is

not In any sense mountainous ; the general surface consists of

gentle undulations, and here and there isolated peaks or short

ranges of hills appear. These are most common in lines north-

east and south-west of Dambulla, and within twenty or thirty

miles of that place, elsewhere they are of rarer occurrence and

of less elevation. To the north, south, and south-west, of the

station, hills entirely disappear. The southern part of the

district forms in fact the extreme northern verge of the great

eentral mountain mass of Ceylon, and the isolated hills are

outliess thereof.

The whole face of the country, except where occupied by

fields or tanks, is clothed by dense forest; and a large tract

lying to the south, south-east, and south-west, of the station is

almost uninhabited. This arises in part from a want of water,

and in part, as has been remarked, from the policy of the ancient

rulers of the Island, who interposed this barrier between them-

selves and the marauders who were wont to infest the maritime

districts. There is yet another circumstance which probably

has not been without its influence: I refer to the intense dislike

which the villagers have, to contact with strangers. So

strongly does this feeling still exist, that we have even now to

take the greatest care not to bring roads too near to villages,

as in this case the people invariably abandon their dwellings,

and migrate to some neighbouring, but more secluded, spot.

The prevalent rock is gneiss, the colour and structure of which

vary considerably in different localities. It is frequently

traversed by veins of quartz and felspar; but no circumstance

of interest connected with these has attracted my notice. This

gneiss here, as elsewhere, has a tendency to exfoliate in layerg

eoncentric to the present surfaces, the plates which thus scale

off are of all thicknesses, from two feet downwards. This

peculiarity renders it a matter of ease to split off tolerably regular

pillars and slabs, and there can be no doubt that this circumstance

national or adopted architecture.

: sjonnege JOURNAL BR. A. 8, (CHYLON.) FVol. IIL

Imbedded in the gneiss, at various places, one finds magnesian

limestone, generally of a brilliant white colour and of a coarse

crystalline structure ; occasionally it contains crystals of horn-

blende, and also orange-red spots, the composition of which I

have not ascertained. The stone bears a good polish, and I am

now trying it for flooring, a purpose for which it will, I think,

be found well adapted, being clean, cool, cheerful looking, —

enduring, and ornamental. It is only within the last couple of |

years that the majority of the localities where this mineral —

occurs has been ascertained, and the discovery happened most

opportunely, as numerous public works are in progress or

contemplation. Hitherto lime has been brought from Ari ippu a

distance of forty-four miles.

In the early part of this year, I discovered in the bed of the

Kalu-dr, about six miles east of “The Doric,” a number of fossil

shells and corals converted into a beautiful semi-transparent

amber-coloured mass; the associated nodules of variegated

chert also contain numerous petrifactions and casts. I was

unable to examine the beds at leisure, and therefore only obtained

mutilated specimens, but judging from these, I should think

that these limestone strata belong not to the present, but to the

tertiary formation.

On a late circuit Mr. Quinton pointed out to me considerable |

quantities of a dark, heavy, metalliferous stone, which has all the |

outward appearance cf furnace slag. The native tradition is, |

that itis the refuse from the forges of giants who lived of old; |

but as I have since found it in many places, and as Mr. Quinton |

tells me that it is common over a large part of the Mullaittiva |

district, I am inclined to hope that it may be a natural product, |

and have instituted inquiries into the matter.

The soil of the district is generally of a reddish hue, occa=

sionally intensely so, but, where liable to inundation, whetla |

natural or artificial, it is darker and richer. Pane s clay is |

abundant, but so fa as I know, none of it is adapted to the

eee of the finer kinds of earthenware. The soil, on the -|

whole, is not unfavorable to cultivation. |

No. 9.—1856-8.] DISTRICT OF NUWARAKALAWIYA. 139

There are no natural lakes nor thermal springs in the district,

nor are there any perennial rivers. The following are the

principal streams, which in the wet season contain ee bodies of

water. |

1. The Dambulu and Wert take their rise near

Dambulla, and with some others of less importance, empty

themselves into the great Kal4wewa tank ; their united waters

on leaving this assume the name of Kald-oya, which for many

miles forms the boundary between this district and Seven

Kéralés, and ultimately falls into the sea near Pomparappu.

2. Kalankutti-ela and Siyambalangamu-oya, are tribu-

taries of the former, which take their rise some fifteen miles

west of Dambulla, and also form, for some miles, the limit

between the same two first mentioned districts.

25 The Malwatu-oya; one branch takes its rise from the

ereat Eruwewa tank, is called there Gal-oya, and a little

lower down Karunagala-oya; a second branch rises from the

foot of Ritigala-kanda (the first hill in Nuwarakaldwiya) and

joins the former a little to the east of the Central road. The

united stream flows into the deserted tank of Nachcha-duwa,

which gives ita local name. Still lower down, that is, in the

neighbourhood of Anurddhapura, the river is called Mal-

Watu-oya, and flowing to the west-north-west fails into the

‘Kanadard-oya, two miles south of Kappachchiin the Manndr

district.

4. The Kanadard-oya, of which there are two great

branches, the Sangili Kanadard, taking its rise in Kéndé

Koralé, and Maha Kanadarda-oya, in Kanadarg Koralé. These

unite about three and a half miles west of the central road, and

this united stream falls ultimately into the sea, near Arippu,

under the name of Aruvi-ar or Pdr-dr.

d. The Bu-oya or Pi-ar, rises in Kadawat Korale, forms

for some distance the northern limit of this district, and finally

joins the Aruvi-dr.

6. The Ydan-oya has its source in the great Hurulu-

‘wWewa, and falls into the sea between Trincomalie and Kokile,

being known there as the Kallu-dr.

140 JOURNAL R...A. 8. (CEYLON.) fVolx, 11D.

Botany, Xc.

Though the whole district is covered with jungle, the quantity

of useful timber is surprisingly small. In fact this remark is

applicable to Ceylon generally, to a much greater extent than

many imagine. The fact is to be attributed, mainly, to the great

development of the chena system of cultivation, which is

hereafter noticed.

The Dutch were, with regard to the protection of timber, and

also in some other respects, much more provident than the

English have shewn themselves ; they planted teak forests—

we sell them for a tythe of their value, and then import timber

from abroad. |

The most valuable timber trees of the district are the

following :—Palu, Halmilila, Milila, Satinwood, Sweitenia

chlorovylon—the Buruta and Wiranda of the natives, Kubuk

or Kumbuk (Terminalia alata,) Tammanné, Migaha (Bassia

longifolia,) Kiri Kon, Ebony.

Of cultivated trees we have the following :

Cocoanut (Cocos nucifera), which does not sueceed nearly so

well ag in the maritime districts. The produce does not

by any means equal the demand; the usual rate of

exchange is two cocoanuts for one seer of rice. Palmyra

palm (Borassus flabelliformis); not common, and little

prized. Talipot (Corypha wnbraculifera); seldom met

with, except in the south-east part of the district. Jack;

rare, though in some villages it bears readily. Mango ;

very rare.

Of the smaller fruit-bearing trees and plants, the following

are to be met with in gardens; orange, lime, papaw,

pine-apple, murunga, pomegranate, plantain, brinjal,

(Solanum melongena) ; bandakka, (Abelmoschus esculen-

tus ;) tampala, CAmaranthus); patola, or snake-gourd

(Trichosanthus anguina); besides a few varieties of gourd,

melon, and bean. On none of these is the least care

bestowed, and the produce is in every respect inferior.

No. 9.—1856-8.] DISTRICT OF NUWARAKALAWIYA. 141

The following are some of the plants which I have introduced :

Casuarine. Dwarf cocoanut.

Sissu. Double pomegranate.

Logwood. Various species of stra-

American sumach. | monium.

Bourbon and New Orleans Do. plumbago.

cotton. | Do. roses.

Madagascar plum. Do. plantains

Nam-nam. | and bananas.

Leetchee. | Teak.

Cape cabbage, | Myrtle : with numerous

Travellers-tree. ornamental plants.

Date.

Tor these I am chiefly indebted to Mr. Dyke, Agent for the

Province ; to his Assistant, Mr. Twynam; to Mr. Thwaites,

Superintendent of the Royal Botanical Gardens, and to A. Y.

Adams, Hsq., of Petula.

Of all these before mentioned plants, the natives are encouraged

to take seeds, slips or roots.

Propucez or Disrreicr.

The staple product of the district is paddy, grown in the

manner usual throughout the low country, that is, in low, gently

sloping lands, irrigated from artificial tanks, some of which are

many miles in extent. |

Each village is settled by a little colony, headed by two or

more leaders or elders, called Gamardlas.

After the ground has been cleared of jungle, a line is stretched

down its length, then measuring from the bank, marks are put

in, say at every ten fathoms, and each portion is given toa

villager. Ifthe soil varies greatly in the upper and lower parts

of the field, or if one of these be for any reason preferable to

the other, then each villager (“ shareholder,” or “ partner,” is the

common term) will get one share in the upper, and one in the

lower part, of the field.

To the Gamardlas a double portion is given, in consideration

of their superior position as village elders. It is to be observed,

142 JOURNAL RB. A, 8. (CEYLON.) Vol? TEE.

that every shareholder has aright to all the land enclosed within

lines running across the field and passing through the two stakes

on the centre line which originally marked out his portion ;

that is, each man, commencing within his own portion at the

centre line, may clear to the right and left till he reaches the

high grounds which enclose the field; but quarrels would

instantly arise if he were to clear either up or down, as it were,.

round the share of another. So soon as a share is allotted to a

man, no matter whether he clears much or little, he comes under

certain obligations ; he must give one share of work to all

repairs of the tank, and to the watching of the fields by night,

and to the construction and up-keep of a ring fence. The

original division is never lost sight of ; thus, if two shares,

even though they be contiguous, fall into the possession of one

man, he will never talk of having “one large share,’ but of

having “ two shares,” and will give two shares’ work to

watching, fencing, and repairing of the tank ; so it is also with

half or quarter shares.

The first and last shares, those at which the channel from the

tank enters and leaves the field, are generally less productive

than others. For this reason, and also because there is a

larger quantity of fencing there, these shares, called the thala

and pahala elapata (shares at the upper and lower water-

courses) respectively, are invariably larger than the rest.

It frequently happens, that either before or after sowing, it

is found that the supply of water will not be sufficient to

irrigate the whole field ; in such cases the people resort toa

practice called betma or “division.” A portion of the field,

of suitable size, is selected, and all the rest is abandoned. The

selected portion is now divided into the same number of equal

shares as there are original shares in the whole field, and

every original shareholder gets one betma share for each original

share in the whole field ; and this in no way depends on the

amount which he has cleared in his original share. Thus, sup-

pose « man through idleness has not cleared any of the ground

allotted to him, but has yet given, when required, labour to

fencing, watching, and repair of tank, then when betma is

b> < S a.

No. 9.—1856-8.] DISTRICT OF NUWARAKALAWIYA, 143

resorted to, he will be entitled to a betma share, equal to that

of his neighbours. It isto be observed, that the persons whose

land is thus selected, do not get larger allotments than others.

Frequently, the selected portion of land is worked in common,

and the produce divided among the peasants according to the

number of shares which they hold in their own right; at

other times, it is actually subdivided, and each reaps the

produce of the portion allotted to him, just as if it were his

own ground.

Each such betma arrangement is binding only for one cro

when it has been removed, matters revert to their original

position.

Other customs connected with paddy cultivation, are as

follows :—

If a man’s betma share is denied to him, then he hag a

right to demand a supply of water for his original share ; if he

insists upon this, it would in many cases happen that both

his and his neighbours’ crops would die ; an amicable arrange-

ment is therefore generally made.

If a man refuses to give his due share of work or money

to the repair of the work, he cannot lead water to his field

till he has repaid those who laboured for him.

If owing to neglect, as to fencing or watching, cattle or

elephants damage the crops, then the man in fault must make

good the loss.

If a man, after being warned that his cattle tresspass, fails

to yoke them two and two, or else to tie cross bars to their

necks, he is liable for all damage which they do.

If shareholders neglect to cultivate their fields for any

particular crop, then those who do cultivate are entitled to select

and to cultivate contiguous lands equal in extent to their own ;

the object of this is to lighten the labour of watching, fencing,

and irrigation, which would become very harassing if the

cultivated portions of the field were isolated.

Several of these rules appear to me admirably adapted

for the people and country. The people are naturally lazy;

144 JOURNAL BR. A. 8S. (CEYLON.) Vol. Ti,

here are stimulants. They are poor, and have not a sufficiency

of wholesome food; here is security for the land being

cultivated by some one. |

There are certain privileges attached to each village, as for

example, the collection of honey throughout all the jungle

attached to it ; one-half of the game killed; one out of every

two tusks “bagged” in these ; and the right of fishing the

tank. All these rights give rise to constant squabbles.

The chief varieties of paddy cultivated in the District are :

Dik-vi

Llankaliyan

Maha-vi ; for tawalu, as it does not die though overflowed.

} ;in virgin soil.

Fil-vi (sudu and kalu “ white” and “ black,”) ]

Kuru-vi. } \ for paddy

fTinati. | fields,

Murunga-vi. J

These vary in colour, size and taste. Their most important

distinction, however, refers to the length of time which they

require for attaining maturity ; some take three, some four, some

six months.

There are two crops annually ; that sown in December and

reaped in March or April, gives the Yala-mésama in August

and September. Occasionally, when the weather is favourable,

and the preceding haryest has been lost, a crop is taken between

the intervals, and is simply called “a between two years crop”

déwurudda ataré mosama.

The return from paddy fields according to the reports of

the headmen, varies from four to ten-fold ; but there can be no

doubt that the crop is frequently much heavier than this would

induce one to suppose.

Another method of cultivating paddy is called tawdlu; in

this case the margins of the tanks themselves are cultivated,

and the water for irrigation is raised by means of scoops, such

as are im use at salt pans. This system gives larger returns

No. 9.—1856-8.| DISTRICT OF NUWARAKALAWIYA. 145

than field cultivation, but the requisite labour is greater,

therefore it is not in favour with the Sinhalese ; the Moormen

carry it on to a considerable extent.

A third system of paddy cultivation is on elevated ground,

so called, high lands, in exactly the same way as other chéna

erops are grown; in this case irrigation is not applicable, and

the crop is totally dependant for moisture on the natural fall

of rain. The return is large, but the risk of losing one’s

labour is great.

I am sorry to say, that the general food of the people is

not rice, but hurakkan (Eleusine coracana) which is grown

in chénas. These are pieces of land on which the smaller

trees and brushwood are cut down and burnt, the thicker

branches are in this way merely charred, and being piled

round the enclosure, form a tolerably good fence. The seed

is sown broadcast, and then covered slightly by aid of that

useful implement, the mamotie. A man can sow and cover

about a seer of hurakkan seed ina day. It rarely occurs

that more than two crops are taken from one chéna ; aiter

the last of these has been removed, the jungle is allowed to

grow up, and is not again cut till aiter the lapse of from

five to fifteen years. It is evident that this system must

prove most destructive to timber, as new land is cleared

every year.

2 ea a)

i Ss a Paw REAR BIBL lee eee es 6

In these chenas various other planis, such.as mitiet, Ge. ;

ir ae

as also varieti Jue of the

‘

els ae nm tO a

most useful o é y la of the

Qi Maen aw hess Peary pe )

Sinhe lese_ (Sesame. Sesamum CUrieniate,

i cy

used for Hs and im me : 5

about a E S aun

Z Se ? Le LX 7}

LAVALAH Sf C

Tri 1] 7

HIHGOMAUS if i

eee = 1 Toh 7

Gur eosLt Lit 2: & BS ey a C

make arrangements for purchasing it here, of at the neign-

bouring ports, He See ition naa be increased to a. great

extent.

146 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON.) [Vols UE.

Cotton is also grown in chénas, the seed being placed in the

ground along with that of Aurakkan, which grows faster, and is

remoyed ere the cotton has approached maturity. The extent

of such lands are always estimated by the quantity of seed

kurakkan required ; and about four seers of cotton seed are

sown with one of kurakkan. The cotton is sown about October,

before the monsoon rains set in; the pods begin to burst in-

about eight months ; and during the three following months the

produce is gradually removed. If the plant be cut down at the

close of the season, fresh shoots appear, and a second crop equal

to the first is obtained, if the soil be good. From certain memo-

randa, collected by a predecessor about fourteen years ago, I

glean the following information regarding a piece of cotton

soil.

It measured eight seers of kurakkan, which, as before shewn,

is equal to thirty-two of cotton. A man was employed forty

days in cutting down the jungle, twenty more in lopping, and

twenty-five in burning it, and removing the rubbish. The soil

being good, the plants attained a height of six feet. This chéna

yielded 30 welts of cotton in the first season, and this was about

four bullocks’ load, worth 6s. 8d., per load. The cotton is sold

with the seeds unremoved.

One person will, in a day, clear a wedli from its seed, and in

four days will spin it into thread. This quantity is sufficient for

a piece of cloth ten cubits long, and four spans broad. A weaver

will complete this in three days, and receives in payment one

and a quarter parras of kurakkan, or half this quantity of

paddy. It is to be observed that there is not, and never was, a

tax on cotton cultivation, so the above information may be

looked upon as tolerably correct. From it we learn, that, in

1838, a man’s labour was freely given during at least eighty-five

days to the working of a chéna, the produce of which sold for

£1 6s. 8d., which would give about 33d. per diem ; but the

cultivator, after reaping his kurakkan, had to watch the cotton

for nearly seven months, and had to collect, dry, and pack the

produce.

No, 9.—1856-8.] DISTRICT OF NUWARAKALAWIYA. 147

_ At present, the people seldom get more than 3s., for a load

of cotton ; this is attributed to the vast quantities of cloth now

imported from India and England.

Being anxious to multiply as much as possible the varieties of

plants on which the people depend, I applied for, and obtained

from Government, two sacks of Bourbon and New Orleans

cotton seed, which I am now distributing among the people,

who, however, shew their wonted apathy on this occasion also.

High forest land is invariably selected for cotton.

Tobacco, when grown at all, is only found in small gardens,

containing forty or fifty plants.

With regard to chenas generally, it must be observed, that,

unlike paddy fields, they belong not to individuals, but to

villages collectively ; and it is by amicable arrangements among

themselves, that it is in each season arranged what portion shall

be allotted to each man. Asa general rule, all land from which

water drains to the tanks or field of a certain village belongs to

that village ; and to its inhabitants is reserved the right of

cutting chenas within the limits so defined.

For some reason, which I do not know, chenas are not

portioned off by parallels, but by radiating lines from some

central spot, such as a large tree, boulder, &e,

INHABITANTS.

The mass of the inhabitants are Sinhalese, approximating in

manners, feelings, and appearance to the Highlanders, and not

to the degenerate race which swarms in the maritime districts,

and for whom they entertain a thorough contempt. Every

man is a cultivator or proprietor of land, and I do not sup-

pose that there is one Sinhalese villager who is to any extent

dependant on a trade for livelihood. Many persons are by

caste mechanics, as blacksmiths, goldsmiths, washers, tom-tom

beaters, &e., but the last two bodies alone devote any attention

to their hereditary business, and even their reward consists

not m money, but in land; thus the people of a village will

give a picce of land to some dhohies on condition that they

148 JOURNAL RB. A. 8, (CEYLCN.) [Fol oie

wash for them and attend on occasions of ceremony ; so it is”

with tom-tom beaters. Ifa man wishes to get a new axe or.

mamotie, he first of all goes to Trincomalie, Anuradhapura or

Mannar, and purchases some iron ; he then prepares a quantity

of charcoal, and taking these, proceeds to some neighbouring

bleekamet who is brought into good humour by the gift of

some cakes, &c., and is perhaps ultimately persuaded to under-

take the work, which, however, proceeds siowly and gravely,

several days being occupied in working and talking about the

work : all this time the applicant renders assistance to the smith.

I have never been able to induce a village mechanie to settle

here ; they like receiving money wages, but cannot bear regular

hours. Of late, in consequence of public works being

commeaced, a few masons and carpenters are to be found at the

stacion ; but all are strangers to the district.

ON a Sean eM Wy Set Veh Be ie ce katie i 7a:

is siop-keevine of every sort, the highiand Si gy ege have an

Ey ER es ON % FHea ne A ee aPC DEST Ea ne a PSU Es oe Y IE tris VL ae EIN Ey aes Ata

2b By able abject (Oh, aha Taits 2 OCCU Ts nat the Dou piques a.ONg

4h CON x prea fg 3? Gy ne RZ AG se ey al fans TN em, < te » ie ay mm sO i \ UXT ONT & Pane

ChoO PGeas ave Ain CII oied OW eee ee DLOCTI men, OF zOWeCOUNSY

vions thai boutiques are to be founds

vecple. [tis only im sneh situa

In the vill: ges themselves they are unknown ; each man grows

his own paddy. and kurakkan, has his own cattle, and probably

cultivates a few vegetables in his garden. If he wants a new

cloth, he gives the cotton from his chéna, and also some grain

by way of fee to a weaver, or else he barters the product of his

field with some passing trader.

Until of late years, bare money was almost unknown in

the district, but is now becoming more common every

day. In all dealings among themselves, however, the natives

adhere to the system of barter. The change already referred

to, may be attributed chiefly to the fact that payment of

taxes in kind has been done away with, and that the taxes in

themselves are heavier. Iam quite aware that many persons

consider it an absurdity to maimtain, that people can be better

off simply because they are taxed, because money is taken from

them ; such is, however, the simple fact. The manner in which

it works is probably thus :—A man knows that he will shortly

have to pay to Government a couple of rupees ; none of his

No, 9.—1856-8.] DISTRICT OF NUWARAKALAWIYA. 149

neighbours will pay him for anything in cash, he therefore finds

it necessary to grow something which he may sell to strangers,

- and he soon discovers that, cewieris paribus, the less bulky these

goods are the better, after providing for the daily wants of

himself and his family ; he will therefore clear a chéna and

cultivate, say sesame. The produce he then removes to Trinco-

malie, and sells for cash. He now finds that the sum he has

received is greater than the amount of tax which he must pay,

and in wandering through the bazaar his fancy is struck by

some gaudy Mee ercliotys some bright brass vessel, some china,

» &e.; he buys the article and returns home. The sight of these

4 E tohases gives pleasure to his household, and creates in them

' new desires and new wants. To gratify and relieve these, he

' will in the next <easen clear a still larger chéna, and so the

process continues. The increasing influence of money is strik-

ingly apparent in the instance of headmen and people of family,

who now care much less than heretofore about keeping up

large bodies of dependents. In a paper on the statistics of

the Puttalam district, which I had the honour to transmit to

the Society some years ago, I shewed that the fishers there

were most anxious that the now discontinued fish-tax should

' be renewed ; and, on the whole, I believe, that at present the

people ought to be eee heavily taxed, not indeed to

such an extent as to discourage them, but to ies that they

may be incited to industry.

‘The castes are the same as those in other districts, with this

exception, that there is one here not general over the Island,

and which is superior to that which is elsewhere considered

the highest—I mean the Wanni caste, who call themselves

q ica uw, the latter being a mere jennie: These persons

are the A eeecudante of certain Tamils who came over from the

| continent in the time of Raja Sen, who granted to each extensive

tracts of land. They are very numerous here, and very

) troublesome, as they will not accept any inferior appoint-

| ments, and for the most part think it quite beneath their

_ dignity to educate themselves. As their claim to fill all the

q high offices has heen rejected, they now frequently intermarry

150 JOURNAL BR. A. 8. (CEYLON.) [ Vol, ITE

with Vellalas, and will in all probability soon be incorporated

with that caste.

Considerable numbers of domesticated Veddds are to be met

with, but none of those who still retain their primitive wildness

reside in the district.

Six or seven villages of the Hastern division are inhabited

by a set of people who have much the look of Moormen. If

asked to what caste they belong, they reply: “ We are from

Kurunégala habage.’ Their neighbours call them “ Wageyei,”

a name which they do not at all like. They do not intermarry

with the people of the district, aud seek for wives either in their

own villages here, or in those of their comrades in Seven Korales.

They preserve a tradition, that many centurirs ago their fore-

fathers came from Maélwar, but do not know where that place is.

They seem to be a sort of Duriyas.

The Moormen or Mahomedans occupy numerous villages ;

they are locomotive, enterprising, fond of trade, and very decep-

tive. Their love of money is a perfect disease ; they are more

robust, intelligent, and bold than the Sinhalese, and are very

much disliked and feared by them.

Many individual Tamils have settled in the district, but I

am not aware that any one village is exclusively occupied by

them.

A few Kaffres and Malays oecur here ; the former chiefly

discharged soldiers and their offspring ; the latter, people, who,

as I believe, have some very good reason for living in secluded

spots.

Two circumstances exercise a most beneficial effect on the

people ; the first, that for the last three vears there has not

been a single tavern in the district ; the latter, that there are no

resident proctors. Of course I do not mean to deny that many

proctors may be good and honest men, nor that such are very

useful ; but it is evident that proctors who would settle in such

a district as this, must be the very refuse of their profession, and

such men would he a curse to the district.

"No. 9.—1856-8.] DISTRICY OF NUWARAKALAWIYa. 151

EDUCATION.

About eighteen months ago an English school was set on foot,

and is still maintained. Owing to the liberality of Government

no fees are demanded from the scholars, it being considered that

' the people must first learn what education 1s, before they are

asked to pay for it. The number of scholars is only 13,

- but when a sort of boarding house now in contemplation shall

have been constructed, the number may be expected to increase

- considerably.

A Tamil school, supported by private funds, is attended by a

few scholars, but there is a constant succession of new faces ;

—so soon as a boy can read a little and scrawl his name, he

sets up a boutique.

The best effects have followed from the strict examination

_ to which applicants for headmanship are subjected, as to their

proficiency in reading, writing, and arithmetie. In the latter

respect, the progress is most marked, and has been assisted

_ by the distribution of suitable books of instruction.

_ This being one of the most sacred spots of Ceylon, it might

be expected that I should have much to say regarding the

_ Buddhist priesthood. This, however, is not the case ; the priests

q here are ignorant beyond description ; know nothing of their

_ own history or religion: and though they say that they have a

' copy of the Mahawayso, acknowledge that they have never

read it. As they do not take the slightest trouble with the

people, and generally disappear until the time of the festivals

_ approaches (at which period offerings to a large amount are

_ brought in), the people are heartily wearied of their yoke, and

; i no external aid be afforded to the religion, it will soon be

» practically extinct.

I confess to having an extremely low opinion of the Buddhist

priesthood. To judge from those whom I have met (the number

- is not small), I think they will be found idle, selfish, inconsistent

and, ex-officio, discontented,

152 JOURNAL RB. A. 8.’ (CEYLON.) [Vol ie

MEANS. oF CoMMUNICATION.

There are no navigable or perennial rivers, and no canals in

the district ; and the trade of the country will not for a long

time to come justify Government in altering this state of matters.

Up till the year 1845, the only road in this district was that from

Mannar to Anuradhapura, along which the tappal has hitherto

been carried. About the period mentioned, a sudden advance

was made ; a great central route passing from north to south,

and opening the communication between Jaffna and Kandy,

having being surveyed and cleared ; others leading to Trinco-

malie and to Puttalam were also opened, so far as they he within

this district.

That most excellent of laws, the Road Ordinance of 1848,

has here, as elsewhere, effected much good ; it is only necessary

to remark, that the following works have been carried out

within the last three years :— ‘ ‘

I. The central line between Jaffna and Kandy has received

general and extensive repair.

II. A substantial bridge, with three water-ways, has been

constructed over the Sanu Kanadara-oya.

III. The Puttalam road has been brought into sucha state

of efficiency as the present nature of the traffic requires.

IV. Similar improvements to the Trincomalie road have also

been carried out.

V. The Manndr road has received general repair, cheat no

permanent bridges have been made.

VI. A road between Madawachchi on the central, and Horowe-

potane on the Trincomalie road, has been surveyed, traced,

and cleared throughout its whole length, though a few miles are

still not available for cart trafiic.

VI. Another line joining Kekirawe on the central, with Mara-

gahawewa on the Puttalam road, has been surveyed, traced, and -

opened, throughout about 243 miles of its course

VIII. A line joming Mahdkekirdwe with Horowepotane,

(both as abovementioned,) has aiso been traced.

No. 9.—1856-8.] DISTRICT OF NUWARAKALAWIYA, 158

TX. And lastly, a line from this to the Manndr road near

Adapankulam, has been surveyed, and in a great measure

traced.

The whole amount collected during each year since 1850, is

as follows :—

N AS | Tel

Year. liable. in Money.

1650. | dO1ly 758 | 1s 6

1851 | 10,928 |819| 5| 6

1852 10,910 818 5

Total... | 31,950 2396, 5| 0

It will be observed, that the rate of commutation fixed for six

days’ labour, is only 1s. 6d. ‘This is just half of the real

proportion ; but this arrangement was purposely adopted, onthe

supposition that hired coolies do more work than statute

labourers ; besides which, this system enables one to concen-

trate one’s efforts on such roads as most immediately call

for attention. I think, however, that these advantages have

been over-estimated, and that the rate of commutation should

have been higher.

Of late years, a good deal has been said about the desirable-

ness of giving to the natives Municipal privileges, and it was

hinted that the Road Ordinance was but the first step in that

direction. In those districts with which J am best acquainted,

the hopes of the Progressists have been woefully disappointed ;

the people frequently not shewing the slightest interest in the

elections ; not recording their votes ; not even taking the trouble

to attend.

154 JOURNAL RB. A. 8 (CEYLON.) [Vol. IIT,

There being little trade in this district, and the people having

a great dislike to strangers and to bustle, the Road Ordinance

is even now far from popular ; but the more intelligent villagers

are becoming convinced of the advantages which it secures to

them.

CLIMATE.

Some one said long ago, that the climate of Nuwarakaldwiya

was very deadly—that the place was a second Sierra Leone ; and

no emount of proof to the contrary has yet dissipated this

absurdly erroneous opinion. It is quite possible, that twenty

or thirty years ago, fever was more prevalent than at present ;

but I do not know of anything to warrant the conclusion, that

even at that time it was unhealthy during the greater part of

the year. Situated in a vast plain, which is covered with dense

wood, and in which there is a multitude of neglected tanks, the

place 1 is certainly no sanitarium, but still I think that during

nine months of the year, it is fully as healthy as most stations.

The unhealthy season lasts from the beginning of December till

the end of February, and during this portion of the year the

establishments are allowed to remove elsewhere, As the jungle

around the station becomes cleared away, and as the place

becomes more healthy, the furlough allowed is gradually circum-

scribed, and in the course of a few years, there will probably be

no occasion for an annual interruption of public business. The

fever of Nuwarakaldwiya is distinguished less by the violence

of sudden isolated attacks, than by its insidiousness and long

continuance. One is never very ill, but neither is one ever very

well ; one feels a general listlessness, a sensibility to the effects

of ane W bch gradually debilitates one to a lamentable

extent.

It is a common remark of the people, that draughts are much

nore common now than they used to be twenty or thirty years

ago, and this is—justly, as I believe,—attributed to the great

extension of the chena system, w her eby pools, springs, and

marshes are dried, and large surfaces exposed to the burning rays

of the sun. I regret to say, that my manifold engagements, and

ee = ee ee ea ee oe

a eee r= ne ee ee ee ee Pa ee

. a : jaa

No. 9.—1856-8.| bistRicr OF NUWARAKALAWIYA. Le

frequent absence from the station, have prevented me from

making any regular meteorological observations.

ANTIQUITIES.

Nuwarakalawiya hasa degree of local celebrity, from having,

during many years, been the residence of the Sinhalese Rajas.

We learn from the Mahiwanso, that Prince Wijaya established

himself at Tambapanni or Tammannadawiya, near Puttalam,

about the year 543 B. C. His successor, in 504 B. C., removed

to Wijitapura in this district. Pandukabhaya who followed

in the year 474 B. C., took up his residence at Anuradhapura ;

and from this time till A. D. 729, Anurddhapura continued to be

the metropolis of Ceylon. About the year 307 B. C., the thero

(‘saint’) Malindo, son of Dhammasoka, Emperor of India, intro-

duced Buddhism into Ceylon. It was then that the branch of

the sacred Bo-gaha (Ficus religiosa) was brought to, and self-

planted at, Anuridh: apura ; and here, enclosed in a triple terrace

of masonry, it still exists, and still attracts annually thousands

of pilgrims from all parts of the Island, and occasionally also

from India, and even from Siam; and it is here that the yet

venerated Dutugemunu, about-B. C., 161, expended a vasi

amount of labour in erecting those Melee shaped edifices

ealled dagabas, chaityas, or thiipas, which enshrine relics of the

philosopher Buddha ; and wii-sh, though time has impaired the

symmetry of their form, still tower insolemn grandeur over the

surrounding foresis, ad proclaim to the yet distant traveller the

locality of the Gace city. Seven or eight dagalas of various

Sizes are scattered round the station: these with carved step-

stones, and altars, pillars, capitals, and images of Hindu deities,

_ with long stretches cf low mounds and walls, form the chief

antiquities to be found at the station, and attract notice, rather

from their vast number and extent, than from any other quality

they possess. They are interesting as marking the period when

Sinhalese genius and enterprize reached their zenith ; and to the

eye of the engineer, the accuracy of the work is a matter of just

admiration.

156 JOURNAL BR. A. 8. (CEYLON. ) (Vol. IIL.

The Maha Lohapasada, will much disappoint the visitor. It

consists simply of a solid square of roughly squared slender

pillars, 40 in each row, and rising about 9 feet above the

general surface. Each side of the square is 221 feet. There

can be little doubt that these pillars were the mere foundations

of a huge pyramidal wooden structure, nine stories in height,

which must somewhat have resembled the so-called Chinese

porcelain towers, and which, when decorated in the Sinhalese

fashion, must have formed a very striking, if not a very beautiful

object. :

It is impossible for me here to describe the various antiquities

round the station. Perhaps a future paper may be devoted to

the subject.

Some time ago 1 commenced a large scale plan of the ground

around the station, but want of leisure has forced me to abandon

the work.

Mihintale, eight miles east of Anuradhapura, is much resorted

to by pilgrims ; for there stands the oldest of the dagabas, and

there the great teacher Mahindo expired. A fine view, stretch-

ing probably from sea to sea, and far up to the Matalé hills,

is obtained from the snmmit.

At Owkonna, about twenty-six miles south of Mihintale,

there is a colossal erect statue of Buddha, about 35 feet

in height; it is cut out of solid rock, to which it remains

partially attached. The right hand is raised as in the act of

benediction.

Wijitapura, near Owkonna, has been already mentioned. A

siege which it underwent is minutely described in the Maha-

wanso; but on enquiry, I could not ascertain the existence of

any walls or other structures, except a small half-ruined

dagaba.

Close to the southern extremity of this district, but just

within the limits of Seven Koralés, at Seseruwa-kande Vihare,

there is a statue of Buddha resembling in size and position

that at Owkonna.

No. 9.—1856-8.| DISTRICT oF NUWARAKALAWIYA. low

Both here and at other parts of the district, | have met with

and copied numerous inscriptions ; but regarding these deem it

unnecessary at present to do more than state, that the charac-

ters employed are not to be found in any of the alphabets in

my possession.

FiscaAL ARRANGEMENTS.

This district always formed an integral portion of the

Kandyan Provinees, being specially entrusted to the third Disdwa

for the time being. The last of these appears to have been

Talgahagoda Disawa, who seems to have resigned about the

year 1833. It was about this time that the district, as it now

exists, was formed by adding some portions of Matale and

Seven Korales. :

Until a few years ago, the native headmen consisted of Maha

Wanni Unnehes, Wanni Mudiyanses, and Kariyakarannas, allthese

being connected with both the Revenue and Police Departmenis.

At present we have Divisions, Koralés and Tuldnas, under

_ Ratémahdtmayds, Koralés, and Lekamas ; of the first there are

3, of the second 17, of the third about sixty.

Ratemahatmayas receive £2 10s. per mensem, besides five

per cent. on the revenue collected from their divisions.

Korales receive five per cent, on their collections, and hold,

free of tax, such lands as they possess within their own Koralés.

The Lekamas, unlike the two other grades, are at present

regarded solely as Police Vidénes. Asa matter of fact, however,

_ they remain, as formerly, general assistants of the Kérdlés ; and

this arrangement ought, I think, to be again formally sanctioned.

They hold, free of tax, such of their lands as lie within their

own Tulanas, aud do not receive stated salary, nor percentage.

It is probable that the system of allowing headmen to hold

land tax free, will soon be altogether done away with. It has

been maintained, probably with the intention of obtaining the

Services of men personally interested in their own divisions ;

_ but this object can be otherwise secured, and a constant source

_ of demoralization cut off. At present, quantities of land, are to

158 JOURNAL BR. A. 8. (CEYLON.) [ Vol. III.

escape tax, entered in the names of headmen, who after the

lapse of some years claim, and frequently take possession of the

lands themselves. At the same time, I see no objection to

employing unpaid headmen, so long as the offices are eagerly

sought by the people. The Sinhalese love of honor and dis-

tinction, though carried to somewhat unreasonable lengths, is in

itself laudable, and gives a point @apput to those who wish to.

elevate the people. In our own country, many offices uncon-

nected with salary are eagerly contended for, and I see no reason.

why the same system should not be followed here. That unpaid

headmen would take bribes is not more true than that the paid

headmen now do so.

The headmen are, on the whole, inferior in activity and intel-

ligence to those of adjoining districts. This may be attributed

to the fact, that the people were, until lately, almost debarred

from intercourse with others ; that the district was formed of

fragments taken from others, and which are only beginning to

amalgamate into one homogeneous whole ; that the resident

civilians have been frequently changed ; that the establish-

ment is necessarily broken up annually ; and that formerly the

Wanniya caste had a sort of monopoly of the headmenships ;

and even now, many of these people, while they think that they

have a right to be made Koralas and Ratémahdtmeyas as oppor-

tunities occur, yet totally neglect their own education, on the

plea that they can pay others to read and write for them. I

think that a bad effect has been produced by the unceremonious

way in which headmen are appointed and dismissed ; and believe,

that Government in giving up all sorts of state and ceremony,

is gratuitously throwing away a powerful means of influencing

the people.

Whether headmen ought, or ought not, to have more power

than at present, is a matter for serious enquiry, but need not be

entered upon here.

REVENUE.

With some trifling exceptions, the sole source of revenue is

the tax on grain.

No. 9.—1856-8.] DISTRIOT OF NUWARAKALAWIYA. 159

Formerly this used in part to be paid in kind (amanai), but

this gave rise to so much deception and loss, that the plan

has long since been abandoned. At present the great majority

of the tax is collected by the commutation system. According

to this, the average annual produce of each piece of land

being estimated, the cultivator redeems that portion of it which

would fall to Government. It is to be observed, that the rate

of redemption is fixed very low, it being considered that the

loss thus occurring is more than counterbalanced by the ease of

collection, the fixity of revenue,and the checking of deception.

In this opinion I entirely concur, and believe the commutation

system to be eminently advantageous, both to the rulers and the

ruled. The whole process is as follows :—

The headmen send in lists of the lands, giving the extent

and probable produce of each share ; these lists then may be

compared with those of former years, so as to expose any fraud,

and are then entered in large register-books; additional

columns, shewing the tithe, in grain and in money, being added.

There is then drawn out a set of tickets, forming in fact, a copy

of the register ; each ticket containing a memorandum as to the

amount due on each share. After this is prepared, the Assis-

tant Agent proceeds to some appointed village; the people

assemble ; those of a certain village are called forward ; the first

name is read, the peasant comes forward, signs the register, and

receives the memorandum shewing what he has to pay, and as

the matter proceeds, complaints as to over-estimation, &c., are

frequently heard at once, and the requisite alterations made.

_ After all this is done, another set of receipts, corresponding to

' the entries in the registers, is filled up ; each such receipt is

given by the headman to the person whose name is inscribed on

it, when he pays the tax due by him. In this way the peasant

> knows beforehand what he has to give annually, and he cannot

| be called on by the Korald to pay twice over, as used formerly to

occur not unfrequently. The headmen, when they bring revenue

to the Kachcheri, give in lists of those from whom they have

received it, and thus, if a headman dies or is dismissed, there is

no difficulty in discovering who is and who is not in arreayr.

160 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON.) (Vol. ILI.

These commutation settlements are made for periods of five

years. Ii was at one time proposed that they should run for

twenty years, but fortunately this scheme was abandoned, as

also that of allowing the people to redeem their whole grain tax

at ten or twenty years’ purchase.

The taxes from chenas, tawalas, and lands which are culti-

vated at uncertain periods, are collected by estimation, that is,

the growing crop is estimated, and the villager redeems. the

tythe at a fixed rate, which-is somewhat below the market value

of the grain; at present it is 8d. pence per parra, the

market value being from 9d. toa 1s. It is desirable to check

this system so far as circumstances allow, as it is impossible

to prevent deception being carried on to a great extent.

The execrable system of farming taxes has never been in use

here, and except under very peculiar circumstances I should

deplore its introduction.

Fine grains pay no tax, this being a Kandyan district ; and

really, when a man is reduced to living on kurakkan “ roties”’,

it would be cruelty to tax him. The only thing that might

induce one to lay a tax on these grains would be, the hope of

forcing the people to the cultivation of wholesome articles of

diet.

It appears that in 1825 the revenue realized from this district

amounted to the handsome sum of eleven pounds, thirteen

shillings and five pence half penny; and from that time until

1883, it seems to have averaged only £129 13s. 5d.; after this

period, however, rose steadily and rapidly, and now nearly, if

not quite, covers the expenses.

Last year, (1852) the grain revenue amounted to £1785 4s. 51d.

and the whole real revenue, exclusive of road tax, to £1874 16s.

Sid. This year these items amount to £1021 Is. Dd... ane

Two causes will account for this decrease :-—

1. Within the two previous years almost all arrears had been

collected.

-_ DISTRICT OF NUWARAKALAWIYA. : 161

Pil. Last year murrain prevailed to a lamentable extent, fia .

x0 ‘many of the draught cattle died, that Oe quantities of —

Nand were left uncultivated ; and as the people are naturally

improvident, they were at once reduced to great distress. On

the other hand, the amount due for grain commutation by the

a settlement just closed, contrasts EP orbly with that which

} preceded it, shewing an increase of £74 8s. O5d. A shieht

"examination will leave no doubt that this district is rapidly

vin creasing in wealth and importance.

| CRIME.

> The people of Nuwarakaldwiya are the most gentle Ihave had

the fortune to meet. It is true they quarrel a good deal, but

these squabbles are generally of the most trifling kind ; the parties

lafter exhausting their list of abusive terms, pull bach other’s

hairs, then shriek and run away from each other, and so the

Matter ceases. Serious assaults, robberies, murders, are all

t unknown, and during three years [have not had ‘to punish

“one native of the district for pilfering.

Cattle stealing used to prevail to a great extent, but has

seen much checked since the matter was placed in the hands

the District Judges. It is still carried on to some extent

the borders of Seven Koralés and, latterly, of Mannar,

t three-fourths of the charges now investigated prove utterly

e. ,

The people are fond of litigation, but not I believe to the

e extravagant extent as elsewhere, and numerous disputes

settled by reference to the Ae ceat Agent without going

to the Courts of law at all; and some such system as this

ems sto be infinitely the be adapted to the people.

— Future PROSPECTS.

~The soil on the major part of the district being good, there

be no doubt that agriculture will receive more and more

tion. Roads are being formed in every direction, and if

yernment took up the matter of Tank repair with spirit, I

eve that Nuwarakaldwiya would profit ue a id as much

any district in Ceylon. 3

in oglaes > Mente

cutee Rs. 2 each,

JOURNAL

| CEYLON BRANCH

1858-59.

VOLUME. It.

‘

N O. 1 1 ® \e

a “THE DESIGN OF THE SOCIETY IS TO INSTITUTE AND PROMOTE ENQUIRIES INTO THE HISTORY,

RE-IGION, LITERATURE, ARTS, AND SOCIAL CONDITION OF fHE PRESENT AND FORMER

INHABITANTS OF THE ISLAND, WITH ITS GEOLOGY, MINEROLOGY, ITS CLIMATE

AND METEOROLOGY, ITS BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY.”

COLOMBO :

PRINTED AT THE “OEYLON OBSERVER” PRESS.

1893.

WD eee ta Wet U uae etn ue Vou eea tetsu ien rato relod telauver aT ale. calevaclaval:

2, WO, WO, OO, OO, OO, CB, OO, OP, VO, 28, OF OO, OO, Oe, 8 OL 88 et 8

Cb e,0 O20 C0 C0 eo 20 0 %0 20 0 C0 o0 ee 0 eo v0 “ee

JOURNAL

CEYLON BRANCH

ROYAL ASL[ATIC SOCIETY,

1858-59.

VOLUME III.

No. 11.

HDITED BY THE HONORARY SECRETARY.

‘THE DESIGN JF THE SOCIETY IS TO INSTITUTE AND PROMOTE ENQUIRIES INTO THE HISTORY,

RELIGION, LITERATURE, ARTS, AND SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE PRESENT ANP FORMER

INHABITANTS OF THE ISLAND, WITH ITS GEOLOGY, MINEROLOGY, ITS CLIMATE

AND METEOROLOGY, ITS BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. ”

COLOMBO :

PRINTED At THE “CEYLON OBSERVER” PRESS.

1893.

CONTENTS.

PAGE.

The Laws of the Buddhist Priesthood. noe the Rev.

D. J. GOGERLY 253

Notes on the Mythological ee of the ee

By J. Dr Atwis, Esq., Assistant Secretary 262

A Statistical Enquiry into the state of Crime in Ceylon.— ;

By J. Capper, Esq., Honorary Secretary 293

Sinhalese Rhetoric.—By J. DE Atwis, Esq., Assistant

Secretary i od 4 808

Scripture Botany of ae W. FerGuson, Esq. 316

Remarks on the supposed identity between Nagarjuna

and Nagaséna.—By J. DE ALWwIs, aa Assistant

Secretary : 346

Expenditure on Public Works in Ceylon.—By J.

Capper, Esq., Honorary Secretary . 354

APPENDIX :—Proceedings of Meetings i

Society’s Circular.. xi

Correspondence concerning the Mauritius Exhibition — xiv

Correspondence with the Society of Arts

hie h ATA .

- Pages 1—24 should have been numbered 253—276.

eal -ASTATIC. SOCIETY:

ete iin ANC ET.

THE LAWS OF THE BUDDHIST

PRIESTHOOD,

BY. THE REV. DJ. Gocuray.

In the Papers laid hefore the Society respecting the

laws relative to the Ordination of Buddhist priests, the dif-

ferent precepts are literally translated in the order in which

they are recorded in the Maha Vaggo. But this mode,

although exact, is tedious, and therefore will be abandoned

in this, and the following Papers, The substance of the

precepts will be given, with such observations as may tend

to elucidate them.

It has been previously noted, that Buddha declined the

formation of a code of laws for the government of the

priestly order when he was requested to do so by Sariputra,

one of his chief priests; stating, that it would be more

_ advisable to legislate as circumstances should arise requiring

directions to be given. The precepts thus given were

afterwards arranged under separate heads. The Pérdjika

and Pachittiyan divisions contain the Moral precepts, binding

upon every member of the order. The Mahé Vaggo and

Chila Vaggo, contain the Kcclesiastical laws, and _ the

Pariwéra Pétho is a technical recapitulation and explanation

of the other four sections of the Vinaya Pitaka.

The second chapter of the Mahé Vaggo, explains how

the Péya, or Upésatha days were instituted, and gives the

rules of their observance. The Péya days are, up to

the present time, observed by all Buddhists, who on

2 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). [Vol Te

the changes of the moon attend their temples, make

offerings, hear the discourses of Buddha read, or his

precepts explained, and ‘devote a portion of the day to

meditation, and other religious observances. But the days

of the New and of the Full Moon are regarded by the

priests as days of peculiar solemnity, each priest being

required to be present at a general assembly of the order,

at an appointed place within the district, in which he

resides, that his moral conduct may be investigated: and

if he have been guilty of any irregularity, he must confess

it, and submit to ecclesiastical discipline.

The institution of the Updsatha resulted from _ the

recommendation of Seniya Bimbisara, the king of Magadha.

He observed that the teachers of the Puribbdjaka sect were

accustomed, on the days of the changes of the moon, to

assemble their followers and preach to them, in conse-

quence of which they became very popular.

He waited on Buddha, stated the fact, and requested

him to direct his priests to adopt a similar course of pro-

ceeding. To this Buddha assented, and calling an assembly

of his priests directed them to meet on the days of the

New and Full Moon, and on each intervening eighth day.

They accordingly met on the days now known as the day

of New Moon, the eighth day, the fifteenth day, and the

eighth day after the fifteenth day.

At first they remained quite silent when assembled,

as they had received no directions how they were to conduct

themselves. When it was reported to Buddha, that the

people were much dissatisfied with these silent meetings,

he directed that on each day of assembling, they should

preach to the people, and explain the doctrines of their

religion. It also occurred to him, that it would be ad-

vantageous if, on the New Moon, and on the fifteenth —

day of the month, the priests, in addition to their public

preaching, should hold a private meeting in which the

Moral precepts, called the Pétimokkha, should be recited,

No. 11.— 1858-9.] LAWS OF THE BUDDHIST PRIESTHOOD. 3

and the obedience or disobedience of each priest be ascer-

tained, that thus the purity of the priesthood might be

secured. For this purpose, he directed that certain bound-

aries should be determined on by the Saagha, (or assembly

of the priests,) and that all the priests living within that

boundary should meet together on the days appointed.

The boundaries are in no case to include a district

more than three yoduns (about 40 miles) in extent; and

they are not to be intersected by a river, unless there be a

bridge or ferry boat, by which the priests may pass without

danger: neither shall one large boundary include smaller

boundaries, but each district must be distinct from every

other. If a priest reside in a jungle, the boundary shall

include the space of 300 feet around his hut. If priests

be in a vegsel, or on a bank, or rock, within a river

or lake, so far as a man can throw water, is to be accounted

a boundary.

There may be many residences for priests within a

district, but the Updsathu services are to be conducted in

one place only, which place has been previously consecrated.

This Updsatha hall is to be in general near to the residence

of the senior priest of the district. All the priests who

are in the district at the time appointed for the meeting,

shall assemble in this place: if the number be such that

they cannot be accommoduted in this one room, a porch, or

a verandah, muy be added to it; and after it has been

consecrated the whole building will be one Upésatha hall.

Notice of the time of meeting shall be given by the senior

‘priest. No layman is to take any part in the proceedings.

Priests are not allowed, except in their own residences,

to be without their three robes; but as at times in coming

to the Uposatha, their upper garments may become wet,

permission is given to lay aside one of them, if necessary,

during the service.

The Upésatha service consists of five parts :—

Phe opening service.

4 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON). EY olf, bie

2. The recital of the laws concerning Pérdjika (leading

to expulsion).

3 The recital of the laws concerning Sazghddisesa,

(leading to suspension).

4. The Aniyata dhamma, or doubtful cases.

Do. The minor offences in detail.

In general, the whole is to be recited, and the

necessary enquiries to be made: but in case of danger

from armies, thieves, demons, or other injurious

things, the service may be shortened. The service is to be

conducted by the senior priest, or by some competent

person nominated by him in the General Meeting, who

is not to be impeded in the performance of his duties

by any of those present, upon pain of ecclesiastical censure.

The precepts are to be recited in a clear and audible

voice. If any priest have a charge to make against another,

he is previously to intimate his intention to the person

against whom the charge is to be brought: if this notice

has not been given, the accusation is not to be heard.

No groundless charge is to be made, under pain of

censure; and if an unjust sentence has been passed by

the Sazgha against any person, it may be put aside

if four or five members are of opinion that it should

be disallowed: if only two or three members dissent,

they may enter their protest: if only one, he may-_ say,

““1 do not agree,’ and thus record his dissent.

The senior priest is to command a junior to sweep

the Updsatha hall, to arrange the seats, and, when necessary,

to light the lamps. If the junior refuse, he is to be placed

under censure.

No priest within the district is allowed to be absent

without a sufficient reason being stuted: if he be detained

from the service by sickness, he is to make to another —

priest a declaration of his own purity, and of his assent

to the meeting being held, (that is, that he is not acquainted

with any reason why it should not be held): otherwise he

No. 11.—1858-9.] LAWS OF THE BUDDHIST PRIESTHOOD. 5

is to be brought on his couch to the place of meeting. If

he be placed under restraint by enemies, so as to be unable

to attend, the Sugha is to depute a member to see him,

and to receive his declaration of personal purity, and of his

assent to the meeting being held.

The senior priests must be present before the Updsatha

service is commenced.

If from any cause, a minority of the priests in the dis-

trict commence the service, and afterwards a number

larger than those present at the commencement should

come in, the service is to be re-commenced: but if the

members, who come last, be only equal to those who com-

menced the service, or fewer, the service is not to be re-

commenced, but only the declaration of personal purity to

be received from those who came last.

It is necessary that five priests should be present to

constitute a Sazgha for ordinary purposes ; but if only four

be present, the Updsatha service may be attended to: if

there be only two or three persons, they may state their

own personal purity.

If any one has been guilty of a fault, he must gotoa

pure priest, and having removed his robe from one shoulder,

kneel down before him, and with uplifted hands confess

his fault : if he profess himself to be sorry for what he has

done, and state his determination not to repeat the offence,

he may be absolved. But this applies only to minor trans-

pressions: absolution from the crimes called Sazghddisesa,

ean only be granted by the Sazgha.

The Pétimokkha, which is directed to be recited at

every bi-monthly Updsathu meeting, contains the whole of

the precepts recorded in the Pérajika and Pachiti divisions

of the Vinaya Pitaka, but without the reasons for their

enactment, or the adjudged cases recorded in illustration of

the law. The priests being assembled in the Updsatha hall,

6 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). [ Vol. IIL.

the officiating priest comunences the service, by enquiriug if

the room has been swept, the seats arranged, and water

provided for drinking.’ He then proceeds to enquire, if

there be any objection to the meeting being held, and

whether it be the proper time for the recital of the

Pétimokkha.

After these preliminaries, he states, that with the

permission of the Sazgha, he will conduct the service,

and that after each section of the Pdtimokkha has been

read, the question will be put thrice, “ Are all the members

present free from the breach of any one of these precepts ?”

If any one be guilty, he is to confess it: if he be free

from guilt, he is to remain silent. They are reminded

that this is an appeal to each person, and that to remain

silent when they know themselves to be guilty, is a great

crime. He then recites the four precepts contained in the

Pérdjika section.

The Pérdjika Section.

[The penalty attached to a breach of any one of these

four precepts is permanent expulsion from the body. ]

1.—A priest not having confessed his inability to obey

the rules binding on the priesthood, and thus withdrawing

himself from the community, who shall have carnal inter-

course with any being, human, animal, or super-human, is

Pérajiko, and is expelled.

Il.—Any priest, who, with a dishonest intention, shall

appropriate to himself any property, (to the amount of one

rupee or more,) which has not been given to him, is Pérajiko,

and is expelled.

Ill.- A priest who is guilty of taking away human

life, or is in any way accessary to that act, either by word

or deed, is Pérdjiko, and is expelled.

IV.—A_ priest who shall falsely assume a high spiritual

character, and the super-human power connected with that

character, is Péardjiko, and is expelled.

No. 11.—1858-9.] LAWS OF THE BUDDHIST PRIESTHUUD. 7

The Sarghddisesa Section.

I.—He who wilfully pollutes himself, is guilty of Sazgha-

diseso.

Il.—A priest, who, with an impure intention, comes in

personal contact with a woman, either by taking her hand,

touching her head, or by touching any other purt of her

body, is guilty of Sazghddiseso.

