THE CEYLON BRANCH

OF THE

ROYAL ASLATIC SOCIETY:

EDITED BY

THE SECRETARY,

3 JOURNAL

Proceedings of Meetings

On Demonology and Witchcraft in Ceylon, By ‘Dandris De Silva

- Gooneratne Modliar

The First Discourse delivered by Buddha, By the Rev. D. J. Gogerly,

Pootoor Well . ner ee BE

On the Air Breathing Fish of. “Ceylon. "By Barcroft Boake, B. A.,

Vice-President, Asiatic Society, Ceylon ber See a

On the Origin of the Sinhalese Tape see: By James D’Alwis, Assis-

tant Secretary =

A few remarks on the poisonous “properties of the Calotropis Gigantea

ete. By W. C. Ondaatjie, Esq., Colonial Assistant Surgeon as

On the Crocodiles of Ceylon. By Barcroft ee B, A., Vice-Presi-

dent, Asiatic Society, Ceylon ape soe ane

Native Medicinal Oils ... ° ane a; abe

Er FONSEKA, PRINTER, ‘FORT, COLOMBO.

- MDCCCLXVI.

JOURNAL

THE CEYLON BRANCH

OF THE

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY:

EDITED BY

THE SECRETARY,

F, FONSEKA, PRINTER, FORT, COLOMBO,

MDCCCLZAVI,

CONTENTS.

Pace.

Proceedings of Meetings 45 ss =e

On Demonology and Witchcraft in Ceylon, By Dandris De Silva

Gooneratne Modliar Rese. ae “ee

The First Discourse delivered by Buddha. ‘By the Rey. D. J. Gogerly,

Pcotoor Well . : oss ee ae

On the Air Breathing Fish of “Ceylon. “By Barcroft Boake, B. A.,

Vice-President, Asiatic Society, Ceylon os a be

On the Origin of the Sinhalese Language. By James D’Alwis, Assis-

tant Secretary “=:

A few remarks on the poisonous “properties of the Calotropis Gigantea

etc. By W. C. Ondaatjie, Esq., Colonial Assistant Surgeon aac

On the Crocodiles of Ceylon. By Barerott ae B, A., Vice-Presi-

dent, Asiatic Society, Ceylon : A xs 2

Native Medicinal Oils ... see ae a5 aes

PROCEEDINGS OF MEETINGS

OF THE

CEYLON ASIATIC SOCIETY.

GENERAL MEETING.

HELD 21st JUNE, 1862.

Rev. B. Boake, Vice-President, in the Chair.

The Secretary referred to the arrangement for the transfer of the |

Military Medical Museum to the Society, which had been completed

by the Secretary receiving the Museum keys.

The conditions of the transfer were then read and confirmed;

one of these declared that all Military Medical Officers now resident,

er who may hereafter reside in Ceylon, be Honorary Members of

the Society without entrance fee or subscription.

The following papers were then submitted to the Meeting:—

Descriptive notices of the Raw Products of Ceylon by H. Mead.

The Quassia wood of Ceylon by W. C. Ondaatjie. 3

The Medicinal substances of the Native Bazaars by W. Ferguson.

On the Buddhist Scriptures by J. De Alwis.

Notes on the rain-fall in Colombo during 6 years accompanied

by tables and a diagram by J. Capper.

General Meeting, March 7th, 1868.

Rev. B. Boake, Vice-President, in the Chair.

The Secretary reported the progress made in regard to the in-

creased accommodation required for the Society’s Museum in con-

sequence of the amalgamation with it of the Military Medical

Museum, >

i, PROCEEDINGS OF MEETINGS.

The Governor had approved of the proposed plan for adding @

floor to the present building, by which means it would be made to :

correspond with the opposite wing of the buildings occupied by the

Treasury, but there were difficulties in carrying out the plan, owing

to the large amount of work on hand in the Civil Engineer’s De-

partment. The cost of the building was estimated at £450 and

there was no doubt that His Excellency would sanction the appro-

priation of such a sum. At present the contents of the Military

Museum remained in their original rooms which might at any time

be required for other purposes.

After reading a list of the books and Periodicals received since

the last meeting and the election of new members, the following

papers were read.

On the romanization of the Sinhalese Alphabet by R. C. Childers,

Esq. |

Remarks on the weather during 1862 by J. Maitland, Esq.

Translation of a portion of the Salathini Sanxeo by R. C. Chil-

ders, Esq.

General Meeting, October 31st, 1863.

Rev. B. Boake, Vice-President, in the Chair.

After the transaction of general business the Secretary reported _

that the Governor had sanctioned the introduction into the Supply

Bill for 1864 of a vote for £518, the estimated cost of enlarging the

premises occupied by the Society, in order to enable it to receive

the Museum of the Military Medical Department.

Mr. Ondaatjie exhibited a specimen of the inspissated juice of .

the Alstonia Scholaris, which he stated to be a substitute for

Gutta-percha. It possesses the same properties and is as workable

as the latter, It readily softens when plunged into boiling water,

is soluble in Turpentine and Chloroform, receives and returns im-

pressions, and is adapted for sealsto documents. The tree abounds

with milky juice like the Gutta-percha, has a fleshy bark and

porous wood, and belongs to the order Apocynea. |

PROCEEDINGS OF MEETINGS. ili.

The following papers were then read—

On the air-breathing fishes of Ceylon by Rev. B. Boake.

On Devil Worship by D. De Silva Gooneratne Modliar.

Buddha’s First Sermon translated by Rev. D. J. Gogerly, con-

tributed by Rev. R, 8. Hardy.

The Origin of the Sinhalese language by James Alwis, Esq.

Buddha’s discourse on caste by L. De Zoysa, Esq.

On the poisoning properties of the Calotropis Gigantea by W.

C. Ondaatjie, Esq.

General Meeting, September 3rd, 1864.

Rev. B. Boake, Vice-President, in the Chair.

The Secretary made a brief statement in reference to the posi-

tion of the Society and the arrangements in regard to the Museum.

Last year Sir C. MacCarthy promised a public grant for the

purpose of enlarging the Society’s rooms, to enable it to receive the

collection presented by the Military Medical Department. On the

faith of this promise the Society paid to the Medical Department

from its limited funds about £502, being the value of the cases and

stands containing the collection. A vote of £513 was placed in

the Supply Bill for 1864 for enlarging the premises, but was

afterwards withdrawn. ‘This year the Committee applied to Go-

vernment for £100 to enable it to receive a portion of the Military

Museum within the existing premises, to which request the Go-

vernment replied that there were no funds at its disposal, and the

vote could not be entertained in the Supplementary Supply Bull

for this year. ‘The balance of the Society’s funds in the hands of

the ‘Treasurer was only £15, it was therefore impossible to go on

with the printing of the Journal.

The following gentlemen were elected members of the Society :—

Messrs. R. Tatham, J. Winzer, C. Ferdinand, J. Martensz, W.

H. Harrison, R. Jones.

The following new rules was preposed and adopted:—

“That members returning from Europe be allowed to rejoin

without any further payment than the current subscription,”

1V. PROCEEDINGS OF MEETINGS.

Papers were then read—On the origin of the Sinhalese lan-

guage, Part II. by J. De Alwis, Esq. :

On Taxidermy by W. H. Harrison, Esq.

Papers relating to the surrender of the Dutch Forts to the Bri-

tish from the Dutch records by Mr. W. Gonetilleke.

General Meeting, Saturday, May 13th, 1865.

The Rev. B. Boake, Vice-President, in the Chair.

The Secretary read a report setting forth the absence of any

fresh papers for reading, and the state of the Society’s funds. The

Governor had declined to give the sum of £50 in addition to

withholding the vote for adding to the accommodation of the building

to enable it toreceive the articles from the Military Medical Museum,

Subscriptions for the current year had not been collected, as it

was not clear that it was desirable to ask for them, as no business

had been transacted.

At the conclusion of the report Mr. Capper expressed his wish

to resign the Office of Secretary, it was resolved accordingly, that

Mr. Steward be appointed Secretary, and that the thanks of the

Society be given to Mr. Capper for his services during the long

time he had acted as Secretary. Jt was also resolved “that a de-

putation should wait upon the Governor shortly after his arrival |

in Colombo, to request His Excellency to become the Patron of the

Society, and at the same time to urge its claims to a small grant

from the Public funds, and that the deputation should censist of Sir

Edward Creasy, Mr, Layard, Mr. Wall, Mr. Lorensz, Mr. Capper

and the Secretary.”

General Meeting, November 2nd, 1865.

Present:--The Chief Justice Sir Edward Creasy, in the Chair,

The Hon’ble Mr. Justice Temple, Rev. B, Boake, Rev. J.

Nicholson, Messrs. J. A. Caley, C. A. Lorensz, R. Dawson, J. P.

Green, W. C. Ondaatjie, W. Ferguson, L. De Zoysa, G. S. Steward.

PROCEEDINGS OF MEETINGS. Wie

The following gentlemen were proposed and elected Members

of the Society.

The Rev. J. S. Mill, S. T. Richmond, Esq., George Hawkins,

Esq., Hugh Nevill, Esq., A. Primrose, Esq., Mr. Holdsworth was

also proposed and elected an Honorary Member,

The following motions were then proposed and carried:—

Ist. Proposed by Dr. Fraser, seconded by Mr. Lorensz, that

the Chief Justice, the Bishop, and the Hon’ble Mr. Justice Temple

be requested to become Vice-Patrons of the Society.

2nd. Proposed by the Hon’ble Mr. Justice Temple, seconded

by J. A. Caley, Esq.

That the Committee do consist of the following gentlemen:—

President.

Dr. Fraser.

Vice-President.

The Rev. Barcroft Boake.

Treasurer.

S. Rains, Esq.

Conservator.

G. Hawkins, Esq.

Secretary and Librarian.

G. S. Steward, Esq.

C. P. Layard, Esq., Major Skinner, C. A. Lorensz, Esq., A. M.

Ferguson, Esq., R. Dawson, Esq., K. Jones, Esq., J. De Alwis, Esq.

8rd. Proposed by Mr. Dawson, seconded by Mr. Green, that

the Librarian be requested to ascertain by an examination of the

books in the library, what books have been mislaid.

4th. Proposed by Major Skinner, seconded by Mr. Dawson.

That in future any member, who wishes to obtain the loan of a

hook, shall make application in writing for it to the Librarian, who

shall file the application and make a record both of the issue and

the return of the books.

5th, Proposed by Mr. Nicholson seconded by Mr. Ferguson,

that the conservator be requested to compare the specimens in the

Vi. PROCEEDINGS OF MEETINGS.

Museum with the list given in the Appendix to the 6th Report, and _

report the result of the enquiry to the Committee.

Mr. Lorensz stated that he had a sum of £60 in the bank in his

name as Treasurer of a Society which once existed here called the

Atheneum, and said that he thought it might be made use of by

the Society for the purpose of bringing out the Journal. Some

conversation was carried on as to the legality of this, and it was

determined that Mr. Lorensz should write to all the share holders, -

whose addresses he could discover, to ask their permission to appro-

priate their funds to the purpose mentioned.

nee

Committee Meeting, November 18th, 1865.

Present:—Dr. Fraser, Rey. B. Boake, C. P. eye Keq., G.

Hawkins, Zsq., G. S. Steward, Esq.

The question of the appointment of a Librarian at the last Gene-

ral Meeting was discussed and it was determined that the Secretary

should see Mr. De Zoysa and ask him if he would be willing to act

as joint Librarian with the Secretary, and that a General Meeting

should be calied as soon as possible to settle the difficulty,

The following additions to the Library were laid on the table:—

Answers from Government Agents of Galle, Jaffna and Matura,

to questions addressed to them on the Natural History of their —

Provinces.

Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal for May, June and

July, 1865.

8 Nos. Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal Part I. No. 1. Part

Ii. Nos. 1 and 2.

General report of Public Instruction in the Lower Provinces of

the Bengal Presidency for 1863 and 1864,

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ivre-

land 1865 Vol. I. Part II.

5 Nos. Annals of the Magazine of Natural History. _

Sacred Books of the Buddhists compared with History and Mo-

dern Science, presented by Rev. R. S. Hardy.

PROCEEDINGS OF MEETINGS. Vilg

The Secretary was directed to write and thank Mr. Hardy for

his donation.

General Meeting, December 1st, 1865.

Present:—Rev. B. Boake, in the Chair.

Rev. J. Nicholson, Messrs, H. Nevill, L. De Zoysa, A. M.

Ferguson, W. Ferguson, G. Hawkins, J. S. Mill, C. A. Lorensz,

R. Dawson, A. Primrose, G. S. Steward.

Mr. Boake reported that he had received a letter from Sir Edward

Creasy saying that His Excellency the Governor had consented to

become the Patron of the Society.

The question of the late appointment of a Librarian was then

discussed and it was agreed that Mr. De Zoysa should be asked to

act as sole Librarian, which he consented to do.

Mr, W. Ferguson, Mr. J. A. Caley were added to the Committee.

It was determined that subscriptions should be considered due in

January of each year, and that members who have not paid by the

end of the year shall be considered to have relinguished their con-

nection with the Society.

_ Mr. De Zoysa presented a copy of a Dictionary of the Pali lan-

guage by Mogallana Thero with English and Sinhalese notes by

Waskaduwe Subkati, Buddhist Priest.

Committee Meeting, Lecember 9th, 1865.

Present:—Reyvy. B. Boake, in the Chair.

Messrs. L. De Zoysa, R. Dawson, G. 5. Steward.

The following papers were laid on the table by the Secretary:—

1 Engineers Journal.

2 Nos. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal Part I. No. 3

Part IL. No. 3.

1 Vol. Proceedings of Asiatic Society of Bengal for September,

1s65. < -

_ 1 No, Annals of Magazine of Natural History,

vill. PROCEEDINGS OF MEETINGS,

The Secretary read a letter from the Treasurer regretting that.

he was not able to attend the meeting, and sending a report of the

state of the Society’s funds,

It was settled that Mr. Dawson and Mr. W, Ferguson should be

asked to audit the accounts and prepare a report by the next Com-

mittee meeting,

ees ee

General Meeting, February 23rd, 1866.

Present:—Rev. B. Boake, in the Chair.

Rev. J. S. Mill, Messrs. C. P. Layard, W. Ferguson, A.

Primrose, R. Dawson, L. De Zoysa, J. A. Caley, G. S. Steward.

The following gentlemen were elected members of the Society :-—

T. C. Bury, Esq., Rev. Brooke Bailey. 3

C. M.P. Pieris, Esq., A. Karunaratna, Esq., Cornelius Jaye-

singhe, Esq., Rev, J. MacArthur, S. Grenier, Esq. J. RB.

Blake, Esq.

It was proposed by Mr. Dawson, and seconded by Mr. Ferguson

that the sum to be paid for life membership should be 10 guineas

at entrance, 8 guineas after paying subscription for two years, and

7 guineas after four or more years’ subscription.

Mr. Primrose was appointed Treasurer in place of Mr. Rains, —

who had expressed his wish to resign. |

It was determined that the Committee should meet as soon as

possible and make arrangements for publishing the Journal.

