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9 Sm FH ce Thee Wee

JOURNAL

OF THE

CRYLON BRANCH

OF THE

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY,

1885—1586.

VOLUME 1x.

EDITED BY THE HONORARY SECRETARY.

‘The design of the Society is to institute and promote inquiries into the History,

Religion, Literature, Arts, and Social Condition of the present and former

* Inhabitants of the Island, with its Geology, Mineralogy, its Climate and

Meteorology, its Botany and Zoology.”

EIT aie cS

COLOMBO: 3

G. J. A. SKEEN, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, CEYLON.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME IX.

No. 30,.—1885.

A Systematic Catalogue of the Flowering Plants and Ferns

indigenous to or growing wild in Ceylon, with the

Vernacular names, and with references to Thwaites’

“#Enumeratio.”—By HENRY TRIMEN, HsqQ., M.B., F.L.S.,

Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Ceylon

No. 31.—i885.

Remarks on the Composition, Geographical Affinities, and

Origin of the Ceylon Flora.—By HEnry TRIMEN, Esq.,

M.B.,-F.L.S. ses 509

Rice Gultivation under Irrigation in Ceylon. —By E. Bio,

HsqQ., C.C.8. oe soe

. Plumbago: with special reference to the tion se tpicl

by the Mineral in the Commerce of Ceylon; and the

question discussed of the alleged existence in the Island of

the allied substance Anthracite. —By A. M. FerGuson,

EsqQ., C.M.G. se ae cis

No. 3Z2.—1886.

Professor Virchow’s Ethnological Studies on the Sinhalese

Race.—Translated by W. R. Kynsry, Esq., F.K.Q.C.P.,

and J. D. MacDona_p, Esq., M.D. ee

Outline of Two Years’ Scientific Researches in Ceylon. —By

Drs. C. F. and P. B. Sarasin

A Brief Sketch of the Medical History of Coin —By J. L.

VANDERSTRAATEN, EsqQ., M.D.

~ The Veddas of Ceylon.—By C. J. R. LE Mecunien: Bsa,

C.C.8., F.G.S., &e.

No. 33.—1886.

The Veddas of Ceylon, and their relation to the aye Cae

Tribes.—By Professor R. ViIRCHOW

Proceedings, 1885...

Proceedings, 1886...

PAGE

139);

160

171

ERRATA ET ADDENDA.

en ee

Page 351, note ||, for “ p. 124” read “p. 62.”

352, line 2, for “ Van Goen” read “ Van Goens.”

353, note {, for “ Norasa”’ read “ Novasa.”

358, note*, for “p. 123” read *‘p. 62.”

358, note f, for “p. 126” read “ p. 63.”

359, line 30, for “Taylor” read “ Tylor.”

359, note *, omit “Die omfange der cultur iibers.”’

359, note t, for “Taylor” read “ Tylor.”

359, note Tf, for “Spang” read “ Spangel.”’

368, note, for “ Zuitf.” read “ Zeits. fiir” passim.

378, note*, for “ Mokna” read “Mokua.”

381, line 2, for “ Elu”’ read “ Elu.”

381, note *, for “p. 104” read “ p. 61.”

384, line 12, for Ko\opa”’ read * Ko\o3a.”

387, last line, after “ precipices”’ énsert “ (AWivorg omndaiorg).”

388, line 16, for “ Zvortvan berwe beandend,” &c., read “Zwart van

verwe, brandend,” &c.

394, line 6, after “Skull No. 1” insert “ (Table I.).”

394, line 11, for “ Dewilané” read “ Denilane.”

398, line 13, for “ Busle”’ read “ Busk.”’

398, line 14, for “two last” read “last two.”

398, line 31, after “Museum,” insert “(Table I., Fig. 3).”

399, line 21, for “ Weleker” read “ Welcker.”

402, line 11, for “ oceipitale” read “ occipitalis.”

404, line 10, for “76” read ‘“7°6.”

404, line 12, after “skull” insert “ (Flower, No. 683).”

406, line 16, for “chamzprosopous” read “chameprosopic.”

406, line 29, after “skull,” insert “ (No. 675).”

406, line 35, for “alreolar” read “ alveolar.”’

406, line 36, for “ basilar alvesli” length read ‘‘basi-alveolar length.”

407, line 2, for “ basinasel” read “ basinasal.”

409, line 2, for “ Bernard” read “ Barnard.”

411, line 18, for “von” read “ van.”

411, line 19, for “vrijser ruf tig” read “vrij vernuftig.”’

411, note *, for “Tambulus” read ‘ Jambulus,”

OF THE

CEYLON BRANCH

OF THE ee

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY,

1885.

VOU IX. PART. 1.

“The design of the Society is to institute and promote inquiries into the History,

Religion, Literature, Arts, and Social Condition of the present and former

Inhabitants of the Island, with its Geology, Mineralogy, its Climate and

Meteorology, its Botany and Zoology.”

COLOMBO :

GEO. J. A. SKEEN, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, CEYLON.

1330,

}

5 ‘

rv Ub

‘

= eS i

JOURNAL

OF THE

CEYLON BRANCH

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY,

18865.

VOL. IX—PART I.

“The design of the Society is to institute and promote inquiries into the History,

Religion, Literature, Arts, and Social Condition of the present and former

Inhabitants of the Island, with its Geology, Mineralogy, its Climate and

Meteorology, its Botany and Zoology.”

COLOMBO :

GEO. J. A. SKEEN, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, CEYLON.

18895.

CONTENTS.

A Systematic Catalogue of the Flowering Plants and Ferns

indigenous to or growing wild in Ceylon, with the Vernacu-

lar names and with references to ‘hwaites’s “ Knumeratio.”’

—Compiled by Henry Triwen, M.B., F.L.S., Direetor of

the Royal Botanic Gardens, Ceylon.

EXPLANATORY NOTE.

Toe Natural Orders and the Genera in this Catalogue

are each numbered consecutively throughout, the sequence

followed being that of the ‘“‘ Genera Plantarum” by Bentham

and Hooker. The Species are generally numed in accordance

with the “ Flora of British India,” so far as that work has

yet been published (to end of Genus 594, p. 67).

Names of species or varieties printed in SMALL CAPITALS

are believed to be endemic (. e., found in Ceylon only, or

peculiar to the Island).

Names with an asterisk (*) prefixed are exotic species

which have become more or less naturalized, usually as

weeds in cultivated or waste land. Many are thoroughly

established and very common; others merely casual and

rarely found. A dagger ({) prefixed to a name indicates a

suspicion of exotic origin or a doubt as to true nativity.

Names enclosed in round brackets ( ) are exotic species

which, being largely cultivated for use or ornament, are often

found apparently wild, but are not really naturalized here.

A query (?) prefixed to a name indicates doubt as to the

occurrence of the plant in Ceylon; placed after a name it

means doubt as to the correctness of the determination.

Names enclosed in square brackets | | are species which

have been recorded for Ceylon, but the occurreace of which

is a matter of grave doubt or requires verification. Most of

them are, in all probability, errors, but as they are given in

books of more or less authority, it is thought well to include

them, thus clearly distinguished from the others.

The additional names (synonyms) in 2tadics are those of

Thwaites’s ‘‘ Hnumeratio Plantarum Zeylanis’’ (1858-64)

when different from the ones here adopted. The numbers

following the names refer to the pages of the same book, to

which this Catalogue forms a complete classified index.

In the case of a few species of which I have not seen

Ceylon specimens—-and for the most part not included in

the “ Enumeratio’’—I have quoted the name of the collector

given by the author recording the species as Ceylonese,

thus (‘Walker’). Most of them, it will be seen, were

collected by Col. or Mrs. Walker (in 1830-40), and many, it

seems, have not been again found.

““C. P.” refers to the distributed sets of dried specimens of

Ceylon Plants. The numbers given here are the whole of

those subsequent to the ones quoted in the “ Enumeratio,”’

which terminated with C. P. 3860. A few of the earlier

numbers however are occasionally quoted in this Catalogue,

when necessary to secure precision in nomenclature.

New Species.—There are a few MS. names here printed for

the first time. It is my intention to publish descriptions of

these supposed new species in the “Journal of Botany”

(London) without delay.

Vernacular Names.—The letters “S.” and “T.” after these

signify Sinhalese and Tamil respectively. With regard to

the former, it is believed that a fair amount of accuracy has

been attained, and that the spelling is in accordance ‘with

the rules for transliteration prescribed by the Ceylon Govern-

ment. In the case of the Tamil names, however, it is to be

feared that but a small number of those in usein the North

and Hast of the Colony have been obtained, and that these

are not always rightly determined or properly transliterated.

But it may be hoped that the publication of this list will serve

as a basis for a more systematic and accurate collection.

Hnglish names have been added to the few plants which

- have acquired them.

Het,

Péradeniya, February, 1885.

Corrections and Additions.

Pace 2, No. 15; Cyathocalyx zeylanicus is not endemic, and should

not be printed in small capitals.

13, line 8 from bottom ; add at end of line, 54.

22, line 7 from bottom ; insert before 410, Var. B.

38, line 8 from bottom; for ‘‘ Cerasiocarpus” read Cerasiocarpum.

44, line 19; after var. pubescens add, Var. 6. 155.

_ §4, line 19; for “ L.” read, and.

ab., line 4 from bottom; after Rothii insert, var. puberula.

zb., line 15 from bottom ; for “ Port’ read Poir.

55, line 12 from bottom; add at end of line, 197.-

ab., line 18 from bottom; for “ Meda-kangu” read Meda-hangu.

56, line 6 ; add at end of line, 196.

64, line 16; for “20” read 208.

79, line 15 from bottom ; for “P. flexuosus” read Peltandra flexuosa.

81, line 13; for “‘ trilboa” read triloba.

82, line 2; before 271 insert, C. longifolium.,

86, line 16; add at end of line, 294.

96, line 13; for “fasciculata” read fasciculatum.

89, after line 27, insert

794 bis. OCTARRHENA PARVULA, Thw. 305.

104, line 11 from bottom; for “ P. infidum, Steud. ?” read P. glu-

mare, Zrin. (This grass is Urochloa glabra, Brongn.)

105, line 11; for ** 3090” read 3890.

Add to Index in its proper place :—

Peliandra . ~ 695.

eee eS

DICOTYLEDONS.

POLYPETALZ THALAMIFLOR.

1. Ranunculacee.

Clematis smilacifolia, Wall. 1.

Nara-wel, S.

C. Gowriana, Roxrb. 1.

Naravelia zeylanica, DC. 1.

Anemone rivularis, Ham. 1.

Thalictrum javanicum, Bl. T. glyphocarpum. 1.

RANUNCULUS SAGITTIFOLIUS, Hk. 1.

_R. Wallichianus, W. g A. 1.

2. Dilleniaces.

Delima sarmentosa, L. 2.

Korasa-wel, 8.

Tetracera levis, Vahl. 2.

Et-korasa-wel, S.

ACROTREMA UNIFLORUM, Hk. 2. & C.P. 3896.

var. rotundatum, Thw.

var. bullatum, Thw. (sp-) 2. :

var. rugatum, Thw. ms. (sp.) C.P. 3899, 3905.

var. sylvaticum, Zhw. (sp.) 2. & C.P. 3882.

var. (? hybr.) membranaceum, Thw. ms. (sp.)

C.P. 3897, 3898.

var. Walkeri, Thw. (sp.) 3, 398.

var. (?hybr.) appendiculatum, Thw. ms. (sp.) C.P. 3880.

var. (? hybr.) dentatum, Thw. ms.(sp.) C.P. 3881.

A.INTERMEDIUM, Thw. 3.

A. LANCEOLATUM, Hk. 38.

A. GARDNERI, Thw. 3.

A. Tuwaitesu, Hk. f.g Th. 3. & C.P. 3969.

A. pissectum, Thw. 3.

A. LyrRAtum, Thw. 3.

. Scuumacuerta ancustirouia, Hk. f.s Th. 4.

S, ALNIFOLIA, Hkh. fi & The 4.

var. scabra, Thw.

var. dentata, Wight.

var. subglabra, Thw.

-10.,

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

S. CASTANEZFOLIA, Vahl. 4.

Kekiriwara, 8.

WoRMIA TRIQUETRA, Rottb. 4.

Diyapara, 8. |

Dillenia indica, L. D. speciosa. 5.

Hondapara, Wam-para, 8.

D. REtTusA, Thunb. 35.

Godapara, 8. Pasu, Punali, T.

3. Magnoliacee.

Michelia nilagirica, Zenk. 5.

Wal-sapu, Wal-buruta, 8.

var. glauca, Wight (sp.) (Includes var. ovalifolia.)

var. Walkeri, Wighi (sp.)

(M, Champaca, Z.) 5.

Sapu, 8. Senpakam,T. Champak.

Kadsura Wightiana, Arn. 5.

4. Anonacee.

Uvaria spHEeNnocARPA, Hk. f.& Th. 6.

U. macrophylla, Roxb. 6.

U, semecarpifolia, Hk. fi § Th. 6.

U. macropopa, Hk. f.§ Th. 6.

U. Narum, Wall. 6.

U. zeylanica, L. 6.

Palu-kan, S.

CYATHOCALYX ZEYLANICUS, Champ. 9.

Kekala, I'petia, 8.

Artabotrys odoratissimus, &. Br. 9.

A. zeylanicus, Hk. f.§ Th. 9.

Petikd-wel, S.

UNONA ELEGANS, Thw. 398.

U. zevuanica, Hh. f. & Th. 9.

Polyalthia longifolia, Bedd. Guatteria. 10.

P. coffeoides, Bedd. Guatteria. 10.

Nedunarai, T.

P. acuminata, Thw. 399.

P. Korinti, Hk. f. § Th, 10,

Ulavintai, 'T.

P. suberosa, Bedd. 10.

Kalati, 8.

P. Moon, Thw. 9.

P. persicirotia, Bedd, Guatteria. 10. C.P, 3917.

S04

19. Anaxagorea luzonensis, Gray. A. zeylanica. 10. C.P.

3883,

20. Goniothalamus Thwaitesii, Hk. f.& Th. 7.

Kalukeéra, 8. :

G. GarpNner!I, Hk. f. §& Th. 7.

G. Hooxeri, Thw. 6.

G. Warker!, Hk. f. § Th. 8.

Kapuru, 8.

G. Tuomson1, Thw. 7.

G. RETICULATUS, Thw. 7.

G. saticinus, Hk. f. & Th. 7.

21. Mitrephora Heyneana, Thw. 8.

22. XyYLOPIA PARVIFLORA, Hk. f. § Th. 9.

Netawu, 8.

X. nigricans, Hh. fi & Th. 9.

X. Cuampioniu, Hk. f.5 Th. 9.

Datketiyd, S.

23, Miliusa indica, Lesch. MM. montana. 10,

M. ZEYLANICA, Gardn. 11.

24. Alphonsea lutea, Hk. f.& Th. 399.

A. zeylanica Hk, f.& Th. 11.

A. SCLEROCARPA, Zhw. 11.

25. Orophea zeylanica, Hk. f.& Th. 8.

26. Bocacea Tuwaitesu, Hk. f.§ Th. Sagerea. 6.

B. cortacna, Hk. f.$ Th. Orophea. 8.

Keku, 8.

B. osriqua, Hk. f. & Th. Orophea. 8.

5. Menispermacee.

27. Tinospora malabarica, Miers.

var. tomentoga, Miers (sp.) 12.

Bu-kinda, Wal-kinda, S.

{ T. crispa, Miers.

Titta-kinda, S.

T. cordifolia, Miers. 12.

| Rasa-kinda, 8. Seenthil, T.

28. Anamirta paniculata, Colebr. A. Cocculus. 12.

Titta-wel, S.

99, Coscinium fenestratum, Colebr. 12.

ee. Weni-wel, S.

F380. Tiliacora racemosa, Colebr. T. acuminata. 12.

31.

32.

33.

34,

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

Limacia cuspidata, Ako f. & Th. 12.

Niri-wel, S.

Cocculus macrocarpus, W. & a 13.

Stephania hernandifolia, Walp. 18.

Lunu-hetiya-wel, S.

Cissampelos Pareira, Z. 13.

Diya-mitta, S.

var. subpeltata, Thw. 399.

Cyclea Burmanni, Miers. 18.

Kehi-pittan, Kesi-pissan, S.

[C. peltata, Hk. ff & Th.] 13.

Pachygone ovata, Miers. 18.

6. Berberidee.

Berberis aristata, DC. 18.

¢@. Nympheacee.

Nymphea Lotus, Z. 14.

var. pubescens, Hk. f. & Th.

O'lu, S.

N. stellata, Willd. 14.

Manel, S.

Nelumbium speciosum, Willd. 14.

Nelun,S. Tamarai, T.

8. Crucifere.

Nasturtium indicum, DC. 399.

* N. officinale, L. Kakkutu-pald,S. Water-cress.

Cardamine africana, L. 399.

_C. subumbellata, Hk. (C. hirsuta. 14.

* Brassica juncea, Hk. f.$ Th. 399.

Aba, S.

9. Capparides.

Cleome monophylla, Z. 14.

C. tenella, L. f.

C. aspera, Koen, 14.

[C. Burmanni, W. & A.]

©. viscosa, L. Polanisia viscosa. 14.

Wal-aba, 8.

Gynandropsis pentaphylla, DC. 14,

Wela, S. ,

Merua arenaria, Hk. f.& Th. M. oblongifolia.

15.

46.

47.

— 48.

49.

50.

ol.

52.

53.

Crateva Roxburghii, &. Br. 14. |

Lunu-warana,§. Navala, T.

Cadaba trifoliata, W.& A. 13. |

C. indica, Lam. 1s.

Capparis zeylanica, L. C. brevispina. 15.

[C. Heyneana, Wall. ]

. divaricata, Lam. C. stylosa, 15.

. Moonii, Wight. 16.

. Roxburghii, DC. 15.

. grandis, L. f. 16.

pedunculosa, Wall, 16.

. sepiaria, L, 16.

var. RETUSELLA, Thw. (sp.) 16.

. floribunda, Wight. 399.

. horrida, L. fi 15.

Welangiriya, Ss.

. tenera, Dalz., var. zoxiantca, Ha, S.& Th. C.tetras-

perma. 5.

oO AQ aeggannr

10. Violaces.

Viola Patrinii, DC. 20.

V.distans, Wall. V. Wightiana, var. glabra. 20.

V. serpens, Wall. V. Wightiana, var. pubescens. 20,

Jonidium suffruticosum, Ging. 20.

I, RAMOsISSIMUM, Thw. 21.

Alsodeia zeylanica, Thw. 21,

A. pecora, Trim.ms. C.P. 4006.

A. virncaTa, Hk. f. & Th. Scyphellandra, 21.

11. Bixinee. :

(Cochlospermum Gossypium, DC.) Kini-hiriya, Ela-

imoul, S.

(Bixa Orellana, Z.) 16. Kaha,S. Annatto.

Scolopia crenata, Clos. SS. chinensis. 400.

var. acuminata, Clos. (sp.) 400.

var. crassipes, Clos, (sp.) 400.

Katu-kurundu, Katukenda 8.

ERYTHROSPERMUM PHYTOLACCOIDES, Gardn. 18.

(Flacourtia inermis, Roxb.) Lovi-lovi,

F. Ramontchi, L’Herit. F.sapida. 17.

Uguressa, 8.

(var. Cataphracta, Hoxb. (sp.)) Rata-uguressa, S.

54.

05.

57,

58.

59.

60.

FE. sepiaria, Roxb, 17.

ABERIA GARDNERI, Clos. 400.

Ket-ambilla, 8.

‘TRICHADENIA ZEYLANICA, Thw. 19.

Titta-gas, Tolol, S.

HypNOCARPUS VENENATA, Gaertn. H.inebrians. 18.

Makulu, 8.

H. alpina, Wight. 19.

H. octranprRA, Thw. 19.

12. Pittosporacese.

Pittosporum tetraspermum, W.& A. 68.

P. nilghirense, W. 3 A.2 C.P. 3994.

P. ZEYLANICUM, Wight. 68.

Ketiya, S.

18. Polygalacez.

Polygala arillata, Ham. 22.

P. javana, DC. 22,

P. leptalea, DC. 22,

P, guaucoipEs, L. P. arvensis, vars. b. & a. 400.

var. hirsutula, Thw. P. elongata, var. hirsutula, 22.

[P. elongata, Klezm. |

P. chinensis, L. FP. arvensis, var. c. 400.

P. rosmarinifolia, W. & A. P.rosm., var. puberula. 22.

P., sibirica, Z., var. macrolophos, Hassk. P. glomerata,

400.

P. telephioides, Willd. 22.

SALOMONIA CILIATA, DC. SS. cordata. 22.

S. oblongifolia, DC. 22.

Xanthophyllum flavescens, Roxb. X. virens. 400,

14. Caryophyllacee.

Cerastium indicum, W.& A. 24.

+ C. vulgatum, Z. var. glomeratum, Thuzill. (sp.)

STELLARIA DRYMARIOIDES, Thw. 24.

* S. media, With. 24. Chichweed.

* Sagina procumbens, L,

* Spergula arvensis, L. Spurrey.

Drymaria cordata, Willd. 25. |

Polycarpon Loeflingiza, B.$ Hk. f. Harpalosia. 25.

Polycarpza corymbosa, Lam. 25.

66.

67.

68.

69.

70.

71.

15. Portulacacese.

Portulaca oleracea, LZ. 23.

Genda hola, S. Purslane.

[P. Wightiana, Wall.]

P. quadrifida, Z. 28.

Hin-genda-kola, S.

P. tuberosa, Roxb. 401.

U'ru-genda, §.

P. suffruticosa, Wight. 24.

16. Tamariscines.

Tamarix gallica, Z. 401. MTamarisk.

[T: ericoides, Roxb.]

1?. Hlatineee.

Bergia ammanioides, Roxb. 23.

B, verticillata, Willd. 23.

18. Hypericacece.

Hypericum mysorense, Heyne. 48.

H. japonicum, Thunb. 48.

* H. humifusum, ZL.

19. Guttiferee.

Garcinia Cambogia, Desr. 48.

Goraka, 8, Korukkai-puli, T.

var. Papilla, Wighé. (sp.)

G. ECHINOCARPA, Thw. 49.

Madol, S.

G. Morella, Desr. 49.

Gokatu, Kana-goraka, S. Gamboge.

G. TERPNOPHYLLA, Thw. 49, 406.

Kokatiya, 8.

var. acuminata, Pl. & Tri. (sp.)

G. spicata, Hk. f. Xanthochymus ovalifolius. 49,

Ela-gokatu, 8. Kokatai, T.

var. acutifolia, 7. And.

Calophyllum spectabile, Willd. C. Moonti. 52.

Domba-kina, S.

C. Burmanni, Wight, 52.

Guru-kina, 8. Chiru-punnai, T.

C. Inophyllum, £. 51.

Domba, 8. Punnai, T.

12.

14, .

75.

76.

17.

78,

C. tomentosum, Wight. ol,

Kina, S. .

var. elatum, Bedd., (p.) (C, angustifolium, Roxb. ?)

Tombu-kata, T.

C. BRACTEATUM, Thw. 51.

Walu-kina, S. |

C. TRAPEZIFOLIUM, Thw. 51.

C. Tuwaitesi, Fl. § Tri. 407.

C. coRDATO-oBLONGUM, Thw, 407.

C. cuneirotium, Thw. 51.

C. WALKERI, (aos dl.

Kina, S. |

KAyeEa styLosa, Thw. 50.

Suwanda, 8.

Mesua ferrea, L. 50.

Nd, 8S. Naka, T. Troh- wood.

var. sclerophylla, Thw. (sp.) 407.

var. pulchella, Pl. § Tri. (sp.) 407.

M. Tawaitesi, Pl. 3 Tri. 207 :

Diya-nd, S. |

20. Ternstroemiacese.

Ternstreemia japonica, Thunb. Cleyera gymnanthera, 40.

T. pmareinaTa, Chois.. Cleyera. 40.

ADINANDRA LASIOPETALA, Chois. Sarosanthera. 41.

Eurya japonica, Thunb. 41. |

Neya-dasse,S. Wild Tea.

var. chinensis, #. Br. (sp.) var. parviflora, 41.

var. ZEYLANICA, Wight (sp.) var. chinensis. 41.

E. acuminata, DC. E. japonica, var, acuminata, 41.

GORDONIA ZEYLANICA, Wight. 40.

G. ELLIPTICA, Gardn.

G. speciosa, Thw. 40.

21. Dipterocarpacee.

DIPTEROCARPUS HISPIDUS, Thw. Includes J). oblongi-

folius.- 33.

Bi-hora, S.

D. ZEYLANICUS, Thw. 33.

Hora, 8.

D. GLtanpuLosus, Thw. 34.

Dorana, S.

}

79.

80.

81.

82.

688.

84,

D. scasripus, Thw. 34.

D. 1nsienis, Thw. 34.

SUNAPTEA SCABRIUSCULA, Trim. Vateria ( Stemono-

porus.) 404,

S.? pisticua, Trim. Vateria (Stemonoporus.) 404.

Vatica Roxburghiana, Bl. (V. chinensis, L.) 404, 37.

Mendéra, 8.

V. arrinis, Thw. 404.

V. opscura, Trim. ms.

Tumpalai, T.

V.? corpiroLia, Zhw. 404,

SHOREA OBLONGIFOLIA, Thw. 36.

S. Dreru, Thw. ms. C.P. 4010.

S. LISSOPHYLLA, Thw. 402.

S. STIPULARIS, Thw. 36.

var. minor, Thw. ms. C.P. 3987 (part) & 4024.

S. reticurata, Thw. (in Fl. Brit. Ind.) C.P. 3884.

S. BREVIPETIOLARIS, Thw. ms. C.P. 4008,

Hopea piscoLtor, Thw. 36.

H. sucunpa, Thw. 408.

var. modesta, A. DC.

Doona ZEYLANICA, Thw, 34.

Din, S.

D. neRvosa, Thw. 35.

D. Arrinis, Thw. 35.

D. TRAPEZIFOLIA, Thw. 35.

Yaka-halu, S.

D. CONGESTIFLORA, Thw. 35.

Tiniya, S.

D. optonea, Lhw. ms. C.P. 8986.

D. GaRDNERI, Zhw. 35.

D. corpiroiia, Thw. 35.

Beraliya, S.

D. mMacropuytia, Thw. 402 & C.P. 3987 (part).

Honda-beraliya, S.

D. ovaLirotia, Thw. 402.

D. venutosa, Thw. 402.

VatTeria AcumINATA, Hlayne. V.indica. 37.

Hal, S. Pinai, T.

__ YV. (STEMONOPORUS) ZEYLANICA, Wight. V. Wighti. 37,

403.

V.(S.) Garpngeri, Thw. 403.

85.

86.

87.

88.

V. (S.) suconpa, Thw. (in Fil. Brit. Ind.) V. acumi-

nata, 403.

V.(S.) arrinis, Thw. 408.

V. (S.) LANcEoLATA, Thw. 403.

V.(S.) cANALICULATA, Thw. 403.

V.(S.) petiotaris, Thw, 403.

V. (S.) nieipa, Thw. 408.

V.(S.) opLtoneiFoLia, Thw. 408.

V. (S.) reticutata, Thw. 408.

V. (S.) nitipa, Thw. 403.

var. lancifolia, Dyer. V. lancifolia. 404,

V. (S. ?) nervosa, Thw. ms. C.P. 3885.

V. (S.) Moonn, Thw. 403, |

MONOPORANDRA CORDIFOLIA, Thw. 39. Vateria. 404.

M. ELEGANS, Thw. 39. Vateria. A404.

21 bis. Ancistroclades.

ANCISTROCLADUS VAHLII, Arn. 188.

Géna-wel, 8.

22. Malvacese.

* Malvastrum carpinifolium, A. Gr. 441.

Sida humilis, Willd. 28.

Bevila, 8.

. mysorensis, W.& A. 28.

. spinosa, L. S. alba. 28.

. carpinifolia, L. S. acuta. 27.

. thombifolia, LZ. S. retusa. 28.

Kotikan-bevila, S.

var.rhomboidea, S.rhombifolia. 28.

S. cordifolia, L. 28.

+ Wissadula zeylanica, Medik. W.periplocifolia. 27.

Kiri-kaju, 8.

(W. Leschenaultiana, Mast.) Abutilon, 401.

{ Abutilon polyandrum, W. 8 A. 27.

A. asiaticum, D. Don. 27.

Anddd, S,

A. indicum, G. Don. 27.

Perun-tutti, T’.

A. graveolens, VW. A. 27.

A. muticum, G. Don. <A. tomentosum, 27.

A.crispum, G. Don. 401.

RNNMN

89.

90.

EO}:

- 92.

93.

94,

95,

96.

OT:

Urena lobata, Z. 25.

Patta-epala, S.

Uasinuata, Le 25:

Hin-epala, S.

Pavonia glechomifolia, A. Rich.

P. zeylanica, Cav, 26.

P. odorata, Willd. 26.

JULOSTYLIS ANGUSTIFOLIA, Thw. 80.

DICELLOSTYLES AXILLARIS, Benth. 401.

Hibiscus surattensis, Z. 26.

Hin-ndpiritta, S.

4H. fureatus, Roxb. 26.

Napiritia, S.

H. micranthus, “2. 26.

Pir-amati, T.

H. Solandra, L’Herit. Lagunea lobata. 27.

H. collinus, Roxb. H. eriocarpus. 26.

Paritti, T. :

H. lunariifolius, Willd. 401.

H. pandurefolius, Burm. 26.

H. vitifolius, L. 26.

H. cannabinus, Z. 401.

(H. Sabdariffa, £.) Rozelle,

H. ficulneus, L. Abelmoschus. 27.

H. angulosus, Mast. Abelmoschus. 26,

Kapu-hinissa, S.

var. grandiflorus, Thw.

var. purpureus, Lhw.

H. Abelmoschus, LZ. Abelmoschus moschatus. 27.

(H. esculentus, 2.) Bandakai, T.

H. tiliaceus, L.. Paviteum. 26.

Beli-patta, S.

Thespesia Lampas, Dalz. & Gibs. Hibiscus. 26.

T. populnea, Corr. 27.

Sariya, S. Pu-varasu,T. Tulip tree.

(Adansonia digitata, L.) Paparu-pulli, T. Baobab.

Bombax malabaricum, DC. Salmalia. 28.

Katu-imbul, 8S. Parutti, T. Red Cotton tree.

-Eriodendron anfractuosum, DC, £. orientale. 28.

Imbul, 8. Elavum, Illaku, T. White Cotton tree-

Cullenia excelsa, Wight. 28.

Katu-boda, 8. Konji, T. Wild Durian.

23. Sterculiacee.

98, Sterculia fetida, Z. 29.

Telambu, 8. Kaditeni, Pinara, T.

S. urens, Rorb. 29.

Kavali, T.

S. guttaia, Roxb. 29.

S. Balanghas, £. 29.

Naud, 8.

S. colorata, Roxb. Firmiana. 29.

S. Tawaitesi, Mast. Pterygota alata 29.

99. Heritiera littoralis, Dryand. 28.

tuna, S.

100. Helicteres Isora, LZ. 28.

4 Linya, 8. Vullum-puri, T.

101. Pterospermum suberifolium, Lam. 30.

Velanga, S. Toddi, Vinnaku, T.

102. Melochia corchorifolia, Z. 30,

108. Waltheria indica, ZL. 30.

* Guazuma tomentosa, Kunth. 29.

Patti-parutti, T.

24. Tiliacee.

104. PiryRANTHE-vERRUCOSA, Thw. 29.

105. Berrya Ammonilla, Roxb. 32.

Hal-milla,S. Chamandalé, Malé,Kada-manakku T.

Trincomalee Wood.

106. Grewia'columnaris, Sm. 31.

Koddi-thuvattai, T.

* G. orientalis, Z. 381.

Thuvattai, T.

G. populifolia, Vahl.

G. orbiculata, Rottl G. rotundifolia. 402.

G. tiliefolia, Vahl. 32.

Daminiya, 8. Chadachi, T.

(G, asiatica, L.)

G. bracteata, Roth.

G. DIPLOCARPA, hw. 31.

G hirsuta, Vahi. 31.

G. polygama, Roxb, G.helicterifolia. 31.

G. Microcos, Z. 382.

Keliya, 8. |

107. Triumfetta tomentosa, Boj. 7’, pilosa, var.a. 81.

108.

109.

He Sees

110.

a els

112.

113,

114,

T. pilosa, Roth. T. pilosa, var. B. 31.

T, rhomboidea, Jacg. T.angulata. 31.

Epala, S.

T. conspicua Trim. ms..

T. neglecta, W.g A. T. pilosula. 401,

Corchorus capsularis, Z. 31.

. Olitorius, £. 31.

urticefolius, W.& A. 31.

fascicularis, Lam. 401.

acutangulus, Lam. 3l.

lzocarpus serratus, L. 32.

var. cuneatus, Wight, (sp.)

Weralu, S. Wild Olive.

{E. robustus, Roxd. |

.amenus, Thw, 32 & C.P. 3906.

. OBOVATUS, Arn, 32,

. MONTANUS, Thw. 32.

. SUBVILLOSUS, Arn. 383.

Gal-weralu, S.

. ZEYLANICUS, Arn. Monocera Walkeri. 38.

. GLANDULIFER, Mast. Monocera, 33,

25. Linacee.

Linum mysorense, Heyne. 25.

Hugonia Mystax, L. 25.

‘C. tridens, £. 401.

Maha- or Bu-getiya, 8. Morthiré-kuma, T.

H. FERRUGINEA, W.& A. 25.

Erythroxylum mone aun, Roxb. Sethia indica.

Tevaturam, T.

EK. lanceolatum, Hk. f. Sethia. 54.

E. Lucipum, Moon. Sethia acuminata. 654.

Bata-kirilla, 8. Stru-chenumutthi, T.

var. minor. C. P. 4011.

EK. optusirotium, Hk. f. Sethia.

26. Malpighiacese.

Hiptage Madablota, Gaertn. 53.

Puwak-gediya-wel, S.

~H. parviflora, W. § A. 53.

27. Zygophyllacez.

Tribulus terrestris, Z. 68.

Sembu-nerenchi, S. & T.

53.

28. Geraniaces.

115. Geranium nepalense, Sweet. 64.

116. Oxalis corniculata, ZL.

Hin-embul-embiliya, S.

* O. purpurata, Jacq.

117. Biophytum sensitivum, DC. Oxalis. 409.

var. nervifolia, Edgew. & Hk. f.

Gas-nidi-kumba, S.

B. Reinwardtii, Walp.

B. NupuM, Arn. Ovalis sensitiva, var. B. 409.

B. PROLIFERUM, Arn. O. sensitiva, var. y. 409.

? B. intermedium, Wight.

(Averrhoa Bilimbi, Z.) Bilin, 8. Blimbing,

(A. Carambola, LZ.) Kdmaranga, S.

118. Impatiens acaulis, Arn. 68,

I. oppositifolia, Z. JI. rosmarinifolia. 65.

I. cuspidata, W.& A. 65.

var. bipartita, Arn. (sp.)

J. Balsamina, Z. 65.

I. GLANDULIFERA, Arn. 66.

I. MACROPHYLLA, Gardn. 66.

I, REPENS, Moon. 66.

Gal-demata, S.

I, LEPTOPODA, Arn. 65.

J. rruncata, Thw. 66.

I. flaccida, Arn. 65.

Kudalu-mal, 8.

I. Henslowiana, Arn. 65.

J. gantHINA, Thw. 68.

I. suBcorDATA, .4rn. 67,

I, HooKERIANA, Arn. 66.

I, peEUCANTHA, Thw. 67.

I. LINEARIS, Arn. 67.

J. APPENDICULATA, Arn, 67.

I. ELONGATA, Arn. 67.

I. CORNIGERA, Arn. 67.

I. ARnoTTI, Thw. 67.

I. WatkertI, Hook. 66.

119. MHydrocera triflora, W.§ A. 68.

Diya-kudalu, S.

120.

124.

125.

‘126.

127.

128.

129.

130.

131.

15 —

29. Rutacese.

Evodia Roxburghiana, Benth. E. triphylla, 409.

Lunu-ankenda, 8.

Zanthoxylum tetraspermum, W. § A, 69,

(Z. Rhetsa, DC.) 69.

Katu-kina, 8.

Toddalia aculeata, Pers. 69.

_ Kudu-miris, 8.

Acronychia laurifolia, Bl. A. pedunculata. 409,

Ankenda, S.

Glycosmis pentaphylla, Corr. Includes G. arborea.

var. longifolia, Oliv.

Dodan-panad, 8. Kulla-pannai, 'T.

G. pitocuLaris, Thw. 45.

Micromelum pubescens, Bl. 46.

Wal-karapincha, 3.

Murraya exotica, L. 46.

Eitériya, S.

(var. buxifolia, Thw.)

var. paniculata, Thw.

M. Gurenier, Thw. 406.

M. Koenigii, Spreng. 406.

Karapincha, 8. Kurrivuppu, T. Cursy-teay-

Clausena indica, Oliv. 406.

Migon- karapincha, S. Purunké-nurai, T.

C. Willdenovii, W.& A. 47. :

var. pubescens, Thw. 407.

Limonia alata, W. 38 A. 46.

Tumpat-kurundu, 8.

Luvunga eleutherandra, Dalz. 48, 406.

Paramignya monophylla, Wight. 47. —

Wellangiriya, 5.

P. armata, Oliv. 406.

Atalantia monophylla, DC. 44.

Perum-kurundu, T.

A. racemosa, W. 3 A. 405.

A, zeylanica, Oliv. 405.

Yakindran, S. Né-kurundu, T,

_ var. rotundifolia, Oliv.

A. Missionis, Oliv. 405.

Pamburu, S. Kurundu, T.

45,

132. Feronia elephantum, Corr. 48.

: — Dwul,S. Meéladi-kurundu, T. Wood Apple.

(Egle Marmelos, Corr.) Beli, S. Vila, Vilva,T. Bael.

30. Simarubacee.

183. Ailantus malabarica, DC. 69.

Kumbalu, Wal-bilin, S.

134. Samadera indica, Gaertn. 70.

Samadard, S.

* Brucea sumatrana, Roxb. 69.

31. Ochnaces.

135. Ochna squarrosa, LZ. Includes O. rufescens. 70.

Mal-kéra, S.

var. cordata, Thw. 409.

O. Wightiana, Wall. Includes O. Moonii. 70.

136. Gomphia angustifolia, Vahl. 71.

Bo-kera, S.

32. Burseracee.

(Boswellia serrata, Roxb.) C. P. 3878.

137. Balsamodendrum caudatum, March. Protium. 78.

kilivai, T.

B, Berryi, W. & A.?

Mul-kilivai, 'T.

1388. CANARIUM BRUNNEUM, Bedd. Scutinanthe. 78.

Maha-oulu-mora, 8S.

C. zEryLanicum, Bl. 79.

Kekuna, S.

139. Filicium decipiens, Thw. 408.

Pehimbiya, S.

38. Meliacee.

140. Muwronta pumina, Wight, 59.

Bin-kohomba, S.

141, Azadirachta indica, A Juss, 59.

Kohomba, 8S. Vempu, 7.

142, (Melia Azedarach, £.) Bead tree. Indian Lilac.

M. dubia, Cav. M.composita. 59.

Lunu-midella, 8. Malai-vempu, Patiri, T.

143. Cipadessa fruticosa, Bl. Mallea Rothii. 60.

Hal-bembiya, 8.

144. Dysoxylum binectariferum, Hk. f. D.macrocarpum. 60.

145.

146.

ey:

148.

149.

150.

‘151.

152.

153.

154.

(Aglaia odorata, Lour.)

A. APIOCARPA, Hiern. Milnea. 60.,

A. Roxburghiana, Mig. Milnea. 60.

Amoora Rohituka, W. § A. 60.

— Hingul, S.

Psreupocarapa Cuampionu, Hemsl. Amoora. 409.

WaLsurRA GARDNERI, Thw. 61.

W. Piscidia, Roxb. 61.

Kiri-kén, 8. Chadda-vakku, Walsurai, Kannd-

khampu, ‘TL. :

Carapa moluccensis, Lam. Xylocarpus Granatum. 61.

(Soymida febrifuga, 4. Juss.)

Chickrassia tabularis, A. Juss. 6).

Hulan-hik, S. Aglai, Kulothi, T.

Chloroxylon Swietenia, DC. 61.

Buruta, 8. Mutirai, T. Satinwood.

34. Chailletiaceee. |

Chailletia gelonioides, Hk. f. Moacurra. 79.

Balu-nakuta, 8.

| 35. Olacines.

Ximenia americana, Willd. C.P. 2332,

Olax scandens, Roxb. 42.

O. Wightiana, Wall. 42,

QO. zeyuanica, L. 42.

Mella, S.

_ Strombosia zeylanica, Gardn. S. javanica. 42,

-Cansjera Rheedei, Gmel. 251.

Opilia amentacea, Roxb, 41.

Lasianthera apicalis, Thw. 405.

U'rukanu, S.

- Gomphandra axillaris, Wall. Platea. 44.

G. polymorpha, Wight. Platea coriacea. 44.

APODYTES GARDNERIANA, Miers. 22

Mappia ovata, Miers, M. foetida. 43.

var. Championiana, /vers. (sp.)

Gandapéna, S. ae

Pyrenacantha volubilis, Hook. 290.

36. Tlicines:.

a dlex Walkeri, Wight & Gardn. 184.

I. denticulata, Wall. 1838.

164.

165.

166.

167.

168,

169.

170.

VIL

idl 12.

178.

174.

175.

176.

I. Wightiana, Wall. 188.

Andun-wenna, 8.

37. Celastracese.

EUONYMUS REVOLUTUS, Wight. 73.

EK. Towaitssi, Laws. E. dichotomus. 78.

KE. Watkert, Wight. 73.

? HK. dichotomus, Heyne.

Glyptopetalum zeylanicum, Thw. 78.

Microtropis WALLICHIANA, Wight. 71.

M. ramiflora, Wight. 72.

Kokoona zeylanica, Thw. 52.

Wana-potu, Kokun-potu, §.

Pleurostylia Wightii, Thw, 71.

Piyari, 8.

Celastrus paniculata, Willd. 72.

Duhudu, S.

Gymnosporia FroTIcosa, Hk, f. 409.

G. emarginata, Roth. 409. .

KURRIMIA ZEYLANICA, Arn. 72.

Pelan, Hurukandu, Et-heraliya, 8. Konnai, T.

Eleodendrum glaucum, Pers, 73.

var. MONTANUM, Thw.

Neralu, S. Pieri, & (with serrate leaves) Karukku-

vachchi, T.

Hippocratea obtusifolia, Roxb. 52.

Diya-kirindi-wel, 8.

H. Arnottiana, Wight. Salacia terminalis, 407.

H. indica, Wilid. 52.

Salacia princides, DC. 58.

Hin-himbutu-wel, 8.

S. reticulata, Wight. 58.

var, diandra, Laws. SS. diandra. 53.

FHimbutu-wel, S.

S. oblonga, Wall. 53.

38. Rhamnacee.

Ventilago maderaspatana, Gaertn. 74.

Vaimbadam, T.

Zizyphus Jujuba, Lam. 74.

Maha-debara, Masan,S. ILlanthat, T.

Z. Ginoplia, Mill. 74.

Hlin-eraminiyd, S. Churai, T.

: Pe xylopyra, Willd. 74.

177.

LTS.

179.

180.

181.

182,

183.

184.

<q <4 < <<<4

4444 444

Nani-ilanthai, T.

Z. Naprca, Willd,

var. lucida, Moon (sp.) (Z. Linnei, Laws. ?) 74.

Z. rugosa, Lam. 73.

Maha-eraminiyd, S. Churai, T.

RHAMNUs ARNOTTIANUS, Gardn. 74.

R. Wightii, Wg A. 74.

Seutia indica, Brongn. 75.

Sageretia costata, Mig. S. affinis. 410(C.P. 2477).

Colubrina asiatica, Brongn. 75.

Tel-hiriya, 8.

Gouania microcarpa, DC. 75,

39. Ampelidec.

Vitis quadrangularis, Wall. Cissus edulis, 62.

fiiressa, 8.

. GLYPTOCARPA, Laws. Cissus. 62.

. LONCHIPHYLLA, Laws. Cissus. 62.

. pallida, W.% A.? Cissus glauca. 62.

62 & C.P. 3962.

-adnata, Wall. Cissus. 62.

Wal-diya-labu, .

. Linnei, Wall. Cissus anguiata. 62.

Kaddu-montherai, T.

. tomentosa, Heyne.

. erioclada, W. 3 A. V. indica. 62.

To-wel, Rita-bulat-wel, 8.

. Rheedii, W.& A. Cissus trilobaia. 62.

setosa, Wall. Cissus. 68.

. carnosa, Wali. Cissus. 63.

Wat-rat-diya-labu, 8.

. RETICULATA, Laws. Cissus. 68.

. GarDNERI, Laws. Cissus. 658.

. lanceolaria, Wali. Includes Cissus murieaia.

.pedata, Vahl. Cissus. 63.

Mediya-wel, 8.

Leea sambucina, Willd. L. Staphylea. G64,

Burulla, Gurulla, S.

40. Sapindacesc.

C: ee ee Ib role

Peneia-wel, 8.

.repanda, WW’. §& A, Cissus acuminaia & C. repens,

185.

186.

189,

190.

191.

192.

193.

194,

195,

C. canescens, Wail.

-Hemigyrosa canescens, Thw. 46.

_ var. trichocarpa, Thw. (sp.) 56.

(Dittelasma Rarak, Hz. f.)

Allophylus zeylanicus, ZL. Schmidelia allopkylia. 55,

var. ACUMINATA, Hiern. Schmidelia. 58.

var. varians, Hiern. Schmidelia. 408.

var. TuHwaitersiu, Hiern.

A. wispipA. Schmidelia. 565.

A. Cobbe, B/. Schmidelia. 55.

var. villosa, Hiern. Schmidelia. 35.

Kobbé, 8.

Schleichera trijuga, Willd. 58.

Kén, 8. Puvu, Kila, T. Ceylon Oak.

GLENIEA ZBEYLANICA, Hk. f.. 408.

var. unijuga, Thw. 408, 06.

var. fuscata, Thw. 408, 58.

Sapindus laurifolius, Vahl. 55.

Kaha-penela, 5.

S. emarginatus, Vahl. 56,

Penela, 8S. Piuvanti, T.

S. Erectus, Hiern. Nephelium. 57.

S. Tawaitesi, Hiern. Nephelium simplicifolium. 57.

S. bifoliatus, Hiern, Nephelium, 57.

Nephelium Longana, Camb. 58.

Mora, S. Moreh, T.

N. Garpneri, Phw. 58.

Pometia eximia, Hk. f. 408.

Gal-mora, S. (Kandyan country.)

Harpullia cupanioides, frorb. H. imbricata. 56.

Nd-imbul, S.

Dodonza viscosa, L. 0D. Burmanniana. 59.

Kta-werella, S. Virak, T.

Turpinia pomifera, DC. TT. nepalensis. 71.

Lita-kirilla, Kankumbald, 8.

41. Sabiacese.

Meliosma Wightii, Planch. MM. pungens. 459.

M. simplicifolia, Walp. 59.

Elbedda, 8S.

M. Arnottiana, Wight, 59.

196.

197.

198.

199.

200.

201.

202.

203.

48. Anacardiacee.

- (Mangifera indica, L.) dango.

M. zeyvuanica, Hk. f. M. indica. 75.

Amba, Wal-amba, 8, Ma, Kéddu Ma,T. Wild

Mango. ee

(Anacardium occidentale, L.) Kaju,S. Cashew-nut.

Buchanania angustifolia, Roxb. 78. |

Odina Woodier, Roxb. 78.

Hik,S. Othi, T.

SEMECARPUS PUBESCENS, Thw. 77.

S. Towaitesu, Hk. f. C. P. 3886.

. MARGINATA, Zhw. 77.

. OBOVATA, Moon. 77.

. Moony, Thw. 77.

.CORIACEA, Thw. 77.

. SUBPELTATA, Thw. 75.

Maha-badulila, S,

. GARDNERI, Thw. 76.

Badulla, S. !

. WaLKERI, Hk. f. 8S. obscura (in part). 410.

. opscurA, Thw. Includes S. oblongifolia, a. 76, 410.

acuminata, Thw. SS. oblongifolia, y. 76, 410.

. NIGRO-vinibis, Thw. 8S, oblongifolia, B. 76, 410.

. PARVIFOLIA, Thw. |

Hin-badulla, S.

S.utavieata, Thw. (in Fl. Brit. Ind.) C.P. 3948.

Nothopegia Colebrookiana, Bl. 441.

Bala, S.

CAMPNOSPERMA ZEYLANicUM, Thw. 78.

Aridda, S.

Spondias mangifera, Willd. Evia amara. 78.

fimbarella, 8. Ampallat,'?, Hog-Plum.

(Moringese.)

(Moringa pterygosperma, Gaertn.)

Murungd,S. Murunkai, T. Horse-radish Tree.

2 NMNNNAP

MRA RN A

POLYPETALA, CALYCIFLORA.

43. Connaraces.

Rourea santaloides, W.& A. 80. \

Kirindi-wel, S.

204.

206.

L207

208.

209.

Connarus monocarpus, L. 80,

Radaliya, 8.

C. Coaupiony, Thw. 80.

Wel-radaliya, 8.

ELLipantHus Tuwaitesiu, Hk, f. 410.

44. Leguminose.

Rothia trifoliata, Pers. 82.

Heylandia latebrosa, DC. 81. :

Crotalaria biflora, £. 81. Includes C.globosa. 410,

C. prostrata, Hoxb. 8.

C. ferruginea, Grah, 81.

C. evolvuloides, Wight. 81.

[C. bifaria, LZ. |

C. MULTIFLORA, Benth. 81.

.Tubiginosa, Willd. C. Wightiana. 81.

. mysorensis, froth. 82.

. triquetra, Dalz. 410.

. albida, Heyne. 82.

nana, Burm. Includes C, umbellata. 82.

wlinifolia,; L. f- 82.

.calycina, Schrank. 82.

-retusa, £. 81.

Kaha-andana-hiriya, §.

var. maritima, Trim.

©. verrucosa, £. | 81.

Nil-andana-hiriya, 8.

C. semperflorens, Vent., var. Walker, Arn, (sp.) 81.

C. juncea, L.

Hana, 8. San or Sunn Hemp.

(C. fulva, Aoxd.)

C. lunulata, Heyne. $1.

C. medicaginea, Lam. 82.

* ©. Willdenowiana, DC. 441.

+ © .imeava, wl, 82:

C. striata, DC. 82.

var. acutifolia, Tram. 410.

C. laburnifolia, £. 82.

Vakberiya, S.

C. quinquetolia, £. 82.

* Trifolium repens, £. $82.

* T minus, S77, |

Parochetus communis, Ham. 82.

OOGCOG60 6

— 210.

211.

212.

213.

214.

Eels.

eign HA oe OO oO en

Indigofera echinata, Willd. Acunthonotus. 83.

I, linifolia, Retz. 83. |

I. enneaphylla, L. 83.

I. aspalathoides, Vahl. 88.

Chivanar-vémbu, T.

. pentaphylla, £. 411.

. tenuifolia, Rotil, 8&3.

. viscosa, Lam. 83.

. trifoliata, Z. 83.

eirita, 1. if. So.)

. subulata, Vahl. J. flaccida, 83.

. paucifolia, Del. 83.

. hirsuta, Del. 88.

* T. tinctoria, 2. 411.

Nil-awari, 8. Ladigo.

I. consitricta, Trim. ms. I. flaccida, var. constricta, 411.

I. Wightii, Grah. J. inamena. . 83.

I. galegoides, DC, 83.

Psoralea corylifolia, L. 84.

Mundulea suberosa, Benth. Tephrosia. 84.

Tephrosia tinctoria, Pers. 84.

Alu-pila, 8.

var. intermedia, W. & A.

var. pulcherrima, Wight.

T. spinosa, Pers. 411.

['T. senticosa, Pers. |

T. purpurea, Pers. 84.

Pila, §.

var maxima, Baker. T.maxima. 84. o

T. Hookeriana, W. 5 A. T.hirta, 84 (C.P. 2776.) —

T. villosa, Pers. 84.

Bu-pila, S.

var. argentea, Thw.

Sesbania zegyptiaca, Pers. 84,

Karum-chemba, T. .

S. aculeata, Pers.

var. SERICHEA, Benth. 441.

_(S. grandiflora, Pers.) Akatti,T. Katuru-murungd, S.

[Geissaspis cristata, WV. 5. A.] |

Zornia diphylla, Pers. ;

var. zeylonensis, Baker, Z. angustifolia & Z, conju-

gata. 84, 85.

216.

217.

218.

219.

220.

221.

222.

223.

224,

225.

var. WALKERI, Arn. (sp.) 85.

Stylosanthes mucronata Willd. 84.

Wel-nénu, S.

Smithia sensitiva, Ait. C. P. 3946.

S. geminiflora, Moth, var. conferta, Baker. S. con-

ferta. 88. |

S. blanda, Wall. 83.

var. racemosa, Baker.

/Mschynomene indica, L. 85.

Diya-siyambald, S.

/&. aspera, L. 85.

Maha-diya-siyambala, 8. Attunetta, T.

Ormocarpum sennoides, DC, 85.

Eleiotis sororia, DC. 412.

Pycnospora hedysaroides, A. Br. P. nervosa, 92.

Pseudarthria viscida, W. § A. 87.

Uraria picta, Desv. 85.

(U. crinita, Desv.) 85.

U. hamosa, Wall. 85.

Alyssicarpus monilifer, DC. 412.

A. vaginalis, DC. 87.

A. bupleurifoiius, DC. 87.

Aswenna, S.

A. longifolius, VW. & A. 412,

A, rugosus, DC. A. Heyneanus, 88.

var. styracifolius, W.& A. (sp.) A. seariosus, 88.

Desmodium umbellatum, DC. Dendrolobium, 86.

D. cephalotes, Wall. Dendrolobium, 86.

D. pulchellum, Benth. Phyllodium. 86.

Hampinna, S.

. biarticulatum, Benth. Dicerma. 86.

.laburnifolium, DC. Catenaria. 86.

. triquetrum, DC. Péeroloma. 8&6.

Baloliya, 8.

. ormocarpoides, DC. 87, 441.

. Gardneri, Benth. D.podocarpum. 87.

. Scalpe, DC. D. strangulatum. 87.

.gangeticum, DC. 411.

.latifolium, DC. 87.

D. ecajanefolium, DC. Includes Hedysarum mucro-

natum. 87, 411. |

D. Tuwaitesn, Baker. D. strangulatum, var. minor. 87.

SSeS)

Sees lets)

. Wightii, Grah. 87.

.rufescens, DC. WD. ferrugineum. 87.

. polycarpum, DC. 86.

var, trichocaulon, DC. (sp.)

JucuNDUM, Thw. 411.

. triflorum, DC. 86.

fin-undu-piyali, 8.

. heterophyllum, DC. 86.

Maha-undu-piyali, S.

D. parvifolium, DC, 86.

DD eyrans, DC. 87.

Chanchala, S. Telegraph Plant.

D. gyroides, DC. 87.

226. Abrus precatorius, ZL. 91.

Olinda-wel, S. Kundumani, T.

A. pulchellus, Wall, 91.

227. Shuteria vestita, W.g A. 88.

228. Dumasia villosa, DC., var. leiocarpa, Benth. 88

229. Glycine javanica, L. Soja Wightii. 88.

230. Teramnus labialis, Spreng. Glycine. 88.

231. Mucuna monosperma, DC. 89,

M. atropurpurea, DC. 89.

M. gigantea, DC. 89. :

M. pruriens, DC. M. prurita. S89.

var. biflora.

Achariyd-palu, S. Cowitch.

232. LErythrina indica, £. 89.

Erabadu, S. Murukku, T.

E. ovalifolia, Roxb. 89.

| Vak-erabadu, S.

| E. suberosa, [oad |

233. Strongylodon ruber, Vog. 89.

234. Galactia tenuiflora, VW. A. 88.

235. Spatholobus Roxburghii, Benth. (‘“ Walker, 1331.”)

236. Butea frondosa, Roxb. 89.

- Gas-héla, S.

237. +} Canavalia ensiformis, DC. C. gladiata. 88.

Wal-awara, 8.

var. virosa, Baker. C. virosa. 89.

C. obtusifolia, DC. 88.

238. Dioclea reflexa, Hk. f D. Fergusonn. 412.

Be oo Coe

239. Phaseolus adenanthus, G. F. Mey. P. truxillensis. 89° =

Wal-mé, 8. é e

P. Grahamianus, W. & A. 90. : } q

P. semierectus, L. 90. |

P. trilobus, Azé. 90.

Bin-mé, 8.

P aconitifolius, Jacq.

7, P. Mungo, L.

Mun-eta, 8. Green Gram,

var. radiatus, L. (sp.) 89.

EP trineryius, 0. (90. ;

P. calearatus, Roxb. 412.

240. Vigna luteola, Benth. 90, wes |

(V. Catiang, Hndl.)

V.vexillata, Benth. 90.

_ * Centrosema Plumieri, Benth.

241, Clitoria Ternatea. £. 88.

Nil-katarolu, S.

242. Dolichos Lablab, Z. Lablab vulgaris. 90.

D, biflorus, 1. D. uniflorus. 90.

Kollu, 8, & T. Horse Gram, Madras Gram.

D. ciliatus, Klein. 90.

D. faleatus, Klein. 90,

243. Atylosia Candolleil, W.% A. 91.

Lt-tora, §.

A. albicans, Benth. 91.

A,rugosa, W.5 A. 91.

Wal-kollu, 5.

A. searabzeoides, Benth. 91.

(Cajanus indicus, Spreng.) SO. Rata-téra,S. Thava-

rai, T. Pigeon Pea:

244, Dunbaria ferruginea, W.g A. 90. C. P. 8961.

, D. Heynei, W.g A. 90.

245, Hriosema chinense, Vog.

246. Rhynchosia rufescens, DC. 91.

R. nummularia, DC. Nomismia. 91.

R. aurea, DC.

R. suaveolens, DC. 442.

R. cana, DC. 91.

R. cyanosperma, Benth. Cyanospermum tomentosum. 92.

R, minima, DC. 91,

R. viscosa, DC. #. villosula. 412. C. P, 8898.

R. acutissima, Lhw, 413.

a __R. densiflora, DC. .

247, Flemingia strobilifera, R. Br. 92.

Hampilla, 8.

F. lineata, Roxb. 92.

F. congesta, Roxb. 92.

var. semialata, Hoxd. (sp.) 92.

248. (Dalbergia latifolia, Roxb.)

DP. Championii, Thw. 94.

Bambara-wel, S.

D. frondosa, Roxb. 94.

Vel-urruvai, T.

D. volubilis, Roxb. (“ Mrs. Walker.”)

D. monosperma, Dalz. 94.

249. Pterocarpus Marsupium, Roxb. 92.

: : Malu, Gammalu, 8. Vengai, Udida Vengat, T.

250. Pongamia glabra, Vent. 92.

Magul-karanda, 8. Pungai, Punku, T.

251. Derris scandens, Benth. 413.

Kala-wel, 8.

D. parvirLorA, Benth. 4138.

i (Dy robusta, Benth.)

_D. uliginosa, Benth. 92.

D, panicuLata, Benth, D, Benthamu, 418.

D. oblonga, Benth. 413.

/ WD. sinuata, Benth. 93.

262. Sophora tomentosa, L. 94.

| Mudu-murunga, 8.

S. VIOLACEA, Thw. 94,

_._§. heptaphylla, £. 94.

253. Prricopsis Mooniana, Thee. 413.

oe Nedun, 8. |

254. Cesalpinia Bonduc, Roxd, Guilandina. 94.

heat Kumburu-wel, 8.

| C. Nuga, dit. C. paniculata. 95.

ee : ct ae wuletiya, S.

i (CC. Sappan, £.) Pattangi, S. / Sappan.

C. sepiaria, Roxb. 95.

_[C.-mimosoides, Lam. ]

C. digyna, Rottl. 95, : 3

_ Peltophorum ferrugineum, Benth. Cesalp. Gleniet, 414.

256.

257.

258.

259.

260.

261.

Mezoneurum enneaphyllum, 7. & A. 414.

Goda-wawuletiya, 8.

M. pubescens, Desf.

Cassia Fistula, Z. 95.

Ehela, 8. Kovani, Tirukkondai, T.

C. marginata, Roxb. C. Roxburghiit. 95.

Ratu-wd, 5S. Vdka. T.

_C, occidentalis, £. 95.

Peti-idra, 8.

C. Sophera, £. 95.

Uru-tora, S.

C: Tora, LZ.

Peni-téra, S.

* C, tomentosa, £. 95.

(C. hirsuta, LZ.)

* C. levigata, Willd.

C. auriculata, L. 96.

Ranaward, S. Avarai, T.

C. obovata, Collad. C. obtusa. 441.

* C. alata, £Z. 97. Rata-iéra, 8.

C. siamea, Lam. C. florida. 96.

Wad, Aramand, 8. Wagé, Vdkai, T,

C, timoriensis, DC. 96.

(GC. glauca, Lam.) 96.

var. suffruticosa, Kan. (sp.)? 441.

C. Absus, Z, 96.

Bu-téra, 8.

C. Kleinii, W.3 A. 96.

Bin-siyambald, 8.

fC. pumila, Z.]

_ C. mimosoides, Z. 96.

Bin-siyambala, 8.

var. auricoma, Grah. (sp.) var. villosula. 96.

var. Wallichiana, Baker. C. Wallichiana. 96.

Cynometra ramiflora, LZ. 97,

Gal-mendéra, S.

var. heterophylla, Thw. 97.

(C. cauliflora, Z.) Niam-niam, Malay.

DIALIuM ovorpEuM, Thw. 97.

Gal-siyambald, 8. Katapult, 'T.

CRUDIA ZEYLANICA, Benth. Detarium, +) 4.

Saraca indica, £. Jonesia Asoka, 97.

Diya-ratambalé, Diya-raimal, S.

: - * Tamarindus indica, £. T. officinalis. 95.

Siyambald, 8S. Puli, T. Tamarind.

262. Humboldtia laurifolia, Vahl. 97.

Gal-karanda, S.

263. Bauhinia tomentosa, L. 98.

| Petan, haha-petan, 8. Tiruvatti, Kat-atti, 'T.

(B. acuminata, L.)

B. racemosa, Lam. Piliostigma. 98.

Mayila, 8.

+ B. anguina, Roxb.

264. Neptunia oleracea, Lour. 99.

Gas-nidi-kumba, S.

(N. plena, Benth.)

265. Entada scandens, Benth, 98.

| Pus-wel, §.

266. Adenanthera pavonina, Z. 98.

: Madatiya, S$. Ani-kundumani, T.

A. bicolor, Joon. 98.

Mas-mora, 8.

267. Dichrostachys cinerea, W.5 A. 99.

Andara, S.. Wara, Vadatara, T.

(Desmanthus vrigatus, Willd.) 98. —

* Leucena glauca, Benth.

* Mimosa pudica, LZ. 99.

Midi, S.

268. * Acacia Farnesiana, Willd. 99.

Siniya, S.

A. planifrons, W. & A.

Oddi, T.

A. arabica, Willd. 415.

Kari-velam, T.

A. eburnea, Willd. 99,

Oddi-velam, T.

A.tomentosa, Willd. 99.

Ani-mullu, T.

A. leucophlea, Willd. 99.

Maha-andara, Katu-andara, §. Velam, Vel-

| Velam, T.

A. Suma, Kurz. <A. Catechu, (part.) 99.

A. Sundra, DC. <A. Catechu, (part.) 99.

Rat-kihirt, 8. Vanni, T.

A. ferruginea, DC.

269.

270.

Paras

gi 2.

213.

274.

275.

276.

ory.

80.)

A. eoncinna, DC. 99.

Hinguru, 8.

A.cesia, Willd. A. Inésia. 99.

A.pennata, Willd. 99.

Albizzia Lebbek, Benth. 99.

Maré, S. Manchadi, Kona, Ughil, T.

A. odoratissima, Benth. 100.

Suriya-mard, $. Karuvakdi, T.

A. stipulata, Botv. 100.

Kabal-mard, Hulan-mard, 8.

A.amara, Boiv. 100.

PITHECOLOBIUM GEMINATUM, Benth. 100.

P. umbellatum, Benth. 100,

Termaldai, T.

P. bigeminum, Benth. 100.

Kalatiya, 8.

P. subeoriaceum, Zhw. 100,

Mimini-mard, 8.

45. Rosacee.

Pygeum Wightianum, 61. 102.

Ununu, S. /

var. parvifolium, Thw.

P, ZEYLANICUM, Gaerin.,

Kankumbal-hotiya, Golu-mora, 8.

Rubus glomeratus, Bl. &. rugosus, var. B. 101.

R. moluceanus, 1. AK, rugosus, var. a, 101.

Wel-buté, S.

var. Fairholmianus, Gardn. (sp.) A. rugosus, var. y.

101,

var. macrocarpus, Gardn. (sp.) &. rugosus, var. 6.

101. 3

R. ellipticus, Sm. &. flavus. 101.

R. lasiocarpus, Sm. 101.

var. subglaber, Thw.

Potentilla Mooniana, Wight. 10).

P. Kleiniana, W.g A. 102.

Alchemilla indica, Gardn. A. vulgaris, var. sarmentosa.

102,

var. sibthorpioides, Hh, f-

AGRIMONIA ZEYLANICA, Moon. A. Hupatorium. 102,

PoTERIUM INDICUM, Gardn. 102.

Photinia Notoniana, W.8 A, 100.

me ener aR een ek Meee. KERIO eT MeL eo; PN Bee Cb Far IN De MM OEP CR TM yaaa pelyh, Oe at, hy

ee ree eee rare?

Fever ob ane i

ee 46. Saxifragacee.

> 278, Vablia oldenlandioides, Roxb, 130.

oe «6 LV: viscosa, Roxb. |

47. Crassulaceee.

* Bryophyllum calycinum, Salisb. 129.

: Akkd-pdna, Rata-géwd, 8. |

_ 279, Kalanchoe floribunda, W. & A., var. glabra, Cl. 129.

: K. laciniata, DC. 129, 417.

48. Droseracese.

980. Drosera Burmanni, Vahl. 21.

‘Wata-ressa, 8.

Deandies; 7. 24:

Kandu-lessa, 8,

D. peltata, Sm. D, lunata, 22.

49. Halorager.

281. SERPICULA ZEYLANICA, Arn. 8. indica (part.) 123:

var. minor, Clarke.

S. indica, Zhw. 128.

~ 282. Myriophyllum indicum, Willd. 123.

283. Callitriche stagnalis, Scop. C. verna. 290.

50. Rhizophoraces.

284. Rhizophora mucronata, Lam, 120.

| Kadel, S. Kandol, T.

R. conjugata, £. 120.

Kadol, 8. Kandol, T.

285. Ceriops Candolleana, Arn. 120.

[Kandelia Rheedii, W. & A.] |

_ 286. Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Lam. Includes B. Rheedi. 120.

-_ B. caryophyloides, bl. Kanilia. 120.

287. Carallia integerrima, DC. 120.

: Dawata, 8.

C. CcALYcINA, Thw. i21.

Ubberiya, 8.

288. Weihea zeylanica, Baill. <Anstrutheria. 121.

" | Kanne Ve :

> 289. ANISOPHYLLEA ZEYLANICA, Benth. 119.

| Weli-penna, Weli-piydnd, 8.

51. Combretacess.

290. (Terminalia Catappa, L.) Kottambéd, S. Kottai, T.

Indian Almond.

T. Belerica, Roxb. 103.

Bulu, 3. Tandi, T.

var. laurinoides, Alig.

T. Chebula, Retz. 108.

Aralu, 8. Kadukkdi, T.

T. PARVIFLORA, Zhw. 103,

Hanpalanda, S.

T. glabra, W.g A. 104.

Kumbuk, 8. Marutu, T.

[T. tomentosa, Bedd. ]

291. Anogeissus latifolia, Wall. Conocarpus, 108.

Dawu, 8. Vekkah, T.

292. Lumnitzera racemosa, Willd. 108.

Bériya, §.

293. Combretum acuminatum, Roxb. C. sarcopterum. 415.

C. ovalifolium, Roxb. C. Wightianum (part.) 108.

Kaduruketiya-wel, S.

C. extensum, Roxb. C. Wightianum (part.) 103.

294, Gyrocarpus Jacquini, Roxb. G. asiaticus. 258.

Hima, 8. Tanukku, T.

52. Myrtacese.

(Psidium Guyava, £. Péra,$. Guava.)

295. Rhodomyrtus tomentosa, Wight. Myrtus. 114.

296. Eugenia aquea, Burm. Jambosa. 115,

Wal-jambu, 8.

. grandis, Wight. Syzygium jirmum. A417.

. hemispherica, Wight. Strongylocalyx. 116.

crLinprica, Wight. Jambosa. 116.

-MICRANTHA, Duth. Syzygium. 117.

. lanceolata, Lam. Acmena. 119.

zeylanica, Might (non Wild.) Acmena. 118.

Maran, Maranda, 8. Marungi, T.

. lissophylla, Duth. Syzygium. 118.

Gardneri, Duth. Syzygium. 117.

. SUBAVENIS, Duth. S.umbrosum. 118.

.caryophyilea, Wight. Syzygium. 117.

Dan, Hin-dan, S.

EK. corpiroiia, Wight. Syzygium. 116.

ooh echo -ol=>

Bi BS

ae ff

SH See eee

Se &

BER eee

revoluta, Wight. Syzygium. 117.

. sylvestris, Moon. Syzygium. 116.

Alubé, 8.

. AssImILIs, Duth. Syzygium. 116.

Nensiana, Wight. Syzygium. 117&C. P. 4018. |

Panukéra, 8.

CYCLOPHYLLA, Thw. (in Fl. B. Ind.) C. P. 3915.

. SCLEROPHYLLA, Duth. Syzygium. 118.

. ROTUNDIFOLIA, Wight. Syzygium. 118.

- CALOPHYLLIFOLIA, Wight. Syzygium, 118.

- OLIGANTHA, Duth. Syzygium, 118.

. OLIVIFOLIA, Duth. S. spathulatum, 118.

. operculata, Rorb. S. nervosum, 417.

Bata-domba, Kobo-mal, 8.

.Jambolana, Lam. Syzygium. 417.

Maha-dan, 8. Naval, Peru-naval, T.

var. caryophyllifolia, Lam. (sp.) var. microcarpum.

417.

. PHILLYRAZOIDES, Trim. ms.

- lucida, Lam. C. P. 3865.

. bracteata, Roxb. 114.

Tembiliya, 8.

var. Roxburghii, Duth. E. Willdenovu. 114.

Kaiya, Kayan, Pandi-kayan, T.

TERPNOPHYLLA, Thw. 114.

XANTHOCARPA, Thw. 416.

Ha&cKELIANA, Trim. ms.

. RUFO-FULVA, Thw. 416.

- FLOcCIFERA, Thw, 115.

.FuLVA, Thw, 115.

. RIVULORUM, Thw. 115.

. INSIGNIS, Thw. 416.

. DECORA, Thw. 115.

.AM@NA, Thw. 114.

var. rotundata, Trim. ms. EL. Mooniana, var. B. 114.

Mooniana, Wight. (non Gardn.) 114.

Pinibaru, S.

(E. uniflora, Z.)

hal OR

MABZOIDES, Wight. 114.

Tuwaitesi, Duth. E.concinna. 416.

297. Barringtonia speciosa, L. 119.

Mudilla, 8.

298.

299,

300,

301.

302.

B. racemosa, Bl. (C. P. 3610.) 119.

Diya-midella, 8.

B. ZEYLANICA, Gardn. B.racemosa,var. (C. P. 2682.)

119.

B. acutangula, Gaertn. 119.

Ela-midella, 5. Adampu, Radami, T.

Careya arborea, Gaertn. 119.

Kahata, S. Ari-maru, Kasadda, Panichai, T.

Patana Oak.

53. Melastomacez.

Osbeckia cupularis, Don, var. erythrocephala, Naud. (sp.)

O. Lesehenaultiana. 104.

var. parvifolia, Arn. (sp.)

O. RHEEDIIL, Gardn. 104.

QO. zeylanica, Willd. 104.

QO. BUXIFOLIA, Arn. 105.

var. minor, Thw.

var. Beckettii, Thw. (in Triana Mon.) C.P.3908.

O. aspera, Bl. 105.

Bowitiyd, S.

var. Kleinii, Arn. (sp.)

var. minor, Triana. (sp.)

var. Wightiana, Benth. (sp.}

(O. glauca, Benth.)

OQ. WALKERI, Arn. 105.

O. RUBICUNDA, Arn. 105.

O. Moonn, Thw. 105.

O. octandra, DC. O. virgata. 105.

Hin-bdwitiyd, S.

Melastoma malabathricum, £. 106.

Maha-béwitiyd, S.

Kendrickia Walkeri, Hk. f. Pachycentria. 107.

SONERILA ZEYLANICA, W.8 A. 109 & C. P. 3893.

var. pumila, Clarke. S. pumila. 109.

var. Walkera, Clarke.

S. TOMENTELLA, Thw. 109.

S. Brunonis, W.§ A. (“C. P. 662.”)

S. pedunculosa, Thw. 109.

S. ARNOTTIANA, Thw. 108.

S. WIGHTIANA, Arn. C. P. 3907.

S. HOOKERIANA, Arn. 108.

a Se ee ee yee.

303.

304,

S. Garpneri, Thw. 107.

var. firma, Triana. C. P. 3873.

S. Rospusta, Arn. 107.

var. glabricaulis, Thw. C. P. 3955,

S. Harveyi, Thw. 107.

S. AFFINIS, Arn. 109.

var. rostrata, Clarke. S.rostrata, 108.

S. RHOMBIFOLIa, Thw. 108.

var. angustata, Triana. (sp.)

. HIRSUTULA, Arn. 108.

. PILOSULA, Thw. 108.

. LANCEOLATA, Thw. 107.

. GUNERATNEI, Trim. ms. C.P. 4012.

MEDINILLA BUCHSIOIDES, Gardn. 106.

M. maculata, Gardn. 106.

var. cuneata, Thw. 106.

Memecyton Arnottianum, Wight. 113.

M. Garpneri, Thw. 1138.

M, Wieutiu, Thw. 113.

M. Hookers, Thw, 113.

var. exalata, Trim. ms. C. P. 2686.*

Kevitiya-kéra, 8.

M. ELEGANTULUM, Thw. 112.

M. ELLIPTICUM, Thw. 112.

M. varians, Thw. 112.

var. parvifolium, Thw. (sp.) 113.

var. rotundatum. Zhw. 112.

M. proceRuM, Thw. 415.

M. ovorpreum, Thw. 112. Includes A/, Lote OA TE. 110.

M. macropHyLiumM, Thw. 111.

M. oORBICULARE, Thw. 112.

M. Heyneanum, Benth, M.jambosoides. 112.

var. latifolium, Clarke.

var. angustifolium, Clarke.

M, Fruscescens, Thw. 111.

Dodan-khaha, S.

M. rostRatum, Thw. 111.

Kuretiya, S.

DNNMN

_M. rainopHytium, Thw. 110.

M. angustifolium, Wight. 111.

M. PHYLLANTHIFOLIUM, Thw. (in Triana Mon.) C,P.

3901.

305.

306.

307.

308.

309.

310.

311.

312,

M. levigatum, Bl, var. sylvaticum, Cl. MM. sylvaticum.

110.

_M. grande, Retz. M. edule, var. 8. 110.

Dodan-wenna, S.

M. capitellatum, Z. 110.

Dodan-haha, Weli-haha, 8S. Katti-kaiya, Mancha-

varnd, T. nes

M, UMBELLATUM, Burm. 111. (C.P. 1561, 1562.)

Kora-kaha, S. :

var. Thwaitesii, Clarke. (C. P. 387.)

M. edule, Roxb. 110.

var. ovatum, Sm. (sp.) var. y. 110.

Dedi-kaha, S. . :

var. RUBRO-C@RULEUM, Clarke. M. rubro-ceruleum.

415. ;

var. CUNEATUM, Clarke. M.cuneatum. 112.

var. LEUCANTHUM, Clarke. M. leucanthum. 110.

54. Lythracee.

Ammannia peploides, Spreng. Ameletia indica. 122.

A. Rotala, F. Muell. Rotala verticillaris, 122.

A. pentandra, Roxb. 122.

A. baccifera, L. A.indica. 121. :

A. cordata, W.g A, A. salicifolia. var. B. 121.

A. lanceolata, Heyne. A. salicifolia. var.a. 121.

A. octandra, £. f. 121.

Woodfordia floribunda, Sal. Grislea tomentosa. 122.

Malia, S.

* Nesea triflora, H. B. K. 417.

Pemphis acidula, Forst. 122.

Lawsonia alba, Lam. 122.

Marithondi, T. Henna. Tree Mignonette.

Lagerstreemia Flos-regine, Metz. 122.

Muruta,S. Kadalipuva, T.

Sonneratia acida, L. f. 1238.

Kirilla, 8.

S. alba, Sm. :

AXINANDRA ZEYLANICA, Thw. 122.

Kekiri-ward, 8.

55. Onagracee.

Jussiea repens, L. 123.

Béru-diyanilla, S.

J. suffruticosa, L. J. villosa. 123.

313,

314,

315.

316.

318.

319.

320.

var. angustifolia, Lam. (sp.) var. subglabra.

Ludwigia parviflora, Roxb. 123.

L. prostrata, Roxb. 123.

Trapa bispinosa, orb. 124.

Tkiliya, 8.

56. Samydacez.

Casearia esculenta, Roxb, C. zeylanica & C. varians,

(part.) 19.

Wal-warakd, 8.

var. angusta, Clarke.

var. Championii, Clarke. C. Championii. 19.

C. conracEA, Zhw. Includes C. varians, var. y. 20.

C. tomentosa, Roxb. 19.

OsmMELIA GARDNERI, Thw. 20.

Homalium zeylanicum, Benth, 410.

Liyan, 8.

(Turneraces.)

* Turnera ulmifolia, ZL.

57. Passifloracese.

Modecca Wightiana, Wall. 128.

M. palmata, Lam. 128.

Hondala, Potu-honda, 8.

* Passiflora suberosa, L.

* P. edulis, Az.

* P. glauca, 42.

_ * P, feetida, L.

(Carica Papaya, ZL. Pepol,S. Papaw.)

58. Cucurbitaces.

Trichosanthes palmata, Roxb. 127.

Titta-hondala, S.

var. tomentosa, Heyne.

T. nervifolia, £. 127.

T. cucumerina, L. 126.

Dummella, S.

var. laciniosa, Zh.

(T. anguina, L.) Patdla, S. Podivildngu, T. Snake

Gourd.

T. Tawaitesi, Cogn. T.integrifolia. 127.

Gymnopetalum Wightii, Arn. 127.

var. tubiflorum, Cogn. (sp.) G. zeylanicum, 127.

321.

322.

326.

327.

328.

329.

330.

331.

332.

339.

304,

3356

(Lagenaria vulgaris, Sér.) Diya-labu, 8S. Bottle Gourd.

Luffa egyptiaca, Mill, L. pentandra. 126. —

Niyan-veta-kolu, .

L. acutangula, Roxb. 126.

Veta-kolu, Dara-veta-kolu, 8S. Pisukhan-kdi, T.

var. amara, Clarke. L.amara. 417.

(Benincasa cerifera, Savi.) Alu-puhul, S. Pusani-kai, T.

Ash Pumpkin.

Momordica Charantia, Z. 126.

Karivila, 8.

M. dioica, Roxb. 126.

Tumba Karivila, S.

M. penupata, Clarke. M. dioica, var. 126.

Cucumis trigonus, Roxb. 127.

C. pubescens, Willd. 127.

Gon-hekiri, 8.

Citrullus Colocynthis, Schrad. 126.

Vak-komadu, 8. Colocynth.

(C. vulgaris, Schrad.) Komadu, 8. Water Melon,

Cephalandra indica, Naud. Coccinea. 128.

Kéwakka, S.

Bryonia laciniosa, Z. 126.

(Cucurbita moschata, Duch.\ Rata-labu,S. Wattak-

kai,'T. Pumpkin.

Mukia scabrella, Arm. 125,

Hin-kekiri, 8.

M. leiosperma, Thw. 125.

Zehneria Hookeriana, Arn. 125.

Z. umbellata, Thw. 125.

Kudu-kekiri, 8.

MELOTHRIA ZEYLANICA, Clarke. M. deltoidea, 124.

Corallocarpus epigea, Hk. f. Aichmandra, 125.

Go-palanga, 5.

Cerasiocarpus zeylanicum, Hh. f. ichmandra, 125.

Ctenolepis Garcini, Naud. Zehneria. 125.

Gynostemma pedata, Bl. Pestalozaia laxa. 124.

Zanonia indica, £. 124.

Wal-rasakinda, 8S.

59. Begoniaces.

Begonia cordifolia, Thw. 129.

B., sp. 129. (C. P. 3460.)

. TENERA, Dry. B. Thwaitesii. 128. C. P. 3952.

. lHwaitTesi, Hook. C. P. 3953.

. Subpeltata, Wight. 128.

. malabarica, Lam. 128.

Maha-hakambala, 8.

var. dipetala, Thw. 128. C. P. 3949,

Dnw wh

60. Datiscacese.

336. Tetrameles nudiflora, R. Br. 252.

61. Cactacesze.

337. Rhipsalis Cassytha, Gaertn. 129.

* Opuntia Dillenii, Haw.

Katupatuk, 8.

62. Ficoidee.

338. Sesuvium Portulacastrum, ZL. S, repens. 23.

339. Trianthema monogyna, L. T.obcordata. 23.

Hin-sdrana, S.

T. crystallina, Vahl. 23.

T. decandra, Z. 23.

Maha-sarana, S.

340. Mollugo hirta, Thunb. Glinus dictamnoides. 24.

M. Spergula, LZ. 24.

M. stricta, L. Includes M. pentaphylla, L. 24.

M. Cerviana, Ser. 24.

Patpaddgam, T.

M. disticha, Ser. 24.

M. nudicaulis, Lam. 24.

341. Gisekia pharnaceoides, L. 250.

63. Umbellifere.

342. Hydrocotyle javanica, Thunb. 130.

Maha-gotu-kola, 8.

H. rotundifolia, Roxb. H.nitidula. 130.

H. asiatica, £. 1380.

Hin-gotu-kola, SS. Vallarai, T.

343. Sanicula europea, L. 180.

344, Bupleurum mucronatum, W. & A., var. virgata, Cl. B.fal-

catum, var. 131.

- Wal-endaru, S.

* Carum Roxburghianum, Benth.

[C. nothum, Clarke. | :

345.

346.

347.

348.

349,

350.

dol.

302.

3538:

354.

Pimpinella Heyneana, Wall. Helosciadium. 1830.

Wal-asamédagan, S.

P. Leschenaultii, DC. 131. .

PEUCEDANUM ZEYLANICUM, Gardn. Palimbia ramosis-

sma. 181.

Wal-endaru, S.

Heracleum zeylanicum, Gardn. H. Sprengehanum, 131.

var. rigens, Vall. (sp.)

64. Araliacee.

(Panax fruticosum, L.)

[ Pentapanax Leschenaultii, Seem. |

Polyscias acuminata, Seem. Hedera. 131.

Heptapleurum racemosum, Bedd. Hedera. 132.

H. EMARGINATUM, Seem. Hedera. 182.

H. stellatum, Gaertn. Hedera Vahlu. 132.

Itta, S.

H. exaltatum, Seem. Hedera,. 132.

Goda-itta, S.

65. Cornacee.

Alangium Lamarckii, Thw. 133.

Alangi, T.

A. GLANDULOSUM, Thw. i388.

MASTIXIA TETRANDRA, Clarke. Bursinopetalum. 42.

var. Thwaitesii, Clarke. var.6. 42.

Diya-taliya, 8.

M. arborea, Clarke. Bursinopetalum. 42.

GAMOPETALA.

66. Caprifoliacece.

Viburnum coriaceum, Bl. V.hebanthum. 136.

var. capitellata, Clarke.

var. ZEYLANICA, Gardn.

V. erubescens, Wall, 136,

67. Rubiacee.

Sarcocephalus cordatus, Mig. Nauclea eoadunata. 137.

Bak-mi, 8S: Vammi, T. :

Anthocephalus Cadamba, Mig. Nauclea. 137.

Vellai-kadamba, T, —

peat Pi 2

OS a ee

4 |

355. Adina cordifolia, Hk. f. Nauclea. 187.

Kolon, §. Manjal-kadambu, T.

356. Stephegyne parviflora, Korth. Nauclea. 137.

Hlelamba, 8. Nir-kadamba. T.

S. tubulosa, Hk. f. Nauclea. 137.

var. minor, Thw.

357. Naucira zeyLanica, Hk. f. WN. peduncularis. 187.

358. Unearia dasyoneura, Korth., var. TE see ik. f.

U. Gambier. 138.

009, Wendlandia Notoniana, Wall. 159.

Rawan-idala, &.

var, ZEYLANICA, Hk. f.

360. Dentella repens, Forst. 144.

061. NEUROCALYX ZEYLANICUS, Hook. 138.

N. Wightii, Arn. 188.

N. capitata, Benth.

N. Cuampionu, Benth. 139.

-N. Garpyeri, Thw. 139.

862. ALLHOPHANIA DECIPIENS, Thw. Includes Hedyotis

nodulosa, var.a. 148, 147.

var. flavescens, Thw. 147.

var. Arnottii, Hk. f. (sp.) (“C. P. 87.”)

363. Fergusonia zeylanica, Hk. f. Borreria tetracocca. 442.

364. Hedyotis fruticosa, Z. 142.

Weraniya, S.

H. eventa, Zhw. 140,

Hi. cymosa, Thw. 142.

H. Macra, Ak. f.

-H. ogpscura, Thw. 141.

var. minor, Thw. (an Fl. Brit. Ind.)

H. coprosMoipEs, Trim. ms. H. obscura, var. B. 141.

H. quinquenerviaA, Thw. 141.

H. Lessertiana, Arn. (141.

var, major, Zhw.

var. confertifiora, Lhw. Includes H. flavescens,

141, 419, & C.P. 3985.

H. reinopuyiya, Thw. ms. C. P. 3984.

H. Garpneri. Thw. 142.

H. mempranacea, Thw. 143.

H, Tuwairesu, Ak. f. H. macrophylla, 142.

365,

366.

367.

H. nopvutosa, Arn. Var. B. 143.

var. Walkeri, Hk. f.

H. CINEREO-vinipIs, Thw. 419.

var. subverticillata. Trim. ms. Var. B. 419.

var. fumata, Thw. ms. C. P. 8909 (part.)

var. truncata, Trim. ms. C. P. 3909 (part.)

H. verticillaris, W.& A. 142,

H. Lawsonie, W.3 A. 140.

H-auricularia, L. 142.

Geta-hola, §

H. coerulea, W.5 A. 144.

H. nitida, W.& A. 143.

Pita-sudu-pald, 8.

H. iInama@na, Thw. 148.

H. cyanescens, Zhw. 143.

Oldenlandia corymbosa, L, Hieger Burmanniana, 144.

Wal-patpadagam, 8.

var. racemosa, Thw. 419.

_ O. diffusa, Roxb. Hed. Burmanniana, var. brachypoda.

419. .

O. Heynei, Br. Hedyotis. 144.

QO. umbellata, 2. Hedyotis. 144.

Saya-mul, S. Saya, T. Chay Root.

O. trinervia, Retz. Hedyotis. 144.

Oy siricta:, 2. Hed. maritima. 144.

O. biflora, £. (Includes O. paniculata, L.) Hedyotis race-

. mosa. 144.

Anotis quadrilocularis, Hk, f. HHedyotis. 144.

A. nummuLaria, Hk. f. Hedyotis. 142.

A. NUMMULARIFORMIS, (Arn.) HI. nummularia, var.

glabra. 142. : .

A. RicHarpIANA, (Arn.) H. monosperma, var. sub-

glabra, 142.

Ophiorrhiza Mungos, Z. 139.

Dai-ketiyd, 8.

var. NEMOROSA, fZk. f. O. nemorosa. 189.

var. ANGUSTIFOLIA, Hk. f. O. angustifolia. 140.

QO. Harrisiana, Heyne. var. decumbens, Hk. f. O. de-

cumbens. 419.

QO, RADICANS, Gardn. 189.

O. pectinata, Arn. 140.

var. imbricata, Gardn. (sp.)

376,

377.

378.

879.

380.

381.

382.

083.

384.

0. patiia, Thw. 140.

O. GLECHOMIFOLIA, Thw. 140.

Musseenda frondosa, &. 138.

Mussenda, Wel-bué-sarana, S.

ACRANTHERA ZEYLANICA, Arn. 1388.

LEUCOCODON RETICULATUM, Gardn. 1388.

UROPHYLLUM ELLIETICUM, Fhw. 419.

U. zeyianicum, Thw. 418.

SCHIZOSTIGMA HIRSUTUM, Arn. 139.

Webera corymbosa, Willd. Siylocoryne Webera.

farana,S. Taranaz, T.

var. montana, Thw.

BYRSOPHYLLUM ELLIPTICUM, Bedd. Stylocoryne.

Randia uliginosa, DC. 159.

Weideya, Et-kukuruman, S.

R. dumetorum, Lam. 159.

Kukuruman, S. :

R, malabarica, Lam. Griffiihia fragrans. 1658.

R. Garpneni, Hk. ff. Griffithia. 158.

Ataketiya, S.

R. rugulosa, Hk. f. Griffithia. 159.

Gardenia latifolia, Azé. 159.

Galis, 8. Kumbai, T.

G. earinata, Wall. 189.

NarGepia macrocarPa, Bedd. Hyptianthera. 1

ScyPHOSTACHYs PEDUNCULARIS, hw, 157.

S.corrHoiwes, Thw. 157.

Wal-kopi, 8.

DieLospora DaLzeLil, Hk. f. Discospermum.

D. erytHRospora, Hk. f. Discospermum. 158.

158.

BA)

158.

Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea, Gaertn. Hpithima mala-

yana. 1857,

Guettarda speciosa, #. 153.

Wat-pichcha, $. Paneer, T.

Timonius Jambosella, Thw. 1538.

Peddi-méla, Angana, 8.

DICHILANTHE ZEYLANICA, Thw. 186.

Kwoxia corrmBosa, Wilid. K. stricta. 152.

K. mollis, W. & A. K. corymbosa. 151.

K. zeyuanica, £. 152.

Ela-rat-mai, §.

385.

386. -

387.

388,

389.

Q00

K. pratycarpa, Arn. 152.

var. hirsuta, Thw.

var. foliosa, Thw.

var. spicata, Thw. ms. C. P. 38996.

Canthium didymum, Roxb. 152.

Porawa-mard, Gal-karanda, S. Yerkolh. T.

var. LANCEOLATUM, Thw.

var. GRANDIFOLIUM, J'hw.

. MONTANUM, Thw. 152.

. PUBERULUM, Thw. (in Fl. Brit. Ind.) C, P. 3995.

. Rheedii, DC. 158.

var. minus, TAvw.

C. Macrocarpum, Thw. 152.

C. caMPANULATUM, Thw. 153.

C. parviflorum, Lam. 152.

Kara, 8. Karat, T.

Ixora caLycina, Thw. 155.

I. Tawaitesi, fk. f. L. acuminata. 155.

var. pubescens.

I. parviflora, Vahi. 155,

Maha-ratambald, S. Karankuttai, Punkira, T.

var. ZEYLANICA, Hk. f. J. jucunda, var. y. 155.

I. suconpa, fhw. 155.

I. coccinea, L. 154.

Ratambala, 8.

Pavetta indica, £.° 155.

Pawatid, 8.

var. MONTANA, Zhw. 156.

P. hispidula, W. & A. 156.

var. (? hybrid) zeyLanica, Hk. f. C. P. 3924,

P. aneustirotia, Thw. 156.

P. InvoLucrata, Thu. 156.

P.Gueniel, Thw. (in Fl. Brit, Ind.) P. tomentosa. 156.

Coffea Wightiana, W.3 A, 154.

C. travancorensis, W. § A. 154,

Gas-pichcha, 8. :

Morinda citrifolia, Z., var. bracteata, Hk. fi M. brac-

teata, 144,

Ahu, S.

M. tinctoria, Rowvd. 146.

Ahu, S.

390.

391,

392.

398.

094,

RoMacMacilaciiacli ce

M. umbellata, 2. 1435.

Kiri-wel, Maha-kiri-wel, S.

Prismatomeris albidiflora, Thw. 154.

var. Feracusonu, Thw. (in Bedd. Fl. Sylv.) (sp.)

PSYCHOTRIA STENOPHYLLA, Hk. f. Grumilea. 147.

P. GLANDULIFERA, Thw. (in Fl. Brit. Ind.) C. P. 3911,

P. Garpnert, Hkh. f. Grumilea. 147.

P. Thwaitesii, Hk. f. G. nudiflora. 147,

var. coronata, 7k. f.

P. elongata, Hk. f. Grumilea. 147.

P. sarmentosa, B/, 148.

Wal-gonika, 8.

. Wieatiana, Hk. f. Grumilea. 148.

var. affinis, Hk. f. G. affinis. 148.

. Moonn, Hk. f. Grumilea. 148.

.sorpDIDA, Thw. 149.

. LONGEPETIOLATA, Zhw. 149.

. PLURIVENIA, Thw. 149.

. Finiprs, Hk. f- WP. bisulcata, var. B. 148.

. bisulcata, W.& A. 148.

Chasalia curviflora, Thw. 150.

Geophila reniformis, Don. 150.

Agu-haruni, 8.

ae]

‘Lasrantuus Moonn, Wight. 420. (145.)

var, subglabra, Thw. ms, C. P. 3997.

L. Tuwairesi, Hk. f. LL. strigosus (part.) 420,

L. RHINOPHYLLUS, Thw. 420.

L. Watxerianus, Wight. L. protractus, (part.) and

L. varians, (part.) 420.

var. lanceolatus, Hk. f. (“C. P. 340.”)

L, oLiGaNtHus, Thw. 420. :

L. Garpneri, Hk. fo L. strigosus (part.) 420, and

CoP, 3985.

L. stricosus, Wight. (non Thw.) L. Walkerianus and

L. varians (part.) 420.

var. nitidus, Thw. (in Fl. Brit. Ind.) ©. P. 3910,

var. protractus, Hk. f. L. protractus, (part.) 420.

L. varians, Thw. (part.) 420.

L. opLiguus, Thw. 420,

Saprosma indicum, Dalz., var. Garpysri, Hk. f. Serissa

Gardnert. 150.

S. scaBRipuM, Bedd. Serissa. 151.

S. zeylauicum, Bedd. Serissa. 150.

396.

397.

398.

399.

400.

401.

402.

403.

404.

Hydrophylax maritima, ZL. fi 151..

Miudu-getakola, S.

Spermacoce stricta, Z. f. S. hispida (part.) 161.

S. ocymoides, Burm. Borreria. 151.

S. hispida, Z. 151. :

fin-geta-kola, S.

Rubia cordifolia, 1. 161.

Manda-madini-wel, S.

Galium asperifolium, Wall. 161.

68. Valerianacese.

VALERIANA Moont, Arn. V. Hardwichii. 159.

69. Dipsacaceee.

Dipsacus WALKERI, Arn. 421.

70. Composite.

VERNONIA GARDNERI, Thw. 161.

V. Tuwairesu, Clarke. V.Gardneri, var. nervosa. 161,

V. anceps, Clarke. V. Wightiana, var. B- 160.

V. cinerea, Less. 160.

Monara-kudimbiya, 8.

V. sETIGERA, drn. V. neilgherriensis. 160.

V. Hooxeriana, Arn. V. conyzordes. 160.

V.scaRgiosa, Arn. 161.

var. crassa, Thw. 161.

+ V. anthelmintica, L. 160.

Néyan, Sanni-nayan, SS. Kat-siragam, T.

V.NEMORALIS, Thw. 161.

V. Wightiana, Arn. 160.

V. ZEYLANICA, Less. 160.

Pupula,S. Kupula, T.

V. pectiniformis, DC. 161.

V.arborea, Ham. V. javanica. 160.

Elephantopus seaber, £. 161.

Et-adi, S.

Adenostemma viscosum, Forst. 162,

var. reticulatum, DC. (sp.)

* Ageratum conyzoides, L. 161.

Hulan-tald,S. Pum-pullu,'T. Goat-weed. White-

weed.

(Eupatorium Ayapana, Vent.) Ayapana, S.

Dichrocephala latifolia, DC. 162.

406. Grangea maderaspatana, Pow. 163.

407. Myriactis Wightii, DC. 162.

408. Lagenophora Billardieri, Cass., var. Harveyi. LL. Har-

veyt. 162,

409.* Erigeron linifolius, Willd. C.P. 3928.

Bi). asteroides, Roxb. Conyza egyptiaca. 1638.

410. Microglossa zeylanica, Benth. Amphiraphis. 162.

411, Conyza viscidula, Wall. 163.

412. Blumea amplectens, DC. 168.

var. arenaria, Clarke. B.arenaria. 168.

B. bifoliata, DC. B. amplectens (part.) 163.

{B. Wightiana, DC.) .

B. barbata, DC. 168.

B. lacera, DC. 163.

B. hieractifolia, Thw. 163.

B. aneustirotia, Thw. 164.

B. membranacea, DC. var. Gardneri, Hk. f. 8B. glan-

dulosa. 163. !

B. crinita, Arn. 168.

B. flexuosa, Clarke. B. hieracufolia (part.)

B. spectabilis, DC. B. myriocephala, 163.

B, balsamifera, DC, 422.

413. Laggera alata, Sch.-bip. Blumea. 163.

414. Epaltes divaricata, Cass. 164.

Rs Hin-muda-mahana, 8.

415. Spheranthus amaranthoides, Burm. 162.

§. africanus, L. S. microcephalus. 162.

S. indicus, L. 8S. hirtus. 162.

Muda-mahana, §.

416. Blepharispermum petiolare. DC.

417. Anaphalis cinnamomea, Clarke. Gnaphalium adnatum.

422.

A, rruticosa, Hk, f. G.adnatum, var. spathulifolium

(part.) 422.

A.oblonga, DC. Gnaphalium. 422.

A, Tuwarresi, Clarke. G, adnatum, var, spathulifolium

_- (part.) 422. |

A. meytanica, Clarke. G. Wightianum. 166,

A. marcescens, Clarke. Gnaphalium. 166.

A. brevifolia, DC. Gnaphalium. 166.

* Gnaphalium indicum, Auct. (non L.)

418. Helichrysum buddleoides, DC. Gnaph. Hookerianum,

166. ee

419.

420.

421.

422.

423.

424.

425.

426.

427.

428.

429.

430.

431,

Vicoa auriculata, Cass. 164,

*Lagascea mollis, Cav.

Chrysogonum heterophyllum, Benth. Moona. 164.

Xanthium Strumarium, £. 164,

Siegesbeckia orientalis, Z. 164.

Kelipta erecta, Z. 164,

Kikirindi, 8S.

Blainvillea latifolia, DC. 164.

Wedelia calendulacea, Less. 165.

fan-wan-hthirindi, S.

W. biflora, DC. Wollastonia. 165.

* Tithonia diversifolia, Gray.

Spilanthes Acmella, 2. 165.

Akmella, S.

* rca nodiflora, Gaertn. Ximenesia encelioides.

* Cosmos bipinnatus, Cav.

* C. sulphureus, Cav.

{Bidens pilosa, £. 165.

var. decomposita, Hook. f. B. decomposita. 165.

Wal-té-kola,S. Spanish Needle.

* Tridax procumbens, L.

* Tajetes erecta, L.

Centipeda orbicularis, eur. Myriogyne minuta. 165.

Artemisia vulgaris, 2. var. 165.

Wal-kolondu, S.

Gynura lycopersicifolia, DC. 166.

G. pseudo-china, DC. (non Benth.) G, nepalensis, 166.

G. Hispipa, Thw. 166.

Emilia sonchifolia, DC. 167.

Kadu-para. 8.

E. ZEYLANICA, Clarke. E. prenanthoidea. 167.

var. Walkeri, Hk. f. (sp.) 167.

Notonia grandiflora, DC. 168.

N. Walkeri, Clarke. Senecio. 167.

Senecio zeylanicus, DC. 167.

S. GARDNERI, Clarke. Doronicum. 167.

S. ludens, Clarke. Doronicum Walkeri. 167.

S. araneosus, DC. 8S. corymbosus, var. Bg. 167. 7

S. corymbosus, Wali. C. P. 3894. q

S. scandens, Don. S. Wightianus. 167. ) a

435.

436.

437.

438.

439.

440.

441.

442,

443.

444.

Crepis japonica, Benth. Youngia lyrata. 168.

C. fuscipappa, Hk. f. YVoungia. 168.

Lactuca Heyneana, DC. Brachyramphus sonchifolius.

168. :

* Sonchus asper, Vill. Sow thistle.

* §. oleraceus, . 168.

Launea pinnatifida, Cass. Microrhynchus sarmentosus.

168.

71. Stylidiacee.

Stylidium uliginosum, Sw. 168.

@2. Goodenoviaceee.

Scevola Koenigii, Vahl. 169.

Takkada, 8.

S. Lobelia, L. S. Plumieri. i692.

Hin-takkada, 8.

7a. Campanulacee.

* Tsotoma longiflora, Presi.

Lobelia trigona, Rovb. 169.

_L. affinis, Wall. L. trigona (part.) 169.

L. zeylanica, L. JL. trigona (part.) 169.

var. WALKERI, Clarke.

L. excelsa, Leseh. 170.

Ras-ni, S.

var. trichandra, Wight (sp.)

[Cephalostigma Schimperi, Hochst. ]

Wahlenbergia gracilis, DC. W. agrestis. 169.

Sphenoclea zeylanica, Gaertn. S. Pongatium. 170.

Campanula canescens, Wall. Cephalostigma spathula-

tum. 420.

C. fulgens, Wall. 169.

74, Vacciniacee.

Vaccinium Leschenaultii, Wight. 170.

var. ZEYLANICA, Clarke.

75. Ericacee.

Gaultheria fragrantissima, Wall. 170.

var. HIRSUTA, Gardn.

Kapuru, S.

Rhododendron arboreum, Sm., var. nilagiricum, Zenk. (sp-)

170.

_ Ma-ratmal, §.

446.

447.

448.

449,

450.

451.

452.

4538.

454.

455.

76, Plumbaginee.

Plumbago zeylanica, L. 244. :

Ela-netul, S.

7@¢. Primulacee.

Lysimachia ramosa, Wall., var. zeEYLANICA, Hk. f. 172.

L. deltoides, Wight., var. corpirotia, Hk. f- LL. gapo-

nica. 172.

* Anagallis coerulea, Lam. 172.

“8. Myrsinese.

Meesa indica, Wall. 172.

Mata-bimbiya, S.

Myrsine capitellata, Wali. 178.

var. lanceolata, Wall. (sp.) var. B. & var. y. 173.

var. avenis, A. DC. (sp.) var. 6. sessiliflora. 173.

Embelia Ribes, Burm. 172.

Wel-embilla, S.

K. robusta, Roxb. 172.

E. viridiflora, Scheff. Samara. 1738.

Arpisia Misstonis, Wall. A. courtallensis. 423.

A. Garpnerti, Clarke. A. divergens. 174.

var. zeylanica, Cl. (sp.) Var. B, Thw. 174.

A. Moont, Clarke. A. Wallichu. 174.

var. subsessilis, Clarke. A. humilis. 178.

Lunu-dan, S.

A. pauciflora, Heyne. 174.

A. humilis, Vahl. A. elliptica. 174.

Balu-dan, 8.

/Aigiceras majus, Gaertn. 174.

Hin-kadol, 8S. Vitli-kanna, T.

79. Sapotaceee.

Chrysophyllum Roxburghii, G. Don, var. sumatranum,

Mig. (sp.) 174.

Ld-wulu, 8.

Sideroxylon tomentosum, Roxb. Sapota elengoides. 175.

Mul-makil, T.

Isonandra Wightiana, A. DC. 177.

Kiri-warala, §S.

var. ANGUSTATA, Thw. 177.

var. MONTANA, Thw. 177.

var. MAJOR, Clarke.

var. compta, Thw. (in Fl. B. Ind.) C.P. 3912.

var. lanceolata, Wight, non Thw. (sp.)

456. DiIcHOPSIS PETIOLARIS, Thw. 176.

D. eranpis, Benth. LIsonandra. 176.

Kiri-hembiliya, Kiri-hiriya, Mi-hiriya, 8.

var. parvifolia, Clarke. (C. P. 2402 part.)

var. angustata, Trim. ms. (C. P. 2402 part.)

D. rupicinosa, Benth. Isonandra. 177.

D. CANALICULATA, Benth. Id. Li 7.

D. patcirLora, Benth. fd. Lid.

D. taviroxia, Benth. fa. Lines

D. tanceoiata, Benth. Td. 442.

457. Bassia longifolia, £. 175.

Mi, S. Lluppai, Enné-kannaz, T.

B. neruroria, Moon. Dasyaulus. 175.

Gan-mt, S. ;

B. Moonu, Bedd. fd. 176.

B. rutva, Bedd. fad. 176.

Wana-mi, 8.

B. micropuHyiyia, Hook. Ld. 175.

458. Mimusops Elengi, 2. 175.

: Minamal, &. Muchalar, T.

M. hexandra, Roxb. M. indica. 175.

Palu, SS. Pdlai, T.

? M. Kauki, L.

80. HEbenacese.

459. Mapa acuminata, Hiern. Macrewghtio. 424.

M. optoneirouia, Hiern. Id. 183.

M. ovatiroiia, Miern. Id. 4D4.

M. buxifolia, Pers. 188.

Kalu-habaraliya, S. Thuvarar, frum-palai, T.

var. microphylla, Thw.

var. Ebenus, Thw.

var. augustifolia, The.

460. Diospyros montana, Roxb. Includes D. cordifolia, Roxb.

423.

Kethi-kanni, Vukkana, T.

D. Embryopteris, Pers. 178.

Timbiri, 8. Panichekai, Tumbika, T.

var. atrata, Thw. 178.

var. nervosa, Fhw. 178,

461.

SEs)

[D. Melanoxylon, Roz. |

D. insignis, Zhw. 180.

es)

Symplocos spicata, Roxb., var. laurina, Wall. (sp.) 184.

. ATTENUATA, Thw. 182.

. acuta, Thw. 182.

. GARDNERI, Thw. 181.

, OPPOSITIFOLIA, Thw. 181.

.HirsuTA, L. f. 181.

. Moonu, Thw. 182.

. affinis, Thw. 179.

. CRUMENATA, Thw. 179.

. opaca, Clarke. (“ C. P. 2924 in part.”)

. pruriens, Dalz. ? 423.

. Toposia, Ham. 179.

Kaha-kala, §.

. ovalifolia, Wight. 181.

Vedu-hunari, T.

Ebenum, Koen. 180.

Kaluwara, 8. Karunkdli, Chara, Acha, T. Ebony. -

sylvatica, Roxb. 178.

oocarpa, Thw. 180.

Kalu-kadumbériya, 8. Vellai-karunkah, T.

quzsita, Thw. 179.

Kalumediriya, 8. Pu-karunkali, T.. Calamander.

Kadumberiya, 8. Vekande, T.

Gona, Porua-malla, Wal-mediriya, S.

Kalu-mediriya, 8.

TawaitEsi, Bedd. D.Candolleana. 181.

H6-mediriya, S. Vellai-karunkali, T.

Chemel-paniché, T.

81. Styraceee.

Bombu, Wal-bémbu, $. Elam-purukki, T.

obtusa, Wall. 1865.

var. major, Thw. 185.

var. obovata, Thw. 185.

var. cucullata, Thw. 185.

Lata, Thw. 184.

BRACTEALIS, Thw. 185.

var. revoluta, Wight. § Gardn.

VERSICOLOR, Clarke. S$. rufescens. 184.

acura, Thiw. 186.

462.

463.

464.

NNN Ss

TN PN

. CUNEATA, Thw. 186.

. HISPIDULA, Thw. 186.

. JucuUNDA, hw. 186.

. ANGUSTATA, Clarke. 8S. elegans, var. angustata (pt.)

186.

. LATIFLORA, Clarke. S. hirsuta. 185.

. minor, Clarke. 8S. hirsuta, var. minor. 185.

var. glabrescens, Thw. (in Fi. B. Ind.)

. ELEGANS, Thw. 185. :

. HEBANTHA, Thw. (in Fl. B. Ind.) C. P. 3918.

. CORDIFOLIA, Thw. 187.

. APICALIS, Zhw. 187.

var. glabrifolia, Thw.

. MARGINALIS, Thw. 187.

. CORONATA, Thw. 187.

. PAucIFLORA, Wight (in Fl. B. Ind.) S. pendula. 184.

NNN™MN

RR PN

82. Oleacex.

Jasminum Sambac, Ait. 189.

Pichcha, 8.

(J. pubescens, Willd.)

J. Rottlerianum, Wall., var. Thwaitesii, Clarke. J. gle

briusculum. 424,

[J. arborescens, Row). |

J. sessiliflorum, Vahl. (C. P. 1807 in part.)

J. angustifolium, Vahi. 190.

Wal-pichcha, §.

[J. Ritchiei, Clarke.]

[J- rigidum, Zenk. |

J. auriculatum, Vahl. 190.

J. flexile, Vahl. 190.

J. humile, £. 190.

(Nyctanthes arbor-tristis, Z.) 190.

Sépala, Sépalikd, S. Pakala-mullai, T.

LINOCIERA PURPUREA, Vahl. Chionanthus zeylanicas

188.

Gherriata-gas, S.

L. ALBIDIFLORA, Clarke. Chionanthus. 189,

var. rostrata, Clarke. (C. rostrata. i189.

L. LEPROGARPA, Clarke. Chionanthus. 189.

Olea glandulifera, Wall. 188.

O. polygama, Wight. O. Gardner. 188.

469.

466.

467.

468.

469.

470.

471.

Ligustrum Walkeri, Decaisne. L.robusitum. 188.

83. Salvadoracee.

Salvadora persica, Garcin. S. Wightiana. 190.

Ughai, 'T. Mustard Tree.

Azima tetracantha, Lam. 191.

Wel-dehi, 8.

S84. Apocynacese.

WILLUGHBEIA ZEYLANICA, Thw. 191.

Carissa Carandas, £. 191.

Maha-karamba, 8. Perukla, Kiakda, 7.

C. spinarum, L. C. diffusa. 191.

Hin-karamba, S. Chenu-khla, 'T.

Rauwolfia serpentina, Benth. Ophioxylon. i191.

Ekdweériya, S.

R. densiflora, Benth. Ophioxylon. 191.

ALYXIA ZEYLANICA, Wight.

Wasa-kaduru, S.

Hunteria corymbosa, Roxb. H. zeylanica. 191.

Mediya,S. L. H. Roxburghiana. 192.

Cerbera Odollam, Gaertn. 192.

Gon-kaduru, 8. Kadaralai, Kadu, TY.

Ochrosia borbonica, Gmel. 192.

Mudu-kaduru, 8.

* Vinca rosea, L.

(Plumeria acutifolia, Por.) Alariya, S. Temple Tree.

Alstonia scholaris, Brown. 1938. :

Ruk-attana, 8. Ir-ellipalai, T.

TABERNZEMONTANA DICHOTOMA, fforb, 192.

Divi-kaduru, 8. “ Forbidden Fruit.”

(T. coronaria, Br.)

HOLARRHENA MITIs, Drown. 194.

Kiri-walla, S.

Parsonsia spiralis, Wall. Heligme. 198.

Vallaris Heynei, Spreng. V.dichotoma. 192.

(V. PerauLana, Burm.) 192. 3

WRIGHTIA FLAVIDO-ROSEA, Trim. ms. W. Rothu. 193.

W. ancustirotia, Thw. 198.

Vet-palai, T.

W. tomentosa, &. § S. 198.

481.

482,

483.

484.

485.

486.

487.

488.

489.

490.

491,

492.

493.

494.

495.

496.

497.

498.

ays)

W. zeyuanica, Brown. 193.

Sudu-idda, Wal-idda, S.

Chonemorpha macrophylla, G. Don. 194.

BAISSEA ACUMINATA, Benth. Cleghornia. 194.

Aganosma cymosa, G. Don, var. elegans, Hk. f. 194.

Anodendron paniculatum, 4. DC. 194.

Dil, As-wel, 8.

A. RHINOSPORUM, Thw. 194.

Ichnocarpus frutescens, Brown. 194.

Kiri-wel, 8.

85. Asclepiadese.

Hemidesmus indicus, Brown. 195.

Tramusu, 8. Nannéri, T. Indian Sarsaparilla.

Cryptolepis Buchanani, #. 3 S, 195.

Secamone emetica, Brown. 195. .

Toxocarpus Kleinii, W.& dA. 195.

Oxystelma esculentum, Grown. 196.

Calotropis gigantea, Brown. 196.

Ward, S. Yerkum, Errukum, T. Mudar.

* Asclepias curassavica, L.

Pentatropis microphylla, W. 8 A. 196.

Deemia extensa, Brown. 196.

Meda-kangu, 8. Véli-paritti, T.

Cynanchum paucifiorum, Brown. Cynoctonum. 1985.

Kan-humbald, 8.

Sareostemma Brunonianum, W. § A. 196.

_Miwa-kiriya, 8. :

Gymnema sylvestre, Brown. 197. (C. P. 2549.)

var. ZEYLANICUM, 7k. f. var. Decaisneanum.

G. RoTUNDATUM, Thw. 197.

G. lactiferum, Brown. 198.

Kurinian, 8.

var Towaitesi, Hk. f. Var.6. (C.P.1847.) 198.

var. WALKERI, Hk. f. (sp.)

G. PERGULARIOIDES, Wight & Gardn. Bidaria. 198.

var. Gardneri, Hkh. fi

var. stenoloba, Hk. f. (sp.)

Marsdenia tenacissima, W.& A. 197.

Muruva-dil, S$.

Tylophora fasciculata, Ham. 424 (197.)

499.

500.

001.

002.

0038.

504.

005.

510.

T. Iphisia, Decaisne. 424.

[T. paucifiora, W. & A.]

T. MEMBRANIFOLIA, Thw. 424. (C. P. 3793.)

T. zeylanica, Decaisne. T. micrantha. 197.

T. tenuis, Bl. T. carnosa. 196.

T. CORDIFOLIA, Thw.

T. asthmatica, W. 8 A. 197.

Bin-nuga,S. Pappalai,T. Indian Ipecacuanha.

T. ruava, Trim. ms.

Mudu-bin-nuga, S.

Cosmostigma racemosum, Wight. 197.

Dregea volubilis, Benth. Hoya viridiflora. 199.

Kirt-anguna, 8.

Heterostemma tanjorense, W. § A., var. zeylanicum,

Ak. f. 198.

Dischidia nummularia, Brown, 198. C. P. 3875.

Hoya pauciflora, Wight. H. Wightiana. 199.

H. ovalifolia, W. § A. 198.

Leptadenia reticulata, W.g A. 198.

Ceropegia elegans, Wall. 199.

C. WaLKERIaZ, Wight. C. elegans (part.) 199.

C. GaRDNERI, Hook. 199.

C. biflora, £. C. Candelabrum. 199.

Wel-mottu, S.

C. Thwaitesii, Hook. 199.

Caralluma attenuata, Wight. 200.

Boucerosia umbellata, W.& A. 200.

86. Loganiacese.

Mitrasacme alsinoides, Brown. MM. indica. 200.

Fagrea zeylanica, Thunb. 200.

Ktamburu, S.

FE. obovata, Wali. 200.

var. GARDNERI, Clarke. I. Gardnert. 200.

STRYCHNOS MicRANTHA, Lhw. (in part.) 425.

S. colubrina, £., var. ZEYLANICA, Cl. 201.

S. Bentuamy, Clarke. S. minor. 201.

var. parviflora, Benth.

S. Beddomei, Clarke. SS. micrantha (part.) 425.

var. CORIACEA, Thw. (sp.) 425.

S. CINNAMOMIFOLIA, Thw. 20).

Kta-kirinda-wel, 8.

oll.

512.

S. Nux-vomica, Z. 201.

Goda-kaduru, 8. Yetti, Kdnchirai, T.

S. potatorum, LZ. f. 201.

Ingint, 8S. Teéttdn, T.

Gaertnera Keenigii, Wight. 202.

Péra-tambala, S.

var. thyrsiflora, Thvw.

var. DIVARICATA, Clarke. G. divaricata. 425 (149).

G. RosEA, Thw. 201.

G. Waker, Wight. 202.

var. Gardneri, Cl. G. Gardneri. 202.

G. TERNIFOLIA, Thw. 202.

87. Gentianacese.

EXACUM AXILLARE, Thw. 208.

var. pentamera, Clarke. é

EH. Waker, Arn. Includes HL. zeylanicum, var. B. 203.

KE. zkYLANICUM, Roxb. 2038.

Bindara, Kirthiriya, 8.

var. macranthum, Clarke. E. macranthum. 203.

EK. pedunculatum, 2. 203.

Ei. sessile, £. 208.

[ E. petiolare, Griseb. |

Hoppea fastigiata, Clarke. Pladera pusilla. 204.

Enicostema littorale, Bl. Slevogtia orientalis. 204.

Vallarugu, T.

Canscora diffusa, Brown. 204.

C. sessiliflora, &. & S. 204.

C. decussata, A. & S. 204. ,

C. Wallichii, Clarke. C. Roxburgh. 442. :

Crawfurdia japonica, S.& Z., var. CHAMPIONI, Gard.

(sp.) C. fasciculata. 204.

Gentiana quadrifaria, Bl. G. pedicellata. 204.

SWERTIA ZEYLANICA, Gardn. Ophelia. 205.

[S. Chirata, Ham. Ophelia. 426.]

Limnanthemum cristatum, Griseb. 205.

L. indicum, Thw. 205.

O'lu, Ambala, S.

Ls. aurantiacum, Dalz. L. biflorum. 205.

Rénu-dlu, S.

? L. Forpesianum, Griseb. (“ MacRae, 86, 87.”)

L. parvifolium, Griseb., var. Moonii, Cl. L£. Moonit. 205.

Bin-élu, S.

520.

521.

522.

523.

524.

525.

526.

527.

528,

529.

530.

88. Hydrophyllaces.

Hydrolea zeylanica, Vahl. 209.

Diya-kirilla, S.

89. Boragines.

Cordia Myxa, ZL. C. Myza, var. minor. 214.

Lolu, 8. Naruvili, Vidi, T.

var. obliqua, Willd. (sp.) C. Myxa. 218

C. monoica, Rorb. C. diversa. 214.

C. OBLONGIFOLIA, Thw. 214.

—C. Rothii, 2. § S.

(C. salicifolia, Cham. C. Roxburghii, Clarke.)

Ebretia levis, Roxb. 214.

var. canarensis, Miq. (sp.)

Sira-pulichul, T.

(E. ovalifolia, Wight.)

E. buxifolia, Roxb. 214.

Hin-tambala, S.

Coldenia procumbens, Z. 215.

Serappadi, T.

Rhabdia lycioides, Mart. 214.

Tournefortia argentea, L. f. 214.

Karon, 8.

T. WALKER, Clarke. T. Wallichi. 214.

Heliotropium supinum, Z., var.malabaricum, Benth. 215.

H. paniculatum, Brown. H. linifolium. 215.

H. bracteatum, DC.

var. laxiflora, DC. (sp.)

H. marifolium, Retz., var. Wallichii, Clarke.

H. scabrum, Retz. 2? A. marifolium. 215.

H. indicum, £. Heliophytum. 215.

Trichodesma indicum, Brown. 216.

T. zeylanicum, Brown. 216.

Cynoglossum furcatum, Wall. 215.

Bu-hatiu-henda, S.

var. lanceolatum, Clarke. C. micranthum. 215.

[C. denticulatum, A. DC., var. zeylanicum, Clarke. ]

90. Convolvulacez.

Ericybe paniculata, orb. 213. i

Eta-miriya, 8.

Rivea ornata, Chois. 209.

331.

532.

633.

Argyreia tilisefolia, Wight. Hivea. 209,

Ma-banda, 8.

* A. speciosa, Sweet. 210.

Maha-dumudu, S.

A. splendens, Sweet. 210.

A. POPULIFOLIA, Chois. Rivea zeylanica, var. a. 209.

Giri-tilla, S.

var. Thwaitesii, Clarke.

var. coacta, (Clarke.) Rivea zeylanica, var. B. 209.

A. pomacea, Chois., var. TRIFLORA, Cl, A. Leschenaulti.

210.

Lettsomia aggregata, Rorb., var, osyrensis, Clarke. Argy-

reia. 210.

L. elliptica, Wight. Argyreia. 210.

[L. setosa, Roxb. |

LL. wancornia¥Fouia, Clarke. <Argyreia. 210,

Ipomeea Bona-nox, Z., var. grandiflora, Roxb. Calonye-

tion speciosum. 211.

A'langd, S. Moon-fiower.

(1. muricata, Jacg.) Kalu-dlangd, 8. (C. P. 3580.)

I. grandiflora, Lam., (non Roxb.) Calonyction comosper-

mum, 211.

J. sucunpa, Thw. 211.

* TY, coccinea, L.

* TI. Quamoclit, L.

I, hederacea, Jacq. Pharbitis Mil. 210.

I. dissecta, Willd. (non Pursh) I, coptica, 212.

I. uniflora, R.& S. Aniseia, 212.

Potu-pald, S.

I. digitata, ZL. Batatas paniculata. 210.

Kiri-badu, 8.

(1. Batatas, Lam.) Batala,S. Sweet Potato.

I. Choisyana (Wight.) Batatas. 210,

* T. cissoides, Chois. (C. P. 1491.)

I, pileata, Roxb. 212.

I. Wightii, Chots. 212.

{ I. bracteata, Wight.

I. Pes-tigridis, £. 212.

Divi-adiya, Divi-pahuru, S.

var. hepaticifolia, LZ. (sp.)

I. eriocarpa, Brown. TI. sessilifiora. 212.

I. angustifolia, Jacg. J. tridentata, var, ®. 211.

oo4.

530.

536. |

O37.

008.

639,

{, tridentata, Roth. 211.

Hlawari-madu, Hin-madu, 8.

I. chryseides, Ker. 212.

Kaha-tel-kola, S.

I. reniformis, Chots. 211.

I. obseura, Ker. 212.

Maha-madu, S.