IlI.—A priest, who, with a corrupt mind, holds li-

bidinous discourse with a woman, is guilty of Svw#ghddiseso.

IV.—A priest who endeavors to excite a woman to

have criminal conversation with himself, is guilty of

Sanghddiseso.

V.—A priest who carries messages between the sexes,

whether to promote marriage or concubinage, is guilty of

Sanghadiseso.

VI.—A priest who procures a residence to be _ built

for himself, must not have the house larger than 12 cubits

of Buddha’s measure in length, and 7 cubits in breadth;

he must have it consecrated by priests, must choose a

place free from danger, and surrounded by an open path.

He who neglects any of these things is guilty of Sazgha-

— diseso.

VIl.--A priest who procures a Vihara to be _ erected

for his own residence, in conjunction with other priests,

must assemble priests to consecrate the site, choose a place

free from danger, and surrounded by an open path:

otherwise he is guilty of Sazghédiseso.

VIIl.—A priest, who, with an evil intention, brings a

groundless charge against another priest for the purpose,

of having him expelled from the priesthood, is guilty of

Sanghddiseso.

TX.—A priest who shall avail himself of some circum-

stance foreign to the charge, to substantiate that which

would lead to the expulsion of another priest. is guilty

of Sarghadiseso.

to) JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON), [ Vol. III.

[This is thus illustrated: A priest violently hated

two eminent members of the body, a male and a female,

and brought a charge against them of incontinence. ‘To

substantiate this charge he procured two go:ts; to the male

he gave the name of the priest to be accused, and to the

female that of the priestess. Having seen the animals

copulate, he stated that he had witnessed the act of

criminal conversation between M. and N., giving the

names of the priest and priestess. |

X.—He who endeavors to stir up strife or promote

schism among the priests, shall be thrice exhorted to

abandon his efforts. If he listen to the exhortations, it

will be well; but if he disregard them, he is guilty of

Sarnghddiseso.

XI.—If two or three priests shall become partisans

of any other priest, and agree to affirm the correctness of

whatever he may do or say, stating, “He speaks and

acts in accordance with our views: his declarations are

consistent with truth and discipline, and we perfectly agree

with him”; they shall be thrice warned to abstain from

such partisanship ; but if they persist in their course of

proceeding, they are gnilty of Sazghddiseso.

XII.—If any priest be an evil speaker, and when

he is reproved for any act contrary to the precepts,

shall improperly say ‘‘ Hold no coversation with me either

for good or bad: keep your observations to yourself and

do not interfere with my concerns; I also will abstain from

making remarks on your proceedings” ; and shall thus impede

the harmony of the community; he shall be thrice ex-

horted not to continue in this state. If he submit to this

counsel, it will be well: if not, he is guilty of Sanghddiseso.

XII.—If any priest residing in the neighbourhood

of a town or village, shall be a corrupter of public morals ©

by his own improper practices: and if this conduct is

seen or heard of by other priests, they shall state the facts

to him and advise him to leave’ that neighbourhood.

No, 11.—1858-9.] LAWS OF THE BUDDHIST PRIESTHOOD. 9

Should he reply, you are self-opiniated and partial in

your judgments, endeavoring to terrify priests with your

threats: they must reply, Speak not thus, your improper

conduct is generally known; it is advisable that you

should leave this place. Thrice they are thus to admonish

him; if he obey the admonition it will be well; if not,

he is guilty of Sazghddiseso.

When any one is guilty of any of these crimes he

is to be suspended, and placed under thé supervision of the

other priests for as many days as he concealed the crime,

and for six days additional. When he is sufficiently

humbled he may be restored to his -former position as

a priest, but this can only be done by a Sangha of

twenty members.

End of the thirteen Sazghadisesa.

(To be continued.)

10 JOURNAL R. A.. 8. (CEYLON). [Voli HY,

NOTES ON THE MYTHOLOGICAL LEGENDS

OF ©HE SINHALESE.

By JAMES DE ALWIS, ESqQ., ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

There is no reasonable doubt entertained at the present

day, as to the belief that Asia was “the country in which the

worship of the deity became first corrupted by human inven-

tions, and finally degenerated into a system of idolatry, where

the adoration of the creature was substituted for that of the

Creator. There is abundant testimony to prove that both

Greece and Rome obtained their religious worship from Asia.

9936

From the position which Ceylon occupies in a geogra-

phical point of view, it can hardly be doubted, that the

systems of Mythology known to the Hindus, found an early

and easy passport to Ceylon. However much the Indian

system is opposed to the tenets of Buddhism,f-the religion

of Lanka ; the Sinhalese poets have never, it seems, scrupled

to adopt that which was used by their Hindu neighbours. f

* Tooke’s Pantheon, Introduction, p. 9.

+ Ramayana Barata—etuluvadedummulyuta—kimutbasnirata, &c. See

note in my Sidath-Sangarawa, pp. xi, xii.

t It is in accordance with such a feeling, that thoughtless native

Protestants consider it not improper to take part in Buddhistical

ceremonies, or that Buddhists themselves, under various circumstances,

shew an attachment to the forms of Christian worship, believing it

by no means inconsistent with their own faith, which inculeates all

the virtues which ennoble the soul, besides reverence to parents, charity .

to the poor, humanity to animals, and love towards all mankind. The

case, however, with Sinhalese Roman Catholics is different; and the

difference is owing to the rigid requirements an: ecclesiastical discipline

of that Church, And it isa remarkable fact, that amongst the Sinhalese

Roman Catholics there is no wavering of mind, no partnership faith (if

I may so callit), and no hankering after the religion of their forefathers.

No. 11. —1858-9.] SIyHALESE MYTHOLOGY. 11

In the creed of the Buddhist some of the Hindu deities

are, however, not regarded as the others are—‘ mere creatures

of fancy, ‘the metaphors of poetry,’ and ‘ the personifications

of nature.’ Some are recognized in Buddhism as really exist-

ing beings, and to them the Buddhist makes offerings.* Of

these we shall treat in due order.

The object of this Essay is a brief inquiry into the Sin-

-halese Mythology, as it may be gathered from our poets,

and in that investigation it will be our endeavour slightly

to compare the systems known to the Hast and West.

There are two sources from whence the Sinhalese have

obtained their Mythology :—Ist, Their Religion or their bana,

the Buddhist scriptures ; and 2nd, Tradition, or that which is

found in the works of Hindu writers.

Under the first head may be mentioned, not only the

fabulous déviyo recognized in Buddhism, and to whom homage

is paid by the votaries of Gautama; but also the fabulous

system of the universe, and its gods and ndgas : and under

the second head are comprehended the metaphors and

allegories of poets, the personification of abstract notions,

or symbolic representations of the powers or attributes of

nature, the planetary system, and its influence on man.

Innumerable are the worlds of the Universe. Each system

or Sakwala, scattered throughout the infinity of space, has

its own sun, moon, and stars. The earth with its visible sun

and moon, and its heavens and hells, constitute the Magul-

sakwala, which is surrounded by a rock called the Sakwala-

gala. Theearth has in its centre the Mahamera, around

which are oceans, mountains, continents, lakes, islands, &c.

The earth is 240,000 yojuns, or 3,840,000 miles, in solidity.

* But some of them are not objects worthy of adoration. The

“‘Pujavaliya” compares the folly of those who ‘listen to the teachings

of Siva or Vishnu,’ to the Brahman in the legend [see Hardy on

Buddhism, p. 472.] who was deceived by the Jackal. ‘They will be

deceived likewise, and the object at which they aim will not be attained.”

12 JOURNAL R, A. S. (CEYLON). [Vol. III,

It rests on Jala-poluwa* or the world of waters, 7,680,000

miles in depth; and this is supported on Wa-polowa, or

world of air, 15,360 miles deep; and this again rests in a

vacuum called Ajyatakdsa.

“Thales,” says a late writer, “entertained the idea, that

the earth floated on the ocean, whilst Democretes taught

that it rested on the air like a bird with its wings outspread.”

The Buddhist doctrine is in accordance with these opinions.

When Milindu, king of Sagal, said to Nagaséna, that he could

not believe that the earth was supported by the world of

water, and this by a world of air, the priest took a syringe

and pointed out to him, that the water within the instru-

ment was prevented from coming out by the exterior air ;

by which the king was convinced that the water under

the earth might be supported by the Ajatdkasa.t Professor

Wilson, in his Vishnu Purdna, says, “ The supreme being

placed the earth on the summit of the ocean, waere it floats

like a mighty vessel, and from its expansive surface does

not sink beneath the water.”

One of our poets, in extolling the praises of Buddha to

the skies, says, that “the beams of his ravs dived through

Wad-polowa, and thence proceeded to the end of the immensity

of space, Bawaga,—and thence spread themselves throughout

the whole Sakwala or universe :”

DOHPCOOS RSG E QO asoe: 38 ¢

MNOS omst AOH € EOD AEE GHe dda ¢

Kdviydsékhara.

* According to some of the Hindu legends, the earth rests upon the

back of a tortoise. Thus, in the play entitled Maldti and Madhava :—

‘ Thy foot descending spurns the earthly globe,

Beneath the weight the broad-backed tortoise reels.’

Hindi Plays, i. p. 58

According to another passage in the A/udra Raksha, the earth is

supposed to rest on the heads of Sésha, a snake of innumerable heads.

‘A weary burden is the cumbrous earth .

On Sésha’s head, but still he bears the load.’—ib. p, 185.

+ One of the causes of an earthquake, according to Buddha; see

Bengal A. 8S. Journal, vii. p. 1,001.

No. 11.—1858-9.] | SIyHALESE MYTHOLOGY. 13

That which first demands our attention, as the theme

of every poet, the personification of strength, firmness, and

sreatness, is the Maha-mera or Mount Meru,* the Olympus

of the Greeks.

9d wd BOS OE OME EVO) Eq6—Selalihini Sandesa.

The Vishnw Puréna and the Buddhist scriptures place

it in the centre of Jambudwipa. It is represented like the

Olympus, to reach the skies, and so high, that a stone,

if let fall from its summit, would not reach the earth in

four and a half months.

‘* A brazen anvil falling from the sky,

Through thrice three days would toss in airy whirl,

Nor touch the earth till the tenth sun arose.”

Eilton’s ‘* Hesiod, Theag,” 893.

Like, too, the Olympus on which the Gods were assembled

by Zeus, Mount Meru is the resorting place of the gods,

the abode of Saka, or the Indra of the Hindus.

QOSD EONS B5-—Se ogy edn Eed—Cutlila-kdvya.

Maha-mera is of various colours: on the east, itis like

silver ; on the north-east virgin gold ; on the south sapphire ;

on the south-east azure blue; on the west coral; on the

south-west blue; on the north gold, and on the north-

west bright gold. These colours are imparted to the adjacent

rocks and oceans. Hence, the ‘ Milk-white-ocean,” or Kiri-

muhuda, which we shall hereafter notice under the second

head.

This great mountain is alternately surrounded by seven

oceans and rocks,f and probably it is these seven rocks

* “T had almost forgotten that Meros is said by the Greek to

have been a mountain of India, on which their Dicnysos was born,

and that Meru, though it generally means the north pole of the Indian

Geography, is also a mountain under the city of Naishada or Nysa,

called by the Grecian Geographers Deonysipole. and universally cele-

brated in the Sanscrit poems.” —Si7 Walliam Jones’s Works, vol. i. p. 264.

+t ‘‘ According to the geography of the Purdnas,” says Professor H. H.

Wilson, in his Hindu lays, ii. p. 58. ‘the earth consists of a series of

central circles and six other annular continents separated from each other

by as many oceans of different fluid substances.”

14 JOURNAL R, A. S. (CEYLON). EMol Eb

which the Brahmans regard as the seven insular continents

which are severally surrounded by oceans. It is said, that

Priywritta drove his carriage seven times round the earth,

and the seven seas are the seven ruts left by its wheels. The

poet in alluding to the seven rocks, which are Yugandhara;

lsadhara, Karawtka, Sudarsana, Némindhara, Winataka,

and Aswakarna, says :— |

OSS BO HOO BSVOSDOVSDOE 3)

BICO DOO OBOOSVE KRSM S)

QHNESSOST GHNRSI DRONDMIOG S)

ODSS SIMs BADESS OELE fo)

Guttila.

The four continents are Uturukuru-divayina, Purva-

videhaya, Aparagoyana, and Jambudwipa, of which the

last is on the south of Meru, and has 500 islands. The

first, on the north of the great Meru, is the happiest of the four.

It is celebrated for the tree Kap-tura, which, like the horn

of Amaltheia, given by Zeus to the daughter of Melissius,

conferred whatever was desired by its possessors. The

Kap-tura is, in its properties, the same as Sura-tura, ‘the

heavenly tree,’ which gives whatever is desired by the gods.

We may here, by the way, refer to the Sifwmint gem, and the

swrabi cow, the personifications of abundance and charity.

The poet, in reference to these tree, says:— |

WEDS DO HOHM BNdOIDH HY SHAH 8

WHODHSAD OFGODH, OMWHOBEONSS MSDE VOOR

On the north of Jambudwipa is the Himéla-wana, a

ereat forest, in which are situated some of the mountains,

famous in Hindu and Sinhalese poetry, and which are

represented as the abodes of gods and devils. Himdla-wana

isalsofamous for its lakes, among which is the Andédtatta |

vila, and 500 rivers: one of these, which, after taking a

circuitous course, ascends into the sky, is called the Ahas-

ganga, ‘the Ganges of heaven,’ supposed to trickle through

No. 11.—1858-9.] SIyHALESE MYTHOLOGY. | 15

the tresses of Siva.* The following couplet of the poet, in

allusion to this ‘ heavenly river,’ is well known :—

HONDO DOWSW FOOD HOKRIMN6H.

Kaviyasékhara.

There are several other minute particulars connected with

the foregoing account of the Universe; but as they can be

easily learnt on reference to the books on the subject, we

now turn our attention to

1. SAKRA or Jupiter, the personification of the firmament.

‘ Aspice hoc sublime candens, quem invocant omnies Jovem.’

He is called by various names; Sakra is his most usual

designation in the Sinhalese, whilst Indra is that commonly

used by the Hindus. He is the ruler of the highest heaven,

wee oe. the great father of the gods above.

Virgil.

Hence he is called Sura-rada or Sura-isura in Sinhalese :

he is the patron of “100 sacrificial offerings,” and is thence

called Siya-hutan: he has a diamond weapon in his hand

called viduru or vajrat: he,

veveereeseeeseeese Whose awful hand

Disperses thunder on the seas and land,

Dispensing all with absolute command.

Virgil.

is therefore named Vidu-rata, or Vidu-ravi. He is called

Puratdara, from the fact related of him, that he divided his

city with king Mahé Mandathu after the expulsion of the

Asuras, who may be compared to the Titans and giants of the

* «May the tresses interwoven with a circular garland of serpents for

flowers, where the waters of the Mandakini are flowing over the lower

chaplet of skulls worn in the crest &c.”— Hindu Plays, ii. p. 9,

+ “ The diamond and thunderbolt according to Hindu notions, are of

one substance and are called by the same appellation, Vajra, as the fall

of the thunderbolt is usually followed by rain, and may thus be considered

as its cause. The propinquity and the mutual friction of the same sub-

stance upon the wrists of our young ladies, is in like manner supposed to

occasion the dispersion of the fluid treasures of the cloud.”—.Wilson’s

Mégha Dita, note, p. 73. Tmay state itasa fact. that the native Sinha-

lese of the fifth century, regarded diamond as a non-conductor of light-

ning It isso stated, in unmistakeable language, in the ‘‘ Mahdawansa ”

and the Tika. :

16 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). [ Vol. IT,

Greeks, as they were much larger than any order of beings,

and made war with the gods.* He has a wife named Madora

or Sudéd— .

HERD Hoece OC46.—Guttila.

and is thence designated Madorapiya. He is Sak or Sakra,

from his-—‘‘ power divine in all things known.” He is the

Indra or Miduradikpati, the regent of the East, whence he

appears in the character of Jupiter Tonens. He is represented

as having a thousand eyes; and he

Whose all conscious eyes the world behold. — Homer.

is thence called Sahases. One of the versified works on

synonyms, has the following lines embodying all the names

above given :—

9666 Baonmsy Sedme Hoe 6

SECS DODIOUS wat oF wooss 6

BHM OOMD OF EAJeRBwd GE 6

— Ndamawaliya.

Thus, in the words of Sir William Jones,f “ This Jupiter

or Deispeter, is the Indian God of the visible heavens, called

Indra or the king, and Divespeter, or Lord of the sky, who

has also the character of the Roman Genius, or chief of the

good spirits, but most of his epithets in Sanscrit are the same

with those of the EKonian Jove.” He had three principal

consorts, one of whom is the Sudd, to whom we have already

referred. The others are Sudammd and Nanda, of whom

one of our bards sings :—

BwORS HEDO) ESB E88 yOdns3e,.—Guttila.

One of Indra’s courtesans, Ramba, Sir William Jones.

identifies with “the popular Venus, the goddess of beauty

that was produced, according to the Indian fabulists, from

the froth of the churned ocean.”

Indra’s celestial city is called Amardvati; his palace,

* It is generally agreed, that the Giants were personifications of the —

elements, and that their wars with the gods refer to the throes of the

world in its state of chaos.— Hardy, p. 47.

Tt See his works p. 248.

No. 11.—1858-9.] | SlYHALESE MYTHOLOGY. 17

Vijayot* ; his park, Nandanat; his chief elephant, Airé-

vanat; his bow,§ ‘‘the rain-bow,” and his charioteer, Mdtalt,

who is made to say by one of our poets—“ Asuras are my

foes, Sakra is my lord: know thou that I am Matali, the

charioteer’ :—

Sygsguaw®: O8Sa yocdn @:

EMD GEHND : OOS HHS ai gaan @:

Although he is the Regent of the East; yet his Olympus is the

Maha Mera.

High heav’n the footstool for his feet he makes,

And, wide beneath him, all Olympus shakes. —Homer.

A Sinhalese poet briefly sums up Indra’s attributes in the

following lines, wherein he is made to say; “a possessor of

a thousand eyes, the chief of (both the worlds) heaven and

earth, the Regent of the East, I am called by men Sakra, the

supreme God.”

Emus Ge 418, OG OGDOQIDOO GEEH

QO Ec Gsis8, cooianl ocdegaS cdeH:

Guttila.

1 shall briefly allude here to the character which this Déva

holds in Buddhistical works. There he has few of the at-

tributes which are described inthe Purdnas, and is represented

rather as a venerable personage, the friend of the faithful

ministering to their wants and comforts, than as receiving

their homage, or as the object of their prayers. It is said of

Sakra, that he was a frequent hearer of Buddha’s bana, that

he thereby obtained merit, and prclonged his own existence.

He is however characterized in several books, as being exceed-

ingly jealous of pious men, lest they may, after migrating

from their present existence, supersede him in his kingly

BSE HABDs SYanssnN® 9Hd1.—Selahhini Sandésa.

+ 85a Anest Dest ONwdO—Guttila.

t OMmAO ST DID HA1OOT SS HOonsS S506 0G 20.—Kusa Jataka

§ ‘‘In Indra’s bow, o’er yonder hillock play.” —Mégha Duta.

18 JOURNAL BR, A. 8. (CEYLON). [Vol. If,

office.* Thus, according to Hindu writers, when he saw that

Nara and Nardyana had devoted themselves to ascetic exer:

cises, he was greatly alarmed, and sent Kama ‘love,’ and

Vasanta ‘spring, with the nymphs of heaven, to inflame the

sages with passion, and thus end their penance. He however

failed in his attempts; for Narayana, inviting the tempt-

ers with much civility, created out of a flower-stalk placed

on his thigh, a nymph, the superiority of whose charnis

covered the Apsarasas of heaven with shame, and induced

them to return to Indra, with the newly-created goddess as a

present.t Numerous instances of this jealousy and treachery

towards men, are algo related in the Buddhistical annals. In

the legend of Lomasa Kdsyapa, Sakra is represented in the

character of the devil, tempting the Rishi to commit a forbid-

den sin, from which he was only deterred by the power of a

miracle. But, where he apprehended no danger to himself

from the superior merits of others, he appears as their guard-

ian, benefactor, and friend. Numerous also are the in-

stances in which he is said to have helped Gautama, (when

Bodhisat) out of difficulty and misfortune. hus, when

Gautama was a squirrel, and lost his young ones, Sakra

caused them to be found; when Vessintara, he prevented

’ and nourished

the king’s being deprived of his ‘“ help-mate,’

his children on the top of a tree; when Guttila, he taught

the minstrel to defeat his unvrateful pupil; when Gautama

became Buddha, and overcame Mara, he shouted forth his

hallelujahs throughout the universe. In his last moments

the ‘“‘ Mahavansa” relates, Buddha placed Lanka under the

protection of Sakra: (see ‘“ Mahavansa” p.47;) and when

Gautama died, Sakra sang a hymn, consoling himself under

the reflection, that ‘“ All living beings relinquish their ex-

istence in this world, and that in like manner the Teacher of

the world, the incomparable, the being of felicitious advent —

and of power, the supreme Buddha also dies!”

* See Pr. Monier William’s Sakuntald, p. 7, notes.

+ Hindu Plays, by Pr. H. H. Wilson.

No. 11.—1858-9.] SIyHALESE MYTHOLOGY. 19

(9:

The Deity of Brahmanicai faith, the divine cause, and

essence of the world, from which all creatures emanate, is

BRAHMA.* He is represented as being 192 miles high, his

feet as 30 miles long, and his robes 256 miles. He is looked

upon by the Hindus as the creator of man, a doctrine opposed

to the tenets of Buddhism, by which the chief “ first cause,”

that of which even a savage has some conception, is ignored.

“The beings who were created by Brahma,” says Professor

Wilson in his Vishnu Purdna, “of the four castes, were at

first endowed with righteousness and perfect faith ; they

abode wherever they pleased, unchecked by any impediment,

their hearts were free from guile, they were pure, made free

from evil by observance of sound institutes. In their sancti-

fied minds Havi dwelt, and they were filled with perfect

wisdom, by which they contemplated the glory of Vishnu.”

According to Buddha, Brahma is a believer in his tenets.

He is said to be the Deva who received into his arms the

infant Siddharta on his birth, and breathed the consolatory

words in the ear of his mother :—“ Rejoice, for the son thou

hast brought forth will be the support of the world.” We

will not here pause to consider him as the adorer of Buddha,

by whom he stood firmly when attacked by Mara; to whom

he made the first offering ; and from whom he first heard

the bana. Suffice it to remark, that the Sinhalese Poets take

him in the light in which he is regarded by the Hindus—the

personification of Purity, Sanctity and Wisdom.

B5BeEoc) ene, OE) FNADNHNA S

BHD CLO DQACE, SOO A@MHS OOIQHE QHA CE

“‘O virtuous Bédhisat! thou art the very Brahma in purity (and

sanctity) ; in brightness and loveliness ; in loneliness of life ; in infinite

fearning, and great wisdom ;—the theme of the Hishis.”

* In Csoma Korési’s Analysis of the Tibetan annals, the following

passage occurs, the genuineness of which is doubted by many Buddhists

in Ceylon: ‘‘Shakya asks several questions of Brahma, whether was it

-he who caused the several revolutions in the destruction and regenera-

tion of the world. At last he himself asks Shakya, how the world was

made,—by whom? Here ave attributed all changes in the world, to the

moral works of the animal beings, and it is stated, that in the world all is

illusion: there is no reality in the things: all is empty.” —Asvatic

esearches, xx. p. 434.

20 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON). [Vol. III, }

It is in regard to these attributes, with the arrogance of an

Ovid, when he said,

Jamque opus exigi; quod nec Jovis ira, nec ignis

Nec poterit ferrum, nec edax abolere vetustas 5

the author of the “ Kavyasékhara,” speaks of himself in the

following strain :—

‘Like a Brahaspati on earth renown ’d,

The limits of each science fully found,

Radiant with heaven-derived religion’s beams,

On learning’s head a living gem he streams.’*

He is represented as holding “an umbrella in hand, and

hence his name, Sat-ata. He is called Baram or Bamba,

from his acknowledged greatness ; Vzd: from his being the

author of destination ; Siwu-wat from his having four faces ;

Lé-ejara from his being the teacher of the world; Piywm-yon,

from his having been produced out of a lotus; Ven-put, from

his being the son of Vishnu; Ata-kara, from his having eight

arms; Sarasawiya-kal, from being the husband of Saraswati;

Piyum-dsana from his having a lotus for his seat ; Vé-guru,

from being the teacher of the Vedas; Ran-geba, from his

golden lustre; Ata-nei, from his having eight eyes; Sura-detu

from being the ancestor of the Gods; and Lo-7suru, the chief

of the world. The above names are collected by one of our

poets in the following couplets :

BODVOD SEBYOHOSI Fi S

B09 BG@omstodsd gove OM o—

ADHS adam Sq MmDOdD® Or

SSIMAGOONS sdacgoe) oy Ou

We have already seen, that the Asuras were inimical to

Sakra, whence they were called Dew-rupu or Sura-saturu.

This is in consequence of their expulsion from Tawtisa, one

of Indra’s heavens, to the foot of Maha-mera, where they

now reside. Fearful of a repetition of their attacks, the four |

* See my Sidat Sangarawa, p. exci.

T O65) BOVSO.— Kadvyastkhara.

No. 11.—1858-9.] | SINHALESE MYTHOLOGY. 21

guardian Devas or Hatara-varam-deviyo,t are appointed to

superintend the four quarters of that mountain. The Rev.

S. Hardy has the following observations on this head :

‘“ The four guardian dewas, Dhritordshira, Virudha, Viru-

paksha, and Waisrawana have palaces on the summit of

Yuigandhara rocks. The palace of Dhritardshtra is on the

east. His attendants are the Gandharwas, a kela laksha in

number, who have white garments, adorned with white orna-

ments, hold a sword and shield of crystal, and are mounted

on white horses. The Déva is arrayed and mounted in a

similar manner, and shining like a kela laksha of silver lamps,

keeps guard over the possessions of Sakra in the eastern

division of the Sakwala. The palace of Virdédha is on the

south. His attendants are the Kumbhandhas, a kela laksha in

number, who have blue garments, hold a sword and shield

of sapphire, and are mounted on blue horses. The Deva is

arrayed and mounted in a similar manner, and shining like

a kela laksha of lamps composed of gems, keeps guard over

the southern division of the Sakwala. The palace of Viru-

paksha is on the west; his attendants are the Nagas, a kela

laksha in number, who have red garments, hold a sword and

shield of coral, and aie mounted on red horses. The Deva

is arrayed and mounted in a similar manner, and shining like

a kela laksha of torches, keeps guard over the western division

of the Sakwala. The palace of Watsrawana is on the north :

his attendants are the Yakku, a kela laksha in number, who

have garments adorned with gold, and are mounted on horses

shining like gold. The Deva is arrayed and mounted ina

‘similar manner, and shining like a kela laksha of golden lamps,

keeps guard over the northern division of the Sakwala.”

The Lokapalas, who are sometimes confounded with the

guardians of the cardinal points, may be here mentioned.

They are represented as divinities appointed by Brahma to

act as rulers over different created things. ‘They are amongst

others the following :—I/ndra, sovereign guardian of the

earth, and the regious below and above the earth; Séma of

22 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). [Vol. III,

sacrifices ; Varuna, of the waters; Vdyu, of the unembodied

element ; Vaisrawana, of demons and rakshas ; Parjanya,

of oceans, clouds, rivers ; Nandi, of quadrupeds ; Superna, of

birds of prey ; Garunda, of the winged race, &c., &c. Each

city, grove, and house has a presiding deity ; and thus in the

“ Selalihini Sandésa,” the poet reminds us of the “ household

god,” by adoring whom the Sarika was to proceed on his

errand :—

HEOIdBRBD HOVE C08 BSHomo.... #7

The city too (Kelaniya), into which the poet sent his message,

is said to be the seat of Vibhishana. It isin accordance with

this notion, that the Sighalese are very reluctant to pull

down an old house ; or even

Soe ade an ancient tree, whose branches wear

The marks of village reverence and care : —

Mégha Dita.

and which is generally supposed to be the abode of dévog

This notion of household-gods, is entirely derived from the

Hindus, according to whom “every city,” says Prof. Wilson,

“has its own Sri, its own fortune or prosperity, which in

former times seems to have been represented by an image

with a temple of its own, The practice amongst the ancients

of considering a city under the protection of some well-

known divinity is more familiar to us, but an analogous

superstition with that of the Hindus also prevailed amongst

the polytheists of Europe.”

Thus in “ The Seven against Thebes ;” the Theban women

seek their shrines of the gods, who are the guardians of the

city. The poet in the “ Mélati and Madava” gays ;

seveeeeeee Lill they come,

Obedient to the holy dame’s injunctions,

The matrons of her father’s household send,

The maiden to the temple of the deity

That guards our walls, to pray that naught molest,

No evil interrupt the happy rite. —

Hindu Plays, 11. p.p. 64-5.

No. 11.—1858-9.] SINHALESE MYTHOLOGY. a3

3. The chief of all the infernal deities, the SUMMANAS

or Pluto of the west, has, in one point of view, much resem-

blance to our Yama, as exercising a sovereignty over the

dead, and as being the king of Hell; whilst in another, as

the chief of the infernal deities, he is identical with our

VESAMUNI, or the Indian Kuvera. The poet embodies his

various names in the following verses :

EBEMODS ODBOHADIE ED ¢

B56, Dosnst BeSe 6ddad q

BE C,2)07.D9 Org—

He is the lord of wealth, and is thence named Daniidu or

Danada,aname which has some resemblance to Pluto’s Latin

designation, Dis, signifying “wealth.” He is represented

as extremely deformed, as indeed his Grecian parallel is

described “ blind and lame ;” and hence he is called ku, “ vile”

and vera, “ body”—Kuvéra. From the circumstance of one

of his cities being called Visana, he is named Vesamuni,

although some suppose that it means ‘Son of Visa.” He

is called Yak-rada, that is, Sunimanas, or chief of all the

Vakhos, or the infernal deities of the Greeks.

SABMNDODOI-FeDOENOYSD ro)

ODHVS 6ESOd-ODOABMIMMA SHIOOOHO fo)

Kawmint-kofdula,»

In the Vana Parva of the “ Mahabharata,” it is stated that

Kuvera, the son of Pulastya, by his attentions to hig

grandfather Brahma, was made immortal, and appointed

the god of wealth; that his capital was Lazkdé or Ceylon;

and that his attendants were demons. It is doubtless

his tale which induced the ancient historians of this

island to regard its inhabitants before the arrival of Vijaya

as “supernatural” “non-human” beings or “demons.”

But I am reminded by my pandit, that this notion of

“demoniac inhabitants,”

in Ceylon, may be also traced to the fact that Ravana

the ancient king of Ceylon is mentioned in the Uttara

Rémdyana and Padma Purdna as the progenitor of the

whom Vijaya found on his arrival

24 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). [ Vol. IL],

Rdkshd, or a distinguished member of a demonaic race.

Asa deity in whose hands are the destinies of mankind,

he receives the appellation Siri-da, “the promoter of

prosperity.” Unlike other deities, who are represented

as being seated on brute-beasts, Kuvera is said to ride

on a human being, a circumstance by which he receives

the name of Néréyana. He is attended by Kinnaras,

the musicians of Heaven, and is thence called Kitduritdu.

He is esteemed very powerful, and is thence called Raja-

raja, “the king of kings.” Like the Roman Dis, of whom

it is said by Cicero, that he is so called, because “all the

natural powers and faculties of the earth are under his

direction,” Kuvéra is the Master of the inestimable treasures

of the earth, and more especially of the nine gems, (of

which we shall speak hereafter,)—and is therefore called

Ntindu ‘chief of treasures.’

QHdigneBa Bamaeda: Des.

CAHNEBEHSEBOOHSOR YaMn

S€lalihini-Sandésaya.

He is the Regent of the North, and is thence called

Uturu-né. Mount Kailasha is his abode jointly with

Siva, who is said to be Kuvéras friend—thence the

appellation Rudu-saha. But Alaka is his principal city,

which is therefore received by our bards as the centre of

all those regions which teem with wealth :

QNOOEHS EnMEdOOHE Bow 0

Parawi Sandésaya.

The nine Nidhi or ‘treasures’ are enumerated in the fol-

lowing stanza given in several Sanscrit works :—

SEODIGar0 OMSED QoODIIMBIMD COSs

Qapsense B@wd DH Bdonind

They are translated by Professor Wilson to be the “lotus,” —

‘large lotus,” “shell” or “conch,” “fish,” “tortoise,” “ crest,”

“(a mathematical figure used by the Jains,” nida “ colour” and

“ dwarf.” But, evidently gems are meant: and I may here

give Mr. Kindersley’s translation of the passage, through the

.No. 11.—1858-9.] SIYHALESE MYTHOLOGY. . rat |

medium of the Tamil; viz., the coral, pearl, cats’s-eye, eme-

rald, diamond, sapphire, ruby, and topaz. The ninth is

left undetermined. [It is néla which probably means the

nil-amant of the Tamils or the nl-keta of the Sinhalese,

which is commonly called ‘the blue sapphire,” and esteemed

of great value. And I may here advert to the fact that the

blue sapphire is sometimes formed of the Ceylon ruby, which

may be seen in various stages of formation, exhibiting the

shades which are produced by a mixture of the lake and

blue,

4. The Déva who has not his parallel amongst the

Grecian and Roman gods, the most inimical to Buddhas, is

said to be MARA, the ruler of six heavens. No intelligible

reason is, however, given for his antagonism te Buddhism,

but ‘the fear by his discourses many beings would obtain the

blessedness of the Brahma lokas, and the privilege of

mirwanda, which would prevent the repeopling of the inferior

world in which he reigned, when the Devos then inhabiting

it had fulfilled their period of existence.”* Though acknow-

ledged to be a being of mighty powers, he is nevertheless

represented, owing to this opposition, as a Déva full of

“cunning.” Inthe life of Buddha given by Csoma Kor6si, he

is called “the devil,” and is described as being extremely

envious, and as reflecting thus : “Should he become Buddha

all animal beings instructed by him, will grow judicious and

wise, and then they will not obey my commands or order.”

This hate of his towards Buddha, seems to resemble that

of Satan; and his temptations the assaults of the Devil.

For, when Siddharta left home to become Buddha, Mara,

the “agent of Sin,’ instantly appeared, saying, “let me

stop the great mortal,” and rising aloft mto the air, thus

addressed him: ‘WMahawéro, depart not: on the seventh

day from hence, the heavenly Chakkaratanan will most

certainly come to pass. Then thou shalt exercise sovereigntyT

* Spence Hardy ‘‘ Manual of Buddhism,” p. 171.

+ ‘© The devil taketh him up into an exceeding high mountain, and

218 JOURNAL R. A. 8S. {CEYLON). [Vol. III.

over the four great quarters of the earth, together with

their 2000 isles: Blessed, wait.’ The great mortal asked

‘Who art thou?’ ‘I am Vasavatto.’ “I am aware that both

empire and universal dominion are proffered tome: I am

however not destined for royalty : depart Mara; approach

not thus.* When Gautama became Buddha, Mara brought

an army equipped with swords, axes, javelins, bows, arrows,

spikes, clubs, &c., to wage war against the great sage.

The army is described to have been so great in number,

that it well nigh overpoised theearth. The soldiers assumed

many terrific forms Of wild animals, demons and spirits; |

and continued rushing towards the spot where Buddha sat _

under the Bé tree. Apparitions of ill omen descended in —

various forms, proclaimed the advent of Mara. Thousands

of appalling meteors descended from heaven. The earth |

quaked ; and there was darkness throughout the world. |

Indra, Brahma, and a host of other celestials who were P

in attendance upon Buddha fled at the appearance of

Mara, who came mounted upon his charger, the Elephant |

ealled Girimékhala. The great sage was thus left alone; |

and the assault commenced. Crashing storms of fire, brim-

stone, and weapons came down ; but they hurt not one hair |

of Gautama. A hundred thousand volcanos were hurled at |

him; but they assumed the form of garlands on their |

approach to Buddha. Every other imaginable devise was |

likewise ineffectual ; and Mara fled with shame. His enmity |_

did not cease here. When Buddha announced his approach- —

ing dissolution, Mara imperceptibly exerted his influence |

over the mind of Ananda, and prevented him from com- |_

prehending this exposition, though repeated twice.f

showeth him all the kingdoms of the world aad the glory of them.

And saith unto him, Ail these things will I give thee &c.” Matt. iv. 8, 9.

* Turnour’s version of the ‘ Buddhavansa” (Bengal Asiatic Society’s | 3

Journal vii. p. 30,.)

+ This interference prevented Ananda from entreating the sage to |

prolong his existence which he had the power of doing even for a |

whole kalpa if he was duly requested thereto.—Turnour, oc. cit. p. 1001: |

No. 11.—1858-9.] SINHALESH MYTHOLOGY. 279

Sixty two artifices, of which Mara was guilty, are

spoken of by the votaries of Gautama ; and it is generally

believed by them, that he was the founder of all the systems

of religions on earth, except Buddhism ; and that he sent our

blessed Lord Jesus Christ into the world to set aside Buddh-

ism, which was at the time captivating the minds, and

winning the affections of thousands in the Hast. Im a little

work* extant among the Sinhalese, the following passages

occur in reference to the belief above referred to :—

_ * This appears to be a fragment of a larger work, entitled the ‘His-

tories of Milindu and Krista (Christ).’ There is no mention whatever of

the person by whom it was written. It contains, among other matters,

a narrative of the circumstances attending the birth and crucifixion of

‘Christ’ of ‘Nazareth,’ It combines a life of our Saviour, with a few

artienlars connected with the controversial dialectics of Milindu and

Nagaséna. The writer does not (as he would, if it were a fabrication

give it a show of inspired authencity, by stating it to be the production

af a Rahat ; but merely says, that the two stories (Whether a tradition

handed down, or a written work, it is not clear), were brought down by

certain Buddhist priests, who arrived on a religious mission on this

Island, during the reign of Vialagam Bahu, which was, according to

“Mahavansa,” A D., 519: when indeed, we find from the ‘‘ Mahavansa.,”

a body of priests were assembled, for the first time in the island, to commit

to writing the oral traditions concerning the national religion of Lanka.

(See ‘‘ Mahavansa,” p. 207.) The countries too from which the priests

came are mentioned, and they are those which frequently occur in other

Buddhistical works—‘‘ Aramana, Malawa, Ghandara, Pygoa, | elalup,

Rakkadu, and Sagal.” The birth of Christ is stated to be in the time of

Nagaséna 485 A.B. This, it is important to observe, is at variance with

the date for thesame event assigned in other Buddhistical works. [The

* Mahavansa.” says that Buddha had predicted the birth of this sage 500

years after his death. In the Tibetan annals (see Asiatic Researches,

xx. p. 400) the same prediction is recorded and that Nagarjuna would

appear 400 years A- B. The Rajé Tarangini shows that this celebrated

personage visited Kasmir about 460 A.B. See Bengal Asiatic Society's

Journal, v. p. 536.] These discrepancies which unsettle the date given

in the “ Mahavansa.” a book which is considered as sacred as any

of the Buddhistical Scriptures, are invested with much importance In a

historical point of view, shewing clearly the correctness of Turnoui’s

belief that the Buddhistical era was antedated by Mahanama, or the early

historians to whom he was indebted, to the extent of 60 or 65 years.

They also intimate, consequently, a strong circumstance in favor

of the genuineness of the work here noticed. But it must be borne in

mind that this history bears date 2305 A. B. (which is 1762 A. D.) after

the Dutch had introduced Christianity amongst the Sinhalese, and long

afte- the Portuguese had made the natives acquainted with the history

of Jesus Christ. From the language too, in which it is written (and

which contains amongst other words the Portuguese word /dnu instead

of the Sinhalese neswn for “ditch,”) this appears beyond all manner of

doubt to be what it does not disguise to represent—the production of a

modern date. Whether, therefore, it is an invention of the Buddhists, a

280 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). Volt Ht

“And when Wasawarti Mara saw that king Milindu had

thus set aside his twoamnd sixty artifices, and his established

moral and ceremonial customs, he reflected thus :‘ King Milindu

fabrication of the Buddhist priesthood, to bring contenipt on our holy

Religtor is a matter well worthy the attention and investigation of

Oriental Scholars to whoni, and to the Astatic Society in particular, | am

prepared to submit an English translation in MS. of this little work.

Opposed, however to such a supposition is the undeniable and wel’=nown

fact, that Buddhists look upon Christianity without jealousy,—nay more,

that there is a disposition on their part to conform to Christianity along

with Buddhism The Rev. D. J. Gogerly says, in a paper printed in Sir

EK. Tennent’s work on Christianity in Ceylon, p. 240 :—=« pieve seen it

stated in a controversial Tract written by a Buddhist priest of Matura,

not fifteen years since, that probably Christ in a former state of existence

was a God, residing in one of the six heavens(a position which they repre-

sented Gautama as having occupied immediately previous to his birth, as

Buddha); that animated by benevolence he desired and obtained a birth as

man, and thought truth so far as he was acquainted with it.” Nor is this

a creature of modern and enlightened times. So far back as the age of

she great Asoka, the liberal nyonaich of Asia, we find that far from any

hostility being shewnto other religions, Buddhists actually honored them.

Thus, in one of the Inscriptions of that Buddhist sovereign we find it

ceclared (See Max Miller’s Buddhism and Buddhist Pilgrims, p. 23,)

that “theré are circumstances where the religion of others ought to be ~

honored. And in acting thus,a man fortifies hisown faith, and assists the

faith of others. He who acts otherwise, diminishes his own faith and hurts

the faith of others.” See also Hue’s Tartary, Thibet and China, p. 210.

The following concluding passage, contains important data for the

elucidation of Ceylonese and Indian history. ‘“ This is the history of the

Tirtaka. * * He is called bythe Tamils Nasarinu (Nazarine) ; by the

Sinhalese Tirtaka, ** a retigionus Teacher ; and by others Kirsta (Christ).

He was born 485 years after thedeath of Buddha, the teacher of the three

worlds. King Milindu entered upon his dialectic controversies in 490

A. B. Those controversies lasted nine months and nine days; at the

termination of which the king became a convert to Buddhism, entertained

Nagaséna, and 80,000 priests for 12 years. In 513 A.B. the Carpenter’s

Son was killed and buried. At this time by reason of an innocent. Brah-

man female having been killed, there was a famine for 12 years. [This

event, as detailed in the Rasavuhini, a Pali historical record, serves to

eonfirm the dates here given.) Luring this period Valagam Bahu reigned

at Anuradhapura in Lanka and erected 99 nionuments and edifices. "Two

years and four months before the fanvine, which is called the Beminitr

séya, two Priests fronr Lanka went to worship the great Bo, and visited

the various places in the five and thirty cities in which Buddha had dwelt.

During this pilgrintage was the fanrine, called Beminisiti séya, They

next proceeded to Sagal, and there were 80,000 Priests in the four

Temples of that city.

They having heard the renown of Lanka in respect of the Buddhist

religion established in it, were highly delighted and expressed their

gratulations. The two priests who went over were kindly treated by i

them. After the expiration of the 12 years, during which the famine

had lasted, a body of Priests came to Ceylon on a religious mission from |

the countries of Mallawa, Ganddra, Aramana, Pygoa, Pelalup, Rakkadu, |

and Sagal. They rendered much service to the religion of Buddha, by |

elucidating his doctrines, and by the compilation of books concerning |

kis dharrma. At that time these two histories, viz., onerelating to Milindu, |

and the other regarding the ‘Tirtaka of a Carpenter’s. Son, were brought |

No. {1.—1858-9.] SIyHALESE MYTHOLOGY. Ist

has locked up the four hells which exist for my spiritual

support, and has also set aside my two and sixty hidden (unre-

vealed) devices, (artifices)’; and summoned before him a

son (a being) of Vasavarti, and said unto him, ‘ You were

first defeated by doctrinal disputations with Milindu, the

son (a deva) of Nirmdnaratiya heaven, and other heavenly

beings were likewise defeated by him. He has subjugated

all the six heavens. He also entered into a controversy

with a deva of Yama. Him also he has defeated. Since

then Nagaséna has vanquished the six heavens by defeating

Milindu. —~By reason of our having originated the disputa-

tion, he ig incensed against me; and with a view to destroy

my sixty-two devices, he has departed to the human world,

where he is born by thename of Milindu. He now reigns in

the city of Sagal, asthe supreme monarch over a hundred

kings of Dambadiva. Since therefore you were first defeating

by him in controversial disputations, go and be born in the

midst of the city of Sagal, and in the womb of a female of the

low Carpenter’s caste. And when you shall have grown up, be

you Monarch over the whole of Dambadiva. Snatch away

the sceptre of Milindu’s kingdom. Open the gates of the four

hells, which exist for the support of my existence ; and uphold

and protect my two and sixty secret devices, which shall last

tor ever and ever. (lit: during the entire kalpa.) Upon this

injunction of Vasavarti Mara, the Mara-son came down from

the heaven called Paranerme tu-vasavartli, and at midnight

was conceived in the womb of a female of the Carpenter’s

é . aN 9)

caste inthe city of Sagal. *

oresaid two priests on their return to Lanka. It is now

Weazie of ae writing) "2305 years after the time of the great

Buddha.”

Nacaséna. “At the intercession of Assagutta Ternnnanse, on ce fo

the Buddhist priesthood generally, Indra, the supreme of ae Bens

invoked Nagaséna, who was in the Ketwmate heaven, and ie ec : as

sena, tobe born in the human world, for the purpose o cen w We

Milindu, to which Nagaséna, after much hesitation, Corea ee C

cordingly he was conceived in the womb of the wife of Sonut inet

Brahman, and an inhabitant of Kajangala, on the borders of the

Himanta mountains.”—Milindapprasna.

982 JOURNAL BRB. A. S. (CEYLON). | [ Viol: Laake

Mara is called Kéma dévé, or “god of pleasure,” by Kosma

Korési in his Tibetan Annals. We are unable to find

the authority for this in any of the works on Buddhism

extant in Ceylon; but it is a fact most of the names

yiven to the Sinhalese Cupid, or Kéma déva, are also given.

to Mara, which name signifies “death,” or “destroyer.” It

also is remarkable that Mara’s three daughters, who were

dispatched to tempt Gautama, are called Ranga, “dance,”

Tanhu, “love,” and Fat, “sensuality” ; the last name being

also given, according to the Hindu Fabulists, to the consort

of the Indian Cupid, whence he is called Riyahimi. Since he

is identified with Mara, commonly surnamed Vasavarii, from

the appellation given to the heaven of which he is an inhabit-

ant, it may be convenient to notice here a few particulars

regarding KAMA DtvVaA.

He is represented as Ananga, or “bodiless.” This is either

metaphorical as to his influence on the mind, or with reference

to the legend of his having been reduced to ashes by the

anger of Siva, when pierced by Kdma’s arrows, and thus

inspired with love for Parvat.* Referring to the last men-

tioned circumstance, heiscalled Maru, * destroyer ;” Jlal-anga,

“dead body ;”’ Vasam-sera, ‘unequal body ;” and Un-aga,

“deficient body.” Regarding him as a creature of the mind,

he is Mana-yon, t ‘‘mind-born;” or Naraka, “human body.”

He is the embodied form of the god of gods, whence he is

called Tunu-hiru, “body of sun’s splendour.” He is the

agitator of the hearts of Brahma, Vishnu, Siva, and Indra,

and is thence called Samara, “the warrior.” He inflames

the minds of men for sensual pleasures, and is therefore called

Mada, or ‘intoxication’: in reference to which Kalidasa in

the following beautiful lines in his Sakuntald ; sings:

* Hindt Plays, ii. p.21. Alsosee Prof. Monier Williams’ Sokwntala, p. 101.

+ Having offered adoration to the mind-born divinity, let the wife

worship her husband with ornaments, flowers and raiment, thinking in-

ternally with entire complacency ‘ This is the God of love.’—The Puranas.

No. 11.—1858-9.] | SINHALESE MYTHOLOGY. 283

EGnEDH. OCOMISs GBA; BDOESOCOMDsHQELIANG) Oa

DOIVHsO)I OSHVUOES Ay Ho? ; HHDIDOSS? MLTOGI Ms

-** Verily even now the fire of Siva’s wrath burns in this like the submarine

fire in the ocean : otherwise how couldst thou, O agitator of the soul !

with nothing left but ashes, be so scorching towards such as me?”

Ananga is represented, like his Grecian parallel Eros, with a

bow and arrow. The description of these weapons in our

books is truly beautiful : the bow isa sugar-cane, (whence the

appellation of Siya-sew, or a “ creeper-bow,” sweet in its taste,

and lovely in its appearance ; the bow-string is made of a line

of bees, those lovely denizens of the forest, who sip the

liquid sweets of flowers ; and the arrows are five in number

(pan-sera), each tipped with a flower, Hence the name

Mala-viya or Kusum-dunu, “ flowery bow,” which the poet

describes in the following lines :—

BOBOHT @dEdHONG WADE S)

OOVsd SE1OHEED MMOS o)

ODENSSSH SAOMVONIOBED ®

OBS CBE GESO S1COWS ad @

The five species of flowers here described are : the white

dazzling Jasmine, the matchless Asdka,* the unspotted dda,

the far-famed Maha-nel (Lotus. Nelumbiwm speciosum),

and the odorous Mango.t ‘They are also given in the following

passage in the paraphrase to the Amara Koésha :—-

ECD TEVOHIMOHHVNHVOE Ga, CRECHOOHS. oovoss

SO)a)9 DK e699 8

and are different from those enumerated by a Sinhalese poet

in the following line :—

BOD omade 8H 068 od) Ede O8OG wdeacd.

which are the Jasmine, Idda, Kina, Domba, and Bolidda.

* This is the Jonesia Asvka, which is represented as producing a very

lovely flower, and it is supposed that the contact of the stem of the Asoka

tree with the foot of a woman of superior beauty, makes it blossom.

+ It is believed, (and I here speak upon the authority of Mr. W

Ferguson), that the tree which produced the balm of Gilead in the Scrip-

tures, Bdel’ium, Myrrh and Incense or Frankincense, are the produce

of the same natural order of plants té which our Mango belongs.

284 JOURNALRS ALS: (CEYLON). 27>) [ Vol. Lt.

Sir William Jones differently describes them in the

following beautiful lines, giving a descriptionof the mal-sera

or “flowery darts” of Cupid.

“* He bends the luscieus cane and twists the string,

With bees how sweet, but ah! hew keen their sting.

He with five flow’rets tips the ruthless darts,

Which through five senses pierce enraptur’d hearts :

Strong Champa, rich in odorous gold,

Warm Acra nursed in heav’nly mould ;

Dry Nagaser in silver smiling ;

Hot Criticum our sense beguiling,

And last to kindle fierce the scorching flame,

Love shaft, which gods bright Bela name ”*

The Eastern Cupid bears upon his bannerthe Makura, an

aquatic monster like a fish ; and in the Makara-dvaja,} Dissa-

nayaka describes him as a “fierce warrior, approaching to

battle.” — }

ODOBHSBHEHODATSESE Sa

ODN DAV CQYOVSOBEOMSMOSHHNS) G2

wMEWomMUCEMIEDQOONDDADOH da

ESVBGEVUOAI NDA ECreskaz So

‘* Mounted on the elephant of darkness—holding the umbrella of Autumn,

hoisting the banner of Makara, ¢ enjoying the music of the bellowing

seas; playing the lute (chank) which produces the kokila’s (cuckoo’s)

notes, and holding the sugar-cane bew with lotus darts.”

According to one of the Puranas, the worship of Kama:

was instituted by Siva, in pity of the fate to which he had

aes oS ——b

* “In the Romaunt of‘the Rose there is something of a similar al-

legory; Cupid is armed with ‘ten brade arrows,’ of which ‘five were

shaven well an1 dight,’ and of a nature to produce virtuous attachment; |

while the other five ‘also black as fiend in hell’ were Pride, villaine, ” |

&e., and of pernicious properties.”— Wilson’s Mégha Dita.

See various descriptions of ‘the five flowers,’ in Professor Williams’

Sakuntala, note at p. 100. ;

t Literally «‘ Fish-banner.” the name of a poem.

t{ Although the name signifies a ‘fish ’ and its representation in the

Indian Zodiac has a resemblance to the Pisces of the western Astronomers ; |

yet I cannot help thinking that this is the crocodile of Egytian worship, |

The Makara toran over porches in Buddhistical temples clearly prove this |

to be a crocodile. Professor Wilson describes the animal as ‘‘ monster,”

which doubtless it is, judging from the representations given of it in

Buddhistical Temples.

No. 11.— 1858-9.] SIyHALESE MYTHOLOGY. 288

consigned him. This is represented to take place in a grove

ot Asoka trees, where Kama incurred the wrath of the

three-eyed ged. Altheugh Europeans have frequently dwelt

npon the want of affectien in the matrimenial relations amongst

Asiatics, it is nevertheless a fact, that they are much

attached te their wives, who reciprocate the feelings of love

to an extent even unknown inthe fictions of the west.

Various passages may be cited from the books illustrating this

position ; but one will suffice from a Hindu poet, who thus

feelingly describes the lament of Uma, when Kama was

blasted by the lightning of Siva’s scerching eye: -—‘ She

swoons” ; but

Too soon her gentle soul returned to know

The pangs of widowhood,—that word of woe !

“Speak to me Kama’! why so silent? give

One word in answer,— doth my Kama live ?

There on the turf his dumb cold ashes lay—

That fiery flash has scerched the soul away...

Sure woman’s heart is strong, for can it be

That I still live while ¢his is all of thee?’

A reinurkable passage occursinthe Buddhavansa, in which

three of the divinities to whom we have already alluded, are

compared to Gautama, upon his first appearance in public,

after attaining the position of the Great Teacher. J extract

it entire :—

““ Among themselves these people kept saying ene to another, ‘Friend

who is this? can it be the full moon descended among us out of dread of

| Kahu, concealing the rays with which he is endowed? such a one was

never seen before.’ Smiling at his suggestion, another said, ‘This is the

god of leve with his floral banner; dignified in person he has come te

“tevel among us, having ebserved the great personal beauty of our

monarch and of our fellow-citizens.’ Laughing at him, another said,

‘Friend, art theu mad? the god of love has half of his body destroyed by

_ the fire kindled by the jealousy of Isso (Siva), it is not he, it is the chief

_ ofthe déva, the thousand-eyed deity (Indra) who has come here, imagining

that this is the celestial city. Another again, playfully ridiculing him,

said, ‘Friend, what nonsense art thou talking! where are his thousand

286 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON). [Vol. IL. |

eyes? where is his thunderbolt, and where is his elephant Irawana?_

Assuredly he is Brahma. who, having witnessed the indolence of the |

Brahmans, has come hither to ‘teach the Vedas, and their accompaniments.’ |

Another ridiculing all others said ‘He is neither the moon, the god

of love, nor the thousand-eyed deity, nor yet Brahma. He is the |

wonderful personage—the supreme—the teacher of the world.’”* |

5. One of the Triad of Hindu adoration, and a deva who |

figures most conspicuously in the ancient annals of Ceylon, is, |

MAHA DEVA, commonly called Siva He has for his seat/

Mount Kailasha, every splinter of which is represented as an

inestimable gem. Hence the appellation of Keles nivas. His}

terrestrial haunts are said to be the Himalaya region, or that|

portion of it which is known as the mountain of the moon. |

He is called 77-net, because he has “ three eyes :” one of which |

is placed in the centre of the forehead. The Sanscrit form| }

of this name, Z'ri-léchan, bears great affinity to Tripthal-|

mos, an epithet of Zeus, whose statue was found, says Sirf

W. Jones, ‘so early as the taking of Troy with a third ey

in his forehead. One of our poets describes him

Bxeloss woos DISIOAastEQs oy

BODROn ST ASHDVESS GDAOD Ost BIS oy

Holding in hand an instrument of three points, having a bluey

neck, wearing hides of animals, and concealing his wife Uma in his)

body.