Commitiee Meeting, March 16th, 1866,

Present:—Rev. B. Boake, in the Chair.

Messrs. L. De Zoysa, A. Primrose, G. S. Steward.

The following gentlemen were appointed a reading Committee

to report upon the papers:—

Rev. B. Boake, Messrs. L. De Zoysa, A, ie R. Dawson,

Mutu Coomara Swamy, J. De Alwis.

PROCEEDINGS OF MEETINGS. im

Committee Meeting, July 6ih, 1866.

Present: —Rev. B. Boake, in the Chair.

_ Messrs. R. Dawson, L. De Zoysa, G. Hawkins, G. S. Steward.

The following books were laid on the table.

Engineer’s Journal for January, February, March, April, May

1866.

Proceedings of Asiatic Society of Bengal for December, 1865

with Index for the year. :

Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal Part II. No. 1, 1865.

Military Sanitary Report.

Poetical version of Genesis and Exodus in Tamil by Rev. d.

Me Arthur, Jaffna, presented by the Author.

Journal of Bombay Asiatic Society 1861-62 1862-63.

3 Nos. Annals of Magazine of Natural History.

2 Photographs from Mr. Macready from Putlam.

Proceedings of Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia

for 1865. .

A sum of £5 was put at the disposal of the Secretary for repairs.

£10 were voted for procuring things from England necessary for

setting up specimens in the Museum.

_ It was agreed that the following papers should be published.

All the Chapters of Mr. Silva’s Work on Demonology in Ceylon

except chapter VIII.

Origin of the Sinhalese language by J. De Alwis, Esq.

Ist discourse of Buddha.

A few remarks on the poisonous properties of Calotropis Gigan-

tea by Dr. Ondaatjie.

A paper on fish by Revd. B. Boake.

A paper on Medicinal oils.

x. PROCEEDINGS OF MEETINGS.

LIST of Members of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal

Alwis, J. A.

Alwis, A.

Boake, Rev. B.

Birch, F. W.

Bailey, Rev. J. B.

Bury, F. C.

Blake, J. B.

Caley, J. A.

Capper, J.

Coomara Swamy, M.

Creasy, Hon’ble Sir E.

Dawson, R.

Dickson, J. F.

Dias, C.

Ferguson, A. M.

Ferguson, W.

Flanderka, J. L.

Ferdinands, C.

Gibson, Hon’ble W. C.

Green, J. P.

Grenier, S.

Hawkins, G. H.

Jones, Kepple.

Jayesinghe, Cornelis.

Karunaratna, M.

Lorensz, C. A.

Layard, C. P.

Asiatic Society.

. wus

Marsh, J.

Morgan, Hon’ble R. F. W.

Merson, Rev. C.

Martensz, J.

Mill, Rev. J.

Me Arthur, Rev. J.

Nicholson, Rev. J.

Nevill, Hugh.

Ondaatjie, W. C.

Pole, H.

Primrose, A.

Pieris, J. M. P.

Richmond, S. T.

Shultze, N. D.

Skeen, W.

Stewart, C. H.

Skinner, Major, A.

Steward, G. S.

Saram, I’, J. De.

Thurstan, Rev. J.

Tatham, Ralph,

Temple, E.

Wall, G.

Winzer, J.

Young, Rev. J.

Zoysa, L. De

PROCEEDINGS OF MEETINGS. Xe

ACCOUNT of the state of the Society’s funds

by the Treasurer.

OLN ae

Ny Solana

Balance received - - 25 13 8

1 Life subscription -" - Coe 0

Hintrance fees. - - 5 15 6

Subseriptions paid - - 29° 8 0

Journals sold - = 0 10 0

Amount from Athenzum Society paid

over by Mr. Lorensz - - 66 7 10

: 135) 25,0

Paper for Printing Journal - 15 *-0 -0

Paid on account to Printer - 3) oa) @)

Notices - - 0 15 0

Vote to Secretary for repairs - Cy OE)

Advertising - - O24:

Collecting subscriptions - - | Brice

Peon’s wages - - Die Toe 6

38 0 4

Balance in hand - - Qe) AS

oy Rei are

Ca { — RAS:

erg, S38

JOURNAL

THE CEYLON BRANCH

OF THE

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.

On Demonology and Witchcraft in Ceylon — By Danpris DE

SILVA GOONERATNE, Mopiiar.

ern LILI OI

GENERAL REMARKS ON DEMON VYORSHIP.

A belief in the realities of an invisible world of evil spirits as

influencing, in a certain manner, many of the ordinary concerns of

human life, has not only always formed an integral part of the

creed of a large majority of mankind in every age and country of

the world, but has also had, and still has, to a considerable extent,

a certain strange, mysterious, and unaccountable fascination for

the mind of man, even when reason happens to raise its authorita-

tive voice of condemnation against it. Why, or how this is so—

whether it is founded on any innate, morbid quality of the human

heart, which men find it difficult to resist under certain circum-

stances, or on any intrinsic truth inherent in the nature of the

thing itself, or only on mere ignorance, itis as far from my present

purpose, as it is beyond my humble abilities, to discuss here. But

that the belief really exists will hardly admit of a doubt.

This belief has, according to the amount of intelligence and

civilization possessed by those among whom it prevails, given rise

_ to various systems of superstition, of which some are of the most

2 GENERAL REMARKS ON

debasing and revolting character. And although there is scarcely

a single country in the world, in which this belief does not more

or less prevail in some form or other, yet we do not think there is

any, in which it has developed itself in such gigantic proportions,

or such hideous forms, asin this beautiful Island. Elsewhere it

may sometimes exercise considerable influence and even command

many devoted votaries; but here it has been moulded into a regular

religion, arranged and methodized into a system, and carefully

preserved in writing: so that the amount of influence, which it ex-

ercises over the thoughts, the habits, the every day life of a

Singhalese, is such as can hardly be believed by a stranger to the

character of a genuine Singhalese Buddhist.

A series of writers commencing with Knox and ending with Sir

Emerson Tennent, have, at different periods, during the last 200

years, given to the public the results of their enquiries and expe-

rience in matters connected with this Island, in a number of inter-

esting and able works of which Sir Emerson’s is the last and the

greatest: yet none of these writers seem to have perceived, in any

adequate degree, the extraordinary amount of gross superstition

which prevails among the people, of whose manners, customs, and

history they professed to treat; not that they have omitted to mention

the worship of gods and demons, as well as Buddhism and a few

other superstition, as existing among our countrymen, and even in

some instances, gone into considerable details respecting them,

but they do not appear to have been fully aware of the extraor-

dinary degree of influence they exercise over the mind of a

Singhalese. This is owing partly to the circumstance of these

writers being Englishmen, mostly unacquainted with the native

languages, and partly to acertain reluctance, which a demon-wor-

shipper always feels, to communicate full and unreserved informa-

tion to a stranger who professes a different religion, suspecting that

the object of the Englishman, in seeking for information respecting

a system in which he himself does not believe, is only to publish it

in his books and newspapers, and thereby expose it to public ridi-

cule.

DEMON WORSHIP. 3

In the following pages, we propose to class the different forms

of superstition prevailing among our countrymen, under the fol-

lowing heads, viz:—I. Dremontsm, or the worship ef demons or evil

spirits; II. Capuism, or the worship of gods, demigods, and deified

heroes; III. Granaism, or the worship of planets and stars; IV.

MISCELLANEOUS SUPERSTITIONS, or such as cannot properly be

classed under any of the preceding heads. Not only will each of

these be found to be distinct from the rest in all material points,

but they also appear to have originated in the Island at different

periods of time.

It is not easy, however, to fix definitely any particular period of

time as that in which any of these systems of superstition jirs¢

originated in the Island, no positive information of a very reliable

character being supplied by any records of native annals now

extant. Nevertheless the most reasonable supposition, and one

which is supported by all who have touched upon the subject, and,

to a certain extent, by the native historical records themselves, is,

that the greater portion of them existed here at a very early period,

long anterior to the commencement of the Christian era.

With the-exception of Buddhism (also which is partly, though

in some few respects only, based upon Brahminism) every species

of superstition, science, or literature, which exists among the

Singhalese, with certain exceptions of minor importance, may be

traced, more or less directly to Brahminism and its Vedas and Shas-

ters. Whether this is solely a consequence of Wijeyo’s invasion

(543 B. ¢.), or whether any portion of them, such as the worship

of demons and of planets, had existed here even before that event,

and only became assimilated to the Brahminical doctrines itself

in subsequent times, it is not easy to decide; but yet, if the wild,

ignorant savages, who inhabited this Island, when Wijeyo landed on

it, and whom Native Chroniclers have styled demons, did profess

any form of worship, as no doubt they must have done, it is more

likely that it related to demons and planets, than to any thing else.

Men steeped in complete barbarism and ignorance, separated by

their insular position from the rest of the world, attributing, with

A GENERAL REMARKS ON

the first impulse of uneducated nature, a supernatural agency to

natural causes and events, when these were beyond the comprehen-

sion of their simple intellects, and naturally impelled, therefore, in

the absence of any other form of religion calculated to fill up the

void in their minds, to embrace any which their untutored passions

and feelings, and their immediate wants and conveniences suggested

to them, as the best—men such as these are likely to coin for them-

selves a religion, which in every respect corresponds with their own

dispositions. Sickness and death, the most direful calamities of

life, with the many dreadful circumstances generally attending

them, are, of all causes, those which would naturally, in those early

ages of the world, excite, in an ignorant and simple mind, feelings

of supernatural terror; and the rise, among such a people, of a

system of worship, in which every form of disease and suffering is

attributed to the agency of demons, must cease to excite wonder

in any mind. If Demonism did actually exist here previous to the

invasion of Wijeyo, as we think it did, a multitude of other causes

and circumstances, which followed that event, as consequences of

it, must have cooperated to bring it into its present condition, with

its charms and spells and invocations to the Hindoo deities. ‘These

changes appear to have been going on till within the last 3 centuries.

But though we are not able to fix the exact period at which

Demonism originated in the Island, we have enough of evidence to

prove, that ‘vs crigin could not have been later than the fifth century ;

for the seventh Chapter of Maha Wanse, a work whose authen-

ticity has never been called in question, makes mention of Balli*

offerings, made to demons at the time of Wijeyo, that is five and a

half centuries before the Christian Era; which shews, that, even if

Demon-worship did not prevail here in the days of Wijeyo, it did so

* Although the books of the demon priests direct that a baili or image of

any demon invoked on any occasion, should be formed, and offerings be made to

it, yet in point of practice this image, or dalli, has generally been dispensed with

in modern times.

There is another species of ba//i made to represent, not demons, but Planet

gods, These will come to be noticed under the head Grahaism.

DEMON WORSHIP. 5

in the days of Maha Nama Terunnanse, who was engaged in the

composition of that historical work, between the years 459 and

477 A. D., that is nearly 1400 years ago.

_ Grahaism may, with equal reason, be supposed to have been a

system of still more ancient origin; the sun, moon, and stars being

the first objects of wonder, which are calculated to rouse, in an

ignorant mind, feelings of superstitious adoration. But, as it at pre-

sent exists, it appears to be almost wholly an emanation from

Brahminism. While Capuism, on the other hand, is a mixture of

Hindooism and of a more refined species of Demonism, the first

‘derived from the continent, the latter of indigenous growth, and

both mixed together into a heterogeneous system, originating proba-

bly at a period later than the two former.

Although Buddha is said to have visited Ceylon three several

times before its conquest by Wijeyo, his religion was not established:

in it till the reign of Dewanan Piatisse, who ascended the throne

‘807 B. C., nearly 236 years after Buddha’s death. But, from the

first day of its introduction into the Island, its success seems to:

have been very rapid; and indeed from the despotic nature of the

government, and the religious enthusiasm of the king, assisted as

it was by the proselytizing spirit of Dharma Soka of India (the

grandson of him who has been called Sandracotta by the Greek

writers) its success could not but have been certain, immediate, and

complete. But demonism was not displaced by it. It only took

a subordinate rank. Buddhism acknowledges the existence of

demons, and connives at, if it does not openly countenance, the

practice of demon-worship, or at Jeast of a great deal which belongs

to it. Buddhism does not hold out worldly advantages or imme-

diate rewards in this life to its votaries, so much as demonism does.

Its task is the graver one, of pointing out a way (though an erro-

neous one) of obtaining salvation for the soul; an object which is

to be attained, only after passing through many transmigrations of

the soul, through countless millions of years—a consummatien,

therefore which, however devoutly wished for by a Buddhist, is

still one to be attained only in another state of existence, at some.

“.

ie) GENERAL REMARKS ON

unknown distant period of time. Demonism, on the other hand,

deals with the concerns of this life, and of this life alone. This, there-

fore, appeals more strongly to the passions and feelings, in as much

as it relates to things nearer and present. Hence, demonism never

lost its hold on men’s minds, but, on the contrary, it still continues

to be the most popular of all forms of worship prevailing among

the Singhalese.

The period, at which demonism seems to have been fashioned

into the form it still retains, is that which intervened between the

eleventh and the sixteenth centuries, during which, owing to the

numerous wars which were incessantly waged between the princes

of this Island and those of Southern India, thousands of Malabars

often became residents, as captive slaves or as freemen, among the

Singhalese, and imparted to the latter, many of their own peculiar

superstitions and notions, so that many fresh additions were made

to demonism, both in the number of demons, and, especially, in the

introduction of a large number of charms or spells recited at every

demon ceremony now; so much, indeed, does this appear to have

been the case that more than seven-eighths of the charms, belonging

to Singhalese Necromancy, are in the Tamil language; a circum-

stance which has led many to believe, that demonism is altogether

an importation from the continent. During the last three centuries,

no changes whatever seem to have been made in it, or if any,

only of a very trifling nature, and that too, more in the gradual al-

terations of the language used in the invocations, than in any thing

else, Knox’s short account of the form of demon-worship, which

prevailed at the time he was a captive in this Island, that is 200

years ago, seems, judging even from the little he has said on the

subject, to be exactly the form of worship, which at this day prevails

among the people.