I. Gueniet, Thw. (in Fl. B. Ind.)

I. denticulata, Chois. TI. littoralis. 211.

I. sepiaria, Koen. 212.

Rasa-tel-kola, S.

var. sagittata, Thw. 212.

. Beladamboe, #. & S. I. rugosa, 211.

Bin-tamburu, 8.

I. aquatica, Forsk. I. reptans. 211 and C. P. 3941.

Kan-kun, 8.

I. stapbylina, #. & S.

I. campanulata, L. 211.

I. cymosa, fi. § 8. 212.

Kiri-madu, 8.

* I. sidefolia, Chois.

I. Turpethum, Brown, 212.

Trasta-wdlu, S.

I. biloba, Forsk. J. Pes-capre, 211.

Mudu-bin-iamburu, 8.

I. vitifolia, Sweet. 426.

[I. centrocaulos, Clarke. |

* T. tuberosa, L.

I. palmata, Porsk. 212.

Hewittia bicolor, Wight. Shutereia. 212.

Wal-trasta-wdlu, 8.

[Calystegia hederacea, Wall. |

Convolvulus parviflorus, Vahl.

Evolvulus alsinoides, Z. 213.

Visnu-kranti, S.

(Porana paniculata, Roxb.)

Breweria cordata, Bl. B. Roxburghii. 218.

Cressa cretica, Z., var. indica, Retz. (sp.) 213

Cuscuta reflexa, £. 213.

Aga-mula-neti-wel, S.

C. chinensis, Lam. 2138.

Lom!

Ole

91. Solanacege.

640. Solanum nigrum, 2. 216.

Kalu-kan-wériya, 8. Mana-takkalli, T.

S. verbascifolium, Z. 216. .

FHekarilla, 8.

var. auriculatum, S. auriculatum. 216.

S. pubescens, Willd. 216.

S. bigeminatum, Nees, var. zEyYLANICA, Cl. S$. membra-

naceum. 216.

S. denticulatum, Bl. 216.

var. Gonakai, Dun. (sp.)

S. giganteum, Jacq. 216.

S. ferox, L. 216.

Mala-batu, S.

S. torvum, Sw. 216.

_§. indicum, Z. 217.

Tibbatu, S. |

S. xanthocarpum, Schrad. & Wendl. 217.

Eila-batu, 8.

var. Jacquini, Thw.

Katu-wel-batu, 8.

S. trilobatum, L. 217.

Wal-tibbatu, 8.

* Physalis minima, L. 217.

ar angiiata, Li 217.

Motiu, 8.

* P, peruviana, L. Cape Gooseberry,

* Capsicum fastigiatum, Bl.

Nayi-miris, S. Bird Pepper.

541. Withania somnifera, Dun. 217.

Amukkarad, 8. Amkulang, T.

* Nicandra physaloides, Gaertn.

042. Datura fastuosa, £. 217.

Attana, S.

var. Metel, L. (sp.)

* D. Stramonium, L.

Thorn-apple.

* D. suaveolens, H. B, K.

Rata-attana, S.

92. Scrophulariacee.

* Verbascum Thapsus, 2. Mullein.

543. Celsia coromandelina, Vahl. 217.

544.

545.

546.

547.

048.

549.

550.

* Calceolaria chelidonioides, H. B. p

[Linaria ramosissima, Roxb. |

ADENOSMA SUBREPENS, Benth. Pterostigma. 426, Lin

denbergia urticefolia. 218.

A. campHoratum, Hk. f. Pterostigma villosum. 218.

Kaha-géna-kola, 8.

A. capitatum, Benth. Pterostigma. 218.

Nil-géna-kola, S.

Limnophila conferta, Benth. L. serrata. 218.

.laxa, Benth.

. gratissima, Bl. L. punciata. 218.

. hirsuta, Benth. 218.

. sessilifiora, Bl.

. heterophylla, Benth. L. sessiliflora (in part.) 218.

. racemosa, Benth. 218.

. gratioloides, Br. 218.

Herpestis Monniera, H. B. & K.

Lunu-wila, 5. 218.

H, floribunda, Jr.

Dopatrium nudicaule, Ham. 218.

D. junceum, Ham. 219.

D. lobelioides, Benth. 219.

Artanema sesamoides, Benth. 219.

Torenia asiatica, £. 219.

Kotala-wel, S.

var. parvifolia, Hk. f-

PT hirtella, Wk. f. TV rubens. 219.

var. glabra, Trim. ms.

Vandellia ecrustacea, Benth. 219.

V. hirsuta, Benth. V. multiflora. 219.

V. scabra, Benth. 219.

V. pedunculata, Benth. 219.

V. angustifolia, Benth. 219.

Ilysanthes hyssopioides, Benth. 219.

I, rotundifolia, Benth. I. hyssopioides (part). 219.

Bonnaya veronicefolia, Spreng. 219.

Wila, 8.

B. brachiata, Link & Otto. 426.

B. tenuifolia, Spreng. 220.

Microcarpea muscosa, Br. 220.

Peplidium humifusum, Del. 426.

? Glossostigma spathulatum, Arn.

Sehete eleda =

* Scoparia dulcis, ZL. C. P. 4014,

* Veronica polita, Fries.

[ Buchnera hispida, Ham.] 220.

556. Striga orobanchoides, Benth.

S. lutea, Lour. 8S. hirsuta. 220.

S. euphrasioides, Benth. 220.

557. Centranthera procumbens, Benth. C. Brunoniana. 220.

Dutu-satutu, S.

C. hispida, Br. 220,

C. humifusa, Wall. 221.

558. Sopubia delphinifolia, G. Don. 220.

S. trifida, Ham. 220.

559. Pedicularis zeylanica, Benth. 221.

93. Orobanchaces.

560. Aiginetia indica, Roxb. 221,

fi. pedunculata, Wall, dt. acaulis, var. qa. 221.

561. Campbellia cytinoides, Wight. 427.

662. Christisonia subacaulis, Gardn. Afginetia acaulis, var. B.

Oeil

C. TuwairTesi, Trim. ms. C. unicolor (in part). 222.

(OC. Be 2971)

? C. unicolor, Gardn. (C.P.1780?) 222.

C. bicolor, Gardn. 222.

var. PALLIDIFLORA, Thw. 222.

var. SPECTABILIS, Thw. ms. (sp.) C. P. 3983.

C. atpipa, Thw. (in Fl, Brit. Ind.) C. P. 3929.

©. TRICOLOR, Gardn. 222.

var. grandiflora, Hk. f. C. grandiflora, 221.

94. Lentibulariacese.

563. Utricularia stellaris, 2. fi C. P. 3960.

U. flexuosa, Vahl. 171.

U. exoleta, Br. U. diantha. 171.

U. affinis, Wight. U.ccerulea, var. 171.

U. cerulea, Z. 171.

U. reticulata, Z. 171.

_ iNil-monaressa, S.

var. uliginosa, Vahl. var. stricticaulis. 171.

We bittda, 2. V7.1.

U. Wallichiana, Wight. U.capillacea. 171.

U. rosea, Hdgew, U.racemosa, var. 172.

U. racemosa, Wall. 172.

U. orbiculata, Wall. 172.

95. Gesneracecze.

564. Adschynanthus zeylanicus, Gardn. 206.

var. pinguis, Clarke.

565, Dipymocareus HumBoLpTIANus, Gardn. 207.

var. primulefolia, Gardn. (sp.) 207.

var. recedens, Clarke.

D. FLoccosus, Thw. 207.

D. zeyuanicus, Br, 207.

566. Currita Moonu, Gardn. 207.

C. WaLKERI, Gardn. 207.

var. parviflora, Clarke. Var. 6. 207.

C. ZEYLANICA, Hook. 208..

var. angusta, Clarke. Var. 8. 208.

567. CHAMPIONIA RETICULATA, Gardn. 20.

568. Klugia Notoniana, A. DC. 208.

Diyanilla, S.

var. GLABRA, Gardn. (sp.)

K. ZEYLANICA, Gardn. 208.

[Rhynchoglossum obliquum, B/.]

569. LEpithema carnosum, Benth., var. ZEYLANICUM, Gardn. (sp.)

208.

var. hispidum, Clarke.

570. Isanthera permollis, Nees. 208.

96. Bignoniaceee.

(Millingtonia hortensis, L.f.) Indian.Cork Tree.

571, Oroxylum indicum, Vent. Calosanthes indica. 206.

Totila, 8S. Achi, T,

572. Dolichandrone Rheedii, Seem. Spathodea. 206.

| Diya-danga, 8.

? D. crispa, Seem. (“‘ Koenig.”)

573. Stereospermum chelonioides, DC. 206.

Lunu-madala, S. Patiri, T.

(S. suaveolens, DC.) 206.

97. Pedaliaces.

* Martynia diandra, Glo.

Néka-tali, T.

574, Pedalium Murex, L. 209.

Ki-nerenchi, 8.

570.

576.

578.

579.

580.

586.

* Sesamum indicum, DC. 209.

Tel-tala, 8. Ellu, T. Gingely.

var. occidentale, Heer & Reg. (sp.) 442.

98. Acanthacese.

Thunbergia fragrans, Rorb. 224.

var. vestita, WVees.

* T. alata, Bop.

(T. Hawtayneana, Wall.) 224,

(T. coccinea, Wall.) 223.

Elytraria crenata, Vahl. 224.

“var. lyrata, Vees.

Nelsonia campestris, Br. NN. tomentosa. 224.

Ebermaiera zeylanica, Nees. E. glauca, 224.

Cardanthera uliginosa, Ham.

C. balsamica, Benth. Adenosma. 224.

C. verticillata, Benth. Adenosma. 224.

C. Tawaitesi, Benth. Adenosma. 224.

Hygrophila salicifolia, Nees. HM. quadrivalvis, var. 225.

H. quadrivalvis, Nees. 225,

H. spinosa, 7. dnd. 225.

Katu-ikirt, 8S. Neer-mulli, T.

Calophanes Nagchana, Nees. C. depressa. 225.

—C. littoralis, 7. And. 225.

. Rwuelliaringens, L., var. dejecta, Clarke. R.prostrata, 225.

R. patula, Jacg. 225.

[R. repens, L.]

Phaylopsis parviflora, Willd. Githeilema reniforme. 225.

Dedalacanthus montanus, 7. And. 229.

[ Hemigraphis flava, Kurz.| Strobilanthes scaber. 227.

Stenosiphonium Russellianum, Nees. 226.

var. subsericeum, Wees. (sp.) C. P. 3876.

Bua-nelu, S.

Senne VISCOSUS, T. And. 226,

Nelu, S. (applied to the whole genus.)

. STENODON, Clarke. C. P. 3874.

- EXAREOLATUS, Clarke. 8S. consanguineus. 226.

RHYTISPERMUS, Clarke. S. hypoleucus. 226.

NIGRESCENS, 7’. And. 226.

. RHAMNIFOLIUS, T. And. 226.

. DEFLEXUS, 7. And. 227.

. LANCEOLATUS, Hook. S. adenophorus. 228.

DNNDDN DK

S. Watkert, Nees. 227.

var. stenocarpus, Clarke. (C. P. 3517.)

8. Tawairesil, 7. And. 227.

§S. caudatus, 7. And. 228.

var. LANICEPS, Clarke.

S. anceps, Nees. 229.

S. punctatus, Nees. S. anceps, var. 228. C. P. 3998.

S. ARNOTTIANUS, Nees. 228. :

S. ASPERRIMUS, Nees. S. trifidus (part). 228.

S. TRIFIDUS, Nees. 228.

S. EXSERTUS, Clarke. Stenosiphonium zeylanicum. 225.

var integer, Clarke, NarsB: 226:

. GARDNERIANUS, J. And. 226.

. vestirus, Nees. 228.

. Hookert, Nees. 227.

. caLyoinus, 7. And. 227.

var. parvifolius, Clarke.

MARS.) Le Ana 228:

_ZEYLANICUS, 2. And." 227:

. SEXENNIS, JVees. 8S. cerinthoides. 229.

var. HIRSUTISsIMUs, JT. And. 229.

.HELICOIDES, 7. And. 229.

. PANICULATUS, 7. And. S.rubicundus. 229.

. PULCHERRIMUS, 7. And. 229.

587. Blepharis boerhaaviefolia, Pers. 231.

B. molluginifolia, Pers. 231.

Samadana, 8.

588. Acanthus ilicifolius, 2. 232.

thi, Katu-tkih, §.

var. integrifolius, 7. And. 232.

£89. Barleria Prionitis, £. 230.

Katu-karandu, 8.

-[B. buxifolia, Z.]

B. mysorensis, Roth. B. bispinosa. 230.

B. noctiflora LZ. ff. (“ Rottler.’’)

B. involucrata, Nees. B. pentandra (part). 230.

B. vestita, 7. And. 230.

B. ARNOTTIANA, WVees. 230.

var. pentandra, Arn. (sp.) B. pentandra (part). 230.

(B. cristata, L. (non Lam.) ) 230.

B. nutans, ees. 280.

B. nitida, Nees. 443.

590. Crossandra undulefolia, Salish. C.infundibuliformis, 231.

var, axillaris, ees. (sp.)

Tk WP

TP P

OD) Op: ba an)

RNP

591.

592.

593.

594.

595.

096.

597.

Asystasia coromandeliana, Nees (non Wight.) A. gan-

getica, 238.

Puruk, S.

A. chelonioides, Nees. 236.

A. quadrangularis, (Heyne in Fl. Brit. Ind.) A. cheloni-

oides (part). C. P. 552.

Eranthemum malabaricum, Clarke. FE. crenulatum. 230.

Andrographis paniculata, Nees. 232.

Fiin-bin-kohomba, 8. Nila-vémpu, T.

A. alata, Nees. 232.

A. macrobotrys, WVees. 232,

var. PARVIFOLIA, Clarke, <A. zeylanica. 232.

A. echioides, WVees. 232.

GYMNOSTACHYUM ZEYLANICUM, Arn. & Nees. 232.

G. THwaitesi, 7. And. 232.

G. PANICULATUM, 7. And. 232.

G. SANGUINOLENTUM, 7. And. 232.

G. HirsutuM, JT. And. 238.

Lepidagathis hyalina, Nees, var. LOPHOSTACHYOIDES,

Nees. 231.

L. fasciculata, Nees. 231.

L. zpyLanica, ees. 231.

L. WaLkeriana, WVees. 231.

Monothecium aristatum, 7. And. 234.

Justicia Betonica, L. 233.

Sudu-puruk, S,. ;

J. ZEYLANICA, T. dnd. 233. (C. P. 2718 == 2422 part,

C. P. 713 part.)

var. viridescens,

var. capitata, T. And. C. P. 3891S.

J. tranquebarensis, 1. fi 238.

* J. Gendurussa, £. ff 233.

Kalos-waraniya, 8.

J. Hooxeriana, 7. And. 233.

J. glabra, Koen. 234. (C. P. 3110 = 2422 part, C. P.

3663 — 713 part.)

? J. Monetiana, Vahl.

J. Royenrana, Clarke. Rostellularia. 234.

J. diffusa, Willd. Fostellularia. 234.

J. procumbens, L. A. Royentana (part). 234.

Mant, S.

602.

603.

604.

60d.

606.

607.

608.

609.

610.

611.

Adhatoda Vasica, Nees. Justicia adhatoda. 233.

Agaldddra, 8. A‘ddtédai, T.

Rhinacanthus communis, ees. 234.

Anitta, S.

? Dianthera dichotoma, Clarke. (“C, P. 2718.”)

PryssicLorris RADICosA, 7. And. 235.

Ecbolium Linneanum, Kurz. Eranthemum Ecbolium, 235.

var. letevirens, Vahl. (sp.)

(Graptophyllum hortense, Vees.)

Rungia longifolia, Nees. 235.

Sulu-neyt, S.

R. apiculata, Bedd. R. repens (part). (C. P. 1973.)

R. repens, Nees. 235.

R. parviflora, Nees. 234.

var. pectinata.

Dicliptera zeylanica, Nees. D. bivalvis. 235.

Peristrophe tinctoria, Nees. (‘‘ Walker.”) 234.

? P. montana, Nees.

99. Verbenaceze.

Lantana alba, Afill. 242.

fo tritolian 3: 242°

* L. mixta, ZL. (L.-Camara, Z:). 242.

Ganda-pana, Rata-hinguru, S. Lantana.

Lippia nodiflora, Rich.

Heri-mena-detta, S.

Bouchea hyderabadensis, Walp. 241.

{ Stachytarpheta indica, Vahl. 241.

Balu-nakuta, 8S,

var. * jamaicensis, Vahl. (sp.)

(S. mutabilis, Vahl.)

Priva leptestachya, Juss. .

Callicarpa lanata, Z. C. Wallichiana. 243.

Tila, S.

(Tectona grandis, L.) Teékka, 8. Tekku, T. Teak.

PREMNA PURPURASCENS, Thw. 242.

P. serratifolia, L. 242.

Midi, S.

P. latifolia, Roxb. 242.

Mahamidi, S.

P. micrantha, Schau. 242.

P. tomentosa, Willd. 243.

Bu-séru, S. Thain, Kolkutti, T.

P. pRocuMBENS, Wall. 243.

Li-kola-pald, 8.

P. cordifolia, Roxb. 243.

612. Gmelina asiatica, L. 244.

Demata, 8. Kumil, T.

G. arborea, Roxb. G. Rheedii. 244.

Et-demata, S$. Kumil, T.

613. Vitex trifolia, £. 244.

WNochi, Neer-nochi, 'T.

V. Negundo, /. 244.

Nil-nika, Sudu-nika, 8. Nochi, Veilat-nochi, T.

V.altissima, £2. ff 244.

Mitila, Mitla, Sapu-milila, 8S. Kata-manaku,

Maia, T.

var. zeylanica, T'urcz. (sp.)

V. pubescens, Vahl. 244. (“ Walker, 1122.’’)

_YV. Leucoxylon, Z. ff 244.

Nebedda, 8. Minachi, T.

614. Clerodendrum inerme, Br. 243.

Wal-gurenda, 8S. Pinari, T.

C. phlomoides, L. 248.

Wadamadichi, T.

C. serratum, Spreng. 243.

Ken-henda, S. Vatham addakki, T.

C. infortunatum, £. 243.

Gas-pinna, S.

(O. Siphonanthus, Br.) 248.

615. GuLossocarya scanpens, (L. f.) Clerodendron Linnei,

243.

616. Symphorema involucratum, Roxb. 242.

617. Avicennia officinalis, Z. 244.

100. Labiate.

618. Ocimum canum, Sims. 236.

Hin-tald, 8.

* O. basilicum, . 286.

Q. gratissimum, LZ. 236.

O. suave, Willd. 236.

QO. sanctum, L. 236.

Maduru-tald, 8.

QO. adscendens, Willd. ©. P. 3999.

619. GENIOSPORUM ELONGATUM, Benth. 236.

G. prostratum, Benth. 237.

var. gracile, Ziw. 237.

620. Moschosma polystachyum, Benth. 237.

621. Orthosiphon diffusus, Benth. 237.

O. glabratus, Benth. 237.

622. PLECTRANTHUS CAPILLIPES, Benth. 237.

P, nigrescens, Benth. 237.

Var. WALKERIg dg. (Spa)) (CE 9On)

P. Coetsa, Don. 237.

P. subincisus, Benth. 237.

P. GaRDNERI, Thw. 237.

P. zeytanicus, Benth. 238.

Tri-wériya, S.

(P. tuberosus, Bl.) Innala,S. (C. P. 2068.)

628. Coleus barbatus, Benth. 238.

(C. aromaticus, Benth.) Kappra-walliya, 8. C.P. 3971.

C. malabaricus, Benth. 238.

var. LEPTOSTACHYS, Benth. (sp.) (C. P. 17.)

C. weLatus, Benth. 238.

C. Wightii, Benth. C. P. 3942.

624. Anisochilus carnosus, Wall. 238.

Gal-kappra-walliya, 5.

A. PANICULATUS, Benth. 238.

A. suffruticosus, Wight. 238.

625. Pogostemon Heyneanus, Benth. 239.

Gan-hollan-kola, 8.

P. RUPEsTRIS, Benth. 239.

var. hirsutus, Thw. 239.

P. REFLEXUS, Benth. 239.

626. Dysophylla auricularia, Bl. 239.

Hemanlla, S.

D. verticillata, Benth. 239.

627. Mentha javanica, Bl. M. arvensis. 239.

Odu-tulan, S.

* M. sylvestris, L., var. crispa, Benth. (C. P. 2891.)

628. Calamintha umbrosa, Benth. C, Clinopodium, var. 239.

629. Scutellaria violacea, Heyne. 239.

var. glabra, Trim. Var. B. 240.

var. floribunda, Benth. (sp.) Var. y. 240.

S. sPicaATA, Trim. ms.

S. OBLONGA, Benth. 240.

630. Anisomeles ovata, Br. 240.

VYak-wanassa, 8. Pémarutti, T.

A. malabarica, Br. 240.

Reta-péemarutti, T.

* Stachys arvensis, LL.

631. Leueas mollissima, Wall. 240.

L. marrubioides, Desf 240.

Sudu-tumba, 8.

[L. pubescens, Benth.] 240.

L. procumbens, Desf. 240.

L. zeylanica, Br. 240.

Geta-tumba, S.

632. Leonotis nepetefolia, br. 241.

Maha Yak-wanassa, 8.

633. Teucrium tomentosum, Heyre. 241.

101. Plantagines.

634. Plantago asiatica, L. PP. major. 245.

*Pilanceolata, Z. (CoP. 2247.) 245.

APETALAE.

102. Nyctaginee.

* Mirabilis Jalapa, LZ. Sendrika, S. Marvel of Peru.

635. Boerhaavia diffusa, Z. 245.

Pita-sudu-pala, 8. Mukkarati, T.

B. repanda, Willd,

636. Pisonia aculeata, 245.

103. Amarantacee.

637. Celosia polygonoides, Retz. 247.

C, pulchella, Mog. 247.

C. argentea, 1. 247.

Kiri-henda, S.

638. Allmania nodiflora, Br. Chamissoa. 247.

Kumatiya, Weni-wella, 8.

689. Digera arvensis, Forsk. 249.

640. (Amarantus caudatus, L.) 247. Love-lies-bleeding.

(A. hypochondriacus, L. 247. Prince’s Feather.

* A. paniculatus, L. <A. frumentaceus. 247.

Rana-tam-pald, §.

A. spinosus, /. 247.

Katu-tam-pald, §.

* A. gangeticus, L. A. oleraceus, 247,

Sudu-tam-pala, S.

var. melancholicus, L. (sp.)

641.

642.

643.

644.

645.

646.

647.

648.

ye:

A. polygamus, L. 247.

Walu-tam-pala, S.

A. polygonoides, L. Euaxolus. 248.

Kura-tam-pald, 8.

A. gracilis, Desf’ Euxolus caudatus. 248.

Cyathula geniculata, Zour. C. prostrata. 249.

Bin-karal-heba, S.

C. capitata, Mog. 249.

Pupalia atropurpurea, Mog. 249.

P. orbiculata, Wight. 249.

PsILOTRICHUM SCLERANTHUM, Thw. 248.

P. ovatum, Mog. Ptilotus. 248.

Nothoszrua brachiata, Wight. 248.

Tampald, 8.

/Erua javanica, Juss. 248.

/ZE. lanata, Juss. 248.

Pol-kudu-pala, 8.

J). Monsonia, Mog. 248. (C. P. 3324.)

Achyranthes bidentata, Bl. 249.

A. aspera, L. 249.

Gas-karal heba, S.

var. argentea. A.argentea. 249.

A. diandra, Roxb. Centrostachys. 249.

Alternanthera triandra, Lam. A. sessilis. 250.

Muku-nu-wenna, S.

104. Chenopodiacee.

Chenopodium murale, L. 246.

* C. opulifolium, Schrad.

* C. ambrosioides, LZ.

Atriplex repens, Roth. 246.

Arthrocnemum indicum, Mog. 246.

Salicornia brachiata, Roxb. 443.

Sueda nudiflora, Mog. 246.

S. indica, Mog. 246.

S. maritima, Dum.

Basella alba, L.

Niviti, 8. Pachalai, 'T.

var. rubra, ZL. (sp.)

Phytolaccacese.

* Rivina humilis, Z. &. levis. 250. (C. P. 1899.)

* Mohlana nemoralis, Mart.

(Phytolacca octandra, Moq.)

105. Polygonacez.

654. Polygonum barbatum, £. 245.

Ratu-kimbulwenna, S.

P. minus, Huds. P. Posumbu. 245.

P. serrulatum, Lag. 245.

P. glabrum, Willd. 245.

P. tomentosum, Willd. 246.

Sudu-kimbulwenna, 8.

. perforatum, Meisn. 246.

. chinense, L. 246.

. strigosum, #. Br. 246.

var. horridum, Roxb. (sp.) FP. pedunculare. 246.

* Rumex obtusifolius, L.

* R. Acetosella, L.

gat Fd

106. Podostemaces.

655. ‘TERNIOLA ZEYLANICA, Tul. Dalzellia. 223.

656. Podostemon olivaceum, Gardn. Hydrobryum. 223.

P. SUBULATUM, Gardn. 222.

P. GaRDNERI, Harv. 223.

P, ELoNGATUM, Gardn. Dicrea. 222.

P. algzforme, ( Bedd. )

107. Nepenthacesee.

657. NEPENTHES DISTILLATORIA, L. 290.

Bandura-wel, S.

108. Aristolochiacee.

658. Bragantia Wallichii, Br. 291.

var. latifolia, Duch.

659. Aristolochia bracteata, Retz. 291.

A'du-thinnapale, T.

A. indica, L. 291.

Sap-sanda, 8. Perumarundu, T.

(A. Thwaitesii, Hook, |

109. Piperacee. |

660. * Piper Chawya, Ham. Chavica Chuvya. 428 and 292.

Siwiya-wel, S.

P. longum, L. Chavica Roxburghu. 292.

Tippil, 8, & T.

661.

P. Tawaitesu, Cas. DC. P. arcuatum (part. C. P.

2178.) 293.

'P. arborescens, Roxb. (C. P. 2461.) 293.

(P. Betle, LZ.) Chavica. 292.

Bulat-wel, 8S.

var. Siriboa, L. (sp.) Chavica Siriboa, 292.

Stribdé, Rata-bulat-wel, S.

? var. Malamiris, L. (sp.)

P. arcuatum, Bl. (C. P. 2177.) 293.

P. sylvestre, Lam. 293.

Wal-gammiris-wel, Malamiris-wel, S.

P. INSULARE, Cas. DC. P. trineuron. 293.

var. laxiflorum, Trim. ms. (P.zeylanicum, Cas. DC,

non Mig.) Muldera diandra, 428.

- TRINEURON, Mig. (“* Walker.”)

. bantamense, Bl. P. arborescens (part. C. P. 35.) 293.

. WaLKERI, Mig. (“ Walker.”)

. nigrum, £. 292.

Gammiris-wel, 8. Milagu, T. Biack Pepper.

var. trioicum, Cas. DC.

P. ARGYROPHYLLUM, Mig. 293.

P, zeyLanicum, Mig. (non Cas. DC.) (“ Walker, No.31.”)

P. subpeltatum, Willd. Pothomorphe. 292.

Mala-labu, S.

* Peperomia Fraseri, Cas. DC.

P. Wightiana, Mig. C. P. 3954.

P. PSEUDO-RHOMBEA, Cas. DC. P. courtallensis, var. 292,

P. Tawaitesi, Cas. DC. P. Heyneana. 292,

P, reflexa, A. Dietr. 292.

P. zEYLANicA, Mig. (‘* Walker, No. 1904.”)

P. couRTALLENSIS, Mig. 292.

110. Chloranthacee.

Chloranthus brachystachys, Bl. 293.

ro rg db

111. Myristicacez.

MyristTica LAURIFOLIA, Hk. f. & Th. 11.

Malaboda, S.

var. zeylanica, Thw. 11 & 399.

M. Horsrietpia, Bl. 11.

Ruk, S.

M. Irya, Gaertn. 11.

Iriya, S.

664.

665.

666.

667.

668.

669.

670.

671.

ris)

112. Monimiacee.

HORTONIA FLORIBUNDA, Wight. 11.

Wawiya, S.

var. ovalifolia, Thw. 12.

H. aneustirotia, Thw. (var.) 12.

118. Lauracee.

Cryptocarya Wightiana, Thw. 254.

Gal-mora, S. (of low-country) Moré, Kaddu-more, T.

C. MEMBRANACEA, Zhw. 254.

BEILSCHMIEDIA ZEYLANICA. Apollonias. 253.

Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Bl. 252 and C. P. 4000,

Kurundu, 8. Karruvad,'T. Cinnamon.

* var. vulgare, Hayne. (C. P. 2285.)

var. MULTIFLORUM, Tw. (part.) 252.

var. iners, Reinw. (sp.) Var. multiflorum (part). 252.

C. LITSEZFOLIUM, Thw. 253.

C. cirrioporum, Thw. 253.

Pengiri-kurundu, S.

C. ovaLiroLium, Wight. C. zeylanicum, var. 252.

Machilus glaucescens, Wight, var. zeyLanica, Meissn.

M. macrantha. 254.

Olulu, 8S.

Persea semecarpifolia (Nees), var. ANGUSTIFOLIA, Meissn.

Alseodaphne. 254.

Wéwarant,S. Ydvaranai, Ranai, T.

ACTINODAPHNE MOLOCHINA, ees. 257.

var. glabrescens, Meissn. A. Moonii. 256,

A. STENOPHYLLA, Thw. (C. P. 2491.) 256.

A. Tuwairesi, Meissn, (C. P. 304.) A. stenophylia

(part). 256,

A. Evecans, Thw. 256.

[A. salicina, Mezssn. ]

A. euauca, Nees. 256.

var. Walkeri, Meissn.

[A. Hookeri, Mezssn. ]

[A. lanata, Mezssn. |

A. speciosa, ees. 257.

A. CANDOLLEANA, Meissn. A. speciosa, var. 256.

Litsea tomentosa, Heyne. Tetranthera. 254.

Kos-bada, 8.

672.

673.

674.

675.

676.

Oviite

L. sebifera, Pers., var. Roxburghii, Meissn. Tetranthera

Roxburgh. 255.

Bo-mi, 8. Elumburiki, T.

var. SALIGNA, Meissn.

L. ligustrina (Nees ), var. celastroides, Meissn. Tetran-

thera. 254.

L. leta, (Wall.), var. GLrauca, Meissn. Tetranthera

longifolia (part). 255.

L. GLABERRIMA, ( Thw.) 255. Tetranthera. 253.

var. chartacea, Meissn. Tetr. longifolia, var. 255,

L. longifolia, (Nees). (C. P. 228.) 255.

Rat-keliya, 8.

L. NEmMoRALIS, ( TAw.) (Includes 7. Hookeriana, Meissn.)

Tetranthera. 255.

L. ruscata, Thw. 258.

L. orBicuLARIS, Thw. 258.

L. ZEYLANICA, Nees. 257.

Dawul-hurundu, Kudu-dawulu, 8.

var. VENOSA, Meissn. (C. P. 2278.)

var. rubrinervia, Meissn. (C. P. 3449.)

L. ampieua, Meissn. (C. P. 72, 2280.) L. zeylanica,

var. 207.

L. Garpneri, (Thw.) (Includes Yetr. zeylanica,

Meissn.) 255.

var. rigida, Meissn. (sp.)

L. ovALIFOLIA, ( Wight.) 256.

var. parvifolia, Meissn. Tetr. Iteodaphne, vars.

255, 6. |

var. angustata, Meissn. Tetr. Iteodaphne. 255.

?L. WavKeri ( Meissn.) (“ Walker, No. 1382.”)

LInDERA LANCIFOLIA, ( Thw.) Daphnidium. 257.

Cassytha filiformis, 2. 258.

C. capillaris, Meissn. C. P. 3982.

Hernandia peltata, Meissn. HI. Sonera. 258.

Palutu, S.

114. Proteaceze.

HELICIA ZEYLANICA, Gardn. 250.

115. Thymeleacesce.

Wikstroemia virgata, Meisn. 250.

Lasiosiphon eriocephalus, Deene. 250,

Naha, 8.

var, INSULARIS, Jeissn. (sp.) 2ol.

“a

678. PHALERIA CAULIFLORA, (Thw.) Drymispermum. 251.

679. Gyrinops WaLLA, Gaertn. 251.

Walla, Pattd-walla, S.

116. Hleagnaces.

680. EHleagnus latifolia, £. 252.

Wel-embilla, Katu-embilla, 8.

var. Thwaitesii, Schlecht. (sp.) (C. P. 2724.)

117. Loranthacee.

681. LORANTHUS NODIFLORUS, Thw. 134.

. Hookerianus, W.g A. 134.

. buddleoides, Desv. 1386.

tomentosus, Heyne. 135.

var. lanuginosus, Thw.

. neilgherrensis, W.§ A. 184.

. cuneatus, Heyne. 135.

SCLEROPHYLLUS, Thw. 135.

. longiflorus, Desv. 134.

Pilila, 8. (Applied to whole genus.)

var. amplexifolius, Thw. 134.

LONCHIPHYLLUS, Thw. 418.

ENSIFOLIUS, Thw. 184.

. SUBORBICULARIS, Thw. 184.

.LIguLatus, Thw. 1385.

. GARDNERI, Thw. 188.

. loniceroides, £2. 133.

. capitellatus, W.§ A. 138.

682. Viscum orientale, Willd. 1386,

V. capitellatum, Sm. 136.

V-attenuatum, DC. 136.

V. moniliforme, Bl. 136.

683. Nototaixos FLoccosus, Oliv. Viscum. 418.

684. GINALLOA SPATHULIFOLIA, Oliv. Viscum. 136.

HH EH Pee

Sil all oll all all il)

118. Santalaces.

(Santalum album, Z.) (C. P. 2915.)

685. Osyris arborea, Wall. 251,

686. Scleropyron Wallichianum, Arn. Pyrularia, 25}.

Katu-pamburu, 8. Iddu-mullai, T.

119. Balanophoracez.

687. Balanophora indica, Wall. 293.

B. Tuwattesu, Eichl. B. indica (part). 293.

688.

689.

690.

691.

692.

693.

694.

120. Huphorbiaceee.

Euphorbia Atoto, Forst. 427.

E. fimbriata, Roth. 269.

E. parviflora, L. £. hypericifolia. 268.

Ela-dadakiriya, 8S.

BE. hirta, 2. E. pilulifera. 269.

Bu-dada-kiriya, 8.

EK. Chamesyce, L.? 269.

EK. thymifolia, L. E. Burmanniana. 269.

Bin-dada-kiriya, S.

EK. rosea, Retz. 269.

Mudu-dada-kiriya, S.

(E. neriifolia, £.) Patuk, S.

E. antiquorum, L. 268.

Daluk, S.

E. tortilis, Rottl. 268.

Sinuk, 8S. Tirtu-kalli, T.

=) Pirucalli,72.< 268.

Nawa-handi, 8. Kulli, Kalli, T. Milk-hedge.

K. oreophila, Mig. KH. Rothiana. 269.

Sarcococea pruniformis, Lindl. 290.

var. ZEYLANICA, Baill. (sp.)

Bridelia retusa, Spreng. 279.

Keta-kadla,S. Mullu-venke, T.

B. Moony, Thw. 279.

Pat-kdla, S.

B. scandens, Willd. C. P. 3932.

CieIsTantaus Robustus, Mull, Arg. Amanoa indica.

428.

. patulus, Mull. Arg. A. acuminata (in part) & A. in-

dica f. minor. 428.

. AcuMINATUS, Mull. Arg. Amanoa. 428.

- FERRUGINEUS, Mull. Arg. Amanoua. 280.

- PALLIDUS, Mull. Arg. Amanoa. 280.

var. subglaucus, Thw. ms. (sp.) C. P. 3981.

C. collina, (Roxb.) Amanoa. 280.

Madara, S.

ACTEPHILA ZEYLANICA, Mull. Arg. A. neilgherrensis.

280.

Agyneia bacciformis, A. Juss. 283.

Et-pitawakkd, S.

Sauropus albicans, Bl. S. Gardnerianus. 284.

Oe Qs ©

S. RETROVERSUS, Wight. 284.

S. ASSIMILIS, Thw. 284,

S. Rigipus, Thw. 284.

695. Phyllanthus zeylanicus, Mull. Arg. Glochidion. 285.

| Hunu-kirila, 8.

var. tomentosus. Var. B. 285.

P. pracuyLosus, Mull. Arg. Gloch. coriaceum (part).

(C. P. 3016.) 285.

P. coriaceus, Mull, Arg. Glochidion (part). ©. P. 342.)

285.

P. pycnocarrus, Mull. Arg. Gl. coriaceum (part.) (C.P.

2529.) 2805.

. Stellatus, Retz. Gloch. Jussieuianum. 285.

. SYMPLOCOIDES, Mull. Arg. Gloch. montanum. 286.

Leptowrnus, Mull. Arg. Gloch. Gardneri. 286.

NEMORALIS, Mull. Arg. Glochidion. 286.

. PuBESCENS, Moon. Gloch. Moont. 286.

Bi-hunu-kirilla, 8.

_ var. glaucogynus, Mull. Arg. (sp.) (C. P. 2150.)

var. Subglabra. (C. P. 68.)

P. reticulatus, Poir. Kirganelia multiflora. 282.

Wel-kayila, S.

var. glaber, Thw. (part.) 282.

P. microcarpus, Mull. Arg. K. multiflora, var. glaber

(part). 282.

P. Tuwairesianus, Mull. Arg. P. flexuosus. 281.

P. Hmbliea, £. . 282.

Nelli, S. Toépu-nelli, T.

P. inpicus, Mull. Arg. Prosorus. 281.

Karawu, 8.

Ma-Mla-Ma-ila-)eta-)

P. cyanospermus, Mull. Arg. Prosorus.. 281.

Sudu-liyan, 8.

polyphyllus, Willd. 282.

EMBLICOIDES, Mull. Arg. ? P. polyphyllus (part.) 282.

maderaspatensis, 2. 282.

. Rheedii, Wight. P. flaccidus. 283.

. urinaria, L. 282.

Rat-pitawakkd,

. simplex, Retz. 282.

var. Gardnerianus, Mull. drg. P. Gardneri. 282.

iy Hy

a")

696.

697.

698.

699.

700.

VOL.

7102.

703.

704.

. MYRTIFOLIUS, Moon. 283.

. rotundifolius, Klein. 282.

s Niruri, > 282.

Pita-wakka, 8.

P. orEoPHILUS, Mull. Arg. Epistylium polyphyllum

var. 428.

P. anABaPprTizatus, Mull. 4rg. Epistylium polyphyllum.

a | 283.

P. Baillonianus, Mull. Arg. Epistylium latifolium. 283.

P. cinEREUS, Mull. Arg. Epistylium floribundum (part),

& C. P. 3872.

P. arFinis, Mull. Arg. Epistylium floribundum (part).

283. |

P. HAKGALENSIS, Thw. ms. C. P. 4015.

Fluggea Leucopyrus, Willd. 281.

Hin-hatu-pila, S.

Breynia rhamnoides, Mull. Arg. Melanthesa. 285.

Gas-kayila, S.

B. patens, (Roxb.) Melanthesa turbinata. 285.

Wal-murunga, 8.

Putranjiva Roxburghii, Wall. 287.

Kirri-palai, T.

P. zeyLanica, Mull. Arg. Palenga. 287.

Pelan, S.

Hemicyclia sepiaria, W.& A. 287.

Wira,S. Vere, T.

H. GARDNERI, Thw. 287.

H. panceouata, Thw. 287.

Cyclostemon macrophyllus, Bl. C. zeylanicus. 286.

MISCHODON ZEYLANIcUS, Thw. 275.

Tammanna, S. & T.

APOROSA LATIFOLIA, Thw. 288.

Pepiliya, Mdé-pat-kebella, Kampotta, S.

A. FusiFoRMIS, Thw. 288.

A. Lindleyana, Baill. 288.

Kebella, S.

A. acuminata, Thw. 288.

A. lanceolata, Thw. 288.

Hin-kebella, S.

Daphniphyllum glaucescens, Bl. D. neilgherrense. 290.

Antidesma Ghesembilla, Gaertn. A. paniculatum. 289.

Bu-embilla, §.

gol lao). lne|

705.

710.

we:

A. ALEXITERIA, L. A. zeylanicum. 289.

Hin-embilla, 8.

A. Bunius, Spr. 289.

var. THwaiTEsiaNum, Mull. Arg. (sp.) Var. 6. 289.

Karawala-kebella, 8.

A. pyrirotium, Mull. Arg. A. montanum. 289.

A. tanceoLtatum, Tul. <A. lanceolarium. 289.

[ Microdesmis casearifolia, Planch. ]

* Jatropha glandulifera, Roxb. J. glauca. 277.

(J. gossypiifolia, L.)

(J. Cureas, L.) Rata-endaru, 8. Kdddamanakku, T.

Physic Nut.

* Aleurites trilboa, Forst. Tel-kekuna, S. Candle Nut.

? Croton oblongifolium. Roxb. 276.

C. zeyvanicum, Mull. Arg. C.hypoleucum. 276.

C. lacciferum, L. 275.

_ Keppitiyd, Gas-heppitiyd, S.

C. aromaticum, LZ. 275.

Wel-keppitiya, S. Vid-puné, T.

C. Moonn, Thw. 276.

C. caudatum, Giesel. (“‘ Thunberg.”)

(C. Tiglium, Z.) Jaya-pdla, 8. Nérvdlum, T.

C. NIGRO-VIRIDE, Thw. 276.

C. Tuwaitesianum, Mull. Arg. C. Klotzschianum. 276.

Givotia rottleriformis, Griff. 278.

Kuri-kurité, Putialat, T.

TRIGONOSTEMON DIPLOPETALUS, Thw. 277.

T. NeEMORALIS, Thw. 277.

Ostodes zeylanica, Mull. drg. Desmostemon. 278.

Wal-kekuna, Olupetta, 8.

OQ. minor, Mull. Arg. D. zeylanicus, var. 278.

Wal-jayapéla, S.

Blachia umbellata, Baill. 277.

Kosatta, S.

Dimorphocalyx glabellus, Thw. 278.

Welh-wenna, S. Taintukhi, T-

Agrostistachys indica, Dalz. 279.

A. longifolia, (Wight.) Sarcoclinium. 279.

Beru, S.

A. Hooxert, (Thw.) Sarcoclinium. 279.

Diya-béru, Maha-béeru, 8.

Chrozophora plicata, A. Juss., var. Rottleri, Wud. Arg.

443.

718.

714,

715.

716.

718.

719.

720.

123.

724.

725,

ADENOCHLANA ZEYLANICA, Thw. 270.

CLAOXYLON OLIGANDRUM, Mull. Arg. 271.

- Micrococea Mercurialis, Benth. Claoxylon. 271.

Acalypha paniculata, Mig. A. Wallichit. 271.

A. fruticosa, Forsk. A. betulina. 271.

A. indica, Lo 271.

Kuppa-méniya, 8S. Kuppaiman, T.

A. fallax, Mull. Arg. <A. hispida. 271.

A. ciliata, Forsk. 271.

? CaxLopiscus THunpercianus, Mull. Arg. (“ Thun-

berg.”)

PopADENIA SAPIDA, Thw.. 274.

Trewia nudiflora, 2. 272.

? Mallotus moluccanus, Mull. arg. (‘‘ Hermann.”)

M. eriocarpus, Mull. Arg. Rettlera. 273.

M. albus, Mull. Arg. Mottlera tetracocca. 272.

Biu-kenda, S.

micraNTHUS, Mull. Arg. (“C. P. 2106.”)

muricatus, Mull. Arg. fottlera. 273.

ZEYLANIOUS, Mull. Arg. fottl. oppositifolia. 273.

Marai-thinn, T. :

FuscEScCENS, Mull. Arg. fottlera. 273.

. niTipus, Mull. Arg. C. P. 38930 (olim 2469).

. philippinensis, Mull. Arg. Rotil. tinctoria. 272.

Hampirila, S$. Kapila-podi, 'T.

M. repandus, Mull. Arg. Rottl. rhombifolia. 272.

Cleidion javanicum, Bl. 272.

Okuru, S.

Macaranga digyna, Mull. Arg. Rottlera. 273.

Ota, S.

[M. depressa, Mull. Arg.]

M. indica, Wight. 428.

M. tomentosa, Wight. 274.

Kenda, Pat-kenda, 8.

* Ricinus communis, L.

Lindaru, 8. Sittd-manaku, T. Castor-oil.

Homonoia riparia, Lour. Spathiostemon javense. 272.

Chetocarpus castanocarpus, Thw. 275.

Hédawaka, Hedéka, 8. Palakuna, Sadavaku, T.

C. coriaceus, Thw. 275.

Gelonium lanceolatum, Willd. 274.

var. ANGUSTIFOLIUM, Baill. (sp.) (C. P. 252.)

Kakat-palé, Varit-thulai, T.

BES SEE

726.

dele

728.

729,

7380.

Tragia involucrata, L. 270.

var. INTERMEDIA, Mull. Arg. T.cannabina. 270.

var. corpaTA, Mull. Arg. (C. P. 3519.)

var. MONTANA, Mull. Arg. (sp.) non Thw. (C. P.

2100.) |

Wel-kahambiliyd, S.

Dalechampia ternata, Mull. Arg., var. zEyLanica, Mull.

D. bidentata. 270.

Sapium indicum, Willd. 269.

Kiri-makulu, 8. |

S. insigne, (Royle.) Falconeria. 270.

Tilai, T.

Sebastiana Chamelea, Mull. Arg. Microstachys. 270.

Rat-pitawakka, 8.

Excecaria Agallocha, LZ. 269.

Tela-kiriya, 8. .

E. cochinchinensis, Lour. E. oppositifolia, 269.

121. Urticaceee.

Holoptelea integrifolia, Planch. Ulmus. 267.

Goda-hirilla, 8S. Ail, Atyilli, Kanchd, T.

Celtis cinnamomea, Lindl. C. Dysodoxylon. 267.

Gurenda, S.

C. Wightii, Planch. 267.

Trema orientalis, (Z.) Sponia. 267.

Gedumba, S.

. Gironniera parvifolia, Planch. G. subequalis, var. zey-

lanica. 267.

G. reticulata, Thw. 268.

Taxotrophis zeylanica, Thw. 264.

Phyllochlamys spinosa, Bur. Taxotrophis Roxburghi.

267.

Streblus asper, Lour. 264.

Geta-netul, 8S. Palpirdi, T.

ALLAZANTHUS ZEYLANICUS, Thw. 268.

Alandu, S.

Plecospermum spinosum, Tréc. 263.

Katu-timbol, 8.

Dorstenia indica, Wall. 264.

{ Ficus religiosa, Z. Urostigma. 264.

Bo, 8. Arasu or Arasa, T.

¥, Arnottiana, (Mlig.) Urostigma. 264.

Kaudu-b6, Pulila, 8. :

F. Tsjakela, Burm. Urostigma infectorium, (part.) 269.

Kiri-pella, §.

_F-. infectoria, Willd.' Urostigma (part). 265.

var. Wightiana, King. U. Wightianum. 265.

Kalaha, 8S.

F. Mooniana, King ms. U.Wightianum, var. majus. 265.

F. bengalensis, L. Urostigma. 265,

Maha-nuga, 8. A'l, T. Banyan.

F. tomentosa, Roxb. Urostigma. 265.

F. mysorensis, Heyne. Urostigma. 265.

Bu-nuga, S.

F. pseudo-Tsiela, (Jhq.) U. lacciferum, (part.)

F. altissima, Bl, var. laccifera, Roxb. (sp.) U. lacciferum.

265.

Nuga, S.

F. Trimeni, King ms. U. Tjiela(part). (C.P. 2220.) 265,

Tel-nuga, S.

F, Tsiela, Roxb. (C. P. 2218.) U. Tjiela (part.) 265.

Ela-nuga, Ehetu, 8.

F. CAUDICULATA, 7'rim. ms.

F. retusa, L. Urostigma (& C. P. 2537). 265.

var. nitida, Thunb.

F. nervosa, Heyne, var. minor, King. Urostigma modes-

tum. 266.

Kalamaduwa, 8.

F. zEYLAnIcA, (Miq.) Pogonotrophe dasyphylla. 266.

F. asperrima, forb. 266.

Sewana-mediya, 8.

F. callosa, Willd. F. cinerascens. 266.

Wal-gonna, S.

F. heterophylla, L. ff 266.

Wal-ehetu, S.

F. gibbosa, Bl., var. parasitica, Koen. (sp.) 266.

Gas-netul, Wel-ehetu, S.

F. Tawaitesi, Mig. ff. disticha, 266.

F. piversirormis, Mig. 266.

F. hispida, L. f, var. oppositifolia, Willd. Covellia op-

positifolia. 266.

Kota-dimbuld, 8.

F. glomerata, Willd. Covellia, 267.

Aittkka, 8. Atti, T.

742, Antiaris innoxia, Bl.

Riti, S. Netavil, T.

743.

744,

748.

749.

750.

751,

752,

7538.

154,

155.

Cudrania javanensis, Tréc. Cudranus Rumphii.

Artocarpus Lakoocha, Roxb. 262,

Kana-gonna, 8.

A. NopiLis, Thw. 262.

Del, Wal-del, S.

(A. incisa, Z.) Rata-del, S. Bread Fruit,

*-A. integrifolia, L. (C. P. 2233.)

Kos, 5. Pila, T. Jack.

Fleurya interrupta, Gaud. 258.

Wal-kahambiliya, S.

Laportea terminalis, Wight. 259.

L. crenulata, Gaud. 259.

Ma-ussa, 8.

Girardinia palmata, Gand. G. Leschenaultiana,

Nilgire Nettle.

G. zeylanica, Decne. 259.

Gas-kahambiliyd, 8.

Pilea Wightii, Wedd. 259.

P. trinervia, Wight. 259.

P. angulata, Bl. 259.

* P. microphylla, Liebm.

Lecanthus Wightii, Wedd. C. P. 3870.

Pellionia Heyneana, Wedd. 259.

Elatostema sessile, Forst. 427.

E. acuminatum, Wedd. C. P. 3970.

E. lineolatum, Wight. 260.

var. majus, Wedd.

var. falcigerum, Wedd.

var. lineare, Wedd. |

var. PETIOLARE, Thw. ms. C. P. 3920.

E. diversifolium, Wedd. SE. surculosum. 260.

Procris levigata, Bl. 260.

Boehmeria malabarica, Wedd. 260.

Maha-diya-dul, S.

B. platyphylla, Don. 260.

var. macrostachya, Wedd. 260.

var. ZEYLANICA, Wedd. 260,

var. rugosissima, Wedd.

Chamabaina cuspidata, Wight. 260.

Pouzolzia indica, Gaud, 260.

var. alienata, (£.) (sp.) 260.

var. suffruticosa, Wight. (sp.)? C. P. 4001.

P, auriculata, Wight. 260.

262.

259.

756.

797,

758.

760.

761.

762.

763.

764.

765.

766.

767,

Pp. Warkeriana, Wight. Hyrtanandra. 261.

P. hirta, Hassk. Hyrtanandra. 261.

var. Bennettiana, Wedd. 261.

var. Gardneri, Wedd.

P. parvirotia, Wedd. Hyrtanandra triandra. 261.

Villebrunea sylvatica, Bl. Oreoenide. 261.

Debregeasia velutina, Gaud. Morocarpus longifolia. 261.

Gas-dul, S.

D. Wallichiana, Wedd. Morocarpus. 262.

Casuarines.

(Casuarina equisetifolia, Forst.) Kasa,S. Chowkku, T.

122. Ceratophyllacee.

Ceratophyllum verticillatum, orb. 290.

GYMNOSPERME.

128. Cycadee.

Cycas circinalis, L.

Madu, 8.

| C. Rumphii, Mg. C.P. 3862.

MONOCOTYLEDONS.

124. Hydrocharides.

Hydrilla ovalifolia, Rich. HH. verticillata. 331.

Lagarosiphon Roxburghii, Benth. Nechamandra alterni-

folia. 332.

Blyxa Roxburghii, Rich. B. octandra. 332.

Diya-hawari, 8.

Ottelia alismoides, Pers. 332.

Enhalus acoroides, Rich. E. marinus. 382.

Thalassia Hemprichii, Asch. Posidonia serrulata. 383.

Halophila ovalis, Hk. f Thalassia stipulacea. 333.

125. Burmanniacee.

Burmannia disticha, L. DB. distachya. 328.

Mediya-jawdla, S.

B. pusirta, Thw. 325.

var. elatior. Var. 8. 325.

B. Cuampioni, Thw. 325.

768. Tuismia GARDNERIANA, Hk. f. C. P. 4009. 325.

126. Orchidee.

icrostylis Rheedii, Lindl. 296.

. luteola, Wight. (C. P. 2748.) M. Rheedii (part.) 296.

. DIscoLor, Lindl. 297.

. LANCIFOLIA, Thw. 297.

. PURPUREA, Lindl. 297 & 429,

{. congesta, Walp. C. P. 3950.

var. Fusca, Lindl. (sp.) Dienia fusca. 297,

770. Oberonia Brunoniana, Wight. C. P. 3869.

. ForcIPATA, Lindl. 296.

LONGIBRACTEATA, Lindl. 296.

-TRUNCATA, Lendl...296. C. P. 3913)?

. verticillata, Wight, var. puBescens, Lindl. 296.

. TENUIS, Lindl. 296.

. Wightiana, Lindi. 296.

GARDNERIANA, Thw. 296.

. ScvytLaz, Lindl. 296,

771, LipaRis ATROPURPUREA, Lindl. (non Wight.) 2985,

L. WaLkERIz, Grah. (non Wight.) 295,

Wightiana, Thw. 295,

brachyglottis, Rchb.f. C. P. 4002.

paradoxa, Rchb.f. Empusa. 429.

BARBATA, Lindl. (‘ Macrae 1829,”) 295.

.longipes, Lindl. 295.

. viridiflora, Lindl. 295.

. angustifolia, Lindl. 296.

. gregaria, Lindl, 296.

772. Dendrobium Macrei, Lindl. 297.

} D. crumenatum, Sw. 297.

Sudu-pareyimal, 8.

D. aureum, Lindl. 297.

Primrose Orchid.

var. pallidum, Lindl.

D. MaccartTHia, Thw. 297.

Wesak-mal, 8. | |

D. Macrostacuyum, Lindl. 297.

D. nutans, Lindl. 298.

D. hemoglossum, Thw. 429.

[D. sancuinoLenTUM, Lindl.| 298.

SS SSE

eS S Sle ewe

SY) lel als

773.

174,

775.

776.

777.

778.

779,

780.

781.

782.

783.

184.

&8§

-[D. crintFrerum, Lindi.| (‘‘ Mr. Power.”)

[D. compressum, Lindl.) (‘‘ Nightingale.”)

D. PURBPURASCENS, Thw. 298.

D. panpuRaAtTuM, Lindl. 298.

D. atpipuLum, Thw. ms. C. P. 8926 (& C. P. 28538

(part).)

BULBOPHYLLUM ELEGANS, Gardn. 298.

B. crassiroLtium, Thw. ms. C. P. 3879.

B. PETIOLARE, Thw. 298.

B. purpureum, Thw. 298.

CiRRHOPETALUM Macra1, Lindl. 299.

C. GRANDIFLORUM, Wight. 299.

C. Evia, Rehb. f. (C. P. 3160.) C. Wightii (part). 299.

C. Tawairesu, fchb. f. (C. P. 2740.) C. Wight (part).

299,

Eria BIcoLor, Lindl. 299.

Lily-of-the- Valley Orchid.

E. Linpiryi, Thw. 299.

E. TRICOLOR, Thw. 429.

EK. braceata, Lindl. 299.

EK. muscicoua, Lindl. 299.

var. oblonga, Trim. ms. C. P, 2355 (part).

E. articuLata, Lindl. Alwisia tenuis. 300.

E. Tuwaitesi, Trim. E. velutina. 299.

E. sp. C. P. 4017.

[E. profusa, Lindl.| (“‘ Nightingale.”)

Phreatia elegans, Lindl. 299.

PacHystToma speciosum, chb. f. Ipsea. 301.

Daffodil Orchid.

P. montanum, fichb. f. (‘“ Macrae.”)

ACANTHEPHIPPIUM BICOLOR, Lindl. 307.

Puatus BICOLOR, Lindl. 300.

P. turipus, Thw. 300.

Tainia bicornis, (Lindl.) Ania. 301.

T. macutatTa, (Thw.) Ania. 301.

Josephia lanceolata, Wight. 307.

Celogyne breviscapa, Lindl. 300.

C. odoratissima, Lindl. 300.

Pholidota imbricata, Lindl. 300.

CALANTHE PURPUREA, Lindl. C, Masuca. 308.

C. veratrifolia, Br. 308.

var. discolor, Thw. 308.

187.

788.

789.

790.

791.

793.

194.

795,

796.

49.

ARUNDINA MINOR, Lindl. 301.

Kulophia macrostachya, Lindl. 301.

E. virens, Br. 302,

[. herbacea, Lindl.| (‘* Macrae.”)

[E. bracteosa, Lindl.| EE. grandiflora, 301.

[E. explanata, ZLindJ.] 301.

E., sp. C. P. 3958.

Cymbidium ensifolium, Sw., var. HaMATODES, Lindl. (sp.)

307.

C. sicotor, Lindl. 308.

Wisa-dali, S.

C. aloifolium, Sw. 308.

Panan-hattali, T.

Geodorum dilatatum, Br. 308.

G. rucatum, Lindl. 308.

Polystachya luteola, Hk. 308.

CyrTopopium RuFuM, (Lhw.) Cyrtopera. 302.

C. fuscum, (Wight.) Cyrtopera. 302, 429.

Luisia tenuifolia, Bl. 302.

L. zeyutanica, Lindl. 302.

Cottonia macrostachya, Wight. 308.

C. Championi, Lindl. Luisia bicaudata. 302; Vanda.

429,

Doritis Latiroiia, (Thw.) Aerides. 429.

SARCOCHILUS PULCHELLUS, (Lhw.) Dendrocolla, 430 ;

Cylindrochilus, 307.

S. serreeformis, Rehb. f. Dendrocolla. 306.

Aerides cylindricum, Lindi. 306.

A. viridiflorum, Thw. 430.

A. tessellatum, Wight. 305.

Vanda parviflora, Wight. Aerides Wightianum. 305.

VY. Roxburghii, Br. 303.

V. spathulata, Spreng. 308.

Saccolabium guttatum, Lindl. 303.

[S. curvifolium, Lindl.| 303.

.NIvEuM, Lindl. 304.

. GRACILE, Lindl. 304.

.roseum, Lindl. 304.

. BREVIFOLIUM, Lindl. 304.

. filiforme, Lindl. Schenorchis juncifolia. 304.

. tenerum, (Lindl.) Giceoclades. 306.

. paniculatum, Wight. 429.

NRANNNRNMN

198.

799.

§00.

801.

802.

803.

804.

805.

806.

807.

808.

809.

810.

811.

812.

813.

817.

Acampe Wightiana, Lindl. 303.

var. longepedunculata, Var. p. 303.

-[A. congesta, Lindl.] 303.

Sarcanthus peninsularis, Dalz. Saccolabium acumina-

tum. 304.

CLEIsostoMa MACULOsUM, Lindl. (fide Benth.) Saccola-

bium lineolatum. 304.

©. ACAULE, Lindl. 305.

C. GALEATUM, Thw. 305.

C. Tawairesianum, Trim. C.maculosum. 3804.

T@NIOPHYLLUM Atwistl, Lindl. 305.

Diplocentrum recurvum, Lindl. 306.

MYSTACIDIUM ZEYLANICUM, (Lindl.) Angraecum. 306.

PopocHiLus FALCATUS, Lindl. 306.

var. angustatus, Thw. ms. C. P. 3889.

P. saxatinis, Lindl. 307. .

Appendicula longifolia, Bl. 306.

Galeola javanica, Benth. Cyrtosia. 31}.

VANILLA WALKERIM, Wight. 31).

V. Moonu, Thw. 312.

Corymbis disticha, Thouars. 314.

Tropidia curculigoides, Lindl. 314.

T. BAMBUSIFOLIA, (Thw.) Cnemidia. 314.

Spiranthes australis, Lindl. 312.

Physurus Blumei, Lindi. 314.

Anzetochilus setaceus, bl. 314.

Wana-rdja, 8. d

var. inornatus, Hook.

Zeuxine suleata, Lindl. 312.

Z. longilabris, (Lindl.) Monochilus. 313.

Z. nervosa, ( Wall.) Monochilus. 318.

Z. flava, (Wall.) Monochilus. 313.

Z. REGIA, (Lindl.) Monochilus. 313.

tru-rdaja, 8.

CHEIROSTYLIS PARVIFOLIA, Lindl. 313.

C. flabellata, Wight. 313.

Goodyera procera, Hook. 313.

G. fumata, Thw. 314.

[G. cordata, (Lindl.)] Georchis. 314.

Heteria elongata, Lindl. Rhamphidia. 313.

H. Garpnert, (Thw.) Rhamphidia. 318.

APHYLLORCHIS MONTANA, Fechb. f. Apaturia. 301.

eee

Sia i Ses

CR Se a SN EE Re ee eng ae ae

818.

819.

820.

821.

822.

823.

824,

825.

826.

827.

6-828.

829.

-Cryptostylis arachnites, (B/.) Zosterostyls zeylanica.

312.

Pogonia Juliana, Wall. 480.

Gastrodia javanica, Lindl. 311.

Epipogum nutans, Lindl. 311.

Habenaria goodyeroides, (Don.) Peristylus. 310.

. Wightii, Trim. ms. Peristylus plantagineus. 310.

. Spiralis, (Wight.) Peristylus. 310,

. aristata, (Lindl.) Perwstylus. 310.

BREVILOBA, (ZT’hw.) Peristylus. 311.

. CUBITALIS, Br. Platanthera. 310.

RHYNCHOCARPA, (Thw.) Platanthera. 310.

. MacRosTACHYA, Lindl. 309.

. DICHOPETALA, Thw. 309.

DOLICHOSTACHYA, Thw. 309,

. viridifiora, Br. 309.

« PTEROCARPA, Thw. 309.

? H. vatiroxia, Lindl. 310.

H. plantaginea, Lindl. 310.

H. cRInIFERA, Lindl. 310.

H. barbata, Wight. Ate virens. 309.

H. acuminata, Thw. Aie. 309.

Satyrium nepalense, D. Don. 308.

Disperis zeylanica, Trim. ms. D. tripetaloidea. 311.

sofl=episofllas/s=fi=eflss[le=}l=efl-n)i=s

_Apostasia Wallichii, Br. 315.

127. Scitaminese.

Globba marantinoides, Wight. G. bulbifera. 315.

(Kaempferia Galanga, L.) 316.

Hinguru-piyali, S.

K. pandurata, Roxb. 316.

Amba-kaha, S.

{ K. rotunda, Z. 316,

Yawakenda, 8.

Hedychium coronarium, Koen. 319.

Ela-mal, S.

var. flavescens, Carey (sp.). Var. 6: 319.

H. angustifolium, Roxb. 319.

Curcuma Zerumbet, Roxb. 316.

Haran-kaha, 8.

C. aromatica, Salish. 316.

Dada-haha, Wal-kaha, 8.

— 830.

831.

832.

833.

836.

837.

838.

839.

(C. longa, Z.) Kaha, 8. Manjel,T. Turmerie.

C. ALBIFLORA, Thw. 316.

C. otigantHA, Trim. ms. (C. P, 3700.)

AMOMUM INVOLUCRATUM, (Thw.) Eletéaria. 319. -

. FLORIBUNDUM, (Thw.) Elettaria. 319.

NEMORALE, (TVhw.) Elettarza. 319.

echinatum, Willd. 316.

FULVICEPS, Thw. 317.

BentHamianum, Trim. ms. C. P. 3864.

PTEROCARPUM, Thw. 317.

MASTICATORIUM, Thw. 317.

ACUMINATUM, Thw. 317.

GRAMINIFOLIUM, Thw. 4380.

HYPOLEUCUM, Thw. 318.

RUFESCENS, (Z'hkw.) lettaria. 430.

PP DPE bb bbb

CYPHOSTIGMA PULCHELLUM, Benth. Amomum. 318.

Elettaria Cardamomum, Maton, var. Mazon, Sm. (sp.)

318.

Ensal, S$. Ceylon Cardamom.

Zingiber Zerumbet, Rose. 315.

Z. Cassumunar, ftoxb. 315.

Z. CYLINDRICUM, Moon. 315.

Wal-inguru, S.

Z. Wightianum, Zhw. 315.

Costus speciosus, Sm. 320.

Tebu, S.

(Alpinia Galanga, Sw.) 319.

Kaluwdla, 8. Great Galangal.

A. Allughas, Hose. 320.

Keleniya, Alu-gas, S.

A. nutans, Hosc., var. SERICEA, Moon. (sp.) 320.

Rankiriya, S.

(A. calearata, Mosc.) Kata-kiriya, S. 320.

Clinogyne virgata, Benth. Maranta. 320.

Geta-oluwa, S.

PHRYNIUM ZEYLANICUM, Benth. Maranta spicata.

Hulan-kiriya, 8. )

P. capitatum, Willd. 320.

Lt-bemi-kiriya, S.

Canna indica, £. 320.

But-sarana, 8. Indian Shot.

Musa paradisiaca, £. 321.

Wal-kehel, S. Wild Plantain.

320,

+ Bree ret

oo ~

128. Heemodoracee.

840. Ophiopogon intermedius, Don. 339.

841. Sanseviera zeylanica, Willd. 338.

Niyanda, 5. Maral, T.

129. Amaryllides.

842. Curculigo orchioides, Gaerin. 324.

Hin-bin-tal, 8.

C. Finlaysoniana, Wall, Hypoxis trichocarpa. 323.

Ma-bin-tal, S.

var. linearifolia, Thw. 323.

(C. recurvata, Dryand.) 324. Waya-pol,S.

843. Crinum asiaticum, L. 324.

Tolabé, 8. Visha-mungil, T.

C. zeylanicum, 2. C.ornatum. 324.

Goda-manil, S.

var. Herbertianum, Wall. (sp.) (“C. P. 3735.”)

324,

C. defixum, Gawl. 324.

C. ameenum, Roxb. ?

844. Pancratium zeylanicum, Z. 324.

Wal-lunu, S.

? P. verecundum, Sol.

(Hymenocallis tenuiflora, Herb.) Pancratium malabari-

cum. 324. (C. P. 2339.)

130. Taccacee.

845, Tacca pinnatifida, Forsét. 325.

131. Dioscoreacee.

846. Dioscorea pentaphylla, Z. 326.

Katu-wala, S.

D. tomentosa, Koen. 326.

Uyala, S.

D. bulbifera, £. 326.

Panu-hondol, S. .

D. oppositifolia, L.

Hiri-tala, §.

D. iInterMeEpDIA, Thw. 326.

D. spicata, Roth. 326.

847. ‘Trichopus zeylanicus, Gaerin. Trichopodium. 291.

Bim-pol, 8.

132. Roxburghiacese.

848. Stemona tuberosa, Lowr., var. minor, Thw. Roxburghia

gloriosoides. 432.

133. Liliaceze.

849. Smilax ovalifolia, Roxb. 338.

Maha-kabarasa, S.

S. zeylanica, £. 338.

Hin-habarasa, S.

S. aspera, L., var. maculata, Roxb. (sp.) 338.

850. Asparagus faleatus, Z. 337.

: Hatdé-wariya, 8.

A. gonoclados, Baker. C. P. 2299 (part).

[ A. sarmentosus, L.]

A. racemosus, Willd. A. sarmentosus. 337.

var. ZEYLANICUS, Baker. A. racemosus. (part). 337.

85i. Aloe vera, L., var. littoralis, Koen. (sp.)

Kattalai, T.

852. Dracana Tuwaitesi, Kegel. D.elliptica. 338.

853. Chlorophytum laxiflorum, Br. C. parviflorum. 389.

C. Heynei, Baker. C. breviscapum. 339.

854. Dianella ensifolia, Réd. 338.

Monara-petan, S.

855. Allium Hookeri, Thw. 339. |

856. Dipcadi montanum, Baker. Uropetalum. 443.

857. Scilla indica, Baker. Ledebouria hyacinthina. 432.

858. Iphigenia indica, Kunth. 339.

859. Gloriosa superba, L. 339.

Niyangala, 8. Kdddinchi, T.

860. Disporum Leschenaultianum, Don. 338.

134. Pontederiacee.

861. Monochoria hastefolia, Presl. 321.

Diya-habarala, 8.

M. vaginalis, Presi. 321.

M. plantaginea, Kunth. 321.

135. Xyridese.

862, Xyris indica, £. 340.

Ran-motu, Ran-manissa, S.

X. Walkeri, Wight. 340.

X. schoenoides, Mart, 340.

X. pauciflora, Willd. 340.

1386. Commelinaces.

868. Pollia sorzogonensis, Endl., var. indica, Wt. (sp.) P. in-

dica. 323.

864. Commelina benghalensis, £. 321.

Diya-menériya, 8.

C. clavata, Clarke. C. salicifolia. 321.

Girdpald, S.

var. attenuata, Vahl. (sp.) Var. angustata. 321,

C. persicariefolia, Wight. (°° Reynaud.”)

C. obliqua, Ham. 322.

C. Kurzii, Clarke. C. longifolia (part). 322.

C. appendiculata, Clarke.

C. ensifolia, Br. C. longifolia (part). 322.

865. ANnuILEMA GLAucUM, Thw. (in Clarke Mon.) C.P. 3977.

A. zeylanicum, Clarke. A. dimorphum & A. montanum

(part). 322.

A. esculentum, Wall. A. scapiflorum. 322.

A.dimorphum, Dalz. A. scapiflorum, var. minus. 322.

A. spiratum, Br. <A. nanum. 322.

A. nudiflorum, Br. 322.

var. terminalis, Wight. (sp.)

A. giganteum, Br. A. ensifolium, 322.

A. vaginatum, br. 322.

A. montanum, Wight. 322.

A. protensum, Wall. 322.

Cyanotis axillaris, &. & S. 323.

C. cristata, h. § S. 823.

C. tuberosa, &. & S., var. adscendens, Dalz. (sp.)

C. arachnoidea, Cathe:

var. obtusa, Zrim. ms.

C. pilosa R. § S. 3238.

). villosa, R. & S. C. lanceolata (part). 323.

C. zeYLANicA, Hassk. C. lanceolata (part). (C. P. 3223).

323.

C, fasciculata, R.§ S. 328.

var. Thwaitesii, Hassk. (sp.)

867. Floscopa scandens, Lour. If. paniculata, 323.

866.

1387. Flagellariaces.

868. Flagellaria indica, L. 340.

Goy?-wel, S.

869.

870.

871.

872.

873.

874.

875.

876,

877.

878.

879.

Susum anthelminticum, Bl. 340.

Induru, 8.

138. Juncacee.

Juncus glaucus, Ehrh. 340.

J. Leschenaultii, J. Gay. 340.

139. Palme.

{ Areca Catechu, L. 327.

Puwak, 8. Kamuka,T. Areca-nut Palm.

A. conoinna, Thw. 328.

Lén-teri, S.

Loxococcus rupiooLa, Wendl. & Dr. Piychosperma, 328.

Dotalu, S.

ONCOSPERMA FASCICULATA, Thw. 328.

Katu-hitul, 8.

Caryota urens, L. 329.

Kitul,S. Tippili-pana, T.

Nipa fruticans, Thunb. 327.

Gin-pol, S.

PH@NIX ZEYLANICA, Trim. ms. PP. sylvestris. 329.

Indi, S.

P. pusilla, Gaertn.

+ Corypha umbraculifera, L.

Lala, S$. Kanda-pana,'T. Talipot Palm,

Calamus longisetus, Griff. 330.

C. rudentum, Lour.? 330.

Tudarena-wéwel, Mda-wéwel, S.

C. Roxburghii, Griff. 330.

Wéwel, Ela-wéwel, S.

C. pACHYSTEMONUS, Thw. 431.

Kukula-wel, 8.

C. rapiatus, Thw, 431.

C. tenuis, Rorb. 330.

C. RIVALIS, Thw. ms. C.P. 3914.

Ela-wel, 8.

C. peLicaTuLus, Thw. 330 & 431.

C. ovoipeus, Thw. ms. C. P. 3925.

Tambutu-wel, S.

{ Borassus flabelliformis, Z. 329.

Tal, S$. Panai,T. Palmyra Palm.

(Cocos nucifera, L.) 330.

Pol, 8S. Tennai, T. Coco-nut Palm.

140. Pandanacee.

$80. Pandanus fascicularis, Lam. P. odoratissimus. 327.

Midu-heyiya, S. Thalé, T. Screw-pine.

P. fostidus, Roxb., var. RACEMOSUS, Kurz. P. humilis.

j 327.

Dunu-heyiya, .

P. zEyYLanicus, Solms. P. furcatus. 327.

O'-keyiyd, S.

{ P. Kaida, Kurz.

$81. Freycinet1A WaLKERI, Solms,. F. radicans. 327.

F. vpycnopayLia, Solms. F. angustifolia. 327.

141. Typhacee.

882. Typha angustifolia, Z. 331.

Hambu-par, 8.

142. Aracez.

883. CryprocoryNnge TuwalitTesit, Schott. 334.

C. Beckxsettu, Zhw. ms. C. P. 3868.

[C. spiralis, Misch.] 334.

C. WALKERI, Schott.

884. Lagenandra toxicaria, Dalz. L. ovata. 334.

Ketala, S. |

L. 1nstenis, Trim. ms.

L. vanciroiia, Thw. 334.

Ati-udayan, S.

L. Tawaitesi, Schott. L. lancifolia (part). 334.

L. Korenienu, Thw. 334,

885. Pistia stratiotes, LZ. 331.

Diya-parandella, S.

$86. [Ariseema curvatum, Kunth.] 335.

A. NEcLECcTUM, Schott. A.filiforme. 335.

A. Leschenaultii, Bl. A. papillosum. 335.

Watl-kidaran, 8.

A. riticaupatum, VV. £. Br. C. P. 3980.

$87. Typhonium trilobatum, Schott. Arum, 334.

Panu-ala, S.

T. divaricatum, Decaisne. Arum Roxburghii. 432.

_ Polon-ala, 8.

$88. THERIOPHONUM zZEYLANICUM, WV. E. Br. Arum divari-

ecatum. 334.

889. Amorphophallus eampanulatus, Bl. 335.

Kidaran, 8.

891.

392.

898.

8399.

909.

901.

902.

A. dubius, Bl. 335.

| A. giganteus, Bl]

- A. zeylanicus, Bl. (“* Koenig.” 835.

y ’ S

Synantherias sylvatica, Schott. Amorphophallus zey-

lanieus (part). (C. P. 3733.) 443. '

Remusatia vivipara, Sehott, Colocasia. 336.

Colocasia antiquorum, Schotf, 335.

Gahala (Kandala, Tadala, &c., cultivated vars.)

var. nympheifolia, Vent. (sp.)

Wel-ala, Vakutala, S.

Aloeasia cucullata, Schott. 336. Colocasia.

Panu-habarala, Nayi-habarala, S.

A. ALBA, Schoté. (‘* Burmann.”)

(A. indica, Schoét.) Rata-ala, Désa-ala, §

A. macrorrhiza, Schott. 3386. Colocasia.

Habarala, S.

A. fornicata, Schott. 432. Colocasia.

Raphidophora Peepla, Schott. Scindapsus. 336.

(R. pertusa, Schott.)

Ri. decursiva, Schott. Scindapsus. 336.

Dada-khehel, S.

Lasia spinosa, Thw., var. HERMANNI, Sch. (sp.) 336.

Kohila, Maha-hohila, 8S.

Pothos scandens, L. 336.

Péta-wel, S.

var. Hooxrri, Engler.

P. wtLietica, Moon. P. remotifiora. 337.

+ Acorus Calamus, £. 337.

Wada-kaha, 9.

var. terrestris, Lng.

i143. Lemnacee.

Lemna paucicostata, Hegelm. L. minor. 331..

L. polyrhiza, £. 331.

Wolffia arrhiza, Wimm.

144. Triuridee.

ScIAPHILA SECUNDIFLORA, Thw. 294.

S. pRUBESCENS, Miers. 294.

IANTHINA, Thw. 294.

145. Alismacec.

Alisma oligococeum, &. Muell. A. glandulosum.

Limnophyton obtusifolium, Mig. Alisma, 3352,

146. Naiadacee.

903. Aponogeton monostachyum, L. f. 333.

A. crispum, Thunb. 333.

Kekatiya, 8.

904. Potamogeton indicum, Moxb. P. natans. 333.

P. pectinatum, £. (Inc. Ruppia subsessilis.) 333.

905. Naias graminea, Del. C. P. 3887.

906. ? Cymodocea eiliata, Ehrend.

? C. serrulata, Asch. & Magn.

C. isoetifolia, Asch. C. equorea. 333.

C. (Halodule) australis, (Aliq.)

147. Eriocaulones.

907. Eriecaulon setaceum, 1. 341.

. Wallichianum, Mart. 341.

. sexangulare, 1. 341.

.truneatum, Ham. 341.

. Brownianum, Mart. 34).

. quinquangulare, 1. 341.

_ Kok-mota, 5.

var. argenteum, Maré. (sp.) 34.

. luzulefolium, Maré. 341.

. Wightianum, Mart. 341.

. cristatum, Mart. 341.

_atratum, Koen. 341.

var. major, Thw. 34.

. FLUVIATILE, Trim. ms. (C. P..3087 7)

BEE Se

eomeoiies mies!

148. Cyperaces.

908. Cyperus cephalotes, Vahl. C. Hookerianus.

C. stramineus, Nees. 432.

C. pumilus, Z. (non Nees.) C. pulvinatus. 342.

Go6-hirt-pan, S.

C. hyalinus, Vahl. C. pumilus. 482.

C. globosus, All., var. nilagivica, Hochst. C. flavescens.

42.

€. polystachyus, Rotth. 342.

var. laxiflorus, Benth.

C. Eragrostis, Vahl. C. sanguinolentus. 342.

C. puncticulatus, Vahl. 342 & ©. VP. 4018.

©. alopecuroides, Motth. 342,

-C. pygmeus, Rotth. C. P. 3947.

eee.

Geeceooeos

Cage Go oe

a6 2 8 or

©.

109 : ee a

. castaneus, Willd. 343.

. cuspidatus, H. B. K. (“Beckett.”) C. P. 808 (part).

. aristatus, Hottb. 343.

. squarrosus, Rettb. C. P. 803 (part).

. compressus, L. 342.

. lucidulus, Klein. C. compressus, var. 342.

. arenarius, Retz. 342.

Mudu-kaldnduru, S.

. pachyrrhizus, Nees. C. conglomeratus. 343.

. platystylis, Br. C. pallidus. 348.

.Haspan, £. 348.

. flavidus, Retz. (C. P. 805.) C. Haspan (part.) 343.

elegans, L. C. nigro-viridis. 344.

diffusus, Vahl. C. P. 3931.

. pulcherrimus, Willd. C. silhetensis. 343.

. difformis, £. 344.

Iria, L. 344.

Wel-hiri, S.

. eleusinoides, Kunth. €. xanthopus. 344.

nutans, Vahl. C. distans, var. major. 4382.

distans, L. fi 344.

. dehiscens, Steud. C. Pangorer. 844.

Hewan-pan, §.

. pilosus, Vahl. 344.

. procerus, Hotth. 343.

.articulatus, 1. 342.

. corymbosus, Hottb. 344.

Gal-ehi, 8.

var. Pangorei, fottb. (sp.)

.rotundus, L. 343.

Kaldénduru, 8S. Kérai, T

var. procerula, ees. (sp.) C. Retz. 348.

. stoloniferus, Retz. (“* Koenig.”)

. tenuiflorus, Rotts. C. P. 3966.

bulbosus, Vahl.

Silandi-arisi, T.

. exaltatus, Retz. 343.

var. ameenus, Clarke. C. venustus. 432.

. auricomus, Sieh. C. Nees. 344 & C. P. 38940.

. PLATYPHYLLUS, Hf. & S. C. Roxburghu. 3438.

dilutus, Vahl. 344.

pennatus, Lam, 348.

909.

910.

911.

rh tat

tol

C. dubius, Molth. 344.

C. biglumis, Clarke. C. umbellatus (part). 348.

©. umbellatus, Benth. 345,

var. laxata, Clarke. (C. P. 817.)

var, panicea, Hottb. (sp.) (C. P. 2878.)

Kyllinga monocephala, Rottb. 345.

K., brevifolia, Rotthb, 345,

K, melanosperma, Wees. 345.

K. cylindrica, Nees. 343.

K. triceps, fottb. 345.

Heleocharis spiralis, Br. 352.

H. plantaginea, Br. 352, 434.

Boru-pan, S.

H. LaAxirLorus, Thw. 435.

H. fistulosa, Schaulé. 351.

H. capitata, Br. 351.

H. ovata, Br. 351.

H. multicaulis, Sm.

H. tetraquetra, Nees. 351.

H. chetaria, &. § S. Scirpus. 435.

Fimbristylis polytrichoides, Br. 348.

nutans, Vahl. 348.

scheenoides, Vahl. 348.

acuminata, Vahl. 348.

tetragona, Br. LF. Arnottii. 348.

Dara-hal-pan, 8.

. monostachya, Hassk. 347 & 434.

. tristachya, Thw. 347 & 434.

fusca, WVees. Ff. fulvescens. 434.

. cyperoides, br. £. cinnamometorum. 434.

TENUIFOLIA, Thw. 484.

salbundia, Kunth. 349.

CONNECTENS, Thw. 349.

NIGRO-BRUNNEA, Thw. 434.

. diphylla, Vahl. 348.

var. major, Thw. 4383.

. ovalis, Nees. 348.

. ferruginea, Vahl. 348.

. dichotoma, Vahl. £. pallescens. 348.

. estivalis, Vahl. C. P. 3943.

var. major (F. dichotoma, Nees.)

argentea, Vahl. 348.

taj Pe hey af af a} bay ba Pf Pa ay

102

F. miliacea, Vahl. 3148.

Mudu-hal-pan, S.

-F. globulosa, Wall. 349.

flal-pan, §.

¥. quinquangularis, Kunth. 349.

F. insianis, Thw. 349.

¥. complanata, Link. 9349.

F. chetorhiza, Kunth. 349.

F..Wightiana, Nees. 349.

var. congesta.

F. retusa, Thw. 349.

F. trifida, (WVees.) Isolepis. 550.

F. gracilis, (ees.) fsolepis. 350.

F. puLCHELLA, (Thw.) Isolepis. 300.

F. barbata, Benth. Isolepis. 359.

F. dipsacea, Benth. Isolepis. 800.

912. Scirpus squarrosus, L. Isolepis. 390.

S. articulatus, L. JLsolepis. 390.

Maha-geta-pan, 8.

S. supinus, 1. fsolepis. 300.

S. fluitans, LZ. fsolepis. 350.

S. grossus, L. dol.

S. pectinatus, fiorb. dal.

S. suBCAPITATUS, Thw. 351.

S. debilis, Pursh.. S.gunecides. sol.

S. mucronatus, L. 3651.

913. Fuirena ciliaris, Roxb. 347.

¥. glomerata, Lam. 347.

F. umbellata, Rottb. 347.

FF. uncinata, Wall. 347.

914. Lipocarpha argentea, Br. 347.

L. sphacelata, Kunth. 347. —

910. Hypolytrum latifolium, Rick. 346.

var. minor, /’hw.

H. Loncirnostre, Thw. 346.

916. Mapania zeylanica, (Thw.) Pandanophyllum. sic.

M. immersa, (Thw.) Pandanophyllum, 438.

917. Scirpodendron costatum, Kurz. Hypelytrum. 36.

918. Lepirenia mucronata, Mich. 346.

fita-pan, 8.

919. Remirea maritima, duél., var. pedunculata, Br. (sp.)

obo,

QGOe¢

G29.

923.

924,

925.

| 103

ACTINOSCHENUS FILIFORMIS, Benth. Arthrostylis,

Rhynchospora Wallichiana, Aunth. 352.

R. aurea, Vahl. 352.

R. zeylanica, Kunth, 352.

alae. (or. a02!

var. minor, Thw. 352.

R. GRACILLIMA, Thw. 435.

R. ruppioides, Benth. C. P. 3936.

TRICOSTULARIA ZEYLANICA, Benth. Cladiwm. 353.

CLADIUM craAssuM, (Thw.) Baumea, 353.

Seleria caricina, Benth. Diplacrum. 354

S. HIRSUTA, Moon. S.junciformis, 354.

S. Nersn, Aunth. 354,

Baka-minu-tana, 8.

S. pergracilis, Kunth. 354.

‘S. tessellata, Willd. 354.

S. ZEYLANICA, Poir. 4385 & 354.

S. lithosperma, Willd. 354.

S. levis, Retz. 354.

HHin-herewu, S.

Ss. androgyna, Nees. 353.

S. elata, Thw. 353.

Maha-herewu, S.

S. HEBECARPA, Nees. 435 & 353.

S. sumatrensis, Metz. 353.

S. oryzoides, Presf, 358.

Potu-hola, Potu-pan, S.

Carex rara, Boott. 354.

C. nubigena, Don. 355.

C. SPICIGERA, Nees. 365.

var. minor, boott. 354.

var. rubella, Boott. (sp.) 355.

C. leucantha, Arn. 355.

aac ‘i |

C. gracilis, br. 355. :

C. longipes, Don. 355.

C. bengalensis, Ror. 355

C. eruciata, Wahlenb. 355.

C. baceans, Nees. 355.

C: WaLKERI, Arn. 355.

C. maculata, Boott. 358.

C. phacota, Spr. 356.

C. Arnottiana, Drejz, 356.

104,

©. lobulirostris, Drey. 356.

C. Jackiana, Boott. 356.

var. breviculmis, Thw. 356.

C. Tawaitesi, Hance. C. breviculmis. 856.

149. Gramines.

926. Paspalum scrobiculatum, L. 357.

Amu, S. Waragu, T.

* P. conjugatum, Berg.

P. filiculme, Nees. 358.

P. Royleanum, Nees. 358.

927. KEriochloa polystachya, 7. B.& K. E. annulata. 358.

928. Isachne pulchella, Roth. 362.

I. Kunthiana, W.& A. 362.

I. australis, R. Br. 361.

var. effusa, Trim. ms.

I. muttirLora, Thw. (var.) J. australis var. 361.

J. Wavkeri, W. 3 A. 361.

I. nilagirica, Hochst. Panicum Gardnert. 359.

929, Panicum sanguinale, L. 358.

var, australe, Thw. 358.

var. ciliare, Retz. (sp.) P. ciliare. 358 & C, P. 3976.

P. corymbosum, Roxb. 436.

P. Wallichianum, W.& A. 358.

P. cimicinum, fefz. 358.

P. semialatum, Br. 358.

P. fluitans, Retz. 359.

P. brizoides, . 359.

P. eruciforme, Sibth. 359.

P. distachyum, L. 359.

P. infidum, Steud.? P.javanicum. 358.

P. Helopus, Zvin. 436.

var. glabra, Trim. ms. Var. B- 358.

P. Colonum, LZ. P. Crus-galli, var. minor. 359.

P. Crus-galli, Z. 359.

Wel-marukku, 8.

* var. frumentaceum, Howb. (sp.)

P. Myurus, Lam. 361.

P. interruptum, Willd. 361.

P. indicum, £. 361.

P. Petiveri, Trin. 359.

930.

931.

105

P. prostratum, Lam. 359.

var. horizontale, rim. ms. P. prostratum, forma.

359.

* P. molle, Sw. (C. P. 899.) P. barbinode. 361. —

Diya-tana-hola, 8. Mauritius-Grass, Water- Grass.

P. antidotale, Retz. 360.

Krimisastru, 8.

P. plicatum, Lam. 360.

* P. maximum, L. P. jumentorum. 361.

Rata-tana, S. Guinea Grass.

P. reticulatum, Thw. ms. C. P. 3090.

* P miliaceum, L.

Varagu, T.

P. miliare, Lam. P. miliaceum. 360.

Menéri, 8S. Chamaz, T.

P. psilopodium, Trim. 360.

Meneéri, S.

. humile, Vees. 360.

. Leptochloa, Nees. 360.

BLEPHARIPHYLLUM, Trim. ws.

. auritum, Presl. 361.

repens, &. 860.

Litérd, 8.

. decompositum, Br., var. paludosum, How). (sp.) C. P.

4020.

.nodosum, Kunth. 360.

. Stenostachyum, Thw. 436.

.curvatum, £. 360.

uncinatum, Raddi. 359.

. coccospermum, Steud. 359.

ovalifolium, Poir. 359.

. trigonum, Retz. 359.

. pilipes, Wight Hb.! (2 Nees.) (C.P. 100.) P. éri-

gonum (part). 359.

P. montanum, Roxb. 360.

Ichnanthus pallens, Munro. 361.

Oplismenus compositus, &. § S. Panicum. 358 & C. P.

3963 & 3964.

? O. Burmanni, Beauv. 358. Panicum.

Setaria glauca, Beauv. Panicum. 361.

Kawdlu, 8.

S. verticillata, Beauv. Panicum. 3861.

S. intermedia, #. § S. Panicum. 361.

Wig wt

106

(S. italica, Beauv.)

Tana-hal, 8. Tinai, T. Millet.

(Pennisetum typhoideum, Pers.) (C. P. 946.) Kumba, T.

933. Chameraphis spinescens, Poir. Panicum asperum. 436.

var. subglabra, Thw. ms. C. P. 3877.

C. depauperata, Nees. Panicum sordidum. 443.

934. Stenotaphrum complanatum, Schrank. 361.

935. Thuarea sarmentosa, Pers. 362.

936. Spinifex squarrosus, £. 362.

Maha-rawana-réwula, 8.

937. Leptaspis nrceolata, Br. & Benn. 357.

L. cochleata, Thw. 357.

* Coix Lacryma, LZ. 35/7.

Kirindi-mdénd, 8.

938. Chionachne barbata, Br. §& Benn. C. Koenigit. 357.

939. Hygroryza aristata, Nees. 356.

Go-jabba, 5.

940. Oryza sativa, LZ. 357.

Uru-wi, 8. Wild Paddy.

941. Leersia hexandra, Sw. 356.

Lew, 5.

942. Garnotia stricta, Brongn. 363.

G. scoparia, Thw. 363.

G. micrantha, Thw. 368.

G. patula, Munro. C. P. 3967.

G. ruscaTa, Thw. 363.

G. courtallensis, Thw. 368.

943. Arundinella avenacea, Munro. 362.

A. nervosa, Nees. 3862 & C. P. 4019.

A. villosa, W. 8 A. 362.

944. ‘Trachys mucronata, Pers. 362.

945. Tragus racemosus, Hall. Lappago. 862.

946. Perotis latifolia, Act. 369.

947. Zoysia pungens, Willd. 370.

948. Imperata arundinacea, Cyr. 369.

Lluk, S.

949, Saccharum spontaneum, Z. 369.

S. procerum, foxb. C. P. 3939.

Rambuk, S.

950. Pollinia tristachya, Thw. 368.

var. distachya, Trim. ms. Forma. 368.

P. lancea, Nees. (C. P. 411 (part).)

P. Cumingii, Nees. 368.

951.

952.

953.

954,

955.

956.

957.

958.

959.

960.

107

P. Wallichiana, ees. 369.

Pogonatherum saccharoideum, Beauv. 3665.

Apocopis Wightii, ees, 365.

var. Becketril, Thw. ms. (sp.) 3959.

DimerRIA PUSILLA, Thw. 369.

var. pallida, Thw. ms. C. P. 3965.

D. pilosissima, Trin. 369.

D. LaxiuscuLa, Thw. ms. 3863.

D. ornithopoda, Trin, 369.

D. fuscescens, Trin. D. ornithopoda, var. 8. 369.

Rottboellia exaltata, 2. 364.

R. nigrescens, Thw. 364.

Ophiurus levis, Benth. Mnesithea. 364.

Manisuris granularis, Sw. 364.

Hemarthria compressa, Br. 363.

Ischemum muticum, L. 364.

I. rugosum, Salish. 364.

I. barbatum, Retz. 364.

* T. conjugatum, Roxb. 365.

I. commutatum, Hack. ms. I, semisagitiatum. 365.

I. laxum, Br. I. nervosum. 365.

I. ciliare, Retz. Spodiopogon obliquivalvis. 360.

Fat-tana, S.

I. timorense, Kunth, var. petiolatum, Hack. ms. (C. P.

3168.)

I. pilosum, (Wees.) C..P. 3871.

I. zeyLanicum, Hack. ms. JI. falcatum. 365.

I. pectinatum, Zrin. 436.

Heteropogon insignis, Thw. 437.

H. hirtus, Pers. 368.

L’-tana, 8S.

Andropogon zeylanicus, Arn. (ex Benth.) 368.

A. Nardus, 2. A. Martini. 367.

Mana, S. (Pengiri-mand, S., Citronella Grass, a

cult. var.)

var. distans, ees (sp.) A. distans. 367.

A. Schenanthus, L., var. versicolor, Nees (sp.) A. verse-

color. 367.

A. lividus, Thw. 367.

A. filipendulus, Mochst., var. Tawairresu, Hack. ms.

Anthistiria fasciculata, 366,

A. scandens, Roxb. 368.

A. rudis, Steud. 368. .

108

. lancifolius, Trin. 365.

. caricosus, L. Heteropogon concinnus, 368.

POLYPTYCHOS, Steud. 367.

. pertusus, Willd. 367.

. punctatus, Roxb. A. fascicularis. 437.

vENustus, Thw, 367.

. muricatus, Retz. 368.

Sevendard, 8. Vetti-vaer,T. Cuscus Grass,

961. Chrysopogon aciculatus, Trin. 366,

Tuttiri, 8.

C. Wightianus, Thw. 3866.

var. LEUCANTHA, ZThw. 366.

C. montanus, 7'rin.

C. zeylanicus, Thw. 366.

962. Sorghum halepense, Pers. Andropogon. 366.

S. fulvum, Beauv. Andropogon tropicus. 366.

963. Anthistiria Cymbaria, orb. 436.

Karavuta-mand, S.

A. arguens, Willd. <A. ciliata, var. major. 366.

A. ciliata, Retz. 366.

A. tremula, ees. 366.

Pin-baru-tana, 8.

A. heteroclita, Roxb. 366.

A. prostrata, Willd.

964. Apluda aristata, L. 364.

965. Aristida adscensionis, L. A. cerulescens. 370.

Kit-tuttiri, 8.

A. depressa, Retz. 370.

966. Sporobolus indicus, Br. 370.

S. virginicus, Kunth.

S. humifusus, Kunth.

S. orientalis, Kunth.

S. diander, Beauv. 370.

S. coromandelianus, Kunth.

967. + Polypogon monspeliensis, Desf 370.

968. Deyeuxia Royleana, ( Trin.) Agrostis. 370.

969. ERIACHNE TRISETA, Nees. 444 & 372.

Pini-tuttiri, $.

970. Zenkeria elegans, Trin. Amphidonox Heynei. 370.

Z. OBTUSIFLORA, Benth. Amphidonax. 370.

971. Ccelachne brachiata, Munro. C. pulchella. 373.

“Cu PERPUSsILLA Dhw. 7373.

>>> b> > bb

109

972. AVENA ASPERA, Munro. 372.

973. Cynodon Dactylon, Pers. 371.

Arugam-pillu, T.

974. Enteropogon melicoides, Nees.

975. Chloris barbata, Sw. 371.

Mayuru-tana, S.

var. decora. ©.decora. 371.

C. digitata, Steud. 371.

976. GymNopogon ricipus, Thw. 872 & 444.

977. TRIPOGON ZEYLANICUS, Nees. 374.

* Dinebra arabica, Jacq.

978. Eleusine indica, Gaertn. 371.

Wal-kurakkan, Bela-tana, S.

(E. coracana, Gaertn.) Kurakkan, 8. Kaivaru, Kel-

varagu, T.

E. egyptiaca, Pers. Dactyloctenium. 371.

Putu-tana, S.

979. Leptochloa Neesii, Benth. Cynodon. 371.

L. uniflora, Hochst. Cynodon gracilis. 371.

Li. chinensis, ees. 371.

* L. filiformis, R. & S.

[Pommereula Cornucopie, L. f.]

980. Diplachne fusca, Beauv. Uralepis. 372.

981. Phragmites Roxburghii, Kunth. 370.

Nala-gas, S.

982. LElytrophorus articulatus, Beauv. 374.

983. Eragrostis brevifolia, Benth. (C. P. 3250.)

. unioloides, R. & S. 378.

. Brownii, Nees. 373.

. Zeylanica, Nees. 3873.

. orientalis, Trin. 373.>°

pilosa, Beauv. 373.

megastachya, Link. 378.

pocoides, Beauv. C. P. 3944.

paniculata, Steud. 373.

nutans, Steud. 373.

. plumosa, Link. 373.

var. maritima, Trim. ms. (C. P. 927.)

? E. viscosa, Trzn.

KE. bifaria, W. 8 A. 378.

E. mucronata, R. & S. Triticum repens. 376.

984. Centotheca lappacea, Desv. 374.

985. Lophatherum gracile, Brongn. 374.

PERE eee

986.

gai.

OSs:

989:

990.

he lIke

992:

99a.

994.

995.

996:

110

Streptogyne crinita, Beauv. 374.

J&luropus lagopoides, Trin. 374.

(Dactylis glomerata, L.)

Poa annua, L. 372.

Brachypodium sylvaticum, R. & S. 374.

Lepturus repens, br.

Oropetium ‘Thomeum, Trin. 373.

ARUNDINARIA DEBILIS, Thw. 875.

A. FLORIBUNDA, Thw. 375 & C. P. 4028.

A. WatkeniAna, Munro. A. Wightiana. 444. (& C. P.

429.)

A. DENSIFOLIA, Munro. C. P. 3956.

Bambusa vulgaris, Wendl. B. Thouarsit. 375.

Una,S. Common Bamboo.

B. spinosa, Roxb. B. arundinacea. 375.

Katu-una, 8. Moongil, T. Spiny Bamboo.

(B. nana, Roxb.) Chinese Bamboo. C. P. 4022.

Oxytenanthera Thwaitesii, Munro. Dendrocalamus mon-

adelphus. 376.

TEINOSTACHYUM ATTENUATUM, Munro. Bambusa. 375°

T.? macuLatum, Trim. ms.

Rana-bata-li, S.

OcHLANDRA STRIDULA, Thw. 3876.

Bata-li, 8.

VASCULAR CRYPTOGAMS.

150. Equisetacese.

997. Equisetum debile, Roxb. (C. P. 2577.)

151. Filices.

998. Gleichenia linearis, Clarke. G.dichotoma. 379.

Kekilla, 8.

999. Cyaruea sinuaTa, Hk. & Grev. 396.

C. Hooker, Thw. 396.

1000, AmpHicosmiA WALKER, Moore. Cyathea. 396.

1001. Alsophila ecrinita, Hk. 396.

A. glabra, Hk. A. gigantea. 396.

1002. Diacalpe aspidioides, Bl. 396.

1003. Dennstzdtia scabra, Moore. Dicksonia deltoidea. 389.

1004. Hymenophyllumtenellum, Kuhn. A. polyanthos (part.)

| (©. P. 3360.) 397.

H. exsertum, Wall. 397 & C. P. 4004.

H. polyanthos, Sw. (C. F. 3279.) 397.

H. Blumeanum, Spreng. 397,

H. javanicum, Spreng. H. crispatum. 3897,

H. Neesii, Hk. H. tunbridgense. 3897.

1005. Tricomanes Mottleyi, V. den Bosch. C. P. 3972.

~ Watt, Thw. ms. C. P. 3989.

.exiguum, Baker. C. P. 3957.

neilgherrense, Bedd. T.muscoides. 397.

. parvulum, Poir, C. P. 3991.

. proliferum, Bl. 397.

. digitatum, Sw. Hymenophyllum corticola. 397,

. intramarginale, Hk. & Grev. 397.

. pallidum, Bl. T. glauco-fuscum.

. bipunctatum, Poir, T. Filicula. 3897.

. pyxidiferum, ZL. TJ. proliferum (part.) 397.

T. rigidum, Sw. 397.

1006. Humata pedata, J. Sm. Davallia. 388.

var. vestita, Bl. (sp.) WD. vestita. 388.

1007. Leucostegia pulchra, J. Sm. Dvallia. 388.

L. hymenophylloides, Bedd. Davallia affinis. 389.

1008. Prosaptia Emersoni, Presl. Davalha. 389.

P. contigua, Presl. Davallia, 3589.

1009, Davallia elegans, Sw. 389.

D, bullata, Wall. C. P. 3927.

BHHHAH HEHEHE

1010.

1011.

1012.

1013.

1014.

1015.

1016.

1017.

112

Microlepia platyphylla, J. Sm. Davallia. 889.

~M. masuscuta, Moore. Davallia proxima. 389.

M. Spelunee, Moore. Davallia polypodioides. 389.

M. hirta, J. Sm. Davallia. 389.

M. strigosa, Presl. Davallia. 389.

Stenoloma chinense, Bedd. Davallia tenuifolia. 389.

Lindsza cultrata, Sw. 3888.

L. repens, Thw. 388.

var. minor, Thw. 3888.

L. orbiculata, Bedd. L. flabellulata. 388.

var. tenera, Bedd. IL. tenera. 388.

var. SCHIZOPHYLLA, Baker (sp., sub Davallia.)

C. P. 3903.

L. Lancea, Bedd. L.caudata. 388.

L. Walkera, Hk. 388.

Schizoloma lobata, J. Sm. Lindse@a mtens. 388.

S. ensifolia, J. Sm. Lindsea. 388.

var. heterophylla, Dryand. (sp.) C. P. 3861.

Adiantum lunulatum, Burm. 387.

A. caudatum, Z. Includes A. rhizophorum. 387.

A. Capillus-Veneris, £. 387.

+ A. ethiopicum, L.

A. hispidulum, Sw. 387.

A. flabellulatum, Z. 337.

Cheilanthes mysurensis, Wall. 387.

C. paAxa, Moore. C.varians. 387.

C. tenuifolia, Sw. 387.

C. farinosa, Kaulf. 387.

Pellza concolor, Bedd. Pteris geraniifolia. 386.

P. Boivini, Hk. Pteris. 386.

P. faleata, Fée. C. P. 39338.

Pteris longifolia, Z. 386.

. cretica, Z. 386.

Hooxertana, Agardh. P. cretica, var. 8. 386.

. ensiformis, Burm. P. crenata. 386.

quadriaurita, Retz. 336.

var. ludens, Thw. 386.

. biaurita, Z. 387.

var. argyrea, Thw.ms. C. P. 3992.

. patens, Hk. 386.

. longipes, G. Don. C. P. 3948.

.aquilina, L. 3886.

Bracken.

kg ine} lnh Ine) ‘aeI

ine} tag) lee]

1018.

1019.

1020.

1021.

1022.

1023.

1024,

113

Litobrochia marginata, Bedd. Pteris tripartita. 387.

L. incisa, Presl. FPteris aurita. 387.

Ceratopteris thalictroides, Brongn. 379.

Lomaria Patersoni, Spr. L. elongata. 381.

Blechnum orientale, Z. 3881.

Doodia dives, Kunze, var. ZEYLANICA, Hk. 382.

Thamnopteris Nidus, Presl. <Asplenium. 383.

Asplenium ensiforme, Wall. 383.

A. normale, Don. 384.

A. Wightianum, Wall. 383.

var. vuleanicum, Bl. (sp.)

A. tenerum, Forst. A. elongatum. 383.

A. lunulatum, Sw. A. erectum, and A. resectum (part)

(C. P. 1336.) 383.

var. camptorachis, Kunze (sp.)

. Zenkerianum, Kunze. A. persicifolium. 383.

. Gardneri, Baker. A. macrophyllum (C. P. 1340)

384.

A. faleatum, Lam. <A. caudatum (C. P. 1389), A.

spathulinum (part) (C. P. 1341). 384, and C. P.

3891.

var. caudatum, Forst.(sp.) A. faleatum (C. P. 3140.)

384.

var. macrophyllum, Sw. (sp.}

A. furcatum, Thunb. 384.

var. affine, Sw. (sp.)? A. spathulinum (part) (C. P.

2905.) 384.

var. planicaule, Wall. (sp.) 384.

A. nitidum, Sw. 384.

var. laserpitiifolium, Zam. (sp.) 384.

A. formosum, Willd. 384.

A. unilaterale, Lam. <A. resectum (part.) 383.

> >

. heterocarpum, Wall. 383.

. varians, HZk. & Grev. 3884.

A. tenuifolium, Don. 384.

A. rutefolium, Kunze. <A. prolongatum. 384.

Diplazium lanceum, Presl. Asplenium. 385.

D. zEYLanicum, Moore. Asplenium. 3885.

D. sylvaticum, Sw. dsplenium. 385.

var. dentatum, Zhw. ms. C. P. 3892.

D. japonicum, Bedd. Asplenium Thwaitesi. 385.

D. potyrruizon, (Baker.) OC. P. 3951. |

D. Scununell, Bedd. (non J. Sm.) Asplenium. 385.

1026.

1027.

1028.

1029.

1030.

1031.

Se eeu =

114

. polypodioides, Bl. Asplenium. 885.

var. asperum, Bl. (sp.) (C. P. 1353.)

DECURRENS, Bedd. A. polypodioides, var. 385.

. latifolium, Moore. Asplenium dilatatum. 385.

. Smithianum, (Baker.) C. P. 8990.

. esculentum, Sw. Asplenium. 385.

Miwana-kola, 8.

. assimile, Bedd. Asplenium australe. 385.

Athyrium Hohenackerianum, Moore. C. P. 3867.

A. macrocarpum, Bedd. (non Fée). Asplenium. 384.

A. gymnogrammoides, Bedd. <Asplenium. 385.

A. stramineum, J. Sm. (in Moore.) Asplenium nigripes.

384.

A. Solenopteris, Moore. Asplenium aspidioides. 385.

Allantodia javanica, Bedd. <A. Brunoniana, 385.

Actiniopteris dichotoma, Bedd. A. radiata. 386.

Polystichum auriculatum, Presl. Aspidium. 389.

P. aculeatum, Roth. Aspidium. 390.

var. angulare, Presi. (sp.)

var. biaristatum, Bl. (sp.) Asp. biaristatum. 390.

var. ANOMALUM, Hk, & Arn. (sp.) Asp. anomalum.

390.

P. amabile, Bl. <Aspidium. 390.

P. aristatum, Presi. Asp. aristatum (part.) 390. C, P.

3937.

P. coniifolium, Presl. Asp. aristatum (part.) 390. C. P.

3938.

Aspidium subtriphyllum, Hk. 390.

A. polymorphum, Wall. 390.

A. decurrens, Presl. A. pteropus. 390.

A. REDucTUM, Baker ms. A. pteropus, var. 438.

A. cicutarium, Sw. 390.

A. Tuwaitesn, (Bedd.) A. cicutarium, var. 390.

A. Trimeni, (Bedd.) A. giganteum. 390.

A. membranaceum, Hk. A. giganteum, var. minor. 390,

Lastrea hirtipes, J. Sm. Aspidium. 392.

[ L. cuspidatum, (Baker). ]

L. WAaLKer#&, Hook. Polypodium. 444.

var. macrocarpa, Bedd.

var. pinnatifida, Bedd.

var. bipinnata, Bedd.

L. calearata, (Bl.) Aspidium. 3891.

var. Moonu, Trim. ms. Var. 8. 391.

115

L. Beddomii, J. Sm. Asp. gracilescens. 391.

[ L. ochthodes, (Kunze). |

. tylodes, Moore. Aspidium. 3891.

. syrmatica, (Willd.) Asp. spectabile. 392.

. flaccida, J. Sm. Aspidium. 391.

Filix-mas, Presl. Aspidium. 392.

var. elongata, Sw. (sp.)

. sparsa, Moore. Aspidium. 392.

var. purpurascens, Bl. (sp.) (C. P. 1870.)

var. undulata, Bedd. Asp. undulatum. 444.

var. DELTOIDEA, Bedd. (C. P. 1868.)

var. obtusissima, M/ett. (sp.) (C. P. 1369).

var. MINOR, Bedd. Asp. undulatum (part.) 444.

var. ZEYLANICA, Bedd. C. P. 4007.

. deparioides, J. Sm. Aspidium. 398.

Tuwaitesi, J. Sm. Aspidium concinnum. 392,

. crenata, Bedd. C. P. 3888.

. Blumei, J. Sm. <Aspidium. 392.

recedens, J. Sm. Aspidium. 393.

dissecta, Forst. Asp. membranifolium. 390.

. OBTUSILOBA, J. Sm. Asp. Blumei, var. 392.

. Boryana, (Willd.) Asp. divisum. 392.

. tenericaulis (Wall.) Aspidium. 393.

1032. Nephrodium Otaria, Baker. Aspidium. 390.

N.unitum, Schott. Aspidium propinguum. 391.

N. pteroides, J. Sm. Aspidium terminans. 391.

N. extensum, Hook. Aspidium ochthodes. 392.

N. cucullatum, Baker. Asp. unitum. 391.

?N. aridum, Baker. C. P. 3271 (part).

N. urophyllum, Bedd. Polypodium granulosum, 394.

[N. moulmeinense, Bedd.] Polypodium lineatum. 439.

& C. P. 3866. :

N. Arbuscula, Schott. Aspidium. 391.

N.pennigerum, Hk. Asp. abruptum (part). 391.

N. molle, Schott. Aspidium. 391.

N. amboinense, Presl. .4spidium extensum. 391.

N. truncatum, Presl. Aspidium eusorum. 391.

1033. Nephrolepis cordifolia, Presl. N. tuberosa. 393.

N. exaltata, Schott. 393.

N. acuta, Presi. 393.

N. ramosa, Moore. WN. obliterata. 393.

1034. Oleandra musefolia, Kunze. O. neriiformis. 393.

1035. Phegopteris distans,( Don.) Polypodium paludosum. 394.

il olalel«

BO et

1036.

1037,

1038.

1039.

1040.

1041.

116

P. rufescens, Mett. Polypodium. 394.

-P. punctata, (Thunb.) Polypodium rugulosum. 394.

Goniopteris prolifera, Presl. C. P. 3916.

Polypodium pilosiusculum, Hk. (Includes P. Waillit,

Bedd.) CO. P. 3921.

var. GLABRUM, Trim. ms. PP. parasiticum. 392.

- MEDIALE, Baker.

ZEYLANICUM, Mett. 393.

. hirtellum, Bl. C. P. 3902.

corniceRUM, Baker. C. P. 40058.

CUCULLATUM, iVees. 394.

GLANDULOSUM, Hook. 394.

TuwaitTesiu, Bedd. C.P. 3900.

. decorum, Brack. 4389.

[P. fuscatum, 67. ]

P. obliquatum, Bl. 394.

P. repandulum, Mett. P. parvulum (part). (C. P. 1290.)

394.

P. subfaleatum, Bl. P. parvulum (part). (C. P. 3073.)

394.

[P. minutum, Bi. |

Niphobolus lanceolatus, (Z.) Polypodium adnascens.

395.

N. pannosus, (Mett) Polypodium Lingua. 395.

N. fissus, Bl. Polypodium porosum. 395.

N. Gardneri, Kunze. Folypodinm. 395.

Pleopeltis linearis, ( Thunb.) Polypodium Wightianum.

394.

. lanceolata, Presl. C. P. 3988.

. membranacea, (Don.) Polypodium. 395,

. punctata, (L.) Polypodium irioides. 395.

. hastata, (Thunb.) Polypodium oxylobum. 395.

Pteropus, Moore. Polypodium tridactylon. 395.

var. minor, Bedd.

. phymatodes, Moore. Polypodium. 395.

. nigrescens, (Ll.) Polypodium. 395.

. dilatata, (Wall.) C. PB. 3978.

. quercifolia, (L.) Polypodium. 395.

[P. Linnei, ( Bory.) |

Monogramme paradoxa, Bedd. Vaginularia Jung-

huhnti. 381.

Leptogramme totta, J. Sm. Grammitis. 382.

[Stegnogramme aspidioides, Bl.] Grammitis, 383.

i WG

HW WH

1042.

1043.

1044.

1045.

1046.

1047.

1048.

1049.

1050.

1051.

1052.

1053.

1054.

1055.

1056.

1057.

117

Gymnogramme leptophylla, Desv. C. P. 3934.

* G. Calomelanos, Kaulf., var. dealbata, Moore. Silver

Fern.

Syngramme fraxinea, Bedd. Grammitis serrulata. 382.

Loxogramme lanceolata, Presl. Grammitis. 382.

L. involuta, Presl. Grammitis. 382.

Meniscium triphyllum, Sw. 382.

M. Thwaitesii, Hook. 382.

Antrophyum reticulatum, Kaulf. Hemionitis. 382.

A. plantagineum, Kaulf. Hemionitis. 382.

Vittaria elongata, Sw. 438 & C. P. 981 (part).

V. lineata, Sw. 381.

V. scolopendrina, Schk. 381.

V.sutoata, Kuhn. (C. P. 3807.) 438.

Teenitis blechnoides, Sw. C. P. 3922.

Drymoglossum heterophyllum, (L.) LD. piloselloides.

381.

Mas-wenna, S.

Hemionitis arifolia, (Burm.) HH. cordata. 382,

Elaphoglossum conforme, Schott. Acrostichum margi-

natum. 380.

K. latifolium, J. Sm. <Acrostichum laurifolium. 380.

E. squamosum, J. Sm. 380. Acrostichum,

E. spathulatum, Moore. 380. <Acrostichum.

Stenochlena palustre, (Burm.) Acrostichum scandens.

380.

Wel-bénduru, S.

var. (abnorm,) achilleifolia, Wall. (sp., sub Davalha.)

Polybotrya appendiculata, J. Sm. Acrostichum. 380.

Gymnopteris variabilis, Bedd. Acrostichum decurrens.

381.

var. laciniata, Hook. (C. P. 1816.)

var. lanceolata, Hook. (sp.) (C. P. 1316 part.)

var. METALLICA, Bedd. (sp.)

var. WALLI, Baker. (sp.)

. Spicata, Presl. Acrostichum. 381.

. quercifolia, Bernh. Acrostichum. 381.

. contaminans, ( Wall.) Acrostichum repandum. 380.

G. subcrenata, Bedd. Acrostichum Hookerianum. 380.

Acrostichum aureum, LZ. 380.

Keré-khoku, S.

Osmunda javanica, Bl. 379.

Schizea digitata, Sw. 379.

Q2 2 2

1059.

1060.

1061.

1062.

1063.

1064.

1065.

1066.

1067.

1068.

1069.

118

. Lygodium dichotomum Sw. L. cireinatum. 879.

Lit-pamba, 8.

L. scandens Sw. 279.

Maha-pamba, 8.

L. flexuosum, Sw. 437.

Hin-pamba, S.

Angiopteris evecta, Hoffm. 379 & C. P. 3904.

Marattia fraxinea, Sm. M. sorbifolia, 379.

Ophioglossum lusitanicum, L.

O. vulgatum, ZL. 378.

O. bulbosum, Mich. C. P. 3993.

O. pendulum, Z. 378.

Helminthostachys zeylanica, Hook. 378.

Botrychium daucifolium, Wall. 378.

B. virginianum, Sw., var. lanuginosum, Wall. (sp.) 378.

152. Rhizocarpee.

Marsilea quadrifolia, Z. 378.

Diya-embul-embiliya, 8S. Ara-keeré, T.

M. minuta, 2. M. erosa. 378 & C. P. 3968.

Azolla pinnata, Br. 378.

153. Lycopodiacese.

Psilotum nudum, (L.) P. triguetrum. 378.

Lit-hawari, 8.

Lycopodium Phlegmaria, LZ. 377.

Maha-hedaya, 8.

L. Hookeri, Wall. 377.

Kuda-hedaya, S.

L. serratum, Zhunb. 377. .

L. zeylanicum, Spring. (C. P. 1415.) L. serratum,

var. 377.

.clavatum, LZ. 377.

‘L. complanatum, LZ. 377.

» cernuum, L. 377.

Wanassa, Badal-wanassa, S.

L. carolinianum, LZ. 377.

154. Isoeteze.

Isoetes coromandelina, L. f.

155. Selaginellacese.

Selaginella rupestris, Spring. 377.

S. plumosa, Baker. (“C. P. 1275.”)

1070.

1071.

119

S. ornithopodioides, Spring. (p. max. part.) S. concinna

& S. atroviridis (part) (C. P. 1184.) 377.

S. cocHLteata, Spring. (‘ Moon.”)

S. caulescens, Spring. 377.

S. latifolia, Spring. S.caudata. 377.

S. proniflora, Baker. S. stolonifera (part). 377, & C. P.

3975, 3978, 3979.

? S. ciliaris, Spring. (‘‘ Koenig.”)

S. zeylanica, Baker. (“ Gardner 1417.”)

S. tenera, Spring. SS. stolonifera (part), S. atroviridis

(part) (C: BP. 1417.) 377.

S. crassipes, Spring. S. atroviridis (part).(C. P. 1274

== 1418.) 377.

S. brachystachya, Spring. 8S. stolonifera (part) (C. P.

1412, 1413.) 377, & C. P. 3974.

156. Characes.

Chara corallina, Klein.

C. zeylanica, Klein.

C, Thwaitesii, A. Br.ms. (C. P. 238.)

Nitella acuminata, A. Br.

N. pseudo-flabellata, 4. Br.

|} Agrostistachys .

INDEX.

(Natural Orders in swan capPiTats; Synonyms in italics. ]

. Abelmoschus 93

_ Aberia . : 54

Abrus ° a 226

. Abutilon 88

_ Acacia : : 268

Acalypha 716

Acampe 798

| ACANTHACES Prati:

_ Acanthephippium 778

Acanthonoius . #210

_ Acanthus 588

_ Achyranthes . 646

_ Acmena 296

_ Acorus . 897

| Acranthera 369

| Acronychia . . 123

_ Acrostichum 1059,

Kl 1051-4

_ Acrotrema . : 8

_ Actephila 692

| Actiniopteris 1028

_ Actinodaphne 670

Actinoschenus . 920

Adansonia »p. il

Adenanthera 266

Adenochlena. 713

Adenosma . 544, 579

Adenostemma 404

Adhatoda . 598

Adiantum . 1014

Adina - : 355

_ Adinandra ag (63

Aiceoclades 797

| Aichmandra . 330, 331

fligiceras : 452

AHginetia 560, 562

figle. p. 16

| luropus . a O87

_Aerides 795, 793, 796

PEARED, co : . 645

| Zischynanthus 564

| Zischynomene 218

| LEtheilema . . 583

|) Aganosma , 483

Ageratum . p» 46

| Aglaia . 145

| Agrimonia , 275

| Agrostis. 968

711

Agyneia 693

Ailantus . 133

Alangium 350

Albizzia ‘o 269

Alchemilla . . 274

Aleurites 2 Ds ok

Alisma . 901, 902

ALISMACEZ 145

Alleanthus 738

Alleophania . 362

Allantodia . 1027

Allium 855

Allmania, 2 638

Allophylus 186

Alocasia é . 893

Aloe : : 851

Alphonsea. Soe

Alpinia : 8395

Alseodaphne . 669

Alsodeia . 50

Alsophila 1001

Alstonia 5 475

Alternanthera . 647

| Alwisia 779

Alyssicarpus . 224

Alyxia : 471

Almanoa y » 691

AMARANTACES . 103

Amarantus . . 640

AMARYLLIDEX 129

Ameletia ; . 3805

Ammannia 305

Amomum . 830, 831

Amoora 146, 147

Amorphophallus 889, oy

AMPELIDEZ

Amphicosmia : ee

Amphidonax 970

ANACARDIACE 42

Anacardium p. 21

Anveectochilus 812

Anagallis p. 50

Anamirta : ame fe)

Anaphalis . 417

Anaxagorea . 19

ANCISTROCLADEE 21 bis.

Ancistrocladus . 86

Andrographis 593

Andropogon 960, 962

Aneilema A 865.

Anemone . ° 3

Angiopteris . 1059

Angraecum 803

Ania ‘ 780

Aniseia 633

Anisochilus , 624

Anisomeles . 630

Anisophyllea . . 289

Anodendron 484.

Anogeissus. 5 OD)

ANONACEZR . ‘ 4.

Anotis . 366

Anstrutheria 288

Anthistiria ; 963

Anthocephalus . 354

Antiaris . 742

Antidesma . - 704

Antrophyum . 1046

Apaturia . 817

Aphyllorchis . 817

Apluda . 964

Apocopis - 952

| APOCYNACESE: ‘ 84

Apodytes ° . 160

Apollonias . - 666

Aponogeton . 903

Aporosa . . €02

A postasia ‘ . 825

Appendicula 805

ARACER. . 142

ABALIACES . 64

Ardisia . : . 451

Areca . Ricca fe

Argyreia . . 531, 532

Arisema . . 886

Aristida . A - 965

Aristolochia. 659

ARISTOLOCHIACER . 108

Artabotrys .- “ 16

Artanema » 648

Artemisia . 429

Arthrocnemum - 650

Arthrostylis . . 920

Artocarpus ~ 744)

Arum . 887, 888

Arundina . . 785

Arundinaria . 1 aS

Arundinella . « 943

Asclepias . p. 55

Asparagus . . 850

Aspidium. 1030, 1029,

1031, 1032

Asplenium. 1024, 1023,

1025, 1026

Asystasia wie ood

Atalantia . 131

Ate : Bins 822

‘Athyrium . ; 1026

Atriplex. - 649

Atylosia . 243

Avena . ‘ Putas Re

Averrhoa 4 p214

Avicennia . vi OLE

Axinandra 311

Azadirachta . 141

Azima 467

Azolla 1065

Baissea 482

Balanophora 887

BananopHorace&%® 119

Balsamodendrum 137

Bambusa - 998, 995

Barleria i «2 889

Barringtonia 297

Basella 653

Bassia in) eo

Batatas é 2 SREB

Bauhinia . 263

Baumea : 923

Begonia 335

BEeconiace® 59

Beilschmiedia . 666

Benincasa . . p. 38

BereerIDE 6

Berberis Si

Bergia . 68

Berrya. : - 105

Bidaria . i 496

Bidens 3 Baha: ee

BiIGNONIACEX . 96

Biophytum . Pai) WAT

Bixa ; 4 p. 5

BIXINEX 11

Blachia 709

Blainvillea 424

Blechnum. 1021

Blepharis 587

Blepkarispermum 416.