Also

E@ FD HE AED Onda BOa) SCE ren)

S6amsD sm ED OOD ons HmoBsds Hodge H

Wearine the crescent moon on the head, anda fierce serpent on

o =

the neck, dancing daily, and using a bullock for his conveyance.

déva, and we quote from the elegant translation of his Méghay

dita by Professor Wilson :—

Hence with new zeal to Siva homage pay,

The God whom earth and hell, and heaven obey ;

The choir who tend his holy face shall view,

With one in thee his neck’s celestial biue.

* Bengal Asiatic Society's Journal, vol. vil, pp. 899, 810.

No 11.—1858-9.] smyHALESE MYTHOLOGY. 287 -

I have already referred to the cause of this stain in his neck.

It is thus beautifully described: in Wilkin’s translation of a

portion of the Iaha Bharata :-—

As they continned to churn the ocean more than enough, that deadly

poison issued from its bed, burning like a raging fire, whos? dreadful fumes

in a moment spread throughout the world, confounding the three

" regions of the un.verse with its mortal stench, until Seev, at the word

of Brahma, swallowed the fatal drug to save mankind, which remaining

in the throat of that sovereign Deva of magic form, from that time

he was called Nilkant, because his throat was stained blue.

The worship of this Déva commenced about. 200 years after

' Buddhism had sprung up amongst the Hindus; and it appears

” that althouzh it was at first resisted by the votaries of Brahma,

» yet that the popular feeling was so great in favor of the

' innovation, that Brahmans speedily gave way, and embraced

_ the new faith. The ceremonials connected with the worship

q of this Déva, who presides over generation, are too disgusting

' and revolting to be described here ; and I shall therefore dis-

' miss the subject by simply quoting from an orthodox Buddhist

poet, who exclaims—

geass LEDEOD. gona! BAHADND ox)

EQsSOosd Laon, MES geee HOE QsdO x

What benefit is there from sacrifices to a Deva, whose ceremonial

worship, consisting of a show of the emblem of generation, is productive

’ of either disgust or Just in the mind !

_ 6. VISHNU, the object of adoration of thousands in India,

holds a distinguished place in the Buddhistical annals of this

) country ;—and there is scarcely a single temple* in Ceylon

in which a room is not set apart tor an image of this Deva.

a He is variously described in our books, according to his

a different qualities, acts, and virtues.

According to the Maha Bhérata it was Vishnu, who at the

instigation of the sun and moon decapitated Adéhu, who is

* described as an Aswaor ‘‘demon,” that stole a draught of

- * In some instances, as at Laénkdtilaka, near Kandy, the Vihar®

_ and the Devoela are under the same roof. See Forbes’ Ceylon.

288 JOURNAL R A. 8. (CEYLON) [Vol 1.

Amrat or “ Ambrosia,” at the churning of the ocean. Hence

Rahu’s enmity to those planets, whom the Buddhists believe

are periodically seized upon by Rahu to avenge the part

they are said to have taken in the detection of his theft.

The names of this Déva, as of other deities, are descriptive.

He is Vas-dew, “the son of Vasa-déva,” and Uvindu “ ranks.

next to the chief deva.’ He is Kamal-kal or Siri-piya, the

husband of Laksmi. Hehas Siw-ba, “four arms ;” Piywn-net,

“lotuseyes”’; Damoéra, “asash round his belly ;” Hem-salu,

‘a golden mantle” on his body ; Sak-pana, “ a ring” in one

band, and “a conch shell” in the other; and Piyum-neba, “a

lotus navel.” This last designation was owing to the part

Vishnu had taken in the reconciliation between Parvati and

Mahadeva, who found their concurrence essential to the per-

fection of their offspring. This was so far recognized by the

Egyptians and the Greeks, that the former, we learn from

Wilford’s Essay on Egypt, had ‘a vast wiebilicus nade of stone,’

in their Temple of J upiter-Ammon ; and that the latter kept

an wmebilicus of white marble, at Delphi, in the sanctuary of

the Temple, where it was carefully wrapt up in cloth. He is

represented as being Kalu or MNilaitiga, ‘blue; and as

Gurulu-dada, “riding on a Guriulu,” between whom and the

serpent race is a deadly feud, originating in a dispute between

their respective parents Kadru and Vinata; the wives of

Kasyapa. Ina Hindu legend (as in the following extract from

the Budugundlaikdra,)

DY BAG, EHO, EMHEVWHI1O BHD 2)

ViE BQYESEBO, BiIDEDDMEONDCH 2)

ne is described, as

“ pillowed on his snake-couch mid the deep.”—Muddra Rakshasa.

and as

reposing upon the thousvid heads of Sésha, amidst the waters by |

which the earth is overspread. |

The story, in reference to which he is called Govindu, or

‘chief of herdsmen,’ is thus narrated by Miss Spier, in her |

*‘ Life in Ancient India,” p. 466.

No. 11.—1858-9.] SINHALESE MYTHOLOGY. 289

‘“‘At the conclusion of the rainy season, when the skies were bright

with stars, the herdsmen were busily engaged in preparing a sacrifice

for Indra; but Krishna, resolving to put the king of the celestials into

a passion, persuaded Nanda to worship mountains and cattle, and have

nothing to do with Indra. ‘Kine,’ he said, ‘are oursupport ; we have

neither fields nor horses; we wander about happily where we list,

travelling in our waggons ; we are then bound to worship the mountains,

and cattle, and have nothing to do with Indra.’ Offerings of curd milk and

flesh were in consequence presented to the mountain, and the worshippers

circumambulated the cowsand bulls, who bellowed as loud as roaring clouds.

Indra’s anger broke forth ina furious tempest, which lasted seven days and

seven nights, but Krishna protected the distressed community by plucking

up the mountain, and holding it aloft as an umbrella until the tempest

eeased, when he planted it again on the earth. Upon witnessing these

marvels, the herdsmen wished to render worship to Krishna, but he desired

them not to inquire into his nature, but to be contented that he lived

among them as a friendly relative.”

Hence the appellation of Diya-banda, given to this déva

by our poets.

In the churning of the ocean, Vishnu seems to have taken

an active part. It was undertaken by his advice, and with

his assistance to recover Sri, whom Indra lost under the

following circumstances. A sage named Durwasas gave

to Indra a garland, which the latter, without attaching

to it much value, threw at his elephant, and he to the

earth. Offended at this sight, Durwasa cursed Indra, and

‘pronounced that the latter should lose Sri or ‘goddess

of prosperity, who reigned supreme in the several heavens

appertaining to that déva. She accordingly disappeared ;

and the consequence was, that the world fell into decay,

‘sacrifices ceased, and the gods were enfeebled. To avert

further evil consequences, the ocean was churned to find

her.* At this search by dévas, demi-gods, (who are

sometimes designated dévafas and demons,) various things and

persons were found. ‘They are called Aatnas or ‘gems,’ and

are enumerated to have been Danavantari, the physician of

the gods; Lakshmi, the goddess of beauty ; the Apsarases, or

* Pr. Wilson’s Vishnu Purana.

290 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). EVol. iLL.

nymphs of Indra’s heaven ; Sura, the goddess of wine ; the

Moon, said to be the jewel worn by Krishna; Sura-tuirw, or

the wish-conferring tree; Surabi, the cow of abundance ;

Airawana, the elephant of Indra; the bow of Vishnu ; his

Sankha or shell poison ; and Amrita, or Ambrosia.

The origin of the Apsarases, from ap ‘water, and sara

‘to move,’ is thus related in the Ramayana :—

Then from the agitated deep upsprang

The legion of Apsarasas, so named

That to the watery element they owed

Their being. Myriads were they born, and all

In vesture heavenly clad, and heavenly gems:

Yet more divine than native semblance, rich

With all the gifts of grace, and youth, and beauty.

A train innumerous followed : yet thus fair

Nor God nor demon sought their wedded love :

Thus Raghava they still remain—their charms

The common treasure of the host of heaven.

The poison which was generated as above described was

swallowed by Stva; and the blueness of his neck has been

the consequence. The moon is supposed to be the reposi-

tory ef the Amrita or “ambrosia.” “It is” says the Vishnu

Pirana, “replenished from the sun during the fortnight of

the increase. On the full moon the gods adore that planet

for one night, and from the first day, all of them, together with

the Pitrisand Rishis, drink one kdla or “digit” daily, until the am-

brosia is exhausted.” Inthe Hero and the Nymph,* the poet says :

Hail glorious lord of night, whose tempered fires

Are gleaned from solar fountains.

This is in accordance with the Western notion, which is

thus described by Milton

‘¢The neighbouring moon her monthly reund

Still ending, still renewing, thro’ m-d heaven,

With borrowed light her countenance triform ;

Hence fills and empties to en'ighten the earth

And in her pale dominion checks the night.”

* Hindu Plays, i. p. 220.

No. 11.—1858-9.] | SIyHALESE MYTHOLOGY. 291

To return however to the subject of the remarks :—

Vishnu is worshipped by the Buddhist as a déva whose name

is hallowed by historical and religious associations; whilst

the Hindus treat Buddha as an avefdr or incarnation of

Vishnu. The story in the Puranas, is thus related by

Wilford, in his Essay on Egypt and the Nile.*

‘The Daityas had asked Indra, by what means they could attain the

dominion of the world ; and he had answered, that they could only attain

it by Sacrifice, purification, and piety: they made preparations accordingly

for a solemn sacrifice and a general ablution ; but Vishnu, on the interces-

sion of the devos, descended in the shape of a Sannydsi, named

BUDDHA, with his hair branded ina knot on the crown of his head,

wrapt in a squalid mantle, and with a broom in his hand. Buddha

presented himself to the Daityas, and was kindly received by them ; but

when they expressed their surprise at his foul vesture, and the singular

implement which he carried, he told them, that it was cruel, and

consequently impious to deprive any creature of life; that, whatever

might be said in Vedas, every sacrifice of an animal was an abo-

mination, and that purification itself was wicked, because some small

insect might be killed in bathing or washing cloth; that he never

bathed, and constantly swept the ground before him, lest he should tread

on some innocent reptile : he then expatiated on the inhumanity of giving

pain to the playful and harmless kid, and reasoned with such eloquence;

that the Daityas wept, and abandoned all thought of ablution and sacrifice,

As this Mdyd, or ‘illusive appearance’ of Vishnu, frustrated the

ambitious project of the Daityas, one of Buddha's titles is ‘the son of

Mayda.’ He is also named Saya Sinha, or, ‘the lion of the race of Sakya

5) 18)

It is probably upon the belief of Gautama being an in-

carnation of Vishnu, that the Hindus regard the superficial

hollow on Adam’s Peak, as the impression which that déva

left by stamping the mountain with his foot. | But, 1 may,

remark, that even intelligent Buddhists of the present day

ignore the statement in one of their religious books,—I

believe the Sadharmalankéra—* that Gautama left the print

of his foot as a seal, to declare that Lanka would be the

inheritance of Buddha.”

co ABI RAI oc LE ales OSV: a ay Bree ee ee ee

* Sir William Jones’ works, il. p. EVIE

+ Spence Hardy’s “ Eastern Monachism,” p. 277.

292 JOURNAL R, A. S. (CHYLON). [Volk LE.

I have already referred to the distinguished pesition which

Vishnu holds in the natienal religion of the Sinhalese ; and

I may, befere cencluding, ebserve, that our poets abound in

allusions te this deity, and one of them especially regards

him as the enly déva ‘who was not dejected when Mara.

waged his fight against Buddha, as he sat on his wajrdsana

or diamond seat.’

¥ODIEIG SiC DSCE SONsoe B)

SDOSNS GS, TODD QEOVSD ra)

DDWMSiDICHBoomars 3

OVWWIVAN DVBVON HOHEACES 2)

isd)

No. 11.—1858-9.] STATE OF CRIME IN CRYLON.

A STATISTICAL ENQUIRY INTO THE

SLIATH OF CRIME IN CEYLON.

By JOHN CAPPER.

PART ].—THE WESTERN PROVINCE.

THE amount and character of Crime existing in any

country, is a study of so much importance, as to be well

worthy the researches of the Statist and the Political econo-

mist. This is especially the case amongst a people who, like

the natives of this island, are in a transition state ; governed

by laws dictated by the civilization of the West, yet dwelling

amidst, and deeply imbued by the customs and superstitions

of the Kast.

Tt is to be regretted, that in Ceylon, as in many other parts

of India, the materials for statistics exist in a very crude and

defective state, especially those relating to population. At

the same time, it may be observed, that native society in this

island exists in such widely different forms from the condi-

tion of any European communities, and the springs of action

affecting their good or evil conduct are so dissimilar, as to

render it far less necessary to enter into the very minute

statements and comparisons as regards this branch of enquiry,

which are to be found in works on the criminal statistics of

Kuropean countries.

The scattered nature of the Ceylon population, the primi-

tive habits and limited wants of a larger portion of the

people, the absence of any densely populated towns, the

cheapness of food and clothing, the facility with which a

livelihood may be obtained, and the consequent small extent

of pauperism, are all circumstances so widely different from

294. JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). “Vols 2m,

those existing in Europe, and so opposed to the existence of

crime, that one naturally looks for figures shewing a highly

favorable result as compared with almost any other part of

the world.

Taking the total number of convictions on an average of

three years, as found in the Western Province, to which

portion of the Island Iam at present confining my inquiry,

and comparing these with the extent of population, we find, to

our astonishment, that the result is most unfavorable to the

Island, as compared with similar returns from British India

or the parent country. In Scotland, it appears that an

offence against the laws is committed annually by one person

in erch 1,294 of the entire population ; in England and

Wales, by one in 929; in Ireland, by one in 582; in Bengal,

by one in 1,219; whilst in the Western Province of Ceylon,

an offence is committed yearly by one person in each 264.

But, startling as these figures appear, the case of Ceylon is

very tar from being an unfavorable one, if we proceed to

analyze the returns, as | shall presently. As regards Bengal,

and indeed British India generally, although I have alluded

to the criminal statistics of that Government as officially |

published, I must explain, that there does not anywhere exist |

a faithful statement of the extent and nature of crimes and

offences committed in any of the Presidencies, and least so

in that of Bengal.

It is not generally known, out of India, that a very con-

siderable number of offenders are dealt with ina summary |

manner by Indigo Planters and native Zemindars or land- |

holders, who regularly hold courts of justice at their factories |

and dwellings. Not only do the riots of their own lands

bring to their courts the offenders of their villages, but cases |

frequently come to them from more distant places. The |

evidence is taken by them with as much regulaiity, aud far |

more fidelity, than in the Company’s courts, and punishment |

is awarded without any hesitation on the part of the judge, |

on any complaint on the part of the people; from fifty lashes |

No. 11.—1858-9.] STATE OF CRIME IN CEYLON. 295

usually administered on the spot, or two or three months’ in-

carceration in the Factory Jail, down to a trifling fine, being

about the range of the sentences.

Tam not aware that any such instances of private admini-

stration of justice are to be found in any other part of the

world; but so infamous is the conduet of the police of Bengal,

and so corrupt the ordinary Company’s courts, that a Hindu

will frequently submit to anything rather than take his suit

to one of them; and such is their horror of the police

officials, that it is no uncommon occurrence, when a crime

has been committed in a village, for the entire community to

fly to the nearest jungle, rather than fall into the merciless

hands of the darogah and his peons.

I believe, that the official returns of cases tried in Bengal

do not shew above half of those actually taken to account ;

whilst the extent of undetected crime in India, must also be

very considerable ; and this should be borne in mind whilst

instituting a comparison between the criminal registers of

India and Ceylon.

I shall, in the present Paper, confine enquiries to the

Western Province, hoping to complete it for the remaining

districts of the Island in a future contribution. The follow-

ing Table exhibits the operation of the Colombo sessions of

the Supreme Court during the last six years :—

Murder| Other | Offences against

and | offences Property. Other | otal

Homi- | against : cals Offences. ae

cide. | Person. | With |Wivhout

violence |violence

Renf me imesh Pima jee est allaesa rey ates rey pe | a}

D ® oD cP) ® ® D ® ® ® SS cr)

om —_ = om = 1) = Ofes! o~} Os) > Cis

BlSelele ele e)eia le! § | =

>) rs) oS om) oS ro) oO oO 5 3) ss 5

Oe eh PS | ae Ce PIO rset cea

1852 3 0 8 0; 3 UW) |) 1 | O:\ 2oaiee

1853 6 7 2 4 7 3 | 1d + 3 3 | 33 | 21

1854 2 Or 2 1 3 Me iketa 5) 2 5 | 20 | 12

1855 7 7 4 6; 10; 10; 4); 6 Zl On| 2iain29

1856 2 ] Amerie fa | ORE wl : 1 | 23 (a2

1857 Nee ee ec eee eit onl lon Sa Zit Od | 9

206 JOURNAL-R. A. 8. (CEYLON). [Vol. II.

The punishments inflicted in the above cases are shewn in

the following Tabular Return :—

Punishments awarded by the Supreme Court during sia years ending

December 3ifst, 1857.

Transported for Imprisonedfor| _

ie)

3 : 5 2years| &

V852'- ... 1 1 2 2 3 9 5 3

1853... 3 | 0 ] 13 0 13 7 3

1854... 1 0 0 0 0 7 12 4

1855 3 0 0 0 0 LL 13 2

1856 2 0 0 Wy) 1 7 12 5

1857 2 ) 2 6 0 9 3 4

If we compare the Capital punishments in Ceylon with the

total Convictions, we find them to be as 1 in 840, whilst in

England the proportion is 1 in 650; in Bombay I in 2,827 ;

in Bengal 1 in 2,878 ; and in Madras. I in 3,236:

If we examine the records of this Court, and compare them

with the Calendars of former years, with a view to ascertain

the relative proportions of offences against the person and

offences against property, at various periods, we shall find

from the accompanying Table, that, whilst the former class

of offences has sensibly decreased, the latter class has not

increased in anything like the same proportion.

Convictions by the Supreme Court in the Colombo Sessions at varius

periods, shewing the number of offences against Person and Property.

Offences against | Offences against | oi) oy Offences.

the person. property.

1834 tie 23 31 18

1835 83 19 14 2

1841 ode 9 18 : 5)

1842 E 6 30 2

1856 ode al 03 6 14 3

1857 BA 12 20 2

No. 11.—1858-9.] STATE OF CRIME IN CEYLON. 207

Taking the above three periods of two years each, we find

the average result to be, that in the firstnamed period the

offences were about equal, in the second period offences

against property stood at 31 to | against the person, and in the

latter period at 2 against property to l against person. The

latest returns I possess in reference to Crime in Great Britain

shew, that for every offence against the person, there were in

England and Wales 4, and in Ireland § against property, while

in Bengal the relative numbers appear to be 14 against pro-

perty to 1 against the person.

From the first period to the last, it does not appear that the

proportions of Convictions has shewn any increase, though

the latter compares favorably with the middle period, as may

be seen by the following Statement :—

Percentage of

Cases tried. Conviction. A Sous

Convictions.

1834 Sell 95 72 Ee)

1835 i 54. 35 66

1841 as 58 32 55

1842 tS 99 39 39

1852 aa 29 25 87

1853 ae 54 33 62

1854 aN 32 20 61

1855 ee 56 a7 ol

1856 rat 35 23 66

1857 hee 43 34 78

The average of the last three years is 65 per cent., omitting

fractions ; of the middle period 47 per cent., and of the

earliest period 70 per cent.

Turning from the labours of the Supreme Court to those of

the District Courts of the Western Province, we find a con-

siderable difference in the results on the records of each of

them, arising chiefly from local causes. The returns in my

possession extend over six years for the Colombo Court, but

over only three for Kalutara and Ratnapura.

298 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON). [Vol. ILI.

Stutement of persons tried and convicted in the District Court of

Colombo, during six years ending December 31st, 1857.

ae Offences against

ences Pro ert

| against panes Ae Total.

Person. | With |Without|0ences.

1h ielenec: violence.

ne Te ae eee

| a isa veal io ees Sle oe |

eae We ese Se | Same) Ss

OS | SO. Aiea Mtr senate ae

1852 5 0 0 | 0 i Tl 8 8 | 20} 15

1853 0 0 (0) 0} 10) 1 ; 16 | 13 | 29

1854 0 0 0) al eh 7 9 ALi ie OH I aes

1855 ] 0 ] 0 |-13 | 31 | 18 | donees

1856 i) | ) 3 0 |}10 |} 29 | 13 | 16} 26 | 45

1857 3 | 4 (0) 0 a te 8 Aes" FO:

The capriciousness of the above totals, ranging, as the con-

victions do, between 60 and 380 per cent. of the cases tried,

can only be explained by an analysis of the table. Adopting

this course, we find that many of the cases consisted of con-

tempts of Court, the offenders being generally dismissed with

a warning as to future conduct. A considerable number in

some years, were cases of Cattle stealing, an offence which

has, since 1851, been removed from the jurisdiction of the

Supreme Court, and made actionable in the District Courts.

The following Table of such cases, from the records of the

District Court of Colombo, will shew the working of this

alteration in the law.

Cattle Stealing Cases in the Colombo District Court for the six yecrs

ending December 31st, 1857.

Persons ete . Withdrawn

charged. Comrie t Acquitted: | 4) dismissed.

1852 12 5 4 a

1858 23 10 12 ]

854. 32 8 22 2

1855 42 li 9 20

1856 ay 9 7 i

1857 10 2 8 0

No. 11.—1858-9.] STATE OF CRIME IN CEYLON. Poe

The average of convictions in these cases, amounts to but

a. per cent., and it cannot fail to be observed, that whilst in

the few last years, the convictions have materially decreased,

the cases withdrawn and dismissed, owing to the non-appear-

ance of prosecutors, have been greatly increasing. The above

Table would induce us to believe, that the offence indicated

was on the decrease; but, unfortunately, there is reason for

knowing the contrary to be the case. Itis urged, that since

this class of offenders ceased to be prosecuted by the Queen’s

Advocate before the Supreme Court, they have become far

more daring, relying with confidence on the delays and diffi-

culties attending prosecutions in the District Court by private

parties. The numerous withdrawals and dismissals indicate

the degree of impunity which they are enjoying ; and it may

be well worth the consideration of the authorities, if it would

not be advisable to instruct the several Deputy Queen’s Advo-

cates to take all such cases out of the hands of private pro-

secutors, and follow them up with the utmost vigour.

The next returns are those from Ratnapura and Kalutara,

the figures of which differ very materially, though, on exami-

nation, the varying results may readily be accounted for by

the peculiarities of the two Districts. Kalutara, it must be

remembered, is the great centre of Arrack distillation, and we

must not be surprised at finding a certain class of cases pre-

ponderating in the Court of the District.

Re'urn of Persons convicted and acquitted, or dismissed, in the District

Court of Ratnapura, for three years ending December 31st, 1857.

Offences | Offences |

against Bacinst Cagle | Uher Total

Te Tousen Stealimon| Otences: ine my canis

Person. |Property

rh rr et rey re A ita Gel SN ae) Se co

QS eS eS ee ee Ses leds, ts

Dich aaltisicee | ccied iets Swale eee (amt =i keer at Ue tla IL a=

iiss eevee l| 2) | Suh 2 oss i eal:

Soe om RGh |u| Chip On cer coma aS

Oy ss Oe GS RCO asta Oral sa

1855 OR On eOh eta Vets | 30) Onno

1856 DEP Ane NON Fee ORAS AT | 7 {10

1857 1 Oy TES I Ns dl tL ED) Sh TON ict

| |

300 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON). EVoL_FIk

In this instance, the convictions have run tolerably even,

the preponderance of the acquittals having been, as in most

other courts, in cattle cases. The average for these three

vears shews the convictions to have amounted to no less than

nearly 55 per cent of the persons charged,—a very favorable

result, as compared with other Courts in this Province.

Leturn of Acquittals and Convictions in the District Court of Kalutara,

for the three years ending December 31st, 1857.

Offences | Offences| , :

against | against halle, ee Total.

| Person. |Property ree! —

De || seer sun gee str ear ot es ree ee m= ea

5 aby elena rs | = te See eh

See eae ec ectre|.S) bse. S

Sys Pose pO p= lo |<) o:| =

1855 0 | 10 0) ] 4-} |) 1 1 2 | 23

1856 2 3 0 2 By OND eee 6 | 77

1857 DP Oe Te eon | 2 | 0/5) 4 4}

It will be at once apparent, that the cases brought into this

Court are much more difficult to deal with than in other

instances. The habits of the people go far to account for the

difficulty the authorities meet with in obtaining convictions,

which here have not averaged above 10 per cent. during the

three years under notice. The greater number of persons

accused of “other offences,’ have been charged with rioting.

The Police Courts will now claim our attention ; and first

amongst these, both in importance and amount of work per-

formed, is the Colomho Magistrate’s Court. The Table below

shews the number of Volice cases instituted and decided in :

each of the last 6 years in this Court,

No. 11.— 1858-9.] CRIME IN CEYLON. 301

& : Percentage of

= as

= ® 3

= TS NM : Dp $

= 75) S EZ ep f= R 2

2 ® BS} ce 3 S S 3

= = iS 3 B 1S) 3 a

g Es s iS Baier aes e

3 a S o a eS o 5

(as) aS) (o) 2) al (o) <> xs

1852 ay 3899 | 3750 | 1455 180 | 2115 39 5 56

1853 Be 3961 | 3927 | 1386 Ga eZ So 39D 4 61

1854 tad 3469 | 3813 | 1327 163 | 2323 36 4 60

1855 be 3809 | 3906 | 1437 166 | 2303 of 4 59

1856 a 3027 | ae67 | 1270 TZ | A976 738 38 584

1857 Sue 3968 | 3423 | 1228 130 | 2065 | 36 4 60

The regularity of the results in these 6 years, is most

satisfactory evidence of the steady adininistration of justice ;

for although the amount of work performed in the various

years differs by five or six hundred cases, the proportion of

convictions and acquittals remains unvarying. The large

proportion of dismissals, amounting on an average to 59 per

cent., indicates a great disposition amongst the natives to

bring forward false and frivolous charges, engendered by ill

feeling, arising from imaginary or real wrongs. On the

other hand, very many of the dismissals are cases of simple

disputes and quarrels between members of a family or neigh-

bours, which are thus arranged by the Magistrate, accom-

| panied by a reprimand and warning as to future good conduct.

The records of the Negombo Police Court shew a still larger

proportion of dismissals, though a considerable number of

these will be presently accounted for in a different manner.

The following are the figures in their case :—

= : Percentage of

2 — SS Se bh

Seoul Slog wits “| 2. | a

L n = aa Js = 2 os

z z = 1 Z = = Z

: (S) — Oo ere

SNS SS OMB Wi = Te feet ert

1853... ee we a lA Si 1GG6H) CHM se 2d aor 644

1854 1087 | 1055 212 84 709 | 20 S 72

1855 4292 | 3049 255 87. || 2707, 8 De 893

1856 3855 | 4548 | 253 98 | 4197 ae 2+ | 934

MSO7 %: ... | 1452 | 1869 182 74 | 1613; 10 4 86

302 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). [ Violet table

The figures in this table shew a great irregularity during

three of the years under review, though in the first and last

of the period, the numbers agree precisely with each other.

An analysis of the records of this Court goes to shew, that

the great increase in the number of cases brought forward in.

1855 and 1856, arose entirely from the District collectors

under the Road Ordinance taking out summonses against per-

sons liable for the annual tax, without troubling themselves

to demand payment in the first instance; thus endeavouring

to make the Police officials the means of collecting the tax

instead of themselves. The Magistrate, however, refused to

entertain most of these charges; hence the unusually large

number of dismissals, and the apparent small percentage of

convictions during those years. This practice was eventually

put a stop to through the interference of the Government

Agent, and the cases have once more sunk to their accus-

tomed number.

In the Kalutara returns for three years, ending December

dlst, 1857, we find a considerable falling off in the number

of decisions, as well as in the convictions, during the last

year embraced by them. The results are shewn in the ac-

companying Table :—

tS. yaks Percentage of

~ c= |

| 5) eee Ea.

a=) ine) L : é a :

5S 'D Tes} t TL a wn Ln

RN o cS a al S ER fee

=| om ins} os lal s S

es a eee tee B~ Heenan Z

‘A 2 ‘Ss 3 a = = =

mr | lee Ss = 5 = = =

183p6q1 Di eer So ae oC Min Nome ls20 135) 63 792

VWSS6> 5a: pe 2290s 2309 04a Loa 1S30 a Ve Ts foe

W850 i co A 2OTo e900 ies LOL 4) 1626 9 53 852

Much as these figures differ from the result of the Colombo —

Tables, they perhaps do not shew any greater discrepancy

than might be anticipated from the different positions of the

No. 11.—1858-9.]

two Courts.

CRIME IN CEYLON,

303

The above figures, too, are borne out by the re-

turns from the Kégalla Police Court, as may be seen below :—

& ; Percentage of

2 rs

=) D :

3 c RN . : L : 5

bes Smid 2 Ret ee

= . x Es) = ES ES

[= ol S — a

- A 3 $ a as 5 a

2 Ln = a -— e = z

o <b) a = oq va = =|

a ek Seblnsvaltba |: Baad Sie) a

6S) x ~) Oo 4 ie Oo om

1855... OPO | Te | ee ee

1856 1073 | 1087 | 106 | 96 | 855 |=92| 9 814

1857 So7 | 792 SI DS 640 | 12 Hi 81

The convictions and dismissals, in both these instances,

approximate very closely ; and we may fairly presume, that

the much smaller proportions of convictions in these rural

Courts arises, not from any local defect in the administration

of the laws, but rather from a less efficient Police, and a

ereater difficulty in collecting evidence amongst scattered

and distinct communities.

The last of these Courts is that of Ratnapura, the work

in which, during the last three years, is given in the annexed

Table :—

S as Percentage of

~ =) |

= e) i

~ te wn chee iy gg ° 5

6 = a @ HE is 2 oS

= A 5 S Zi Ss Be 2

ep RN ia Ss = gis = S

® fo) a = = 2 cats |

Mh Wn et op Dp (=| =) a

| aS oS S o om Ss cS) a

1855... 891 | 678 90 32m) 7d00

1856 763 | 1090 | 165 | 148 | 777

1857 866 | 820 79 50 | 695 |

If we now sum up the total crimes and offences on which

convictions have been obtained throughout the Western

Province of Ceylon during the last three years, and examine

the proportion which these bear to the population, we shall

be able to form an estimate of the relative criminality of this

d04 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON). [ Vol; 42.

as compared with other countries. The annual averages of

these convictions in the various Courts stands thus:

Convictions. per cent. of cases.

Supreme Court ... os 28 == 65

District Court, Colombo ... 24 a

Do. Kalutara ... i) aaa D0

Do. Ratnapura 6 = ays)

Police Court, Colombo aon TROL ae ot

Do. Nesombo ~-.. 230 = 20

Do. Kalutara At 261 _ 12

Do. Kegalla Te 108 _ 121

Do. Ratnapura .... 110 = PZ

The total of all these averages gives us the annual number

of 2,082, which, as I before stated, yields a proportion of

one in each 264 of the entire pcpulation of the Province.

Unfavorably as this result contrasts with the statistics of

other countries, it assumes a very different aspect, if subjected |

to analysis; and separating crimes from mere offences, we |

draw a comparison between Ceylon, India, and England, as

regards these two classes of offenders. The result will then

be altogether in favour of Ceylon, as respects real crime :

though still leaving a heavy balance of mere offences against : b

the population of this Island. This analysis shews, that while | ‘

there is but one person in every 13,419 who yearly commits | i

a crime, there is one person in each 269 inhabitants who |

annually commits an offence: crimes standing in the small |7

proportion of 2g per cent. of all offences against the laws |~

In Bengal, crimes and offences are about equal. In England | a

and Wales, they stand as 15 per cent. of crimes. In Ireland |

ag. 27 per’ cent.

Comparing the total convictions in all the Courts of this li

Province on an average of three years, with the number of \P

No. 11.—1858-9.] CRIME IN CEYLON. “309

eases decided, and as compared with the Wnglish and Indian

tables of convictions, we shall find them standing as follows:

Supreme Court, 65 per cent.

District Courts, 29

Molices Courts, +20 5

Average of all, 38 per cent. of cases tried.

Bengal, AS

England, 64

PP)

There is no doubt, that the same cause which leads to the

excessive preponderance of offences of a minor character, as

compared with the population, when viewed against other

countries, goes far to account for the smaller percentage of

convictions, especially as we find the least percentage in the

Police Courts, where this description of cases is dealt with.

Whilst we may congratulate ourselves upon the very small

amount of actual crime existing in Ceylon, judging from the

statistics of the Western Province, we must admit the pre-

valence of much strife, (lissension, and angry broils amongst

the natives, arising partly from quarrels respecting the minute

shares into which landed property is frequently subdivided,

and partly from the vice of drunkenness, a propensity which,

it is to be regretted, is greatly on the increase in many parts

of the island, but especially in the Western and Southern

Provinees.. lt is quite impossible to institute any faithful

comparison between the large number of frivolous charges

instituted and dismissed in this and any other country, nor

between the many Police cases, arising out of family and

neighbourly disputes, of a trivial character, in which both

sides being equally blameable, the Magistrate can do no more

than dismiss them with a reprimand and caution to either

party.

There is very little doubt, though the Police records fail to

Shew such to be the case, that by far the larger portion of

feuds and petty assaults have their origin in the neighbour-

ing tavern. The personal experience of Police officials and

306 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). [Vol. III.

Magistrates tends to prove this; and confirmation would

appear to be found in the following Table, in which I have

compared the number of taverns licensed in, and the arrack

revenue derived from the various divisions of this Province,

with the population and the number of Police convictions.

= ND « es 3 a

= = Glo) e's ye

2 a Cone) mH we

we 5 ps = oO fo)

a <q ‘3 Kael Bids IP SS

v 43 ef Pes 2

: 2 Sal (Si ee ay ) Ne

S ae S58 Gale Saf | Zs

istri 2.) o8.e8 eee aes

District. oy > 5 a) Se 2S

S) & o a a Bier om

or H py Ai < aly

Ss Gh

Colombo fe ..| 42,810 a - 882\

Salpiti Korale ..| 44,910} 38: EAS OT 1,187 J Be | 203

Sina and Hewagam aU;

Korales... ..| 97,488 | 120 3,937 | 805 0792

Pasdum, Raygam, anc

Wawelwilla Korales,

including Kalutara |

and Panadure ao elo O23 196 e333 590 0 34 182

Three and Four Korales} 61,591 | 124 | 3,830 520 13 153

Alut Kuru and Hapiti-

gam Korales ..| 104,842 6L 5,751 650 1 O75 | 132

Ratnapura .. rl 82,921 54 9387) 1,720 0 8} 13

The above figures are averages of the last three years, and

from these it may be seen that, to a great extent, the Police

cases bear a relative proportion to the density of the tavern

licences, and still more so to the amount contributed per head

to the Arrack rents ; the largest contributors to this branch of

the revenue being also the most frequent visitors to the

Magistrate’s Court.

There is, indeed, a striking exception to this rule, in the

case of the Kalutara and Panadure Division, where, although

the proportion of licensed taverns and the number of Police

cases agree, as in the other instances, we find the revenue per

head the lowest in the scale. The only way in which we

‘an account for this discrepancy is, by supposing that in this

District, which is the great centre of arrack distillation, there

No. 11.—1858-9. ] CRIME IN CEYLON. 3070

are large surreptitious sales of the spirit, which militate

against the price paid for the arrack rents; otherwise it is

difficult to conceive, that a District which stands second on

the list, as regards the number of taverns to the population,

should yield less than half the amount per head than any

other division of this Province.

I find that the number of stills licensed in the Western

Province has been gradually on the increase, having been in

io ow in 180, 290 > im 1856, 332: in 1857, 244; and in

the first five months of this year, 339. This increase is,

however, attributable to the larger demand for arrack for

exportation to the Presidencies and the Colonies, rather than

to any greater local consumption, which is more likely to be

checked by the greatly enhanced price of the article.

In the Tables contained in this Paper, no notice has been

taken of the age of persons convicted, no such data being in

existence. I may, however, remark, that juvenile offenders

are in this country entirely unknown. In the same way,

female criminals, who in Great Britain are as one to five

males, can scarcely be said to exist.

The remarks which I have introduced into this Paper, are

necessarily of a limited character, bearing as they do on but

one section of this Island population. It will be highly

interesting to compare the state of crimes amongst the various

classes inhabiting the different Provinces of Ceylon,—the

Tamils, the Kandyans, the Moormen, the Malays, the Sinha-

lese, and trace the effects of growing wealth and intelligence

upon their morals.

Should I succeed in obtaining the necessary returns from

the remaining Districts of the Island, I will hope to follow

up the present enquiry by a second and more copious Paper,

reviewing the Crime of the entire Island.

Be eee

ne rn a i

308 ; JOURNAL R, A. 8S. (CEYLON). [ Vol. dae

SINHALESE RHETORIC:

By JAMES D’ ALWIS, Esq., ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

In the Essay, which on the 13th August, 1850, I read

before this Society on, “‘The Sinhalese language, its Poetry

and Poets;” and which I have since published as an Intro-

duction and Appendix to the Sidat Sangarawwa, | made a few

general observations on ‘ Sinhalese Rhetoric,” and also pre-

sented portions of the Swabasha-alankara,* a work on Sin-

-halese Rhetoric. J now return to the subject, and avail

myself of the present opportunity of laying before youa

brief outline of the properties of style.

There are thirty-five rules laid down in the Swabdésha-

alankéra, for the attaintnent of a rhetorically correct style.

I shall here present the reader with a brief summary of them.

Where proper terms (other than tropes) are employed,

being a natural resemblance to the things signified, the

language is such as will contribute much to fix our attention,

and is called swaba, e.g.

DADO gdosy O6a SH ODNOCEOaSS.

OOOCDOHM1D DOMES TQdi DEsIHo2dDs Ba

“The bird that has a red crooked beak, green delicate wings, three

lines in the neck, and is capable of articulate sounds, is the Parrot.”

The above is an example exhibiting a sentence devoid

of rhetorical tropes, and presenting proper nouns, particular

and determinate in their signification.

The writer proceeds to give examples in such of the other

parts of speech as are most susceptible of vivacity and elegance. -

*See ‘“Sidat Sangarawa,” pp. 31, 82, 88, 184.

No. 11.—1858-9.] SINHALESE RHETORIC. 009

The verb is the next in order, and we select the following

illustration from the Kévyasékharaya :--

EDAMDOISi COBHOnE Bons @)

OHCCASEMOMGBaeHEEGO? CE

‘The babe sports about, exhibiting his budding teeth, smiling most

lovely, chattering most tender expressions, and daubing (himself) all

over his body with dust.”

Here the word @mG ‘sports’ is particularly expressive

of the habit of children, and contributes much to the vivacity

of the expression. If instead of oa@@ the poet had used €o8

“runs about” the expression would have been tame and

weak.

In adjectives the same author gives a beautiful example,

in describing the virtues of King Parakrama Bahu :

BIESODI DON MOE Si BS HCHIO 0)

BRIMS6OBITAY MED BODIQOMDOCBOOOD NIA SH)

“‘An ocean in profound learning—the Meru in firm steadfast qualities

—a moon in gentleness—these three virtues did he possess.”’

The words oi@é1, mdad, and @sS are, happily chosen ;

the first conveys the depth of his erudition as vast as ‘ the

fathomless profound’; the second his firmness and un-

wavering resolution, as steadfast as the great Mandara,

mountain; and the third his amiability of disposition, as

gentle as the ‘moon beams.’

Another mode of contributing to the vivacity of style is

by the adoption of rhetorical tropes. Of these “comparison”

is one; and may be described as presenting a_ parallel

between the case in hand, and some other that is calculated

to call forth such emotion.

There are several kinds of comparisons. Where a com-

parison is instituted, the resemblance in a certain quality

being stated, the figure is a simile, e.g:

49GHEODOSND1 RE os

ADCLIEIOHVA® S

310 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). Vo) 1A.

‘“‘Having seen the splendour of her countenance, like the spotless

gentle moon.”

When the resemblance between the comparates is merely

implied, the figure is a metaphor; as

F1OTGVCOMCD ray)

DASERBS EEOODKIOD Fay)

‘‘ Her delicate arms were like flashes of lightning.”

The usual order of comparates is sometimes changed with |

a view to give prominence to the object to which a com- |

parison is instituted. Thus we say, @9® CMm Hast A’@: —

g)8 ‘A dog runs about like this child.’ There is |

greater vivacity in this sentence than if we expressed it F

ACE Hast oD Ca ¢d&, ‘This child runs about like a dog.’

In the latter the comparison is simply instituted, but in the |

former stress is laid on the propensity of the child to mischief, |

which it is intended to correct. So likewise, to use an illus-

tration given in the work before us;

CDOn® BB gagkqosa.

“A full blown lotus is like thy face (O gentle creature!”)

The change of the usual order in the use of the comparates |

renders the compliment more expressive. A comparison is |

sometimes repeated by reversing the order of the comparates |

in the repetition, as when we say: ¢ dac® Gat omds& |

Gos Cnsiomds, “Like him is this fellow a thief, and |~

like this fellow is he a thief.” The repetition conduces |

much to the energy, or vicacity of expression. We shall

present the reader with an example from the work before us:

CONS 8B Bq, Gqoaod B SEGHS.

“Thy face is like a lotus, and the lotus is like thy face (Gentle creature”).

A comparison or metaphor limiting the similitude of the |

subject compared to one particular object, conduces greatly |

to elevate or degrade the subject, according to the design of ft

the writer or speaker; as when we say Beds} MOLAIHs, |

Oseu. ‘Thy face is (like) the very lotus.’ Comparisons [

or metaphors exhibiting the similitude to divers objects are | —

No. 11.—1858-9.] SINHALESE RHETORIC. dll

frequently to be met with in our books; and they conduce

much to elevate the subject. We take an example from

the Kusa Jétaka.

MNIGOMME YTDEHIS HOGS wEBuc.

‘“His renown was like that of stars, jasmine, pearls, and mount

Kailasa.”

Here the poet has selected white objects to convey the

purity of that renown which it was his wish to exalt. If

he had chosen other objects, as m@o the sed lotus, the

entire beauty of the comparison would have been lost.

There is frequently to be met with in our books a species

of metaphor called pratiwastu, which is the expression of

two sentiments, without stating the resemblance between

them. This is a trope very pleasing tothe mind, “as men

are more gratified at vatching the resemblance for themselves,

than at having it pointed to them.’”* Swbdsita abounds in

metaphors of this kind, and we shall select the following

as an example :—

EIDE HDT Baunss EgdaH« or

AD DD OVOCT Gd) HBOS EO Ou

OAD) HY BEST EC1ODE OMIVOM GE Ou

ODMAG Abs DESO OFNY OSHE C1

“Better one son wise and good; there is no benefit even by a

hundred of fools. One moon dispels the thick darkness of this world ;

it is not dispersed even by hosts of stars.”

Analogical metaphors and comparisons are to be found

in the Sinhalese, by the comparates being compounded as

in the English word, “table-land.” In the language of

Dr. Whately

“They are both the more frequent and the more striking. They

are the more frequent, because almost every object has such a mul-

titude of relations, of different kinds to many other objects ; and they

are the more striking, because (as Dr. A. Smith has well remarked,)

——=

* Dr. Whately on Rhetoric, p, 267.

ol2 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). [Vol ee

the more remote and unlike in themselves any two objects are, the

more is the mind impressed and gratified by the perception of some

point in which they agree,”*

C.4., ae8=a, ‘stone-heart,’ for ‘stone like heart,’ oz¥ ga, ‘devil-

face, for ‘deyvil-like face,’ ugly countenance, ooo Sho:

-*bullock-man,’ for ‘bullock-like-man,’ &c., ‘a stupid.’ I shall

adduce an example from the Kdéuyasékhara.

Bd OD ECSGD)O1 SONED DIE Has Or

Qn SBIHayc, VDEWIHED OWDTROGIO Or

‘‘T bow unto his supreme intelligence, the teacher of the three worlds,

an ocean for gems-virtues, a moon for lily-faithful men, and a sun

for thick darkness unbelief.”

It is to be observed, that compound metaphars, as in the

above stanza, where the resemblance between certain objects

is implied but not expressed, are very frequent in the

Sinhalese. In the example before us, the poet compares

the virtues of Buddha to the inestimable gems produced

in the ocean; the religious comfort which the followers

of that sage derive from his Sermons to the influence which

(it is suppesed) the moon has over the lily,f his power

to convert heretics, to the light of the sun which dispels

darkness.

Where direct resemblance between two objects is expressed

the Sinhalese use 5 or 2208, equivalent to the English

words ‘like,’ ‘of,’ as in ‘moon-like brilliancy,’ a@«® (/.e.,

ae J #2,) ‘light of reason,’ 232s s12:3 eoeime. Fre-

queutly, too, the comparates are used together, without a

sign of comparison: in which case it must be observed,

that an object is merely illustrated by the form of another

object. Thus we speak of mstdice, ‘ear creeper,’ DASD,

* Dr. Whately on Rhetoric, pp. 265, - 266.

+ It is to be remarked that if tambara were substitued for humudu |

the metaphor would prove defective, inasmuch as the former is a sun

flower: between it and the moon there would therefore be no relationship, of ;

No. 11.—1858-9.] SINHALESE RHETORIC. d13

‘sword leaf.’ This metaphor may be easily understood by an

Englishman by removing the order of the above words to

suit the idiom of the English ; ‘creeper ear,’ or ‘ creeping

ear, ‘leaf sword’ or ‘leafy sword.’

Orientalists give ¢rony under the head of metaphor ; and

it is defined to be a speech, conveying a meaning different

to the plain signification of the words. As for instance, if a

person whom I bade carry a pot of water to the next room,

broke iton his way, and I then exclaimed a5 mast moda

mos. ‘He has done a very clever job!’ the language would

be irony.

Many of the tropes in use amongst Western nations are

also to be found in the Sinhalese. All the several sorts of

synecdoche, of which Dr. Campbell treats in his “ Philosophy

of Rhetoric,” p. 431, (.2., the genus for the species, the whole

for a part, and the matter for the instrument or thing made

of it) are of frequent occurrence in our language. Of the

genus for the species; when we say qe OEs3O Bao ‘He went

to break (extract toddy from) trees; by ‘trees’ we mean

paim trees, a species. When we say Ose @cimy ‘the

cloth was torn,’ or @cd AGoea a8 ‘he was bitten by

a dog,’ we express the whole for a part. When it is said,

® 63 eon OcSsy OHO, ‘by giving. him the thousand pieces of

gold, money is meant, or masuran.

In a language like the Sinhalese, which abounds with so

many delicate expressions to convey various degrees of

respect according to circumstances, we can scarcely fail to

notice, what is commonly denominated euphemism. As

an example of this decency in expression, Dr. Campbell has

given Martha’s answer to our Saviour, when he directed the

removal of the stone over Lazarus’s sepulchre. “Lord, by

this time he smelleth, for he hath been dead four days.”*

In the Sinhalese version, which has closely followed the

* St. John xi, 39,

d14 JOURNAL R. A. 8S. (CEYLON). [Viol ak.

English expression, the original word ‘smelleth’ is rendered

‘stinketh, #2183 O ONO aH wndcdDacodnaSs

GDO Oceans Qe; but it must be observed, that the

Sinhalese never use the word we ‘stink’ in a company,

but invariably convey the idea by calling it ‘smell.’ I must’

not omit, however, to observe here, that even the word we,

although it has undergone a change in its use by its being

applied at present to mean only ‘stink,’ originally meant

‘smell’ or ‘scent. As in the following passage in

Amawatura :—

OECDT HKG HES OEDTYEVWEHSZHOOR mtn BOOMODDE

1B 23°

‘“Gods and men having offered scents, and flowers, said ‘O great

man! there is no one here equal to thee. ”

Other instances are not wanting, where to a vivid exhibition

of what may appear as delicate, offensive, or indecent, the

Sinhalese use aturn of expression different from that which

they otherwise nse.

FoNowing the order in which Dr. Campbell has treated

of tropes, I shall here allude to the catachresis. An example

of the use of words in a signification that is very near their

ordinary meaning, may be furnished from the following

portion of a dialogue to which I listened with pleasure ;

OmBISE Ard COW Ge? Where, I say, is your husband? Oo

Esosd Di OTD OoG Hays ‘I don’t know, 7? was some

where there. The force and beauty of the Sinhalese ex-

pression are entirely lost in the translation. We only use

Saou when we refer toan inanimate object. When animate

objects are spoken of G26 (‘was’) is the verb employed.

In the example before us Sajeoo occurs where estes should

have been used. Although this isanimpropriety of language

(as doubtless in the passage in the Cotta version of the Bible,

C68 Dat Edid1s0 HFoETSHO OO Di GOO OD DTRajsna,

I Kings iii. 21 *), yet when we wish to express contempt at the

* See Sidath Sangarawa, p. cclvi.

No. 11.—1858-9.] SINHALESE RHETORIC. aL

mode in which a man lives, or at the inactivity or laziness

with which he passes his days: such language contributes

either to ornament or strength. In the sentence oanSe qs oo

‘Where is that high one’; the word &@ is used for 68 dao

‘tall fellow.’ Here the tallness of the person is spoken

of either in a contemptuous manner; or in amazement

at his prodigious height.

There is no language in the world in which there is

not from time to time a change in the signification of terms,

or in which words are not deflected from their original sense.

In the Sinhalese this is peculiarly the case: and we can

easily illustrate the second species of catachresis which Dr.

Campbell, (pp. 436, 437,) defines to be.

“When words which, from their etymology appear to be applicable

solely to one kind of thing, come afterwards to be applied to another,

which is nearly related in its nature or design, but with which, neverthe-

less, the analysis of the word will not accord.”’

The word @s%, for instance, was originally used for *‘ food,”

and it is now generally understood to mean boiled rice ;

apa} meant powder, but it is now usually understood as

a designation for ‘rice powder.’ |

(To be continued. )

O16 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON). (Vol. UT.

SCRIPTURE BOTANY OF CEYLON.

By WILLIAM FERGUSON, ESaq.

The following familiar observations on some of the Plants

mentioned in the Bible, and which are indigenous to, or are

related to genera and species growing or known in Ceylon,

form portion of a lecture delivered by me last year to the

Young Men’s Christian Association in Colombo.

During my inquiries into this subject, I made free use of

all the authorities at my command, and therefore, to those

who have read one of the various works on the Botany of the

Bible, it is not likely that much original matter will be found

in these observations, further than the identification of the

plants with our Ceylon ones.

CINNAMON AND CASSIA.

(aacig kurundu Sin. Cinnamomum Zeylanicum. Nees.)

The word Cinnamon occurs four times in the Bible, first

about 1,600 years before the Christian era, in Exodus xxx. ver.

23, where it is enumerated as amongst the ingredients

employed in the preparation of the holy anointing oil.

“Take thou also unto thee principal spices, of pure myrrh

five hundred shekels, and of sweet cinnamon half so much.”

Again “I have perfumed my bed with myrrh, aloes, and

cinnamon. (Prov. vii. 17.) “Spikenard and saffron, callamus

and cinnamon, with all trees of frankincense.” (Cant. iv. |

14.) While in Revelation, among the merchandise of Babylon,

we have enumerated ‘Cinnamon and odours, and ointments |

and frankincense, wi(heve KVilic to.)

No. 11.—1858-9.] SCRIPTURE BOTANY OF CEYLON. 317

Besides the real Cinnamon here undoubtedly referred to,

(the Cinnamomum Zeylanicum), we have four other species

indigenous to the Island, one of which, lately discovered

by the present Director of the Botanic Gardens, has the

perfume of the Lemon Grass so well known in Ceylon. The

plant discovered by Mr. Thwaites, bears a name signifying

that it has this resemblance.

The references in the Bible to this famous spice have

called forth the powers of investigation of several authors,

who have thrown considerable light on the subject and on

the countries supposed to have produced the Cinnamon of

the Bible. : |

I need not enter into details respecting the Cinnamon

plant, for which our Island is renowned above all other

places on the face of the earth.

I cannot say much about “the Spicy breezes,” perceived

by voyagers off the coast and described by Poets, but there is

no doubt that after a shower of rain the air in the Cin-

namon Gardens is perfumed with the pleasant odour of

various flowers around. The odour of the Cinnamon flower

is neither powerful nor peculiar.

I had the pleasure, in 1858, of examining in the British

Museum specimens of the Cinnamon plant collected by Paul

Hermann in this Island about 200 years ago, and which

formed the origin of the Laurus Cinnamomum and L. Cassia

of Linneus, the latter of which did not differ from the former

excepting by the narrowness of its leaves, and they seemed

to have been made so by the free use of a pair of scissors.

The Cassia of commerce is the produce of several species

of Cinnamon, as well as of the real Cinnamon tree, the

inferior kinds from Ceylon haying been sold as Cassia.

Milton makes several allusions to Cassia—

‘¢ ______ and now is come

Into the blissful field through groves of myrrh

And flowery odours, cassia, nard and balm.”

* Paradise Lost,” Book 3.

d18 JOURNAL R, A. S. (CEYLON). [Vol: TEL.

You all remember the hackneyed allusion to the “spicy

gales of Araby the blest,” founded on the early idea that

the Cinnamon which the Arabs carried to the shores of the

Mediterranean was the produce of Arabia.

Another Poet writes :—

“There eternal summer dwells,

And west winds with musky wing

About the cedar’d alleys fling

Nard and Cassia’s balmy smells.”

‘“Sleep in thy peace that bed of spice,

And makes this place all paradise ;

Let balm and cassia send their scent,

From out thy maiden monument.”

Herrick, “Dirge of Jephtha.”

Notwithstanding questions raised as to Cinnamon being

indigenous to Ceylon, there can be no doubt of the fact, and

very little as to Ceylon being the source whence the Arabs

derived the Cinnamon which the caravans took down to

Egypt and Palestine.

OLIVE.

“The dove came into him in the evening, and lo, in her

mouth was an olive leaf plucked off; so Noah knew that

the waters were abated from off the face of the earth.”

(Gen. vidi, 11)

“The trees went forth on a time to anoint a king over

them; and they said unto the olive tree, Reign thou over us.

But the olive tree said unto them ; should I leave my fatness,

wherewith by me they honour God and man, and go to be

promoted over the trees.” (Judges ix. 8, 9.)

This is one of the earliest and oftenest mentioned trees in

the Bible, and is by universal consent admitted to be the |

same as the one now known by that name. It is indigenvus |

to Syria, to the South of Europe, as well as to parts of |

Africa, ;

No. 11.—1858-9.] | SCRIPTURE BOTANY OF CEYLON. ald

Olive oil and Olives are extensive articles of commerce.

The fragrant olive of China with which the Chinese are

said to flavor their tea, was introduced to Ceylon many years

ago, and we have two other species of Olive indigenous to the

Island, but neither of them must be confounded with the

o26® veralu or tllupie trees, which belong to two distinct

Natural Orders, and bothconsiderably separated from the Olive.

I suggest this precaution, from the fact that some

of my friends of the American Mission at Jaffna are in

the habit of alluding to the dlupet, which is one of the most

valuable trees of the Northern Peninsula, as the Ceylon

Olive tree, and because in this quarter Europeans are in the

habit of calling the vera/u the Olive. The fruits of this

latter tree do indeed bear such an outward resemblance to

the Olive, that the genus to which it belongs, has in con-

sequence of this resemblance, been called Hlewocarpus. The

nuts of an allied species are those known to you all as the

“Brahmin beads.” which, mounted as bracelets, are very com-

monly worn by ladies.