Thus, besides Buddhism, properly so called, there are three other

forms of worship, which enter into the religious creed of a.Singha-

lese, namely Demonism, Capuism, and Grahaism. In addition to

these, there are also a variety of other minor superstitions, considered

to be quite necessary to his welfare, and which, though of minor

DEMON WORSHIP. af

importance, do engage, and will continue to engage, his serious

attention, so long as he continues to be a Buddhist. As the first of

these, viz., Buddhism, relates only to his spiritual interests, affecting

him in another life, so the last three concern his temporal interests

in this life; the fruits of the first being tasted only in another state

of existence, while those of the last, are enjoyed immediately, and

during every moment of this life. To which of these therefore a

Singhalese resorts oftenest, and with the greatest eagerness, it 1s

easy to imagine. He has one religion for his soul, and another for

his body, both highly reverenced, and maintained as essential to his

well being; a convenience which, as far as we are aware, no other

nation in the world possesses,

The most remarkable feature in the character of a Singhalese is,

not that he is a follower of any one of these superstitious systems,

but that he is a follower of each and all of them at one and the

same time; for the doctrines of some of these appear to be contra-

dictory to, and inconsistent with, each other. For instance, Gra-

haism maintains, that the movements of the Planets influence man

in every thing; that sometimes they bring disease, death, poverty

and every other imaginable misery, not only on himself, butsometimes

even on those connected with him; that at other times they give him

health, wealth, honours, happiness, and every thing else desirable;

but that all the aforesaid calamities may be prevented by propi-

tiating the planets by certain ceremonies. On the other hand, the

fundamental doctrine of the religion of Buddha, being, that every

man is what he is, owing to Karma, that is, to the nature of what

he has done, good or bad, in a previous state of existence, Buddhism, ©

or at least every Buddhist Priest admits, in a spirit of compromise,

as it were, that many of the calamities or turns of good fortune,

whieh befall men, do take place according to the movements of the

planets, but contend, that these movements are not arbitrary and

optional with the planets themselves; that they are the result of a

certain fixed order according to which the planets must move; that

the planets are only a sort of intermediate agents, serving merely

as blind instruments in the hands of Karma, to prefigure to ‘the

8 GENERAL REMARKS ON

world the various changes of fortune, which must come upon each

man according to his Karma, that is, according to his good or bad

deeds in a former life; and that no propitiation of the planets, or

of any power whatsoever, in the whole universe, can ward off cala-

mities, or hinder happiness and prosperity, deserved by a man on

account of this inexorable Karma. Nevertheless, a Singhalese con-

trives to believe in all the four systems, and to be, at the same time,

recognized as an orthodox Buddhist; and it would be a rare thing

to meet with any one, who, in point of practice, is a votary of only

one or two of the systems. The influence which these systems

command, notwithstanding such inconsistencies as the above, may

be judged of from the fact, that the Buddhist Priest himself, the

very teacher and expounder of the religion of Buddha, has some-

times recourse to Grahaism and even to Demonism. Before we

proceed further, we shall make a few more general remarks on each

of these systems.

I. Demontsm is regarded as a means of guarding against sick-

ness, and of curing it when it is supposed, as it almost always is,

to be caused by a demon, and also as a means, in the hands of any

-man, of inflicting death, disease, or other calamity, on other men.

A subordinate object of it is the accomplishment of purposes dif-

ferent from the above, such as that of protecting the fruits of atree

from pillage, of creating discord and hatred between the different

members of a family, of gaining the affections of a woman, of dis-

covering treasures hidden in the ground, and other similar purposes.

The demons are regarded as beings only influenced by the worst

of motives towards mankind, without a sentiment of pity, justice,

or kindness, in their nature. They are made instrumental in curing

diseases, as well as in inflicting them. They are to be coerced by

spells, and propitiated with offerings and particular ceremonies.

They cannot affect the spiritual welfare of a man in any way; but

can only cause death at the most. A Singhalese demon, therefore,

is a different kind of being from the demon of European supersti-

tions or from the Diabolus of the New Testament. For, while the

object of the latter is to ruin for ever the soul of a man, that of the |

DEMON WORSHIP. 9

former is only to injure the body. A Singhalese demon is himself

a being subject to death, like all other beings recognised by Budd-

hism, although that event may in some instances take place only

at the end of some tens of thousands of years. This difference arises

from the Buddhist doctrine, that there is no state of perpetual ex-

istence for any being; that happiness or misery can never be per-

petual; that the rewards or punishments for the actions of one life

will be reaped in one or more states of existence afterwards, and

then come to an end; and that mere obedience to a demon does not

necessitate any disobedience to one’s religion.

In every other form of worship, which exists among men, whether

it be Buddhism, Capuism, Mohammedanism, Brahminism, or any

other, the objects of worship are always regarded with feelings of

veneration by their votaries; but in Demonism alone, no such

feelings exist in the heart of the worshipper, whose worship consists

only in trying to induce them by flattery, and offerings, or to coerce

them by threats, to cure, or to inflict some disease, or to secure a

man from becoming liable to it at all. And yet neither the rites of

Buddhism, nor of Capuism, nor even of Grahaism, are more fre-

quently and eagerly resorted to, than those belonging to the worship

of demons, who, instead of being objects of religious veneration,

are only objects of indescribable dread.

One of the main differences between an educated and an unedu-

cated intellect seems to be this—that, while the former always aims

at analysis, at generalization, at resolving the mysterious and the

marvellous into natural causes, at laying open the hidden and in-

scrutable things of nature, the latter takes the directly opposite

course of indulging in the unreasonable and unaccountable pleasure

of throwing a veil of mystery and darkness even over those things,

which, if it were to view them rationally, it might understand, and

of endeavouring, as often as possible, to give “a local habitation

and a name” to what has neither. Nowhere is this strange pecu-

harity of the uncultivated intellect perceived in a more tangible

form than in the demonology of the Singhalese.

As may naturally be expected in such a system, created and

ice) GENERAL REMARKS ON

upheld merely by popular superstition, we find that not only are

many of its tenets sometimes contrary to each other, but that the

Cattadiyas (demon priests) and even the very books, which lay

down the principles of their system, often differ from each other,

so much so, indeed, that it is very difficult for any one, undertaking

to give a connected and consistent account of the Demonism of

Ceylon, to avoid sometimes making in one part of his account a

statement inconsistent with another in another part of it. But as

far as the Cattadiyas and their followers are themselves concerned,

such difficulties are easily surmounted, by their attributing all such

contradictions, if pointed out, to the mysteries of the art, and to

their own ignorance, rather than to any fault of the system itself.

The Priests of Demonism are styled Yakaduras, Yakdessas, or

raore commonly, Cattadiyas; and there is scarcely a single village

in the Island, which does not boast of at least one. Nearly twelve

months are spent in learning the trade, the most laborious and

principal part of the task of a beginner being, te commit to memory

the charms, invocations, and songs, which are essential to his voca-

tion. What the number of these is, may be estimated from the

fact, that some of the demon-ceremonies commence at 6 or 7 P. M.

and, lasting without intermission throughout the whole night, close

only about 6 or 7, and sometimes later, the next morning; during

all which time the performer has to repeat from memory all his

charms and songs, only now and then interrupted by a violent bout

of dancing. The dancing and the singing generally go on together,

except when the former happens to be of so violent a nature, as to

render it impossible to continue the other along with it. The pro-

fession was in early times exclusively confined to the low Castes,

such as Tomtom Beaters, Durayas, and Jaggeries, but at present

there is no such exclusiveness, men of every caste betaking them-

selves to it. The first man who ever practised the art, is said to

have been one Pradeys Rosia.

A Cattadiya, who is a priest, though it be of demons, is yet never

looked upon as in any way distinguished from the rest of the people

by any supposed sanctity of character, or by a superior degree of

Ne ine ee te ee meal

DEMON WORSHIP. Il

intelligence; he wears no particular badge or dress like the Buddhist

Priest, and receives no particular respect from any one ;—his ordi-

nary life and avocations are like those of his neighbours; and as the

members of his fraternity in the same village sometimes amount to

three or four, his professicnal income does not suffice for his main-

tenance. He is therefore obliged to betake himself to some other

supplementary business to increase his income. His profession is

looked upon only as any ordinary calling, and commands no more

respect than that of a boatman, a boutique keeper, a toddy drawer,

or any other common trade. There is nothing of a sacred character

belonging to it, as to that of the Buddhist Priests.

II. Cavruvism, like Demonism, also refers to the interests of this

world; but while the object of the latter is to inflict or cure diseases

by the agency of demons, the object of the former is to protect men

generally against all manner of evil, and from diseases of a particu-

lar kind, such as small pox, chicken pox, and any epidemical disease

of a malignant nature, and more especially to render prosperous the

various avocations and trades of the people. The dewiyo or gods,

who are the objects of worship in Capuism, area more exalted class

of beings, not possessed of the same evil dispositions as the demons,

nor bringing like them sickness and death on innocent people; but

reserving their powers of doing evil only for the punishment of

those, who in any way displease them. But the punishment they

inflict is always out of proportion to the nature of the offence.

Although not so malignant as the demons, they are yet revengeful

and irascible in their nature. They are more properly called

dewatawo or inferior gods, and are propitiated by particular cere-

monies. The priests of this worship are called Capuas. ‘The

priestesses of one of the principal goddesses belonging to this wor-

ship, named Pattiny deviyo, are called Pattiny Hamies. These

Pattiny Hamies are not always females, males very often assuming

_ the office. Both Pattiny Hamies and Capuas hold nearly the same

rank in the estimation of their countrymen, and lead the same sort

of life, as the Cattadiyas already mentioned; but in earlier days they

were considered to be superior to the Cattadiyas, and in the inland

12 GENERAL REMARKS ON DEMON WORSHIP.

districts of the Island they still retain this superiority to some

extent. ‘The sacred character however assigned to the Priests of

Buddha is wholly denied both to the Capuas and to the Cattadiyas.

III. GrAnatsm, as it exists here at the present day, owes its

origin to Judicial Astrology. The Horoscope of a man is an essen-

tial thing for determining both the nature of the planetary influence,

which troubles him at any particular time with disease or some other

evil, and also the nature of the particular ceremony necessary to

remedy the evil. The calculations of the Astrologer shew that

a certain position or a certain movement of the planets, or their

arrival at a certain point of their orbit, is fraught with some cala-

mity or some advantage toa man. When the former happens to be

the case, the planet god, who is the cause of the evil, is propitiated

by certain ceremonies called alli ceremonies. These, being of

various kinds, will come to be treated of in detail in a subsequent

chapter. These Balli ceremonies have become more generally dif-

fased through the Island since the reign of Sree Prakkrama Bahoo

VL, who commenced his reign at Cottah in the year 1410, A. D.

Before that time they were confined generally to the magnates of

the land. When aking or a rich aristocrat fell sick, Brahmins

and others skilled in the art were sent for from India, who sometimes

also came of their own accord, and gave the benefit of their services

only to those, who were able to pay them well: but Sreerahola

Teruananse, a Buddhist priest who lived during that reign, and

who is reputed to have been the most learned man of his time in

the Island, reduced Grahaism to its present condition, by teaching

it to people of some of the low castes, and thereby rendering

its benefits available to all classes of people. And so to this day,

although every class of Singhalese engages in the worship, yet the

office of priest or Ballicaareya or Balleadura is still held only by

some of the low caste people, especially the Berawayos or Tomtom

beaters. |

CHAPTER IL.

THE DrEmMons oR YAKSEYO.

_ The Demons or Yakseyo* are a class of beings forming a large

community, under a government conducted by a King, and sub-

ject to laws enacted by him for their control, any infringement of

which is followed by severe punishment. Wessamonny, this dreaded

king, whose subjects throng every part of the sky, carries in his

hand'a sword of gold, of such wondrous power, that, when he is dis-

pleased with any of his subjects, it flies out of his hand of its own

accord, and, after cutting off the heads of a thousand offenders with

the rapidity of lightning, returns to his hand again. His laws are

‘such as become the character of his subjects,—cruel, severe, and

merciless, death being the rule, and any lighter penalty the excep-

tion in the punishment of any crime—burning, boiling, roasting,

broiling, impaling, flaying alive, pouring melted metal down the

-* Sir Emerson Tennent in his Christianity in Ceylon distinguishes Yak-

seyos from Yakkas, and describes the former as a gentle and benevolent race

of beings, and the latter as malignant spirits; whereas, the truth is that both

the terms, the former being the Sanscrit, and the latter the Singhalese word,

mean the same thing. There are several other names by which these beings

are known such as Yakkha (Pali), and Vaksaya (a Singhalese form of the

Sanscrit term). The benevolent and gentle character, attributed by Sir Emer-

son, is true only of a portion of those Yakseyo mentioned in the Pali Buddhis-

tical Works. But the malignant Yakseyo, who cause disease and suffering

among men, are those who are worshipped in Demonism. ‘These latter are not

mentioned in the Buddhistical works, and are the indigenous demons of Cey-

lon, being creations of the popular fancy, existing in the belief of the Singha-

lese from a period perhaps Jong anterior to the introduction of Buddhism into

the Island.

The Rakseyo are a race of beings, who differ from men only in being canni-

bals. ‘They live solely on human flesh, which they obtain, not from graveyards

or other places where human carcasses may be had, but by actually seizing and

killing living men. They have no supernatural powers whatever like the Yak-

seyo. This notion about Rakseyo supports the idea that in the earliest

periods of time this Island must have been inhabited by a race of men, who

breakfasted on their fellowmen, like the inhabitants of some of the Polynesian

islands,

14 THE DEMONS

throat, driving sharp nails into the crown of the head, and a variety -

of other punishments, numbering 32 in all, distinguish his penal

code. He has viceroys, ministers, and other officers necessary for

the proper administration of his government. Between His Ma-

jesty and the mass of his subjects, there is a series of chiefs in regular

gradation to each other, each of whom within his: own allotted

sphere of action exercises almost an unlimited amount of power.

He exacts from all his subjects a degree of servile obedience to his

will, which not the most despotie of earthly sovereigns ever pre-

tended to claim; and the mere mention of his name is sufficient

to make any of his subjects tremble with fear. His subjects spend

their time almost always in amusing diversions of various kinds.

Many of them at one time were so little under his rule that they

openly attacked men, and either devoured them alive bones and all,

or sucked their blood. Every Saturday and Wednesday, all the

respectable demons attend a sort of pandemonium called Yaksa

Sabawa, where each chieftain gives an account of the conduct of

those under him to the principal chiefs; after which, they all engage

in dancing, singing, playing on musical instruments, and in the

display of exploits of skill and dexterity. :

Demonsare of two classes, those approaching tothe nature of gods,

wise, powerful, and not merciless, living in the upper regions of

the sky, in magnificent palaces decorated with gold, silver, and

precious stones, enjoying an amount of happiness little inferior to

that of the gods themselves, and sometimes called dewatawas; and

those, who with wild, savage, gross, beastly natures, pass their time

near the surface of the earth, revelling in scenes of blood and misery,

bringing disease and death on men, and receiving offerings of rice,

meat, and blood, in return. The former class of demons are those

mentioned in the Pali works, and do not belong to Demon-worship,

but the latter, being those who are supposed to afflict men, are the

objects of dread and of worship among the Singhalese.* These

* That none of the demons mentioned in the Buddhistical wr..ings should

be found to be objects of worship among the Singhalese, and that Demonism —

OR YAKSEYO. 15

are supposed to be the most terrible and hideous looking creatures

im existence. Their aliment is blood and flesh, especially of human

beings, but this not being allowed them now by their king, they are

obliged to content themselves with making men sick, and accepting

the offerings made by the sick people, which in imagination they

suppose to be the flesh and blood of men, but do not, or cannot,

actually eat; the only use they make of such offerings being to look

at them, and enjoy the pleasure the sight affords them. By what

other means they support existence, whether they take any kind of

food whatever, or live by some supernatural means without the

use of any food, neither the Cattadiya nor his books enable us to

say.