Blumea . - 412, 413

Blyxa . : Smo

Bocagea 26

Boehmeria . «. 53

635

ASCLEPIADER «

Boerhaavia

58 | Bombax ‘ 5

122

95| Capsicum. :

| Bonnaya . 552|@arallia . ,

BoraGinem. . 89 | Caralluma

Borassus . A 879 | Garapa

Borreria | 363, 397 | Cardamine . :

Boswellia . p. 16 | Cardanthera

Botrychium . . 1063 | Cardiospermum

Boucerosia 507 | Carex ,

Bouchea 607 | Careya

Brachypodium , 989 | Carica .

Brachyrhamphus. 435 | Carissa

Bragantia . 658 | Carum .

Brassica . 4| CaRYoPHYLLACEA

Breweria . 537 | Caryota

Breynia 697 | Casearia

Bridelia’ . 690 | Wassia .

Brucea p. 16 | Cassytha .

Bruguiera. 286 | Casuarina .

Bryonia 326 | CELASTRACEX .

Bryophyllum p. 31 | Celastrus. :

Buchanania . 197 | Celosia .

Bulbophyllum . 773 | Celsia .

Bupleurum . . 9344 | Celtis ;

Burmanniacem . 125/Centipeda , :

Burmannia : 767 | Centotheca

BURSERACEE 32 | Centranthera

Bursinopetalum 351 | Centroseema

Butea 236 | Centrostachys

Cephalandra

CacTACEE . 61 | Cephalostigma

adaba : 46 | Cerasicocarpum .

Cesalpinia . 254, 255 | Cerastium

Cajanus p. 26 | CERATOPHYLILACES

Calamintha . 628 | Ceratophyllum

Calamus 878 | Ceratopteris .

Calanthe . . $84} Cerbera

Calceolaria p. 62 | Ceriops. . °

Callicarpa . . 610) Ceropegia

Callitriche , 283 | Chetocarpus

Calonyction . 533 | Chailletia .

Calophanes . 581 | CuaILLeTIAcE®

Calophyllum 71 | Chamabaina. -

Calosanthes , 571 | Chameraphis .

Calotropis . . 491 | Chamissoa

Campanula 442 | Championia

CAaMPANULACE® 73 | Chara .

Campbellia 561! C@uapaceEzm ,

Campnosperma 201 | Chasalia.

Canarium . 138 | Chaviea ™.

Canavalia 237 | Cheilanthes <

Canna 838 | VCHENOPODIACE®

| Canscora . 515 | Chenopodium

Cansjera . 156 | Chickrassia 7

Canthium 385 | Chierostylis. .

CapPARIDE 9|Chionachne -.

Capparis 47 | Chionanthus

CaPRIFOLIACES 661 Chirita .

CHLORANTHACES:. 110

Chloranthus 662

Chloris 975

Chlorophytum . 853

Chloroxylon wae

Chonemorpha . 481

Christisonia . SY OOe

Lhrozophora . 712

Chrysogonum 420

Chrysophyllum . 453

Chrysopogon 961

Cinnamomum 667

Cipadessa . 143

Cirrhopetalum . 774

Cissampelos . 34

Cissus 2). 182

Citrullus Sy are a

Cladium . 923, 922

Claoxylon . 714,715

Clausena . L127.

Cleghornia . ~ 482

Cleidion . £ 72)

Cleisostoma. 800

Cleistanthus ‘691

Clematis : 1

Cleome . : 42

Clerodendron 614, 615

Cleyera 74

Clinogyne . 836

Clitoria . 24)

Cnemidia . ~ 809

Coceulus . ‘ 32

Cochlospermum . p. 5

Cocos p. 96

Celachne. 971

Ceelodiseus . i ALF

Celogyne. 732

Coffea . ; 388

Cor : p. 106

Culdenia §23

Coleus 623

Colocasia 892, 891, 893

Colubrina. 180

CoMBRETACER 51

Combretum 293

Commelina . 864.

ComMELINACEZE 136

Comrositz . iS 70

CoNNARACEE 43

Connarus . « 204

Conocarpus 25K

CoNnVOLVOLACES . 90

Convolvulus 535

Conyza - 411, 409

Corallocarpus 330

Corchorus . ~ 108

Cordia .. 521

123

CoRNacEm . « 65

Corymbis . 808

Corypha . 877

Coscinium, 29

Cosmos . 48

Cosmostigma 499

Costus . A 834

Cottonia . 5 792

Covellia 741

CRassSULACER . 47

Crateva : ; 45

Crawfurdia : 516

Crepis . 5 434

Cressa 3 538

Crinum : - 843

Crossandra 590

Crotalaria . 208

Croton 705

CRUCIFERE . : 8

Crudia . ° 260

Cryptocarya - 665

Cryptocoryne . 883

Cryptolepis . - 487

Cryvtostylis 818

Ctenolepis e 3382

Cucumis . 323

Cucurbita . p: 38

CucurgBITACE 58

Cudrania . 743

Cudranus . 743

Cullenia . 97

Curculigo . S 842

Curcuma 829

Cuscuta 539

Cyanospermum 246

Cyanotis . 866

Cyathea 999, 1009

Cyathocalyx 15

Cyathula . 641

CrcapEx 123

Cycas 759

Cyclea . 35

Cyclostemon . 700

Cylindrochilus 794

Cymbidium 787

Cymodocea . 1) 906

Cynanchum 494

Cynoctonum . . 494

Cynodon . 973, 979

Cynoglossum a) O28

Cynomeira 258

CYPERACES . 148

Cyperus , 908

Cyphostigia $31

Cyriopera 790

Cyrtopodivm . #90

Cyrtosia 806

Dactylis . p. 109

Dactyloctenium , 978

Dedalacanthus . 584

Deemia 3 493

Dalbergia . - 248

Dalechampia . 125)

Dalzellia . - 655

Daphnidium 672

Daphniphyllum 703

Dasyaulus os ce Oe

DaTISCACEa F 60

Datura . §42

Davallia .1006— 1011] |

Debregeasia 757

Delima g ‘ 6

Dendrobium 772

Dendrocalamus <~« 994

Dendrocolla 794

Dendrolobium 250-225

Dennstedtia . 1003

Dentella . . 860

Derris . e 251

Desmanthus. oD

Desmodium. 225

Desmostemon 708

Detarium . : 260,

Deyeuxia . <1 988.

Diacalpe . 1002

Dialium & 259

Dianella . $ 854

Dianthera . p. 68

Dicellostyles 92

Dicerma 3 Peleg)

Dichilanthe 383

Dichopsis . 456

Dichrocephala . 405

Dichrostachys 267

Dicksonia. 1003

Dicliptera . - 603

Dicrea . 6 656

Didymocarpus . 465

Dienia « 769

Digera . . . 6389

Dillenia 11

DILLENIACES - 2

Dimeria 953

Dimorphocalyx 710

Dioclea . 238

Dioscorea . 846

DioscorEACES . 131

Diospyros . 460

Dipcadi . 856

Diplachne . 980

Diplacrum 924

Diplazium 1025

Diplocentrum 802

Diplospora . 379

Dirsacacrem » 69

Dipsacus _ 401

DiererocaRPacsH 21

Dipterocarpus 78 4

Dischidia . 502

Discospermim 379,

Disperis . 824

Disporum . . 860.

Dittelaama . p. 20

Dodonza 193

Dolichandrone . 572

Dolichos . eae

Doodia . 1022.

Doona . s 83

Dopatrium 547

Doritis . 793

Doronicum , 433

Horstenia . 740

Dracena . 5 852

Dregea . 500

Drosera . 5 280

Droseraces® 48

_ Dryniispermum . 678

Drymoglossum . 1049

Dumasia . 228

Dunbaria . a 244

Dysophylla » 626

Dysoxylum . - 144

Ebermaiera . §78

HBENACES . : 80

Ecbolium . . 601

Eclipta : « 423

Ehretia . é 522

EinawaGNacrzZ® . = 116

Hizagnus . : 680

Eleocarpus . 109

Bizodendrum . 172

Elaphoglossum’ . 1051

ELATINES 17

Elatostema . 751

Eleiotis . 220

Elephantopus .

. Elettaria . . 832, 830

Hleusine . « ots

Ellipanthus . 205

Elytraria . - 576

_ Hlytrophorus . 982

Embelia - 450

mumilia 2. 43]

EMpUSG ke ts TT)

-Enhalus . 4 764

Enicostema . aie ould

' Entada . 265

_ Enteropogon Sa

Epaltes 414

Epipogum . , 821

Epistylium

Eprthema

Epithinia

€

“EQUISETACE

Kquisetum

Eragrostis Q

Eria

Eriachne

ERICACEsR

‘Hricybe

Hrigeron

Kriocaudon

Eranthemum ;

ERIOCAULONES® .

Eriochloa

Eriodendron

Kriosema

)| @rythrina

Erythroxylum

Eugenia

Eulophia

Huonymus

Hupatorium

Kuphorbia

| Erythrospermum

KUPHORBIACEZ .

Kurya

Euxolus

Evodia .

Evolvulus

Exacum

Excecaria .

Facrea

Falconeria .

Fergusonia

Feronia

FicoipEz

Ficus

FILices .

Filicium

Fimbristylis .

Firmiana

Flacourtia

Flagellaria .

FLAGELLARIACES .

Flemingia .

Fleurya.

Floscopa

Fluggea.

Freycinetia

Fuirena.

Gaertnera .

Galactia

Galeola

Galium .

695 | Gareinia . - 70

3s 569 | Gardenia : : 376

. 880°| Garnotia 942

: 150 | Gastrodia . 820

997 | Gaultheria 444

_ 983 | Geissaspis . 23

592, 601 | Gelonium 725

: 775 |Geniosporum 619

969 | Gentiana 517

75 | GENTIANACEE 87

529 |Geodorum . 788

409 |Geophila . 393

907 | GERANIACEX 28

147 | Geranium . 115

927 | GESNERACEX 95

A 96 | Ginalloa . 684

945 | Girardinia 747

232 | Gironniera y 134

52 | Gisekia ~ 5 . 34l

112 |Givotia . a 706

296 | Gleichenia . . 998

; 786 | Gleniea 5 188

164 | Glinus % . 3840

“p. 46 |Globba . 826

688 | Glochidion . 695

120 | Gloriosa: _. 859

76 | Glossocarya . 615

640 | Glossostigma 555

120 | Glycine 229, 230

536 |Glycosmis . . 124

512 | Glyptopetalum , 165

‘ 730 | Gmelina 3 . 612

Gnaphalium p. 47, 417,

509 418

728 | Gomphandra 159

363 | Gomphia 136

132 | Goniopteris . 1036

62 | Goniothalamus . 20

i 741 | GoopENOVIACERH ., 72

151 | Goodyera . 815

i 139 | Gordonia ‘ a Li

911 | Gouania 18k

98 |GRAMINER . . 149

563 | Grammitis 1041, 1043,

868 1044

137 | Grangea . 406

247 |Graptophyllum ip. 68

745 | Grewia 4 . 106

867 | Grifithia . . 875

696 | Grislea ; 306

881 | Grumilea . 391

913 | Guatteria . 18

Guazuma.: Oey ip. te

‘ §11 | Guettarda 381

234 | Guilandina ? 954

806 | GUTTIFERE Deine

399 Gymnema : ‘ 496.

125

Gymnogramme 1042| Hugonia . or Kadsura :

Gymnopetalum . 320 | Humata . 1006 | Kaempferia

‘Gymnopogon 976 | Hamboldtia . 262|Kalanchoe . .

Gymnopteris . 1054 | Hunteria . : 472 | Kanilia . :

Gymnosporia 170 | Hydnocarpus : 56 | Kayea . : ‘

Gymnostachyum 594|Hydrilla . 760 Racdvokin

Gynandropsis 43 | Hydrobryum 656 | Kirganelia . 4

Gynostemma 333 | Hydrocera 119| Klugia . :

Gynura . 430) HyprocnaRIDEs. 124 | Knoxia ; “

Gyrinops . : 679 | Hydrocotyle 342 | Kokoona .

Gyrocarpus . ~ 294! Hydrolea .. - 620/Kurrimia . 2

Hiydrophylax . 396 | Kyllinga . as

Habenaria 822| HyprorHyLLacem® 88

Hammoporacrm . 128/ Hygroryza 939|Laniarm .

Hailophila . 766 | Hygrophila 580 | Lablab

HALoraces’ . 49] tHymenocallis p.93|Lactuca . ;

Harpalosia . 64 | Hymenophyilum . 1004, | Lagarosiphon

Harpullia .. 192 1005 | Lagascea

Hedera _ 348, 349 | HypEricacem . 18 | Lagenandra

Hedychium . . 828| Hypericum . . 69 | Lagenaria

Hledyotis 364, 363, 365-6 | Hypolytrum . 915, 917 | Lagenophora

Hedysarum . . 225 | Hypoxis ‘ 843 | Lagerstremia

Heleocharis 910 | Hyptianthera 377 | Laggera .

Helicia. : 675 | Hyrtanandra 755 | Lagunea : ‘

Helichrysum 418 | Lantana . :

Helicteres 100 | Ichnanthus : 330 oe :

Heligme 478 | Ichnocarpu.. 485 | Lappago .

Heliophytum 526 | Inicinnm . d6 | liasia .

Heliotropium . §26|liex . : 163 | Lusianthera .

Helminthostachys 1062 | liysanthes : 541 | Lasianthus .

Helosciadium 345 |Impatiens . 118 | Lasiosipnon

Hemarthria . . 957| Imperata . 5 948 | Lastrea é B

Hemicyclia ¢ 699 | Indigofera. 20) Cannea) 6.) s

Hemidesmus 486|fonidium. . 49 | Laurnacem . 5

Hemigyrosa . 185 | Iphigenia 858 | Lawsonia .

Hemionitis . 1050, 1046 | Ipomea : 533 | Lecanthus

Heptapleurum . 349 | lpsea . : - 777 | Ledebouria

Heracleum . 347 | Isachne : -. 928) Leea , :

Heritiera . 99 | Isanthera. . 570 | Leersia .

Hernandia . . 674) Ischemum 958 | Lzauminosa

Herpestis ; 546 | lsortsm 154 | Lemna

Heteeria - 816) Isoetes 1068 | Lemnacrm ..

Heteropogon . 959, 960 | Isolepis . 911, 912 | LentipvLaRIACEm

Heterostemma 501 | Isonandra . 455, 456 | Leonotis “s

Hewittia . 534 | Isotoma p. 49 | Lepidagathis .

Heylendia 207 | Ixora 886 | Lepironia

Hibiscus . sy 98,94 Leptadenia

Hippocratea. . 173|Jambosa . - 296) Leptaspis .

Hiptage 462 | Leeptochloa

Holarrhena . 477 Jatropha. . p.81|Leptogramme .

Holoptelea _ 731) Jonesia . : 261 | Lepturus .

Homalium 317; Josephia. 781 | Lettsomia . .

Homonoia . 723 Julostylis . 91 | Leucena .

Hopea . : 82); JuNcackzE . - 188) Leucas ‘

Hoppea . -613| Juncus. : 870 | Leucocodon

Hortonia . 664) Jussiva 312 | Leucostegia .

Hoya . 503, 500| Justicia . , 597, 598 | Ligustrum

827

279

286

301

695

568

384

167

171

909

100

242

435

LILIACEBxX . z

Limacia Sh

iG thenure 519

Limnophila 545

~ Limnophyton 902

_ Limonia 128

LINACEE . ‘ 25

Lindenbergia 544

Lindera .°* 672

Lindsza . 1012, 1013

Linociera . 463

Linum . ej 110

Liparis . : 77)

Lipocarpha .. 914

Lippia. 606

Litobrochia . 1018

Litsea j 671

Lobelia 439

LoGANIACEX 86

Lomaria 1020

Lophatherum 985

LoRANTHACEX 117

Loranthus x 68}

Loxococcus . CHS LZ

Loxogramme 1044

Ludwigia . 313

Luffa 32]

Luisia . 791, 792

Lumnitzera 292

Luvunga 129

LYCOPODIACEA, 153

Lycopodium 1067

Lygodium 1058

Lysimachia . - 447

LLYTHRACES . 54

Maba . 459

Macaranga aes

Machilus . - 668

Macreightia 459

Merua. ; 44

MAGNOLIACEZ . 3

Mallea. ; ~ 143

- MaLricHIACcEz 26

Matvackem . 22

Malvastrum . p-. 10

Mallotus . a TO

Mangifera 196

Manisuris . 956

Mapania . , 916

Mappia : ve LOI

Maranta . - 836, $37

Marattia . . 1060

Marsdenia 497

Marsilea 5 . 1064

Martynia . p. 64

Mastixia 351

133 | Medinilla . 3

| es if

M elastoma

Na ackou dens:

Melia

MELIACE® -

Meliosma

Melochia .

Melothria

Memecylon

Meniscium .

MENISPERMACE®

Mentha

Mesua

Mezoneurum

Michelia

Microcarpea

Micrococca

Microdesmis

Microglossa

Microlepia .

Micromelum

Microrhynchus

Microstachys

Microstylis .

Microtropis

Miliusa

Millingtonia

Milnea.

Mimosa . ;

Mimusops) .

Mirabilis .

Mischodon

Mitrasacme

Mitrephora .

Modecca

Meesa x

Mohlana

Mollugo .

Momordica .

MoniIMiacez

Monocera .,

Monochilus

Monochoria .

Monogramnie

Monoporandra

Monothecium

Moonta

Morinda .«

Moringa

MorRINGE®

Morecarpus .

Moschosma

Mucuna

Mukia

Muldera

Mnesithea. i

303 \3 Mundules : 2123

697 | Munronia. . 149

300 | Murraya . 126

53 | Musa . : 839

142 | Mussenda 368

33) Myviactis 407

195 | Myriogyne ; 428

102 | Myriophyllum . 282

329 | Myristica . 663

304 | MyRISTICACEX 111

1045 | Myrsine 449

5 | Myrsinem . 48

627 | Myrracea® ‘ 52

73 | Mystacidium - 803

256

12 | NarapatEa 146

553 | Naias 905

715 | Naravelia. ‘ 2

p- 81 | Nargedia 377

410! Nasturtium , 40

1010 | Nauclea 357, 353-6

125 | Nechamandra 761

436 | Nelsonia . é 577

729 | Nelumbium . s 39

769 | NEPENTHACE. 107

166 | Nepenthes - 657

23 | Nephelium . 190, 189

p- 64 | | Nephrodium . 1032

145 | Nephrolepis . 1033

5 j 264

458 | Nessa é p. 36

- 71 | Neurocalyx . 361

701 | Nicandra . p. 61

508 | Nipa . é 875

21) Niphobolus . 1038

955 | Nitella 1071

318 | Nothopegia 200

4438 | Nothosxrua. 644

p. 73 | Notonia . 432

340 | Notothixos - 683

322 | NycrTaGinEm 102

112 | Nyctanthes . p- 03

109 | Nymphea. 38

813 | NYMPHmACES .. 7

861

1040 | Oberonia 770

85 | Ochlandra. ; 996

596 | OCHNACE® 31

420 | Ochna 135

389 | Ochrosia - 474

p. 21 | Ocimum 618

p. 21 | Octarrhena 794, bis.

757 | Odina . 198

620 | OLacInEx 35

231 |}Clax . 154

327 | Oldenlandia 365

660 | Olea . 464

Ornacez ieee

Oleandra

Onaapace®

Qncosperma

Ophelia .

Ophioglossum

Ophiopogon

Ophiorrhiza .

Ophiozylon .

Opahiurus .

Opilia 5 a

Oplismenus .

Opuntia

OrcHIDEZX ,

Oreocnide

Ormocarpum

OROBANCHACEZ:

Oropetium .

Orophea .

Oroxylum

Orthosiphon

Oryza .

Osbeckia . i

Osmelia :

Osmunda.

Ostodes

Osyris ;

Ottelia

_ Oxalis

Oxystelma .

Oxytenanthera.

_ Pachycentria

Pachygone

Pachystoma .

_ Polenga

Palimbia

Patma

Panax

-Pancratium

PanDANACER

Pandanophyllum

Pandanus .,.

Panicum . 929, 928,

931, 932, 933

Paramignya

pe rariiiwm 2 |

Parochetus

Parsonsia

Paspalum .

Passiflora

* PAssIFLORACEX

_ Pavetta i

Pavonia

PEpDaLiacesz,

~ Pedalium .

_ Pedicularis

127

| Pellea 1016 | Podadenia . 718

Pellionia, 750 | Podochilus 804.

Peltophorum 255 | PopostEMACExX 106

Pemphis 307 | Podostemon 656

Pennisetum . p. 106 | Pogonatherum 951

Pentatropis . 492 | Pogonia 819

Peperomia 661 | Pogonotrophe 741

Peplidium 554 | Pogostemon 625

Pericopsis 253 | Polanisia 42

Peristrophe . 604 | Pollia 863

Peristylus . 822 | Pollinia 950

Perotis, 946 | Polyalthia. 18

| Persea 669 | Polybotrya . 1053

| Pestalozzia . 333 | Polycarpea, 65

| Peucedanum 346 | Polycarpon . 64

Phaius. 779| Polygala . .. 58

Phaleria . 678 | PotyGaLacexm 13

Pharbitis 533 | PoLYGONACEZ. - 105

Phaseolus . 4 239 | Polypodium 1027, 1032

Phaylopsis 583 1035, 1038, 1039

Phegopteris 1035 | Polypogon . 967

Phoenix : 876 | Polyscias 348

Pholidota . 783 | Polystachya 789

Photinia J . 277 Polystichum . . 1029

Phragmites . 981 | Pometia . 191

Phreatia 776 | Pongamia 250

Phrynium 837 | PonTEDERIACE . 134

Phyllanthus . 695 | Portulaca ‘ 66

Phyllochlamys . 736 | PorTULACACEE . 15

Phyllodium . . 225 | Posidonia . . 765

Physalis -p. 61 | Potamogeton 904

Physurus 811 | Potentilla 273

Phytolacca p- 73 | Poterium , 276

PHYTOLACCACE® . p..72| Pothomorphe . 660

Pilea 748 | Pothos a 896

Pimpinella 345 | Pouzolzia 755

Piper 660 | Premna . ed ie (ot

PIPERACES , 109 | PRIMULACER . 77

Pisonia 636 | Prismatomeris 390

Pistia . - - 885°) Priva. ’ 609

Pithecolobium . 270 | Procris : 752

PiTTOSPORACE 12 | Prosaptia - 1008

Pittosporum . 57 | Prosorus 695

Pityranthe . 104 | Proreacez . . 114

Pladera 513 | Pseudarthria . 222

PLANTAGINEE 101 | Pseudocarapa. . 147.

Plantago . : 634 | Psidium é » p.32

Platanthera. . 822 Psilotrichum 643

Flaiea -. . 159 | Psilotum : - 1066

Plecospermum 739 | Psoralea 211

Plectranthus . 622 | Psychotria 391

Pleopeltis . . 1039 | Pteris 1017, 1016

Pleurostylia . 168 1018

PLUMBAGINEZ 76 | Pterocarpus . . 249

Plumbago . .* 446) Pteroloma . 225

Plumeria. . 54 | Pterospermum 101

| Poa. 988 | Pierostigma , d44

Pierygota ..

. 98

Ptilotus . : 643

Piychosperma 872

Ptyssiglottis 600

Pupalia «. 642

Putranjiva . . 698

Pycnospora oh 221

- Pygeum : 271

Pyrenacantha 162

Pyrularia. 636

Randia i 375

RANUNCULACEEH 1

Ranunculus : 5

Raphidophora 894

Rauwolfia. . 470

Remirea ‘ 919

-Remusatia . 891

Rhabdia 5 yo as

RHAMNACEX: 38

Rhamnus Ansa ACh

ftamphidia . : 816

Rhinacanthus . 599

Rhipsalis 337

RuizocaRPE. 152

Rhizophora 284

RueIzoPHORACE 50

Rhododendron . 445

Rhodomyrtus 295

Rhynchosia ; 246

Rhynchospora 921

Ricinus. p- 82

Rivea . 530, 53]

Rivina. cap adie

RosacE S wo 45

Rostellularia . 597

Rotala . ea

Rothia ‘ ‘ 206

Rottboellia . . 954

Rotilera . 720, 722

Rourea . « - 203

Roxburghia 848

RoxseuRGHIACEHZ . 132

Rubia 398

RvusBiaAcEx . 67

Rubus A 272

Ruellia . : 4) 582

umes. 5. p.dd

Rungia . . - 602

Ruppia . . : 904

Rurace® . ES DAS)

SABIACEA . “ 4)

Saccharum 949

Saccolabium 797, 799,

800

Sager@a.. 26

Sageretia . . 179 | Sebastiana ve 729

Shoina : : p-6|Secamone . 488

Salacia . 173, 174 | Selaginella 1069

Salicornia . 651 | SELAGINELLACEE 155

Salmalia ‘ . 95 | Semecarpus “ 199

Salomonia 59 | Senecio 433, 432

Salvadora . 466 | Serissa 395

SALVADORACEZ 83 | Serpicula : QS

Samadera . 134 | Sesamum p- 65

Samara ‘ 450 | Sesbania . 214

SAMYDACEX 56 | Sesuvium 338

Sanicula 343 | Setaria ‘ 932

Sanseviera 841 | Sethia 112

SANTALACEE 118 | Shorea "81

Santalum p. 77 | Shuteria 297,

SAPINDACER . 40 | Shutereia . 534

Sapindus 189 |Sida_. : 78

Sapium : . 728; Sideroxylon . 454

Sapota 454 | Siegesbeckia . 422

SAPOTACER 79 | SIMARRUBACE . 30

Saprosma , 395 | Slevogitia . 514

Saraca . : 261 {| Smilax 849

Sarcanthus ee TS) | Smithia . 217

Sarcocephalus 353 | Soja 229

Sarcochilus 794 | SOLANACEAE 91

Sarcoclinium 711 | Solanum : 540

Sarcococca 689 |. Sonchus. p. 49

Sarcostemma, 495 |Sonerila . 302

Sarosanthera 75 | Sonneratia . 310

Satyrium 823 | Sophora. : 252

Sauropus : - 694 | Sopubia : . 558

SAXIFRAGACEZ . 46 |Sorghum . Beate

Scevola 2 438 | Soymida ps

Schizea . 1057 | Spathiostemon . 723

Schizoloma . 1013 | Spathodea 572

Schizostigma . 372 | Spatholobus 235

Schleichera 187 | Spergula ° p: 6

Schmidelia ‘ 186 | § ‘ 397

Schenorchis . 797 | Spheranthus . 415

Schumacheria 9 | Sphenoclea. 441

sciaphila - 900 | Spilanthes 426

Scilla : 857 | Spinifex . - 936

Scindapsus 894 | Spiranthes §10

Scirpodendron 917 | Spodiopogon 958.

Scirpus 912, 910 | Spondias : 202

ScITAMINEZE 127 | Sponia - és 733

Scleria . 924 | Sporobolus _. ty do

Scleropyron 686 | Stachys . . 71

Scolopia : 51 Sincly neuen 608

Scoparia . p.63| Stellaria . ‘ 62

SCROPHULARIACEZ 92 | Stemona F . 848

Seutellaria . 629. | Stemonoporus 84, 79

Scutia . ; . 178{|Stenochlena . 1052

Scutinanthe : 138 | Stenoloma 10M

Scyphellandra 50 | Stenosiphonium 585, 586

Seyphiphora, 380 | Stenotaphrum . 934

| Seyphostachys, ., 878! Stephania . : 33

Stephegyne :

356

Sterculia 98

STERCULIACER 23

Stereospermum . 573

Streblus 737

Streptogyne 986

Striga . : 556

Strobilanthes 586

Strombosia 155

Strongylocalyx 296

Strongylodon 233

Strychnos . 510

STYLIDIACEE ae

Stylidium . 437

Stylocoryne 373, 374

Stylosanthes 216

STYRACER 81

Sueda : 652

Sunaptea 79

Susum : 869

Swertia . 518

Symphorema 616

Symplocos 461

Synantherias 890

Synedrella p. 48

Syngramme 1043

Syzygium - 296

Tabernemontana 476

Tacca 845

TaccacEs . 130

Teniophyllum 801

‘Teenitis 1048

Mainiaies ss. : 780

Tajetes . - p. 48

Tamarindus . p. 29

‘TAaMARIscINEs . 16

Tamarix 67

_ ‘Taxotrophis 735, 736

‘Tectona - p. 68

_ Teinostachyum . 995

Tephrosia 213

- Teramnus . 230

Terminalia . 298

| -Terniola . : 655

‘Ternstroemia. 74

_ ‘TERNSTROEMIACEZ 20

_ ‘Tetracera 7

_ YTetrameles. 336

_ Tetranthera . 671

_ Teucrium . 633

Thalassia ; 765, 766

Thalictrum 4

_ Thamnopieris 1023

_ Theriophonum . 888

a Thespesia 94

_ Thismia , 768

129

‘Thuarea 935

Thunbergia ° 575

THYMELZACER 115

TILIACES . 24

Tiliacora 2 . '80

Timonius . 382

Tinospora 27

Tithonia p- 48

Toddalia 122

‘Torenia 549

lV'ournefortia . §25

Toxocarpus 489

Trachys 944

Tragia 726

Tragus . 945

Trapa 314

Trema 733

Trewia 719

Trianthema 339

Tribulus 114

Trichadenia . 55

Trichodesma §27

Trichopodium 847

Trichopus . 847

Trichosanthes 319

Tricomanes 1005

'Tricostularia . 922

Tridax 5 p- 48

Trifolium p. 22

‘Trigonostemon . 707

Tripogon 977

Triticum . 983

Triumfetta 107

TRIURIDEX 144

Tropidia §09

Turnera . p- 37

Turpinia 194

Tylophora . 498

Typha . 5 °* 882

TYPHACE. 141

Typhonium 887

Ulmus A 7381

UMBELLIFER 63

Unearia . 358

Unona . ‘ Ar a CE

Uraria kK 223

Urena . 89

Uropetalum 856

Urophyllum . 371

Urostigma . 74)

Urvricacgea& 12]

Utricularia 563

Uvaria . 14

VaACcINIACER . 74

Vaccinium 443

Vaginularia 1040

Vahlia 278

Valeriana . 400

VALERIANACEE 68

Vallaris 479

Vanda 796, 792

Vandellia . A 550

Vanilla . 807

Vateria 84, 79

Vatica 80

Ventilago . 175

Verbascum , p. 6h

VERSBENACEE 99

Vernonia A 402

Veronica p. 63

Viburnum 352

Vicoa 419

Vigna . ° - 240

Villebrunea 756

Vinca p. 54

Viola. 3 48

VIOLACEZX 10

Viscum 682

Vitex . 613

Vitis . 182

Vittaria . 1047

Wahlenbergia . 440.

W alsura . 148

Waltheria . “. 103°

Webera. ‘ BOB ie!

Wedelia be oe fi ules

Weihea. . 288

Wendlandia ‘ 359

Wikstroemia . - 676

Willughbeia 468

Wissadula_ . p. 10

Withania ; 541

Wolfha . é . 899

Wollustonia 425

Woodfordia 306

Wormia . 10

Wrightia 480

Xanthium . 421

Xanthochymus 70

Xanthophyllum . 60

Ximenesia p. 48

Ximenia 153

Xylocarpus. 149

Xylopia . 22

XYRIDEE 135

Xyris 862

Youngia . ~ 434

Zanonia . : 334

Zanthoxylum. . 121]

130

Zehneria . 328, 332 | Zingiber . «. 833 | Zosterostylis _. 818

Zenkeria eon Ce OLO Zizyphus : : 176 | Zoysia . : 947

Zeuxine . ‘ 813 | Zornia . ‘ . 2151 ZyGoPHYLLACE® DE

INDEX TO SINHALESE NAMES.

Aba . p.4| Balu-dan y . 451|Bu-pila . 5 213

Achar iyé-palu ; 231 | Balu-nakuta 152, 608 | Burulla : - 183

Agaladara . 598 | Bambara-wel . . 248) Buruta . 151

Aga-mula- neti-wel 539 | Bandura-wel .. 657 | Bu-séru ° . 611

Agu-karuni . . 393} Bata-domba . . 296 | Bu-tora : 257

Ahu . : . 389 | Bata-kirilla : 112| But-sarana . . 838

Akk4é-pana . . p. 31} Bata-li ; - 996

Akmella. - 426] Bela-tana . . 978|Chanchala. . 225

Alandu . : - 738) Beli. : . p- 16

A‘lanoa. : 533 | Beli-patta . : 93 | Dada-kaha_ . . 829

A’lariya : . p. 54 | Beraliya - . 83} Dada-kehel : 894

Alubé 5 : 296 | Bériya Apis) 292 | Dada-kiriya . - 688

Alu-gas Sao. Beri ais. . 711] Daluk rasa v7 OBS

Alu-pila. . .. -213} Béru- diyanilla . 312) Daminitya —. « . 166

Alu-puhul . . p- 38} Bevila . ; =) 8¢ Dany. . 296

Amba CaUanhine 196) Bilin. . p.14} Dara-hal- -pan > wie

Amba-kaha . . 827] Bim-pol . . 847) Dara-veta-kolu . 321

Ambala. 5 519| Bindara . ; 512 | Dat- -ketiyd sn) 22. Bey

‘Amu... . 926} Bin-karal-heba . 641) Dawata . . 287

Amukkara. . 541] Bin-kohomba . 140| Dawu . - 291

Andana-hiriya . 208/Bin-mé. . . 239 Dawul- kurundu. 671

Andara. be 207 Bin-nuga : . 498| Dedi-kaha . . 3804

Andun-wenna - 163) Bin-dlu . : . 519 | Del: ; ‘ 744

Angana . 5 382 | Bin-siyambala . 257} Demata =, - 612

Anitta; . 9... 699) Bin-tal.. , |. 842 | Déesa-ala 0 9, y 898

Ankenda . F 123 | Bin-tamburu 533 | Divi-adiya . » Doe

An6oda . i . 88) Bo : . 741 | Divi-kaduru : 476

Aralu re ey 290 I BO-kéra 2. 06s 136 | Divi-pahuru . . 5383

Aramana : . 257/ Béombu . : . 461} Diwul 3 : 132

Aridda 2 f 201 | Bo-mi : : 671 | Diya-béru. Rey () i |

As-wel . s - 484/ Boru-pay ? . 910! Diya-danga : 572

Aswenna . . 224|BéwitiyA . . 299] Diya-embul-embiliya

Ataketiyé . . 375) Bu-dada-kiriya . 688 | 1064.

Ati-udayan - 884] Bi-embilla - 704|Diya-habarala . 861

Attana . We, 7542) Buecetiyal. - 111|Diya-hawari . 762

At iakKae as) 741 | Bu-hora . 4 78 | Diya-kirilla . . 520

Awari . - . 210} Bé-hunu-kirilla . 695 | Diya-kirindi-wel 173

Bu-kattu-henda . §28 | Diya-kidalu . . 119

Badal-wanassa . 1067] Bi-kenda . . 720] Diya-labu . . | Pp. SSim

Badulla : . 199 | Bu-kinda . = 27 | Diya-menériya » 864.9

Baka-mtnu-tana 924 | Bulat-wel . - 660| Diya-midella . 297. 8

Bak-mi . ¢ Venn Sos'| Bula : . 290} Diya-mitta . . Saou

ala si. 4 . 200|Bt-nelu. . . 585|Diyana . : (Rie

Baloliya » . 225| Bi-nuga . . 7411! Diya-nilla . , S6Sim

Diya-para .

Diya-parandella

Diya-ratambala .

Diya-ratmal .

Diya-siyambala .

Diya-taliya

Diya-tana-kola .

Diya-wawuletiya

Dodan-kaha .

Dodan-pana .

Doday-wenna

Domba . ‘

Domba-kina .

Dorana .

Tha ies

Duhudu

Dummeélla

Dun .

Dunu-keyiy4.

Dutu-satutu

- ‘Khela

Ehetu

Lkawériya

Ela-batu

Kla-dadakiriya

Ela-gokatu

Ela-imbul

Ela-mal_ .

Ela-midella

Kila-netul . ‘

Bla-nuga

Ela-rat-mal :

Ela-wel

Ela-wéwel

Elbedda

- Embarella

Endaru

Ensal

Epala_ .

Krabadu

Kraminiya

Et-adi :

Eta- kirilla

Eta-kirinda-wel .

Eitamburu .

Eita-miriya

Eta-pan

Hta-werella

| Et-bemi-kiriya

Bt-demata “

Hit-hawari .

Kit-heraliya

Et-korasa-wel

Et-kukuruman

_ Et-nerenchi

131

Etora |

Kit-pamba

Hit-pitawakk4

Etteriya

Et-toéra

Eit-tuttiri °

Etuna

Gahala : ‘

Gal-demata

Gal-ehi

Galis

Gal-kappra-walliya

Gal-karanda . 262,

Gal-mendora

Gal-mora

Gal-siyambala

Gal-weralu

Gammalu

Gammiris-wel

Gandapana

Gay-kollan-kola .

Ga-mi .

Gas-dul

Gas-kahambiliyé

Gas-karal heba .

Gas-kayila

Gas-kéla

Gas-keppitiya

Gas-netul .

Gas-nidi-kumba 117,

Gas-pichcha .

Gas-pinna .

Gedumba

Genda-kola

Geta-kola

Geta-netul

Geta-oluwa

Geta-tumba

Getiya . 3

Gherriata-gas

Gin-pol .

Gira pala

Giri-tilla

Goda-itta

Goda-kaduru

Goda-kirilla

Goda-manil

Goda-para

Goda-wawuletiya .

(¢0-hiri-pan

Go-jabba

Gokatu

Grolu-mora

Gona

Gona-kola =,

Gona-wel

191,

161,

Gon-kaduru 4

Gon-kekiri_ .

Go-palanga.

Goraka

Gotu-kola .

Goyi-wel :

Gurenda

Guru-kina

Gurulla . ;

| Habarala

Hal . :

Hal-bembiya

Hal-milla

Hal-pan

Hambu-pan

Hampilla

Hampinna

Hampirila _.

Hana, }

Hanpalandé :

Haran-kaha

Hata-wariya .

Hawari-madu

Hédawaka

Hedaya

Hedoka

Hekarilla

Helamba

Hemanilla .

Heri-mena-detta

Hewan-pan

Hik :

Hima

Himbutu-wel

Hin-badulla

Hin-bin-kohomba .

Hin-bin-tal

Hin-bowitiya

Hin dan

Hin-embilla .

Hin-embul-embiliya

Hin-epala

Hin-eraminiya

Hin-genda-kola

Hin-gotu-kola

Hingul . ‘

Hinguru ‘

Hinguru-piyali

Hin-himbutu-wel

Hin-kabarasa

Hin-kadol

Hin-karamba

Hin-katu-pila ,

Hin-kebella .

Hin-kekiri

Hin-kerewu .

-Hin-madu . 533

Hin-muda-mahana. 414

Hin-napiritta 93

Hin-pamba 1058

Hin-sarana 339

Hin-takkada . 438

-Hin-tala 618

Hin-tambala . . $22

Hin-undu-piyali . 225

_ Hiressa . . 182

Hiri-tala 846

H6-mediriya . 460

Honda-beraliya . 83

Hondala 4 . 318

Hondapara 1]

tora... ; ay hs

Huian-hik . : 150

Hulay-kiriva 837

Hulan-mara 269

Hulan-tala 404

Hunu-kirilla 695

Hurukandu 171

Iki . : 588

Ikiliya 5 314

Mais ° ‘ 610

Lluk : ‘ . 948

Imbul 96

Indi : ° 876

Induru 869

Jngini 510

Innala : 622

Tpetta . 4 Rg

iramusu 486

Iri-wériya . - 622

Triya. 663

Sru-raja 813

I -tana 959

Itta A 349

Jaya-pala . 705

Kabal-mara . 269

Kabarasa . 849

Kadol . 4 284

Kadumbériya 460

Kaduruketiya-wel. 293

Kaha . 3 Eph, 829

Kaha-andana-hiriya 208

Kaha-goéna-kola . 544

Kaha-kala 460

-Kahambiliya 745, 747

Kaha-penela . 189

Kaha-petan 263

Kahata . : 298

Kaha-tel-kola 533

Kaju. : p. 21

132

Kakkutu-pala 48

Kalaha . 741

K alamaduwa 74)

Kalanduru 908

Kalati 18

Kalatiya 270

Kala-wel 251

Kalos-waraniya 597

Kalu-habaraliya 459

Kalu-kadumbériya 460

Kalu-kan-wériya. 540

Kalukéra 20

K alu-mediriya 460

Kaluwala 835

K Aamaranga oe pr

Kampotta 702

iana-gonna 744

Kana-goraka . 70

K andala §92

Kaudu-b6 , 741

Kandu-lessa 280

Kankumbala . 194, 494

Kankumbal-kotiya 271

Kan-kun 533

Kappra-walliya . 623

Kapu-kinissa .

Kapuru. . 20, 444

Kara 385

Karapincha 127

Karavuta-mana 963

Karawala-kebella 704

Karawu. 695

Kariwila 322

Karon , 6 525

Kasa . p. 86

Katu-andara . . 268

Katu-boda 97

Katu-embilla 680

Katu-ikili . 588

Katu-ikiri 580

Katu-imbul 95

Katu-karandu 589

Katu-kenda 51

Katu-kina . 121

Katu-kiriya 835

Katu-kitul 873

Katu-kurundu 51

Katu-pamburu . 686

Katu-patuk p. 39

Katuru-murunga . p. 23

Katu-tam-pala . 640

Katu-timbol . 739

Katu-una . 9938

Katu-wala 846

Katu-wel-batu . 540

Kawalu 5 By S44

Kebella. : 702

Kehi-pittag

Kekala

Kekatiya

Kekilla

Kekiri

Kekiriwara

Keku .

Kekuna

Keleniya

Keliya

Kenda .

Ken-henda

Keppitiya

Kere-koku

Kesi-pissan

Keta-kala .

Ketala .

Ket-embilla

Ketiya .

Kevitiya-kéra

Keyiya .

Kidaran

Kikirindi

Kimbulwenna

Kina.

Kini-hiriya

Kiri-anguna .

Kiri-badu .

Kiri-hembiliya

Kiri-henda

Kiri-hiriya

Kiri-kaju .

Kiri-kon

Kirilla

Kiri-madu

Kiri-makulu

Kirindi-m4n4

Kirindi-wel

Kiri-pella .

Kiri-walla

Kiri-warala

Kiri-wel

Kitul e

Kobbé .

Kobo-mal .

Kohila .

Kohomba .

Kokatiya

Kok-mota .

Kokun-potu .

Kollu.

K orasa-wel

Kos .

° 304

512, 456

p. 10

148

: 310

533

728

p. 106

203

741

477

é 455

389, 485

874

Kosatta.

Kos-bada .

- Kota-dimbula

Kotala-wel

Kotikan-bevila

Kottamba .

Kowakka

Krimisastru

Hudalu-mal .

Kudu-dawulu

Kudu-hedaya

Kudu-kekiri

Kudu-miris .

Kadu-para .

Kukula-wel

Kukuruman

Kumatiya

Kumbalu .

Kumbuk

K umburu-wel

Kuppa-méniya

Kurakkan .

Kurinhay

Kiretiya

Kurundu

Lé-wulu .

Lén-teri :

Lew . 4

Li-kola-pala .

Liniya

Liyan .

Lolu .

Te wakenda

Lunu-dan .

Lunu-ketiya-wel

Lunu-madala

Lunu-midella

Lunu-warana

Lunu-wila .

Ma-banda .

Ma-bin-tal

Madara

Madcatiya

Madol

Madu .

Maduru-tala

Magul-karanda

Maha-andara

Maha-badulla

- Maha-béru.

Maha-bowitiya

Maha-bulu-mora

Maha-day .

Maha-debara.

_Maha-diya-dul

133

| Maha-diya-siyambala 218

Maha-dumudu 531

Maha-eraminiya 176

Maha-geta-pan . 912

Maha-getiya . 22

Maha-gotu-kola . 342

Maha-hakambala 335

Maha-hedaya 1067

Maha-kabarasa 849

Maha-karamba . 469

Maha-kerewu . 924

Maha kiri-wel 389

Maha-kohila , 895

Maha-madu 533

Mahamidi 611

Maha-nuga 741

Maha-pamba . - 1058

Maha-ratambala 386

Maha-rawana-réwula 936

Maha-sarana 339

Maha-undu-piyali .

Maha Yak-wanassa 632

Makulu , A 56

Malabatu . 540

Malaboda 663

Mala-labu . 660

Malamiris-wel 660

Malita 4 306

Mal-kéra 135

Malu . : 249

Mana . i . 960

Manda-madini-wel 398

Manel . : PES

Mani . ° : 597

Ma4-pat-kebella . 702

Mara . j 269

Marag . 296

Maranda 296

Ma-ratmal 445

Masan 176

Mas-mora 266

Mas-wenna 1049

Matu-bimbiya 448

Ma-ussa 746

M4-wéwel 878

Mayila 263

Mayuru-tana_ 5) Ore

Meda-hangu 493

Mediya . 472

Mediya-jAwila . 767

Mediya-wel

Mella : : 154

Mimini-mara . QO

Mendora . ; 80

Menéri . 5929

Mines : 5 457

Midella . 2 OF.

Midi .

Milila or Milla

Miwana-kola.

Monara-kudimbiya

Monara-petan

Mora. é 6

Mottu

Muda-mahana

Miudilla

Miudu-bin-nuga .

Miidu-bin-tamburu.

Mudu-dada-kiriya

Mudu-geta-kola

Mudu-hal-pan

Mudu-kaduru

Miudu-kalanduru

Mudu-keyiya

Mudu-murunga .

Muku-nu-wenna . .

Mitinamal

Mun-eta

Murunga . ‘

Muruta .

Muruvé-dul

Mussenda

Muwa-kiriya .

Na :

Naha.

Na-imbul

Nala-gas .

Napiritta

Nara-wel .

Nava . é

Nawa-handi

Nayan . 4

Nayi-habarala

Nayi-miris

Nebedda

Nedun . A .

Nelli , ys fi

Nelu

Nelun : é

Neralu . ‘ ‘

Netawu . 5

Neya-dasse

Nil-andana-hiriya

Nil-awari

Nil-edna-kola .

Nil-katarolu .

Nil-monaressa

Nil-nika

Niri-wel .

Niviti . :

Niyanda .

Niyangala

Mihiriya . ,

p. 29

134

_ Niyan-veta-kolu 321 | Potu-kola . . 924)|Sewana-mediya . 741

Nuga . : . @41] Potu-pala . ‘ 533 | Siniya : 5 268

Potu-pan : . 924|Sinuk . ee ESS

Odu-tulan . : 627 | Pulila : : 741 | Siribd : : 660

O’-keyiyA - 880 Pupula . : . 402|Siwiya-wel . . 660

O’kuru . : 721 | Puruk ‘ ? 591 | Sudu-idda . : 480

Olinda-wel . . 226 | Pus-wel . . 265 |Sudu-kimbulwenna 654

O'lu . : . 38, 519 | Putu-tana . é 978 | Sudu-liyan . : 695

Olupetta : . 708} Puwak . ; . 871 )Sudu-nika . . 613

ae os 722 | Puwak-gediya-wel 1131 Sudu-pareyimal. 772

Sudu-puruk . . 597

alu ©, : . 458 | Radaliya : . 204!Sudu-tam-pala . 640

Palu-kan . : 14|Rambuk . . 949 | Sudu-tumba . . 631

Balutu ». . . 674] Rana-bata-li. . 995 | Sulu-neyi . Ban (0)

Pamba, . . 1058| Rana-tam-palé : 640|Striya . .. . 094

Pamburu . 131] Ranawara . . 257{Striya-mara 269

Panu-ala . ; 887 Raykiriya j ; 835 | Suwanda d Sa

Panu-habarala . 893 | Rag-manissa . . 862

Panu-kéra . 296 | Ran-motu . 862 | Tadala ; t 892

~ Panu-kondol . . 846 | Ran-wan- -kirinda . 425 Takkada : . 438

Pat-kala . ; 690 | Rasa-kinda i Qala ; : 879

Pat-kenda . 722 | Rasa-tel-kola rea Toys dy kd Wh [stent as 2h Oat

Patola : : 319 | Ras-ni : : 439 Tambutu-wel 5 878

Patta-epala . . 89} Rata-ala : . 893] Tammann4 . 2570)

Pattangi . 5 254 | Rata-attana ; 542 | Tampala . é 644

Patta-walla . . 679| Rata-bulat-wel . 660] T’ana-hal P i Oa2

Pawatta . : 387 | Rata-del . : 744 | Tarana } ‘ 373

Peddi-méla . . 882] Rata-endaru . . p.81 | Tebu |. : . 834

Pehimbiya : 139 | Rata-gowa . p.31] Tela-kiriya 5 730

Pelan . . 171, 698 | Rata-hinguru . 605 | Telambu i ac)

Penela BAe 189 | Rata-labu . . p. 388] Tel-hiriya . : 180

Penela-wel . . 184] Ratambal4 . . 9886 | Tel-kekuna . . p. 8)

Pengiri-kurundu 667 | Rata-tana . 929 Tel-nuga . : 741

Pengiri-mana . . 960] Rata-tora . 257, p. 26 | Tel-tala : . p- 65

Pepiliya . 4 702 | Rata-uguressa . 53 | Tembiliya . ‘ 296

vw Repol.. | .p. 37 | Rat-kéliya. . 671} Tibbatu 5 . 540

Péra . : . p. 32 Rat-kibiri . : 268) (imbir).)). : 460

_ Péra-tambala . 511 | Rat-pitawakka 695, 729| Tiniya . ; Serer

Petan ; . 263 | Ratu-kimbulwenna 654 Tippili 4 g 660

Petika-wel_ . . 16] Ratu-wa : . 257 | Titta-gas : 2) ae

Peti-téra . 5 257 | Rawan-idala . 359 | Titta-hondala . 319

Pichcha. : . 462 | Rénu-dlu : . 519} Titta-kinda . wu oe

Pila . : : 213 | Rita-bulat-wel . 182 | Titta-wel . ‘ 28

Pilila . i OS Wabi a. } i742") Lolabo : : - 843

Pinibaru . ; 296 | Ruk . i j 663 | Tolol : : 55

Pini-baru-tana . 963 | Ruk-attana . . 475 | Totila °. : ote

- Pini-tuttiri 969 To-wel : : 182

Pita-sudu-pala, 364, 635 | Samadana . ‘ 587 | Trasta-walu . hose

Pita-wakk4 693, 695} Samadara . 134] Tudarena-wéwel 878

WAN 8 oi . 168|Sanni-ndyan . 402) Tumba-karivila . 322

Pol... : ae 96 | Sap-sanda_. . 659 | Tumpat-kurundu 128

Pol-kudu- _pald 645|Sapu. . ; 12 |. Dutt «. : - 961

Polon-ala . : 887 | Sapu-milila . . 613

Porawa-mara . 885}Saya-mul . : 365 | Ubbériya . E 287

Porua-malla 5 460 | Sembu-nerenchi . 114 | Uguressa : ieee

P6ta-wel A . 896 | Sépéla or Sepalika yp. 53} Ululu : : 668

- Potu-honda © @3k8 \Sevendara’.’’ '’.)./S60:);Uina % \/.\4. 5. Mee aoe

Undu-piyali

Ununu fs e e

U’ru-genda

U’rukanu

U’ru-téra . ,

U‘ru-wi .

Uyala

Velanga , ‘

Veta-kolu .

Visnu-kranti .

Wa . i

Wada-keha ‘ :

- Wal-aba

Wal-amba_ .

W al-asamédagan

Wal-awara .,

Wal-bilin .

Wal-bombu :

Wal-buruta .

Wal-del

Wal-diya-Jabu

Wal-ehetu

Wal-endaru

Wal-gammiris-wel .

Wal-gonika

Wal-gonna

Wal-surenda

Wal-idda.

Wal-ineuru

Wal-jambu

Wal-jayapala

Wal-kaha_ :

Wal-kahambiliya

Wal-karapincha .

Wal-kehel .

Wal-kekuna . :

344,

135

995 | Wal-kidéran 886

271 | Wal-kinda Pigste oa

66 | Wal-kollu . 243

158 | Wal-kolondu 429

257 | Wal-képi 378

940 | Wal-kurakkan 978

846 | Walla 679

Wal-linu 844

101 | Wal-mé 239

321 | Wal-mediriya 460

536 | Wal-murunga . 697

Wal-patpddagam . 3865

257 | Wal-pichcha . 381, 462

897 | Wal-rasakinda 334

42 | Wal-rat-diya-labu 182

196 | Wal-sapu 12

345 | Wal-té-kola 427

237 | Wal-tibbatu . . $840

133 | Wal-trasta-walu . 534

461 | Walu-kina 71

12 | Walu-tam-pala . 640

744.| Wal-waraka . . 3815

182 } Wam-para . 11

741 | Wana-mi . 457

346 | Wana-potu ° 167

660 | Wana-raja 812

391 | Wanassa~. - 1067

741 | Wara . 491

614 | Wasa- kaduru~ 471

480 | Wata-ressa . 280

833 | Wawiya 664

296 | Wawuletiya 254, 256

708 | Waya-pol . ° 842

829 | Weideya ; 375

745 | Wéla : : 43

125 | Wel-ala 892

839 | Wel-bénduru 1052

708

INDEX TO TAMIL NAMES.

Acha - °

Achi .

Adampu

A'datodai . :

A eethiauepie :

Aglai. °

Ail or Aiyilli_ °

A’l ° @ e

Alangi

460

571

297

598

659

150

731

74)

300

Amkulang .

Ampallai

Ani-kundumani .

Ani-mullu

Ara-keeré . ,

Arasa or Arasu

Ari-maru . 4

Arugam-pillu

Atti . 3

54]

202

266

268

1064

741

298

973

741

Wel-buté O72

Wel-but-sarana . 368

Wel-dehi 467

Wel- ehetu . 741

Wel- embilla . 450, 680

Wel -hiri 3 - 908

Weli-kaha 304

Weli-penna, Weli-

piyana . é 289

Weli-wenna . 710

Wel- -kahambiliy4 726

Wel-kayila 695

Wel-keppitiya . 705

Wellansiriya . 47, 130

Wel-marukku . 929

Wel-mottu 505

Wel-ndnu . 216

Wel-radaliya 204

Weni-wel 29

Weni-wella 638

Weralu . 109

Weraniya . . 3864

Wesak-mal ‘ 772

Wéwarani . 669

Weéwel 5 : 878

Willa ~ 552

Wira . ; 699

Wisa-«d tli 787

Yaka-halu . : 83

Yakbériya 208

Yak-erabadu 232

Yakinaran . na 3's |

Yak-komadu. 324°

Yak-wanassa . » 630

Yakutala . : 892

Yawakenda 827

Attunetta 218

Avarai 5 ‘ 257

Bandakai A 93

Chadachi 106

Chadda-vakku 148

Chamai * és 929

Chamandalé . « 105

Chara : ,

_ Chemel-paniché .

Chenu-kla . :

‘Chiru-punnai .

Chivanar-vémbu .

Chowkku

Churai

Elam-purukki

Ellu . : :

Blumburiki . .

Enné-kannai

Errukum

Iddu-mullai

Tlanthai . ;

Iluppai ; A

Ir-ellipalai . °

_ Irum-palai

Kadalipuva

Kada-manakku 105,

Kadaralai . x

-KaAaddinchi . ‘

Kaddu-ma ;

Kaddu-monthera.

Kaditeni

Kadu ‘

Kadukk4i

Kaivaru.

Kaiya or Kayan

Kakai-palé

Kelli, x

Kamuka . ;

. Kanch4 ‘ ‘

_ Kanchirai

Kanda-pana .

Kandol

Kannakampu

Kannu 3 ;

Kapila-podi .

K arai 5

Kari-velam . ;

Karruva

eaienvachehi.

Karunkali .

Karuvak4i . i

- Kassaddai .

Kata-manaku

Katapuli

Kat-atti

Kat-siragam

Kattalai 3 is

Katti-kaiya

Kavali .

Kelvaragu :

Kethi-kanni . ‘

136

Kilivai

Kirri-palai

Klakai é

Koddi-thuvattai

Kokatai

Kolkutti

Kollu

Kona

Konji

Konnai .

K6rai ,

Kor ukkai-puli :

K ottai i

Kovani .

Kula i

< ulla-pannai

Kulli e

Kulothi.

Kumbai

Kumil

Kundumani

Kuppaimani . °

Kuri-kurité

Kurrivuppu .

K urundu

Ma 4 ‘ 5

Mailai

Malai-vempu :

Mana-takkalli

Manchadi

Manchavarna

Manjal-kadambu .

Manjel

Marai-thinni .

Maral

Marithondi .

Marunkai .

Marutu . A

Méladi-kurundu .

Milacu . °

Minachi . :

Moongil 4

Moreli :

Morthiré-kuma .

Muchalai .

Mukkarati

Mul-kilivai

Mullu-venké .

Mul-mukil .

Murukku : 5%

Murungi .

Mutirai

Naka K

Naka-tali

Nani-ilanthai

p. 64

176

Nannari 486.

Naruvili 521

Naval 296

Navala : ; 45

Nedunarai 18

Nir-kadamba 356

Né-kurundu . 131

Nérvalum , 705

Netavil 742

Nila-vémpu A 593

Nir-mulli 580

Nir-nochi 613

Nochi 613

Odai-velam p 268

Othi s ; - 198

Pachalai 653

Pakala-mullai 462

Palai . ‘ 458

Palakuna 724.

Palpirai 737

Panai . ; 879

Panan-kattali 787

Pandi-kayan . 296

Paneer 5 a 381

Panichai 298

Panichekai 460

Paparu-pulli 11

Pappalai_ . ° 498

Paritti . ; 93

Parutti 95

Pasu 11

Patiri é 573

Patpadagam . 340

Patti-parutti .12

Pémarutti 630

Perukla | 469

Perumarandu 659

Perum-kurundu . 131

Peru-naval 996

Perun-tutti 88

Pieri . ‘ 172

Palace. 3 744

Pinai 84, 614

Pinari 98

Pir-amati 93

Pisukkan-kai 321

Podivilangu . ale) |)

Pukarunkali 460

Puli ; . p. 29

Pum-pullu - p. 46

Buna. 2 aig (|

Pungai ; 250

Punku . : . 250

Punnai 71

Purunké-nurai 127

oes

eae A187

Puisam-k4i. . +p. 38| Thuvattai . 106 | Velam : , 268

Puttalai. d ae eOG Dilan acl. : . 728| Vellai-kadamba . 354

Pivanti . ‘ 189 | Tinai . ! j 932 | Vellai-karunkali . 460

Pu-varasu. 1 94) Tippila. 3 - 660) Vellai-nochi ; 613

Puvu. : ; 187 | Tippili-pana : 874 Véli-paritti . ~ 493

Virtu-kalli. . 688) Vel-urruvai : 248

Radami . : . 297 | 'Tirukkondai . 257 | Vel-velam . 260

Ranai : “ 669 | Tiruvatti j . 263|Vempu . A 141

Toddi f ‘ 101 | Vengai . : . 249

Sadavaku.. . 724! Tombu-kata . dan ONIELG ; : 699

Saya . 5 : 365 | Tépu-nelli . 3 695 | Vet-palai . 480

Seenthil, . . 27} Tumbika : . 460| Vetti-vair . . 960

Sembu-nerenchi 114 | Tumpalai . : 60) Vadis” ; ia oad

Senpakam . ceol'2 Vid-puné . ; 705

Serappadi 523 | Udida-vengat . 249) Vinnaku : fee tON

Sira-pulichul . . 522 | Ughai : 5 466 | Virali , : 193

Siru-chenumutthi 112) Wiehil =”. 6 . 269 |) Visha-muneil . 843

Sitta-manaku . p. 82 | Ulavintai . : 18 | Vitli-kanna ! 452

| Vukkana : - 460

Taintukki . ; 710| Vadatara . . 267} Vullum-puri . 100

Tamarai Hie 39.) Vamnbadam : 175

Tammanna : 701 | Vakai_ . : . 257 | Wadamadichi . 614

Tandi ee . 290] Vall4arai . . 842] Wagé . on Ok

Tanukku . : 294| Vallarugu . ~ 514} Walsurai A . 148

Taranai . : . (373; Vamm | —-. : 353 | Wara i 5 267

Tekku . . p.68; Vanni . ° . 268 | Waragu ; 22920

Termalai : 5 2hO) aN ara). . : 929 | Wattak-kai ep. 38

Téttan . ‘ 510) Varit-thulai . do

- Yevaturam . . 112| Vatham-addakki 614; Yavaranai . . 669

Thain — é : 611 | Veddt-kunar: . 460) Verkoliey 2 ‘ 385

ale, . 880] Vekandé . - 460} Yerkum : . 491

_ Thavarai . . p./26) Vekkali.. 4 . 291) Yetti. 5 : 510

Thuvarai. . 459

JOURNAL

OF THE

(CEYLON BRANCH

OF THE

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY,

1885.

VOL. EX.—PART Il.

No. 38l.

“The design of the Society is to institute and promote inquiries into the History,

Religion, Literature, Arts, and Social Condition of the present and former

Inhabitants of the Island, with its Geology, Mineralogy, its Climate and

Meteorclogy, it Bon Zoology.”

seat Vos Pil AND

es : aE a

ce we

~ cs

BOE,

Cr ;

ee Au se

COLOMBO :

GEORGE J. A. SKEEN, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, CEYLON.

1885.

JOURNAL

OF THE

CEYLON BRANCH

OF THE

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY,

1885.

VOL, rx Pane it.

“The design of the Society is to institute and promote inquiries into the History,

Religion, Literature, Arts, and Social Condition of the present and former

Inhabitants of the Island, with its Geology, Mineralogy, its Climate and

Meteorology, its Botany and Zoology.”

COLOMBO :

GEORGE J, A. SKEEN, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, CEYLON.

1885.

CONTENTS.

PAGE,

Remarks on the Composition, Geographical Affinities, and

Origin of the Ceylon Flora.—By Henry TrIimen,

M.B. (Lond.), F.L.S. saci LS)

Rice Cultivation under Irrigation in Ceylon.—By E.

| E .iort, Esq., C.C.S. - 160

Plumbago: with special reference to the Position occupied

by the Mineral in the Commerce of Ceylon; and the

Question discussed of the alleged existence in the

Island of the Allied Substance, Anthracite.—By A. M.

Frereuson, Esq., C.M.G. +. soe pee L7G)

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.

CEYLON BRANCH.

REMARKS ON THE COMPOSITION,

GEOGRAPHICAL AFFINITIES, AND ORIGIN OF

THE CEYLON FLORA.

[ To accompany “ A Systematic Catalogue of the Flowering

Plants and Ferns” of the Colony.* |

By Henry Trimen, M.B. (Lonp.), F.L.S.

(Read 20th February, 1885.)

THE Catalogue of Ceylon Plants which the Asiatic Society

has done me the honour of accepting for publication® is in its

very nature as unsuited for reading to this meeting as would

be a dictionary, a concordance, or an index. It appears

very fitting, however, that it should be accompanied by some

general observations upon the nature, affinities, and

characteristics of the interesting flora which it enumerates.

The compilation and publication of a revised list of the

plants of any country always marks a new stage of progress

in the knowledge of its botany. Itis asortof taking stock:

its preparation requires a re-examination and comparison of

* Published as Part I. of Vol. IX. (No. 30—1885) of the Society’s

Journal,

I take the opportunity of supplying here two species which have by

some accident dropped out of the List. The reader is requested to

insert :—

At p. 5, after Scolopia crenata :

S. GAERTNERI, Thw. 400.

Katu-kurundu, 8.

And at p. 35, after Memecylon orbiculare :

: M. REvoLUTUM, Thw. 111.

4—85 A

140 "> JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [ Vol. TX.

the species, the new acquisitions are worked out and duly

inserted in their proper places, various errors of nomen-

clature get corrected, doubts are cleared up, and the whole if

throughly done gives a fair résumé of the progress effected.

In the 20 years which have elapsed since the completion of

thelate Dr. Thwaites’s valuable “Enumeratio” much has been

published bearing more or less directly upon the Ceylon

flora, among which may be specially mentioned Beddome’s

useful illustrated works on the Botany of Southern India,

and that important summary of Indian Botany, the “ Flora

of British India.”’ This very extensive undertaking by Sir

J. D. Hooker and numerous fellow-workers, has proceeded

through more than half of the Natural Orders, and is in

active progress at Kew. By this invaluable book I have,

of course, been mainly guided so far as it extends—i.e., to

the order Acanthacee ; in the subsequent Orders, so far as

Genera are concerned, I have followed the standard

“ Genera Plantarum” by the lamented Bentham and

Sir J. D. Hooker.

In Ceylon itself, though little has been published, practi-

cal exploration and investigation have not been intermitted.

My predecessor’s ( Dr. Thwaites) plant-collectors brought in

to him from the jungle many novelties, and our few resident

botanists have also been very successful in adding to the

flora. Mr. T. N. Beckett, lately of Matalé but now in New

Aealand, Mr. William Ferguson, F.L.8., who lets no oppor-

tunity escape him, Mr. H. Nevill, C.C.S., a very acute obser-

ver in the field, and Mr. G. Wall, F.L.8.,a keen hunter after

ferns to which group unfortunately he restricts his energies),

- have all contributed to swell this Catalogue of the Plants of

the Island. Much of my own time since my arrival in

Ceylon has also naturally been devoted to exploration, though

far less than I could wish. As a result, the present Cata-

logue contains, I suppose, not far from 200 species additional

to that of 1864, whilst the whole of the flora has undergone

a critical revision, and is re-arranged according to the best

availablesystem. Inthenomenclature and determinations, I

have been often assisted by the botanists at Kew and at

the British Museum, to whom my thanks are due. Hven

with this I am fully aware that not afew errors will be

detected by botanists working with access to type specimens,

No. 31.—1885.] CEYLON FLORA. lA

large herbaria, and full libraries: without these advantages

it is often impossible to come to decision on doubtful

points.*

The list contains about 3,250 species, of which the odd

200 may be reckoned to consist of the ferns and their allies,

and the remaining 3,000 of the Phanerogams or Flowering

Plants. In the remarks and comparisons which I now

proceed to make, it is in general these latter—the Pha-

nerogams—only that are taken into consideration.

2. Nowthe first thing to be observed with regard to these

3,000 species is that avery considerable number of them are

no more natives of Ceylon than are the great majority of

the Members of this Society. Like them they are aliens,

settled colonists or denizens, or casual waifs and strays from

other lands. This fact is always rather a surprize to those

who see the vegetation of this country for the first time;

for many of the plants which seem to them most character-

istic really come under the category of foreigners. Such

familiar trees as the Cashew Nut, the Mango, the Guava,

the Country Almond ( Terminalia Catappa), the Blimbing,

the Papaw, and even the Horse-radish tree (Moringa), the

_ dak, and the Tamarind, are all ofexotic origin, and introduced

by man. Many of them are, no doubt, very ancient introduc-

tions, and from no greater distances than the adjacent Indian

Peninsula, as the Jak, or the Malay Peninsula, as the

Arecanut Palm; but many were brought from the W. Indies

or Tropical America, much more recently. So, too, with the

common garden plants and weeds which line our roadsides

and cover waste ground; the Opuntia or Cactus, the

Sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica), the yellow Turnera, the

Castor-oil plant, the Marvel of Peru, the blue Vervain

(Stachytarpheta), the white yellow or orange Thunbergia

alata, the great white Trumpet-flower (Datura suaveolens ),

the pink or white Vinca, the Temple Tree (Plumeria

acutifolia), the Allamanda, and many others; not to mention

the too familiar Lantana and the nearly as abundant and

much handsomer “ Sun-flower” ( Tithonia diversifolia). All

* Notes on the more important of the additions, and descriptions of

the new species, will be found in my paper published in the “ Journal

of Botany” for 1885, commencing in the May number (p. 138).

142° JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). | Vol. EX.

are foreigners, and by far the greater number are from the

New World, and therefore comparatively lately introduced,

i.e. within the last three centuries.

This invasion of the Hastern Tropics by an army of

herbaceous or half-shrubby weeds from the W. Indies is a

remarkable fact.* It has had the effect of causing a very

uniform character in the vegetation of the cultivated coast

regions of the whole tropical belt, and it would not now be

possible in many cases to even guess the origin of many

species from their present distribution ; generally, however,

their origin and history can be traced without much

difficulty through the botanical treatises of the 16th and

17th centuries.f

Some of these plants, however, appear to inhabit naturally

all the three tropical areas of Africa, Asia, and America,

these are mostly such as are capable of having been trans-

ported by ordinary natural means cf dispersion in past times.

3. In temperate zones the opposite state of things has

held good, and the interchange of such plants between

EKurope and N. America has been all in favour of the Old

World. English weeds have largely established themselves

in the United States, &c., whilst few, very few N. American

ones have succeeded in getting a permanent footing in

Europe, those which have done so being a few annual

species exceptionally provided with means for copious dis-

persion of seed, or aquatics. The same readily colonizing

Haglish weeds have also spread themselves over the cool

mountain districts of the Hast, and as regards Ceylon a

fair proportion of our introduced plants belong to this

category. These, of course, are found chiefly about

* It is the clearing of land for cultivation that gives these alien

plants their opportunity. A country naturally covered with forest has

no native species able to compete with these foreign inhabitants of open

country and plains, which, when once introduced, are thus able to

spread without hindrance.

{ The rapidity with which some useful or ornamental species were

transported from the New World to the Old is very striking. The

Portuguese came first to Java in 1496, four years after the discovery of

America; and in 1520 Magellan sailed direct from 8S. America to the

Philippines. It was from these islands that the other Eastern tropics

obtained many of the American plants now so abundant.

No. 31.—1885.] «CEYLON FLORA. 143

Nuwara Eliya, and have all been imported within the last

50 years, mostly with grass seed. The great Mullein

(Verbascum Thapsus) now looks as thoroughly native as

the tall Lobelia excelsa along with which it grows, and in

several respects resembles; and such homely plants as the

Chickweed, the Spurrey, the narrow-leaved Plantain (Plan-

tago lanceolata), the Dutch clover, the Dock (Rumex

obtusifolius), and the Yarrow, have quite established them-

selves as factors in the roadside vegetation.

Thus we have two very distinct classes of exotic natura-

lized plants in Ceylon, tropical and temperate ; to which

may perhaps be added a third intermediate one, compre-

hending the weeds of the Coffee and other estates in the hills,

which are principally annual wide-spread Composite of

uncertain origin, and occur in vast abundance ; as the White

weed (Ageratum conyzoides), Gnaphatium indicum (absurdly

called in some places ‘‘ Wild Mignonette’’), Erzgeron lini-

Jolius, and others.

The whole number of the various sorts of foreigners

sufficiently wellestablished to find a place in this Catalogueis,

including those commonly cultivated and often appearing as

if wild, no less than 194. After clearing these out of the way

wefind 2,729 Phanerogamic Plants remaining, and it is with

this, the truly native flora, that we are now concerned.”

4. Considering the variety of aspect, climate, and ele-

vation of this tropical island and its notoriously luxuriant

vegetation, it might be expected to contain a larger number

of species than that above given, and indeed before the

flora had been well worked out avery much larger estimate

was formed. Thus, Gardner in 1845 thought there would

prove to be between 4,000 and 5,000 species in Ceylon, but it

must be remembered that estimates of this sort greatly depend —

on the individual botanist’s views as to specific limitations.

Perhaps that number of Ceylon “species” has actually

been described in books, but many are here considered as

varieties. And I ought to say that the course followed here

* A suspicion of artificial introduction attaches to a few also of these—

such are marked in the Catalogue by a {—whilst the certainly introduced

and naturalized ones have * prefixed, and those half wild from cultiva-

tion are in ( ).

144 JOURNAL, R.AS. (CEYLON). [| Vol. LX.

in this matter is a mean between “splitting” and “lump-

ing; such as is kept up with more or less consistency in

the “ Flora of British India,”’ and the other Colonial Floras

issued by the Kew botanists: it is at least convenient to be

in accord with these for the sake of comparisons,

Let us then now compare in this respect of numbers, our

flora with that of a few other countries. An island area near

in size (about one-sixth larger) to Ceylon is Ireland (32,524

square miles). This liesin a cool temperate, very equable

climate, uniformly humid, and with no great elevations of sur-

face; the Phanerogamic florais very poor in species, 972, and

even this estimate would be somewhat reduced if the

specific limits were drawn as broadly as in this Catalogue. —

At the Antipodes, New Zealand presents us with another but

totally different temperate flora. Though the area of these

islands nearly equals Great Britain and Ireland combined,

only 935 species of Flowering Plants are recorded in the

latest published Flora. It must not be supposed that

temperate regions are less rich in species than tropical

ones; on the contrary, the richest floras of the world in

point of numerical strength of species are those of the

‘Cape of Good Hope and West Australia, both in the South

temperate zone.

When we attempt to compare Ceylon with other tropical

regions, the difficulty meets us that there is scarcely any

definite area of which the flora has as yet been so thorough-

ly worked out. We may take, however, that of the oceanic

island of Mauritius, which is well-known, and is still very

rich, though it is believed that many species have quite

recently become extinct. This isolated island, however, is

only 850 square miles in area; it possesses 1,058 native

species. The flora of the great Philippine Archipelago

(the collective area of which is 53,299 square miles, or more

than double that of Ceylon) has been recently estimated at

3,466 species of Flowering Plants, and the vegetation is as

yet but partially known. This shows a very rich flora, no

doubt. A comparison of greater interest would be with the

vast equatorial island lying to the south-east of us, Sumatra,

which possesses a very similar climate to our own; but too

little is accurately known to render this possible. A Flora

_ published in 1860 gives the number of known species at

No. 31.—1885.] — CEYLON FLORA. 145

2,642, which must be much below theactual number. Thus

then, when it is remembered that Ceylon is situated in that

part of the Oriental area—the Jndian—which is poorest in

species, its total of native plants—including Ferns, &c., nearly

3,000 species—shows decided richness, and is probably

greater than that of any part of Peninsular India of the

same area.

5. Inoneof hisadmirable Presidential addresses to the

Linnean Society of London, the late Mr. Bentham, remark-

ing on the fact that no Flora of a tropical country of large

extent had yet been completed, added, with regard to

Thwaites’s enumeration of the plants of Ceylon—-then (an

1869) lately published, and the only completed Flora of any

tropical region—that the chief interest of this isolated dis-

trict ‘‘ would lie in the comparison of its very rich vegetation

“with that of other portions of the Tropical Asiatic flora,

“‘ which,”’ headded, “has not yet been made.” In thefollow-

ing remarks I purpose to make some progress towards such a

comparison, though I have not at present the opportunity

or the leisure to do so in detail, or as fully as the subject

requires. Let us then endeavour to ascertain the elements

of which our flora consists.

The most interesting portion of the vegetation of any

country, and especially of islands, is that composed of the

plants peculiar to it and not found elsewhere, or as it is called

endemic. The proportion of such species is found to vary

remarkably in different places, and on this to a chief extent

the individuality and interest of any flora depends. In the

British Isles, among over 1,400 native species there is pro-

bably not one which is peculiar or endemic, though four or

five strongly marked local varieties are considered speci-

fically distinct by some British botanists. Asa contrast, in

New Zealand more than 72 per cent. of the species found

there are found nowhere else. Between such extremes there

isevery gradation. It has long been observed that oceanic

islands—that is smad/ islands (usually volcanic) widely

isolated from continents in the deep ocean — possess a large

proportion of endemic species. Thus in Mauritius (inclu-

ding Seychelles and Rodriguez) 29 per cent. are peculiar, and

22 per cent. more do not extend beyond the other Mascarene

EO ae JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). { Vol. IX, .

Islands. In that little speck of land in mid ocean, St.

Helena, nearly 78 per cent. of the small remnant of its once

remarkable flora (i.e., 53 species out of 68) are found

nowhere else in the world. Of greater interest and signi-

ficanceis it when Genera, and not merely species, areendemic;

this, of course, indicates a still further specialization, and

here oceanic islands are particularly remarkable. Thus in

Mauritius 11 per cent. of the genera are peculiar, and in St.

Helena a still larger proportion.

Now Ceylon, though an island, is by no means an oceanic

one; rather it is what is termed a continental island, being

separated from the adjacent continent by the very shallow

and narrow piece of sea in Palk Straits. Yet the remark-

able fact presents itself that while in Britain probably not

a single species is peculiar, here in Ceylon no less than

about 800, or more than 29 per cent. of the Phanerogams,

are strictly endemic to the island. Indeed, to these would

be added by many botanists some 50 more well-marked

insular sub-species or varieties of continental species,

which would raise the proportion to over 31 per cent.”

We do not possess many endemic genera, however—only

about 20, or little over 2 per cent.—but here also may

be added, as of similar significance, some groups peculiar

to the island which are here ranked as sub-genera only.

How are we to account for this large element of special-

ization in our flora ?

6. The opinions and theories now generally held by

naturalists to explain the present distribution of animals

and plants over the globe have been expressed and explained

in the writings of E. Forbes, Darwin, Bentham, Wallace,

J. Hooker, and others. I may remind you of some leading

points. Widely distributed as are some species over the

world, it is held that each has spread from some single

centre where it had its origin, and in cases where a species

now exists, not over an unbroken area, but at two or more

spots not continuous, and even it may be widely separated

from one another, it is considered (when there is no evidence

of transport by men or animals) either that these points

* This is perhaps a larger endemic proportion than is possessed by

any other continental island with the exception of Madagascar.

No. 31.—1885. ] CEYLON FLORA. 147

were formerly in connection, or more often that each of them

_ has been in connection with some common point of origin

in the past. Thus, the floras of continental islands have,

as a basis, the plants of the mainland. All but the whole

of the Hnglish species are also Huropean (the two excep-

tions being American), and it is reasonable to suppose that

their passage was effected at a time or times when the land

was in part continuous. The English Channel is nowhere

over 100 fathoms deep, and in most places not half that

depth. Sotooin Ceylon ; after deducting the endemic ones,

we have left about 1,929 species, all of which except about

130* are also found in the adjacent Peninsula of India.

No doubt the separation of the northern portion of Ceylon

from the opposite mainland is geologically recent, and the

species crossed over hither before it occurred.

When, however, the localities in which a particular species

or group is found are widely separated (i.e., its area is discon-

tinuous) we have to assume often great changes of level,

producing, in present continental areas, various and different

arrangements of sea and land at different periods, and also

extreme changes of climate. For the operation of these is

required also a vast extent of time, but the revelations of

puleontology and physical geology fully warrant the botan-

ist as well as geologist in forming such speculations.

It frequently happens that the floras of two districts show

their affinity not by identity of species, but, less intimately,

by community of genera only, the species being different.

A good example is found in comparing our mountain

district with that of Southern India, say in both cases the

flora of the hills above 5,000 feet. A large, varied, and

beautiful vegetation characterizes both these regions, and

they are evidently very similar. Less than 400 miles

separatesthe summits of Pidurutalégalaand Dodabetta (and

there are half-way houses in the Pulnis and Anamalais).

Yet the curious fact presents itself that more than half the

species of our hills are not found in the Nilgiris or other hills

of the Indian Peninsula, but are endemic here, and probably

an even larger proportion of Nilgiri species do not extend

tous. The number common to both ranges is only about

* This estimate is an approximation only.

148 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON. ) [ Vol. TX.

200. Yet very nearly all belong to the same genera, which

are almost identical for both regions. It is thus possible

to make the contradictory assertions that the floras are

very similar and very different.

Let us take some illustrative examples. Of the genus

Strobilanthes, consisting of the well-known “ Nillus,” the

Ceylon hills possess 22 peculiar species, and the Nilgiris,

&c., about 29, whilst only 2 are found in both regions ; of

the mountain species of Balsam, genus Impatiens, there are

also 2 species common to both ranges, whilst Ceylon has

10 others endemic, and the Nilgiris 30 ; and other examples

could be easily given.

These representative species of one genus in different

areas were a great puzzle to naturalists until the deriva-

tive theory of the origin of species became generally

accepted, when it became evident that scientific “affinity”

really meant relationship by descent. If we suppose a

common origin for both these Hill-floras in the past, or

derive the Ceylon one from the Peninsular, the differences

now seen in the two districts indicate a sufficient lapse of

time since their separation to allow of the evolution under

different surroundings of new forms of the rank of species,

but not of the superior rank of genera. In the-case in

question the energy with which this differentiation of

specific forms has gone on is highly remarkable.

There are cases where the relationship of distinct floras

is less intimate still, where it is traceable only in the

larger groups (of genera) called Natural Orders. The two

richest and most specialized floras in the world, as already

noticed, are those of the Cape and Australia; probably,

scarcely a single genus is common to them, yet the large

and well-marked Natural Orders Proteacee and Restiacee

are abundant in each of these far distant regions, and are

almost confined entirely tothem. This, according to present

views, implies a common focus of origin in a remote past.

7. To return to the Ceylon flora. Of our endemic species

the great mass, fully five-sixths,*: belong, as would be

*'The numbers given in this paragraph must not be regarded as more

than fairly close approximations. I am not able to make the investiga-

tions here which are necessary to ensure close accuracy.

No. 31.—1885.] CEYLON FLORA. 149

expected from what has just been said as to the Hill-flora,

to genera which are more numerously represented on

the opposite continent, whence our flora was for the most part

derived. As to the remaining species, there are of course

those (48) which go to make up our endemic genera, and

there are others (about 73) which are members—usually

solitary and isolated ones—of genera which, though not

endemic here, yet have no representatives in Peninsular

India. Such non-Peninsular genera are also represented in

Ceylon, not by endemic species, but by discontinuous ones

identical with those in other countries than India (about 35).

These few (108) non-Peninsular species belong to almost as

many (86) genera, very many more indeed than I had expect-

ed to find before making this comparison. It is, indeed, a

very striking fact that this little island, so closely connected

with the peninsula of India, should possess over 100 genera

of Phanerogams (i.e., over 11 percent.) which are not found

on the mainland, and of which oniy 20 are endemic.*

We will first examine our comparatively few endemic

genera. They are, counting in two sub-genera, 21 in num-

ber, as follows :—

Schumacheria (Dilleniacee) sp. 3. Straggling shrubs.

Trichadenia (Bixacee) Monotypic. <A large tree.

Doona (Dipterocarpacez) sp. 11. Large timber trees.

Monoporundra (id.) sp. 2. Trees.

Stemonoporus (Vaterie sect.) (id.) sp. 13. Large trees.

Julostylis (Malvaceze) Monotypic. ‘Tree.

Pityranthe (Tiliacew) Monotypic. Tree.

Scutinanthe (Canarw sect.) (Burseraceze) Monotypic. Large

tree.

Pseudocarapa (Meliacez) Monotypic. Large tree.

Gleniea (Sapindacews) Monotypic. Tree.

Pericopsis ( Leguminose) Monotypic. Large tree (Nédun,

Sinh.)

Leucocodon (Rubiacez) Monotypic. Climbing shrub.

Schizostigma (id.) Monotypic. Herbaceous perennial.

Nargedia (id.) Monotypic. Shrub.

Scyphostachys (id,) sp. 2. Shrubs.

Championia (Gesneracez) Monotypic. Herbaceous perennial.

Hortonia (Monimiacezx) sp. 2. Large shrubs.

~* One of the endemic genera, Hortonia belongs to a Family, the

Monimiacecee, of which no member occurs in India proper.

150 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [ Vol. TX.

Mischodon (Wuphorbiacee) Monotypic. Tree. (Tammana

Sinh.)

Podadenia (id.) Monotypic. Large tree.

Cyphostigma (Scitaminez) Monotypic. Herbaceous perennial.

Loxococcus (Palme) Monotypic. Small Palm.

One or two species of Stemonoporus are mountain plants ;

the remainder are all from the low country, and with

the exception of three monotypic genera— Pityranthe,

Gleniea, and Mischodon —which are found in the dry north

and east, the whole are natives of the damp luxuriant

districts in the south-western quarter of our island.

Next as to the non-endemic but yet non-Peninsular

genera. The following is a list of them :—*

With species endemic.—56.

Wormia (1), Xylopia (3), Erythrospermum (1), Aberia (1),

Kayea (1), Adinandra (1), Dipterocarpus (5), Sunaptea (2),

Dicellostyles (1), Campnosperma (1), Ellipanthus (1), Dialium

(1), Crudia (1), Agrimonia (1), Poterium (1), Anisophyllea (1),

Axinandra (1), Osmelia (1), Melothria (1), Allceophania (1),

Urophyllum (2), Dichilanthe (1), Prismatomeris (1), Willughbeia

(1), Alyxia (1), Baissea (1), Gaertnera (4, one non-endemic),

Chirita (8), Ptyssiglottis (1), Glossocarya (1), Nepenthes (1),

Lindera (1), Phaleria (1), Gyrinops (1), Notothixos (1),

Ginalloa (1), Trigonostemon (2), Chetocarpus (2), Allzanthus

(1), Acanthephippium (1), Phajus (2), Tzniophyllum (1),

Mystacidium (1), ? Heteria (1), Aphyllorchis (1), ? Dracena

(1), Oncosperma (1), Freycinetia (2), Sciaphila (38), ? Hypoly-

trum (2, one non-endemic), Mapania (2, one non-endemic),

Tricostularia (1), Cladium (1), ?Eriachne (1), Gymnopogon

(1).

With species non-endemic.—31.

Delima (1), Anaxagorea (1), Limacia (1), Pometia (1),

Strongylodon (1), Dioclea (1), Peltophorum (1), Gynostemma

(1), Rhipsalis (1), Uncaria (1), Stylidium (1), Chrysophyllum

(1), Ochrosia (1), Dischidia (1), Crawfurdia (1), ? Avicennia (1),

Hernandia (1), Wikstroemia (1), Taxotrophis (1), ? Appendicula

(1), ? Galeola (1), Physurus (1), Cryptostylis (1), Gastrodia (1),

Susum (1), Scirpodendron (1), ? Thuarea (1), Leptaspis (2)

? Lophatherum (1), ? Streptogyne (1), Lepturus (1).

* IT am in doubt as to whether some of these may not extend into

India ; those marked with a ? are possibly Peninsular. The figures

in brackets refer to the number of Ceylon species.

No. 31.—1885.] CEYLON FLORA. 151

The same remark applies here that was made with regard

to the endemic genera. Nearly the whole are low-country

plants of the wet south-west (several being sea-shore

species). There are a few mountain types among them, in

Agrimoma, Poterium, Gynostemma, Cranfurdia, and Wiks-

treemia, which are thus especially interesting as not occur-

ring in the Nilgiris. ,

It is then clear that this non-Peninsular element of our

Flora is mainly concentrated in the south-west part of the

island ; that is, between the high mountains and that part

of the coast of the Indian Ocean fairly bounded by the towns

of Colombo and Matara. Let us now endeavour to ascertain

whence it was derived.

I may say at once that the affinity of the great majority

of the genera in the above lists is distinctly Malayan as

opposed to Indian. By this geographical expression, L

intend to indicate that type of vegetation characteristic of

the whole of the Hastern or Malay Peninsula down _ to

Singapore ; of the great Archipelago stretching from the

Audamans, Nicobars, and Sumatra eastward to, but not

including, New Guinea; and also that extending north-

wards from Burmah through Tenasserim, Silhet, and the

plains of Assam up to the foot of the Eastern Himalaya,

which may be termed generally East Bengal. It is to this

very rich and luxuriant flora that these plants of south-

west Ceylon characteristically belong, though so com-

pletely discontinuous with it.

This would be readily seen in detail if we were to examine

the distribution of the genera, both endemic and non-

endemic, in the three foregoing lists. Fully three-fourths

of them show this affinity unmistakably. In the non-

endemic ones we find in many cases identical species occur-

ring in Ceylon and in Malacca, or Burmah, or Borneo, or

over a wide range of the Malay Peninsula and islands.

In other cases the species are peculiar and confined to

Ceylon, whilst their congeners inhabit these Malayan regions,

Further examination of our flora would show us yet other

species with the same affinity, although the genera to

which they belong are not wholly absent from Peninsular

India, as is the case with all those above enumerated.

A tew striking examples are all that can be given here.

152 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX.

We may take 2 or 3 Natural Orders for analysis. Of

Dilleniacee we possess 6 genera and 15 species; 1 genus

chumacheria, with 3 species, is endemic, but allied to

Malayan ones; another, Acrotrema, has 7 species all en-

demic, and one very variable (of which many more species

could be manufactured). Of this genus, which may be said

to have its centre in Ceylon, there is one other species in

the Malay Peninsula, and another occurs in Malabar (thus

just excluding the genus from the above lists of non-Indian

genera). The third genus, Wormia, is entirely Malayan,

with the exception of our single endemic species (and one

in Madagascar). The fourth, Dilienia, is mainly also

Malayan ; of our 2 species, one is endemic, the other also

occars in the Indian Peninsula as well as widely through

Malaya. We have but a single species each of the remaining

two genera, Delima and Tetracera, both of which are iden-

tical with Malayan ones, one also reaching Malabar. Of

another family, Anonacee, Ceylon contains 13 genera and

39 species, and is too extensive to go through seriatim.

But two of the genera, Xydopia with 3 endemic species, and

Anaxagorea with one discontinuous, are Malayan and not

Indian ; whilst of Uvaria, with 6 species, 2 are identical

with Malayan ones and 2 are endemic; and Goniothalamus

has 7 species (6 of them endemic) against only 3 in Penin-

sular India and 7 in Malaya. But the most remarkable

example of this western extension of the Malay flora to

Ceylon is seen in the Nat. Order Dipterocarpacee, which is

pre-eminently characteristic of the Archipelago. This

family is a large one, and destined to be largely added to as

investigation of the less-known Malay islands is further

carried out ; its members are all forest trees, and each

species appears to be somewhat restricted in its range.

Thus the 24 species recorded from Sumatra (under 4 genera)

are all different from the far more numerous ones from Java.

In the south-west of Ceylon we have no less than 8 genera

of this Order, containing 46 species (i.e., 1:7 per cent. of the

Phanerogamic flora and equal to the Myrtacee). Of the

genera, 2—Monoporandra with 2 species, and Doona with no

less than 11 species—are strictly endemic, and so is the

well-marked sub-genus of Vateria, Stemonoporus, with 13

species. Of the remaining genera, Dipterocarpus, with 5

Na 31 1885; ) © CEYLON FLORA. 153

endemic species, and Sunaptea with 2, are entirely Malayan,

whilst the last four—Vatica, Shorea, Hopea, and Vateria,

sect. Hemiphractum—are chiefly so, though each is also

sparingly represented in Southern India. All the species,

however, are endemic in Ceylon with one exception, Vatica

Roxburghiana, the “ Mendora,” which is also found in

many parts of the south of the Peninsula.

Before going further I must direct attention to the impor-

tant fact which will now have become obvious, that this

Malayan type is also present in the flora of the Indian

Peninsula. It is in the hot, moist regions along the Mala-_

bar coast on the slopes of the western mountain range, and

between that and the sea, that there is found a rich Forest-

flora, containing numerous genera and species of great

interest, some also Sinhalese, but others strictly endemic or

at least not found in Ceylon, and many of which have clear

Malayan relationships.* The order Dipterocarpeitself is

represented by 9 or 10 species, and recently a new endemic

genus of this family, Balanocarpus, with 2 species, has been

found near Tinnevelly. Other examples may be instanced

in the genera Xanthophyllum (also in Ceylon), Sarcostigma,

Lophopetalum, Holigarna, Pterolobium, Acrocarpus, Xylia,

Antistrophe, and Myxopyrum.

This Malayan element is, however, much less striking in .

Malabar than in Ceylon, and forms a far less important

factor of its flora. Proceeding northward it rapidly runs

out, and has disappeared before the latitude of Bombay.

8. We return to the question, How did this Malayan

flora reach Ceylon and S.W. India? Iam not aware that this

has been discussed from the botanical point of view, but

naturalists generally have apparently been content with the

theory of Wallace proposed to explain a similar represen-

tation of certain Malay types in our fauna. The represen-

tation in the animal worldis, however, very feeble compared

with that of the flora, and the botanical facts above

remarked upon were probably not fully known to the eminent

* Recent explorations of the moist forests of Malabar, &c., have

added to the Peninsular flora many plants previously thought to be

peculiar to Ceylon.

154 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). — [ Vol. IX.

zoologist quoted.* The principal Malayan affinities among

animals are, I believe, found in two genera of Birds,

Phenicophes and Myrophoneum, several genera of Longi-

corn Beetles, and the beautiful genus of Butterflies, Hestva ;

but I believe there is no large accumulation of such types

in the south-west among the animals as among the plants

of Ceylon.

Wallace’s theory is to the effect that the shallow northern

part of the Bay of Bengal has been elevated during the late

Miocene and Pliocene periods, and thus a few Malayan

types were able to migrate to the Indian Peninsula, where

they have been preserved only in the Nilgiris and Ceylon,

where alone a suitable climate now prevails.

This would derive our Malayan plants, like the great bulk

of our flora, from India. No doubt can be entertained of

an ancient continuity of the south-west coasts of India and

Ceylon, either directly or by their union with some interme-

diate or neighbouring land,t but the numerous cases among

the plants of Ceylon where the closest affinities are seen to

be with the flora of the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago,

rather than with its extension into East Bengal,§ would

rather lead one to endeavour to trace a former means of

communication and transfer in a lower latitude, e.g., by the

Andamans or Sumatra. Both districts were of course

supplied from one and the same source, but it would seem

more in accordance with present facts to derive the feebly

* It is singular that in Mr. Wallace’s latest and very valuable book

‘‘ Tsland Life’ (1880), he does not once allude to Ceylon or the problems

it presents for solution.

At this time geologists believe Peninsular India to have been cut

off as an island from the countries to the north, the Gangetic plain begin

occupied by the sea.

t Iam indebted to Captain Donnan for the information. which is

important and somewhat unexpected, that the seain the Gulf of Mannar

is over 1,000 fathoms deep, and perhaps as much as 1,450 fathoms, half

way between Kalpitiya and Cape Comorin.

§ For instance, Dichilanthe, a very isolated genus in structure, with

one species in Ceylon and one in Borneo ; Azinandra, Prismatomeris, and

Alleophania, all in the same case; Piyssiglottis with a second species

in Java; Gyrinops with a second species in the Moluccas, and many

similar cases; besides the identical species to which attention has

already been called.

Wo. 31.—1885.]. CEYLON FLORA. 155

represented Malayan element existing in Malabar from the

rich one in Ceylon, rather than to trace the migration in

the opposite direction. Ido not, however, venture to put

forward any speculations on the matter ; such should be

supported by evidence, from sea-soundings, of the exis-

tence of banks or shoals indicating areas of submergence

and the position of sunken lands near the Equator in the

ocean intervening between Sumatra and the Maldives to the

south-west of Ceylon ; and I have no such data, and am

not aware that any such exist,

9. Wallace is inclined to regard the occurrence of certain

endemic animals in Ceylon and in 8. India—as the Loris,

several monkeys, a genus of Rats, Hlaphrornis among birds,

the Uropeltide among snakes, and certain Lizards and

Batrachians—as indicating a separate Indo-Ceylonese z00-

logical sub-region. In a general sense this may be also

said of the flora, but in the rich moist regions of our

island—the Western Province and parts of the Central

and Southern Provinces—and the Malabar coast of India,

I find it difficult to clearly distinguish any peculiar element

characteristic of both, apart from the Malayan one already

so strongly dwelt upon. There are, however, a few endemic

genera which do not present any specially Malayan

aifinities. Thus, Mdischodon, a Huphorbiaceous tree valuable

for its timber, the ‘“Tammana”’ of the Sinhalese, is very

isolated in structure and confined to Ceylon. Three other

Kuphorbiaceous generaare common to both Ceylon and South

India, Ostodes, Adenochlena, and Givotia; in Malvacee

Julostyles in Ceylon and Decaschistia in India are respec-

tively endemic and closely allied ; and there are also afew

other genera common to both parts of the Indo-Ceylon

region but not occurring elsewhere, as Kendrickia and Fer-

gusonia. All of these have nomarked relationship to Malayan

types, and may be perhaps evidence of the existence of a

special element apart from them.

As to the flora of our dry region—fully four-fifths of

the area of Ceylon, and for the most part covered with low

forest composed of a very uniform and monotonous vegeta-

tion—it is the Carnatic flora essentially. This is very much

more fully represented in continental India than here, though

4—85 B

156 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [ Vol. 1X

exploration of the north and east of the Island is continu-

ally lessening the disparity. To this typea moderate number

of our endemic species belong, all closely related to conti-

nental ones, and clearly derivable from them or from common

ancestors. Of our endemic genera, Gleniea, closely related

to Sapindus and Nephelium, may be referred to this element,

and possibly also Podadenia, more slightly allied to Mallotus

in Huphorbiacee.

It would at first appear that in the high Hill-flora of the

two countries stronger grounds for the establishment of a

separable Indo-Ceylon Floral region might be found. Yet,

in spite of the great development of species to which

attention has already been called, we do not find any

features which mark off these hill-districts as an area of

preservation of ancient or special types. There is not, I

think, a single endemic genus in either district or in both

combined. The Ceylon hills certainly contain a few genera

not met with in the Nilgiris, as Agrimonia, Gynostemma, and

Cranfurdia; and some species, as Potentilia Mooniana,

Anaphals cnnamomea, and Lysimachia ramosa ; so, too, the

Nilgiris have several genera wanting here, as Mragaria,

Rosa, Circea, Passiflora, Lonicera, Carduus, Salix, Gnetum,

Cypripedium, and Lilium ; but all of these are Himalayan,

as 18 also, I believe without exception, every genus of these

Indo-Ceylon highlands. Their flora, therefore, may be

regarded as simply a southward extension of the Himalayan

without any other admixture.

10. There remain now but afew anomalons factors of

our Ceylon flora to be alluded to. The most interesting

are a very small number which lnk us with Tropical

Africa, or at least with Mauritius and the other Mascarene

Islands.

Thus, Hrythrospermum phytolaccoides, a beautiful ever-

green tree of the south, is one of a genus of 6 species, all

the others being natives of the Mascarene Islands. Hugenia

lucida grows in the Matalé District, but is elsewhere known

only in Mauritius and Bourbon.

A very interesting plant is Rhipsalis Cassytha, a common

epiphyte on old trees in the Central Province, which is

found also only in Mauritius and Tropical Africa and

No. 31.—1885.] CHYLON FLORA. 157

America. This is also the only member* of the large

order of Cactacee, which grows naturally outside of the

American continent. <A few other examples of this connec-

tion with the West might be given,f though they are very few

compared with the large number which Asia has given to

Mauritius. But they equally point to a means of communi-

cation, which, it appears almost certain, once permitted

the passage of organisms across the Indian Ocean.{ The

hypothetical continent of “ Lemuria’? invented to account

for the distribution of that curious group the Lemurs, of

which our Loris is a member, has been found unnecessary

in the light of paleeontological discoveries, but the existence

of the very extensive shoals, coral reefs, and islands which

are known under the names of the Carcados, the Chagos,

and the Maldives, show the former existence of a series

of very large islands in the deep ocean, and bridging the

distance at intervals.

The Maldives possess a special interest forus. The sunken

land upon which the “ 12,000 isles” have been built up by

the coral-makers must at the lowest computation have

been 500 miles long and 100 broad ; another Sumatra

must then have approached close to our shores. Now, the

nearest atoll is 350 miles from Cape Comorin, and 400 from

Ceylon, and the wild vegetation consists merely of a few

sea-shore plants brought by the waves, and some weeds of

cultivation. But in the past which has made the present,

* A second species of Rhipsalis has lately been found in Madagascar.

+ There are also similar cases in the Peninsula in the genera Nare-

gamia, Calpurnia, Hardwickia, Droguetia, &c.

t Several botanists have remarked that the main direction of the

migrations of plants is from east to west, and it has been suggested that

this is connected with the earth’s rotation. We are also led from many

considerations to the inference that the world has been originally

stocked with plants from the north. Migration generally, then, when

unchecked by iusurmountable barriers may take an average course of

from north-east to south-west. This consideration may tend to explain

the fact that the great accumulations of endemic species are so often

found crowded together in the south-west extremities of continental

areas. ‘lhe neighbourhood of Cape Town in South Africa and West

Australia are striking examples ; the Indo-Ceylonese flora under ex-

amination may perhaps afford another less marked one, and similar

phenomena in a smaller scale are to be seen in Hurope and its Islands.

158 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [ Vol. EX.

the flora of Maldivia, doubtless, had its part to play in the

great progressive drama of Nature. Wecan only guess at

what it may have been, part apparently of the great bridge

between Africa and Asia; but we may feel sure that this

sunken land was intimately connected with the events and

changes which contributed in their time to the formation

of the existing flora of Ceylon.

APPENDIX.

I apepenD a few tabular statements bearing upon the com-

position of the Ceylon Flora, considered from a systematic point

of view.

I.—Number of Native Genera and Species.

Genera. Species.

Dicotyledons :.- ore 759 ae 2,019

Monocotyledons “os 237 coe 710

Phanerogams «+e ee 996 bet 2,129

Vascular Cryptogams aye 6) 2 260

Total --» 1,071 2,989

—S ee oe

Il.—Preponderant Natural Families.

The following seven Orders, each containing over 4 per cent.

of the species native to Ceylon, collectively comprise over two

fifths of the whole Flora :—

Paes Per ceut.

1. Filices sere 228 eee 7°63

2. Leguminosz ae 208 Bac 6:96

3. Graminez cee 198 aa 6°62

4. Orchidez 565 155 Jee 5°18

5. Cyperacese eee 152 eae 5°08

6. Rubiacez iaote 137 ee 4°58

7. Euphorbiacez aes 132 oe 4:4]

Followed by Acanthacee (95), Composite (76), Urticacee

(67), Melastomacee (52), and Dipterocarpacee, Myrtacee, and

Convolvulacea, (each 46).

The average number of species to each Natural Order in

Ceylon is 18.

No. 31.—1885. | CEYLON FLORA. 159

IlI.—Preponderant Genera.

Genera containing over 20 species are :—

1. Cyperus so0 46°) 7. °-Ficus pec moe

2. Eugenia -- 40] 8. Memecylon .. 238

3. Panicum bho) Bie! Crotalaria so5 All

4. Fimbristylis ... 34] 9.4 Desmodium... 21

5. Phyllanthus ... 30 Hedyotis Joc

6. Strobilanthes ... 27

The average number of species to a genus in Ceylon is

IV.—#ndemic Species.

The leading Natural Families (II.) which also contain a large

proportion of Endemic Species, are :—

Number of

Endemic species. Hee cont

Dipterocarpaceze «.. 45 ue 97°8

Melastomaceze = «s- 38 woe 74:5

Myrtacez ee 26 ace 56°5

Rubiaceze soe ee Were 52°5

Orchidex Sea 74 cee 47°7

Euphorbiaces —--. 53 vee 40-1

The average proportion of endemic species in a Nat. Order

in Ceylon is 5:27 per cent., but over one-third of the Orders

contain no endemic Ceylon species at all.

Leading Genera (III.) with a large proportion of endemic

species are :—

Number of

Endemic species. Boy cout

Strobilanthes oo 25 Re 92°5

Memecylon noe 17 ves 73°8

Hedyotis eee 15 oes 71-4

Hugenia aoe 25 wee 62°5

Phyllanthus one 16 vee 53°3

The average to each genus is 0°76 per cent. in the whole

Flora. 7

V.—The following Natural Orders are quite absent from the

Ceylon Flora, though all possess species in some other parts of

the Eastern tropics :—

Hamamelidee, Epacridea, Myoporacee, Illecebracee, Cyti-

nacee, Juglandee, Myricacee, Casuarinee, Cupulifere, Salt-

cacee, Gnetacee, Conifere, Iridee, Philhydracee, Restiacee.

160 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. UX.

RICE CULTIVATION UNDER IRRIGATION

IN CEYLON.

By E. Exuiorr, Hsq., C.C.8.

(Read 11th August, 1885.)

For many years there has been a widely accepted idea

that rice cultivation in Ceylon does not pay. A dictum

of Sir C. P. Layard has been generally quoted in support

of this, and two writers many years ago* published certain

statistics which appeared confirmatory of this unfavour-

able view; and these were, I believe, allowed to pass un-

challenged, though they contained errors which materially

affect the result. However, whether erroneous or not, these

opinions and figures referred to a time and to districts

where the attempt had not then been made to provide

irrigation. This fact has been overlooked in recent dis-

cussions ; indeed, both writers and speakers have gone

further, and have asserted that it would probably pay

better to import nearly all the rice required in the Island,

as itis doubtful whether Ceylon can economically compete

with India in the production of paddy.

ior many years past I have been unable to accept the

low estimate made as to the small profit to be derived

from paddy cultivation; but whatever doubts I may have

had on this point have been entirely removed by my

* Mr. Ludovici's “ Paddy Cultivation’’ and “‘Speculum’s” letters.

In “ Speculum’s”’ estimate, outlay in labour is excessive, especially for

watching, reaping, threshing, and husking ; while Ludovici takes too

high a rate of wages—7d. as the value of a day’s labour in a district

where no agricultural labour was at the time remunerated in money.

Other points in his calculation are also open to question.

No. 31.—1885.] RICE CULTIVATION. 161

observation of the effects of irrigation, where that has been

provided on a satisfactory basis.

Since the question has been so prominently revived, I

have taken considerable trouble to further investigate the

subject ; and I have been able to collect a very large and

varied mass of data as to the yield of paddy, as well as to

the actual outlay necessary to bring a crop to maturity,

in the irrigated lands of the Matara and Batticaloa

Districts.

The results proved so far more favourable to Ceylon than

Thad ventured to anticipate, that when invited by the

Committee of this Society to contribute a Paper, I readily

accepted the opportunity for making my researches public,

in the hope of being able to remove doubts which might

exist as to the possibility of growing paddy in Ceylon at a

cheaper rate than it can be imported from India.

In discussing this question, it is convenient first to review

shortly the information available, especially as regards the

superior fertility of rice land in India. I have been unable

to meet with any reliable returns of the yield of grain in

North India, but I recently saw it stated in the newspapers

that the average crop in Burmah was 42 bushels per acre,

and that 1,500 pounds weight of paddy had been harvested

from an acre of landin Bengal. The latter is equal to 30

Hnglish bushels by measurement, ora return of 12-fold

according to the ordinary Ceylon rate of sowing. Much

reliance cannot be placed on such casual notices as indi-

cating the regular returns from an extended area; ‘but

fortunately I have had access to the transactions of the

Revenue Settlement of parts of the Madras Presidency, in

which very elaborate statistics are given of the yield of

various soils in the irrigated and rich districts, served by the

works on the Godavery and Cavery rivers.

In these publications I find it recorded that in the

Godavery delta, soil of good quality will produce, under

irrigation, about two pooties of 800 seers of paddy per acre,

and the next sort about one and a-half pooty. For the

inferior soil about one pooty per acre may be assumed. As

the pooty of paddy weighs 1,200 to 1,400 pounds, this yield is

equivalent to 50, 40, and 26 bushels per acre.

In South Arcot, in the doab of the Coleroon and Vellar,

162 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). (Vol. IX.

which is irrigated by the lower Coleroon anicut, it is stated

that 300 experiments gave the following results :—

Per Acre.

Harris English

Collums.* Bushels.

Island and other alluvial deposits =». 45 = 473

Permanently improved lands near village 40 = 424

Best lands with vandel or sandelf ... 385 = 88

Ordinary do. do. eee 30) ae

Best ordinary, rich in sandel see 40 = 424

Good ordinary bins sisi 35 = 88

Ordinary he ile 20

Ordinary red earth «.. an 250) eee

Col. Baird Smith, in writing of the irrigation works on

the Cavery and Coleroon, gives the average yield in the

irrigated lands at 40 bushels per acre; and in his work

on Italian Irrigation expresses no surprise on learning that

in the permanent rice lands of Mantua and Verona the

average produce per acre was estimated at 30 to 35 bushels

of uncleaned grain, while the temporary land in the same

and adjoining provinces yield about one-fifth more, or 40

bushels an acre. Headds: “The process of cleaning re-

“duces the rice to about one-third its bulk, so that for

‘permanent land the produce would be nearly 13 bushels

‘ot rice..”’

Ina recent Order of the Madras Government reviewing

the working of the Saidapet Farm, it is recorded that in the

reply given by the Director of the Revenue Settlements

to the Famine Commission, the average yield per acre of

rice lands in this Presidency is stated to be 1,884 pounds, and

in some localities it exceeds 2,500 pounds. ‘These figures

represent 35 and 50 English bushels of paddy, and would,

in the agricultural parlance of Ceylon, be spoken of as

equivalent toa yield of 15- to 20-fold on a sowing of 24

bushels per acre.

It must be remembered that these data are drawn from

the hurried trial measurements of the Settlement Officers,

and it has been recently urged that, as these results are

* One Harris collum = 24 Madras standard seers of 100 cubic

inches — 1°06 English bushel. !

7 Fine mud deposited by the floods.

No. 31.—1885. ] RICE CULTIVATION. 163

deduced from experiments on a limited scale, the tendency

is to exaggerated results.

Nor must it be overlooked that there is in Indiaa system

of cultivation which is decidedly superior in many respects

to that followed in this Island; and I have been also assured

that in the Madras Presidency much more manuring is

done than in Ceylon, though there is still room for improve-

ment in this respect.

Turning to Ceylon, the first matter to be dealt with is

the cost of cultivation ; and on this point I am able to give

very full information, the result of personal inquiry in

the Matara and Batticaloa Districts. As the details of

cultivation differ in many respects in these Districts,

it is necessary to give a short outline of the practice in

each.

In Matara, one or more cultivators jointly undertake the

tillage of a field. One at least of these men has generally

a proprietary interest in the land. There is no hiring of

coolies or money payments for any additional requirements.

The work is done on the co-operative or bee system, neigh-

bours mutually assisting each other without any special

remuneration beyond a good meal provided by the indi-.

vidual whose land is being tilled.

The cultivation of paddy has been so extended in the

Matara District, and the available land isso incessantly

under crop (two harvests being almost invariably taken from

the same land in the irrigated villages), that there is little

or no grazing ground left for cattle, and the buffaloes

especially have to be driven long distances*—some beyond

Tangalla, 15 miles away—for pasturage.

In consequence of this difficulty and the abundant supply

of manual labour, cattle are very little used, and the fields are

almost entirely tilled with the mamotie. The soil is dug up

and turned three times and then sown, and this occupies a

man about 40 days for an area of an amunam, or 24

acres.

As the cattle are folded or driven away, there is no

*In Matara District in 1882 the number of buffaloes was only

10,162, and in the chief irrigated Pattu, the Gangaboda, only 1,800, or

one to every 8 acres, In Batticaloa the number was 36,630 in 1882,

or about 1 te every 2 acres cultivated with paddy.

164 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [ Vol, TX.

fencing to be done, and watching too has been nearly given

up, as all the people live in gardens bordering the fields,

and there are no wild animals, such as pigs or elephants,

to be guarded against.

Reaping an amunam’s extent occupies a man 16 days,

and threshing and winnowing about 30 days for an average

good crop. Allowing a margin for contingencies, the

cultivation and harvesting of an amunam of land in

the irrigated villages of the Matara District require

90 days of a man’s labour, or 36 days* per acre, besides

an outlay of about four bushels of paddy for seed and

tools.

I may here mention that Mr. Weeracoddy, in the report

of his experiment in Kégalla, gives 34 days per acre as his

outlay in labour, inclusive of certain permanent improve-

ments he had to undertake.

In Batticaloa, the arrangements for cultivation are not so

simple, while the lands are more extensive, and a smaller

portion of proprietors cultivate their own lands. There are

two extensive harvests in each year, known as the “‘mun-

mari,’ which may be termed the winter crop, and the

“kalawellamai,’’ or spring crop.

For the “munmarv’”’ it is usual to engage cultivators, of

whom one is termed the head field servant or mullakkaran,

who has certain privileges, aud supervises the other three

field servants (or four in all) required for an extent of ten

amunams. As the long drought which prevails during the

South-West monsoon hardens the ground, it is usual to wait

for the light rains of September to soften the soil before

beginning to plough. |

The object kept in view in ploughing with the small

native implement (which is similar to that used in other

parts of the Island) is by frequently going over the land to

thoroughly pulverize the soil. The seed is then sown

broadcast without being germinated, and left to spring up

by itself under the influence of the first rains, ploughing

and sowing going on until stopped by the heavy rains

of October. A description of paddy which takes six

* I find Ludovici in his ‘ Rice Cultivation” estimates the jabour for

cultivating an acre at very nearly the same number of days.

No. 31.—1885. | RICE CULTIVATION. 165

months to mature is sown at first, and latterly one

which requires four months. By this means the most

is made of the time favourable to sowing, while the rush

at harvest is reduced by the crop not all ripening at the

same time.

Cattle are hired for ploughing, and payment made in

paddy, varying (for a ten-amunam extent) from six amu-

-nams in the southern districts to four amunams in the

northern, where cattle are more plentiful in proportion to

the arable area.

In October and November the field servants complete

the fences and repair the ridges, &. ; and, ordinarily, for

three months after this they have but little to do, beyond

sleeping at night in the watch-huts, though they are sup-

posed at intervals to patrol the fences. Their days are

practically free, and they can engage, if so inclined, in

other occupations which will not take them too far away.

As a fact, all grow plots of vegetables and tobacco on the

higher portions which are to be found in every munmari

land, besides shooting game, fishing, and collecting jungle

products. In some localities they are able, in January, to

undertake the cultivation of lands for kalawellamai,

especially in the southern districts. In March the reap-

ing begins, and the crop might be all threshed out

by the end of April; but in practice it is stacked and

threshed out later at leisure, to admit of the field servants

taking part in the cultivation for kalawellamai now

going on. :

For reaping extra assistance is taken on, though not

invariably, and costs from three to five amunams (for ten

amunams’ extent) according to the locality and the demand

for labour at the time. Threshing out the crop is done entirely

with buffaloes, which have generally to be hired, and this

operation costs from 24 to 4 per cent. of the crop in kind.

Other charges, also paid in kind, are the “ kuruvik-

karan” or bird-boy, who is employed to frighten off the

birds at the time of sowing and when the crop is in ear ;

also the cost of ploughs and mamoties, Vattai Vitanai’s

fee, &c.: these charges may be put down at two amunams

for every ten amunams’ extent.

The cost of cultivation of an extent of ten amunams (or

166 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [ Vol. LX.

say 25 acres)* with four or six months’ paddy for the

‘“munmari” thus amounts to an outlay (including seed

paddy) of about 26 amunams in grain, and the services of —

four men for a period of 8 months, or 960 days of a man.

The kalawell4mai is sown between February and May.

The paddy generally used is of a kind which ripens in three

months, and is germinated before sowing. The lands culti-

vated for this harvest invariably lie low, and have been

generally flooded during the rainy weather of the North-East

monsoon. They are consequently much softer and more

muddy than munméri lands, and are trampled with buf-

faloes (costing six amunams) and tilled with the mamotie.

The proportion of field servants required is also smaller,

and three can undertake an extent of ten amunams ; but,

on the other hand, more additional aid is required in sow-

ing and at harvest time; while the extra charge for

reaping and threshing comes to nearly 50 per cent. more,

viz., 11 amunams against 8 for munmari. Then there are

the usual charges for bird-boy, tools, &., amounting to 25

amunams more.

The crop is reaped and threshed between June and

August. The cost of cultivating ten amunams’ extent, or

25 acres, for kalawellamai, amounts to an outlay of 32 amu-

nams in paddy, and requires the labour of three field

servants for 5 months, or 450 days of a man.

In this District also no money wages are paid for agri-

cultural operations, the regular cultivators being remuner-

ated by certain shares and perquisites out of the crop. But

if additional assistance is required for any purpose, the

ruling rate is a “marakal” (a quarter of a bushel) of paddy

aday. At this rate the expenses of cultivation in grain

would average 13 bushels per acre.

This result agrees fairly, though worked out independent-

ly, with a reply furnished to a Committee of the Legisla-

tive Council by Mr. Crowther, a Proctor and landowner at

Batticaloa, in which the cost of cultivating 75 bushels,

*In Batticaloa District it is usual, according to season, situation, &c.,

to sow from 2 to as much as 3? bushels of paddy in an area of an English

acre. I have accordingly assumed 3 bushels to the acre as a fair aver-

age proportion in my calculations, This makes the amunam sowing

extent the same as in the Sinhalese districts.

No. 31.—1885. | RICE CULTIVATION. 167

extent by hired coolies is given at 350 bushels in grain, or

about 13 bushels per acre. In another estimate for culti-

vating 10 amunams in the customary manner, Mr. Crowther

provides for three field servants, and an outlay of 244

amunams of paddy (exclusive of ground share or rent, and

consumption paddy which is an advance repaid at harvest

time). |

From the Indian reports I find that in the Godavery

District, where agricultural services are remunerated in

grain, the expenses of cultivation are very nearly the same,

and are given in the revenue reports as 34 pooties of grain

for 1 pooty extent, equivalent to 100 English bushels for 8

acres, or 124 bushels the acre. In other parts of the Madras

Presidency the rate is very much the same.

Perhaps it is as well I should explain that I have

throughout dealt with the case of a proprietor working his

own land with his own capital, hiring at ready money prices

any additional aid he requires in men or cattle, so as to

avoid liability for the exorbitant rate of interest charged

for deferred payment, which, in Batticaloa, is never less

than 50 per cent.

_ All the information which I have collected (though

obtained direct from practical working agriculturists) has,

owing to my official position, been affurded under the

impression that it was sought with a view of increasing

their liabilities to Government. We may consequently,

I think, safely conclude that the figures given are very

outside estimates, rarely worked up to, and include charges

not always incurred. For instance, I have made no deduc-

tion for the spare time on the cultivator’s hands between

sowing and reaping, which a European employer of labour

would doubtless find some way of turning to account.

Indeed, many natives do, to my own knowledge, utilize

it for other purposes, as already explained, as the only call

on them during this interval is that of watching by night,

which is done alternately or by arrangement, so as to admit

of at least half the men being absent at a time, and

frequently by the substitution of mere children.

Again, as regards harvest operations, I found, when

going round, that in many instances these are done by the

recular field servants, sometimes aided by their female

168 - | JOURNAL, B.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. EX.

relatives and children (who get no additional remuneration),

and no extra aid is called in unless the crop is really a

heavy one, and comes in with arush; but I have allowed

the full charge in all cases.

I will now pass to consider the quantity of ae y that can

be grown on an acre of land. But I must first point out

that the yield in Ceylon is generally spoken of by “ fold,”

and, ordinarily, without reference to the amount of seed

sown, or the mode of sowing adopted. In India the seed

is, | believe, invariably sown in small beds, and the plants

transferred when about a month old to the prepared land

in which they are to be matured. Under this system 50 to

60 pounds weight of paddy, or about an English bushel by

measurement, suffices to sow an acre of land.

In Ceylon (except, perhaps, in Jaffna on a small scale)

this system is not followed. The seed is sown broadcast, and

in the Batticaloa District for the munméari without being

previously germinated, as usual in the Sinhalese districts.

This leads, I believe, to great waste, as much as 32 bushels

to the acre being, it is alleged, sown in some lands in Batti-

caloa, and nowhere less than two; while in the Sinhalese

districts it takes six bushels to sow an amunam’s extent, or

about 24 bushels to the acre. A return, therefore, which

might be termed one of 30-fold in India, would be equiva-

lent to one of 12 in most parts of Ceylon, and in some parts

to only 74-fold. In examining the figures for Ceylon,

therefore, it will be well for purposes of comparison to

reduce the returns secured to the number of bushels of

paddy per acre.

In Mannar, Baldeeus speaks of a return of a 100-fold,

and Mr. De Hoedt, late Head Clerk of the District Kach-

chéri, and a landowner and practical cultivator, assures

me that in a favourable season (in the absence of proper

irrigation) he has ordinarily obtained a return of 30-fold on

a sowing of 34 bushels, or over 100 bushels an acre; and

that 25-fold or 87 bushels is the usual return cultivating

in the ordinary native way.

In Matara, before irrigation was introduced, in favourable

localities a return of 30-fold or 75 bushels an acre was

admittedly obtained ; and Mr. Dawson, in his reports as

_ Grain Commissioner, speaks of a similar return being

No. 31.—1885. | RICE CULTIVATION. 169

secured in two villages near Hikkaduwa. These returns

are exceptional, itis admitted, under existing circumstances ;

but they are mentioned to show what can be, and is being,

secured in Ceylon without the stimulus of improved culti-

vation or regular irrigation.

It cannot be too emphatically insisted that the primary

consideration in regard to paddy cultivation is a regular

water-supply. In its absence the best lands give but an

indifferent return, and where it is present the poorest lands

give, I believe, a remunerative crop. In the irrigated

districts of Matara it is now freely admitted that a crop of

30 bushels to the acre is regularly secured frequently twice a

year, and in Batticaloathere isample evidence that the return

varies from 30 to 60 bushels per acre, with a most slovenly

and imperfect style of cultivation, in which very little is

done by man and a great deal by Nature.

I see it stated in the report of the Irrigation Committee

of 1867 that the return in Ceylon was at one time 174-fold,

according to ao inscription in the Polonndruwa tablet.

This, I presume, refers to lands irrigated by the tanks

rected by the Sinhalese Kings, and I have every reason to

believe fairly represents the return now-a-days in the irri-

gated districts in the south and east of the Island. I need

not here refer to the evidence on which this opinion is

based, as I am content to rest my calculations as to rice

cultivation on more moderate returns.

We will first take the case of a gross crop of 25 bushels

of paddy to the acre, which would be spoken of as a return

of 10-fold in the Sinhalese districts, and of 7-fold in

South Batticaloa, where the acre is considered as equal to

3? bushels’ sowing extent.

Dealing first with Batticaloa, we must, from the gross

return, deduct the outlay in grain for seed, ploughing, &c.,

already detailed, and the Government tithe. These first

charges amount to 10 bushels per acre for munméari, and

leave a nett outturn of 15 bushels as the return for tke 38

days’ labour bestowed by the cultivator in the sowing and

gathering of the munméari crop, or about 24 days’ labour

for the bushel of paddy.

This is an outside estimate of the most expensive culti-

vation I know of in Ceylon, and one, I believe, never

170 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). P Vol SEX:

touched. In kalavell4mai lands, in which a quicker-growing

paddy is cultivated, after the usual deductions the cost falls

to 14 day’s labour to the bushel; and if a return of 30

bushels to the acre is secured, the proportion is still further

reduced to 1 day’s labour, while a return of 37 bushels would

secure a bushel of paddy for ? day’s labour.