MUSTARD.

“The Kingdom of Heaven is like a grain of mustard seed,

which a man took, and sowed in a field; which indeed is

the least of al] seeds ; but when it is grown, it is the greatest

among herbs, and becometh a tree, so that the birds of the

air come and lodge in the branches thereof.” (Matt. xiii.

al 32;)

Perhaps the plant here translated Mustard, has called forth

as much research and learned disquisition as any one named

in the Bible. Some writers attempt to prove that because a

species of the plant which produces Mustard (Sinapis) grows

in Palestine to a considerable size, no other plant could have

been meant ; but the late Dr. Royle produced incontrovertible

evidence to prove that the tree here meant is the Salvadora

Persica of Botanists, a small tree, native of the hot dry parts

320 - JOURNAL R. A, 8S. (CEYLON). [ Vol. III.

of India, and of Persia, Arabia, and Ceylon. In anote to an

article on the Flora of Ceylon, contributed by the late Dr.

Gardener to the Appendix to Mr. Lee’s translation of “ Ribey-

ro’s History of Ceylon,” it is mentioned, that he considered

himself the first to discover this plant in our Island ; but it

seems, from a notice in Ainslie’s ‘ Materia Indica,” to have

been known as a native of Ceylon many years previously. It

is a common plant on the small Islands in the vicinity of

Jaffna, and some specimens which I saw several years ago

growing on what is called “ Small-pox Island,” close to

Jaffnapatam, bore a general resemblance to the weeping Ash

tree. Its seeds taste a good deal like Garden Cresses, and its

bark, which is acrid and raises blisters upon the skin, (in this

resembling the Plumbago Zeylanica,) is used as medicine.

There are two species of the genus indigenous to Ceylon.

SYCAMORE.

‘Over the olive trees and the sycamore trees that were in

the low plains was Baal-hanan the Gederite.” (I Chron. xxvii.

28.)

The tree here and elsewhere referred to as the Sycamore

(Ficus sycamorus), is admitted to have been a species of Fig

tree, the fruit of which is like the common Fig, and the leaves

like those of the Mulberry: hence the name. |

We have no less than 22 species of the genus to which the

Sycamore belongs, and one, the @. ¢dSatia gan attikka (Ficus

glomeratus), bears a great resemblance to the tree here referred

to. Some of the species are creeping plants, covering stones

and rocks, and the stems of forest trees, somewhat after the

fashion of the English Ivy ; while others are amongst the |

giants of the forest. The famous Banyan belongs to them, :

and when at Jaffna, I measured one in the vicinity, which,

with its hundreds of depending shoots, covered an acre and |

1-12th of ground. This isthe tree to which Milton alludes |

in Paradise Lost, as the fig tree whose leaves formed the first |

No. 11.—-1858-9.] SCRIPTURE BOTANY OF CEYLON. 321

clothing of the primeval pair. The Bé-gaha also belongs to

the same genus, and I was assured some time ago by Sir

J. K. Tennent, that the famous Bo6-tree of Anuradhapura,

(the description of the intrcduction of which into Ceylon

occupies achapter of the “Mahawansa,” (is the oldest historical

tree on record. Sir Kmerson believes there is evidence to

prove that the tree now growing there is the identical one

referred to in the “ Mahawaysa.” Those who have read the

gorgeous language made use of in the “ Mahawansa,”) describ-

ing the boat, &c., in which the Bo-branch was carried,

cannot but have been struck with the similarity of language

and imagery to those used by Shakspeare in reference to

the mode in which Cleopatra paid her first visit to Anthony.

Though the wood of the Sycamore tree is soft and coarse,

it is believed to have formed the coffins of some of the

Mummies found in Egypt.

PALM.

“The righteous shall flourish like the Palm tree.” (Psalm

xcii. 12.)

“And they came to Elim, where were twelve wells of

water, and threescore and ten palm trees: and they encamped

there by the waters.” (Hxod. xv. 27.)

The Palm tree here and elsewhere so often mentioned in

the Bible, is undoubtedly the Date Palm (Phenix dactylifera),

single specimens of which may be seen growing in several

parts of Ceylon. It is the 6Og€ rata indi of the Sinhalese ;

and a solitary tree which grows at Jaffna, vies in stature

with any which I saw growing in Egypt. The two indigenous

Date trees of our Island, (from the branches and leaflets

of which Tats and Basket work are formed,) will give a

very good idea, on a small scale, of the Bible date tree, and

the manner in which it produces its fruit. Dates are im-

ported into England from Barbary and Weypt, and into

Ceylon from the Persian Gulf and Arabia.

322 JOURNAL R, A. 8. (CEYLON). [ Vol. III.

There are perhaps a hundred varieties of the Date tree culti-

vated, and those who haye eaten of the beautiful, cleanly

preserved dates sent to England, cannot but have observed

the vast difference between them, and the two kinds we get

here. One of these comes in earthern pots, and is of a dark

shining appearance, and rather pleasant to eat; but the other

comes in messes, and not freer of extraneous matter than

oriental sugar, which is never known to diminish in weight,

however often it is spilled before it gets to the Bazaar.

The ancient Tadmor or Palmyra (built by Solomon and

destroyed by the Roman Emperor Aurelian,) was so named

from the number of the Date Palms which grew around it.

To the natives of portions of Africa and Arabia, it is of

greater consequence than the Coconut or Palmyra palms

are to the natives of Ceylon ; and hence, in former times,

during a war with these countries, the greatest curse that

could be inflicted upon them was to cut down the stameni-

ferous trees, which were very few in proportion to the frnit-

bearings ones, and so prevent the usual crop of dates. in

consequence of this barbarous practice, attempts were made

to secure a supply of the fertilizing pollen from the male

trees, and it is stated that this, secured in earthen vessels,

has been known to retain its fertilizing powers for 19 years.

It is no doubt in reference to the barbarous practice of

cutting down such trees, that the following law was issued

in Deut. xx. 19:—

“Thou shalt not cut down the trees thereof by forcing an

axe against them : for thou mayest eat of them, and thou shalt

not cut them down, for the tree of the field is man’s life.”

In reference to this passage, the late Mr. Roberts, in his

‘‘ Tllustrations of the Scriptures,” wrote :—

‘Can it be a matter of surprise, that the Orientals havea great

aversion to cut down any tree which bears fruit, when it is known

that they principally live on vegetable production? Ask a man to

No. 11.—1858-9.] = SCRIPTURE BOTANY OF CEYLON. 323

eut down a coconut or palmirah tree, and he will say (except when

in want, or to oblige a great person) ‘What! destroy that which

gives me food? from which I have thatch for my house to defend

ime from the sun and the rain; which gives me oil for my lamp,

a ladle for my kitchen, and charcoal for my fire; from which I

have sugar for my board, baskets for my fruits, a bucket for my

well, a mat for my bed, a pouch for my betel leaf, leaves for my

books, a fence for my yard anda broom for my house? Destroy such

a tree! Go to some needy wretch who has pledged his last jewel,

and who is anxious to eat his last meal?”

I can imagine how refreshing it must have been for the

children of Israel to have found so many Palm trees at Elim

and elsewhere in their wanderings, and appreciate the various

allusions to this useful tree in a country, many parts of which

have a most barren aspect ; but for my own part, I confess

that the Date trees I saw growing in Egypt did not convey

to mind any great idea of elegance or beauty.

Passing from Cairo to Suez, and down the Red Sea, in

sight of Arabia and Africa, the scenes of the wanderings of

the Israelites, there is scarcely any vegetation to be seen ;

and the few specimens I[ picked up in the Desert of Sahara

were leafless wiry looking plants.

CAMPHIRE.

Somes Maritondt (Tamil and Sin.) (Lawsonia alba. Lam.)

Camphire (Kopher or Copher) occurs twice in the Bible,—

* My beleved is unto me asa cluster of camphire in the

vineyards of Engedi.” (Song of Sol. iv. 14.)

“Thy plants are an orchard of pomegranates, with pleasant

fruits, camphire with spikenard.” (Jbid. iv. 13.)

Most writers agree that this refers to the henna plant so

common in our gardens here. There is no Sinhalese name

for the plant, but they have adopted the Tamil one, mari-

tondi; by some it is called “the Country Mignonette,” It

324 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON). (Vol. ill.

has been compared with the common Privet, and those who

recollect the privet fences so common in Hngland, will see

the resemblance. I never saw it growing out of the gardens

in this part of the Island, but 1 am aware it is indigenous

to the Northern end, where I have seen it grow in rich

profusion for miles along the shores of the salt lake called

Kallaveli in the Peninsula of Jaffna, and for my own part

I consider it one of the most pleasantly fragrant plants we

possess.

It has been proved that the nails of the Mummies, which

may have lain for thousands of years, were stained of an iron

rust colour from a dye made from the leaves of the henna,

and the same practice prevails in Ceylon, and other Oriental

countries to this day. The plant is found commonly from

Morocco, through Palestine, Egypt, Arabia, Persia, and India,

on to the Malay Peninsula, and the Islands of the Indian

Archipelago, and is used as a dye by the people of all these

countries, in one form or another.

It is most likely that in Egypt the parctice of dyeing the

eye-brows, nails of the hands, and the soles of the feet, with

a preparation of henna, has been very generally practised for

the last two or three thousand years. The Persians and

Arabs dye the manes and tails of their horses with it, and

here we may’ see several of the Malays and Moormen whose

nails and eye-brows have similarly dyed.

FIG.

This is the first tree specially named in the Bible, where

our parents are described as sewing fig leaves together, to

make themselves aprons. (Gen. ill. 7.) The Fig tree is enu-

merated (Deut. viii. 5,) as one of the valuable products of

Palestine, a land of Wheat and Barley, and Vines, and Fig

trees, and Pomegranates. The spies who were sent from the

Wilderness of Paran brought back from the brook of Eschol

clusters of Grapes, Pomegranates, and Figs. The Fig tree is

No. 11.—1858-9.] SCRIPTURE BOTANY OF CEYLON. 329

referred to as one of the signs of prosperity (I Kings xviii.

25.) “And Judah and Israel dwelt safely, every man under

his vine and under his fig tree.” And its failure is noted as

a sign of affliction (Ps. cv. 33): He smote their fig trees,

and broke the trees of their coasts.”

All writers who have studied the subject, are agreed that

the Fig tree so often named in the Bible is the common Fig

(Ficus carica), and which is pretty commonly grown in

Ceylon; where most of the fruits, however, fall off before they

are matured, from want of knowledge amongst the cultivators,

of some facts connected with their cultivation, I believe.

The fruit of this, and all the other species of Fig, consists of

the hollow succulent receptacle, or general peduncle, enclos-

ing numerous flowers ; but from the fact that the Sinhalese

are notin the habit of investigating such matters, they assert

that the Fig tree has no flowers, and in reference to this,

and the confidence placed in the truthfulness of woman

by the Sinhalese, Major Forbes gave the following versified

translation of some lines uttered in his Court :—

‘*Tve seen the Udumbera * tree in flower,

White plumage on the crow,

And fishes’ footsteps o’er the deep

Have traced thro’ ebb and flow.

If man it is who thus asserts,

You may his word believe ;

But if from woman’s lips—distrust,

She speaks but to deceive.”

CEDAR.

I do not believe we have a single representative in Ceylon

of the natural order of Pines to which the Cedar tree belongs.

The Casuarinas, common about Colombo, bear a_ great

resemblance to some of the Fir tribe, but that is all.

* The Sanscrit name of the Banyan,

326 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON). EVol=tid,

In reference to Solomon as a Botanist, I may just mention,

that a genus of small plants has been dedicated to his memory

in these words :—

“Salamonia, in honour of Solomon, king of the Jews, the.

first botanist, flourished about 1,000 years before Christ.”

We have two species of this genus in Ceylon, one of which

found in the bogs near Colombo, and elsewhere, is a plant

from two to three inches in height, often much branched,

and having long spikes of rose-colored flowers.

ALMOND, PISTACHIA, HAZEL.

“Israel said unto his sons, take of the best fruits in the

land in your vessels, and carry down the man a present, a

little balm, and a little honey, spices and myrrh, nuts and

almonds.” (Gen. xhii. 11.)

It is admitted, that the plant now known as the Almond

tree is indentical with the one of the Bible. It is a native of

Syria and Palestine, and although I saw some plants of it

growing in the Pasha’s gardens both at Alexandria and Cairo,

it is not likely that it grew in Egypt at the time referred to;

hence the reason for its being included in Jacob’s present.

You will all see the coincidence between this passage and the

habit of the Sinhalese of bringing presents of fruits to those

from whom they expect favors. It is common to all orientals.

The Peach, which has been grown on the mountains of

Ceylon for many years past, is a species of the same genus to

which the Almond tree belongs, but you must not confound

the Almond with what is known here as the country Almond

(ogn20@, kottamba), which belongs to a distinet natural

order.

Some trees which were in flower, but not in leaf, at

Gibraltar in January 1858, were so profusely covered with

rose-colored flowers, that they were conspicuously seen a

long way out at sea, The Almond is one of that important

No. 11.—1858-9.] SCRIPTURE BOTANY OF CEYLON. o2d

family which, according to the testimony of Geologists, seems

to have been created about the same time with man.

The Nuts above named, in connection with the Almond,

have, by various commentators, been translated ‘Pine-nuts,”

“dates,” or “walnuts,’ but other writers think that the

“Pistachio nuts,” so much in request in the East, and

imported into India from Afghanistan, are meant.

The word rendered Hazel in Gen. xxx. 37, should be

translated Almond.

POMEGRANATE.

(oedst, delun Sinhalese ; Punica granatum. Linn.)

“ Beneath upon the hem of it (the robe) thou shalt make

pomegranates of blue, and of purple, and of scarlet, round

about the hem thereof, and bells of gold between them round

about, a golden bell and a pomegranate, a golden bell

and a pomegranate upon the hem of the robe round about.”

(Exod. xxxiii. 33, 34.)

There is very frequent allusion to this tree or fruit in the

Bible, especially in the gorgeously poetical Song of Solomon,

where it is spoken of as follows—‘‘ Thy plants are an orchard

of pomegranates, with pleasant fruits, camphire and spike-

nard.” (iv. 13.) “As a piece of a pomegranate are thy

temples within thy locks.” (vi. 7.) ‘I went down into the

carden of nuts to see the fruits of the valley, and to see

whether the vine flourished, and the pomegranates budded.”

(vi. 11.) (and so in vii. 12.) “I would cause thee to drink

spiced wine of the juice of my pomegranate.” (viii. 2.) Itis

common and well-known here, though not indigenous. The

Sinhalese name of the plant is delun.

In consequence of the very frequent mention of the pome-

eranate fruit, in books of Eastern travel, I expected to find

a very different fruit from the almost tasteless, small, and

insipid fruit commonly seen in the bazaars here ; but I am

328 JOURNAL R. A. 8, (CEYLON). CV ol. 141:

now convinced, that when properly cultivated, the pome-

granate is not only a pleasant, but very refreshing fruit, even

to European taste.

When staying with Mr. Henry Rudd for some days, a few

years ago, at Kadugannawa, | remember he received from his

cousin some cultivated pomegranates, each as large as a child’s

head, and they were certainly a delicious fruit, equalling, I

should think, those which are said to be sent to Bombay from

Museat and Persia. The natives are so fond of them, and

have such a high idea of their virtues, that to procure them

for a patient suffering from fever or small-pox, they have

been known to give from ls. 6d. to 2s. for a single fruit.

The rind of the fruit is used by European and Native

doctors as a powerful astringent, and is supposed to be the

principal ingredient used in tanning Morocco leather.

TARES.

“The Kingdom of heaven is likened unto a man which

sowed good seed in his field, but while men slept, his enemy

came and sowed tares among the wheat.” (Matt. xiii. 24, 25.)

ewe

The tares here referred to are supposed to be the Darnel

grass of Hurope, the Lolium tremulentum, a tall grass often

found in corn fields resembling the wheat until both are’in

ear, and remarkable as one of the very few of the large

family of grasses possessed of deleterious properties.

One of the greatest pests of the Rice grower of Ceylon

is a plant calied in Sinhalese &8€Q. kirindi-mdnd,

known to usas “Job’s Tears” (Cotx lachryma) and it bears

such a close resmblance to the Rice plant, that I believe

they are undistinguishable till they bear seed. The seeds of

this plant are of a pale grey colour and covered by a flinty |

shining coat. They are extensively used for bracelets, and |

1 was told by a fellow passenger from St. Helena to England,

that Lady Ross, tne widow of a former Governor of that |

No. 11.—1858-9.] SCRIPTURE BOTANY OF CEYLON. 329

Island, made and sold bracelets of these and other seeds

sufficient to build a small church, for which she liberally

gave the proceeds.

WILLOW.

After the Feast of Tabernacles, the children of Israel were

required to keep a feast of seven days, and on the first day

they were directed to take ‘tboughs of goodly trees, branches

of palm trees, and the boughs of thick trees, and willows of

the brook; (Lev. xxiii. 40.) and they were to rejoice before

the Lord their God seven days. Job, when talking of Behe-

moth, said * The shady trees cover him with their shadow :

the willows of the brook compass him about.” (Job xl. 22.)

How very touchingly does the Psalmist describe the

feelings of the captive children of Israel, when it was de-

mancded of them to sing in a strange land, one of the songs

of Zion, *“‘ By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down, yea,

we wept, when we remembered Zion. We hanged our

harps upon the willows in the midst thereof.” (Psalm

Ckexx vie b,2° 2h)

“And that which they have laid up, shall they carry

away to the brook of the willows.” (Is. xv. 7.)

And in another place Isaiah speaks of the Willows as fit

emblems for the children of godiy parenis.

“And they shall spring up as among the grass as willows

by the water courses.”” (Is. xliv. 4.)

There is no species of Willow indigenous to Ceylon, but

upwards of thirty years ago, the very species here referred

to, the Weeping Willow (Saliz Babylonica,) was introduced,

and now there are growing in front of Mr. Darley’s house,

plants of the same species, said to have been procured from

the famous tree which overhung the tomb of Napoleon in

the Island of St. Helena. Several now in Ceylon have

doubtless seen this tree, and others of great beauty, when

330 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON), [Vol. IL.

calling at that Island. We are all familiar with the Willow

pattern dishes, the design of which was got from China ; now

the Willow there represented, as well as in many of the Chi-

nese paintings of landscapes, is this very species, for it is

indigenous to, and very common in, China. In thus glancing

at the familiar facts connected with the Willow, how strange

are the associations produced in our minds. We first think

of the captive Israelites, who because they cannot sing in a _

strange land, hang their harps upon the Willows ;then we are |

carried by thought to the tomb in the far off Ocean Isle,

where lately lay the remains of one of the greatest wholesale

murderers that ever cursed this earth; and lastly we are

borne along to a people (the Chinese) who seem generally

to be much in the same state as they were 2000 or 3000

years ago, but who are fast being brought face to face with |

the civilization of modern HKurope,—the civilization of tribes i

unheard of in ancient Babylon, and still styled ‘ barbarians” |

by those who arrogate to themselves the title of “ Celestials.” |

HYSSOP.

‘‘He (Solomon) spoke of trees, from the cedar tree that is

in Lebanon, even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the |

ieleaies (le wien Sg Toya ean)

-“ Algo, when they shall be afraid of that which is high, and |

fears shall be in the way, and the almond tree shall flourish, |

and the grasshopper shall be a burden, and desire shall |

fail: because man goeth to his long home, and the mourners |

go about the streets.” (Eccles. xii. 95.)

A great deal of learned discussion has taken place in refer- {| |

ence to the Hsoph of the old, and the Hyssopus of the New |F

Testament, translated in all cases “Hyssop”; and instead of its | }

being the plant well known to most of us as the common |

Hyssop, it is now generally believed that species of Caper |

(Capparis spinosa or C. Egyptiaca) was the plant meant, and |—

indeed is the best suited for the several requirements of the |

No. 11.—1858-9.] SCRIPTURE BOTANY OF CEYLON. 331

one so frequently referred to in the Bible. But while there

may be a reasonable doubt in our minds cn the subject of this

plant, perhaps it may be new for some of us to learn that the

word “desire,” in the passage I have quoted from Ecclesiastes,

is admitted to indicate a plant, and no other than the plant

which chiefly furnishes the Capers of commerce (C. spinosa) ;

and which, perhaps, some of us may not be aware of, are the

unexpanded flower-buds of this plant. The genus to which

the Caper bush belongs, is very widely distributed over the

earth, and species answering the requirements of the texts

referring to it, were growing in the several countries named

in the Bible in connection with it. We have no less than

twelve species of the Caper plant indigenous to the Island,

some of which, when in flower, festoon the forest trees, and

exhibit as rich a floral display as any plant in the Island.

Their flowers are in general very conspicuous, and beginning

with a fine rose-colored one, which was lately in flower in

Colombo, are of various sizes and colors; one, in the jungles

of the interior, displaying a profusion of snowy white flowers

fully two inches across the petals. There was a very fine

one some years ago at Elie House, which has since been cut

down. It is agigantic thorny climber, and known to the

Sinhalese aso®evS8oa, véelangiriya. It has the flowers so

arranged in rows on the stems, that when the uppermost

expands and falls off, the next in succession opens in its turn.

MALLOW.

This word occurs only once in the Bible, where Job speaks

of those, “who cut up mallows by the bushes, and juniper

roots for their meat.” (Job xxx. 4.)

There has been a great deal of discussion on the subject

of the plant here translated Mallow, and it is shewn that the

original word may stand for several plants which grow in the

lands of the Bible, as well as for the Mallow, some of which

indigenous to Ceylon, and of others we have representatives

332 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON). [VoleTi;

One of the supposed plants, the “Jews’ Mallow,” (Chor-

chorus olitorius), is indigenous here ; but in passing from

Alexandria to Cairo in Egypt lately, and keeping my eyes

open, particularly with reference to such subjects, I saw

several plots of ground planted with the real Mallow, and

cultivated evidently with great care, while I did not detect

any of “the Jews’ Mallow” so cultivated.

There is no species of the genus to which the Mallow

belongs indigenous here,* but those gorgeous flowering Holy-

hocks now so common in our gardens, and the ®aeease,

maha-anoda of the Sinhalese (Abutilon Indicum) so very

commonly used by the Natives as a Medicine, are no unfit

representatives of the Mallow. Another of the plants which

the original word in Job may indicate, is the Salsola Indica,

and which, according to the testimony of the late Dr. Rox-

burgh, “saved the lives of many thousands of the poor natives

of India during the famine of 1791-2-3 : for while the plant

lasted, most of the poorer classes who lived near the sea had

little else to eat.” In years when the Rice crop fails in the

Island of Delft, in the Northern Province, the natives have

recourse to the roots of a small grass-like plant called

silinti in Tamil, and kalanduru by the Sinhalese (Cyperus

geminatus).

BRAMBLE.

“Then said all the trees unto the bramble, Come thou and

reign over us. And the bramble said unto the trees, If in

truth ye anoint me king over you, then come and put your

trust in my shadow, and if not, let fire come out of the bram-

ble and devour the cedars of Lebanon.” (Judges ix. 14, 45.)

We have no less than seven species of Bramble indigenous

* Since the above was written, I paid more attention to the identifi-

cation of a common road-side plant in Colombo, which I find to be a true

Mallow, and I think J. tomentosa, Linn.

No, 11.—1858-9.] SCRIPTURE BOTANY OF CEYLON. 339

to the interior of Ceylon, and most troublesome plaints they

are to the Surveyor who has to cut boundaries through them;

to the intending Planter who explores the forest, or the hunts-

man who pierces their recesses in pursuit of game. They are

known to the Sinhalese, but it appears that the plant

translated Bramble, as well as the other plants called

Thorns, Thistles, and Briars, are involved in obscurity.

-The Bramble, as well as the plant used to make the “crown

of thorns” for our Saviour, is supposed to be Zizyphus spina

Christi, a plant common in the Kast. The Zizyphus paliurus,

a plant of Palestine, is supposed to be the Briar so often re-

ferred to in Isaiah—‘“ Ye shal] know them by their fruits.

Do men gather grapes of thorns, 01 figs of thistles?” (Matt.

vii. 16.) A species, closely allied to one of the plants supposed

to be referred to here, is common in dry sandy ground near

Colombo, it is the G2@onodsts, sembu-nerenchi (Tribulus

terrestris) of the Sinhalese. It is a small plant, spreads

flat on the ground, and its thorny fruits often annoy the

barefooted natives. .

Of the genus Zizyphus we have five species indigenous to

Ceylon. The Sas, masan or ilantai is well known to most

of us as producing a fruit, which is freely eaten and sold

in the bazaars here.

Many of us have read of a species of fruit eaten by the

ancient Lotophagi; which, when once tasted, it was fabled,

made those who ate of it lose the love of their country. I[ saw

several of the trees producing these fruits in the gardens

at Alexandria, and they bore a very great resemblance to the

mrasan, tree and fruits.

TAMARISK.

“Now Saul abode in Gibeah under a tree in Ramah,

having his spear in his hand, and, all his servants were stand-

ing about him.” (Sam. xxii. 6.)

; M

334 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON), [Vol Tit.

Most authors are agreed that the word translated “tree” in

the above passage, as well as “grove” and “tree” in Gen. xxi. 33,

and xxxi. 13, shouid have been “tamarisk” or “tamarisk-tree.”

There is one species of the Tamarisk indigenous to Ceylon,

but while the tree of the Bible is spoken of as affording shade, |

and a refreshing sight to the weary traveller of the desert |

and other places, our Ceylon tamarisk is remarkable for |

rowin enerally in water, “and for a poor leafless appear- |

S J )

ance.” Such, at least, is the peculiarity of those I saw

growing in the marshes near Jaffna. It is remarked, that 7

“On the extreme part of the desert of Shur, the scene i

where Hagar wandered with her outcast child, the stunted |

bushes of the Tamarisk grow in abundance, and some travel- |

lers have remarked, that it was probably under one of these | |

bushes that the desponding mother cast the child of her [>

blighted hope.” With reference to shade, I may mention, |

that the natives of Jaffna have particular objection to rest |

or to build their huts under the shade of certain trees, while |

the shade of the Tamarind is chosen by them of all others |

as being the coolest and healthiest. The Tamarind, however, it

bears no resemblance, except in name, to the Tamarisk.

There is rather a rare tree in this part of Ceylon, being one of |

those which the natives call eqolda uguressa, (Xanthoxylon

Rhetsa), and the seeds of which it is possible the Egyptians |~

used in embalming. Under the shade of this tree, the “hill |

people of India assemble to examine and determine their |

matters of public concern,” at meetings likely similar to |

the gansabha of the Sinhalese.

There is a fine specimen of this latter tree at the village |

of Kanatta, near Colombo.

ROSE.

“The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad for | |

them: and the desert shall rejoice, and blossom as the rose.” |_

(Isa. xxxv. 1.) “The interesting comparison in the above |

No. 11.—1858-9.] SCRIPTURE BOTANY OF CEYLON. 330

verse, and the no less important one in which our Lord is

compared to the “ Rose of Sharon,” are the only two places in

which the Rose is named in our English version.” (Cant.

iy <I)

While some writers have attempted to shew that the Rose

here meant is the same with the one we all know by that

name, others have, I think, shewn with greater reason that

some other flower was meant, as “neither this nor any other

rose adorns the plain of Sharon.”

Some have attempted to prove that a bulbous plant was

‘meant, and have fixed on a species of Narcissus CN. lfazetta),

while the late Dr. Royle supposed that the “Rose Bay,” (Neriwm

gleander,) so well known in Ceylon, was the flower meant.

This is a common and admired plant of Palestine, and is

found in all our gardens here; while on the roads from

Jaffna to Chavakachcheri and to Point Pedro, Mr. Dyke has

planted rows of one or two beautiful species.

Several varieties of the Rose grow in Ceylon; and in the

interior, where whole fences are formed of them, they display

a profusion of flowers, which can only be conceived by those

who have seen them. Dr. Hooker stated that 20,000 flowers

of roses at Ghazepore are required to make a rupee weight

of the attar, which sells for £10.

The plant known to us as the “ Rose of Jericho,” is found

in the deserts of Syria aud HKgypt. The annual stems of this

plant, when withered and dried, coil up like a ball, but

expand on being put in water.

LILY.

“T am the rose of Sharon, and the lily of the valleys.”

a@amits ii. 1.) “* Consider the lilies of the field, how they

erow; they toil not, neither do they spin, and yet I say to

you, that even Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed

like one of those.” (Matt, vi. 28, 29)

336 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). [ Vol. 11.

Many writers have translated the “lily” of the Canticles

by Violet, Jessamine, and some other flowers, but the late

Dr. Royle believed that the lily of the old and that of the

New Testament are two distinct plants, “and thinks the

former to be the lotus lily of the Nile.” (Nymphea lotus.)

This would account for the circumstance, that five times in

the Canticles, in which the lily is mentioned, reference is

mide to ‘“‘feeding among liliés,” as the seeds, roots, and

stalks of this flower were common articles of Egyptian diet ;

and this author considers, that the frequent reference to this

flower in that part of the Scripture, may be owing to the

circumstance that the Song of Solomon was written, as has

been supposed, on the occasion of his marriage with an

Keyptian princess.

Drs. Hooker and Thomsen have lately identified the

N. lotus of the Nile with all the varieties indigenous to or

growing in India of the red water-lly, and hence the one

erowing in several parts of Ceylon is identical with the Lotus

of the Nile. It isthe eya@d, et-v/u of the Sinhalese, and

we have white and red varieties of it. It must not, however,

be confounded with the sacred bean of India, which grows

so profusely in the lake near Colombo, and which threatens

to overrun the large sheet of water, as it did the tank between

the Racquet Court and the Fort. It is the Nelumbium specio-

sum ot Botanists.

It is on this latter plant that, according to ancient Hindoo

ideas, the earth was supported ; and it is somewhere recorded

that one of the Gods assumed the shape of a boar, and dived

down for the space of 3000 years to discover the source of its

‘root, but in vain. There are beautiful allusions to the Lotus

in Sinhalese and Tamil poetry.

The Lily of the New Testament, and to which Solomon was }

compared, is supposed to be the Chalcedonian or Scarlet

Martagon Lily,formerly called the ‘Lily of Byzantium,” found

from the Adriatic to the Levant, and which, with its scarlet

No. 11.— 1858-9.] SCRIPTURE BOTANY OF CEYLON. Bad

turban-like flowers, is indeed a most stately and striking ob-

ject. As this Lily is in flower at the season of the year when

the Sermon on the Mount is supposed to have been spoken, is

indigenous in the very locality, and is conspicuous, even in

the garden for its remarkable showy flowers, there can be

little doubt that it is the plant alluded to by our Saviour.

Our magnificent, though common Gloriosa superba, and the

cultivated Tuberose, are members of the family, and will give

you no mean idea of the flower to which Solomon in all

his glory was compared. I have seen it once stated, that the

flower in question had some beautiful structure which bore

out the comparison; but this is not pecessary.

LENTILS, BEANS, BARLEY, WHEAT, MILLET.

“And Esau said to Jacob, Feed me, I pray the, with that

same red pottage, for Il am faint. Then Jacob gave HKsau

bread and pottage of lentils.’ (Gen. xxv. 30, 34.)

The mess of pottage for which Esan sold his birthright, is

supposed to have been made from a small species of Pea, not

unlike the green gram of the bazaars, and called E a6, u/undu

and gsjsvqi0, muneta by the Sinhalese. The famous fe-

velenta Arabica is said to be the produce of lentils.

“ Barzillai the Gileadite of Rogelim brought beds, and

basons and earthen vessels and Wheat and Barley, and flour

and parched corn, and Beans and Lentils and parched pulse.”

(eoam. xvi. 27, 26.)

Beans of several kinds and varieties are amongst the most

common vegetables cultivated and sold in our Bazaars here.

It would rejoice the heart of a bean-curry-loving Sinhalese,

however, to see the fields of a different kind of Bean, as

cultivated in England.

When surveying in the forests of Sabaragamuwa, sixteen

years ago, my coolies and myself came upon some Sinhalese

who lived under projecting stones, under one of which they

338 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). [ Vol. 111.

had a chatty full of beans and sweet potatoes boiling, and

which we were very thankful to get from them, as we had

eaten the last of our rice that morning.

I may remark, that though the very common habit of our

cooks here to put a copper coin in beans, boiled for table, .

improves their color, it does not their wholesomeness.

Besides the foregoing and constant allusions to Wheat and

Barley in the Bible, Moses described the ancient land of the

Israelites as “a land of wheat and barley, and vines and

fig trees, and pomegranates; a land of oil olive, and honey.”

(Deut. viii: 7, 8.), And in reference to Kye, it is said, ““Whe

wheat and rye were not smitten, for they were not grown

Woes oodles Shc" a5)

Wheat, Barley and Oats were cultivated in Uva many

years ago, and several attempts have been made sinve to grow

them at Nuwara Eliya, but not with any great success.

Wheat and Barley are too well known to require a descrip-

tion of them. The wheat the bakers here use, comes from

India; rice, kurakkan, &c., are members of the same natural

order, and like the Rosacew elsewhere referred to, seem not

to have been created before man. The expression, “Cast

thy bread upon the waters, for thou shalt find it after many

days,” (Eccles. xi. 1) is supposed to refer to the Rice grown

in the water.

“Take thou also unto thee wheat and barley, and beans,

and lentils, and millet and fitches, and put them in one

vessel and make thee bread thereof.” (Hzek, iv. 9.)

This is the only passage in the Bible where the Millet is

mentioned. We have no less than 46 species indigenous to

Ceylon of the genus to which the millet belongs, besides the

millet referred to, which is freely grown in Ceylon and is

known as menéri.

The useful “Guinea Grass” belongs to the same genus.

No. 11.—1858-9.] SCRIPTURE BOTANY OF CEYLON. b39

We are aware that the limestone soil of Palestine is no

longer a land teeming with corn and fruit, but a sad scene

of desolation.

But this is because its people are “scattered.” Let them

but return to their goodly land, and use the streams for

purposes of irrigation, and all the ancient fertility of the

land will be restored,—the Desert blossoming as the

Rose.

JONAH’S GOURD.

“The Lord God prepared a gourd, and made it to come

up over Jonah, that it might be a shadow over his head, to

deliver him from his grief. So Jonah was exceeding glad

of the gourd. But God prepared a worm when the morning

rose the next day, and it smote the gourd that it withered.”

@ionah *iv., 6, 7.)

The Fathers not only pronounced excommunications

against those who differed from them on the subject of the

plant representing Jonah’s Gourd, but came to actual blows

amongst themselves on the subject.

It is now admitted to have been the Castor Oil plant so

common in Ceylon, and of such rapid growth here and every-

where. At Paumban, and on the Coast of India, the castor

oil is used as lamp oil, while in China it is said to be used

in cooking.

The Castor Oil, and the Egyptian Cotton plants, were the

most frequent shrubs I saw growing between Alexandria

and Cairo. The cotton is cultivated in small patches, and at

every Railway Station, the castor oil plant, with its bronze-

colored, palmated leaves, seemed the most common plant

of Egypt.

MYRTLE.

“Instead of the thorn shall come up the fir tree, and

instead of the brier shall come up the myrtle tree, and it

340 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON). [Vol. 111.

shall be to the Lord for a name, for an everlasting sign

that shall not be eut off.” ({[s.-lv. 13.)

The common Myrtle is the plant here meant, and which

is very generally grown in gardens in Ceylon. Thereisa

species of the same genus indigenous to the mountains of.

the interior.

The Pomegranate elsewhere referred to, as well as the

jambu or “Rose Apple,’ belong to the same family of plants

as the myrtle of the Bible.

Many of you are familiar with Byron’s lines, beginning,—

‘‘Know ye the land where the cypress and myrtle

Are emblems of deeds that are done in their eclime.’

WILD GOURD, WILD VINE.

“One went out in the field to gather herbs, and found a

wild vine, and gathered thereof wild gourds his lapful and

came and shred them into the pot of pottage : for they knew

them not. So they poured out for the men to eat. And it

came to passas they were eating of the pottage, that they

cried out and said, O thou man of God, there is death in the

pot. And they could not eat thereof.” ( 2 Kings iv. 39, 40.)

You are all familiar with the fact that the above passage

refers to the sons of the prophets who were fed by Elisha at

Gilgal, when there was adearth in the land. It is supposed

that the herbs which the person who went out wished to col-

lect, were the fruits of the “Keg plant,” in fact, the Brinjall so

commonly eaten in Ceylon ; but that he mistook for it a plant

of the Cucumber family, several of which produce poisonous

fruits, and the one which is as likely as any other to have

been the poisonous plant--the Colocynth plant—is common |—

in the north of Ceylon, where it spreads on.the ground, and

displays a profusion of beautifully red-colored fruits. It is |

the wetoa2OA, Yak-komadu of the Sinhalese.

No. 11.—1858-9.] SCRIPTURE BOTANY OF CEYLON. 341

Some of us may recollect the fearful results of a mistake

committed acouple of years ago by a servant girl at Dingwall,

a place within three miles of my native village, in the North

of Scotland, where the root of the Aconite or “Monkshood” was

used with the gravy of some roasted meat, instead of that of

the Horse raddish. Three of the gentlemen who partook of

it, died, within two hours, while the others narrowly escaped

with their lives. The “Monkshood” is identical with the Bikh

poison of the Himalayas, and is known as one of the most

deadly of vegetable poisons.

VINE.

There is no doubt that immediately after the waters of

the deluge had removed from the face of the earth, this plant

was trained and reared by the hand of man ; for, it is said,

“Noah began to be an husbandman, and he planted a vineyard.”

(Gen. ix. 20.) The spies sent from Kadesh-barnea to

explore the promised land, brought back, amongst other fruits,

a large buuch of grapes ;—and there is constant reference to

the Vine and Grapes in the Old and New Testaments. The

real Grape Vine here meant is grown in gardens all over

Ceylon, but bears fruit successfully ai Jaffna only, I believe.

There are sixteen species of the same genus indigenous to

Ceylon. I have seen the bunches of fruits of one species in

the forests, so large, that one of them would be sufficient to

form a load for a cooly.

BALM OF GILEAD AND SPICES.

““My beloved is gone down into his garden, to the beds of

Spices.” (Cant. vi. 2.) “Is there no balm in Gilead, is there

mo physician there.” (Jer. viii. 22.)

The tree which produced the Balm of Gilead is involved

‘in obscurity. This, and Bdellium, Myrrh, and Incense or

Frankincense, are evidently the produce of the same natural

order of plants to which our Mangoes belong.

The kiluvai and mukkiluvat which form such beautiful

fences in the Northern Province, produce a very fragrant

3492 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON). [Vol. III.

gum. The ftluvat is evidently the Protium caudatum,

We “and! ‘uA. "The Conarium sot! the) “Norv sand. mune

mala-kakunas of this part of the Island, produce resins

which are carefully collected, and are said to form the

Incense used by the Roman Catholic Priests. On visiting

lately the famous Church of St. John, in Malta, the heavy

smell of its interior reminded myself and a fellow-traveller

very forcibly of the sensation experienced on entering the

Buddhist and Hindoo Temples. Itseems strange that the two

flowers most commonly used in the Buddhist Temples here,

viz., the large yellow ones of the Allamanda Cathartica, and

those of the Plumeria accuminata, should both (like the

sacred 60) be foreign plants.

The Elm in Hosea (iv. 13.), and the Zew tree of Isaiah

(vi. 13), should have been translated Terebinth or Turpentine

tree. This tree also belongs to the same natural order as our

Mangoe, the peculiar flavour of that fruit being referable to

the quantity of turpentine in it,

CORIANDER, SAFFRON, CUMMIN, WORMWOOD, ANISH,

MINT AND RUE.

“The manna was as coriander seed, and the color thereot

pS Woe) Unico Ou

lord

as the color of Bdelluim.” (Numb. xi. /.

seribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! for ye pay tithe of mint,

and anise, and cummin, and have omitted the weightier mat-

ters of the law, judgment, mercy and faith.” (Matt. xxiii. 23.)

Coriander, Cummin and Anise all belong to the same tribe |

of plants, and are known to us all as common bazaar stuffs

for Curries. Most of them grow in Ceylon too. They are

known in the bazaars as asamédagan, kottamalli, and

Hin-enduru. The plant referred to as Anise should have

been translated Dill, which also grows in Ceylon.

“Spikenard and saffron ; calamus and cinnamon, with |

all trees of frankincense ; myrrh and aloes, with all the

chief spices.” (Cant. iv. 4.) .

The saffron here referred to, is mace from the dried |

No. 11.—1858-9.] SCRIPTURE BOTANY OF CEYLON. 343

stamens of the Crocus sativus, and must not be confounded

with the root so extensively used in curries here, and by the

dancing girls at Temples to color their bodies with. This is

properly Turmeric, though invariably called Saffron by the

natives. The real Crocus is common in the bazaars as a

medicine.

“Behold, I will feed them, even this people, with worm-

wood, and give them water of gall to drink.” (Jer. ix. 15.)

One species of the wormwood plant is grown in pots about

Colombo, and there is another indigenous to Ceylon. Itis

a composite plant, and it is most likely that the wormseeds

or kirumisaturw of the bazaars, and the salt of which is

now used so beneficially in Colombo as an anthelmintic,

are the produce of the wormwood of the Bible.

“Ye tithe mint and rue and all manner of herbs, and pass

over judgment and the love of God.” (Luke xi. 42.)

One species of Mint is indigenous to Ceylon, and the Spear-

mint and Pepermints have been cultivated here for a long

time, and are common in the Island. The Rue plant is also

cultivated in Ceylon.

CONCLUSION.

The Alegum or Almug trees brought by Hiram from Ophir

are supposed to have been the Sandal wood tree, and which

was growing in Ceylon in Moon’s time. When lately in the

magnificent Palace of the Pacha of Hgypt, at Alexandria, I

saw one large room, the flooring of which was composed of

Sandal wood. :

The Hindu Temple of Somnat, in Guzerat, which was

plundered and destroyed by Muhammad of Ghuzni, had gates

made of Sandal wood. These were carried off by the con-

queror, and afterwards formed the gates of his tomb, whence,

after 800 years, they were taken by the British conquerors

of Ghuzni, and brought back to India in 1842. Many of

you may recollect Lord Hllenborough’s memorable despatch

d44 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON). [Vol. IIT.

on the subject ; and you will have smiled at Knighton’s un-

accountable substitution of Sandal for Satin wood, in men-

tioning the material of which the Péradeniya Bridge was built.

The Cockle seems to have been identical with our Prickly

Brinjal, the katu-wambatu of the Sinhalese, and a species

of Solanum.

The Bay tree or Bay Laurel does not grow here, but the

Cinnamon and other trees are representatives of the family

to which it belongs.

The Shittah tree (Isa. xli. 19) is supposed to have been a

species of Acacia, of which genus we have eight species indige-

nous to Ceylon. In riding from the Hotel at Alexandria to see

Cleopatra’s Needle and Pompey’s Pillar, I found that the tree

which formed avenues all along the roads, was the Swrya-

mara of the Sinhalese, the A. speciosa common in Colombo,

and one of which is often in flower in front of the Queen’s

House. It is not unlikely that Anthony and Cleopatra may

have reposed under the shade of this species of tree in the

vicinity of Alexandria.

The word Ebony occurs only once in the Bible. (Ezek. xxvii.

15.) Several trees producing Ebony of various qualities are

found in- India, Mauritius and elsewhere, but Ceylon is

famed for its Ebony, and there are no less than 21 species of

it indigenous to the Island. There is frequent allusion in

the ancient Poets to Ebony.

c¢__________ sola India nigrum.

Fert ebenum -——__ -—___—- —__—..””_(Virg. Georg. 11. 117.)

“This ground with Bacchus that with Ceres suits:

That other loads the trees with happy fruits;

A fourth with grass, unbidden, decks the ground ;

Thus Tmolus is with yellow saffron crown'd;

India black ebon and white Iv’ry bears

And soft Idume weeps her od’rous tears.

Dryden, Virg. Georg. 1.

“They sacrifice upon the tops of the mountains, and burn

incense upon the hills, under oaks and poplars and elms,

No. 11.—1858-9.] SCRIPTURE BOTANY OF CEYLON. d45

because the shadow thereof is good.” (Hos. iv.23.) The Pop-

lars above referred to, as well as the trees translated Mul-

berries in several parts of the Bible, doubtless refer to a species

of Poplar, several beautiful varieties of which grow from

Persia westward to England. The famous Aspen tree

(Populus tremula), and likely the tree here spoken, of bears a

considerable resemblance to our Bo-tree (Ficus Religiosa).

The petioles of its leaves are so arranged, that if the slightest

breath of wind blows, they tremble; and it was formerly sup-

posed that it obtained this trembling motion from the circum-

stance that the Cross on which our Saviour was crucified was

made of its wood. ‘The leaves of the 4¢é-tree tremble in the

same way, in consequence of their long slender petioles and

the accuminations on their leaves. This trembling is said, in

the Buddhist books, to have been communicated to it from the

circuinstance that it was the first tree under which Buddha

reposed.

“The vine is dried up, and the fig-tree languisheth; the

pomegranate tree, the palm tree also, and the apple tree

even all the trees of the field, are withered ; because joy is

withered away from the sons of men.” (Joeli. 12.) The

“Apple tree” in the above passage, as well as the “Apple” so

often referred to by Solomon, in his Song, and in Proverbs,

is, doubtless, the Citron, which is grown in several places in

Ceylon. The Shaddock, known to us all, was long ago called

the Forbidden fruit, or Adam’s Apple, and it is sold as such

to the present day in the London shops. It is generally

called Pumalo, and belongs to the same genus as the Citron.

The Sycamine is a species of Mulberry, known as the

Morus nigra, and which our rata-embilla, or Indian

Mulberry, common here, a good deal resembles.

The Aloes mixed with Myrrh, and put on the body of our

Saviour by Nicodemus, appear to have been the produce of

a species of Aguilaria, of which our patia-walla (Gyrinops

walla), is a representation,

346 JOURNAL R. A. 8S. (CEYLON). [ Vol.TH,

THE, SUPPOSED IDENTITY Bay ai N

NAGARJUNA AND NAGASENA,

By JAMES D’ALwis, Esq., Asst. Secretary.

Having on a former occasion expressed my views on the

passage extracted from the Raja Tarangani, in reference to

its prosodial precision, | now return to the subject, with the

object of reviewing the reasons adduced by the Hon’ble Mr.

Turnour in favour of the alleged identity between Nagasena

and Nagarjuna. This position, I perceive, he has laboured to

‘establish in seven different ways :—

1. By the evidence supposed to be furnished by a Bactrian

coin found by Lieutenant Burnes ;

2. By supplying a supposed omission of a letter in the

text, by which the age of Nagarjuna is brought to correspond

exactly with that of Nagasena in the Buddhist Scriptures ;

3. By identifying Aséka of Kashmir with the Asoka of

Maghada ;

4, By the strong resemblance between the two names ;

>. By shewing that the title of Bhumishwara given to Na-

gearjuna did not militate against the hypothesis he sought

to establish ;

6. By identifying “‘the six Arahatvas” in the extract made

by Professor Wilson with the six Tirtakas mentioned in |

Milindapprasna ;

7. By an adjustment of dates, so as to bring the Chrono-

logy of the Radja Tarangani te coincide wite the adjusted

No. 11.—1858-9.] NAGARJUNA AND NAGASENA. 347

Hindu Chronology, and with the Attakathé of the Pitakattya,

and Mdéhawansa

First. As tothe evidence supposed to be furnished in

favour of this hypothesis by the Bactrian coin described in the

Bengal Asiatic Society's Journal, vol. Il. p. 314, &c., Iam

willing to abide by the opinion subsequently expressed by

Mr. Prinsep, in the following note to Mr. Turnour’s observa-

tions on the subject.

“ Most of our readers are aware that the date assigned in

our notice of Lieutenant Burnes’ coin, was afterwards in a

measure abandoned, on the ground of its being found in as-

sociation with Sassanian coins of much later period. The

reading of the letter P in KANHPKOM was also confirmed by

a multitude of specimens. No argument, therefore, can safely

be built on the evidence of this coin as to the period of Na-

earjuna’s mission, but there remains ample authority without

it, in the written history of the Buddhist Church.

Abandoning therefore this item of evidence, I shall proceed

to a consideration of the second.

Second. J have already examined the text with reference

to the alteration suggested by Mr. Turnour upon this head ;

and the correctness of shardan-varsha-satan, “one century

and a half,” as givenin the Nagara version, is attested by the

general scope of Kashmirian history, which brings down

the fifty-one reigns, including those of Turushka princes and

of Abhimanya (in whose reign, as well as afterwards, the

Buddhists cherised by thelearned Bodhisatwa Nagarjuna, main-

tained the ascendancyt), to only B.c. 1182. It would thus

seem that the criticism offered is inadmissible, not only upon

the supposition of an ‘inaccuracy of some transcriber of the

work,” but upon every other conceivable ground, except that

of an error, as hinted by Mr. Turnour himself, of ‘ Kalhana

Pandit’s having misunderstood the Buddhistical writers from

whom his authority was derived.” Indeed, it would be im-

* See Bengal Asiatic Journal V. p. 536.

+ Asiatic Researches, xy. pp. 118, 114.

348 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). (Vol. III.

possible to adjust this date with precision, even according to

Bhuddhistical writers, unless we obtain proofs in support of

the next hypothesis of Mr. Turnour, to which we now turn

our attention.

Third, That Asoka of Kashmir was identical with the

Maghada prince of that name. True it is, that im addi-

tion to the resemblance in the names, some little incidents of

life, as related of Aséka in the Raja Tarangant, accord with

the same facts detailed in Ceylon and Indian Annals of the

Aséka of Maghada : as for instance, his abolishing the Brah-

minical rites, and substituting those of Jina or Buddha

(Raja Tarangani in “ Asiatic Researches,” xv. p. 19, and

Mahawansa, pp. 23, 26); and his “ nvthaving been the direct

descendant of his predecessors, who reigned in Kashmir,” as

attested by the genealogy given in the Vishnu Purdéna.

Opposed, however, to these marks of resemblance, are the

following points of discordance; First, the Asoka of

Kashmir appears, from the whole tenor of the Raja Tarangani,

to have been aresident of that country; whereas the Asoka

of Hindu and Bhuddhistical annals, was a prince of Patali-

puttra (modern Patna), who had previously held the govern-

ment of Uggeni (Avanti) befcre his inauguration (J/ahd-

wansa, cap. v.) Second—The mission of Buddhist priests

into Kashmir, the abolition of Naga worship, and the visita-

tion of tempests, are: related in Mahdiwansa, cxill. as

having occurred during the reign of Asdéka of Patna, whilst

the same incidents are detailed in the Raja Tarangani as

having taken place in the reign of Abhimanya, (‘ Asiatic

Researches,” xv. p. 24.) . One other reason, and it is a

weighty one, for the non-identity of the two Asdkas is, that

Kashmir is not included in the number of countries over

which the Indian Asoka reigned ; and according to the Girnar

inscription of that monarch, where all the conquered states

are named, he was “ Lord of the countries of Avanti, Anupa,

Vrija, Anartta, Surashira, Savara, Kukura, Kirata, Tisha

No. 11.—1858-9.] NAGARJUNA AND NAGASENA. 349

and others, all conquered* by his own might, and maintained

in their former prosperity, and all their inhabitants, both

high and low, converted into obedient subjects—all these

countries, under His Majesty forming one Kmpire, and fur-

nishing every object of desire and gratification.”

Be these differences, however, as they may, the marks of

resemblance, and therefore mere presumptive proofs in

support of the hypothesis, become perfectly valueless, when

we refer to the direct evidence contained in the Rdja Taran-

gani, of the descent of Prince Aséka, of Kashmir. In the

Rajavali Pataka, by Prajya Bhatta, brought up to the conquest

of the valley by the Emperor Akbar, (printed at Calcutta,

edition, of 1835,) occurs the following passage :—

Athanya vansha j6 raja ; Gédharé nama bhagya van [35 v. 7m. ]

Tadangajah Suvarnakhya [v. 60.] s’tatsinur Janakonrupah _[v. 6.]

Sachinaras tassya sunu [v. 7].] rAsdka-stat pitruvyajah [v. 62.]

Jalawkastatsuté ndma Kashmiréshu sukapradah [30. v.]

‘Thereafter, an illustrious prince named Godhara, born of a differ-

ent race (reigned 35 years and 7 months), his son Swarna (60 years),

his son king Janaka (6 years), his son Sachinara (71 years), his

father’s brother’s son (i.e., cousin) Aséka (62 years), his son named

Jalawka, the benefactor of Kashmira (30 years).

If therefore my translation of this passage be correct, the

identity attempted to be instituted between Aséka “the son

of Sachinara’s father’s brother,” (upon the supposition that he

was only descended from the paternal great uncle of Khagan-

dray), and the Indian Asoka, the grandson of Chandragupta,

and the son of Bindusara, falls to the ground. For, according

to the genealogy here given, Asoka was the grandson of

* «The native chronicles of Cashmir,” says Sir Erskine Perry in

an account of this great Hindu Monarch, &e., in the Bombay Asiatic

Journal, xiv. p 1738, ‘‘ascribe its acquisition to crheritance.”

t+ ‘Descended from the paternal great uncle of Khagendra.”—Pr. Wilson.

50 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON). [Vol. III.

Swarna, and not of Chandragupta. Thus:

GODARA

aie.

SWARNA

JANAKA BROTHER

SACHINARA. ASOKA.

Again, the Raja Tarangani records the accession of Jalaw-

ka, a son of Asdka, upon the demise cf that Kashmiran

Prince. All those who are conversant with Sinhalese and

Hindu history, know, however, that this was not the case.

Although I differ from Mr. Turnour upon these and other

points, to which I have adverted in the course of my ob-

all the surrounding circumstances leads me to the same con-

clusion at which that eminent scholar has arrived, viz., that

Nadgarjina of the Hindus, and Nagdséna of the Ceylonese, —

was one and the same identical person. I shall therefore |

proceed to consider

Fourthly.—The resemblance between the two names, which

is very striking. The 7 in Ndgarjuna is clearly a creature of

the Sanscrit, and it is dropped in the Pali and Sinhalese.

The interchange of j and s is well known. Raja is expressed |

yasé in Tamil; Jambudwipa is expressed Zambuduvipa in the

Analysis of Tibetan works, by Ksoma de Korosi, and go on. |

The interchange of vowels, especially w into eis frequent.

Thus the resemblance in the two names furnishing a strong |

presumption in favour of the identity of this Kashmiran and

Buddhistical personage, I proceed to a consideration

Fifthly.—That the title of Bhumeshwara, may be applied.

toan Ascetic. Bhwmeshiwaro and Bodhisatiwo are two of the

appellations given to Nagarjuna. The former is usually

applied to statesmen, and the latter to celebrated and eminent

No. 11.—1858-9.] NAGARJUNA AND NAGASENA. dol

hierarchs of the Buddhist Church. It has been shewn by

Mr. Turnour, that the first was also applied to priests; and the

second, we know from our own records, to princes; for in-

stance, in our own country S77 Sanga Bo, who had taken

upon himself the vows of the Ata-sil order is called a Bodhis-

atwa, in the following extract from the “Attanagaluwansa ”’:—

Lankabhi sitta vasudhadi patésu raja

Yo bédhi-satta gunawa Siri-Sanga bodhi ;

Tassaticharu chariya rachana mukhéna

Vakkhami Hattha-vanagalla Vihara wansan.