They are said to have, in general, skins of a black colour, and large

protruding eyes and hanging lips, with long white teeth, of which

those called the canine, in some demons, project out of the mouth,

eurved like a pair of sickles. They sometimes wear about their

persons venomous serpents, especially Cobras. ‘They are invisible

to men, but have the power of making themselves visible, generally

in some other shape, often in that of beasts, of men or of women.

As the favorite food of the cat is said to be rats, and that of tigers

recognizes demons wholly unknown to Buddhistical literature, do in themselves

constitute a strong piece of internal evidence in proof of the greater antiquity

of Demonism over Buddhism in this Island. For, had the latter been the one

earlier established here, the probability, amounting almost to a certainty, is

that the demons recognized by Buddhism itself would have been the demons

who would have become objects of worship.

If Buddha and Wessamonny are mentioned in the invocations and charms of

Demonism, as they often are, it only shews the natural result of two systems,

which have continued to flourish together side by side for 2000 years and up-

wards, trying to adjust themselves to each other as much as possible: the more

so when the believer in one system happens, as is the case here, to be also a

believer in the other. Buddhism being considered to be the sacred religion,

while Demonism is only a religion relating to one’s temporal interests, it is

natural that the influence of the former should to a certain extent be felt on

the latter.

i6 THE DEMONS

black cattle, so the favorite dish of a demon is said to be a living

man. And because he is not allowed now to indulge himself in

that luxury, he therefore takes pleasure in throwing his influence

on men in a certain mysterious manner, which, it is said, is a

source of enjoyment to him, as if he were actually engaged in suck-

ing the blood out of some good locking man: it is also believed that

this sort of enjoyment constitutes their only means of sustaining life,

and that it is quite enough for the purpose. They area sort of

ubiquitous race, and yet have certain fixed residences in the north

of the sky. They have the remarkable power of observing events

which take place tens of thousands of miles remote from them, and

can likewise travel millions of miles ina minute. The demons

belonging tothe first of these two classes are neither hideous as

those of the second, nor do they eat men, nor even make men sick,

In person they are like the gods themselves, with skins of golden

hue. ‘They use the ambrosial heavenly food used by the gods.

The second class of demons is subdivided into four minor divi-

sions; viz., 1. Balli-caama demons, or those who have a particular

attachment to balli offerings; 2. Billi-caama demons, or those fond

of offerings of living beings; 3. Ratti-caama demons, or those who

take delight in music, dancing, and other pleasures of that kind;

4, Hantu-caama demons, or those who delight in inflicting death.

A. disease brought on by a Hantu-caama demon is considered to be

Yacurable by any means whatever; but those inflicted by the de-

mons of the other three divisions terminate fatally, only when pro-

per remedies are not applied, viz., those which Demonism affords.

In Narayena, the principal authority on the subject of the witch-

craft, and to a certain extent of the demonology of India and the

neighbouring countries, there appear the names of many demons,

such as Asura Yakseya, Awara Yakseya, Heyma Yakseya, Peita

Yakseya, Pralaapa Yakseya, Wayissrawana Yakseya, Kaksepa

Yakseya, Nischella Yakseya, Gandarwa Yakseya, Naga Yakseya,

and a great many others. But although Narayena is the received

authority on the subject of charms among the Singhalese, yet none

of these demons, mentioned in it as inflicting evils on men, are

{

OR YAKSEYO. 17

known to the Demonism of the Island. This circumstance is only

another proof of the Demon-worship of the Singhalese having had

an origin independent both of Brahminism or Hinduism, and of

Buddhism.

According to Buddhism, neither Brahmas* nor Dewo nor Vak-

seyo are born from the womb ofa mother, but suddenly spring into

existence full grown. This sort of birth is called Oapapatika,

Nevertheless the last two classes, viz.. Dewo and Yakseyo may have

mothers in a peculiar fashion. For instance, if a demon seem to

Spring into existence from the shoulder or arm of a female demon,

the latter is considered to be his mother. Marrying and giving in

marriage prevail among them as well as among men. ‘This is the

account which Buddhism gives: but that given by Demonism itself

differs very widely from this. It represents demons as having

human fathers and mothers, and as being born in the ordinary course

of nature. This is said to have been the case with almost every

demon; but though born of human parents, all their qualities are

different from those of men. They leave their parents sometime

after their birth, but before doing so they generally take care to try

* Brahmas are the highest order of gods inhabiting the 16 highest heavens

called Brahma loka, as the Dewo are the gods next below them in rank, inha-

biting the 6 Dewa loka situated immediately below the former. Yakseyo are

the demons. Brahmas are supposed seldom or never to interfere in the affairs

of men, and are therefore never worshipped or invoked by the Singhalese; and

even of the Dewo, the people worship only a few of the inferior classes, who

do not even dwell in the 6 Dewa loka, but on the tops of large trees, and in

the air above, not very far however from the earth, in magnificent palaces

invisible to man. ‘The Dewo of this latter class are called dewata generally,

and are divided into Tallatoo and Boomatoo dewo. These are the dewo or

gods that the people worship, as conferring benefits upon men or punishing them

for their misdeeds. The more ignorant of the Singhalese Buddhists know no

beings superior to these. These inferior gods are partly Hindoo deities, and

partly deified heroes of the Singhalese.

The fact of Brahmas being mentioned by Buddha as the highest class of

beings in existence, inférior only to himself, inhabiting 16 lokas or worlds, is

‘an additional, though a collateral, proof of Brahminism being anterior to

Buddhism.

18 THE DEMONS |

their demoniac powers on them. In the first place they must pay

their court to Wissamonny, or to some powerful god, and obtain

from him permission to exercise their demoniac powers. hey then

hover about in the air, and cease to touch the ground; for walking

on the ground is strictly prohibited by Wissamonny and the gods;

nevertheless, whenever a man says that he has seen the apparition

of a demon, he always describes him as having appeared to him

walking on the ground like a man.

It also appears in the various accounts given of the birth of de-

mons, especially in the genealogical accounts recited or chanted at

the commencement of demon ceremonies, that a demon has the

power at any moment (a power which he often exercises) of entering

the womb of a woman, where he remains during the necessary period,

assuming in their order the various conditions of a foetus conceived

in the ordinary way. After the woman’s delivery, the child (that

is the demon) resumes the exercise of his demon peculiarities, as

before. Some demons appear to have been born hundreds of times

in this fashion. |

If we can believe that there is any particle of truth at all in the

existence and in the genealogies of these demons, that little, we

think, must be this—that in the very remotest periods, when the

Singhalese were peculiarly ignorant and superstitious, and when the

principle of Hero-worship was carried toa height proportioned only

to the ignorance of the worshipper, there may have lived particular

members of the community, who distinguished themselves by ex-.

treme ferocity and cruelty of conduct, joined to considerable power,

which they exercised either as kings, chiefs, or mere lawless free-

booters; and that these individuals after death, and perhaps when

living, were worshipped as supernatural beings possessed of irre-

sistible powers of injuring men. Weare the more confirmed in this

opinion by the fact, tuat the dewo or gods belonging to Capuism

appear to have been no more than creatures of this kind. The

mythology and the apotheosis of the Greeks, of the Romans and of

most other early nations of the world were, in a manner, only coun-

terparts of this.

OR YAKSEYO. 19

_ There is another class of demons who come into existence by

Oapapatika birth. These are called Malla Yakseyo, or the

spirits of deceased men. Ifa man, who lives at enmity with ano-

ther, remember, on his deathbed, just before he dies, and at the

very moment of his expiring, any thing relating to that enmity,

and if, instead of a feeling of forgiveness, resentment and hatred

take possession of his mind, he is supposed to become, after death,

a demon of this kind. ‘These demons are not so powerful, as those

mentioned above, nevertheless they too cause sickness.

There are two places distinguished as the birthplaces of many

of the demons. ‘These are Wisala Maha Newera (Ujayin), and

Sanka paala Newera. ‘These cities are said to have, on very many

occasions, been laid desolate by demons, either by inflicting disease

upon the citizens or by devouring them alive.

To shew the reader that the notion of the possibility of a human

mother giving birth to a demon even in these days, is not at all

uncommon amorg the people, we have only to mention an incident

which is still fresh in our recollection. A poor woman of our native

village gave birth to a child about 23 or 24 years ago; the infant,

which was a male, had all its teeth as well developed, as a child of

5 or 6 years of age. Its head too was covered with hair about an

inch long, its face was unusually long, and its mouth broader than

usual-in children of that age. The appearance of the child was not

at all prepossessing, aud all thought that it wasademon. An hour

or two after its birth the grandfather dashed out its brains with a

stick. To this day, the people believe that it was actually a demon

and not a human being, aud this belief will, we are sure, continue

for centuries more. On our mentioning this circumstance some

years ago, to an English gentleman now high in the Civil Service

of this Island, he gave information of it to Government, who in

consequence instructed the local magistrate to make an investigation

into the matter. but those of the villagers, who were well acquaint-

ed with the particulars of the case, considering it more prudent to

hold their tongues, than to give information in a matter, ia which

they were not personally interested, denied all knowledge cf it,

20 THE DEMONS

Another child was also sacrificed to this same superstition about

25 years ago in a village near Barberyn. In this case, the child

was nailed to the stem of a cocoanut tree and so left to die, the best

punishment, as was thought, for ademon, who had had the impudence

to be born of a human mother. We have also heard of a still more

recent case, which occurred some 5 or 6 years ago in the same

neighbourhood, but we are not acquainted with any of the particu-

lars connected with it. We have likewise heard of 10 or 12 other

cases of this kind, which have occurred within the last 25 years in

other paris of the Island, in which ignorance and superstition

triumphed both over parental affection and over common sense,

The demons can never inflict disease or receive offerings, unless

they have a sort of general permission called Wurrun, previously

granted to them by Wissamonny, or by some of his principal chiefs,

or by some of the gods. And as they cannot honestly sustain life

without afflicting men, and thereby extorting offerings, they are

necessarily obliged to seek and obtain this Wurrun, as soon as they

enter on life. Inferior and insignificant demons however live on

without such a patent, by violating the law, and their sufferings and

punishments are therefore very great. The principal offenders of

this kind are the demons called Malla Vakseyo.

Like men, demons also seem to have their own fashionable hours

of breakfasting, dining, and supping. Sanny Yakseya will accept

his offerings only in the morning between 2 and 6 o’clock; Reeri

YVakseya, Calloo Yakseya, Abimaana Yakseya, and Totte Yak-

seya, will accept their’s only in the evening, between 6 and 10 o'clock;

while Maha Sohon Yakseya, Hooniyan YVakseya, Uda Yakseya,

the female demons Riddhi Yaksanitya and Madana Yaksenzya will

accept offerings at no other hours than those intervening between

10 Pp. M., and 2 a. M.

Although it is believed that there are millions and billions of

demons in existence, yet the number of those who. belong to the

demon worship does not exceed 50 or 60, and even of these Reeri

Yakseya, Calloo Yakseya, Sanny Yakseya, Maha Sohon Yakseya,

Calloo Cumare dewataiva, and Hooniyan Yakseya, are the principal

individuals, who figure in every demon ceremony in the Island.

Te le

ewe eS

Oe a a Ta EY ee ee 7

a i i I a i

OR YAKSEYO. 21

J. Rerri YAKSEYA or REERI YAKKA* (demon of blood) is con-

sidered to be the most cruel and powerful of all these. He is

represented as having the face of a monkey, and the rest of his body

like that of aman. ‘The colour of his skin isa fiery red. Heuses

a red bull to ride on. There is scarcely a single disease, to which

a Singhalese man is liable, in which this demon is not supposed to

exert an influence. Diseases, which produce a flux of blood from

the system, are supposed to be especially inflicted by him. When

a man is about to die, this demon is supposed to be present by means

of an avatar} or apparition called Maru Avatar, or apparition of

death. On such an occasion he is supposed to assume the dimen-

sions of a pigmy, measuring one span and six inches in height, and

carrying in one hand a cock, in the other a club, and in his mouth

the corpse of a man; he is supposed to be present at the death bed,

or not far off till the man dies. very demon, as well as Reeri

Yakseya, has several forms of these apparitions or dis2uises, which

he assumes on different occasions according to circumstances, and

in each of which he is called by a different name. ‘There is how-

ever another opinion entertained by some of the Cattadiyas, that

these apparitions are not different diseuises of the same demon, but

that they are separate individual demons, forming however a sort

of confederacy, and all acting together in concert. The former, we

think, is the more popular opinion of thetwo. Nevertheless, in the

case of one demon, viz., Sanni Yakseya, these apparitions are sup-

* Yakseya and Yakka are synonymous terms, of which the latter however is

the one which is more commonly used.

{ Avatar is a Sanscrit term signifying the incarnation of any being or spirit

in some particular shape. Among the Hindoos an avatar of being, such, for

instance, as that of Vishnoo, is some condition of existence, such as that of a

cow, 2man, a serpent or some other, which Vishnoo chosses to assume or to be

bornin. An avatar of a demon, as understood amongst the Singhalese, means

some disguise which a demon assumes for a few moments or so. It is also

supposed that the demon himself is not bodily present at any place where such

an avatar is seen, but thathe is millions of miles distant from the scene, and yet

has the power of creating these avatars and of presenting them to the eyes of

men,

easy THE DEMONS.

posed to be not his own disguised self, but separate individual

demons, who act under him and in obedience to his orders. Reeri

Yakseya has 18: of these apparitions, oravatars as they are called

by the people. In the lst he is cailed Reeri Yakseya; in the

2nd Ree Raj-ja; 38rd Agu Raj-ja; 4th Pulutajja; sth Neerr

Gopolla; 6th Reeri Buddia; 7th Reert Watukaya; 8th Reerr

Billey Dewatawa; 9th Reert Kavisia; 10th Reera Saniiya ;

llth Reerit Curumberaya; 12th Reert Madana Yakseya; \dth

Lay Avatar Yakseya; \4th Lay Caama Yakseya; léth Serra

Marulu Dewatawa; 16th Maru Reeri Yukseya; 17th Maru

Caama Yakseya; and in the 18th Maru Avatar Yakseya. Reeri

Yakseya is represented to have had above a hundred different in-

carnations; in one of which he was the son of a king of Sanka pala

Nuwera; in another, of a king of Lagal pura; in a third, of a she-

di mon named Ginimuru Yaksani of a country called Hanumanta

Desay; but his disposition and conduct were the same in all.