In Matara the proportion is as follows :—

For a 25-bushels’ crop 12 day per bushel.

30- 29 I ”

37- . 1a a

As I have already stated, the expenses of cultivation

have erred on the side of liberality, while the return has

been taken at a moderate rate. I feel, consequently, after a

very careful consideration of the whole subject, 1 am by no

means overstating the case in venturing to affirm broadly,

that in a fair land, properly irrigated, on an average a day’s

labour produces a bushel of paddy.

As I have taken a low rate of yield, I have made no

special deductions for unfavourable years, attacks of in-

sects, &c. Flood and drought are the two great enemies

of paddy cultivation. The former is not hurtful unless the

plants are submerged for an excessive period, fluctuating

according to age and variety, and can be guarded against

by selection of land and timely sowing. On the other hand,

these floods do good by the fertilizing matter deposited on

the lands, and in every district I have found the best lands

are those liable to be inundated at frequent intervals.

When irrigation is provided, it is possible to choose the

proper time to putin the seed ; the cultivation is practically

independent of the weather to a great extent, and the

danger of drought reduced toa minimum. Caterpillars and

flies (or more properly speaking a description of bug) are

the next most important enemies of the paddy plant.

Caterpillars can generally be got rid of with a good supply

of water, and the damage by flies is, I believe, limited in

extent. I recently saw some fields, about which there were

loud complaints, and which were said to have suffered more

than had ever been experienced in that locality. Inquiry

showed the yield had been reduced by about 2-fold in

fields which ordinarily return 7 to 9-fold. In Madras an

allowance of 15 per cent. on the full crop of a favourable

SS a a

No, 31.—1885.] RICE CULTIVATION. 170*

year is considered sufficient to cover all adverse contin-

gencies.

I have purposely worked out my figures so far in days’

labour and grain, in keeping with native modes of estimating

agricultural outlay. In addressing a Huropean audience

it is necessary to attach money equivalents to these results,

based on the value of labour in each locality.

In South Batticaloa the ordinary rate of pay on the

cocoanut estates is 18 cents per diem, and the hire of an

agricultural labourer isa marakal of paddy per diem, which

generally changes hands at about the samerate. The road

commutation tax in both Batticaloa and Matara is Rs, 1°50

in lieu of six days’ labour. In neither District is there any

special demand for labour, except for paddy cultivation.

Twenty-five cents a day is therefore an exceptional wage,

and a very outside value of time in the local labour market

of both Districts.

In my opinion, the most unfavourable view that can be

taken of the situation is that paddy can be grown in Ceylon

for 374 cents a bushel, and that it is probable a large pro-

portion is raised at a cost of 25 cents (sixpence) a bushel; -

while it can be sold nearly everywhere for at least a rupee,

leaving a profit of 75 cents per bushel to meet interest on

capital invested, «ec.

Turning to India again for a moment, I find that the _

average selling price of paddy in the Madras Presidency has

been 94 cents per bushel during 1881 and 1882, against

96 cents for the three years previous to the famine. To this,

on grain coming to Ceylon, has to be added Customs duties

amounting on both sides to 26 cents per bushel, besides

freight and other charges. So that it is not surprising the

price of paddy is generally Rs. 1°50 in the Jaffna market,

where alone Indian grain comes into competition with the

surplus production of the Batticaloa District, and that surplus

comes burthened with charges for transport of over 50 per

cent. on the cost of production. In the Colombo bazaar

Indian paddy generally sells at Rs. 1°374 per bushel, and

the Customs valuation for statistical purposes has for some

years been Rs, 1°50.

This brings me to the consideration of the cost of bring-

ing Ceylon paddy to market. In Matara not nearly enough

4—8d. BS

170f _ JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [ Vol. IX..

is yet grown to meet the demand of the resident population,

and consequently there is a market on the spot.

In Batticaloa, on the other hand, an excess over local

requirements is produced even in unfavourable years, and

in 1883 over 350,000 bushels were exported to Jaffna coast-

wise, besides what was sent inland to Badulla and Bintenna,

of which no account can be obtained. As Jaffna ordinarily

absorbs an annual import of about 900,000 bushels of paddy,

there is still a considerable margin in this market so long

as Batticaloa can undersell Indian paddy, as it does now.

Batticaloa is further favoured by possessing cheap trans-

port to this market, owing to the facilities offered by the

extensive backwaters, which are such prominent features on

this side of the Island ; and the fortunate circumstance that

both harvests fall within the period when communication

with Jaffna by sea is easy and rapid. A considerable

number of native vessels engage in the trade, especially

during the continuance of the South-West monsoon, and

paddy can consequently be transported from the threshing-

floors in the fields to any seaport market in the Jaffna

Peninsula for about 20 cents per bushel.

A grower of paddy in Batticaloa can therefore, in my

opinion, put his paddy into the Jaffna market for about

50 cents a bushel, and secure a profit of about 75 cents a

bushel—possibly a little more.

In Matara the extent of waste land is now very small,

and as there is considerable wealth in the District, fields in

favourable localities fetch fancy prices, running to as much

as Rs. 200 to Rs. 250 per acre.

In Batticaloa the circumstances are very different, and tle

supply of land is still in excess of the demand. For a, limited

extent situate in a central locality, an alluvial well-watered

plain, known as the Karaivakuppallam, the value rivals,

if it does not exceed, that for the best lands in Matara ; but

_ the usual price for ordinary paddy land in cultivation is

Rs. 30 to Rs. 50 per acre, and at this rate a large proportion

of the fields could be purchased. Waste land in this District

can be procured at Rs. 10 per acre and survey fees, payable

in four annual instalments. As the Batticaloa lands when

sold are covered with jungle, after cutting out any timber —

_ available, purchasers hand over the property for a couple of

No. ate 1885.1 RICE CULTIVATION. 1701

_ years to persons who undertake to clear and cultivate it,

taking as remuneration the crops grown during the interval ;

no ground share is claimed, and the owner advances seed and

maintenance paddy, which are repayable, but without interest.

An expenditure of about Rs. 10 in cash is required to put up

the dams and bridges, which are frequently of larger dimen-

sions than is usual in the Sinhalese districts. It is difficult

to say what the total cost of asweddumizing comes to in

money, but, so far as I can judge, it is not more than Rs. 30

per acre, a portion of which is generally recouped by the

timber. :

The task I set myself is now finished, and I trust it will

be considered that I have shown paddy can be locally grown,

with the aid of irrigation, more economically than it can be

imported. Ihave endeavoured to givea truthful, fair epitome

of the information I have drawn from the lips of all classes,

chiefly the practical fieldworkers, with whom I have been

brought more directly in contact during the past two years,

especially in the Batticaloa District. As regards expenses of

cultivation, my inquiries are more than corroborated by the

outside and independent testimony of others to which I have

already referred.

The only point which is really open to discussion is the rate

of yield. This I have purposely kept low, I believe below

the truth, and I appeal to the gentlemen who have experience

in such matters if I have not been most moderate in basing

my calculations upon a yield in irrigated lands which would,

in the Sinhalese districts, be spoken of as varying from 10

to 15-fold, and of 7to 10-foldin the localities where 32 bushels

to the acre are sown.

I have selected for the investigation of this question two

districts in which the construction of irrigation works has

introduced a considerable element of certainty in the culti-

vation of paddy, and it is practicable to judge results

by pecuniary tests in accordance with Huropean ideas.

When a reliable water-supply is absent, and paddy-growing

depends on the rainfall, it is probably liable to more vicissi-.

tudes than any other branch of agriculture in the Island,

perhaps in the world. It would be a waste of time to

consider its pecuniary capabilities under such conditions.

But, fortunately, the rainfall in some parts of the Island,

170§ JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). LVoL Ix.

and in the more populous districts, is well distributed, and

paddy cultivation is carried on with results only second to

those ensured by irrigation. Where such favourable circum-—

stances are wanting, there is really only one remedy, and

that may be summed up in the single word “irrigation.”’

{ know no other of equal efficacy. Improved modes of

cultivation, new implements, and fresh seed, are all of

secondary importance. Where necessary, make the water-

supply tolerably secure, and we may and can rival India, if

we do not doso already, in the economical production of

paddy, though it may be a long day before we can entirely

overtake the local demand. Still, the fact remains that

while paddy cannot apparently be imported into Ceylon for

much under Rs, 1:50 per bushel, we can produce it in the

Island for one-third this sum at the very outside.

0 DC at ee arte re 4 Oem’. La teris RE a ROI Loin) te OT ia a Ae) oat Pg AN eee eM hale Pi ait. el meth, Mah 1 ae

oT phasic gan Rai, ag mere St se MR Pes aie alte aber tata 8 Sh Hoy ee Peel Sie

arts bey i 7a Ancien Rance 28 é abe uate Poa ei es O35 eit ¥

No. 31-1885.) _ PLUMBAGO. a age

PLUMBAGO :

With special reference to the Position occupied by the Mineral

in the Commerce of Ceylon ;

And the Question discussed of the alleged existence in the

Island of the Allied Substance, ANTHRACITE,

By A. M. Fureuson, Hsq., C.M.G.

(Read 28th August, 1885. )

THe mineral of which this paper treats is a form of

carbon, the substance which constitutes so large a portion

of organized nature, more especially of the vegetable world.

Graphite is in truth vegetable matter mineralized by those

various forces of moisture, heat, friction, pressure, and electri-

city or magnetism, which have so marvellously metamor-

phosed the primitive rocks in which the mineral is generally,

if not exclusively found. In Geikie’s Handbook of Geology,

graphite is mentioned first in the list of rock-forming

minerals, sulphur and iron following, before silica in its

protean forms is specified. In a more or less definitely

crystallized, foliated, columnar, needle-like, or massive

shape, the mineral embodies the altered remains of some of

the earliest plant forms which appeared on the earth, when

the fiat was uttered in the far back ages of creation, “ Let

the earth put forth grass, herb yielding seed, and fruit

tree bearing fruit.”” Those of you who entertain a vivid

- recollection of the fascinating paper by Dr. Trimen on the

_ Flora of Ceylon, recently read in this hall, can imagine the

delight it would afford that eminent naturalist and thousands

of other scientists, could the brilliant steel-grey to jet-black

ore we are considering reveal the secrets of its vegetable

origin and show the fibres, the leaves, the flowers, and fruits

of the earliest herbage of the morning of the times, from

_ which it has been transformed, in like manner as ordinary

coal also generally speaks of the early days of the geologic

| C

172. JOURNAL, BAS. (Onvion). [Vel 1X

ages. But eraphite,* (so called from its earliest use in the im

formation of pencils for writing and sketching,) and which

there can be little doubt is closely allied to coal, although

generally older in origin, and the subject of more intense

and long-continued metamorphic influence than the carbo-

naceous substance so valuable as fuel, is too highly miner-

alized (with the exception, perhaps, of the formations in

Canada) to display a trace of the vegetable tissues from

which it claims its descent.

To the seeker for fossil remains of ancient organic life,

therefore, graphite like our other primitive rocks, gneiss

and crystalline limestone, is less interesting than are the

coal measures, with their wonderfully preserved specimens

of plants and animals and shells, on which human eye

probably never looked until the operations of the toiling

miner revealed their, in some cases, almost perfect linea-

ments. Graphite seems, in truth, to be the most highly

crystallized form of carbon next to the peerless diamond,

which poetically, if not with perfect scientificaccuracy, has

been described as a drop of pure liquid carbon crystallized.

If such were the case, the most brilliant rays which light

can yield seem to have played on the drop and to have been

captured by the agency, perhaps electricity in one of its

multitudinous forms, which gave the gem its unrivalled

hardness, in addition to unapproachable brilliance and

beauty. Graphite (to which, when burnt, the diamond

reverts) has a beauty of its own, and as small diamonds

have actually been formed by artificial means, the time

may possibly arrive when the form of carbon which miner-

alogists rank only next below the diamond, may, by

means of the appliances of progressive science, be advanced

from the second to the first place. Let us only attempt to

imagine a mass of pure graphite equal to a quarter of a

ton, such as that sent to Melbourne in 1880, and the still

larger mass which will probably figure in the Court of the

* BLACKLEAD, PuumBaAGo, Grapnite, Wap; (Dutca, potloot ; FRencu,

mine de plomb noir, plomb de mine, potelot; GERMAN, pottloth, reiss-

bley ; Iranian, miniera di piombo, piombaginne, corezolo; Latin,

plumbago; Spanisu, piedra mineral de plombo.)—MacCuttocn’s Dic-

TIONARY OF COMMERCE.

(6)

No. : oa 1885] . PLUMBAGO. i 178

Be Colonial and Indian Exhibition of 1886, metamorphosed

‘into diamond “of purest ray serene,’ pee try to conceive

the thing of beauty it would be, even if shrinkage in the

transformation process reduced its size to one-tenth or even

one-hundredth of the original bulk. Meantime it seems

curious that Ceylon, so rich in “precious stones,’’,which with

all their brilliancy are simply crystallized and coloured clays,

should be utterly destitute of specimens of the king of all

gems, seeing that diamonds are found close by us in Southern

India, and in formations similar to those existing here:

laterite, occasionally, and especially in association with corun-

dum, which in Ceylon is so common and of which our most —

precious sapphires and rubies are but higher forms.

But of more value to Ceylon economically, beyond all

comparison, would be the real discovery amidst its rocks of

that form of carbon which ranks next to the diamond and

graphite, and which seems to be graphite and perhaps

diamond ina less altered form. It need scarcely be said

that coal is referred to. The late Dr. Gardner, of the

Péradeniya Royal Botanic Gardens who was eminently a

geologist, expressed a strong opinion to the effect that where

primitive rock—in our case gneiss—forms the surface

formation, it is hopeless to look for coal beneath. It is

true that in India coal has been discovered in formations or

positions where it never would be expected to occur in ©

Kurope. But I am not aware that in any case coal has

been found underlying, or near the surface of, primitive

formations. The only important class of rock, so far as I

am aware, which is associated with our Ceylon gneiss, is

itself a primitive formation, and is to a certain extent a

carboniferous rock—I refer to the crystalline magnesian

limestone known as dolomite ; this rock contains, in vary-

ing, sometimes in large proportion, carbonate of lime, but

in that respect alone has it the remotest affinity to coal.

Werecoal really, whether theso-called bituminous mineral

or the more highly crystallized form called anthracite, to

be found in association with this lime and with our abundant

plumbago and fine clays, then indeed might the “millions of

tons of iron” of which Dr. Gygax wrote nearly forty years

ago, and which he said could be laid down at Colombo

for little over £6 a ton (with native anthracite at only 18s.

‘ | ¢2

Vol. 1X

per ton) be utilized, so as rapidly to solve the problems of

cheapening steam navigation and covering the surface of the —

island with iron highways. Much of our plumbago, now so

largely exported to the Far West, might then be retained

and used in the shape of crucibles for the manufacture of

Ceylon steel, with more profit than the Sinhalese usually

derive from their native iron, on the production of two

shillings’ worth of which, according to the Swiss geologist

abovementioned, the natives spend nine shillings’ worth of

fuel and labour.

But nothing in my researches with regard to this paper

has been to me so great a shock and disappointment as the

apparent impossibility of verifying the existence in Ceylon of

the valuable mineral—it would be doubly valuable now that

planters will largely need just such a fuel as it would yield

for preparing their tea—which, between 1847 and 1849, Dr.

Gygax professed, with such a flourish of trumpets, to have

discovered. He stated that it existed where stone or glance

coal might be expected to occur (had “‘bituminous”’ coal ever

been present), in juxtaposition with basaltic rock, and in such

abundance that he estimated it could be delivered in Colombo

at the very low price I have named, of 18s. per ton!

Specimens of anthracite which Dr. Gygax alleged he had

collected in Ceylon were, with other minerals, deposited in

the Museum of this Society, and in his report to the govern-

ment of Lord Torrington, dated 30th June, 1848, Dr. Gygax _

remarked, speaking of the vast quantity of excellent iron and

of its being easily smelted, “ But anthracite being easily found

on the spot, could be used in the proportion of three to one

of English coal and much cost saved.” Again,in the same

report there is a distinct heading for the coal he alleged he

had discovered, and he wrote :—“ Anthracite may be found

in precisely similar situations with plumbago. Indeed,

whilst the latter is the metallic carbon, the former is a

hydrate of carbon. Just as plumbago is found near the

basaltic eruptions, sois anthracite found, It is my opinion

that this substance exists as abundantly as does plumbago.

I recommend exploring the country for it near the Bentota

river, half way between Galle and Colombo, and I believe it

might be produced for 18s. the ton.” Writing, too, of the

kaolin (hivimetiya of the Sinhalese), so plentifulin Ceylon, as a

to 90 TounN sn, mee, (cRYLON).

oe No. 31.—1885.] ‘PLUMBAGO. en

suitable for the manufacture of superior bricks and tiles, he

referred to the great advantage of the vicinity of anthracite

to burn them. He then went on to show the importance

of his alleged discovery in view of the mail steamers touch-

ing at Galle, a consideration which, shifting the scene,

would now, with the vastly increased resort of steam vessels

to Colombo, tell with ten-fold force. Tennent, in his beauti-

fully written and widely-read work on Ceylon, endorsed,

by adopting, Gygax’s statement of millions of tons of iron

in one locality in Sabaragamuwa, with a flux in the shape

of anthracite ready to hand;* and yet in all these years

the inhabitants or colonists of Ceylon have neither bestirred

themselves, nor been by outsiders reproached for their

criminal apathy in neglecting such magnificent resources,

while the island has been several times shaken from its

propriety by alleged discoveries of gold in paying form

and quantity. In the history of scientific exploration and

report, and of colonial history and progress, there seems

to be no greater fiasco.

The curious part of the matter is that in his first report

of 1847, which is extant in the Colonial Secretary’s Office,

and the peculiar English of which is uncorrected, the Swiss

geologist said not one word about anthracite, so prominently

introduced into his later report of 1848 from which f£ have

quoted, and the style of which is as purely idiomatic and

graphic as that of the great writer on Ceylon who adopted

and gave world-wide currency to statements of mineral

finds which, if not apocryphal, have certainly not been

confirmed by later explorers of our rocks. Any suspicion,

however, which might be entertained of Tennent’s sincerity

in his avowed belief of Dr. Gygax’s discovery, is removed by

the fact that the latter included anthracite in a collection of

the minerals he had personally collected during his official

survey, and which, as already stated, he lodged in the

Museum of this si eiey.

True, there was one man, a British merchant, the late Mr.

* Tennent’s statement is: “ The anthracite alluded to by Dr. Gygax

is found in the southern range of hills near Nambapana, in close prox-

imity to rich veins of plumbago.” The rich veins of plumbago are a

reality, but the anthracite seems to be as mythical as Sinbad the Sailor

and his gems. —

176.2 JOURNAL, B.A.S. (CEYLON). —- [Vol. IX.

John Armitage, who previously to the advent of Dr. Gygax

was stirred to action by the supposed existence of anthra-

cite in Ceylon. But, curiously enough, Mr. Armitage,

accompanied by Mr. Wm. Tindall, applied to the Emigra-

tion Commissioners in 1846 for concessions to mine for

anthracite in Ceylon, not because of any specimens of the

mineral he had seen in the island, whether in museums or

cabinets, or 2” situ, but because the very finest specimen of

anthracite in the British Museum, “ presenting a flat surface

of nine to twelve inches, and beautifully iridescent like some

of the best descriptions of coal,’’ was labelled as from Sabara-

- gamuwa, Ceylon, and because, as Mr. Armitage was assured

by the curator, it was genuine, it having come from the collec-

tion of a Col. Greville. The name of Greville does not to my

knowledge occur, it is certainly not prominent, in the annals

of Ceylon,

To show how confusion may arise, I need merely mention

that through the dropping of a comma, plumbago is

represented in successive works, including the Lncyclopedia

Britannica,as found in “Travancore Ceylon,” as if the locali-

ties were one, There is the case of columba root, too, which

received that name because ships touching last at Colombo

brought the bitter root to Europe from India. But the crown-

ing absurdity was that the Hmigration Commissioners, who

had in 1846 the ordering of such matters, instead of saying to .

Messrs. Armitage and Tindall, “We will refer to the Governor

of the colony for information,”’ or “‘ You go and prospect and

let us know what you find and under what circumstances,

make your offers, and we will consider them,” jumped instant-

ly to the conclusion that anthracite of such quality, in such

plenty, and in such circumstances of cheap acquirement,

existed in Ceylon, that 40 per cent. would bea fair royalty to

charge! The gentlemen who were prepared to embark capital

in the enterprise were naturally discusted and deterred, and,

what is to be especially deplored, Mr. Armitage seems never

subsequently to have practically tested, personally or by his

agents, the actual existence of anthracite in Ceylon, although

he was resident in the island when the discovery of this species

of coal in quantity was authoritatively announced. |

Dr. Gygax did not hazard a mere guess, but gave full —

scientific details of the existence of anthracite not only in

BO ON TT Cer RN a Ry ae aie CeCe Met sae RN eA aCe TES hay yon RAPT oe

: Ray Hath el any Sie guy Rates MPO aad heel east 1 Mina ate re ty a Bi SONG Fel eae } f

re meio pitta nf ai ae i PROS y

a No. 31.—1885.] i) PLUMBACO. 177

association with plumbago, but injuxtaposition with basaltic

rocks, the friction and heat of which when irrupted would,

as all acquainted with the principles of geology know, have

supplied just the needed agency to convert ordinary gaseous

coal into anthracite by the expulsion of the volatile portions.

My limited knowledge of the mysteries of geology forbids

me to dogmatize, but I have observed, read, and inquired to

some extent, and until better advised I must confess to utter

scepticism regarding the existence of anthracite in the

formations at Nambapana, or anywhere amongst the granitic

formations of Sabaragamuwa, oras at all existing in Ceylon.

The strange part of the matter is that Tennent, with his

special opportunities of testing the reality of a discovery

which he evidently deemed immensely important, never did

more than take Dr. Gygax’s statements for granted giving

them the benefit of amplification and word-painting in his

book, a book in regard to most subjects, as correct in state-

ment as it is elegant in style. That Dr. Gygax was not

infallible, we have had proof in the case of an assertion he

made in a paper contributed to the earlier annals of this

Society. He stated that the little land leech, which is such a

pest in the damp forests of Ceylon and Southern India, cannot

_ existon volcanic soil. But travellers in Java and other por-

tions of the Eastern Archipelago have told, from painful |

experience, a very different tale.

It is not, however, scientific accuracy, but personal veracity

which seems at stake in the statement that anthracite not

only exists but abounds in Ceylon ; and to set this and other

like questions at rest, I submit that this Society would do well

touseits influence with Government toinduce them toborrow

an officer, if his services could bespared, from the Geological

Survey staff of the Government of India, to examine and

report, once for all and with authority, on the geology and

mineralogy of ourisland. Sucha manas Dr. Wm. King, with

his experience acquired in India, could pronounce on all im-

portant points in a period of time probably not extending

beyond a year. Dr. King has visited the island more than

once, I believe, and is interested in its physical constitution

and condition generally, while he is personally connected

_ with Ceylon from the fact that he hasa brother in our Civil

Service. In regard to a discussion in the Odserver regarding

Sirs

sil

178 | JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). > [Vol. IX.

the geological age of plumbago, started before the idea of my

writing a paper onthe subject was entertained, Dr. King wrote

to assure me I was right in describing the mineral] as one of the

oldest formations extant, and in a note which IJ had the plea-

sure of receiving from him ashort time ago Dr. King wrote :—

‘“‘Anent a correspondent in the last Overland Observer, don’t be

led away with too much expectation of valuable minerals (ores)

in your gneisses. Exploration is, of course, necessary, but it is

often in the less highly metamorphosed rocks—of which you

have none in Ceylon--that good mineral ores are found, at least

in India. The gold is most disappointing : though you may get

traces of gold in almost any region of our crystalline rocks

(gneiss, &c.), you see what a failure Wainad has been ; and so was

Mysore until lately. However, I yet believe that moderate returns

will be got from some of the reefs in Wainad ; but not to pay for

the awful charges on purchase of land and expenditure on

machinery, or prices of promotion money, or extravagant prepar-

ation in highly paid officers, plant, bungalows, &c.’’

Dr. King’s opinion as to the improbability of the existence

in any quantity of valuable mineral ores in our metamor-

phic rocks, is in entire consistency with the previous

utterances of Dr. MacVicar, Dr. Gardner, and other qualified

authorities. It is significant that both Dr. MacVicar and

Dr. Gardner should have passed by unnoticed the alleged

discovery of anthracite by Dr. Gygax, and still more so that

Mr. Alexander Dixon, in his list of Ceylon minerals sent to

the Melbourne Exhibition, took no notice of anthracite,

although he sent a specimen of plumbago associated with

erystalline quartz, as also iron pyrites from Nambapana,

the very locality in which Gygax professed—so Tennent

understood him, as general readers of his report must have

alsounderstood him—to have found graphite, anthracite, and

basalt in association.. Neither—and this is very significant

—did Mr. Dixon say a single word about any form of coalin

the list of Ceylon minerals (eighty-six varieties) prepared by

him for insertion in the Transactions of this Society in 1880,

and which he naturally rendered as complete and exhaustive

as possible, including, asit did, specimens of plumbago from

Kurunégala, Kégalla, and Nambapana.

It may be added that no trace of anthracite has been detected

in India, although ordinary coal exists in many places, and

graphite, distributed in crystalline rocks, is abundant from

No. 31,—1885.] -PLUMBAGO. | 179

south to north of the continent. Near Darjiling, in the

district of British Sikhim, there is a very curious result of the

crushing of coal by slipping mountain strata. The friction of

the process must have evolved heat to a considerable degree,

but instead of anthracite the crushed coal was converted into a

_ substance which the geologists have named “‘ semigraphite,”’

—a hint here, probably, of the agencies at workin producing

true graphite in India, Ceylon, and elsewhere. Indeed real

graphite fas been found as the result of the alteration of a

coal seam by intrusive basalt, as atNew Cumnock inAyrshire.

So writes Geikie, but like other geologists he notices graphite

as being amongst the older formations, where it occurs in dis-

tinct lenticular beds and also diffused in minute scales.

Geikie’s full description of the mineral is given in a note.* In

* Graphite.—Narely crystallized in hexagonal forms, usually granular

scaly, or compact. H.0°5—1°0. Gr. 1:9—2°3. Nearly pure carbon,

but generally with at least 1 or 2 per cent. of silica, lime, iron, or other

impurity. Under the microscope, opaque; appearing velvet black

with reflected light. Found chiefly in ancient crystalline rocks, as

gneiss, mica-schist, granite, &c.; some of the Laurentian limestones of

Canada being so full of the diffused mineral as to be profitably worked

for it; im rare instances coal has been observed changed into it by

intrusive basalt (Ayrshire). Probably in most cases the result of the

alteration of imbedded organic matter, especially remains of plants ;

occasionally observed as a pseudomorph after calcite and pyrites, and

sometimes enclosing sphene and other minerals.

Graphite is little affected by percelating water, hence it is not a

replacement mineral. But Vom Rath has described an example from

Westphalia, where calcite has been partially replaced externally by an

encrusting pseudomorph or graphite.

Geikie also states: “The opinion of the organic nature of Eozoon

has been supposed to receive support from the. large quantity of

sraphite found throughout the Archaean rocks of Canada and the

northern parts of the United States. This mineral occurs partly in

veins, but chiefly disseminated in scales and lamine in the limestones

and as independent layers. Dr. Dawson estimates the aggregate amount

of it in one band of limestones in the Ottawa district as not less than

from 20 to 30 feet, and he thinks it is hardly an exaggeration to say that

there is as much carbon in the Laurentian as in equivalent areas of the

carboniferous system. He compares some of the pure bands of

graphite to beds of coal, and maintains that no other source for their

origin can be imagined than the decomposition of carbon dioxide by

living plants. In the largest of three beds of graphite at St, John he

has found what he considers may be fibrous structure indicative of the

existence of land-plants.”

PSO JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). el Vola

North America the conversion of gaseous coal into anthracite —

has been distinctly traced to the powerful chemical forces

evolved by the tilting upof previously horizontal strata.

Mr. Alexander Dixon described, or intended to describe,

for the annals of this Society, a deep-seated deposit of what

no doubt was drift timber carried down by floods in the

Kelani river, and which was discovered in the course of the

borings made in connection with the erection of the new

railway bridge near Colombo. Deposits of this kind may in

the process of far future ages give Ceylon coal, or at least

lignite, but at present I fear our formations include nothing

morenearly approaching coal than theapparently poorspecies

of peat found at Muturdjawela near Colombo, in Nuwara

Eliya, and some other swampy places, apparently the result,

chiefly, of decomposed aquatic and semi-aquatic plants, such

as flags, rushes, and grasses. On the Nilgiris, I believe a

somewhat similar but evidently superior formation is used

as fuel, after being compressed and dried, but I am not aware

that any experiment in this direction has been tried in

Nuwara Eliya. The owners of the brewery and of the

adjacent tea plantations might probably find it worth while

to test the combustible value of the black peaty matter, com-

pressed into bricks and thoroughly deprived of moisture.

For use in tea houses, however, there might probably be the

objection of the peaty smell, while anthracite, if it really

existed, would be, like coke, free from objection on the score

of odour, and for tea house purposes its intense smokeless

heat would render it specially valuable.

The table of descent amongst mineralogists seems to be

from the diamond to graphite, next to amber, and then coal,

peat,and petroleum. In connection with coal formations and

petroleum springs, shales are always found, but certainly no

writer on Ceylon has ever said that any formation, even

remotely resembling oil-bearing shale, has been seen in our

rocks, any more than that a Ceylon well-digger has ever

‘struck ile.” Seeing that Indian rock strata include the

diamond, while the gem-bearing rocks of Ceylon, rich also in

graphite, show no trace of the brilliantly crystallized carbon

which shines in crown and diadem as the diamond, the case

might, some would say, bereversed as regards anthracite, 4

which although absent from the Indian continent might exist

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; Ne: sh —1a8s ] a PLUMBAGO. © 18]

BO iti the Indian island; but all the evidence as yet seems to show

that as regards the existence of anthracite in Ceylon, a huge

and very annoying mistake has been made, and that all the

- probabilities, unfortunately, are adverse to the ey of

any form of coal in our rocks.

I feel sure I need not apologize for the space devoted to a

matter so closely connected with the subject of the paper I

have been asked to prepare, and of such incalculable import-

ance to Ceylon, should Dr. Gygax, after all, be shown by the

indisputable “testimony of the rocks” to have been in the

right. Noone would more sincerely rejoice than the writer

of this paper, were such to be the answer to the question he —

has felt it his duty to raise. There seems to be no trace

left, in the Museum, at any rate, of Dr. Gygax’s specimens

of so-called anthracite. Anxious not to do injustice in the

matter, however satisfied my own judgment was of the com-

pleteness of the negative evidence, I referred the question

before giving an adverse verdict to a most competent au-

thority, and his deliverance is :—

“‘T think you may safely assert that there never was any

anthracite in Ceylon. The only thing resembling it that Gygax

was said to have seen was a piece that was brought from about

_ Haldummulla. But it would not have been the only piece in the

Island had it been anthracite ; and, handling plumbago as I have

' done for the last 20 years, I would scarcely have failed to see

some of it, if it existed.”

This seems conclusive; and if Gygax received a specimen

of anthracite from Haldummulla, it was probably a piece

sent from England as a guide to research. There was,

nearly forty years ago, some excitement created by an

alleged discovery of true coal in Héwaheta, the discovery

.. having no better basis than some bits of English coal

washed down an estate stream from the late General

Braybrooke’s bungalow.

The calculation is that the amount of mineral fuel con-

- sumed in India in 1882 was equal to 1,500,000 tons, of

_ which only one-third was imported. At the pit’s mouth in

_ Raniganj, local coal can be delivered for 24 rupees per ton,

_ while the average price of imported coal, although taken

from Britain dliaost a ballast, at ee cchienally low rates

AM of freight, has been over Rs. 18. In consequence of the

NY LeAee MAS SI eae CPUD KH ORR Oo Mr Og ae Chantel Ge ae Teens Bees ERE LL VAN (EAU aL AG Ce MMe NE or Bea

} r ‘ a 4 : Soe BERS:

182 JOURNAL, B.A.S. (CEYLON). —

presence of abundance of coal near the line, the Hast

Indian railway obtains its fuel ata rate cheaper thanany

other railway in the world. If coal of passable quality

and in large quantity were produced in Ceylon, we might

even supply the demands of some parts of India which

are far from territorial sources of supply, besides meeting an

ever-increasing local demand for steamer, factory, railway,

gas-works, and general purposes, which was represented by

an import rising from 81,000 tons, in 1880, the year in which

the Colombo harbour first gave shelter to steam shipping, :

until now the annual introduction of foreign fuel into the

island is close on 200,000 tons, of a local value of over

£400,000. ‘The figures for 1883 were 195,883 tons, and for

1884 nearly an equal quantity. The total for the five years

ending 1884 was 742,000 tons, and the average 148,000 tons;

but the resort of steamers to Colombo is increasing at such

a rate that it may be safe to predict anaggregate of 14 million

for the five years ending 1890, making an annual average

import of 250,000 tons ; that is, unless some great discovery

in the economy of fuel in steam navigation is made in the

interval. If, therefore, the supposed presence of coal in

Ceylon was considered so important in 1848, how much more

so would its real discovery now be deemed!

But ifthe diamond, amber, coal, and petroleum are absent

from our rock formations, happily there can be no question

as to either the quality or the quantity of our mineral

carbon in the shape of Piumpaco, of whichindeed,in the

form most valuable for the manufacture of metal-melting —_

crucibles, Ceylon seems to haveas much anatural monopoly

as she has of first class cinnamon in the vegetable world.

There are, no doubt, vast deposits of graphite in North |

America, especially in Canada, but the mineral seemsto be

generally diffused in rock from which it is difficultand

expensive (labour being scarce and dear) toseparatethesmall

particles. Graphite, although rare in a form economically

valuable, seems very widely distributed overthe face of the

earth. In India plumbago has been foundin a large number

of places, and has been the subject of many experiments and

much discussion, but the results have been hitherto disap-

pointing. It generally appears sparingly in very quartay

rock, and in heavy ferruginous gneiss. The mineral is

: : No. 81.—1885.1 | _ PLUMBAGO. | : 183

deficient in lustre, contains much iron, and one specimen

gave 35 per cent. of lime. Lime is, perhaps, even more fatal

to the value of plumbago than iron, and although graphite

may occur in the magnesian limestones of Ceylon (1 never

heard of but one instance,) it is quite manifest that digging

in the dolomite need never be resorted to, the mineral being

so plentiful in our quartzy gneiss, where the only enemy

encountered, and that, happily, not very frequently, is iron.

_ hike some other adversaries, this one sometimes appears

in guises the most radiantly beautiful, in the present case

as pyrites varying from splendidly crystallized masses, with

facets polished like finest silver, and again simulating auri-

_ feroustreasures by putting on the most glorious colourings of

gold, shading away toa lovely and delicate green, indicative

this tint, it is supposed, of the presence of sulphate of copper.

This auriferous coloured pyrites is appropriately named

in Sinhalese Diya rat-ran, or ‘water gem-gold,’ the

recognition of water as the agent to which the formation

and its brilliant colours are largely due being, curiously

enough, in perfect accord with the conclusions of the most

vanced geological scientists.

To Mr. Williams, Acting Government Agent of the

- North-Western Province, I am indebted for a collection of

interesting specimens from Polgola on the road to Dambulla,

showing how plumbago is associated with and forms round

a nucleus of crystalline or semi-opaque and sometimes

garnetiferous quartz (the position of the minerals being, I

am told, occasionally reversed), and quite a number of pieces

of 1k which the non-scientific might well be excused for

regarding as coated and permeated with brilliant golden ore.

These may be regarded as the flowers of the subterrannean

regions where plumbago is mined. I am bound to state,

however, that the brilliancy of iron pyrites has no effect in

_ modifying the inimical feelings with which those connected

with the plumbago enterprise regard the mineral, while

they talk with disapproval, and disgust of the Yabora =

(@) ya iron, bora dross, iron dross, the hard, iron-like

form of plumbago; and any one desirous of procuring

specimens, will be made heartily welcome to what

in the eyes of the plumbago dealer is associated with a

ce rocky, inferior, and unsaleable product. But truly the pure

184

soft mineral itself, in its various forms of crystallization, i

the most prevalent being a radiating star-likearrangement,

and its variation of sparkling colours from steel grey

to plates of jet black, may be regarded as a veritable

“‘ thing of beauty.’ A collection of first class lumps, each

highly polished and lustrous, intended for shipment to

_ Germany, which could be seen at Mr. W. A. Fernando’s

store recently, was certainly a striking sight. In connection

with this collection of silvery masses, Mr. Fernando ©

showed us specimens of a dark-coloured variety, of needle-

like formation, which he said he had been requested by his

customers to make up separately, as the ordinary mills could

not easily grind that particular quality. Graphite generally, q

like iodine, shows a bright metallic sheen, but it is at once

distinguished from the true metals by its soft and unctuous

mechanical condition. Iam speaking of firstclass mineral,

for, showing us a specimen of plumbago formed, apparently, __

over an ironstone nucleus, Mr. Fernando declared such oreto

be unsaleable. In truth, the reasons why our Ceylongraphite

is so much sought after, are the entire absence of lime from

the mineral, and in most cases its equal freedom from fer- _

ruginous particles, the small proportion of foreign sub-

stances, if any, being volatile matter and minute fragments

of silica and alumina. Besides grinding to extreme fine-

ness, an acid bath is used thoroughly to purify graphite

used for certain delicate purposes, such as electrotyping,

when the finest and purest dust is required to coat surfaces

of wood, plaster of Paris, and gutta percha, &c., to render

them conductive. Anauthority of all in the world, perhaps

best qualified to speak, describes Ceylon plumbago as

combining the two qualities of being almost as refractory

as asbestos and at the same time the most perfect conductor

of heat. :

The North of England mines, which at one time supplied

the world with pencils, although ordinary lead pencils have

been in use in the present century, seem exhausted, while

the supply of the somewhat allied mineral—jet—is still ©

available for the manufacture of ornaments at Whitby. —

There is graphite in Scotland, (plentiful in Aberdeenshire

according to Mr. Ferguson of Kinmundy) though not, I —

believe, of useful quality. The black lead mines spread

JOURNAL, B.A.S, (CEYLON). ——« [Vol IX,

SPSS eh th UR SPE TRILL APR A BENS UTR CA tig ie

Di No, 31.—1885.] © PLUMBAGO. | 185

over Germany—in Prussia, Austria, Bavaria,and Bohemia—

are only second in fame to the peerless English pits ;

while finds of the mineral are reported from places so

widely separated as North America, Finland, Greenland,

Siberia, Spain, Australia, Japan, and Madagascar. It is a

curiously suggestive fact, too, that traces of this form of

carbon have been found in meteorites which have reached

our globe from the regions of planetary space.

In addition to a large lump of Pasdun Kéralé plumbago

on the lower floor of the Colombo Museum, the gift of Sir

Charles Peter Layard, beside which stand specimens of plum-

bago crucibles from the Battersea Factory, there are, in one

of the mineral cases upstairs, associated with pieces of the

Ceylon ore, pure or with a rocky matrix, a collection of

eraphites presented by Mr. W. W. Mitchell, illustrative of

the mineral as found in Siberia, Canada, Finland, Japan

and Travancore. Allowing for the fact that the foreign

plumbagos are dulled by time and climate, their appearance

certainly does not convey any idea of superiority over our

local product.

If Bennett (author of ‘‘ Ceylon and its Capabilities’’) is

correct, Ptolemy mentioned this substance amongst the pro-

ductions of Ceylon, when writing in the second century

of our era. It is curious that Bennett, of all the writers

on the Island, should alone have made this statement.

Tennent, who carefully epitomized the geographical in-

formation contained in Ptolemy’s writings, does not quote

him as mentioning the mineral, +Pridham, of whose classical

research Tennent entertainedahigh opinion, is equally silent.

Mr. Green, Director of Public Instruction, kindly endea-

vouredat my request to test Bennett’s statement by reference

to Ptolemy, but no copy of the original work was accessible,

and a summary of Ptolemy’s statements in the Indian

Antiquary does not confirm what Bennett wrote. Should

further research show that Ptolemy really mentioned plum-

bago, it would be interesting to ascertain if the native name

(Sinhalese or Tamil) was merely transferred, or if a word was

used indicative of a knowledge by the Greeks and Romans

of graphite and any of its uses.

If the ancient native historical records, in their almost

exclusive devotion to the glorification of monarchs who

af.

iN wt

186 JOURNAL, B.A.S. (CEYLON). . [Vol, IX, =

built irrigation works and promoted the interests of Bud-

dhism, failed to notice cinnamon, it is no wonder they

make no mention of kalu-miniran, which though lustrous

as silver was neither a precious metal nor a precious stone |

_ fitted for the adornment of kingly crown or royal palace.— _

palace far inferior to thousands of European kitchens,

with their iron stoves and grates shining with the brilliancy

of highly polished “black lead.” To Mr. W. P. Ranesinghe

It am indebted for the information, conveyed in a letter

which is printed as an appendix to this paper, that halu-

miniran (black miniran, the word miniran applied to mica

signifying mint = mani, gem, and ran = ratna, also gem,

or the ‘golden gem,’ just as two superlatives, gloriosa

superba, are applied to the splendid inverted lily of our

jungles) is mentioned in a native work, the date of which it

is difficult to fix, but which seems to have been written in the

fourteenth century of our era. In this medical work “Yoga

Ratnakaré’”’ (‘the ocean of the gem-like prescriptions’)

directions are given for reducing miniran, that is mica, to

ashes that it may be taken as a medicine, while to fit kalu-

miniran (graphite) for similar use it has to be purified by

means of the milky juice of a euphorbia, and boiling for

three days over a low fire such as is used for boiling rice.

The small pieces subjected to the processes mentioned

are finally taken out and washed, and they are then purified

and fit for use. The affections for which this purified carbon

ig prescribed are not mentioned, beyond the statement that —

it is used as a tonic, but we all know how largely the anti-

septic properties of charcoal are valued and applied, a

digestive charcoal biscuit being at this moment prominently

advertised and pretty extensively used. I have alsoin my

reading come across a notice of the use of coal as a medicine,

the purer forms being probably chosen, while a paragraph

has recently appeared stating that ‘‘a chemist in Munich

has succeeded in obtaining from distilled coal a white

crystalline powder which, as far as regards its action

on the human system, cannot be distinguished from

quinine, except that it assimilates even more readily with

the stomach. Its efficacy in reducing fever heat is —

represented as quite remarkable, and it even renders the

use of ice unnecessary.” :

var

No. 31,—1885.] - PLUMBAGO. 187

But in the process of my researches I find that it is not

only theancient Sinhalese wedaralas who prescribed graphite,

The Hnglish black lead, it seems, was formerly held in high

repute as a medicine, and a writer on the Cumberland plum-

bago in 1709 asserted it was much sought after by physicians

and apothecaries as being a present remedy for colic, gravel,

and other diseases. The use of euphorbia juice in the

purifying process applied in Ceylon to plumbago is very

curious and interesting, the powerfully active properties

of euphorbia “ milk’ being well-known. The Tamil coolies

are said to give doses of euphorbia juice to new-born

infants for the alleged purpose of clearing away impurities,

but the result is probably to account ina large measure for

the high rate of infant mortality amongst the class referred

to. Any one who knows, as the writer does, the agony arising

from a single drop of euphorbia “milk” getting into the eye,

will appreciate the effect of this caustic poison on the delicate

internal organs of infants. Onthe external skin it acts as

a blister. Its action on graphite is probably to dissolve

away the impurities mixed with the mineral in the shape of

particles of gneiss, quartz, iron, &e. Having seen it stated

that in connection with specimens of plumbago at the

Hxhibition of 1862, the eminent surgeon, Sir Benjamin

Brodie, had fully discussed the properties of the mineral, I

requested Dr. Vanderstraaten to ascertain if Brodie’s views

were embodied in any book in the Medical Library ; he has

replied in the negative, but tells me that the Chinese use

both black lead and white as medicines. |

The species of carbon of which we are treating never forms

a compound with any other substances, and large masses of

it are often found so pure that the return of carbon to the

analyst is sometimes considerably above 99—very nearly 100

per cent. indeed, while the specific gravity of the soft and

unctuous mineral compares with that of the diamond thus:

diamond 3:6; graphite 2:2. The fact may not be wanting

in significance, that quartz occasionally encloses drops of

liquid carbon, destined perhaps to emerge, after a very long

period of intense heat and pressure, as solid gems. (?)

In cases of impaired digestion, purified carbon,in the shape

_ of graphite, may well be conceived to havevaluablecorrective

effects, but native treatment is generally so empirical that

ea K\ Faas Sector

j APU Ut TTA NAGE

x 4

- y a A aie > fo hes,” hg

a | ty - Eee 2S 5

188 soURNAL, Ra (curnox). [VoL IX,

we may err in giving the ancient wedaralas credit for

knowledge of the principles on which certain substances

ought to be exhibited. If there is really no mention of

plumbago in Sinhalese records earlier than the fourteenth

century A.D., it is a curious fact that a document should

exist in Europe, supposed to be ruled by means of the

mineral, of date 1887—that is intheverysame century. But,

although some form of pencil must have been known and

used from time immemorial, notably the lead pencil with its

paler mark than that of plumbago, the first mention of a

rough “black lead” pencil, was by Gesner in 1565, about the

time when the famous Cumberland mines were discovered.

-T have not been able to ascertain if plumbago, the Tamil

name of which is kar-iyam,is mentioned in any ancient —

Tamil records, and I cannot trace any notice of the mineral

by Muhammadan or Chinese voyagers, while Portuguese

writers on Ceylon seem, so far as they have been consulted,

to give no sign of a knowledge of black lead or its pro-

perties. The effect of the publication of this paper may be,

however, to reveal matter not within my reach, although I

did not fail to refer, directly and through competent

scholars, to a very large number of the best authorities.

The officer of the late Ceylon Rifle Regiment who wrote

a book on Ceylon stated that Thunberg, the Scandinavian

naturalist, who wrote in 1777, was the first to notice

plumbago as a product of Ceylon. This was an error.

Robert Knox, who wrote in 1681, mentions the existence

of the mineral; and Valentyn gives a letter of a somewhat

earlier period by the Dutch Governor Rykloff van Goens,

dated 24th September, 1675, addressed to his successor the

Governor-General Jan Maatsuyker, in which he mentions

veins of plumbago (potloot) in the hills, and mines in the

low-country. He described it as a product of quicksilver,

an error which, repeated, may explain the alleged discovery

of a mine of quicksilver near Kotté, soon after the British

took possession of Colombo. So important was the latter

discovery deemed at the time that a military guard was

placed over the mine; but subsequently the existence of

_ quicksilver in Ceylon became as mythical as that of J

anthracite seems now to be, or the alleged discovery of coal

by the Dutch who are said to have disregarded it in view of =

tas a ei

a ip tiie Sone

ee at) Re

Se eS

rae a ae 7

i =

No, 31.—1885.] " } PLUMBAGO, Pp 189

the abundance of wood fuel, The old Dutch Governor’snotice

of plumbago is so curious that it may be well to reproduce

its terms. The translation from Valentyn 1s as follows :—

“‘ Of the other minerals found in the hill-country there is little to

be said, for want of information ; but we ourselves have found both

black lead [potloot | and common lead ; from which metallurgists,

infer that there must also be quicksilver there, of which black

lead is the product. It is also believed that in the low-country,

where the black lead is found, large mines will be discovered

so that it seems necessary to inquire into this further, with a

view to quicksilver, as this is as it were the blood of minerals

and a sign of richer mineral.”—Vol. V., p. 205.

Changes the most extraordinary are now known to be

produced by metamorphic agencies, but I suspect that even

the most potent forces at work in nature wouid be powerless

to change mercury into black lead. Modern mineralogical

science, too, scarcely recognizes the principlethat quicksilver

is the blood of minerals, and its occurrence an indication of

the existence of still more precious minerals. The possible

solution of the anthracite mystery may be that although

graphite is no more a carburet of iron, as it was once

deemed, than it is a darker form of the common metal lead,

yet iron in very anomalous forms is sometimes associated

_ with plumbago. I was once in possession of a bit of iron

formation found in a plumbago mine, which so closely

resembled the rootlet of a plant, that the probability seems

to be that particles of iron ore in the soil had aggregated

round a tree root, assuming its shape and taking its place,

after a fashion which gold and other metals have frequently

adopted. When rock thus takes the place of wood, we call

the result a petrifaction. In the case of metallic particles,

the process may be regarded as a form of natural electro-

plating, a process in the arts for the success of which the use

of good conducting graphite (for some is said to be non-

conducting) is essential. There is, it may be well to say,

a metallic graphite produced in iron furnaces, known to the -

workmen as “kish,” but it differs somewhat from natural

plumbago, which is alland always immediately of vegetable

origin, whether the vegetation has passed directly into

graphite or through the intermediate stages of coal or shale.

But to return to the place in history of our subject. A

\y ae” TAS aot Rian, aa eh EON ra 8ST

ve Aliya oe ran Wigs

K at 4 Meath Me:

4 Pa

190 JOURNAL, B.A.S. (CEYLON). | | Vol. Be

Mr. Ive, who wrote apparently in 1755, professed to have dis-

covered “black lead’? and copper ores in Ceylon. Mr. W.P.

Ranesinghe has unearthed for me the tradition that the last

King of Kandy, infamous for his cruelties as he is famous

for his esthetic taste, added to his many-sided character a

development of the commercial instinct, supplying, it is said,

plumbago to merchant ships, more than seventy years before

such enterprising traders as the Fernandos and De Mels

appeared on the scene. ‘The tradition seems also to indicate

that some of the plumbago in which the monarch traded

was dug from a mine on the lands cf Molligoda Disawa.

Cordiner who wrote at the commencement of this century,

stated :-—‘‘ Plumbago is found with mica at the foot of moun-

tains, in clay and red earth, most frequently at a considerable

depth: but is sometimes met with by itself in dry soil.”

In more modern times, 1812-20, Dr. Davy, the brother of

Sir Humphrey, mentioned plumbago as a mineral found in

Ceylon, “which might become an article of export.” Dr.

Davy was apparently correct in his scepticism as to the

existence in Ceylon of ores of quicksilver, copper or tin, but

wrong in doubting the existence of gold. Coal however is

not, like gold in its very wide diffusion. Still, the mistake of

Davy in regard to gold forbids dogmatism. Bertolacci, who

wrote his work on the commerce of Ceylon in 1816, although

he dealt with every article of any importance in detail

up to the end of 1813, makes not the slightest mention

of plumbago. The export of the article must have com-

menced between 1820 and 1830, however, for Mr. Joseph

Dixon, the founder of the great American Crucible Company,

obtained a shipment of Ceylon plumbago in 1829. In

that very year Col. Colebrooke, one of the Commissioners on

Ceylon affairs, stated in his report that provision had been

made for the delivery of cinnamon and black lead in the

Kandyan Provinces (then including the Seven Kéralés) at

fixedrates. Reference to the Government Calendars shows

that there is no mention of plumbago until 1831, when it

was included in the list of articles liable to export duty,

the rate being 10d. per cwt. The amount of revenue at this

tate in 1832 was £22 18s. 6d. The mineral did not, however,

assume real importance in the commerce of Ceylon until

1884, and for the half century which has elapsed between

i ——

A 1 or G1. 1885.7 PLUMBAGO. Poi

that year and the end of 1884 I possess, thanks to the

courtesy of the Assistant Auditor-General, Mr. C. Dickman,

full details of the rise, progress, and fluctuations of the trade,

until from smali beginnings it has in the past five years

attained truly important dimensions, whether regard be had

to the quantity and value of the mineral. exported, or the

revenue derived by Government from a royalty finaliy fixed

in 1877 at the very moderate rate of Rs. 5 per ton.

For the first three years of the period beginning with 1834

‘no export duty was levied on this article. From 1837 to

1846, and again from 1858 to 1869, a duty of 24 per cent.

was levied, which yielded in the earlier period sums so low

as Rs. 12:25 in 1839, rising to Rs. 759 in 1846. In the

second series of years, when export duties were levied

expressly for railway purposes, the duty rose from Rs. 1,190

in 1858, to the appreciable sum of Rs. 22,240 in 1869. The

latter sum was levied on cwt. 226,132 valued at Rs. 889,620.

The rated duty seems, therefore, to have been as nearly as

possible one-tenth of a rupee per cwt. The only Customs

impost to which plumbago is now liable is, apart from the

royalty, 7 cents per barrel, recently exacted for harbour

purposes. As each barrel contains 53 cwt. net of mineral,

the burden is only a fraction over one cent per cwt., in

addition to the royalty which since 1877 has been levied at

the rate of Rs. 5 per ton, or 25 cents per cwt., equivalent

to 24 per cent. on the Customs valuation of Rs. 10 per cwt.,

but rising te 5 per cent. if the real value is only about

Rs. 100 per ton. Previously to 1851 no royalty was levied,

and the varying rates since then have been—

In 1851 perton ... 4s. In 1864 per ton ... 16s.

Bees ese | 1869 sy! Gane BOs

Bel soo tne (S000. |), 1873 %|,, ) eee des, LO

Pe TSOP ee Ete Ch OST Bag cr) ORNs

There can be no possible question, it would seem, of the

propriety of exacting a royalty, moderate in proportion to its

market value, on this mineral, which is entirely an article of

_ export, and which is as much the property of Government,

or the people of Ceylon, as are the pearly treasures of the

from plumbago does for the construction, amongst other

12 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). {Vol. EX.

public works, of means of communication which facilitate and

cheapen the operations of the diggers. We could only wish

that copper, tin, nickel, and other ores which have been so

positively written about as occurring in Ceylon, with gold,

which beyond question does exist, were found in quantities

sufficient to add appreciably to the revenue in the shape of

royalties. The one necessary qualification is, of course, that

the amount of the tax should be such as not to bear heavily on

an enterprise which is always toilsome and often precarious.

Taking the average value of plumbago at Rs. 10 per cwt.,

the Customs figure, the present impost of 25 cents is, as

noticed above, only equivalent to a rate of 24 per cent.,

which certainly cannot be complained of as unduly onerous,

however justifiable complaints and remonstrances were

when 14s., 16s., and even 30s. per ton were exacted, or Rs. 10

between 1874 and 1877. The present rate has the merit of

being light, easily collected, and productive, for in the five

years ended 1884 an average export of nearly 12,000 tons per

annum, of an annual value of Rs. 2,400,000, yielded

royalty equal to a yearly average in round numbers of

Rs. 60,000. When the proceeds of digging licenses and

leases of Crown lands, and stamps on those leases are

added, the average may be raised to Rs. 65,000. The

maxima of quantities exported, total value, and total

revenue were reached in 1883 when the figures were :—-

Plumbago exported ee «ss cwt. 262,774

Value @ Rs. 10 per ewt. «:- ve Rs, 2,627,737

my Royalty ... Rs. 65,694 “

rou reme Hea 4,727 nic i ee

Wonderful contrasts these, even if we reduce the Customs

valuation by one-half, to an export of only 423 cwt. in 1839,

valued at only Rs. 490, or a little over Rs. 1 per cwt.,

and yielding to the revenue of the Colony only Rs. 12°25,

a sum scarcely worthy of collection! The totals for the

whole period of half a century of the export trade in

Ceylon plumbago are striking, viz. :—

Quantity exported one cewt, 3,526,000

Value of this quantity aise Rs. 25,742,000

Contributions to revenue... As 841,000

Crediting plumbago revenue with items brought to

account under stamps and other headings, the amount -

SU aie Wade et aL aR rll nA ey

- might be raised to Rs. 900,000, and had Government always

got its own in the shape of royalty, the round million of

rupees would be considerably exceeded.

Taking averages of qualities and periods, it is probable

that Rs. 200 per ton is too higha, valuation for this mineral,

and that twenty millions of rupees would more nearly than

twenty-five millions represent the total value of the plum-

bago exported in fifty-one years, for which figures are given.

At any average price of less than Rs. 100 per ton it would —

probably not pay to dig plumbago, andas a matter of fact what

was evidently over-production between 1880 and 1883, led to

a reaction in 1884, when not only did exports fall off, ¥

_ but operations in the preparing yards in Colombo were

stayed for a time by general consent, some not opening

again even when the probability of a war with Russia

gave a fresh fillip to the trade.

It is a melancholy fact that plumbago is one of the class

of articles like “ villainous saltpetre” and some others, the

trade in which prospers when war has broken out or when

warfare is threatened. The reason in the case of our staple

mineralis, that the chief use by far to which Ceylon plumbago

is put is the manufacture of crucibles, nozzles, &., employed

_ in the preparation of Bessemer and other steel, now in such

large requisition for shipbuilding, plates for ironclads,

torpedoes, shot, shell, &c.; this, in addition to the melting

of the precious metals for which crucibles of refractory

plumbago are eminently suited from their superior strength

and perfect smoothness. There are many minor uses to

which plumbago is put, as will hereafter be shown, but

J believe I am right in stating that its extended con-

sumption (if that word can be correctly applied to an

article which is almost unconsumable) in recent years,

is due to the great and rapid advance of the steel industry

on both sides of the Atlantic, not merely to provide materials

for ships, durable and light, but for the dread weapons and

appliances of modern warfare, such as Krupp and Armstrong

guns, steel shot, &c. But the abundance of the ore in

Ceylon, and the enterprise and activity with which the

mining, preparing, and shipping of the mineral have been

pursued, have in this case, as in so many others, recently

led to production considerably in excess of demand, so that

pes iy Bie eh ip taal Stara ot meer in Heats sakerearen taste dR eh AB Sinai Veto a chal atiiaban ta DES aR. Oar ee ER Se 8

Fil noes dee a a) bs ey elt , seats LAAN pie oa AA hed) bee Reis ah HE a pe

3 { 7 é 2 } Wes sI r ol Aces Te My

F : ‘ rs

194 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. re i‘

the profits of the pursuit, never very great and always a

precarious, have recently been low or md.

When at its highest market value I do not suppose

that Ceylon plumbago ever sold for more than £50 per

ton: indeed the highest price of which I have evidence

is £48 realized by Mr. W. A. Fernando, of Brownrigg-street,

Colombo. What is this to the celebrated Borrowdale pencil

‘‘ black lead’’ mines, which, after having been worked since

the reign of Queen Elizabeth, recently gave out, so that

now pencils picked up at Keswick as curiosities cost sixpence

each, being formed, if local ore is really used, of fragments

found scattered amongst rocks or in the beds of streams!

In the report of the Matara District for 1870 the Assistant

Government Agent stated :— |

‘“*'To meet Ceylon plumbago in Cumberland was certainly a

surprise ; but when recently at the English Lakes I learned that

plumbago from this Island was mixed with the local graphite to

make good pencils.”

In the palmy days of the plumbago mines of the North

of England the black lead obtained from them was valued at _

30s. per pound, or over £3,000 per ton, or within about two-

thirds of the price of ordinary gold. We cannot be surprised

therefore to learn that a couple of centuries before the world

heard of the gold escorts of California and Australia, the

black lead of the English Lake region was guarded in its

transit, in carts, from mine to manufactory by parties of

military, the robbery of black lead mines being, by an

Act of George IL., constituted afelony. The Act, curiously

enough, recited that black lead was employed for divers

useful purposes, and more especially for the casting of

bomb-shells, round shot, and cannon bails. The connection,

therefore, with the art of war of the mineral so long asso-

ciated with the most intellectual and humanizing of the

arts of peace—writing and drawing, to wit—does not date

from yesterday, neither was appreciation of the value of the

Borrowdale mineral of late date, for a grant of the manor

of Borrowdale as far back as the reign of James I. refers

to ‘the wap holes and wap, commonly called cawke.” The

affinity of graphite to coke, whether artificially obtained —

from coal or naturally occurring as anthracite, was thus

~ early recognized.

Ve aaa

“Sage

No: 31,—1885.] PLUMBAGO. 195

The quality of the Borrowdale ore, dark-coloured, pure and

soft, rendered it eminently suitable for pencils of the finest

descriptions, and for about two and a-half centuries the world

- was practically supplied with pencils from this one source.

From one pound of the ore, worth 30s., or at the rate of

£168 per cwt., the number of pencils cut averaged from 18

to 20 dozens. The mineral was stated to be found in pipes,

strings, and irregular masses called “ sops,” a description

which, substituting modern terms for olden, applies equally

to the Ceylon graphite formations. Since the exhaustion

of the Cumberland mines, the best ore for pencils is said in

some books to be obtained from Siberia, while no doubt the ©

niassive and soft stove polish black lead, occurring in various

parts of Germany—Bavaria, Bohemia, &¢.—is applied |

to the manufacture of pencils. It cannot be questioned

also that some of the finest quality Ceylon plumbago is

thus used in Britain, and also in the United States,

notwithstanding directly contradictory statements on the

subject, one writer declaring that the presence of grit or

- iron rendered the much-lauded Siberian mineral unsuitable

for pencil manufacture ; while another, with equal posi-

tiveness, writes that, notwithstanding the acknowledged

purity of Ceylon plumbago, it is not applicable to pencil-

making. : |

The old method of making pencils was to saw blocks of

so-called black lead into strips to be inserted in cedar wood

eases, but now the general mode of manufacture—and this

applies to crucibles as well as pencils—is to grind and

comminute the ore as finely as possible, and then after

washing and intermixing with definite proportions of certain

qualities of clay, also ground fine, to subject the mixture

to tremendous pressure and to a baking process. For

blocks composed solely of black lead dust, prepared for

peucil-making, the air-pump has also been utilized to

render the blocks perfectly solid. Germany, besides

Supplying the form of so-called “black lead’’ suitable

- for stove polish and pencils, yields also a peculiar kind

of clay, which inthe United States at any rate is used to

give adhesiveness to the ground particles of plumbago when

subjected to the extreme pressure which has been mentioned.

" Secrecy is, I believe, observed at the Battersea Crucible

196 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). (var it.

Works as to the exact substances and processes used £0 give

adhesion, but there can be little doubt that there, as in all

other paecen of plumbago into crucibles, nozzles,

pencils, &c., fine clay of some sort is used in varying quanti-

ties. Into coloured pencils, clays no doubt enter still more

largely.

The earliest pencils used were, propanky pieces of chalk

and clay, true lead pencils ances until perfection

for drawing, writing, and ruline purposes was attained by

the use of ce black lead,’’ payed graphite—a name which

indicates, as already Enea the large use of the material

by artists and in literature. Into pencils, the marks of

which cannot be erased, aniline dyes are said to beintroduced,

but the test of a good black lead pencil is now what

it always has been, the ease with which a black mark by its

means can be madeon paper and againerased. Molybdenite,

on the other hand, which abounds in Ceylon and closely

resembles plumbago in appearance, leaves a green streak.

For inferior pencils Mexican and Spanish lead dust mixed

with antimony has been used, but the marks made by such

pencils cannot, like those of black lead, be easily removed

by India-rubber.

Of course the importance of black lead pencils for ruling

purposes has been greatly lessened by the invention and

application of machines which rule with pens and coloured

inks, but for drawing, taking memoranda, &c., pencils are

still used to an enormous extent, of which some idea may be

formed from the fact that one manufactory in the United

States turned out sixteen millions in the one year 1882.

This, however, is as nothing to the estimated annual outturn

of Nuremberg, where twenty-six factories employing 5,500

persons, produce two hundred and fifty millions, valued

at £400,000. Counting those made in America and Europe

together, the total for the world cannot, probably, be less

than one thousand millions of pencils per annum, worth at

Jeast 14 million sterling.

It is curious that the quaint old city of Nuremberg,

besides being the principal toy dep6t of the world, should

also be the principal source of supply of pencils. It /

seems that when the English mines showed signs of

giving out, the firm of the old Faber family in the Bi ,

No. 31.—1885.] PLUMBAGO. 497

German city began the manufacture of pencils with

pulverized graphite cemented into solid blocks by means

of gums and similar substances; but useful pencils in

quantity were manufactured only after Conté of Paris

in 1795 devised the process by which now all black lead

pencils, and indeed pencils of all sorts, are manufactured.

As will be seen subsequently, this is ie process adopted in

The Joseph Dixon Works in America, and the writer in the

Encyclopedia Britanmea, from whose article I am quoting,

asserts that the Conté method has, now that even dust

cannot be obtained from Borrowdale, quite superseded

the processes patented by Mr. Brockendon in 1843, of

subjecting pure graphite to enormous pressure and air

exhaustion.

In the Conté process graphite and clay are first and

separately brought to a condition of the finest subdivision,

the graphite being calcined to a bright red heat. The par-

ticles of each mineral are then floated from one vat of water

to another, the finest particles last to sink being of course

used to make the finest pencils. The minerals are then

thoroughly incorporated, ground together (that is the

various qualities), placed in bags, and squeezed ina hydraulic

press to the consistency of dough. The mass is then forced

through apertures, taking the shape of pencil rods, and

being finally subjected to more or less furnace heat as hard

or soft qualities are desiderated. The prepared “rods” are |

then put into cedar cases, on which quality is indicated by

letters, such as “ B” for black; “ H’’ for hard; “8. T.” for

soft streak, &c. Black lead pencils of an inferior quality

are made from graphite dust mixed with melted sulphur and

run into moulds, those used by carpenters being mixed with

tallow to give them softness. Coloured pencils are made

from appropriate mineral matters mixed with clay.

The graphite in Borrowdale was found in the primitive

rocks in pockets or nests, and so in Ceylon very large masses

_ of pure plumbago, over a quarter of a ton in weight, have

_ been dug out of our crystalline rocks perfectly free from all

impurities, with no particles of iron pyrites, gneiss, or of the

beautifully white and transparent quartz with which the black

mineral is so generally associated. But here, as in India, the

_ United States, Canada, and other countries, graphite is also

198 | JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). -«~FVol. TX. °@

found in particles of greater or lesser size diffused through

the including rock, whence it has to be separated by careful

and costly processes of breaking, picking, washing, drying,

sifting, and sorting. The wet process applied to plumbago

means that rock impregnated with the ore is pounded and

put into water, when the low specific gravity of the

graphite (only twice the weight of water) causes it to float.

Graphite, as already noticed, has been found in a large

number of places in India, but always in too close inter-

mixture with the siliceous, ferruginous, or other constituents

of the rocks to be economically valuable.

The Canadian and United States plumbago is ofas pure a

quality as that of Ceylon, but good as the American ore is,

when freed from the rock in which it is generally scattered

after the fashion of mica, I suspect the high cost of the

Jabour necessary for first mining and then separating the

mineral by the wet process—for the dry has proved a failure

——will prevent continued and successful competition with

Ceylon. We shall soon see, however, for The Joseph Dixon

Crucible Company had produced in 1882 a quarter of a

million pounds of native plumbago, against 16,000,000

pounds imported from Ceylon, and a determination to “go

ahead” was expressed. Some as yet unthought of machinery,

cheap chemicals, and appliances must, however, be brought

into play before the pure, massive Ceylon product and

our far cheaper labour are distanced in the race. And if, as

Professor Dawson states, some of the Canadian ore is

fibrous enough to indicate by its texture its vegetable origin,

there is room to suspect that, however pure the mineral —

may be as carbon, its mechanical condition cannot beso good

as that of the more highly crystallized Ceylon plumbago. —

One important element in the question is, that according

to our American friends themselves, enterprise and compe- 4

tition have had such influence, that Ceylon plumbago can

now be obtained by them at 25 per cent. of what it cost —

some years ago. y

The effect ofcompeting demand forthe substance, however,

between 1850 and 1870, chiefly on the part of the Battersea

Crucible Company in Bheland and The Joseph Dixon Com- —

pany in the United States, was to enhance the value of the

oats Td ne

Eg SN) PS a Oa a eae ee i OD RR ca USA

| No. 31.—1885.] PLUMBAGO. 199

ore to such an extent in Ceylon as to produce temptations

to cheating, which the native headmen, whose business it

was to weigh the output and collect the royalty at the pit’s

mouth, were unable to resist. ‘These estimable servants of

Government cheated the diggers out of bribes by threatening

to report them as having surreptitiously removed plumbago

on which royalty had not been paid, and they impartially

cheated Government by accepting bribes to largely under-

report the quantities really dug andremoved. The Customs

figures enabled the Government authorities to appreciate the

vast extent to which the demoralizing system had gone, and

so in 1873 legislation was initiated, the main object of which

was the collection of the royalty at the custom-house—a_

mode in itself far preferable to the direct system of collection

previously in force, and securing every sixpence of royalty

due because, practically, every hundredweight dug is exported,

the quantity as yet used in local foundries or for any local

purpose being quite insignificant. Ibelieve a few crucibles

for gold and silversmiths’ use are locally made, and the

result of inquiries made by Mr. W. P. Ranesinghe, at my

request, is that Ceylon potters occasionally employ the

mineral for giving a glaze to pottery, as is the practice in

India.

The mercantile community strove hard in 1873 to make

out a case for the entire abandonment of the royalty, but

the Press supported Sir William Gregory’s Government in

resisting the pressure brought to bear in this direction, only

that the Odserver strongly urged a rate so low as Rs. 5 per

ton, which after four years’ experience of Rs. 10 per ton,

under which exports declined, was conceded in 1877.

Under this rate, which is still in force, the exports more

than trebled in the six years between 1878 and 1883.

As Government in making grants of land has always

reserved royalties on minerals and metals, of course the

plumbago dug from private lands paid royalty when

exported equally with that taken from rented Crown lands.

There was a singular exception in the case of some plumbago

Jands sold in the district of Kurunégala without any reserve,

which lands subsequently gave unprecedented yields of very

fine plumbago. When it was determined to levy royalty

on all plumbago exported, the Kurunégala purchasers

i} i To hig Woes are + Y: i, } 4 : ‘ Tr\

i ® : cP Pia Tet ree Bree Panta ah Ca Nii a atu oy BEN eRan a aap 4 Be Lina ah za 3

oa) Wad F i vy a ighow tig Hal pd By Payee ‘ Py Pa Noe A ee Bee 5 r

t i ae sie ” fr ‘ : He oa eee ar

\ ue oiiey Hy ¢ * CTT Ba A

‘ 4

200 | JOURNAL, B.A.S. (CEYLON.) [Vol. IX.

claimed compensation, which was awarded them. The —

result in the case of Mr. Jacob De Mel, who had paid £450

for four acres of land, was that he received all his money

back except £5.

Mr. De Mel has been amongst the most prosperous of

all who have engaged in the plumbago digging enterprise

in Ceylon, his prosperity being mainly due to the rich

yield of his Kurunégala district mine, which is by far

the most important in Ceylon, having been sunk to a depth

of 450 feet near the base of a hill, Polgolla, which seems to be

largely composed of fine quality plumbago. From this mine

Mr. De Melobtained an average of 800 tons annually for eleven

years, his profits, he authorizes me to say, being at the rate of

£2,000 perannum. No wonder if, notwithstanding lessened

production and profits in the past two years, connected with

this mine there is a steam crane for raising water and a

considerable length of Decauville railway for the carriage

of the ore from pit mouth to cart, or that the enterprising

owner has commenced a base level tunnel at an estimated

total cost of £2,000 to free and keep the mine free of water,

whether the result of springs in the rocks or of monsoon

rains. The effect of the latter during the recent exceptionally

heavy burst of the South-West monsoon in May was to fill

up the pits and puta stop to digging everywhere. ‘This,

irrespective of a fall of £2 per ton from the price to which

the mineral had been sent up by the war scare.

The tunnel in Mr. De Mel’s mine, when completed, will

not only carry away water, but facilitate the output of

mineral from the lower, which are generally the richer

strata, besides ventilating the mine so as to prevent injury

from mephitic gases or inconvenience from the smoke of

ws bese a!

Re ee ee ee

the explosives employed in blasting. The draft will also ~

alleviate the heat in the interior of the mine, which the

workmen now complain of as sometimes intolerable. For

blasts under water large quantities of dynamite cartridges

are employed, in addition to gunpowder used in portions of

the galleries comparatively free from moisture. Thewages —

paid to diggers in this mine, chiefly low-country Sinhalese, —

vary from 9d. per diem for coolies to Rs. 1 for those who _

perform the boring and blasting operations. Inthe Pasdun

‘Koralé there is a system of payment for labour by sharesin

SAC IN a Gl Lay A EN Sh De aed Te RE ur Pt Reh oe.

2 Led * Piru 3 rs ar | ‘¢ 4

c 7

No. 31.—1885.] = PLUMBAGO. 201

the profits, after all preliminary expenses defrayed by the ©

capitalist have been reimbursed.

The hill in which Mr. De Mel’s mine has been opened—

Mr. W. A. Fernando having another at a higher elevation

than De Mel’s, with a depth of 330 feet—seems to be

permeated in its whole extent by generally horizontal veins

of the richest plumbago, associated with beautifully snow-

white crystalline to semi-opaque quartz, the iatter occa-

sionally showing specks of garnet and bands of soapstone,

and Mr. De Mel brings to the surface practically pure plum-

bago. As regards the generality of pits, he agrees with

the estimate of Mr. W. W. Mitchell (who has probably

purchased, prepared and shipped to America as well as

Hurope, more plumbago than any European merchant who

ever resided in Ceylon) that the extraneous matter in,the

shape of earth and rock brought to the pit’s mouth is equal

to one-half of the whole, about 10 to 15 per cent. being the

_ proportion carried to Colombo and separated from the ore in

the preparing yards. Mr. Fernando’s estimate, however, of

foreion matter brought to Colombo, is 5 per cent. for pieces

of quartz round which plumbago adheres, and 24 per cent.

for minute fragments of silica, iron, &c., mixed with the

smaller pieces and dust. Any person who has witnessed

and appreciated the difficulty and the expensiveness of the

processes whereby small fragments of rock are separated

from the lower classes of plumbago in Ceylon, can well

imagine the obstacies to profitable separation of the mineral

from rock in America where there are no masses, but

only scales of the mineral distributed throughout the

rock. : |

When the Prince of Wales was in Colombo in 1870,

Mr. De Mel exhibited what I suppose was the largest mass

of pure plumbago ever shown in this or any other country,

its weight being only 14 lb. short of 6.cwt. For this unique

specimen a sum of £50 was offered. It was subsequently

sent to the United States, and is understood to have been

placed in the Philadelphia Exhibition, and finally in an

American Museum. Finds of plumbago in large masses do

not, however, always prove profitable, such masses being

sometimes, although pure carbon, of sucha rocky-hard consis-

tency, that they resist the best tempered saws and yield with

hk EA Te POS DCIS ROBOT ae CRIN ERT Pua nape anit BE ok Roe RUN a eae PNP Een a se Sa ea

“ oy Pate pat Meas ikea Dee tys Hibeat, tetra Parada tes Salas en SR Ro er a 21 NG ae 4 voy 1,

is 5 ‘i s BN AD < RE Se eee a

P 3

202 JOURNAL, RB.A.S. (CEYLON). _ [Vol. 1X

difficulty to hammers and axes. Such masses are of course

proportionally difficult to grind for use in the manufacture

of crucibles and other articles, and do not realize the prices

paid for lumps which are soft as well as large. Dulness of

colour as well as hardness of texture, decrease the value of

plumbago, even where iron may not be present, brilliancy

of crystallization being generally an index of a correspond-

ingly good quality.

In legislating for and discussing the subject in 1873, it

was announced by Governor Sir W. H. Gregory, that no

lands known or supposed to contain plumbago in quantity

should in future be sold, for the reason that a few rich men

might thus monopolize a pursuit, the benefits of which

Government properly wished to see diffused amongst the

population. Only leases, therefore, are generally granted,

on terms easy for the lessees and fair to the community, of

whom Government were the trustees. The Government

Agent of the Western Province is now, however, in favour

of selling plumbago lands in small lots. Instead of a system

exclusively of fees, which would have to be paid whether

the land taken up was productive or barren, the rules for

leases in force in the Western Province, but, strangely

enough, not in the Southern (the mines in the North-

Western Province being allon private lands), are embodied

in the following memorandum, which I owe to the courtesy

of the Hon. Mr. Saunders :—

‘“¢ When a person wishes to dig for plumbago in a Crown land,

he is required to make application in writing to the Government

Agent or Assistant Government Agent, who forwards the appli-

cation to the Mudaliyar of the district for report as to whether

the land is such as might be properly leased, and the applicant

a proper and fit person to be granted a lease. If the report be

satisfactory, the applicant is required to mark the boundaries of

the land he wishes for, by trenches and stones, in such a way as to

leave no doubt of the exact land selected. A lease bond is then :

entered into on a stamp of Rs. 10. An extent of one acre only

is leased at one time, and only for one year; but the lease is

extended from year to year if applied for by the lessee.

‘Instead of charging a fixed sum for [ the rent equivalent of

an annual lease, it has been found better to take one-tenth of the

plumbago dug.

No. 31.—1885.] PLUMBAGO. 203

“No plumbago can be removed without a pass from the head-

man. When the lessee has a sufficient quantity dug and ready for

removal, he applies for a permit. The headman reports the amount

and the value of the plumbago so dug. The lessee is generally

allowed to purchase the Crown share at its assessed value, and

one-tenth of the value of the Crown share [ or one-hundredth of the

whole | is deducted and given to the headman who weighed and

valued the plumbago, and the balance is brought to account as

rent for the land.”

Under this system a sum of Rs. 954:24 was collected in

the Western Province in 1884 (a great falling off from nearly

Rs. 4,000 in the previous year), the proportions for the various

districts being :—Colombo, Rs. 13-72; Ratnapura, Rs. 158°28 ;

Kégalla, Rs. 79 ; Negombo, Rs. 87:99; Kalutara, Rs. 615°25.

An obvious objection to the Western Province system,

and one which has been preferred, is that it seems to revive

the temptations to which the headmen of 1873 succumbed ;

but in reply to remarks to this effect, the Government

Agent, Western Province, pointed out that only a tithe of the

quantity dug on Crown lands is now in question, and that of

this Government tenth the headmen receive one-tenth, or

one-hundredth of the whole. One-tenth of a ton, if the

plumbago were taken at the Custom-house valuation of

Rs. 200 per ton, would be Rs. 20 for 2 cwt., or twice the

total royalty fixed in 1873. But the Customs valuation is

excessive, and as the plumbago is mixed with extraneous

matter, and has to bear the cost of carriage and preparation,

of course a ‘‘ spot value” at a much lower rate is calculated

for the rent-royalty. Having referred this question to the

Government Agent of the Western Province, he states :—

“Your note has reached me on circuit, and I cannot lay my

hand ‘on the exact figures ; but I am inclined to think that the

value of Crown plumbago, dust and lump together, which varies

_ between Rs. 15 and Rs. 120 per ton at the pit’s mouth, is on

an average about Rs. 70 a ton, and that the Crown royalty is

about Rs. 4or Rs. 5 aton, So that, whilst private plumbago pays a

royalty in shape of Customs duty of Ks. 5a ton, plumbago dug on

Crown land pays in rent and royalty Rs.9 or Rs.10. Consider-

ing that plumbago dug from Crown land is generally easily got at,

and that it is optional with a man at any time to cease paying

rent and to acquire the land, I don’t think the rent high. We

would always rather sell the lands outright than rent them,”

204 » “JOURNAL, RAS. (CEYLON). |) Vola

In the latter part of this note, Mr. Saunders seems to have

lost sight of the policy announced by Sir W. H. Gregory’s

Government in 1873, viz., that lands containing plumbago

were to be leased, not sold, so as to prevent anything like

a monopoly. It is lands which have been proved not to

contain the mineral in any quantity, or which have been

exhausted, we understood, that are sold. It maybe, however,

that only large lots of plumbago land were intended not to

be sold, the prohibition not extending to one-acre lots. [See

appendix No. 14.]

The merit of the system, provided the rent-royalty is’

moderate, is that the lessee of the land pays only and

just in proportion to the productiveness of the land he

has leased, payment being accepted in money or in

kind. At the end of each year the lease can be either

renewed or abandoned, and plumbago lands which have

been for a certain time abandoned, and which evidently do

not contain appreciable quantities of the metal, are sold on

the terms applied to ordinary Crown iands. Copies of an

application to dig, and of a lease granted by the Government

Agent of the Western Province, are appended to this paper.

From the terms of the lease it will be seen that timber for

props, &c., can be obtained by the lessee from Crown land at

a fair cost, and that roads, paths, &c., can be used for pur-

poses of the mine. ‘The effect of the different systems in

operation in the Western and Southern Provinces becomes

apparent from a glanceat the table of plumbago revenue con-

tributed by each, which is given as an appendix to this

paper. Previously to 1881 the contributions of the two

Provinces, apart from Customs collections, was pretty equal,

but while in 1883 the plumbago revenue (mainly rent-royalty)

of the Western Province was no less than Rs. 3,987, that

of the Southern Province, derived solely from 74 licenses to

dig issued at Rs. 10 each (no rent being charged), was

only Rs. 740.

Hixaggerated figures have sometimes appeared in the Blue

Books, as representing the total number of plumbago mines

in Ceylon, from the inclusion of large numbers of abandoned

pits. Many such pits are doubtless subsequently worked, so

that it is difficult to get even an approximate estimate of

the mines existing in Ceylon, and such information, if

Lae ere ae

Gewese) Hie

fra NG ot iat vee

No. 31.—1885.] PLUMB AQ@O. i 9035

attainable, would not help us much, because mere numbers

would not distinguish between holes of a few feet deep and

Mr. Jacob De Mel’s great mine in the Kurunégala district,

already described. Some years ago there was an account

of a mine on alarge scale opened for a Mr. Mathew

by a Huropean miner in the district of Kégalla, and

many years ago a couple of North of England men,

brothers named Sims, tried their luck in mining plum-

bago, but without success. What are called mines are

generally, however, vertical holes, and the great trouble of

the miners, as it is also of the gem-diggers, is to keep —

out water or get rid of it. Steam machinery has been on

a few rare occasions resorted to, and in one instance it has

been stated that owing to a deficiency of hose sent out,

the primitive means in use amongst the natives of baling

by buckets had to be reverted to in supersession of the

steam engine. rom the Governm ent Agent of the Southern

Province I have received a translation of a Sinhalese

description of a plumbago mine, illustrated by a diagram,

which is printed as an appendix, and will be found curious

and interesting.

As a general rule, graphite seems to exist not far

from the surface, on which its presence may be revealed

through fissures, while in regard to this mineral as well

as gold and other ores, indications in streams guide ex-

plorers up to the including rocks, generally quartzy gneiss,

in which the mineral is embedded or diffused. Mr. De

Mel tells me that very good plumbago is often found near

the surface, but that, as a general rule, the lower the digging

operations go, the better the quality and the larger the

quantity of the mineral. {remember once at Baddégama,

near Galle, seeing in a rice field what looked like a large

gneiss boulder, the top of which had been blasted away, the

process revealing a “pocket” of plumbago. As a general

rule, the mineral runs in long thin horizontal veins through

the quartzy strata of the gneiss, but downward veins are not

uncommon. Of course the purer the finds are, and the

larger the masses the better, but a visit to any of the prepar-

ing yards in Colombo will show that besides the cost of

prospecting and mining and the uncertainty of ultimate

_ success, a good deal of expense is involved in conveying a

£2

considerable proportion (already noticed) of extraneous

matter to Colombo, there to be hammered, cut with small

axes, picked, sifted, and washed out.

Still, with all its drawbacks, the plumbago enterprise

is valuable to the country not only for the revenue it yields,

but for the generally remunerative employment it has

given to many thousands of the population (from 10,000 to

20,000 men, women, and children, probably, including

cartmen and carpenters), especially since the period when

the collapse of the once great coffee interest led to so

much distress in the country. The Kurunégala Adminis-

tration Report of 1873 stated that in that district alone

the plumbago industry had given employment to some

0,000 persons. The Galle report for 1872 estimated that

each mine required from two to eight or ten miners, and even

up to fifty or sixty,at high wages. The Kurunégala report

for 1875 mentioned that all the plumbage which had been

dug, the figure being given at 2,567 tons, had been removed

by rail, coming on the railway at Polgahawela of course.

As the principal mines are 18 miles from Kurunégala with

12 miles additional to the railway, the expense of cartage

for so heavy an article must be very considerable. We

cannot be surprised, therefore, to hear that at a period when

the plumbago industry was at the height of its prosperity,

Mr. De Mel and other mine owners had almost concluded

an arrangement with Messrs. John Walker & Co. for a light

railway line from the mine region to the Government rail-

way. Depression in prices caused this design to fall through,

but the day cannot be far distant when Kurunégala at least

will be connected with the Government railway system

at Polgahawela, forty-five miles from Colombo. The Western

Province plumbago found in the Pasdun Koralé (a kéralé

which is famous for the quality as well as the quantity of

ore it produces) does not come on the railway at Kalutara.

Once it is loaded in boats it comes by water all the way to

Colombo.

A return furnished by Mr. Pearce shows that nearly one-

half of all the plumbago exported from Ceylon comes on

the railway at various points, mainly at Polgahawela,

the quantity so carried in 1882 being no less than

5,642 tons. Small quantities come from points so distant as a

206 JOURNAL, R.A.S- (CEYLON). [Vol EX a

No. 31.—1885.1 | PLUMBAGO. | 207

Nawalapitiya, 87 miles,and Matalé 91 miles from Colombo.

Most of the plumbago dug in the Southern Province, and

perhaps some from places ranked in the Western Province,

are shipped at Galle. Of the total exports from the Island,

an average of 12,000 tons annually for the past five years,

less than one-tenth goes from Galle; the rest enters into

the export trade of Colombo.

To show the vicissitudes of the plumbago enterprise,

I may quote from the Sabaragamuwa report of 1873 to the

effect that plumbago, which formerly sold at Rs. 200 per

ton, then realized only Rs.90, while the working expenses had

considerably increased in consequence of the enhanced prices _

of labour. It will be remembered that 1873 was the year

in which the change was made to the collection of royalty

at the Custom-house, in anticipation of which the great

manufactories in Britain and America had provided them-

selves with stocks of the mineral. Hence a fall in exports

and prices. Hleven years subsequently, in 1883, Ceylon

sent away her largest export of plumbago, but the depression

had even then set in, which led to greatly reduced ship-

mentsin 1884. In the one matter of cask-making, however,

the increase in the export of plumbago during the past

- five years must have largely filled up the void created

by the decrease in coffee. Hora, one of our most inferior

timbers, can be utilized for plumbago casks, and as the

casks are uniformly made to hold a quantity somewhat over

a quarter of a ton (54 cwt. nett),an average of 45,000 casks

per annum for the past five years, or a totalin the quinquen-

nium of 225,000, must have given, in their manufacture,

remunerative employment to a considerable number of

carpenters who had previously been largely dependent on

cask-making for coffee.

But to revert to the subject of plumbago mines. They

seem to have been until a comparatively recent period,

practically confined to the Western and Southern Provinces,

the quantity of plumbago dug in the Central Province

being insignificant, and the industry now so wonderfully

successful in the North-Western Province being apparently

of quite recent origin. In a memorandum furnished to me

by Mr. C. Dickman, Assistant Auditor-General, I find the

remark that nocollections on account of plumbago were made

208 i JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). — Voix a

in this Province until 1872, when Rs. 60 were received; in

1873, Rs. 1,966;.in 1874, Rs.210. There the record ends, and

it rather looks as if the money had been received for lands

sold, for I have it on good authority that all the mines now

worked in the Kurunégala district are on private property ;

my informant, Gate Mudaliyar Jayatilleke, adds in reply to

my queries as to whether there was anything hereditary,

or a system of payment by shares amongst the mining

class :— |

“ All the plumbago quarries that are now worked in the district

are purchased from the Crown. No licenses have ever been

applied for or granted to dig plumbago. The diggers are paid

wages, and they are coolies from the Siyané and Hapitigam

Kéoralés, in the Western Province. Very few Kandyans are

employed, as they are not handy in blasting and excavating any

depth of more than 15 or 20 feet.”

I may add that but few Tamils are employed in the

Ceylon plumbago mines, which are, I believe, exclusively

owned by Sinhalese, although no doubt the ubiquitous

Chetty of Southern India is interested in the recovery of

advances made or supplies furnished in some cases.

To Mr. G. 8. Willams, the Acting Government Agent

of the North-Western Province, | had previously been

indebted for responses to my questions, thus :—

“The pits are about sixteen miles north-east of Kurunégala

onthe Dambulla road. There is a good resthouse at about the

12th mile, and the journey in decent weather is easy enough. 4

“The trade altogether failed last year—I mean no digging was

done—on account of the fall in price, but this year operations have

been resumed, and I am told that about 2,000 men are employed.

' The plumbago is found in rocky ground in which are very large

crystals transparent like Derbyshire spar.* De Mel is the owner

of the principal pit. The resthouse is at Gékerella. It is not

mentioned in Fyers’ Itinerary, but is between Polgolla (about a

mile beyond it) and Ambanpola. On page 20 of the new edition

(1881) Part I., you will find Wetakeyy4pota, which is 15°55 miles

from Kurunégala and 0°55 mile beyond that, or 16°10 from Kuru-

négala, ‘minor road to plumbago pit on right.’ There are other

plumbago pits, some actually by the roadside.”

* Crystalline quartsz, of course, as lime taking the form of spar seems ~

to be non-existent in Ceylon? ,

No. 31,—1885.] PLUMBAGO. ce 209

It thus appears that the best deposits of plumbago at

present worked in Ceylon are situated at the foot of the

north-western portion of the mountain zone. The mineral

exists at high elevations, up to Nuwara Eliya indeed, but

apparently not in paying form or quantity. It would appear

that while the veins of plumbago run generally from south

to north in the Western Province, their direction in the

Kurunégala District are from east to west.

In the Central Province as now constituted, few plumbago

mines seem to have been opened. The mineral must be rare

in the North-Central Province, and still rarer, if really

existent, in the Northern Province. Piumbago mining, in ~

any case, seems to be, at present, practically confined to the

North-Western, Western, and Southern Provinces, and a

Sessional Paper, issued with reference to the legislation of

1873, stated that the number of pits then was altogether no

less than 1,779, of which 1,181 were on Crown land, 539 on

private land, and 59 on land specially exempted. Of the

pits enumerated, 1,086 were in the Western Province,

644 in the Southern, and 82 in the North-Western. In

the Western and Southern Provinces by far the larger pro-

portion of the mines were on Government land, there being

none on Government land in the North-Western Province.

Of the 1,779 mines enumerated, more than half were

represented as having been abandoned. In dealing with the

question of minesin the “ Ceylon Directory” of 1880, the com-

piler stated that it was impossible to obtain the exact number

of plumbago mines in Ceylon, but that it was usually reckoned

at about 400, besides 230 ¢em pits and 30 iron quarries. —

It seems possible that if digging for gems and plumbago

continues on a large scale, and becomes widespread,

legislation may be needed such as exists regarding the pro-

tection of wells, and that measures to prevent accidents from

subterraneous blasting and the collapse of tunnels, as also to

secure free ventilation, may be necessary. Though not so

much so as gem-digging, plumbago mining is, no doubt,

largely a speculative pursuit, involving the loss and demorali-

zation which everaccompany gambling pursuits. The ultimate

result is, however, beneficial to the people and the country.

From some of the Administration Reports consulted, it

would seem that the plumbago industry isa recent one in

210 JOURNAL, B.A.8. (CEYLON). [Vol. 1X.

the district of Sabaragamuwa, although the existence of the

mineral must, surely, have been revealed to the gem-diggers

who have for ages been engaged in searching forthe sapphires

and rubies for which the region around “the city of gems”

(Ratnapura) is sofamous. After adverting to gold, the

report of 1868 stated: ‘‘ A more remunerative speculation

than gold-digging has sprung up during the year, viz., the

digging of plumbago or graphite, which has been found in

a very pure form and in some abundance in nearly every

division of the district.”” Inthe report for 1869 disappoint-

ment was expressed that the demand was not brisker, but

strong adverse reasons were suggested in the case of so

bulky an article “‘in the distance from and costliness of the

carriage to the storesin Colombo.” As regards Kurunégala,

too, the report for 1875 speaks of plumbago being found

at Mipitiya, about 18 miles north-west of the capital of the

Province, asif the discovery had only recently been made.

Under the rules now in force royalty is levied on

plumbago, the produce of all lands, private or public, all

special exemptions being abolished, but of course the owners

of private lands are not bound to apply or pay for licenses

to dig, nor is any plumbago or its money value in the shape

of rent exacted from them, only the royalty collected at the

Customs. A vivid idea will be formed of the extent to which

Government—that is, the public—were formerly cheated

under the system of collecting the royalty at the pit’s mouth,

when it is mentioned that while cwt. 226,000 were exported

in 1869, the royalty recovered was only Rs. 16,000, against

Rs. 65,000 on cwt, 263,000 in 18838, the rate in the latter

year being only one-third of that in the former.* The

extreme rate of 30s. per ton in 1869 evidently proved an

irresistible temptation to diggers and headmen, and the

royalty recovered was only one-tenth of the sum which

* How striking is the illustration here afforded of the value of

indirect (and especially Customs) taxation, rather than a direct levy in

the case of Orientals. No greater fiscal boon could probably be

conferred on the people of India and Ceylon than—if it were possible—

the collection of all Government dues through the Customs Department,

sO Saving an amount of oppression on the one hand, and of bribery and

corruption on the other, of which European administrators never get

more than a faint idea.

No. 31.—1885. ] PLUMBAGO. 211

ought to have been collected. No wonder if from 1869,

until the new system came into play, Government had

to confiscate considerable portions of the mineral, or

that Sir W. H. Gregory in closing the session for 1878

should have remarked: “The Plumbago Ordinance will,

I firmly believe, give a great impetus to mining enterprise

throughout the country, and put an end to the widespread

fraud and demoralization which the present system entails.”

Fraud and demoralization were at once checked, but the

anticipated impetus to mining enterprise was only fully

given when the royalty was reduced from Rs. 10 per ton

to Rs. 5, in 1877. The criterion, I need scarcely say, is not

to be found in Blue Book returns of the number of mines

open or dormant, but in the figures of the Custom-house.

In the Blue Book for 1884 the figures given for plumbago

mines are 81 in 1884 against 246 in 1883, in both cases

exclusive of mines in the Southern Province, whence returns

of mines seem not to have been sent, the details for 1884

giving 57 mines in the Western Province and 24 in the North-

Western. I find, however, that in the Southern Province the

licenses to dig plumbago issued in 1883 were 74, falling to 10

in 1884. From the North-Western Province estimates are

given in the Blue Book, which are manifestly imperfect,

the figures for 1884 being 1,500 tons of mineral valued at

only Rs. 150,000. The addition of the mines open in the

Southern Province would doubtless bring the number

of plumbago mines at work in the year of reaction and

depression (1884) up to considerably over 100, a number

which will, probably, be doubled or trebled, should rumours

of and preparations for war give a fresh impetus to

the pursuit. Although no estimate of the number of mines in

the Southern Province is attempted, the Blue Book return

mentions : “ Plumbago and iron mines ; gems and minerals

in small quantities are taken from rivulets and the surface

of the earth in numerous places;” and the curious state-

ment follows: “ Plumbago about 65 tons, valued at from

Rs. 20 to Rs. 100 per ton.” We may safely assume that

the figures for quantity and value are equally inadequate.

Indeed, the Customs returns of revenue show that 753

tons were exported from Galle in 1884. It was natural

that the mineral should be valued at a low figure in

LI seh ee ARG ee Pde a eee ey

perc ah Tiss a | eet ama OAe HA tn Ac

¥ FE &

ele JOURNAL, B.A.S. (CEYLON).

1884 in view of the depression which prevailed, and which

is vividly represented by the comparative figures for the

totals for the Island of ten-rupee license fees to dig on

Government ground for 1883 and 1884, which, with (in the

Western Province) rent of 10 per cent. of the yield, gave

Rs. 4,736 for the former year and only Rs. 1,054 for the

latter, a falling-off equal to Rs. 3,682, representing pro-

bably a deficiency of a couple of hundreds in the licenses

applied for and granted last year as compared with 1883,

As has been proposed in the case of chips in the cinnamon

trade, it would almost seem desirable that low quality dust

should be excluded from the exports. Buyers are strongly

inclined to confine their attention to lump of best quality, and

T have heard that some of the local dealers have injured their

own reputation, and that of the article in which they deal,

by mixing lower qualities with the higher. As matters

stand, the proportions in which the mineral seems to be ex-

ported are :—lumps, Ist and 2nd quality, 50 per cent. ; chips

and dust, each 25 per cent.; so that dust is only one-fourth

of the whole. In the home market during the past five years

of unprecedented outturn, I am informed that prices have

ranged from £20 per ton, the highest for lump, down to £10.

In Colombo, apart from the exceptional case in the experience

of Mr. W. A. Fernando, already mentioned, the highest

prices ever known are stated to be Rs. 320 per ton for fine,

Rs. 270 for ordinary, Rs. 95 for dust. In the old sailing

ship days plumbago was taken at an exceptionally low rate

of freight as “ dead weight.” Since 1880 the average rates

for a ton of 20 cwt. have been :—steamer 40s. ; sailer 35s,

The United States are our best customers in the case of

plumbago, the Ceylon form of which the late Mr. Joseph

Dixon saw and appreciated in 1827, and of which he

secured a first shipment in 1829. In 1882 the quantity

received in the United States from Ceylon was stated

at, 16,000,000 Ib., and of the comparatively small quantity

of 224 millions of pounds sent from Ceylon in 1884, more

than half went to the United States. But a memorandum

showing the various countries for which the plumbago

exported in the past five years was destined, will clearly in-

dicate how important a customer for our mineral we have

in the United States with its large steel manufacturing

Bie,

No. 31.—1885.] PLUMBAGO. 213

industry. Besides the quantities which may subsequently

have been transhipped thereto from Britain, the direct ship-

ments for the United States from Ceylon were 133,000 cwt. out

of a total of 205,000 in 1880 ; 160,000 from 260,000 in 1881 ;

113,000 from 260,000 in 1882; 141,000 out of 262,000 in

1883, and 94,000 out of the total of 182,000 in 1884. The

general result is that of the whole export of 1,170,000 cwt.in

the five years, 641,000 (or very considerably more than one-

half of the whole) went to the United States, the United

Kingdom taking the bulk of the remaining 529,000 cwt.

How far the continent of Europe may draw on Britain for

supplies of graphite, I am not aware, but the shipments of

plumbago from Ceylon diverted in the past five years to

other ports than those of the United States and the United

Kingdom have not been important. To Trieste went 4,217

ewt. in 1881; to Hamburg 4,031 in 1881; to British India

1,095 in 1880; to France 884 in 1884; to Holland 945

in 1884; to Australia 885 in 1881; and to Hongkong

739 in 1883. Bat for all practical purposes we may regard

Great Britain and the United States as taking at first

hand the whole of the plumbago Ceylon produces. Out of

an export of 263,000 cwt.in 1883, Britain took 119,000 and

the United States 142,000, leaving only 3,000 cwt. for all

other places. The memorandum referred to is appended as

a note.* It seems probable that three-fourths of all the

* PLUMBAGO exported in each of te last five years, aleve the

countries to which the mineral was shipped :—

1880, 1881. 1882. 1883. 1884,

cewt, cwt. cwt. cwt. cwt.

United ere 70,276 89,709 | 143,450 | 119,312 | 84,981

| Holland — et _ 438 945

Trieste aoe 107 4,217 1,828 = 210

France — aie 507 699 } — 300 294 884

Hamburg oe — 4,031 _ ay 816

U.S. of America} 133,556 | 160,259 | 118,451 | 141,664 | 94,083

British India... 1,095 109 999 326 506

Australia La 197 885 118 _ -—~

| China ae — — 12 _ Soe

Hongkong ED = — 8 739 =

_——}|——— —_— |} —-

‘Total ...| 205,738 | 259,909 | 260,166 | 262,773 | 182,425 a

214 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX.

plumbago which Ceylon exports is used in the great

crucible factories of Britain and the United States, that

established by the Messrs. Morgan Bros. at Battersea and

the crucible factories of Jersey City, New Jersey.

Both establishments are ona very large scale, and afford

remunerative employment to a considerable number of

operatives. Mr. O.V. Morgan, the principal partner in the

Hnglish Company, will be a candidate for Battersea at the

forthcoming Parliamentary election, and will pretty certainly

be chosen. Heis a gentleman of high character, intelli-

gence, and enterprise, and has travelled much, including a

visit to Ceylon. His firm, that of Morgan Brothers, besides

their manufacturing and banking pursuits, turned their

attention to periodical literature, having founded the Kuro-

pean Mail and the British Trade Journal. Mr. Morgan

has taken an active part in general social improvements, and

has done a great deal to secure the well-being of the

operatives at the extensive crucible works, which he and the

brother next to him in age founded in 1855. The American

establishment had been at work long before this period, but

no doubt its productions did not go beyond local demand, for

in a notice of the Battersea works we find it stated that pre-

viously to 1855 crucibles were almost exclusively imported

from Germany. Now that country, together with other

centres of industry on the continent, is principally supplied

from Battersea, where crucibles are turned out at from 8d.

per dozen, up to a gigantic melting pot costing £6 5s., and

capable of taking in 1,000 lb. of steel. Such a crucible can

bear from 8 to 10 meltings, while in the case of gold a

crucible taking in 1,200 ounces can sometimes stand seventy

meltings. So inthe case of brass, while crucibles forassaying

the precious metals are very carefully manufactured, being

rendered porous by the use of charcoal. The proportions of

graphite and fire-clay used in crucibles for various purposes

differ widely no doubt, but good serviceable melting pots

contain from 25 to 50 per cent. of graphite, the proportion of

graphite being, we may take it for granted, larger in crucibles

used in mints. ‘The absence of coal fuel from Ceylon is

probably a fatal objection to local iron or steel manufacture

on any extended scale, but for small quantities of superior

steel for special local use, I would, with some diffidence,

No. 31.—1885. ] PLUMBAGO. 215

suggest that crucibles composed of our indigenous plumbago

and kaolin clay, both abundant and cheap, might be profit-

ably used. The existence of “millions of tons’ of iron ore

in Ceylon is not so apocryphal as that of anthracite, and

those who owe their origin to Britain are not likely to forget

that her weaith in iron quite casts into the shade all the

treasures of the diamond mines of Golconda and the gold

diggings of California and Australia.

But to return to the Battersea works. Messrs. Morgan

Bros. get credit for a liberal and sensible scheme of pensions

for their workmen, while to some extent the men have a

share in the profits of the firm. Although the plumbago sent

from Ceylon is carefully prepared and assorted before being

packed for shipment, it yet appears, from a description of

the Battersea Patent Crucible Company’s works contributed

to the Chemist and Druggist by Mr. J. C. Brough, that,

preparatory to grinding and manufacture, there is a careful

process of selection. Mr. Brough stated :-—

“The graphite imported by the Company is not used solely in

the manufacture of melting-pots and metallurgical apparatus. A

good proportion of this valuable raw material is prepared for

domestic purposes, and sent from the Battersea works in the form

of ordinary ‘black lead.’ As this article is used wherever there

is a grate or stove to be kept bright, its annual consumption must

be very large. ‘There is no substitute for it—nothing that can be

employed in the same way to polish and protect the ironwork of

common fireplaces. Without the factitious lustre produced by

the action of ‘elbow grease’ on black lead, the most elaborate

kitchen range would soon become unsightly, the trim parlour grate

blush with rust, and the cottager’s ‘ wee bit ingle’ would leave off

*plinkin’ bonnily.’ :

“The various qualities of black lead which the Company sends

into the market under different fanciful names are all prepared

from graphite or plumbago, and nothing else. The highest

qualities are distinguished from lower by their superior fineness,

softness, and lustre; but chemically they are identical. The

article sold under the sentimental name of ‘ Servants’ Friend’ at

_ 28s. per cwt. is quite as pure asthe ‘Prize Medal Lustre,’ which

fetches double the price, or ‘Halse’s Roman Lustre,’ the best

quality of black lead manufactured by the Company. Again, the

analytical chemist would fail to detect any essential difference

_ between either of the abovenamed products and the article labelled

OM JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol IX.)

‘carburet of iron,’ in remembrance of an exploded opinion res-

pecting the nature of graphite. How comes it, then, that one

quality is so much superior to another? The explanation is

simple enough. The difference in the manufactured article may

be traced to certain variations in the physical properties of the

raw material. Thus, one sample of graphite may be soft and

lustrous, while another, equally pure, may be hard and dull.

These variations are subordinate to the distinction between amor-

phous and crystallized graphite, which we referred to when

describing the stores of raw material. For making domestic black

lead, the amorphous or soft graphite is almost exclusively used,

“The separation of the different qualities of graphite is a

labour which demands great experience and judgment, and can

only be successfully performed by the oid hands. ‘The best pieces

are soft. and unctuous, perfectly free from grit, and capable of

receiving a very high polish. The worst pieces, technically called

‘orufis,’ are, on the contrary, harsh, gritty, and deficient in lustre.

The latter are only employed for making ‘leads’ of the lowest

brands. The numerous intermediate qualities are distinguished —

one from another by characters which are only apparent to the

experienced eye.

“The manufacture of black leads includes three distinct oper-

ations—grinding, sifting, and packing. At the Battersea works,

the first operation is performed by means of a large mill driven

by steam power. The ground ‘lead’ is conveyed to an upper

floor by an endless-band elevator, and is then sifted through the

finest silk by a contrivance resembling an ordinary dressing

machine for flour. The packing is chiefly done by boys, who

work with marvellous rapidity. The powdered black leads are

done up in neat packets in quantities from two ounces upwards ;

they are also packed in 1-lb. tin canisters and in wood boxes.

Papers of various colours are used to form the small packets, so

that the different qualities may be readily distinguished. A

paper covered on one side with burnished black lead is employed

for wrapping up some of the higher qualities.

“Two descriptions of ‘blocked black lead’ are manufactured

by the Company. ‘The blocks are formed by pressing the pow-

dered and sifted graphite into suitable moulds by the aid of

machinery very similar in construction to that employed for

making bricks, though, of course, ona much smaller scale. There

are two blocking-machines constantly at work, and the number of

little bricks they turn out annually would amply suffice for the

building of a Liliputian city. * * * *

;

~ No. 31.—1885. ] PLUMBAGO. 217

‘*Crucibles have been in use for melting and refining metals from

that distant point of time when man exchanged his stone hatchet

and bone chisel for implements of bronze. ‘The earliest melting-

_ pots were doubtless made of the plastic and infusible substance,

clay, and there is no reason to suppose that they differed essen-

tially from the earthen crucibles now commonly used in our

foundries.

“The works of the Patent Plumbago Crucible Company cover

a large space of ground at Battersea, and have good river front-

age. As we proceed along the lane which leads from near

Battersea-bridge, we find that the ground gets blacker and blacker,

and before we reach the threshold of the office we notice the

familiar black-lead polish beneath our feet. Passing a regiment

of clerks, we enter the private office of the manager of the works,

where we put on a very large coat and a very old hat, which are

kept for the use of clean visitors. There are many things in this

little office which attract our attention. The walls are covered

with testimonials from British and foreign mints respecting the

excellence of the Company’s manufactures, with here and there a

prize medal. ‘The International Exhibition of 1862 is recalled, not

merely by the prize medals awarded to the Company for crucibles

and black leads, but also by the splendid collection of samples of

plumbago, which formed such a striking feature in Class I. In

this collection every quality of plumbago is represented by speci-

mens from all the most celebrated mines, particularly those of

Ceylon, Germany, Spain, Siberia, Canada, Finland, and Borrow-

dale. We learn from the manager that some of the samples

would not be adapted for the manufactures of the Company.

The Siberian plumbago, for instance, contains too much iron ;

and, although this could be entirely removed by the Company’s

patented process for purifying plumbago, it is found cheaper

to work with the Ceylon plumbago, which contains but little —

iron.

*‘ Before we leave this snug office for the busy factory, we will

jot down a few notes on plumbago, or, to use its more correct name,

graphite. The old mineralogists, misled by its remarkable

metallic lustre, placed graphite among the metals, and at the

present time there are doubtless many persons who accept ‘ black

lead’ as an appropriate name for this substance. In most diction-

aries graphite is defined as ‘carburet of iron,’ in accordance with

the opinion formerly held by most chemists that it was a com-

_ pound of carbon and iron. This definition is now known to be

incorrect; for although iron is generally present in graphite, it

218 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). (Vol. ixee a

must not be regarded as an essential constituent any more than the

silica or alumina which usually accompanies it. The iron, silica,

and alumina, when present, are simply in a state of mixture, and

not chemically combined. Graphite is one of the forms of carbon,

that Protean element which also occurs native as the sparkling ‘

diamond and the black and lustrous anthracite, and which also

appears in the familiar shapes of charcoal, coke, and lamp-black. 7

According to Dr. Wood’s analysis of a sample of the graphite

used at these works, it contained upwards of 98 per cent. of pure !

carbon, the remainder being silica with mere traces of iron and

alumina. Few samples have been found to contain less than 95.

per cent. The variform character of carbon is exhibited by j

graphite itself, for it is sometimes crystalline and sometimes

amorphous. ‘The erystallised, or foliated graphite, is found occa-

sionally in six-sided tabular crystals, but commonly in foliated or

granular masses. It is chiefly obtained from Ceylon, where it is

found imbedded in quartz. It is also found near Moreton Bay, in-

Australia ; in the States of New York and Massachusetts ; and

in Siberia. The amorphous graphite is that variety to which

the terms ‘ plumbago’ and ‘ black lead’ are ordinarily applied. It —

is much softer than the crystalline graphite, and makes a blacker |

streak on paper. Formerly it was obtained almost exclusively

from Borrowdale in Cumberland, but the mine there is nearly

exhausted, and we believe is no longer worked. The bulk of

that used at present comes from Germany, principally from

Griesbach near Passau. Both varieties are used in the manufac-

tures of the Company—the crystalline for crucibles and the

amorphous for polishing powders.

“The consumption of Ceylon graphite at the Battersea works

has had an extraordinary effect upon the price of the article.

When the Company commenced business it cost about 10/. per

ton, but now (1864) it cannot be bought at double that price.

“The total quantity of graphite exported from Ceylon in 1862

was 40,595 ewt., of which no less than 34,730 cwt. was shipped

to Great Britain. The Customs returns for last year have not

reached us. We do not wish to be understood that the Patent

Plumbago Crucible Company use up all the Ceylon graphite

brought to the United Kingdom, but it is well known that they

are the principal consumers. We must now take leave of chemis-

try and statistics, and see what there is to be seen at the Black

Potteries.

‘¢We commence our tour of inspection at the Receiving Stores,

where we are shown the stock of raw material, which comprises

“No. 31 1885.) | PLUMBAGO. | 219

at present about 2,000 casks of graphite, each one holding from

four to five ewt. The heads of a couple of casks are broken open

in order that we may compare the hard iron-grey fragments of the

Ceylon graphite with the black, dull, friable lumps of the German

variety. A piece of the latter pressed between the finger and

thumb feels pleasantly soft, and flattens readily into a lustrous

cake. From the stores we pass to the engine-house to take a peep

at the prime mover of the machinery employed on the factory.

One horizontal engine of 25-horse-power serves to do all the work

that does not require skilled hands.

“The organisation of labour is thoroughly understood at the

Battersea works. There isa place for every man, and every man

is in his own place. A strict code of rules is enforced by fines ;

but these fines are paid over to the Fund of the Workmen’s

Provident Club. We have been over many great industrial

establishments, but have not seen any better managed than this

crucible factory.”

Let us now turn to the older American Company, which,

if we count from Mr. Joseph Dixon’s beginnings in 1827,

has not been merely thirty years handling plumbago, but

for a period of over half a century. Mr. Orestes Cleveland,

writing in the Journal of Applied Science, some years ago,

stated :—

““We (Joseph Dixon Crucible Co., Jersey City) have been

forty-five years engaged in the manipulation of plumbago, being

the oldest house in the trade in this country, handle more of it

now than any other single establishment in the world, and have

been suecessful in its application to different branches of industry ;

we may, therefore, offer information without being accused of not

understanding the subject treated. ‘The black lead of commerce,

and what is so called by the trade, in first hands, is found only in

Murope, principally in Germany. ‘The plumbago of commerce

comes mainly from the island of Ceylon, but is also found in many

parts of the United States, being mined successfully, however, only

at Ticonderoga, in the State of New York. It is also mined toa

small extent in the Ottawa region of Canada, though thus far

without profit. It is therefore known in trade as Ceylon plum-

bago. Itis very refractory. I have experimented by subjecting

for two hours a, piece with sharp projecting angles to a heat that

would melt steel, and on cooling found the sharpest points perfect ;

but it will exhaust if left on top of sucha fire. It is found in

veins in a pure state, is removed in lumps, and a selection of these

‘aes ees Wee BSF

Parente aap ee ee ea atk TNT BRA

Bee LYS) TOD ae ee ae 7 CAS ICL ePior We Lee ee OR eee ee i! ‘3 °

ae PAE Misa ea AS rola biel ay A! sa

t ; A ey aN Ayal One rN I Ps Sue ek i

forms the ‘ prime lump’ of commerce. The formation mostcommon

in a pure state is that of laminated erystals, elongated at right

angles with the side of the vein, if not more than from four to six _ A

inches wide ; but when the vein widens the crystallization often

radiates from numerous centres, and the whole formation is very

beautiful,; the foliated variety is equally valuable and more

brilliant, but rare in any quantity ; the acicular form of crystal is

not apt to be as pure in the lump, but it is useful for most purposes ;

the granulated variety, the purest of all, is of little use for

crucibles, but, with suitable manipulation, produces the finest

grades for electrotyping and fine lead pencils, and is unequalled

for lubricating. Pure plumbago is free from grit when pulver-

ized and rubbed between the fingers, and the polish produced in

the same way is instantaneous and very bright, being like a darker

shade of polished silver. It is found mixed with iron, rhombspar

and other forms of lime, the rock and earth in which the vein is

carried, and many other foreign substances injurious for all the

purposes for which pure plumbago is needed ; so that much care

is necessary in purchasing the raw material for a given purpose.

Lime, for instance, is fatal to plumbago for crucible-making. The

plumbago is mined in the interior of the island of Ceylon, and is

brought down to Colombo in bullock carts. Itis there selected

into grades ; so much as may be finely broken up is sifted, and

the coarser part of this is called ‘ chips,’ while the finer part is

called ‘dust.’ The ‘dust’ from the prime lump is, of course, very

different in character from the dust left from the poorer grades of

lump, and all of it, whether lump or dust, after being handled and

packed in barrels in Colombo becomes so black and bright by the

poor particles rubbing against the good, that the touch of an expert

is required to distinguish between the grades. The German black

lead is not refractory, and is therefore useless for any purpose that

brings it in contact with the fire. It has no value for the crucible- —

maker, or for stove polish, and is of but little use as a lubricator.

It has a very low conducting power, even in its pure state, and the

best quality that comes to market is far from pure. None of it

comes in its original state as mined, but all of it is washed and

fioated, and so the grades are produced. In fact, it resembles a,

weak black clay more nearly than it does true plumbago in nature

as wellasappearance. Itis used often on account of its cheapness,

when it would be cheaper to use the real plumbago even at five

times the price.”

Mr. Cleveland then proceeds to state that the first [first in

order of time| and still the most extended use of plumbago

990, | s0URNAT, BAS. (CRYLON), — P¥ol.

ve RS — oh sg 7 . #1

ES a os ae EE Sea See thts Pye OE tee a Fe tence et tae a a eg ee ae

aa a ai ae SE a a Et a a eg rr aa ae

} te}

ae ahi y

Bes

ONG ey 18e5,/ PLUMBAGO,. 221

“is for making pencils. Originally, lumps of the mineral

were cut into the required shape. Then, until the Borrowdale

| mines gave out, the masses were sawn into thin pieces to

be enclosed in wood. And now Mr. Cleveland proceeds to

describe, in detail, the process of which, according to the

- latest edition of the Lincyclopedia Britannica, M. Conté, of

Paris, was the discoverer :—

“The present method consists in selecting the best granulated

plumbago (found till recently only in Germany), pulverizing it

very finely, and floating it in water through a series of vats; the

coarser particles settle to the bottom of the first vat, the finer in

the next, and so on, till, after passing through several, that which

settles in the last vat is considered fine enough for the purpose.

A. suitable clay is found as yet only in Germany, and this is

treated by the floating process, the finest only being fit for use.

The plumbago and clay are then mixed together with water to

the consistency of cream, ground together like grinding paint.

When the operation is completed, the mass is plastic, water

- enough having evaporated to leave it in that state. It is then

placed in a press and forced through an opening of the size

desired for the pencil leads, and the leads are cut to a suitable

length, straightened, and dried. When dry enough to handle,

they are placed in a crucible, the air excluded, and subjected to

a high heat, which bakes them and brings them out ready to be

_ placed in the cedar for pencils. The different grades are produced

by the different mixtures of clay and plumbago ; the more clay,

the harder the grade produced. Skill in the manipulation, the

exercise of great care as it, progresses, and an expert to select the

materials, are absolute prerequisites for a perfect product.”

It will thus be seen that the finishing process in the

| manufacture of black lead pencils is baking in a crucible

| composed, probably, of the same mineral.

In most of the works consulted in the preparation of this

| paper—and they have been many and various—the credit of

| having first made and used plumbago crucibles has been

_ given to the Germans. Mr. Cleveland awards the credit to

“the Dutch, and it is certainly significant that the Dutch

! name for the mineral should be potloot, or pot lead, the

lead of which crucibles are made (?)—Mr. Cleveland states

| (writing some six years ago):—

““ Crucibles or Melting Pots, Retorés, §c.—Forty years ago

the only plumbago crucible was made by the Dutch, the melting

F 2

222 JOURNAL, B.A.S. (CEYLON).

I oe

pots used in most countries being made of clay and sand; but the

late Mr. Joseph Dixon, the founder of our house, in 1827 made

crucibles by using the plumbago found in the State of New

Hampshire, of a quality so far superior to the Dutch black lead —

pots that he took the market from the first. He afterwards saw

specimens that had been brought from Ceylon as curiosities by

Captains in the India trade ; and finding them so much better

than the New Hampshire plumbago, he procured a shipment,

being the first importation of Ceylon plumbago to the United

States. For crucibles the pure lumps known as ‘prime lumps’

only should be used, ground to a fineness that leaves the particles

bright and glistening when held to the light, but not so fine as to

destroy this appearance. It is then mixed with clay, and the

best known for that purpose is found at Mayence, comes down

the Rhine, and is shipped to this country from Rotterdam. A

small amount of finely-pulverized charcoal should be added to ~

render the crucible porous. As little clay should be used as will

suffice to hold the plumbago together, the object in using the

clay being only to cement the particles of plumbago. After a

thorough mixture, the crucibles are turned into the desired shape,

much the same as potteryware ; they are then dried in a kiln

like pottery. In use the crucibles should be placed in the fire,

and not on it, The fire should surround the crucible to the very

top. If used with a blast, the blast should not strike the crucible

direct, but there should be coal for the blast to strike against.

Tbe crucible should be kept in a dry place, the least dampness

being fatal. If they are well made, no annealing is needed, the

object of annealing being only to complete the shrinkage that

should be fully accomplished in the ‘burning’ by the crucible-

maker. To provide against slight dampness, however, it is well,

when possible, to use the crucible for the first time in a new fire,

placing the crucible in the furnace at the time of lighting the fire,

so that it heats up gradually with its surroundings. After the

first time even this precaution is unnecessary. For melting brass,

copper, gold, silver, or alloys of metals, 4 Dixon Plumbago ~

Crucible should run from twenty to forty meltings according to

the fuel, draught, care, or other circumstances. I have known

them used seventy and even eighty times, with a natural draught’ ia

and great care. For melting steel, they will run from four to six

times. ‘They can be made to run longer by care and a system of

cleaning the slag from the surface after each melting, and coating

the crucible with a mixture consisting of fire clay, plumbago, ~

charcoal, and silica ; pure fine quartz sand being, in my judgment, re:

Brera:

ee eS a ee ee San

Fi ae et So

SONS so 9 Sof ee ee a ee

ee PP

/) No. 81.—1885.] PLUMBAGO. 203

the most useful form of silica to employ ; other substances have

been used, but these are all that are of any real value. The

carbon from the interior of gas retorts would be better than char-

ecal, but it cannot be had in quantity, and is too hard to pulverize

cheaply ; in consequence of that hardness, it is used successfully

in electric batteries where a carbon is wanted.”

Mr. Cleveland then proceeds to describe the processes by

which stove polish is produced, the great point being that

_ the more finely the plumbago is pulverized the better and

brighter will be the result, large particles flying off and

getting wasted in the process of rubbing. He adds :—

“ The polish from pure Ceylon plumbago will last on the iron for

a long time, while the polish from the German black lead will

burn a reddish brown when the stove is raised to a red heat.

But as the German is less than half the price of the Ceylon, it is

used with it as an adulteration, and for the cheaper kinds the

German is used alone. ‘The Ceylon is adulterated also with coal

dust, pulverized slate, and many other substances. Dishonest

_makers of stove polish have this temptation, that only experts _

ean detect the adulteration ; and they succeed in palming off

their mixtures, because the particles of adulteration do not prevent

the particles of plumbago from polishing the iron to a small ex-

tent. For instance, a thousand particles of adulteration and a

thousand particles of plumbago, mixed together, can be sold at a

low price, and the particles of plumbago will do the polishing,

while most of the particles of adulteration will fly off in the

process.”

And so our plumbago, like our coffee, suffers from the

“‘ways’ that are literally ‘ dark” of the adulterators. Mr.

Cleveland, in a kind of despair, exclaims :—“ Perhaps no

“article except mustard can be so successfully adulterated as

“plumbago.”’ He means, of course, for stove polish, because

adulteration in the case of plumbago used for crucibles would

soon be betrayed in the trial by fire, one great value of the

pure plumbago in crucibles being that it conserves carbon

in steel when being melted. Mr. Cleveland strongly

deprecates liquid stove polish and varnish. Premising that

_ the plumbago should be very finely pulverized, we may, for

the benefit perhaps of the owners of stoves or other articles

___ of cast iron in Ceylon, quote the description of the proper

mode of application of a substance which is not merely a

bee as . JOURNAL, RAS. (CEYLON). -" (Vol. 1X0

bright paint, but the best possible protection of the iron

from rusting. Mr. Cleveland states :—

“ The proper way to polish a new stove is to mix the pladhaen

with water to about the consistency of cream, have it in an open

dish, apply it to the iron like paint, and with a dry stiff brush

polish quickly till dry ; and this polish will be brighter, and last

longer, than any varnish polish ; and if the plumbago is right,

this method is much more economical in material and labour.”