“T celebrate the history of the Temple of Attanagalla; and first

dwell on the highly laudable conduct of Sri Safiga Bo, who was a

Bhodhisatwa among the sovereigns of Lanka.” |

The meaning assigned to this term in the Raja Tarangani,

though not comprehensive, may yet be regarded as approach-

ing to correctness, for the historian himself thus explains its

signification in the following stanza :—

Loké bhagawato léka, natha darabhya kéchana

Ye janta véga takkléshan, bédhisatwana véhitan.

“‘Know ye that if there was any person in the world, from the

sanctified Buddha downwards, who had destroyed Klésha, he is a

Bhodhwatwa.”

But, whether we regard this distinguished personage as

one who denounced the six arahatwas, according to the

rendering of the passage by Professor Wilson, or take him

as one who had passed six days in the wilderness, as described

in the Nagara version, there is, in either case, nought to doubt

the alleged identity between Nagarjuna and Nagaséena. It

would however seem, that from these appellations alone we

cannot ascertain the precise character of Nagaséna. Yet the

criticism which I have already offered, and by which the text

was altered into “shadar vana sanshraye,’ as one who ‘‘spent

six days in the wilderness,” enabling us to fix upon the

sacerdotal or the ascetic character of Nagarjina, we proceed

to a consideration

352 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON). [ Vol. TIT,

Sixthly.—Ot the supposed identity between the “shadar-

hatwa,” or the six Arahatwas, in the passage as given by Pro-

fessor Wilson, and the six’ Tirtakas in the Wilindapprasna.

If the passage were as given by Professor Wilson, there would

doubtless be great reason, especially when viewed in con-

nection with other circumstances, to raise a strong presump-

tion in favour of the alleged identity. Notthe less strong,

however, is the presumptive proof of resemblance, when we

take the text to mean (instead of that he denounced the six

Tirtakas) that he usually spent six days in the wilderness.

For we find, that the passing of six days in the wilderness,

was an ascetic rite prescribed by Buddhism.

The Milindapprasna records the fact, that Nagaséna attained

the sanctified status of an Arahat; and we not only learn from

the same record, that nivodhi samapatti of passing six days

in the wilderness was an ascetic rite of the arahat, but the

same is also found defined in the Visudha Marga.

There is, therefore, much coincidence between the facts

detailed in the two historical records; and there is also much

concurrence between the statement of Nagaséna’s having

overcome all the disputants of his age, (see the text), and the

facts stated in the following stanzas in the kaja Tarangani,

which records,

Tasmin navasaré bowddha déshé prabalatanyayuh,

Nadgdrajunéna sudhiya bodhisatwéna palitah.

Téwaddinah parajittya vadéna nikhidnbudhan,

Kiriyin Nila purdnékta machchindannaga madvisah.

“That at that time (in the reign of Abimane) the Buddhas

cherished by the wise Bodhisatwa Nagarjuna attained eminence in

this country (Kashmira); and that they who were disputants and

enemies of the religion, (¢.e., the national religion, or of Vedas)

overcame all the wise men in argument, and set aside the practices |

prescribed in the Nila purana.”

Having reviewed six grounds, upon which Mr. ‘Turnour

has based his observations on the identity between Nagar-

juina and Nagaséna, I come to the

No. 11.—-1858-9.] NAGARJUNA AND NAGASENA. 393

Seventh; —and here I cannot but express my entire con-

currence with the remarks so ably set forth by him. In

addition to those remarks uncer this head, I may be permitted

here to observe, that the Tibetan Buddhistical annals, as pre-

sented to us by Ksoma de Korosi, indisputably establish the

identity in question.

Ksoma de Korogi in his analysis of the Tibetan Annals, (see

“Asiatic Researches,” vol. xx. p. 400,) alluding to the same pre-

diction contain in the “Mahawansa,” regarding Nageséna,

records as facts to be found in the Sher-chin collection, that

“Nagarjuna lived 400 years after the death of Shakya, who

had foretold of him, that he would be born, after so many

years, to explain the higher principles laid down in the Prajna

Paramita.” In regard to Kanishka, (one of the Turushka

princes mentioned in the Rajya Tarangani,) it is also stated in

the Tibetan annals, that one of the Buddhistical convocations

took place in the time of that prince, “Kanishka, a king in the

north of India, upwards of 400 years from Shakya.” (‘‘Asiatic

Researches,” vol. xx. p. 41.) It will be seen also, that I intro-

duced into a paper which I read before this Society, “On the

Mythological Legends of the Sinhalese,” an extract from a

little pamphlet which records that Nagaséna was a distin-

guished hierarch of the Buddhist Church in 490 A.B.

After a careful perusal of these facts, it is indeed im-

possible to withhold the conclusion to which they inevitably

lead, viz., that the personage designated Nagarjuna in India,

and Ndgaséna in Ceylon, was one and the same person; and

that the ages of 400 and 500 A.B., (assigned to him in round

numbers by the two countries respectively,) ave to be regarded

as approaimating rather than specific dates.

dod JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). [-Vol, IE.

KXPENDITURE ON PUBLIC WORKS IN

CHYLON.

By J. CAPPER, ESQ., Honorary Secretary.

It was not long since, that my attention was directed to a

paper read by Colonel Sykes before the Asiatic Society of

Great Britain, on the Expenditure on Public Works in India,

and a perusal of it induced me to enter upon the subject of

Public Works in Ceylon. It is a topic full of interest, taking

us back in our researches, to the earliest records of Sinhalese

History, when Ceylon, densely peopled, actively industrious,

and highly prosperous, produced works of Irrigation, of such

magnitude and number as to have raised the wonder of later

rulers of the Island, who have hitherto vainly strove to

follow even distantly in their steps, by renovating and utili-

sing a few of the gigantic Tanks which lie scattered in ruing

over the jungles and swamps of many parts of Ceylon.

As I entered upon this most interesting topic, I found my

materials increasing on my hands; I found the subject extend-

ing as I progressed, until I preceived, that instead of a short

statistical paper, my researches would lead to an Historical

Treatise, to follow up which and do it ample justice, would

require more time than I could, for the present, devote to it.

This being the case, I felt reluctantly. compelled to confine

my notes and remarks at this time, to the extent and outlay

on Public Works in Ceylon, during a little more than a

quarter of a century.

On casting our eyes over the materials for such a paper as

this, we cannot fail to be struck with the contrast presented.

No. 11.—1858-9.] PUBLIC WORKS EXPENDITURE. 399

by the records of the various Governments that have at

different periods ruled in Ceylon.

The Sinhalese Monarchs, jealous of foreign intruders within

their domains, so far from opening up their Territories by

roads, carefully closed up all access to the interior from the

sea-bord, leaving nothing but the most difficult and steepest

bullock paths. On the other hand, their utmost efforts, the

united labour of their people, was directed to the construction

of Buddhist structures of colossal magnitude, and Tanks

of vast extent. In almost every Chapter of the translated

and untranslated portions of that great Historical work,

the “ Mahawansa,’ we meet with notices more or less brief,

but still explicit enough, of the many great public works

undertaken by the various Monarchs whose reigns and whose

characters are therein chronicled.

Deeply impressed with the importance of and even necessity

for a careful and extensive utilising of the water supply of

large tracts of country, if those regions were to be made per-

manently productive, the religious code of their faith enjoined

the construction and upkeep of tanks, canals and water-

courses, asa sacred duty, and one that should go far to obtain

for them hereafter the greatest reward of their existence.

Upon the details connected with Sinhalese Public Works,

I cannot now enter; but must content myself with merely

observing, that the existence of the great tanks and water-

courses Now in ruins, orin partial restoration, were the means,

in those remote days, of feeding a much larger population

than Ceylon can now boast of, and rendered her perfectly

independent of India for her supplies of Grain. Hven more

than this ; itis on record, that so late as the Portuguese period,

- rice was exported from Ceylon. What the extent and cost

of some of those works must have been, may be gathered from

one of our present Governor’s Minutes, in which, speaking of

Irrigation works in the North-east of the Island, he says of

one of them, that it must have occupied a million of men for

ten or twelve years in its construction.

306 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON). [ Vol. II

The Portuguese do not appear to have devoted any attention

to these matters : we can find no trace of any efforts on their

part to improve the agriculture of Ceylon. It is true, the

greater part of the ancient works of the Sinhalese monarchs

were situated in districts beyond the territories of the Por-

tuguese, but with those which were in their immediate neigh-

bourhood, nothing whatever appears to have been attempted,

The Dutch, far more skilful as Colonists than their prede-

cessors, and ever mindful of work connected with Agriculture

and Commerce, devoted much time and labour to canals, and

we have good reason for believing to some of the nearest tanks.

The only light thrown upon their labours in the matter of

Irrigation works, is contained in the desvatches of the Dutch

Governors, published at intervals ; but there is no doubt much

more valuable information contained in the Dutch records

lying in the almirahs of the Colombo Kachcheri. Several

reports on the Giant’s and other great tanks, by Dutch engi-

neers, are in existence, and have proved of use in the recent

engineering operations of our Government.

Although surveys and reports on several important tanks

were made in theearly part of the British rule, Sir Edward

Barnes may be said to have inaugurated Public Works under

our Government, by the commencement of the great Kandy

Road in 1821. The Péradeniya Bridge, and other useful

works followed, but it was not until coffee had drawn so

many enterprising cultivators to the Island, that the Depart-

ment of Public Works assumed any great importance.

No. 11.—1858-9.] PUBLIC WORKS EXPENDITURE. 357

STATEMENT of Outlay on Public Works in Ceylon since 1830.

Years.

1830

1831

1832

1833

1834

1835

1836

1837

1838

1839

1840

1841

1842

1843

1844

1845

1846

1847

1848 .

1849

1850

1851

1852

1853

1854

1855

1856

1857

Roads and

Canals.

3,327

3,916

4,651

11,391

17,281

17,111

28,301

43,226

22, 468

7,820

16,921

26,410

20,655

20,906

38,302

56, 192

63,313

70,711

40,239

42,227

49,196

57,330

56,440

55,849

52,131

63,330

77,729

102,261

Buildings.

2,403

4,570

4,549

5,188

7,991

7,038

15,014

11,552

5,488

3,393

4,957

6,936

5,963

3,443

6,180

10,123

16,748

15,672

13,793

6,822

8,205

4,021

13,176

4,973

5,654

8,773

18,300

31,037

THE following are the miles of roads made during various periods:—

Previous to

During

The operation of tl

1820

1821

1824

1828

183) -33

1834-36

1837-40

1841

1842

1843

1844

1845

1846

1847-49

Total.

1,730

8,536

9,200

16,579

25,272

24,149

43,315

04,778

28,958

11,213

21,878

33, 346

26,618

24,349

44,482

66,316

81,061

86,38]

54,032

49,049

57,401

61,351

69,616

60,822

57,785

72,111

96,029

133,298

108 miles.

2124s,

o4 99

5d oe)

162°. -,,

993 ,,

ls,

864s,

674,

1564,

171 36

sig Ae

1584,

c) Cay

1e Road Ordinance since its introduction

' in 1848, has, perhaps, done more for the prosperity of Ceylon

than any other measure we could name. Thoroughly popu-

‘lar amongst the natives, it has opened up tracts of country

‘hitherto unavailable for wheeled traffic, and has enabled the

Ae i Peay an

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Paps ah cs 2

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12 18 NID)

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Ae mipevay tip! pies AS

bin kato dhl dasha Nay e ake

PROCEEDINGS OF MEETINGS.

GENERAL MEETING,

8th May, 1858.

Present:

The Rev. B. BOAKE, in the Chair.

J. DALZIEL, Esq. L. DE Soyza, Esq.

J. H. MArsH, Esq. J. MAITLAND, Esq.

C. A. LORENZ, Esq. ‘ M. COOMARASAMY, Esq.

JAMES ALWIS, Esq. | The Rev. J. D. PALM.

Proceedings of last Meeting were read and confirmed.

The Secretary laid upon the table Part I. of the Society’s Journal

for the past session, and stated that the second part was making progress

in the printer’s hands.

The Curator stated that he had met with a qualified person to

act as Taxidermist to the Society, for a moderate remuneration ;

and hoped now that the means existed for properly preserving

specimens, Members at outstations and their friends, would lose no

opportunity of forwarding such objects as might present themselves.

Resolved, that if necessary, £10 might be expended in the pur-

chase of a suitable glass case for the Museum.

The Secretary having requested permission to name an Agent in

London for the sale of the Society’s Journal,

Resolved, that he be allowed to request Messrs. Van Voorst and

Co., of Paternoster Row, to act as Agents, and to sell the Journal

for Four shillings each Number.

The Vice-President having directed attention to the opinion

which prevails very generally, as to the decrease in the population

of Ceylon, supposed to arise from the neglect of female infants,

li JOURNAL R, A. S. (CEYLON). [ Vol. III.

Resolved, that the Secretay be requested to draw up and distri -

bute amongst Members and others, a form, calculated to elicit in-

formation on this point, and that the results be placed before a

future Meeting.

On the motion of the Secretary, seconded by J. Dalziel Esq.,

A. O. Brodie, Esq., of Matale, was re-elected a Member of this

Society.

The following gentlemen were then ballotted for, and declared

duly elected as Members, viz :—

f Proposed by L. de Soyza, Esq.

“*\ Seconded by J. Alwis, Esq.

, Proposed by J. Alwis, Esq.

So lo SEE AEE Js) we Seconded by J. Dalziel, Esa.

\ Proposed by J. Capper, Esq.

EXE END By IESG ons 4 Seconded by C. A. ten; ep

The following papers were then read :—

‘“‘The Laws of the Buddhist Priesthood,” by the Rev. D. J.

Gogerly.

‘‘A selection of Sinhalese Proverbs,” by L. de Soyza, Esq.

‘‘Sinhalese Mythology,” by J. Alwis, Esq.

J. BAILEY, Esq.

GENERAL MEETING,

August 21st, 1858.

Present :

The Honorable Sir W. CARPENTER ROWE, Chief Justice, in the Chair.

The Rev. J. D. PALM M. CoOMARASAMY, Esq.

Rev, B. BOAKE. L. NELL, Esq.

C. P. LAYARD, Esq. W. SKEEN, Esq.

J. H. MARSH, Esq. J. MAITLAND, Esq.

THE SECRETARY.

The Minutes of the previous Meeting were read and confirmed.

The Librarian laid on the table the Books and Periodicals received

since that date, viz:—

Balfour’s Cyclopeedia Ne “ae je Ole

Caleutta Review wih ae .. 8 Nos.

Engineer’s Journal .. a ... 6 Nos.

Capper’s Three Presidencies of India ... ‘|

Mulloch’s Siam iin 2s nad coe

from J.

Montriou on Hindu Law ot Bee eis CEPECE, esd

Handbook of New Zealand __... oY “|

No. 11.—1858-9.] PROCEEDINGS, 1858. ili

The following Gentlemen were then proposed and secended, as

under, and, having been balloted for, were duly elected Members,

Viz

(cea tees by The Hon’ble the

Chief Justice.

Seconded by M. Coomarasamy,Esq.

Proposed by The Hon’ble the

Chief Justice.

Seconded by J. Alwis, Esq.

The Hon'ble C. TEMPLE, Esq.

The Hon’ble H. b. THomson, Esq.

W. Denis B. HARRISON, Esq.,( Proposed by C. P. Layard, Esq.

Cota: 1. ; Seconded by J. Capper, Esq.

Proposed by J. Capper, Esq.

Seconded by J. Maitland, Esq.

Proposed by J. Alwis, Esq.

J. P. GREEN, Esq.

W. FERGUSON, Esq.

re eee SS a

Seconded by J. Capper, Esq.

The Secretary then placed before the Meeting the following

Papers :—

“Descriptions of additional species of Molluscs, Sea Anemones,

&ec.,” by E. F. Kelaart, Esq., M.D. |

“The Seripture Botany of Ceylon,” by Wm. Ferguson, Esq.

‘On Sinhalese Rhetoric,” by J. de Alwis, Esq.

“A Statistical Enquiry into the state of Crime in Ceylon,” Part I.,

by John Capper, Esq. ,

GENERAL MEETING,

December 18th, 1858.

Present :

A ie me | Dr. Misso.

eee M. CooMARASAmyY, Esq.

WM. FERGUSON, Esq. j ig

C. P. Layarb, Esq. o OMPEER TES:

The Secretary laid on the Table the following Books, receive |

since the last Meeting :—

Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 5 Vols.

Calcutta Review, 1 Vol.

Engineer’s Journal, 6 Nos.

Oriental Interpreter, 1 Vol.

It was stated, that a reprint of the first Volume of the Scciety’s

Journal was now completed, and would be ready for distribution

iv JOURNAL R, A. 8. (CEYLON). [ Vol. 111.

in a few days, when Members wishing for copies may obtain them

on application to the Secretary.

The Secretary informed the Meeting, that the result of their application

to the Government was a grant from the Public funds of £200, to enable

them to form a Library and Museum; and that the Governor has also

appropriated to the use of the Society two rooms at the north angle of-

the new public buildings, lately occupied by a portion of the Civil

Engineer's Staff, and adjoining the Auditor-General’s Offices. They

would, in all probability, obtain possession of their rooms early in

January, so that their next General Meeting might be held in them.

The Society’s thanks were due to Sir Charles MacCarthy, who had

exerted himself to secure these advantages to them.

The following Gentlemen were then proposed as Members of the

Society, and, being balloted for, were declared duly elected :—

‘ fees = f{ Proposed by J. De Alwis, Esq.

Cy NEM TON gE s0. "" | Seconded by J. Capper, Esq.

f Proposed by Sir W. C. Rowe.

** \ Seconded by J. Capper, Esq.

The Hon’ble P. I. STER- f Proposed by Sir W. C. Rowe.

LING. a .. | Seconded by C. P. Layard, Esq.

F, SAUNDERS, Esq.

eh opR ‘ f{ Proposed by C. P. Layard, Esq.

C, Dias, Esq., Mudir. .. \ Seconded by J. De Alwis, Esq.

pone { Proposed by J. Capper, Esq.

Bee Ee ow ** ( Seconded by Dr. Misso.

f Proposed by C. P. Layard, Esq.

**'\ Seconded by Wm. Ferguson, Esq.

f Proposed by C. P. Layard, Esq.

"| Seconded by M. Coomarasamy, Esq.

f Proposed by C. P. Layard, Esq.

** \ Seconded by Win. Ferguson, Esq.

Dr. ELLiorr

A. M. FERGUSON, Esq.

R. V. DuNLop, Esq.

The reading of the following Papers then took place, viz :—

“The Laws of the Buddhist Priesthood,” by the Rev. D. J.

Gogerly.

“On the supposed identity between Nargesena and Nargajuna,”

by James De Alwis, Esq,

“On Pablic Works in Ceylon,” by John Capper, Esq.

No, 11,—1858-9,] | PROCEEDINGS, 1859, / v

ANNIVERSARY MEETING,

Monday, September 12th, 1859+

The Honorable Sir W. Carpenter Rowe, Chief Justice, in the Chair,

The Secretary proceeded to read the following

REPORT FOR 1858-9.

In placing their Report for the past year before the Society, the

Committee desire, in the first place, to express the satisfaction they

feel in being able to assemble in rooms placed at their disposal by

the liberality and consideration of the Governor.

The want of proper accommodation for their Museum and their

Meetings had lone been felt; but it was not until the position of

the Society was brought to the notice of His Excellency, by the

Deputation which waited upon him for the purpose, that this. most

desirable object was attained. Your Committee lave also to report

the liberal grant of £200 from the public funds, made by the

Government to the funds of the Society, to enable it te extend and

improve its Museum and Library.

At the interview whieh His Excellency the Governor accorded

to the Deputation, they received the strongest assurances of counten-

ance and aid which they could have desired. In consequence of

this interview, a paper drawn up by the Hon’ble the Chief Justice,

was forwarded to the Governor, who, in addition to the favours

already mentioned, gave permission to the Committee to transmit,

through the medium of the Colonial Secretary to the Government

Officials at outstations, a Cireular, drawing attention to the many

ways in which persons in various parts of the Island might assist

the Society in its labours, by information, by papers, or by objects

for its Museum.

Copies of the Cireular, and the papers which accompanied it,

are to be found in the Appendix accompanying this Report; suf-

ficient time has searcely elapsed since the Circular was distributed,

to allow of any results from it, but your Committee cannot too

strongly express the hope that, if it be received by those to whom

it is addressed in a proper spirit, much good may result. The

opportunities presenting themselves to gentlemen at outstations, of

collecting data respecting their districts on matters interesting to

this Society, must be many; and through such, it is hoped, the co-

operation of Native Headmen and others may be secured, in pro-

curing suitable objects for the Museum,

vi JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON). [Vol. IIT.

Having so recently obtained possession of the present building,

the Curator of your Museum has not been able to accomplish much

‘as yet. A commencement has, however, been made, with the Raw

Products of the Island; and it is hoped, that during the present

session, this collection may be made complete and interesting. Your

Committee believe they are not wrong in assuming, that the natural

products of a country form the most interesting portion of its

wealth, since from them sprine so many branches of industry and

commerce. As yet but little has been done towards developing the

riches which it is believed may be found hidden amidst the jungles

of the Southern and Noith-Westren Provinces, as well as in the forests

and plains of the Eastern and Northern Provinees. Evidences are

not wanting to shew that Ceylon is rich in Gums, Dye-stufts, Resins,

Tanning substances, and many other articles of considerable com-

mercial value; and, it is thought, that one of the duties of this Society

should be, to give a place in its Museum to all articles likely to

prove interesting to the man of science, the trader, or the manufacturer.

Your Committee have received through the Honorable the Colo-

nial Secretary, the Prospectus of an Inter-Colonial Exhibition, pro-

posed to be held in the Mauritius in’ the month of August of the

present year. They would gladly have taken an active part as far

as practicable in this Exhibition ; but felt that the notice was so

short, that it would have been impossible to have collected any

contributions during the brief period allowed.

They have also received very recently from this Government, a

Circular letter, addressed by Her Mayjesty’s Secretary of State to the

Governors of Colonies, on the subject of a communication from the

Society of Arts and Manufactures, who are anxious to open a corre-

spondence with public bodies in the British settlements, relative to

the resources, condition, and development of the trade, &c., of the

various British Colonies. Your Committee have referred this corre-

spondence to a Sub-Committee of Arts and Manufactures, consisting

of the Honourable the Chief Justice, C. A. Lorenz, Esq., the Revd.

J. Thurstan, and the Secretary, in whose hands the matter is left,

and who will take upon themselves to communicate with the Society

of Arts on the Subject of their Circular.

During the year now terminated, the Society received additions

to its Members to the number of 19; whilst the vacancies, caused

by departures and deaths, amounted to 3. The total of Members

at present borne on the books of the Society is 87, a large number

than it could boast of at any previous period.

The Treasurer will place before you a statement of the present

condition of the Nociety’s funds, from which you will perceive, that

No. 11.—1858-9. ] PROCEEDINGS, 1859. vii

while the receipts since the revival of the Society in November, 1856,

have amounted to £324 4s. 7d., including the Government grant of

£200,—the disbursements have reached the sum of £116 16s. 5d.; leav-

ing a balance on the Ist January, 1859, in the hands of the Trea-

surer, of £207 8s. 10d., subject of course to the expenses of the current

year, which have amounted 10 about £40.

The printing of the Society’s Journal for the current year is in

an advanced state, and it is hoped that by the end of the year, the

Number will be in the hands of Members.

The contents of this issue will be found equally interesting with

those of any former Number, and it is confidently hoped, that mem-

bers both here and at outstations, will not fail to contribute such

results of their studies and researches as may be likely to prove

acceptable to the Society, and of advantage to. the public.

The following is a list of the books, &c., received by the Li-

brarian during the past year :—

Donations to the Museum.

Sundry Dye Stuffs and Dye Woods from the North-Western Pro-

vince, from Mr. Mead.

Specimens of Coir, prepared by Machinery, from Mr. Thomas.

Do. of Kitul Fibre.

Do. of Medicinal Oils, from Mr. C. P. Layard.

Do. of Plantation Coffee So ..\ from various per-

Do. of Native Coffee be mn sons.

Do. of Woods ne

Do. * of Minerals” -. A | trom: New ; Zea-

melanie s biyaeelMicr.

Do. of Native Stone Knife 0 Nee TBs TD srnsrovre

‘Do. of Vegetable Caterpillar.. ae

Caleutta Review sf a & 3 Nos.

Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal 3 Nos.

Do. do. of China 1 No.

Do. do. of Madras ie 2 Nos.

Do. of Geographical Society of Bombay .. 1 No.

Do. of Asiatic Society of Bombay 2 Nos.

Engineer’s Journal a 36 bie 20 Nos.

Moved by the Chief Justice, and seconded by Major Skinner,

that the Report now read be adopted.

The Chief Justice, as Chairman, then stated, that it was not

his intention to offer any formal written address to the Society on

that occasion. Had such an address been required, it would have

vill JOURNAL R, A. 8 (CEYLON). (Vol. IIT.

come more appropriately from their respected and learned President,

Dr. Gogerly, who had contributed the very first paper that had

ever been read in that Institution, and whose absence on this

occasion he sincerely regretted. Having been called to the Chair,

however, in his absence, he felt himself bound to make some brief

observations on the able and comprehensive Report which they had

just heard,—-and especially on that part of it, which commemorated

this Meeting of the Society in their own Library and Museum.

On looking into their Minutes, he found that the want of such

accommodation had been for years, not only a cause of regret, but

of considerable detriment to the collections, books, instruments, and

moral interests of the Society. To meet this emergency, Sir Henry

Ward had not only put this building at their exclusive disposal,

but had accorded to them also a pecuniary grant from the public

funds, in aid of the private resources of the Society.

From this day also, as more may reasonably be expected from it,

greater zeal, it is to be hoped, will characterise the exertion of its

Members.

An ample field for enquiry and discovery still existed in the veget-

able, animal, mineral and industrial capabilities of this beautiful

island,—and he had great pleasure in calling their attention to

some passages from the interesting work now being published by one

of their former residents, Sir Emerson Tennent, in which those

capabilities were very fully dwelt upon.

The report on the mineral productions of the Colony, to which

he alludes, is one of much value; and the minerals collected by

the author of that report, Dr. Gygax, are now in their Museum.

We all know that iron is very widely disseminated through our hills,

but he points out a district near Ratnapura, in which, as he says,

it may be found in such quantities, and with such facilities of

water-carriage to Colombo, that it may be smelted here with English

coal, and rendered as pig iron at £6 per ton.

If he is right in stating, as he does, that anthracite coal may

also be raised in considerable quantities in that vicinity, and that

the iron itself is of such a quality as not to require the expense of

puddling, the cost of manufacture would be so far diminished, as to

give reason to hope that these resources might be made practically

available for the many public works which are now being carried

on around us.

Again, it was within his own, the Chairman’s. knowledge, that an

English gentleman, who had recently visited Ceylon for Commercial

purposes, had, through information given him by the Secretary of

No. 11.—1858-9.] PROCEEDINGS, 1859. ix

this Society, been induced to make researches in our forests and

jungles for dyewood, and substances available for tanning, which are

there found in great quantities.

He had already so far succeeded in the North-Western Province,

that he had actually chartered a ship of 600 tons direct to Liverpool,

which was now taking in a cargo of these new products. His atten-

tion having been also drawn to a paper by Dr. Gygax, published

in the early transactions of this Society, on the coloring matter

found in the husk of the coconut, he had made such practical and

successful experiments on the subject, as gave reasonable ground for

believing that another most useful product might be added to the

many already derived from that valuable tree.

He mentioned these thingsas instances only that there was much

here yet to explore.

Sir EK. Tennent’s very elaborate work, whilst it established beyond

all doubt, by reference to specific authorities, that Ceylon was a

great mart in very early times for the interchange of traffic between

the Eastern and Western worlds, also demonstrated that the natives

themselves were by no means an enterprising or conimercial people.

The Chinese, who are supposed to have frequented Galle in the fifth

and sixth centuries, seem to have obtained no exports here, but

gems and images of Buddha.

It remained for the Dutch, in after times, to develope the Cinnamon

trade; and men of the present generation remember the first planting

of Coffee, now the great staple of the Island. English capital and

English enterprise might yet add other staples to this, from the thou-

sands of acres of forest that had hardly yet been trodden by human foot.

The report which had been this day read, called their attention to

a Circular from the Secretary of State to the Governor, touching a

communication from the Society of Arts and Manufactures in London,

as to the importance of developing the trade resources of our British

Colonies. This shewed the importance attached to such researches

at home; andit was in the same spirit that this Society had, some

months since, transmitted through the Colonial Secretary’s Office at

Colombo Circulars to the different outstations—requesting information

under the specific heads of natural products, vegetable, animal and

mineral, agriculture, ivrigation, manures and markets, manutacture and

trade, social habits, condition, education, and general statistics of the

people. He, the Chairman, was well aware how heavily the duties

vf official life pressed upon most of our public servants; but still

a change of occupation was in itself a relief, and he believed that

many a young civilian or soldier, in the solitude of an outstation,

x JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON). [Vol. III.

would derive the greatest mental profit to himself, by turning his

own attention, and that of the native headmen around him, to such

subjects as_ these. .

Sir EK. Tennnet, in his book, makes honorable mention of Sir Alexander

Johnstone, of Mr. Justice Starke, of Mr. Casie Chetty and others,

who had found time amongst their judicial and public avocations, to

contribute to the general stock of useful and interesting information

touching this Colony. Dr. Gogerly and Mr. Hardy, too, are repeatedly

cited by him as the highest authorities on the religion, history,

ancient observations, and ancient languages of the natives ;—and above

all, he prominently puts forward our excellent Member, Major Skinner,

whom we see amongst us here today, as the indefatigable executant

of Sir Edward Barnes’s enlightened project of not only opening up—

by the great work of the Kandy road—the resources, but securing

the future peace of the whole of the interior of the Colony.

It could not, then, be too strongly impressed on the publie, that

every man in his department, either in his own person, or by influ-

encing those about him, might be aiding in this useful work. The

statistics of coffee cultivation, the Pearl Fishery, the Urubéku dam,

the Batticaloa irrigation, the tides and currents so seriously affecting

the circumnavigating existence of our Colonial steamer; the state of

the elements and atmosphere, so sensibly deranged at every recurring

monsoon; and even the expeditions of the sportsman, if also a

naturalist, all afforded opportunity and matter for observation and

valuable communications. |

No one could have read the Minutes of the progresses made by

our present Governor, through the different Provinces, without being

sensible of the great importance attached by him to local researches,

and to the development of the material resources of the country.

Those Minutes, His Excellency had causel to be presented to our

Library, and the Chairman trusted that such an example would not

be lost on those who had it in their power, by the acquirement

and communication of extensive local information, to establish for

themselves one of the best claims for Colonial advancement.

He concluded by moving that the Report be received and adopted.

Carried nem. con.

Proposed by the Honourable the Chief Justice.

Seconded by C. A. Lorensz, Esq.

‘‘That the thanks of the Asiatic Society of Ceylon, are eninently

due to Sir H. G. Ward, as the first Governor of this Island, who,

by assigning a public building exclusively for a Museum and Library,

and by a grant of public money in aid of its funds, has given to

this Society the position of a Colonial Institution.

No. 11.—1858-9.] PROCEEDINGS, 1859. xi

«That whilst they tender their thanks in this behalf, the Members

of the Society also bear in mind, that no Papers have been published

of late years in this place, containing matter more interesting and

useful than the Minutes of the progresses of Sir H. G. Ward himself,

through the different Provinces of his Government; and, inasmuch as

it has pleased him to cause a copy of those Minutes to be deposited

in this Library, they, with much pleasure accept them, not only as

a record of what can be done by an enterprising Governor for the

benefit of the governed, but as an incentive to the Members of Her

Majesty’s Services, to lend their aid by contributing objects of interest

and occasional papers to this institution, in developing the natural

resources of the Colony.”

Carried unanimously.

The following Gentlemen were then balloted for, and declared duly

elected Members of the Society: the Honorable W.C. Gibson, Esq.,

A. W. Baylis, Esq., N. Schultze, Esq., H. Mead, Esq.

Resolved, that the Secretary be requested to place himself in com-

munication with gentlemen at outstations, likely to interest themselves

in the advancement of the Colony, in co-operation with the Society.

Resolved, that the following Gentlemen be the Office-bearers for

the ensuing year :—-

President :

Sir W. C. Rowe, Chief Justice.

Vice-President :

Rev. B. Boake.

Secretary :

J. Capper, Esq.

Assistant Secretary :

J Wie) At wats. iis, c.

Treasurer :

C. A. Lorenz, Esq

Curator and Librarian:

J. Maitland, Esq.

Committee :

Rev. D. J. Gogerly. J. P. Green, Esq.

C. P. Layard, Esq. J. H. Marsh, Esq.

M. Coomarasainy, Esq: L. Nell, Esq.

Rev. B. Boake. Rev. J. D. Palm,

R. Dawson, Esq.

xii | JOURNAL R, A. 8. (CEYLON). [Vol. III.

Committee of Papers:

Rev. B. Boake. J. De Alwis, Hsq.

LEV yy Deine M. Coomarasamy, Esq.

J. A. Lorenz, Esq. J. Capper, Esq.

L. Nell, Esq.

PAPERS REFERRED TO IN THE REPORT.

Asiatic Societys Rooms,

Colombo, January 26th, 1859.

His ExCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR having, with the advice of his

Council, assigned to the Asiatic Society of Ceylon, accommodation for

its Museum and Library in one of the Public buildings at Colombo,

and a pecuniary grant-in-aid of its funds, the Society considers this

a fitting occasion for appealing to the Members of the different Services,

and to the public at large, for their co-operation in promoting the

practical utility of this Institution.

That end, it is apprehended, will be best accomplished, not only

by uniting in one Museum at Colombo objects of every description

calculated to Ulustrate the Natural History, the Geology, Mineralogy,

Botany, Industrial resources, capabilities and Arts of the Island, but

by interesting the Members of the Civil, Medical and Railway Depart-

ments, the Officers of Her Majesty’s Army and Navy, and the gentlemen

engaged in Commercial and Planting pursuits, in contributing such

Statistical, Meteorological, Topographical, Historical, and other inform-

ation as they may be able to collect ; and in contributing, from time to

time, original Papers to be publicly readat the Meetings of the Society.

The extensive works now in progress for facilitating internal com-

munication, especially the completion of the Telegraph and construction

of the Railway, are opening up, daily, new sources of information

throughout the Colony, and the organization which already exists in

every Government Department including the Mudaliyars, Ratémahat-

mayas and other Native Headmmen, affords the ready means, if well

worked, of enabling, as it is hoped, this Institution to become, as

the depositary of, and as the agent for, diffusing much valuable local

information, an active promoter of the public good.

The Society therefore takes this opportunity of informing all who

may feel inclined to aid in caryying out the above mentioned objects,

that by the liberality of the Government, all Papers and other objects,

not too large for the convenience of the tappal, will be conveyed free

of expense when addressed to the Secretary of the Society, and enclosed

to the Colonial Secretary, Colombo.

No. 11.—1858-9.] PRocEEDINGS, 1859. xiii

Articles of greater bulk, addressed in a similar manner, may be

transmitted, alike free of expense, by the ‘‘ Pearl” Steamer, from any

part of the Coast at which she may touch.

JOHN CAPPER,

Hon. Secy.

HEADS OF ENQUIRY ON SUBJECTS SUITABLE FOR THE

ASIATIC SOCIETY.

Agriculture.—Nature of Soil. Variety of Crops, and number in the year.

Period of Land lying fallow. Use of Manures, and description.

Irrigation. Agricultural Implements, whether improved or not. New

Products raised. Proportion of inhabitants engaged in Agricultural

pursuits. Produce if consumed in the District or sent to other

markets. Cattle employed in. Description of Cattle reared, and

if on the increase: Health and Disease of. Local value of

Agricultural Produce and Cattle. If Crops have increased of late.

Causes influencing ditto.

Manufactures.—li any, and their nature. Articles made; their value

on the spot. Whether improvements have taken place in them.

Ti on the increase.

Trade.—lf any Export Trade exists in the District, in what articles,

and to what extent.

Social Habits and Condition of the People.—It their condition be im-

proved materially or otherwise, and from what causes. State of

Edueation and Crime. Schools, and of what character ; Attendance

of Pupils, if on the increase. State of Vernacular education.

What books used, and what children attend the Schools. Age

at which Marriages take place.

General Statistics.—Population if on the increase or otherwise. Causes

affecting it. Of what Races composed. General Health, and

average Duration of life in the District. Prevailing diseases,

number of thatched and tiled houses.

Natural Products.—An examination of such Natural Products as exist

in the District, distinguishing those well known and in common

use from those but little known.

Antiquities.—Notices of Ruins of Temples, Public Buildings, Tanks,

Water-courses, or ancient Inscriptions in the vicinity, with any

traditional accounts relating to them.

xiv JOURNAL R. A. 8S. (CEYLON). [ Vol. III.

Objects Suitable for the Societys Museum.

Birds, Reptiles, Animals, and Fishes, unless they could be properly

preserved for transmission, are not amongst those objects recom-

mended for collection. The Society, however, are willing to supply

Arsenical Soap and Camphor to any collectors willing and able

to undertake the preservation of objects illustravive of the Natural -

History of the Island: and, when practicable, ¢lass jars and spirits

for the reception of Reptiles or Fishes.

Geological and Mineralogical specimens are readily procurable, and

always acceptable. Also, Fossils and Corals from the Northern

Peninsula; Marine Shells from the Eastern and North-Western

Coasts; and Land Shells from all parts of the Island.

Raw Products are to be met with everywhere, and to these attention

is more particularly directed. Grains, Seeds, Vegetables, Fruits,

Gums, Resins, Dye-Stuff and Woods, Oils, Fibres, Barks, Timber,

&e., We. Their abundance, value, locality, &c., &e.

Manufactures of every kind, with Models of the Machines or Imple-

ments employed; and a memorandum of the quantities yearly

produced, and their local value.

CORRESPONDENCE CONCERNING THE MAURITIUS

EXHIBITION.

Circular. Colonial Secretary's Office,

Colombo, 17th June, 1859.

Sir,—I am directed to transmit to you for distribution, six copies of

a Prospectus of an Inter-Colonial Industrial Exhibition, to be held

at Mauritius, on the 3lst August next, and two following days,

under the patronage of the Governor of that Colony, together with

copies (6) of the Regulations for the euidance of contributors.

I have, &c.,

(Signed) JAMES SWAN.

The Honorary Secretary to the Royal Asiatic Society.

Port Louis, 10th April, 1859.

Sir,—It being the intention of the Royal Society of Arts and Sciences

to hold an Industrial Exhibition this year, of which His Excellency

the Governor has consented to be Patron, and to invite the Sister |

Colonies of the Cape, Ceylon and Reunion, to enter into friendly

rivalry with Mauritius and each other on this occasion, I am directed d

No. 11.—1858-9. | PROCEEDINGS, 1859. XV

by the Committee of Management to forward to you (herewith enclosed)

200 copies of the Prospectus, with the request, that you will have the

goodness to transmit them to the Governments of the above mentioned

Colonies, with a view to their being distributed there amongst those

persons who are most likely to take an interest in and support our

undertaking.

You are requested also to make it generally known to these Govern-

ments, that all expenses on account of freight and‘duties, (live animals

excepted,) will be defrayed by the Society of Arts and Sciences, and

that the following Regulations must be strictly attended to by the

contributors :—

Ist.—All articles intended for the Exhibition are to be expedited,

so as to arrive here before the 15th of August, 1859.

2nd.—The cases to be addressed as follows:—

To the Committee of Management of the Industrial Exhibition,

Government House, Mauritius.

3rd.—Each case must contain an accurate list of its contents, together

with their uses (if necessary) to be signed by the Contributor.

A duplicate of such list to be forwarded by Post, addressed as

above.

4th.—In the event of the Contributor desiring to dispose of one or

more of the Articles exhibited, the sale price of the same to

be written on the List.

5th.—All articles either not sold, or for the disposal of which in

Mauritius no specific directions shall have been given, will be

returned to the Colony from whence they came, free of expense.

I have, &e.,

(Signed) W. W. R. KERR,

President of the Committee.

To the Hon'ble the Colonial Secretary.

CORRESPONDENCE WITH THE SOCIEY OF ARTS.

Circular. Downing Street, January 6th, 1859.

Sir,—I transmit to you enclosed copies of a correspondence which

has passed between the Society of Arts, relating to the expediency

of discriminating accurate statements of the resources of the Colonies,

and of the bearing of such resources upon Trade.

You will perceive that, in the judgment of the Society, that object

may best be accomplished by stimulating some competent persons or

existing Societies in the several Colonies, to place themselves in

XVi JOURNAL R.A. S. (CEYLON). [Mol.f Tk

communication with the Society, in order to arrive at a full under-

standing of the points upon which it may be considered that the mother-

country is not now sufficiently, informed.

I have earnestly to request, that you will use all the means within

your power to promote the views of the Society of Arts, and favour

me, if necessary, with any suggestions which you, or other competent .

persons, may consider better calculated to aid the full develepment

of those views.

I have, &c.,

(Signed) E. B. Lyrron.

Governor Sir H. G. WARD, W&c., Ceylon.

SOCIETY OF ARTS, MANUFACTURES, AND COMMERCE.

Adelphi, London, July, 1858.

Sir,—I am directed by the Council of this Society, to bring before

your notice the desirableness of obtaining periodically from the more

important of our Colonies, accurate statements of their resources, and

the bearing such resources may have upon commerce. This Society

has always taken a deep interest in the welfare of the Colonies, and

if the information sought was obtained, the Council would propose to

hold periodical meetings of this Society to discuss it, devoting, say one

meeting to each Colony, and publishing accounts of such meetings in

the Society’s Journal, which is issued weekly, and distributed without

charge among the Members, upwards of two thousand in number.

The Council conceive that such information would be reciprocally

useful to the Colonies and to this Council, and that much useful know-

ledge for commercial purposes would be then circulated, which would

be otherwise likely to remain dormant.

The Council direct me respectfully to request, if you should approve

of what is proposed, that the Colonial Office may forward to the Gover-

nors of the Colonies, letters from the Council of this Society, with a

recommendation to the Governors to give effect to the wishes of the

Council. The Council, in addressing the Governors of Colonies, would

request them to ascertain what competent persons in each Colony would

be willing to furnish such a report as is suggested, and to put him

in direct communication with the Society.

I have, &c.,

(Signed) P. LE NEVE FOSTER,

: Secretary.

To the Right Hon’ble Sir EDwARD BULWER LYTTON, BART, M.-P..

one of Her Majesty’s Principal Secretaries of State, Colonial Office,

Downing Street.

No. 11.—1858-9.] . PROCEEDINGS, 1859. XVll

Downing Street, 29th July, 1858.

Sik,—1 am directed by Secretary Sir E. B. Lytton, to acknowledge

the receipt of your letter, in which you bring under his notice, by

direction of the Council of the Society of Arts, the desirableness of

obtaining, periodically, from the more important of the Colonies, accurate

statements of their resources, and of the bearing which such resources

may have upon Commerce, and state the mode in which the Council

would propose to obtain such information, and to make it reciprocally

useful to the Colonies and to the Society.

I am to request, that vou will acquaint the Council of the Society of

Arts, that it is Sir E. B. Lytton’s wish to aid their project to the fullest

extent of his power. But he fears that in most of the Colonies, the

Society is at present too developed to allow of individuals, or public bodies

being found, who could effectually correspond with the Council on the

vopies proposed. The Council are also, no doubt, fully aware that the

Secretary of State cannot require the dedication of any public funds in

the Colonies to this purpose. Subject, however, to these observations,

Sir Edward will readily act in the matter as the Council may wish, and

will be prepared to transmit to the several Colonial Governors (with the

necessary recommendation on his part) such papers as the Council may

furnish him for this purpose.

IP amas. (Sze:

(Signed) CARNARVON.

ee Ln NEVE Foster, Esq.,

Society of Arts, Adelphi.

SOCIETY FOR THE ENCOURAGEMENT OF ARTS, MANUFACTURES, AND

COMMERCE.

Adelphi, London, W.C., January Ist, 1859.

My Lorp,—I am directed by the Council of the Society of Arts to

acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 29th July, and to request

that your Lordship will thank Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton, on the part

of the Society, for the ready assent he has given to the request contained

in my former letter, that he would be good enough to transinit to the

Governors of tlie several British Colonies the proposals which have been

under consideration, to make use of the Society to diffuse information

as to the resources and products of the several British Colonies.

The Council consider, that the best measures for attaining the object

they have in view, will be the following :—

1.—That such Colonies as consider that the meetings and proceedings

of the Society of Arts would at all serve to give publicity to their

XVili JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON). Viole (ae

resources, and tend to increase the demand for their productions, should

select some competent person, or existing Society in the Colony, to

frame a complete statement of the points upon which it is considered

that the public of the mother-country are not sufficiently informed.

2.—That the individual or public body thus selected, should at once

be put in direct communication with the Society of Arts.

3.—That the person or persons thus chosen should also designate, and

_ obtain the consent of, some well-informed person in this country, either

himself to read, at an evening meeting of the Society, the paper prepared

in the Colony, or to confer with the Council as to the best method of

securing their common objects.

Further proceedings may be later indicated, or may arise from the

steps proposed.

Should any Colony consider that a different course of proceeding would

better suit the peculiar circumstances of that Colony, the Society of

Arts will be quite prepared to receive such suggestions.

I have, &c.,

(Signed) P. LE NEVE Foster,

Secretary.

To THE EARL OF CARNARVON, &c., Her Majesty's Under Secretary

of State for the Colonies.

18 JUN. 190

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ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY,

1860-61. |

VOL U Mb Let. arte,

No 12.

EDITED BY THH HONORARY SECRETARY.

“THE DESIGN DF THE SOCIETY IS TO INSTITUTE AND PROMOTE ENQUIRIES INTO THE HISTORY,

RELIGION, LITERATURE, ARTS, AND SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE PRESENT ANC FORMER

INHABITANTS OF THE ISLAND, WITH ITS GEOLOGY, MINEROLOGY, ITS CLIMATE :

a é AND METEOROLOGY, ITS BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY.”

COLOMBO : |

PRINTED AT THE “CEYLON OBSERVER” PRESS.

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JOURNAL

CEYLON BRANCH

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIELY,

1860-61.

VOLUME. Ift.

IN@e 2:

EDITED BY THE HONORARY SECRETARY.

“THE DESIGN 9F THE SOCIETY 1S TO INSTITUTE AND PROMOTE ENQUIRIES INTO THE HISTORY

RELIGION, LITERATURE, ARTS, AND SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE PRESENT ANP FORMER

INHABITANTS OF THE ISLAND, WITH ITS GEOLOGY, MINEROLOGY, ITS CLIMATE

AND METEOROLOGY, ITS BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY.”

COLOMBO :

PRINTED AT THE “CEYLON OPSERVER” PRESS,

1894,

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CONTENTS.

PAGE.

Health and Disease in Ceylon.—bBy boybD Moss, Hsq., pe

F.R.C.S, aut aes a be BOIL

Cinnamon.—By JAMES D’ALWIS, Hsq. — ... Ze Oh

Notes on the District of Badulla and its Natural

Products.—By W. C. ONDATJIE, Esq., Assistant

Colonial Surgeon ee ae So, S@eul

The Difference between the Pali and the Prakrit-

Magadhi of Vararuchi—By JAMES D’ALWIS,

Assistant Secretary ee. ha, erg 28)

On Health and Diet, with especial reference to

Children and Youths in Ceylon.—By BARCROFT

BOAKE, B.A. Vice-President, Asiatic Society,

Ceylon fe a we .. 434

: APPENDIX :—Proceedings of Meetings, &e. des i

: Letters from Sir J. H, Tennent and Dr.

Buist to the Aéheneum, relative to the

Fresh Water Wells of Jaffna sleeg se

Mowat ASIATIC SOCIETY

GEYLON BRAN GH.

2 tt

HEALTH AND DISEASE IN CEYLON,

By BoypD Moss, HSQ., F.R.C.S.

OPINIONS vary much concerning the healthiness of the

climate of the Island of Ceylon, many considering that good

health is quite incompatible with a prolonged residence here,

and it is with a view to enquiry concerning the truth of

this supposition, that [ have written the few following pages,

hoping that they may possibly be of some eventual service

to my fellow-countrymen.

There have been, of late, many melancholy deaths among

us,—friends taken away whom we have seen in apparently

perfect health but a few days before ; and it is a question

of great moment and interest whether this fatality is an

unavoidable result of a residence in this climate, or whether

it can be proved that the increased mortality in this, over

more temperate regions, is owing to some fault in our

manner of life, or to our own carelessness and neglect of

ordinary precautions in avoiding the causes of disease.

Now, I do not hesitate to express an opinion that we may,

with ordinary care, pass many years in this Island, without

more cause, or with very little more cause, for serious com-

plaints, than in England. I believe that a decrease of bodily

vigour, shewing itself in more or less cisinclination to exertion,

is the only unavoidable result of a residence here, and even

this applies only to some parts of the Island, where we find

o62 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON). [Vol. III.

the atmosphere at the same time hot and loaded with

moisture, a combination which is always especially relaxing

to the constitution.

Of course sportsmen and others whose occupation leads them

to unhealthy districts, mast expect to be liable to fever ; but

any one sleeping in a tent night aiter night among the

marshes of Essex, or the fens of Lincolnshire, would be

equally so. Medical men do not meet with | half the

diseases in this Island which they are accustomed to see in

England, and the most common complaints occurring here

viz., fever and dysentery, are generally so easily cured, when

properly treated at their commencement, that [ cannot but

conclude, that to self-neglect is to be attributed a very large

proportion of the deaths among our countrymen in Ceylon.

- There is, however, another cause, and I feara nearly equally

great cause of mortality among the adult male portion of the

community. I allude to the far greater indulgence in

spirituous liquors which obtains here among young men, over

what the same class are accustomed to in England. I

am sure that any one, on recalling the deaths among male

Europeans which have taken place within his memory, will at

once admit the truth of this assertion, that drink has had,

directly or indirectly, a large share in the mortality. The

constitution becomes undermined by the constant indulgence

in this habit, and is unable to resist the attack of what might

otherwise have been a trifling complaint. i believe that the

custom of taking spirits and water regularly twice a day,

on board ship on the voyage out from home, is one great

cause of this; and when we consider the solitary life often

led by Planters on Coffee Estates, it is hardly to be wondered

at that the habit thus acquired should be difficult to break

through.

1 believe that the mode of diet of Europeans in India

generally, is very much against a continuance of good health :

and here I feel that [am entering on a subject which must

necessarily meet with some opposition; for there are few

No. 12.—1860-1.] . HEALTH AND DISEASE IN CEYLON. 363

tasks more difficult than that of convincing people that they

are wrong in habits, which time and custom have led them

to consider as necessary to their existence.

Now, there is no greater error than an idea, which is by no

means an uncommon one, that we need a larger supply of

animal food in hot climates, than in temperate ones. The

reverse is the truth, and there is no better proof of this than

in the fact, that we continually see people obliged to have

recourse to bitters, before they can induce an appetite to enable

them to consume their tood, nature evidently resisting this

overloading of the system with an unnecessary amount of

nourishment. Why is it that we fancy hot curries, chutnee,

and stimulants of a similarkind? Not, as I shall presently

endeavour to shew, because they are the natural or necessary

food of a hot country, but because we find again the

stimulus of the chillies and spices necessary to enable us

to get through the meal; the stomach becoming thereby in-

cited to attempt to digest more food than is good for it. I

really believe, that eating in India is very frequently, or I

should say very generally, more a means of passing time

than a necessity, and that in proportion as we are enabled

to take a larger amount of bodily exercise, we shall find the

taste for stimulants of the curry kind diminish. More

occupation for the mind, and increased means of amusement,

so often wanting in English societies in India, would pro-

bably conduce to the same effect.

Many will answer my arguments, by saying that Provi-

denee has suited the food of different countries to their

inhabitants, and that we, as inhabitants of India, cannot err in

following the manner of living, and the diet of the natives.

Now this results from an extremely superficial view of the

matter, for, with few exceptions, the food of any nation

depends, not on the climate, but on the state of civilization of

that nation. Providence has provided suitable food for the

lower animals, because they are not gifted with reasoning

powers, but merely with instinct, that is, with a faculty

364 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON). EVol, ME.

which is incapable of further development ; therefore it was

necessary that their instinct should guide them at once to

the description of food which is exactly suited to their wants.

But on man a mind has been bestowed, which he is expected

to make use of in bettering his own condition and that of

his fellow-creatures, and thus we see, that as a nation passes ~

from a savage toa civilized state, that not only the arts and

sciences, but the general manner of living and feeding, pass

through progressive stages of development.

There is one exception perhaps to this law, in the case of

the inhabitants of the Polar regions; but it is an exception

that goes to prove the rule, for these countries, from the nature

of their climate, may perhaps be said to be incapable of change

or improvement, and their inhabitants are so far placed on a

level with the lower animals, for the only food which they

can obtain is such as is best suited to sustain life and bodily

heat ; and we find their taste, consequently, directed to such

food as train oil and blubber, without which they weuld be

unable to maintain a healthy existence in the intense cold

of the Arctic regions.

Therefore I say, that the exception in the case of these people,

helps to prove the general rule, that we must not be guided in

our choice of food, in most countries, by the present diet of

their inhabitants. The climate of the Polar regions is such

that, in all probability, no great progress can ever be made in

their state of civilization, and consequently, we see that

Providence has given them an inclination to a description

of food exactly suited to their wants.

Now, the climate and soil of all cther countries, admit of

more or less application of the progressive improvements in

agricultural science, therefore, though in the uncivilized state

of some nations, we may find them existing, in one case on

raw or putrid fish, as on some parts of the West Coast of Africa ;

or, in another case, consuming for food their own species, as

among cannibals; we are not, if our lot happens to be cast

in these countries, to consider it best for our health to follow

No. 12.—1860-1.] HEALTH AND DISEASE IN CEYLON. — 365

the example of the natives, but we snould follow the sugges-

tions of our own more advanced state of civilization.

We now return to the question of the propriety of the

ordinary diet of Europeans in indid. We find among the

natives a very general use of hot spices, chillies, and such

stimulants: but what encouragement does their condition

present to us, to imitate them?’ Wesee them, for the most

part, a weak and indolent race, disinclined to the least extra

exertion, and when attacked by disease, much sooner suc-

cumbing to it than Europeans. They are, occasionally, per-

haps induced to exert themselves under the hope of a reward,

but then, though a casual observer might think them capable

of enduring a large amount of fatigue, they will generally

be found to suffer from it afterwards.

These remarks of course apply principally to the working

classes, who form, I imagine, at least nine-tenths of the popu-

lation of India,—and these, it must be admitted, frequently

suffer much from insufficient or bad food; but still their

boiled rice, with even a very small quantity of vegetable or fish,

contains fully as much nourishment as the potatoes on which

the poorer class of Irish, in many cases, almost entirely

subsist; and yet an Irishman will, I will venture to say, do

three times the amount of work in a day, that can be got out of

a cooly, or a Sinhalese workman.

To this some, perhaps, will say, but what amount of work

would the Irishman do on a Coffee Estate under a hot sun?

My reply would be, put them both under similar conditions,

that is, the Irishman under a hot sun in India, and set the cooly

to work in Ireland in the winter, and I think it would then be

found that the Irishman would. still do three times as much

work as the native of India.