Il. Mana Souon Yaxstya, or Mana Souonsa means the Great

Graveyard Demon. Ue is so named because he chiefly frequents

graveyards. He is also supposed to haunt the summits of large

rocks and hills, where he dekights to surround himself with,-human

carcasses, aud to swallow huge morsels of the delicious repast, pre-

ferring the entrails above all other parts. He is $1 cubits (122 feet)

high; has three eyes, four hands, and a skin of a red colour. His

origin is thus given—*“ In ancieut times, there were giants in this

Tsland, men‘ who could defeat even half a dozen elephants in single

combat by their mere physical strength. One of these giants, by

name Jaya Sena, was very fond of displaying his extraordinary

strength, even at times when there was no occasion for it, and hap-

pening on one cccasion to pick a quarrel with Gota Imbra, another

great giant, the latter with one blow knocked off his head. Pre-

cisely at that moment the planet god Senasura, who wasa spectator

of the scene, seized a bear, and tearing off its head from its body,

applied it to the headless trunk of Jaya Sena, to which through his

supernatural power it adhered, and becamea part of the body. So

the deceased Jaya Sena instantly rose up alive as a demon, and hag

Be ye

OR YAKSEYO. 23

since been known as Jfaha Sohona in reference to his habits of

haunting graveyards.”* In those demon ceremonies, which are

performed to obtain the release of a sick man from the influence of

Maha Sohona, a certain spell or charm called Gota Imbra Dehenay

is made use of by the Cattadiya. In this charm the particulars of

this event are narrated at length, and the demon is threatened with

further vengeance from his late conqueror, if he does not afford

immediate relief to the sufferer. Maha Sohona isthe chief of 30,000

demons. Fie alsoshews himself to men in various disguises or

apparitions when he moves about, and on each occasion rides on a

particular animal. In one of these apparitions he rides on a goat,

and is called Lay Sohona or Blood Demon of the graveyard;

in another be rides on a deer, and is named Amu Sohona or the

graveyard Demon of fresh corpses; in a third he rides on a horse,

and is called Jaya Sohona, or the Victorious demon of the grave-

yard; in a fourth he rides on a sheep, and is calied Maru Sohona

or the graveyard demon of death; in a fifth he rides on an ele-

phant, and is called Golw Schona or the Dumb demon of the

graveyard; In lis own proper person as Maha Sohona he rides

on a gigantic heg.

* The graveyards of ancient timesin Southern Asia, and especially in

Ceylon, were not what we commonly understand by thatterm now. Excepting

the Buddhist priests and the aristocrats cf the land, whose bodies were burnt

in regular funeral piles after death, the corpses of the rest of the people were

neither burned nor buried, but thrown into a place called Sohkona, which wes

an open piece of ground in the jungle, gencrally a hollow among the hills, at the

distance of 3 or 4 miles from any inhabited place, where the corpses were left

in the open air to be decomposed, or devoured by dogs and wild beasts. This

practice appears to have prevailed in the Island to a comparatively recent period,

and in the most secluded and least civilized of the inland districts till about the

beginning of this century. Although regular cemeteries are mentioned in the

Maha Wanso in connection with Anuradhapura, especially during the reign of

the Wijeyan dynasty, they do not appear to have been very general either at

that time or at any sebsequent period. Maha Sohona and other demons not

having now these ( Se hon.) congenial places for demoniac convivianity, are obliged

to be content with the ordinary graves and graveyards of these days.

24 THE DEMONS

Ill. Mauna Cora Sanni YaxkseEya, or the Great Demon of the

fatal diseases, according to one account, sprang into existence

from the ashes of the funeral pile of Asoopala Cumart, a princess

of the city Wisala Maha Nuwera.* Another account makes him

the son ofa king of acity, called Sanka pala Nuwera. + ‘This

king,” says the account, during the pregnancy of his queen, made

an incursion into the country in search of some article of Dolla-

duk for her, { and, on returning to his palace a few days after-

wards, one of the queen’s servants, who was unfriendly to her,

* “«Wisala,”’ says Professor Wilson, “ is a city of considerable renown in

Indian tradition, butits site isa subject of some uncertainty. Part of the

difficulty arises from confounding it with Visala, another name of Ujayinx.

According to the Buddhists, it is the same as Prayaga or Allahabad; but the

Ramayana places it much lower down, on the north Bank of the Ganges, nearly

opposite to the mouth of the Sone; and it was therefore in the modern district

of Saran, as Hamilton (Genealogy of the Hindus) conjectured.” — Wilson’s

Vishnu Purana.

Fa Hian visited Wisala, but does not give any extended description of what

hesaw. Hium Thsang is more particular, and says that it had fallen into ruin,

but that the circumference of the ancient foundations was upwards of twenty

miles. Hesaw the ruins of more than a hundred monasteries. The country

was rich, the soil fertile, the climate agreeable, and the inhabitants were bland

in their manners, and contended with their lot, There were a few monasteries

still standing, but the inmates were little better than heretics.”—Hardy’s

Manual of Buddhism.

There is scarcely any other place more frequently alluded toin the demo-

nology of Ceylon, than this city, which in Singhalese is generally known under

the name of Wisala Maha Nuware which means the “ great extensive city.”

} Sometimes also, called Sakaspura, and in Pali Sankassa. “A letter

from Lieutenant Cunningham, R. E., to Colonel Sykes, was read before the

Royal Asiatic Society, December 3, 1842, giving an account of the discovery

and identification of the city of Sankasya mentioned as the kingdom of Kusad-

waga inthe Ramayana. It is twenty-five miles from Farrkhabad, and fifty

from Kanouj on the north or left bank of the Kali Nadi. The ruins are very

extensive, and there can be no doubt that they are of Buddhi&tic origin”—

Hardy’s Manual of Buddhism.

{ Dolladuk isa strong desire which a woman during the earlier months of

her pregnancy has for something, generally some article of food. This desire

OR YAKSEYO. 25

wishing to ruin her, told the king that she was unfaithful to his bed.

On this, the injured king ordered her to be put to death. Her

body was to be cut into two pieces, of which one was to be hung

upon an Ukberiya tree, and the other tobe thrown at its foot to

be devoured by degs. When the queen heard of this, she was

enraged beyond measure, because she knew that she was wholly

innocent. So she said, ‘if this charge be false, may the child in

my womb be born this instant a demon, and may that demon de-

stroy the whole of this city with its unjust king.’ No sooner had

the king’s executioners done as they were ordered, than the half of

the corpse, which was suspended on the tree, falling down on the

ground, united itself to the other half which was at the foot of the

tree; and the same instant the corpse gave birth to a demon, who

first sucked his mother’s breasts, then sucked her blood, and lastly

devoured her, flesh and bones. He then went to the Schon grave-

yards in the vicinity, and there lived upon the carcasses. Atter-

wards repairing to the city and inflicting a mortal disease on the

king, he began with several other demons, who now formed his

retinue, to devour the citizens, and in a short time nearly depopus

lated the city. The gods Iswara and Sekkra, seeing the ferocity

of this new demon, came down to the city, disguised as mendicants,

and after some little resistance on the part of the demon, they sub-

dued him; on which occasion they ordered him to abstain from

eating men, but gave him Wurrun or permission to inflict disease on

mankind, and to obtain offerings from them. According to some

is often an irresistible one. Sometimes it happens to be a very unreasonable

one too. We know a woman still living, who, when in this interesting condition

about 15 or 20 years ago, expressed a strong wish to eat the head ofa little child,

and her husband was able to moderate her cannibal propensity, only by substi-

tuting the heads of fishes and other animals for that of a child. The husband

and all her yelatives and neighbours suspected that such a desire could not but

_ be a prelude to the birth of a demon, and accordingly awaited the event with

much anxiety and curiosity. Happily, however, the child did not happen to have

long teeth or long hair, and so had the good fortune to escape the fate which it

would have otherwise met with.

26 THE DEMONS

accounts this demon has 4,448, and according to others 484,000

subject demons under him. He generally rides on a lion, and has

18 principal attendants, the first of whom is called Bhoota Sannit

Yakseya, or the demon of madness; 2nd Maru Sanni Yakseya,

or the demon of death; 8rd Jala Sanni Yakseya, or the demon

of cholera; 4th Wewulun Sanni Yakseya, or the demon of cold

and trembling fits ; 5th Naga Sanni Yakseya, or the demon of —

a disease resembling that from the sting of a Cobra de Capello;

6th Cana Sanni Yakseya, or the demon of blindness ; 7th Corra

Sanni Yakseya, or the demon of lameness; 8th Gollu Sanni

Yakseya, or the demon of dumbness ; 9th Bihiri Sanni Yakseya,

or the demon of deafness; 10th Wata Sanni Yakseya, or the

demon of diseases caused by the wind ; 11th Pit Sannt Yakseya,

or the demon of bilious diseases; 12th Sen Sanni Yakseya,

or the demon of diseases influenced by the phlegm ;* 13th Demala

Sannit Yakseya, or the Tamil demon of diseases ; 14th Murtu

Sanni Yakseya, or the demon of fainting fits and swoons ; 15th

Arda Sanni Yakseya, or the demon of Apoplexy; 16th Wedi

Sanni Yakseya, or the demon of a disease which kills one in-

stantly like a shot froma gun; 17th Dewa Sanni Yakseya, or

the demon of diseases influenced by the gods; and 18th Aturu

Sanni Vakseya, or the servant of Maha Cola Sanni Yakseya (the

chief ofall the 18.) These 18 demons are not considered te be

mere apparitions of the same demon, as in the case of the other

Yakseyo, but separate individual demons acting together in con-

cert with their chief Maha Cola Sanni Yakseya. :

IV. Oppy Cumara Hoontyan Dewatawaj is the son of

Susiri, queen of Sagalpura in Maduratta. We always rides on

* Wind, phlegm and bile are considered by the Singhalese physicians to be

the proximate causes of every sickness, to which man is liable: and in the treat-

ment of any disease, one or more of these three agents have to be influenced.

{ Though dewatawa is a term, which is generally applied to the inferior

classes of gods, and to the superior classes of demons, that do not inflict disease

on men, yet it is also sometimes applied by Cattadiyas, as In the text, to in-

ferior or malignant demons.

OR YAKSEYO. Phil

a horse. He has six different apparitions; in the first he is called

Cala Oddisey, or demon of incurable diseases; in the second

Naga Oddisey, or demon of serpents; in the third Cumara

Oddisey, or demon prince; in the fourth Demala Oddisey, or

Tamil demon; in the fifth Gopolu Oddisey, or demon of Cattle;

and in the sixth Raja Oddisey, or Royal demon. He is the

principal demon that has much to do in that department of sorcery

ealled Hlooniyan.*

V. Catu Yaxseya, or the Black Demon, is so named on ac-

count of the extremely black colour of his skin. He appears in

four different apparitions; in the first he is called Calu Curumbera,

or the blackest one; in the second, Rata Calu Yakseya, or the

_ foreign black demon; inthe third, Dewol Bagey Calu Yakseya,

or the Black demon of the Dewol gods; and in the fourth Siddhi

Calu Yakseya, or the Illustrious black demon. He was generated

from the ashes of the burnt corpse of Basma, an Asura.t Another

account makes him a son of king Wijeyo by Cuveni. A third

account says that he is the spirit of a famous giant named JVeela

Maha Yodaya, who formed one of the bodyguard of king Gaja

Bahu (118 A. D.) He once accompanied the king on a visit to a

country called Istreepura, which was inhabited only by females (a

race of Amazons), all of whom on seeing him fell in love with him.

Hundreds of them seizing him at once, each claiming him as her

own, and pulling him this way and that way, he was torn to

pieces in their grasp. His spirit having assumed the form of a

* Tt is not now easy to identify the Sagalpura mentioned in the text. Many

believe it to be the Sagal of King Milinda, who is celebrated for his controversies

with Nagesena; but this opinion is hardly tenable, when we consider that the

capital of Milinda must have been somewhere in or near Cashmere, and that

Messrs. Wilson, Bird, and Masson, consider it to have been situated between

| the rivers Ravi and Pipasa in the Punjab; while the Sagal of the text is ex-

pressly mentioned as being in Maduratta, which is on the opposite side of India.

| Asuras are a race of beings of enormous'size, supposed to reside under the ,

_ mythical rock Maha Meru. They are the Titans of Singhalese mythology.

28 THE DEMONS

Demon is now always trying to avenge his wrongs on the whole

female sex. Women and little children are therefore supposed to

suffer from his malign influence.

6. Catv Cumara Dewatawa or the Black Prince is the son

of king Boksella and his queen Sonalu. He shews himself to men

in seven different apparitions; in the Ist he is called Handung

Cumara, or Prince of sandal perfumes;* in the 2nd Andung

Cumara, or Prince of Lye Ointments;} in the 3rd Mal Cumara,

or Prince of flowers; in the 4th Gini Cumara, or Prince of fire;

in the 5th Dala Cumara, or the Rough Prince; in the 6th Sohon

Cumara, or Prince of graves; and in the 7th Wata Cumara, or

* ‘There is scarcely a single offering made to any demon in which Sandal

wood does not form a constituent part: and Demon worship, be it remembered,

is a system, which seems to have prevailed here from times anterior to those of

Wijeyo himself. This circumstance, taken together with the fact, that the

Chinese writers actually mention Sandal wood as forming in early times an

article of export from this Island, seems to favor the idea, that the article”

must have been growing in the Island in considerable quantities in early times,

though at present specimens are to be met with only ina few spots, and those

preserved rather as objects of curiosity and ornament than for use.

t The soot, which is produced on a piece of porcelain when held to the

lighted wick of a lamp, is scraped up and mixed with a little cocoanut oil,

when it acquires the name andung or Eye Ointment, so called because it is

rubbed on the outside of the eyelids of very young infants by Singhalese

mothers, who believe it to be productive of some benefit to the eyes. Can it

be that this benefit is the protecting of the tender eyes of the young infant from

being dazzled by too much light, that the black pigment is laid all round the

cornea of the eye inorder that it may imbibe all the straggling rays of light

which, falling on the parts nearest to the cornea, by reflection, tend to injure

the tender retina by an overabundance of light? If this be the case, it will

warrant the supposition, that the Singhalese were practically acquainted with

the Theory of Light, tens of centuries before Newton was born. ‘The practice

is one of the most ancient among the Singhalese.

This Hye Ointment also forms an important item in the offerings made to

demons in many demon ceremonies: but for what use it is intended to serve a

demon it is difficult to guess. Ina certain ceremony performed to propitiate

the demon Calu Cumara dewatawd, the Cattadiya, who performs the ceremony,

paints his eyelids with this Ointment.

OR YAKSEYO. 29

Prince of a smooth body. He is always tormented by the passion

of love, and when his evil influence falls upon females, it is supposed

to make them ill. Young and fair women are particularly ex posed

to his attacks. Another account says that he was the son of a

king, and that afterwards on taking orders as a Buddhist priest his

piety and sanctity of life became so great, that, besides other super-

human powers, he acquired that of flying through the air like a

bird, but that on a certain occasion, while so moving in the air,

seeing the beautiful daughter of a certain king of India, he was so

much struck with her beauty, that he fell in love, and losing at the

same time all his supernatural powers dropped down on the very

spot, where the object of his passion was standing at the time. His

passion was so intense, that it broke his heart, and he died on the

spot, and became a demon, since called Calu Cumara Dewatawa.

He is considered to be a demon of great respectability, more civi-

lized and less savage than the rest of his fraternity. Great care is

therefore taken in the preparation of his offerings. Rice of the

best quality and cooked in the best manner, the best kinds of plan-

tains, sugar canes, oranges, king-cocoanuts, sugar, and several va-

rieties of cakes, constitute the principal articles in the offerings

made to him. His person is of a dark blue colour, and his garments

of a deep black.