As a lubricant for metal surfaces, journal boxes, carriage

axles, and all metal bearings, we can easily understand why

only the very finest plumbago should be used, the choicest

lumps being pulverized till the particles will not glisten but

the mass becomes a dead black. It cannot, Mr. Cleveland

states, be made fine enough by bolting (he means sifting

through silk), but must be floated either in water or air.

He adds :—

“The simplest method is the water separation, and during the

process it should be treated toa bath of dilute sulphuric acid,

which will take up the particles of spar and iron, leaving the .

sulphates of lime, magnesia, and iron easily washed out.

‘“ The Dixon lubricating plumbago is pulverized by rolling thirty-

two-pound iron balls, and is brought into infinitely fine grains,

giving it more body and usefulness than the scale form. There

is no purpose for which plumbago should be as pure and as fine

as for lubricating, except for electrotyping ; but a large part of

that which is offered for sale as a lubricator is adulterated, some

of it being composed mainly of the German black lead, and is of

no more use than common clay for the purpose. For blowing

cylinders the best quality of Ceylon plumbago, pulverized to the

finest grade, pure, and left with a good body, is the most econo-

mical. Fer engines, rolling mills, and machine bearings the very

finest should always be used. For wood bearings, after oiling

with the plumbago a few times, the oil can be dispensed with,

and the pure plumbago only applied in the dry powder. For

metal bearings it should be freely mixed with oil. On hot axles

or journals, apply it freely, dry, and then oil up as usual. If the

railroads would all use the best grade of Ceylon plumbago, pul-

verized and prepared as described, hot journals would be very

rare, and much delay and loss in freighting saved, as well as

annoyance to passengers avoided. No substance is known that

is so useful for lubicrating as plumbago, and yet, although used

for that purpose more than two hundred years ago, the true

Mtoe ee ie BO FY simi e raehaat

eh beard ' Rie

UFy { t

7 Xo. 31-1885.) prumpaco, ae 295

method of preparing it was not known till within a few years, and

it comes upon the market now little understood, and almost like a

new material. It is destined to work great changes. Mixtures:

and quack nostrums are sold with sounding names, but as the

plumbago in them is all they contain of the least value, it is

better to use it pure.”

I notice, however, from advertisements in the American

papers, that “ mica grease” as a lubricator is competing with

plumbago, but how far successfully I cannot say. What I

know is that the writer of a recent article on American

minerals strongly supports Mr. Cleveland’s view as to the

creat superiority of plumbago as a lubricator. Iam not

aware that it is so used to any extent in Ceylon, either

in foundries or on the railways, although if all stated

regarding its value be correct, Ceylon plumbago ought to

be much more largely used in Ceylon than it is at present,

as a lubricant and for other purposes. For all uses it

would seem that grinding to extreme fineness is essential.

Mr. Cleveland proceeds :—

“ Electrotyping.—To the electrotyper absolute purity in his

plumbago is a necessity, and hence any adulteration will discover

itself at once on trial. The purest selected Ceylon lumps should

be.treated as described for lubricating, but the separating process

should be carried to a finer point, and the acid bath given with

care. ‘This acid should be applied till with a thorough stirring no

effervescence takes place, or bubbles rise to the surface. In

electrotyping the great conducting power of the plumbago asserts

itself.” . | |

Mr. Cleveland, it will be observed, speaks of plumbago

as if it were invariably a good conductor, but another writer

on the subject (Smee), who seems to write from experience,

says that some lumps are non-conducting, just as some

pieces though perfectly pure carbon are so hard as to resist

thesaw. And now we come to a use for plumbago, scarcely

if at all inferior to that of crucible manufacture, viz. :—

Facing for Moulds or foundry Facings.—For this purpose.

plumbago is but little understood, although it is used to a limited

extent. That it is valuable, most skilful moulders are aware ;

consequently, much of the trash that is sold for ‘facings’ is called

- plumbago, to make it sell, without containing a particle of

SUMED TeV ca Ree PIE er Oa, Bed. SB 7 cll: Sc e Pe

yieek cel a St

Nth 4 st

rot : qe ohks A Rape GO 7! aN ais

926 JOURNAL, B.A.S. (CHYLON). [Voll IX. =

- anything even resembling the real mineral. Most of that which is —

sold to’the stove-plate and other smooth-casting foundries for

‘black lead,’ is innocent ground slate, but some of it is a mixture

of ground coal and German black lead, while charcoal would be

better than either if ground fine enough. Ceylon plumbago

combines the two qualities of a substance almost as refractory as

asbestos, and the most perfect conductor of heat. These are the

essentials of a perfect ‘facing.’ It cannot be pretended that any

other substance will answer as well, unless it will combine and

form a flux upon the surface of the metal. As for the mechanical

operation of filling up the pores, or smoothing the mould, plum-

bago has no equal. For iron castings it need not be a perfectiy

pure article, but that it be pulverized very fine is absolutely

necessary for economical work and the best results.”

We now come to some miscellaneous and curious uses to

which plumbago is put, the mineral being applied to articles

so different as musical instruments, hats and boots, bottles,

paint, boats and yachts. Listen :—

‘For pianos, plumbago is employed to coat the bridge over

which the wires are drawn, because of its perfect lubrication ; it

prevents the wire from adhering to the wood, and should be as

free from impurity as that used by the electrotyper, but need not |

be pulverized as finely. For organs, it is used to lubricate the

sides, and should be the same as that used by piano-makers.

The German black lead imparts a peculiar tone to the colours

and a softness and smoothness to the touch of felt hats. The

very best lump only should be accepted. As it has once been

washed and dried in lumps, they will readily separate again in

water, and no pulverizing is needed. For colouring dark glass

for carboys, bottles, &c., the best German black lead is used in

lumps, but no inferior grade will answer. For paint, plumbago

has long been known as possessing great value. The elements

do not exhaust it, water sheds from it as from oil itself, and fire

does not affect it. The grade need not be the highest. For the

bottoms of boats and yachts it has long been used, especially for

racing boats; but only the best Ceylon plumbago, very finely

pulverized, is valuable.”

A substance which used, as a paint, resists the action of

the atmosphere and is both waterproof and fireproof, is

surely of great economic value, and ought to be specially

useful as paint for the numerous tea factories erected or

in course of erection in Ceylon. :

URS

No. 31.—1885.] oe

- *prime lump.

ew aA ai eg’ “)ehr Metery Pk | PE

Ee Wk ft \

MSR OR De IAC OR

cycym

ow 6

Finally, Mr. Cleveland gives the following information :—

“For Blast Furnaces.—Plumbago thrown into the blowing

cylinders, if adulterated with coal dust, will be worse than

nothing, It should be pure and very fine, so that each particle

that strikes the side of the cylinder assists in polishing the sur-

face. The German black lead is of no value, because as many

particles of the clay character will stick to the iron as there will

be particles of the black lead character to lubricate the iron

and render it smooth.

“Refractory Mixiures.—¥or tweers, pointing-up furnaces, &c.,

take ‘prime lump’ Ceylon plumbago, pulverized to scales as

directed for crucibles. Then mix equal parts of Dutch pipe-clay,

fireclay, halfthe quantity (by measure, not weight) of charcoal, and

the same half quantity of silica (pure quartz sand ground fine being

the best) ; to this mixture add as much of the plumbago as possi-

ble and leave the mass thin enough to work. It should be made

just thin enough with water, so that it will run rather sluggishly.

Plumbago for polishing powder should be of the very best quality,

finely pulverized. The German black lead is sometimes used, but

is not economical for the powder maker, and for high-priced

powder is useless. Shot is polished with plumbago, and it should

be absolutely pure, pulverized to the finest grade from Ceylon

999

Mr. Cleveland’s very interesting and valuable notices of

the American Crucible Company, and their varied manu-

factures of plumbago, is supplemented and brought down

to so late a date as 1883 by the writer (Mr. John A. Walker)

of an article on Plumbago in a volume on the “ Mineral

Resources of the United States,” prepared by the National

Geological Survey Department, and supplied to our Library

by the Smithsonian Institute, to which my attention |

was attracted by our Honorary Secretary, when he asked

me to write this paper. In the summary prefixed to

this volume it is stated that the amount of graphite

mined in the States in 1882 was 425,000 lb., worth crude

at the point of production 34,000 dollars, equivalent

to about Rs. 70,000. During the first six months of 1883

the production was estimated at 262,500 Ib., worth 21,000

dollars. From Mr. Walker’s detailed account we learn that

eraphite is,as a mineral, widely distributed in the United

States ; as an ore it is found in but few places in sufficient

Eat Dr SD, BS Qe ra ee

NOS ve Bok ge Ep Va eee aaa

ae : So et ccaniasi d

DONG

PER

228 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. rx"

quantities and purity to be profitably worked. The terms

of Mr. Walker’s report apply to India and many other places"

where plumbago exists over wide areas. In North America

it is found in the older rocks of the Appalachian chain, from

Alabama to Canada. Its occurrence is said to have been

reported in great purity, and in veins from 18 inches to 5

feet thick, in five different localities. If such graphite

were abundant, with fairly cheap labour and good means

of communication, Ceylon might tremble for her supremacy

in this branch of commerce ; but we find it added, that of the

Eastern deposits those of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New

York, and Canada are of the crystalline or foliated variety, are

the best known, and are the only ones which are at present

being worked. The amorphous plumbagos found in the

Southern States are said to be of such a nature that purifi-

cation is economically impossible. They can be used only in

the crude state, and but for few purposes. The attention

being paid to the mineral in America may be judged from the

fact that samples had been received and reported on by The

Joseph Dixon Crucible Company from no fewer than 83 locali-

ties between October, 1877, and January, 1882. Mr. Walker’s

notice of the “Origin and Characteristics” of the United

States graphites, I append as a note.”

Under the heading “ Productive Localities’? Mr. Walker

states :—

‘‘ The only place in the United States where graphite is now

mined successfully is at Ticonderoga, New York. This property,

owned originally by the American Graphite Company, now

belongs to The Joseph Dixon Crucible Company, of Jersey City,

* « Origin and Characteristics.—Graphite is now generally conceded

to be of organic origin—the result of the metamorphism of some of the

products of destructive distillation of vegetable tissue. It occurs in

veins, beds, and disseminated through strata (graphitic schists). The

veins occur principally in New York, Canada, and the Far West.

They are true fissures in gneissoid rock. ‘The vein graphite is

usually associated with calcite and quartz. Pyroxene, mica, and

apatite are sometimes found with it. Crystals of calcite are found,

which on being split show scales of foliated graphite along the planes

of cleavage. Graphitic schists are found in the same regions as the

eur

ie No. SL 1885.) PLUMBAGO. 229 |

New Jersey. The American Graphite Company worked the vein

deposits to a depth of 600 feet. ‘The Dixon Company now mine

a graphitic schist 15 feet thick, carrying from 8 to 15 per cent.

of graphite, practically an inexhaustible supply.”

And as to ‘“ Ore-dressing”’ :—

““The process used by The Dixon Company at Ticonderoga

owes its success to careful supervision. It is a wet process in

which the ordinary practice is reversed, the ‘* tails” being the

useful product, while the “ heads” are thrown away. All attempts

at dry concentration have failed.”

The production in 1882 was, as already stated, 425,060 Ib.,

of which the output of the Ticonderoga mine was 400,000 Ib.,

all others giving only 25,000 lb., better than which they

were not expected to do in 1883, while The Joseph Dixon.

Company had laid themselves out to produce 500,000 Ib. ;

altogether 525,000 lb., valued at 8 cents perlb. Let us say

18 cents of our rupee currency, and we get the high value

(founded on cost as well as quality ?) of Rs. 20 per ewt., or

Rs. 400 per ton. The local production, however, was cer-

tainly not much to place against 16,000,000 of pounds

imported from Ceylon in 1882, with considerable quantities

in the two following years.

The following as to kinds of graphite and their characters

is Interesting :—

“ Kinds.—On account of the peculiar advertising it has had,

eraphite is commercially known as German black lead, Ceylon

plumbago, and American graphite. German black lead is a

product of Bavaria, It is of the amorphous variety, and is

dressed chiefly by washing. Its price depends on its percentage

of graphite and the nature of its impurities, varying from’ $1 to

—

veins, and also in New Jersey and Pennsylvania. These are meta-

morphosed sand-stones with foliated graphite very evenly disseminated

throughout in small flakes. The graphite found in beds is amorphous,

and occurs principally in the south. I[t isin a sedimentary formation,

is quite impure, and on account of its fineness cannot be successfully

purified. Geologically, graphite occurs from the coal measures back

to the oldest rocks. (See article by Professor Frazer, ‘Transactions

American Institute of Mining Engineers, Vol. IX., page 732; also

Prof. J. S. Newberry’s pamphlet on “ The Origin and Relations of the

‘Carbon Mineral,” Annual Report, New York Academy of Sciences,

Vol. IT., No. 9, 1882.)

Pe pee

230 JOURNAL, B.A.S. (CEYLON). . -LVol. IX.

$10 per hundredweight in cargo lots. It is used in the manufac-

ture of pencils, stove polish, and foundry facings. Ceylon plum-

bago is mined at Travancore, Ceylon, and is shipped from Colombo

to all parts of the world. It occurs in immense veins of great

purity : cobbing and sizing are the only preliminary operations

it undergoes. It appears in the market graded according to

size, as large lump, small lump, chip, and dust. Its price varies

from $2 for dust to $10 per hundredweight for prime lump in

cargo lots. It is used for all the purposes of the trade, except —

the manufacture of pencil leads. American graphite, from the

nature of its occurrence, appears in the market only in the dressed

condition. Its price ranges from $2 to $10 per hundredweight

wholesale, according to purity and fineness. Fineness exercises

considerable influence on the price of graphite on account of the

difficulty of pulverizing it. American graphite is used for all

purposes of the trade, and excels all kinds as a lubricant. It is

the same geologically, &c., as the Canadian. Before the develop-

ment of the American and Canadian mines the Ceylon mineral

was the standard.”

I cannot help the contradictory accounts as to the relative

fitness of German and Ceylon plumbago for pencils, but

must simply adhere to my belief that the finer Ceylon ore

ts largely used for pencils. Mr. Walker evidently writes

under the impression that Travancore is that portion of

Ceylon in which the plumbago is found which is exported

from Colombo, the fact being, I believe, that not a pound

of Travancore graphite is exported. The latest Travancore

Administration Report, indeed, does not even mention

plumbago as a product of the country. ‘“Cobbing” seems

to mean beating with a flat board, but has probably the

extended meaning of breaking with hammers, &c. The

preliminary operations are, except in the case of pure lumps,

much more complicated than is indicated in the extract,

involving hammering, cutting, picking, sifting, washing,

_&c., one of the tools employed in the Colombo yards being

a combined hammer and axe. It will be seen that while

Ceylon and American graphite are valued equally at $2 to

$10 per cwt. (Rs. 4°33 to nearly Rs. 22) the German mineral

has a minimum so low as $1, a price which could scarcely

pay freight and charges. Comparative analyses of the

Ceylon and Canadian varieties of graphite are given, which,

ree! PSY ge Wn, eh pee oe

ty 5 Be pr HOD ike an

Mier ccitbian ne

rs if 7% ying

. No. 81-1865.] PLUMBAGO. 231

as of permanent value, will be found as a note to this

paper.”

The figures are said, truly, to prove the often-repeated

claim of the dealers in Canadian and American graphite

that itis equal to the best Ceylon. Theclaim, pre-supposing

that the samples were fairly chosen, must be fully conceded,

for while the highest percentage of carbon in the Ceylon

specimens analyzed is 99°792 per cent., the best Canadian

is actually up to 99°815. The Ceylon mineral seems to

have had a few fractions more of volatile matter. Both are

almost absolutely pure, and did the Canadian and United

States mineral occur in such a form in the enclosing rocks

that it could be cheaply mined and prepared, there would

of course be an end of the export of Ceylon plumbago to

America. But if,in America, plumbago, however pure, is

only distributed in the proportion of 8 to 15 percent. mineral

to 92 to 85 rock, those connected with the Ceylon enterprise

need not, it would seem, concern themselves greatly with the

competition in America of indigenous ore with that from

our island. In view of analyses which give results so near

100 per cent. of carbon, we may well be amazed at the fact

that the specific article on “ Plumbago” in the new edition of

the Eneyclopadia Britannica should characterize graphite ©

* AnaxyseEs of Canadian and Ceylon Graphites.

Specific | Volatile

LOocALity. Gravity. | Matter, | Carbon, | Ash.

Canada, Buckingham ; vein graphite ; per cent. | per cent.| per cent,

variety, foliated Hae ---| 9.9689 0.178 99.675 0.147

Canada, Buckingham; vein graphite ;

variety, columnar... -*+| 2.2679 | 0.594 | 97.626 | 1.780

Canada, Grenville; vein graphite ;

variety, foliated see ---| 2.2714 | 0.109 | 99.815 0.070:

Canada, Grenville; vein ee

variety, columnar... -| 2.2659 | 0.108 | 99.757 | 0.135

Ceylon; vein graphite; variety, co-

lumnar .. eee 2.2671 | 0.158 | 99.792 | 0.050

Ceylon ; vein Siete variety, foli-

ated vee see o--| 2.2664 0.108 | 99.679 0.215

Ceylon; vein graphite; variety, co-

lumnar ... vee 2,2546 0.900 | 98.817 0.283

Ceylon; vein graphite; variety, foli-

ACO iy tae bat w{ 2.2484 |" 0.801 | 99,284 | 0.415

sale eres carmen emnemneeneeeernesnenaterinee tremens ene eee ee ET

HG SNE See UI re nn OE ON une Me

ots i r oe My | | ; a : ; a ie ee oy

232 JOURNAL, B.A.S. Gee . SE Mole ties

as an “impure carbon.” It is, on the contrary, the purest”

form of carbon in nature, with the one exception of the

diamond, as indeed is explicitly asserted in other portions

of the Hneyclopedia.

Under the heading “ Manufactures” there is interesting .

summarized information, which J quote :—

Proportionate Amounts of Graphite used for different purposes.

Manufactures. Kinds of Graphite used. {| Per cent.

Crucible and refractor y articles, as

stoppers and nozzles, crucibles, etc,|Ceylon, Americ an...| 35

| Stove polish ... at ...| Ceylon, American, |

German seal inci

| Lubricating graphite he ia American, Ceylon.,.| 10

| Foundry facings, etc. _... ...| Ceylon, American,

| German 1 Ae S

| Graphite greases ee -| American eaptinae

Pencil leads... ae -| American anc (ees

| man Po

Graphite packing “ob ‘|Ceylon, American.,.| 3

Polishing shot and powder ‘/Ceylon, American...| 2

Paint mopeds aie “++! American i 4

Hlectrotyping.. see American, Ceylon... z

Miscellaneous ote action, plete.

graphers’, gilders’ and hatters’ use,

electrical supplies, etc. ae — Rogers

| . 100

A table like this will give many of the readers of this

paper a new view of the multifarious uses of the mineral

carbon called plumbago. It will be observed that, next to

the manufacture of crucible articles, the great use of the

mineral is for polishing and preserving from rust the ranges

of stoves and other cooking appliances, which contribute so

much to the neatness, cleanliness, health, and comfort of

modern abodes. The proportion used for this purpose in

Europe—in Britain at least—cannot certainly be below that

given for the United States. There are graphite greases as

contradistinguished from lubricants, and the mineral seems

to be used for the packing of engines. From the largest

forges where tons of steelare manufactured in Pittsburg, down

to the studio of the photographer and the shops of the gilder

and hatter, plumbago is of valuable use. And not only is it

sieht ee y id ies Wo de ahd riiseie, eee hae TaN

i Ben

2 ‘ Meets os 7

No. 31 1885.) ‘ PLUMBAGO, as * 933

called into requisition to produce the highest order of steel

- gunsand steel armour for war-ships, but it is good for polish-

ing the sportsman’s powder and shot. Gaocdes used for

blasting operations is also greatly improved by receiving a

glaze or varnish of graphite, the philosophy of the operation

being that thus the grains are prevented from absorbing

the moisture which exists in mines and quarries.

Graphite enables the electrotyper to prepare and present

to the world, cheaply and at will, casts of coins, woodcuts,

copperplate maps, d&c., equalin the most minute and intricate

detail to the most highly prized and costly originals. But

next to the boon which the real discovery of anthracite or

natural coke in Ceylon would be, is the certainty, of which

we are assured, that in our teeming supplies of plumbago

the tea planters of Ceylon can get a paint for their stores,

equal in its fire-resisting properties to asbestos paint. If

this should prove to be correct, and we see no reason to

doubt the statement, the prospect is that Ceylon will be

speedily exporting, instead of importing, fireproof paint.

Mr. Walker may well say in conclusion :—

“The growth of the graphite industry has kept pace with the

age, each new development in metallurgy and engineering offer-

ing some new field of usefulness for graphite. For instance, it

furnishes the pots for the manufacture of cast steel, and the

nozzles and stoppers used in the Bessemer process. It is used in

the manufacture of electrical supplies, &c. Fifty years ago

graphite was little known and mis-named. Now it is of constantly

inereasing importance, From an insignificant beginning in the

present century the industry has grown to its present proportions.”

A list is then given of twenty-five American firms

engaged in the plumbago industry, of which The Joseph

Dixon Company of Jersey City, New Jersey, takes the lead,

employing 500 hands in the manufacture of everything for

which graphite is used. The same number of hands finds

employment from the Hagle Pencil Company; while A. W.

Faber, probably an immigrant or descendant of an immi-

grant from Nuremburg, employs 150 persons in his pencil

factory. Others employ lesser numbers, six firms giving

-erucibles astheir exclusive manufacture ; three, lead pencils;

four, foundry facings and lubricants ; seven, stove polish

and lubricants. It will thus be seen that except in the

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2 “JOURNAL, B ALS. (onvion).. [Vo 1x. ee

branch of pencil-making, and perhaps electrotyping, the

New World has gone, or is rapidly going, in advance of the

old in the plumbago industry, which means corresponding

advance in the steel industry. It is surely a striking inci-

dent in the romance of commerce that this ancient eastern

isle of “‘Serendib,” the scene of the mythical adventures of

Sinbad the Sailor, should be the main source of supply of an

article so useful in the industries and elegancies of life, the

appliances of peace and war, and the pursuits of the artist

and literary man, not only to countries in the Hastern

hemisphere, but to the regions of the Far Western world.

Having noticed the leading establishments in Hurope and

America, where our Asiatic ore is so largely utilized, let

us now turn to one of the compounds, or yards, with its

brick and tar “barbecue” or platform, and surrounding

sheds, in which Sinhalese men, women, and boys prepare,

assort, and pack the mineral when received in Colombo

from pits, none of which are nearer than thirty miles, and

some of which are so distant as the District of Hambantota at

the eastern extremity of the Southern Province. The chief

exhibitor of plumbago at the Melbourne Exhibition of

1880-81 was Mr. W. A. Fernando, of No. 1, Brownrigg-

street, Cinnamon Gardens, Colombo, and a description of

his establishment, which the editors of the Ceylon Observer

gave in their paper of August 12th, 1880, is, in all sub-

stantial details, correct in August, 1885. Mr. Fernando’s

exhibits at Melbourne were illustrated by a set of photo-

graphs, which, having been presented by the writer to

Mr. Charles Moore, of the Sydney Botanic Gardens, unfortu-

nately perished in the fire which destroyed the Hxhibition

building at Sydney. The photographs were thus des-

cribed :—

“Photographs Nos. 1 and 3 (counting from the left-hand corner)

show an enormous block of plumbago weighing originally

4 ewt. (one-fifth of a ton), and the dimensions of which, when

photographed, were as follows :—2 feet in height, 23 feet in

breadth, 6 feet in circumference horizontally, 4 feet 10 inches:

vertically.

“The block, with other large and small specimens of the

mineral, is ee edion the platform (barbecue, or asphalted floor) —

‘on which pieces of plumbago (after being washed in water, so as _ a

Mo: kes PLUMB Ago. “35

to remove earth and other foreign substances) are spread out to

dry. In the background is seen the cadjan (cocoanut leaf) covered

shed, in which Sinhalese (and a few Tamil) male and female

labourers are employed, breaking up pieces of plumbago, removing

hard pieces and bits of rock, and assorting. In this process small

axes are used, which will be seen in the hands of coolies repre-

sented in the group No. 2.

*‘ No. 4 shows one of the native bullock carts in which plumbago

is conveyed to and from the stores, and No. 5 represents the casks

into which—according to the classes into which it is carefully

separated—-the mineral is packed for export.

“* No. 6 represents the owner of the establishment and his trusted

overseers.

** Mr. Fernando’s Plumbago Exhibits include :—

One case large lump plumbago.

One barrel ordinary lump do.

Do. chips do.

Do. dust do.

“Mr. Fernando also exhibits a Ceylon elephant, cut out of

plumbago, and polished.”

I have no doubt that photographic or other illustrations

of the now important plumbago industry of Ceylon wili

accompany specimens of the mineral or objects, such as

figures of elephants and other animals carved out of its

- substance, to the forthcoming Great Exhibition of the pro-

ducts and manufactures of the Colonies of Britain and her

Indian Empire. Elephants and other figures are usually

sculptured from blocks of the softest, and therefore the

most valuable form of plumbago, and in proportion to the

softness of the material, the sculptured objects are specially

liable to breakage. I would suggest that blocks be chosen

for sculpture purposes, of the variety of plumbago which in

commerce is ranked second class, not because it is not pure

ip quality, but because in mechanical condition it vies in

hardness with the rocky quartz for which the mineral has

such a striking affinity. The account of Mr. Fernando’s

establishment to which I have alluded is as follows :—

“A visit we paid the other morning to the plumbago store of

Mr. W. A. Fernando at No. 1, Brownrigg-street, Cinnamon

Gardens, has given us a new and enlarged view of the ramifica-

tions of the Plumbago Industry of Ceylon. We were, of course,

familiar with the rise and progress of our export trade in this the

236 | JOURNAL, RAS (cnyLox). gk ape

only mineral of any importance of which Ceylon can boast.

* * * But although it was quite evident that the digging

and mining which brought so large a quantity of plumbago to

light, as well as the carting, preparation, and picking, must give

employment to a great number of people, we had no idea before

the inspection of Mr. Fernando’s store of the very considerable

influence which the industry now has on the welfare of many

thousands of the population in the Western, the North-Western,

and Southern Provinces. The favourite mining districts are at

present in the neighbourhood of Kurunégala, Avisawélla, Ratna-

pura, and Kalutara, and in the Pasdun Koralé. Mr. Fernando, a

most intelligent enterprising Christian Sinhalese of Moratuwa,

whose father and family have for many years been connected

with ‘plumbago,’ was unable to tell us that the seekers after

plumbago were guided by any better indication than the appear-

ance of the surface soil, or of pieces of the mineral cropping up

through fissures in the rock. Here,is just the case where a

Government Geologist might afford valuable aid in developing

an important industry. Mr. A. C. Dixon, if employed by Govern-

ment during the Academy vacations, might be able to point with

much confidence to undeveloped Crown lands likely to prove of

great value for their beds of plumbago, and his advice to private

proprietors might also save much time and money in trial pits,

surface digging, and general exploration. .Plumbago mines have

been sunk in Ceylon several hundred feet in depth, and some are

_ worked with all the appliances of an English mine, but, as a rule,

the plumbago is found near the surface. It is difficult to say

how many men are engaged in digging plumbago, but taking

half-a-ton for each man per month in a favourable field as a high

average, and making allowance for the wet seasons, holidays, &c.,

we may feel sure that no less than from 4,000 to 5,000 men were

required to provide the quantity shipped last year. The carting

to Colombo must have given employment to a good many others,

perhaps more or less to 500 carters, carts, and pairs of bullocks.

But it is the elaborate preparation now observed in the Colombo

stores which has taken us by surprise. Plumbago is now picked —

and sized, we may say, as carefully as coffee. ‘The various pro-

cesses are seen to perfection at Mr. W. A. Fernando’s store. He

gives employment to from 120 to 150 men and women,* paying

* Sinhalese women have only lately been induced to work as plumbago

pickers ; their manual dexterity gives them an advantage over men, but Mr.

Fernando had trouble in overcoming a strange prejudice they had to plumbago,

as poison or worse for them to touch with their fingers! Now they like the work

and come to it readily.

i 31, 1885] PnUMBAGO. aay

the women. His stores and picking houses are all cadjan-roofed

(that is, roofed with cocoanut leaves), for the very good, but to us

novel and strange, reason that the tiles would inevitably fall off

any roof under which plumbago was stored or prepared.. The

dust blown about makes everything so polished and slippery, :

even the roof rafters and reepers, that tiles constantly slip off

and therefore the only safety lies in cadjans! The first process,

is to wash the plumbago in large baskets, the smaller pieces and

dust being afterwards spread on an asphalte barbecue to dry. By

this means the quality is easily discovered by the practised eyes

of the pickers, who separate (in much the same way as coffee)

pieces affected by iron ore, pyrites, quartz, or other foreign —

material, a small piece of which passing into a consignment to

the Battersea Crucible Works might ruin the whole lot. Some

of the pickers are furnished with iron hammers to break up sus-

picious-looking pieces of the plumbago, and others again are em-

ployedin brushing the dust off good lumps, and polishing the

same with cocoanut husks. ‘There are punched sheet-iron sizers

with holes of different dimensions (Nos. 1 to 4), and accordingly

large lump, small pieces, chips, and dust plumbago are now-a-days

carefully separated. It takes about 100 expert men and women

to prepare two or three tons in a day; consequently this branch

of trade must give employment to several thousands of people for

the greater part of the year. The cask-making and packing

afford further occupation, each barrel holding about. 5 cwt., so

that some 35,000 casks all made of hora staves (generally

deemed a useless timber) were required for last year’s shipments.

The plumbago is also carried from the mines to Colombo in

barrels, which, however, are sent back in shooks and so used

repeatedly. Three men are supposed to make 8 or 10 barrels a

day. Altogether, therefore, it will be seen that the Ceylon

plumbago industry is a very important one to our Sinhalese

neighbours.

“Mr. W. A. Fernando, whose model store is well worthy of

inspection, sells to the European mercantile houses as much as

from 1,200 to 1,800 tons per annum. In olden days he used to

ship on his own account, and he has received prices as high as

£32 and £48 per ton for lump plumbago, which is now only

worth £15. His Brownrigg-street store should be visited during

the present busy season by all who wish to get some idea of the

importance of the PLumBaco Inpustry oF CEYLON.”

We now feel confident that the number to which the

ee JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. TX.

pursuit gives employment was much under-estimated in —

1880, and that, considering that 5,000 persons were said to

be engaged in mining in one year in a single district of the

North-Western Province, our higher estimate of an average

of 20,000 men, women, and children at present engaged in

the various operations of mining, carrying, preparing, pack-

ing, and shipping Ceylon plumbago, is not beyond the truth.

It is curious that the Sinhalese women should entertain

a prejudice against plumbago as poison, seeing that it is

included in the native pharmacopeia. We should have

expected members of what Artemus Ward called ‘the

female sect” to have been more troubled about the soiling

of their persons and clothes by contact with the mineral,

but in truth a coating of the shining ore, while easily got

rid of by the use of water, produces no such hideous effect as

that so familiar to us now in Colombo of the truly uncanny-

looking coaling coolies, when proceeding to their houses after

loading or unloading the bunkers of one of the multitude

of magnificent steamers which now resort to our harbour.

A polish of person, if not of deportment and manners, is

the result of working amongst even the dust of plumbago,

and it is curious to see the dark-skinned coolies of the

plumbago stores walking about with their bodies shining

as if they were electrotype statues vivified.

In its further metamorphic progress from vegetable to

mineral, the form of carbon we call plumbago has certainly

taken a great step in advance of the carbon we call coal, in ~

getting rid of smoke entirely, and also of dirt. Coal, how-

ever, cannot be accused, as plumbago justly is, with causing

a whole roof-covering of tiles suddenly to fall off, from the

slipperiness created by wind-blown particles of the greasy

mineral. We were greatly amused by Mr. Fernando’s

statement at the time, but others, Huropeans included,

who have to do with the preparation of plumbago, have

fully confirmed his representation as to the incompatibility of

plumbago dust and tiled roofs. In this connection we would ~

advise visitors to plumbago compounds to be careful how they

bear themselves in such slippery places. A sudden step on

to the polished platform may end in an undignified tumble.

And this reminds me of the sensation produced many years

ag0 in Mincing Lane by the peculiar appearance of some

oe Noe

Ceylon coffee which had been dried on a barbecue where |

_plumbago had been previously spread. An attempt to

impart a factitious colouring to the beans was suspected

- until the requisite explanation was afforded.

As this paper may be read beyond the limits of Ceylon, it

may be as well to explain that cadjan is a word, curiously

enough of Malay origin, applied in Ceylon to plaited

branches of cocoanut palms, used for roofing houses, sheds,

carts, &c. Compound is ayard or enclosure, and barbecue is

a platform.

I have already shown, what I may be allowed to repeat,

that for the average shipments of 12,000 tons per annum |

of plumbago from Ceylon tor the past five seasons, the

yearly supply of casks must have been 45,000, and that the

manufacture of these alone must have given welcome and

remunerative employment to carpenters out of work by

reason of the partial collapse of the staple colonial industry :

this apart from the large numbers of persons (estimated

above at 20,000) engaged in mining, carting, preparing,

packing, and shipping the mineral.

Let us, therefore, hope that the plumbago industry of

Ceylon may continue to prosper and extend, not as the result

of wars or rumours of wars, but because of the steady and

beneficial progress of the peaceful industries and arts which

contribute to the elevation of humanity in all that constitutes

comfort, happiness, and means to cultivate the loftier

instincts and destinies of our race.

$1.—1885.] PLUMBAGO. ce 239

Appendix No. i.

Letter from Mr. W. P. Ranesinghe.

In the Sinhalese work called “ Yéga Ratnékara” (‘the ocean

of the gem-like prescriptions’) I find the mode of purifying

plumbago for medicinal purposes given at chapter XLIV. In

the same chapter is found a mode of reducing mica or tale to

ashes for the like purpose. ‘The process of purifying is thus

stated :—‘ Break the plumbago into small pieces, put it into a pot,

pour over itthe milk-like exudation of the daluk tree (Euphorbia

[For continuation see page 242. |

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fA at oe R.AS. - (onYLON). ~ TVel, ise a

antiqguorum) and boil it three days in a low fire such as is 3

used for boiling rice ; take it out and wash it. It is now puri-

fied.” It is, I understand, used by the Sinhalese medical men as a

tonic. Sinhalese medical science is derived from the ancient

Aryan works of Northern India, and latterly to some extent from

Southern India. I have not with me any very old medical work

of the Sinhalese.

I am very much puzzled about the date of the book I refer to.

At the commencement of the work the author says it was

begun in the month of Wesak (May to June) in the sixteenth

year of King Buwanéka Bahu. Now there were, it appears, seven

kings who bore that name.

The last king of that name flourished in A.D. 1557, and

reigned according to Turnour only eight years. I do not find his

name mentioned in the Sinhalese translation of the Mahawansa.

The sixth of that name ascended the throne in A.D. 1464, and

reigned only eight years. These two kings not having reigned

sixteen or more years each, the work could not be attributed to

their times. The fifth of that name, beginning from A.D. 1378,

appears to have reigned twenty years. The fourth reigned only

fourteen years. The time the second and third reigned is not

stated. ‘The first reigned only eleven years.

So that the book must have been composed either in the reigns

of the second, third, or the fifth kings of that name. Taking the

latest as the safest, it must have been composed in the reign of

Buwanéka Bahu V., who reigned from 1378 to 1898 A.D. The

tradition, according to the editor’s preface, is that the king in

whose time the work was composed reigned at Jayawardana

Pura, or Kotté. Mr. Turnour says that Buwanéka Bahu the Sth

reigned at (Gangasiripura) Gampola. This is a mistake; for

the Mahawansa (chap. 91) distinctly says that Buwanéka Bahu

V. built Jayawardana Pura, south of Kelani Pura.

If the tradition is correct, there could be no doubt that the

work was commenced in the reign of this king, because I find

that the second and third kings of that name reigned at Kuruné-

gala, and not at Kotte.

The sixteenth year of the reign of Buwanéka Bahu V. would

be A.D. 1894, and the work I referred to must have been

commenced 49] years ago.

Lhe word S363 [miniran] is also used for tale or mica, but

the book in one place qualifies it by saying mOSHdsy | halu

miniran |, the black miniran,’ which is no doubt the plumbago of

commerce.

Pa ee ic OM Hes cthhenae(C ‘hte ee Ber

VSP een ‘ %

“Ne. jo, 11885] PLUMBAGO. 949

Appendiz No. 3.

Bioenue derived from Royalty on Plumbago dug on Crown

Lands, including Payments for Licenses to dig for

_ Plumbago, from 1850 (when Royalty was

Jjirst levied) to 1884.

Western Province. Southern Province. Total.

Rs. Rs. Rs.

T3500. >... oo va — eee 00

Tso)... 229 ens — Se 229

PSb2 i... 406 eee — acts 406

Pease Bey aig ee be 533

1854 ae 103 eee == Gare 108

1855... eet ee = ae 11

HS967 .:., 399 oe 39 ee 438

eae | 869 a: Bae 894

1So8:) 2. 219 isle — sie ZAG

TSoor >. 341 na 30 one 374

1860... 3,045 ue 145 be 3,190

1861 «ss 3,464 eae 312 ie 3,636

S62. 4,722 eee 1,121 Rs 0,843

ees 8 12795) i 8 BOd a...) 151549

Meo 1Oves a 1281 ae CTT 999

Mego 2.05) © ss. O64 a 2,289

UESGG) © <0.) 8,682, 6 BS ae 4,200

eon or 2880 BAR 3,187

1868... J0,898 ie | 2628 A 13,026

MeO 1PA08 1625) Ak 16,118

MeO GOO oe (9S) a 6,796

Meme) 9086. 4. 862 a 9,948

STO ve 14537 eee ho. ie 15,659

Mone ote 40,870.) ee 5289 ha 45,660

18T4*.... | 5,588 1925 ay 7,513

T8750 ese. 6,989): w., O80) Os ie) ee 6O

HOMO. aa.) e400 Ls, BOOK erie! 695

AS oc ae ou TAO ee 140

* From April of this year the royalty was collected at the Customs

at the rate of Rs. 10 per ton—a rate which was reduced to Rs. 5 in

December, 1877. Of the royalty collected at the Customs from April,

1874, this table takes no account, but only of sums collected at the

- Kachchéries. For the revenue under every form see the comprehen-

sive and detailed return constituting Appendix No. 2. The great

disparity between the figures for the Western and Southern Provinces,

from 1881 onwards, seems to be due to the fact that, while in the Wes-

tern Province 10 per cent, of the plumbago mined is taken as “ rent’’ in

Q44 | BOURNAL, BAS. (CEYLON) 7 [Vol Ea, 3

Western Province. Southern Province. Total.

: Rs. Rs. | Rs.

1878 ere 81 Bel) 130 eee 211

1879 «ase 986 fo ~ 800 sale 1,786

1880 «se == ens 1,130 cae 1,130

TBS o scts L172 aie 470 aes 1,642

1882 eve 1,995 sic 590 ee 2,585

1883 ewe 3,987 oo. 740 a 4,727

1884 ... 954 ante 100 1,054

It would appear that the royalty ‘lected at the Galle

Custom-house in the past five years has been :—1880, Rs. 5,962 ;

1881, Rs. 3,972; 1882, Rs. 3,228; 1888, Rs. 4,798; and

1884, Rs. 3,764. The licenses issued in the Southern Province

‘seem to have been :—1880, 113; 1881, 47; 1882, 59 ; 1883, 74 ;

and 1884 only 10,—the latter a significant sign of the depression

of the industry.

A return of licenses issued in the Western Province for the

_ four years ending 1884 enables us to appreciate the preponderance

of the Kalutara district as a plumbago-yielding territory over the

other districts of the Province. The licenses taken out in this

district for each of the past four years were, respectively, 35, 94,

102, and 25. Colombo shows 10, 18, 5, and 1; Negombo 2,

23, 10, and 2; Ratnapura 7, 7, 5, and 1; Kégalla shows

very poorly, proving that the vast bulk of the mineral which

came on the railway at Polgahawela was from the Kurunégala

District. In 1881 none were reported as issued in the Kégalla

Disrrtct ; 1882 and 1883 gave only 2 each, and 1584 only one.

For the whole Province the figures were :—

Licenses.

1881 Hse 04

1882 Beit oO,

1883 sek Oe

1884 30

All the figures within our reach seem to show that in the past

addition to proceeds of licenses to dig at Rs. 10 each, no rentis collected

in the Southern Province, but simply the Rs. 10 license fees.

N.B.—That some small sum ought to be added to plumbago revenue,

which is at present credited to stamps ; for Mr. Saunders, Government

Agent, Western Province, states that “the license fee of Rs. 10 is col-

lected and brought to account in different ways at the different Kach-

chéries. In some cases cash is taken and credited to Land Revenue

under the head ‘ Licenses to dig Plumbago ;’ in other cases a stamp of

iis. 10 is fixed to the bond, and then of course the revenue gains that

‘amount under the head ‘Stamps.’ ”

Es Be = ts Dae

“No. 31. —1885.] —-PLUMBAGO. ie 245

‘five years of large export, the Kurunégala district of the North-

- Western Province and the Kalutara district of the Western have

supplied probably three-fourths of the whole plumbago recorded

in the Customs returns.

Appendix No. &.

SresstonaL Paper AIX. or 1873.

Return of the Number of Plumbago Pits.

Crown Land, Private Land specially

on license, Land. exempted.

Western Province MEG ees 280a Pe ah

North-Western Province --. —— s+. } set --- 10

Southern Province ues 4alod ..: 18ie . lif

1,181 539 59

ee ———

(a) The claims to exemption of royalty of many of these lands are

under consideration.

(b) Land purchased from Government and subject to the eos of

royalty.

(d) 108 mines now in operation.

311 mines abandoned for the reason of their contents having boon

exhausted, or not worth the expense of incurring,

(e) 51 mines now in operation.

136 mines abandoned for the reason of their contents having been

exhausted, or not worth the expense of incurring.

(f) 8 mines in operation.

3 mines abandoned for the reason of their contents ta havane been

_exhausted, or not worth the expense of incurring.

Statement showing the Quantity of Plumbago exported during

the last twenty years, during periods of five years ;

and the Amount of Royalty received during

each of such periods.

Quantity Amount of

Years. exported. Royalty received.

. Cwt. Rs.

1843 to 1857 .«. | 87,01l... 2,080

1858 t0 1862 -.. 191,845 ... 13,464

FSGS to 1867 2911S) sel 37,227

PeGSto Mera) as ela goons), OL Oit

Cwt. 1,284,056 Rs. 114,382

Remmercetinesrs ny stow

246 ! : JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). ; [Vol. IX, an

Statement showing the Quantity of Plumbago exported and

the Amount of Royalty received from 1868 to 1872.

Quantity Amount of

Years. exported. Royalty received.

Cwt. Rs.

1868, ee. 141,095 Re ORG

T8690 ase 986189 6 TS

[S700 85 249 | 6,796

(eile soe On Date aoe 9,949

T8720 dele 1860052.) Alaa

Cwt. 713,785 Rs. 61,611

Appendix No. 5.

An Ordinance to provide for the collection of the

sums due to the Crown on Plumbago,

No. 21 or 1878.

Exeamble. V 7] HEREAS a certain sum in lieu of rent is

now levied on all plumbago dug on Crown

lands, and a royalty is due to the Crown on all

plumbago dug on private lands, and the payment

on these dues is largely evaded, and it is expedient

to secure the same by collecting them as a royalty

at the different ports of shipment: It is enacted

by the Governor of Ceylon, with the advice and

consent of the Legislative Council thereof, as.

follows :—

Dies'on 1. There shall be raised, levied, and paid, as a

plumbago. . royalty upon all plumbago of the produce of this

Island exported Ree seas a duty of 50 cents

per cwt.*

*The royalty of Rs. 10 per ton, or 50 cents per ewt., was levied from Ist

April, 1874, but by the Ordinance No. 22 of 1877 the royalty on all plumbago

exported was fixed at 25 cents per ecwt., instead of 50 cents, from 21st December

‘S877.

wart

£3 Verbal

. ee Kae Pee tS : |

See ae sie,

une, ; % j ria fe ag taney yee

Appendix No. 6.

Report on the following Petition for permission to dig for

Plumbago on Crown Lands, referred by the Govern-

ment Agent of the Western Province to the

Mudaliyar of Héewagam Koraleé.

To whom addressed :—The Hon. the Government Agent, Western

Province.

Name of Petitioner :—Merenge Don Sadris Senerat Appuhami, of

_ Liyanwala. |

Purport of Petition :—Praying for permission to dig for plumbago in

an acre of Crown land called Wellendalanda, situated at

Liyanwala in the Meda Pattu of Hewagam Korale.

Date of Petition: —2nd June, 1885.

Report No. 464.

Name of Land :— Wellindalanda.

Boundaries :—North by land purchased by Abraham Appuhami and

Don Carolis Appuhami; south by a goraka tree and a

kahata tree; east by goraka tree and ant-hill; west by a

date tree and kahata tree.

Description of timber trees onthe land :—No valuable trees.

- How far from nearest forest ? No forest.

Whether petitioner is a lessee of any otber land or not? No.

His character and means? Bears a good character; he has no landed

property in this district, but he says that he has in the

Rayigam Korale.

Whether there is an abandoned pit on the land, and, if so, abandoned

by whom? No.

Reference to any former reports made touching this land :—None.

(A printed application is enclosed for the survey of the land.)

: a J. M. E. Pimris.

Ranale, 8th June, 1885.

Appendiz No. 7.

form of Lease of Plumbago Land.

HIS Indenture, made at Colombo on the 6th day of July

in the year of Our Lord One thousand Hight hundred and

Eighty-five, between the Hon. F. R. Saunders, Government

Agent for the Western Province, acting for and on behalf of

Her Masesty Queen Victoria, of the one part, and M. Don

Sadris Senerat Appuhami, of Liyanwala, his heirs, executors,

administrators, and assigns, of the other part.

248° |) SOURNAL, R-A.S. (CEYLON). 0+ “(Vol 1x

Wiens the said M, Don Sadris Senerat Apulia, af

Liyanuwala, has contracted and agreed with the said Hon.

IF. R. Saunders, as such Government Agent as aforesaid, and

acting as aforesaid for and on behalf of Her Majesty, for a Lease

of the Mrtnes hereafter described, and intended to be hereby

demised for the term of one year from the date of these presents,

at the yearly rent hereinafter specified, and payable as hereinafter.

is mentioned, and under and subject to the covenants and agree-

ments hereinafter expressed and declared :

Now this Indenture witnesseth, that in consideration of the

yearly rent hereinafter reserved, and the covenants and agreements

hereinafter contained, on the part of the said M. Don Sadris

Senerat Appuhami, of Liyanwala, his heirs, executors, adminis-

trators, and assigns, to be respectively paid, observed, and

performed, he, the said Hon. F. R. Saunders, as such Govern-

ment Agent as aforesaid, and acting for and on behalf of her

Majesty as aforesaid, hath granted, demised, and leased, and by

these presents doth grant, demise, and lease, unto the said

M. Don Sadris Senerat Appuhami, of Liyanwala, his heirs, ex-

ecutors, administrators, and assigns, all and all manner of Mines,

Beds, and Veins of Plumbago, and the Ore thereof, which have

been or shall hereafter be discovered or opened under, within, or

about all such lands and premises as belong to Her said Majesty,

within the boundaries following, to wit :-—

One acre of Crown Land called Wellindalanda, situated at

Liyanwala in Meda Pattu of Héwagam Koralé: on the north by

land purchased by Abraham Appuhami and Don Cornalis Appu-

hami; on the south by a goraka tree and kahata tree; on the east by

a goraka tree and ant-hill; on the west by a date tree and kahata;

—with full and free liberty, power, and authority, to and for

the said M. Don Sadris Senerat Appuhami, of Liyanwala, his

heirs, executors, administrators, and assigns, and their agents,

servants, and workmen, with or without horses, waggons, carts,

or other carriages, from time to time, and at all times hereafter,

to enter into and upon the said lands and premises, or any of them

or any part thereof, or to dig and sink such and so many pits and

shafts as shall be proper for getting all such Plumbago or the

Ore thereof, and to stack or deposit the said Plumbago or the

Ore thereof, when raised, on the lands contiguous to such pits or

shafts, until the same can be conveniently removed ; and to erect

any engine or engines for working or getting such Plumbago or

the Ore thereof; and to make all necessary ditches and drains ;

and to use for foot-people, horses, waggons, and other carriages,

pa aPC MGSO al ARSE? pS tee gabe te Pat iii ae a aan To RN) Ba al

ae she Ney Caras!

No. 81.—1885.] PLUMBAGO. , 249

all necessary and convenient roads for carrying of the said

Plumbago or the Ore thereof; and all other privileges which

shall be necessary, requisite, and appertaining for or to the find-

ing, discovering, raising or working, procuring or carrying away,

the said Plumbago or the Ore thereof; and all the right, title,

interest, property, claim, and demand whatsoever of Her said

Majesty in, to, out of, or upon the said Mines, Beds, and Veins,

hereby demised as aforesaid; and for the said M. Don Sadris

Senerat Appuhami, of Liyanwala, his heirs, executors, adminis-

trators, and assigns, to cut, take, and appropriate all such indi-

genous timber growing on the said lands, as may be necessary for

any purpose connected with the opening and working of the said

Mines, or preserving or removing the Ore or Plumbago which

may be obtained therefrom, upon payment to the said Hon.

F. R. Saunders, Government Agent, or his said successors, of so

much money as he or they shall or may demand for the said

timber. !

To have and to hold the said Mines, Beds, Veins, and

all and singular other the premises hereby demised or intended

so to be, and every part thereof, with their and every of their

appurtenances unto the said M. Don Sadris Senerat Appuhami,

of Liyanwala, and his heirs, executors, administrators, and

assigns, for and during the term of one year, to be computed

from the day of the date of these presents, and from thenceforth

ensuing, and fully to be complete and ended, yielding and paying

in advance for the said term the sum of Ten Rupees and further

one-tenth part of all Plumbago dug, or its value, unto the said

Hon. F. R. Saunders, or his said successors in the said office of

Government Agent for the Western Province.

And the said M. Dor Sadris Senerat Appuhami, of Liyanwala,

doth hereby covenant that he and his heirs, executors, adminis-

trators, and assigns, shall and will, within three months from

the date hereof, open and work one or more Mines within the

lands aforesaid ; and in default of doing so the lease shall be

forfeited.

And the said M. Don Sadris Senerat Appuhami, of Liyanwala,

further agrees that he will not remove any of the Plumbago so

dug from the depot where it is stored until it has been inspected

and measured by the proper officer appointed by the Government

Agent, and the correct value of the share due to Government has

been correctly ascertained, and that he will at all times, upon

being required, allow the said Hon. F. R. Saunders or his said

successors, or his agent or servants, at all times to enter upon the

eT Bie rt LNB PU eae ae eS ce. OS Cae ean be S76)

NMR Ce A Tra CT SU IRN ER hee RR SDL

Rely pean Xf >: xe ete

Sabie on

250 JOURNAL, BRAS. (CEYLON). [Vol I. 3

lands hereinbefore mentioned, and to reside thereon, and to in-

spect the Mines, Beds, or Veins that shall have been opened

thereon, and to take an account of the produce thereof; and, if

need be, to secure and remove all other metals or minerals, not

being Plumbago, which shall be found in the said lands.

AND it is further agreed by and between the said parties hereto,

that in case the said M. Don Sadris Senerat Appuhami, of Liyan-

wala, his heirs, executors, administrators, or assigas, shall

assign over or otherwise part with this Indenture, or the Mines,

Beds, or Veins, or the rights or privileges hereby demised, or any

part thereof, to any person whatsoever, without the consent of

the said Hon. F. R. Saunders, Government Agent, or his suc-

cessors, beiag first had and obtained in writing for such purpose,

or if the said M. Don Sadris Senerat Appuhami, of Liyanwala,

his heirs, executors, administrators, or assigns, or if they, their

servants, or agents, shall in any manner act contrary to these

presents or to the provisions of the Ordinance to provide for the

collection of the sums due tothe Crown on Plumbago, No. 21 of

1878 ; then, and in either of the said cases, it shall and may be

lawful to and for the said Hon. F. R. Saunders, or his suc-

cessors, for and on behalf of Her said Majesty or Her successors,

into the Mines, Beds, Veins, hereby demised, and the said lands,

or any part thereof in the name of the whole, wholly to re-enter,

and the same to have again, retain, re-possess, and enjoy, and to

confiscate all Plumbago excavated from the said lands by the

said M. Don Sadris Senerat Appuhami, of Liyanwala, anything

herein contained to the contrary notwithstanding.

IN WITNESS WHEREOF the said parties hereto have set their

hands and seals, the day and year first above written.

Witnesses :

CHARLES FLANDERKA.

J. H. WITTEBRON. F. R. SaAunpDERS,

Government Agent,

The stamp is

here affixed.

The license holder will be allowed the option of redeeming the

Crown share at the assessed value. If he declines, the Gover n-

ment share will be sold by public auction.

Witness : H. L. Crawrorp,

CHARLES FLANDERKA. for Government Agent,

PLUMBAGO MINING.

Plan of an Underground Cutting.

Shed

SS Winch Surface of the Ground

4-8

cubits 5

Shape of underground t 6

cutting.

[ To face page 251.

Wu veat in teal eS ¥ nm te OMe A RD Pye 97) i Bale OS Wea FOS tt Pets INT ye a fie

By EME RJ A ‘) Bee ie Fasc 5 fy (isk

‘ } : *

Palit es 4 w i

Coe Mor 81. 1885.1 PLUMBAGO. | tae

Appendix No. &.

a upiion of a Plumbago Mine, and the System of Excavation

pursued in the Southern Province.

(Translation from the Sinhalese, supplied by W. E. T. Sharpe, Esq., Govt. Agent. |

PLUMBAGO is excavated in two ways :—

G)—Sinking large pits [minivan patala kepima]; and

(ai)—Cutting underground [dénd kepima].

_ From large pits the ore is taken without much difficulty.

An underground cutting is shown in the accompanying plan. ‘The

pit between the two straight lines shown by the figure marked is.

first dug. The breadth of it is from 4 to 8 cubits. The pits are

not square, but oblong. If the underground cutting is to be dug

straight, if cannot be dug deeper than 70 or 80 yards [210

to 240 feet, but Mr. Jacob De Mel’s is 450 feet] owing to

the difficulty of breathing for want of sufficient air deeper on.

A lamp is kept in it.

Figure 2 shows the extension of an underground cutting ; this

is generally 2} by 5 cubits. In some places they are large

enough to allow a miner to walk erect, and they are generally

16 yards underground, and are cut to a length of 24 yards; ata

depth of 60 yards, they are cut to a length of 8 yards. No. 4 is

a deeper cutting, but as it cannot be extended at such a depth,

a new shaft (No. 5) has to be sunk, and access to it availed of by

No. 6. This pitis called the air pit, because itis purposely opened

to admit of air. If any more diggings towards other directions

in the pits marked 1 and 5 are required, it can be done in the same

manner. ‘The water, earth, and plumbago in these pits [ ddnd |

are taken up through the first opened pit. If necessary, they could

be taken on land [to the surface] from the air pit also. For the

purpose of taking out earth, &c., there is a winch fastened on the

surface. By tying a rope to the body of the winch, by hanging

one or two tubs to therope, and by winding the winch, the water,

earth, and plumbago in the pit are taken out. A shed is put cover-

ing the pit for protection against sun and rain. After lining the

inside with planks on the underground cutting to prevent land

slips, very strong beams are fastened close to each other. As the

digging progresses the planks are placed and beams fastened.

Three or four workmen are necessary to descend to these under-

ground cuttings. It is with small crowbars that the pits are

dug. Inthe course of the digging, if rocks are found, they are

blasted. The miners descend at 6 o’clock in the morning and

5 Me Pty os Fes, We Dead

Rup ity i J ¥ re Peigh | nearaah peasy ay

po ran iy: BI AL: VIEL cogs = ye % Ay : tT

hay PR hg haley i prt Ves avg steal sume nal ee as

252 5 JOURNAL, B.A.S. (CEYLON).

come up at the same hour next morning. They take their meals

inside the pit. In some places, when they descend the pit at 6

in the morning, they ascend at 6 inthe evening. When one batch

comes out another goes in. The underground cuttings must be

lighted both day and night. There must be on the top (on land)

about five men to work the winch and to receive the earth, &c.

By means of an air pump the pit can be penetrated further than

the distance mentioned above.

Appendiz No. 9.

The Precariousness and Difficulties of the Plumbago Mining

Enterprize.

[The Galle “Gravets Mudaliy4r’ having reported that

although plumbago is found in various villages of the Akmimana

Division, mining forthe mineral is not remunerative, the follow-

ing remarks were made, apparently by the Atapattu Mudaliyar. |

““I BEG leave to state that there are signs of plumbago being in

the land within the four gravets, besides in the villages enumera-

ted by the Mudaliyar, but the difficulty is to get to the regular

vein. While there appears to be plumbago on the surface of the

land, when a little deeper is dug there is nothing to be found ;

when sinking the pit somewhat deeper still, there appears again,

and it is very deceptive.

“It is unsafe for a person to try on his own account the mining

of plumbago, unless by chance the proper vein can be found.

While in search of the vein the pit is sunk ; within a few yards

of the pit there may be the proper vein unknown to the persons

employed. It is an expensive and unsafe speculation, as the

baling out of water, which requires to be done both day and night,

is very costly. Some pits have to be sunk between 30 and 50

feet deep. At Nidowa in Ratgama there is to be found good

plumbago, but after much expense, if by some cause or other

while there is much plumbago to be had, a day or two should

fail to bale out the water, the whole pit is apt to be covered with

the surrounding earth, and no one would attempt to renew the

search in that pit. Thus the loss to the speculator is great, even

if he should afterwards succeed in getting some.”

~ No. 31.—1885.] = PLuBaco.. 253

Coo eet Appendix io. 10.

Graphite, Mica, and Asbestos, and the absence of Fossils Hon

3 the Metamor hie Rocks of Ceylon

are thus discussed by Dr. William King, of the Geological

Survey of India, in reply to queries preferred by me when asked

to write a Paper on Graphite :—

‘““Our knowledge of the organic origin of graphite is as yet

little better than speculation..........+ . I fancy graphite expresses

a greater amount of metamorphism than anthracite............We

have one of the finest specimens, almost, in the world of museums

in our museum at Calcutta, which my brother Atlian sent up.

sesccoeeelt is difficult to tell you why there are no fossils in your

metamorphic rocks: there may have been very little life at the _

time of their formation and that of the lowest forms, and these

may have been obliterated by metamorphism, or so altered that

nothing but the result of their chemical decomposition now

remains—e. g., this graphite. I do not think age would have

- anything to do with the obliteration of vegetable structure, if it

ever existed ; metamorphism (which includes a tremendous lot of

forces, chemical and otherwise) is quite sufficient............ 1 do

‘not think there is any relation between graphite, mica, and

asbestos—except in this way, that mica, being the common mineral

in mica schist, and mica schist being an altered form of veinic

_ shales, it is reasonable to suppose that seams of vegetable matter

might have been associated with those shales. For instance, it

is conceivable that shales with vegetable matter in layers will, by

pressure and in time, become carbonaceous shales and coal :

while intense metamorphism might bring about a further change

into mica schist and graphite—graphite which exists in granite

venis ; and mica in that case is the constituent of the granite,

the graphite being an accidental mineral. Asbestos is a form of

the magnesian rocks, so common in some gneiss regions ; it has

nothing to do with the graphite.

“Very possibly the forms of vegetable life were more minute

than those of coal: but they may have existed in immense

numbers.”

Dr. King’s opinion is of course decisive as to the absence of

mineral affinity between the two substances which of all others

best resist fire, and which common quality led me to put the —

question. But associated with our gneiss rocks are beds of that

very magnesian limestone of which asbestos is stated by Dr. King

tobeaform. As regards mica, the Sinhalese describe graphite as

its black form, “ Rela uiaa ne. and one can scarcely wonder, for

| H2

ee EE AE AR NER Wea ROLE A Smet gets Me NR has ga oe

‘ Ritts Ra MaKe ame

a Apt RUNNER

ie belek

ied

254 JOURNAL, B.A.S. (CHYLON). [Vol. 1X. 4

not only is graphite lustrous like mica, but specimens occasion-

ally occur which can be separated into plates, like lamellar mica,

while very dark brown mica, when found associated with plum-

bago, simulates to some extent the lamellar forms of the latter

mineral.

Appendix No. il.

Minerals associated with Plumbago.

Kwowine that Mr. A. Murray, of the Public Works Department,

had received a geological training, I referred some specimens of

plumbago, quartz, and iron pyrites for his opinion, with the results

shown in the following correspondence :—=

Mr, Ferguson to Mr. Murray.

““T hope you won’t think me troublesome, but in my paper on

plumbago I wish to make no mistakes. Mr. Williams has kindly

sent me some specimens from a mine on the road from the North-

Western Province to Dambulla, mainly to show how plumbago

is associated with quartz. The very vest mineral and in largest

quantities thus occur. Kindly look at No. 2 in the box sent

herewith, and say if I am correct in describing it as crystalline

quartz. Mr. Williams wrote of pieces of the quartz looking like

Derbyshire spar, and I am sorry he did not send me a specimen

separate from the plumbago, but this specimen will enable you

to judge if the quartz is normal or any variety worth indicating.

_ “No. 1 includes a number of beautiful auriferous-looking bits of

iron pyrites, which came in the box from Mr. Williams. You

will notice that the golden iridescence shades off occasionally to

faint green. Mr. Dixon attributed the green tint to the presence

of copper, when reporting on a specimen sent by Mudaliyar

Jayetilleke in 1880, when the gold fever was on. Do you agree

with Dixon? Or have we nothing beyond very beautiful iron

pyrites ? I enclose a bit of white quartz ending in gold and green

pyrites in this letter, which I think of getting set as a brooch.

Of course the plumbago people do not delight in iron in any

shape, and I am sorry I have not, to send you, a piece of com-

pact heavy ironstone, the nucleus of plumbago which Mr. W.

A. Fernando told me was unsaleable. I suppose that, apart from

particles of iron being in the mineral, the quality of the plumbago

was adversely affected by contact with the iron? In any case,

those interested in plumbago love the appearance of veins of

white quartz, while, with good reason, they hate iron.

Pale Spear, sm Oe OR a Ne LMT hone be ve) A pea Pee

ea Ly

pa 1 x

No. 31.—1885.] PLUMBAGO. | : 255

- “ And talking of iron, look at that magnificent specimen of iron

pyrites(?), No. 3, so like a mass of polished silver, which was

found in Mr. Jacob De Mel’s mine just as you see it. De Mel

tells me it has not been touched upin any way. In returning it

kindly say what you think of it—whether you think that by

any possibility the beautiful polish of its plates is due to the

contiguity of graphite? I fancy you willsay “no.” Is the mass

a conglomeration of iron pyrites, or what? De Mel said the

weight was 14 lb.

“The amount of negative evidence I have obtained as to the

existence of anthracite in association with plumbago, or in any

form or place in Ceylon, seems to meoverwhelming. But I should

like to have your opinion before closing up. Do you think it

| possible that Gygax could have mistaken any black ore of

| manganese or iron, or any other substance, for anthracite? Cer-

tainly, no human being has seen any of the mineral since he

announced its existence.”

Mr. Murray's reply.

*‘T have looked over the fine geological specimens you have

sent for inspection.

“© No 2 I should describe as semi-opaque quartz rock.

“ Quartz, properly speaking, is pure silica, of which rock

_ erystal is the purest and most transparent.

‘The specimens in No, 1 packet are very pretty samples of

iron pyrites. The green tints are due to the presence of sulphate

of copper, but in very small quantity.

‘‘T should much like to see a specimen of the compact heavy

ironstone (metamorphosed, I conclude) you refer to as being

associated with plumbago. Ceylon miners have probably the

same reason for objecting to its presence as colliers at home have

to the presence of trap rock in the coal measures, since in the

vicinity of such rock coal has lost its bright lustre and regular

face, as well as muchof its bituminous or inflammable character,

more nearly resembling anthracite than coal, and yet different

from both in that it has concretions of iron pyrites or other

minerals.

‘No. 3 specimen—iron pyrites—is simply splendid.

“It is one solid crystal of that metal, and by no means a conglo-

meration of pyrites : the polished surface is quite natural, and not

due to the contiguity of plumbago.

“ Plumbago is held to be a metamorphosed form of anthracite,

and probably Gygax classed the impure forms of this mineral

2060 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). Bete IX. ay.

under that head. I have never seen anything approaching to Fal

anthracite in the Island. 4

“T return the samples. ‘The specimen of pone (iron), quartz

r ock, and plumbago is exceedingly interesting.”

Mr, Murray wrote again with reference to some other

specimens I sent for his inspection :-—

“The minerals you got at De Mel’s are all iron pyrites closely —

associated with plumbago. The ferruginous appearances of some

of the specimens I am inclined to attribute to oxidation through

the agency of water or damp finding its way along natural fissures-

“¢ The specimen of plumbago is perfect, and exhibits an exceed-

ingly fine form of crystallization.

“‘ Still more interesting is the specimen of garnetiferous quartz

associated with plumbago. The dark dullish mineral in the quartz

matrix is, I believe, an amorphous form of plumbago in a state of

transition, for, on breaking a piece off your specimen for the purpose

of testing it, I found secretions in a semi-carbonised state which

were easily pulverised.

““’'The erystal (octahedron) of iron pyrites is certainly ex quisite,

. and one of the forms by which it is recognized.

“ Among other forms of crystallization the cube iscommon. I

enclose some crystals of it, which please return after inspection. :

They were taken out of the gneiss quarry at Fishers’ Hill, _

Mutwal.” 4

Rocks associated with Plumbago. + :

Having received from Mr. Williams, Acting Government

Agent of Kurunégala, a very fine mass of quartz crystal found

in a plumbago mine, and which bore traces of having been embed-

ded in kaolin, I obtained Mr. Murray’s opinion of the specimen,

thus :-—

‘“¢' The specimen of translucent rock crystal is exceedingly

fine. The crystal is the typical form—rhombohedral—a six-sided

prism terminating in a six-sided pyramid; the white earthy

‘substance is kaolin. !

** Crystals in process of formation assume plane, smooth surfaces :

the polished facets are not due to the influence or action of other

closely-associated minerals, but are merely the definite shapes or

forms assumed in obedience to the laws of crystallization. Geo-

logically, quartz belongs to the metamorphic or hypogenic system,

and contains one equivalent of silica to two of oxygen.”

On other specimens of pyrites, mica, quartz, &c., found associ- |

ated with plumbago, Mr. Murray reported thus :—

No, 31.—1885.] _ PLUMBAGO. | Lin ee

“ Specimen No. 1.—A_ garnetiferous nodule of quartz,

apparently found imbedded in plumbago. I have broken the

specimen in two to show this clearly.

“ Specimen No. 2.—Brown mica, which is mainly composed of

silica, potash, and magnesia.

“* Specimen No. 3.—One of the best and purest forms of plum-

bago I have seen.

“* Specimen No. 4.—Mica schist (quartz and mica), closely

associated with plumbago, iron pyrites, &c. The piece I have

broken off exhibits two shades of yellow, due doubtless to pre-

sence of sulphur in varying proportions. |

“ Specimen No. 5.-—A fine specimen of a highly garnetiferous

vein of quartz passing through plumbago.

“ Specemen No. 6.—Iron pyrites, plumbago, and quartz, with

a thin shell of ironstone—the first of the kind I have seen,

“ Specemen No. 7.—A band of steatite or soupstone traversing

plumbago. The crystallized rock in the smaller specimen is quartz.

“ Specimen No. 8.—Of the three varieties, the light dull-look-

ing stone seems to me an impure amorphous form of plumbago,

impregnated with iron and mixed with felspar and silica.

“ The last two specimens are brown mica schist associated with

plumbago andiron pyrites.”

Appendix No. ,i2Z.

Local Use of Plumbago.

As this paper was undergoing final revision, the following inter-

esting communi cation reached me from Mr. W. P. Ranesinghe,

who, in consequence of inquiries made at my request, has ascer-

tained that native potters do use plumbago asa glaze. He gives

also information as to the local manufacture of crucibles, and a

curious tradition as to the last King of Kandy being a dealer in

plumbago :— |

“J just got from a man the mode of glazing pots in this

- country. !

“The pots are made and kept in the shade to dry, and when

half dry they are trimmed and smoothed with a stick, and are

again smoothed witha chank. Then plumbago is pulverized and

rubbed over the pots, and again smoothed with the chank and

dried in the shade. If the plumbago does not stick to the pot,

a little lime-juice is sprinkled over the pot, and the plumbago is

958 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). | Vol. IX.

rubbed over it and dried. When quite dry, the pots are exposed

‘to the sun and then fired.

“ Crucibles are now made with a mixture of ee plum-

bago, To three parts of potter’s clay one part of plumbago and

one part of burnt chaff are added, and the whole ground well.

The crucible made of this material will last four months, whilst

the ordinary crucible will last only a month.

“T understand that the last King of Kandy sold plumbago to

merchant vessels. There is, I am told, a field at Kégalla where

it is said that Molligoda Adigar dug plumbago, ‘This will be

interesting if true.”

Appendix No. i3.

Plumbago and Pencil-making in Germany.

The following is the reply of Mr. Walter Fretidenberg to

questions of ours respecting the use of plumbago in Germany :—

“In reply to your letter of 13th I beg to say that Ceylon

plumbago is not used for pencil manufacture in Nuremberg—

Siberian graphite is taken instead.

“‘ The ‘needle’ plumbago you refer to is not to be had in very

large quantities, and I cannot give you accurate information about

its final destination—i. e., whether it is used for crucibles or lubri-

cating purposes.

“In Germany, a great many Steel Works do not use any

plumbago at all, but Krupp takes large quantities every year.

As far as I can judge at present—I have no accurate knowledge

of the statistics—the consumption of Ceylon plumbago in Ger-

many is not on the increase.

“T send you a catalogue of Johann Faber, Nuremberg, which

kindly return after perusal. It will give you an idea of the im-

portance of the pencil industry in Nuremberg, and one or two

items in the preface may be of interest to you.”

The large “ Illustrated Catalogue of Johann Faber, of Nurem-

berg and London,” alluded to above, is a very fine specimen of

lithography, and gives certainly a vivid idea of the extent and

importance of the pencil-making industry, the coloured illustra-

tions showing many hundreds of varieties of pencils of every

possible shade, from deep black to red and azure blue, with com-

binations of pencils, pens, erasers, and all the appliances required

by the artist, literary man, accountant, artizan, ball-goer, &c.

The preface states :—

“The first black lead pencils were manufactured in England,

No. 31.—1885.] ——- PLUMBAGo. 259

from the celebrated Cumberland graphite, more than three cen-

turies ago.

“At the end of the last century Conté of Paris invented an

entirely new system in the manufacture of lead pencils, and arti-

ficially produced them in various degrees from inland graphite

mixed with clay, ascribing to them the term “‘ Polygrades” derived

from the Greek words “Zeagew” (to write) and “modve” (many),

signifying a writing material possessing many degrees.

**Conté being the original inventor of the above system, all

other statements are incorrect.

“In the year 1761 the ancestor of Johann Faber established a

factory under the title of A. W. Faber, and in 1840 Johann —

_ Faber and his brother Lothar (the present proprietor of the firm

of A. W. Faber) succeeded their father at Stein in the manage-

ment of the business. From that period dates the success and

popularity which the firm of A. W. Faber has enjoyed. Whilst

Johann Faber devoted himself exclusively to the manufacturing

department, Lothar Faber occupied himself with opening business

connections throughout the civilized world. It may therefore be

stated, without any pretence to ostentation, that the reputation

which the A. W. Faber pencils have acquired is due to the inde-

fatigable energy and labour of Johann Faber, and to his experience

as a pencil manufacturer during a period of upwards of 37 years.

“In 1876 Johann Faber withdrew from the business of his father,

and in 1880 established under his own name, “ Johann Faber,” a

new establishment for the manufacture of black and coloured

lead pencils, &c.

“It need scarcely be mentioned that the goods now produced by

Johann Faber are of the same excellent quality as those which he

previously manufactured for the old firm, and his newly-invented

system of grinding the graphite and clay, called “System

Graphite Broyé,” has enabled him to produce the most perfect and

uniform quality of lead which the modern pencil industry can

furnish to-day.

* ‘The present production and sales of Johann Faber’s pencils are

now (after only four years’ existence) about 3,000 gross per week,

and he employs 200 hands, These figures will speak for them-

selves.”

_ This firm is, of course, but one of many engaged in turning out

250 millions of pencils per annum in Albert Durer’s ancient city.

The following details as to quality of black lead pencils are

given :—

“ Designation of the Degrees.—The below-mentioned marks

ie ¥

3S eA.

* is

EReG

260 JOURNAL, R.A.S, (CEYLON), [Vol. IX.

pencils in order to distinguish their grades or depth of shade :—

BBBBBB extra soft and extremely

black ; for a full rich deep shade.

BBBB very soft and extra black

BBB very soft and very black ... for very deep shading.

: i ¢ : ‘lagi

are those generally adopted by artists and others to all lead

;

BB very soft and black .. for deep black shading.

B. black . for ordinary shading.

HB medium and black .. for sketching. |

I’ firm . for ordinary drawing and

y office use.

Ho Medium hard ... ... for sketching and drawing.

HH Hard “3 ... for firm lining and draw-

ing and short-hand writ-

ing.

HAH Very hard naa .. for firm sharp lines and

sharp drawing.

HHA ... for very sharp and ver

Extra hard... Maer y

nme f £28 bo defined lines.

No, 1 2 3 4 Shree

Very soft and black. Softand black. Hard. Harder. Very hard

The tendency of the following paragraph is to show that

Johann Faber, at least, does not use Siberian plumbago, and the

fair inference from what is stated would seem to be that ‘‘ Graphite :

Broyé” pencils are made wholly of finely-ground black lead, )

although I suspect no pencils are now manufactured without )

some mixture of clay :— a

““ Johann Faber’s Finest and best Lead Pencils, Graphite q

Broyé.”—These lead pencils are made from the very finest graphite

procurable. The graphite, after undergoing a series of washing

and grinding by the most delicate and improved system in exis-

tence, thus rendering it perfectly pure, is very highly compressed.

My Graphite Broyé pencils stand unexcelled as the finest

drawing material in existence, combining all the qualities which

art can demand :

ist. Their points are firm and keep well.

2nd. The lead consists of one piece throughout.

3rd. They are absolutely pure and free from any particle of

grit or foreign substance.

4th. The degree is maintained throughout, whether hard or

soft.

5th, The most renowned artists throughout Europe all testify

to the superiority of these “Graphite Broyé” pencils —

over the so-called “ Siberian” or “ Spanish Graphites.” —

No. 31,—1885.] _ PLUMBAGO. | 261

6th. The harder degrees are extremely even in temper, and

are better adapted for photographer’s use than any-

thing that has yet been introduced.”

Appendix No. i.

The Local Average Prices of Plumbago, and the History of

; The Joseph Dixon Company

are thus noticed in a communication from a merchant who had

read proofs of this paper :—

“You refer to the average valuation and Customs valuation as

Rs. 200 a ton for qualities and periods. The average by the

figures you have given would be Rs. 146, but even that I should

say was high, If dust and chips are included, I question if you

should put it higher than Rs. 100. Good lump is now worth say

Rs. 120; chips, Rs. 75; and dust, Rs. 45 or thereabouts.

** You refer frequently to The Joseph Dixon Crucible Company.

This Company has had a good many vicissitudes. Dixon, I think,

was originally a partner with Dr. Gautier in the firm of J. H.

Gautier & Company, of Jersey City, who sent Mr. Whiteford

here about 1873 ; and I understood from Whiteford that Dixon

and Gautier disagreed and split. Then I think Dixon died, and >

the Company was formed, and, if I am not mistaken, dissolved

and re-formed.”

Appendix No. 15.

The Renting and Selling outright of Plumbago Lands

are thus discussed in a note from the Government Agent of the

Western Provinee, the Hon. F. R. Saunders :—

“I still adhere to my view that it is better for Government to

sell than to rent plumbago land. What we do is to cut the land

up into small lots of alittle above one acre, and this induces com-

petition and prevents any monopoly being created.

“TI send you a list showing the prices realized for a block of

plumbago land in the Rayigam Kéralé, sold in 1880. It would

be many a year before we should get Rs. 8,150 as rené from a

land of 1 acre, 1 rood and 18 perches, (See lot 556).

“‘ These lands are situated at Pelpitigoda in the Rayigam Koralé,

- and were the subject of a law-suit, which we won in appeal to

the Privy Council, after losing our case in the Supreme Court

here.

262 ' | \SOURNAL, RAS. (CEYLON). [Vol EX,

“ The value of Rs. 200 a ton put on plumbago by the Customs

is very misleading. I presume it is done to show the‘great value

of exports from this Island. |

“If a man pays Government the sum of Rs. 5,000 an acre for

plumbago land, and yet has to pay Customs duty of Rs. 5 a ton,

I don’t think the man who is renting an acre of land need com-

plain of paying an extra Rs. 5 a ton, instead of Rs. 5,000 down.”

Mrmo.—FPelapitiyagoda Plumbago Lands in Rayigam Korale,

Kalutara District, sold at Colombo Kachchéri in June, 1880.

| Extent.

Lot.

1 552

2 053

3 504

4 555

5 559

6 Sine 561

a “06 562

8 wg 563

4) Cpe 564

10 ae 567

ll Ms 570

12 Be 571

13 sist 572

14 Abe 573

15 ois 574

16 eae 575

17 Res o16

18 ASS 5717

19 aoe 579

20 eels 589

21 oer 982

22 ails 583

23 A 084

24 As 956

25 bie 557

26 ise 358

27 a 566

28 Ae 569

99 ae 565

30 Sp 560

al a 385

Average price per lot, Rs. 1,265.

per acre, Rs. 871°68.

Soe ee ee ee ee ee Soo Oe Re ee ee

Re. P

COWRFNWONKH KH OKRNNOONHEWNOWOWW OOM HOH WD

0 25

Sold for

Rs.

240

480

185

300

130

185

200

1,000

150

5040

6,200

2,900

1,000

2,050

4,000

550

255

1,000

250

1,900

255

§,150

1,600

135

bee ie 31.—1885. | PLUMBAGO. (oat Dae

There can be no doubt that the Customs valuation of Rs. 200

per ton for plumbago is, as Mr. Saunders states, too high, but

_as the royalty is at a fixed rate, the over-valuation does not affect

exporters. As to the policy of leasing instead of selling lands,

so as to prevent monopoly, here is what Governor Sir W. H.

Gregory said in 1873 :—

“ With regard to the other proposal to sell the land, the reason

why we could not agree to that has been pointed out by an hon.

gentleman (the Government Agent. Central Province), who speaks

with some authority on this subject. I think that would be the

wrong course to pursue. Wehave tried it in one or two instances;

we have had paddy rents sold to the cultivator. The sums thus

realized benefited the Colony for atime, but it was a short-sighted

and unjust policy against posterity to alienate a source of income

for all time in order to obtain food for the present. Itis precisely

so in this case. We can’t tell to what proportion this trade may

grow: capital will no doubt be attracted to it, machinery be em-

ployed once the trammels and restrictions are removed; and

therefore to sell the plumbago land at once would be unwise as

regards the future of the Colony. Then, as regards the natives

themselves. What has fallen from my hon, and learned friend

(Mr. Ferdinands) is intimately borne out by all parties in the coun-

try. Hesays that the natives who understand the case are entirely

in favour of this measure, and extremely anxious that this Bill

should pass. ‘There are those who would like the land put up for

sale; but they are the capitalists—the small digger infinitely prefers

taking out a license and working a pit himself; in the one case

he realizes for himself the profit of the venture, whereas if all the

promising lots fall into the hands of rich people, he merely

becomes a workman at wages for them. Undoubtedly the sale

of plumbago lands, irrespective of the objections I urged before,

would be eminently distasteful to the bulk of the people, though

popular enough with the rich few.”

&ppendiz No. 16.

The Dutch Name or Plumbago

being “ pot-loot” (‘ pot-lead’), it would seem as if the Hollanders

must haverecognized what is now the principal use of the mineral,

from their earliest acquaintance with it. I referred the philo-

logical question to Mr. Donald Ferguson, who replied as follows :—

“Yes ; pot in Dutch is the same as English. I find in the

Dutch-French dictionary I have (published 1768), that pot-oo¢

Gs SRE a ete det SRI NN valine “Sg Re RE NTIS CALLS STOO RBs ERTS IP seP ONE So bea Poh le ew Carat Bt

SSN AL SON USO ha Pr guao ges GARE R

faa Sak. ra ¥ Pt Re RUR S RAD REPS aah ae

‘ F AMPA TaN A

Rape 9 yh pAY

Pi ea JOURNAL, RAS. eee | [Vol ‘Ix

is explained as “blue mountain-chalk with which one can aria : =

and draw,” the French being given as “crayon bleu, crayon de

Hollande,” which looks as if the Dutch were the first to use it for

pencils, &e. The word pot-loot was also used for pencil simply, as

“Leen my uw pot-loot” [* Lend me your pencil’ ].

Appendix No. i7.

Plumbago in the Kolonnd Keoralé.

Mr. Charles Shand states :—

“The plumbago found at the Vegiriya village, Kolonna Koralé,

below the Kolonna estates, is considered to be the finest flaky

(micaceous) plumbago found in the Island, being peculiarly soft

and dark in colour, and realizes the highest price in the London

market. ‘This deposit has only been largely worked within the

last three or four years, and there are several promising spots in

the neighbourhood, but the present low price and heavy transport

interfere with development.”

Specimens sent by Mr. Shand bear out his description of the

fine quality of the mineral. It is, however, not micaceous, only

mica-like in its laminated structure.

Appendix No. 18.

Return of Plumbago conveyed by Rail to Colombo.

Station from 1882. 1885. 1884,

Tons. Tons. Tons.

Kalutara South «.. sie — 7 16

Veyangoda ie Ssh 346 223 —_

Mirigama tee 82 322 258 18

Ambépussa ie ies 7 26 —

Polgahawela ae Be 4801 4664 3349

Rambukkana sae So8 32 78 74

Kandy a Sa 112 18 35

Katugastota, a ma 14 | 43 61

Wattégama Bt ae 8 72 =e

Matalé a oe — — —

Nawalapitiya ae ae: — 15 10

Total ... 5642 5404 3563

The above table I owe to the courtesy of Mr. Pearce, who

explained that no separate accounts of plumbago as an item of

traffic were kept before 1882. The figures given show that the

265.

contribution made by the mineral to railway traffic has been im-

ae portant, the quantity carried verging closely on half the total

exports, and there can be little doubt that a very large proportion

of the plumbago which came on the line at Polgahawela was

from the rich mines of the North-Western Province, very little

being from the Kégalla District. It seems probable that all the

plumbago mined in the Central Proviace came on the railway at

the stations beteewn Matalé and Nawalapitiya, the quantity being

insignificant.

Appendix No- 19.

Export of Plumbago in 1885.

Just before printing, we have received the following figures :—

Export of Plumbago.

January-June, 1885 ae ewt. 92,386

In July aes oy » 20,846

Total—ewt. 118,232

Carried down by Railway.

ist January to 9th August, 1885 ewt. 47,026

Appendix Wo. ZO.

A Faithful and Intelligent Sinhalese Kangani.

[From the “Ceylon Observer,” 31st August, 1885. ]

“Our researches into the history and character of the plumbago

| enterprise brought us into pleasant intercourse with the two plum-

| bago princes—fine specimens of shrewd, well-educated Christian

| Sinhalese gentlemen—Messrs. Jacob De Mel and W.A. Fernando.

| We ought to reverse the order of the names on the principle of

| senior prior, for Mr. Fernando claims to be “the father of all the

| plumbago merchants.’”” We were amused at this assumption of

‘| paternity by so juvenile-looking an individual. Mr. Fernando is

} one of those men who seem as if they never would grow old, or

atleast never look old. His brilliant black eyes have all the

| lustre of youth, and he moves about with all the elasticity of a

-|young man, We were, therefore, greatly surprised to hear him

_jclaim ten years more of age than has passed over his grave and

_ |rather aged-looking brother-in-law, Mr. De Mel. Mr. Fernando

jis enthusiastic in regard to all connected with the plumbago

iy ke

f ee

enterprise; but to see how his eyes glisten when he speaks of his <

kangani,* the head man of the preparing works! He told us that

all who came to his place acknowledged the superiority of his

kangani, and certainly we were no exception. It was to Cornelius

De Silva, known familiarly and in every day life as Harmanis

Appu, we were ever referred, and always with the result that we

obtained just the full and correct and substantially scientific

details we desiderated, regarding the characteristics of the purest —

and best forms of plumbago, as contra-distinguished from the

hard form known as yabora, or iron dross; and also regarding

the rocks associated with plumbago, such as turuwdnagala

(white stone, or quartz), miniran (mica), and diya-rat-ran (water-

gem-gold, or iron pyrites.) Although kangani, and quite an in-

telligent-looking gentleman in his out-of-door dress, Harmanis

Appu, in the preparing compound, dresses as scantily, works as

hard, and is as effectually electrotyped and polished by the black

shining mineral as any of the coolies he superintends. It was

he who, with great pains and ingenuity, overcame the difficulties

connected with one of the most slip pery substances in nature, by

sawing first-class lumps of plumbago, and securing them one

above another with iron pins run through them, so as to form the

pyramidal trophy, which was placed on a table in the hall of the

Asiatic Society, to illustrate the Paper on Plumbago, and which

still stands there with chips, dust, and the associated rocks. In

order to reach the Museum in safety, the plumbago had to be

wrapped round and secured with gunny cloth. Besides the large

mass of plumbago to which Mr. Davidson alluded as in prospect

for the Exhibition, we submit that a trophy of first-class lumps —

of our staple mineral in the form of a good-sized dagoba would be —

a very effective and very characteristic object in the Ceylon Court, 7

as much so, perhaps, as a trophy of pearl shell. The lumps 2

could be sawn smooth, so as to be easily superimposed, and the ’

slipperiness could doubtless be overcome by the use of a dark- —

coloured cement.” : :,

[It may be added, that from long observation and experience ~

the kangani is able, by a kind of instinct, to recognize lumps :

which come to the store, as fine soft plumbago; as plumbago, ©

pure but hard, or as mineral formed over a matrix of quartz, ~

or mica, or iron pyrites, without testing the specimens by their

very different specific gravities: the purest plumbago being |

lightest in weight, as well as brightest in lustre. |

266° aouRNAL, RAS. (CEYLON). : [Vol

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JOURNAL

OF THE

CHYLON BRANCH

OF THE

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY,

1886.

VOLUME. IX.

No. 32.

EDITED BY THE HONORARY SECRETARY.

* The design of the Society is to institute and promote inquiries into the History,

Religion, Literature, Arts, and Social Condition of the present and former

Inhabitants of the Island, with its Geology, Mineralogy, its Climate and

Meteorology, its Botany and Zoology.”

COLOMBO: Ne po Ged See :

SEA re

GEORGE J, A. SKEEN, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, CEYLON.

1887.

CONTENTS.

Professor Virchow’s Ethnological Studies on the Siyhalese

Race.—Translated by W. R. Kynsry, Esq., F.K.Q.¢.P.,

and J. D. MACDONALD, Hsq., M.D. S00

Outline of Two Years’ Scientific Researches in Ceylon.—By

Drs. C. F. and P. B. Sarasin : 580

A Brief Sketch of the Medical History of woes —By J. L.

VANDERSTRAATEN, HsQ., M.D. ate

The Veddas of Ceylon.—By C. J. R: Le Mesurier, ae

C.C.8., F.G.8., &¢. nae wee a

PAGH

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY,

CEYLON BRANCH.

PROFESSOR VIRCHOW’S ETHNOLOGICAL STUDIES

ON THE SINHALESE RACE.

Read before the Anthropological Society of Berlin, January 17, 1885,

TRANSLATED BY W. R. KyNnsEY (FELLOW KING

AND QUEEN’S CoLL. oF PHYSICIANS) AND J. D. MACDONALD, M.D.

(Read February 13, 1886.)

AT the time when I wrote my treatise concerning the

Veddas of Ceylon, and their relations to the neighbouring

races, it was not possible for me to obtain a single satisfactory

scientific description of the principal race of the Island, viz.,

the Sinhalese. What I was able to ascertain concerning

them is stated on page 60 and the following pages.*

My disappointment was great at not seeing the large

caravan which Herr Hagenbeck brought to Europe in 1883.

At the sitting of the Paris Anthropological Society, of

October 18,1883 (Bulletins, page 713), M. Manouvrier made an

official report concerning that company, the meagreness of

which is even acknowledged by the author himself, who ex-

plains it as due to want of courtesy on the part of the leader.

Last year another caravan visited the country, and I con-

sider myself fortunate in finding it still here on my return

* Of his former treatise on the Veddas.

112—86 B

268 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX.

to Berlin. Herr Hagenbeck himself had the kindness

to give the necessary instructions, so as to facilitate my

examination. After his departure Herr Von Schirp had the

kindness to bring the people before me one by one. Notwith-

standing this, I was only able to examine a small number of

the forty persons of which the company consisted. There

was all the preparation of their approaching departure going

on, and I must say, like the Paris Commission, that the

time spent in obtaining my results was too short. Besides,

the determination of personal relations was surrounded with

much difficulty. At first I was informed that with the

exception of some dancers from Hindustan, the whole

company was of Ceylon origin, and that of the latter, two,

viz., Pichchai and Murugappa, were Tamils. Both, I was

informed, belonged to asuburb of Colombo. Later, however,

I ascertained through the interpreter (who said he himself

was born of European parents in Ceylon) that the Tamils in

question belonged to the neighbourhood of Bombay.

Herr H. Becker (“Cinghala and the Sinhalese, the Land

and the People of Ancient Paradise’: Frankfurt-on-Maine,

page 18), who wrote a not sufficiently trustworthy description

of the same people, says that Murugappacame from Madras,

and Pichchai from Negapatam, south of Madras. Whatever

the truth may be, the hope to see Ceylonese Tamils face to

face proved a delusion, and the zeal with which I engaged in

the examination of this rarity influenced not a little my

further proceedings.

Of the Sinhalese proper, I chose two groups. As represent-

ing the first group, I chose the following :—

1. A little three-year old boy called Jimmy (Sinni), who

with justice had become the favourite of the public ; stark-

naked, with the exception of a silver fig-leaf, he tumbled

unweariedly, and in constant good humour, about the

arena. —

2. His mother Lusa (Louise?) Nona, about twenty-five

years old; his father Girigdris, or Grigéris Appu, twenty-

No. 82.—1886.] ETHNOLOGICAL STUDIES. 269

nine years old; his mother’s sister, Inga Nona, sixteen years

old; and his mother’s brother, Andre Appu, twenty-one

years old.

Herr Becker had made three families of these. A Ndna

family, an Appu family, andan Appuhami family. Nay, he

went a step further, in taking Abuhami foran Arab, or, as

they say in Ceylon, for a Moor. I must leave it undeter-

mined whether the man was called Appu or Abu. The name

sounded to me almost like Appu, and Herr Kotelmann writes

it so (“Magazine of Ethnology,” 1884, page 165). There

was no difference of opinion, however, concerning the family

connections of the group.

For the second group I made choice of two of the tallest

and strongest men. Both were Kuruwe (elephant-drivers)

from Kandy, viz., Pufichi Banda, twenty-four years old, and

Ukku Banda, twenty-two years old. Herr Becker has given

a photograph of the latter. Becker is inclined to suppose a

mixture of Malabar blood in these, on. account of their size ;

but I would refer to my treatise (pages 60-64), where I have

quoted the evidence of the best observers, Davy, Cordiner,

and Sirr, according to which the Kandyans differ from

the rest of the Sinhalese by their greater strength, darker

colour of skin, and better growth. Our Kuruwe may, there-

fore, be considered as the representatives of the highland

type, as the members ofthe Abu Nona family that of the

lowland type.

In how far these represent the pure type must be left

undetermined, in view of the differences of my former

_eraniological examinations, and of the strongly prominent

individual peculiarities appearing in the persons before me.

The Paris Commission, whom the same difficulty faced, had

come to the conclusion that the persons brought to Europe

were taken from avery mixed portion of the population, and

contained a large mixture of Malabar blood. I shall refer to

this again, after I have discussed the principal peculiarities ;

but will here observe that I have come to no sure conviction

270 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. [X.

on the point. In my former works I had come to the con-

clusion from the reports before me, that ‘the: Sinhalese

belonged to a dark, or more correctly, a brown, smooth-haired

race, not prognathous or moderately so” (page 65) ; and this

has been confirmed in the numerous persons by whom we

were visited.

Ag far as the colour of the skin is concerned, the Paris

Commission had found that the darker portions corresponded

to No. 28 of the colour table ; the lighter lay between No. 22

and No. 43.

According to the table of the Stenochromic Society, the

colour at the bend of the elbow in one man was determined

at the letter g, in the second transition stage from cinnabar

to greenish orange, and that of the breast of a little girl at 2

orange. |

I found in the family of Abu Nona the following :—

1. The father Girigoris showed a dark brown colour: on

the brow 28=—Radde 3g; on the cheek 21—Radde 4 k; on

the breast 29—Radde 3g; onthe hand (back) 28-29—Radde

2e; palm 30-31—Radde 4 o approximately.

2. The mother’s brother Andre: brow Radde 37; cheeks

Radde 4 h-7 ; breast Radde 3h; back of the hand 28-29; the

fingers Radde 30d; putting the skin on the stretch Radde

3h, palm 26. The deep colour of the breast was on the

whole reddish, but still with a strong shade of yellow.

3. The mother Lisa Nona: brow 30-31—Radde 4 7;

face 32-33; breast 29-30—Radde 37-k; back of hands

22-37—Radde 4 h-3 h; palms 24. In these are shades of

unequal lightness. |

4. The mother’s sister Inga: very light, back of hands 29.

5. The little Jimmy (Sinni): breast 29-30; arm Radde

3 f; face lighter, more yellowish brown.

Notre.—I may observe that according to Radde. 1 cinnabar signifies

2 cihnabar in the first, 3 in the second transition towards orange, 30 car-

mine in the transition towards cinnabar.

No. 32.—1886.] ‘ETHNOLOGICAL STUDIES. 271

Of the Kuruwe, of Kandy :—

1. The older, Pufichi Bandé: on the brow Radde 307; on

the cheek Radde 30 &; onthe arm 29==Radde 3 f and Radde

10; on the palm 30-31—Radde 38 e.

2. The younger, Ukku Banda: face 4 k; breast 23-29;

arm (inside) 29-30—Radde 3 7, (outside) Radde 2 e; dorsum

28-29 ; palmar 31.

These are chiefly shades of colour which, according to

Radde’s scale, belong to orange (4), and to cinnabar in the

second stage of transition to orange. Next follow,some cases

in which cinnabar in the first stage of transition to orange (2),

or carmine in the second stage of transition to cinnabar (30),

was determined.

There is some interest in comparing the two persons from

India :-— :

1. Murugappa, thirty-two years old : brow 29—Radde 39;

breast 27-28; dorsum of hand likewise—Radde 30 0b-c;

palmar surface 31-32—Radde 4 g-h and 3 g-h. Thenails are

light and short. The shades of colour belong to the mixture

of cinnabar with orange, of carmine and of orange. On putting

the skin on thestretch, an underground of a yellowish colour

appears, with black specks and stripes. Ona simple inspec-

tion, the impression of a reddish tone of colour is imparted.

2. P chchai, nineteen years old: face 21=-Radde 4 h;

breast 43—Radde 4 f; dorsum of hand 28—Radde 2 /;

palm 26—Radde 4 &.

In these appear no other colour than that occurring in the

Ceylonese, and here also orange (4) dominates. Still, there is

not wanting the transition stage of cinnabar to orange (2 and 3)

and from carmine to cinnabar (30). I cannot therefore say

that I found in the colour of the skin any different shades of

colour not found inthe skin of the Ceylonese. Ifthe former,

for example, show a much darker shade of skin than the

Kandy men, still it must not be overlooked that even the

- Ceylonese among themselves show different degrees of

darkness and fairness in their skins.

Que JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX.

Lisa Nona had much lighter shades of colour than her

husband and her brother. For example, I noted for Girigoris

3g, for Andre 3 h, for Lusa Nona 3 7, therefore at the

time one degree lower (clearer), whereas Pichchai (4 /)

showed a degree higher (darker) than Girigoris.

In Ceylon the opinion prevails that the Tamils are dis-

tinguished by a darker skin than the Sinhalese. But when

Davy asserts that the colour of the skin of the Sinhalese

varies from light brown to black, it must be clear that the

difference cannot be constant. Percival expressly declares

that the colour of Sinhalese women approaches the yellow,

and even Cordiner asserts that the colour of the higher

classes is quite as light, or even lighter, than that of brunettes

in England. One may perhaps infer from all this that the

variation of colour of skin among the Sinhalese is even

greater than among the Tamils, and that a larger number of

persons with a small amount of pigment in the skin occur

among the Sinhalese; but a means of distinguishing the

dark Sinhalese from the Tamils is not to be looked for in

the skin colour alone. .

I would like finally to remark that the assertion of

Cordiner, that the palmar surfaces of the hands and feet of

the Sinhalese of all classes are uniformly white,—an asser-

tion also found in Selkirk,—has not been quite corroborated

in our Sinhalese. The palms of the men show 30-31, of the

women 26-24 of the Parisian colour table, therefore quite

clear shades, yet still plainly pigmented. The man from

Madras or Bombay, viz., Pichchai, had likewise No. 26. Yet

it must not be forgotten that the Parisian colour table leaves

lacunoe, and that the determination of Radde’s tables give

different values: for example, for No. 30-31, at one time

R. 3. E., at another time R. 4. 0.

The colour of the hair was fixed by the Paris Commission,

No. 48 of the table, 7. e., as pure black. In fact, the richly

developed heads of hair of the men, woven long and

gathered at the back or side of the head into a knot (kondé),

No. 32.—1886.] ETHNOLOGICAL STUDIES. 273

has an ebony tone of colour in all, only in the case of

Ukku Banda it had a brownish appearance, was at the same

time slightly curly, whilst it otherwise looked flattish, and

at the most somewhat wavy towards the points. With

Jimmy (Sinni) it was quite black. The careful attention

paid to the hair in the way of washing, combing, and oiling,

contributes not a little towards increasing the favourable

impression made by it.

Hair was also richly developed on the upper portions of

the body. This was especially true of the eyebrows and the

eyelids, whilst the beard in the case of the men was not

thick, and in several was somewhat curly.

On the other hand, the older men had hair richly de-

veloped on the body, a fact which the Paris Commission

had also noted. It said: “The rest of the body was

remarkably covered with hair, the breast and the hollow of

the spine in particular presented, in the case of the oldest

men, true tufts of hair somewhat curly and several centi-

metres long.”

I give here shortly my notes of each person examined :—

1. Ltsa Nona: Hair strong, black, quite smooth, only

at the ends somewhat wavy, slung in a knot behind ; eye-

brows strong ; eyelashes long and thick.

2. Inga Nona: Hair quite black and smooth; only a few

wavy “love locks” before the ears. The hair descends far

on the brow, so that a large portion of it (brow) appears

black through short hairs. There is a soupcon of a moustache

on the upper lip.

d. Andre Appu: Hair quite black, 30 cm. long, and

throughout slightly waved ; eyebrows strong, quite black, and

shining ; eyelashes long and thick; beard on chin and lips

more richly developed ; hair somewhat wavy.

4, Girigoris Appu: Hair long and black, stretched back

over the head and held by a comb, gathered up in a knot

behind ; moustache and beard on chin somewhat sparse and

wavy.

eta JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). Vol, LX.)

>). Jimmy: Quite black, short cut, thick rough hair.

6. Ukku Banda: Hair long, black, with brownish shade,

curly, gathered in a knot ; eyebrows moderately developed ;

eyelashes short. ,

7. Pufichi Band&: Hair long and wavy, gathered in a

knot behind; black beard, thin, but long and somewhat

wavy ; breast and arms strongly covered with hair.

I add here also the results of the examination of the two

Indians :—

1. Murugappa: Hair smooth and black, cut short in front,

slung in a knot behind; beard thin, but individual hairs

strong ; breast and abdomen covered with strong and long hair.

2. Pichchai: Hair quite black, drawn back tightly,

scarcely wavy; eyebrows strong; eyelashes long; mous-

tache black and strong; whiskers moderately strong.

On microscopic examination I find that in the hair of the

Sinhalese there is, without exception, almost acomplete failure

of, or an extremely diminished, medulla. On transverse section

avery small central pith is occasionally observed, generally

not greater in diameter than a blood corpuscle, and quite

colourless ; only sometimes, as, for example, in the case of the

little Jimmy (Sinni), this narrow strip of medulla is pig-

mented. The peculiar colouring matter of the hair lies in

the fibrous portion, and strongest in the surperficial parts.

Only the outermost layer (cuticula) is quite colourless and

homogeneous. The colour, which is due to particles of pig-

ment arranged lengthwise in stripes, varies very considerably.

In many of the hairs observed lengthwise the colouring

particles appear quite black, and also on cross section the

particles appear almost pure black, whilst in other cases the

external particles appear of a brown colour, and the cross

section of same show light brown, nay sometimes yellowish-

brown particles. This is the case with Lisa Nona and her

brother Andre Appu, although their hair, on microscopic

examination, appeared a pure black. Even in Ukku Banda

the microscopic colour is brownish.

No. 32.—1886.] ETHNOLOGICAL STUDIES, 275

I must also add here that Tamil hair, which I obtained

through the good offices of Herr Freiidenberg, the German

Consul, and from Dr. Kynsey, has the same characteristics.

In four of the examples, one shows a light yellowish-brown,

one a light greenish-brown, a third a dark brown, and only

one a pure black pigment. In the case of one Malabar I

found, besides black hair, also brown.

The form of the cross section in the case of the Sinhalese

is either quite round or slightly compressed on one side, so

more or less kidney shaped. This is very distinct in Ukku

Banda. The hair of the women is finer, but very dissimilar

in thickness. On the whole, the hair of the Tamils appears

to me, on comparison, darker, somewhat stronger; yet even

in their case the thickness, as well as the shape of the cross

section, varies in the same individuals in a similar manner as

amongst the Sinhalese. The Paris Commission determined

the colour of the iris partly at No. 2 of the table, and partly

between 5 and 3 dh, more or less dark brown. I can

corroborate this, only that I also noticed nut-brown eyes,

as did Davy before me. The iris of Lisa Nona correspon-

ded to No. 3 of the table, whilst her brother Andre showed

the dark brown colour of No.2. Really black irises as noted

by Sir Davy and Cordiner I have, like Herr Kotelmann, never

seen. I consider that they never occur. Cordiner asserts

that the white of the eye appears strikingly clear, and I can

- corroborate this in the case of children and women, yet the

men had invariably yellowish-brown pigment in the con-

junctiva, especially in the middle layer. In Andre and

Pufichi Banda, I noticed light brown specks. The same

occurred also in the Indians, of which Pichchai showed a

moderately dark brown ; Murugappa, on the contrary, a some-

what variegated iris, which externally showed a dark brown,

internally a light brown zone, and between these zones a

light yellow ring. Further, the eyes of the Sinhalese

appeared generally large and brilliant, somewhat elongated in

the case of the men, more round in the women and children.

276 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON), [Vol. IX.

The interorbital distance was small, a fact also noted by

the French Commission. The distance in the case of the

women was 31 mm., in the men from 34 to 35 mm., whilst in

the Indians it amounted to between 37 and 39mm. The

length from canthus to canthus measured in the women

30mm., in the Appu group of men 55 to 57 mm., in the

Kandyans 62 to 64 mm.

Of the Indians, Murugappa measured 30 mm., Pichchai

only 55mm. Both showed a somewhat elongated, almost

narrow, still straight, palpebral opening. Concerning

refraction, sharpness of vision, and colour blindness, Herr

Kotelmann has given details.

I now come to the shape of the head. From the tables

attached it will be seen that of the seven Sinhalese, there

were :—

Two brachycephalic, four mesocephalic, one dolichoce-

phalic.

Brachycephalic were Luisa Nona (82:7) and her brother

Andre Appu (838°5); dolichocephalic, on the contrary, her

husband Girigoris (72°3). Next to him stand among the

mesocephalic the sister Inga Nona (75°8); whilst the little

son Jimmy (79°6) must be classified among the brachycepha-

lic. The average cephalic index for the whole family may

be set down at 78°7, the same mesocephalic number which

was obtained from all the seven measurements. The Paris

Commission (Dep. 719) measured seven men, five women, and

two children. Among these fourteen persons none were doli-

chocephalic, eight were brachycephalic, six were meso-

cephalic. As also here among the mesocephalic a high index

number appeared, it follows that the average is brachy-

cephalic, viz., 81:9. Both averages, that of Berlin and that of

Paris, approximate each other, but itmust be distinctly

remembered that they were obtained from different persons.

These results stand in strong contrast to those obtained

from any examination of Sinhalese skulls hitherto made.

I have described these in my treatise (page 73 and the follow-

No. 32.—1886.] ETHNOLOGICAL STUDIES. 277

ing) in detail, and with every care. After eliminating all

doubtful skulls, I had fourteen left. These had a mean

index of 71:8, a distinct dolichocephalic measurement; nay,

there was not among them a single brachycephalic, not

even a mesocephalic skull. On account of this peculiarity

I refer here to my writings, and I have no reason to doubt

the correctness of the results then obtained. The results

obtained by the measurements of skulls of these living

pérsons cannot be made to agree with those obtained by me

from the skulls formerly measured, even making all reason-

able allowances and corrections.

There remains a want of agreement not to be for the

moment reconciled. Either the type of the Sinhalese skull .

is not dolichocephalic as I assumed, or the living Sinhalese,

even including Girigéris Appu, were not pure Sinhalese.

The latter appears for the moment more probable than the

former, because in the first place it is difficult to explain

where these Ceylon dolichocephalic skulls could have come

from if they were not Sinhalese, as I have already proved

(page 91) that the mean cephalic index of Tamil skulls

from Ceylon hitherto examined is mesocephalic, viz., 76:3.

If one therefore were inclined to conclude with the

Paris Commission that these persons were fair Tamils

(Malabars), a more satisfactory explanation would be

obtained.

Now, however, I would accept such an explanation with

the greatest reserve.

The opinion that the Sinhalese is a mixed race is very old,

and a descent from the Malays and Mongolians has been

surmised. More details on this point will be found in my

treatise on the Veddas, on page 110 and following pages.

I will only add that should in reality a large portion of the

Sinhalese turn out brachycephalic or high mesocephalic,

the question of the relations with Indian races would

acquire a greater significancy than I have been hitherto

inclined to accord it. Discussing the examinations of the

278 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. 1X.

Chittagong races made by Herr Riebeck, some considerations

of this kind occurred to me. (His travels will shortly appear.)

A second point of difference appears in the auricular

index. From the appended tables, it can be seen that only

dolichocephalic Girigéris and the low mesocephalic Inga

offer a smaller number for the auricular index, the former

60:6, the latter 64. All the other Sinhalese have high numbers,

- the highest Lusa Nona (72°6). One may therefore conclude

that the majority of the persons are hypsocephalic. This

also corresponds more with earlier numbers (pages 92-140)

found by me in Tamils, than with those for Sinhalese.

A third point is the breadth of the brow, which, making

all allowances for the fleshy portion, is, in all the Ceylonese

measured by me, more considerable than any measured in

Sinhalese, and even in Tamil skulls.

Whilst the highest measurement of the skulls only

amounted to 93 mm., the lowest measurement among the

living was 98 mm. (Luisa Nona), and the highest 109 mm.

(Pufichi Band4). This great breadth of brow contributed

not a little in improving the appearance of the persons in

question. In the Kandy people the forehead was high,

from 70 mm. to 75 mm.

Girigéris was 67 mm., and Andre only 55 mm., less than

even the women showed (58 mm. and 59 mm.).

As far as the face is concerned, I have confirmed the

opinion that the Sinhalese are not prognathous. With the

exception of one woman, they were all orthognathous, and

had a small mouth, although the lips were full and the front

teeth large. In several it seemed to me the lower lip was

comparatively strongly prominent, whilst the teeth showed

a peculiar mother-of-pearl brilliancy, in which a loss of

enamel forming a hollow in the crown occurred. I looked

upon this at first as artificial, but according to their own

assertion it arises spontaneously. It seemed to me, however,

as if the mode of cleansing their teeth caused this loss of

enamel. I add here a few special particulars :—

No. 32.—1886. | ETHNOLOGICAL STUDIES. 279

1. Ukku Band&: Mouth small, 50 mm.; lips full, but

only moderately prominent, mostly the underlip, which looks

bluish internally, but does not allow any peculiar pigment

to be seen; teeth greatly worn.

2. Pufichi Bandé: Mouth large, 55 mm.; lips full, underlip

strong, livid bluish colour, but little pigment in the mucous

membrane; teeth large, particularly the upper incision, much

worn.

d. Girigdris Appu: Mouth 51 mm.; lips full, quite blue;

pigment in the gums ; teeth (above) large, shining, much worn.

4, Lusa Nona: Mouth 44 mm.; lips full, but short, red,

no pigment in the mucous membrane ; teeth, large, straight,

brilliant, like mother-of-pearl, worn, with a hollow in the

right middle incisor in the enamel.

5. Jimmy: Mouth 34 mm.; lips thick, but only the

underlip prominent.

6. Andre Appu: Mouth small, 44 mm.; lips full, somewhat

bluish, but not pigmented ; upper lip short, not prognathous ;

teeth large, brilliant, like mother-of-pearl, with several

hollows in the enamel ; chin delicate, round, and prominent.

Indians :—

1. Murugappa: Mouth large, 61 mm.; lips full, especially

the underlip, which from a full supply of blood and pigment

has a dark bluish-brown appearance ; on the gums a brownish

stripe parallel to the edge, but still separated from it.

2. Pichchai: Mouth shorter, 52 mm.; lips full, upper

short, underlip advancing, blue; the gums pigmented; teeth

large, much worn.

The face index was in all chameeprosop (broad face), with

the exception of Girigéris Appu, who gave a leptoprosop

(long and narrow face) measure, 91:3. His long face had, as

Herr Becker has remarked, a semitic touch. Andre Appu’s

face appeared longish: still, this was more due to the fact that

it contracted very much below. The faces of the women

were short, broad, and more rounded, with somewhat promi-

nent cheek-bones. ‘The noses also differed from descriptions

280 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). —«([Wol. IX.

hitherto given. The oldest descriptions by the Chinese

(cp. Vedd. Book, page 61), ascribed to the Ceylonese a “ bird’s

beak,” yet many forms appeared to us amongst these people,

as the index numbers will show. Girigoéris’ nose was the

most prominent. His nose index amounted to 68°6. The

two Kandyans followed with 71:1 and 71:6, then Inga Nona

with 76:1; on the contrary, Lusa Nona 83°7, her brother

Andre 88°8, and the little Jimmy 90:9. This last group also

includes the two Indians, with 80:0 and 83:3.

The French Commission obtained similar results: three

men and two women had an index over 83. Three men and

three women under 74 (among these one 64:4, one 66°6, one

68°5, one 68:7, and one 69-2).

1 add here a short description of their noses :—

1. Girigoris Appu : Nose strongly projecting, ridge curved,

point prominent (snub ?), alae small and narrow; a decided

semitic expression.

2. Ukku Banda: Nose strongly projecting, straightest of

all, sunk at the root, ridge slightly curved, point thick, alae

not large.

Pufichi Banda: A nose strongly inclined to but not quite an

“eagle nose,’ somewhat curved, point prominent, looking

downwards, alae moderately wide apart.

4. Lusa Nona: Nasal ridge curved, short, point thick,

overhanging ; alae wide apart, somewhat flat; nostrils large.

). Jimmy: Nose short, bent, point thick, projecting ;

septum short; alae very broad and full.

6. Andre Appu: Upper portion of nose thin and small,

somewhat curved, point projecting, alae wide apart.

Davy has given us a poetical description of a Sinhalese

beauty (Vedd. Book, page 63). The nose is described in it as

a “hawk’s beak.” Our ladies had nothing of that, yet it seems

as if such faces had not quite died out. The cabinet photo-

graph of a Sinhalese beauty, which Herr Hagenbeck has

presented to me, shows such a nose, and we can only regret

not having seen the original.

No, 32.—1886.] ETHNOLOGICAL STUDIES. 281

In the Indians I found the following : Nose on the whole

straight, but small and narrow, towards lower part wider,

even in the bony part; point little developed; septum little

projecting ; alae very broad, 46 mm.

Asa conclusion to this discussion of the shape of the face,

I mention that the ear, as a rule, was delicate, and in many

eases small. In three persons, viz., Lusa Nona, Andre

Appu her brother, and the Kandyan Ukku Banda, I noticed

that the lobule was adherent to the side of the head. This

was also the case with the Indian Pichchai. The body was

strongly built in all cases. The Kandy men alone attained

to a good height. Pufichi Band4 1,745, Ukku Banda 1,674;

Girigoris and Andre Appu measured only 1,576 and 1,583

mm., the women 1,425 and 1,451 mm. Travellers have

given five feet four, five, six, orseven inches = 1,626 to 1,702

mm., as the average height of the men. The French Com-

mission give only two measurements, 1,596 and 1,576 mm.

The family (Abu Nona) appears to be, from this, unusually

small. Girigoris is at the same time thin, his calves are but

little developed, notwithstanding which he is a tree-climber

by profession, and climbs with the greatest ease the highest

tree. Andre is also thin, but nevertheless of great strength.

Lusa Nona, although said to be only twenty-five years old,

makes a pleasant impression, but is yet aged; she has a

delicate build of body. The little Jimmy, on the contrary, is

a fat, chubby-cheeked boy of unwearied activity, but truly a

little glutton. Hisshining blackish-brown body corresponds

exactly with the description given by Emerson Tennent of

Sinhalese children: “They looked in their nakedness like

living bronzes.” Inga Nona is sixteen years old, very light,

small, and fat; her form is quite round, her bosom pro-

minent, and her thick cheeks swell still more prominently

when she laughs.

Pufichi Banda has a proud-looking figure, with fullform and

strong muscles. He looks older than twenty-four years, the

ageassigned to him. Ukku Banda is also strong and muscular,

282 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol, IX.

For dynamometric measurements, I refer to the report of

the Paris Commission.

The ratio between the measurements round the hip and

the height of the body showed such great differences, that I

thought at first on revising my notes,—I had made some mis-

takes. The measurements were in all cases greater than the

height of the body: even the women showed differences of

67and57mm. Amongthemen the differenceis morestriking :

Girigéris Appu had 82, Andre Appu 123, Pufichi Banda 60,

Ukku Banda 118 mm. of a difference. The differences in

the lengths of the arms are not less striking: Girigoris 732,

Andre 761, Pufichi 806, Ukku 784 mm.

Shoulder-breadths measurements :—Girigoris 340, Andre

376, Pufichi 395, Ukku 391 mm. These are comparatively

not widely diverging numbers. The circumference of the

chest was considerable, greatest in the case of Ukku Banda,

viz., 925 mm. The women have, on account of the full

development of the breasts, a larger circumference than the

men; the lengths of the lower extremities vary also. The

height of the trochanter in Pufichi Band&é amounted to 934

mm.—that was the largest number: the smallest was Andre

Appu, 840 mm. ; but the ratio is everywhere the same in men

and women, 7. ¢., the height of the trochanter is to the height

of the body as 1 to 1'8.

The shape of the hands and feet was uncommonly elegant,

especially that of the feet. The Kandy men wore leather

shoes, and although these were comparatively loose, still the

small toes were pushed somewhat inwards, and this was

even noticeable also in the nexttoe. Girigdéris wore sandals,

and had a wide divergence between the great and the second

toe. Nevertheless, his feet also appeared comparatively

natural. In the rest the shape of the foot was free from arti-

ficial deformities. I do not remember ever having seen

such naturally shaped feet. As is well known, the feet

among nations wearing shoes or boots are exposed from the

earliest years to so much pressure, that a naturally-formed foot

No. 32.—1886.] ETHNOLOGICAL STUDIES. 283

is only seen in the case of the newly born, or in children of

tender years. Even sandals when constantly worn press the

toes together, and cause a permanent deformity very soon.

One seeks in vain among marble statues for a regularly

formed foot. Even the gods of the Greeks have their small

toes laterally compressed. Here, however, I was overjoyed

to find feet with perfectly natural shapes. As their stay in

Berlin was to be short, I begged Herr Hagenbeck to have a

selection of casts of hands and feet made for me in Hamburg,

and I am in the fortunate position to be able to lay before

you good models of these. For this I have to thank Herr

Hagenbeck.*

In the first place, there is a strong contrast between the

feet of the Sinhalese and that of the Indians. This is partly

due to the general development of the body. The ratio

between the length of the foot and the height of the body is

in all three the same, viz.: inthe men as 1 : 6°6; women, 1: 6°5.

But the development of the feet is quite different. In

Murugappa the whole foot is heavy, bony, and broadly

developed, whilst in the Sinhalese the foot is delicate, thin,

and narrow. The breadth-index of Murugappa is-40°5,- of

Girigéris 36°38, of Luisa Nona 28:2. The Paris Commission

found among the men indices of 39°5 to 44:3; among the

women 36°5 to 40:6.

In all, the toes were very movable, and they were capable

of diverging widely at will. On this depends the safety

in climbing,—which is possessed by Girigoris to a wonderful

degree,—and the capability to seize objects with their toes.

As seen from the illustration,* the divergent position in the

* Tllustrations of a few of these are annexed to the German text. The

views of them are taken laterally and from above, and designed with the

greatest care by Herr Hyrich, one-sixth their natural size. No. 1 is the

foot of Liisa Néna, No 2 that of Girigéris Appu, and No. 3 that of Muru-

gappa, oneof the Indians. The cast of the foot of Inga Nona is not given,

nor the casts of the hands of any of the troupe.

112—86 C

284 igs JOURNAL, R.A.Se (CEYLON). [Vol. IX. |

case of Murugappa is well shown ; in the case of the Sinhalese

to a much smallerdegree. In all cases, owever, is seen the

great interval between the great toe and the others, especially

in Murugappa. The three middle toes form a group by

themselves.

At the same time, one may notice the length of the toes of

this middle group, especially of the second. The Sinhalese

have these toes almost in the shape of fingers, straight and

long. Murugappa, who also has short and thick fingers, shows

also short toes, thick and plump; and the great toe is so

widely divergent as to project but little over the second.

Among the women, the second toe projects beyond the first,

notably in Inga Nona, whilst in Girigdéris the corresponding

toe is shorter. This is strongly developed in Andre Appu.

The terminal phalanx of the great toe is very broad in all

cases ; the smaller toe is very short. The middle of the foot

is small, thin, and straight. It widens gradually up to the

heads of the metatarsal bones, where it, in comparison with

a foot accustomed to shoes, appears strikingly broad. Not-

withstanding this the great toe has no proper ball; externally

the little head of the fifth metatarsal bone is somewhat pro-

minent. Further back the external border runs uniformly,

whilst in the inner border rises quickly, forming a well-

marked arch. The heel is strong and firmly set. The span

of the foot is high and delicately arched, especially behind

the first metatarsal bone. The tarsal bones are strong, little

prominent, and very high. In Murugappa the height above ©

the ground is 59, in Lisa 46, in Girigéris 48, in Inga 54, and

in the two Kandyans 61 and 65 mm., respectively.

With this I finish the analysis to which this interesting

company has given rise. Without as yet classifying the sub-

jects of my discourse, I dare to hope that the communication

as it stands will be a sufficient excuse that I do not come to

any definite conclusion. How many of the differences

observed are merely due to the individual, how many are

due to race-difference, I cannot satisfactorily say. Take an

No. 32.— 1886.] ETHNOLOGICAL STUDIES. 285

example: according tomy earlier craniological examinations,

the Sinhalese are dolichocephalic. Now, among the people

actually measured by me here, I find only one dolichocephalic,

viz., Girigdéris Appu, the same whom Herr Becker took for —

an Arab. In reality his face, particularly his nose, had a

distinct semitic look. But the Moormen are now-a-days

Muhammadans, and if in rare cases they mix with the Sin-

halese (see my Vedda Book, page 94), it does not follow that

they also change their religion.

Besides, the Jewish face appears among so many of the

inhabitants of the islands of the East, that I would not sup-

port such a supposition on that ground. Also the deduction

drawn by Herr Becker from the name Abu is so uncertain,

as I have already shown, that it proves nothing. If Girigoris

is not an Arab, he must be considered as a typical Sinhalese.

If this is accepted, then the others measured by me are not

typical: even the stately Kuruwe from Kandy, and least of

all the woman Nona. Their short and broad skulls, their

chameprosopia (broad faces), and in particular their broad-

pressed-in-curved noses, with the alae wide apart, point with

a strong probability to a mixture with the Tamils.

_ The little Jimmy resembled his father so little, that one

felt almost inclined to disbelieve the relationship. He was,

however, the very image of his mother. His roundish-square

head, his full-moon face, his ape-nose were only exaggerations

of the mother-type. But the colour of the skin was quite

dark, whilst the mother’s was light. Who can doubt but that

here individual and sex peculiarities were recognisable ? but

where is the line of demarcation of ethnical peculiarities ?

Unfortunately there is still wanting an exact description not

only of the Ceylonese Tamils, but also of the Indian Tamils.

I have therefore earnestly requested Herr Hagenbeck, in

case he should again bring such people to Europe, which is

not at all unlikely, to bring well-authenticated Tamils. One

thing seems to me certain. If the French ethnologists

entertain the opinion that the dark-skinned races of India

; C2

286 JOURNAL, R.A.S, (CEYLON). [Vol]. TX.

originated from Negritos, it is most probably a mistake. The

: Negritos known to us have that woolly hair which consists of

small, close, spiral rolls, quite similar to the Blacks of Africa,

and not only to the Niger proper, but, as lately discussed,

also to the Caffirs and the other Bantu nations. In the case of

the Africans, each spiral roll is so hard that it feels like a

solid body. In the case of the Negritos the rolls are some-

what soft, from the fineness of each individual hair. Our

Ceylonese show the very opposite of this. They are in the

plainest meaning of the term smooth-haired, without the

shade of a curl ; the beautiful appearance of their long black

hair is certainly improved by the care they bestow upon it,

but no Negrito is capable, so far as we know, by any amount

of care to change his hair in a similar manner.