Now, I think that the deduction from this must be,

that there is something in the food of the natives here

that interferes with the proper digestion and distribution of

the actual amount of nourishment which they consume ; and

I can imagine nothing better calculated to effect this, than

366 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). [ Vol. III.

a continual stimulation of the digestive organs by hot pepper,

spices, &¢., especially when we consider the constitutional

change which is always effected by habits of any kind,

continued from generation to generavion.

With regard to the use ofa meat diet by inhabitants of hot

couutries, we find that there is very often some provision in the -

laws of their religion, which tends to diminish the supply of

animal food. Thus,among the Hindus the cow is sacred,

among the Jews the pig is forbidden as food, and the Sinhalese

are not, or were not, permitted to eat beef. Now we find no

such laws among the inhabitants of cold climates, and may,

I think, reasonably conclude, that these ordinances, like some

other religious ceremonies among Mohammedangs, were origi-

nally instituted for the health of the people; who, otherwise,

from the elementary state of knowledge at the earlier periods

of the world, might have committed excesses, which in time

would have produced the degeneration and eventual destruc-

tion of the race.

The medical science, however, of the present day, ex-

plains why one particular diet should be suited to a hot, and

another to a cold country. Respiration serves two principal

purposes in the human body, it purifies our blood by carry-

ing off from it a substance called carbon, in the form of car-

bonic acid gas, and at the same time maintains, by a chemical

process, the natural heat of the body. Now respiration is

quicker in a cold climate or in cold weather than in a hot

climate, that is, in a given time we perform a greater num-

ber of inspirations and expirations in cold weather than in hot.

Now, although in a hot climate there is less work for the

lungs in maintaining the temperature of the body, as that

of the surrounding atmosphere is so great, still the purifica-"

tion of the blood requires to be carried on ; and so, if we still

introduce as much carbon into the system in the shape of

food, we shall find that as the lungs do not act so frequently,

the carbon must accumulate in the blood, or be got rid of by

some other means; now this other means of disposing of

it is through the liver, which thus has an extra amount

No. 12.—1860-1.] HEALTH AND DISEASE IN CEYLON. 367

of work thrown on it, and disease is produced unless we

adopt one of two courses. We must either increase the

action of the lungs, which we may do by active exercise, or

we must decrease the amount of food, especially those

articles of food which contain most carbon, such as rich and

fat meats and spirituous liquors. This fact is well-known

by those who supply the unfortunate geese, whose livers make

the celebrated patés de foie gras. They treat them exactly

as many of us treat ourselvesin India. They are confined in

a hot atmosphere, allowed to take no exercise, and crammed

with quantities of rich food. Many, no doubt, are aware

of this, and never think of applying it to their own case.

I have heard the same person at one moment expressing an

opinion that we required here « large amount of animal food

to keep up our strength, and, shortly after, dilating on the

impropriety of feeding dogs on meat in a hot climate, as it

would inevitably kill them.

I will now endeavour to point out by what means, in my

opinion, we may best preserve our health in this country.

The first thing, without doubt, is a sufficiency of bodily

exercise, riding or walking—especially the latter; the best

time for this being the early morning; it is within the power of

all of us to obtain this. Cold bathing I need hardly mention,

as itis a thing few or none of us neglect; but the time at

which we should bathe is of some consequence, the best time

being in the morning, immediately after the ride or walk,—

always before a meal, never soon after: the fact of being

warm from active exertions offers no objection to the use of

the cold bath, that is, we may without danger go under a

spout of cold water in a state of active perspiration from

violent exercise. The only reason for avoiding sudden

immersion in cold water, is, where we are exhausted from

fatigue, and the temperature of the body is fast cooling

down. Avoid as much as possible exposure to the sun,

never going out in the heat of the day without an umbrella,

or a board-brimmed pith hat. Itis by no means uncommon

to see Europeans in Ceylon, with nothing on their heads

368 JOURNAL R. A. 8S. (CEYLON). EVol- 11k

but a Glengarry bonnet, or a small cloth cap, under a

burning sun. The wearer, in these cases, can only expect

what he deserves, a sun-stroke or disease of the liver. .

Hndeavour as muchas possible to avoid a stimulating diet,

and heavy late meals, and observe moderation in, not

abstinence from, wine, beer, and spirituous liquors. It is

almost useless to say anything against late dinners, as the

occupation of most people is such as to prevent any alteration

in the time at which they take their meals. It is one of

the evils inseparable from astate of high civilization, that

health is continually sacrificed to temporary advantage ; and

the more successful that a man is in his business, the less

successful he will probably be in the preservation of his

health. The quality of our food, however, is nearly always

under our control. We are seldom forced to eat what

does notagree with us, and, I believe, that if we partook of

animal food once only during the day, it would be the

better for us; and we should avoid highly-spiced and

rich fat dishes; in fact, nature as plainly as possible seconds

this advice, for we find the animals of the country

peculiarly destitute of fat, while the same animals in

cold countries, are, when ina state of health, loaded with

it. As far as they themselves are concerned, this is, of

course, also a provision of nature dependent on temperature

of climate.

Children here are sometimes most improperly fed ; { have

seen them literally crammed twice or three times a day

with meat and curries, to say nothing of little interludes

in the shape of biscuits, plantains, &c., the anxious parent

all the while wondering why they look so pale, and of

course throwing all the blame on the unfortunate climate.

It never occurs to her for a moment that the children’s

digestive organs might possibly be the better for an occa-

stare ten: minutes:_rest:; 1b is not to be wondered at that

they have to be sent home after a year or two of this

treatment. Children in this climate should most certainly

No. 12.—1860-1.] HEALTH AND DISEASE IN CEYLON, 369

eat meat but once in the day, and curries I look upon

as slow poison to them, unless they are made without

most of the usual constituents of a curry.

I have already said that the diseases of most common

occurrence in Ceylon, are, if properly attended to at their

commencement, generally very easily cured; at the same

time complaints which in England would be considered

trifling, and might be often neglected without ultimate

injury, will not bear the same neglect here, and may soon

become serious and permanent. Therefore, we should

always apply for medical aid at the first intimation of any

departure from our ordinary state of health. Avoid quack

medicines and popular remedies, such as “Cholera Drops,” the

virtues or rather vices of these latter, always depending on

the presence of laudanum or opium in some form, which.

in my opinion is poison in genuine Cholera, and hardly ever

necessary, but on the contrary hurtful, in ordinary bowel

complaints among Kuropeans. Any remedy, too, containing

opium, is especially objectionable in unprofessional hands, as

a medicine for children. A child of nine months old has

been killed by four drops of laudanum, and one of four and-

a-half years by one-third of a grain of opium; in another

ease, a drop and-a-half of laudanum proved fatal to an infant,

and yet [ have seen printed directions in this country for the

cure of Dysentery, recommending indefinite doses of “Dover's

powder,” which contains opium, without any such warning

concerning children as tnat I have just given.

I have noticed a rather prevalent habit among our

countrymen in the Island, of taking quinine whenever they

fancy themselves to be what they call feverish. Now,

although this may «lo no particular harm, yet it can hardly

ever be productive of much good, and may interfere

with the proper action of the medicine when it is really

required. There is only one case, I think, where quinine

is likely to be of service when taken without medical advice,

and this is when we are obliged to pass a short time ina

370 JOURNAL R. A. S (CEYLON). [Vol. III.

part of the cuuntry particularly subject to fevers, and then

three or four grains of quinine taken in coffee in the morning

will, | believe, give us a very good chance of escaping an

attack. This medicine, in skilful hands, is to fever as water

is to fire, but when given at improper times, or in insufficient

doses, it is generally worse than useless. Change of air-

is another remedy of great benefit to invalids, but is often

much abused and misunderstood. A sea voyage is, unless

peculiar circumstances forbid it, generally the best change

from this climate; not to the coast of India, or any place

still hotter than Ceylon; such a change can seldom be of

any use. A trip by sailing vessel to Mauritius, Australia,

or the Cape, will generally be the best; and the worst of

all changes, unless the person is convalescent, and able to

bear much fatigue, I consider to be the Overland Journey

home. It is astonishing, after the numerous deaths that

have occurred among invalids on this route, that any

medical men should still be found to advise their patients to

risk their lives by such a proceeding. The journey is

most fatiguing to any one, and doubly so to an invalid.

I can only conceive one circumstance which can justify

the adoption of the Overland Journey by a person seriously

ill, and that is when recovery is impossible, and the

patient has a wish, at any risk, to die among his or her

friends at home. Of course, there are instances where a

permanent cure is best effected by the change to the

climate of Europe, but the sick person should at any rate

possess a satficiency of strength and convalescence, to

enuble him to bear the excitement and fatigue of the

journey ; and if this cannot be brought about by proper

medical attention here, I fear it must very frequently

happen that the patient will not reach home alive. It

is seldom, perhaps, that medical attendance is to be had

on a voyage hence to Australia or round the Cape; but

I really believe, that in nine cases out of ten, the patient

in this case would have a better chance without a Doctor,

than on the Overland Journey with a dozen,

No. 12.—1860-1.] HEALTH AND DISEASE IN CEYLON. 371

A tew words in conclusion, on the change of locality, to be

obtained by invalids within the Island. To those living in the

interior, a visit to Colombo will, in nearly all cases prove, except

during the hottest months, a most salutary change. I believe,

however, the advantage of Nuwara Eliya as a sanitary

station to be rather overrated. I cannot speak from personal

observation, but from the description of others, it is

apparently excessively damp; and the great range of

temperature during the twenty-four hours, from actual frost

at night, to tropical heat during the day, leads me to think

that there are many places, at a lower elevation, far more

generally adapted as a residence for invalids. Of all parts

of the Island which I have as yet visited, the Kelebokka

Valley is certainly that to which I should be inclined to send

any patient of mine, to whom a change from the low country

was necessary. I have seen the thermometer there down to

49° in the early part of the year, a temperature sufficiently

low for invalids who have probably been residing in an

atmosphere, where the thermometer seldom stood below 70°.

Change for the mind is, however, often nearly as efficacious

in producing a return to health, as change of locality ; and

it is for this reason that I am inclined to think highly of

_ Mauritius, as we may there obtain those social amusements

in which our Island is unfortunately so deficient, and which

I feel sure form no unimportant element in the preservation

of health in this climate, where, as I have before said, almost

the sole amusements to which many can look forward after

the labours of the day, are the pleasures of the table.

ale JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). [ Vol. II.

CINNAMON.

By JAMES D’ALWIS, ESQ.

CONSIDERABLE doubt was, sometime ago, raised by Sir

James Kmerson Tennent,* as to the opinion generally enter-

tained by Botanists and Historians,—that ‘‘the Cinnamon

plant is indigenous to Ceylon.” During the prosecution of

his inquiries upon the matter, my attention was invited to

the subject; and the result of my investigations is embodied

in the following extracts of a letter which I addressed to him,

and which, from the peculiar interest which attaches to the

question in a historical point of view, [ beg to lay before

this Society.

If Cinnamon (Laurus Cinnamonun, Lin. Cinnamomum

Zeylanicum, Nees.) were introduced into Ceylon from the

neighbouring Continents of Asia and Africa, it is but

reasonable to expect that it is still to be found in them.

It is not a little curious, however, that no Cinnamon grows

in the latter—at least in the vicinity of Abyssinia, which is

described by travellers as possessing a soil anything but

favorable to the growth of Cinnamon.t It is also, I believe,

a fact, that during the Dutch Government in Ceylon, Java

was not considered to produce either Cinnamon? or Cassia,

though, doubtless, the latter was found in a wild state;

* He has embodied the result of his researches in his ‘‘ History of

Ceylon,” vol. I. p. 599, e¢ seq.

+ Speaking of ‘‘the Eastern Coast of Africa to the unknown regions,”

Laurent, in his Ancient Geography, describes it as ‘those parched lands

over which Arabs roved in former days as in the present.”—p. 348.

{In the year 1827, twenty-five boxes of Cinnamon plants, besides

a considerable quantity of seeds, were introduced into Batavia, smuggled

from Ceylon, by an agent in the service of the Dutch Government. —

See Asiatic Journal, 1827, vol. xvi. pp. 282-3.

No. 12.—1860-1.] CINNAMON. ala

and it is generally believed that all the Cassia which is

exported from Malabar, Java, and even China, is the pro-

duce of trees cultivated in those countries within the last

half-century. Buchanan, in his “Account of Mysore,” (vol. I.

p. 012, &e.,) thinks the spice grown in the Continent to be

“without doubt the Laurus Cassia of Linneus.”’* Even

under the Portuguese Government, we learn from Ribeiro

(Lee’s Translation, p. 141,) attempts were made to improve the

quality of the spice grown at Quilon, and in the forests of

Porea; but none could be made to compete with that of

Ceylon in taste or in fragrance: and you will find that Lee

also quotes from Lord Bacon, to shew that half a century

earlier than Ribeiro, Cassia was used as a substitute for

Cinnamon.t

It is not a little remarkable that Colebrooke in his Amara

rosha, and Professor H. H. Wilson in his Sanskrit Dictionary,

give “ woody Cassia” as the signification of the Sanskrit

terms “ twak-pattra, mutkatan, brungan, twachan, chochan,

vardugakan ;?> which are synonymous terms. I observe

too, from your remarks to me, that-the result of your

reading also tends to the same conclusion—-that what the

Arabian and the Persian ships produced in ancient times on

their return from India, was Cassia and not Cinnamon.

These are considerations which lead me to believe, that I am

correct in representing Ceylon as the only country? which

* In Arian’s history of Alexander, although Cinnamon is mentioned

as “the produce ofa shrub,” yet of Cassia alone it is stated that it “orew

there” (in India)—vol. i. p. 166.

+ ‘* Nard and Cassia balmy smells.”—Milton.

“Let balm and Cassia send their scent

From out thy maiden monument.’ —

Herrick’s ‘‘Dirge of Jephtha.”

+ “The Java Cinnamon is far superior to the Malabar both in quality

and appearance, but is not so handsome in the bale as that of Tellicherry,

which is always well packed and with clean joints, whilst that from Java

is mixed with many false packed canes and ragged joints, and has a

stronger drug flavour. Ceylon is superior in every point of view (colour

excepted ) to every other description of Cinnamon. It is perfect in its fine

aromatic flavour, in the thinness and regularity of its bark, the length

and cleanness of the joints in each cane, &c., &e. Java Cinnamon has

made the nearest approach to the qualifications of Ceylon Cinnamon,

374 JOURNAL R, A. S. (CEYLON). [ Vol. III.

produces “ Sweet Cinnamon,” (pent kurundu, Sin.), contra-

distinguished from ‘ Cassia,” (nika kuwrundu, Sin.)* If

this be so, and I may regard it as a well ascertained fact in

natural history, that “each tract of country in the world has

had its own peculiar creation,” the inference that Cinnamon

had its origin in Ceyion, is, I conceive, very probable.+ It |

is doubtless from this cause that this spice is so regarded

by several writers—that poets have sung of “spicy breezes”

in connection with ‘“ Ceylon’s Isie ;” and that the Island itself

is termed “ The Cinnamon Isle.”

lts claims to this designation seems to derive great suppert

from a Sanskrit “Catalogue of Botanical names,” called the

Saraswati Nighanduva, a production of very remote anti-

quity, in which, among other designations, Satmhalan occurs

as a name for Cinnamon.{ I find from Wilson’s “Sanskrit

Dictionary,” that this name (in a modified form, Sinhald) is

given to Cinnamon even in India—a fact which removes all

doubt as to the genuineness of the application, and the origin

of the article.

Now, when we bear in mind that nearly all names

although it is still a very inferior substitute; it is much weaker in flavour

and lacks that fine aroma which is the leading feature in the quality

of Ceylon Cinnamon. It is besides very inferior in the quilling.”—Leport

of Messrs. Kilby and Co., Brokers, London, October, 1843.

* Baldzeus, in his account of Ceylon, describes Cassia as the third sort

of Cinnamon, called by the Portuguese Canel de mattu, or ‘wild Cinna-

mon,’ which grows likewise on the Coast of Malabar, bnt is in no esteem.

—Ancient Travels, p. 824. —

+ Speaking of ‘centres of creation, Dr. Gardner says, (see Lee’s

Translation of Rebeiro’s Ceylon) that ‘‘ till the natural productions of

different parts of the surface of the globe came to be investigated with

the attention and accuracy which are peculiar to the present age,

naturalists rested satisfied with the vague idea that all animals and

vegetables had originally radiated from a common centre, and that in

the same parallels of latitude the same species would be found. This we

now know not to be the case; and it can be as safely asserted that

every large tract of country has had its own peculiar creation of both

plants and animals, as that two and two make four, the exceptions

to this general rule being accounted for by disseminating causes now

in operation.”—p. 211.

i It also occurs in another botanical work called the Siddhawausadha

Nighandwwa.

No. 12.—1860-1.] CINNAMON. BYE)

throughout the East are descriptive,* and that this, which is

a possessive noun, bears the signification of “that which

belongs to the Stzhalese,” I am disposed to treat it ag a

plant indigenous to Ceylon.7

The objections, however, to this are two-fold; 1st, that

although so early as in the days of Moses, “ Sweet Cinna-_

mon amd “Cassia were known, (Exod. xxx. 23, 24,) 1 yet

it is not mentioned as a product of Ceylon until after the

Muhammadans commenced a traffic in the Indian seas; and

Pidlvastnay, thie “Cinnamon regio” ~ of the ancients is

described as the opposite or Kastern Coast of Africa.

For obvious reasons I feel a very great diffidence in

advancing an opinion upon this part of the subject, and

would therefore merely suggest for your consideration

whether the non-mention of Cinnamon until after the

Muhammadans had commenced to trade with Ceylon, may

not fairly be attributed to causess other than the absence

* Thus, tippill: or ‘long-pepper,’ goes by the name of Maghada

(Behar) the country where it was originally found. So likewise China-

mul ‘caculia cathertica’ or China-root is so called after the name

of the country from whence it was introduced into Ceylon.

+ With less evidence in its favour, Dr. Gardener would have us believe,

that the coconut palm is indigenous to Ceylon.—Lee’s Fibeiro, p. 213.

+ Dr. Royle, having indicated the routes af ancient commerce, con-

cludes this part of his subject with some remarks on the place whence

the articles were brought into Egypt and Palestine ; and he says: “But

Cinnamon and Cassia, nard, calamus, and onycha having been shewn

to be peculiar Indian products, known to ancient commerce —there

ean, I conceive, be no doubt that the West Coast of India, and

probably also the Island of Ceylon, were reached eyen in the early

time.” See Asiatic Journal, vol. xxxvili. p. 156. As between India

and Ceylon, we have already shewn that Cinnamon was a peculiar

product of the latter country.

§ It may appear strange that so few of the indigenous productions

of Ceylon itself are mentioued ; thatis to say, only precious stones and

pearls, without a single allusion to cinnamon and ivory, with which the

Island abounds. This apparent inconsistency, however, is removed when

we come to consider the very nature of the Sinhalese commerce ; and

at the same time serves to shew the vast extent and importance of the

latter. For, as we have already seen, the trade of Ceylon consisted for

the most part in the exchange of foreigu goods, brought thither in great

quantities from distant regions ; in comparison with which the sole pro-

duce of the Island itself, would seem very trifling and insignificant.

Besides, cinnamon grew only in the interior, and not in the northern

parts of the Island, to which alone Sopater’s visit was confined ; and we

ol6 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). [ Vol. ITI.

of the article itself in Ceylon, viz., to a deceit practised by

the Chinese, who seem to have had before that period a

monopoly of trade in the Indian Seas. It is also important

to investigate with clearness, whether by “the Hastern Coast

of Africa,’ a part of Asia* was not meant ; or whether the

former was at this time a port at which the Chinese vessels

touched, and from whence the spice itself was exported to

other ports in exchange for Huropean and Hgyptian mer-

chandize. The great value too, which was set on this

article may seem to have influenced the Chinese, like the

Arabs who traded in the Red Sea, to withhold the name

of the country from whence they obtained itt and, it may

not be improbable, on the other hand, (if the Chinese did not

conceal the fact,) that the Greek writers took for granted

without much inquiry, that the spice, which they procured

from the Hast Coast of Africa, was a product of those

regions. { |

The inaccuracies into which the ancient writers seem to

have fallen with vegard to the Geography of the Kastern

Coast of Africa, and the opposite regions in Asia, may also.

intimate to us such a want ot information in the Greek

writers, as to render a mistake on their part possible, and

indeed too probable; for, amongst a great many errors

must also recollect, that at this early period, gardens appropriated to

the cultivation of cinnamon were not yet in existence.’’—Heeren’s

Historical Researches, i. p. 425.

*It would also seem that the ancients ‘‘confounded Egypt with

Abyssinia.”’-See Sir William Jones’s Works, vol. i. p. 274. Also

Wilford’s Hssay on Egypt, in Supplement to vol. ii. of the same

work, p. 544.

+ “The Coast of Ethiopia, from the straits to the eastern headland of

Aromata, was much better known after the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus

than it is now to us Europeans.*** There is no doubt that the Arabian

possessions must have extended still farther south, perhaps to Mada-

gascar, but they concealed their knowledge from the Greeks.” —Laurent’s

Ancient Geography, pp. 349-51. :

+The Venetians are thought to have carried on their trade to India

with greater advantage than any other nation ever did. They had

no direct intercourse with that country, but purchased the commodities of

the East, cmported by the Mohammedans into Egypt and Syria.*** Neither

the Greeks nor Romans seem to have visited the more Eastern parts

of it (India). They procured the productions of those countries only

at second hand.”—-Dr, Adam’s Ancient Geography and History, pp. 512-3,

No. 12.—1860-1. ] CINNAMON. Bed

enumerated in Wilford’s “Kssay on Kgypt” and other adjacent

counuies (see Sir W. Jones's Works, ii. p. 493, et seq).,

we find that a “part of Africa was called India by the

Greeks, that ‘heophylact thought that the Nile flowed

through Lybia, Ethiopia and India” (p. d44); that Strabo

considered that the people of Mauritiana were /ndians or

Hindus ; that middle India was called Abyssinia in the times

of Marco Polo; and that Pliny placed Madagascar on the

east of Ceylon.

As for the silence of the Ceylonese, it is not at all amazing

to me, that.a people little accustomed to traffic, and setting

no value upon the bark which they did not use either for

religious or culinary purposes, omitted to mention the spice

in question in any of their books, except their Lexicons or

Botanical works, few of which have been spared to us from

the ravages of ancient times.*

And this leads me to notice briefly the second part of

your inquiry, as to “the uses to which the ancient Sinhalese

applied this spice.” Sacrificial offerings, for which in ancient

times Cinnamon was used by other nations, were not known

to the Sinhalese. Indeed, they seem to have regarded it

as fit only for medicine. Thus, we preceive the plant spoken

of, not only in Indian medical books of high antiquity, such

as the Shusruta, but also in Sanskrit and Pali medica]

writers of Ceylon. The Sdérathasangraha of Buddha Dasa

(A.D. 350,) and the Manjusa (A.D. 1261,)7 both mention

Cinnamon as an ingredient used as medicine in cases of

“snake poison,” ‘‘elephantiasis,’ ‘rheumatism,’ &c. Kx-

cept in modern times, I am not aware that this spice was

applied by the Sinhalese tO any Ovllersuse, ames = le eum

‘‘Although in the few native works at our present disposal there

is no particular mention made of spices, yet we cannot possibly doubt

of their consumption in the country itseif. This silence, however, is

merely the effect of accidental causes; for neither Manu or the

Ramayana had any special occasion of alluding to the subject.”—Heeren’s

Historical Researches, ii. p. 276.

+ Also in the Sinhalese Yogaratndaharaya, A.D. 1472.

we I must not, however, omit to state that frequent mention is made

in the Mahawatsa of ‘* scented oils,” ‘‘ spices,” and ‘‘aromatic oils,” (see

378 JOURNAL-R. A. 8S. (CEYLON). Evol ai

unable to ascertain any mention of it in the Sinhalese books

except our Dictionaries and the Poets.* (A.D. 1410—1815.)

You will have doubtless’ read in modern Sinhalese history,

that upon the capture of the late Kandyan King, the lamp in

his palace was found to contain Cinnamon oil; but this was

probably a luxury, the use of which was borrowed from —

the Dutch.+

Before concluding these observations, | must not omit to

remark that in detining “Cinnamon tree, | ror > \onier

Williams in his Dictionary gives the following Sanskrit

sentence, which waether quoted from any book of authority,

or net, supports the belief generally entertained, that the

plant is indigenous to Ceylon—Purvokta tikta, valkala visish-

tah Sinhala-dvipa rohi kshudravrikshak. ‘The aforenamed

(is) a small tree (plant) having pungent bark, and grown in

the island of Sinhala.”

In the following list I have given the significations of

the several

SANSKRIT NAM#S FOR CINNAMON AND CASSIA.

le “Puaich, “skin barks = mimd so peels :

2... Vardnga, elegant’ “or “superior bodyy

3. . Brungd, *a golden: vase.’

A -Chocha, Darke acim ded: Sicimi

pp. 124, 182,)—probably referring amongst others to Cinnamon, the great

lravrance of whose bark was certainly known to the natives, from at

least. the names eiven to it (vide the hist of names at the end.) | have

also carelully examined the text of the Mahawansa, but have tound the

words too large to enable me to express a decided opinion on the

subject.

i Boe WEEWHAE, Fr BOFi_BCVOOM e

VENEViGVOE, BYEVEOATDEITNYEAD CG Kavyiasékharaya.

+ But, Baldzeus says, that in the beginning of the siege of Colombo

by the Dutch, their General received a letter, writ with “his Mayjesty’s

own hand,” and that ‘*it was curiously perfumed with all sorts of

spices. ”__ Ancient travels, p. 720.

+ These four and the 6th and the 18th, are given in the Amarakusha ;

and it is remarkable that they are all rendered ‘woody Cassia’ by Mr.

Colebrooke.

~~]

(ent

No. 12.—1860-1. | CINNAMON.

o. Shukla, ‘white, ‘clayed-sugar.’

6. Utkata, ‘superior, ‘ high.’

7. Sdinhala, (given by Pr. H.H. Wilson as Sinhala)

‘Ceylon’ ‘ Sinhalese.’s

8. Katuparnt, ‘pungent leaf.’

9. Mukhasavrabha, ‘mouth-fragrant.’

10. Varapriya, ‘highly pleasing, ‘ delightful.’||

ll. Sutkata, same as Utkata with the addition of the

premx Sw very, ‘much.’

12. Lavana-parna, ‘beautiful leaf.’

13. Lamanga, supposed to be an original Sinhalese word

meaning ‘tender body.’**

Pee aan jccichtitul,.°a: name of a, tree.

iDawsend-rasa, <“hiohly. flavored.’

Mukha-sodana, ‘pungent, ‘sharp.’

pe nanna-jandinea, -pertumed leat.) 7

Ieee oak-patra, “bark leat.

19. Gudatvak, ‘sagar-bark.’Tt

20. Diéru-gandha, ‘scented wood, ‘Cinnamon.’

reece valkalg, -puncent bark,” “Cinnamon,

22. Sugandha-tvak, ‘scented-bark.’ ‘Cinnamon.’

20. Gandha-valkala, ‘scented-bark,’ ‘Cinnamon. ’ss

-§ Pr. H. H. Wilson gives this in his ‘“‘Sanskrit Dictionary” in addition

to those given in the Amarakosha—all which he translates ‘woody

e pe) «

CASSUA.

|| The first ten names are given in the Saraswati Nighanduwa for

“cinnamon.”

| QYhe first five, and the 7th, 9th, llth and 12th, are found in the

Siddhawsadha Nighandu as the names for ‘‘cinnamon.”

This name is the same in the Pali for ‘‘cinnamon.”

iieplthe two, first and the Sth, 13th, 14th, 15th, W6th, and 17th)

occur in the Vasadeva Nighandu as the names for “cinnamon.”

tf Pr. Williams in his English and Sanskrit Dictionary gives this

and the 3rd, 6th, 15th, 18th, and 19th asthe epithets for ‘‘cassia.”

§§ The last four are given by the Jast named writer as synonyms

for ‘‘cinnamon.”

J80

JOURNAL BR” AL'S. “~ACEY LOM): [Vol. LH.

SINHALESE NAMES.

Kurundu, the origin of this word does not appear.

Probably it is a proper name, and not an epithet.

Lamanga, from lama ‘tender, and anga ‘body,’

a word ior ‘Cinnamon’ or ‘Cassia.’

SEAHE, C6CBREGE BCIECIB—Damaraliya.

No. 12.—1860-1.] BADULLA AND ITS PRODUCTS. ddl

Hes ON THE DISTRICT OF BADULLA

AND ITS NATURAL PRODUCTS,

By W. ©. ONDATJIE, ESQ., Assistant Colonial Surgeon.

THE district of Badulla comprehends a no inconsiderable

portion of the Central Prevince; it is in fact of sufficient extent

to form a separate Province: and was so regarded when

the country was under native Rule; the Government of

the District being confided to an officer who bore the title

Ore Prinee of Uva.”

The District is bounded towards Ratnapura by Gurumada ;

towards Hambantota by Bulatgamaralage Kandura; on the

Nuwara Eliya side by the Hakgala range of hills; on the

side of the Lower Badulla-road by the Uma-oya: on the

Batticaloa side. by Padu Kumbura or Madura-oya: on the

Maturata side by Halgaran-oya: and on the Wallapana

side by Madulla. The physical aspect of the whole district

is strikingly beautiful, the country being diversified by

chains of bold mountains and by undulating hills, which are

separated by deep valleys, and extensive plains covered with

lemon-grass and low jungle. Rivers and-streams as well as

springs abound every where, some of them forming beantiful

cascades. in fact, the scenery of this part of the country

surpasses every other portion of the mountain zone in variety

and grandeur.

The most picturesque view is that fiom Ella, whence one

looks down on the low country, studded as it is with

nipple-shaped hills of various sizes, and stretching towards

Hambantota. Ona clear day, the sea itself is visible, and

vessels may be sometimes seen passing along the coast.

382 JOURNAL R. A. S.. (CHYLON). Vote dale

The hill scenery around the mountain pass of Haputale

is unrivalled in magnificence and extent by any other in the

Island. Our late Governor, Sir H. G. Ward, has so fully

described the view from MHaputale, that I quote his own

words. He says :—

“I looked with regret, 1 confess, as I ascended the Pass,

probably for! the last time)” abt the mognincemnaiwall “on

vegetation, towering up the side of the mountain, and about

to disappear under the axe of the Planter, while below it,

the view embraces the whole Magam Pattuwa, with the

Kattragam hills in the distance,—the Leeways at Bundela,

and the white line of suri, beyond.) at. Kinmidan \(Sirirl

G. Ward’s Minute of Inspection, 1858.) His predictions are

being literally fulfilled: already several large Hstates have

been formed, and the bracing climate will tempt the Planter

to remain long here, while the rich soil promises to reward

him handsomely.

From Wilson’s Bungalow the scene is truly delightful,

including an. extensive view of deep valleys, and rushing

streams, smooth grassy hills that undulate im succession,

and mountains whose tops are covered with clouds. The

Namanakuli mountain may be seen towering above the

others on the Badulla side. From Dewihene Bungalow, (now

in ruins,) which is 1,767 feet above Badulla, and 4,110 feet

above the level of the sea, an extensive view is obtained of

the hills and valleys that stretch below, together with the

lofty range of the Nuwara Eliya mountains in the long

distance.

From the Kannavarella Estate we gain a view of the sea;

and on a clear day, ships sailing along, may be seen.

Altogether the view afforded. by the variety, of objects

here is unsurpassed for grandeur.

From Weywelhena Bungalow a full panoramic view of

the whole of the valley of Badulla is visible.

From Taldana Pass, 4 miles from Badulla, we notice a

No. 12.—1860-1.] BADULLA AND ITS PRODUCTS. 383

chain of hills, covered with chena cultivation, the highest of

which is Narangala. The lower Badulla-road also may be

seen winding along the Badulla-oya. From many other

points grand and interesting prospects of the country may

be easily commanded.

The town of Badulla is 2,600 feet above the level of the

sea. It is 156‘ miles from Colombo via Nuwara Eliya; 84

mile arom Kandy 3 36 from Nuwara Hlhiya: 80 from

Ratnapura; 76 from Hambantota; and 72 from Batticaloa.

Ms OU

The distance from Badulla to Attampitiya is 13 4

From Attampitiya to Wilson’s Bungalow Ill 2

From Wilson’s Bungalow to Nuwara Kliya 13 O

Krom Nuwara Eliya to Ramboda ee Me 70)

From Ramboda to Pussellawa eae 10 aa)

From Pussellawa to Gampola oct! POD

From Gampola to Kandy ee ee)

Distance from Badullato Kandy ... 84 6

The town of Badulla is situated on a mound surrounded

by an extensive valley extending two miles and of an elliptic

form, and presenting a series of terraced paddy-fields of about

400 acres in extent, irrigated by the Badulla-oya and the

hill streams,---the valley being a basin bounded by chains of

hills covered with lemon-grass. ‘Through the whole extent

of the valley runs the Badulla-cya, a serpentine river. It

enters the valley from the south-west, and as it proceeds

towards the north, receives the small tributary streams

known by the name of the Kuda-oya, Rambapota-oya, and

it finally discharges itself into the Mahaveliganga.

The Badulla hills are of various elevations, from 400 to

several thousand feet above the level of the sea, the highest

being 6,700 feet: this is called Namunakuli Kanda, and

is situated towards the south of Badulla; on its summit the

Rhododendron is found growing in great abundance,

384 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). EVols. Lik

ROADS AND COMMUNICATIONS.

The principal roads are the following :—The Nuwara

Hliya road, which is the only one that affords the means

of uninterrupted communication between Badulla and Kandy;

on this road bullock carts may be constantly seen; but

it is a very tedious and expensive route.

The Lower Badulla road; this passes along the Badulla-

oya and Mahaveliganga, and over a flat country, and is

undoubtedly the shortest to Kandy, being only 56 miles

distant. It is intersected by streams which at times are

swollen and which therefore render the road impassable

during the rainy season. In many places rocks also form

serious obstacles, which are not easy to remove so as to

make the road passable for carts. The country traversed

by this road is thinly populated, owing to the prevalence

of fever for which it has gained notoriety.

The Madulla road. This is also a short approach to

Kandy, but it is steep, narrow and dangerous.

The Ratnapura, Hambantotta, and Batticaloa roads.

These lead to the low country.

The Ratnapura road runs over a comparatively flat

country in a south-west direction. If this road be open for

‘arts it will greatly facilitate communication with Colombo ;

while there will:be provided also a cheap route from it

to the Sanitarium of the Island, and in many other respects

the country will be benefited. On each side of the road

there is rich pasture land. It is studded too with numerous

and populous villeges. This ought to be the proper outlet

for the District.

Sir H. G. Ward, who had personally inspected all the

different lines of communication with Badulla observes in ~

his Minute of Inspection of 1859, that, ‘The Haputale

road still continues to be the favorite ‘object of the

Planters. The large amount of land sold near Haputale

(0,000 acres), and the increase in the Coffee Crops of the

No. 12.—1860-1.] BADULLA AND ITS PRODUCTS. 385

Badulla District which has risen from 10,000 ewts. in 1855

to 20,000 ecwts., and would probably advance much more

rapidly, if a better line of communication with Colombo were

opened, give to this proposal a greater claim to consideration

than it had when first brought before me.”

The Hambantota road which runs southward, is in some

parts very steep and extremely difficult to be converted into

a cart-road.

Batticaloa road. Carts may proceed twelve miles from

Badulla: beyond that distance it is a mere jungle path used

for tavalams. It proceeds in a north-east direction.

The minor roads ave numerous, branching off in various

directions to the villages around.

The whole aspect of the District is rapidly undergoing

ereat changes. Numerous Coffee Estates are springing up

in all the available land adapted for the cultivation of this

staple article of the Commerce of this Island : consequently

the District is attracting great attention, and it becomes

necessary, that its interests be carefully studied. But it

must be observed that the improvement of the country has

not kept pace with its extent and importance asa _ Coffee

erowing district. This has been owing to two causes. The

‘distance from the sea coast is considerable, and travelling by

the great mountain pass, via Nuwara Eliya, is both tedious

and expensive, the progress therefore, of the District, has

been much retarded. It labours under the disadvantages

“consequent on the want of easier and cheaper transport

and the town is not so large and important as it ought to

be, considering the large capital laid out in the District for

the production of Coffee. The rate of transport is very high ;

cart hire from Badulla to Colombo varies from £6 to £7

vid Nuwara Eliya, and a cart takes longer to reach Colombo

than the Overland Mail to England: and even then it is

attended with uncertainty and losses, especially during the

wet weather. Owing to the expense and difficulty of trans-

J86 JOURNAL R. A. SS.) (OHYLON). ~~ ~{ Vol, IIT.

port, trades-people and others are discouraged from settling

in Badulla, which of course renders living fearfully expensive,

every article of consumption being at an exorbitant price.

But with the many difficulties to be contended with, |

have yet had the pleasure, since my residence in Badulla,

of witnessing many material improvements. New roads

and bridges to facilitate communication with the district

have been constructed ; while the extension: of the means

of Irrigation is proving of pre-eminent service to the native

population. Facilities are thus being afforded for bringing

waste land under cultivation, and for the extensive pro-

duction of paddy, which is the staple article of food among

the people.

To no cause more than the unremitted zeal of the late

Assistant Government Agent of Badulla,—and this is ac-

knowledged throughout the District-——are the improvements

of the works of Irrigation to be attributed.

CLIMATE.

There are three seasons. First, the Dry weather, which

commences in May and continues till the end of August:

second, the Wet weather, which extends from September

to December inclusive; and the third, the Cold weather,

from January to the end of April. Of these four months

of cold weather, the first two are the coldest. It may be

stated that generally the thermometer ranges 54° in the

shade during the usual dry weather: in the rainy season

it is about 80° and often in the mornings as low as 98° ; and

in the cold season it is 56°, and on the hills it has been

observed to be as low as ol’.

The winds blowing in a north-easterly direction are

generally cold and bracing, but they become hot and

oppressive from May to September, which are the most

unhealthy months of the year, especially if there be unusual

heat and drought.

No. 12.—-1860-1.] BADULLA AND ITS PRODUCTS. 587

HEALTH.

The low lands of the District are generally unhealthy,

arising chiefly from the scarcity of water and food—causes

which have tended to the gradual depopulation of this

part of the District. Scrofulous ulcerations are frequently

met among the natives of Wellavaya, &c. Those parts of

Badulla which stretch towards Hambantota and Batticaloa

are well-known as fever generating places.

Intermittent fever, or ague, is endemic in Wellavaya and

Wellassa, which have a sandy and barren soil, and where

wholesome water is scarce. The disease is become so

common with’ the wretched inhabitants of these localities,

that they consider themselves subjected only to a temporary

inconvenience during the paroxysm, and when that has

passed off they betake themselves to their usual avocations. |

Manv of them have enlarged spleen as the consequence of

protracted suffering from ague, and present the peculiar

exsanguineous appearance which is characteristic of the

disease.

Ague is also prevalent at Kataragama, whither people of

every part of the Island and from the neighbouring continent

of India, Buddhists as well as Hindus, resort annually in the

month of July on pilgrimage to a Devalé, which is sacred

to the God Kandasvami. .

The Kataragama fever although generally of the intermittent

type, soon merges into the remittent character, and destroys

ereat numbers of the pilgrims, when cholera does not break

out among them, as is usual on such occasions.

According to the Sinhalese idea of treating some. severe

cases of fever, no medicine is to be administered until some

days have elapsed, when, unfortunately, the fatal symptoms

have already supervened. Thus numbers die immediately

after their return from the Kataragama festival.

1 would here offer a few remarks on an indigenous febrifuge

388 JOURNAL R. A. 8S. (CEYLON). [ Vol. II.

plant, which I consider, after extensive and most careful trial,

to be an efficacious medicine for fever. This statement may

be startling to some, especially as the plant belongs to the

Cucurbitacea, which have not a single member possessing

any febrifuge properties, but as it is well-known, furnish some

of the most powerful cathartics of the Pharmacopoeia,

The plant in question is an annual creeping plant, and is

known by the name of 77richosanthes cucumerina, Lin.; in

Sinhalese it is called Dummeélla, and grows plentifully in

the feverish parts of Uva. It vields to boiling water a

bitter principle almost like Gentian or Cherayta. The

chemical composition may be thus stated. It contains

Tannic Acid, which is also one of the principal constituents

of the best kind of Cinchona bark. Bichloride of Mercury

-throws down a precipitate which is also a_ test for the

Cinchona alkaloids.

An infusion of the dried plant is the form in. which

I use it, after the bowels have been freely moved by a dose

of Pulvy. Jalap Comp. or Senna and Epsom Salts.

Infusion of Trichosanthes Cucumerina.—Vake of the dried

plant, leaves and stem one ounce. boiling-water two pints.

Infuse four hours in a covered vessel and strain. I use

a copper decoction pot.

Dose two ounces, three times daily. It may be given

during any stage of intermittent fever: when given in

the cold or hot stage, | have found it efficacious in

abating the severity of the symptoms. No more than the

quantity required for each day ought to be prepared at once,

as the infusion begins to ferment when kept beyond a

few hours :—

The health of the District is in no small degree owing

to the frequent showers of rain that fall over its whole

extent. When there is a cessation of these. showers, and

dry and hot weather succeeds, much unhealthiness is the

“consequence, and it is then that epidemics break out. -

No. 12.—1860-1.] BADULLA AND ITS PRODUCTS. “O89

As may be expected when there is a deficiency of the

pluvial supply, the high temperature thus caused generates

malaria,—the surrounding jungle giving rise to this, and sick-

ness thus prevails; whereas showers of rain refresh the air,

absorb the malaria rising from the ground, and thus remove

morbific influences.

The people who inhabit the highlands of the District are

remarkably healthy and vigorous, being supplied with

abundance of water and food.

With regard to the health of the European settlers, an

experience of seven years in meclical charge of the station,

has convinced me that the climate of the Badulla hills is

not inimical to their constitution : for I have had no ease

of Dysentery or other disease depending on climate, oceurr-

ing among them; and I think the climate of Badulla is

certainly more favourable to the health of the Planters

than that of the Kandyan Districts. More healthy, active,

energetic men are seldom to be met with anywhere else.

POPULATION.

According to the Census of 1859, this amounted to 44,642

males and 38,619 females; total, 83,261. The decrease of

the population, especially of the low lands, is evident, and

is proved by the remains of former Architectural Buildings,

which shew that this part of the district of Badulla teemed

with anumerous and industrious race of men, whose exist-

ence is thus mournfully attested by the traces of a departed

greatness.

The subjoined extract from a Report on the present

condition of Bintenna, by J. Bailey, Esq., Assistant

Government Agent of Badulla, well describes the condition

of the country and the character of the scanty population

still surviving amid their ancient ruins.

‘* Now everything is ruinous, and daily. becoming more ruined, except

the Dagoba, which, during the last three years, there has been a violent

390 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). [Vol: IL.

effort to restore. The jungie ‘is encroaching on the onee broad

street: the slovenly hovels, wretched enough in their best style, are

tumbling down—their walls eracked, their roofs falling in: here and

there, a half-built house seems’ to shew an effort at improvement,

given up in despair; and, over the place there is an air ‘of desola-

tion, which is inexpressibly melancholy. The people, too, are, for

the most part, wretchedly poor and miserably inert.” .

PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS.

1. Udukinda, or Upper Uva includes Udapalata, Damba-

vinipalata, Gampaha Koralé.

9. Medakinda, or Middle Uva, Mahapalata, Dehivini-

palata, Kumbalvalapalata.

3. Yatikinda, or Lower Uva, Bogodapalsia, Rilpala-

palata, Badulapanguva, Passara Koralé, Kandukara Koralé,

Pattipola Koraleé.

4. Viyaluwa, includes Oyapalata, Soranatotapalata, Pita-

kola, Etulkolapalata, Palwatta. |

5. Bintenna, includes Bintenna, Aralupitpalata.

6. Vellassa, includes Wegampaituva, Nilgalapalata,

Medagampattuva, Dambagallapalata, Nikavetipalata, Maha-

vedirata. ;

7.. Yatikinda, includes Buttalarata, Deyanagapaha, Pan-

dikkulama, Sittarama and Kataragama, Kongala, Bintenna,

Kandapalla Koralé, Wellavaya. ,

Number of Population in each Division framed on an official

Return for 1853.

Males. Females. Total.

1. Udukinda Dsbie t 4.584 10,211

. 2.. Medakinda 2,214 2,489 4,699

3. Yatikinda 6,920 2,218 11,738

4, Viyaluwa 4,181 3.401 7,852

5. Bintenna Dove 2,080 4,479

6. Vellassa 7,014 9,069 12,943

7. Yatikinda 3,039 3,480 7, 119

Total

wwe OL,954

ee es

27,117

99,071

No. 12.—1860-1.] BADULLA AND I'r's PRODUCTS. 391

eget ya OR COMPULSORY DUTIES UNDER

NATIVE RULE.”

li will be seen by the subsequent remarks, that every

thing produced in the District was attained by a regular

system of compulsory labour, which alone seems to have

led the people to betake themselves to industrious pursuits:

nay, the very personal comforts of the Royal family were

administered to by such labour imposed on the inhabitants.

From some of the old natives of Badullae, | have ascer-

tained a number of such +rdjakariya as were formerly

performed in the District, notice of which may perhaps

not be altogether uninteresting in connection with the.

subject of this paper.

1. Hunuw rdjakariya.—TYo burn lime or chunam. This

compulsory duty was performed by the people of the village

called Hagilialle and in their own village.

2. Hakuru rajakariya.—To make jaggery from the kitul

palbn. A work performed by the villagers of Kumbalvela

and in their own village.

AP Agaré.—Vo dig for precious stones. It was performed

by the people of Yatapalata at and near Nuwara Eliya,

hamely :—Vilmane, Sita Eliya, Bopattalawa, Lhe ge, and

Palalmana.

4. Pili viyanava.—For weaving clothes from a species of

shrub cotton which is carried on to this day at Kandapalla.

Those of Udapalata performed it in the village itself.

5. Tel réjakdriya.—Collectis g oil seeds, which was per-

formed by the people of Uva, and the oil extracted and

sent to Kandy.

6. Miris réjukariyu—Vhe people of Viyaluwa were to

collect chillies and send them to Kandy.

7. Dalumura-rdéjdkariya—Vhe people of — Passara,

392 . JOURNAL R.A. S. (CEYLON). [ Vol. IL:

Angoda, Uduvera, Panakana, also from Bombarabotuva in

Sabaragamuwa supplied the King, at Kandy, with betel leaves.

8. Yakada rajakériya.—To smelt iron and manufacture

steel. This was performed by the people of Kandapalla in

their own village, and at Sabaragamuwa.

9. Lvadu panguwa.—To make bows, arrows, rice poun

ders, handles for lances, and flagstaffs which should have

been beautifully lacquered. This was made by the people

of Wadecona at the same village.

10. Lunu rajakériya.—VYo manutacture saltpetre. The

people of Lunugala proceeded to Gampaha for the purpose.

11. Kuruveetio.—Elephant suppliers. The people of

Tuppittia supplied elephants.

12. Wagapanguveetti.—To search for Elephants. The

people of Pussalgolle did the work.

13. Alutpanneetto.—To blast. rocks. The people of

Alupanna Kumbura blasted rocks wherever they were

called to do so.

14. Sarakku dakvanava.—To cultivate condiments, &c.,

such as coriander, cummin, fennel, dill seed, ginger, anise,

cress, or rata-aba; peas, kodomba, or barley. The people

of Tennekunvela situated in Udukinda Udapaldta were

to cultivate them. They were also cultivated at Matuvata

and Bombara, near Nuwara Eliya. Raja Rama was a Malabar

who was employed to cultive the condiments.

1b. Bétgé.

Badulla and the other at Kandy, which were supplied by

There were two Medical Stores, one at

the people of Badulla,

And a numbers of others of less importance.

COFFEE ESTATES.

The Coffee Estates lie in two different directions, namely,

on the Badulla side, and the Haputale range.

No. 12.—1860-1.] BADULLA AND ITS PRODUCTS.

Those on the Badulla side are:

Vévelhinna

Otumba

Pepolgashinna...

Gavarakeleé

Pupulé or Navela

Kannavarella ...

Gavarakelé Kast

Beddegama (Spring

Valley)

Balagala

Glen Alpine

Kottagoda (Mary tind)

Vevessa

Debedda

Passara Ain

Gonakele

Angoda B00 Hen

Redipana shee 508

Klizabeth

Hingurugomuva son

Narangala

Unagala —

Gonagaltenna

Dikbedda

Uduvara

Kinakelé

Hindagala

Mavalamedda ...

74 miles from Badulla

do- ox do

al® > do

Sos: do

OF as do

de do

Date ee clo

(Cae do

Bele do

Hatt ire do

Ages do

Distes do

Si) i) do

eee ox. cdo

ee ee do

ie, do

es gee do

Ae ANCE do

ee do

8 : do

Orage do

Cues cdo

10 : clo

(ooo do

Ie du

a5, do

heaved do

On the Haputale side are:

Kahagolla ue ve

Haputale

Sherwood ra

Galkanda ed Bis

Viharagolla

Fenton

25 miles from Badulla.

DALE do

DO) ap do

BO Gos, cLo

SO er cdo

Bore, do

393

394 JOURNAL R. A S (CEYLON). [Vol 11.

Haidummulla ... ... 35 miles from Badulla

ot Noi 10322 SPB DO bye: do

J<alupahana... As Bot gt, do

Need wood as, La LEST Wg cdo

3 Estates at the back of Wilson’s bungalow.

The elevation of the Estates above the level of the sea,

is from 2,400 to 4,800 feet.

The Badulla Estates which lie inan easterly direction are

situated on spurs running out from Namunakutli-kanda, while

those in a south-westerly direction are on the Haputale side.

The quantity of Coffee produced in the district is about

23,000 ewts. The heavy blossom appears in August and Sep-

tember. The vrincipal crop is picked from April to July. A

small crop, chiefly from young Coffee, is picked from

September to December.

Transport of Coffee.—The produce is sent down to Colombo

from April to September. The only road by which Coffee

is sent by carts to Colombo is the Nuwara Eliya road. The

general rate for a bushel of Parchment Coffee is 2s. <A cart

can take from 60 to 80 bushels, and in fine weather it

reaches its destination after a journey of from 20 to 40

days. The wear and tear on this road are very great, to

say nothing of the distance of 156 miles, to be travelled

over a steep mountain pass. It is not unusual to see cart

loaded with Coffee lying at the bottom of a precipice

while the bullocks which had brought them have died from

exhaustion. itis not likely that the cost of transport by

this route will ever become less. It is sometimes enormous.

The Hambantota and Batticaloa roads are used for the

transport of Coffee by tavalams. For a bushel of Parchment

Coffee 1s. is charged: a bullock load is equal to 3 bushels.

A small quantity of Coffee is also sent by the road to

tatnapura, The importance and utility of this road as

the proper outlet for the district, are now greater than

No, 12.—1860-i.] | BADULLA AND ITS PRODUCTS. 399

ever to the planting community, on whom the advance-

ment of the district depends so much. The necessity

therefore for opening it for wheel traffic cannot be over-

rated. With such a road in existence the whole of the Coffee

produced in the district will be sent through it, and the

serious losses from long detention and consequent damage

of the Coffee will be prevented.

The Coffee which is sent to Hambantota is shipped at

that place from October to April, and that which is des-

patched to Batticaloa, from April to September.

~The rate labour, &c., on the estates varies from 7d. to

9d. per day, and on an average from 4, 000 to 5,000 coolies

are employed.

Roads to the Hstates.—Some of the minor roads to the

estates are in an unsatisfactory state. They are not only

dangerous to travellers on horseback; but it is even diffi-

cult to send down the crop by them from the estates.

This is owing to the rocks and the stones which are

scattered about, and to the roads being eut up by water

during wet weather.

COFFEE LAND IN THE BADULLA DISTRICT.

Namunakili, Oe. 5 Acres. Acres.

Lands belonging to private parties Bes 9,176

Surveyed, yet unsold ey, se 1,282

Unsurveyed, belonging to Govt., ecte 3,000 13,458

Haputale :

Lands purchased by private parties. . 13,196

Advertised, not sold ae as Rs 1,539

-Unsurveyed, belonging to Govt., about... 20,000 34,735

Wilson’s Bungalow :

Lands purchased... a sao oe — A86

Valapana or Udapussellawa :

eltands purchased =) 7s u iv ues 9,216

Surveyed, yet unsold ae Eas ee L7G halO, 392

Unsurveyed, belonging to Government,

extept unknown...

Nérangala : Acres.

Lands purchased _... Ie bile ve: _ 1,704

Madulsima, &e. :

Unsurveyed, estimated by a Government

Surveyor at 14,000 acres, but believed

to exceed sae ne Se Bie os 30,000 —

Acres...90,865

31st December, 1860.

VEGETABLE PRODUCTS.

The Agricultural productions of the Natives for

Lsoor 7s and. 1859.

Paddy | --- 481,849 bushels. 280,758 bushels.

Fine Grain... 90,316 — do. 16,593) ade

Coffee Sie toe ClO: 64,579" “do:

Pepper dns 685 do. : 465 do.

Mustard - .... Ii ala 22 do:

Gram. sit 201 “Wo. TO SE

Indian Corn 4,667 ~~ do. 16,388 do.

Cotton cic, (NeasO ede Jomenitoe L001 Ib

Tobacco. ~..: 7,850) “dio. 2,020 do.

Onions Pel oo) do. 3,800 do.

Potato is 100 cwt. 8S cwt.

These figures have been obtained from official returns

for 1855 and last year. I have inserted them here to give

an idea of the quantities produced in the District.

1. VEGETABLE PRODUCTS USED FOR Foon.

1. Saar Ch:

Cassava.

Arrowroot.

Kitul Sago, from the Jaggery palm.

Madupiti, from the Cycas Circinales.

Kurakkan, Eleusine Coracana.

Italian panicle, Setaria Italica, (Sin. éunahdl).

Millet, Panicum Milliaceum, (Sin. ¢ddal diringi).

No. 12.—1860-1.] BADULLA AND ITS PRODUCTS. JOT

Black Ulundu, Phascolus max :

Green Gram, —— radiatus (Sin. mumneta).

Bengal Gram, Cicer Arietenum, (lam. ‘adala‘).

Madras Horse Gram, Glycine Tomentoso (Sin, kullu).

Indian Corn, Zea. Mays, (Sin. triage).

Potatoe.

Kdible roots.

2. Condiments.

Fennel, Nigella sativa, (Sin. kaluduru).

Coriander, Coriandrum sativum, (Sin. hottamall).

Cummin, Cuminum Cyminum, (Sin. mahdduru).

Dill Seed, Anethum Sowa, allied to Dill Seed.

Ginger.

Mustard.

Black Pepper,

Cardamom.

Garlic.

Anise, Pimpinella anisum, (Sin. asamdédagam).

Onion,

Capsicum.

Turmeric, Cureuma longa.

Il. USED IN THE ARTS.

I. Gums and Resins,

Gum of the Wood-apple, Feronia Elephantum.

Gum Kino, Pterocarpus Marsupium.

Gamboge, Garcinia Morella, (Sin. gokat).

Black Varnish, Semicarpus Gardneri, (Sin. badullu-gaha).

Gum of Satin Wood, Chloroxylon Swietenia, (Sin. buruta).

Gum of Kbony, Diospyros melanoxylon, (Sin. kaluwara).

For a description of the Gums, see Asiatic Society’s

Journal for 1855, p. 71.

2. Ouls.

Gingeliy Oil ; obtainable from Vialuva

Castor Oil ; common

398 JOURNAL R.A. S. (CEYLON). E-Mol, il

Ceylon Oak oil, Schlerichera trijuga ; from Vialuva ; fruit

ripens in October and November.