Vi. Animana YAKsEYA was born of an Aandy* woman. His

father was a king of Gururattain Casee-dayse. He is known under

three other names, Ollala Yakseya, Malala Yakseya, and Cotta

Yakseya or shoré demon, so called in reference to the short stumps

of his legs, which were cut off in a battle fought with king Wijeyo.

VILL Tora Yaxserya, son of king Malala and his queen

Sandagana of the city of Sandagana Nuvera, passes most of his

time at the ferries and fords of rivers; and it is at these places that

he casts his influence on men.

—

* Aandy is the name of a class of Moormen, whose sole pursnits are begging

and fortune-telling. They arethe Gypsies of Ceylon. Their language, religion,

and dress are the same as those of the Moormen, but still it is open to doubt

whether they are of the same race.

30 THE DEMONS

IX. Banrrawa Yakserya is another demon as much attached

to the female sex as C'alu Cumara dewatawa himself, but there is

this difference between them:—while the latter brings only slight

diseases on the objects of his attachment, the former inflicts those

that result in speedy death. The hill called Bahirawa Canda,

which stands towering like a giant over one side of the town of

Kandy, was till very lately supposed to be the abode of this demon.

In early days it was regarded with feelings of dread. One of the

former kings of Kandy, seeing that he was not likely to have any,

issue to perpetuate his line on the thorne, his queen miscarrying

within a few months of her confinement whenever she was preg-

nant, assembled all the astrologers, soothsayers, cattadiyas, and

other men of similar crafts, to his palace, and on consulting them as

to the cause of his misfortune, was told, that the queen was under

the influence of the demon Bahirawa Yakseya, who would never

remove his influence from her, unless a yearly sacrifice of a young

virgin was made to him on the summit of Bahirawa Canda. ‘The —

king did as he was directed, and it is said that, after that, he had

several children born to him. But when his queen grew old and

past the time of child-bearing, he discontinued the offering as unne-

cessary, on which, it is said, the displeased demon began to inflict

diseases on the royal family and on all the citizens, in so much that

within, two months the city was nearly depopulated. By the

advice of his ministers and the Cattadiyas, the king resumed the

former practice of making the annual sacrifice, to which all his

suecessors, till the very last, faithfully adhered. The sacrifice was

performed at night in the following manner:—A stake being driven

into the ground on the summit of the hill, the girl was tied to it

with jungle creepers; fiowers and boiled rice were placed close by

on an altar constructed for the purpose; certain invocations and

incantations were then pronounced, which completed the ceremony.

The next morning the girl was found dead; and no wonder, for it

would be a miracle, if a Singhalese, especially a young female

destined to propitiate a demon, left alone for a night on the top

of a hill supposed to be haunted, and tied to a stake, with the sound

OR YAKSEYO. 3k

of the terrible charms still ringing in her ears, did not die through

fright within an hour. There is, however, an old woman still living

in Kandy, who was so offered up to the demon, in the time of the

last king, Sree Wickrama Raja Singha, but who somehow or other

managed to effect her escape. Besides this annual offering, there

were others of a less important character, made 3 or 4 times every

year to the demon on the samehill. ‘There are seven other demons

also known by the same name Bahirawa, but all the eight form a

sort/of company. When at Kandy on Circuit with the Supreme

Court, I twice ascended the hill, and stood on its summit on the

very spot, on which I thought the fatal stake must have been fixed,

The summit is a small level area, not more than 20 or 25 feet square.

Although the demon is said to have left the mountain soon after

the British took possession of Kandy in 1815, yet even now few

Singhalese have the hardihood to go to its summit alone at night,

especially on a Saturday or a Wednesday night.

x Mapana YaxkseEnryo, or Lemale demons of Lust, is the

common name of seven sisters, namely Cama Madana, or demon

of Lust; 2 Cini Madana, or demon of fire; 3 Mohanee Madana,

or demon of ignorance; 4 Raitt Madana, or demon of pleasure;

5 Cala Madana, or demon of maturity; 6 Mal Madana, or de-

mon of flowers; and 7 Puspa Madana, or demon of Perfumes,

These demons, when worked upon by certain charms, and propi-

tiated with certain offerings and ceremonies, are supposed to use

their power of seducing the affections of a man or a woman in such

a manner, that the person so influenced is said to find the power

perfectly irresistible. ‘There are hundreds of ways, in which it is

pretended that this can be done; among others, by touching the

person of a female with the young leaf of a king cocoanut tree,

previously subjected to the incantations and other ceremonies pecu-

| liar to the mysteries of the art; by the man rubbing on his face a

charmed medicine and then shewing himself to her; by mixing

some love potion, similarly charmed, with her food; by making her

chew charmed beetle leaves; by carrying on his person a charmed

thread previously taken from a cloth she had worn; or by any of

32 THE DEMONS

a hundred other ways, in all of which the Madana Yakseniyo be-

come useful agentsin the hands of the magician. But the most

efficacious and unfailing of all these methods is considered to be a

certain oil called Madana Tayiley, a single drop of which, sprin-

kled on the person of a female, is supposed to act irresistibly on her:

but the preparation of the wonderful oil is said to be fraught with

so much danger to those engaged in it, that few or none dare to

attempt it, and those who do, seldom or never succeed, as the demons

are supposed to do their best to disappoint the men by frightening

and scaring them away from the scene of their operations, which is

said to result in the incurable insanity and eventual or immediate

death of the operators. :

A short time ago we found the inhabitants of our native village

in a high state of excitement, owing to the freaks that a mad man

was playing in the neighbourhood. It was said that he had be-

come a maniac by attempting to make the oil Madane Tayiley; that

he had, for the last few days, been living in the woods eating ser- |

pents, frogs, and other loathsome creatures; that he stirred out in

the darkness of the night with no other clothing on his person than

afew green Gurulla leaves* tied round his waist; that he carried

in his hands a man’s skull and a bone, and on his shouldersa pot of

human blood, which he used to slake his thirst; and that his favo-

rite sleeping places were graves. Tor three or four days together

nothing else was talked of in the village. By and bye the real

truth eked out from other sources, but not from the villagers them-

selves. It appeared that a mad man, a native of Salpitty Corle,

breaking loose from his keepers, had wandered about from village

to village, and that during these wanderings he happened one night

to pass through the villages we have alluded to above, accompanied

* Gurulla or Buruila is a kind of plant, between which and the demons there

smees to be some mysterious connection. It is used in the construction and

decoration of the altars and other structures, which are made in many of the

Demon ceremonies. The Cattadiya sometimes adorns his head and his waist

with its leaves in certain ceremonies.

OR YAKSEYO. 30

by a relative, who had come to take him home, and that this rela-

tive was the first to tell one of the villagers of the cause of the

madness. By the next morning the report had spread through the

village like wildfire, magnified and ornamented with the additions

we have given above. ‘The villagers themselves were, however,

loth to believe the truth, when we told it to them, denuded of the

additions they had made to it. The relative of the madman told us,

a few days afterwards, the cause of the madman’s misfortune; he

described to us, how the man had endeavoured to make Madana

| Tayiley, about a year ago, and had been frightened by demons

just at the moment of the oil becoming perfected, and how he,

in consequence, had become a maniac. Although Madana Yak-

seniyo and their wonderful oil are matters, about which we and this

relative of the madman essentially differ in opinion from each other,

yet, as to the mere fact of the man having become mad on such an

occasion, we do not differ at all; for considering the extent of

superstitious fear, which is ever present in the mind of an ignorant

Singhalese, and especially on such an occasion, as that of preparing

the oil of the demons, in the dead of night, on a lonesome grave,

in a lonely part of the village, and his belief in the presence, at the

scene of his operations, of cruel and powerful demons, whom he

himself has but just invoked, and that these demons are ready at

any unguarded moment, during the process of making the oil, to

pounce upon him and destroy him and his oil—when we consider

these things, it is not at all improbable that a Singhalese, through

mere excess of fright and an overexcited imagination, should lose

his reason and become a maniac.

XI. Mororroo Yaxa, or Demon of Moroittoo, or Rata Yaka

or Foreign demon, is so named from his being a foreigner who

landed at Morottoo, when he first came over into this country from

the Malabar Coast. Soon after his landing, he fixed his residence

on the top of a large tree in the neighbourhood of Morottoo, and

whilst living there he brought so much sickness upon men, and

especially upon children and women in a state of pregnancy, that

the whole district was said to have been filled with mourning during

34 THE DEMONS

every part of the year. For along time he continued to exercise

his malignant power, till on one occasion he brought sickness on

the queen of Sree Prakkrama Bahu VI., king of Cottah, which was

then called Jayawardanapura (1410 A. D.) When the king found,

that the medicines of the most skilful physicians of his Gabadawa,

or Royal College of Physicians, were of no avail, he consulted the

most learned men of his kingdom as to the cause of the Queen’s

illness, and learned from them that it was caused by Morottoo Yaka.

Only one Cattadiya however in all his kingdom knew the ceremony,

by which the demon could be appeased. ‘That ceremony called Rata

Yakum Neteema, or Morottoo Yakum Neteema, was accordingly

performed, and the royal lady was restored to health.

XII. Gorortvu Yaxstya, or the Demon of cattle, was the son

of a king or chief of a district on the Coromandel Coast. He was

the twinbrother of Mangara Dewiyo (a demigod;) their mother

having died soon after their birth, a cow-buffalo suckled them: but

Gopolu having on one occasion sucked all the milk without leaving

any for his brother, a quarrel ensued, in which Gopolu was killed,

but being born again, as the nature of demons is, he came over to

Ceylon, and landed at Arangodde near Katragamma, At Aran-

godde he lived on a Banyan tree in which there was a large beehive,

4nd scattered disease and death among all who came near the tree.

His old enemy Mangara dewiyo and Pattini dewiyo (goddess of

chastity) came afterwards to Ceylon, and, happening to land at the

same place, saw a number of men lying under the tree, some dead

and others dying. Knowing the cause, they immediately ordered

the neighbouring villagers to bring a cow-buffalo, which they order-

ed to be offered up in sacrifice to Gopolu, on which the dying men

recovered and returned to their houses. He is called the demon of

cattle, because all cattle sickness is supposed to proceed from him.

He is also considered to be the cause of hydrophobia.

XI. ANJENAM DEWI is a female demon, by whose aid a cer-

tain art of divination called here Anjenam beleema, and elsewhere,

as in Egypt, divining by the Magic Mirror, is performed. She

is the chief of 700 other female demons,

See

ee a I gt one STO SN Wg TR age a Nd A ee ee

pe eS ee

pec

er ae ea

pat

lod

OR YAKSEYO. gO

XIV. BapprRacatl, isa female demon, whoseassistance is sought

for winning lawsuits, and for subduing enemies and rivals of any

kind.

XV. Ruippui YaxKsenryo are seven female demons, who also

bring disease on men, like any other demons.

XVI. Upa Yaxsryo. There are many demons of this name.

They are as cruel, as any of the preceding.

XVII. Curumprra Yaxseyo. Of this name also there are

several, all equally prodigal of their powers of inflicting sickness.

XVIII. Hanuma is another powerful demon of great cruelty.

These are the principal demons, who figure in Demon Ceremonies,

either as having caused disease, or as the effective agents in curing

it. But there are also a very large number of demons of inferior

power, collectively called Mala Yakseyo, who also inflict diseases

of a less malignant character. ‘These demons, as mentioned in a

preceding page, are, as their name implies, the spirits of deceased

men, born as demons in consequence of some demerit of theirs

when living as men, or of some feeling of animosity or hatred, which

was uppermost in their thoughts at the moment of death. _

In addition to both these classes of demons, there isa third, which

includes a few demons of a different kind. These are Gara Yaka,

Dewalla YVakseya,* Bodrima, and the Pretayo.

XIX. Gara Yaxa has no evil disposition, like those already

described. He does no harm whatever to men, but on the contrary

assists them in expelling all sorts of evil influence, to which new

houses are supposed to be subject. Hence, when a house has been

built, before or soon after its occupation, a ceremony called Gara

Yaka Maduwa is generally performed, without which it is sup-

posed that some misfortune will fall upon the inmates. Gara Yak-

seya is represented to be an individual of a voracious appetite and

acapacious stomach. On one occasion Pattint Dewiyo, the goddess

* Vaka and Yakseya are synonymous terms, both equally used by the Sing-

halese. The first is derived from the Pali Yakkho, and the second from the

Sanscrit Yaksha.

36 THE DEMONS

of chastity, having to accompany the wedding procession of Canda

Cumara (the god of Kattragam), but not wishing to do so, because

the house, together with all the furniture prepared for the reception

of the guests, was wholly constructed of the bones and skins of

animals (the adopted father'of the bride happening to be a Weddah),

she ordered Gara Yakseya to go there in time, and see what he

could do before her arrival. Accordingly he went to the house in

the character of Gamana,* and not seeing any better way of clear-

ing the house of its disagreeable furniture, at once fell to devouring

every thing, and in a short time the whole building with all its

furniture was deposited in hisstomach; to show his host, that hedid

this merely to satisfy his hunger, and not for any other purpose, he,

even after this feat of gastronomic power, said that he was still very

hungry. Before he commenced to eat the house, he had also eaten

all the food, that had been prepared for the whole wedding party.

Lastly, to satisfy his thirst, he drank some thousands of young

Cocoanuts, and then drank up all the wells in the neighbourhood:

and after all this, he left the house in great displeasure, sayifg to his

host, as he was leaving him, “you, fellow, have starved me; a nice

way indeed of treating the Gamana of a son-in-law. Oh dear, I

am dying of hunger and thirst.”

XX. Gerwara Yaxsrya, or House demon, lives in the dwell-

ings ofmen. ‘These demons are innumerable. They are the spirits

of those, who lived and died in the houses they now haunt, and who

on their deathbed had thought much more of the money or other

valuables they had hoarded up in the house, than of their souls.

* About an hour or so before a bridegroom accompanied by his friends

arrives at the house of the bride, a person, named for the occasion Gamana or

messenger, is sent forward with a number of betel leaves equal to the number

of people, who accompany the bridegroom. The Gamana is to give these

betel leaves to the bride’s friends, together with the large pingo of plantains

called Gira-mul-tada, which in the Maritime districts is always a sine qua non

of the presents, which a Singhalese bridegroom carries to his bride’s house.

| The Singhalese, especially the-poorer classes, generally secrete their money

in holes dug in the floor, or in the walls of their houses. In a case of burglary

which was tried at Kandy before the Supreme Court about a year ago, 1t was

OR YAKSEYO. oD

They are fond of throwing into confusion the cooking utensils and

crockery, and of continually opening and shutting the boxes in the

house, if the inmates do not take care to secrete the keys, unobserved

by the spirits. The jingling of coin, the sound of strange footsteps,

and the creaking of door-hinges are frequently heard. The demon

does not like to see the inmates eat and drink and enjoy themselves.