Even the Dravidian Indians have nothing of the Negrito

hair. One must therefore look to other sources than this, and

it is possible that they are a very mixed race. As far as

language is concerned, the Sinhalese must be referred to an

Aryan origin. Their history favours this idea; but are, on.

this account, Mongolian and Malayan connections to be

excluded ? I cannot believe it; at all events, I can say that

many among the people presented to me, especially among the

women, seem to point to Eastern relationships, and that

if these people are really Sinhalese, without any fresh mix-

ture of blood, then must the Sinhalese race be looked upon’

as a mixed race in the highest degree.

No. 32.—1886.| ETHNOLOGICAL STUDIES.

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No. 32.—1886.] SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHES. 289

OUTLINE OF TWO YEARS’ SCIENTIFIC

RESEARCHES IN CEYLON.

By Drs. C. F. AND P. B. SARASIN.*

(Read February 16, 1886.)

IN the short space of a report it will naturally not be

possible to enter into any details: we can simply give

a few results which seem to us to be of interest. Further,

we must omit to refer to and compare notes with works

already published on the different objects we speak of : this

we reserve for our future publications in Europe, of which

copies will be sent to the Society.

I.— ANTHROPOLOGICAL.

We begin with some anthropological notes, and shall

later on refer to our chief branch of study, zoology. |

We did not intend, when we came to Ceylon, to make

anthropological investigations ; but as the races in this Island

proved of the highest interest, we could not but spend a

part of our time in examining them. During our journeys,

in which we traversed the Island in nine directions, we

acquired a great deal of information on this subject.

As is very well known, Ceylon contains three principal

races, the Sinhalese, the Tamils, and the Veddas. There are

others, whom we may dismiss with a brief remark; for

instance, the Moors, more or less casual inhabitants, Arabian

* In offering this Paper to the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic

Society, we wish to express our best thanks for the kindness shown to us

by this Society in presenting us with an almost complete series of the

Society’s Journals. Besides, we owe a debt of gratitude to many individual

Members for the ready assistance they have been good enough to give

us in our exertions, and to which we think we cannot reply in a more

appropriate way than by laying before you a preliminary report of our

researches.

290 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. TX.

merchants, who settle in every trading place of the East.

In a very few parts only the Moors have their own villages,

chiefly so in the Batticaloa district, where they form about

one third of the inhabitants. The Afghans, Malays, Kaffirs,

Parsees, &c., are of no importance for our purposes.

The two races, Sinhalese and Tamils, are not living side

by side in the same districts, as is often believed ; such is

only the case in the large towns and upon the hills, whither

the Tamils are imported as coolies by the planters. Generally

speaking, the Sinhalese inhabit the hilly zone and the

fertile and wet Western and Southern Provinces ; they attain

their greatest density, according to the census of 1881, in

the district of Colombo ; they are very scarce in lower Uva,

in the North-Central Province, and in the northern parts of

the Kurunégala district.

The Tamils, on the other hand, with the exception of those

in the planting districts, live on the eastern coast of the Island.

They are numerous in the Batticaloa district, less so in the

district of Trincomalee, almost wanting on the coast north of

Trincomalee. The real centre of the Tamils, however, is the

densely populated Island of Jaffna, where they live to the

exclusion of every other race: even the ubiquitous Moor is

very seldom met with. Mannarand Puttalam, further on, are

Tamil places, and south of Negombo there is an old Tamil

colony, which has existed since the time of King Gaja Bahu I.

(113 A.D.).

It would be erroneous to suppose that the districts of

Sinhalese and Tamils are adjoining each other: this is only

the case in very few places, as, for instance, north of Chilaw.

Otherwise, a broad belt of forest land separates the Sinhalese

countries from the Tamil ones. This belt, which is almost

uninhabited, and in many parts completely so, begins to the

east of Saffragam (Sabaragamuwa), maintains a breadth of

20°30 miles adjoining lower Uva, and expands to about forty

miles in Tamankaduwa. This separating belt increases to a

breadth of about sixty miles in the northern parts of the

No. 32.—1886.] SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHES. 291

Island: almost the whole Northern Province is without any

cultivation, and therefore the Tamil Island of Jaffna is

separated by an enormous rampart of forest from the

Sinhalese districts, even more so than the Tamil coast of

Batticaloa.

We learn in the histories of Ceylon, and observe it at the

present time, that Sinhalese and Tamils intermarry some-

times. We know, even, that many kings of Ceylon have been

of Tamil blood ; but notwithstanding this, a certain mutual

aversion of the two races is not to be overlooked, and it is

just that aversion which proves that a deep difference of race

is existent. We learnt, for instance, in Trincomalee, that no

Sinhalese will die in that Tamil place, but as soon as one gets

ill he returns to his native country ; and other facts still

further illustrating this aversion could be mentioned.

The enormous belt of forest just mentioned, and the open

park country the solitude of which is only interrupted by

relatively few small villages, and very seldom by large

patches of cultivated land, such as near the lake of Kantalay

and round other smaller tanks, is the abode of the Veddas.

They live inthe eastern part of Ceylon, and are the remnants

of a tribe which deserves our attention ina very high degree.

We arrived too late for the exploration of this tribe. The

original wild Veddas are extinct,—at least, beyond some

quite incredible rumours, we could not find any traces of

them during the three months which we spent in searching

for them in the remotest parts of the Island. AI] the Veddas

have been induced to leave the rock-caves, their old natural

dwellings, and to settle in small villages under the charge

of the headmen of the adjoining districts. The purest

Veddas we found are living in the Nilgala district, and near

Bintenna ; others near Maha-oya, in the Kastern Province,

and in the Friars-hood range. But even these are already

so accustomed to Huropeans by their frequent visits to

Kandy and Badulla, and by the hunters who have been

to see them, that the Nilgala Veddas, for instance, as soon as

292 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). (Vol. IX.

they saw us coming, began to dance and to sing, and tried to

tell us incredible stories. The settlement of the Veddas in

villages gives naturally much occasion for mixing with other

elements; many Sinhalese villagers marry Vedda wives, and

therefore, all the intermediate types between Veddas and

Sinhalese are to be met with. In many villages of lower

Uva, where Veddas are already completely extinct, the traces

of old Vedda blood are easily noticed in the features and in

the dark colour of many a Sinhalese villager.

Similar intermarriages, or those which happen in the

Sinhalese districts, are taking place on an even larger scale in

the Tamil countries. On the east coast, north of Batticaloa,

there are many villages, and Veddas have been induced to

settle; and in these places the mixture of Tamils with

Veddas is conspicuous. In this way the Veddas will

disappear completely at a not very distant time; already,

according to the census of 1881, there are not more than

2,228 individuals who still call themselves Veddds. The

race is not dying out, as is generally believed, but is being

absorbed by intermarriage with the surrounding tribes.

Our chief object was to ascertain whether the three races

of Ceylon are really so different from each other that they

could be distinguished by anatomical characters, or whether

the differences between them were so insignificant that no

positive result could be obtained by a careful comparison.

A great obstacle to our purpose was necessarily the frequent

intermarriages of the three tribes, which often left us in

doubt whether the men we examined were of pure blood or

not. The only way to obtain a satisfactory result was there-

fore to collect as large a number of skulls as possible, and to

take measurements of numerous specimens of each race to

compile averages. Thus we collected nineteen skulls of

Veddas, fifteen of Sinhalese, and fifteen of Tamils. We dug

them all up ourselves,—with the exception of some Sin-

halese skulls,—and thus are sure that no confusion has

arisen. We found no time during our stay in Ceylon to

No. 32.—1886.| SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHES. 293

examine these skulls,—we shall do so in Hurope,—and there-

fore are now able to speak only of the results which we

obtained by measurements of living individuals. Many

of these measurements will have to be compared with those

of skulls where alone measurements can be taken with

mathematical exactness.

To begin with the height, we found the Veddas to be

the shortest of the three races. Veddas of Maha-oya had

an average height of 1,541 mm., eight from Nilgala 1,575,

thirteen coast Veddas north of Batticaloa 1,591 mm. After

these, range twenty-two Sinhalese with 1,624 mm., and finally,

as the tallest, the Tamils, of whom twenty-five have been

measured with 1,652 mm. of height on the average. The size

of the head does not at all correspond with the height, as the

largest head does not belong to the Tamils, but to the

Sinhalese; and this fact is in accordance with the higher

intellect of the latter. In size of head the Tamils range after

the Sinhalese, then the coast Veddas, and by far the smallest

heads are those of the Veddas in the interior. The coast

Veddas contain, as already mentioned, many Tamil elements,

and therefore in a number of measurements range between

the Tamils and the other Veddas.

Tt may be interesting to point out in which measurements

the principal differences are found. Firstly, the height of the

face, that is the distance from the notch of the nose to the

chin, is with the Vedda the smallest (105 mm.) on the

average ; itis larger in the Tamil head (111 mm.), and largest

in the Sinhalese (115 mm.), and this difference gives to the

whole face a different appearance.

Secondly, we have the diameter of the back part of the

skull, or the distance between the two mastoid bones, in

the Vedda only 124 mm., in the Tamil 130, and in the Sin-

halese 132. The head of the Vedda is therefore in its back.

part narrower than the head of the two other races, and

esp ecially of the Sinhalese, and we have strong reasons to

suppose that the brain of the Vedda is likewise much

294 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol]. IX.

smaller than that of. the Tamils, and still more so than that

of the Sinhalese. |

Thirdly, the lower jaws of the, Veddas are much narrower

than those of their neighbours. A fourth difference is found

in the size of the eyes, as the Veddas have the largest and

the Sinhalese the smallest eyes of the three, the Tamils

ranging here also between the two others. The differences

in this last measurement are naturally very small, but

still noticeable.

One of the most striking features in the face of the Vedda

is the shape of the nose; firstly, it is very broad, 40 mm.,

while with the Sinhalese it is only 39 mm., and with the

Tamil 38 mm.; secondly, the bridge of the nose between the

eyes with the Vedda is in most cases very low, sometimes

almost flat. This fact gives to the Vedda nose a strange

shape, and strikingly influences the features: the bridge is

higher with the two other races. The Sinhalese have often

very well-formed eagle-shaped noses.

Besides these peculiarities of the Veddas already men-

tioned, shortness of face, narrowness of the back part of the

skull and the lower jaw, largeness of the eyes, and lowness

of the bridge of the nose, we could mention more differences

in the measurements of the head ; but it would lead us too

far for the present, and we think it sufficient to show that

such peculiarities do exist, and are to be traced by measure-

ment. The results which we shall obtain by comparison of

the skulls, we shall be glad to lay before this Society after

our return to Europe. Taking exact measurements of the

limbs is still much more difficult than measuring the head,

and of the results obtained we venture only to specify now

the following one as fairly well established. The lower arm

of the Vedda and also of the Tamil is relatively a little

longer than that of the Sinhalese.

The colour of the Veddas is always a dark and dirty

chocolate brown, a colour which is likewise frequently

- found with Tamils, but seldom amongst Sinhalese.

No. 32.—1886.| SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHES. 295

Summing up, we learn by the measurements that the

Sinhalese, Tamils, and Veddas are three well-distinguishable

races, and further, the measurements give much reason to

suggest that the Tamils are more closely allied to the Veddas

than the Sinhalese, which latter no doubt represent the

highest race, whilst the Tamils in many respects range

between the two others.

One result in any case is certain, viz., that the Veddas are

by far the lowest in the scale of the three races, not only in

their habits, but also in their anatomy, and this fact confirms

the opinion of those who claim the Veddas as the remnants

of an old tribe of Aborigines. We can pass over the customs

and the religion of the Veddas, because former writers have

dealt with them, and the principal facts are generally known.

We will call attention to one point only, because it

illustrates.clearly the primitive customs of this race, and

that is the wearing of leaves as acloth. A string is tied

round the loins, and small branches are put underneath, till

a thick belt of leavesis formed. This custom is now almost

extinct by increasing civilisation, but almost every Vedda,

if requested to do so, will appear in a few minutes in his

dress of leaves.

It is our intention at a later period to deal more exhaus-

tively with the anthropology of Ceylon, and to illustrate our

writings by maps and photographs. We therefore confine

ourselves in the meantime to these preliminary notes.

IT.—ZooLoGICAL.

As zoologists, our labours in Ceylon were naturally

devoted to the study of animals. Before we came to this

Island we had set ourselves the special task to discover

the development, then entirely unknown, of Hpicrium

glutinosum = Coecilia glutinosa (Linn.). This is a kind of

ground snake, living in the tropics of the Hast, and known

long since ; the shape of the animal is like that of an eel,

one to one and a half feet in length, dark brown in colour,

296 JOURNAL, R.A.8. (CEYLON). - [Vol. IX.

with two yellow side-bands. The skin is lubric, like that

of a frog ora salamander. It lives under the surface soil

near rivulets or ponds, in cavities which it digs for itself.

Its eyes are small; there are no feet. Two tentacles, which

are at the top of the snout and are retractile, are very

remarkable; further, the skin is particularly interesting,

because there are imbedded in it numberless very small

round scales like those of fish, but invisible from the outside,

and also different from the fish scales in their finer histolo-

logical composition. The genus Hpicrium has some few

relatives in America, which bear the old- name of the whole

class, viz., Coecilia.

It is but natural that this animal should excite the

greatest interest of naturalists, and that many efforts have

been made to arrive at aclear knowledge of its position

in the natural system. The conclusion arrived at was, that

it ought to be ranged under the order of the Amphibians,

and not, as it was supposed formerly, under that of the

Reptiles, especially of the snakes. Later on, as there have

been found different anatomical peculiarities which pointed

out a somewhat isolated position of the animal, it was raised

to a special order, that of the Assoda, and was put in the

lowest rank of the general class of the Amphibians.

We know from experience, that if the position of an

animal in the natural system is not clearly understood,

its development throws light upon the question, the animal

in its development showing the traces of those forms

which it had to run through, according to the theory of

evolution, to arrive at its present form. We know, for

instance, that the well-known water-salamander (Triton) is

an animal which for some time of the year lives on land, and

breathes through lungs; it lays its eggs in the waiter,

and out of them come forth larve, which have at each side

of the head near the ear a bundle of gills. Feeding in

the water the animal gradually obtains lungs, the gills

atrophying, and finally dropping off; it then seeks land, and

No. 32.—1886.] SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHES. 297

breathes air. Now, the question is this: Does Hpicriwm

show the same mode of development as the water-salamander,

or not?

It was known that the order Hpicrium has been found

living in the water, and at each side of the head, where gills

were expected to be, they had little openings. But this was

all that was known about the development of Hpicriwm.

Here began our work. It was evident that we had two

suppositions: Hither, Hpicriuwm lays its eggs in the water,

and there the young ones take their development (as is the

case with the salamander), or HMpicriwm is viviparous. So

we carefully examined all ponds and rivers in the vicinity

of which we found the full-grown animals, but though we

often met with young specimens living in water, with a gill-

hole at each side of the head, yet we never found gills, but

always well-formed lungs; earlier stages did not come to our

notice. So we began to dissect the full-grown animals, and

to examine them for embryos; we opened about a thousand

females, yet we never obtained the result so much wished

for. At last a cooly brought a little lump of eggs, which he

had found in the ground near a rivulet, and from this

moment the mode of development was discovered, which

generally proceeds in the following manner :—The pregnant

female forms in the soft damp soil at first a small globular

cavity, and deposits there a lump of about thirty pretty large

eggs, connected with each other by a sort of string. The

mother curls herself round the eggs, and broods probably

in order to keep them damp with her body in the case of

sudden drought. The eggs are of the size of a very large

pea, and yellow, bearing a close resemblance to those of

reptiles, the lizard for instance ; in size, therefore, they can-

not be compared to the eggs of a frog. In such an egg an

. embryo develops, which is especially interesting owing to

the circumstance that behind the eyes, on the same spot

where the salamander has them, three long gills are growing,

of which one is directed forward, one upward, and one

298 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON), [Vol]. TX.

backward. The gills have the shape of ostrich feathers, and

as they are red like blood, the embryo, after being artificially

freed from the egg, looks really pretty. Its colour is black,

but the yellow yolk adheres to the belly. This shows that

the Hpicrium whilst in the egg passes through the same

stages which the salamander passes through in the water.

In the salamander, the reason for gills is clear: they serve the

young animal to breathe in the water like fish ; in Hpicrium,

the gills are as well formed as in the salamander, but ag

they are not required to act as breathing organs under waiter,

their existence is not so easily understood; yet they are

perhaps of some importance as organs of breathing of the

embryo in the egg. The embryo remains in the egg fora

very long time, until it reaches the size of about six to seven

centimetres ; it also moves rapidly ifat that time it is arti-

ficially freedand putinto water. The next thing we observed

was the young Hpicrium living in water with two gill-holes,

but without gills; the size of the youngest was only a

little larger than the full-grown embryos. It is therefore

certain that the embryos break the shell of the egg, strip

off their gills when wandering through the soil to the water,

and live for some time in water with simple gill-holes

and lungs, which had developed already in the embryonic

stage. A young Hpicrium, or so-called larva, when living

in water comes from time to time to the surface to inhale

air. By andby the gill-holes close, the young animal appears

on land, and no more leaves it; when put back into the

water it is soon drowned.

It now would no longer be correct to assign to the Hpi-

crium the lowest position in the natural system amongst

Amphibians. The EHpicriwm has generally the same

development as the salamander, and has therefore its

position quite near the latter. The salamander belongs to

the Amphibians with a tail, in contrast with the frog, which

is a tailless Amphibian. The Epicriwm was considered to be

without a tail ; in the full-grown specimen, however, a trace

No. 32.—1886.] SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHES. 299

of a tail is discernible, and the embryos show clearly a short

tail with a well marked fin. These are the main features of

the development of Epicrium. There are many other points

of interest, but they come more into the scope of a specialist,

and could not be explained ina short paper and without the

aid of drawings, and they will have to be dealt with accord-

ingly at a later period.

The chief results are briefly—

(1) Epicrium (like Coecilia), on the basis of its anatomy,

cannot be placed in any known group of Am-

phibians.

(2) Its embryonic evolution passes through the same

stages as the salamander as a larva.

(3) In consequence, Epicrium, notwithstanding its very

different appearance, has to be classed as the

nearest neighbour of the salamander.

The researches just referred to occupied us about eight

months at Péradeniya. We then proceeded to Nuwara Eliya

to begin studying the rain-worms of Ceylon, both from a

histological and a systematic point of view. The hills of

Ceylon are of special interest in possessing quite a gigantic

species of rain-worm, which attains a length of about four

feet, and a thickness of a big thumb. We hoped to find other

similar species, but we met only with smaller kinds

that were new, amongst which were a_ beautiful blue-

ringed one of rather large size, and many smaller ones of less

striking appearance. Ceylon being an island long since

separated from the continent, those animals living in the

soil, as they are, must be of a peculiar interest, and an exact

systematic examination of the rain-worms of Ceylon might

induce an investigation of those of India. The comparison

of the forms in both countries promises valuable results as to

the range of geographical distribution ; it might also furnish

a further basis for speculation about the changes of the con-

tinents and islands in the course of time. Now, it is true

that the rain-worm is very easily transferred in many ways;

112—86 D

300 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX.

we know already, that upon the different elevations of the

hilly zone of Ceylon, different forms are found which are

not to be met with in the low country, and which represent

probably similar endemic forms, as for instance amongst

the lizards in Ceratophora or Cophotis. It is not the

place here to enter into our anatomical and histological

examinations of these animals, as they are of too special a

scientific interest ; but we may mention that a considerable

portion of our labour was directed towards the examination

of the vascular system of the rain-worm, which we tried to

investigate physiologically.

A result of more general importance, which we obtained by

histologically examining the skin of EHpicriwm in Péra-

deniya, and that of the rain-worm in Nuwara Eliya, is the

following :—

The body of every animal, with the exception of the lowest

order, as the animalcule, &c., is surrounded by a more or less

thin layer, the so-called epidermis: it is not homogeneous,

as glass for instance, but composed of innumerable very

small corpuscules, the so-called cells, which are arranged

like paving stones. Just under this epidermis the finest

branches of the blood vessels are spread like a net. The

same is the case in the lungs, and as here the blood comes to

a very near contact with the air, it absorbs oxygen and

returns carbonic acid ; that is the process we call breathing.

As the blood is separated from the outer air by the above-

mentioned fine skin, the epidermis, the receiving of oxygen

and returning of carbonic acid was explained as possible by

the physical law of diosmose. But further it was observed

that the different cells of the epidermis do not adjoin each

other, but that between them a number of cavities exist, and

the cells themselves are connected with each other by

exceedingly fine communicating filaments. The outer layer

of the body was found therefore to be not solid. In the

Epicrium we observed that from the finest vessels just under-

neath the epidermis, little tubes ascended outwards, which

No. 32.—1886.] SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHES. 30]

after having reached the epidermis, divided into tiny arms

like those of a chandelier, and these arms again were connected

with the range of cavities between the cells of the epidermis.

These cavities communicate with the surrounding medium ;

so we learned that the fluid of the vascular system commu- .

nicates by means of the very fine tubes, and the cavities of

the epidermis just described with the outside. The tubes

are so small that even a blood-corpuscule is much too large

to pass through ; and further the blood-fluid, the so-called

serum itself, cannot flow out of the skin, according to the

law of capillarity. We pursued the subject further, and

found a similar state in the gills of fishes, the skin of

snails, leeches, and rain-worms. This discovery of a direct

communication of the vascular fluid with the outer medium,

obviates the use of the law of diosmose, and the process of

breathing becomes more intelligible. It is to be hoped

that injection into the vascular system may lead to a con-

clusive proof of our theory.

The next five months were devoted to travelling in the

south-east of the Island, partly in search of information

about Veddas, partly with the object to obtain an embryo

of an elephant. His Excellency the Governor had the kind-

ness to give us free permission to shoot elephants, with the

special right also to kill females for the aforesaid purpose.

But unfortunately our exertions in this latter direction were

not successful. Three female elephants were killed, but

none had an embryo. Part of the intestines of the animals

has been preserved for future histological examination.

During our stay in Ceylon, we used to collect whatever

seemed to be important, and thus a fair amount of scientific

material has been accumulated, which will be dealt with in

Europe after our return. Many new specimens which we

were able to secure in the course of our stay we pass over

here, because they have not yet been exhaustively examined.

However, we shall briefly touch upon the chief results of our

four months’ stay at Trincomalee.

| D 2

302 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). (Vole Ex.

- We discovered there two snails living as parasites on a sea-

star. Until now only very few parasitic snails have been

found. The most famous kindis Lntoconctra mirabilis, which

lives in a holothuria, and is an animal that in appearance is

only with difficulty to be distinguished from an intestinal

worm ; but its eggs develop fully-formed young snails with

shell, feet, and eyes. This isa new example to show how

impossible it is in many cases to understand the systematic

position of an animal without the knowledge of its develop-

ment. Thesnails examined by us are not so extraordinarily

deformed as the Entoconctra, yet they have many characteris-

tics. Our two snails are quite different from each other:

they are also living on different parts of the sea-star. The

one which inhabits the interior of it is about a quarter of an

inch long, and has a well-formed somewhat hard shell.

Where it dwells, the body of the sea-star is inflated

to a spherical cavity, and when the apex of the shell

touches the skin of the sea-star, a little hole is formed,

which through the interior of the cavity is in commu-

* nication with the outside. The snail can hardly move,

and thus lives like a captive in his cell. The most remark-

able feature is, that the mouth of this snail, which

is small in other species, is extended into an enormous

proboscis, almost twice the length of its body. This

proboscis is immovably connected with the inner side of

the body-cavity of the sea-star, and through it the snail

sucks the fluid of the sea-star as its nourishment.

Underneath the shell the snail has a gill, and for breathing

it requires sea-water; this streams through the above-

mentioned. hole into the cell of the snail. The water for

breathing has constantly to be renewed, and to render

this possible, the following apparatus serves: At the root of

the long proboscis rises a bell-shaped muscular fold, which

rests with its inner side against the shell of the snail, with

the outer side against the wall of the cavity, and which is so

large that it covers the shell completely. We have not

No. 32.—1886.] SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHES. 308

watched the function of this muscular bell, but we believe

that it very likely works as a pump for constantly renewing

the water in the cavity. This snail is most probably to be

ranked in the system near the genus Hylina.

The other snail lives not inside the sea-star, but upon its

skin ; its shell has the shape of a Phrygian. It is like the

other, immovably connected with the sea-star, the base of

its proboscis being enlarged to a disc, and this being connected

with the skin of the sea-star by numberless little folds. It

lives like the other on the body-fluid of the sea-star.

The sea-urchins are characterised bya globular hard shell,

which is covered all over with spines, The regular sea-

urchin has the mouth at the lower pole of the spherical

shell, at the upper one the arms. Wyville Thomson was

the first to discover a sea-urchin the shell of which was

not hard but flexible like leather; the spines were quite

short, only about a quarter to half an inch in length, and

surrounded by a thick skin: thus they looked like little clubs.

In later years a good number of other specimens have been

brought up from the deep sea during the expedition of the

“Challenger.” In Trincomalee we were lucky enough to

discover in a depth of four to six fathoms in the harbour,

a beautiful new species of this group. The _ greatest

diameter of the animal was about six inches; its height not

quite two inches. The colour was a dark brownish black,

and this ground was covered with small spines resembling

clubs, in consequence of the skin around them. Besides,

small azure corpuscles on stalks ran in radial lines from

the upper to the lower pole, and adorned the sea-urchin

like jewels. These corpuscles, as well as the other larger

spines, have a most striking peculiarity. If the animal is

taken into the hand you feel a pain as of about a dozen

bee-stings, which lasts for some three or four minutes, then

it ceases completely. The small spines as well as the blue

corpuscles turn against everything that approaches, and

from a more precise examination, the result we came to

304 JOURNAL, B.A.S. (CEYLON). (Vol. IX.

was, that, as is known to be the case with insects, every

spine is provided with a peculiar bag of poison, the spine

itself being hollow, and the poison flowing out of the bag

through it into the wound; the blue corpuscles especially

have round the bag of poison a fairly thick ball of muscular

substance, and this contracts if the fine spine inside of the

corpuscle penetrates into the skin. We have no doubt that

a similar apparatus also exists in the other leather-urchins,

but it has not yet been determined. It is evident that this

soft sea-urchin would soon be destroyed by fishes of prey if

it had not the formidable arms just described. ‘This circum-

stance a small fish availed itself of; this little animal,

which is in length about one inch, lived just between the

Spines of the sea-urchin, so that a pursuing fish could not

come near it at all without being wounded by the spines

of the sea-urchin ; moreover, the little fish had the same

dark brown colour as the sea-urchin, and was thus doubly

protected.

Until now in no sea-urchin had a real eye been found. It

was noticed that many had a very feeble perception of

light ; but it was impossible to state that they could really see.

This is quite correct of the great majority of the sea-

urchins; but in the geuns Diadema, which is very common

throughout the tropics, we found most curiously composed

eyes, somewhat similar to those of insects. As light blue

spots they run round the surface of the black sea-urchin,

like the above described blue corpuscles of the leather-

urchin. Each of these blue spots consists of many hundred

small crystal cones, which rest upon a layer of nervous

substance. Microscopical examination had already shown

that the blue spots were eyes, and the simplest physiological

experiment confirmed it. If the hand is brought near the

aquarium which contains the sea-urchin, without touching

the water of course, the urchin at once directs all its long

Spines against it to protect itself; it sees therefore very well.

Between the spines of Diadema a little fish lives, which

No. 82.—1886.] sclENTIFIC RESEARCHES. 305

is protected in this case by the length of the spines, while

the above-mentioned one found protection in the poison-

apparatus of its host.

During the last days of our residence in Trincomalee, a

sea-urchin was brought to us, which both by its size and by

the splendour of its colours quite surprised us. It was afoot ~

in diameter exclusive of the spines, which were two to three

inches long. Its height was about six inches; on the ventral

surface were shorter and stronger spines than above. Its

colour was brownish black, and over it ran from the apex

downwards broad Saturn-red bands, which in the whole of

their length were dotted with very large splendid azure spots;

these spots we discovered tc be eyes, as in the case of

Diadema. This gigantic sea-urchin has up to the present

no rival, as far as we can learn from the literature on the

subject. Probably it was brought up from a great depth to

the shore by the strong current of the north-east monsoon.

Should it prove, after a more exact systematical examination,

to be anew species of the genus Diadema, we would propose

to give it the name of Diadema imperator.

306 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). | [Vol. IX.

A BRIEF SKETCH OF THE MEDICAL HISTORY

OF CEYLON.

By J. lh. VANDERSTRAATEN, M.D.

Principal, Ceylon Medical College.

(Read Nov. 18, 1886.)

INTRODUCTION.

AS I am to deal with a subject which is somewhat special,

it is my natural desire, in expectation of meeting a mixed

assembly, that my treatment of the contents of this Paper

should be such as to prove interesting and instructive to non-

professional as well as professional persons. To the profes-

sional part of my audience, the medical annals of this Island

cannot but be replete with interest; and I trust that my

other hearers will derive some useful information from an

attempt to give an account of diseases which have prevailed

in this country from the earliest period of which we have

any record, the progress made by European medicine, and of

the improvement in the sanitary condition of this Island

effected during the present century.

Although the inhabitants of this beautiful Island have had

a fair share of the “ ills that flesh is heir to,” it is satisfactory

to know that the efforts which have been made by the officers

of the Medical Service of this Colony, under the direction of

an enlightened and beneficent Government, and by local

self-governing bodies, for the improvement of the health of

the people, have, through the blessing of a merciful Provi-

dence, been crowned with a great measure of success.

It is not my purpose to give you statistical details : these

might add greatly to the value of the information contained

in this Paper, but would detract from its interest. I

shall merely give a statement of facts: and in taking a rapid

glance at our past medical history, I will, in the first place,

No. 32.—1886.] MEDICAL HISTORY OF CEYLON. 307

touch on the salient points connected with the native or

Buddhist system of medicine; next, on the medical history

of the Portuguese and Dutch periods, so far as learned

from records at my command; and lastly, on the great

Sanitary reforms effected since the British occupation of the

Island.

There is a mine of rich material worthy of exploration in

the archives of the Civil Medical Department, dating from.

its separation from the Military Service in 1858; but I have

been able only to make use of published records and of the

Administration Reports and Sessional Papers of the Legisla-

tive Council from 1864, the period at which their publication

commenced.

SINHALESE SYSTEM OF MEDICINE.

In the early part of the third century B.c., Asoka was the

sreat Buddhist sovereign of India. He propagated the new

doctrines of Buddha by erecting columns or pillars, on

which were engraved those memorials or edicts he was

desirous of making generally known. These inscriptions are

remarkable monuments of the sagacity and benevolence of

that great sovereign, who erected viharas, monasteries, and

hospitals, thus giving effect to whatever there is of benefi-

cence in Buddhism.

From an early period, the priests charged themselves with

the duty of educating children and relieving the sick. It was

in Ceylon that the Buddhist doctrines were first reduced to

writing. These doctrines addressed to mankind in general,

besides inculcating the duty of reverence to parents, love to

neighbours, charity and other moral precepts, recommended

the prosperous and wealthy to found Refuges for the blind,

the destitute, the crippled, the sick and wounded both of man

and beast. This was taught. to be the surest method of

attaining to the highest degree of perfection and holiness on

earth, by means of which the future reward of the Buddhist

faith might be obtained, viz., Nirvana, or an easy departure

and utter annihilation. These motives actuate some of

308 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX,

- the Buddhists to this day, and I have learned from reliable

authority that the Buddhist contractor of the Planters’

and Anthonisz Wards (Mahamarakkala Kurukulasuriyapata-

bendigé Solomon Perera) has actually built these hospitals

simply at the cost price of the materials, in the hope of

obtaining merit here and Nirvana hereafter. King Asdéka

also recognised the sanctity which attaches to human life,

and directed that the life of no living being was to be taken ;

and that wells were to be dug, trees planted, and caravan-

saries erected in public highways for travellers.

The medical houses, or hospitals, of that period, were to

be provided with all sorts of instruments and medicines,

consisting of mineral and vegetable drugs, and food; and

skilful physicians were appointed to administer them at the

expense of the State. Those physicians, or Vedardlas, who

had gained a knowledge of Sanskrit, committed to memory

stanzas, and recited them by the bedside of the patient.

These stanzas were from the A'yur-Veda, a religious treatise

on the science of life and medicine.

The A’yur-Veda (from dyur, period of living, and ved,

to know, treating of the science of life and medicine) is

said to have been first preserved by oral tradition in the

form of hymns, prayers, and precepts. It is regarded as

the most ancient and authentic book on Oriental medicine,

next to our own Bible, and consists of one hundred lectures,

of a thousand stanzas each, called slokas.

Fragments only of the manuscripts are now extant. It was

supposed to have been composed by Brahma, 900 B.C., and

handed down to the Buddhists by the Brahmins. It was

intended to teach the proper manner of preserving life, and

the means of preventing and curing diseases. Dr. Wise,

the author of the ‘ History of Medicine among the Asiatics,”

says that it contained a description of the structure of the

human body prepared from actual dissection, an account of

the causes and diseases to which it is subject, the enumera-

tion of many useful remedies, and precepts for preserving

No. 32.—1886.] MEDICAL HISTORY OF CEYLON. 309

health and curing diseases. The works studied by our

Vedardlas in Ceylon now, are the Sastris, Charaké, and

Susruta, which are commentaries on the A’yur-Veda. The

first is arranged in the form of a dialogue or conversations

between Airya, the master, and his pupils in their confer-

ences. Sir Whitelaw Ainslie gives a list of twenty-one

Sanskrit medical works, known in the early part of this

century among the Sinhalese and Tamil. There are no doubt

several very intelligent and trustworthy Vedaralas, who are

Sanskrit scholars, and study manuscripts on “ olas,’” or leaves ;

but there are also a larger number of ignorant impostors in

the villages, to whom the words of Job are applicable: “ But

ye are forgers of lies; ye are all physicians of no value!”

The Tamil books of medicine derived from the same

source are published in the Tamil and other Dravidian

languages. The Tamil practitionersare styled Vayittiyan and

Parikari. The Vayittiyan of the Tamil people is largely en-

gaged in treating infantile ailments, and many of them even

confine their practice to children only of all classes, Muham-

madans as well as Hindus. Those who take an interest in the

Oriental system of medicine, and wish to pursue the study of

the ancient Hindu, Buddhist, Arabian, and Chinese systems

of medicine, will find a full account in Wise’s “ History of

Medicine,” published in 1867. The Moors or Muhammadans

of Ceylon have their own native practitioners, who blend the

Arabic with the Hindu systems of medicine. The recognised

physician is called Hakim.

There were many kings of Ceylon who built hospitals and

practised medicine themselves, and by their noble example

made it an honourable profession. According to the Maha-

wansa, Buddha Dasa, who reigned for twenty-nine years,

from 339 A.D., was the author of a medical work called the

Sarartha Sangrahaya. Many wonderful cures are attributed

tohim. He built hospitals for every ten villages, and placed

medical men in charge of them. They were to receive one-

fortieth of the revenue derived from fields for their

310 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX.

maintenance, He also appointed medical men to attend on

his infantry, and veterinary surgeons to attend on cattle and

elephants. Along the roads he built halls for the lame and

blind. It is said that “When he went out of the palace,

his surgical instruments were always in his waist, and he

operated upon all sick persons whom he met.” King Agbo,

who reigned six years, from 782 A.D., caused medicines to be

distributed among the sick; and Dappula II., who com-

menced his reign in 795 A.D., is most highly spoken of in this

respect, in the following words: “That most gracious Prince

built a hospital at Polonnaruwa. He also in like manner

built a hospital at Pandaviya, and endowed it with villages

which yielded the necessaries of life. He also built in

several places halls for the cripples and the blind. In short,

he did not leave anything undone which was called meri-

torious ; he even gave growing paddy crops to cattle, and

rice, mixed with honey and sugar, to children.”

Pardkrama Bahu, who reigned from 1163 to 1196 a.p.,

built a large hospital capable of accommodating hundreds of

patients, and appointed a manservant and maidservant to

attend on each patient for the purpose of supplying him

or her with necessaries of life and medicine. He ordered

medicines and the necessaries of life to be made and stored

in the hospital, and appointed skilful and salaried medical

men to attend on the patients. Divested of his royal robes,

he visited the hospital four times a month, and inquired into

the nature of the disease of each patient, and the mode of

treatment adopted ; and whenever the treatment was in his

opinion erroneous, he taught the physicians the proper

method, and attended himself to some cases.

When the patients recovered, he distributed clothes

amongst them. This prince is said to have cured a crow of

a tumor, and the bird, it is stated, would not leave the hospital

until attended to! Nor was sanitation ignored. King Pan-

dukabhayo, who reigned 437 B.C., employed one hundred and

fifty men to carry dead bodies to the cemetery, and one hun-

No. 32.—1886.] MEDICAL HISTORY OF CEYLON. 311

dred and fifty men as cemetery-keepers and sextons, besides

two hundred night-soil men, a small number of day and

night guards, and a small army of sweepers.

PORTUGUESE PERIOD.

In the history written by a Portuguese author, Juan

Ribeyro, in 1685, there is only a very brief description given

of the diseases which prevailed in Ceylon at that period,

and I can find no allusion to the methods of treatment

adopted by medical men of hisown nation. The Portuguese

priests and captains of companies appear to have been in

medical charge of the garrisons of Colombo, Kalutara,

Negombo, Batticaloa, Trincomalee, Jaffna, and Mannar.*

Ribeyro states that most of the Portuguese on their first

arrival were subject to bowel complaints, fevers, and other

diseases, to which the natives are not liable. He thought

that the Sinhalese retained their health by frequent baths,

and states that when he first came out to Ceylon he had two

illnesses in the first two years. He then adopted the native

habit of bathing twice daily, and during the sixteen subse-

quent years he lived here he never became ill. Frequent

bathing is acknowledged to be one of the best means of

preserving health, and is practised by the natives to this day ;

but it is in strange contradiction to the experience of an old

colonist of 70 years, an Italian, now dead, who attributed his

immunity from disease to his never bathing ! |

Ribeyro describes “ beri-beri” (bére-bére) as a disease t

which Europeans were very liable. He recommended as the

best remedy pork and biscuit, with palm wine (toddy) and

smoking, to be persevered in for three months. As a

* A correspondent pointsout that Le Grand has not followed Ribeyro

accurately here. ‘“Itis not strictly correct to say that the Portuguese

priests and captains of companies appear to have been in medical charge

of the garrisons of Colombo, &c. Ribeyro (Bk. I., chap. xiii) distinctly

says that when the soldiers were seriously ill they were sent to the hospital

at Colombo, and that the surgeon had to certify the necessity of this: Le

Grand omits this statement.”—Hon, Sec.

312 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX.

prophylactic against this disease, the Captain General

Antonio de Mascarenho issued an order for every one in the

camp to smoke.

Ribeyro only briefly alludes to “ Parangi” disease (Par-

angi leda), that unsightly and disfiguring skin disease

which prevails to this day in the districts of Mullaittivu,

Vavuniya-Vilankulam, Anurddhapura, and Kurunégala. He

called it the “Neapolitan disease,” named by the natives “ Pa-

ranguelere,’ or “ Portuguese sickness,” since the Portuguese

first introduced it into this country; and he says it “is not

easily cured.”* Fever is only mentioned, to be dismissed

with its remedy, viz.:—a dezoction called coantru.t 'Those

who know Portuguese are aware that the remedy is a com-

mon and useful one, employed to this day. Coriander seeds

boiled down with ginger into a decoction is commonly used

in the cold stage of ague, and in catarrhs and colds in the

head. Ribeyro states, as we can bear testimony even now,

that no people understand the use of simples better than the

Sinhalese, so that with a few herbs or roots they cure

wounds, ulcers, and swellings; but it is extravagantly stated

that they set broken arms and fractured legs, and put those

matters to right in a very few days. He also noted the good

effects of herbs as antidotes against the bites of snakes and

venomous insects. We must admit that many Vedardlas are

good bone-setters, although they have no proper appliances

for preventing shortening of broken limbs. Their method of

stuffing a wound and keeping it dilated, when it is connected

with a compound fracture (although aromatic, antiseptic, and

astringent herbs are used to check bleeding and prevent

putrefaction) cannot be approved except as a temporary

measure, until proper surgical aid is obtainable. The historian

*The writer quotes Lee’s translation of Ribeyro, which is merely Le

Grand’s version Englished. Ribeyro’s actual words are :—“As mal gallice

chamao Parangue rere,’ &e.—Hon, Sec.

+ Ribeyro, “ coentro.”

No. 32.—1886.] MEDICAL HISTORY OF CEYLON, 313

must have been deluded, when he was induced to believe that

cancers, which are considered incurable in Hurope, werecured

in a week in Ceylon. Ribeyro also alludes to the prevalence

of small-pox, which t he natives called “ ankaria, or an affair

with God,” because it appears as if only a miracle can cure it.”

The following sketch of the mission of Padre Vaz, a Portu-

guese Priest in Ceylon, who died in 1711, is taken from a

Portuguese work written by Padre Dorego :—“ The small-pox

now visited Ceylon, and made fearful ravages. The people

believing that all persons labouring under the disorder were

possessed by the devil avoided them, as they would him ;

the father ran away from his children, the wife from her

husband, leaving them to perish without food: the sick

perished, therefore, as much from hunger and panic as from

the virulence of the disorder. The dead became so numer-

ous that they were left unburied, or carried to distant

places, while the poor wretches affected were driven by the

Government into the jungle. When the contagion had

reached Kandy, the king left it, as the stench of the dead

bodies in the streets was unbearable. Vaz resolved to visit

both Christians and Pagans, and being with provisions from

his followers in Colombo, relieved their distress. He also

followed the sick into the jungles, and building huts as well

as time and place would permit, there sheltered them from

the elements and the attacks of wild beasts: in a word, he

contrived to supply every want, temporal and spiritual, per-

formed the most menial services, opened hospitals in the

deserted houses, and dared everything for their relief. The

result was that members who were saved joined the Church,

* The same correspondent writes :—“ This is Le Grand’s statement. Lee

in his translationof Le Grand did not attempt any explanation of this

wonderful word Ankaria: what Ribeyro really wrote was Deanéchariya,

i. €., Deviyankdriya. Le Grand apparently mistook the first syllable for

the proposition de! (I may mention that I possess the MS. of Ribeyro’s

narrative used by Le Grand, and that it reads deancharia; in this MS.

the words are run together very much, so that there was some excuse for this

blunder.)’—Hion. Sec.

314 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX.

and had their children baptized. Ribeyro’s editor, Le

Grand, speaks of the habit of betel chewing among the

natives, Portuguese and Dutch; he thinks it a wholesome

practice, which purifies the breath, strengthens the gums, and

cleanses the bowels. The Sinhalese at that time attributed

their long and healthy lives to its use, and Ribeyro confirms

it by saying that men and women were seen in Ceylon who

had not lost a single tooth. We unfortunately know that the

practice of betel chewing presents another side ; it produces

“‘ betel-chewers’ cancer.”

DUTCH PERIOD.

The Leper Asylum at Hendala is perhaps the only monu-

ment of the medical history of Ceylon during the Dutch

period which islefttous. There is no authentic record of its

foundation beyond an inscription on a stone, “Anno 1708,”

and a monogram scarcely decipherable, indicative perhaps of

date of building and of the original owner of the property

on which the institution stands. It is generally believed,

on traditional authority, that it owes its origin to a philan-

thropic Dutch lady, daughter ‘of a Dutch Governor, who

was herself a leper, and at her death left the property to

Government, in trust for the pauper lepers of the Colony.

In a memorandum made by Governor Van Imhoff in 1740,

he commends this institution to the care of his successor.

Although frequent search has been made among the archives

of the Government Record Office for documents or informa-

tion relating to the transfer, nothing has come to light to

show how the Government became possessed of a property

sixteen acres in extent, occupying one of the most beautiful

sites in the neighbourhood of Colombo, at the mouth of the

Kelani river, admirably adapted from its situation, isolation,

and distance from town for the segregation and treatment of

lepers. This hospital was certainly the first in the Colony

founded by private benevolence, and supplemented only of

recent years by the foundation of other charitable institu-

No. 32.—1886.| MEDICAL HISTORY OF CEYLON. 315

tions, especially at the hands of the De Soysa family. In

this Asylum, which has separate wards for lepers, and paupers

suffering from incurable diseases, one hundred and forty-

four remained at the end of 1885 and sixty-five were admitted

during the year 1886, making the total number treated two

hundred and nine: one hundred and ninety-seven lepers and

twelve paupers. The patients treated in this institution, one

hundred and seventy-six at present, are well cared for, and

all that science and humanity can suggest is adopted for

their comfort and happiness. The new wards are the

finest of any in the Island, well built and well ventilated.

There is no certain information available with regard to

the state of medical practice in this Island during the Dutch

period, extending from 1656 to 1795. It is reasonable to

suppose that there were army surgeons among the Dutch, as

under the British, and that some of these were probably

regularly qualified men from the colleges of Amsterdam,

Utretcht, and Leyden,—with the latter of which the name of

the great Boerhaave will ever be connected. There may have

also been one or two civil practitioners, and these may have

been assisted by young men of the country, who helped them

behind the counter, and picked up a knowledge of medicines

and their application. Among the hospital dressers and dis-

pensers of that day, there were many who attained a certain

eminence, whoge names are yet recalled by old residents, who

can remember them “ with a touch of affectionate pride.”

In those days the apprentice system was in vogue, and if

there was no opportunity of walking the hospitals, there was,

at least, for mixing and triturating drugs. Medical skill was

empiricism, and although Stahl, Boerhaave, and Hoffman,

with the ancient medical classics, might have been studied by

a few old Dutch doctors who came to Ceylon, the probability

is, that like the early British army surgeons, the Dutch doc-

tors who came here were not university men. However, from

the large number of those who took service under the British

at the cession of the Island in 1795, it is evident that medical

112—86 E

316 JOURNAL, B.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol EX.

science had made some considerable progress in the Island,

and that many native and Dutch descendants had applied

themselves to its study.

Dutch physicians have been noted for their knowledge of

botany, and the extensive field afforded in Ceylon for its

study was an especialat traction. The flora of the Island

was arranged and described by Linnzus, with the aid of the

celebrated herbaria collected by Herman and Hartog, both

of whom were sent out to Ceylon by the Dutch East India

Company, in 1671. It is also interesting to note that the

first Huropean writer on tropical diseases was a Dutchman

named Bontius.*

There are no records extant to show that any effort was

made by the Dutch to teach the science of medicine syste-

matically to the natives, but it appears that the kings of

Kandy often requested through the Government the medical

aid of Dutch doctors, which the Dutch Governor of Colombo

complied with.

The mission of Doctor Danielsz and his apprentice to

the court of Kandy in 1739, to cure the King Sri Vijaya Raja-

sinha of a bad leg, as recounted in his journal, is replete with

interest. The late Doctor Koch, in his introductory lecture

delivered at the opening of the session of the Medical School

in 1872, thus recounts the particulars of that memorable visit :

“Doctor Danielsz went accompanied by his apprentice ; but all

he could see of hisroyal patient was the ailing limb. Under

such circumstances it was impossible he could adopt any other

course of treatment but what consisted of outward dressings.

These he tried without any satisfactory results, and alarmed

* The same correspondent notes here :—“So far as I know, Dr. Vander-

straaten is correct in stating that Bontius was the first European writer

on tropical diseases ; but there was another medical writer on the subject,

who followed not so long after, and whose work passed through several

editions. I refer to Dr. Mgidius Daalmans, a native of Antwerp, who

went to the Hast in the service of the Dutch in 1687, visiting Ceylon, Java,

and India, and returning to his native land in 1689. Dr. Daalmans’ book

is very rare, the British Museum not possessing a copy.’—JZon. Sec.

No. 32.—-1886.] MEDICAL HISTORY OF CEYLON. 317

at the consequences of failure, he insisted on His Majesty

taking a course of tonics. The decoction was prepared, but

the king found it so bitter that he emptied the cup into the

royal spittoon, suggesting that the doctor should employ the

more agreeable article of arrack for the conveying of the

nauseous potion. Doctor Danielsz hereupon brewed two

bottles of bitters, but he prescribed so small a dose of it ata |

‘time (he calls it a small beer-glass full) that His Majesty

demanded either a double dose or to be allowed extra liquor

over the bitters ; after a good deal of resistance the doctor was

at last compelled to yield, and as he said he was himself in the

habit of taking a schnap before meals, his patient also

might, but positively not beyond the third day. In the

meantime the leg was not improving, and the régimen was

becoming intolerable, and so Doctor Danielsz was bid

prepare to leave Kandy; and, if he could not congratulate

himself on his professional success, we may yet suppose he

was glad enough to escape the attentions of his patient,

which now began to assume aform slightly more imperative

than was altogether pleasant. So Doctor Danielsz and his

apprentice returned to Colombo, and continued no doubt to

adorn the profession till the natural close of his not unevent-

ful life.”

BRITISH PERIOD.

Mr. Henry Marshall, Surgeon to the Forces, who served

here from 1808 to 1821, has left us a valuable work on the

““ Medical Topography of Ceylon, and on the Health of the

Troops employed in the Kandyan Provinces from 1815 to

1820, with brief remarks on the prevailing Diseases.”

From this work I have gathered some interesting passages.

The troops employed during the early British occupation

consisted of Kuropeans, Caffirs, Malays, and natives of India.

Marshall says that the individuals of each class preserve a

strong physical and moral resemblance, using the same food,

having similar wants, undergoing the same labour, and

suifering the same privations. Hach class had particular

BE 2

318 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol]. IX. |

prevailing diseases, according to the effect of the climate,

exposure to malarious influences, and variations in their food-

supply. The Europeans suffered from the endemic inter-

mittent and remittent fevers, abscess of the liver, and

dysentery, but they were greatly exempted from many

diseases to which they are liable in their own country. A

large number of British soldiers suffered from the effects of

intemperance added to the effects of the climate, and no

wonder when arrack was then retailed at sixpence a quart!

It was Marshall’s opinion that the regular issue of spirit

rations engendered the desire for the immoderate use of

Spirits, and that frequent indulgence created a craving which

had to be supplied. The same sad tale of spirit drinking, as

one of the principal causes of sickness and mortality among

the troops in Ceylon, is repeated in the Military Sanitary

Report for 1864. Five per cent. of the troops were then

reported to be confirmed drunkards.

Africans, called at that time “ Kaffries,” and who composed

five companies of the 2nd Ceylon regiment, the remains

of two other regiments 3rd and 4th, were chiefly recruits

procured on the east coast of Africa, in the neighbourhood of

Mozambique. A few of them were evidently children of

Africans brought here by the Dutch. They made good

soldiers, and were remarkable for longevity. They were

habitually temperate ; but the Malay recruits from Java and

‘Sumatra, for the Ceylon regiments, were addicted to the use

of bhang and opium. Although the immoderate use of these

narcotics was nearly as hurtful as the free indulgence in

spirits, the excessive opium eaters among the Malays were

less numerous than the immoderate drinkers among the

European troops. They were liable to intermittent fevers or

ague when exposed to malaria in the jungle ; inflammation of

the lungs, consumption, asthma, and pocky-itch, so called by

Mr. Marshall from the eruption leaving deep marks on theskin.

The Indian troops, who formed the corps of Gun Lascars,

the Pioneer Corps, and five companies of the 2nd Ceylon

No. 32.--1886.] MEDIOAL HISTORY OF CEYLON. 319

regiment, came from the Madras Presidency. They were

a useful addition to the garrison, and were capable of much

exertion when kindly treated. They were sober, temperate,

and submissive, but extremely filthy, and owing to their

neglecting to provide against sudden changes of temperature,

were more liable to intermittent fever, inflammation of the

lungs, dysentery, and diarrhoea; Malabar itch was, as may be

expected, very common among them.

Distress was caused in 1812, 1813, and 1814 by repeated

droughts resulting in failing of the crops of rice. It was

deplorable, says Bertolacci, to see the numerous children of

the Ceylonese families reduced and emaciated for want of

food, and depending upon parents who were in no way able

to provide for their large families. No substitute could be

found for the staple article of diet for the native troops, and

consequently privation and exposure led to much suffering.

Ne Minery, between Kandy and Trincomalee, fifty-three men

of the 19th regiment were attacked with fever, thirty-three

died, and twenty recovered ; but several of them had their

constitutions much impaired. Of thirty-three artillery men,

eleven died.

In December, 1820, there were thirty-two military stations

in the interior, the chief posts being Kandy, Badulla, Aliput

(fifteen miles east of Badulla), Ratnapura, Fort King and

Kurunégala, all of which were hospital stations. The Rev.

Mr. Cordiner records that a small outpost in 1803, Kottadeniya |

(thirteen miles from Kurunégala), was so unhealthy that

of seventy men of the 65th regiment who marched to it,

every one was seized with fever, and within a month

Lieutenant Hutchings and two privates were the only persons

of the party who remained alive.

It will be interesting, before proceeding further, to glance

at the nature and extent to which the principal diseases

which existed in Ceylon prevailed in the earlier years of the

present century, soon after the British settlement in this

Colony. Davy considered the effects of the climate of Ceylon

320 _ JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX.

under three heads: ‘ First, those which occur immediately ;

second, those which are produced slowly and gradually ;

third, those which arise occasionally and unexpectedly from

the agency of peculiar causes. As to the immediate effects

which result from the transition of the body from a tempe-

rate climate into a tropical one, we have ample evidence

derived from the accounts of voyagers; such as disagree-

able sensation of heat, acceleration of the heart’s action,

increased perspiration, langour, restlessness, and thirst,

diminished appetite and general indisposition”; but these do

not constitute actual disease, nor do they necessitate active

medical treatment. ‘ Kuropeans landing in Ceylon are

liable to few ailments due to immediate causes.” Prickly

heat (lichen tropicus) is perhapsthe most common. ‘During

the wet seasons,” says Percival, “the Ceylonese are subject

to a variety of diseases. Hvery man is here his own physi-

cian, and the mode of cure adopted is of course very simple.

A plaister of herbs is applied to the part affected, and I have

seen the same remedy applied to a man in a high fever, when

his whole body was daubed over with this ointment. A

skill in medical herbs is almost universal among this race,

and they have a variety of prescriptions for curing diseases

by their application. This knowledge is owing to their

peculiar fondness for gardening, rearing all sorts of plants,

an employment in which they are engaged from their

infancy, and it is from among them that the European

gentlemen are anxious to procure their gardeners.”

Small-pox seems to have been, as it still is now, the most

dreaded disease. It has doubtless been the one great cause

of the depopulation of the Island, and Forbes thinks it was

this visitation which was described as the “red-eyed demon

of pestilence” that swept the country of half its people in

the third century, under the reign of Sri Sangabo. It is

called maha ledda, or “the great sickness,’ and is

believed to be “a direct infliction of the gods.” Percival

states that persons dying of this disease were considered

No. 32.—1886.] MEDICAL HISTORY OF CEYLON. 321

accursed, and that, viewed as a means of God’s vengeance, no

attempt is made by incantations and exorcisms, as is done in

other diseases, to propitiate the gods. Even the rites of

burial are denied, the body of the dead being removed toa

distant jungle, and then left covered with bushes and

branches of trees to decompose. The goddess Pattini is

believed to have the peculiar power of averting or preventing

small-pox, and to her is dedicated a temple situated in the

forests on the side of Ambokkekanda, where also stands

the remains of Rangula Nuwara.* Pridham relates that

during the prevalence of small-pox at Matalé, the Kapurala,

or lay priest, of Ambokke, was in constant request, and

reaped an abundant harvest from the terror and superstitions

of his neighbours. Every village in the vicinity of an

infected place, by means of presents nominally offered to

the goddess, but the most valuable of which were appro-

priated by the Kapurala, procured his presence; and the

relics from the temple, consisting of a shield and bangle

(amulet), were borne through the village followed by all the

inhabitants, and duly honoured by the noise of every tom-

tom, pipe, shank, shell, or trumpet which they could procure.

The Kapurala had been at a former period afflicted with

the natural small-pox, and was shrewd enough to have his

whole family vaccinated, though his supposed temerity in

visiting infected villages, and his good fortune in escaping

contagion, were accounted for by himself, and believed by

the people, to arise from the protection of the goddess. His

influence was hence considerable, and his selfishness led him

to use every secret means of checking the progress of vacci-

nation among the dupes, by whom he was enriching himself.

Active measures in the prosecution of vaccination, the

introduction of legislative measures to help on this good

work, and to enable those in authority in the exercise of

a wise discretion to isolate and effectually segregate the

* See R. A. 8. Journal, No. 29, 1884, pp. 368-394.

322 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX.

infected, have diminished the horrors of epidemics of

this disease, and in the present day a scene like the

following, as described by Forbes, cannot be expected to

occur: “I found,” he says, “ lying in a field, with her head

close to a well, the body of a woman who had but lately

expired. Tormented by thirst and deserted by her friends,

she had crept to the water, whilst in the last agonies of this

loathsome disease. By permission of her relatives I offered

her property, including a portion of land, to whoever would

bury the body, but all my arguments and entreaties would

not induce anyone, even the most wretched pauper, to acquire

a competency by burying it.”

Cholera, as an epidemic disease, has at different times

made fearful havoc in the Island. Marshal states that

epidemic cholera having prevailed in 1817 in India, broke

out at Jaffna and Mannar in 1818. It subsequently appeared

in Kandy, Colombo, and other garrison towns, afew onlyofthe

smaller outpostsin Sabaragamuwa, &c., escaping the infection.

One of the earlier outbreaks occurred in 1832, at Trincomalee,

when it decimated the detachment of the 78th Highlanders

at that time stationed there. A very eminent medical man,

who had examined the military building at Trincomalee at

this time, gave the late gallant Admiral Sir John Gore, his

opinion in the following emphatic words:—“ The position

and construction of the barracks are admirably adapted for

originating, and the hospital for maintaining, disease.”” Subse-

quent and later epidemics will receive notice under their

respective years of occurrence. |

Berry-berry, beri-beri, or bere-bere, prevailed in Ceylon

during the earlier part of the present century. It receives

notice from Percival - (in 1803), who states that it was

occasioned by “ the low diet and bad water which the natives

are accustomed to use, and in part, perhaps, by the dampness

of the climate in the wet season. It swells the body and

legs of the patient, and generally carries him off in twenty

hours.” In his time the plan of treatment was to rub the

No. 32.—1886.] MEDICAL HISTORY OF CEYLON. 320

patient over with cow-dung, oil, chunam, lime juice, and other

preparations from herbs, and then bury him up to the chin

in hot sand. |

I shall now attempt a cursory notice of the principal events

in the medical history of Ceylon, gathered from official

documents.

Vaccination was introduced into Ceylon as early as 1802.

According to Bertolacci, who wrote in 1817, the population of

Ceylon eight or ten years prior to that date was calculated at

700,000. The number vaccinated between 1802 and 1812 was

221,082, and it is stated that the efforts of the British Govern-

ment to eradicate small-pox by means of vaccination were

so successful that for eleven years the disease did not occur

in Ceylon. The low-country Sinhalese, when they found by

experience the protective benefits of vaccination, crowded

into the British settlements for the purpose. The Kandyans,

or natives of the hill country, who had been at enmity with

the Portuguese, Dutch, and British, still kept aloof from

communication with the Maritime districts ; but, though they

did not acquire the direct benefits of vaccination, they were

free from the disease when it had been eradicated by the

prophylactic in the low country. They used to drive their

small-pox patients into the jungles of the low country.

In 1803, Mr. Percival, an officer of the 19th regiment,

suggested that vaccination should be made compulsory

(sixty years afterwards, in 1863, it was made compulsory by

Sir Charles McCarthy) ; in 1837, Dr. Kinnis, of the Army

Medical Department, wrote a long letter to the inhabitants

of Ceylon on the advantages of vaccination. It was translated

into Sinhalese, and must have done much good in making

the benefits of vaccination generally known.

The first mention of the Lunatic Asylum occurs in the

speech of Sir James Stewart Mackenzie, delivered before the

Legislative Council in 1839. Up to that time insane persons

had no special hospital provided for them, the common

jails, and for a period, the Leper Asylum at Hendala, being

324 JOURNAL, B.A.S. (CEYLON). _ [Vol. IX.

used for their safe custody. In “earnestly pressing for

adoption,” the draft of “ An Ordinance to establish Lunatic

Asylums,” His Excellency said that “the cases of distress

and misery from time to time brought to the notice of

Government, prove beyond a doubt that the time has arrived

when it has become imperative for the protection of those

unfortunate persons, and, in some cases also, for their main-

tenance and support.” Not long afterwards, under the

régime of the same Governor, arrangements were completed

‘“‘for the purpose of receiving those unhappy lunatics, who,”

to use Sir Stewart Mackenzie’s own words, “are rather

numerous, and from various parts of the Island are now

boarded, lodged, fed, and taken charge of at a much larger

expense than if they were under one superintendent for the

males, and another for the females, in buildings contiguous

to each other. Allthis is now done in a most unsatisfactory

manner in respect to health, cleanliness, and every requisite

for such an establishment.”

The cost of converting the small-pox hospital at Borella into

a lunatic asylum was estimated at £2,000, and this alteration

was ultimately carried out satisfactorily. Since then this

building, which was added to and enlarged from time to

time, served the purpose until growing needs and advance

in sanitary science, led to the adoption of a fresh site and

improved architectural plans for the present new asylum

situated at Jawatta. There are now 353 patients in the old

and new asylums. On the opening of the Borella Asylum, in

1847, the Government placed the institution under the medi-

eal care of a specialist, Dr. Davy, who was sent out from

England. The appointment, however, on being subsequently

vacated by him, passed into the Medical Department, Mr.

Ebert being appointed to the post in 1849. Under the care

and supervision of successive officers of the Civil Medical

Department, everything possible was done that could conduce

to the comfort and well-being of the unfortunate inmates.

The administration of Sir Stewart Mackenzie, and the year

No. 32.—1886.] MEDICAL HISTORY OF CEYLON. 325

1839, was further marked in medical annals by the first

mention in His Excellency’s speech to Council of a Medical

School for Ceylon, and of certain measures to be adopted by

Government, which afterwards contributed in a very great

measure to the efficiency of the Civil Medical Department.

His Excellency then said :—“The evident inadequacy

of the former rates of salaries, to ensure the services of per-

sons duly qualified in point of professional attainments and

general respectability, left no doubt in my mind of the

necessity of increasing the remuneration of the native medi-

eal establishment ; and while a higher scale of salaries was

introduced, steps were taken to ensure to the junior members

a regular course of instruction, beth by the Military Medical

Officers serving in the Colony and at the Colombo Academy.

I also took advantage of the means of education Calcutta

afforded to medical students, by sending certain more

advanced youths to be educated there at the expense of this

Government, with a view to employment in the Colony on

their return. The Home Government has directed me to

submit to you these arrangements, involving as they do an

annual expenditure of about £3,500. Itis for you, gentlemen,

to declare whether this Colony does not stand in need of an

efficient class of medical practitioners.” His Excellency,

in alluding to the necessity of a School of Medicine, added

that he hoped the time was not far distant, when he should

be able to propose to his Council, in furtherance of his views

for the improvement of the class of medical men in the

Department, the establishment of an Anatomical School ; and

it was even suggested that certain alterations might be

effected in the late Pettah Hospital (at present the head-

quarters of the Ceylon Light-Infantry Volunteers) for this

purpose; or failing this, that Her Majesty’s Government

would sanction ‘there being attached to the Colombo

Academy sucha system of medical education as will provide

the means of adequate instruction in the medical profession

in future for the Colonists, without their leaving their native

326 “JOURNAL, RAS. (CEYLON), > U[Volo Ix.

Island.” Sir Stewart Mackenzie predicted what has been

fulfilled. “I need scarcely add,” he said, “that if these

measures are successful, they will become the means of open-

ing to the inhabitants of the Colony a new and most useful

branch of professional employment.”

Very few are now alive, who, under the designation of

“ Medical Sub-Assistants,” served under Military Medical

Officers, heads of the old Department. One of the earliest

lists of the officers of the Civil Medical Department which

I have been able to find is that for 1817. Between this

date and 1858, when the Civil Medical Department became

a distinct establishment, a large number of individuals,

natives of the country, were educated and trained under

Military Medical Officers. Many of these Military heads

of the department appear to have been as kind-hearted as

they were eminent for their scientific attainments, and the

members of the subordinate department who still survive

speak with a respect and affection of Forbes, Stewart,

Barclay, Kinnis, Rowe, Ferguson, Templeton, Cameron,

Fleming, and others, who, while ruling the department

wisely and well, took a personal interest in the welfare of

their subordinates. |

Dr. Kevett, in 1835, was the first who attempted to organise

a medical class. His pupils were the late Mr. Ferdinands of

Kandy, HE. F. Kelaart, P. H. Van Cuylenburg, M. B. Misso,

Trask, Cleveland, and Ebert of our service. Of this number,

Kelaart having obtained the opportunity of a free passage to

Hngland, as surgeon’s assistant, accompanied the 78th High-

landers, and returned with a Commission as Staff Assistant

Surgeon in 1840. Dr. Kelaart may, therefore, be considered

as the first Ceylonese who acquired a British Medical degree ;

and his career as a physician and a naturalist was dis-

tinguished. His work “ Prodromus Faune Zeylanice” is

a monument of his talent and industry.

The slight attempt at imparting medical knowledge which

I alluded to, was shortly after followed by a regular class for

No. 32.—1886.| MEDICAL HISTORY OF CEYLON. 327

the systematic teaching of the science of medicine under Staff

Assistant Surgeons Templeton and Cameron, under the

supervision of Dr. Arthur Stewart. The lectures delivered

were mere explanations of the contents of text-books. This

plan of educating medical officers was but partially suc-

cessful.

The clinical teaching at the Military Hospital, Colombo, not

being found to answer as fully as desired, the Government

determined to send students to Calcutta for their medical

education. It was not until the beginning of 1843 that

graduates of the Bengal College joined this service, and

among them may be specially mentioned the names of

Drs. Anthonisz, Loos, Dickman, Kriekenbeek, Ondatjee,

Andree, Wambeck, Markus, Margenout, and Breechman, who

have all, either by death or retirement, now severed their

connection with a department they served honourably and

usefully, the first two having had the distinguished

privilege, upon more than one occasion, of administering the

Medical Department, during the temporary absence of its

head from the Island. Speaking of his predecessors, Dr.

Koch, himself a graduate of Calcutta, says in his lecture :

“Nothing conduced more to familiarise Hnglish practice

amongst the natives of the Island than the services of these

young men on their return. They undertook and performed

with success the most formidable surgical operations, and the

name of Dr. Anthonisz will always be connected with the

first successful cases of wsophagotomy and ovariotomy in

Ceylon. Indeed, if I am not mistaken, the first-mentioned

operation was the first suecessful one of its kind ever recorded

in the whole annals of British surgery.”

Dr. Ondaatje was Acting Superintendent of the Royal

Botanical Gardens at Péradeniya in 1843-44, before the

appointment of Dr. Gardener, and he has since given proof

of his intimate knowledge of the productions of the country,

and their economic uses, in his contributions to the Journal of

the Asiatic and other societies.

328 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol, IX.

- Much attention was devoted in 1852, during the adminis-

tration of Sir George Anderson, to the operation of the

quarantine laws, and the improvement of the drainage

system of the capital. That pestilential ditch in the Pettah,

misnamed “St. John’s River,’ was entirely covered in,

several new streets were opened, drainage on an extensive

scale was planned, both by the opening out of new drains

and the widening of old ones ; indeed, at no great cost, much

was done to increase the salubrity of the town and the com-

fort of its inhabitants.

Various sums were from time to time voted by the Govern-

ment of Sir Henry Ward for the improvements of Civil

Hospitals. The state of the Pettah Hospital, then the General

Hospital of Colombo, was not creditable to the Colony, and a

sum of £3,000 was voted for the purchase of a better site in

the suburbs. It was after this that the present General

Hospital was built, and opened in 1864.

In 1857 a Select Committee was appointed by the Legisla-

tive Council to report upon the Fixed Hstablishments of the

Colony, and one of the recommendations made was that the

Civil Medical Department should be separated from the -

Military Medical Department, and placed under the control

of a Civil Medical Officer, as the existing Civil Department

was insufficient for the requirements of the Island, and the

military heads of the department were shifted too often for

opportunities to acquire local experience. A Civil Medical

Kstablishment was proposed, consisting of a Principal Civil

Medical Officer, two Colonial Surgeons, eight Assistant

Colonial Surgeons, and twenty-eight Medical Assistants, all

with salaries adapted to secure efficiency and ability. Dr.

Elliott, eminent in Ceylon as a public man, and well-known

for his ability and philanthrophy, was in England when

the report was published, and he lost no time in applying

to the Secretary of State for the Colonies for the new office

of Principal Civil Medical Officer. He was appointed, but

his tenure of office was unfortunately too short to enable

No. 32.—1886.| MEDICAL HISTORY OF CEYLON. 329

him to carry out several beneficent plans. He died, deeply

regretted, on May 22, 1859.

In 1865 cholera broke out in a severe epidemic form

at the pearl fishery, and rapidly spread to Trincomalee,

Negombo, and Colombo. In the following year it occurred

in all the principal jails, but with care and attention it did

not spread, and there were but seventy-seven cases among

prisoners, with thirty-one deaths. The visitation was of

a sporadic character, until the close of that year, and then

broke out severely in an epidemic form in the Northern

Province. The whole of that Province was rapidly affected,

but the disease established itself more particularly in the

Peninsula of Jaffna ; 9,092 cases occurred in the Northern Pro-

vince, 8,696 of which were in the Peninsula of Jaffna, and 473

proved fatal. The disease was so much on theincrease at the

close of the year that His Excellency Sir Hercules Robinson

appointed a Commission to visit Jaffna and report upon the

causes which led to the outbreak of cholera in that penin-

sula. The Commissioners worked with much zeal and

assiduity, conducted their inquiries on the spot, and after

personal inspection of the localities which suffered most

severely, and examination of the leading and well-informed

persons of all classes of the community of Jaffna, drew up a

voluminous and valuable report, which was laid before the

Legislative Council. The report consists of the history of

the epidemic, the modes of treatment adopted, the customs

and habit of life of the people as bearing on the epidemic,

recommendations for the sanitary improvements of the

town and villages of Jaffna, and measures of precaution to

be adopted against future outbreaks. In the Northern Pro-

vince 10,064 cases occurred during 1867, of which 6,862

died. The remaining provinces suffered comparatively little,

the total in these being only sixty-three cases, with forty-

two deaths.

In 1867 Sir Hercules Robinson ordered an inquiry into the

causes of the depopulation of the Vanni, and this investiga-

330 JOURNAL, R.A.S, (CEYLON). [Vol. IX.

tion, on the recommendation of Dr. Charsley, was entrusted to

Dr. Loos, then Colonial Surgeon of Jaffna. The conclusion

he arrived at, after a careful inquiry, was that the depopula-

tion was due to malarious fever and to the prevalence of an

inveterate skin affection, possibly associated with an heredi-

tary specific taint, aggravated by insanitary conditions, and

known in that district as the “ Parangi-disease.” His report

on this subject is well worthy of perusal. The duty entrusted

to him was performed in such an efficient manner that he

received the special thanks of the Government ; and his

report was submitted to the Legislative Council, printed and

circulated among the members of the department and others.

In accordance with his suggestions, new hospitals at Mullait-

tivu, Anuradhapura, and Vavuniya-Vilankulam were estab-

lished for the treatment of cases of this disease. It was,

however, at the special desire of Sir William Gregory that

more extended efforts were made during the year 1872 to

afford medical aid to those suffering from Parangi ; and Dr.

Danforth, a very efficient medical officer, educated under the

American missionaries, was placed at Vavunia-Vilankulam

to study the disease, and afford aid to sufferers. Dr. Kynsey

wrote a very elaborate report embodying the observations

and experience of all the medical officers who had opportu-

nities of studying this disease. He hada series of drawings

made illustrative of the disease in its various stages, and

presented it, through Government, to the Royal College of

Physicians, London. Dr. Kynsey’s report is among the

Sessional Papers of the Legislative Council, and is a complete

history of this curious and loathsome disease.

In 1870 a milder epidemic of cholera prevailed in the

Southern Province. It broke out at Kattragama during the

Hindu festival there, and followed the track of the returning

pilgrims.

Whenever cholera is prevalent on the south coast of India,

it generally finds its way into the Island through the

medium of the immigrant coolies, who land at Mannar and

No. 82.—1886.] MEDICAL HISTORY OF CEYLON. 331

travel along the great Central-road to the Eastern Province.

There are five immigrant hospitals along this road, where

sanitary precautions are taken, and great attention paid to

the comfort and health of the immigrant coolies on their

long march from the coast to the coffee estates.

It was in 1869 that the new hospitals at Kandy, Gampola,

Badulla, and Ratnapura were completed and occupied ; since

then new hospitals have been erected in the towns of Galle,

Matara, Negombo, Matalé, Kurunégala, Batticaloa, Puttalam,

and Kalutara. These new hospitals have been constructed

on the pavilion principle, each ward being a separate

detached building, and the ventilation and drainage are

satisfactory. The pretty little hospitals at Panaduré and

Marawila are gifts of the late Susew De Soysa, Mudaliyar,

and the Lying-in-Home was built by Mr. C. H. De Soysa.

The year 1870 marked a new epoch in the medical

history of Ceylon. To Sir Hercules Robinson belongs the

credit of sanctioning the inauguration of the Medical School,

which was raised to the dignity of a College in 1880,

when the late Sir John Douglas, K.C.M.G., was Lieutenant-

Governor.

Thanks to the liberality of one of our well-known public-

spirited fellow townsmen, who granted a free site opposite

to the Civil Hospital, this school now has a local habitation,

Government voted a sum of R12,000 for the erection of a

building on this site, which now contains lecture-rooms,

library, anatomical, physiological, and chemical laboratories.

Mr. Sampson Rajapakse’s name has further been associated

with this institution for the last thirteen years, as he is also

an annual donor of a prize of R100 for the best student in

Obstetric Medicine. The late Susew De Soysa, Mudaliyar,

built the De Soysa Museum and Library, at a cost of R12,000

This College has been in existence for sixteen years and

has prospered. Dr. Loos had the honour of being its first

principal, and he vacated the office on his appointment as

Colonial Surgeon of the Central Province in 1876, when

112—86 F

Bee JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vols EX,

the late Dr. Koch succeeded him. The untimely death of

this talented officer in December, 1877, from the effects of a

dissecting wound, is still remembered, and the handsome

memorial tower erected by public subscription, to hold a

valuable and massive clock, granted by the Government of

Sir James Longden, will remain a monument to his excellence

and usefulness.

We have now fifty-nine licentiates on our register, twelve

of whom have succeeded in obtaining British qualifications.

A number of hospital assistants from the secondary class are

also employed all over the country.

The reorganisation of the Civil Medical Department in

1875 testified to the desire of Government to place it ona

more efficient footing, and make it more useful to the Colony.

The Administration Report for the year 1873 was the last

furnished to Government by the late Dr. Charsley, who

retired in 1874, but did not live long to enjoy his well-

earned pension; he died at the Cape in 1880. It is

impossible to avoid adding a tribute to the able and con-

scientious manner in which he discharged the duties of the

high office which he held in this Island for a period of

fifteen years. Dr. Kynsey succeeded him, and took up his

appointment as head of the Civil Medical Department at the

end of March, 1875.

Mr. Joseph Fernando, of Moratuwa, erected a building at

Béeruwala, and the late Mr. Harmanis Dias one at Bandara-

gama, in Rayigam Korale, for outdoor dispensaries. The

friends of Dr. Anthonisz have given us two comfortable

wards at the General Hospital. Of 156,693 patients treated

last year in the forty-five outdoor dispensaries scattered over

the Island, 13,010 were attended to at the Béruwala dispen-

sary, which was the largest number treated at any place

during 1885.

This concludes a hasty sketch of the principal medical

events of the Island. We have reason to be grateful to a

pavernal Government for the deep interest it has always

No. 32.—1886.] MEDICAL HISTORY OF CEYLON. 333

taken in the health and well-being of the people, and for its

efforts to remove and mitigate evils or causes of disease and

mortality.

To the Legislative Council we are indebted for the liberal

votes made from year to year for adding to the requirements

and comforts of our hospitals, and providing for the sanitary

condition of our prisons. That Government has as little to do

with charity as with religion, is little remembered by the

public of Ceylon. In England, hospitals and dispensaries

are supported by voluntary contributions, and large bequests

are made by the wealthy for their maintenance and efficiency;

whereas in this country, the duty as well as privilege of the

rich to provide for the poor is not recognised sufficiently.

Beneficence is not without reflex influence on the benefactor.

The good Samaritan, who gave pence to support his neigh-

bour, and poured oil into his wounds, “showed mercy on

him,” and Shakespeare says of mercy:—

% * “Tt is twice blessed,

“Tt blesseth him that gives and him that takes.”

It would be well if more of our well-to-do citizens followed

the noble example of Rajapaksa, the De Soysas, Joseph

Fernando,and Harmanis Dias. These are the true benefactors

of the people.

The wise and judicious Ordinances which have been

enacted may also be viewed in a sanitary light. I need only

allude to the Ordinances on compulsory vaccination; for

establishment of Municipalities and Local Boards of Health:

restricting the use of opium and bhang ; regulating the sale

of poisons; Medical Aid Ordinance for the planting districts ;

foradministration of village communities ; regulating the sale

of intoxicating liquors; registration of births, marriages, and

deaths ; quarantine ; irrigation ; contagious diseases; and for

regulating pilgrimages; nor must I omit to mention the

advantages we have derived from the appointment of com-

missions of inquiry on cholera, prison discipline, and on

irrigation.

334 JOURNAL, R.A.8. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX.

On the whole, I may say we have no reason to be ashamed

of the medical institutions of this Colony. We have one Leper

and two Lunatic Asylums, twenty-seven Civil Hospitals, six

District Hospitals, and forty-five Outdoor Dispensaries. Our

prisons are now model institutions, and while stringent

measures are adopted by strict penal discipline to make

punishment what it should be, a deterrent from crime, every

endeavour is made to ensure the health and maintain the

physique of the convict, and thereby render him fit for the

hard labour he has toundergo. Juvenile prisoners have been

long carefully separated from old offenders, and confined in

a separate department of the prison; and an Ordinance has

lately been passed for securing their reformation in a Refor-

matory, and in Industrial Schools. Almshouses for the aged

and infirm are urgently required, and have yet to be provided.

Friend-in-Need Societies have done much good in the time

past ; but these institutions cannot now cope with the increas-

ing destitution from the rapid increase of population, and

from want of employment. The private charity of the more

wealthy members of the community is needed, and must be

systematically afforded in lieu of the indiscriminate alms-

giving, long the practice of the country. ‘The prevailing

distress from poverty and want of employment, however,

is such that measures on a larger scale must be devised by the

Municipalities, or by Government, not only for the relief of

indigence, but for the removal of the causes of pauperism,

which invariably produces crime.

Civilisation and its advantages enjoyed by those in large

towns have yet to be extended to rural districts, the koralés

and pattus of the various provinces, where, at times, under

the influence of drought and unfavourable seasons, sickness

occasionally breaks out, and decimates the population. This

was remarkably the case in 1864, 1866, and 1875, when fever

and dysentery were so remarkably rife. The people were

not on these occasions uncared for and left to perish of sick-

ness and starvation. Food was provided by Government ;

No. 32.—1886.| MEDICAL HISTORY OF CHYLON. 335

but medical aid could be given only partially, as the preju-

dices of the people were then found to be strong against the

use of Huropean drugs. With time and better agents for

dispensing remedies, these prejudices are being gradually

overcome. There are fortunately at the same time influences

at works to enlighten and elevate the population. The

country is being gradually opened up by roads and railways,

and little towns are springing up where formerly there was

jungle. Irrigation works are being gradually restored, and

will in time reclaim wild and uncultivated wastes, formerly

inhabited, but which may now be said to be “pathless

forests.” We may yet hope that ere long the measures

adopted to advance the material interests of the country will

help “to scatter plenty over a smiling land.” Our mission-

ary societies are extending their operations into the far

interior, so that moral improvement, as well as material

advancement, may be anticipated. But the means of abating

deadly disease are still the feeble simples of the Vedarala, and

the charms and incantations of the devil-priest. Shall we

not aid the Christian missionary in his work, if, like the

“Great Exemplar,” we be not at the same time missionary

and physician? The good work has been commenced in the

Medical College. Let us hope that in time the licentiates of

this institution will multiply and be found in all parts of the

Island, possessed by knowledge which will enable them to

combat disease in its varied forms; safe advisers, who will

teach the people to avoid the causes of disease, and thus afford

to them the blessing of preventive as well as curative

medicine.

336 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [ Vol. 1X.

THE VEDDA’S OF CEYLON.

By C. J. R. LE MESURIER, ESQ., ©.C.8., F.G.8., &c.

SOME years ago, while arranging the records of the old

Kandy Kachchéri, I came across an account of the Veddas,

written, so far as I can remember, in the form of an official

report to the resident at Kandy in the year 1820. By the

‘ permission of the then Government Agent, I took a copy of

this document, and since that time have had several opportu-

nities of verifying the information it contained.

I do not think the account has ever been published, at least

I can find no record to that effect, and I venture therefore to

offer it in the form of a Paper to the Asiatic Society.

I have myself, on several occasions, come across the hill

or rock Veddas, while shooting on the borders of the Central

and Eastern Provinces. My first introduction to them was

on this wise.

I was tracking up an elephant at some distance from the

Pattipola ar, where my camp had been pitched. We were

in the midst of a dense forest, when I suddenly heard the

sound of anaxe. The elephant had heard it too, apparently,

for just about this time we saw from his tracks that he had

bolted, and we therefore gave him up.

Turning to my tracker, I asked him who was cutting trees

in this out of the way forest, and he replied that it was, he

thought, a Vedda. I at once dashed off towards the sound,

to see what was to me then a curio; but the tracker promptly

stopped me, and said, “That is not the way to catch a

Vedd4: he will bolt the instant he hears you, and you

will never see him. You must come like this,’ whereupon

he went down on his hands and knees, and crawled

No. 32.--1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 337

towards the sound. I followed suit, and when we were close

up we “rushed” our man. He was in a terrible fright at

first, but we soon quieted him, and the tracker, who knew his

patois, acted as interpreter between us. After a few words

I asked him if he was alone. “No, he had his wife and

children, and his brother and his brother’s wife with him.”

I asked him to go and bring them, and he left us for about

half a minute, and apparently without a word being spoken,

returned with another man, two women, and two children,

one being at the breast. A present of tobacco all round, and

a few more words and promises of food, &c., from me made

them quite friendly. The men visited me in camp next

day, and were very useful in the field, from their knowledge

of the country and where to find game. Since then, I have

come across Veddas on several occasions, and the result of my

personal experience is, in the main, to confirm the accuracy

of the following account :—

The Veddas of Ceylon are thought by many to be the

-) aborigines of the country, and their appearance, customs,

- and language certainly warrant this belief. :

They are of two distinct classes, (1) the village, and (2) the

rock or hill Veddas.*

(1) There is very little social intercourse amongst the pure

village Veddas. They are said never to meet for any purpose

of festivity. They subsist on the game they kill, on the

fish they catch, on the roots and seeds of certain aquatic

plants, and on yams and other jungle plants and creepers.

The country in which they live abounds with elk, deer, wild

hogs, hares, monkeys, porcupines, iguanas, peacocks, and

jungle fowl, all of which they kill with bows and arrows,

except the iguana, which they run down, or “tree,” with

* The village Vedda differs but very slightly now from the ordinary

Sinhalese villager of the interior. Most of the old village Vedda families

have either become incorporated in the surrounding villages or have re-

treated further into the forest, and become hill Veddas,

BBG, JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). EVole xe

their dogs. They cut the flesh off the larger animals

into steaks, and dry it in the sun. In this state it is

eaten raw, seasoned with honey or salt, when they can pro-

cure it. They eat the flesh of the iguana fresh, but broiled.

They also pound to powder the rotten wood of a tree called

bala, which is said to be like the kekuna, or country walnut.

This they knead into a paste with honey, and then bake into

cakes. They are, however, said not to eat this unless they

are in want of something more nutritious and palatable, and

they explain the addition of the rotten wood to the honey

by saying that it is required to fill the stomach. They do

not eat the flesh of the ox, the buffalo, the panther, or the

bear. Some of the more civilised of these Veddas cul-

tivate small patches of kurakkan (a small kind of grain)

and Indian corn, and a little tobacco and cotton. They flay

the deer, but not the elk. The skin of the latter they dress

and eat after singeing the hair. When they have the flesh

of these animals in plenty they dress it by boiling, but more

frequently by roasting, and the flesh of recently killed

animals thus dressed appears to be considered a luxury.

When all other means of sustenance fail them, they boil the

leaves of the kora and tora trees, which grow in abundance

everywhere in the jungle.

They never kill or catch the elephant. They do not use

firearms, and their bows and arrows are not intended for so

formidable an animal.* They always avoid him in conse-

quence. ‘The bear and the panther are their most dangerous

enemies, the former especially.t| Many of the Veddas bear

the marks of conflicts with it ; but with his axe, which with

its short handle is an efficient weapon of defence against an

animal that closes with his enemy, the Vedda generally

*'They are very bad shots with the bow, and they never “ fire’ until

they are within three or four yards of their game.

+ They have a number of charms against these animals, the principal

ingredient in them being noise.

No. 32.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON, 339

comes off victorious, though often severely lacerated, and

that usually about the face.

They barter their deer skins, dried flesh, cotton, and honey

for rice, kurakkan, tobacco, salt, cloth, arrowheads, and axes.

They carry on this trade with the Sinhalese and Moormen in

their neighbourhood. They exercise no art or handicraft but

that of making their bows and arrows. The heads of the

latter are made by the Sinhalese blacksmiths. They all have

an axe, and some few of them possess a small hoe; but they

make little use of the latter in the cultivation of their lands,

all they do previous to sowing the crop being to cut the

jungle and burn it. They are fond of salt, but as frequently

it is not to be had in their neighbourhood, the only season-

ing they have for their food is honey.

They are passionately fond of tobacco, and would use betel

could they procure it. They, however, find a substitute for

it in the bark of certain trees,* which they chew with their

tobacco. They do not practise smoking, they have no know-

ledge of intoxicating liquors, and drink nothing but water.

They never cultivate paddy, the reason they give for this

being that they are much fonder of hunting. They never do

and will not apply themselves to any sort of labour, except

now and then to alittle high-land cultivation, and that never

exceeds a rood or two for each family. They keep no

domestic animals excepting dogs, and sometimes, but very

rarely, a few fowls. Their huts are constructed in a very

rude manner, some of them being a mere roof composed of

three or four sloping poles, one end of which is placed in the

ground, and the other end is supported by a cross stick placed

on two perpendicular ones. Others have a perfect roof

coming down to the ground on both sides, like the old military

tents. Their huts are generally covered with the bark of

trees, but sometimes with dried grass or straw. They never

*Tt was while stripping one of these trees of its bark that I first came

across them.

340 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. TX.

remain more than a few months in one place, and often shift

their residence more frequently.

The men wear a string round their middle, with a piece

of cloth of the width of four or five inches passed between

the legs, a flap of which about eight or nine inches long

hangs over in front. The women wear a piece of cloth

about the size of a small handkerchief, and in the fashion of

an apron. The hair of both sexes is never combed, and is

disgustingly matted and filthy. They wear no ornament in

the hair, but sometimes tie a string round the head to keep

the hair out of their eyes. They wear small earrings of

iron or brass. Their bodies are never washed unless it be

by the rain.

They speak Sinhalese, but it is so corrupted that it is very

difficult to understand. They make use of some words that

are not Sinhalese. Their voice is loud, harsh, ill-toned, and

disagreeable.”

Polygamy is not practised either on the part of the men

or the women. When the females arrive at a proper age,

they are asked by the young men from their parents, who

never refuse their daughter to the first suitor. No marriage

presents are given on either side, nor is there ceremony or

marriage féast. The bridegroom merely calls, as they

express it, the bride from the hut of her parents to his own.t

Their wives are generally prolific, but the great majority of

their children die of fever when young. They speak most

favourably of the fidelity of their wives, and assert that

their caste is distinguished for chastity. They never

repudiate their wives, whose duties are purely domestic,

except that they assist in reaping the kurakkan. They are

kindly treated by their husbands. As to the relative rank

_ — =

* Many of the hill Veddas that I have come across appeared to have

lost the power of modulating their voice, probably from disuse.

7 The bride ties a string round the bridegroom’s waist, and they are

man and wife.

No. 32.—1886.] rum vEDDAS oF CEYLON. 341

of the females, it is asserted that the men have more regard

for their wives than for their brothers and sisters.

Strangers who reside in their country for any number of days

seldom escape jungle fever, and they are not a little exposed

to the baneful effects of the climate themselves. Besides

fever they are subject to cutaneous complaints ; but it does

not appear that either venereal disease or small-pox is known

among them. They attribute all sickness to the agency of

malignant spirits, with whom they believe their country to

abound. The use of medicine of any kind is not practised

among them. They trust entirely to incantations to propi-

tiate the demon who has afflicted them. In all cases of

severe sickness they devote a silver ring and a piece of cloth,

Yakdesa, or demon priest, who is always one of the eldest of

their own tribe, is sent for,and he dances and chants

certain incantations before the sick persons. He is then fed

with what they have to give him, which generally consists

of the cakes made of honey and rotten wood, and the cere-

mony is concluded by his carrying off the ring and cloth

offered in sacrifice from the spot where it was laid. They

pay no respect to the dead. The body is thrown into the

jungle without ceremony, to be devoured by wild beasis.

Of an all-powerful beneficent being they have no idea, but

they believe in the existence of a plurality of malignant

spirits. Of a future state they have no notion, and are equally

ignorant of the religion of Buddha and the gods of Hindu

mythology.*

Their knowledge and moral notions appear to be as limited

as their mode of life. They cannot count beyond five, and

the stupidity and apathy of some of them is very striking.

There is, however, something in their manner, when in their

native forests, like the independence or indifference that may

* They also believe in the fostering care of the spirits of the dead,

whom, with the sun and moon, they constantly invoke in time of need.

342 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. JX.

be expected inasavage. One of them, on being asked to show

how they steal upon their game, gave a most striking speci-

men of good acting. The keenness and intensity of his eye,

the lightness of his step, and the eagerness of desire displayed

in every limb and muscle of his body, could only be com-

pared to those of a cat or a tiger stealing upon its prey.

Their whole appearance bespeaks the hardiness of their

condition. They are lower in stature than the ordinary

Sinhalese, but are meagre in their bodies and squalid in

their looks. Their figures denote that they might be active

in their movements, but they give no indication of being

possessed of much strength either of body or constitution.

Their limbs, however, though thin and slight, are well

turned. They are generally of a darker complexion than the

common Sinhalese, though some are of a much lighter shade

than the others. When not in the jungle they carry a white

staff about seven or eight feet long, and when they stand,

they plant this before them, grasping it with both hands a

little above the height of their forehead, and bend for-

ward in a most unmeaning and ungraceful position.

(2) The hill Veddas are of the same caste and description

as the others, their habits and customs are much the same,

but they are described as being of a savage and ferocious dis-

position.* Persons who approach them are considered to be

in danger, and they are said to be at enmity with all their

neighbours.t| There were certain seasons when the Veddas

had to render a tribute of honey and flesh to Government,

but, as the wild Veddas never entered a town or a village,

the Veddas of Horabora used to repair toa certain place

near their haunts, where they found the honey and dried

deer’s flesh deposited. They, however, seldom saw the people

* The hill Veddas are fast becoming extinct, first, from constant inter-

marriage between members of the same family, second, from the decrease

in the game of the country, and the consequent privation and lack of

food.

+ N.B.—This was written in 1820,

No. 32.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 343

themselves, and when they did they avoided them as

dangerous.

Both the wild and village Veddas rank with the Vellalas

(the highest Siphalese caste). When the more civilised

Veddas go to the house of a district chief of the Vellala caste,

they receive water out of an earthen pot with a spout to it, a

privilege that belongs only to the Vellalas.

The men among the wild Veddas are still more scantily

clad than their neighbours, for they wear no cloth, but only

a small apron of plaited leaves. The women are scarcely

ever to be seen. They remain in the deepest recesses of the

wood, or among the rocks in the hill country, and are as

naked as the men.

The hill Veddas speak a language that is not understood

either by Sinhalese or Tamil, but some few words of the

Sinhalese language are to be recognised init.” They hold no

intercourse with their more civilised neighbours, and it is,

as above stated, considered dangerous to go near the places of

mode of life, remaining but a day or two at a time in one

place. They have no huts, but take shelter under large trees

or rocks. They have a fire constantly burning, which they

produce by the friction of one piece of wood upon another.

They live solely on what nature affords them, on roots, fish,

and the game they kill with their bows and arrows.f They

* Notwithstanding all that has been said to the contrary, I believe the

Vedda language to be merely a patois of the ordinary Sinhalese. Many

of their words can even now be traced to a Sinhalese origin, such as, for

instance :—

To drink—diya-kanawa=in Sinhalese, to eat water.

To sleep—nidenawa=in Sinhalese, nidagannawa.

Snake—polongo=in Sinhalese, polonga.

Lightning—gini wetuna—Sinhalese, fallen fire, &c.

Considering that they have no knowledge of letters, no literature of

any sort, nothing to arrest the constant change in their spoken language,

itis remarkable that any indication of the affinity of this patois to Sinhalese

should have remained.

+ The constant change in their residence is due to their searchafter game.

344 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. TX.

cultivate no kind of grain, and make nothing but their bows

and arrows. Theiron heads of the latter and their axes they

obtain in the following manner :—They carry a quantity of

dried flesh and honey toa place near the residence of a Sin-

halese blacksmith, and hang it up on a tree out of the reach

of dogs and jackals, together with a leaf cut in the shape of

the iron article they want. The smith fails not to accept the

offer thus made to him, and in due time hangs up in the

same place the article required in return. It is understood

were he to fail in doing so, that he would be exposed to the

most dreadful vengeance of the Vedda and his friends.*

It is the general belief that the hill Veddas are extremely

tenacious of the chastity of their wives. They are conse-

quently apt to be jealous, and instances are not wanting of

their sacrificing to their revenge both the wife and the

supposed paramour; but all speak in high terms of their

kind treatment of their wives, and of the fidelity of the latter

to their husbands.

The hill Veddas living along the frontiers of the Kandyan

and Maritime Provinces never acknowledged by tribute

either the Dutch, British, or Kandyan Governments ; but

those towards Horabora in Bintenna paid a tribute of flesh

and honey at three different seasons of the year to the royal

stores at Kandy. This they of their own accord, at the

proper time, hung upon atree, and it was brought from thence

by the Veddds of Horabora,as has already been noticed.

The officer whose duty it was to collect the tribute never

had any personal communication with the hill Veddas, and

having no control over them he could not have enforced the

payment had it been withheld. There was, however, no

known instance of their ever having failed to pay in due time.

They never commit depredations upon the crops or pro-

_ perty of any kind belonging to their civilised neighbours,

* This custom has fallen into disuse.

No. 82.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 345

nor do they molest traders or travellers on the commonly

frequented paths that lead through the country they inhabit.

It is dangerous to offend them, and instances are known in

the Batticaloa district where they have revenged an injury

by deliberate assassination.

In Major Johnstone’s expedition from Batticaloa to Kandy,

in 1804, the first person that fell was brought down by the

arrow of a Vedda. On the march of the detachment through

the Vedd4 woods between the Nadakadu province of the

Batticaloa district and the frontier of Wellassa, a small clear

spot was chosen to encamp on for the night. It was on the

side of a wood which a party of the pioneers entered for the

purpose of procuring firewood. It happened that a few

Veddas had here taken up their temporary abode. They

fled on being discovered by the pioneers, who at once

proceeded to plunder the little property they had left in their

huts, the most valuable part of which consisted of two or three

fowls, who, like their owners, sought safety in the jungle.

While one of the pioneers was pursuing a fowl, a Vedda

concealed in a bush shot him through the loins. This hap-

pened but a few yards from the camp. The wounded man

was brought in alive, and the arrow was extracted by the

medical officer, but he died in a few hours. The Veddas

effected their escape. An instance of their mode of taking

revenge took place in the Batticaloa district about 1822.

One of the more civilised Veddas, a lad who had established

a friendly intercourse with a hill family, conceiving an

attachment to a young female of the family, made proposal to

the parents for her. ‘The match for some cause or other did

not come off, and shortly after the girl sickened and died.

The family attributed her death to necromancy practised by

the young man, and under this impression, four or five years

after, a brother of the young woman left the woods in search

of the object of his revenge, and having found him watching

a paddy field in the Batticaloa district, walked up to him in

the open day, and deliberately shot him through the body.

346 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX.

This was done in sight of another man, a Malabar, who was

in the same field at some distance, and from whom the Veddaé

had ascertained the identity of the man he was in search

of. The assassin, after withdrawing the fatal shaft from the

body of his victim, made his escape into the woods.

They are not only ready thus to redress their own grie-

vances, but also those of their friends; and this disposition

was sometimes taken advantage of by the Moormen and

Malabars, who were in the habit of intervening between those

who are in a sort of semi-civilised state, and the absolutely

unsocial and uncivilised Veddas. An instance of this also

took place in the Batticaloa district, about the same time. A

headman of the Province of Pattipal having rendered himself

obnoxious to the chena cultivators near the Vedda country,

a party of Veddas came down quietly in the night to the village

where the headman was residing at the time, surrounded his

house, plundered it, and put him to death. In short, the

disposition of the hill Veddas was so well known that the

Sinhalese, Malabar, and Moor families, from whom the petty

chiefs placed over the partly civilised tribe were generally

taken, both in the interior and the Batticaloa district, were

objects of dread amongst their neighbours from the influence

they possessed over such ready instruments of revenge.

In regard to their origin, it is remarkable that the tradi-

tional accounts of them given by the best informed Kandyan

chiefs, and the most intelligent Tamil inhabitants of the

Batticaloa district, perfectly accord with each other.”

* The historical origin of the Veddds is as follows :—When Wijayo

landed in Ceylon, he married Kuwena, the daughter of a Yakko chief. She

betrayed her people into his hands, but when she had served his purpose

he deserted her. She returned to her people, but they were so incensed

with her that they put her to death; and her two children by Wijayo only

escaped the same fate by the intervention of their uncle, who fled with

them into the forest near Adam’s Peak. Some time after the brother and

sister married, and founded a wild race, who kept aloof from all their

neighbours, retreated into the forests of Wellassa and Batticaloa on the

approach of the Indian invaders, and became “ the wild men” of Knox—the

Veddds (or hunters) of Ceylon.

No, 32.—1886.| THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 347

The Kandyans say that the Veddas are real Sinhalese

Vellalas, who at a period of very remote antiquity occupied

the tract of country which now constitutes the district of

Batticaloa. That they were expelled from thence by an

invasion of Tamils from a foreign country, and took refuge

in the forests in which they are now met with. They would

not mix with the other inhabitants of the country, but to

criminals and other unprotected fugitives who took refuge

amongst them, and to slaves who fled from their masters,

they generally afforded hospitality and protection, though

they were apt to deliver them up for presents in cloth, &c.

They are totally unacquainted with letters, but the differ-

ent tribes hold a rude correspondence with each other by

small pieces of wood cut into different shapes. Fugitives

used to be furnished with passports of this kind, when they

removed from one tribe to another, and the treatment they

received depended on the recommendation which the talis-

man conveyed.

Man in a state of nature, or in any degree approaching it,

is ever an object of curiosity to the civilised world. The

knowledge of the existence of the Veddas of Ceylon must

therefore excite a wish to be acquainted with their origin

and history. From themselves, however, no information

whatever can be obtained. They trouble themselves little

about futurity, and the past is a blank tothem. They are

said to have been in the habit of addressing the King of

Kandy by a word which signified “brother”; but this was

merely due to the poverty of their vocabulary, as the word

aluwa* is used by them when speaking of or to all

persons with whom they are in friendship, and in consider-

ation of this they were allowed to use this familiar term in

the presence of the late king, a liberty that would have cost

any other of his subjects their lives.

#4 Bailey, who, by the way, says that the word is “hoon” (cousin), attributes

this familiarity to the fact that the Veddas claimed and were acknowledged

to have a royal origin. 4

112—86 :

‘COLOMBO, ¢ ‘CEYLON,

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Aria:

JOURNAL

CEYLON BRANCH

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY,

— 1886.

VOLUME Ix

No. 83.

EDITED BY THE HONORARY SECRETARY.

“The design of the Society is to institute and promote inquiries into the History,

Religion, Literature, Arts, and Social Condition of the present and former

Inhabitants of the Island, with its Geology, Mineralogy, its Climate and

Meteorology, its Botany and Zoology.”

COLOMBO: ers

GEORGE J. A. SKEEN, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, CEYLON.

1888.

JOURNAL

OF THE

CEYLON BRANCH

OF THE

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY,

1886.

VOLUME IX.

No. 83.

EDITED BY THE HONORARY SECRETARY.

“The design of the Society is to institute and promote inquiries into the History,

Religion, Literature, Arts, and Social Condition of the present and former

Inhabitants of the Island, with its Geology, Mineralogy, its Climate and

Meteorology, its Botany and Zoology.” ____.

pen MUSES

COLOMBO: Nar ais

G. J. A. SKEEN, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, CEYLON.

1888.

THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON,

AND

THEIR RELATION TO THE NEIGHBOURING TRIBES,

Translated from the German Monograph of Professor RB, Virchow.

CONTENTS.

The Vedda Land—Number of the Veddas, Wild and Tame— Demon

Worship ; Worship of Ancestors—Original Population of Ceylon

(Yakktis)—Hthnological Description of the Veddas—Psychological

Characteristics of the Veddas—System of Caste in Ceylon: Dodda

Veddas, Rodiyas—Tamil Immigration (Malabars); Arabs (Moors,

Moormen)—-Malays and more recent Immigrants ; Sinhalese ; Linguis-

tic—Derivation of the Veddas—Physical Anthropology of the Veddas :

Size of the Body; Complexion and: Hair: Hyes, Nose, and Face ;

Skull—Physical Anthropology of the Sinhalese: Skull—Physical

Anthropology of the Tamils: Skull—Physical Anthropology of the Moor-

men—Physical Anthropology of the Malays—Relations of the Races to

one another—The Question of a Chinese Descent — Veddas and Sighalese

—Veddas and T'amils—Dravidas from Tanjore (Chéla)—Kurumbas

Vedars, Asurs—Dasyu, Proto-Dravidian, and Pre-Dravidian—Veddas

and Negritos—Andamanese—Veddas and Australans—Veddas and

Malays—Microcephaly and Nannocephaly—Variability of Race

Character—The Vedda as a member of the “ Black-skins” of India

—Tahbles of Measures—Explanation of the Tables.

EXPLANATION OF THE TABLES.*

TaB.E I.—Skull of a Veddé Woman from the Museum at Colombo,

Ceylon.

TABLE I1.—Skull of a Sinhalese.

TaBLE I1J.—Skull of a Tamil from Ceylon.

All the views are by Mr. B. Eyrich, taken according to the

geometrical method, and reduced to one-third the natural size.

* Not reproduced.—Hon. Sec.

ERRATA (ET: ADDENDA.

Page 351, note ||, for * p. 124” read “yp. 62.”

352, line 2, for “ Van Goen” read “ Van Goens.”

353, note {, for “ Norasa”’ read ‘‘ Novasa.”

358, note*, for “p. 123” read “p. 62.”

398, note t, for “p. 126” read “ p. 63.”

359, line 30, for “Taylor” read “ Tylor.” i

359, note *, omet “* Die omfange der cultur tibers.”

359, note fF, for “Taylor” read “ Tylor.”

359, note t, for “Spang” read “ Spangel.”’

368, note}, for “ Zuitf.” read “ Zeits. fiir” passim.

378, note *, for “ Mokna” read “ Mokua.”

381, line 2, for “ Elu” read “ Elu.”

381, note *, for “p. 104” read “p. 61.”

384, line 12, for ub Ko\opa””’ read ‘ Kodo3a.”

387, last line, after “ precipices” insert + (ADivote omndaiorg).”

388, line 16, for “ Zvortvan berwe beandend,” &c., read “Zwart van

verwe, brandend,” &c.

394, line 6, after “Skull No. 1” insert “ (Table I.).”

394, line 11, for “ Dewilané” read “ Denilane.”

398, line 13, for “ Busle”’ read “ Busk.”’

398, line 14, for “two last” read “last two.”

398, line 31, after “Museum,” insert “(Table I., Fig. 3).”

399, line 21, for “ Weleker” read “ Welcker.”

402, line 11, for “ occipitale” read “ occipitalis.”

404, line 10, for “76” read “ 7:6.”

404, line 12, after “skull” insert “ (Flower, No. 683).”

406, line 16, for “ chamzprosopous ” read “‘chameprosopic.”

406, line 29, after “skull,” insert “ (No. 675).”

406, line 35, for “alreolar” read “ alveolar.”

406, line 36, for “basilar alvesli” length read ‘“‘basi-alveolar length.”

407, line 2, for “basinasel” read ‘ basinasal.”’

409, line 2, for “ Bernard” read “ Barnard.”

411, line 18, for “von” read “ van.”

411, line 19, for “vrijser ruf tig” read “vrij vernuftig.”’

411, note *, for “Tambulus” read “Jambulus.”

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY,

CEYLON BRANCH.

THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON, AND THEIR

RELATION TO THE NEIGHBOURING TRIBES.

By Proressor R. VircHow.

Translated for the Ceylon Asiatic Society from the Memoirs of the

Royal Academy of Science of Berlin, 1881,

In the various mixture of races inhabiting the Island

of Ceylon, the Veddas (Vaeddas, Weddas, Veddahs, Vaddahg,

Vaidahs, Beddas, Bedas) have since a long time been an object

of special prominence for the study of ethnography, because,

owing to an inferior order of intellectual development, and

through defects in physical organisation, it offers the most

room for conjecture that here is presented a remnant of the

aboriginal inhabitants. And now, when according to all

accounts their number is so rapidly diminishing that at no

very distant date its last members will have disappeared

from among the living, it adds peculiar interest to the

study that it is desirable to transmit to posterity at least a

trustworthy picture of its singular characteristics. For this

the material we now have is nowise sufficient: hence the

task for the following disquisition is not merely to collect

what has been already arrived at, but to point out the gaps

which can be supplied only by farther local researches. It

is to be hoped that this may stimulate to the immediate

application of all possible means to obtain the wanting

material.

31—87 B

390 TO URINAL eR ALS CHN OK) a | Vol. Xx.

The Veddas have dwelt—at least for some centuries—in

one district in the eastern, or more correctly, south-eastern

part of the Island. Robert Knox, who gave the first exact

information regarding them in the year 1681, transferred

them to the woods of “Bintan” (Bintenne).* John Davyf in

the early part of this century speaks of them as inhabiting the

vast forests on the south-east side of the Island, between the

mountains and the sea, especially the wild, unhealthy tracts

of land called Vedirata of Bintenna and Mahavedirata of

U'va, These they consider as their own territories. On

the whole their boundaries remain the same to-day, Sir E.

Tennent{ and Mr. Bertram F. Hartshorne§ assert that the

Vedda-land is about ninety English miles in length and forty

in breadth, from the hills of U’va and Medamahanuwara

toward the east and extending to the sea coast, while Mr.

Pridham,| who estimates the area at very nearly 1,500 square

miles (English), bounds it more precisely in the following

way: Batticaloa on the east, the districts of Magampattu

and U‘va on the south, the mountains of Kandy on the west

and south-west, and the river Mahaveli-ganga on the north.

Mr. John Bailey states that the majority of the real

Veddas dwelt in the districts of Batticaloa and Badulla

(chiefly in the former); but here it should besaid that according

to a later division of the country a part of Bintenna has been

added to the district of Badulla, and the larger portion of it

* Robert Knox. An Historical Relation of the Island of Ceylon in the

Kast Indies. London, 1681, p. 61. New edition, printed in Philalethes.

The History of Ceylon from the earliest period to the year MDCCCXV.

London, 1817.

+ John Davy. An Account of the Interior of Ceylon and of its Inhabi-

tants, with Travels in that Island. London, 1821, pp. 115, 116.

{ Sir James Emerson Tennent. Ceylon: an Account of the Island,

Physical, Historical, and Topographical. London, 1859, vol. II., p. 437.

§ Hartshorne, in the Fortnightly Review. London, 1876. New series,

vol, XIX.

|| Charles Pridham. An Historical, Political,and Statistical Account of

Ceylon and its Dependencies. London, 1849, vol. I., p. 452. .

{ John Bailey, in Transactions of the Ethnological Society. London,

1863, New series, vol. II., p. 278.

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 351

to the district of Batticaloa.* The more savage remnant of

the tribe live in the beautiful province of Nilgala and in the

forests of Bintenna.

There is much evidence, however, that in times not very

distant the Veddas were scattered over a much larger extent

of territory. The name “ Vedda-land” (Vedirata) in the

time of Mr. Bailey (1863) belonged to extensive districts

in the north-east of the Kandy mountains, which were

no longer inhabited by the Veddas, but by the Sinha-

lese (Wanniyas). The designation Mahavedirata (“‘ Great

Vedda-land”) seems of pretty wide application. Davy, who

in one place transfers it to U’va, in anotherf gives it to the

far-reaching flat landsin which the so-called “ lake” of Bin-

tenna lies. Mr. Pridham, who indeed was never himself in

Ceylon, places Mahavedirata in Wellassé and a _ part

of U'va. These are subordinate matters, however. More

important far are several earlier statements. Cordinert

tells us, after mentioning the real Veddas, that ‘another

race of a similar description formerly existed in the district

of the Wanny, bordering on the province of Jaffnapatam.

They are now, in some degree, civilised.” They spoke Malabar,

and adhered to the Brahmin religion. In another place he

says§ that at the advent of the Portuguese the “ Bedahs”’ dwelt

in the north and the Sinhalese in the south. This seems

to prove that the Veddas formerly reached much farther

northward. But their earlier presence in the south and even

south-west is also proved. Knox|| tells us that at “ Hourly,”

a remote possession of the king of Kandy, numerous Veddas

were living, who were, however, pretty tame; and Valentijn{

mentions, besides “ Vintana” and “ Hoerli,” still another

* Bailey, J. c., p. 281, note.

Wi Davy, Us C., DP. a0 1

{ JamesCordiner. A Description of Ceylon. London, 1807, vol. I., p. 91.

§ Jd., p. 137.

|| Knox, p. 124.

q Francois Valentijn. Oud en Nieuw Oost Indie. Dordr, en Amster-

dam, 1726. Deel V. Ceylon, p. 49.

Li)

352 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX,

“ Beda” district, farther north than Trincomalee. Bergk, the

translator of Percival’s work,* says that Van Goen states

the ‘“ Bedahs” had entire possession of the land between the

mountains of ‘‘Canducarre” in the west and Passara in the

north ; while Percival counts} as belonging to them not only

the Indians in the adjoining province of Jaffnapatam, but the

tribes inhabiting the western and south-western part of the

Island between Adam’s Peak and the Rayigam and Pasdum

korales.

In regard to these statements, | remark that Bergk’s view

of the situation of the district mentioned is erroneous, as a

glance at the map by A. Arrowsmith,{ contained in the book

he translated, would have taught him. The district of ‘‘ Can-

ducarre ” (according likewise to the map of Ceylon published

by J. Mawman, 1816, which is appended to the new edition

of Knox) lies at the east of the Island, 8.8.W. from Baitti-

caloa, as well as the immediately adjoining district of Passara,

which is a province of U’va directly north of it, and close

to Badulla.§ From this the country between “ Canducarre ”’

and Passara would be the real Vedda territory, whereas the

Rayigam and Pasdum kéoralés lie on the west coast south

of Colombo, in the neighbourhood of Saffragam and south-

west of Adam’s Peak.

Mr. Bailey,| in whose time indeed there were no longer

any Veddas living there, conjectures that Saffragam (from

its old name Habaragamuwa) was the original land of the

Veddas (habara, “barbarian’’), and as proof of this gives a

variety of local names still extant. He also finds in a Sinha-

lese poem, written about four hundred years ago, Parawi

* Robert Percival. Description of the Island of Ceylon, translated by

J.A.Bergk. Leipsic, 1803, p. 337, remarks.

+ Robert Percival. An Account of the Island of Ceylon, containing its

History, Geography, Natural History, with the Manners and Customs of its

various Inhabitants. Second edition, London, 1805, pp. 282-284.

{ The map in Tennent’s work is by John Arrowsmith.

§ Davy, J. ¢., p. 413. Pridham, 7. c., L,; p. 361.

|| Bailey, 7. ¢., p. 313, note.

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 399

Sandeése, the district right below Adam’s Peak distinctly

inhabited by Veddas. Possibly only some scattered remnants

of the tribe dwelt among these mountains.

That four hundred years agothe Vedda territory extended

continuously in this way as far as the west side of the moun-

tains, and even to the western sea coast, is highly improbable,

as a-Chinese geographer, Hiouen Thsang, in the seventh century

of our era, travelling in India states that the Yakkhos had*

withdrawn into the south-east corner of Ceylon. It may,

however, be correct that as Sir E. Tennent asserts, under the

Dutch Government Veddas were found in large numbers,

but half civilised, at no great distance north of the peninsula

of Jaffna, in the so-called Wanni. The question whether

in the earliest ages Veddas inhabited the whole Island I will

take up later.

The present Vedda-land is very lovely, embracing a com-

paratively flat, wooded country, nowhere raised more than

two hundred feet above the level of the sea, but frequently

having the appearance of a park. It would seem that the

character of the soil varies, since dams and unwholesome

marshes alternate with rock-ribbed hills. The Rev. Mr. Gil-

lingst speaks of the province of Bintenna as very dry and

rocky. But Mr. Frederick Miuller{t is mistaken in trans-

ferring the home of the Veddas to the mountains of Ceylon.

All the more recent accounts limit their abodes to the

anterior land which separates the central mountains from the

sea coast, excluding them wholly from the mountains

themselves. Sir Emerson Tennent$ to be sure makes a

distinction between the somewhat more civilised village and

coast tribes, and the wild ‘“ Rock Veddahs, galle-vedda.”

* Tennent, J. c:, I., p. 372, note.

7 The Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society.

Colombo, 1853, p. 89.

{ Reise der ostere. Fregatte Norasa. Anthropologischer Theil. Abth, IIT.

Hthnographie. Wien, 1868, s. 139.

§ Tennent, J. c., IL, pp. 439-44.

354 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON), (eViolle wexe

If we reject his attempt to identify these with an

ancient tribe of “Gallas,” who may have dwelt in the same

portions of the south as the present Galle, and admit that the

rocky character of the region in which the wildest part of

the tribe live accounts for the name, evidently given them

by strangers, it does not by any means follow that the

rock Veddas are mountaineers. For centuries the real

inhabitants of the mountains have been Sinhalese, the

people of Mayarata. Sir E. Tennent established the rock

Veddas, who, according to him, had split into five clans or

hunting-parties in the woods of Bintenna, and whilst the

village Veddas, amounting at the highest estimate to not

more than one hundred and forty families, lived in nine

small communities around the Laguna district of Batticaloa,

the coast Veddas, four or five hundred in number, roamed

about in the jungles between Batticaloa and Trincomalee,

chiefly in the vicinity of Eravur and along the coast as far as

Vendeloos Bay. Mr. Hartshorne, however, rejects this

division wholly ; he distinguishes only Kelé-Vedddé (jungle

Veddas) and Gan-Veddo (half-civilised village Veddas}, the

former only as deserving the special attention of ethnolo-

gists.

If we study the map of Ceylon, it becomes at once clear

that Bintenna, the ancient capital, which Sir EH. Tennent

speaks of as identical with the Maagrammum of Ptolemy,*

lies directly upon the eastern boundary of the moun-

tains towards the foreland. The Mahaweli-ganga, the largest

river of the Island, here bursts out from the hill-country,

behind which the mountains of Kandy and U’va rise

westward; to the east are fertile plains, swamp lands, and

* Tennent, J. c., I., p. 536, note 2. This he rests on the old name of

Bintenna having been Mahiyangana, and asserts that this could not possibly

mean Mahagan, as was assumed by Christ. Lassen. (De Taprobane insula

vetertbus cognita. Diss. pro aditu, muneris prof. ordin. Bonnae, 1842,

p. 23.)

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 300

extensive forests, interspersed with low hills. Sir E. Ten-

nent* paints in rich colours this beautiful country, which

he passed through on his way from Bintenna to Batticaloa on

the east coast. This is the real home of the Veddas. KnoxtT

also describes very distinctly this country,—this land of

Bintenna,—which he surveyed from afar on the tops of the

mountains. He says: “It seemsto be smooth land, and not

much hilly ; the great river runneth through the midst of it.

It is all over covered with mighty woods and abundance of

deer; but much subject to dry weather and sickness. In

these woods is a sort of wild people inhabiting.” The wild

Veddas live here in perfect isolation, as well from their allo-

phylen neighbours as their more civilised tribal brethren,

without fixed abodes, but yet upon their own recognised

lands, mostly in small groups, orsimply in families. Rarely

do they venture beyond their own boundaries, and then only

for the purpose of exchanging honey, wax, Skins, or venison

for tools of iron (axes, arrow-points, &c.). Forthe most part

they shrink timidly back from all human contact, and even

their small commerce was not at first openly pursued,t butin

_—

* Tennent, J. c., II., p. 451.

peentOxe C2... 9:

{ Mr. Hartshorne asserts that this mysterious way which Sir Emerson

Tennent made so much of is no longer carried on. The first mention of it

is by Knox. Harlier authors, in speaking of the secret trade, refer, as far as

I can see, not merely to the Veddds, but to the Ceylonese in general. It

does not appear to me at all certain that the passage in Pliny (Natur. Hist.

hib., VI., 24), in spite of Sir H. Tennent’s plea C. ¢., IL, p. 571,

note 1), refers to the Ceylonese, as it does not describe the trade in the

interior of the country, but outside, near the boundary of the Serae,—far

away upon the continent,—exhibiting it more as a peculiarity of the Serae

than of the Ceylonese. The interpretation put upon the passage is of

little importance, however, as Chinese authors—for instance, Fa Hiaen—

mention this kind of secret trade in the third century as carried on upon

the Island itself. That Pliny at the same time refers to the worship of

demons certainly would seem to point to the Veddas, but on the other

hand a report by the Arabic geographer Albyruni (1030 A. D.) shows

that in his time the secret trade was pursued along the coast. We

should therefore have to assume that the Veddas carried on a coast trade

in the eleventh century, which is not probable.

356 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol]. TX.

this wise : they deposited their wares and rough models of the

things they wanted in a certain place, and returned later to

take away secretly the needed articles. This explains why

the estimates of their present number vary so much. ;

Cordiner says, most indefinitely, “not many thousands

in number”; whilst Sir Emerson Tennent,* in the year 1859,

considered the estimate at that time of 8,000 an exaggerated

one. Mr. Bailey, in 1863, declared the number of the Veddas in

the district of Batticaloa to be only about 250, in Nilgala

72 (in 1858), and in Bintenna 364 (in 1856),—altogether only

about 686. Mr. Hartshorne speaks of these figures as pro-

bably too small; and a communication from the Rev. Mr.

Gillingst seems to corroborate this, according to which, by the

census of 1849, in the district of Bintenna alone there was a

population in all of 1,538 persons,—half-Sinhalese, half-Ved-

das. At any rate, from the declarations of Mr. Bailey there

is no question that the recruits are very small indeed, and

the annihilation of the entire tribe imminent. For he foundt{

in Nilgala among 72 persons, 50 adults and 22 children

(in one family of 9, and another of 8 adults, only 1 child

in each); and among the 950 adults but 14 over fifty years

of age; a single member only seemed to be over seventy

years of age. Of 308 persons in Bintenna, 175 were adults

and 133 children; in an isolated horde 22 adults and 4

children. And as if to make this more conclusive, we are

assured that there are no indications anywhere of the

practice of child-murder among them.

Of late the process of annihilation seems to have hastened

on. From a note of the Rev. Somanader, a missionary in

Batticaloa, which I received through the kindness of the

Director of the Museum in Colombo, Mr. A. Haly, we are

led to think there are scarcely any pure blooded Veddas

living; he calls them “a race almost entirely extinct.”

* Tennent, J. c., II., p. 444. + Gillings, J. c., p. 83.

{ Bailey, 7. c., p. 296.

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 307

Whether this assertion applies to a particular district or is

universal, and whether the extinction has been hurried on bya

general dying out or through intermarriages with other tribes,

I have not been able to discover from the information given

me. We can do little more at this distance than to hold to-

gether what has been furnished us by observers, who had

opportunities of intercourse with living Veddas in their

own home. Among these we must name above all, Dr.

Davy, Sir Emerson Tennent, the Rev. Mr. Gillings,

Mr. Bailey, and Mr. Hartshorne. But we encounter at the

outset a peculiar obstacle, viz.: that each fresh writer

designates the statements of his predecessor as “incorrect.”’

Mr. Bailey* criticises Sir Emerson Tennent in the severest

manner, and Mr. Hartshorne,t who on this point agrees with

him also, calls in question the accuracy of Mr. Bailey’s

statements.

Yet Mr. Bailey was many long yearsin Ceylon. First,asa

member of the Government in the district of Badulla, and

later as Principal Assistant Colonial Secretary of Ceylon,

affording him sufficient opportunity to study the Veddas.

He puts great emphasis on the fact, and reiterates it fre-

quently, that his statements are sustained by well-tested

and often repeated personal observations. It appears to me

that the contradiction between Messrs. Bailey and Hartshorne

is not in reality so great as the latter pictures it. I find

* Bailey, /. c.,p.279, note. “ His [Tennent’s] account of them is in some

important instances defective,andeven inaccurate. He glances casually at

those tribes which are in the wildest state, touching with precision none of

their peculiarities, and dwells in detail upon those only who from long

association with the Singalese and Tamil races have lost much of their

originality. Of theancientaborigines he has compiled much that is curious.

Of the existing Veddahs he has given us little besides an epitome of former

notices.”