Mustard Oil ; common.

Kekuna Oil, Aleurites triloba; common; fruit ripens in April,

Cinnamon suet; extracted from the fruit.

Gamboge oil ; extracted from the fruit.

Wild Nutmeg Oil ; extracted from the fruit.

Kudadavula Oil ; ditto; fruit ripens in September.

Madol Oil, Garcinia echinocarpa ; fruit ripens in September

and October.

Mihiriya, Isonandra Sp. ; fruit rvipens in October.

Kina oil, Calophyllum tomentosum ; ditto ; fruit ripens in

September and October.

Domba Oil, CalophyNum inophyllum ; from Velassa.

Telambu Oil, Sterculia foetida ; from Teldeniya.

d. Dyes,

Indian Madder, v7 Munjeet, Rubia cordifolia.

Indigo, Indigofera tinctoria. .

Sappan, Ceesalpinia sappan.

Arnotto, Bixea orellana.

Morinda, Morinda exserta.

Turmeric, Curcuma longa.

Bulu, Terminalia bellerica. —

Korakaha, Memecylon umbellatum.

Milkhedge, Euphorbia tirucalli.

4, Fibres.

Niyanda, Sanseveira zeylanica.

Pine Apple, Ananassa sativa.

Mudar, Calotropis gigantea.

Plantain, Musa paradisiaca.

Nettle, Urtica heterophylla.

Horse-hair-like fibre of the Kitul. Caryota urens.

New material for the manufacture of Paper.

Barks for bagging, from the Entada Fursetha; Gyrinops

walla ; Gnidia eriocephala ; Antiaris saccidora (Sin. ritigaha) ;

Pandanus odoratissimus, &¢.

pales)

No. 12—1860-1.] BADULLA AND ITS PRODUCTS. 39

ANIMAL PRODUCTS.

Lac, Chermes Lasca.

Wax.

Honey.

Chetah Skins.

MINERALS.

Lime Stone.

Corundum, or Cinnamon Stone.

Tale.

Plumbago.

Iron Ore.

Sulphuret of Iron.

Saltpetre Earth.

Plastic Clays.

I shall briefly notice some of the remarkable natural

products indigenous to the district.

VEGETABLES.

It has been justly observed by an eminent authority,

that ‘However luxuriantly a country may be covered

with valuable plants in the wild state, it is only by

special culture that the thousands of textiles we require

can be furnished. The existence in the wild state of such

plants afford sound foundation for the presumption, that

these, when cultivated under similar conditions of climate

and soil, will reward the labour of the husbandman.*

Meal Sago, from the Jaggery Palm.—-This is deserving of

attention as an article of diet. being found in the district

of Colombo also. But a better mode than that known

to the natives must be resorted to to render it clean

and pure. As prepared by the natives, it is of a brown

colour, mixed with pith and the woody fibre of the stem.

A superior article can be manufactured by pounding

the pith when fresh, and straining it through cloth in

* J. Forbes Wilson, A.M., M.D., Reporter ‘on the Products. of

India, in Journal of Society of Arts, 10th May, 1860,

400 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON). EVol Tif.

a large vessel containing water. A good deal of astringent

matter will be found in the starch, to which it gives a

brown colour. This may be removed by mixing the starch

with the white of eggs, which precipitates the tannin, and

by straining again the fine pure starch may be obtained,

It will be found more glutinous than common sago.

in the month of January, during the rainy weather,

the Kitul abounds with starch, which, however, is not

found in every tree. The natives discover its presence in

a tree by the whiteness of its leaves and petiole, also by

boring a hole in the stem and extracting the pith. The

Sinhalese make use of the flour for food after boiling

it in steam, which changes it into a gum-like mass.”

Kitul Jelly.—Dissolve a tea spoonful of the starch with

a little cold water, and pour over it four ounces, or two

wineglassfuls of boiling water, and keep stirring till it

jellies; then flavour it with milk and sugar.

Madupiti, trom the Cycas Cirecinalis.—The Sinhalese

in the Uva District prepare from this an inferior kind of

starch. The fresh kernels are cut in slices and well dried

in the sun, before they are fit for use; otherwise they

have an intoxicating effect and produce vomiting and diarrhea.

The poorer classes generally use the flour, which is prepared

by pounding the kernels. It is also boiled in steam and

eaten by patients suffering from bowel complaint anc

hemorrhoids, for which it is highly esteemed by the natives

as the best medicine. I have given the flour made into

porridge in cases of chronic dysentery, and from the few

trials that I have made, I think favourably of its effect,

in restraining inordinate purging such as is often beyond

the control of the usual astringent medicines. The tree

erows plentifully in Vialuwa.

Barley was also cultivated in parts of Udukinda in the

vicinity of Wilson’s Bungalow, by Brahmins, who went

" Vide Observations on tke Vegetable Products of Ceylon, p. 38.

No. 12.—1860-1.] BADULLA AND ITS PRODUCTS. 401

under the designation of * Rajakdriya,” and who were em-

ployed by the King of Kandy for the purpose. It was

first cultivated in TYennakon Vela, and is now found in

Ambavela and Waugala. In the last-mentioned place it

is still cultivated by the descendants of the said ‘‘ Raja-

kariga” who are now become Sinhalese by intermarriage.

Tt is called kotomba, or yava, and is cultivated in October

and November, and gathered after seven months. The

soil is manured with cow dung.

From the seeds of the Nymphea stellata, the people

at Bintenna prepare starch, which they use during times

of scarcity. They also use a decoction of the seed in

dysentery. The seeds are collected from tanks from June

to September.

The process by which NWKitul toddy drawers in Uva

increase the flow of the juice of blossoms, or force it out

from unproductive ones, deserves to be noticed :—The

process is called “‘Kitul mala behet tiyanava.”

Black pepper, ginger, burnt coconut, or old dried coco-

nut, garlic, and chilli, are all roasted together, and being

sround with the juice of a kind of lime, nasndran, the

mass is made into a ball. Then take the leaves of a species

of Arum called in Sinhalese sudu ala kola and boil them

in a little of the lime juice. Make five pegs an inch long

of five varieties of lime wood, which they eall paspen-

giv-ul-puha, and two pegs of Cinnamon wood, and a tree

ealled Itta. These pegs are only used to increase the flow

of the juice. But to force out the juice from unproductive

blossoms, drive into the flower stalk two pegs of ratnetul

(PLUMBAGC ROSEA) and azkenda.

When the pegs are ready, cut a groove into the flower

stalk, three inches long, one inch deep, and one inch

broad. To the half of the groove near the stem apply the

spice ball above described ; to the other half, the boiled

leaves of the Arum, into which the pegs are to be driven,

402 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CHYLON). (Vol. IIE.

and roll a piece of mat over the stalk and cut out a ring

from the spadix an inch from the stalk. Apply a quantity

of ‘ashes of Areca leaves and akmala, which being well

mixed \ with the’ syrup > ot the “kitul “juice is\ rubbed

over the part of the blossom which had not spread out, and

allow to dry four days: on the other part of the flower

roll down the bark of the Naha (GNIDIA ERIOCEPHALA)

and then cut off the end of the flower, four days after

which the juice begins to flow.

A kitul flower lasts two months, sometimes three. A

flower yields four seers of toddy in twenty-four hours. it

is very important to select the flower at the proper time ;

if it be too young or too old, no juice will be obtained.

The best time for cutting is when it forms a curve and

bulges out like a plantain flower.

T have since heard that a similar process is had recourse

to in the Colombo District.

CONDIMENTS.

Nearly all the condiments that I have enumerated above

are produced in Udakinde; in former times they were

cultivated by Malabars who were employed by the King

of Kandy, and received from him grants of land for that

purpose,

GUMS.

Among these the Gum sina may be briefly noticed. In

1853, I first pointed out that the tree yielded the gum

kina of Commerce. 1 drew public attention to the subject

in a letter published in the Ceylon Times in April of

the same year. It is true that the tree is mentioned in

“Moon’s Catalogue,’ page 52, but he seems not to have

been aware of its useful properties.

I submitted specimens of the gum to the Chamber of

Commerce, and they reported that it was of “good quality.”

It is sold inthe London market at from. 25s. to 47s. per cwt.

No. 12,—1860+1.] BADULLA AND ITS PRODUCTS. “2 408

The difficulty of obtaining large quantities has arisen

from the difficulty of securing the services of the Sinhalese

to collect it.

The tree is found at Angoda, near Badulla, Teldeniya

and Nilgalla or the Park.

Black Varnish isproduced from aspecies of Semicarpus.

This gum resin is equal to the black varnish of China for

the purpose of lacquering. It exudes spontaneously from

the stem and branches, and may also be obtained by

making incisions in the bark. The resin is hard, breaks

with a smooth shining fracture, burns with a bright flaine,

melts in fire, is soluble in turpentine, insoluble in water,

and adheres strongly to wood and metal. The fresh juice

is very acrid, inflaming the skin, and producing pustules.

To a saturated solution of Vateria resin (Hal-dummala

of the Sinhalese) in oil of Turpentine, add by degrees

small pieces of the black resin; put it into a bottle and

shake it well until the whole is dissolved. Strain, and

then apply it to wood or metal.

It belongs to the same natural family of plants as the

Varnish tree of China and Japan, and possesses the same

acrid properties when applied to the skin in a fresh state,

as it exudes from the bark.

The resin exudes from natural fissures of the bark,

and at first white, becomes afterwards black by exposure

to the sun, hardening into masses of different sizes. The

juice also drops on the ground around the tree forming

flattened pieces of resin. My attention was drawn to this

tree while stationed in Badulla in 1852. A soldier was

eutting firewood in the neighbourhood of Badulla, and

among other trees he felled the badulla-gaha tree. The

juice spurted out at each cut of the axe on his fore-arm ;

he returned home and washed himself; the next day he

felt an itching in the arm, in the evening it was swollen

red and painful; next morning he was unable to wear

404. JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON) «= ° [Vol. II.

his jacket and went to Hospital, a pustular eruption not

unlike that produced by Tartar Emetic ointment having

broken out in the places where the juice had touched the

skin. He rapidly recovered, however, by the application

of warm fomentations and olive oil.

Now this corrosive property is the same as that which .

is described by Rumphius as belonging tothe Varnish tree

of Sumatra and the Eastern Isles. He says:

“The exhalations of this tree are considered noxious, and the peo-

ple of Macassar and other parts of Celebes in particular, entertain

Such a dread of it, that they dare not remain long, much less re-

pose, under its shade. They say, that whoever receives the

droppings from it will have his body swelled, and be afflicted

with malignant sores. As, however, it furnishes the celebrated

varnish, other people boldly repair to this tree, particularly

the Chinese and the Tonquinese, who employ great precaution in

collecting the resin, which is accomplished in the following manner.

A number of Chinese proceed about evening to the place where the

trees grow, which is always at a distance from the resort of man or

animals; each selects a few, and inserts into the trunk two pieces

of bamboo, sharpened at their points in such a manner as to pene-

trate the bark in a somewhat oblique direction. These remain all

night, and are extracted before sun-rise the next morning, the tree

yielding no juice during the day. The resin is found in greater or

less quantity, according to the richness or poorness of the soil, and

is obtained only at certain seasons of the year, particalarly about

the time of flowering. The people who collect it unite the fruit of

their labor, and afterwards make a complete division of the whole,

on which account this resin maintains a high price, a single pikul

(containing a hundred catties) selling in those provinces of China

which do not possess this tree, for two or three hundred dollars ;

in Tonkin and Camboja, however, it may be had for thirty, fifty, or

sixty dollars. It is a custom among the Chinese when they approach

this tree, first to rub the trunk lightly, before inserting the bamboo,

wishing by this to shew that they are not afraid, for they say, that

timid persons will sooner feel its noxious effects than those who are

bold and fearless.”

This tree is found growing both in low-lands and _ high-

lands. In and around the Cinnamon Gardens; at Awisa-

No. 12.—1860-1.] BADULLA AND ITS PRODUCTS. 4.05

wélla, Kuruwiti Koralé, at Hanwella, in the Three Koralés,

and at Ambagamuwa, and in the Badulla district.

Gamboge.—The Gamboge tree grows plentifully, but the

natives seldom extract its valuable gum. They extract oil

from its fruit, which ripens in August, and use it for culinary

purposes.

OILS.

The solid oils which are common in the district are the

* Cinnamon suet,” obtained by boiling the Cinnamon fruit.

“Gamboge oil,” also by boiling the fruit.

The wild Nutmeg (Myristica tomentosa) likewise yields

a solid oil by boiling the kernel.

The Madol oil (Garcinia echinocarpa).

Meheriya oil (Lsonandra, Sp.), are also fatty oils.

All these oils may, I think, be applied to the manutactur-

ing of Soap.

DYES.

Indian Madder, or Munjeet. Among dyes, the Madder

is the most remarkable. It grows in abundance in and

around Badulla in scattered groups.

The natives have never used it as a dyeing plant, being

wholly ignorant of its useful properties; they look upon

it altogether as a weed.

In the early part of 1853, I submitted specimens to the

Ceylon Chamber of Commerce. The plant grows in moist

situations, the soil being a vegetable mould.

The valley of Badulla is remarkably fertile, abounding in

limestone, and plants growing in such localities generally

yield a beautiful bright red dye.

Asthe piant has hitherto been known to grow only ina

wild state, time and experience will be required before the

mode of cultivation best suited for it, can be ascertained,

Hixcellent specimens of the root of the Madder grow in

AO6 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON), [ Vol. III.

Gampaha near Udapussellawa. Specimens of the plant with

a drawing of it were forwarded to Government, who sent

them to the Chamber of Commerce in December 1853.

The drawing consisted of two parts, No. 1 represented all

the parts of the plant to identify the species, with magnified

views of the flower, and section of the fruit. No. 2 shewed

the appearance and ramification of the root, so that its com-

mercial value might be indicated Both parts of the drawing

were of natural size.* The Indian Madder is not

so valueless as some would make it appear. We

learn from a high authority in such matters, that ‘the

Madder is produced in Nepaul and in various districts of

India. That which is brought to England, is imported from

Culcutta, and is cultivated in the high lands about Natpore

in Purneah. The roots are long and slender, and when

broken appear of a red color. It is used in dyeing; the red

which it produces being, though somewhat peculiar, nearly

the same as that produced by European madder.”

Dr. Bancroft says ‘‘that upon wool, or woolen cloth, its

colour is brighter and livelier than upon cotton or linen :

and, when proper mordants are used, nearly, perhaps quite,

as permanent.”

It is stated in the Jury Report, “ that specimens of madder

erown in localities deficient in lime were considered in-

ferior.”. The Reports of the Juries of the Great Exhibi-—

tion of 1851, on Indian Madder, are encouraging; they

state, “that the Indian Madder isa valuable dye stuff, and

hitherto not so well appreciated as it deserves, for some of

the colours dyed with it are as permanent as those dyed

with European Madder, and even more brilliant; its use

is, huwever, gradually increasing, and it is unquestionably

well worthy the attention of dyers.’

Yor the following Oriental names of the Madder plant

* For a full description of the Madder plant as found in Badulla,

see ‘ Observations of the Vegetable Products of Ceylon,” page 17.

No. 12.—1860-1.] BADULLA AND ITS PRODUCTS. 407

with their derivations, | am indebted to my brother, the

Rev. S. D. J. Ondaatje, of Matara.

Manjéttha—from the verb (9%) Maja, to cleanse or purify,

—and (3) tha, the participial termination of the feminine

gender. This verb, besides its ideal meaning, conveys

the notions of clearness, and brightness, and is used to

express ideas connected with such qualities; hence the

terms for red and redness come from this verb. In Pali,

Manjettha (@oeO2) means red; hence the creeper is called

by that name: the quality of redness being expressed

by the term. 3

Vikasd, (89), from vi, a preposition, and asa, to glit-

-ter, participial adjective, having a causal meaning: that

which causes to shine, or glitter, or. sparkle; hence a

plant by which a bright red colour is imparted. These

two words, (Manjetiha ; Vikasd,) have the same signification

in Sanskrit.

Raktingt (d6aa.a25). This means a red body: rakta,

red ; d#ga, body or limb; and is applied to the plant.

Padmakéd, (€¢@2as). Padma means the red lotus; hence

Padmaka is, having the property of redness, resembling

the red lotus. .

Vastrabhushana. (Oxy@emH). This means, that which

dyes cloth : vastra cloth or vestment ; bhishana, that which

adorns or beautifies.

Raktayashti, (S@mmeeS): rakta, red; and yashti, stem ;

hence the word means, that which has a stem whose

property is to impart redness.

Eilu Names. A

hence a red dye imparting creeper. This is a derivative

from the Pali, manpéttha.

Samarngd, (22H), means that which unites or blends

with, and so a plant yielding a dye that colours any sub-

stance, by union with it.

408 JOURNAL R. A. §. (CEYLON). (Vol. 111.

Yojanavalli, (owiSnDOGC), means a creeper of the length

or a mile; yojana, a mile, and valli, a creeper ; because

the creeper is of great length; a very appropriate name,

seeing that the stem creeping on trees forms an_ inter-

minable net-work.

Sapan wood, is found in abundance in Wellawaya, from

whence it is taken to Hambantota for exportation.

Morinda wood, found in Wellassa. The native dyers of

the Coast of India grind the root, and make an infusion, to

which a piece of alum being added, the colour is changed

from yellow to red. Itis used as a red-dye for cotton cloth.

It is the Ahu-gaha of the Sinhalese, and Nund-maram of

the Tamils. In India it is known by the name of Hal dye,*

The Jury of the Great Exhibition have stated that

“the colours dyed with the Morinda are for the most

part not brilliant, but the colouring matter is far more per-

manent than many other red colours are, and with improved

management would probably rival that of Madder ; it would

therefore perhaps be a useful dye stuff: it appears well

worthy the attention of dyers.” |

Arnotto.—This is the produce of the Bixu orellana. he

tree grows wild in and about Badulla, Passara, and Wellassa.

The dye may be prepared by a simple and inexpensive process,

namely, by steeping the seeds in water, and removing the

colouring matter from them. The colouring matter which

remains suspended in water is then boiled in large copper

vessels to the consistency of syrup.

Terminalia Chebula.—The drupes are collected and taken

down to Colombe from various parts of Uva. They are

used to dye black, and are called “ Gall nuts,” or Myrobalans.

They are used both in dyeing and tanning, and form one of

the exports of the country; with alum it forms.a yellow

colour, and with the salts of iron black.

* Vide “Observations on the Vegetable Products of Ceylon,”1853. p. 14.

No. 12.—1860-1.] BADULLA AND ITS PRODICTS. 409

lt is remarkable that the word ¢riphala, commonly used

by the Sinhalese quacks to include decoction of the three

Myrobalans, isa Sanskrit word, derived originally from a

very ancient work, which according to Professor Wilson was

written before the 9th or 10th century. (Royle.) It is stated

by the Jury Report of the Madras Exhibition, that Gall

nuts ‘“ have become a very important article of trade, and

the consumption is now fully 2,000 tons annually.” (Archer.)

Indigo.—I1 submitted specimens prepared from the Jndigou-

fera tinctoria growing wild at Dikwella, near the Badulla

oya and paddy fields. It is found in groups. I collected a

quantity of the plant in July 1855, and subjected it to the

keeping process which is generally adopted in Bengal. The

plants attain a good height, and from their luxuriant growth

shew that the soil and climate of Badulla are well adapted

for its cultivation.

I subjoin an extract from a Jetter, dated 9th October, 1855,

from the Secretary of the Chamber of Commerce, Colombo.

‘Tam requested by the Committee of the Chamber of Commerce to

acknowledge your letter of the 25th September, and to thank you for

the sample of Indigo forwarded. I am also requested to inform you

that the quality of it is good, taking into consideration the cireumstanees

under which it has been prepared.”

(Signed) R, NIcon.”

FIBRES.

_ Fibre is the modification of single cells. Fibre from

endogens is generally white, and contains more lignine or

woody matter; hence it is less adapted to resist strain, and

possesses less flexibility and softness than that from exogens.

The fibres of endogens most commonly applied to useful

purposes are derived from leaves, as the aloes, agave, yucea

or Adam’s needle, sanseviera, fourcroya or gigantic aloe,

ananas or pine-apple; and from stems, as the musa or

plantain ; and from the husk of seeds, as the coconut palm ;

and from the sheath of the leaves of the jaggery palm

or kitul, the black horse-hair-like fibre. From the ezo-

gens we derive many valuable kinds, viz., flax, rhea or China

410 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON). [Vol. III.

grass cloth fibre, the Ovrtica heterophylla called vegetable

wool, the Calatropis gigantea or mudar, Hibiscus canna-

binus, from which gunny bags are made.

The extraction of fibre during the native rule was one of

the services imposed on the Rodiya caste, who had to supply

the stores of the King with ropes made of different fibres

chiefly of the Sanseviera and Kitulor jaggery palm.

These people up to this day continue manufacturing

fibre ropes, and they are very expert in extracting fibre

with the hand, which I ascertained when I employed

them for the purpose: but they are indolent and do not

seem to care about working regularly.

One of the most remarkable fibres found in the districts

is the Sanseviera Zeylanica, or bow string hemp. This

plant grows in great abundance in the otherwise barren

parts stretching towards Batticaloa, and the lower road

to Kandy. It has 5, 6, 8, 10, 20, radical leaves, with dark

matches or spots across, which disappear when they be-

come old. The young leaves are nearly round, and the

old ones are marked with longitudinal lines terminating

on an obtuse point. Plants growing near streams yield

good strong white fibre, the best kinds being obtained

from the young leaves; these generally measure from one

to three feet; the longest of those growing at Alipot,

reached to four feet. and a_ half.

“ The natives have recourse to various methods of extracting

the fibre, by scraping the leaves, and maceration. To two

sticks fixed in the ground a piece of split bamboo with a

sharp edge is fastened horizontally at a convenient height

for the operator. He begins by scraping the base of the leaf,

and twisting the fibre round a piece of stick, with which

he holds the leaf firmly, and draws the upper surface towards

him; thus scraping the pulp and with it removing much of

the short fibre, which will make good tow. ‘The Rodiyas

substitute a buffalo’s rib for the sharp-edged bamboo, placing

No. 12.—1860-i.] BADULLA AND ITS PRODUCTS. Ali

the concave side of the rib towards the operator, and using

the same process as that I have already mentioncd.

Another method is to scrape the leaf between two sharp

pieces of bamboo placed one above the.other, leaving a narrow

interestice between them, through which the apex or narrow

point of the leaf is drawn ont. By this method of extracting

the fibre the following results are obtained. One of the

leaves yields 100 grains of clean fibre, and 70 grains of tow.

Half a cwt. of leaves yields ? lb. of fibre; cost of collecting

leaves 7$d., cleaning 74d. ; ? Ib. of fibre costs 15d., 1 ewt. costs

£9 6s. 8d. 250 leaves on an average weigh 20 Ibs., and 500

yield 5 lb. fibre and + lb. tow; 4 cwt. contains 641 leaves.

It may be stated gererally, that 1 cwt, of leaves yields

Ii lb. of fibre ; 75 1bs. of leaves can be cleaned by one man in

a day, yielding | lb. of fibre and 4 lb. of tow; 1 1b. of leaves

could be cleaned in 10 minutes.

By maceration, | lb. of leaves macerated for five days

yielded 225 grains of fibre ; 1 cwt. yielded 4 lbs. 4 oz. of fibre

The plant grows near Badulla at Ridipana, Donhindayi,

Boliyadda, and at Pisce, where it is found in perfection.

Frem the above it is scarcely necessary to remark, that the

extraction of fibre by hand labour can never be made remu-

nerative.

Horse-hair-like fibre of the Kitul or Jaggery Palm.—

Very strong black fibre, like horse-hair, about 3 feet long.

It is well adapted for making brushes, and for other purposes,

for which horse-hair and bristle are used. i forwarded a

brush made of this fibre to the Society in 1853; and I

believe this first drew the attention of the merchants at

Colombo to the subject, the brush having been shewn by

Dr. Lamprey to one of them. Large quantities are now

exported to Hngland.

It is found in great abundance in Medikinda as high up

as Haputale. Owing to strong winds which prevail in

412 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON). -£Vol. 114.

Udukinda the trees are blown down, and very few are to be

found growing there.

Antiaris Saccidora.—-A remarkable forest tree, called in

Sinhalese ritigaha. By an ingenious though simple process,

the natives prepare from the bark of this tree, material

tor very strong and elastic sacks for the purpose of carrying

paddy, &c. The trees selected for the purpose are from 2

to | foot in diameter. Large ones, sometimes measuring as

much as 45 feet and more in diameter, are not so suitable.

When a tree has been fixed upon, the stem is cut down

and divided into junks of the size required, and these having

been firmly placed on the ground, the bark is well beaten

with a stone or club, until the parenchymatous parts, or

what is commonly called the cortical, comes off, leaving the

liber or inner bark attached to the wood, which is then

entirely separated from it by simply drawing it out with

the hand. The bark thus obtained is of a fibrous structure,

remarkably tough, presenting the appearance of a woven

fabric like that of a stocking.* No scientific description

of the tree found in Ceylon was published previous

to 1853, although it was well known to the people of

Badulla.

New Material for the Manufacture of Paper.—In_ Eastern

countries paper was manufactured from indigenous fibre

long before it was introduced into Europe in the eleventh

century. According to Col. Sykes, for 2,000 years paper

had been made in India; never from rags, but always

from fibre. Some years ago | brought to notice the mode

adopted by the natives of Badulla for manufacturing paper.

When in 1853 the scarcity of rags in the European

markets began to be felt, I commenced my experiments

on various indigenous products found in the district of

Badulla. + | oh Seon

* Vide “ Observations on the Vegetable Products of Ceylon,” page 20-21.

+ Vide Journal Asiatic Soviety, Ceylon, $855, p. 74-76,

No. 12.—1860-1.] BADULLA AND ITS PRODUCTS. 413

A small factory was set up five miles from Badulla, at

Ambagaha oya, where the material was found in abund-

ance, and paper was made by hand labour. I now lay

before you a few specimens of the paper mannfactured

by me.

After spending nearly £200 I was obliged to abandon

the manufacture, owing to the want of suitable machinery

for reducing the raw material into pulp. With proper

machinery the cost may be greatly reduced; and I be-

lieve, that the manufacture of paper with this new material

will yield a good return. The pulp is not easily dis-

tinguishable from that made of rags; 90 grains made one

sheet of paper of the size of foolscap; 12 sheets of paper

made with it weighed 2 oz 2 drs.; 1 ream 100 oz.

Again 160 lbs. cf the raw material made four reams of

paper. Weight of 1 sheet of paper 70 grains; 8 lbs. 6

oz. of pulp are required to make 1 ream. 1 Ib. of fresh

material yields 4+ lb. of paper pulp.

The specimens of paper manufactured by me were sub-

mitted by Government to the Stationery Committee, com

posed of Mr. Saunders, Captain Higgs, aud Major Layard.

These gentlemen reported in a letter to the honourable the

Colonial Secretary, dated 8th August, 1856, that “ the speci-

mens might be rendered applicable to many useful purposes,

such as tor making envelopes, and printing licences, per-

mits, way bills, &c.; the blotting paper would answer

very well.” |

Mr. Bernard, Deputy Commissary General, in a letter to

the Colonial Secretary, dated 25th August, 1857, states

“with regard to the quality of the paper it appears to me, that

even now they are much better than a great part of the

paper manufactured in India, and extensively used in public

offices there.” .1 forwarded 1 cwt. of paper-pulp to the Cham-

ber of Commerce, Colombo, on the.. 19th September, 1855.

Uhe Secretary informed me “that the 1 ewt. of the pulp is now

414 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON). [ Vol. IIT.

being shipped to London as a trial, and the result of the

sale, and the broker’s report thereon, shall be forwarded

you on receipt.” No information of the trial of the pulp in

London has yet been communicated: tome. The pulp was

forwarded by Messrs. Armitage Brothers.

In the Appendix to this paper will be found Correspondence

with Government on the subject of the manufacture of paper.

I have also tested the pulp as a substitute for making

articles of papier mache.

Cotton is cultivated in JXandapalla, a dry part of the dis-

trict; and formerly a very coarse kind of cotton cloth was

manufactured there.

ANIMAL PRODUCTS.

Lac is found in the Gyrocarpus Jacquint, and the people

of Bintenne collect it from June to September; it is of good

quality. The lac yields to boiling water a red dye, and with

solution of alum strikes a beautiful carmine.

It is the produce of the Chermes Lacca. Lacker painting

is carried on in Wadakonna, and much of the lac is used

for this purpose. Walking sticks, handles for knives, and

bows, are beautifully lackered.

This also was a “ Rajakériya” in the district. A good

deal of lac is obtained from Kandapalla where it is gathered

in July.

MINERALS. .

Lime-stone abounds very extensively throughout the

district. During the native rule, lime was largely pre-

pared at a place called Hangiliella on the Nuwara Hliva

road ; its preparation being one of the compulsory duties

imposed on the people.

DIGGING FOR PRECIOUS STONES.

This was also made one of the compulsory duties called

“ Agery,” and the work was carried on at Nuwara Eliya in

the following localities:—Vilmana, Lindaoluva, Bagawan-

talawa, Sité Hliya, Bopatalava, Maha Hliya, Udavilmana,

No. 12—1860-1.] BADULLA AND ITS PRODUCTS. 415

Mapillamana, Madwalamulla, Palalmana, and Patara-

galddéva.

TRON ORE.

There is abundance of iron ore in the following places :—

Tolabowatta, Udawadiya (near Nahaville,) Hilpenkandnra,

Vaha Eliya in Kandapalla, Horagéna also in Kandapalla,

Hattawalla in Bogoda. .

The place where iron was smelted for the King of

Kandy was at Kinagandéva in Tolabowatta, and it was

made a compulsory labour performed by the people of

Kandapalla and Sabaragamuwa.* Magnetic iron ore is found

at Kahatavela, near Paranagama, Yatakohilla, and on _ the

road to Kataragama.

Sulphuret of Iron, from Bintenna, is composed of arsenic

in a greater quantity than sulphur. Large masses of this

substance are found in various parts of the low country.

In passing along some of them, the attention is arrested

by the not very pelasant odour of sulphureted hydrogen

gas evolved by them.

Itis the general belief of the people that sulphur ore

exists in Walapana and Bintenna. I obtained a specimen

of this ore from a Kandyan at Gampaha, but I have not been

able to ascertain the locality from whence it was obtained.

The preparation of sulphur was one of the compulsory duties

which was rendered by the family of Tennegedara at

Teripehe in Walapana.

_ CORUNDUM, OR CINNAMON STONE.

This abounds in a place called Batgamana, which is situ-

ated 12 miles from Alipot. The mineral is found in a

stream called the Agdére-kandura. The natives prepare a

useful hone by a composition of the powder of this mineral

with lac; they melt the lac, and gradually add the powder,

which when cooled becomes hard, and is shaped into dif-

ferent sizes.

* For a description of the mode of manufacturing steel as adopted by

the Sinhalese, vide Journal of the Asiatic Society of Ceylon, 1855, p. 73.

416 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). von” her

fron alum, found as an efflorescence on a decomposing

rock of gneiss called puwdama near Teldeniya. The speci-

men contains more iron than alum.

Plumbago abounds in Bintenna.

NITRE EARTH.

There are numbers of nitriferous caverns in this district

composed of large limestone rocks with subterranean pas-

sages, and containing heaps of mould-like earth emitting

a strong ammoniacal odour. These heaps are the products

of the dung of myriads of bats that have inhabited there

from ages. By the action of the carbonate of lime in the

limestone on the dung thus deposited, there results the

well-known chemical compound of nitrate of lime such as is

obtained from the artificial nitre beds of Europe. The

Sinhalese, who call the earth vavul pas, ‘ bats earth,”

have a mode of converting it into saltpetre not altogether

dissimilar to the mode adopted in Enrope at the present day,

by which the nitrate of lime is converted, by means of

ashes, into the nitrate of potash or saltpetre.

The manufacture of saltpetre was one of the compulsory

labours imposed on the people of the district, and called

Lunu-rgakérvya which began in the month of June or

July. The people of Lunu-gala, a village about four

miles from Badulla, proceeded to a cave at Gampaha in

Kandapalla kérale and constructed sheds for the mannu- —

facture, they were assisted by others. who furnished them

with torches and oil for working in the dark caves.

The manufacturers of the nitre belonged to a caste called

Vahumpurayo, who collected nitre earth and firewood :

four or five gamardlas supplied them with a quantity

of kakune or kene oil, a dhoby furnished torches made of

cloth and the dried spath of the coconut, and potters of

Tunkinde supplied pots for carrying on the manufacture.

The following is the process adopted, which is exceedingly

simple and inexpensive. They take a quantity of nitre

No. 12.—1860-1.] BADULLA AND ITS PRODUCTS. 417

earth and mix it up with wood-ashes of the Hrythrina

Indica and Terminalia alata, or the peticle of the coconut ;

putting the whole into a large talipot leaf previously

shaped into the form of a funnel; they then proceed to

pour water over and filter this mixture of earth and ashes.

This operation is continued until the water begins to look

turbid, when it must at once cease, as this is an indica-

tion of the: purely earthy character of the particles yet

remaining in the leaf, The washing obtained in the way

above described is generallv very clean, possessing a strong

ammoniacal odour, and containing nitrate of potash in

solution. To crystallize this, they remove the washing

into a large chatty in which it is boiled till it thickens

and presents the appearance of ‘‘a mixture of flour and

water;” in this state it is transferred to another carthen

chatty having a rough surface within, called. koraha, where

it is left until crystallization takes place. But. as the

crystals thus formed do not look white and nice, they

are dissolved once more in water, and allowed to crystallize

again, when fine large crystals are produced. The saltpetre

obtained in this way was used, by the Kandyans chiefly

for making fireworks; indeed the native term for it,

vedilunw would indicate this..much. Great attention

appears to have been paid by the Sinhalese to the Pyro-

technic art; on which they have numerous and elaborate

compositions. The Chinese it is well-known have always

been famous for their fireworks, which are superior to

those of other nations in variety and beauty. They likewise

used saltpetre for this purpose before they became ac-

quainted with the art of making gunpowder.

Dr. Davy’s early scientific researches in Ceylon ought

to be more generally known than they have been among

the residents and others who are engaged in similar re-

searches. The learned Doctor travelled through the leneth

and breadth of the Island; he had excellent opportunities

for making personal observations, and his descriptions of

418 JOURNAL RB. A. 8. (CEYLON), Vol STV:

every thing he saw, examined, and described, are generally

correct, even to this day. I quote from his valuable “Account

of the Interior of Ceylon” published in 1821, respecting

the Nitre Caves of Ceylon :-—

‘““Nitre and Nitrat of lime are of frequent occurrence. The names

of twenty-two places may be enumerated, in which saltpetre is

produced, and in which it has been manufactured; and no doubt,

besides these, there are many other spots that yield this salt,

known to the natives, whose policy it is not to make us ac-

quainted with them. Judging from four nitre caves that I have

visited, and from the specimens of rocks of several more that

I have examined, I believe that they are all very similar;

and that the rock in which they oecur, in every instance contains

at least felspar and carbonate of lime; from the decomposition of

the former of which, the alkaline base of the salt is generally derived,

and by the peculiar influence of the latter, (yet not at all understood.)

on the oxygen and azote of the atmosphere, the acid principal is

generated. In confirmation of this statement, it may be remarked,

that I have never been able to detect saltpetre, excepting superficially,

where air could have access; never unaccompanied by nitrat of lime,

or magnesia; in no rock, not containing lime and felspar; that the

richness of the rock, in general, has been proportional to the abund-

ance and intimate mixture of these two ingredients; and that the

results of experiments which I have made on a variety of specimens

of saltpetre-earth from Bengal, for which I am indebted to the kindness

of Mr. Brown of Calcutta, were similar to those just mentioned, and

tended to the same conclusions.

‘‘ Besides the essential circumstances of the presence of atmospheric |

air, lime, and an alkaline mineral, there are other circumstances

which, if my observations be correct, greatly aid in the operation of

forming the salt. I shall mention the most remarkable only, which

appear to me to be slight humidity and the presence of a little

animal matter. Perhaps, humidity is absolutely necessary ; certainly,

I have seen spots in a nitre cave, without any impregnation of

saltpetre, which, excepting their great dryness, seemed to possess

every requisite for the production of the salt. Animal matter,

by those ignorant of chemistry, is considered of itself the chief

souree of nitre. Persuaded of this, my countrymen in Ceylon, with

whom I conversed on the subject, generally attributed the saltpetre

of the caves in question to the dung of bats, with which the eaves are

more or less infested. It is easy to refute such a notion; and to

No. 12.—1860-1.] BADULLA AND ITS PRODUCTS, 419

shew, that the dune of these animals, like any animal matter, is

not an essential, merely an assistant circumstance. For this purpose,

it will be sufficient to remark, that in the nitre cave near Memoora in

Doombera, in avery compounded rock consisting of calespar, felspar,

quartz, mica, and tale, in a humid state exposed to the air, and

slowly decomposing, I have found a rich impregnation of saltpetre,

though quite free from the dung of bats, or any other animal matter ;

and conversely. that I have not been able to detect any traces of

this salt in the dung of bats, that had accumulated in great quantity

in an old forsaken pagodah.

‘“*A description of the nitre caves which I have visited, will be

found in another part of this work, and an account of the method

employed by the natives, both in the manufacture of saltpetre and

of gunpowder. I may here give the results of some analyses, that I

have made, which will shew the composition, of the most productive

nitre rock of Doombera, of the most projluctive nitre earth of Ouva,

and of the richest nitre earth of Bengal. The nitre rock of Doom-

bera was from the Memoora cave, the same as that before mentioned

as free from animal matter; J00 parts of this very compounded rock

were found to consist of—

2°4 nitrat of potash.

07 nitrat of maenesia.

0-2 sulphat of magnesia.

9-4 water.

26°5 carbonat of lime. :

60°7 earthy matter, insoluble in dilute nitric acid.

100-0

100 parts of the nitre earth, from the great cave in lower Ouva,

near Wellaway, were found to consist of—-

3°3 nitrat of potash, with traces of common salt and sulphat of lime.

3°5 nitrat of lime.

15°3 water. |

25'7 animal matter of difficult solubility.

1:0 animal matter easily soluble in water.

51:2 carbonat of lime and earthy matter.

100°0

100 parts of nitre earth from Bengal, from the district of Tirhoot,

were found to consist of—

8°3 nitrat of potash.

3°7 nitrat of lime.

0°8 sulphat of lime, with a trace of iron.

0°2 common salt.

39°0 carhonat of lime, with trace of magnesia.

40°C earthy matter, insoluble in water and nitric acid.

12°0 water, with a trace of vegetable matter.

10)°0

420 JOURNAL) Ra AQ S., 7 ( CHYHOM). - ia [Vol 14,

‘Nitrat of lime J have never met with, excepting in combination

with nitre. Sulphat of magnesia I have found in one place only,

viz., the nitre cave of Memoora in Doombera. In the same eave,

and no where else, I discovered alum, in minute quantity. I suspect

that the acid of both these salts is derived from decomposing of pyrites,

and that the magnesia of the sulphat is afforded by decomposing

tale. This sulphat forms with the nitre, and erystallizes with it.

It is carefully picked out and rejected by the native workmen who

prepare the saltpetre, being ignorant of its value. <A considerable

quantity of it, equal to the best Epsom salt, might be procured in

this cave, and I know no reason why it should not be collected.’*

APPENDIX.

Badulla, 19th July, 1856.

Sir,—I beg leave to submit for the consideration of Government,

that J have been since the year 1853 experimenting upon various

indigenous vegetable products with the object of finding a material

adapted for the manufacture of paper, and which could be obtained in

quantity and at a cheap cost. And I am now able to say that I have

succeeded in manufacturing the accompanying specimens of paper

from a shrub which grows plentifully in the district of Uva. This

paper it may be observed possesses the property of combining less

weizht with greater tenacity than that made of rags, and is peculi-

arly suited for a tropical climate.

2. With the very rude machinery I have at present, I am _ pre-

pared to manufacture four or five reams per diem by a process

similar to that adopted in England for making paper by hand.

Common foolscap is the largest size that can be made at present,

and the rate at which such paper could be supplied would probably

be Jess than the rate at which similar paper is usually procurable by

Government. .

3. A small Factory has been set up near Badulla, and the work

earried on by a friend of mine who lives on the spot; and if the

present rough paper is adapted for any public purposes, arrangements

could be made to meet the demand. And with the aid of Govern—

ment in the shape of a regular demand for such description of paper,

I should hope to be able to produce paper of a superior quality by

means of hetter machinery.

4. It may perhaps be eonsidered premature to bring forward this

matter at its present stage to the notice of Government, but as I

have already Jaid ont a considerable sum of money in experiments,

and it not being in my power to continue them, I new respectfully

* Davy, pp,

No. 12.—1860-1.] BADULLA AND ITS PRODUCTS. 421

solicit the ail of Government in the manner about indicated ; feeling

assured that such an humble attempt in developing the resources

of the country will meet with the fostering protection of the

Government whom I serve.

I have, &e.,

(Signed) W. C. ONDAATSE.

To the Howble the Colonial Secretary.

Colonial Sccretary’s Office,

Colombo, 13th August, 1856.

Sir, —Referring to your letter of the 19th ultimo, Iam directed to

transmit to you copy of one from the Committee on Stationery.

I have, e.,

(Signed) P. W. BRAYBROOKE.

Mr. W. C. ONDAATJE, Badulla.

Stationery Commvittec,

Colombo, 18th August, 1856.

Str, —In reply to your letter of the 31st ultimo, forwarding for report

one from Mr. W. C. Ondaatje, accompanied by snecimens of paper

made by him in Uva, we have the honor to state that in our

opinion, the successful results which have attended Mr. Ondaatje’s

praiseworthy efforts to manufacture pape: in this Island, are most

erelitable to him and des erving of every encouragement.

Of the syecimens herewith returned those marked No. 1, 2, and 3

might be rendered applicable to many useful purposes, such as, for

making envelopes and printing licenses, permits, way-bills, &e., while

No. 4, would answer very well as blotting paper, and might probably

be improved if made a little thicker.

In order however to ascertain whether this paper is likely to supersede

the use of that at present applied to the purposes named, it will be

necessary for Mr. Ondaatje to state the cost at which he can undertake

to deliever it. We would further recommend that with this in-

formation a ream of the best description eut to size and of uniform

colour, also, aream of the blotting paper, be sent to the Commissariat

Department that a fair trial may be made with it, and its atility

more fully reported on.

We have, &e.,

(Signed) F. SAUNDERS,

Hi JOSEPH HIGGs,

a W. T. LAYARD,

Girsem Copy

(Sigrel) DP. W. BRAYBROOKE.

To the Howble the Colonial Sceretary.

499 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). [Vol 1

Assistant Govt. Agent’s Office,

Badulla, 31st January, 1857.

Sir,—I have the honor to enclose specimens of paper manufactured

by Mr. Medical Sub-Assistant Ondaatje.

¥. His very praiseworthy exertions have been unceasing during the

last three years. Considering that he has worked alone and against

many disadvantages, there can be no doubt that his success has been

very great. He has expended a large sum of money, near £200, in

testing his experiments, and is on the point of giving up any fur-

ther prosecution of them, in consequence of the want of machinery

for reducing the fibre into fine pulp, the present manual labour for

that purpose so greatly increasing the cost of the material as to preclude

its competing, as an article of commerce, with other inferior fibres.

3- Though he is obliged for the present to abandon all thoughts

of exporting the fibre to England, he is able to manufacture the_

paper, of which I enclose you specimens, in some quantity, and at

very reasonable rates.

4. The headmen in all districts are now 1equired to send returns,

&e., which it is impossible they can do on olas; yet no paper is

allowed them, and they are obliged to purchase it at their own cost.

Paper No. 1 and 2, §, The paper marked No. 1 and 2 can be sup-

24) reams a month. *, f ; h han

‘Blotting paper, 30 plied by Mr. Ondaatje, in the quantities and at the

LE eae prices mentioned in the margin, much cheaper rates

In Colomto és. €@ than lumberhand, (than which it is scareely inferior

r real. 5 : . . 5 2

ae Kandy fs. 6d. per in texture and to which it is superior in toughness,)

ream. He “teratieline Alostersera Soeseaye Pe als ee

TiBadailatrescer 1 furnished to Government; which I believe is 7s.

ream. 6d. per ream. He could also manufacture paper of

No. 2 paper: ‘

In Colombo 5s. per demy size.

ream.

In Kandy 4s. 6d per

resm,

In Badulla 4s. per

ream,

4. There can be no question, I think, that it is not right to call

on headmen to make returns which require paper, and not to supply

them with paper for the purpose. I have the honor to suggest,

therefore, that you should, if you concur with mein my views on this

subject, recommend to Government that Mr. Ondaatje be employed to

supply paper for this purpose; for superseding the use of olas in the

Kachcheries generally, and for any other use to which his paper can

be put. Either description ef paper would answer excellently for

forms, vouchers, returns of births, deaths, population lists, and

division officers’ books; and the blotting paper (of which I enclose

No. 12.—1860-1.] BADULLA AND ITS PRODUCTS. 423

Blotting paper. a specimen,) I prefer to that supplied by Govern-

In Colombo 8s. : ai

In Kandy 7s. 6d. ment, and it possesses the additional recommend-

Badulla 7s. 6d. : : 2

ah aes ee paper ation of being very much cheaper, as the note in

is supplied to Go- the margin will shew you. Wercit a little thicker

vernment at 18s. =

6d., I believe. it would be perfect.

7. I feel sure that His Excellency the Governor will be inclined

to look favourably on Mr. Ondaatje’s praiseworthy exertions, sup-

ported, as I hope they will be by your recommendation, and I trust

that he will, if possible, be encouraged in his efforts to develop the

resources of the district ; since from the results of his experiments,

there is every reason to believe the Colony will really benefit by his

prosecution of them.

I have &ce.,

(Signed) J. BAILEY,

Sai Gis Alc

To the Government Agent, Kandy.

tee

Government Agent’s Office,

Kandy, 26th March, 1857.

Sir,—With reference to your letter No. 23 of the 3lst January last,

relative to the paper manufactured by Mr. Medical Sub-Assistant

Ondaatje, and enclosing specimens thereof, I have the honor to annex

for your information copy of a letter addressed by me to the Hon-

orable the Colonial Secretary on the subject.

. I have, &c.,

(Signed) W.D. WRicuHt,

jor Agent.

Lo the Assistant Govt. Agent, Badulla.

—— —. —_—

Government Agent's Office,

Kandy, March, 1857.

Sir,—I have the honor to annex copy of a letter No. 23, of the

3lst January last, from my Assistant at Badulla, relative to the paper

manufactued by Mr. Medical Sub-Assistant Ondaatje, enclosing speci-

mens thereof, which I also beg to enclose.

2. Since they were received by me, I have had the quality of the

paper mirkel No. 1 tested, and it will be seen that it receives

printing and writing inks equally well.

3. Were I in a position to show that the paper now forwarded is

cheaper than what is at present supplied to Government, for use

in the public offices in the Central Province, I wou'd be happy to

support Mr, Bailey’s suggestion, that Mr. Ondaatjie be requested to

supply the paper as required. But I fear that such is not the case,

424 JOURNAL R, A. 8. (CEYLON). ae {VOb LEP,

nor is it likely to be so, while Mr Ondaatje’s machinery for reduc-

ing the fibre into pulp continues to be so defective.

4. I can therefore only submit these papers to the Governor, with

the expression of my hope, that His Excellency will be able to ob-

tain for Mr. Ondaatje, the active co-operation of other parties, in

his praiseworthy attempts to develop, what may ultimately prove to

be, a valuable Island manufacture.

I have, &c.,

(Signed) E. RAWDON POWER.

[True Copy. ] Agent.

To the How ble the Colonial Secretary.

Assistant Government Agent's Office.

Sir,—With reference to the 3rd paragraph of the letter to the Colo-

nial Secretary, copy of which was annexed to your letter No. 581 of

the 26th ultimo, I have the honor to invite your attention to the

Sth paragraph of my letter of the 3lst January, No. 23.

2. In that letter I shew that Mr. Ondaatje professes himself ready

to supply paper scarcely inferior to lumberhand, and excellent blotting

paper, at prices considerably Jower than paper of similar description

is supplied to Government, and I now annex a Statement shewing

in a tabular form the particulars of his offer.

3. I venture to suggest for the consideration of Government, whether

it would not be worth while to give Mr. Ondaatje an opportunity of

proving the value of his discovery, by permitting him to supply paper

to the Kandy and Badulla Kachcheries, to a limited extent, provided

he can give good security for the fulfilment of his engagement.

I have, «ce.,

(Signed) J. BAiLEy,

To‘the Government Agent, Kandy.

; Statement referred to— f

Savings per ream to

Govt. on No. 1 paper &

blotting paper, if sup-

plied by Mr. Ondaatje.

Cost per Ream.

Description of! By whom sup-

Paper. plied. S aH ee :

Sle eter ie

=| sS =} i= (aos] r=}

S\e)e lee \e

5 °

WSS] 69 foc Sha ice

sass ANS |

Lumberhand...} Commissariat 7 6

Blotting paper Dorey 13 4

Paper No. 1...) Mr. Ondaatje 6 6 5 650

Do. ” pA Do. | |

Blotting paper Do.

No. 12—1860-1.] BADULLA AND ITS PRODUCTS. 425

Diwitotewelle, 27th March, 1857.

DEAR Sir,—I have directed that a copy of the letter which Mr.

Power addressed to Government, respecting your paper, should be sent

you. This is in reference to the letter which I wrote some time before the

Governor came to Badulla. I can’t help thinking Mr. Power is under

some mistake, and that your paper zs cheaper than the lumberhand, and

blotting paper supplied by Government. Please send me again (for I

have left my memorandum in Badulla,) the pricesof your and Govern-

ment paper.

The Governor shewed me a letter he had written to the Under-Secre-

tary of State, transmitting specimens of your paper and pulp, and

strongly recommending your invention to his notice.

I have, &e.,

(Signed) J.. BAILEY,

Ae GA.

W. C. ONDAATJIE, Esq., Badulla.

Assistant Govt. Agent’s Office,

Badulla, 5th June, 1357.

Sir,— With reterence to former correspondence, I have the honor to

annex for your information, copy of a letter No. 207, dated the 2nd in-

stant, from the Government Agent, Kandy, to my address.

I have, &e.,

(Signed) J. BAILEY,

A. G. A.

W.C. ONDAATJIE, Esq., Badulla.

No. 207. Government Agent’s Office,

Kandy, 2nd June, 1857.

Str,—With reference to your letter No. 112, of the 7th April last,

relative to the paper manufactured by Mr. Medical Sub-Assistant

Ondaatjie, I have the honor to inform you, that I have submitted the

whole Correspondence to Government, with a suggestion that the Deputy

Commissary General be requested to report upon the subject.

Thave, «e.,

(Signed) E. RAwpDON Power,

A gent.

The Assistant Govt. Agent, Badulla

No. 413. Government Agent's Office,

BAS: Kandy, 12th September, 1857.

- Srr,—I have the honor to forward copy of a letter No, 422, of the 3rd

instant, from the Honorable the Colonial Secretary, and of the enclosure

1 .

426 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IIL.

therein referred to, on the subject of the paper manufactured by Mr.

Ondaatjie, and to request that you will be so good as to communicate

the same to him.

IT have, &e.,

(Signed) W. D. WRIGHT,

for Agent.

The Assistant Govt. 4gent, Badulla.

No. 422. Coloniat Secretary's Office,

Colombo, 37d September, 1857.

Sir,—-With reference to your letter No. 141, of the 26th March last, I

am directed to transmit to you a letter received from the Deputy Com-

missary General, on the subject of the paper manufactured by Mr.

Ondaatjie, and to request that the same may be communicated to him.

That officer -has been instructed to pay Mr. Ondaatjie for the paper

supplied by hin.

Lhave, Xe,

(Signed) C. J.AMAcCARTHY.

The Govt. Agent, Kandy. |

No. 207. Deputy Commissary General's Office,

Colombo, 25th Auqust, 1857.

Str,—The Correspondence herewith retu:ned from the Government

Agent at Kandy, and his Assistant at Badulla, respecting the specimens

of paper manufactured by Mr. Ondaatjie, was referred to me with your

letter of the 5th June last, and [should have replied to it sooner, but

that I waited to be able to examine the paper lately received from

England, anJ in the hope that the Invoice shewing the latest prices of

paper would have arrived ; but it has not yet reached me.

2. It appears to me that there are three distinct questions raised in

the Correspondence.

Ist.—The substitution to a certain ‘‘extent” (a difficult term to define)

of Mr. Ondaatjie’s papers for the commoner descriptions of paper, such

as Lumberhand, Common Foolscap, and Blotting Paper, which are now

imported from England.

2nd.—-The proposal -to issue f.ee cf payment Mr. Ondaatjie’s paper

to headmen in the districts for returns, or other documents for which

either o/as are now used, or for which they are not allowed stationery.

3rd.—The comparative price between Mr. Ondaatjie’s paper and

imported paper.

3. It appears to me that the specimens of paper forwarded with

the Government Agent’s letter of 26th March last. (No. J, here-

Ne. 12 1860-1.] BADULLA AND ITS PRODUCTS. ~ 427

with returned) are not equal in quality to the specimens forwarded in

November last, just before I returned from England. Some of these

latter specimens (No. 2) are herewith enclosed,

I have also pat together some specimens of English and other imported

paper, with the prices marked (No. 3).

4. With regard to the quility of Mr. Oadaatjie’s papers, it appears to

me that even now they are much better than a great part of the paper

manufactured in India, and extensively used in public offices there. I

would however offer the remark that as Mr. Ondaatje has made so much

progress towards complete success in the manufacture of common paper,

he might possibly with improvel machinery be able to extend that

improvement, by making the paper thinner and lighter. At present, it

weighs rather more than half as much again as English paper of the

same description and size. If the thickness and weight were reduced,

1 think it might become serviceable paper.

5. With regard to the second point, if His Excellency the Governor

should deem it right, that stationery should be issued to the headmen

for their returns, We,, doubtless, Mr. Ondaatjie’s paper would answer

the purpose exceedingly well. I was under the impression that one of

the reasons given by Mr. Baller, the former Government Agent, for

his large demand for stationery, was, that the numerous returns required

to be furnished by the headmen required that stationery should be

issued to them.

6. Lastly, with regard to comparative price, I should for the present

exclude Colombo from consideration, but if Mr. Ondaatjie can su»ply

paper equal, or rather superior, to the best of the specimens of common

paper furnished by him, at 5s. a ream at Badulla, and at ds. 6d. a

ream at Kandy, and if he could also supply blotting paper made

of the full size of the English blotting paper at a price increased

in proportion to the increase of size, (taking his present specimen

as worth 7s. at Badulla, and 7s. 6d. at Kandy), I strongly

recommended that some of it should be supplied for the use of

the Government Agent at Kandy, and of his Assistant at Badulla.

7. The envelopes I do not at present consider necessary, as half

a sheet of paper answers the purpose quite as well and can be used

twice, which is not the case with envelopes, added to which 2s. 6d,

per 100 is too dear for them, as they can he made here for the

Colonial Secretary’s Office at 2s. a hundred.

8. In conclusion, I would beg to suggest that Mr. Ondaatjie be

invted to endeavour to submit specimens of paper of a thinner

498 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). Evol? iit:

description for writing, but of the same size as those submitted last

year, and also blotting of the size of the sheet of English blotting

paper enclosed. If the new specimens be approved of, probably His

Excellency might be disposed to allow the paper to be used by way

of experiment in some of the public offices at Badulla and Kandy,

in order to obtain the opinion of public officers there as to the

prospect of their being able to use it with advantage.