When these latter sit together at their meals, he gets so annoyed

by the sight, that he seizes them by the hair and knocks their heads

against each other. He is of course invisible to men, like all other

demons, but is possessed of no power to inflict disease.* He be-

longs to the class called Mala Yakseyo.

XXI. Boprima is a female demon, at first originating no doubt

in the nursery, but at present believed to be a real existence. She

is the ghost of a woman, who has died in child-birth. She is said

to be heard at night, wailing and groaning in a peculiar manner;

and if she sees a man passing by, she immediately springs on his

back, and, fixing her fingers and long nails in his throat, tries to

choke him to death. She however is afraid of women, and espe-

cially of a woman with a house-broom in her hand. When she is

supposed to be heard at night groaning in her peculiar way, and

approaching a house, the male portion of the inmates take care to

remain inside, while the women, especially the elder, go out of the

house with brooms, and abuse the demon with such a string of

epithets and names, as would seem enough to drive, not only one

Bodrima, but the whole race of demons from this terrestrial globe.

On such occasions, people sometimes place at some distance from

the house a lighted lamp and some betel leaves, which the demon

is said to hold one by one over the lighted wick, and warm and

foment her abdomen with. If she were to be fired at, there would

proved that a portion of the stolen property, consisting of some £3 or £4, had

_ been concealed by the thief under the stone in the fire- -place, as the least likely

place to be suspected of concealing money.

* There are certain ceremonies performed to expel a Gewala Yakseya from

a house, especially the Perit ceremony performed by Buddhist priests,

generally during three days and four nights.

33 THE DEMONS

remain, it is said, nothing to be seen next morning, but a dead

lizard. She is described as being so fat and short, that, when she

moves, she appears rather to roll like a cask, than to walk.

XXII. The Preras are entirely a different race of beings from

all that have yet been mentioned. They are the most helpless and

miserable creatures in existence. They live only tosuffer. Their

life itself is a punishment, in which they expiate the sins of a pre-

vious state of existence. Their only aliment is spittle, or some

other kind of loathsome matter, and even when they get a little of

this, their destiny precludes them from making any use of it, and,

like king Tantalus they can only look at it with a burning desire.

The number of these beings is so great, that a Pali Buddhistical

work, which lays down certain rules of discipline for the guidance

of the followers of that religion, admonishes them not to throw

stones or sticks, nor even to swing their arms when walking, lest

they may strike a Pretaya and injure him. The Pretayo are invi-

sible to men; they are of various degrees of stature, some reaching”

to the height of 3 or 4 hundred feet, others only of one or two feet..

Their sufferings from hunger and thirst are indescribably dreadful,

and to make their case the more miserable, their appetites are much.

stronger, than those of any other race of beings. ‘They die several.

times in a day from sheer starvation, but owing to the inexorable:

destiny of their race are born again the same instant, to undergo:

the same round of sufferings over and over again, until they have

completed the period of time allotted to them according to their

respective sins, after which they are born in some other state of

existence, either as Brahmas, dewiyo, men, inferior animals, or in

hell, according to the merits of each, acquired in some other pre-

vious states of existence. Of course, they are the most loathsome

looking creatures imaginable. Their skins hang about them in

loose folds, and are so covered with dirt and vermin that they are

supposed to emit a disagreeable smell, said to be perceived some-

times at a considerable distance. ‘This smell is sometimes identi-

fied by a Singhalese with a peculiar unpleasant stench, often

perceived near trees and bushes, caused as we believe, by the effiluvia

OR YAKSEYO. 39

arising from decomposed leaves and sticks. Their bodies are lite-

rally mere skeletons, and as the fleshless ribs project on each side,

they are obliged, when they wish to lie down, to lie on their backs,*

Had Dante ever heard of Ceylon Pretayo, he would have been able

to make his Inferno, terrific as it already is, still more terrific by

the picture of a Pretaya figuring among those miserable beings,

with whom he has peopled it. The Pretayo are not included in

Demon worship. They are not possessed of power to injure a man

in any other way, than by spoiling his appetite, which they effect

by looking with desire at the food he is about to take; but this is

a power, which is attributed to dogs and men and some other crea-

tures, as well as to Pretayo. When any kind of food, especially

meat, is sent from one house to another, care is generally taken to

cover it well, and to put on the top of the cover a piece of iron of

any kind or size, as a precaution both against the Pretayo and

against the Yakseyo demons, who otherwise might affect it with

the mysterious influence, which looking at it would produce.

Children are seldom fed in the verandah of a house, and a Singha-

lese mother would rather die than allow her child to eat anything

in the open compound or yard of the house, Even a medical de-

coction, during the process of being prepared on a fire, is not con-

‘sidered safe from this mysterious influence, and a piece of iron is

often tied for protection to the vessel, which contains the preparation.

The Pretayo, like the Brahmas, Asuras, Cumbhas, Gandhar-

was, Garundhas, and Nagas, are creations of Buddhism, and not

of mere popular fancy.

The chief of all Ceylon demons is WAHALA BanpaRA Dewlyo,

or as he is more commonly termed, Wahala dewiyo. His principal

temple, called Gala cap-pu dewale, is at Alutnuwera, a village

about 11 miles from Kandy on the road to Colombo. This temple

* When a person sleeps on his back, the posture is derisively named Preta

Seyiyawa, or the sleeping posture of a Pretaya; lying on the face is called

Manduka Seyiyawa or the sleeping posture of a frog; lying on the right side

with the right hand placed under the head is considered the most becoming

posture in sleeping, and is called Singha Seyiyawa, or the lion’s sleeping posture.

40 THE DEMONS

is believed by all Demon-worshippers to have been built in a res

markable manner; and the circumstance is often mentioned, as one

of the proofs of the authority, which the Dewatawa is supposed to

exercise over his subjects the demons. It is said that the demon

chief, a long time ago, wishing to have a new temple constructed

and consecrated to him, in place of the old one in which his ser-

vice had till then been performed, ordered some thousands of his

subject demons to cut and smooth down a rock, which was some

seven or eight hundred feet high, so as to fit it for the site of the

intended building, they were however to use no other tools, than

the common jungle canes called Way Well,* with which they

were to rub the rock, till by mere friction it should be reduced to

the desired level. The demons engaged in the work were, no

doubt, those, who having violated his laws were then undergoing

the sentence of hard labour. ‘They however succeeded in execut-

ing the work in the manner directed in the course of a single night,

and hence the name Gala-cap-pu dewale. Pilgrims from every

* Way Weillisa climbing plant, which grows to considerable dimensions

in the jungles of Ceylon. Itis covered with a coating of short but very sharp

thorns. One species of it is used as a file by the people of the inland districts

for rasping the hard kernel of the nut of the Sal tree, of which they make a

sort of pudding. Being a Rattan of great strength, it is used for a variety of

purposes, such as making baskets, rattaning chairs and couches, and even for

making rude suspension bridges in the secluded parts of the island. The fol-

lowing isa description of one of these bridges by Sir J. E. Tennent.

“One which crossed the falls of the Maha Welli Ganga, in the Kotmalie

range of hills, was constructed with the scientific precision of an Engineer's

work. It was entirely composed of the plant called by the Natives “‘ Way

Well,” its extremities were fastened to living trees, on the opposite sides of the

ravine, through which a furious and otherwise impassable mountain torrent

thundered and fell from rock to rock with a descent of nearly 100 feet. The

flooring of this aerial bridge consisted of short splints of wood, laid transversely

and bound in their places by thin strips of the Way Well itself. The whole

structure vibrated and swayed with fearful ease, but the coolies traversed it

though heavily laden; and the European, between whose estate and the high

road it lay, rode over it daily without dismounting”’—Sir J. EB. Tennent’s

History of Ceylon, Vol. 1. part I. ch: iii.

OR YAKSEYO. 4]

part of the Island repair to this temple during all seasons of the

year, hoping to get relief frem some demon influence, with which

they suppose themselves to be afilicted, and which appears to them

to be irremovable by any other means. This is especially the

case with those persons, most frequently women, who are supposed

to be possessed by a demon. Dancing, singing and shouting without

cause, trembling and shaking of the limbs, or frequent and pro-

longed fainting fits are considered the most ordinary symptoms of

possession by ademon. Some women, when under this imaginary

influence, attempt to run away from their homes, often using foul

language, and sometimes biting and tearing their hair and flesh. The

fit does not generally last more than an hour at a time; sometimes one

fit succeeds another at short intervals; sometimes it comes upon the

woman only on Saturdays and Wednesdays, or once in three or four

months; but always invariably during the performance of any demon

ceremony. On these occasions temporary relief is obtained by the

incantations of the Cattadiya; but when it appears that no incan-

tations can effect a permanent cure, the only remaining remedy is

to go to Gala kep-pu Dewale, where the following scene takes

place. When the woman is within two or three miles of the tem-

ple, the demon influence is supposed to come on her, and she walks

in a wild, hurried, desperate manner towards the temple. When

in this mood no one can stop her; if any attempt it, she will tear

herself to pieces rather than be stopped. She walks faster and

faster, as she comes nearer and nearer to the holy place, until at

last, on reaching it, she either creeps into a corner, and sits there,

erying and trembling, or remains quite speechless and senseless, as

if overpowered by extreme fear, until the Capua begins the exor-

cism. Sometimes she walks to the temple very quietly, without

any apparent influence of the demon on her, and that influence

seems to come upon her, only when the exorcism begins. The

principal room of the temple is partitioned off by curtains into three

divisions, the middle one of which is the sanctum sanctorum of the

God, as the demon chief is generally called. The Capua stands

42 THE DEMONS

outside the outermost curtain, with the woman opposite to him.

After the offerings of money, betel Jeaves, and silver ornaments”

have been devoutly and ceremoniously laid in a sort of small box op-

posite to the Capua, he tells the god as if he were actually sitting

behind the curtain at the time ina loud and conversational tone, and

not in the singing ornamental style of invocations made to other gods

and demons, that the woman (naming her) has come all the way

from the village (naming it) situated in the Corle or district (nam-

ing it) to this temple, for the purpose of complaining to his godship

of a certain demon or demons, who have been afilicting her for the

last five years (specifying the time she has been under the influ-

ence); that she has made certain offerings to the temple, and that

she prays most humbly that his godship may be graciously pleased

to exorcise the demon, and order him never to molest her again.

In this way he makes a long speech, during which the womaa con-

tinues trembling and shaking in the most violent manner, some-

times uttering loud shouts. Presently the Capua puts to her the

question, ‘* Wilt thou, demon, quit this woman instantly, or shall

I punish thee for thy impudence ”?2 'To this she sometimes re-

plies, still trembling and shaking as before, “ Yes, £ will leave

her for ever,” but, more generally, she at first refuses; when this

happens, the Capua grasps in his right hand a good stout cane,

and beats her most mercilessly, repeating at the same time his

question and threats. At last, after many blows have been in-

flicted, the woman replies “ Yes, £ will leave her this instant”;

she then ceases to tremble and shake, and soon recovers her reason,

if indeed she had ever lost it. So sheand her friends return home,

congratulating themselves on the happy result of their journey; a

* One of these ornaments is often a Carandua, or conical box resembling a

dagoba, made of silver, and intended as a sort of shrine or receptacle for some

holy relic. A silver arrowhead and an image, made of a beaten plate of silver

of about two inches in height, intended to represent the person suffering from

the Demon influence. are also sometimes added to the other offerings. The

money offered to a god or demon is always called Panduru, which means

ransom money.

OR YAKSEYO. 43

result, which is invariably the same in the case of every pilgrim to

the temple. We know 30 or 40 women who have made this pil-

grimage, only two of whom have ever again shown any symp-

toms of the return of demon possession. It is said that some 380

or 40 years ago, especially during the time of the Kandyan Kings,

four bundles of canes were left at the temple by the Capua every

evening before he returned home; that during the night loud shouts

and cries and wailing were heard proceeding from the temple, and

that the next morning, instead of bundles of canes, there were only

small bits of them found dispersed here and there in the premises,

as if the canes had been broken in flogging disobedient demons.

CHAPTER III.

How Demons inruict Disrase.

The demons enumerated in the preceding pages are those, who

are supposed to inflict disease on men, and who therefore princi-

pally figure in the various Ceremonies of Demon worship. They

are supposed to exercise their malignant power by virtue of the

Wurrun permission, which they have obtained for that purpose from

King Wessamonny, from the principal demon chiefs, or sometimes

from some of the gods themselves. Originally when they were in

a lawless state, they enjoyed themselves to their hearts’ content, by

seizing men wherever they could and eating them up alive, like so

many oysters. But after a time these liberties were restrained to

a certain extent, and they were allowed to eat human beings, only

when the latter happened to come under the shade of the tree on

which they lived, or within a certain distance of whatever place

they had made their residence. Lastly, cannibalism was wholly

prohibited, and, in place of it, permission was given them to inflict

disease, andthereby receive offerings, with which they wererequired —

to be content.

Their usual hours of stirring abroad are called Yama. These

are Ist, the morning twilight, when there is still some degree of

darkness over the earth; 2nd, Mid-day, about 12 o’clock; 3rd, the

evening twilight before it has grown very dark; and 4th, Midnight

about 12 o’clock. During these Yamas, they stir abroad, as much

in search of human victims as by way of recreation. A Singhalese

never travels during these Yamas, if he can help it; but if not, he

takes care not to go alone (unless it be the midday Yama), unless

the country is very thickly inhabited, for solitary travellers are

most exposed to the attacks of the demons. There are also certain

circumstances in the condition or disposition of an individual, which

make it easier for a demon to inflict disease on him; these are—

1, when the man is asleep; 2, when he has his person perfumed with

fragrant unguents and oils; 3, when he travels in a palanquin at

night; 4, when a woman is in labour; 5, when the predominant

HOW DEMONS INFLICT DISEASE. 45

feeling in the mind ofa girl at the moment of her arriving at pu-

berty is grief, love, or fear; 6, when a person takes his meals when

his mind is not at ease; and a variety of other occasions.

The usual haunts of the demons are, Ist, large trees, especially

Bo, Nika, Ruk-aitana, Ironwood, Cohomba, Banyan, Kong,

Ehella, YVakberiya, and Belli trees;* 2nd, paths and roads; 3rd,

the junction of two or more paths; 4th, ferries and fords; 5th, wells

and other places where people come for water; 6th, places, where

there are two rocks close to each other; 7th places, where there

are two large trees standing near each other; 8th, the seashore; 9th,

thick groves of trees and pleasure gardens; 10th, the outskirts of

Dewales (temples of the gods;) 11th, graves and graveyards; 12th,

tops of rocks and hills; 13th, places where the noise of quarrels and

loud voices is continually heard; 14th, streams of water; 15th, bat-

tlefields; 16th, wocds composed principally of Belli trees; 17th,

places where washermen wash clothes; 18th, old deserted houses;

19th, large open plains or fields; and 20th, sometimes (not often)

close behind the dwelling houses of men.