+ Hartshorne, 7. c. ‘ They have been described by Sir Emerson

Tennent and by Mr. Bailey; but interesting as their accounts are,

the latter has suffered grievously from misprints, and the value of the

former is impaired by the circumstance that its materials were not the

fruit. of original research,”

358 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). FV oli

that in the space of more than twenty years which intervenes

between the two accounts, the effects of educating influences

pressing in from all sides upon a before almost isolated

people is very noticeable, and explains in the most natural

way how certain habits and customs disappear, and others

come in. I am therefore inclined to value more highly the

testimony of the older observer for his time, than the

younger observer is inclined to warrant. But I believe I

must defend their distinguished predecessor, Sir Emerson

Tennent, against them both. His representations bear

throughout the character of great soberness and objectivity ;

and ° his facts differ in the main points very little

indeed from those of his successors, especially the more

immediate one. We cannot in justice deny that he was the

first to throw light on this subject.

For all this it is very dangerous under such circumstances

to decide, at our distance, where the mistakes are, and what

is to be accepted as true ; and nought remains but to con-

fine ourselves to such changes as can be clearly traced and

followed in their development, or to matters about which

the various observers agree. Fortunately there is enough

to disclose to us the main characteristics of the people.

The greatest difficulty here arises from the fact that nota

few of the travellers who have treated the subject of the

Veddas—notwithstanding a long residence in the Island

—have never personally seen any of them, and speak only

from hearsay ; and others certainly have not encountered the

really wild families. Even Knox,* who never saw a single

Vedda, and yet furnishes a likeness of one, distinguishes a

‘‘tamer sort,’ who lived under a kind of subjection to the

king of Kandy, and a “wilder,” who were called ‘“ Ramba-

Vaddahs.”+ Davy,t who divides them into village and forest

Veddas, seems only to have seen the former, yet feels justi-

fied in assuming from the information he received that both

= Knox, UC DeelZor jeel@. ap. 126. t Davy, ¢. ¢:,.pp. 146, a8.

No. 33,—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON, 359

belong to the same race. In this all later observers entirely

agree. Hence, for the study of their physical condition

we may without hesitation unite the two groups, so far as

they are not already united ; but for the observation of their

social and psychical conditions we must hold the two

groups strictly apart : of course in the latter respect only are

the forest or jungle Veddas of any interest to us. I shall

therefore speak mainly of them; nevertheless we may not

venture quite to set aside the village Veddas, since their

actual settlement and civilisation has succeeded only very

imperfectly as yet.

As a matter of fact, all attempts to bring the Veddas into

fixed abodes and to raise them to a higher culture have

suffered shipwreck in far greater measure than the efforts

to civilise the Australians. Government officials and mis-

sionaries have been active among them many years, but

their success has been wholly external. Rev. Mr. Gillings

states that up to 1844, in Bintenna, 163 men, 48 women, and

85 children had been baptised—since then very few ; and

adds, “but almost all of these have gone back again to their

former habits and follies: what they formerly heard they

have forgotten.” The Veddas have remained on the whole

nomadic heathens, and heathens without any developed

form of religion. ‘They are a horde of ‘¥Free-thinkers,’”’

said Wolf,* “following the impulses of their bad and savage

natures.” Whether they actually have any conceptions of

God or God-like beings is, to say the least, very doubtful.

The only thing that is proved is a lower kind of demon

worship among them, which here and there assumes the

form of a worship of their ancestors. If Mr, Taylor{ desig-

nates this as animismus, and therefore “ their religion, ” as

corresponding to that of the barbarous tribes of India, we

* Joh. Chr. Wolf. Reise nach Zeilon. Berlin u Stettin, 1782. Th. I. S.

Die omfange der cultur iibers.

+ Edward B. Taylor. The Beginning of Culture, Translated by Spang

u Poske. Leipsic, 1873. Bd. 1.S., 51.

360 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). IO, IDs

at least must not overlook the fact that it is also close upon

the borders of Nihilism. Gillings says they believe the

souls of their departed relations to be devils, who have power

to hurt them, and therefore they perform ceremonies to them

at regular seasons, and especially when they are sick.

Bailey and Hartshorne described these matters in detail.

The former* distinguishes the conditions as they were in

Bintenna from those of the more barbarous inhabitants of

Nilgala. There, he says, they had mourned and buried

their dead for a long time ; here they had only just begun to

do so. Formerly they threw their dead into the jungle,f or

left them just where they died. After covering the body with

leaves they laid a heavy stone upon the breast, and sought

for themselves another cavern, giving up the one where

death had entered to the spirit of the departed. This spirit

(yakun) watches over the welfare of those left behind. The

spirits therefore of their ancestors, like those of children,

are good spirits (néhya yakun) ; they come to their relatives

when they are ill, visit them in dreams, and grant them

flesh of the chase. In every trouble the Veddas invoke

these spirits, especially the spirits of children (bilindu

yakun or vitera yakun). Among their ancestors the great

grandmother (nahakiriammd) seems to have occupied the

first place, although Mr. Bailey is not quite sure whether

this distinction is to be understood in the good sense. The

Spirits are invoked with dance and song, around an arrow,

which is planted upright (daha kiri amma).

The description given of all this by Sir E. Tennentt

* Bailey, /. c., pp. 296-301. je Day Vaale Coraos malaga

{ “When sick, they send for the devil dancers to drive away the evil

spirit who is believed to inflict the disease. The dance is executed in

front of an offering of something eatable, placed on a tripod of sticks, the

dancer having his head and girdle decorated with green leaves. At first

he shuffles with his feet to a plaintive air, but by degrees he works himself

into a state of great excitement and action, accompanied by moans and

screams, and during this paroxysm he professes to be inspired with

instructions for the cure of the patient.” (Tennent, II., p. 442.)

No. 33.—1886.| THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 361

almost reminds one of the customs of the Schamanen.

Sometimes, while preparing for the chase, the spirit is

promised a piece of flesh of the slain animal. At other —

times they cook something and put it in the dry bed of ariver

or other obscure place, invoke the souls of the departed,

dance round the food, and perform their incantations.

Sir E. Tennent also reports that the dead were not buried,

but simply covered over with shrubs and leaves in the

jungle. On the other hand the Secretary of the Ceylon

Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society* (1853) tells of their

wrapping the dead in mats and burying them ; and

Mr. Hartshorne} knows of no other practice than burying.

When a person is dead they envelop him in the skin of an

animal, and dig a grave for him with their axes or pointed

sticks. Women are not allowed to be present. No weapons

or utensils of any kind are buried with him, and once closed

over they never visit the grave again. ‘To the spirit of the

departed one, who has now become a yakk4a, an offering is

brought in the following way: While invoking the spirit they

roast the flesh of the wandura (monkey) or the talagoya

(Gguana) with honey and edible roots, and distribute it among

those present, who eat it on the spot. The word yakko, or

yakkho, designates, according to Turnour,{ a kind of demon,

though the demon worshippers are also called Yakkhos and

Yakkhinis. He derives it from the root yaa, “to bring

offerings.” This word has for a long time justly excited the

attention of scientists, since in the great historical work of

Ceylon, the Mahawanso, the earliest inhabitants of the Island

are called by this name.

When Wijayo, the founder of the first known

Ceylon dynasty, in the year of Gotama Buddha’s death,

543 B.c., landed, as is generally assumed, upon the

* Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Ceylon Branch, 1853, p. 89.

+ Hartshorne, J. c.

{ The Mahéwanso, edited by George Turnour. Ceylon, 1837, vol. I., Index

and Glossary, p. 30.

362 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [ Vol. IX:

north-west coast, not far from Puttalam,* he found an

already organised Yakkho state :+ indeed, it is related of

Gotama Buddha himself that he came to Lanika,t a settlement

of the Yakkhos. It would hardly be allowable to conclude

from this, with Sir Emerson Tennent§ and others, that the

people of the north-west coast, to whom the name of Yakkhos

was given, were identical with the present Veddas, and that

up to the time of Wijayo an aboriginal homogeneous race

inhabited the Island ; but it may not be a mistake to assume

that in the earliest period almost the entire population were

devoted to this yakkho worship, as it now exists among

the Veddas, and is to be found only among them ; for the

Sinhalese are Buddhists, the Moors and the greater number

of the Tamils being Muhammadans.

One fact also speaks against the whole Island having

been inhabited by Veddas: that the legends tell of kings,

princesses, and cities (for instance, Lankapura) of the

Yakkhos, whilst no trace of all these is to be found among

the Veddas of modern times. As they have no God, no

priests, no temple, so they make shift to get on without a

king, without. chiefs, and without cities, even without

houses. At least this is true of the wilder portion of them.

We should have to assume such deep degeneration of the

present Veddas, from the old Yakkho times, as would be

without a parallel in history as well as in ethnology. Even

for those who, like myself, acknowledge the possibility of a

deep mental and physical degradation of whole tribes, it

would yet be going very far to admit thata tribe which

* Mr. Brodie (Journal Royal Asiatic Society, Ceylon Branch, 1853, p. 48)

states that the place where the first settlement was made (Tambapanni), now

called Tammena Adaviya, lies about six or eight English miles east of

Puttalam. The word Tambapanni is derived from the Greek name for

the Island, Taprobane. Tennent, J. c., vol. I., p. 525, note I.

+ Mahawanso, pp. 48, 49.

{ Zd., p. 2. Lanka filled by Yakkhos, and therefore the settlement of

the Naticnom Lanka is an old name of Ceylon,

§ Tennent, 7. c., II., p. 438.

No. 33.—1886.| THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 363

had never changed its ground, and was living in the

immediate vicinity of comparatively highly civilised tribes,

could in a little more than two thousand years have sunk so

low. Farther accounts will certainly prove that the question

of the deterioration of the Veddas is not to be evaded; but I

must here declare that I cannot bring myself to admit their

possible decline from an organised Yakkho state.

Not a single fact sustains the conjecture that Wijayo, with

his followers from the Valley of the Ganges, was the first

stranger who came to Ceylon. On the contrary, the legend

of the advent of Gotama Buddha clearly points to earlier

arrivals. This is done no less by the old traditions of the

Ramayana. Lassen™ declared outright that in the legend of

Rama we must see the reminiscence of a former attempt to

colonise this Island by immigrants from India. The north-

west coast of Ceylon lies so near the coast of Coromandel,

and the vicinity of Adam’s Bridge having always been (then

as well as later) the landing place for intruders from

Hindustan, it would be astonishing if the first immigration

at such a remote period should immediately have become a

fixed fact in history. If Wijayo found some kind of politi-

cal organisation on the Island, we may assume that before

him there had been an invasion of other tribes, and the

time in which the whole north of the great Island was Vedda

land must then be placed a good deal further back. In

historic times one irruption after another from the north and

west occurred, and the aborigines were driven toward the

south and east. But of these aborigines we must say that

only a part of them have preserved in its purity the original

type.

The first visit of Gotama Buddha to the Island was,

according to the Mah4wanso,t at Mahiyangana. This place, to

be sure, isfound right in the present Veddaland near Bintenna,

ie Christian Lassen. Indische Alterthumskiinde. Bonn, 1847. Bd.I.S., 198.

+ Mahawanso, p. 3, cap. I.; Introduction, p, xxiv; Glossary, p. 16.

364 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). Pyrola

where afterward the kings Devanampiyatissa (307 B.c.) and

Dutugemunu (164 B.c.) had erected a dagaba.* According

to the Yakkhos, in whose midst the Buddha here appeared,

he visited on a second occasion “ Nagadipo,” the abode of the

Nagas, or snake-worshippers,t which is generally assumed to

be the name for the north and west of the Island; at any

rate, mention is made of Nagas living by the ocean, as well

as mountain Nagas: there is a Naga king of Kelaniya spoken

of in the neighbourhood of Colombo. Sir H. Tennent} com-

pares this idol worship to that of the Rakshas among the

Dravidian tribes of Hindustan, and probably with much

correctness, but he overlooks the fact that if any importance

is to be attached to these mythological traditions, amultitude

of tribes, or at least a division of the original population,

must be inferred. And it is not without value that the de-

scription of the Naga states in these most ancient myths

discloses to us the picture of a much more perfect organisation

than we find any account of in the tales of the Yakkhos.

Nevertheless, we must renounce the idea of using these

myths as the basis for ethnological contemplation and for

building up a highly developed Vedda state in pre-historic

times. Ifthe Veddas of Bintenna were Buddhists before

the time of Wijayo, the later absence of all religion among

them, their preference for animal food, and many other

things, are scarcely explicable.

Up to a very recent date the Veddas have been a nomadic,

half cave-inhabiting race of hunters. As already said a

small number of them lived upon a proportionally vast

tract of woodland, which without exact boundaries, but

under the recognition of a kind of traditional family claim,

was distributed among little groups of relations, who clung

together. Hach family had its special hunting-ground, to

which its prerogative was acknowledged. Within this they

* Tennent, J. c., II., p. 420. + Mahawanso, p. 4.; Glossary, p. 18.

f Tennent: 75. 1., p.3d28:

No. 33.—1886.] THE vEDDAS OF CEYLON. 365

sought honey and bees’-wax, dug edible roots, chased the

game, and laid their snares for birds or fishes. Of any kind

of culture, be it of garden or farm, there was no trace.

They had no tame domestic animals, except the dog;

and it may be questioned whether,even this was not a

later adoption, for according to Bailey* the species differs

in no wise from the race common in Ceylon. Moreover, the

dogs seem to have been trained to be watchdogs, and not for

the chase.f

Sir John Lubbockt lays much weight upon their possess-

ing hunting buffaloes, which were so well trained that the

hunter guided them by a rope slung round one horn, whilst

he himseif, concealed behind them, crept uptothe game. But

Mr. Bailey§ says expressly that thia practice, which he

certainly had observed in Bintenna, extended all over the

Island: we therefore can hardly concede to the Veddas a

claim to this invention.

Their hunting utensils are the simplest possible. They

consist of a strong bow, six feet long, and from two to three

arrows, three feet anda half long, whose points are of wrought

iron. All the writers describe the bending of this bow as

very difficult. Sir E. Tennent|| describes the Veddas ina

half-lying position, using the left foot to draw the bow, and

gives a picture of one, according to a model carved in ebony,

by one of the native wood-carvers. More recent reporters

find no trace of the continuance of such a practice; they

describe the bow as being drawn with the left arm, and

attribute the extraordinary power and development of this

arm to this practice.

Besides:iron arrow-heads the Veddas had one iron axe—

sometimes, though rarely, two, a larger and a smaller one

* Bailey, J. c., p. 286.

+ Davy (2. c., p. 117) says plainly, they do not use dogs for the chase,

unless perhaps at talagoyé (iguana). |

{ John Lubbock. Pre-historic Times. London, 1878, 4th edition, p. 448.

§ Bailey, J. ¢., p. 288.

|| Tennent, 7. c., vol. L, p. 499; Note 7, vol. If., p. 439.

d1—87 C

366 ' JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). GV ole EX.

—principally for the purpose of cutting wax and honey

out of hollow trees. These tools they obtained by barter

with their neighbours. Their only achievement is shaping

the arrow-heads for special uses by pounding them. But

even these poor specimens of work are rare, and preserved

in the family as precious heirlooms; sometimes, indeed,

they make arrow-points simply of sharpened wood, orna-

mented with feathers of birds. Mr. Hartshorne* makes the

interesting statement in connection with these facts, that

the word galrekki, by which they denote the axe, is connected

with the Sinhalese gala, “stone” or “rock,” and rightly finds

in this a reminiscence of an earlier period, when stone

weapons were in use among the Veddas. I am not, indeed,

aware that utensils of stone have been found in Ceylon, but

on the other hand I do not know that they have ever been

sought for there. It would perhaps be a not unprofitable

task to explore those caverns thoroughly in the hope of

finding other contents, where, according to Mr. Bailey, bones

of the dead are still to be found.

They subsist almost wholly on animal food. Like the

Buddhists, excluding the flesh of cattle, and also (according

to Sir Emerson Tennent and Mr. Bailey) that of the elephant,

bear, leopard, jackal, and fowls. They eat, however, the

flesh of all other birds, of the Ceylon elk (samba, Rusa Aris-

totelis), deer (Axis maculata), monkeys, pigs, iguana, and.

pengolin (Manis pentadactylos)—the last being considered

the best: among fishes they prefer the eel.f All their food

is cooked; as, however, they have no clay or earthen

vessels, the preparation of the meat is very rough. Wolff

even asserted they ate the meat uncooked. At present this

does not seem to be the rule; they now boil and roast their

* Hartshorne, J. ¢., p. 408.

+ In the choice of their food both classes (rock Veddas and village Ved-

das) are almost omnivorous, no carrion or vermin being too repulsive for

theirappetite. Tennent, II., p.439. “Their food being only flesh.” Knox,

p. 61.

P Wolk, pe tiie

No. 33.—1886.| THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 367

meat. They strike fire in the usual way in the Hast, by

placing one pointed stick against the concave of another

piece of wood, which they hold between the feet and whirl

round rapidly.* For this purpose they use the wood of the

same tree from which their bows are made—the velanga

tree (Pierospermum suberifoliwm ).

It would seem, however, that of late this custom of fire-

rubbing had gone out of use; at least Mr. Hartshorne asserts

that they now use flint and the steel of their axes or arrow-

points for the purpose.

The use of any special stimulant is unknown among them ;

they have neither betel nor tobacco.t They drink only water,

and chew a kind of bark. Even salt was unknown to them,

as Mr. Harishornet informs us; but when it was given

them they were much delighted with it.

Only in single places, where European influence is per-

ceptible, do we finda rude kind of agriculture, such as is seen

at the present day in Spain and in the Troas. Little strips

of the jungle are burnt down and tilled (“chena”’), and then

again let alone for five, ten, fifteen years§ ; with this excep-

tion, which really cannot be taken into account, their whole

existence depends upon the products of the chase. The

universal recognition of this appears in their name, which,

according to the almost unanimous application of the word,

signifies “hunter,” “archer,” ‘ one who shoots.” I shall return

to this later. For the present I would only lay stress on the

fact that in the customs of the Veddas there is nothing to

speak of which indicates that anywhere, or at any time,

they have risen above the condition of a savage tribe of

hunters.

Indeed, they have never arrived at even the very crudest

* A detailed description by Sir E. Tennent, /. c., II., p. 451.

+ In the illustration by Knox the Vedda is represented with a lighted

pipe, but this was an unwarranted addition by the artist. |

{ Hartshorne, /. c., p. 413.

§ Bailey, 7. c., p. 282.

368 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). EVol. UX.

form of permanent dwelling places,* although they sheltered

themselves from the inclemency of the weather in the

natural caverns of the country, or in simple hutst made

of branches of trees and bark put together: they seem never

to have made these their settled abodes.

On the contrary, perpetual change of place within their

hunting grounds was ever the rule. Hence their social

intercourse, indeed their circle of interests, is essentially

limited to their nearest of kin, whose number is often very

small, consisting, perhaps, of only four or five persons. All

stimulant to higher requisitions and enjoyments is therefore

wanting. Ambition, jealousy, love of finery, cannot thrive

among them ; nor, on the other hand, does the need of any

sustained mental effort. appear. Thus, as it seems to me,

may the natural explanation be found of a list of peeuliari-

ties ; indeed, also, in part of contradictory oddities.

From such a wild and inferior race of people one might

perhaps expect that they would assault strangers, menace

their neighbours, and live in a state of war with the more

remote portions of the tribe. But, setting aside some very

old tales and records of individual cases, which may be

wholly disregarded, the habits of the Veddas are thoroughly

peaceable. They have never even made the step from

hunterto warrior. They are peaceable among themselves

and towards others, so long as they are unmolested. They

* Knox (J. ¢., pp. 61, 62) says of them:—“They have no towns nor

houses, only live by the waters under a tree, with some boughs cut and

laid round about them, to give notice when any wild beasts come near,

which they may hear by their rustling and trampling upon them.’ He

saw such places on his flight from an almost twenty years’ imprisonment,

} Sir EH. Tennent, /. c., II., p. 439, speaks also of this, and that they some-

times slept upon stagings which they prepared in the trees. This would

demonstrate habits like those to which Mr. F. Jagor calls attention in

his account of the Kanikars in Hindtstan. (Zuitf. Ethnologie, 1879.

Verhandh. der Berlin Anthrop. Gesellseh, s. 79, Tat. 9.) On the other

hand, Mr. Hartshorne asserts they are bad climbers, and possess no special

eapacity for catching hold with the feet. Percival (/. c., pp. 284, 285) asserts

on the other hand that they climb trees with the greatest expertness and

celerity, and sleep on them or at their feet.

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 369

respect the rights of property, and are true, and, further,

loving. In proportion as their life is limited to the circle of

the family, family feeling is more strongly developed.

Adultery and pelygamy are mentioned* only where attempts

have been made to civilise them, whilst among their neigh-

bours, the Sinhalese Kandyans, adultery and polyandryTt

‘were so common that the English Government was obliged

to issue a special law for prevention. Conjugal fidelity and

monogamy, as well as love for their children, were matters of

course among the Veddas. Mr. Baileyt quotes the very

characteristic remark of a Kandyan about them, that “they

are just like wanduroos” Gmonkeys); and yet the women

are far from being attractive, are not conspicuous by their

ornaments, nor even cleanly. ‘They are the most ordinary

Specimens of the sex I ever saw,” says Bailey.§ Both sexes go

almost naked. In former times they wore pieces of the bark

of the riti tree (Antiaris innoxia, or A. saccadora) ; these

were later replaced by little bits of cloth, which were held

fast around the body by astring. The women were distin-

guished by wearing round ivory pegs stuck through their

ears. Mr. Hartshorne,| however, saw ornaments worn in the

ears by both sexes—generally pearls,or what seemed peculiarly

admired, empty cartridge-boxes. Evidently these are quite

modern innovations; and we may without hesitation assume

that, up to a comparatively recent date, perfect, unadorned

nakedness was the rule, modified at the most enly by aslight

covering of the pudenda.

If nevertheless neither polygamy nor polyandry has been

observed among them, this may be explained by the isolation

of families, and the great distances which separated them ;

perhaps, we can in the same way also account for the other

very peculiar custom among them, which has been testified

a a i a a a

* Gillings, /. ¢., p. 86. + Tennent, J. c., IL, p. 428.

{ Bailey, 7.c., p. 293. § Bailey, p. 284.

|| Hartshorne, p. 409.

370 _ JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Mole EX.

to by various travellers, viz., that of marriage with a sister.

It was only with a younger sister, marriage with the elder

being considered unchaste. According to Mr. Hartshorne,*

even marriage with a daughter was allowed, although

probably this, if it occurred, as a matter of fact was not

legitimated. Knox f also tells of a king of Kandy who had

a child by his daughter, but none of his subjects seem to

have considered this a proper relation. Bailey{ is inclined

to see in this marriage with the sister a last remnant of times

outlived. This reminds us that Wijayo, the founder of the

Sinhalese dynasty, sprung from marriage in India with a sister,

and that his son again, Jivahattha, whom he had begotten

with a Yakkho princess in Ceylon, had married his sister,

and was the progenitor of a special tribe, the Pulinda.

Later, this practice was also in use among the royal families

of the Sinhalese. We must allow that these statements are

certainly worthy of attention, but these old myths are hardly

to be looked upon as positive historical facts. They seem

to me only to prove that a practice which existed also in

Persia and Egypt, was early permitted in Ceylon ; the reason

for it was probably the same everywhere, in the royal families

as with the naked Veddas, the lack of suitable women, or

of women altogether. At any rate, it is not unchastity or

licence which leads the Veddas to form such marriage ties.

A marriage among them is usually decided by the will of

the parents of the bride, who herself is allowed no choice ;

the only ceremony consists in the bringing of food for the

parents on the part of the suitor. If under these circum-

stances the matrimonial tie is held faithfully and truly, it

surely speaks for the purity of heart in such a wild race.

On the other hand we’ perceive from the accounts of

different observers, that there is no particular depth of feeling

among the Veddas; all the descriptions indicate rather a

* Hartshorne, /.¢.,p. 416. + Knox,l.c¢., p. 38. { Bailey, J. c., p. 310.

§ Sir EH. Tennent (II., p. 459) quotes as authority for this, Valentyn,

i. c., cap. IV., p. 63.

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. odd

certain morose indolence, which is only occasionally broken

through by their love of habit. Most noticeable in this con-

nection is an observation of Mr. Hartshorne’s,* which he

corroborates by a series of instances. I refer to the incapacity

of the Veddas to laugh. Whilst they can help they not only

do not laugh themselves, but despise those who do. As far

as my knowledge goes, nothing like this has been told of any

other race of people; only among certain idiots has this

peculiarity appeared.

In peint of intellect Vedd4s seem indeed to stand very low.

According to Mr. Hartshornef they are wholly unable to

eount, have ne numerical words, and do net even use their

fingers for the purpose. Mr. Baileyt does not go quite so far ;

he says they count with difficulty on their fingers, but he

gives no numerals in their vocabulary, and relates how hard

itis to make a Vedda understand anything which extends

beyond the very next day. The Rev. Mr. Gillings§ says

they could count only to a very limited extent. Davy]

* Hartshorne, J. c., p. 410.

+ Hartshorne, p. 413. “Theyare wholly unable to count or to comprehend

the ideas of one, or two, or three, nor do they even use their fingers for

this purpose; and the chief difficulty in obtaining any information from

them arose from their inability to form any but the mest simple mental

synthesis, and from their very defective power of memory.” On another

occasion Mr. Hartshorne even asserts the Veddas had no idea of the

distinction between one and two. (Journal of the Anthropological Ins-

titute of Great Britain and Ireland, 1878, vol. VII., p. 468.)

{ Bailey, 7. c., p. 298.

§ Gillings, J. ¢., p. 88.

|| Davy, 7. c., p. 118. In this place the “ Village Veddas ” are spoken of.

Pritchard (Researches into the Physical History of Mankind. London,

1844, 3rd edition, vol. IV., p. 193), who says the same, reports that the

description of Dr. Davy refers to a large “party ”’ of Veddas whom he saw

during his visit to Kandy. According to their own account these people

had come from the neighbourhood of the Lake of Bintenna, where “a little

grain” was cultivated. Ido not doubt the correctness of this communica-

tion, which is of great importance for a true estimate of the statement

regarding the intellectual capacities of the people. But it is taken from

a work of Dr. Davy’s notaccessible tome. Prichard cites it under the title:

“ History of the Island of Ceylon.” In the “Account of the Interior of

Ceylon” wo reference is made to it, although the visit to Kandy is very

circumstantially described (p. 364, sq.).

372 | JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON), [Vol. 1X.

_ asserts they have hardly any knowledge of numbers, and

cannot count beyond five. Sir EH. Tennent* goes a little -

step further insaying they are incapable of counting over five

on their fingers. Even this is after all very little, especially

when we realise that these milder statements refer to the

“tamer sort.” Mr. Hartshornef also contends that their

language includes no word designating colour ; that they have

neither a fancy for bright colours nor any sense of the

distinction in colours.

Finally, he complains of their defective power of memory,

and their inability to form any general ideas. Sir HE. Tennent

says they have no notion of time or space, no words for

hours, days, or years—no games—no amusements—no music.

These statements, however, in their full breadth apply only

to the “ wild sort” of the village Veddas. Davyt says that

they have a rough kind of song, performed as an accompani-

ment to a very clumsily executed dance. When we add to

all this the fruitlessness of any and every attempt to educate

them, we are compelled to acknowledge the inferiority of the

race. Hven granting some of the observations furnished are

too exclusive, it would not alter the general opinion.

It looks like a contradiction that, as Mr. Hartshorne§

informs us, they consider themselves as superior to their

neighbours. ‘This sort of contradiction is not limited to the

Veddas—narrow-minded people not unfrequently over-value

their capacities. But it does sound very strange when the

different reporters state that the Veddas are looked upon

even by their neighbours as members of a high—yes—of a

regal caste. They are said to have been allowed in earlier

times to speak of the king of Kandy as “ Hurd,” which means

“cousin.” Asamong themselves they know of no distinction.

of caste,this is indeed very striking. It has even been regarded

as an evidence of the correctness of the tradition that they are

* Tenneni, 7. c.-Il., p. 443. {+ Hartshorne, J. ¢., p. 409.

IDEN aims Ose 104) Iter » Hartshorne, p, 412.

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 373

of royal blood, or even as Mr. Bailey* assumes, descended

straight from King Wijaya himself; but where then is the

posterity of those Yakkho people to be found whom Wijaya

met upon his arrival on the Island? It is not possible to

bring any of the other numerous races represented in Ceylon

into a nearer connection with this aboriginal population.

The earliest reporters who have spoken at any length on

this subject of caste in the Island, all concur in declaring

that the Veddas were counted as members of a higher caste.

Davy,t who enters most minutely into this matter, says

that the majority of the Sinhalese were assigned to the agri-

cultural caste, to the so-called “ Goyivanse,” or, as it is styled

in the lowlands, “Vellala,” and that to this caste also the

Veddas belonged. Philalethes{t makes the same statement.

He explains the word G'ovi to be Sinhalese, and the word Vel-

lala, Malabar ; to this caste belonged, according to him, the

Vanni Veddas, and he speaks of two sorts—one wearing leaves

upon their bodies, the other using the bark of a tree made

soft by special preparation. That the later observers touch

less upon this subject is explained from the circumstance

that in recent times the distinction of caste has lost much

of its significance among the Sinhalese, who even in earlier

times left the two highest castes, the Royal and the Brah-

min, without representatives. Perhaps this circumstance

also explains the peculiar usages by which the Veddas, who

really belong only to the third general caste, have been

brought into connection with the kings themselves. As late

as the year 1853, the secretary of the Ceylon Branch of the

Asiatic Society remarks in a note§ that the Veddds of Bin-

tenna and of the sea coast consider themselves members

* Bailey. J, ¢., p. 312. + Davy, 7. c., pp. 112-15.

{ Philalethes, 7. c., p. 332. The name Philalethes is a pseudonym,

as Sir H. Tennent presumes (/. c., Introduction, p. Xx., note 5), to conceal

that of the Rev. G. Bisset. This gentleman was in Ceylon at the same

time with Dr. Davy, who mentions him personally, 7. c., p, 372, sq.

§ Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1853, p. 89.

274 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX.

of a very high caste, and call themselves Vedda Vellalas.

From these communications we see clearly that the designa-

tion “ Vellala,” which we find also in Hindustan, has only a

hierarchical meaning, but is of no help at all toward the

discovery of the relationship and derivation of the tribe.

Another name here requires particular mention, as it is

liable to introduce confusion. It is the name “ Dada Veddas,”

which is given to a division of the Sudra (Kshudra) caste,

that being one of the very lowest classes: hunters dwelling

in the wildest parts of the mountain region.”

Knox f says the lowest of the low are beggars, who are the

descendants of the ““Dodda Vaddahs, which signifies hunters ;”

it had been their task to provide game for the King of Kandy.

When, however, instead of venison they brought him human

flesh, the king had them thrust out, and given over to beggary.

The detailed description which he gives of them shows that

he means one of the outcasts. Davy cites two kinds of them :

the Gattaru and the Rodiyas, or Gasmand6, whom he compares

with the gypsies. The latter are now usually called

Rodiyas. Of them Sir Emerson Tennentt relates the same

story that Knox tells of the Dada Veddas, adding that a

legend declares them to be a branch of the Veddas. A still

more minute description of them has been furnished by Mr.

Casie Chetty.§ He calls them a peculiar and distinctive race,

either descendants from a colony of wandering hordes out of

India, or the last remnants of an aboriginal population mixed

with Sinhalese women of high caste, who had been punished

by the king with loss of caste. They live, he goes on to say,

in the interior, not great in numbers,—perhaps, in all, not

above one thousand,—scattered, or in special detached

villages (kuppayam). In the Seven Koralés two divisions

are distinguished: the Tiringa Rodi and the Halpagé Rod?.

* Davy, J. c., pp. 112-27. Philalethes, 7. c., p. 334.

+ Knox. ¢c:, p, 70. ; Gennent,/e:, Ul. pea.

§ Simon Casie Chetty. Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal

Asiatic Society, 1853, p. 171.

No. 83.—1886.] tHE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 379

They are more robust and athletic than the Sinhalese,

and the women frequently pretty. Both sexes allow the

hair to grow its full length, and wind it into a coil. They

live by the chase, and use bows and arrows like the Veddas ;

like them also they wrap their dead in mats and bury them.

Although Buddhists they offer sacrifices to the Gara Yaka

and to the Vedi Yakku. They speak Sinhalese, but have

some peculiar words, which Mr. Chetty thinks remnants of

past ages. The description by Sir E. Tennent agrees with

this. He visited a Rodiya village, which lies on the pass

between Kandy and the Mahaweli-ganga, and gives a picture

of a group of these people. He proves that the Rodiyas were

mentioned in the Rdjdwaliya as early as 204 B.C., and in the

Mahawanso 589 A.D.

According to his opinion they differ physically very much

from the Veddas, and he is inclined to believe they had their

origin on the coast of India, and belong to the Chandalas.

For the rest they are only found in the Districts of Kandy.

Although they may be compared to the Cagotsand Caqueux of

the Pyrenees, there are yet two races of outcasts in Ceylon,

who were detested even by the Rodiyas, namely, the Lmbet-

ta4yo (barbers) and the Hanomorey6é (betelbox-makers) in

Uva. |

The existence of these outcasts is of no little importance to

us in explaining the position of the Veddas among these com-

plicated tribal relations. Had the Veddas, as many have

surmised, been originally outcasts, they would surely have

remained so to this day, just as the Rodiyas have been for at

least two thousand years. If they had, like the Arabs, the gso-

called “ Moormen,” subsequently emigrated, they would not

be placed in the relatively high caste of Velldla, for the

Moormen are in no caste, although attached to the Karawé

(fishermen), a subdivision of the Sudras. Unquestionably,

then, the Sinhalese must have retained a feeling of the

original connection, which in spite of the religious and

physical dissimilarities made them acknowledge the Veddas

376 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). FV ol TX,

as belonging to the social order of the Buddhists. Thousands

of years had not sufficed to reduce the Rodiyas to that

degree of degradation to which the Veddas had fallen

when Knox heard of them, and which is most strongly ex-

pressed in the words of Davy,* who says of the forest Veddas

that they are “rather solitary animals than social, and resem-

bling more beasts of prey in their habits than men.’ We

shall yet see what objections there are to our regarding the

Veddas simply as “wild Sinhalese,” and how it has happened

that a great number of direct observers have thought to find

their origin on the coast of Malabar. This point will be

more appropriately treated of later, and after we have con-

sidered the physical peculiarities of the different tribes

under discussion. It here seems in place first to bring

forward the historical and linguistic observations which

concern the relations of the cultivated tribes of the Island.

The natural territory for immigrants is, as aforesaid, the

north-west part of the Island, which lies nearest to the pen-

insulaof Hindustan. Here a Tamil population is established,

whose connection with the Dravidian of India seems

unquestionable. Inthe history of Ceylon we find very early

mention of inroads by the Dravidian hordes. In the Maha-

wanso these people are called “ Damilos.” Since according to

the testimony of the trustworthy Childers,f the word Damila

is in the Pali identical with Dravida in the Sanskrit, we may

without hesitation apply to the Dravidians whatever is said

of the Damilos in the Mahawanso. The English local writers

generally call them Tamils or Malabars. Sir E. Tennent,t

however, repeatedly warns us against understanding this

to mean only the inhabitants of the actual Malabar coast.

On the contrary, they belonged to one of the earliest organised

states in the south of India, to the kingdom of Pandiya,

Daw, LaComp lig:

7 R.C. Childers’ Notes on the Sinhalese Language. Journal of the Royal

Asiatic Society. London, 1875, vol. VIII., p. 133, note.

{ Tennent, /. ¢., I., pp. 353-94.

No. 33.—1886.| THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 377

which embraced the largest part of the Coromandel coast as

far as Canara on the west coast, and south down to the sea,

and of which at present there remains only the little State

of Madura. Later on, hordes bearing also the name of

Malabars poured over the Island from all parts of the pen-

insula, and also from the Coromandel coast as far as to the

north of Cuttack and Orissa.

As early as the year 237 B.C. an invasion of the Damilos in

the north is mentioned, where they establisheda sovereignty

lasting twenty-two years.* Scarcely were they vanquished

when, under the next king of the Sihala dynasty, Aséla (about

215 B.C.), again a Damilo, of the tribe of Uja in the Chéla-

land,} usurped the thronet and ruled forty-four years.

Although regularly defeated the Damilos ever anew repeated

their invasions. In the reign of the king Mihinda (1023-

1054 A.D.) the foreign population in the Island had increased

to such an extent that they overpowered the aborigines, and

upon anew invasion of the people from Soli the king was

taken prisoner, and the country for a long time held under

subjection.§ From Malabar fresh hordes continually streamed

in, and only after severe struggles was the foreign yoke

thrown off. Butin the beginning of the thirteenth century the

Chélas invaded the land again.| This time, however, the

conquerors came from much more distant places, namely, from

Kalinga, and from the part of the Dekkan now called the

Northern Circars.{ Their leader, Magha, subjected and cruelly -

devastated the wholecountry from north to south, and became

king of Ceylon in 1211 A.D. Later, the Sinhalese prince

succeeded in winning back again the provinces of

* The Mahawanso, chap. XXI., edited by Turnour, p. 127. In the same

book comp. Appendix : Sovereigns of Ceylon, p. lxi.

+ According to Turnour, Mahdwanso, Glossary, p. 5, the Sinhalese Solé

is called Chola, and probably embraces Mysore and Tanjore.

{ Mahawanyso, p. 128.

§ Mahawanso, chap. LXIV.

|| A. De Silva Ekandyaka. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1876,

vol. VIII., p. 297.

€ Tennent, /. ¢., I.. p. 412.

378 JOURNAL, R.A.S, (CEYLON). [ Vol. IX.

Ruhuna in the south and Maya-rata in the mountainous

centre of the Island; but the north of the country, the

province of Pihiti or Raja-rata, the old land of the kings,

remained, even as far as the Mahaweli-ganga, in the hands

of the Tamils, and was by degrees wholly and permanently

Dravidised. Only a part of this population, the Mukwas,*

who dwell on the north-west coast, northward from Chilaw,

have accepted the Christian religion.t

In the same way, although in a more peaceable manner,

came into the country numerous Muhammadan Arabs, who

since the time of the Portuguese have been called “ Moors” or

“Moormen.”{ Sir A. Johnston places their arrival in the early

part of the eighth century, and traces their descent from the

house of Hashim, whose members were driven from Arabia by

the Calif Abdul Melek ben Merwan, and settled in Southern

India, Ceylon, and Malacca. But the careful investigations

of Sir HE. Tennent§ have furnished evidence that the settle-

ments of the Arabs in the Island were of much earlier date.

Even when we setaside avery dark passage in Pliny, still there

seems to beno doubt that at least since the first, or surely since

the sixth century A.D., very extensive mercantile relations

existed between Persia and Arabia and Ceylon, and that since

that time many of these “ Mauren”’ (as the Portuguese called

them later) remained in the land. Sir E. Tennent considers

the present Moors descended from the immigrants who

intermarried with the natives. Mr. Pridham| divides the

Moors genealogically into two groups: one he traces back

to the old Arabian immigrants, who took to themselves

* A similar word (Mokna) is used in Madagascar to designate immigrant

Africans. (Verhandl. der Berlin. Anthropological Societat, 1880, s. 190.

Zuitf, Enthnolo. Bd. 12.) Here a Negro tribe is alluded to on the

eastern coast> of Africa that bears this name. (Monatsbere der

Academie, 1880, s. 1017.) Possibly the coincidence in the name is a mere

accident.

+ A. O. Brodie, Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic

Society, 1853, p. 50. { Zd., p. 40.

§ Tennent, J. c., I., pp. 546, 555, 607. || Pridham, 7. c., I., p. 470.

No. 33.—1886.| THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 379

wives from among the natives, and begot children by them ;

of the other, whom he calls Indo-Moors, who in greater

numbers are said to have later settled in the districts of

Chilaw and Puttalam, he gives no generic explanation, only

contradicting the opinions of Mr. Cassie Chetty, that they

derive their origin from a mixture of an aboriginal Hindt-

stani population, the Sonahars, with Arabs and other

Muhammadans. Atany rate, however, Mr. Pridham acknow-

ledges that no distinction any longer exists between the two

groups. ‘They are now in separate villages, portions of them

scattered about over the whole Island, and are the chief-

medium of all mercantile intercourse, even with the Veddas.

Malays belonging throughout to the Muhammadan religion

are to be found in the Island only in comparatively small

numbers, but scattered over many regions. According to the

representation of Mr. Pridham,* they are descended chiefly

from the little Rajas and their followers, whom the Dutch

drove either from Java, Malacca, or Sumatra, and who were

later by the English taken into their regiments of natives.

More important it would be for us if the opinion were correct

that the original population of the Island had been Malays.

This is supported by the certainly very noticeable fact that

the Sinhalese used double canoes, or boats with booms, just

such as are used in all the regions inhabited or colonised by

Malays, that is to the west of the Indian and Arabian coast

of Madagascar.t| This, however, is the only foothold for the

hypothesis of an ethnic relationship.

Naturally in the last centuries the different nations of

Europe, especially Dutch, Portuguese, and English, have

been added to the population, but for our researches they are

of no importance. The same is to be said of the African

. Negroes and the Parsees, the former of whom have been only

recently introduced, whilst the latter immigrated at different

periods, but in small numbers. |

*Pridham, /.c.,1.,p.482. + Tennent, /.c., L., p. 327; II., p. 103 (engraving).

380 - JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. LX.

The southerly half of the Island, the old province of

Ruhuna, and the central Maya-land, are still peopled by the

Sinphalese,* the former by comparatively pure-blooded Sin-

halese, the latter by the somewhat more mixed Kandyans,

who have been repeatedly mentioned as the immediate

neighbours of the Veddas.

The ethnological position of the Sinhalese has been until

now discussed chiefly on linguistic grounds.

Since Rask{ their language has been considered as Dravi-

dian; Lassent has sustained this opinion with the whole

weight of his authority ; he regarded the Sinhalese people,

according to their language, as belonging to the great family

of the Dekkan tribe. Still more recently Mr. F. Miller has

declared the Sinhalese language to be an idiom akin to the

Dravidian language, strongly mixed with Indian elements,

which, however, differing from them genealogically, has there-

fore had anindependent development. Hence he infers the

population to be a mixture of immigrated Indians] with the

aborigines, who seem to be of the same race as the Dravidians.

Directly the opposite opinion (and one which of late is more

and more generally recognised) has been maintained by

d’Alwis{ and Childers,** both of whom were employed in

thé civil administration of the Island. Childers, whose

thorough knowledge of the Indian languages is universally

acknowledged, separates the present Sinhalese language from

the ancient Elu, from which, as he says, it iscertainly derived,

but from which it also differs through the immense number of

Sanskrit words it includes, partly unchanged, as the English

* In the writing of this name I follow the explanation of it by Childers,

l. c., p. 37 Ginstead of Singhalese or Cinghalese).

+ Rask. Singalesisk Skriftlaere. Kolombo, 1321, (quoted by Lassen).

t Christ. Lassen. Indische Alterthumskundl, I., s. 199-303.

§ Fr. Miller. Allgemeine Ethnography. Vien., 1879, s. 466, sq.

|| Reise der Novara, O. 8., 139.

q James d’Alwis. Onthe Origin of the Sinhalese Language. Journal of

the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1867-70.

** Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. New series. London, 1875,

vol, VIL. p35); 1876, vol. VEIL. p: 131.

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 381

of to-day differs from the old Anglo-Saxon. According to

him the name of lw is identical with the word Sinhala,

as the Sinhalese call themselves, which borrowed from the

Sanskrit is by the uneducated generally pronounced Hinhala ;

it stands for the old word Hela or Helu, and this again for a

still older Sela, which leads us back to the Pali of Sthala.

The old tradition, according to which the founder of the

Sthala dynasty (Wijaya) came from Lala, a district of Magadha

(Behar) in India, agrees very well with the fact that according

to another tradition Pali was originally a Magadha dialect.

Pali and Sinhalese are so nearly related that one might

almost believe at the first glance the latter to be derived from

the former, but on closer inspection we should see that Pali,

in which the teachings of Buddha were written, represents

only the dialect of one district of Magadha. Hence Sinhalese

is one of the native Aryan (Sanskrit) languages of India, and

very ancient. For it is absolutely identical with the Elu of

the fifth and sixth centuries A.C., which is found also on the

rock inscriptions of Mihintale of the second or third century.

The early establishment of the language is explained by the

fact that Mahinda, at the beginning of the third century B.C.,

translated a Buddhist work from the Pali into the Sinhalese,

thereby making the latter the written language.

What place the Vedda language holds relatively to this is still

in the highest degree dubious. In Ceylon itself the opinion

has long prevailed” that it is a broken or corrupted Sinhalese.

Mr. Baileyt also adopted this opinion, although he considers

the Veddas as descendants from an ancient Tamil population.

But he found in their language numerous Hindu words—

personal names—corresponding often to the names of Hindu

gods or goddesses. Hence he was inclined to assume an

* Knox, 7. c., p. 104. Mr. Justice Starke. Journal of the Ceylon

Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1853, p. 80. Gillings, ¢d., p. 84.

t Bailey, 7. c., pp. 297, 305, 309. He mentions especially that the so-called

elk of Ceylon (Rusa Aristotelis) is in Veddé language called “ gawra,”’

which reminds one of the gaur (Bos gaurus) of Hindustan. But to be

sure the pengolin (Wanis pentadactylos) is also called “ gal gawra.”

31—87 D

382 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX.

early mixture of the Veddas with the Sanskrit-speaking

people of India. Mr. Max Miiller* confirms the frequency of

Sanskrit words in the Vedda language ; more than half the

Vedda words, according to him, are, as in the Sinhalese itself,

mere corruptions of the Sanskrit. Mr. E. Tylorf also, who

considers the Sinhalese an Aryan tongue, holds the Vedda

language for a Sinhalese dialect, although with a mixture of

Dravidian (Telugu) words. Therefore he finds a striking

contradiction in that probably a non-Aryan, aboriginal tribe

speaks an Aryan language. This he calls a perfectly unique

instance in ethnology. Later on:he repeats his thesis in the

following words: “Their legends as well as their language

make a mixture of Aryan blood along with Aryan language

probable ; whilst bodily characteristics show that the race of

Vedda belong chiefly to the native pre-Aryan type.

Mr. Hartshornet has again recently asserted, in direct

opposition to Mr. Tylor, the entire absence of a distinct

Dravidian element in the Vedda language, and allows in it

only approaches to the Sinhalese, to the Pali, and to the

Sanskrit. Mr. Cust§ contends for the reverse, objects to the

idea of any admixture of Pali or Sanskrit, and holds the

* Max Miiller. Address to the First Meeting of the Aryan Section of

the Oriental Congress of 1874, cited by Childers, J. ¢., vol. 8., p. 181,

note.

7 Journal of the Ethnological Society of London, 1870. New series,

vol. 2, p. 96.

{ Hartshorne, /.c.,p.417. ‘‘ Besides the words which indicate an affinity

with Sinhalese, there are others which are allied with Pali and with Sanscrit,

and an important residue of doubtful origin ; but it is worthy of remark

that from beginning to end the vocabulary is characterised by an absence

of any distinctly Dravidian element, and that it appears to bear no resem-

blance whatever to the language spoken by the Yakkas of the East Nipal.

A similarity may, indeed, be traced here and there between a Wedda word

and the equivalent for the same idea in modern Tamil, Malayalam, or

Telugu ; but the cases in which comparison is possible are so rare, that

these apparent coincidences may be fairly considered to be merely

fortuitous.”

§ R. Cust. A Sketch of the Modern Languages of Hast India, London,

1878, p. 63.

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 383

Vedda language to be simply a dialect of the Sinhalese,

which he, like the other writers, looks upon as an Aryan

language.

With these disagreements in the views of linguists, we

gain, unfortunately, very little from them towards a just

comprehension of the phylogenetic position of the Veddas.

On the contrary, the mystery that envelops this people, so

remarkable in themselves, is vastly increased, and the purely

anthropological interest comes even more into the fore-

ground.

So far as we at present know, this people, like so many

others, bears a name ascribed to them by outsiders. Mr.

Hartshorne only, in a communication made by him to

Childers, * asserts that they gave themselves this name

(pronounced Vaedda). The reports generally say just the

contrary. The designation Vedda or something like it (Vedda,

Veda, Vedan, Vaidan, Beda, Bedan, &c.), is widely used in

India, as Mr. F. Jagort has lately shown by a comprehensive

grouping of facts. A wholeseries of little tribes dwelling far

apart, and probably not having the least connection with

another, bear this very same name, or one quite like it. The

translator of Percival’s work, Bergk,{ reminds us that there are

Veddas even in Sumatra and Borneo. At any rate, whether

that word is derived from the Sanskrit (Vyadha, “hunter”’)

or the Tamil (Védan, “hunter,” “ wood-dweller’’), so much

seems to be certain, that except where it is used in combination,

as, for instance, in the earlier mentioned Dada-Vedda, it always

relates to aborigines or savage races. In so far it stands, as

Mr. Bailey§ remarks in a paragraph, with the purely lite-

rary words “ Habara” (barbarian) and ‘“ Vannacharakiya”

(hunter), and the like. Dr. Max Miiller, who declares the

* Childers, /. ¢., vol. 8, p. 131.

t Worhandiwneen der Berliner ost aecelien Gesellschaft, 17th

Mai, 1879, s. 172. Zeitschr. fiiw Ethnologie. Bd. XI.

t Bereta a. a. O.S., 335.

§ Bailey, /. c., p. 297.

384 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX.

correct writing of it to be Vaedda, or originally Veadi

(Vaediminitta—Vedda-people), agrees entirely with the

derivation from Vy4adhah, and Childers therefore defines the

Veddas as “ wild Sinhalese.”

~~ How long the name has been in use is not yet clearly

established. In the works of ancient Occidental writers only

one passage has as yet been discovered wherein the Vedda

name is preserved, although in a mutilated poem. In a

work” ascribed, falsely perhaps, to the Bishop Palladius of

Helenopolis in Bithynia (defunct 410 A.D.), which describes

the journey of a man from Thebes in HKgypt to Ceylon, we

read étorde cai ot Bicddec dvOpwmapia Koopa, peAavoképata dkapra Kat

ax)orpiya. F

Sir EK. Tennent,{ following another edition, reads Bicddec ;

but Bi@cddec is morelike the word Vedda. Since the fur-

ther description likewise suits the Vedda right well, we may

conclude that here the name was for the first time transmitted

to the Occident. Before this we only hear that Megasthenes

in the time of Alexander knew of “ Paleogonen” upon the

Island, which signifies, according to Sir E. Tennent,| “ Pali-

putra”’ (sons of Pali); but according to Lassen,f referring

to the Rakshasas, or giants. In the first case it should apply

rather to the Sinhalese, in the latter to the Veddas (though

certainly not in the sense of giants). The inland writers do

not use the name of Veddas until much later.

Mr. Hartshorne,** on the authority of an ancient ola

(a book written with a stilus upon palm leaves) which was

* Tla\iadiov mepi rv rig Ivdvac Kai rev Boaypdvorv. Palladius De

gentibus Indie et Bragmonibus. London, 1668, p. 5.

7 Tennent gives peyahoxédada instead, of medavokédada, as read in

the edition from which I have quoted, although the first perhaps seems

more consistent. I must remark that the Latin translation given in the

edition of 1668 is capite nigro.

t Tennent, L., p. 538, note 2; II., p. 438, note 6.

§ Plinius. Natural History. lib. 6., cap. 24.

| Tennent, I., p. 529.

@ Lassen. De Taprobane Insula, p. 9.

** Hartshorne, /. c., p. 414.

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 385

in the possession of one of the Kandyan chiefs, states that

King Dutugemunu (160 B.C.) appointed the Veddas servants

of the god Skanda, in the temple Kataragama Déwale built

by him, on account of the purity of their caste. As, however,

the age of the ola is not known, we can draw no sure con-

clusion from this statement. Only the fact that here again the

purity of caste is emphasised must make us cautious about

looking upon the Veddas as a mixed people. When we

consider for how long atime, and with what scrupulous care,

the people of India have matured and preserved the dis-

tinction of caste, the fact that they have acknowledged

without exception the unity and purity of such a wild

tribe must surely appear of great significance.*

Indeed, all inquirers testify to the unmixed character of

the tribe. The different names which have been given to

Separate divisions do not indicate different tribes, but geo-

graphical and topographical distinctions. Thus the Tamils

distinguish the ‘“ Manalkadu,” or sandy jungle Veddas, from

the “ Cholaikkadu ” Veddas, that is, those living on the sea

coast, who speak Tamil and till chena land, from those yet

leading a nomadic life, who, as they say, are quite different

from the others, have preserved much of their original bar-

barism, and inhabit the more remote parts of the Bintenna

district. At any rate, this distinction isnot to be understood

as referring to typical differences in the tribe.

From the preceding we gather that up to the present time

two leading views stand opposed to one another, which are

mainly supported by linguistic observations, and only in

part by genuine anthropological facts, According to one, the

Veddas would be next of kin to the Dravidians ; according to

the other, members of the great Aryan family. In both cases

they must have immigrated from the continent, only in the

first very much earlier than in the second. I find only one

single conjecture mentioned of any such immigration. ‘The

* Hartshorne, J. c., p. 406, eel Gen UalGry Payable

386 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX.

Rev. Mr. Gillings* repeats the story that the Veddas origin-

ally formed a part of a Sinhalese community living on the

sea coast of India, and that from there they had been trans-

ported for certain offences over to the Island at a very early

period, and before the Sinhalese, as a people, had set foot on

its shores. But we do not find it said anywhere that such a

Sinhalese community had existed on the Indian coast. More-

over, the Vedda language, if any such separation from a com-

mon Aryan family had so early taken place, must have

retained certain peculiarities belonging to that earlier period

of development; and of this also nothing is known.

The explanation should be much simpler, if one might

assume that the Veddas were originally of the Dravidian

race, or at least nearly related to the Dravidians; oreven if

different from them, at any rate, a savage aboriginal tribe ;

and that they only received their present language subse-

quently from their Aryan conquerors. With such an

assumption the identity of this language with the Sinhalese,

which is defended by authorities, would be supported without

an effort. But it cannot be denied that it is difficult to con-

ceive how the process of Sinhalesing the language could

have been accomplished, whilst their whole way of living,

their customs and habits remained wholly unchanged.

In the name chosen by Childers of ‘ Wild Sinhalese,” little

is gained. If it means savages with a Sinhalese language,

we have a fact given us, but no explanation. If, on the other

hand, it means Sinhalese who have become savage, we should

then, with our explanations, have to fall back on some period

after Wijayo, and contrary to all common experience be

forced to add the hypothesis (against which I protested in a

former passage) that the Veddas from a high state of com-

parative civilisation, such as plainly had once been attained

by the Sinhalese, have sunk to the lowest level of human

* Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1853, p. 84.

No. 33,—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON, 387

existence. Religion, political organisation, civil life, all the

arts and customs of firmly located tribes have been lost,

indeed, forgotten, and that, too, while in closest proximity—

even in direct contact—with a people who had passed through

a long and eventful history. Such a degradation is not con-

ceivable, unless we can prove at the same time very deep

physical demoralisation.

From whatever side we consider the problem, we must

always come to the conclusion that linguistics can only be

used as aids in the investigation ; and that ifa real solution is

to be found, it is only possible by means of physical anthro-

pology. What I have to offer in this direction is nowise

adequate to lead on to a full solution, but it will perhaps

contribute in reducing the possibilities of explanation to a

small number, and thus prepare the way for a final decision.

At the same time my hope is that these suggestions will

stimulate to new labours, especially,in the Island itself,

that, if possible, even at the last hour every effort shall be

made to obtain a correct description of the last remnants of

this fast dying out people.

The hitherto ascertained facts regarding the physical pecu-

- liarities of the Veddas are the following :—

Even the description of Bidcadec (Bicddec) furnishes truly

‘characteristic features. The principal passage has been

already quoted : smallness and feebleness of stature, heads

black and apparently large, with long, smooth unshorn hair.*

Added to this is the further statement that the people dwell-

ing in the rocky caverns are the smallest (rdévu cpuucodraroy kai

ddpavécrarov), and that they are very agile in climbing the

precipices.

*'The bad Latin translation of this, which is ascribed to the Holy

Ambrosius, in the reprint appended to the above-cited edition of Palladias

(S. Ambrosius De moribus Brachmanorum, p. 59): Nam et ipsos exiguos

homunculos esse et grandia quaedam capita asserit habere cum levibus et

detonsis capillis. Here, therefore, once more is the supposed manner of

reading peyadonépana.

388 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). fVol. IX.

Knox, as already cited, saw in his flight through the

woods of the Vedda country no human beings, only empty

dwelling places. Hence the picture contained in his book

represents a man differing from the likenesses of the

Sinhalese in look only, by his shorter and more thick-

set figure ; he wears the hair and beard noticeably long like

the Sinhalese, the former being gathered into a knot on the

back of the head.

Percival,* 1798, saw some captive Veddas in Colombo.

According to his representation, they were of lighter com-

plexion than the rest of the Ceylonese, being rather copper

coloured, were remarkably well-made, wore long beards, and

their hair tucked up close to the crown of the head.

Valentyn{ says the Bedas, or Wedas, are a kind of wild

bushmen, and the oldest inhabitants of the Island: ‘“ Zvort-

van berwe, beandend van Oogen, niet groot van gestalte,

maar gezeten rad van Lieden.” ‘To these very broad state-

ments, followed at last by John Davyt the first definite

scientific description resting on autopsy. He says: “Such

of the village Weddhas that I have seen were in general

small men, between 5 ft. 3 in. and 5 ft. 5 in. high, slender,

muscular, and well made; in colour, form, and features

resembling the Singhalese. Their appearance was wild in

the extreme, and completely savage...... Their hair was quite

emblematic of their forests : it seemed never to have been

cut, or combed, or cleaned ; and was long, bushy, and matted,

hanging about their shoulders, and shading their faces

in a very luxuriant and disgusting manner ; nor were their

beards less neglected.”

Sir Emerson Tennent§ gives the following general des-

cription of the Veddas in the region of Bintenna :—“ They all

presented the same characteristics of wretchedness and dejec-

tion—projecting mouths, prominent teeth, flattened noses,

stunted stature, and other evidences of the physical depra-

* Percival, J. c., p. 283. + Valentyn, J. ¢.,bl.49. { Davy, l.c., p. 116.

§ Tennent, 7. c., IT., p. 450.

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 389

vity, which is the usual consequence of hunger and ignorance.

The children were unsightly objects, entirely naked, with

misshapen joints, huge heads, and protuberant stomachs.

The women, who were apparently reluctant to appear, were

the most repulsive specimens of humanity I have ever

geen in any country.” Pridham* gives the report of

Mr. Bennett, who, during his residence at Hambantota, had

two village Veddas brought before him. The latter says

of them: “ They were not more than 5 ft. 2 in. in height,

their hands small, but their feet were long and flat;

hair matted and tied in a bunch at the back of the

head; a large bushy beard, almost covering the face ; eyes

small, piercing, and constantly in motion to the right and

left, and their ears seemed almost as restless as_ their

eyes.”

If from these general descriptions we come to details, we

observe that all the accounts agree first in this, that the

average stature of the Veddas is small, not tosay very small.

Dr. Davy (in the citation by Prichard) says of them: ‘ They

are well made and muscular, but of a spare habit; and in

person they chiefly differ from the Kandyans in the slightness

of their limbs, the wildness of their looks, and their savage

appearance.” Gillings declares: “The Veddahs are mostly

low in stature, but some of them are strong, active men, and

most of them appear to be healthy, and little subject to

disease.” The description of Mr. BaileyT is to this effect :

‘In appearance the Veddahs differ materially from the

Singhalese. They are smaller in every respect, and rather

dark, or, more properly, more dusky in complexion. They

are short, slightly built, yet very active. Though far from

being muscular, their limbs are firmly knit together, and

they are athletic and capable of enduring great fatigue.

Though spare, they are generally in‘very fair condition, and

look more healthy than many of the Singhalese in the adjoin-

* Pridham, J. c., I., p. 460. + Bailey, /. c., p. 282.

390 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. TX.

ing districts.” He measured several of them. The tallest

man, and one towering considerably above his fellows,

was only 5 ft. 3 in. in height; he was a more civilised

Vedda from Bigtenna. The shortest whom he saw measured

was 4ft.1 in. He considers the average height of the men

from 4 ft. 6 in. to 5 ft. 1 in., and the women from 4 ft. 4 in.

to4ft.8in. Ina list of measurements taken at his sugges-

tion, two men are reported as 5 ft. 3 in. and oneas 5 ft. 32 in.

If these measurements are correct, they exceed, in his opinion,

the average measure. Among fourteen Veddas of Bintenna,

the tallest was 5 ft. 32 in., the shortest 4 ft. 61 in.; the

medium was about 5 ft.4 in. Of twelve women, the tallest

was 9 ft. 24 in., the shortest 4 ft. 45 in., the medium about

Abt. Oya

Mr. Hartshorne” gives only two measurements of persons,

whom he believes to be fairly average specimens of the race.

One of them, Latty, eighteen years of age, was 5 ft. 44 in.

in height; the other, Bandiey, about twenty-five years old,

measured 4 ft. 112 in.

If we reckon this in metres, we have the following :—

¥ The tallest man Ss 1,638 mm.

The shortest man... 1,245 mm.

The medium, according to measurements taken in Bintenna:—

For the men ae 1,537 mm.

For the women oe 1,448 mm.

The conclusion to which we arrive is that the Veddas are

a very small, not to say dwarfish, race.

In reference to details of the size, the majority of observers

in reality present no facts which indicate disproportionate

or imperfect development of the separate members of the

body. Only Mr. Hartshorne, who characterised the general

appearance of the Veddas as “ distinctly non-Aryan,” asserts

that they have short thumbs and sharp-pointed elbows. It

would be very satisfactory if these accounts could be corro-

borated by fresh observations.

* Hartshorne, /. c., p. 408, note.

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 391

The complexion of the Veddas is dark,— according to most

reports, darker than that of their neighbours, the Sinhalese,

of whom Davy says, that their colour varies from light brown

even to black. Bailey speaks of the colour as dark, or rather

dusky, by which, at any rate, a very deep shade is meant.

The hair of the head and beard Davy describes as long and

matted ; it is never cut or combed. Sir EK. Tennent™ says:

‘“ Their long, black hair and beards fell down to their middle

in uncombed lumps.” Sirrft reports that “their hair,

beards, and whiskers are never shorn or cleansed, and these

redundant tresses hang over their shoulders and bosom in

matted masses.” Bailey calls the beard “short and scant ;

the hair of the head, which is not curly, falls in rusty,

tangled masses about the face,” making the head appear

disproportionately large. Later, he speaks of “their wild

shaggy hair.” When one sees the people, he says, with

their rugged, uncombed locks half-covering their faces,

they fully represent a preconceived idea of barbarous

savages. Harishornet calls the hair of the head “coarse”

and “ flowing,” and considers it necessary to add that their

bodies are by no means hirsute, and that there is no tendency

of the hair to converge towards the elbows, or to diverge

from the chin, or vice versa.

Through the kindness of Mr. Bastian, two photographs

have been sent me of a company of Veddas, which he obtained

in Colombo. They represent three men and three women in

full figure, but unfortunately of too small a size to give aclear

idea of them. This was the party, it seems, presented to the

Prince of Wales on the occasion of his visit to the Island.

Mr. Hartshorne, who, to be sure, only speaks of two men and

three women, is of the opinion that they came from the district

of Batticaloa, where the few Veddas still remaining, partly

through the influence of the missionaries, partly through

* Tennent, /. c., vol. II., p.449.

{ H. Ch. Sirr, Ceylon and the Sinhalese. London, 1850, vol. II., p.210.

{ Hartshorn, J. c., pp. 408, 409.

392 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [ Vol. TX.

marriage with the Tamils, have lost many distinctive features

of their primitive state. “Two of the women,” he says,

“were very gentile in appearance, and one is reported to have

been decidedly pretty ; the two men were described as small

and rather ape-like.” To these descriptions the photographs

aforementioned correspond pretty well.

Though these may not be examples of the purely savage

Veddas, I have nevertheless, in lack of any other represen- —

tations, asked Mr. Miitzel to make a drawing of two men

and one woman, from which a woodcut*;jhas been prepared.

It shows plainly the growth of the hair; the noses com-

paratively short, broad at the end, and flattened; the eyes

apparently deep-set, and the lips of the younger persons full

and bulging; so that it gives afar more vivid idea of the

people than any description could furnish. One only of the

men has anything like a beard. We see the little apron

worn by the men, the great bows they carry, the arrows with

the leaf-shaped points, and finally the iron axe stuck in the

girdle.

As regards the hair, it is comparatively long with all the

six persons, but evidently put into some shape by the help

of acomb. The women wear their smooth, slightly waving

hair parted in the middle, and so does one of the men,

who certainly exhibits his chevulure in a somewhat dis-

ordered condition. ‘Two of the men have curly hair, which

forms a bush about the head, sticking out widely and falling

down upon the neck, exactly corresponding to all the known

descriptions of them. This makes the head appear very large,

especially in proportion to the lean body and limbs, But

it must here be particularly remarked that this curly hair is

never in small, tight rolls as among the Negritos, and the

bush of hair does not in the slightest degree approach

the peruke, such as is generally worn by the Viti people,

or the Abyssinian tribes; on the contrary, the curly

hair is very long, and falls down pretty low upon the.

* Not reproduced here.—/Hon. Sec.

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 393

neck, and it is therefore out of the question to talk of woolly

hair. It is a comparatively smooth, simply wavy hair,

occasionally curly, but remarkable for its length, and just as

Palladius describes it, in a most pregnant manner, dkapra cai

ax\érpiyae We must here add that he expressly contrasts these

smooth-haired people with the Indians (Negroes), whom he

calls gpédrpryec. Of the eyes, Davy only mentions that they

are lively, wild, and restless. Valentijn calls them burning.

Bailey speaks of them as “good, and often full.” Only Mr.

Bennett asserts that they are small, which probably means

deep-set. With regard to their colour, I find nothing said.

But the statements are sufficient at any rate to prove to us

that the Veddas areadark, but not actually black, race, and

not woolly-haired like the Negro.

Hartshorne says of the noses, like Sir EH. Tennent, that

they are flat ; and of the lips, that they are sometimes thick.

If we add to this their short thumbs and sharp-pointed

elbows, there are indications enough by- which to distin-

euish them in a noticeable degree from the Oriental races

living in their neighbourhood. Bailey calls the nose ‘“ well-

shaped, though inclining to be flat; the nostrils wide ;

the mouth sometimes large; and the lips firm, but rather

thick ;”—the features of the face, on the whole, “ tolerably

regular.” Sir E. Tennent describes the mouth as “ project-

ing,” and the teeth as “ prominent.”

Before comparing this picture with that of any other of

the neighbouring people, I will add some craniological

observations. By an especially happy accident I was enabled

myself to examine three Vedda skulls. I had applied to

the German Consul in Colombo, Mr. Ph. Freiidenberg,

when he was here, to obtain, if possible, skulls from Ceylon,

and especially of the Veddas. He wrote to me on February 27,

last year, that he was sorry he himself could not do this; but

that the Governor and Committee of the Museum in Colombo

had declared themselves ready to send here as a loan for six

months any skulls I might wish to have from their Museum.

394 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). VOL ID.

These arrived in the summer, accompanied with a note from

Mr. A. Haly, the Director of the Museum in Colombo. To

all these gentlemen I would express my most sincere thanks

for their very great kindness in thus furthering my wishes.

I will proceed to give a brief description of the skulls.

Skull No. 1.

Mr. Haly appends to it the following note :—

“Presented by Mr. W. W. Hume, Government Agent,

Southern Province. or

“This skull is said to be that of a Vedd& woman, and was

found at Dewilane near Batticaloa, but there seems to be

no evidence to show that it is a Vedda skull.”

Plainly a woman’s skull, very white, smooth, and of little

capacity (1,250 cub. cm.), with teeth much worn away.

Whether an under-jaw belongs to it is questionable, for

although the condyloid processes of the one fit tolerably, it

yet appears somewhat too short; hence it is omitted in the

drawing.* The capsule of the skull is long, narrow, and

flat, of a pronounced dolichocephalous index (70:9). The

brow is quite straight, but not high, without marked orbital

prominences, but with strong twbhera ; the glabella not much

sunk, and at the nasal process remnant of the frontal suture

one centimetre long. The curve of the parietal bone appears

long at a side view; so also the narrow backhead. The norma

occupitalis shows a slightly ogivalous form, but has, on the

whole, a rounded outline narrowing toward the bottom. On

the high and pointed squama occipitalis we find no distinct

protuberontia externa, but strong cerebellar arches.

The sutures are well preserved and pretty deeply indented.

On either side are temporary interpolations of bone ; to the

right an oblong bone extending the whole length, with a

slight degree of stenokrotaphy and low angulus parietal ;

to the left an imperfect bone, but only in the posterior half

of the sphenoparietal suture, beside which the point of the

* The drawings of the skulls are not reproduced.—Hon. Sec.

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 395

ala sphenoidealis comes up high, whilst the angulus

parietalis is low; likewise in the under part of the lamb-

doidal suture on either side and on the posterior lateral

fontanel interpolation.

A view of the skull from below shows plainly’.the length

and narrowness of the occipital region. The very large

foranen magnum is injured at the posterior edge, but can be

measured approximately. The articular processes of the

occipital bone are situated quite anteriorly, and their

fascets turned rather to the outside. Small mastoid processes.

In the front view the forehead appears comparatively

broad, the face short and of moderate breadth. Index §3-1 5

therefore chamzprosopic. The very large orbits are likewise

broad and extended toward the outside and the bottom, but

on the whole rather round inform. Their index amounts to

84:6, and therefore mesokonch. The cheek bones project, and

the canine fosse are correspondingly very deep; onthe other

hand, the zygomatic arches are not very prominent. The nose

is rather high on the face, and somewhat to one side, narrow

at its root, the ridge bent in, the aperture large. Index 50,

therefore mesorrhine. The upper jaw is, on the whole, low,

especially at the alveolar process, which is slightly

prognathous ; the facial angle (brow-nasal spine and auricular

orifice) measures 82. The palate long and broad toward the

back, the alveolar line somewhat in the form of a horseshoe,

and the teeth and the alveolar cavities, especially in the

front, large. Index leptostaphyline, 75. The (questionable,

therefore omitted in the drawing) under jaw, small and low,

the rami slanting and feeble, and particularly narrow. The

distance of the maxillary angle amounts to only 85 mm.,

or 10 mm. less than the lower frontal breadth.

(2).— Skull No. 4.

Mr. Haly designates it as evidently abnormal, and says of

it and the following (No. 5): “They were procured by the

Rev. S. Somanader, the Vedda missionary at Batticaloa.

There is a lower jawbone, but I do not know to which skull

396 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). (Vol. x:

it belongs. Mr. Somanader guarantees these as being the

skulls of absolutely pure-blooded Veddas, a race, he says, now

almost extinct.”

The skull, in all probability female, is without a face.

Perhaps there belonged to it a senile under-jaw with totally

obliterated alveolar cavities, perpendicular and delicate rami

and condyles, which, by arthritis chronica senilis, are

changed ; the skull, however, does not give the impression

of having belonged to such a very old person. This skull is

unusually small ; its measure inside is only 1,025 cub. cm.; it

is therefore almost nannocephalous. It is, beside being very

crooked, especially depressed on the left side posteriorly,

short, though rather broad and high. The index amounts

to 80°6 ; it is therefore brachycephalous. The reason for this

abnormity is probably an artificial, or accidental, defor-

mation; for although it has a synosteosis of the under

coronal and the spheno-frontal suture, the main aberrations

are in the occipital region. The other suturesare much inden-

ted. The squama occipitalis is very high, and the lambdoidal

angle acute ; no protuberantia externa. Tubera on the brow

and parietal bones strongly developed ; the brow much

arched. Orbit, so far as their form is recognisable, very

large.

Skull No. 5.

This is a male skull, unfortunately also without a face,

but in all other respects quite uninjured. Its capacity is

considerably greater (1,360 cub. cm.) than that of the two

female skulls, but in itself not large. The surface is covered

with distinct traces of muscle, especially the back head, where

the facies (muscularis squame occipitalis) show very deep

impressions : the protuberantia externa is unusually strong

and hooked in form, and the linea semi-circularis superior

makes a strong V-shaped projection. Also the nasal and

orbital prominences are strong, although not specially large.

The capsule of the skull is distinctly dolichocephalous, with

an index of 73, showing in a side view a long finely-

No. 33,—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON, 397

arched curve, with full high brow and round, strongly pro-

jecting back head. The sutures are well preserved; only

the under portions of the coronarie and the spheno-frontalis

are synosteotic. In spite of this the temporal regions are on

the whole well formed. From a posterior view this skull

also has an ogivalous form, yet with greater breadth of basis.

The squama occipitalis is high, and the lambdoidal angle

very acute. ‘The cerebellar arches large. At the basis the

occipital region appears unusually long. The processus con-

dyloides are very prominent, and the articular facets turned

decidely outward. The mastoid process strong. In-a

front view the forehead appears broad ; the nasal root some-

what deep, but narrow; the bridge of the nose erect; the

orbita large and slightly rounded ; the zygomatic arch not

prominent.

Although Mr. Haly says there is no proof that skull No. 1

is a Vedda skull, yet I see no reason why it should not be

considered as such. Batticaloa is, as we learn from the pre-

ceding accounts, known to be the old Vedda region ; and the

statement of Mr. Hume that it is the skull of a Vedd4 woman

must have been founded on distinct circumstantial evidence.

Certainly it is the skull of a woman; and since also it

coincides with other Vedda skulls, I do not scruple to accept

itas such. The circumstance that there is nothing about it

corresponding to the usual idea of the skull of a savage

cannot be of any weight, since the rest of the skulls also

impress us as being comparatively delicate, not to say

civilised. This is a peculiarity which belongs to different

unquestionably savage inhabitants of the Eastern Archipelago,

and which is especially conspicuous among the Andamanese,

the Negritos of the Phillipines, and many other savage

tribes in the mountains of Hindustan. The origin of the

two other skulls isso clearly testified to by the missionary of

that region, Mr. Somanader, that there is no room for doubt.

For comparison we have a not inconsiderable number of

apparently well-ascertained skulls now to be found in

31—87 E

398 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. 1X.

England. Of these, eleven were in possession of Mr. Barnard

Davis, who has given notices of them in his “Thesaurus

Craniorum”: London, 1867, p. 130. Among them are four,

likewise from Batticaloa, two from Badulla, and two from

Uva. Some are damaged, and must therefore be set aside

in our examination. Nine other Vedda skulls are found in

the great anthropological collection in the Hunter Museum ;

their measures have lately been published by Mr. W. H,

Flower in his “ Catalogue of the Specimens Illustrating the

Osteology and Dentition of Vertebrated Animals contained

in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of England”:

London, 1879, Part I., p. 111. Among them are algo those

which Mr. George Busle (Proc. Linn. Soce., 1862, vol. 6, p. 166)

-hasearlier described. Of two of these it is stated that they are

from Nilgala. The two last and the one from Bintenna

(Badulla) are furnished by Mr. Bailey. A picture of one of

the men’s skulls from Bintenna (No, 675) is given in the

work of the Messieurs de Quatrefages and Hamy, “Crania

Ethnica,” Paris, 1876-77. Of two others (Nos. 681 and 682),

it is especially said that they may be considered authentic

specimens.

In all, we have then, twenty-three skulls for comparison.

Among them there is, beside the above-mentioned deformed

skull (No. 4) from the Museum at Colombo, another from the

Hunter Museum (No. 676), one from the Bailey collection,

brought from Bintenna, of which it is expressly asserted that

“it has been unsymmetrically distorted by occipital pressure.”

These two must, therefore, be excluded from certain exami-

nations. The rest of the anomalies, however important they

may be, can in the main be passed over. I will only briefly

call attention to the fact that the skull I have described,

No. 1 from the Colombo Museum, shows some temporary

aberrations, especially interpolations of bone, and also that

the skull represented by the Messieurs de Quatrefages and

Hamy, No. 675, out of the London Museum, shows distinct

‘stenokraphy.

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 399

The total result obtained is, first, that the Vedda skull is

uncommonly small, and that occasionally genuine nanno-

cephaly appears in the race.

Of the deformed skull out of the Colombo Museum (No. 4)

I have already pointed out that it possessed only a capacity of

1,025 cub. cm. Mr. Flower has discovered even a smaller

one, that of an adult woman (No. 679), which measures only

960 cub. cm.,and of which he says “that is the very smallest

in the whole collection.” Here we must particularly remark

that it is not a question of microcephaly, in the pathological

sense, but of crania justo minora. In order to avoid confusion,

I have therefore chosen the name, which I have suggested

in an earlier essay, of nannocephalous.

I give in the following a list of some of the measurements,

as the fact just signalised is of special importance for the

cognisance of races. Regarding the skulls of Mr. Bernard

Davis, the first column shows the weight of the sand used in

measurement, as given by him ; the second and third columns

give the reduction of the weights into measures, according

to the table made by Mr. Weleker :—

I.—Statements of Mr. Davis.*

Weight. Men, Women.

No. OZ. cub. cm, cub. cm,

1 ols 64 sas 1,275 Sp —

6 70 Bab 1,394 Bee

7 ee 56 is — Lad 1,115

8 ae 65 ue _ es 1,295

9 500 64! aad — nde 1,275

10 aa 81 cn 1,614 ue _—

11 es 59 a — ao wee LTS

12 ois 7255 500 = So 1,444

Average of 3 men’s skulls... 5c 1,428 cub. cm.

Do. 5 women’s skulls she P20be =

Do. 8 Veddas’ skulls ox 1,323

* Virchow, “ Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur wissenschafhlichen medi-

cin.’ Frankfurt, 4.M., 1856, s. 901,

ER 2

400 JOURNAL, R.A.S8. (CEYLON). (Vol. IX.

II.—Statements of Mr. Flower.*

Men. Women. Uncertain.

No. cub. cm. cub. cm. cub. cm.

675 oe 1,140 on — 560 —

676 ee — seh e220 ee =

677 re = ae — sa 1,235

678 si — i 1,250 ve ~~

679 see a ne 960 600 a

680 hs 1,225 uh ae wa —

681 a 1,260 oe — aH: aa

682 ale 20) ak — et —

683 ra — is — ist 1300

Average of: 4 men’s skulls ... one 1,261 cub. cm.

Do. 3 women’s skulls si LT ee

Do. 2 uncertain skulls $60 WAS) 3,

Do. 9 Veddas’ skulls ae 12243:

ITl].—My own Statements.

Men? Women.

No. cub. cm. cub. cm.

1 Ie — os 1,250

4 at — ae 1,025

5 1,360 ee —

Average of 3 Veddas’ skulls... . 1,211 cub. cm.

Do. 20 Veddas’ skulls... 360 126i

Do. 10 women’s skulls aie 1201,

Only two men’s skulls, viz., No. 10 among Mr. Davis’s and

No, 682 among Mr. Flower’s, exceed 1,400. The first measures

1,614 cub. cm., and is called by Mr. Davis himself “ abnor-

mally large”; the other measures 1,420 cub.cm. All the rest

of the measurements given are much less,—three between

1,100 and 1,200 cub. cm. and eight between 1,200 and 1,300

cub.cm. Theaverage of 1,261 computed above may, there-

fore, be esteemed a pretty fair measure.

The amount of the variation is particularly worthy of

attention. If we take the two extremes, the woman’s skull

* Archiv. fir Anthropologie, Bd,, J. s., 272.

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 40]

of 960 and the man’s of 1,614 cub. cm., we have a difference

of 654. The different ways of measuring may possibly have

increased the difference a little, but not enough to be of any

importance.

The length measures stand in a close, but nowise simple,

relation to the capacity. In regard to the horizontal ex-

tent from the reports of Mr. Davis, I calculate as the average

of three male skulls 19°9 English inches = 506 mm., the

average of eight female skulls 19 in. 483 mm., and the

average of thirteen skulls altogether 19:2 in. — 488 mm.

From the figures given by Mr. Flower accrues an average

from five male skulls of 485, of two female skulls of 454, and

of seven skulls altogether 476 mm. From my measurements

accrues for three skulls an average of 486 mm., a figure pretty

near to the others. From all the twenty-three skulls I

calculate an average of 484 mm.; from Mr. Davis’s skulls

and mine, sixteen altogether,an average of 487mm. The

lowest measure (448) was found by Mr. Flower with the

nannocephalous girl, the highest (512) with a man; so here

too we havea difference in the extremes of 64mm. The

skulls I have described prove here also absolutely typical.

The measurement of the vertical line (right across the head)

admits of no exact comparison, since my measure extends

from one auditory passage to the other, that of Mr. Davis

from the base of one mastoid process to the base of the other.

Mr. Flower has not given any vertical lengths whatever.

According to my measurements the vertical extent is com-

paratively small, on the average only 289 mm., which is 197

mim. less than the horizontal extent, of which it is only 5:94

per cent. This figure shows most clearly the narrowness of

the skull.

It is very difficult to measure the upper vertical extent

(sagittal from the root of the nose across the parietal bone to

the foramen occipitale) which differs, according to our two

statements, in the whole as well as in the single parts. It

- amounts on the average :—

402 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX.

Davis. Virchow.

mm. mm.

Frontal vertical extent 124°5 Soe 123°0

Parietal nae 127°0 ae 121:0

Occipital Sac 114'3 509 111°0

Whole sagittal arch ... 365°8 366 355:0

Average ... 360°4 mm.

or reckoned by the percentage of the entire sagittal arch :—

mm. mm,

Frontal vertical extent 34-0 sak 346

Parietal re 34°7 rise 34:0

Occipital 508 oe ae 31:2

100-0 100-0

Here the figures agree at least as far as regards the share

of the sguama occipitale in the formation of the roof of the

skull : they show that to the sywama belongs a considerable

share, almost a third, and this may well be looked upon as

a characteristic.

The relation of the extent in length to the horizontal

extent varies only a little in the two measurements. It

amounts by mine to 73:0, by Mr. Davis’s to 74°9, on the average

74:5 per cent. of the horizontal extent, which, compared with

relation to the vertical extent, is a very considerable figure.

Much more homogeneous are the results of the measure-

ments in regard to the form of the head.

The average index of ratio between length and breadth is

decidedly dolichocephalous. It amounts with : —

mm.

Mr. Davis, from 10 skulls, to ae ba 713

Mr. Flower, from 8 skulls, to ste oak (BES)

Myself, from 2 skulls, to 556 oe 71:9

Total from 20 skulls i 71°6

We have here omitted to bring into the account the two

before-mentioned deformed skulls, which have a brachy-

cephalous index; the one in the London Museum has an

index of 82:9, the other from the Colombo Museum of 80°6.

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 403

To these must be added the skull of a girl of Batticaloa, about

eighteen years of age, and now in the possession of Mr. Davis

(No. 803), which he himself calls an “aberrant example,”

with an index of 78. To what cause due one cannot conceive

from the description, since the only thing mentioned about it

is that it has a processus papillaris before the foramen

magnum.

Possibly deforming influences were at work among the

female Veddas to a greater extent, though in a less noticeable

manner. At least we calculate from the figures of Mr. Davis,

even omitting the probably deformed skull, a higher index

for the female than the maleskulls. Mr. Flower and myself,

however, arrive at the opposite result, excluding the de-

formed skulls, viz.:—

Davis. Flower. Virchow.

mm. mm. mm.

For Women ... (6) 71:0 ae (i) 69°93 see Coie 7c0:3

In taking the average of the two sexes together, however,

the difference disappears, as then Mr. Flower’s and my own

lower figures count for something, viz.:—

mm.

Men af 9 skulls ee 707

Women ... 8 skulls aoe 70°8

At any rate, we have among the number (twenty in all)

which come into the calculation, only four belonging to

mesocephaly (index of 75: 1—80). Among the remaining

sixteen, however, are seven whose index amounts to something

under 70, which are therefore hyper-dolichocephalous. The

minimum amounts to 66 (Davis). Quite correct also was Mr.

Davis in saying (/. ¢., p. 132) that the Vedda skulls are

narrower than those of African Negroes, and sometimes as

narrow as those of the New Caledonians. The relation of

the single parts of the skull to the whole length — 100 is

somewhat different. With the male skull No. 3 the horizontal

length of the occipital region is greater, and the frontal

basilar length less. If we indicate the relation of the

404 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. LX.

occipital length to the whole length by a, and that of the

basilar length (outer edge of the foramen magnum to the root

of the nose) by 0, we obtain for the skull :—

No. 1. No. 2. No. 3.

mm, mm. mm.

a ae us 28°2 se 27°8 sisi 32°4

b ay was Hil) ais 55:1 ea 48:6

Corresponding to the smallness of the skull, the greatest

length is throughout little: dolichocephaly is less indicated by

great length than by want of breadth. Among all the skulls

there is only one—a male skull (Davis, No. 805)—which has a

length of 190 mm. (76 English inches). With all the rest it is

less, with the majority not more than 180. The greatest

breadth, likewise, comes up in only one skull to 140 mm.; the

next highest figure is 135—the measure of the male skull from

the Colombo Museum. But the majority do not even reach

130. All the more extraordinary is the relatively considerable

height. Only twice do we find height less than the breadth.

The skull (No. 683, Mr. Flower’s) which shows some other

aberrations as well, hasa breadth of 140 mm. and a height of

only 135 mm.; and a male skull (Davis, No. 804) that shows

various synosteoses, and is clinacephalous, has a height (5 in.)

a little less than the breadth ; in all the other cases the

height exceeds the breadth, and not set down very con-

siderably—in one case (Flower’s, No.680) by 14 mm. The

sreatest height (136 and 137 mm.) is that of two male skulls

—one of Mr. Flower’s and one of mine.

The index of ratio between the length and height is, there -

fore, greater than between the length and breadth. After

excluding the two deformed skulls, it amounts to an average

of :—

Men. Women.

Mr. Davis Ses C3) (36 ae GT). 8 SNGs2

Mr Blower: .c, @). 2 750. sos. C2 Tiel

Mine A GN Rh Onl ae NS. 6 7.6

Inthe whole (9) . 749 (9). 75:3

The average from the collection amounts to 74:9. We

No. 33.—1886.] THE veppAS OF CEYLON. 405

cannot therefore exactly speak of lypsicephaly, though

the form comes very near to this type. If we reckon ortho-

cephaly at 75, or even at 74:9, the Veddaé skull on an average

falls below this category.

The height of the ear, which has only been taken by

me (vertical distance of the upper edge of the outer auricular

passage from the parietal bone), is likewise considerable,

particularly in the male skulls, amounting to 120 mm. In

;his case the index of the height of the ear amounts to 64:9,

whilst in the female skull No. 1 it reaches to only 60:4, and

even with the deformed one (No. 4: only to 63:0.

As regards the formation of the face, I find, except the

already-given descriptions, little osteological support. Of

single regions I mention the eye-cavities and the nose.

The orbital index was, in the one case which afforded me

an opportunity of taking the measurements, 84°6, exactly

the same figure which gives the average in the statements of

Mr. Flower. The single cases certainly show very con-

siderable differences, fer, according to Mr. Flower, we have

among eight skulls: two indices below 80, two between 80

and 85, and four over 85 up to 91°7._ Separating the sexes, we

have from four male skulls an average of 85:1, from two

female 84:3, a difference scarcely worth mentioning. On the

whole we may therefore assume that the orbital formation

is mesokonch.

The nasal index, which I stated at 50, is, according to

Mr. Flower, who compared seven cases, 52°2 ; it is therefore

mesorrhine, bordering on platyrrhine.

There certainly seems to be anot inconsiderable difference

in sex, Since the two female skulls cited by Mr. Flower were

platyrrhine (56:1 and 57:8) ; and, on the other hand, among

the male skulls one, if not two, were leptorrhine (46°5 and

[?] 46-7), and only two platyrrhine (54:0 and 54:3). The

depressed form of the bone of the nose is plainly seen in

Table 1, Fig 3, and in the profile drawing by Messrs. De

Quatrefages and Hamy. The previously given descriptions

406 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. 1X.

of Sir EH. Tennent, Bailey, and Hartshorne, which emphasise

the flatness of the nose, are in unison with this; and the

pictures I have given, taken from photographs, also show

plainly the depressed form of the root of the nose and the

breadth of the rings.

The face altogether seems to be low, flattened throughout.

The front view of the skull given by the Messrs. de Quatre-

fages and Hamy in their pictures exhibits this in a splendid

manner. I obtained an index (relation of the entire facial

height to the breadth of the zygomatic bone) of 83:1.

From the measurements of Mr. Davis I calculate as an

average of five skulls almost the same figure, viz., 83°8.

According to this the type is therefore, on the whole,

chameeprosopous; and, as far as I can now discover, with the

women more than with the men. The skulls of Mr. Bernard

Davis show :—

Way Men. Women.

mm. mm,

313 be 88:2 =e —

801 ae 87°5 ete =

802 see — sda 82:9

803 aa — Be 80°8

804 ae — ae | 80°0

Average ... 87'8 505 61:2

Notwithstanding the depression of the faces, they are not

actually broad. It is because of the slight prominence of

the zygomatic arches and bones which Mr. Bernard Davis

has already mentioned in contrast to the African races.

Only the London ‘skull, of which Messrs. de Quatrefages

and Hamy have given us a picture, appears comparatively

broad, and chiefly, it would seem, owing to the strong develop-

ment of the processus zygomaticus of the maxillary bone,

and the consequently increased size of the lower zygomatic

protuberance.

Mr. Flower calculates, besides the alreolar index, the means

by this, the present relation of the “ basilar alvesli” length

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 407

(distance of the anterior edge of the alveolar process from

the foramen occipitale magnum) to the “ basinasel length ”

(distance of the root of the nose from the foramen magnum) :

the latter, supposed, = 100. The average of six skulls gives

a figure of 96:3. I obtain only 93:4 for the female skull

from the Colombo Museum. Separating the sexes the

computation of Mr. Flower is :—

No. 3 ae a For omen

675 cos 93°5 See —

676 sree — ae 93:0

678 we 101-0 ats —

679 a — Nee 96°5

680 ate 96°9 ah _—

681 Beis 97-1 sei —

Average ... oil oe 94:7

According to this it might appear as if prognathy was

greater among the men than among the women, but we

must reserve a final opinion on this point, since the

measurements of individual skulls show such considerable

differences, especially with the males. Atanyrate, prognathy

is very slight. Mr. Bernard Davis goes so far even as to call

the Vedda skulls tolerably orthognathous.

With regard to the proportions of the rest of the body,

Ihave afew more statements from Mr. Hartshorne about two

Veddas, which I subjoin, after having changed them into

metre measure :—

Latty, about Bandiey, about

18 years old. 25 years old.

mm. mm.

Height of the body Cnn oOo Oli .ses ole oo

Circumference of the head

around middle of the brow... ACO eves 514°33

From top of forehead to end

Ol CHIN sc Pee OO SOON auc 177°80

Across face ses TSS 54s ane lease

Shoulder to elbow nie PSO) on 0 323°81

Elbow to wrist eee 254:00_ ... 219:05

408 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX.

Latty, about Bandiey, about

18 years old. 35 years old.

mm. mm.

Wrist to point of middle finger IG S2i ae 17459

Size of upper arm right... 260 34... 241-28

around the biceps | Letts. DOs wee 241-28

right... IPAM Sec Dou

ee ges ae 222-22 .,, 229-99

Chest, breadth aoe TUB: sec (A928

Length of upper thigh wes AQ5-4l ... 419-07

From knee to ankle aa A 2 ide ae 393°67

Size of the calf ee 298 Ale ae 292:07

Sole of the foot Ss DANCZ 8) ease Dp ape

It is very probable that errors have crept into some of

these measurements, especially with regard to the upper arm

(shoulder to elbow), which, with the smaller man, is stated

to be 44 mm. longer, whilst the whole arm is almost 13 mm.

shorter. The breadth of the face also given for Bandiey,

the smaller man, is not only 38 mm. more than for the

much larger Latty, but of an incredible size altogether.

We must, therefore, be very cautious in using these

figures. Tolerably constant is the relation of the sole of

the foot to the height of the body : with Latty it is 6-7, with

Bandiey 6°8, contained in the height of the body. This is

quite a normal relation. Mr. Bennett says the hands of the

Veddas are small, but their feet long and flat. This may be

so: one would hardly think it, however, from the measures

given. Of. the remainder of the measurements I have not

much to say, especially as with some of them, ¢.g., the length

of the upper arm, it is not said where the measure begins and

where it ends. This much at least we may conclude from the

statements, that the single parts may be assumed to be well

proportioned. Of special interest is only the size of the arm,

whilst there is a marked difference in general between the

right and the left arm. We find here on both sides the same

figures-—indeed, with Latty the size of the left upper arm is

a little more than 3 mm. larger than that of the right. This

is to be accounted for by the greater exercise of the left arm,

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 409

which is specially strained in drawing the very heavy bow,

as has been described by various travellers. Mr. Bernard

Davis has in his collection the upper thigh and upper arm

of a Vedd4: the former is 17:2 in. = 436°8 mm. in length,

the latter 12 in. = 30438 mm. This was evidently a very

strong individual: the length of the upper thigh exceeds

even that of the two men measured by Mr. Hartshorne (425

and 419 mm.). On the other hand, the length of the upper

arm, according to Davis, does not coincide with the figures

given by Hartshorne, and this is additional proof of the

inexactness of his measurements.

The comparison of the Veddas with their neighbours on

the Island is not alittle increased in difficulty from the lack

of sufficient information with regard to the relative physical

condition of the latter. Even the best describers limit

themselves in the main to a few words. Regarding the more

civilised tribes, as already well known, they at most there-

fore institute only comparisons with the continental tribes

of Hindistin or with the European. Osteological material

is also comparatively scanty in the European collections, and

even what there is appears to me as rather unsafe. I have,

through the kindness of Consul Freiidenberg, received three

skulls of Sinhalese and three of the Tamils; but exami-

nation proves one designated as the skull of a Sinhalese

child to coincide so exactly with the Tamils, that it seems

very doubtful indeed if this is correctly stated. The

inhabitants of the low lands upon the Island have so fre-

quently trespassed on each other’s territory, and become

so intermingled in life, that their skulls may have been

confounded after death. Hence I offer the following

remarks with all reserve, and principally with the aim of

provoking, if possible, more exact information and the

sending of better material. In particular I must indicate,

as the greatest desideratum, the need of satisfactory photo-

410 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [ Vol. IX.

graphs,—especially half-lengths,—not too small (profile and

front face), in the right horizontal position.

In our comparisons the genuine Sinhalese and the Tamils

come chiefly under consideration. Only collaterally can

the descendants of the immigrant Arabs (Moors, Moormen),

Malays, and still less Chinese, Burmese, Aryan Indians,

African Negroes, and Europeans, be brought in. The two

first-named tribes are so predominant, through the extent of

territory they occupy, as well as from their numbers, that,

apart from their almost exclusive historical claims, they

must be specially considered.

The Sinhalese.

They occupy in the main the south and south-west of the

country. According to Sir E. Tennent* the inhabitants of

the south coast from Galle to Hambantota are the purest

Sinhalese. This part formed an important division of the

old province of Ruhuna, which was very early colonised by

the descendants of Wijayo ; they neither intermingled with

the Malabars nor had any intercourse with them whatso-

ever. Unfortunately Sir E. Tennent gives no actual descrip-

tion of the people. He only speaks incidentally of their

build, and their hair; what chiefly caught his attention was

their inclination to an effeminate mode of arraying them-

selves. This is especially conspicuous in the way of wearing

the hair, of which he gives a picture; but adds, this applies

only to the people of the south-west coast, and not to those

in the interior or in the north or east. They let the hair

grow long, comb it d l'impératrice, high from front to back,

and bringing it up from the nape of the neck form a roll

(kondé) on the protruding part of the back head, fastening

the whole with combs. Even Ptolemy has mentioned the

long hair in Taprobane, and Agathemerus asserts that the

men of Ceylon let their hair grow as long as it will, and roll

it into a coil on the top of the head in the fashion of women.

* Tennent, /. c., vol, II., pp. 106-112.

No. 33.—1886.| THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 411

Of the children Sir EK. Tennent says they are beautiful, with

wavy shining hair. He says a group of children in their

nakedness look like living bronzes. The men also have

delicate features and slender limbs, are frequently beard-

less,* and wear around the hipsa piece of cloth (comboy)

like an under petticoat, so that altogether the impression

they make is womanish. Finally, he adds a notice of them

from a Chinese book of travel by Hiouen Thsang, in which

the Mongolian expresses his amazement at their prominent

noses, by saying the Sinhalese have a bird’s beak on a

human body.

This is about all that I find in Sir E. Tennent concerning

the Sinhalese. The few paragraphs devoted to the inhabi-

tants of Ceylon by Mr. Von Schlagintweit} coincide with

this. Somewhat more definite, though very superficial, are the

reports of earlier authors. Valentyn{ says : “‘ De Cingaleezen

zijn niet heel swart, maar bruyngeel, lang en open van ooren,

niet klock von gestalt, door de bank wat mager, zeer zwak

van leden, geschwind van licham en vrijser ruf tig van

geest.” Wolf declares outright “ the Sinhalese have a black

skin.” Percivall| ascribes to the Ceylonese a stature of

middle height, about 5 ft. 7in., and says the colour of the

women approaches to yellow. Selkirk calls the eyes of

the Sinhalese bright black, and says the hair is long, black,

and fastened into a knot. ‘The insides of the hands

and feet are white, the rest of the body black. The people

in the interior seldom shave the beard, but those on the

coast do. Sirr** says the men are under middle height,

something like 5 ft. 6 in. on an average, and well propor-

* These statements are said to be found in the history of Tambulus.

Diodor, Lib. 2, cap. 36.

+ Herman von Schlagintweit, Sakunlunski. Reisen in Indien and

Hoch Asien. Jena, 1869. Bd., 7. s., 213.

{ Valentyn, J. c., Bl. 43.

§ Wolf, 7. s., 155.

|| Percival, 7. s., 222.

@ Selkirk, Recollections. London, 1884, pp. 58-59 of Ceylon.

Ee LET, U. C2), VOL ds) Ds 00s .

412 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). (Vol. IX.

tioned. Their colour varies from clear yellow-brown to

black; hair and eyes the colour of ebony. The Kan-

dyans are darker, more powerful, and of better growth.

Philalethes,* who specially refers to Valentyn, says the colour

of the Sinhalese is not quite black, but of a deep chestnut,

suffused with a yellow tint. Their ears are long and open,

their bodies not powerful, but slender and agile.

Much more exact is the description which Mr. Davyt

gives. He divides the Sinhalese race into three great tribes :

the genuine Sinhalese, the Kandyans, and the Veddas. In

describing chiefly the inhabitants of the interior of the

Island, ‘the highlanders,” he says that they are in build,

speech, manners, customs, religion, and government complete

Indians. Like them they are distinguished from Europeans

less in the features than in some trifling characteristics of

colour, size, and form. The complexion ranges from light

brown to black. Also the colour of the hair and the

eyes varies, although not so often as that of the skin;

black hair and eyes are most common, and brown hair

and eyes less uncommon than gray eyes and red hair, and

the light-blue or red eyes and flaxen hair of the Albinos.

In size, the inland people exceed the low-land Sinhalese and

the most of the natives born on the coast of Coromandel and

Malabar, but they do not attain the height of the European.

Their average is somewhere about 5 ft.4to5 in. They are

clean-made, with neat muscle and small bone. For Indians

they are stout, and have, as a rule, well-developed chests and

broad shoulders, especially in the mountain districts, where

they, like other highlanders, have rather short but strong

and very muscular thighs and legs. Hands and feet are in

general very small,—indeed disproportionately so compared

with ours. The form of the head is good, but perhaps rather

longerthan among Kuropeans. Their features are commonly

neat and often handsome, their countenances intelligent and

* Philalethes, 7. c., p. 231. + Davy, 7. ¢., p. 109.

No. 33.—1886.] THE vEDDAS oF CEYLON. | 413

animated. Nature has given them a wealth of hair, which,

| in general, they allow to grow to considerable length on their

faces, as well as heads, since in their opinion a beard, so far

from disfiguring, adorns the face. The women as a rule are

well formed and good looking, often handsome. According to

their opinion a beautiful woman should have the following

attributes :—Hair luxuriant, like the tail of a peacock, long,

reaching to the knees, and terminating in graceful curls ;

eyebrows like the rainbow, and eyes sapphire blue, or like

the petals of the blue manil blossom; nose like a hawk’s

beak, and lips bright and red as coral or the young leaves of

the na@ tree ; teeth small, regular, and closely set as the buds

of the jasmine ; neck full and round; chest capacious, and

breasts firm and conical, like the yellow cocoanut; waist

almost small enough to be spanned by the hand; hips wide ;

limbs tapering; the soles of her feet without hollows, and

the surface of her body soft, delicate, smooth, and rounded,

without protruding bones and sinews.

Davy has the great merit of having added to his work a

series of pictures, which illustrate more clearly many of

these particulars. On Plate 6 is found a coloured group of

Kandyans, after a drawing by Lieut. W. Lyttleton, which

shows very clearly the dark-brown complexion of the

common people by the side of the lighter yellowish-brown

tint of the Disavé: the faces are comparatively long and

narrow, the noses arched and very prominent, the upper

lips short, and the muscles about the mouth delicate. On

Plate 4 likenesses are given, which were drawn from ivory

figures carved by native artists ; here the faces are shorter

and somewhat broader; the noses very prominent and

arched, having an almost Jewish expression; the lips

(especially of the women) full and bulging, but without any

approach to prognathism.

Cordiner™ describes the Sinhalese as of a slender make,

rather below the medium height, with slight but well-shaped

* Cordiner, 7. c., vol. L., p. 94.

ol — 37 KE

414 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX.

limbs, and with regular features of the like form with the

Europeans; their colour, although varying in shade, not so

dark as that of the Indians on the continent ; the eyes black,

but the whites of them strikingly clear; the hair long,

smooth, and black. Among the higher classes the complexion

is so light that it seems lighter than that of brunettes in

England. In all classes the inner surface of the hands and

feet is uniformly white. Of the Kandyans Cordiner™ says that

they differ no more from the Sinhalese than the moun-

taineers of other lands from the dwellers on the coast. They

are of a stouter make and fairer complexion, but not taller.

Their manners are less polished, and the custom of wearing

a beard increases the natural wildness of their appearance.

If we compare these descriptions with those already given

of the Veddas we find in reality but few points of differ-

ence. ‘The complexion of the last may be on the average

somewhat darker, but it varies apparently within the same

limits. In regard to this the testimony of Dr. Davy

especially is of the highest importance. The swarthiness

which Mr. Bailey emphasises of the Veddas is to be ascribed

at least in part to their lack of cleanliness. It is equally

doubtful if the hair differs ; put the well-dressed, carefully-

combed, smooth hair of the Sinhalese, which is only curly

at the ends, beside the neglected, dishevelled, entangled,

but not curly hair of the Veddas, which hangs down so

far and sticks out all round, making the head appear very

large, and one is inclined to conjecture that the difference

here is owing to culture rather than to original peculiarity.

The average height of the Sinhalese seems to correspond

to about the height of the tallest Vedda: they are somewhat

shorter than Europeans.

Among the characteristics cited there is in reality only one

which seems to have made a very decided impression on every

observer, namely, the form of the nose, about which even the

old Chinese furnish reporis. Whilst with the Sinhalese it is

* Cordiner, /. ¢., p. 131.

No. 33.—1886.] tHE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 415

very prominent, resembling an eagle’s beak, and therefore

rather thin and narrow, with the Veddas it is always described

as flat, and with widely-distended nostrils. Add to this the

thick and projecting lips and the large mouth, and perhaps

also the comparative shortness of the Vedda face, there then

remains, as Mr. Hartshorne* has already pointed out, only a

few facial characteristicsfor diagnosis. Whether this is correct

the future may teach us, provided exact descriptions (and

above all large photographs) of the Veddas are furnished in

time. Meanwhile we may state that the Sizhalese also belong

to a dark—perhaps best described as a brown—smooth-haired,

and not (or only a very moderately) prognathous race.

How is it now with the osteological indications? Litera-

ture in this regard offers somewhat more explicit statements,

although exclusively for skulls. Here also it is the merit

of Davy to have furnished us with exact information. He

asserts the Sinhalese skull to be longer than the European.

As proof of this he gives on Plate 3 the drawing, side and

_ front view, of the skull of a Sinhalese chief from a secluded

region inland. This skull is long, moderately high, with

abruptly rising forehead, and broad, square back head,

flattened at the sides upto thetemples ; the zygomatic arches

prominent, the eye-cavities rather broad and low, and tend-

ing to square, but widening towards the bottom and the out-

side; the nose narrow and prominent, with bridgeslightly bent

in; the faceshort, with a low, slightly projecting upper jaw.

A more recent description of acraniwm Cingalensis is

given by Gerard Sandifort.| Theskull wasfurnished by Van

Hassem an Brugmans, and is at present in the Anatomical

* Hartshorne, J. ¢., p. 409, says : “The general appearance of the Weddas

may be described as distinctly non-Aryan. The comparative shortness

of their thumbs and their sharply-pointed elbows are worthy of remark,

as well as their flat noses, and in some cases thick lips, features which at

once distinguish them in a marked degree from the Oriental races living

in their vicinity.”

+ Gerard Sandifort. Tabule Craniorum Diversarum Gentium. Lugduni

Batav. 1838 (c. 7. Mus. Anat. Acad. Lugd. Bat., 1827, vol. III., p. 39,

No, DLXXXIV.).

: F 2

416 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX.

Museum at Leyden. There is also agreat number of measure-

ments given, but unfortunately the greater part of them are

of no use for our purpose. The capacity is stated at 39 ounces

of millet. Judging from the picture it is a very powerful

skull, with a long, strong face, very prognathous, having large,

very prominent teeth, large and broad lower jaw, the nose

long, high, and thin, the eye-cavities low, imperfectly rounded,

and very much aslant. As their height is given at ‘031, the

breadth at :041, the orbital index 75:6 would be chamaekonch.

The inter-orbital distance is mentioned as ‘024. The author

himself describes the cranium as oval, with avery high crown,

sidesvery much flattened, with slightly projecting éwbera, the

back head oblong and by no means spheroid, the under parts

rather flat ; the eye-cavities oblong in the tranverse axis, the

jfissura orbitalis posterior wide, the ends (vertices) of the

upper jaw hollowed out (excavatus), on the lower rims cut out

(exsectus), and passing obliquely into the likewise oblique and

projecting alveolar process of the maxillary bone; the palate

much arched (fornicatum) and oblong. I remark that its

length is stated at ‘059, its breadth in the region of the

third molar at -041, in the regim of the prae-molars at ‘039 ;

out of the first two measures would result a palatal index of

69-4: consequently an extremely leptostaphyline measure,

which indeed does not afford an exact comparison with my

measure taken in the region of the second molar. The

vertical height of the skull is stated at -145, the tuberal

parietal breadth at °126, the jugal breadth at :138, and the

distance of the maxillary angle at :110.

I find another statement in the catalogue of the Vrolik

Museum in Amsterdam,* where, under No. 66, is mentioned

the skull of a native of Ceylon, which Professor Bernard had

furnished. It is compared with the craniwm Cingalensis of

Sandifort, from which it is said to be distinguished chiefly

by its less prognathous jaw. It is described as a fine, strong,

dolichocephalous and somewhat prognathous skull, the

* Musée Vrolik. Catalogue par J. L. Dusseau. Amsterdam, 1865, p. 22.

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 417

forehead long, but of little height, considerably flattened at

the sides, the cheek-bones strong, and all the muscle epiphyses

well developed. From the measures given we calculated an

_ index of ratio between length and breadth of 72:2, between

length and height of 75, and a palatal index of 73-7.

Mr. Welcker™* gives in his craniological tables the average

index figures for five Sinhalese skulls, without, however,

saying where these are at present to be found ; probably the

above-mentioned Dutch specimens are among them. He

states the breadth to be 73:4, the height 77:2.

A large number of Sinhalese skulls are brought forward

by Mr. Davis, t in fact,a whole dozen. One of these, however,

is expressly said to be probably a hybrid of Malabar and

Sinhalese, and must therefore be excluded. Of the remainder

one is from Panaduré, one from Kandy, one from Negombo,

one from Colombo, the others unascertained. Half are male

and half female. The one (No. 982) which is called klinoce-

phalous and has a processus papillaris before the opening of

the back head, according to Mr. Davis shows “a degree of

mikrocephaly,” but as its capacity amounts to 1,474°6 cub. cm.

we are not quite justified in such an assumption. I give

below a short list of the main results obtained :—

The number of f Index of Index of

: Capacity. Longitudinal | Longitudinal

the'skall, ee Breadth: Height,

3 g $ g $ g

315 Was — LT —-- 72 — 70

979 oes — 1394:9 — 74 — 78

980 fa 23525 —~ 76 — 84 —

981 wee -— 1355-1 — 75 — 74

982 — 1474-6 —- 65 — 72

983 — 1494:6 —_ 70 — 80

984 seal ehOva o — 1D — 76 —

1007 ...| 16141 — 72 — 70 —_—

1008 Heal hOgaro — 73 — 74 _-

1009 cole Looe — (2 — 76 —

Medium ASST SiOn |e oro: | a galeo 76 74:8

Total average 10)... 1438'8 72-4 154

* Archiv. fiir Anthropologie, 1886, Bd. s. 154, 157.

+ J. Barnard Davis. Thesaurus Craniorum, p. 132.

418 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). —«[Vol. IX.

The average indices agree very nearly with the indices

of the skulls in the Vrolik Museum. Dolichocephaly is very

pronounced, though not so strongly as with the Veddds; the

height agrees pretty well with the Veddas, but the capacity

is much greater.

A wholly different description of the skull of a Sinhalese

is given by Mr. Zuckerkandl.* This skull was brought

over by the Novara expedition without any statement

whatever of itsorigin. It has a capacity of 1,505 cub. cm., and

an index of ratio between length and breadth of 86:1. It

is therefore hyper-brachycephalous. We may assert without

hesitation that it is either in a high degree pathological or

outright not the skull of a Sinhalese. The latter assumption

is supported by the fact that the incisors and canine teeth of the

upper jaw are filed flat,—a phenomenon nowhere mentioned

as seen among the Sinhalese, but which points very clearly

to a Malayan origin. The assumption of a pathological,

perhaps deformed formation, is supported by the fact that

the cranium is asymmetrical, the forehead flat and retreating,

while the sguama occipitalis is pressed flat to such a degree

that the upper half is sunk in “almost in the form of a wave.”

We may therefore exclude this skull from comparison.

With regard to my own skulls, I have already said that

probably a child’s skull, marked as Sinhalese, will have to

be excluded ; but as it is so distinctly stated to be Sinhalese

_ I will here describe it with the rest.

Skull No. 1 (Table II.).

A juvenile male skull, seemingly rather large, but without

under jaw. Synchondrosis spheno occipitalis closed. Wisdom

teeth broken out; the front teeth have later fallen out;

the remaining molars and the first premolars are very large,

and only a little worn on the crowns, but covered with a

thick black crust (betel). The points of attachment of the

* Reise der Osterreichischen Fregatte Novara. Anthropologischer Theil.

Erste Abtheilung. Cranien der Novara Sammlung, beschrieben von H.

Zuckerkandl. Wien, 1875, s. 24.

No, 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. A19

muscles strong, but the frontal eminences not very prominent.

The bones are yellow-brown, smooth, shiny, and hard.

The skull is in reality smaller than it appears ; it has only

a capacity of 1,110 cub. cm. The index of ratio between

length and breadth is 71-3, and is strongly dolichocephalous,

between length and height 72°5, orthocephalus.

In the norma verticalis the roof of the skull appears long

and narrow, tapering toward back and front, moderately

phenozygomatic, the tubera parietalia spreading out

broadly. The skull is unsymmetrical (plagiocephalic),

especially behind and below, where upon the left side, but

still on the parietal bone, there is to be observed an oblique

flattening, whilst the right side is more fully rounded out.

In front the form is more regular, although the right half of

the forehead is somewhat awry, and the right zygomatic arch

shorter than the left; the nose diverges a little to the left,

and the palatal suture at the back part turns a little to the

left. The sagittal suture, also, is not exactly median. Many

signs are visible of premature synosteosis: thus, on either

side, but more extensively on the left, in the midst of the

side parts of the coronal suture, and at different points of the

sagittal suture, of which the right emissary is wanting and

the left very small. The lower side parts of the coronal

suture are quite obliterated on the left for a length of 30 mm.,

and on tothe rightof 22mm. The open sutures are compara-

tively simple, yet the sagittal suture in its middle, and

the lambdoidal suture, have pretty large and broad indentures.

The latter at the point is very much depressed, and at the

sides, especially the left, there are several wormian bones.

On either side, in the region where usually the sutwra trans-

versa occipitis begins, we find a wormian bone reaching to

the parietal bone, larger on the left side, but in its middle

and upper part synosteotic.

In a lateral view of the skull it appears long and low,

the brow itself low and rather sloping, the tubera frontalhia

only tolerably distinct, the front of the skull long and

420 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). (Vol. IX.

rising abruptly. It reaches its height at the coronary

suture ; behind this is a slight depression ; the vertical height,

a finger’s breadth behind the coronaria. The back slope of

the parietal curve begins in the region of the twbera, and is

very long; the sguama superioris is strongly convex. The

temporal fosse large, and reaching to the tubera parietalia, and

beyond the lambdoidal suture. The front part of the temporal

fosse uneven and rugged. The squama temporals on

either side flat and high, especially on the left. On either

side a strong processus frontalis, which is only somewhat

indistinct because of the extensive synosteosis of the coronaria.

The ala temporalis low and quite overlaid by the very broad

process, which extends from the squama temporalis, pretty

regularly on the right, somewhat jagged on the left, but on

both sides pointed infront. In consequence of this stenokro-

taphy we find, however, that the very much depressed place

is pretty low down upon the ala, indeed, immediately at the

juncture of the sutura spheno frontalis, zygomatico frontals,

and spheno zygomatica. ‘The process appears more pointed

on the left, on the right almost trapezoidial. The measures

SOUL Oars Right. Left,

Length of proc. temp. upper ... 15mm. ... 12 mm.

Do. unders< 47° L0;mm. ¥.),<. 9 mm.

Breadth of ala temp. ... ooo) 7 bog at 18 mm.

In the norma occipitalis the contour of the skull is almost

pentagonal, the side parts going almost straight down, only

diverging at the base, the roof with slightly arched lateral

parts, the base tolerably straight. The sqguama superioris

strongly prominent and flattened at the sides. No protuber-

antia occipita externa. The linea semicircularis superior

and inferior strongly marked: linea suprema very faint.

We find on either side, however, and especially strong on the

left, a deep abrupt break between the facies muscularis and

the facies laevis, which in its lower part follows the direction

of the linea superior, then makes a deep bend toward the

mesial line, and ends parallel to the linea suprema, right

underneath it. In this way is formed on either side a long

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. “1 AQI

deep-lying tongue of the facies laevis,which reaches the sutura

transversa. Thecerebellar fosse are tolerably rounded out, the

Jacies muscularis more deeply marked. No large emissaria

mastoidea, but instead of this a larger foramen on either side,

near the crista perpendicularis. The foramen magnum is

rounded posteriorly, more oval anteriorly, 31 mm. in length,

26 in breadth, therefore 83°8. -The articulation prominent and

bent; processus mastoides poorly developed, with a deep

depression ; processus styloides large. Apophysis basilaris

lying somewhat flat; processus pterygoides with spreading

lamina externa; deep fossce for the lower jaw.

In the norma frontalis the middle and anterior part of

the head seems high, the region of the fontanelle raised,

the face, however, short and narrow. Orbits low and almost

four-cornered ; index 76°9, therefore strongly chamaekonch.

Fissura spheno maxillaris spreading outinfront. The outer

edge of the orbits bent inwards a little just below the

sutura zygomatico frontalis, inasmuch as here the processus

Frontalhs of the malar bone is somewhat bent inward poste-

riorly. The nose low, narrow above where it articulates with

the broad nasal process of the frontal bone, the bridge bent

in and somewhat rounded, but prominent and aquiline, the

aperture broad below, narrow above, hence triangular ;

index 57:7, therefore platyrrhine ; canine fosse full, foramina

infraorbitalia large, and especially the left one, communi-

cating with a roundish depression on the surface of the

canine fossa. Alveolar process short, in the middle 13 mm.

long, obliquely prominent. Alveole broad, palate large,

especially long; index 75:4, therefore leptostaphyline. The

sutura transversa palati very much forward, 17 mm. in

front of the spina nasalis posterior, which is short and

rounded away. The alveolar process is widely curved in

front, almost straight at the sides, slightly converging

behind. Hence the palate long, of prognathous character,

and somewhat pithecoid in form. The malar bones on

both sides have a fissure posteriorly beginning at the sutura

422 : JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [ Vol. 1x:

zygomatico temporalis, 6 mm. right, 5 mm. at the left, and

3 foramina zygomatica. The tuberositas molaris is of

moderate size, and belongs mainly to the upper jaw; the

tuberositas marginalis temporalis, especially the left, is very

strongly developed, and the bone very much bent inward

below.

Skull No. 2.

A senile, wholly toothless, probably male skull, without

lower jaw, of very moderate capacity (1,200 cub. em.), but

strongly dolicho-orthocephalic (ratio of length and breadth

70°2, of length and height 73-2).

It shows throughout a tendency to synosteosis ; the sagittal

suture is wholly obliterated—not a trace of it; in the region

of the fontanelle a broad projection above the frontal bone,

as sign of early obliteration. The emissaria are present, but

very near together (distance 10 mm.), the right consider™

ably enlarged. The coronal suture obliterated in the lower

part to a considerable extent on the right; on the left it is

perfectly simple, and in process of obliteration. At the right

the posterior part of the spheno frontalis is overgrown ; the —

spheno parietalis on both sides indistinct. The lambdoidal

suture at its angle shows traces of obliteration.

In the norma verticalis the skull is very long and narrow,

strongly arched in front, narrowed behind, with very pro-

minent lambdoidal angle, for the rest phenozygomatic. The

tuberosities very broad and prominent, therefore somewhat

klinocephalic in form. At the right, on the parietal bone,

just behind the coronal suture, several flat exostoses.

In the norma temporalis the skull appears rather long than

high. The middle of the parietal curve is flat, its

frontal division strongly arched, the posterior obliquely

gloping downward to the lambdoidal angle; then, however,

much arched at the squama superioris. Tminences rising

even to the parietal prominences and the lambdoidal suture.

Squama temporalis flat. Alc depressed towards the centre,

especially the right one, which is very much narrowed

No. 33.—1886.] THE vEDDAS oF CEYLON. 423

below. At their extremities posteriorly an irregular, trape-

zoidal epiptericum, 11 long, 8 high, with indented edges,

which towards the front are somewhat indistinct. The

angulus parietalis is very short, and as far as can be judged

with the synosteosis of the lower part of the coronal suture,and

the adjoining part of the spheno frontalis, is prevented from

coming in contact with the ala up to a distance of 4 mm.

Right, Left.

Direct breadth of the ala sphen. above... 21 mm. ... 24 mm.

Do, do, below...12 mm. ... 15 mm.

The norma occipitalis shows very high straight sides, with

simple flattened arching of the roof, and a straight base.

Lambdoidal sutures jagged. Squama superioris strongly

arched, but short, somewhat flattened laterally and below.

Plainly marked linea semicircularis suprema. At the upper

end of the crista perpendicularis a large irregular protube-

rance, very deep depression below the linew semicirculares

superiores. Large cerebellar archings with depressions

between well-developed emtssaria mastoidea.

Basis crani long,and protruding behind. Mastoid pro-

cess small, with deep fissures. The foramen magnum small,

31 mm. long, 28 mm. broad, index 90°3, very prominent

articulating surfaces, very long and strong styloid processes.

In the centre of the basilar apophysis a large basilar foramen

entering obliquely posteriorly, which corresponds to a

deep irregularly sinuous sulcus on the surface of the clivus

Blumenbachii, which, above and at the left, seems to have

communicated with the sinus cavernosus. Deep and wide

articular surfaces for the under jaw, very large lamine

externe on the alar processes, especially on the left. At the

left a very large foramen ovale. |

From the front the middle of the head appears high and

broad, the face delicate, short, and broad. The orbits rather

high and oval, widening somewhat as well to the inner and

upper, as to the outer and lower aspect, yet almost four-cor-

nered ; index 82:9, therefore mesokonch. Remarkably wide

fissura spheno maxillaris. The nose narrow above as well

424 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). fVol. IX.

as below, the bridge very prominent, bent in at the middle,

almostaquiline ; index 46, therefore leptorrhine. The swtwra _

naso frontalis fits convexly above into the nasal process of

the frontal bone. Spina anterior and inferior well developed

and prominent ; crista and septum very thick. On the cheek-

bone either side a short indication of a posterior fissure,

which, however, lies very high ; on both sides three small

foramina zygomatica. Canine fosse@ are little depressed, but,

on the other hand, run from the immensely broad foramen

infraorbitale on either side to the alveolar process, which is

more strongly developed on the left, making a very deep

fissure. The alveolar process is entirely toothless, but there

are still single open alveoli, especially at the left in the region

of the bicuspids and first molars; most of the alveoli, espe-

cially those of the incisors, are entirely obliterated, and the

process has disappeared, so that the shape of the very much

shrunken palate is uncertain. Here also the position of the

transverse suture is remarkable, because it is pushed so far to

the front as to be at a distance of 14 mm. from the posterior

edge. The spina nasalis posterior is wholly wanting; a short

bifid projection larger on the left than on the right.

Skull No. 8.

A child’s skull, perhaps female, with the not yet exchanged

milk teeth. The outer upper cutting teeth are still enclosed

in their cavities. The sutura incisora of the palate very plain.

The bicuspids and first molars developed, and very large.

The first bicuspids with three fangs, two outer and one inner,

the right one, moreover, with an exosteosis of enamel. The

alveoli of the second molars are open very wide, and empty,

but the teeth, to be sure, had not yet erupted. The openings

of the alveoli of the wisdom teeth still lie very deeply, and

far back. The synchondrosis spheno occipitalis very widely

open. To the right, at the sgquama occipitalis,is a sutura

mendosa 24 mm. long, in the direction of the sutura trans-

versa ; at the right only a slight indication of one.