9, Having received altogether about 29 quires of the Common Fools-

cap paper, and about 13 quires of Blotting paper, prepared by Mr.

Ondaatjie and sent down here as_ specimens, I would suggest that

he should now be paid for this experimental paper, at the rate proposed

by him, namely, 6s. 6d. a ream for the former paper and 8s, for the

latter ; and I may probably be able to use up this quantity of it in

my own department. |

I have, &e,

(Signed) W. D. BERNARD,

D.C. G.

No. 12.—1860-1.] PALI AND PRAKRIT-MAGADHI. 429

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE PALI

AND THE PRAKRIT-MAGADHI OF

VARARUCHI.

By JAMES D’ALWis, EsqQ., Assistant Secretary.

_ PALI is the name given in Ceylon, and some countries

in western Asia, for the dialect of the Buddhist Scriptures,

which was cultivated in the kingdom of Migadha, or

' modern Behar, about the 6th century before the Christian era.

The Sinhalese, like the Burmese, use both Péli and Magadhi

to express their sacred language ; whilst Indian Grammarians

designate one of the dramatic dialects, the Magadhi, and

also identify it with the language of Mégadha.* Although,

therefore, the Pdl: and the Magadhz are names for one and

the same dialect; yet the language defined by Prakrit

Grammarians as Mégadhi is essentially different from the

Magadh: or Pali of Ceylon, which, from the time it was

banished from the country whence it derived its name,

remains fixed as a dead language in this Island, unaffected

by those changes which asa spoken language it has under-

gone in its migrations in India,—assuming at one time the

style (as in the Nepal Scriptures) of an “indescribable

milange in which incorrect Sanskrit bristles with forms of

-which some are entirely Pali and others popular”;f at

another, the form of the Pillar dialect of Asdoka’s reign :

and at last, the Magadhi of the Jains.

These differences establish many important facts in the

history of Asiatic languages; and moreover, unsettle the

~* See Cowell’s Prakrit Prakasa, p. 179, et seq.

+ L’Histoire du Buddhisme Indien, by M. Burnouf, p. 105.

430 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). EVols Tat,

opinion generally received at the present day, as to the

age of the dramatic literature, and of Vararuchi, whom some

have erroneously regarded as identical with Kdatyayana,*

To such important questions, however, it is imposible to

do justice within the confined limits of periodical literature.

The object, therefore, of the following observations is, simply

to shew the difference between the Pdéli, otherwise called

Magadhi; and the so-called Mdgadh) of the Prakrit Gram-

marians.

Vararuchi, in his Prakrit Prakasa, which has been trans-

lated into English by Dr. Cowell, devotes a Chapter con-

taining 15 Sections, to exhibit the differences between the

Migadht and the Sanskrit; and the following observations

are confined to comparisons between those laws and the

distinguishing characteristics of the Pali.

1. The first rule of Vararuchi is SHASOH SAH. In the

Pali there is no s; it has only the dental sibilants. The

inapplicability of the rule, which states that in the peculiar

dialect of Prakrit termed Magadhi, ‘sis substituted for sh or

s’ is therefore self-evident.

2. JO YAH. The occasional substitution of y for7 is no

more a peculiarity of the Pali than of the Sanskrit or

Sinhalese ; e¢.g., yamine or jamini in Sanskrit ; yuma or

yamad, Sinhalese ‘night.’ The usual Pali naja is written in

the Suttas with a y,as niyan puttan ‘own son.’ Instances -

lke these, are exceptions, not the rule, in those two langu-

ages. But neither in the instance given by Vararuchi, nor in

the great majority:of Sanskrit words witha J, is it changed

intoa y inthe Pali. The reverse of what is given by Vara-

ruchi may be regarded as the rule. Thus, jayate ‘he is

born, is the same in the Pali, and isnot changed into ydayade.

So likewise raja is raja, and not raya, ‘king ;’ gaja is gaa

but not gaya, ‘elephant’; vajra is vajira, but not vayara,

diamond.’ It is true that in words like paryushana the

* Cowell’s Prakrit Prakasa, p. vii,

No. 12.—1860-1.] PALI AND PRAKRIT-MAGADHI. 431

Pali form is payyushana, and not pajjausana, as in the

common Prakrit. This peculiarity in the Pali, however, does

not indicate achange from 7 to y, but from 7 to y ; the reason

of which will be found noticed elsewhere.

da. The next rule, CHAVARGASYAS PRISHTATA TATHOCH

ARANAH, seems to refer toa nicety in the pronunciation of

the palatal letters, which we do not perceive in the Pali; and

therefore proceed to the

4, HrIDAYASYA HADAKKAH. This is equally inappli-

cable to the Pali. Hridaya, ‘heart’ never becomes hadakka,

but hadaya in Pali; so likewise hrasva, ‘short, is not

hadasva but rassa; hri, ‘shame,’ is not hida but hiv.

5. RYARJAYOR YYAH. The substitution here spoken of

yy for ry and 77 may be regarded as the exception (and that

of very rare occurrence) rather than the rule in the Pali.

Thus karyam, ‘to be done,’ is not kayye but kariyan ; and

dunjana, ‘wicked, is not duyyana but d---jana in the Pali.

So again, veryd, ‘exertion,’ becomes viriya; bharya, bhariya,

‘wife’: diswarya, issariya * prosperity, dhairya, dheriya

‘exertion ’; and also gavjana becomes gajjana, * noise.’

6. KSHASYA SKAH. This is again different in the Pali.

Thus rakshasah, ‘demon,’ does not become lJaskose but ra*-

khaso ; nor dakshah, ‘ clever, daske, but dakkho. So likewise

vriksha, ‘tree, becomes rukkha in the Pali; kshama, kama,

‘forgiveness’; dakshina, dakkhina, ‘south’; kshura, khura,

‘razor’ kshetra, khetta ‘field.’ This peculiarity will be found

explained in another part of our observations.”

7. ASMADAS SAU HAKE HAGE AHAKE. The Sanskrit

Gahan banuwmi, ‘1 speak,’ is the same in the Pali;and does not

become, as stated here hake, hage, or ahake, banami.

8. ATA IDETAU LUKCHA. The Sanskrit efad (root) eshah

(nom:) is said to be changed inthe Magadhi into esa, and

su being added to it—esa su ;and the latter affix being elided,

the @ in esd is changed into? or e. This is not a pecnliarity

* Vide infra. § 10.

432 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). [ Vol. III.

of the Pélt in which eta (root) és (nom :) becomes éso raj,

(esha raja Sank.,) ‘this king,’ and not as in the Prakrit

Magadhi ész laa ; and esha purushah Sanskrit, becomes eso

puriso in the Pali, but not as in the Prakrit Magadhi esa

pulise, ‘this man,’

9. KTANTAD USCHA: which is rendered by Dr. Cowell

into English as follows :—w is substituted when the affix su

follows a word ending with the affix kta ; and also (as we

infer from the oha of the Suttas) we may optionally use the

7 or e of the preceding Suitas, or even elide the affix; as

hasidu or hasidi, haside hasida, for hasitah, ‘ smiling.’ It is

only sufficient to state here that the Pali knows no such

thing, and that the Sanskrit hasztah is in the former simply

changed into hasvto.

10. Naso HO VA DIRGHATWAMCHA. That is to say ha

is optionally substituted for nds, the affix of the genitive

singular, and at the same time the preceding vowel is length-

ened, as pulisaha or pulisassa dhane for purushasya dhanam,

‘the man’s wealth. The Pali form of this is purisassa

dhanam, wherein the Sanskrit inflexion sy@ is changed to

ssa, for the simple reason that the Pali dislikes the union of

two consonants of different classes. It is further remarkable

here that dhane of the Prakrit-Magadhi is dhanam (neuter)

both in the Sanskrit and Pali, in which, moreover, the

cerebral 7 is not used.

11. ADIRGHAS SAMBUDDHAU. It is to be inferred from

the examples given under this rule, that in the Prakrit-

Magadhi dialect, the vocative inflexion @ both in the singular

and plural number is long. In the Pali, however, the termi-

nation of the vocative singular may be either long or short,

as purisa wgachchha or purisd agachchha, ‘O ! man ecme.™

12. CHITTHASYA CHISHTHAH. In shewing the difference

of the Pali from the Prakrit-Magadhi, it is here sufficient

simply to exhibit the bali forms of the given examples. —

* See Clough’s Baldy atira, De Lo:

No. 12.—1860-1.] PALI AND PRAKRIT-MAGADHI, 433

Purushah tishthati.« Sanskrit

Puriso titthati. Pala

3. Pulisé chishthadi. Mag: Prakr.

SWS)

3. KRINMRINGAMAM KTASYA DAH. Here again we

cannot exhibit the difference of the Pali from the Mazadhi

Prakrit, better than by placing the given examples in juxta-

position with their Pali forms.

Sanskrit kritah, ‘done’ mritah, ‘ dead’ gatah, ‘gone.’

Pali kato mato gato.

Prak-M : kade made gade.

[4. KtTwo DANIH. The following comparative view of

the examples given under this rule, shows the reletionship

of the Pali to the Sanskrit to be far nearer than that of the

Prakrit-Magadhi.

Sanskrit, shadvu gatth kritva gatah

Pali, sahitva gato katva gato

Prak-M. sahidani gade kavridiuni wade.

15. SRIGALASYA SiALASIALESIALAKAH, the difference

between the Sanskrit srigdlah, and the Pali sigalo is simply

that occasioned by the absence of the Sanskrit 7v in the latter

language. But Vararuchi gives the three’ following forms

into which that word is changed in the Magadhi-Prakrit,

stula siale sialuke,

* <The man stands.’

434 JOURNAL R, A. S. (CEYLON). [Vol III.

ON HEALTH AND DIET, WITH ESPECIAL

REFERENCE TO CHILDREN AND

YOUTHS, IN CEYLON.

BY BARCROF® BOAKE, B.A,, Vice-President, Asiatic

Society, Ceylon.

NoNE who have had any opportunities of acqainting them-

selves with the past and present state of Ceylon, and who

have taken any pains to avail themselves of those opportu-

nities, can have failed to observe that the character

of the climate has materially improved, as regards its effects

upon the health and longevity of Europeans resident in the

Island.

In former days, Trincomalee was regarded as so pestilential

that it was the custom of Insurance Offices to make a special

exception with reference to it stipulating that the policies

which they issued were not to hold good if the person insured

took up his residence there. It is not many years, indeed,

since a gentleman who was making a voyage round the -

Island, felt himself compelled to remain on board during the

whole time that the vessel in which he was a_ passenger

remained in that port, fearing lest, by landing there he should

vitiate the insurances which he had effected to a considerable

amount upon his life. Many persons now prefer the climate

of Trincomalee to that of Colombo.

In like manner, the road between this and Kandy was

known to be very dangerous to any travellers who passed

over it otherwise than rapidly and during the bright hours of

the day. There are sundry grave-stones which stand close to

No. 12.—1860-1.] ON HEALTH AND DIRT. 435

each other in the Galle Face Burying Ground, which are said

to be the melancholy record of the effects of the march of a

single Regiment from Kandy to Colombo. The loss of human

life in the construction of that road, is said to have been

something fearful, and that, not only amongst the native

labourers, but also amongst the Huropean officers under

whom they worked. Even within the last twenty years

it was commonly stated that the Resthouse-keeper at

Ambépussa was obliged to keep up a double set of servants,

as one-half were always sure to belaid up with fever. That

~oad does not now bear so bad a character ; and the town of

Kandy itself is also believed to have improved very much in

salubrity, since it came int) the possession of the English.

Much of this improvement is no doubt attributable to

alterations which have taken place in the physical features

of the country. Forests have been felled, swamps drained,

and the observance of some sanitary regulations enforced

upon the native inhabitants. |

Something, too, perhaps nota little, is due to improved

habits of life on the part of the EKuropean residents. The

few who have been long enough in the Island to remember

the state of things which has now, thank God, passed away,

and isin great measure forgotten, have strange tales to tell

of the excesses which were then committed by men filling

positions, the present occupants of which, if their own better

principles did not (as they doubtless would) prevent them

from imitating the bad example of their predecessors, would

be driven from office and from society by the force of public

opinion.

The day is gone by when the Officers on the Staff of the

Governor and Commander-in-Chief—appointments which

in those days were always combined—would think it con-

sistent with their pcsition to endeavour, when invited, in

attendance upon the Governor, to dine with an ecclesiastical

dignitary to entrap their host into drinking to excess; or

436 JOURNAL R A. S. (CEYLON). FVol. HE,

when, supposing that any persons could be found so lost to

right feeling as to make such an attempt, their host would

feel it necessary to have recourse to an artifice, in order to

preserve sobriety which became him as a clergyman, without

being guilty of what would be regarded as inhospitality

towards his guests. The state of things of which such

anecdotes are indicative has passed away, never, it is to be

hoped, to return, and, as a consequence of its departure,

liver complaints and fevers are less frequent and less deadly ;

and it is now felt that, when temperance is observed, aud

ordinary prudence exercised in avoiding what are known to

be causes of disease, life is not, to most constitutions, materi-

ally more insecure in thig country than in Europe. It is

quite vossible that we may still have something to learn on

this head, and that an improvement in medical practice,

together with an increased diffusion of the knowledge of

those physiological principles on which the preservation of

health depends, may lead to such results as will induce

Insurance Companies to grant policies on terms still more

favourable than those which they at present offer to persons

resident in Ceylon. It is not my intention, however, at

present to enter upon this wide field, but merely to lay

before you certain statistics connected with one branch

of the subject, which my position has enabled me to

procure.

While the increased security of the life of the adult

Europear. resident in Ceylon is generally admitted, it is still

felt to be a hazardous experiment to attempt to bring up the

children of Kuropean parents in this climate ; and many of

us have had painful experience in our own families of the

necessity of sending our children to England, when they

have just arrived at that age when parental care is beginning

to be of the greatest importance for the formation of their

characters, and when the domestic affections can best be

cultivated. If this could be shewn to be a mistake, arising

No. 12.—1860-1.] ON HEALTH AND DIET. 427

from an injudicious mode of treating our children, there are,

I suppose, few European parents resident in the Island,

who would not hail the discovery as removing one of the

most painful circumstances attendant upon the expatriation

which is their own lot in life. Now, this is just the con-

clusion to which I have been led, by an examination of the

records of the Asylum for Military Orphan Boys.

That Institution has been established for about twenty

years, during the last eighteen of which it has been under

superintendence. There are at present 22 boys resident

in it; there have been as many as 31 or 32 at one time; the

average being not I think under the present number.

During the last eighteen years, only four deaths have

occurred in the establishment, two of which cannot be fairly

rezarded as belonging to its ordinary rate of mortality,

inasmuch as one was the result of leprosy, (which must

be regarded as an entirely exceptional case,) while the other

was that of a deformed idiot, labouring under confirmed

disease, who, being left entirely destitute, was received into

the Asylum merely that he might die there in peace. The

ordinary rate of mortality, therefore, making these deductions,

is very little over one half per cent. per annum ; and even if

we include the two extraordinary cases which I have men-

tioned, it will amount to no more than one in ninety-nine ;

and even the higher of these rates can scarcely be regarded

as indicating any peculiar unhealthiness in the climatee

Nor does the appearance of the boys lead to a different

conclusion from that suggested by the low rate of mortality

amongst them. They do not, of course, exhibit the florid

complexions which are looked for in healthy school-boys in

Kurope ; but they are deficient neither in strength, health,

nor spirits, and amongst them might be pointed out some

who, physically, are inferior to few who have been brought

up in a more temperate climate. I could name one young

man, who having entered the Asylum at the age of 12, left

it when he was19, in order tobe employed on a Coconut

438 JOURNAL R A. 8. (CEYLON). [ Vol. Iff.

Hstate near Jaffna ; after having been about four years in

the Northern Province, he called upon me about a year ago,

when on his way to take charge of an estate near Colombo.

His appearance was such, that | remarked at the time, and

the remark. was confirmed by others who saw him, that had

he just arrived by steamer at Galle, he would not be

regarded as a bad specimen of a healthy European.

Another lad, the son of a European father by a half-caste

mother, who, according to tne record that we have of him

in the Asylum, cannot now be more than nineteen, was

apprenticed by me a few years ago to an Apothecary in

Kandy. Not liking his employment, he ran away. After

fruitless inquiries in several quarters, and getting one or two

vessels searched, I gave him up as one of whom I was not

likely to hear again. <A short time ago, however, I received

a letter from him, giving me some account of his adventures,

and informing me that he was, when he wrote, a Serjeant in

H. M. 24th Regiment, at present stationed in the Mauritius.

These facts seem to shew that the children of European

parents can be reared in this country without any greater

mortality taan is usual in more favoured climates, and that

those so reared are not inferior in spirit and energy to others

of the same race. Why is it that we find the result so

different with our own children ? 1 believe the true answer

‘system in our treament of them. We pamper their appetites

—we indulge them with improper food at improper times—

we coax them to eat when their stomachs reject the food that

we press upon them, under the mistaken notion that the

exhausting character of the climate renders necessary a larger

supply of food than would suffice under a lower temperature.

Every thing at the Orphan School, on the other hand, is

done by rule—no food of any kind is given, except at

appointed hours. Unwholesome food is at all times carefully

excluded. No indulgencies, in the way of a more delicate

No. 12.—1860-1.] | ON HEALTH AND DIET. 439

diet, are allowed, except by the order of the Medical

attendant, and then nothing more is given than he prescribes.

A Dietary was laid down for the Institution by the late

Dr. Rowe, who was Principal Medical Officer in Ceylon,

about ten years ago. A few trifling alterations have been

made since then, and the subjoined table shews the manner

in which the food of the boys is now regulated.

No extraordinary pains are taken to preserve the boys

from exposure to the sun—indeed we are obliged, from the

situation of the Asylum, to march them a distance of about

a furlong at 8,10, and 11 A.M., and again at2 P.M. Their

unusual health and strength is, I believe, under God’s blegs-

ing, to be ascribed wholly to the judicious system that has

been laid down for their management, and to the strictness

with which that system has been adhered to.

If the publication of these remarks should have the effect

of leading fond mothers to desist from the mistaken practice

of pampering and over-feeding their children, and to adopt

a regular and judicious system of feeding them, I entertain

no doubt that the result will be the prevention of much

of that suffering consequent upon the early breaking

up of families, which, in too many instances, are never

reunited on earth, and the members of which can scarcely

ever acquire afterwards that domestic intimacy with each

other, which is the result of early habitude.

Dietary.

7AM. Coffee, bread.

10 AM. Coffee, bread, every morning. Eggs, jelly, butter,

plantains, in rotation.

25 P.M. Rice and beef-curry every day, occasionally roast

beef and vegetables.

A bread pudding every Sunday.

5 P.M. Coffee and bread

440 JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON) Vol. III.

VYuaatity of Provisions allowed daily for each boy.

Beef, 2 Ib. When eggs are given, cach

Bread; ., 14: 02. boy has two.

Coffee, }+:0z; + .:-When butter is given, 15

Rice, “pint lb. is divided amongst

Salt, + OL twenty-two.

Sugaw, =. 2 04.

Milk, + bottle.

“-

ea ik

6 ¢ erate .

ee u

C4 4

4 <

E i

S, t rs 5 a

yers ws

we)

eT ee eS

ab arr: pete

a ‘ bi)

PROCEEDINGS OF MEETINGS.

GENERAL MEETING.

December 17th, 1859.

Present:

J. STERLING, Esq., Acting Chief Justice, in the Chair.

The Secretary read a list of the books and Periodicals received since

the last meeting, viz :—

Calcutta Review 2 Nos

Journal of Madras Leary Society 2 56

Do . Bombay Geographical Society ee | 5

Do Asiatic Society of Bengal J 90

Do Asiatic Society of Shanghai 1 ns

Engineer's Journal a ne ae uO 5

On the system of Phonetic Alphabets, by J. E. ee M.c.S., from

the Author. ~

The following Contributions to the Museum were announced : —

Twelve specimens of Medicinal Oils of Ceylon, from Mr. C. P. Layard.

A number of Dyewoods and Dyestuffs, from Mr. H. Mead.

Samples of Plantation Coffee, from various gentlemen.

A Jungle Cat, from Lieut. Robertson.

A Cobra Capella, from Mr. J. Thompson.

The following gentlemen were then ballotted for, and declared elected

Members of the Society :—

jf Proposed by Mr. J. Capper.

~ USeconded by Mr. Jas. Alwis.

Proposed by Mr. J. Capper.

“USeconded by the Rev. B. Boake,

Boyb Moss, Esq., F.R.C.S.

J, F, DickSON, Esq., C.C.S.

i JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON). [Vol, 14,

a “C Q y [> Ayr WW.

FB MLuncuy, Hsq., Bo. Proposed by the Rev. B. Boake.

| {Seconded by Myr. J. Maitland.

R. A. Roprnsoy, Exq., - mieeeee by Mr. J. Capper.

arid ‘Seconded by Mr. C. A. Lorenz.

f Proposed by Mr. J. Maitland.

C. HILL, Esq. a

Sacanded by the Rev. J. Thurstan.

It was then moved and resolved, that Mr. CP: Layard be elected

President of this Society for the current year, in the room of the late Sir

William Carpenter Rowe, and further, that the Rev. B. Boake, Mr.

Lorenz, and Mr. Capper, do form a Sub-Committee to draw up a suitable

expression of the Society’s sense of the loss sustained by the death of its

late President.

Mr. Maitland explained, that the sudden departure of Dr. Kelaart from

Colombo, on special duty, prevented the reading of his paper on that day

it would, however, be forthcoming at the General Meeting. He also

exhibited a full-sized model of the iron and coir fencing proposed by Dr.

Kelaart to be employed for the protection of the young Pearl Oysters on

the freshly-formed beds.

Mr. Boyd Moss then read a paper on ‘“‘ Ceylon as a residence for Kuro-

peans, considered in reference to health.”

GENERAL MEETING,

July 28th, 1860.

Present :

The Honorable the CHIEF JUSTICE, as Vice-Patron, presided.

Sir E. Creasy, on taking the Chair, said :—‘‘It is with great pride and

pleasure that [ have accepted the offer so kindly conveyed to me, through my

friend Mr. Lorenz, of this honorable position in.your Society. Although

my own literary pursuits have been chiefly directed to the histories and

languages of Europe, I have always taken a deep interest in Oriental

ethnology, and in the historical evidences which the literature and the

architectural monuments of the East supply, as to the early habitations

and movements of the human race. It has also been my good fortune to

have among my near connexions and friends, men, to whom the study of

Asiatic antiquities and languages has been for years a favorite occupation ;

and among whom I have frequently heard the most important questions

connected with Oriental lore discussed with ample learning and keen saga-

city, and with all the freedom and vivacity of unrestrained familiar

conversation. Assoon as I was aware that Ceylon was to be my future

No. 12.—1860-1.] PROCEEDINGS, 1860. i

residence, I determined to endeavour to join this Society ; though I fear

that the nature of my principal former studies, and the requirements on

my time which my duties will create, are likely to make me a very

inefficient member of your Association. But I shall, at least, watch your

labours with cordial good-will and desp att2ntion. Ceylon and Sinhalese

literature are so pre-eminently rich in ancient monuments and ancient

records, that it is here we may hope to see good work done towards deciding

many questions now earnestly discussed by the scholars and philologists of

England and Germany.

Especially there is the great dispute which Gibbon indicated, and which

is now warmly revived, whether the East really gave arts, letters, and

civilization to the West, or whether all that is of any value in Oriental

literature and art, was not derived from a north-western source. I intimate

no opinion of my own on this or on the other great questions, as to the

primary seats and early currents of population. But I know that they

are questions on which many master minds are now intent, and I know

that I see here an Association peculiarly qualified to throw ight on them.

“Your researches in Statistics, in Geology, and in the Fauna and Flora

of this remarkable Island, command also the deepest interest. They have

indeed an immediate practical value, which ensures for them the regard

of many who would pay comparatively little heed to merely literary topies.

I am sure that the time which you devote to the furtherance of the objects

of this Society is employed with utility to others as well as with

intellectual benefit to yourselves. I once more cordially thank you for the

gratifying manner in which you have enrolled me in your ranks, and

pledge myself that I will do all in ny power to deserve it.”

The following gentlemen were then ballotted for, and declared elected

Members, viz :—

\ Proposed by Mr. J. Capper.

J Seconded by Mie Cs) IP) Wayanad,

RIGA CRB LOT. il. Proposed by the Rev. B. Boake.

J Seconded by Mr. J. Capper.

J0l. OUVRY, C.B.

WEEND ID. RATAP Mics 2, Esq. | Proposed by Mr. C. A. Lorenz.

Seconded by Mr. C. P. Layard.

\ Proposed by Mr. J.. Maitland.

J Seconded by Mr. Jas. Alwis.

The Secretary placed on the table the following list of Donations to the

The Rey. C. MERSON.

Museum :—

Twenty-three land shells from Mr. C. P. Layard; four New Zealand

Pheasants, a specimen of Kandyan paper 40 years old, and three Ancient

Sinhalese Coins from the Honorable Major Skinner,

iv JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON). [ Vol. ITT.

A set of Pearl Oyster Shells, of various ages, by the Secretary.

The following Books and Periodicals were reported as received since last

meeting :—

A Report on Public Instruction in Bengal, from the Honorable the

Colonial Secretary.

Meteorological Observations during the seven years ending 3lst Decem-

ber, 1859, from R. Bullen, Esq., R.E.

The Asiatic Journal ae 5 Vols.

Report on the Natural History of the andl Ouetee

by Dr. Kelaart re bh lt ace eal

Romanie Alphabets on

An Enumeration of Ceylon Plants, By Gee Ke

Thwaites

lamers

The Caleutta Review ‘ 2 Nos

Journal of the Asiatic Society of Beigel 3} 7

Transactions of the OLDE Geographical So-

ciety abe iM is

Journal of the Madras Literary Society 8d a

Journal of the Geological Society of London _-....__ 8 A

Journal of the Statistical Society of London ... 8 5

The Engineer’s Journal

Major Skinner said, that he had received a communication from Sir W.

Denison, the Governor of New South Wales, who was desirous that an

exchange of specimens should take place between the Public Museum of

Sydney and the Ceylon Asiatic Society, and he therefore begged to move

the following resolution :—

‘‘That the Curator and Secretary be requested to communicate with the

authorities of the Museum at Sydney, with the view to establishing a

system of Exchanges.”

The resolution having been seconded, was carried.

Mr. J. D’ Alwis called the attention of the Meeting to the fact that

there were several Chapters of the Mahdwanso, translated by the late Mr.

George Turnour, that had never been published, in the hands of that

gentleman’s Executors. He wished to propose the following resolution,

which was seconded and adopted : —

«That the Secretary be requested to communicate with the Executors

of the late Mr. Turnour, with a view to obtaining their permission to print

such translated Chapters of the Mahawanso as remain in manuscript in

their hands,”

No. 12.--1860-i.] PROCEEDINGS. 1860. Vv

The Rey. Mr. Boake submitted the following resolution :—

That the following gentlemen be requested to form a Correspending

Committee, for the purpose of entering into communication with Scientific

Societies in Europe and elsewhere, viz :—

The Honorable the Chief Justice,

Mons. Grimblot,

Mr. Capper.”

Seconded by Mr. Lorenz, and carried.

Mr. W. Ferguson exhibited a dwarfed specimen of Melia Azedurach,

Lin., and a plant Holcus Sorghum, making a few remarks respecting them.

The genus Melia consists of trees, the M. Composita, or Lunumidella

of the Sinhalese being well-known as a fast-growing and tall tree, the

timber of which is so light, that it is generally used for outriggers to the

fishing canoes, while the species of which a small specimen was exhibited,

is well-known throughout Ceylon, as a tree generally from 10 to 20 feet

in height, and commonly called the ‘‘ Flowering Margosa,” having large

branched panicles of beautiful lilac-coloured flowers.

The small specimen shewn by Mr. Ferguson was taken up and dried

early in May flast, and was one of several plants raised from seeds sown

only three months previously, (all of which struggled for existence during

the late dry weather,) but only this one was observed to flower then ; but

about a fortnight ago, six or seven more produced a single flower each in

the same manner, some of them very large and partly monstrous.

The dried specimen shewn had _ still the cotyledons on; when it

flowered these were 4-an-inch from the ground, a small pair of opposite

Jeaves 1 inch, and another 13 from the ground, while eight alternate leaves

occupied other 2 inches of the stem, and then came the last leaf about 4

of an inch higher in the axil of which grew the sessile flower,—the whole

height of the plant being only 32 inches, the root, a single one, being

about 5 inches long.

Mr. Ferguson considered this plant a good illustration of the principle,

that flowers and seed vessels are merely modified forms of leaf.

In good soil and in ordinary weather, the plant in questiou would have

become a small branching tree, but here its growth was arrested, and

true to its vegetable instincts, if such a term can be used, it made desperate

efforts to preserve its species by producing a flower. This flower occupies

the place of the central bud of the plant ; it has no calyx, but the top leaf,

in the axil“of which it rests, has also departed from its normal form,

having divided and grown round the flower, so as to form an involucre

vo.

Vi JOURNAL R. A. S: (CEYLON). (Vol. IIT.

for it. The rest of the flower, viz., petals, tube surrounding the stamens,

the stamens and pistil, were a little different from their ordinary form,

but in one sent to the Director of the Peradeniya Gardens the day before,

the flower was much larger than ordinary, and was somewhat monstrous.

These plants were grown in Mr. W. Ferguson’s garden at WKollupitiya,

and Mr, Fereuson has observed, that in some of them, the flowers and

mid-leaf have dropped off, and the plants have taken a fresh start, but

sending out two branches from the place just below where the flower was.

In connexion with the subject of dwarfed plants, Mr. Layard, the

Government Agent for the Western Province, stated, that some years

ago he procured from a native garden, a coconut plant of the common

kind, about two Years old, which had flowers close to the ground.

The specimen of Holcus shown, was fully 12 feet high, and about one

inch in diameter, having a large compact panicle of white seed on the

summit, with several branches proceeding from the upper joints, while

from the lower ones, clusters of aerial roots, like those of the serewpine,

issued. The plant was taken from several growing in the garden behind

the Government Offices in the Fort, raised from bazaar seeds, sown about

three months previously.

Mr. W. C. Ondaatjie then read a paper on ‘ Badulla, and its Produe-

tions,” and Mr. J.D’ Alwis an article on ‘‘ Cinnamon.”

GENERAL MEETING,

November 24th, 1860.

Present :

The Rey. B. BoAKE, Vice-President, in the Chair.

tev. J. THURSTAN. | Colonel OUvry.

P. COOMARASAMY, Ksq. | J: D’ Atwis, Esq.

Mons. P. GRIMBLOT. | Rk. DAWson, Esq.

L. NELL, Esq. | J. CAPPER, Esq.

The following Books and Periodicals were laid on the table :—Madras

Journal, Pamphlet on the Dugong Oil, Engineer’s Journal, Meteor-

ological Register.

The Seeretary called the attention of Members to the prospectus of

Messrs. Schlagentweits’s work on India and Upper Asia, forwarded by the

publishers, and it was resolved that the work be subseribed for.

A Cireular from the Secretary of State for the Colonies was also laid on

the table, in which information was sought in respect to seientilieworks

published in the Colony, Museums, &e. ; also a letter from Mr. D, Wilson,

No. 12.—1860-1.] | PROCEEDINGS, 1860. vil

handing a communication from the Batavian Society of Arts. Both these

documents were referred to the Committee of Correspondence.

The Secretary laid before the Meeting copies of letters from the late Dr.

Buist and Sir J. Emerson Tennent to the Athenewm, having reference to

certain passages in the work on Ceylon by the latter, in which the

presence of the Fresh Water Wells in the Jaffna Peninsula near the sea

is accounted for, on the supposition that they are supplied from the sea ;

the water becoming deprived of its salt by the filtration through the coral

mass around. Dr. Buist controverts this theory as opposed to the first

principles of physics, whilst in reply, Sir Emerson Tennent urges the facts

brought forward by De Witt, in the Philosophical Magazine, to shew that

water containing considerable quantities of saline matter in solution,

may, by percolating through great masses of porous strata during long

periods, be gradually deprived of its salts to such an extent as probably

to render even salt-water fresh. The publication of this controversy

might probably lead to some further enquiry into the matter as regards

the fresh-water wells at Jaffna.

The following gentlemen were then balloted for, and declared duly

elected :—Mr. W. J. Sendall, Mr. W. C. Ondaatjie, Mr. C. P. D’Zilva,

Mr. J. A. Caley, and Mr. R. Piachaud.

The undermentioned Papers were then read :—

‘The difference of the Pali and Magadhi dialects of Vararuchi,” by

Mr. J. D’ Alwis.

“On Health and Diet, with especial reference to Children and Youths in

Ceylon,” by the Rey. B. Boake, B.A., Vice-President.

**On Hindu Philosophy,” by Mr. Coomarasamy.

viii JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON). (Vol. Ill.

ANNIVERSARY MEETING.

Saturday, July 6th, 1861.

Present :

The Rev. B. BOAKE, in the Chair.

Colonel OUVRY. J. MAITLAND, Esq.

R. V. DuNLop, Esq. | Rev. J. THURSTAN.

P. COOMARASAMY, Esq. | W. D. RAJAPAKSE, Esq.

N. D. SCHULTZE, Esq. | Dr. Misso.

W. C. ONDAATJIE, Esq.

The Secretary proceeded to read the Report, as follows :—

In submitting their Report for the past year, your Committee have

much pleasure in pointing attention to the steady increase in the Members

of the Society, and especially to the fact, that amongst those who have

joined during the present year, are gentlemen eminently qualified to

advance the objects of this Institution.

Amongst the Papers read at the various meetings of the past season,

may be found some possessing more than ordinary local interest,—on

‘Health and Disease of Ceylon”; on ‘ Diet”; on ‘‘the District of

Badulla and its Products”; and on ‘‘ Cinnamon,’—whilst ‘‘ Hindu Philo-

sophy,” and the ‘‘ Pali Dialects ” have formed the objects of other Papers.

The Society has received several interesting communications from the

Government, one of which directed attention to the increasing value of the

oil obtained from the ‘‘ Dugong,” as a substitute for Cod Liver Oil, and

will be found in the Appendix.

Your Society has been placed in communication with the Curator of the

Public Museum of New South Wales, through Sir W. Denison, and it is

hoped that this may prove the means of an interchange of specimens of the

products of the two countries, to the advantage of both institutions. It

is also in communication with the Batavian Society of Arts, to which body

copies of the Journal have been sent. Your Committee have much pleasure

in noticing the receipt from the Messrs. Schlagentweit of a portion of

the great illustrated work which is to record theirtravels and observations

in Upper India, and it has been resolved to recommend to you, that the

abovenamed gentlemen be elected Honorary Members of your Society,

with a view to mark the appreciation of their eift, and of the great labour

and scientific research expended in their work.

dh .

No. 12—1860-1.] PROCEEDINGS, 1861. ix

The publication of the remaining chapters of the Mahawanso, left in

the hands of the Executors of the late Mr. George Turnour, has engaged

the attention of your Committee, who have communicated to those gentle-

men their desire to be allowed to publish the chapters in their hands, in

the shape of an Appendix to the Society's Journal. To this request,

however, no reply has yet been received.

The Society has also had its attention directed to the subject of ‘‘ the

Fresh Water Wells of Jaffna,” through a correspondence which took place

between Sir James Emerson Tennent and the late Dr. Buist, and which

correspondence will be found in the Appendix to the forthcoming issue

of the Society's Journal.

Your Committee cannot omit mention of the exhibition of Ceylon

produce, held at the Queen’s House in February last, under its direct

management. The time allowed for collecting the many specimens

exhibited was necessarily short, but your Committee were enabled by

the active co-operation of gentlemen at outstations, to bring together

a most interesting and instructive collection, illustrative of the industry

and resources of the Western, Central, North-Western, and Southern Pro”

vinees. Many of the objects exhibited have been since placed in the

Society's Museum, which is at length beginning to assume a proportion

that will soon render a Catalogue necessary.

Your Committee have recently communicated with the chief Military

authorities of the Island, with a view to ascertaining whether there

would be any objection to the amalgamation of the Medical Museum with

that of this Society, in the event of a qualified Curator being provided

for the proper custody and enlargement of the collection ; and your

Committee, although not as yet in possession of any reply to their

application, have grounds for believing that their request will be com-

plied with.

Since the last Anniversary Meeting the Society has lost several valued

members, foremost amongst whom may be named the late Sir William

Carpenter Rowe, whose attachment to, and exertions on, behalf of the

Society, are well known to all its members.

The Society has also experienced a loss in the death of one of its oldest

and most industrious members, the late Mr. Simon Casie Chetty, who

contributed some most valuable papers to your Journal, and by these and

other literary labours gave evidence of not only an intimate acquaintance

with Tamil literature, but of a spirit of industrious research, of patient

investigation, and of scholarly descrimination, rarely to be met with in

the East,

JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). — Voll ete

In recotdine their deep sense of these losses, the Committee are able,

at the same time, to notice the accession to your body, of the present Chief

Justice of Ceylon, who has already given an earnest of his good wishes

on your behalf. Your Committee would also congratulate you on having

obtained the valuable co-operation of so eminent a Pali scholar as

Monsieur Grimblot.

This gentleman has consented to undertake the duties of Joint Secretary,

and we may reasonably hope, that by the aid of his Oriental acquirements,

the future proceedings of this Society will take a wider range, and assume

a more elevated tone, whilst by means of translations and republications of

some of the standard Historical and Buddhistical works of Ceylon, you

may be the means of aiding the students of Pali literature in every part of

the world. During the past year, the Society's Library has received many

valuable additions, as may be seen by the Librarian’s List.

The Museum has likewise been increased by many donations, chiefly of

objects from the late Exhibition at Queen’s House ; but much yet remains

to be done towards obtaining a collection of the many Raw Products of the

Island, alarge portion of which your Committee believe to be unknown to’

Europeans, but which might probably prove of considerable value as

articles of export, or for local use.

Your Committee regret they are unable to report that the Society's

Journal, for the past year, is in a very forward state, the great pressure of

work in the Government Printing Office haviug prevented its progress

until very recently.

It would appear that, if it be thought desirable that the Journal should

be published with greater rapidity, and at more frequent intervals, it will

be necessary that the Society undertake the printing at its own cost.

Your Committee have commenced to reprint the earlier Numbers of the

Journal, for which there exists an active demand both here and in Europe.

The Treasurer will place before you a statement of the accounts of the

past year, from which it may be seen that there is a balance in hand of

£80 lls. 9d.

In conclusion, your Committee beg to submit for your consideration, a

list of the proposed Office-bearers for the ensuing year.

Resolved :—“ That the Report now read be adopted and printed in the

eurrent Number of the Journal.”

Resolved :—‘‘ That the following list of Office-bearers be adopted for

the ensuing year.”

Proposed by Dr. Misso.

Seconded by R. V. Dunlop, Esq.

President :

Sir EpwarD 8. CREASY, Chief Justice,

No, 12.—1860-1. |] PROCEEDINGS, 1861. xi

Vice-Presidents :

The Rey. D. J. GoGERLY.

The Rev. B. BOAKE.

Secretaries :

Monsieur P. GRIMBLOT.

J. CAPPER, Esq.

Treasurer :

C. A. LORENZ, Esq.

Librarian :

Monsieur P. GRIMBLOT.

Committee :

CP AVARD, Esq. P. COOMARASAMY, Esq.

Colonel OUVRY. | J. DALWIs, Esq.

J. F. Dickson, Esq. R. Dawson, Esq.

B. Moss, Esq. Rev. J. THURSTAN.

W. C. ONDAATJIEF, Esq.

The following gentlemen were then proposed, and after a ballot, declared

duly elected Members of the Society :—

Dr. R. Dane, P.M.O.

G. B. Capper, Esq.

The Proceedings were terminated by a vote of thanks to the Chairman.

LETTERS FROM SIR J. E. TENNENT AND DR. BUIST, TO

THE ‘“ATHEN-EUM,” RELATIVE TO THE FRESH

WATER WELLS OF JAFFNA.

Allahabad, N. iV. Provinee,

June 10, 1860.

IN this out-of-the-way quarter of the world, where we are only

beginning to replace the books the mutineers burned, and are drawing

cautiously on our bookseller, in case a catastrophe of the like kind

should occur again, [ trust that you will pardon me for turning to a

work reviewed in your pages eight months ago,—Sir Emerson Tennent’s

‘‘Ceylon,”—which I have not been able to peruse, and of which I can

ouiy speak from the extracts I have read in the Atheneum and the

Edinburgh Review, both of October. But the few points I desire to

take up are of generaland permanent interest, and have hitherto, as it

seems to me, not been noticed in the manner they deserve. In both the

reviews referred to, I find the following notice of the musical sounds

xii JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). - [Vol, TI.

heard in Chilka Lake, a salt-water creek close by Batticaloa, on the

eastern shores of Ceylon :—

“TJ distinctly heard the sounds in question. They came up from the

water like the gentle thrills of a musical chord, or the faint vibrations of

a wine-glass, when its rim isrubbed by a wet finger. It was not one

sustained note, but a multitude of tiny sounds, each clear and distinct

in itself ; the sweetest treble mingling with the lowest bass. On applying

the ear to the wood-work of the boat, the vibration was greatly increased

in volume by conduction. The sounds varied considerably at different

points, as we moved across the lake, as if the number of the animals from

which they proceeded was greater in particular spots ; and occasionally

we rowed out of hearing of them altogether, until, on returning to the

original locality, the sounds were at once renewed.”

Will your readers oblige me by comparing this with the following note

I published of Musical Fishes in a salt-water creek near Bombay, in the

Bombay Times of January, 1847 :-—

‘A party lately crossing from the promontory in Salsette called the

Neat’s Tongue, to near Sewree, were, about sunset, struck by hearing

long distinct sounds like the protracted booming of a distant bell, the

dying eadence of an Atolian harp, the note of a pitch-pipe or pitch-fork,

or any other long-drawn-out musical note. It was, at first, supposed to

be music from Parell floating at intervals on the breeze ; then it was

perceived to come from all directions, almost in equal strength, and to

arise from the surface of the water all around the vessel. The boatmen

at once intimated that the sounds were produced by fish, abounding in

the muddy ereeks and shoals around Bombay and Salsette ; they were

perfectly well known, and very often heard. Accordingly, on inclining

the ear towards the surface of the water, or, better still, by placing it

close to the planks of the vessel, the notes appeared loud and distinct,

and followed each other in constant succession. The boatmen next day

produced specimens of the fish—a creature closely resembling in size

and shape the fresh-water perch of the north of Europe—and spoke of

them as plentiful and perfectly well known. It is hoped they may be

procured alive, and the means afforded of determining how the musical

sounds are produced and emitted, with other particulars of interest

supposed new in Ichthyology. We shall be thankful to receive from

our readers any information they can give us in regard toa phenomenon

which does not appear to have been heretofore noticed, and which cannot

fail to attract the attention of the naturalist. Of the perfect accuracy

with which the singular facts above related have been given, no doubt

will be entertained, when it is mentioned that the writer was one of a

party of five intelligent persons, by all of whom they were most carefully

observed, and the impressions of all of whom in regard to them were

uniform. It is supposed that the fish are confined to particular localities

—shallows, estuaries, and muddy creeks, rarely visited by Europeans ;

and that this is the reason why hithertono mention, so faras we know,

has been made of the peculiarity in any work on Natural History.”

Now, it was nearly impossible for Sir Emerson Tennent to have seen

this, as it was altogether impossible for me to have known in 1847 any-

thing about his visit to the Chilka Lake the following year; and both

descriptions, which, so far as the sounds of the fish are concerned, are

in perfect harmony, are those of independent observers speaking of the

same phenomenon, which I doubt not in both cases admits of the same

No. 12.—1860-1.] PROCEEDINGS, 1861. xiii

solution. In 1858, the present Governor of Ceylon visited Chilka Lake ;

he was obviously not aware of what Sir E. Tennent had heard or seen

ten years before; his book was not published till 1859. He gives the

following account of the music in the water, which is as nearly as

possible the same as had been previously given. Mr. Ward being

once more a perfectly independent witness :—

“IT ought not to take my leave of Batticaloa, which I may not have an

opportunity of revisiting, without mentioning the natural phenomenon

for which its lake is remarkable—the singing fish. I was too ill during

my stay in 1857 to expose myself in the night air upon the water, and

I confess that, in spite of the impression then made upon my fellow-

travellers, amongst whom were Major Gen. Lockyer and Capt. Gosset,

I went out upon the present occasion with a considerable amount of

incredulity, and was the last to believe the evidence of my own senses ;

Dr. Johnston being satisfied as to the existenceof a sound apparently

proceeding from the water lone before I could realise it. But after

changing the position of the boat once or twice, there could be no

doubt about the matter. The sound rose and swelled, and absolutely

vibrated about us in a manner that left no question as to the fact, what-

ever may be the causes. Its character is indescribable. It is not like

any other sound. It is only heard at night. It has nothing harmonious

or musical about it. There are no modulations, no variety of notes,

except what the increase and decrease in strength produced. As to its

origin, nobody knows anything. It may be the fish, to whom it is popu-

larly attributed. It may be the rush of air through rocks partially

hollowed. There is nothing but conjecture to guide us in this respect.

The results all can vouch for. And these results are certainly more distinct

within a limited distance from the shore, though heard occasionally in

deep water. Iam no naturalist. I can only state what I personally saw

and experienced. Others must explain it. Something similar, it is said,

occurs in the Bay of Naples. It is strange that between Naples and

Batticaloa there should be this one point of resemblance.”

Sir Emerson Tennent describes the same thing as heard by him at the

same place in 1848; but he doubts if the sounds proceeded from fish, and

ascribed them to shell-fish.

The following is an extract from *letter (February, 1849) I received a

few weeks after the first notice had been published :—

“« Musical Fish.—Sir,-—In a late number of the Times I noticed some

remarks respecting the musical fish, as they have been rather aptly termed,

and it may be interesting to the readers of the Zimes to be informed,

that the existence of such a phenomenon has been long known to the

residents at Vizagapatam. I have heard the musical sounds, like prolonged

notes on a harp, when rowing on the back water at that station ; and

they were generally supposed to proceed from the fish coming 1 contact

with the sides of the boat. To the best of my recollection, the sounds

were never heard at a distance from it.”—Bombay Times, Feb. 13.

Vizagapatam, on the Coromandel Coast, is 498 miles north of Madras,

the shores abounding with shallow salt-water erecks, like those on the

castern side of Ceylon, and all along the Malabar Coast. I think that I

have yery clearly made out that musical fishes do exist in abundance ;

X1V JOURNAL R. A. S. (CEYLON). Vol. IIT.

and as it is very difficult to conceive in what way the sounds are

made under water, it would be well to have the subject more minutely

inquired into.

I find the following in the Journal of the Samarang. I greatly doubt if

it be the same variety of fish that I have noticed that are referred to :—

“Dr. Adams, the surgeon and naturalist of the expedition, says :—

‘While on board the bri ig Ariel, then lying off the month of the river of

Borneo, I had the good fortune to hear that solemn acquatic concert of

the far-tamed organ fish, or drum—a species of Pogonias. These singular

fishes produce a “loud monotonous singing sound, which rises and falls,

sometimes dies away, or assumes a very ‘low drumming character ; and

the noise appeared to proceed mysteriously from the bottom of the vessel.

This strange submarine chorus of fishes continued to amuse us for about

a quarter “ofan hour, when the music, if so it may be called, suddenly

ceased, probably on the dispersion of the band of performers.’ ”

Sir Emerson Tennent notices the fact of all the wells along shore which

keep their water during the diy season, being below high-water mark, and

that to asmall extent they rise and fall with the tides ; and he assumes

that they owe their water to the sea, which loses its saline matter by

percolation. Nothing, surely, is more utterly opposed to the first principles

of Physics than the doctrine, thac salt held in chemical solution by

water should be capable of being separated from it by the mechanical

process of filtration. The phenomenon of tides in wells of moderate depth

dug near the sea, is of universal occurrence all along the Malabar Coast,

where the matter dug through is porous. It does not obtain in wells

dug through trap. I have observed it hundreds of times at Bombay,

and have often had oceasion to describe it. The explanation is easy.

The surface of the ground where the well is dug being always six or

eight feet above high and twenty to twenty-six feet above low water,

and being extremely spongy and porous down to where it comes in

contact with the rock, or the blue-clay bed which commonly lies over

the rock, it gets charged full of water during the rains. The superior

Jength of column enables this to expel the sea water, a proceeding which

must have been completed shortly after the emergence of the land from

the sea; while the interestices in the porous soil are so minute as to

prevent the two mingling. As the saltest sea water has only a specific

eravity of 1°050, the fresh water ponded back from it requires only to

be proportionally higher in level to create an equilibrium. With a

greater head than this, it will push the wall of salt water before it, and

How off. Of all this T have seen abundant examples at Bombay. It

would occupy too much of your space to describe them. After six or

eight months of rainless weather, when the discharge from the soil

heeomes feeble, the wells all become more or Jess brackish, and the

apparent tide inergases. :

No. 12.--1860-1. | PROCEEDINGS. 1561. KV

The Edinburgh Review states that this theory of Sir E. Tennent’s, of

the desalinization of sea water by filtration (as already said, a phenomenon

opposed to one of the first laws of Chemistry) explains the occurrence

of fresh water on coral islands, and confutes the theory of Darwin,

that this arises from rain; as rain falling on a substance already fully

saturated with sea-water would not be absorbed, but would flow off. Not

a doubt of it. But coral islands are not only not saturated, but so

much of them asis above the sea-level, three or four feet, is highly porous

and perfectly dry, and presents all the conditions for absorbing the

whole of the rain that falls on them. They present to the rain this

much head of water to push out the sea and expel it piston-wise so far

as the coral bed descends,—the sea itself forming the wall of the reservoir.

A well dug deep into the coral to draw off the rain-water, with which

it is always nearly saturated up to low-water mark, is sure to secure a

supply. An illustration of the two not mixing together, if the pores

of the soil, rock or coral, be fine enough, may be obtained by making

the experiment with capillary tubes.

The red colour with which the sea is tinged round the shores of

Ceylon, during a part of the S.W. monsoon, is due to the Proto-coccus

nivalis, ov the Himatta-coccus, which presents different colours at different

periods of the year—giving us the seas of milk as well as those of blood.

The coloured water at times is to be seen all along the coast north

to Kurrachee, and far out, and of a much more intense tint in the

Arabian Sea. The frequency of its appearance in the Red Sea has

conferred on it its name.

Our author mentions terraces of marine shells embedded in agglutinated

sand as prevailing all around the island at a level considerably above

highwater mark.. The same thing obtains all around the shores of the

Mauritius, the Eastern Archipelago, the shores of Hindustan, the

Arabian Sea and Red Sea, and, I believe, along the coasts of nearly all

the seas in the world. The Reviewer states truly, that ‘‘this is an

unquestionable evidence of an upheaval—the evidence of subsidence is

more difficult to obtain.” He is mistaken. From Cape Comorin to

Kurrachee on the one side, and so all around the shores of the Bay of

Bengal on the other, multitudes of mangrove roots, their fibres unbroken,

and obviously existing where they grew, are found embedded in blue

marine clay, from ten to twenty feet below the raised beaches, the

surfaces of which, when formed, must themselves have been below

half-tide,—as clear an evidence of a previous depression as the beaches

are of an upheaval.

XV1 JOURNAL R. A. 8. (CEYLON). EVeol./ Did

IT trust I shall not be for a moment supposed inclined to eriticize,

much less to correct, this admirable and obviously most attractive work.

IT have taken some texts from it, trom which to give some brief

discourses on points of natural history which seem of interest, and which,

though perfectly familiar to the old Indian, seem scarcely to have

reached the Enelish naturalist at all. U

GEO. BUIST.

London, August 11, 1860.

I have seen in the Athenwuni of this morning the interesting letter of

Dr. Buist, dated Allahabad, June 10, in which exception is taken to a

passage in miny recently published work on Ceylon, where I~ have

ventured to offer a simpler solution of the phenomenon of the steady

supply of fresh water in wells sunk in coral islands, than that heretofore

resorted to,—namely, the conjecture that the flow consists of rain-water

imbibed from the surface, and banked in by the surrounding pressure

of water from the sea. This theory, which was first broached. im

Admiral FitzRoy’s ‘* Voyages of the Adventure and Beagle,” and in

Darwin’s “‘ Naturalist’s Journal,” is thus propounded in the latter, when

speaking of the Keeling Islands, in the Indian Ocean, south-west of

Sumatra, one of those *‘atoll” groups, in the islets of which there are

wells from which ships obtain water :—‘ At: first sight,” says Darwin,

‘it appears not a little remarkable that the fresh water should regularly

ebb and flow with the tides; and it has even been imagined that sand

has the power of filtering the salt from the sea-water * * The com-

presed sand, or porous coral rock, is permeated like a sponge with the

salt water ; but the rain which falls on the surface must sink to the

level of the surrounding sea, and must accumulate there, displacing an

equal bulk of the salt water. As the water in the lower part of the

ereat sponge-like mass rises and falls with the tides, so will the water

near the surface ; and this will keep fresh, if the mass be sufficiently

compact to prevent much mechanical mixture.”—Darwin's ‘Naturalist’s

Journal,” chap. xx. Dr. Buist’s explanation corresponds with that of

Darwin; but Darwin, as it will be seen, glances at, although he rejects

the theory of filtration from the sea; whilst Dr. Buist urges, that

‘Nothing is more utterly opposed to the first principles of physics than

the doctrine that salt heldin solution by water should be capable of

being separated from it by the mere mechanical process of filtration.”

Dr. Buist, however, is not aware that since Darwin wrote, the late Mr.

Witt, in a remarkable paper published in the Philosophical Magazine

for 1856, ** On a Peeuliar Power possessed by Porous Media of removing

Matters from Solution in Water” has made known the results of

VA Se |

ame,

No. 12.—1860-1.] PROCEEDINGS, 1861. Xvil

experiments carried on by him on behalf of one of the London water-

supply Companies, and has shewn that ‘‘ water containing considerable

quantities of saline matter in solution, may, by percolating through great

masses of porous strata during long periods, be gradually deprived of its

salts, to such an extent as probably to render even salt water fresh.”

The difficulty which I felt in applying Darwin’s ingenious theory to

the small coral islands in which fresh water abounds, as well as to wells

sunk in the coral formation at the north of Ceylon, arose from the fact,

that in the latter, rain falls with such proverbial infrequency as to be

inadequate to furnish the supply of fresh water invariably present ; whilst

in the numerous little coral islands to the west, the area of each is so

minute, that their surface, even in the most rainy seasons, could not

intercept enough to replenish the wells. Mr. Witt’s discovery came

opportunely to aid, and facts are recorded in other portions of my book

(vol. 1, p. 20; vol. 2, p. 536) besides those which alone Dr. Buist appears

to have seen, that in my mind establish the fact that these wells are

supplied, not by the banking in of rain by the surrounding salt water,

but by the slow percolation of water from the sea through the masses

of porous coral.

J. EMERSON TENNENT.

eaoin MUSee~,

iss

It is requested that all communications to the Honorary Secretaries

may be forwarded to them under cover to the Hon'ble the Colonial

Secretary.

Specimens for the Society's Museum, or Contributions to the Library,

may be forwarded free by Parecl Tappal, or by the Government Steamer

“ Pearl,’ addressed in w similar maniver.