Notwithstanding youth, this skull is larger than the two

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 425

preceding ones; its capacity amounts to 1,250 cub. cm.,

therefore it is mesohypsicephalic (ratio of length and

breadth 76°7, of length and height 77:3): therefore in its form

it is wholly irregular. ,

Looked at from above it appears cut off short behind and

somewhat unsymmetrical; broadly arched in the region of

the parietal eminences, towards the front lessened, but still

more broad. It is scarcely phenozygomatic. The sutures

are open, but the lower parts of the coronal and the posterior

division of the sagittal are very simple. The left foramen

parietale is obliterated up to an almost invisible point, the

right distinct, but moved very near to the suture. The lamb-

doidal has deep indentations with wormian bone near the

angle, and in the vicinity of the side fontanelle. Parietal and

frontal emissaries broadly prominent.

At a side view the skull has a wholly female form; the

low brow passes with a sudden turning into the long slight

parietal curve, from which, posteriorly, there isa very sudden

fall, with slight arching of the sguama superioris. Yet the

skull appears high. In the right temporal region is a very

large epiptericum, 25 mm. long, 10mm. high, obliquely quad-

rangular. ‘This completely interrupts the union of the

ala with the angulus parictalis, at the expense of which it is

principally developed. The ring is depressed, and in its

middle part shows stenokrotaphy. ‘To compensate, the tem-

poral part of the frontal bone is arched forward, bomb-

shaped on the left. The conditions are almost normal ; but

here also is an arching of the orbital portion of the frontal

bone, and the a/a is set more deeply into the latter :—

| Right. Left.

Breadth of the ala above aL SMT cents 20 mm.

Do. inthe middle 10mm ae 12 mm.

Ata back view the skull is very high and broad, the sides

straight, slightly converging below, the roof slightly rounded.

The back part of the head high, the sywama superioris arched

out, almost likea ball. No protuberance, linc semicirculares

scarcely visible. Cerebellar archings well developed over

426 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX.

the sutura mendosa, a deep transverse impression (einsch-

nirung ?) which in a manner cuts off the ball-shaped squama

superioris, and is deepest at the lambdoidal suture.

A view of the skull from below gives the impression of

breadth, principally in the mastoid region, whilst the laterally

narrowed and very small occipital part seems rather long.

The mastoid processes small, with a deep fissure. Koramen

magnum very large, especially long and posteriorly—in the

middle of the border having a secondary curving out (indica-

tion of spina bifida occipitalis 2); on either side in front of

this a thickened place forming a smooth articulating surface,

evidently for the reception of the ring of the atlas. Length

of the foramen (with the curving out) 36, breadth 25.

From a front view is seen a low, broad forehead, with very

distinct eminencies and large nasal process. At the lower

part of the latter a short remnant of the frontal suture. The

orbits high and large diagonally, widened above and out-

wardly ; index 83:3, therefore mesokonch. The root of the

nose broad and somewhat flattened, the bridge slightly

arched and short, bent forward and downward at the end ; the

sutura naso frontalis flat, and only slightly projecting above

the plane of the sutura maxillo frontalis. The aperture high

and triangular, with rounded corners; nose index 55:5, there-

fore platyrrhine. Alveolar process not at all prognathous,

but the teeth somewhat obliquely directed forward. Palate

short and broad, almost the shape of a horge-shoe, witha large

(17 mm. long, from front to back) palatal plate ; index 86°8,

therefore brachystaphyline. The curve of the teeth short and

wide, diverging behind.

From this description it is manifest that the last of the

three skulls differs in the chief respects from the two others,

and it is easy to understand that this difference would have

become very much greater if the child had lived and com-

pleted its development. It will appear later that in these ~

main points it approaches the skulls of the Tamils, although

these, among themselves, present no small differences. I

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON, 427

will not go quite so far as to declare outright that it is a

Tamil skull, but it may have belonged to a bastard, and

the fact (already mentioned) that the skull No. 316, from

Mr. Davis's collection, which is distinctly marked as that of

a hybrid of Malabar and Sinhalese, corresponds with this one

almost entirely in the indices (ratio of length and breadth

17, of length and height 78), speaks strongly in favour of the

assumption. It would seem at least wiser for the present to

exclude it from the collection. But I may at the same time

add that the same reasons may be urged against the admission

of the skull No.980, from Mr. Davis. This has a ratio of length

and breadth 76, and an index of height 84, although it

belonged to a senile individual, with total disappearance of

the alveolar processes. If then we withdraw this, as well

as my skull No. 3, there remains tolerably homogeneous

material, which offers great probability that it fairly corres-

ponds to the typical conditions. To the support of this view

the fact is of value, that the drawings which Davy, and even

those which Sandifort has given, coincide not only with

those I have furnished (Table II.), but also, in the main,

with all the other descriptions and measurements. Neverthe-

less I am sorry to say that the existing material is nowise suffi-

cient to enable us to decide all the questions. The absence

of the lower jaw in all my skulls is a very serious loss, and

the senile condition, as well as the extensive synosteosis of

one of the two apparently pure skulls (No. 2), makes even the

use of this, in regard to all the points in which it varies,

questionable. Even the third still remaining skull (No. 1)

is not free from great and plainly individual aberrations, for

it not only shows, in spite of the youth of its owner, very

numerous obliterations, but also on either side a large pro-

cessus frontalis squame temporalis.

This discussion is in the highest degree instructive, as

showing how unsafe it is to make race definitions on the

ground of single, or of a few skulls, and how necessary it is,

especially for such complicated ethnological conditions as

428 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol Mex.

those of Ceylon, to have ample and historically sure material

at our disposal. In the present case, I consider myself

justified in not foregoing the use of the skulls sent to me,

because through the comparison with the skull measurements

from other collections I have sufficient material under

control afforded me. Setting aside the not measured but

simply represented skulls in Davy’s work,and also those of

' Mr. Welcker (five) mentioned without any detailed state-

ments, and Sandifort’s skulls given with a wholly different

method of measurement, we can use for our comparison

twelve Sinhalese skulls, viz., one from the Vrolik Museum,

nine from Mr. Davis’s collection, andtwo from mine. These

would make a good broad basis for the decision, if important

numbers were not lacking in Mr. Davis’s: for instance,

measures of the orbits, of the nose, and of the palate. Hence

my work in several respects can only serve as preparatory.

Our study of details thus far has proved, first, that the

Sinhalese skull is considerably larger on the average than the

Vedda skull. Leaving out the two doubtful ones from nine

skulls of Mr. Davis’s, and two of mine, we obtain an average

of 1,406 cub. cm., which exceeds the measure of the Vedda

average by 145 cub. cm. To be sure, the fluctuations here

also are very great: the extremes of 1,110 and 1,694 cub. em.

afford a difference of 584, almost as great as we meet

with among the Veddas. A comparison of them, however,

immediately shows that the numbers much more frequently

range high among the Sinhalese :—

cub. cm. Veddas. Sinhalese,

901-1,000 Shi a: ag —

1,001-1,100 sis 1 15 oss A

1,101--1,200 sh 3 3

1,201-1,300 se 10 aes 1

1,401-1,500 iH 2D a6 IS Th

Over 1,600 pe 3 ae 3

Corresponding to the greater capacity, the measurements

are also larger with the Sinhalese.

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 429

And first, for the extent horizontally I have, in like

manner, as with the Veddas, after putting the figures of

Mr. Davis into metre measure (leaving out here also the

skull No. 980), received as an average of —

4 Male skulls sats ae 532 mm.

5 Female skulls ne re 494 mm.

9 Siphalese skulls wet ose 511 mm.

Compared with the Vedda skulls of Mr. Davis, the diffe-

rence in favour of the Sinhalese amounts to 26:11 and 23 mm.

My two Sinhalese skulls, whose small capacity is clear from

the previously given numbers, show only 482 and 493 mm.

extent horizontally: consequently, in the one case it is

somewhat less and in the other somewhat more than the

average of the Colombo skulls which I measured. On the

other hand, the size vertically (398 and 293 mm.) proved

greater with my Sinhalese than the average of the Colombo

skulls (298 mm.). One of the latter, however (No. 5), has a

higher measure (300 mm.). In the average, the vertical

compass of my two Sinhalese skulls is 192 mm. less than the

horizontal, of which it is 60°5 per cent. ; therefore somewhat

more than with the Veddas.

I have likewise calculated the length of circumference of

Mr. Davis’s skulls, taken with the sagittal suture. I receive

an average from—

4 Male skulls a ae 393 mm.

5 Female skulls ie Ble 370 mm.

9 Sinhalese skulls as oes 380 mm.

whilst my own measurements amount to 354 and 365 mm.

The corresponding average with the Vedda skulls amounts

to 366 (Davis) and 355 (Virchow) mm.

As regards the single segments of the sagittal arch, I find

the following average from Mr. Davis’s figures :—

Parietal

Frontal. Segment. Occipital.

4 Male skulls aclooummere. 136) mmnese 12 Oem:

HeWemalevskulis ae senl2s) mam yor lo lam ces 1 10 mame

9 Sinhalese skulls ... 132 mm. ... 133 mm. ... 115 mm.

31—87 G

430 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX.

or, according to the per centage of the whole sagittal arch :—

4 Male skulls ... 34°6 J 34:6 ifs 30-5

5 Female skulls... 34:5 sy 35:2 ony 29°7

9\Sinhalese skulls 34:7 9. 2..' 35,0 =... = s302

Here, as contrasted with the Veddas, we notice in a very

striking way the important part taken by the frontal and

parietal bones, especially the first, and the insignificant part,

on the contrary, assigned to the occipital bone.

With my two skulls the proportions for the middle of head

appear most favourable, and therefore rather according to the

female type of Mr. Davis’s skulls :—

No. 1 sis 33°6 ae 35°3 Sue 31:0

No. 2 Se 33°9 ac 35°6 neo 30°4

The proportion of the sagittal vertical extent to the hori-

zontal amounts in Mr. Davis’s skulls to 74°3, in mine to 73°7 :

hence almost the same numbers as with the Veddas.

As regards the form of the head, I have already given the

particulars of Mr. Davis’s skulls. The ratio of the average

of length and breadth is, according to index, the following :—

Skulls.

Dusseau... aa 1 ae (pe?

Davis Be Ke 9 was G20

Virchow ... a 2 wes 70°7

On the whole, from A 12 vee 71°8

‘This excellent dolichocephalous measure accords almost

exactly with the Vedda average (71°6). Even if we take into

consideration the five skulls measured by Mr. Welcker, and

omit the one mentioned by Mr. Dusseau, the average for

sixteen skulls only amounts to 72:2. I will not lay any

particular stress upon the difference in sex, since even with

the Veddas contradictory numbers have been shown. I can

only say authoritatively that Mr. Davis’s figures for the female

Sinhalese heads show a smaller proportion (71:2) than those

of the men (73). But here I must say that the previously

described skull (No. 982), which Mr. Davis, for some reason

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 431

not apparent, calls mikrocephalic, has only an index of 65.

Omitting this one we get from Mr. Davis’s four female

Sinhalese skulls an average index of 72:7.

It is especially noteworthy that all the particularised

Sinhalese skulls (with the exception of skull No. 980

belonging to Mr. Davis, several times mentioned, but left out

of the computation) vary within the limits of dolichocephaly,

whilst among twenty Vedda skulls (even after the exclusion

of the deformed one) there were found four mesocephalic.

Were we perfectly sure of the correctness of the preceding

statements, we must infer from them certainly a oe

similarity of the Vedda race to the Sinhalese.

As regards the proportions of the single parts of the skull

to the length of the whole, I have made a like calculation to

that of the Veddas :—

No. 1. No. 2.

Index (a) is 29°7 ae 29°8

Index (0) a 55°6 ane 53°5

Qn the whole, these measures also are somewhat greater

than with the Veddas, while yet nowise in a constant or

characteristic way.

The absolute figures for the greatest length and breadth of

the skulls on the whole run higher for the Sinhalese than

for the Veddas. I will next givealist of the length, breadth,

and height measures of all the Sinhalese skulls :—

Length. Breadth. Height.

mm, mm, mm,

Dusseau ... shor ORs) reso l30 lacs 915)

WavaSse INO: OND ee MIDI eee) V2A OS ce) E29

FOO tare mbideSr Ae suds bo ooliic es aa koe

ct ONT Gy eG Cre AS OP pce aieesien ate bea A is eamsere i DAS 5

ye GOOLE Cong e NG 2 Sie sey Ora oes FS2=1

HEUIO ON, ar el OOLOuEMece fp LARD ee LASS

eb Ofte Sen ee ddo Seid Co hanes wb ie 2 KF)

PO arm. meme lOOCOV is teen aot ee yar LO aeG

OOS ters ct VO Owlona wos sr AA are al As

ee TIE LOXUS eatery, aL Gye) easiest) operat ea el ooail

Virchow, No. 1... 178 Seah dae RST

‘ Zoran 181 cae by Se weed L338)

432 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol]. 1X.

We see from these that the greatest length of three male

skulls is over 190 mm., and of only four skulls (chiefly female)

less than 180 mm. Of the twelve skulls, seven have a length

of over 180 mm. The Sinhalese skulls, according to this,

exceed the Vedda skulls in length. The result is the same

with the greatest breadth. Of the twelve skulls half show a

breadth of over 130 mm., three are over even 140 mm. in

breadth, only five are under 130 mm.

As regards the vertical height, it is the same with the

Sinhalese as with the Veddas, and greater on the whole than

the greatest breadth. Only with three (two female and one

male) does the breadth exceed the height. On the other hand,

in two skulls of women the height is considerably greater

than the breadth, viz., about 12°77 and 153 mm. In three

cases the height reaches a measure over 140, rising in one to

1448 and in two to 1473 mm. This is considerably more

than with the Veddas. Nevertheless, the ratio of length to

height reckons for :—

Index. Males. Females,

Dusseau Be (1) ge 75:0 uae —

Davis sale (4) as 74:0 .. (5) 148

Virchow sis (2) saa 72:8 fos ---

Total ... (7) Soe (338 ee. OIE

Average of the whole twelve ee 74:2

The result, therefore, is a little below the average of the

Veddas (74:9), and within that of orthocephaly. The figures

given by Mr. Welcker (77:2) exceed considerably the above

estimate ; but if we include them in taking the average, and

leave out the estimates of Dusseau, the result obtained for

sixteen skulls is 75:1, which is only a minimum over the

amount of the Vedda index.

The auricular index is likewise less than with the Veddas

(63°5 and 58°5)—in the latter case less than with any of the

Veddas.

The total result as regards the formation of the skull is,

hence, that a great correspondence exists between the propor-

tions of the Sinhalese and the Veddds, while the absolute

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 433

Jigures show the Sinhalese to exceed the Veddas, as a rule, in

height. These differences would in the average be of still

more importance if the two skulls I have measured had not

suffered from a great variety of impediments to their perfect

development. I therefore call attention to the description,

and will here only say that there is certainly premature

synosteoses and much irregularity in the temporal region,

especially in the one case, where there is stenokrotaphy, and

where the squamous portion of the temporal bone overlaps

the frontal bone; and in the other case owing to a great

epiptericum. :

In the latter condition was also found the Vedda skull from

the Colombo Museum; and a Vedda skull from the London

Museum shows (as before mentioned) stenokrotaphy.

In examining the form of the face, I follow the same

method as before with the Veddas, and begin with the orbits.

Unfortunately, a great difference appears in the orbital

index of the two skulls I measured, which it is difficult to

reconcile, the first being 76:9 the other 82°9—consequently,

one chameekonch the other mesokonch. The last will there-

fore correspond nearer to the Vedda skulls. Here I must

suspend judgment, for no other observer has recorded orbital

measurements of the Sinhalese, or made any statements about

the shape of the orbits. Whether the shape which I have

spoken of as inclining to quadrangular is of any significance,

must be decided by further observations.

It is the same with the nose index. In the first of my

Sinhalese 57:7, therefore platyrrhine; with the second 46,

therefore leptorrhine. Like differences are found, to be sure,

in the Vedda skulls, whose average shows a mesorrhine

measure (52°2), while we might have expected, according to

the descriptions of the observers before quoted, a greater

uniformity in the shape of the nose. The bony structure

of the nose in the Sinhalese skulls is narrow, prominent, and

with a slightly aquiline bridge; and I have the impression

that the form, as it exists in skull No. 2, is really the typical

434 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). (Vol. 1X.

one. I have earlier expressed my idea* about a form which

is determined by two wholly different factors, not necessarily

united to one another, viz., the height of the nose and

the breadth of the aperture. But it is not worth while to

continue this discussion at present, with so little material.

Only six of Mr. B. Davis’s skulls offer material for deter-

mining the index of the face, and of these five are female.

I have computed them as follows :—

Height of Transverse

Skulls. whole Face. Diameter. Index.

mm. mm.

No. 3152 wae 109 ve 114 see 95°6

ee OSI 30s 104 oe 117 ae 88°8

5 whoa Le 102 Shs 125 UN 81°6

Soa aah 117 ye 127 Hae Oza

5, 1,007 & se 130 mee 132 wee 98°4

Here a very considerable contrast appears to the Veddas.

Whilst the highest measure of the male Vedda was 88°2, with

the Sinhalese we have a male skull of 98-4 and two female

skulls of 92:1 and 95:6 ; a third female skull has an index of

88:8. There remain only two female skulls with low

measures, one 81°6 and one of a weak-minded person, which

is 77-7. Whilst the total average with the Veddas was only

something over 83, I find for the Sinhalese 89.

If we now reflect that of the female skulls, as a rule, the

measure is lower, and that here, of six skulls, five are female,

among which is included the abnormally low measurement

of the skull of a weak-minded person, we may assume as

very probable that the Sinhalese face index in the classifica-

tion suggested by Mr. Kollmann (which, however is based

upon a somewhat different computation) is leptoprosopic.

The smallness of the yugal distance is decidedly in favour of

such an assumption.

* Virchow. Beitrage ziir physischen Anthropologie der Deiitschen mit

besonderer Beriichsichtigiing der Friesen. Abhandlungen der Akademie.

Berlin, 1876, s. 143, 350.

No. 33,—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON, 435

Since in both my skullsthe lower jaw is wanting, I cannot

arrange a corresponding calculation. Added to this, one of

them is so greatly changed on the edge of the jaw by age,

that it could not even be used for the middle face index. I

can therefore simply institute a comparison between one

Vedda skull (No. 1) and one Sinhalese. In the following I

give an index (a) calculated from the proportion of the height

of the middle face (root of the nose to the alveolar edge) to

the zygomatic diameter, the latter = 100; and a second (0)

calculated from the same height, and from the molar breadth

(lower end of the sutura zygomatico maxillares), the last =

100 :—

(a) (db)

Vedda yt 50:0 Hoes Oe

Sinhalese (52-6 605

Here the result is, as before, less breadth of the whole face

with the Sinhalese, but greater width of front face. The

alveolar index of the Sinhalese No. 1 shows a comparatively

high figure, viz., 99, but the facial angle (external meatus,

nasal spine, root of the nose) only 75, whilst in the case of

the Veddas amounting to 82.

With regard to the palate, I have unfortunately neglected to

take the measure of it in the Vedda skull. I have, however,

stated that it was broad, and the alveolar ridge in the shape of

a horse-shoe. Contrasted with this, the Sinhalese palate

exhibits considerable difference. According to Dusseau’s

figures, I reckon a palatal index of 73°7 ; according to mine, for

skull No. 1, of 75:4. Result, a leptostaphyline measure. If

we compare the two skulls upon Tables I. and II1., below

fig. 5, the difference is obvious. Whether it is to be regarded

as universal Iam not able to say.

On the whole, the osteological investigation of the Sinhalese

face, therefore, confirms what hasalready become conspicuous

from the physiognomical observations of individual reporters ;

the skeleton face of the Sinhalese differs far more from that

of the Veddas than the skull of the former from that of the

latter. It is distinguished, as a whole, in that it is much

436 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [ Vol. IX.

narrower. Thesame is true of the palate, and probably of the

nose. On the other hand, the orbits—at least of my

Sinhalese skull—are by no means high. The greatest

uncertainty is regarding the form of the jaw-bone. One

Sinhalese skull I have pictured on Table II. is decidedly more

prognathous than the Vedda skull, Table I., but also more than

the Sinhalese skull, according to Davy. The Vedda skull of

Messrs. Quatrefages and Hamy, as well as the Sinhalese skull

of Sandifort, has, however, a very prominent alveolar process.

Before pursuing this comparison farther it will be expe-

dient to discuss the other races of people who must later on

be brought into comparison.

The Tamils or Malabars.

As already explained, we understand by this name the

Dravidian immigrants who, in historic time, came from many

different points on the peninsula of Hindustan, and in the

course of over two thousand years multiplied so greatly

that they almost exclusively peopled the north and a large

portion of the east of the Island, more especially along the

coast. When the Portuguese, the first pioneers of Huropean

civilisation, obtained a firm foothold upon the Island, the

Malabar rule was firmly established in the old Rdjarata, or

Pilutirata. Moreover, Valentijn* defines their seat in his

time as extending up to the river Corunda Waye, which it

seems is identical with the Koorinda, or Kirinde-oya (“cinna-

mon river’), of Sir E. Tennent, a little river which toward

the south-east, near Mahagan, empties itself into the sea.

Davy{ also designates the northerly and eastern coast pro-

vinces as the principal seats of the Malabars.

Pridham§ speaks of them as inhabitants of the land from

Batticaloa even to Jaffna in the north, and from there as far

* Valentijn, 7. c., Bl. 49. i}; Hennent,.7..c., 1 ijon4d sie oneal

t Davy, J. ¢., p. 108. § Pridham, /. c., p. 463.

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 437

south as Puttalam. It is not to be understood from this,

however, that they live even now wholly separated from the

Sinhalese. On the contrary, they are found in no small

numbers mixed with other races, especially in the towns,

as the description of Colombo by Sir E. Tennent* very

clearly testifies. In this city they form a large fraction of the

labouring population. Itis of special interest to us that in

the east they are immediate neighbours of the Veddas.

In fact Wolf,t who found no sort of resemblance between

Malabars and Sinhalese, calls the Veddas “another species

of Malabar.” He describes the Malabars as black, long-

haired, and without calves to their legs. Beyond this I find

very few statements regarding their physical peculiarities.

Most of the writers limit themselves on this point to ascri-

bing to them a stouter physique and greater activity than

the Sinhalese.t Mr. Pridham says they either wear the hair

carelessly fastened up in a coil upon the crown of the

head, or on one side above the ear ; sometimes the whole head

is shorn with the exception of a single lock upon the crown.

Sir EK. Tennent§ describes the children of the Tamils as

perfectly naked, with glossy black hair and graceful limbs.

To the Tamils, as already stated, belong “the Mookwags, or,

as they call themselves, Mukuger.” If we may really

impute to them a separate origin, as Pridham|| does, who

traces their descent from the Nairs and Mookwas of the

Malabar coast, all observers nevertheless agree that from

their physical appearance they must be very nearly related

to the Tamils, if they are not actually Tamils. The fact that

the Mukkavar are Christians, and part of them also Muham-

madans, whilst many of the Tamils adhere to the teachings

of Brahma, has made the first a special object of attention.

* Tennent, 7. c., II., p. 156.

+ Wolf, a. a. O. IL, s. 156, 167.

{ Selkirk, J. c., p. 68. Pridham, /. c., I., p, 465.

§ Tennent, /. ¢., IL., p. 514.

|| Pridham, 7. c., I., p. 466.

438 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Volk De

Until of late only a single skull of a Tamil or Malabar was

known in Europe. This [ found in the collection of Mr. B.

Davis. Besides this there was in the same collection the skull

of ahybrid of Malabar and Sinhalese (No. 316). Through the

kindness of Mr. Fretidenberg, Consul, I have received three

Tamil skulls, unfortunately all without the lower jaw, and with

these a child’s skull, marked Sinhalese, which I have already

described, and of which I entertain the suspicion that it

belongs to the group of Dravidas. Properly speaking, we have

accordingly only four specimens, in a broader sense we may

say six. The first four are recognisable as male, the two

last have so slight sexual characteristics that their distinction

is doubtful.

The following is a detailed description of the skulls which

are at present in my possession.

Skull No. 1.

A still youthful, apparently male skull, without lower

jaw, in which all the teeth are erupted, but so far as they

are present (the incisors, the right cuspids, and three bicus-

pids are wanting) are very little worn off; the synchondrosis

spheno occipritalis is closed. Capacity small (1,155 cub. cm.),

ratio of length to breadth (72) decidedly dolichocephalic,

ratio of length to height (79°4) quite as certainly hypsicephalie.

Looked at from above the skull seems somewhat unsym-

metrical, especially the left parietal eminence, which is

lower and flatter. On the contrary, the left half of the

squama occipitalis is higher and fuller, the right flattened

laterally, the lambdoidal angle very irregular, the right leg

falling down abruptly close to the continuation of the sagittal

suture ; the left, on the contrary, extending almost horizontally.

The latter, moreover, contains in its lower part, near the side

fontanelle, long ossa wormiana. The shape of the skull is

decidedly long, mainly owing to the very narrow prominent

occipital portion. In front, up to the tubera parietaha,

* Barnard Davis. Thes. Cran., p. 134.

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 439

rather broad, broadest in the region of the latter. Sutures

perfect, no trace of foramina parietalia. In this region the

sagittal sutureis rather simple. Strongly marked phenozygy.

Ata side view we get the impression of height, and hence

also of the shortness. The brow tolerably straight, orbital

ridges hardly developed. The upper part of the forehead.

above the eminences greatly arched, and rising up just in front

of thecoronaria. The descent of the parietal curve toward the

occiput is abrupt. High plana temporalia intersecting the

tubera squama temp. plait. Large ale, with very short

anguli parietalis : at the right 35, at the left 34 cm. broad.

The norma occipitalis shows a very high pentangular

contour, rather flattened above, horizontal below, with very

high and perpendicular sides, only diverging a little below.

High and, as mentioned above, very irregular sqguama occi-

pitalis, with somewhat compressed sides, no protuberance ;

line semicirculares well defined, sharp crista perpendicu-

laris, slight cerebellar archings, short facies muscularis. |

In the norma basilaris the skull appears broad, especially

in the jugular and mastoid region, whilst the occiput is very

narrow and prominent. The foramen magnum a long oval,

somewhat oblique, 34 mm. in length, 26 in breadth, index

76:4. Articulations prominent toward the front. Mastoid

processes thick, but not long on either side, with large secon-

dary eminences on the posterior surface, especially prominent

on the left side. The styloid processes well developed, the

articular surfaces for the lower jaw very deep. Hamulus

pterygoideus and end of the lamina externa very large.

Ata front view the head seems high, forehead full, nasal

process very broad. Orbits high, with a diagonal widening

below and externally ; index 84:4, hence mesokonch. Fissura

orbitalis inferior very wide and hollowed out at the end.

- Nose narrow above and below ; bridge prominent and some-

what rounded ; index 48°8, hence mesorrhine. Fossa canina

a little depressed on the molar bone on both sides ; a posterior

superior fissure, and a large marginal tuberosity. Alveolar

440 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. 1X.

process strongly prognathous, but only 18 mm. long, with

very large alveoli. Palate deep and broad behind, with slightly

horse-shoe shape. Alveolar ridge 90, therefore brachy-

staphyline. Horizontal plate of the palate bone more promi-

nent anteriorly in the middle; short spina nasalis

posterior.

Skull No. 2.

A senile male skull without lower jaw, of small, but yet,

beside the others, of relatively larger capacity (1,260 cub.

em.), still dolichocephalic (74°8), and of moderate height

(length to height index 73°7) ; very marked places of attach-

ment for the muscles. Occipital protuberance large, almost

hook-shaped. The nasal prominence of the frontal bone

broad, protruding greatly, and with jagged traces of the

lower part of the frontal suture. The right malar bone, with

the contiguous part of the upper maxilla and zygomatic arch

wanting ; right side of the skull slightly eroded by decay.

Inthe norma verticalis the skull seems a pretty regular and

broad oval, with its greatest extent in the region of the parietal

eminences, and slightly phenozygmatic. The middle part of

the sagittal suture rather simple, the left foramen wanting,

the right lying very near to the suture. The lower side

divisions of the coronal and of the sutara spheno frontalis

obliterated ; beginning of synosteosis of the spheno frontalis.

In the norma temporalis we see very high planes, which

reach above the tubera and up to the lambdoidal suture,

ending posteriorly on the left in a thick sclerotic surface

whose edge overlies the lambdoidal suture; ala broad and

indistinct on the right, 26 mm. broad on the left.

In the norma occipitalis the section isseemingly nearly pen-

tangular, broad, moderately high, with a somewhat flattened

roof. The sguamaare large, especially broad ; the lambdoidal

angle about 160 degrees. The protuberance well developed,

as also the linea semicircularis superior ; in place of the linea

suprema, however, a flat ridge. Facies muscularis strongly

marked ; cerebellar archings only slightly developed, middle

No. 33.—1886.] wHE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 44]

portions rather depressed, near the crista perpendicularis

two foramina.

In the norma basilaris the breadth of the middle and pos-

terior regions very evident. MHoramen magnum very large,

long, and somewhat oblique, 38 mm. in length, 28 in breadth,

index 73°6. Articulating surfaces very prominent; behind

them, on either side, a thickened portion of the edge, especially

on the left, which corresponds to an articulating surface on

the arch of the atlas. Mastoid processes large and long, with

avery deep fissure ; very large styloid processes ; enormously

developed lamina externa pterygoidea, larger but thinner

Hamular process; to the right quite along foramen civinini ;

deep glenoid cavities.

In the norma frontalis head appears moderately high ;

face, however, rather short. Large frontal sinuses; nasal

eminence prominent, with broad jagged remains of the

frontal suture. Orbits high and wide, principally hollowed

out diagonally below and externally ; index 83:3, mesokonch.

Malar bone small; nose above quite small, with sharp and

only slightly bent bridge; index 9511, on the borders of

mesorrhine. Sutura naso frontalis rather strongly inclining

upward, and articulating with the very moderately broad

nasal process of the frontal bone. Fossa canina full ; fora-

men infraorbitale small and flat; alveolar process strongly

prognathous: side parts obliterated, only the middle and

front still remaining and prominent ; palate atrophied.

Skull No. 8.

A still youthful male skull, without lower jaw. Allthe teeth

were fully formed, but the incisors, cuspids, and bicuspids

have fallen out; first molars very large, and the crowns

- greatly worn ; only the wisdom teeth without traces of wear,

and small; dark betel-colouring of all the teeth. Swtwra spheno

occipitalis closed. Muscular attachments strong, although

the bones on the whole delicate. Capacity small, 1,200 cub.

cm. Form hypsimesocephalic, although bordering upon

442 , JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [ Vol. x.

dolichocephaly ; index of length to breadth 75:3, to height

80:9, strongly prognathous.

Top view : short, especially posteriorly ; moderately broad ;

phenozygmatic; sutures open; sagittal suture in the region

of the foramina wanting.

Side view : short and high; greatest height behind theline

of the ear and two fingers’ breadth behind the coronal

suture. High, straight forehead, strongly incurvated, with

large orbital ridges, deep glabella,and well-marked eminences ;

posterior part longand rising ; coronal suture pressed far back.

Middle of the head short, and much arched. From the crown

a sudden descent, with shortarching. High plana temporalia

reaching to the lambdoidal suture, and here forming a large

prominence ; sguama temporalis very flat ; on the right steno-

krotaphy, with epiptericum spheno frontalis. The angulus

parietalis entirely wanting, the portio orbitalis ossis frontis

in compensation, slightly arched forward. The ala is almost

wholly prevented from articulating with the parietal bone : it

only touches it at its posterior end, under which the

epiptericum is pushed. Coronal and spheno temporal sutures

run almost in a direct line. Spheno frontalis long, in a line

with the sguamosa, which is posteriorly lancet-shaped, 11 mm.

long, 5 high ; epiptericum articulating with the ala. Ala itself

gtrongly incurvated in the middle, yet broad; on the left

the spheno parietalis short, the angle little developed, so that

the squamosa and the spheno parietalis and spheno frontalis

run almost in a line; ala flat and broad.

Right. Left.

Spheno parietalis tis 1 mm. 600 7 mm.

Spheno frontalis — 245) 23) oom, 52 ee a2 Ono

Breadth of the ala Ss 25 mm. aoe 25 mm.

Back view: very high, sagittal region quite prominent,

only the suture itself somewhat depressed. The form of an

assumed section, about pentangular, but the upper and lateral

surfaces slightly arched. HEminences prominent, squama

high, lambdoidal angle acute, sqguama superioris strongly

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 443

arched, protuberance small. Lacies muscularis large, and, on

the whole, arched ; cerebellar archings, instead, slight.

Lower view: short, rounded behind; foramen magnum

short, 34 mm. long, 29 broad, index 85:2; very strong articu-

lating surfaces, placed rather far to the front and near

together. Mastoid processes large; left divided, but has

a slighter fissure. Deep and large glenoid cavities.

Front view: high, arching pretty regularly above; well-

developed nasal eminence, with somewhat porotic surface ; in

the middle of it a finely indented remnant of the frontal suture,

at either side of it an arching forward, owing to the frontal

sinuses. High, somewhat oblique orbits, with rounded roof ;

index 86°4, hypsikonch. Anterior part of the spheno-maxil-

lary fissure broad. Nose narrow above, bridge almost sharp,

somewhat deeply incurvated and arched; aperture broad

and high; index platyrrhine. Spina nasalis anterior large.

Fossa canina moderately depressed. Moramen infra orbitale

flattened. Cheek bones projecting greatly, with rather

short posterior superior fissure. Alveolar process short,

14 mm., still strongly prognathous, because of the large

alveoli. Palate very broad; index 87:1, brachystaphyline.

Alveolar ridge slightly converging posteriorly, yet somewhat

in the shape of a horse-shoe. ‘Teeth on the whole very large.

The anterior part of the palate surface forms an oblique

descent. Slight spina nasalis posterior; large (14 mm.

long) palatine plate.

The single skulls present certain peculiarities which impair

their typical value. This is especially true of the first,

which shows a considerable degree of plagiocephaly, with

great irregularities in the lambdoidal suture. In all

probability the obliquity has operated asa pressure, which

has affected one side of the occiput, but it is difficult to say

whether this pressure has been an artificial one, and if it

came first after birth. The extent of the aberration in the con-

figuration of the lambdoidal suture appears to indicate rather

a disturbance during foetal life. We found something

444 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol]. IX.

resembling this in the Sinhalese skull No. 1, in which the

disturbances even extend to the skeleton of the face, and it

had better therefore be omitted in the comparison.

The irregular formation of the processus pterygoides in the

second case, where is found, on the right side, a hyperplasia

of the lamina externaand a large foramen civinini, renders

this one also unsatisfactory for an entire comparison. Some-

what more considerable are the temporal deviations in the

third case, where at the right is found separating epipteri-

cum, and at the left a shortening ef the angulus parietalis ;

but we found something similar with the Sinhalese, for in

No. 1 we encountered on either side a frontal continuance

of the squama temporalia, and in No. 2 a right-sided epip-

tericum. It would indeed be very desirable to have skulls

without these individual peculiarities (although possibly

somewhat common to the race), but at present they are not

to be obtained.

Turning now to the comparison, we find that the average

capacity of the skull is very moderate. The skull out of the

Davis collection is the largest ; its capacity 1,375 cub. cm.

Mine have 1,155, 1,160, and 1,200 cub. cm. The average

amounts to 1,247 cub. cm., hence somewhat less than the

average of the Veddas (1,261 cub. cm.), and very much less

than that of the Sinhalese (1,406 cub. cm.). Considering the

small number of Tamil skulls, [should not be willing to take

this proportion as the standard, but it shows that the low

figures of the Vedda skulls must not be looked upon as wholly

exceptional. The skull ofa hybrid in the Davis collection has

a somewhat higher measure, viz. (according to Mr. Welcker’s

tables), 1,325 cub. cm. My doubtful Sinhalese skull, No. 3,

although belonging toa child, is also comparatively roomy, its

capacity being 1,250 cub. cm. But these specimens cannot be

taken into consideration in computing the average.

The horizontal circumference of the skull out of the Davis

collection amounts to 495 mm.; mine measure 477, 490,

and 473 mm., giving an average of 483 mm., differing little

_ No. 33.—1886. | THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 445

from that of the Veddas and the Sinhalese, though somewhat

smaller than with the latter. The hybrid, No. 316, of Mr.

Davis has only 475, not much more than the Siyhalese (?)

child, 472 mm.

The vertical circumference, on the other hand, constantly

rises above that of the Veddas as well as the Sinhalese. It

amounts in my three skulls, in the average, to 306 mm.,

against 289 with the Veddas and 295 with the Sinhalese.

This average is only 174 mm. smaller than that of the

horizontal circumference of the corresponding skulls (480

mim.), which is 63°7 per cent., against 59°4 with the Veddas

and 60°5 with the Sinhalese. This difference is very

noteworthy. It is found also with the child (Sinhalese

No: 3).

The circumference of the skull from Mr. Davis’s col-

lection, taken through the sagittal suture, measures 353 mm. ;

that of mine 359, 351, and 352; therefore, in the average,

d00 mm., against 376 with the Sinhalese and 363 with

the Veddas. Plainly the question here, however, is as to the

complementary relation to the vertical measure, for the

sagittal circumference in length amounts in the cage

of the—

Tamils, to 560 506 73:0 per cent.

Sinhalese, to ase seh 74:3 ie

Veddas, to ane vee 74.5 i

of the horizontal circumference.

In an investigation as to the share of the individual por-

tions of the roof of the skull to its whole circumference

(scheitelbogen), the striking anomaly is directly presented

of the plagiocephalic skull (No. 1 in my collection), which

is remarkable for the great development of the middle and

back parts of the skull-roof, owing to which there is a

perfectly abnormal shortening of the frontal portion.

This will be best understood by a comparison of the

figures.

d1—87 OF,

446 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON).

[Vol. LX.

Occipital.

mm,

Occipital.

mm.

28:8

30°6

27°6

28:4

Frontal. Parietal.

mm. mm.

Davis, No. 314 550 BBA ATS) 500 122

Virchow, No. 1 Si cece EG 580 132

Do. No. 2 600 ww. 134 es 120

Do. No.3 oie oe oO 665 122

Average boo) Lleall noe 124

Average (gavin Nos) .<00, Lod 50 121

Calculated according to the percentage of the whole sagittal

archi: —

Frontal. Parietal.

mm, mm.

Davis, No. 314 300 we 36D ie OAD

Virchow, No. 1 ee wos fOSED cg) OO!

Do. No.2 nae vee OO Bier not wl

Do. «No.3 i Bho) los) ee EO

Average 36:0 Bore eee)

Average Gace No. iN a7 1 we «= O44

Tt is clear from this that for a precise comparison No

288

28°2

= all

must be left out entirely. The two others, however, pre-

viously mentioned, viz., that of the hybrid (No. 316) from

the Davis collection and that of the child marked Sinhalese

No. 3 from mine, very decidedly approach the Tamil type.

They coincide so exactly with one another that the suspicion

of the child’s skull being really a Tamil skull, or at least a

hybrid, grows upon me strongly. The figures for these are

the following :—

Frontal. Parietal.

mm. mm.

Davis, No. 316 ... Sy one 25

Virchow, No. 3 ... Sone izAll fp 25

Or per centage :—

Davis, No. 316 ... Sit BA ao 35°6

Virchow, No. 3 ... wee 346 Ba 39°8

Occipital.

mm.

104

103

29°6

29°5

somewhat, whilst the occiput and parietal portions are more

developed, and owing to this all the Tamil relations area

little changed.

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 447

If, on the other hand, we compare the Tamils with the

Veddas and the Sinhalese, a radical contrast appears, especially

as regards the share of the brow and the upper part of the

occipital bone in the forming of the skull-roof. Whilst with

the Tamils it culminates in the frontal division, with the

Sinhalese, and still more with the Veddas, the occipital is

strongly developed. The hybrid, in the stronger parietal

development, comes nearer to the Sinhalese.

Still more striking are the variations in regard to the form

of the head. To be sure, my plagiocephalic Tamil skull,

No. 1, here takes an exceptional place, because owing to its

surprisingly little breadth (126 mm.) it gives a low dolicho-

cephalic index (72). On the other hand, the skull out of the

Davis collection has a high mesocephalic index (79), and of

my two Tamils, one (No. 2) is at the extreme boundary of

dolichocephaly (74°8), the other (No.3) even beyond this, and

at the beginning of mesocephaly (75°3), the average being

76:3, therefore mesocephalic. The two hybrids show the

same relations; skull No. 316 of Davis has an index of 76:7,

the child’s skull in my collection has one of 77. This, con-

_ trasted with the excellent dolichocephaly of the Sinhalese,

and, with a few exceptions, of the Veddas also, is a very

important result.

The smaller occipital development of the Tamil can be seen

from this, that the horizontal length of the occiput in relation

to the entire length (a) is less ; on the other hand, the basilar _

length in the same relation (0) is greater.

No. 1. No. 2. No. 3.

(a) 27-4 a 23°4 aM 27°0

(b) 57-1 es 5401 Se 55:8

The greatest length on an average is small. With Davis it

amounts to 173, in my skulls to 175, 179, and 170; hence in no

case reaching even the moderate measure of 180mm. The

hybrid from the Davis collection measures only 168 mm.,

while my child’s skull measures 172. The greatest breadth,

which is always in the parietal region, is found in a skull of

H 2

448, JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vo]. IX.

Mr. Davis’s, 137 mm. ; in mine it is 126, 134, and 128; in that

of the hybrid 130; in the child’s skull 132 mm. ; hence in none

of them anything considerable. In comparison with these

_ the measures of the vertical height are 137:5,—remarkable: in

the same order they are 132—139, 132, 137-5,—132,—and 133.

The greatest number here, therefore, is that of the plagio-

cephalic skull, No. 1, which must be left out of consideration.

All the remaining figures are very moderate, even small as

contrasted with the Sinhalese, in fact almost on the borders of

the Vedda figures. The breadth is greater than the height in

two out of the three typical Tamils.

The matter takes another aspect if we consider the figures

of comparison. The length to height index amounts with

Mr. Davis to 76, with my three skulls to 79°4, 73:7, and 80:9,

with the hybrid 78, with the child’s skull to 77:3. From this

the average of the three typical Tamils is 76°8, which corres-

ponds with the hybrids. Thisis a decidedly hypsicephalic

measure, larger than that of the Veddds (74:9) or of the

Sinhalese (74:2). This, then, may be included among the

diagnostic points.

The auricular index is also correspondingly high. I found

it 66°3, 63:1, and 68°8, and with the child 67:4.

Whilst a comparison of the bony skull of the Vedd4 with

that of the Sinhalese proves great similarity, as compared

with the Tamil, on the contrary, a great difference is

observed. The skull of the latter is hypsimesocephalic, and

even when the measure of the contents shows very slight

variations, great differences appear in the circumference

measures. How much the latter were to be seen in the

sagittal circumference and in the share of the different parts

of the roof of the skull, has been previously explained in

detail.

If we now turn to the shape of the face, we find that with

the Tamils it is quite regular. .

The orbital index amounts to 84:4, 83°3, and 86:4, hence in

the average 84:7, a high mesgokonch measure, The child’s

No. 33.—1886.] TH VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 449

skull also gives 83°3. Very similar is the index of the Veddas,

while, on the other hand, that of the Sinhalese seems to be

lower. On the whole the orbits are high, in one case (No. 3)

even hypsikonch, the upper edge in most somewhat bent, and

the diagonal from within and above downward and outward

lengthened.

The nasal index of my three skulls shows 48'8, 51:1, and 53-1,

—an average of 51, hence on the extreme verge of mesorrhiny.

No. 3 only is platyrrhine. The child’s skull alone gives the

high platyrrhine measure, 55°50. In so far the Tamil nose

probably resembles the Vedda nose more than the Sinhalese.

But here also the index gives no distinct idea of the shape

prominent, although the nasal process of the frontal bone is

very broad. The bridge is a little bent in, rather sharp and

aquiline. The nose, however, with them all is of. little

height, which may in the living have rendered it quite

different from the Vedda nose.

The face measures are scarcely satisfactory. Only the

skull in the Davis collection has a lower jaw, and in this the

index is 85°7,a mesoprosopic measure. Of my skulls, the

senile (No. 2) must be omitted because of its defective alveolar

processes ; the other two have middle-face indices of 51°6 and

53°4. The relation of the molar breadth to the middle-face

height amounts to 68°8 and 62°3. The Tamil face occupies

a middle position between the Sinhalese and the Vedda face :

it is shorter than the first and longer than the second.

As regards the alveolar index, this amounts to 90, 94'8, and

97°8, therefore in the average 94:2. The degree of prognathy,

which is quite clear with the Tamils, is with no more certainty

to be ascertained from this than from the (nasal) facial angle.

The size, especially of the alveoli of the incisors, necessitates a

strong projection forward of the alveolar process. But the

palate also is decidedly broad; hence we have a palatal index

of 90 and of 87:7, a brachystaphyline measure. And herein

lies a very striking contrast to the Sinhalese. The size of the

450 | JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX.

palatine plate of the os palatinum, on the other hand, shows a

certain similarity to theirs.

The Moors, or Moormen.

According to the information which I have already given

Arabian colonies were at a very early period established

in Ceylonfor commercial purposes. Even at the present

day a large part of the smaller traffic is in the hands of

these people, who are still engaged in maritime intercourse with

the Continent. Sir Emerson Tennent* deduces from this the

appellation “Marakkala-minisu,” or “ Mariners.” There are,

however, “ Moorish” villages and settlements also upon the

Island. About Batticaloa especially, they seem to have intro-

duced, or at least to have here brought to greater perfection,

the culture of the palm, in the same way as in the south of

Spain.f But in spite of this their number is small, and their

effect upon the rest of the population even less highly to be

estimated, because of their religion, which necessitates a

sharply-defined separation, so that they rarely intermarry with

the Sinhalese or other natives.{ I would not, however, omit

them, since in a very characteristic way they occupy a distinct

place under the caste organisation. As mentioned they are

“attached” to the Kshudrawansa, and among them to the

Fisher caste (Karawé).

Unfortunately we have scarcely any descriptions of their

physical peculiarities. Wolf,§ who certainly seems to include

all sorts of people under the name of “ Black Turks,” says

the Moors are black, but have strong limbs, thick calves, and

shorn heads. Thunberg| describes them as large of stature,

darker than the rest of the islanders, and well clothed. Prid-

ham{ declares them to be the handsomest race in the Island,

after the European, of martial appearance, and almost with-

out exception tall and well formed. Davy says, “In dress,

* Tennent, I., p. 632. y+ Zd., I1., pp. 456-58.

{ Pridham, I. p. 479. § Wolf, a.a. 0., 1.8. 169.

|| Thunberg, vol. IV., p. 188, quoted by Philalethes, 7. ¢., p. 244.

q Pridham, /. c., I., p. 479.

No. 33.—1886.] THE vEDDAS OF CEYLON. 451

appearance, and manners they differ but little from the Sin-

halese.”

So far as I can learn there is only one skull of a “ Moor”

in Europe, and that is in the possession of Mr. Barnard

Davis.* This one (No. 317 of his collection) came from

Colombo. It is a male skull of 1,495 cub. cm. capacity,

_ therefore tolerably large, with a length and breadth index of

70, length to height index of 71, and a face index of 85:7; it

is accordingly orthodolichocephalic and chameprosopic.

A farther comparison is scarcely desirable, because from a

single skull no judgment can be formed as to whether it is

really typical of the race.

Malays.

We have earlier discussed the existence of a scattered Malay

element. A few statements as to their physical condition

have come to us.

Cordinert describes them, as in contrast to the other races, »

lighter, more inclining to copper-colour than any other of the

Indian races. Selkirk{t speaks of them as nearly of a copper

colour, rather below the middle size, with “flattened fore-

heads, broad faces, large flat noses, and sharp, fierce revenge-

ful eyes.” Pridham§ describes them similarly, and calls

them by no means agreeable specimens of humanity. They

are active, of a slight yet muscular form.

In the Davis collection there is a Malay skull from Colombo.

It is marked male. Its capacity amounts to 1,435 cub. cm. ;

the length to breadth index is 79, length to height index 76,

face index 108. It is therefore hypsimesocephalic and

leptoprosopic.

Mutual Relation of Races.

It is conceivable that the question of the origin and

relationship of the different tribes existing close to one

* Davis. Thesaurus Craniorum, p. 134. + Cordiner, 7. c., p. 143.

{ Selkirk, 7. ¢., p. 74. § Pridham J. c., 1, p. 483.

452 | JOURNAL, R.A.8. (CEYLON). (Vol. IX.

another in. Ceylon should very early have interested the

visitors to the Island.

In 550 B.c. Cosmas Indicopleustes, who lived under Justi-

nian, states, upon the ground of reports from the. Greek

traveller Sopater, that the natives of Ceylon belonged to

different races: he calls them expressly ad\d¢vdo.*. Hven the

Chinese were aware that the north of the Island was inhabited

by quite a different race from that of the south; the men

in the north (the Tamils) they compare to the Hu (Hoo),

a people of Central Asia; in the south (the Sinhalese) to

the Liau (Leaou), a mountain tribe in west China, to whom

they ascribed “large ears, long eyes, purple faces, black

bodies, moist and strong hands and feet,” with a long life of

a hundred years and more, adding that the men, as well as

the women, wore their hair “long and flowing.’’}

Evidently these old Chinese reporters found no analogy

between the Sinhalese and the Chinese themselves. Nor have

they, so far as I know, left behind any accounts from which

to conclude that a Chinese colonisation of the Island had ever

taken place. All that is gathered from their reports{ is con-

fined to information about the mercantile and religious institu-

tions, and to one warlike enterprise of the Chinese ; but the

reports do not come down further than the fourth century of

our era, and the defeat of a king of Ceylon by a Chinese army,

which occurred as late as the year 1408. Except the state-

ment that in the year 1266 Chinese soldiers entered the

military service of king Parakrama, there is no mention

made of any longer stay or actual settlement of the Chinese

in Ceylon. Notwithstanding this, the Portuguese writer

Ribeyro§ has expressed his opinion that the original popula-

tion of the Island may have been Chinese. Knox] also

* Tennent, J. c., I., p. 568. }

+ Cited by Sir E. Tennent (1., p. 611) from Chinese works.

{ Tennent, 7. c., I., p. 607, et seq.

§ Id., 1.8c., I., p. 327,:note 2.

{| Knox, ¢.,§p..61.

No, 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 453

heard this story from some Portuguese, but says very

decidedly : “But to me nothing is more improbable than

this story. Because this people and the Chineses have no

agreement nor similitude in their features, nor language, nor

diet,” and adds: “It is more probable they came from the

Malabars, their countrey lying next, tho they do resemble

them little or nothing, I know no nation in the world do so

exactly resemble the Chingulays as the people of Europe.”

Here we must remember that he looks upon the Veddas and

Sinhalese as belonging together: “Of these natives there be

two sorts, wild and tame.”

This certainly ingenuous statement is of great value. The

reference to the Malabars is, as we see, purely speculative.

In reality Knox denies any resemblance of the Sinhalese to

the Malabars, and finds them much more like the Euro-

peans. This is the first unequivocal testimony to the Aryan

origin of the Sinhalese, which since then has been assumed

by so many visitors. Davy* says: “The pure Singalese of

the interior are completely Indians in person, language,

manners, customs, religion, and government.” He leaves it

indefinite which division of Indians he has in mind, and his

mentioning the religion seems to exclude the Aryan or

Brahminic division. Certainly he did not refer to the

inhabitants of the peninsula of northern India—the so-called

Indo-Chinese.

Philalethest and Pridhamt alone among the more recent

reporters express their conviction of the Chinese origin of the ~

Sinhalese ; both, however, not from anthropological reasons,

but on historical grounds, and the latter with reference to

the system of drainage and terrace building of the Sinhalese,

which he traces back to China. The historical grounds are

of little importance. With regard to drainage, though the

invention of this system may unquestionably be ascribed to

= = ed tere nce ioeeeneteenen tipeerd messin

* Davy, J. c., p..109. + Philalethes, 7. ¢., p. 15, note fF.

) Pridhanm c., Lp. 21.

454 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX.

the Chinese, Sir E. Tennent has proved that “the tank

system ” in Ceylon is of Tamil origin, and was introduced

from Hindustan in the fourth century of our era.

After the previous statements no elaborate proof is needed

that neither Sinhalese nor Veddas, at least in the form of

their skulls, present the slightest indication of any relation-

ship to the Mongols. Such a remarkably dolichocephalous

tribe has never yet been found among the Mongols. What

truth there is in the old Chinese story of the similarity of

the Sinhalese to the Liau in west China I cannot judge; but

it is not even proved that this people is to be regarded as

belonging to the Mongols proper. We might rather connect

them with the present Laos (on the boundary between China

and Siam), whom Giitzlaff,* according to their complexion,

distinguishes as black and white. According to the opinion

of Mr. Schott,f however, the Liau are rather identical with

the Ljaos, of whom he states only that they were “south-

western aliens,” therefore, at any rate, not Chinese. Until

we have more precise information about this south-western

people, which happily is now in prospect, we cannot draw

* Prichard, 7. c. Third edition, London, 1884, vol. IV., p. 503.

+ Professor Schott communicates to me the following : “The word Zjao,

of which I thought at first, is the name of a river in the present Mandshooria,

after which a Tartar dynasty was named, who for some time ruled over

north China. Another Ljao (in different dialects Zao, lio, liu, formerly even

lot), which indeed is the one for us to consider, is written very like the

former. This signifies, with an added ja (‘back tooth’), ‘prominent

teeth,’ and is besides, in itself alone, the name for certain south-western

outlandish tribes, as I see from the original dictionary, named after the

Emperor Kang-hi. The tribe southward from Yun-nan, called by the

Europeans Laos, is, as far as I know, by the Chinese never called anything

but Lao-tschua, from lao, ‘old man,’ and tschua, ‘to beat the drum.’ This

drum-beating old man is evidently a mere counterfeit of a non-Chinese

word, as, for instance, Jang-ja, ‘wolf-teeth,’ is the Chinese rendering of

Langka, that is the Indian name of the Island of Ceylon. Corresponding

to the old name for a people or peoples, Hu, which designated, in general,

the population of central Asia to the north of China, and among these the

Hyjtin-nu, or Hjung-nu, who have often been confused with the Huns, and

are certainly in name identical with them, is a word signifying, in its

appellative sense, the dew-lap of an ox. Another Hu, differently written

and distincty national, I cannot trace.”

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 455

from this citation any important conclusions regarding the

physical constitution of the Sinhalese. I will not, however,

: pass over in silence the fact that according to an old tradition

already mentioned by Valentyn, the Sihala dynasty, from

which Wijayo the conqueror was descended, had _ their

residence in Tenasserim ; so that according to this a Siamese

origin is ascribed to the Sinhalese. Since, however, all the

more recent investigations agree in this, that the dynasty, as

well as the language of the Sinhalese, is derived from

Magadha, the present Behar, that is, from the very midst of

the Ganges land, there is no need of our following up the

tradition. Besides, it is not the search for the Sinhalese

origin which claims our first interest, but fathoming the

derivation of the Veddas.

Even in case we consider the Veddas to be, as some say,

savage Sinhalese, or the Sinhalese to be tame Veddas, as

others say,—thus deducing both from one and the same

original stock,—we cannot but begin our investigations with

the Veddas. A reverse order would be justified only if we

assumed that the Veddas had sunk back from a condition of

higher civilisation to the most absolute savagery, in which

condition all travellers have found them for many centuries.

The theoretical objection to such an assumption I have

pointed out already, and will not bring it upagain. But I ask,

what signs of an earlier civilisation have actually been found ?

Have the remains of a higher culture been discovered any-

where upon the Island, which, with any show of proba-

bility, might be attributed to the Veddas? To my knowledge

there is nothing of the kind, not even rubbish-heaps

(yjokkenméddinger) such as are found in an excellent state

of preservation in the neighbouring Andaman Islands. Not

one stone implement, such as even the Australian possesses

in manifold forms, has been found. Now it is just conceivable

that these gaps may be filled. by further researches, especially

since the above-mentioned remark of Mr. Hartshorne

awakens at least a hope of stoneaxes. But what will be gained

456 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX.

even by this? At best the possibility of placing the Veddas

on a level with the Andamanese and the Australians, whilst,

according to the present facts, they must be placed decidedly

lower. A people who do not even possess clay vessels, who

have no knowledge of domestic animals beyond the dog,

who are unacquainted with the simplest forms of gardening

and agriculture, who lack almost every kind of social

institution, who are not even counted among the outcasts by

their civilised neighbours, cannot possibly ever have had the

means which make a higher culture of any kind possible.

The hypothesis of a return to barbarism must hence be

definitely given up.

The ground for such an assumption could only be found

in the language. How great the difference of opinion with

regard to the place which should be given the Vedda

language I have already shown. That it is no Dravidian

idiom fundamentally seems to me proved beyond a doubt

from the testimony before us. A great number of high

authorities, among them some of the first linguists, declare it

to be rather a Sinhalese than an Aryan dialect. But whether

the Sinhalese itself corresponds to one of the other Indo-

Aryan languages is again contested. But even if, with the

well-informed Childers, we take it for ancient Pa4li, or

rather a primitive sister dialect of the Pali, it will then truly

be very difficult for any one to argue from it, and still less

from the Sanscrit words intermingled with it, the derivation

of the Veddas from the valley of the Ganges.

For centuries they have been surrounded by more highly

cultivated people, and even if they, from shyness, have

remained hidden in their forests, a certain intercourse with

their neighbours has yet been unavoidable. Where the Tamils

have continuously pressed on nearer to them, as in the

vicinity of Batticaloa, a part of the Veddas have adopted the

Tamil language.* But during a very much longer period, and

* Cordiner, J. ¢., L., p. 91. Bailey, 2. ¢., p. 305, note.

“No. 833 —1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 457

in the greater number of places, they were in immediate

contact with the Sinhalese, to whose kings they stood in a

kind of subjection, and from whose line their own chiefs

were appointed. What wonder, therefore, if they adopted

more and more Sinhalese wordsand forms? The question is

only whether, beside these, as I suppose, borrowed words,

their language has not preserved some individual elements ?

To this point the collectors of vocabularies and comparative

linguists seem to have given very little attention. And

yet the words of doubtful origin, as Mr. Hartshorne has

designated them, should be most carefully collected and

tested. Thus far we are not even informed positively

whether the Vedda language contains any words designating

numbers. What use is it for our investigation that Mr. Max

Miller declares more than half the Vedda words (that is, of

those noted down by travellers) to be corrupt Sanscrit ?

Where belongs the other half, even if smaller, which perhaps

with greater attention might be enlarged? If we cannot class

it among the -Tamil languages it is very possible that it may

prove specific. Nothing hitherto justifies us, it seems to me,

in any such one-sided statement as that of Mr. Edward Tylor,

who calls the Vedda language, without hesitation, Aryan.

The matter would take a rather different aspect if we

might assume that originally the Veddas alone inhabited the

whole Island, and that they were not only forced back into

the forests by the immigrants, but had intermingled with

them. Of the Tamils, who did not immigrate until later, we

may say that in the north they have, in fact, supplanted

the original population, but that in the east they have not

merely mingled with the Veddas, but have accomplished a

veritable Tamilisation of the Veddas. Thisappears, however,

unimportant for the essential point. Not so with the

Sinhalese. If we follow the statements of the native

| analyists, the origin of the Sinhalese is to be traced back to

the followers of king Wijayo, a victorious host of immigrants

from the valley of the Ganges. It will not be necessary to

458 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX.

take the number of seven hundred people from Magadha

(Behar), as the annals give it, quite literally, but whatever it

was, the proportion must have been something like that of the

Danes and the Normans in England. The larger part of the

Island was divided into fields and gardens, and a patriarchal

system introduced which has lasted for thousands of years.

A series of facts testify that the aboriginal population was not

wholly excluded from this system; even the circumstance

that the Veddas were reckoned among the high caste of

agriculturists (Goyiwansé, or Vellala) clearly indicates that an

established position was early insured to them in the

political organisation of the country. Upon such a foundation

the intermingling of the Magadha people with the aborigines

would most naturally take place, and if we look upon the

Sinhalese race as the result of this commingling, the experi-

ence of so many other countries where a similar interming-

ling took place would make it perfectly explicable that the

Magadha people made their language, the old Pali or Elu,

the ruling one, while in their physical conformation the

aboriginal element won lasting influence.

With such a view of the matter the Veddas and Sinhalese

would neither be identical nor distinguished from one

another simply by a degree of culture. The Veddas would

appear rather as representatives of the aboriginal race; the

Sighalese, on the other hand, as hybrids, produced by a union

of immigrant Indians with Veddas, and therefore varying

according to the measure of the participation of either of

these elements. This indeed strikes me as being the

solution of the anthropological problem before us, so far, at

least, as the material at present reaches. The linguistic

difficulty, that also the unmixed natives adopted the Aryan

language of the conqueror without, as far as we can judge,

having been forced to do so, appears to me no longer

insurmountable, since from personal experience I have

established the fact that in the Baltic provinces of Russia

one part of the Finnish population after the other, through

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 459

imperceptible but steady progress, has become Letticised to

such an extent that the Courland language has wholly, the

Livonian almost wholly, disappeared, and only the Esthonian

still offers any resistance.*

Considered simply on anthropological grounds, the differ-

ences between the Veddas and the Sinhalese are not so great as

to oblige us to assume an absolute contrast in the two tribes.

IT will not deny that the number of skulls we know to be

authentic, which I could personally test by comparison, is too

small to lead to a definite conclusion ; but they seem sufficient

to enable us to ascertain whether any reason exists for distin-

cuishing results obtained in other ways. Such reason I do

not find. After having with the greatest caution excluded the

skulls which were of doubtful origin, as well as those which

through peculiar malformation showed great aberrations, there

still remains, with the addition of skulls found in foreign

collections, so great a number of useful specimens that they

much exceed what stands at our disposal relating to other

tribes.

Comparing briefly what has been arrived at, the result is

first, that the Veddas, as well as the Sinhalese, are dark tribes,

whose complexions vary between yellow-brown and black.

The greater number of observers describe the Sinhalese

as not actually very dark, but rather of a chestnut-brown,

or brown with a- yellow undertone. Percival describes

the women as of a yellow colour ; Cordiner and Selkirk assert

that the insides of the hands and feet are white. The

accounts do not attribute to the Veddas such fair skins; the

report of Percival that the Veddas are copper-coloured and

fairer than the rest of the Sinhalese is wholly unsupported.

But even allowing that a considerable amount of difference

in colour exists between the two tribes, it may at least be

taken into consideration that the Veddas are naked, exposed

* Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthropolo-

gischen Gesellschaft, 1878.

460 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). | Vol. IX.

to all the inclemencies of the weather, without regular

habitations, and, moreover, dirty in the extreme—conditions

which, even in our climate and under much less trying

circumstances, would be enough to bronze the skin very

deeply. The Sinhalese, on the other hand, are more or less

completely clothed, wearing something at least on the lower

part of the body, live in regular houses under relatively

favourable conditions, and are often distinguished for great

cleanliness. If then, as reported by travellers, very dark,

almost black individuals are by no means uncommon among

them, it is certainly a noteworthy fact.

The character of the hair also is plainly similar, only that

here the effect of culture is conspicuous to a much higher

degree. Whilst the Veddas never comb theirs,—perhaps, in

general, do not interfere with it in any way,—so that from year

to year it becomes more and more dishevelled, and in a bushy

matted mass covers head, face, and shoulders, the Sinhalese

exercise a quite unusual womanly care in smoothing and

arranging their hair. Both tribes, however, wear the hair long ;

itis black, luxuriant, and a little wavy ; only with the Veddas,

owing to neglect, it hangs down in a tangled but not curly

manner ; the tresses, properly speaking, notwithstanding, are

neither curly nor woolly. We will add that in single cages

a more curly kind of hair is seen, as in that of the elder man

among the drawings given,* though even in his case the hair

is long and wholly different from the little close rolls and

woolly hair of the real Negroes and Negritos. Had it early

been cleaned and combed it would probably be like that

of the Sinhalese, glossy as ebony. The picture of the young

girl in the drawing* seems to exhibit just this improvement.

A very remarkable statement, looking at the matter as it

were from the other side, isto be found in d’Albertis.{ This

traveller had engaged in Point de Galle, two Sinhalese for

_ * No drawings are reproduced.—Hon, Sec.

f L. M. d’Albertis. New Guinea. London, 1880, vol. L, p. 259.

No. 38.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 461

his researches upon New Guinea. When these Sinhalese had

become acquainted with the natives of Yule Island (in

the Gulf of Papua, at the south of New Guinea) they told him

these people resembled their own country people, only that

their complexions were not so dark. When he called their

attention to the fact that the hair of these natives was “fuzzy ”

they replied that the Sinhalese also would have “fuzzy”

hair if it were not daily combed and carefully oiled. M.

d’Albertis mentions in connection, that the hair of one of the

Sinhalese, who wore it short, was crisp, and that of the other,

who wore it long, was smooth ; he also does not deny that

many of the natives resembled the type of his Sinhalese.

Even setting aside this analogy, as drawn from only two

persons, still this statement, so wholly impartial, pretty

conclusively proves that the Sinhalese hair, when uncared

for, strongly resembles that of the Veddas. A marked

contrast is, at any rate, implied to the smoothness of hair of

the Malays and Mongols; and the azAdzpiya of Palladius must

not be understood in the sense that the hair of the Veddas is

called smooth without any reservation.

Reports with regard to the colour of the iris are less complete,

but we gather from the descriptions that, as a rule, it is dark.

As to the Sinhalese, Davy makes more explicit statements,

and from these we learn that the eyes are generally

black, seldom hazel, rarer still grey, but only among the

Albinos light blue or red. To be sure, in the poetic description

of an ideal Kandy beauty given, “eyes, the blue sapphire

and the petals of the blue manilla flower” are considered

desirable, but this can hardly be said to refer to a typical

peculiarity. Nowhere is anything of the kind mentioned of

the Veddas, and we may therefore assume their iris to be

really black or dark brown.

As regards size, plainly both races are of moderate stature,

rather short than tall. If the height of the Veddds on the

average is 1,537 for the men, and for the women 1,448

mm., with the Sinhalese, on the other hand about 1,625

31—87 I

462 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. 1X,

to 1,650 (men), the significance of the shorter measure

of the Veddas cannot be doubted, and much less since we

findthe minimum measures for the men amounting to only

1,245 mm.

The information about the Sinhalese is unfortunately

very incomplete ; in one thing, however, all observers agree,

that they are smaller and less vigorous than the Kuropeans.

Whether there is only a relative difference in size between

Sinhalese and Veddas, whether the latter were stunted in

growth in consequence of their wretched life, or whether

their shortness is a typical race peculiarity, is still doubtful ;

yet the fact that they are not all dwarfs, but that com-

paratively large Veddas are met with (for the very scru-

pulous Mr. Hartshorne gives the measure of one man as

1,638 mm.), may beadduced in favour of the hypothesis that

their often dwarfish size is a result of long-continued unfavour-

able conditions for development. Nevertheless, the fact in

the main is well established that the Veddas belong to a small,

indeed to one of the smallest known races. If we add that the

Vedirata. is extremely rich in game, that the Veddas are

skilful hunters and fishers, that honey and edible fruits and

roots stand in plenty at their command, we cannot say that,

like the Australians, they suffer from enforced deprivations.

If, notwithstanding, they are much smaller than the Aus-

tralians, it seems to me we must recognise their smallness of

stature as constitutional,

Concerning their development of muscle and strength of

body, the witnesses testify loudly in favour of the Veddas.

Though the fleshy parts are rather slender, perhaps even lean,

the Veddas seem to possess, in general, great capacity for

active effort, and limbs of good proportions. Compared with

the Sinhalese in the lowlands they may be said to show a

certain superiority in all work requiring muscle, for it

is the Sinhalese of the mountains only, especially the

Kandyans, who are renowned for physical strength. The

shortness of the thumbs and pointed elbows, emphasised

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 463

by Mr. Hartshorne, may be explained among the Veddas,

perhaps, by their shortness and leanness ;—at any rate, only

the first would be of any importance if it should be proved

by measurement to be altogether disproportionate. Perhaps

we meet here, however, with a deception similar to that of

Mr. Bennett’s, who lays such stress upon the length of the

foot, whilst direct measurement shows perfectly fair propor-

tions. It may be true that the Veddas are flat-footed, but

this would not be sufficient to constitute a race-distinction.

Similar observations, only still less distinctive, we find in

regard to the size of the head, especially the capacity of the

skull. The single numbers, as well as the averages, I have

already given, and compared with one another. The

result proves that the Vedda skulls on the average are much

smaller than the Sinhalese; in fact, that a certain number of

them can be called positively nannocephalic. The Sinhalese

skulls, however, have only a capacity on the average of 1,406

cub. cm.,and among eleven examples only three between 1,100

-and 1,200 cub. cm. If we weigh against this that also among

the Vedda skulls were two of 1,614 and 1,420 cub. cm., it

follows that (supposing these skulls to be genuine) not only is

nannocephaly no constant characteristic, but skulls of even

great capacity are found among the Veddas. The numbers

slide over from both sides; the highest average of the Sin-

halese does not prevent the occurrence of very small examples;

and vice versa, the certainly very low average of the Veddas

includes some pretty large specimens.

I will not rehearse the length measurements and the

relations deduced from them. In this way certain differences

between the two tribes have come to light, but we shall be

able to represent them parallel to each other in the indices.

To only one of the proportions will I here call attention,

because this may be of considerable importance, viz., that

with the Sinhalese the front and middle head have a larger

share in forming the roof of the skull, while with the Veddas

it is the occipital region. Yet I am bound to mention

— «464 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX.

that the frontal breadth (lower) of the Vedda skulls from

the Colombo Museum was by no means less than that of

my Sinhalese.

Of special interest is the comparison of the skull indices.

The average ratio between length and breadth which I have

ascertained is for both tribes almost identical : 71:8 for the

Sinhalese, 71:6 for the Veddas. This is a highly dolicho-

cephalic measure. If by this is proved that all the Sinhalese

skulls we have for examination are dolichocephalic, and that

among twenty-eight Vedda skulls four were mesocephalic,

we might suspect Tamil skulls had been intermingled with

the latter. This cannot be decided without new and very sure

material. For our present comparison we can only assume

that these important relative measures do not point to any

radical difference in race between Sinhalese and Veddas.

With both the skullis long and narrow, yet among the Vedda

‘skulls there is a greater number in which the narrowness is

extreme than among the Sinhalese.

It is the same with the ratio between length and height. °*

This is orthocephalic with both tribes—with the Veddas

indeed even to the border of hypsicephaly (74:9), with

the Sinhalese somewhat less (746). But we must, in both

kinds of skulls, calculate from those of medium height.

With reference to the height measurements the ratio is

somewhat different, in so far as here the larger figures are

on the side of the Sinhalese.

These coincidences of the main indices are so great that

they could not be greater within the limits of a single race.

The configuration of the capsule of the skull may, aside

from the share of the separate bones in it, be considered as

identical. In fact, according to the testimony of travellers,

the difference of race is more conspicuous in the face than

in theskull. Itis chiefly in the form of the nose, particularly

the flatness of its ridges and the breadth of the nostrils, but

_ likewise to the form of the lips and jaws, which are through-

out described as prognathous, the various authors call

No. 33.—1886.] THE vEDDAS OF CEYLON. 465

attention, as being characteristic features of the Vedda face.

Contrasted with the Sinhalese nose, which the old Chinese

reporters call a bird’s beak, and in the description of the

Kandy beauty is compared to a hawk’s bill, contrasted with

the delicate lips and orthognathous jaw, which we perceive

in Davy’s drawings, we find certainly very striking

differences.

Osteological investigation has, regarding the main facts,

confirmed these observations made among the living. Unfor-

tunately we have not been able to turn the skulls found in

Kurope to much account in this direction, owing to the

difference in the published measurements, and least of all

indeed with the Sinhalese; moreover, it is very unlucky

that the two skulls in my possession, of which one has

belonged to a young, the other to a very old man, show

great individual differences.

In general the skeleton face of the Sinhalese is narrower ~

and longer than that of the Veddas. The former prove to be

leptoprosopic (index 89), the latter chamzeprosopic (index

83-84). Corresponding to this the palate with the Sinhalese is

more long and narrow, with the Veddas rather short and

broad, with a prognathous jaw. In this last particular

the contrast to the Sinhalese is not so clear, since Mr. B. Davis

has made no reports concerning it, and of my skulls, one

is a strikingly prognathous one, although not having a

long alveolar process. Moreover, with the Veddas occurs

mesokonchy (84:6) and mesorrhiny (52), with many

individual aberrations, it is true; so that with the women

we have more platyrrhine, with the men more leptorrhine

forms. On this point the Sinhalese material is very unsatis-

factory and quite inadequate. I will return to this latter,

although pretty much all concerning it is conjecture. I add

here only the comprehensive judgment of Mr. B. Davis* in

respect to the type of the Ceylonese and Indian population.

* Davis. Thesaurus Craniorum, p. 158.

466 | JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX. -

‘In Ceylon and the plains of India we have found the people

(Veddahs as well as the more elevated races), as far as our

material extends, characterised by small, narrow, long, and

rather tall crania, having prominent nasal bones and well-

expressed faces when we refer to the typical skulls. As soon

as we ascend the southern slope of the Himalayas we meet

with races of a very distinct cranial type.” Whether this

judgment refers to the non-Aryan tribes of India is far from

clear ; certainly in this generalisation it may remain an open

question.

If we now draw into comparison the Tamils or Malabars,

we come in contact with a much more widely diffused

prejudice, although it has only found expression in recent

times. Ribeyro had early the opinion that the Sinhalese

originated in a mingling of Chinese and Malabars (Gallas*).

Knoxf also, although he found little or no similarity

between Malabars and Sinhalese, on historical grounds con-

sidered arelationship possible. The later writers have (chiefly

from outward observation) looked upon the Sinhalese as

Aryans, and sought to find a Dravidian origin for the Veddas.

Lassent only, who considers the Veddas as that portion

which had remained unchanged, traces back, on linguistic

grounds, the entire “people of the Cingalese” to Dekkan

tribes. Sir EH. Tennent§ also alludes to the existence of

linguistic and religious (if we may use such an expression)

affinities which seem to pointto the people of the Dekkan ;

he assumes|| that the Veddas have the same relation to the

Aryan Sinhalese as the mountain tribes of India to the later

Aryan immigrants. He mentions especially the Koolies in

Guzerat, the Bheels in Malwa, the Puttooas in Cuttack, the

Khoonds in Gundwana, the Bedas in Mysore, and the wild

* Pridham, 7. c., I., p. 21.

+ Knox, J. ¢., p. 61.

{ Lassen. Indische Alterthumskunde, L, s. 199.

§ Tennent, /. c., L, p. 328,

|| Zd., 7. ¢., IL., p. 438.

- No. 33.—1886.] tHE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 467

hordes in the mountains to the east of Bengal. Mr. Bailey*

concurs with this view. He not only brings forward the

Khonds, the Puttuwas or Juanguas, the Pulindas (in Orisa),

the Meekirs (in north Cachar), &c., but extends his compari-

sons even to Assam, Tenasserim, and east Burmah. But his

proofs also are drawn wholly from the social and religious

life of these peoples. Without any special evidence is the

statement of Mr. Tagoret that a wandering tribe known to

the Ptolemies in the northern part of India, the Vaidehas,

and who were later encountered by Tippoo Sahib in Mysore

under the name of the Bedas, are still extant in their wild

and savage condition in the Veddas of Ceylon. Mr. Jagort

mentions that the Bedas who live in little groups in the

woods of Travancore and Cochin are considered by some to

be a branch of the Veddas of Ceylon. However interesting

these suggestions may be, they still appear to me to

assist very little toward the settlement of the disputed

question.

Anthropological comparisons have until now hardly been

undertaken. Neither have I the intention so far to extend

the present investigation, although a variety of material for

it is before me. I shall certainly make some references to

such, but a full discussion of all the points to be considered

would require a much more extensive work. In the first

place it will be necessary to take the Tamils of Ceylon into

comparison, and chiefly because the historical accounts, going

backward as far as Wijayo, inform us of numerous

marriages, not merely of the kings, but of their retainers,

with the Malabar women, not to mention the very early

invasions and settlements made in the Island by Tamil

hordes.

eae ee eel eens oe Ua yt eh BN eee

* Bailey, J. ¢., p. 307.

+ Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London. New series,

1863, vol. II., p. 381.

{ Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, 1879, Bd. XI. Verhandlungen de Berliner

Anthropologischen Gesellschaft, s. 167.

468 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX.

In spite of the meagre reports with regard to the physical

charateristics of the Tamils we cannot doubt that they, like-

wise, are very dark, more or less black, and have long black

hair. For the rest, observers lay much stress on their great

strength and activity, nothing more. Hence there remains

to me only the scant craniological material found in the

collection of Mr. B. Davis and in my own. Thisis all insuffi-

cient for a final authoritative answer to the question of the

ethnological relation of the Tamils to the two other

Ceylonese tribes, and hence my conclusion is only to be

accepted with great reservation.

All these skulls are comparatively small, and certainly no

one would infer from them that they belonged to a powerful

race. As already stated, the average capacity of a Tamil

skull is 1,247 cub. cm., which is even less than the

average of the Veddas and of the Sinhalese. It is scarcely

possible to look upon this number as the typical one for the

race, in my opinion, and it is only interesting as showing

that small skulls may be found among all the tribes of the

Island. Still there is none among them which reaches the

minimum number of the Veddas.

More important, however, is the difference in the form of

the head. The Tamil skull, to judge from these specimens, is

hypsimesocephalic, in fact wholly different from the Sin-

halese and the Vedda skull. Its index of breadth is 76:3, of

height 76°8. Corresponding to this its transverse vertical

length is greater than its sagittal circumference length.

With reference also to the share of the single bones in the

formation of the roof of the skull we find a considerable

difference ; the squama occipitalis is much smaller; the

frontal bone, however, considerably larger than with the

Sinhalese, and still more emphatically with the Veddas. The

basilar view shows plainly the extraordinary shortness of the

occipital region.

I must say after this, that the skull of the Tamils, so far as

recognisable from those we have under consideration, exhibits

No. 33,—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON, 469

no relationship either with the Veddas or with the Sinhalese.

The proportions of the face may briefly be stated in the

following formula: mesokonchy, mesorrhiny, mesoprosopy,

prognathy, and brachystaphyly.

This positively distinguishes the Tamil face from the

Sinhalese, and brings it nearer to the Vedd4 face. But as I

have already said, the almost complete identity of the nasal

indices (Tamils 51, Veddas 50-52) does not prevent the

greatest variety in the formation of the nasal bridge. Owing

to the greater narrowness of the nasal bone, as well as to the

prominent, slightly bent in, and comparatively sharp nature of

the bridge, we perceive a certain resemblance to the Sinhalese

nose. Therefore, should we least of all be justified in repre-

senting the flat, and, toward the lower part, broad nose of

the Veddas as a Tamil inheritance? A comparison of the

profiles of the faces at a lateral view in Fig. 3, upon my three

skull Tables, will show conspicuously the difference in the

formation of the noses.

I might in like manner refer to Fig. 1 about the forma-

tion of the orbits, and to Fig. 5 in regard to the formation of

the palate. Considering the difficulty, however, of showing

these relations with perfect distinctness in a drawing, it seems

to me that it will tend materially to facilitate a clear under-

standing of them if I show the principal lines by themselves,

and of their natural size. I aim at the same time to draw

attention more particularly to some hitherto rather neglected

points, and to put sharply defined questions for later discus-

sion. For, to my great regret, I am not in a position to

assume any responsibility as to the ethnological significance

of my lines. I can only say that I have chosen from the

three series those skulls which, after mature consideration

and testing, seem to offer the best guarantee that they, to some

extent, positively exhibit the race type.

The wood-cuts,* for which the three skulls represented —

* Not reproduced—Hon, Sec.

470 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (cRYLON). (Vol. LX,

in my tables have been used, show the exterior outlines of

the noses and orbits. The horizontal line, after which these

skulls as well as those on my Tables have been arranged, is the

so-called German horizontal line, which is drawn from the

lowest point of the inferior edge of the orbit to the highest

- point of the superior circumference of the outer ear opening.

The difference in the form of the entrance to the orbit is in

this way quite as perceptible as the difference in the distance

of the orbits from each other, and in the position of the edges

of the orbital entrance toward the horizontal line.

The measures and indices of the orbits in question are as

follows :—

Breadth. Height. Index.

Vedda 500 39 mm. eis 33 mm. me 84:6

Sinhalese acs 39 mm. as 30 mm. Sac 76°9

Tamil Sts ov mm. ae 32 mm. me 86°4

According to this the Vedda orbit is mesokonch, the

Sinhalese chameekonch, the Tamil hypsikonch. ‘The differ-

ence between the first two rests solely on the lesser height,

whilst both differ from the Tamils in their greater

breadth.

But with this difference is associated a real divergence in

the curvature and sloping off of the edges. The curve is

slightest with the Sinhalese, where the upper and under edges

are almost straight, and run parallel to each other, so that as

the outer edge also is very slightly convex, a flattened quad-

rangular face with rounded corners isthe result. In the case

of the Veddda, where the orbits themselves are largest, the

edges have a tolerably regular curve, so that the shape of the

orbital entrance is almost round, only the diagonal from the

top and inside to the bottom outside is longer because of the

greater expansion about the cheek bones. Finally, with the

Tamil, which exceeds the rest in height, the upper edge is

but slightly convex, and the widening toward the zygomatic

-bone more distinct; owing to this the shape of the orbital

entrance becomes an oblique oval.

To this dissimilarity is to be added the very different

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 471

formation of the naso-frontal region, as may be seen from

the following figures :-—

Veddé. Sinhalese. Tamil,

mm. mm. mm.

Distance of exterior orbital

edges (diam. biorbitaire) ... 95 ae 93 se 90

Distance of the inner orbital

edges (diam. interorbitaire)... 28 AB 19 Soc 17

Inferior breadth of processus

nasalis ossis frontis nae 23 See 25 aa 21

Direct length of sutura naso

Frontalis o0. a a 9 bat 13 12

With the Tamil the two orbits stand nearest to ach other ;

the root of the nose is narrow but very prominent; the

sutura naso frontalis lies deep, taking a straight horizontal

course, and the nasal process of the frontal bone, though very

protuberant and bearing traces of an extremely jagged frontal

suture, is stunted in its transverse development. With the

Vedda it is exactly the reverse, and the distance of the orbits

from one another greatest; the nasal process of the frontal

bone, in which also a remnant of the sutura frontalis persists,

is broad and full; the sutura naso frontalis, although short,

pushes right up into the frontal bone, and is therefore very

high, so that the sutura maxillo frontalis takes an oblique

course on either side ; the root of the nose itself is small and

depressed. With the Sinhalese the proportions are again

different, but resembling nearer those of the Vedda; the

nasal process of the frontal bone is even more broad and

full, the nasal frontal suture more symmetrically curved and

bulging out at the top, therefore reaching higher than with

the Tamil ; the distance of the orbits most considerable, the

root of the nose itself broader than with the Vedda, but

the bridge at its starting point more incurvated than with the

Tamil. |

The form of the aperture of the nose is with the Tamil

more like that of the Sinhalese than that of the Vedda. The

former has a breadth of 25 mm., the latter of 24 mm., that of

the Sinhalese 26mm. Hence the nose of the Tamil and of the

Sighalese is platyrrhine, that of the Vedda mesorrhine ; the

472 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). Vol, ux,’

indices are 53:1, 57:7, 50. In spite of this the Vedda nose

at its epiphysis is flatter and more depressed, the Sinhalese

and Tamil protuberant, the Tamil in fact more than the

Sinhalese. The impression of greater breadth in the root

of the nose with the Sighalese is only an illusion, and caused

by the retreating of the nasal bone into the plane of the

frontal processes of the upper jaw, and hence the whole space

between the corners of the eyes is flatter and more even. In

reality, not only the root of the nose but the entire bony

_ structure of the nose of the Vedda is narrower than in that

of the other skulls. With regard to this I may once more

remark that the nasal indices taken in this way from the

relation of the breadth of the aperture to the height of the

whole nose, gives no idea of the protuberant parts of the nose.

As to the aperture itself, in the case of the Vedda it corres-

ponds somewhat to the European type—is pear-shaped : with

the other two, especially the Sinhalese, rather triangular.

An exhibition of the Vedda, Sinhalese, and Tamil palates

may render a further comparison of the linear boundaries

possible.*

I begin here also with the figures :—

renee pipers ee.

Vedda - 48 We, 36 Bag 75:0

Sinhalese wen 53 siete 40 ae 715°4

Tamil cue 49 wee 43 es 87-7

Consequently the palates of the Vedda and of the Sinha-

lese are leptostaphyline, those of the Tamil brachystaphyline.

The last varies most in form ; its great breadth and shortness

stand in correct relation to the form of the skull. Next to

this, not in the index, but in the shape of the tooth-curve,

comes the Vedda palate, the chief distinctive feature of which

is that the tooth-curve towards the back draws partly

together, and has very nearly the outline of a horse-shoe.

Wholly different from the Tamil, and also somewhat differing

* Drawings not reproduced—Hon. Sec.

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 473

from the Vedda, is the Sinhalese; with the latter the palatal

plate is unusually long, and at the same time of considerable

breadth, so that it is very large, but the tooth-curve does not

form, as with the other two, a more symmetrical curve, but

the side parts stretch out in a pretty straight line parallel to

one another, whilst the region of the incisors forms a broader,

flatter curve, jutting out in front. The relatively large share

which the os palatinum has in the formation of the palatal

plate with the Sinhalese has been already pointed out. It

may be further mentioned that the teeth in the Sinhalese are

most largely developed, and that especially the first. molars

have unusually large crowns. In the Tamils the alveoli of

the cutting and canine teeth are very large, so also the first

molar, which by far exceeds the rest in size.

The facts given in respect to three of the most important

regions of the skeleton face may suffice to show what great

difficulties are encountered in attempting to fathom the

degree of affinity existing between these three tribes. If we

take, as usual, the indices as guides, we gain for each region

another combination. Most closely related are :—

(1) according to the orbital index, the Vedda and the

Tamil ;

(2) according to the nasal index, the Tamil and the

: Sinhalese ;

(3) according to the palatal index, the Sinhalese and the

Vedda.

We must not forget, however, that here only one individual

is taken from each tribe, and that the examinations I have

cited prove that the individual selected by no means corres-

ponded in every single particular to the average of his tribe.

Thus the Tamil is platyrrhine, whilst the Tamil average was

found to be mesorrhine. If this average corresponds to the

typical tribal conditions, then the Tamil nose stands at least

as near to the Vedda nose as to the Sinhalese. And yet, as I

have shown at some length, it is distinguished in all other

respects as well from the Vedda as from the Sinhalese nose.

474 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. TX.

Considering the small number of skulls immediately at my

disposal, and the very defective or otherwise doubtful con-

dition of some of them, I was obliged to take my pictures

from such of them as gave the best indications of regular

development. But I can by no means assert that in all

respects they represent typical forms, or that my statements

do not admit of great corrections. This the future only can

decide, and my work will have fulfilled its aim if it hastens

the bringing on of new and better material.

For the present I can only make the single assertion that,

so far as we have a distinct view of the physical relations, as

few evidences appear of a real affinity between the Tamils

and the Veddds as between the Tamils and the Sinhalese.

This, however, does not decide the question as to whether

there is a Dravidian element either in the Veddas or the Sin-

halese. The present Tamils of Ceylon are in nowise typical

representatives of all the tribes of Hindustan which are

usually embraced in the term “ Dravidas.” Indeed, we find

that in the further pursuit of a study of the latter so many

varieties among them have come to light, that it has not yet

even been proved with certainty which of the so-called

Dravidian tribes are most closely related, and which are to

be looked upon as the purest. But we now know that in

the course of centuries “ Malabars”’ from different regions on

the coast of the peninsula of Hindustan, who made invasions

and settlements in Ceylon, came, not alone from the nearer

points on the coast, but also from quite northern districts.

Before expressing a decided judgment all these tribes must

be compared in turn.

It would not be here in place to institute a comparison of

this kind, and the material at present isnot sufficient. I will

limit myself to calling attention to the statements of Mr.

Callamand* regarding the Maravars, and the introduction of

a single example. Through the mediation of Mr. F. Jagor

* Reyue d’ Anthropologie, 1878, sér. IL., T. 1. p. 607,

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 475

I received from Dr. Burnell three skulls from the lower

castes of Tanjore, therefore directly from the region corres-

ponding to the Chola or Soli of the Sinhalese annals.

Of these three the one which is distinguished by a large

back palatal fissure proves so aberrant in form that it must

be excluded as pathological. The other two, however, are

very similar, except in the certainly very different form of

the palate, as we see in the main indices :—

Index of breadth ee 73°3 ses (54

Index of height — i 76°1 ae 18:2

Orbital index ap 85:3 as 80°4

Nasal index Bi 51:0 ae 50:0

Palatal index 73:0 a 90-0

Strictly speaking, only the height and the indices of the nose

agree well, both skulls being hypsicephalic and mesorrhine.

On the other hand, we find in all the other indices differences

which make it necessary to assign these skulls to other

categories, according to the special relations considered. One

is dolichocephalic the other mesocephalic. Which is here

typical ? One is hypsikonch the other mesokonch, one lepto-

staphyline the other brachystaphyline. According to which

shall we decide ?

To be sure we may say that in such limited comparisons

chance figures often acquire a higher importance than belongs

to them. The difference of the indices of breadth, for

example, is just exactly as great (viz., 2°1) as the difference

in the indices of height, and yet we are obliged to classify

one skull as dolichocephalic and the other as mesocephalic,

because accidentally the border figure between the two

classifications is 75, and this is just between the two indices

73°3 and 75-4. On the other hand, the equally great differ-

ence in the indices of height does not prevent both skulls being

assigned to the same category, viz., the hypsicephalic, since

the number 76°1 as well as 78°2 is within the recognised ex-

treme. Which of these figures is more, which less accidental

Tam unable to decide, and the calculation of an average from

the single cases would not aid in the decision.

476 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vols EX.

Nevertheless, I may say that the Tanjore skulls approach

comparatively near the Tamils of Ceylon. In these I found

also no small individual differences, and in the index of

breadth, in fact, exactly the same, for the latter in the Tamil

skulls amounted to 72, 74:8, and 75:3. But for the rest so

many analogies present themselves between the two groups

that in spite of the aberrant pathological skulls of Tanjore

I consider it very probable that the people of Tanjore and

the present Tamils of Ceylon are connected together.

But the kingdom of Chdoli, or Soli, was even in ancient

times a civilised state. Among its near neighbours early

appeared the wild mountain tribes of the Nilagiris, remnants

of which exist even to this day: as, for instance, the

Kurumbas (Curumbars, Kurubas). They were subjugated

by the kings of Chola, and are found at present only in sparse

numbers.* For a series of measurements and other in-

vestigations regarding these people we have to thank

Mr. F. Jagor,f and also for some account of the half-savage

Naya-Kurumbas living in the forests. Of the latter,

Mr. Jagor has brought with him a skeleton, which is in the

possession of the Berlin Anthropological Society. It belonged

to a woman, and is remarkable for its extraordinary smallness

and delicacy. It is 1,310 mm. in height, and of the skull we

have the following indices :—

Index of breadth ae Aas 74:6

Index of height is Bes 74°6

Index of face ue aA 81°8

Index of orbits eae ie 91:1

Index of nose sae ie 63°8

Index of palate — ae | 596 64-0

It is therefore an orthodolichocephalic chameprosopic

skull. Its capacity amounts to only 960 cub. cm., precisely

the same nannocephalic measure which Mr. Flower gave of

the smallest Vedda skull from Hunter’s Museum, and which

* James Wilkinson Breeks. An Account of the Primitive Tribes and

Monuments of the Nilagiris. London, 1873, p. 55.

+ Zeitschrift fiir Hthnologie, 1879, Bd. XI., s. 54 et. seq. —

No, 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 477

he declares to be altogether the smallest human skull in this

collection. In fact, this skeleton challenges comparison

with the Veddas. The skull measurements show great

similarity, whilst the Tamils from Ceylon as well as from

Tanjore, especially in the index of height, vary essentially.

The form of the face is different from both, as well from the

Veddas as from the Tamils, but not different enough from

the Veddas to justify an ethnological separation.

The measurements of Mr. Jagor among the living showed

in the main similar proportions, although considerable

single deviations appear which itis now impossible to account

for. He found the Naya-Kurumbas throughout small in

stature, and although among them were some very young

individuals, the elder ones, especially the women, proved to

have even smaller figures. I put the numbers briefly

together :—

Height of body. Skull index.

A man of 19 years 660 1,435 aur 69°4

A girl of 15 years acs 1,402 at 71:0

A woman of 25 years A 1,345 Soe cae

A woman of 45 years rhe 1,305 ee 82-4

Average of the women ... 1,350 se —

The result in the case of the few wild Kurumbas is :—

Height of body. Skull index.

mm.

A man of 18 years 466 1,492 506 72°56

A man of 23 years we 1,515 731

A man of 27 years 500 1,529 a 80 2

A man of 30 years a 1,523 a 69°8

A man of 50 years bb 1,589 —

Average of the men 650 1,529 —

_ A woman of 22 years S00 1,470 —

- A woman of 50 years 300 1,410 —

Average of the women ... 1,440

How far the difference in bodily height is universal we

cannot judge. At any rate, the women of both tribes are not

31—87 K

‘78 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). “Wolo Ex:

only smaller, but absolutely small. But the Kurumbas

altogether must be called small. Mr. Ross King,* in his

description of the aboriginal tribes of the Nilagiris, points out

the Kurumbas as especially stunted creatures, “low in stature,

they are also ill-made. They are among the most debased

types of mankind.” The indices of the head are, in both of

the columns just given, dolichocephalic, and indeed to a very

pronounced degree. The fact that we have in each column a

brachycephalic head is perhaps to be ascribed to the difficulty

in taking the measures of the living.

I do not enter any further into these investigations. For the

present I only wished to shaw that the physical condition of

the Tamils, including even those of the Coromandel coast, is

not sufficient to represent perfectly the Dravidian type. Close

beside them in the mountains of Hindustan we come upon

other Dravidas who, to all appearance, are essentially different.

Therefore, if one will search out the connection of the

Veddas, and perhaps of the Sinhalese themselves, with

Dravidian India, it would be advisable to go beyond the

inhabitants of the coast and bring the mountain tribes into

comparison.

But even here the researches will not end, for according to

all probability the present mountain tribes are not the real

aborigines of Hindustan. In the tradition, together with the

Kurumbas, the Vedars are called the oldest inhabitants of

Tondamandalam (Madras) ; and of them, it seems, it was said :

“ There were then no forts, only huts; no kings, no religion,

no civilisation, no books; men were naked savages; no

marriage institutions.”{ I will lay no weight on the name

of the Vedars, which probably likewise signifies “ hunters,”

although the mention of such aborigines is certainly notice-

able. Further, in the oldest Indian epic, the Ramayana,

we are told of the fights of Vishnu with fabulous Asurs, who

we must imagine to have been the aborigines of Hindustan

* Journal of Anthropology. London, 1870-71, p. 46.

i; Breeks: ¢21¢., p..o5.,- Prichard) ¢.¢), 1V_,p. 182.

No. 33.—1886.] vHe VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 479

and Ceylon. Rama himself, who is said to have come from

Oude, makes war upon Rawanda, king of Ceylon (Lanka),

champion of the Yakkho and Rakshasas worship, and

conquers him. Curiously enough a tradition has been

preserved among the Hayas (Vayas, Haius) in Nepal that at

the time when Rawana was slain they immigrated from

Ceylon to the Dekkan, and later from thence to Samroanghar,

and finally reached the mountains, which are their present

home.* The Varalis, who inhabit the mountains of Konkan,t

tell the same tale of their tribe. All these traditions are of

course of no positive value for the diagnosis of the different

tribes, but they must warn us not to decide our investigations

among the aboriginal races of India and Ceylon simply on

the ground of some crude linguistic indications, or the

physical characteristics of a few better known tribes. All}

the same, whether the earliest inhabitants of Ceylon immi-

grated in boats over the small extent of sea which separates

the Island from the mainland, or whether, as has been so often

conjectured, and is rendered highly probable by the fauna

of Ceylon, the Island was once a part of the continent, and as

such inhabited by the same tribes, we cannot avoid the

conviction that they stand in a close affinity to the aborigines

of India.

Whether these were proto-Dravidian or even pre-Dravidian

tribes we cannot with certainty decide at present.

The traditions, however far back they may go, with

regard to this give very little light. Mr. Zimmer{t has lately

compiled from the books of the Vedas comprehensive

accounts of the condition of the Indian people in past ages,

but they hardly afford sufficient foothold to enable us to judge

* Dalton. Ethnological Description of Bengal, re-published by Oscar

Flex. Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, 1874, bd. VI., s.

+ Louis Rousselet. Tableau des itaces de Inde Centrale. Révue d’An-

thropologie. Paris, 1873, t. I1., p. 69.

{ Heinrich Zimmer. Altindisches Leben. Die ciiltiir der vedischen

Arier. Berlin, 1879, s. 100 et seq.

K 2

480 : JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX.

of the Aryan condition. When the light-skinned Aryans

from the Punjab invaded the land, later called Hindustan,

they found it already in the possession of numerous tribes of

“dark-skinned” people. In the Vedas these same tribes

are designated by the generic name of Dasyu or Dasa. A

greater part of them, in proportion as the conquerors

penetrated farther into the valley of the Ganges, were

forced back on both sides to the mountains, northward

into the Himalaya and southward into the Vindhya; those

who remained behind were adopted as Sudras, thus becom-

ing a part of the Aryan organisation. Hence nothing stands

in the way of the assumption that the mountaineers in

general belong to the aboriginal tribes. But neither does

anything compel us to consider all these tribes of the

Dasyu as homopholic. Indeed, one has recently begun to

separate the Dravidian from the Kolarian* tribes, chiefly

on account of language. Should we, in the face of such an

important linguistic contrast, assume a physical similarity ?

In this matter the French anthropologists have advanced

most audaciously. M. Rousselett speaks most positively of

an immigration of Thibetan tribes of the yellow race from

the east, and another of Turanians from the west, before the

Aryan invasion; but he assumes, as anterior to both, a

population of Negritos. To the admixture of the latter with

yellow tribes he first of all ascribes the origin of the proto-

Dravidians, counting among these the Malers, the Konds,

perhaps the Gonds, and only when fresh troops of invaders

had again mixed with the proto-Dravidians, arose, in his

opinion, the Dravidas or Tamils. They brought the snake-

worship (Nagas) with them. On the other hand, from the

immigration of the Turanians arose in the plains the Jats, in

the mountains the Bhils, Minas, and Mhairs. He regards as

the last remains of the primitive black population the

scattered remnants of a small black people upon the high

* Dalton. Zeitshcrift fiir Hthnologie, a. a. O. 8. 252.

7 KouUSsselet, U.\c., pps oo, 219) pla Ln.

No. 33.—1886.] THE vEDDAS OF CEYLON, 48]

plateaus of the Amarkantak, who have become known under

the names of Djangals, Puttuas, and Juangas. Curiously

enough these are precisely such tribes as Sir E. Tennent

and Mr. Bailey had already brought into comparison

with the Veddas. But with regard to the Juangas

(Dschuangs), Colonel Dalton states that they belong to the

Kolarians; that their hair is rough, curly, and of a reddish

brown colour, their cheek-bones prominent, faces flat, noses

depressed, brows vertical but low. He gives the average

height of the men as below 0 ft. and that of the women as

about 4 ft. 8in.* This description contains quite as many

Mongolian as Negritian characteristics.

If I have many doubts, therefore, about admitting the dis-

tinctions of Mr. Rousselet, especially with regard to the

assumption of a veritable Negrito race as the aboriginal race

of India, I yet in nowise oppose the idea that the tribes of

“black-skins” which the Aryans found established in the

valley of the Ganges were mixed. How much Mongolian,

Turanian, or Negrito blood flowed in their veins must

remain for the present undecided. But it is certainly not

improbable that a part only of the Dasyu were Dravidians,

and that, even before the proto-Dravidas of Mr. Rousselet, pre-

Dravidian tribes inhabited the land. Neither the Mongols

nor the Turanians satisfactorily explain the stunted growth

of the tribes of “ black-skins,” to whom even Pliny} alludes

as “the pigmies inhabiting the mountains in the country of

Prasie.” All the information we have of them is unfortu-

nately so imperfect as to permit of its being turned to account

for every sort of opinion.

The Messrs. de Qutrefagest and Hamy have collected

* The young women wear even now nothing but green leaves held together

by a girdle. In so far they resemble the Wanni Veddds. But according

to Mr. F. Jagor the women of the Korogars, some of the Gond groups,

and the Chauchra in Hindtistan, likewise wear no covering but leaves.

7 Plinius. Nat. Hist., lib. VI., ¢. 22.

t A. de Quatrefages et Ernest T. Hamy. Crania Hthnica, V., p. 189.

4&2 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). Vol. IX.

, =

accounts of the Negritos in India, from which-they conclude

definitely that genuine Negritos are still living in various

parts of the country. I cannot esteem the evidence sufficient,

although I will not deny that the question is open to dis-

cussion. I will give only one example as ground for my

misgivings, which is not, however, taken from the Indians,

but from genuine Negritos from the neighbourhood.

The so-called Negrito (or Mincopie) race which inhabits

the neighbouring provinces to the east, and principally

several clusters of islands and parts of Malacca (though they

are in fact only scattered members of the tribe), show

unquestionably by their dark complexion as well as small-

ness of frame, and particularly of the head, astriking approach

to the Veddas and Kurumbas. As next to them in point of

territory we must mention their near neighbours the “ little

blacks” who dwell in the Andaman Islands. In truth,

Mr. Hartshorne* points to certain analogies between Veddas

and Andamanese. But his proofs refer exclusively to single

customs and peculiarities,—for instance, to the use of the

bow and arrow, to their inability to count,—but nowhere

rest upon physical grounds. It cannot be denied, however,

that the Andamanese, through previously cited characteristics,

are physically pretty closely related to the Veddas. In the

measurements of Mr. F. Jagorf from the living I calculate

the average height of the Andamanese :—

mm.

17 males at sfait ane 1,488

10 females at... S56 1,416

27 Andamanese at es 1,462

Among these the minimum is 1,350 with a man 20 years old,

and 1,320 mm. with a woman of 24; the maximum 1,636

with a man 40 years old, and 1,504 mm. with a woman

* Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland,

1878, vol. VII., p. 468.

+ Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, 1876, bd. VII. Verhandl. der Anthropol.

Gesellsch., s. 262. Journ. Anthrop. Inst., /. c., p. 437.

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 483

20 years old. These are proportions in part even lower

than the measure found for the Veddas, on the whole,

however, coming to about the same.

As regards the capacity of the skull, it is on the average

very small. I can state that according to measurements of

Andamanese skulls, for which Iam indebted to the kindness

of Messrs. Macnamara and Man, they reach and even exceed.

the measure of nannocephaly which the Veddas and

Kurumbas present. One of my skulls has a capacity of only

940 cub. cm., another shows 970, a third 1,050.

As great as the similarity in these figures is the difference

in the form of the skulls. The Andamanese, as well as the

Negritos generally, are in reality brachycephalic, and this one

circumstance distinguishes them definitely from all the

Ceylon races. If we add to this that their hair grows in

spiral coils, and is to be classed with the woolly hair of the

genuine negro, then every possibility disappears of a union

with the Veddas, unless we assume that climatic influences

have specially affected the hair. The complexion also

presents considerable variation. Since most reporters call it

pure black with the Andamanese, the Veddas are generally

described as lighter, and even by the very pen Davy

as resembling the Sinhalese.

Even less analogy is found between Veddas and Austra-

lians. Wemay certainly point out that the hair and even

the beard is somewhat like that of the Veddas; but one

glance at the skull, and still more at the skeleton, of the

Australian convinces us that here a great and unmistakable

contrast exists. In spite of this Mr. Topinard* has recently

emphasised the relationship of the Australians as well to

the Veddas as to the Bhils, Gonds, Khonds, Mundas, Ku-

rumbas, &c. I call attention also in this connection to the

sufficient number of reasons to the contrary adduced by his

countryman, Mr. Callamand.f

* Paul Topinard. L’Anthropologie. Paris, 1877, p. 521.

+ Callamand, /. c.. p. 624.

484 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). EVoolF 1Xe |

Very much more complicated is the question whether

Malay elements were not infused into the aboriginal popula-

tion of Ceylon, which from the peculiar rigging of their

boats has been concluded, not without substantial grounds.

The fact that the Malays have extended their settlements

much further, even as far as Madagascar, suggests the idea

that they may have established upon Ceylon a kind of

midway station. There are, however, no obvious physical

indications of such a relationship, and I would therefore

enter into no further discussion of this possibility, the less

so since the generally assumed connection of the Malays with

the ancient inhabitants of India impedes such investigation

very greatly. The single recent statement of a physical

resemblance between Sinhalese and Malays, which I find

is by an American missionary in China, Mr. Williams,* who

observed in the former ‘‘a Malay expression of countenance.”

From the foregoing discussion we assume as proved :—

1.) That manifold resemblances exist between the Veddas

and the Sinhalese, and that the origin of the Sinhalese race

from a mixture of Veddas and immigrants from India

possesses great probability, as well upon historical as also

upon anthropological grounds.

(2.) That the Veddas as well as the Sinhalese in the main

features are distinguished from the Ceylon Tamils, and

equally from those of Tanjore (Chola).

(3.) That, on the other hand, among the remnants of the

old Dravidian or perhaps pre-Dravidian tribes of Hindis-

tan we find even to-day evidence of analogies with the Veddas.

Have the Veddas remained in the condition of the proto-

Dravidians, or possibly pre-Dravidians, or have they in their

isolation sunk toa lower state? In other words, are they

ethnologically to be turned to account in order to paint

anew the picture of this primitive period ?

* United States Exploring Expedition during the years 1838-42. Vol.

IX. Pickering. The Races of Man. Philadelphia, 1848, p. 136.

No 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 485

In various places I have earlier demonstrated why it is not to

be assumed that the Veddas have ever passed through a state

of higher civilisation. If in spite of the reasons for such a

conception, which to me seem conclusive, it may nevertheless

be assumed that, owing to unfavourable outward circum-

stances, they have by degrees retrograded physically, and that

their present low intellectual condition is the result of this

physical deterioration, we should then be forced to represent

them as a pathological tribe. The smallness and delicacy of

their bones, above aJl the tiny size of their skulls, and, asa

necessary result, the inferior capacity of their brains, might

indeed suggest the hypothesis that they are a kind of cretin

or microcephyle. Unquestionably the brain of the Vedda

must be very small; direct and definite statements of how

small we have not, and computation is very uncertain.

Herr L. W. von Bischoff* has called attention in detail to

the inexactness of the proposed method by which the weight

of the brain is computed from the capacity of the skull.

We can, however, by this method arrive at an approximate

estimate, and I subjoin a few such calculations. The first is

according to the method of Mr. Barnard Davis, who for the

meininges and the vessels deducts 15 per cent. from the

figures for the capacity of the skull, and claims the remainder

as being the weight of the brain. The second is according

to the direction of Herr von Bischoff, who ascertained that the

capacity of the dry skulls was with males 11:9, with females

about 8°8 per cent. cub. cm. larger than the weight of the

brains expressed in grams. The weight of brain, therefore,

would be with the Veddas, according to—

Davis’s method. Bischoff ’s method.

Males, 1,136 grams sie ae 1,177 grams

Females, 1,021 grams ... ove 1,105 grams

These numbers, however inexact they may be, still indi-

cate a very striking contrast to the proportions of the brain

* Theodor L. W. yon Bischoff. Das Hirngewicht des Menschen, Miin-

chen, 1880, vy. 66.

486 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). (Vol. IX.

in cultured races ; indeed, the figures for the nannocephalic

girl are so small that we have every reason to inquire whether

these can be physiological relations. If we add to this the

apparently very small capacity of the Veddas for mental

development, the almost entire absence of all ideai forms of

thought, the inability to count, and still more to calculate,

the want of any sense of colour, the question suggests itself

whether this is not mikrocephaly in the pathological sense ?

We can distinctly deny this suggestion. The small Vedda

skull is as little to be considered microcephalic, in the

technical sense, as the intellect of the Veddas is to be likened

to the mental condition of microcephyles. The individuality

of the Veddas is psychically fully developed. So far as their

needs demand they have matured their capacities, and are able

to take care of themselves and their children. They establish

families, defend their estates (not very definitely limited to

be sure), obtain for themselves, partly by great effort and

cunning, the necessary food, and even associate, so far as

unavoidable, with neighbours and strangers in a free way

and as self-determined men. Enough ; they are distinguished

in all the main features from actual microcephyles.

Mr. Bailey* testifies expressly that madness and idiocy are

rare among the Veddas, especially the latter. He says it is

true they have the notion, that when one curses another

madness overtakes the one cursed—a notion which prevails

also among the Sinhalese, who designate cursing as katawaha

- (“bad mouth,” or “ poison from the lips”). But insanity is

nevertheless uncommon amongthem. This testimony is the

more worthy of note since Mr. Bailey suggests the idea that, ~

as the result of intermarriages with blood relations, beside

a stunted body, diseases of the brain, idiocy, and epilepsy

might be expected. But he finds nothing of the kind, and

satisfies himself by imputing to the cause mentioned the lack

of numerous descendants and dying out of the race, an

* Bailey, U. c., p. 295.

No, 33.—1886.] tHE vEDDAS OF CEYLON. 487

explanation which, considering the manifold unfavourable

conditions under which the tribe live, may at least in this

Sweeping sense be open to question.

Real microcephaly in the pathological sense is found

among the tribes of India. One of the most noticeable

examples we know was communicated to the Berlin

Anthropoligal Society by Dr. J. Wilson.* It concernsa sect of

Fakirs, who administer the service in the temple of Shadowla,

in the Punjab, and who belong to the Suni Muhammadans ;

on account of theirabnormal heads they were called Chuas or

Chuhas (“rat-heads”). Of one of these Mr. Wilson has given

us some measurements, which, though not showing exactly

how they were taken, at any rate indicate much smaller

proportions than are to be found among the Veddas. Accord-

ing to him, with one male Chua :—

The diagonal circumference of

the head (measured before the mm.

ears, across occiput) »-» 19 inches = 482

The horizontal circumference

(across occiput, ears, and fron-

tal cavity) 308 .. 17 inches = 431

The vertical circumference (right

_ across from one ear opening to

the other) wes tO Mneches!——|.203

If we compare these figures with those of the Veddas

the difference will instantly be clear. With the Chua the

size diagonally amounts to less than the size horizontally of

the Vedda skull No. 1, although the latter is not measured

across the frontal cavities, but above them, and of course

without any covering of flesh. Although Dr. Johnston

asserts the impotence of these people, the sect has still, since

the 16th century, continued to perpetuate itself in both sexes,

and at some periods so vigorously that their number in the

latter half of the 17th century reached a hundred heads. . The

temple is secretly visited by women, who, because of their

* Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, 1879, bd. XI. Verhand]. der Anthropol.

Gesellsch., s. 237, 1880, bd. X1II., Verhand., s. 12.

488 JOURNAL, R.A.8. (CEYLON). [Vol. IX.

sterility, pass a night there, and consecrate their first-born, in

advance, to the temple service. In the morning “they find

a Chua at their side who is supposed to promote conception

and beget Chuas.” It will indeed be allowable to make

another interpretation, and assume direct agency, wherein

less impotent individuals than Dr. Johnston saw are

employed ; however it may be, this example very well

illustrates the distinction between microcephaly and nanno-

cephaly.

It may, therefore, without hesitation, be admitted that the

impaired bodily and mental development of the Veddas is

not owing to a really morbid condition, which as such

might be hereditary, but rather to be regarded as a race-

peculiarity. This, however, by no means excludes the possi-

bility that favourable outward circumstances, especially

better food, might produce a more complete development, and

the body become larger and stronger, the skull and brain for-

mation more perfect. In fact such cases appear among the

Veddas, as is proved by examples previously given. A man

of 1,638 mm. in height far exceeds the average, and though

the one skull in the Davis collection which has a capacity of

1,614 cub. cm. may be considered as a kind of abnormity,

there is still the other out of the collection in the College of

Surgeons of 1,420 cub. cm., which (supposing it to be genuine)

is a very noteworthy specimen.

It might follow from this that the Sinhalese are civilised

Veddas, who simply owe the superiority of their physical

development to their better life. The Island of Ceylon had

of old the reputation of affording the most favourable condi-

tions for the existence of men, and was celebrated for the

longevity of its inhabitants. “In Taprobanem,” Palladius*

writes, “ubi gens est Macrobiorum, namque eximia coeli

temperie...ad aetatem 150 annorum senes durant.” Saint

* Palladius, 7. ¢., p. 3; cf. Plinius, Nat. Historia, lib. VL., ¢.24. “Vitam

homimum centum annis modicam.”

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 489

Ambrosius even translates the Greek paxpdfim, “ Beati.” How-

ever, climatic and outward circumstances favour the Veddas

too, and if in their peculiar conditions of life they in some

degree approach the Rodiyas, still, as already mentioned,

the latter have nowhere sunk to a physical degradation

compared with that of the Veddas.. But no one will deny

that with good care both might attain to an incomparably

more complete bodily development.*

In spite of this possibility of a more perfect growth, the

Vedda race is still in reality, as in ancient days, of small

stature—in fact one may even count it among the smallest

of the living human tribes, and in a not very strict sense

speak of it as a tribe of dwarfs. As a further corroboration

of this, such tribes were scattered all over India. I have

already referred to the Naya-Kurumbas. But beside these,

people of small stature and little heads are not uncommon.

Even the Sinhalese and Tamils of Ceylon have already

afforded us examples of this. Herr von Bischofft speaks of

the brain of an Indian from Bukkur of 1,660 mm. in height,

which weighed only 973 grams: he quotes at the same time

an observation of Peacock’s, who found in a native of mixed

origin from Bombay a brain of 1,006 grams, whilst Mr. Clap-

ham ascertains the weight of brain of a Bengalese to be 1,531

grams. In the collection of the Berlin Anthropological

Society is the skull of a Poleyar, with a capacity of only

1,040 cub. cm.; that of a young native of further India,

belonging to the caste of the oil merchants, having a capacity

of 1,150, and his mother’s of 1,100 cub. cm. Of the skulls

from Tanjore which I mentioned one has 1,200 the other

1,255 cub. cm.

The nannocephaly of the Veddas, however little patholo-

gical it may be, compels us in nowise to go beyond the

province of Indian ethnology to seek out analogies. Possibly

* Davy (l.c., p. 107) states that among the Sinhalese there are more

men than women ; in the fishing towns, where the food is better, we find,

however, asin Europe, that the case is exactly the reverse.

+ Von Bischoff, a. a. O. S. 83.

490 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). BV Gie Ie.

India in ancient times was inhabited by tribes who bore a -

close relationship to these. With as little propriety as the

present Hindus can be said to have sprung, and progressively

developed from these more or less dwarfish aborigines,

just so little does such a kind of explanation suit the con-

nection of the Veddas with the Sinhalese. As they have not

descended from the Sinhalese by regressive degeneration,

neither surely have they been transformed by progessive

evolution into Sinhalese. That no such simple affinity

exists is proved chiefly by the difference in the form of the

face, to which all observers testify.

In truth, it was just the form of the face which caused

all the earlier travellers to associate the Sinhalese with

the Europeans. Even Knox,as I have already mentioned,

was of the opinion that no people in the world were so

exactly like the Sinhalese as the people of Kurope. Cordiner

asserts this quite as distinctly, calling attention particularly

to the features, which means the face. -If so fine an observer

as John Davy, instead of this, says the Sinhalese are wholly

Indian, we can only conclude that all these designations

point to the common Aryan character of the face. With

Davy this is the less to be doubted since he speaks explicitly

of the “Asiatic”? form of the Sinhalese skull (that is, of the

capsule of the skull) ; when, directly to the contrary, almost

all observers ascribe to the Vedda face a foreign and very

frequently Dravidian type, it becomes clear that genealogical

investigation must make the face a main object of study.

If we now go back to the history there can be no doubt

that the Sinhalese face is an importation from the Aryan

province of the Indian continent. The Ramayana, as well

as the Wijayo legend, affords direct confirmation of this.

The latter, however, conveys at the same time an earnest

warning not to be too one-sided in this opinion, for it

speaks distinctly of an importation of Tamil women from

““Mabar,” from whom the king himself and his followers

took wives.

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. 49]

If my view be correct that the Veddas are a pure blooded,

the Sinhalese a mixed race, we may then leave the question

out of consideration as to how far Ceylonese intervention,

especially soil, food, and climate, has operated to determine

the formation of the body. I wish only to touch briefly

upon a few facts, the knowledge of which is not without

significance in regard to this question. Even in the old

document ascribed to Palladius, the sheep upon Taprobane

are spoken of: “ Oves illis crinitz omnesque absque lana, lac

suppeditant ubertim, latis caudis conspiciende (mdareiag

éxovra ovpdac).

Sir HK. Tennent,* nearly two thousand years later, made the

same observation in Jaffna ; the sheep of the place had long

hair, like goats, instead of wool. A similar influence of

climate upon the hairy covering of the sheer is also testi-

fied of other places. It is asserted{ that the native cats of

Ceylon have an inferior appearance ; they are said to be small,

with thick close-clinging hair, little heads, retreating fore-

heads, but great pointed ears.[ Any one disposed to assume a

like influence of climate upon men might conclude that human

beings also, especially the aborigines, who have dwelt longest

upon the Island, have undergone a like change: for example,

that the hair was originally woolly, the head and entire

body larger. Then might approaches be sought to woolly-

haired blacks, to Andamanese and Negritos, to Melanesians

and even Africans. Before admitting such great alterations,

* Tennent, /.c, II., p.531. ‘The finest sheep in Ceylon are reared upon

the dry plains which overlie the limestone and coral rock, on the northern

and western coasts. These sheep, instead of being coated with wool, are

covered with long hair, resembling that of goats, and the horny callosities

that defend their knees, and which arise from their habit of kneeling down

to crop the short herbage, serve to distinguish the Jaffna flocks from those of

the other portions of the Island.” Ido not find it said that these sheep

have fat tails.

+ Charles Darwin. The Variation of Animals and Plants in the State

of Domestication. Translated from the English by V. Carus. Stuttgart,

1868, vol- I., p. 122; vol. II., p. 369.

fear vols Tepe Dil.

492 JOURNAL, R.A.S. (CEYLON). [ Vol. IX.

however, the facts must be assured. The story of the native

cats deserves a more strict inquiry ; it rests at present upon

the solitary testimony of a botanist (Mr. Thwaites). The

metamorphosis of the sheep, however, seems more firmly

established, as it is supported by the authority of two wholly

independent witnesses, separated from one another by quite

along interval of time; but it is confined, according to

Sir EK. Tennent, to a comparatively small district in the

extreme north. Hence it appears to me we should hesitate

before making an application of these experiences, gathered

from the history of domesticated animals, to the savage

inhabitants of Ceylon; at any rate until it is proved that the

latter actually possessed in earlier times different physical

characieristics. The present state of the hair plainly corres-

ponds to the dmdgdroya of Palladius, and must therefore

have been just as it now is for at least fifteen hundred years.

It is very certain that if we would pursue the search for

the origin of the Veddas genealogically we must first turn

our investigations to the savage, or half-savage tribes of India.

This once clearly settled, room enough will still remain for

. conjectural anthropology. Even now speculation has gone

pretiy far. Mr. Hyde Clarke* brings the Kolarian and other

further Indian tribes in connection with the African

negroes ; Col. Kincaidt places the Bhils with the Mongols ;

and Mr. Keanef strikes the Malays wholly out of the series

of independent races, and believes the Caucasians to have

penetrated in pre-historic ages not merely to further India,

but even so far as Polynesia. It may be of service that such

questions should beseasonably presented, especially at a time

when the dying out of the savage races is imminent, and

admonishes us to hasten the investigation. But after the

questions have awakened interest, the warning must be

reiterated not to draw any definite conclusions until a greater

* Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland,

1878, vol. VIIL., p. 49.

+ Zd., 1889, vol. IX., p. 406. { Zd., 1880, vol. IX., p. 258.

No. 33.—1886.] THE VEDDAS OF CRYLON. 493

amount of facts have been collected. First of all then, great

stress must be laid on the importance of enlarging by every

_ possible effort the ethnology of the Indians, in order to be |

able to investigate radically the tribe of “black-skins.” -

Since a part of the Dasyu were transferred to the Sudras,

and consequeutly included in the caste system of the Hin-

dus, as the Veddas in that of the Sinhalese, it is not even

possible to bring to a conclusion the physical anthropology

of the Hindus and the Sinhalese until we have resolved

the evidently very composite group of the Dasyu into its

separate members. One such member is plainly the tribe

of the Veddas. Their natural isolation upon an island has

perhaps tended to preserve in them, rather than in related

races upon the continent, their peculiar character, and made

them an object by which to test the admissibility of the

theories concerning the origin of the black Indians.

May the zeal of the observer know no flagging, that before

the utter extinction of this already much depleted race, the

language and customs, the physical and mental constitution,

of the Veddas, may be in all particulars firmly established.

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PRINTED AT

"HE GOVERNMENT PRINTING WORKS,

ss COLOMBO, CEYLON. me

POA TAS ENG VOL. = Vint. Nos 29.

Page 248, “Remarks” column, “Sweetness” should be in a line with

rahatiya and not with kiri-kabalu.

254, i a For “kinds” read “ kind.”

254, ss i after each of the words kalugedi, maha,

et, hd, and rild, there should be a

dash (—), representing the word

embayd.

259; ‘ 2 for “crying from alu” read “crying”

from alu.

266, note t, “At the Birth of Buddha” should not be in italics, and

there should be a comma, not a full stop, after it.

269, line 13 from bottom, for “ On-king” read “ Ox-king.”

269, line 12 from bottom, énsert “your” between “Lend” and

“ strength.”

306, note t, the last paragraph beginning “Winslow,” &c., should

appear as a note to the words “At one of the

hours fixed for this purpose,’ on opposite page.

311, line 17 from top, for “old” read “ola.”

311, note { should appear as a note to the sentence ending “offered

as a porkal to the deity.” The original note to

“facing north” has been omitted. It should

run : “ vide ante, p. 307, note ft.”

315, lines 11 and 12 from top, “kdvaicheyya” should be within

parentheses, and “the heap” should not be

within parentheses.

316, note {, for “ A hut is like” read “A hut-like.”

317, line 12 from bottom, “Pillaiydr”’ should be without parentheses.

320, line 22 from bottom, for “ Private” read “ Saivite.”

825, line 3 from bottom, for “ édwita” read “ dvita.”

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