At these places the demon frightens people not by actually seiz-

ing them, but by other means quite as effectual. He sometimes

throws sand or stones at them, often handful after handful, along

a considerable part of their way; sometimes he appears as a dark

featured man on the road or among the bushes near it; or he only

shews himself like the passing shadow of a man, followed imme-

diately by a shower of sand or a loud crashing noise among the

bushes, as if a number of elephants were actively engaged in beat-

ing down the jungle; or he presents himself in the disguise of an

old man, or of a young woman with a child in her arms, or merely

like a man witha white cloth wrapped round his person from the

* It is on this account, that a Singhalese seldom allows any of these trees

to grow very large, when they are situated near his house. He generally cuts

them down, before they become fit for the residence of a demon ; nor on the

other hand will he willingly cut down one which is already very old, fearing it

might provoke the demon, who is supposed to be living on it, and bring down

implacable vengeance on himself and his family.

46 HOW DEMONS

top of the head down to the ancles. Sometimes the travellers find

the road blocked up by a large tree lying prostrate across it with

all its branches and leaves quite fresh, and if they try to go some

other way, they find themselves similarly obstructed by trees and

thick jungle, in places where there were none before; or they hear

a loud hoo* shout, which however nobody else in the neighbour-

hood hears, but they; or a large black dog, or a moakey gives

them chase; or they hear the sound of footsteps behind them, as of

somebody coming up, but on turning round they see no one, and so

they continue their journey, but hardly move a fathom before they

hear the same sound again, more distinct and louder, and yet there

is nobody to be seen; or when they are quietly moving on, they re-

ceive near a certain large tree a smart blow on the back from the

cold open hand of somebody, who is no where to be seen; some-

times they see a man, a stranger, crossing their path at a short dis-

tance in front; or they see a man standing a little out of the road

appeariag at first to be of the ordinary stature of men, but gradu-

ally becoming taller and taller, till he overtops the neighbouring

cocoanut tree itself, A Singhalese, to whom any of these things

happens, is sure to be so much frightened, as to get some serious

illness; on some, their superstitious terrors have had so strong an

effect that they have dropped down on the spot perfectly senseless,

and have been carried home in a hopeless state, and died within a

few days; some have managed to run home but have been taken ill

there, and have either died, or recovered only after three or four

months of suffering, while others have become raving maniacs for

the rest of their lives. .

Although demons are said to shew themselves in these ways to

men, yet the opinion of those, who may be called the more or-

thodox of the demon-worshippers, is that these apparitions are not

the demons themselves, but certain puppet-like spectres, which

* A Hoo shout is one peculiar to the people of this island. It consists of a

loud, single, guttural sound, uttered as loud as a man’s lungs permit. A quar-

ter of a mile is generally considered to be the distance at which aloud Hoo can

be heard.

INFLICT DISEASE. 47

‘they create and present to the eyes of men, in order to frighten

them; that the demons themselves are millions of miles distant

from the earth; and that on these occasions of sending forth these

spectres, and on every other occasion, whether during demon ce-

remonies, or at any other time when they are supposed to be pre-

sent, they do not come themselves, but send their dristia, with or

without the spectres, according to the circumstance of each case, or

merely according to their own whim. By dristia, which means

literally “ sight,” or “‘ look,” is meant that, although they are not

personally present, yet they have the power of “looking” at

what is going on below, and of doing and attending to every thing

required of them, as if they were actually present. This opinion

however is one, which is confined to the more learned of the de-

mon worshippers; the more ignorant believe that the demons

themselves are bodily present at these scenes, although they assume

some sort of disguise, whenever they choose to make themselves

visible to men.

When a man is frightened by a demon, and has the influence of

that demon upon him, it is called Tanicama, which literally means

** loneliness” or “‘ being alone.” Fright is in most cases a ne-

cessary agent in bringing down Yanicama on a man; but it is

also possible that a person, who has neither been frightened by a

demon, nor been ten yards from his own door for five or six months,

may also get the Tanicama influence on him. In this case, the ex-

planation is, that the demon has taken advantage of some unguard-

ed moment in the daily life of the man, as when he has been

sitting in the open compound of his house, or when he has hap-

pened to go to the back of his house at any of the Yamas, when a

demon has happened to be in the vicinity; or when he has eaten

roasted fish or eggs, while sitting outside in his Verandah on a

Wednesday or Saturday. In this case the man is neither frighten-

ed by anything, nor even aware of his danger at the time.

When Tanicama comes upon a man, he falls sick and even

when a manisill from some other cause, no matter what, he very often

gets the Tanicama, especially when the sickness is getting worse -

4§ HOW DEMONS

The more dangerous and critical a disease is, the surer is Tanicama

to come upon the sick man; and when the disease appears to be past

all hopes of a cure, the Tanicama influence becomes strongest,

and the demons remain in the very neighbourhood of the sick

man’s house, if not near his bed. ‘The sound of footsteps, of the

violent shaking of trees and bushes, sudden loud sounds, as of striking

with whips and sticks, and similar other tokens of their presence

and of their joy at the expected death, are supposed to be heard

around the house. These ominous sigas are called Holman. Itis

on this account, that so many demon ceremonies are performed,

when a person is sick, from the commencement of the sickness to

its termination.

The literal meaning of the word Tanicama gives usa key towards

the understanding of many of the mysterious and wonderful cir-

cumstances connected with this part of our subject, especially when

it is taken in connection with the other doctrine of Demonism already

alluded to, viz., that, though a demon try his utmost by means of

terrible apparitions or by actual seizure to frighten a man and give

him the Tanicama, which results in sickness, yet the man will

seldom get ill, if he do not get frightened.

Among many hundreds of instances of sickness, which we have

heard of, as the consequences of Tanicama, the following is one,

which came within our own knowledge a few years ago; and we

give it here, merely to enable the reader to form some idea of the

superstitious fears of a Singhalese, and of the strange pranks, which

imagination plays with him.

One evening about 8 o’clock, some four years ago, we happened

to take a walk to the seashore, which was not very far from our

house. It was a bright moonlight night, and the sky was glowing

with the brilliancy of thousands of stars.) We were accompanied

by two men, of whom one was a young man, whose name was Baba.

The heat was unusually great, so we remained more than an hour

on the seabeach on account of the cool sea breeze. The greater part

of that hour was taken up by one of our two companions relating —

ghost stories, to which Baba, like every other Singhalese of his

INFLICT DISEASE. 49

conuition was an attentive listener. The road, by which we must

return, was @ narrow footpath flanked on both sides by thick bushes.

Near this path, and about half way between the house and the

seashore, was a large do tree situated in an old graveyard, both of

which had always had a bad name among the neighbours, as being

haunted by demons, who, it was said, had on diverse occasions

frightened many people even in broad daylight. In returning, we

had of course to pass this tree and had hardly passed it ten paces,

when Baba, giving one of those terrible fierce shrieks of despair

and fear, which can hardly be described, threw his arms round the

other man, trembling and panting in the most remarkable manner,

and the next moment he dropped down senseless on the ground,

perspiring most profusely. The other man, who was himself only

a few degrees this side of the limits of a fainting fit, managed how-

ever to take up the terrified Baba and carry him home. Baba’s

father and mother having come, a Cattadiya was sent for; in the

mean time one of the neighbours pronounced some incantations and

the pirit charm over the sick man, who in a little while regained

his senses. When the Cattadiya came, more charms were pro-

nounced in an inaudible voice, at the conclusion of which some

knots were made in the hair of the sick man’s head, and some

charmed cocoanut oil was rubbed on his forehead, temples, breast,

nails, and on the crown of the head. He was then removed to his

own house, accompanied by the Cattadiya end his friends.

When Baba was afterwards asked what had frightened him so

much, he said that, as he was coming along behind us, he heard,

near the large tree, a sort of growl, like that ofa fierce dog muzzled,

and on looking in the direction he saw a large head peer He over

a bush from behind the trunk of the large tree.

The morning after this occurrence, Baba was reported to be very

ill. In the afternoon we saw him, and found him suffering from a

: raging delirious fever. Two days afterwards, the ceremony of

Sanni Yakum Neteema or the Dance of the Sanni demons was

performed, during which, about 3 or 4 o’clock in themorning, when

| H

50 HOW DEMONS INFLICT DISEASE,

the offerings were being dedicated te the demon Sanni Yakseya,

the sick man exclaimed, pointing to one of the Yatu or altars,

“there, ihere, that is the person, whom I saw near the large tree

the other day—there he is eating the rice;”* the next minute he

added, “there now he is going away.” Of course the eyes of all

were turned in that direction, but there was nobody to be seen.

The next day the man was better, and three days afterwards per-

fectly well.

Now in this case, it is plain, that either the man’s own imagina-

tion, which must have been in a state of very great excitement,

as he was passing the tree, conjured up to his sight the semblance

ofa demon, or that some one wishing to pass off a joke, had con-

cealed himself behind the tree and shewed himself in the manner

mentioned above. Of these two, the latter is not very probable,

as few Singhalese have the courage to remain after sunset in a

place supposed to be haunted; that the former is more probably the

truth, is apparent from the fact, that the man recovered from his’

illness soon after the performance of that particular ceremony,

which was believed by him, as well as by all demon-worshippers,

to be an etfectual remedy for diseases brought on by circumstances

like those in his case. That the man’s imagination was during all

the time in a state of high and morbid excitement, is further proved

by his pointing out, during the course of the subsequent ceremony,

what he considered to be the demon that had appeared to him near

the trée.

* The rice alluded to is that which is served out on the Tatu as an offering —

to the demons.

- ol

CHAPTER IV.

SPELLS OR CHARMS IN GENERAL.

In every demon ceremony, which is performed either to cure

or inflict sickness, or to protect a person from becoming liable to

any “ demon sickness” at all, the effective agents, which influence

the demons, and, through them, the disease, are CHARMS or spells,

Invocations, and Dolla or offerings, especially the first with or

without the two last. Like the sciences and the Literature of the

Singhalese (with the exception of their Elu poetry), charms were

originally introduced from the neighbouring continent. India, in

those remote times, was to Ceylon and other neighbouring countries,

what Greece was a little later to the rest of Europe. Wijeyo from

India colonized it in the sixth century before Christ, and the litera-

ture and sciences of the Vedas naturally came with him, or soon

after, until they were partly, but not wholly, superseded, two cen-

turies afterwards by Buddhism and its literature. But Demonism

had taken so strong a hold of the popular mind long before the

time of Wijeyo, that nothing could displace it, and when any acces-

sions were offered to it in subsequent times in the form of new

charms and demons, it seems to have incorporated them with avidity

into its old system.

Almost every charm begins with the words Ohng Hreeng, which,

in Sanscrit, are an invocation to the Hindoo Trinity. The Caitadiyss

of this country, who are not worshippers of that Trinity, not under-

standing the purport of the words, but attributing to them some

mysterious magical properties, have, in a great many instances,

prefixed those words to Singhalese charms, in which the virtues

and omnipotence of Buddha are described in a very grandiloquent

style, to the exclusion of those of the Hindoo triad. Sometimes

however the names of Brahma, Vishnu, Siva and other Hindoo

deities are found mixed with those of Buddha and other Buddhist

divinities in irretrievable confusion in the same charm. Almost

every charm, whether Singhalese, Sanscrit, or Tamil, ends with

52 SPELLS OR CHARMS

the word Eswah, which is a corruption of the Sanscrit term Swaha,

corresponding in meaning to Amen.*

The Charms or Mantra, as they are called, are generally in

Sanscrit, Tamil, or Singhalese, but a few are written in other lan-

guages, such as Arabic, Persian, Telugu, Malayalim, Bengali, and

others. Sometimes in one charm a mixture of many of these

languages is used. Sometimes no language seems to have been

used. In this last case, instead of any intelligible language, there

seems to be a collection of barbarous sounds without meaning.

Whether this is the Paisachi, which Colebrooke represents the

Hindoo dramatists making their demons speak on the stage, we are

not able to say.j It is however probable, that much of what now

seems to be no better than gibberish may at one time have been an

intelligible language, which, through its transmission from one

illiterate Cattadiya to another, through being transcribed from one

Ola into another by men not well acquainted even with their own

language, and from the peculiar pronunciation used in the recitation

of a charm, may have become so far distorted and changed from

what it was, as to be reduced to its present condition. We fear

we cannot give any correct idea of this peculiar pronunciation;

it consists in a very rapid utterance, in which guttural and nasal

sounds principally predominate, rendering for the moment even the

plainest of Singhalese charms quite an unintelligible jargon; and

to aggravate the evil still more, the recitation of a charm is

generally performed in a low under tone of voice, scarcely audible

to any one.{

* Swaha is also a term, indicative of a certain Fire-Offering made to the

god of fire, alluded to in Sanscrit works. The wife of the god of fire is called

Swahache Hoctabukpria ——Amara Cosa.

t Asiatic Researches Vol. WIL. p. 199. quoted also by Turner, in his Intro-

duction to the Mahawanso.

{ One of the most remarkable facts, connected with Sorcery or Magic, is, that

in all countries and ages of the world, where the Black Arts have. ever been

cultivated, the incantations to evil spirits have always been pronounced in a

low muttering voice, as is still the practice both here, and in continental Asia

and Africa.

IN GENERAL. 53

The virtue and efficacy of a charm however consist, it is said,

not so much in the meaning of the language used, as in a peculiar

arrangement and combination of certain Jetters, each having its

own peculiar power. According to this classification, some letters

are called poisonous, others deadly, a third class fiery, a fourth

guarrelsome, and a fifth causing banishment. On the other hand

there are others called prosperous, some pleasure-giving, a third

and a fourth class health-giving and friendly, and a fifth divine;

while a few are called neutral. Then again, these letters, when

arranged and combined in a certain order, have different virtues—

virtues much stronger, than those of single letters. Each of these

combinations of letters is sacred to a certain demon, for whom it

has an unaccountable, mysterious, and irresistible fascination, from

which he cannot free himself. The mysterious virtues of all these

combined characters in a charm, are sufficient to overpower and

enslave the most powerful demons to the will of the Cattadiya.

_ To make a charm still more irresistible, flattery and entreaties are

employed, or the terrible power of king Wessamoany is invoked,

or the omnipotence of Buddha, and all set off in language the most

horrible* to the ears of a demon-worshipper.

Native authors maintain that Brahma himself was the original

author of charms, but that the science, as they call it, was after-

wards amplified and improved by nine Irshis or learned pundits,

who lived in India some thousands of years ago. It is divided

into eight different parts called Carma or acts, according to the

different character of the subjects it treats of. These are 1, Mo-

hana or the power of inducing swoons; 2, Stambana or illicit sex-

ual intercourse; 3, Otchatana or the expulsion of demons; 4,

Aakarsana or compelling the attendance of demons; 5, Wibeysana

* The most prominent feature in the language of Singhalese charms is an

endless repetition of such terms as red blood, heart's blood, eat his lungs, graves,

corpses, living corpses, suck his blood, tear open his heart, suck the marrow, a

cloth dipped in blood, eat his heart, break his neck and suck the blood, and many

others, which have a very appalling effect on the timid, superstitious mind of

a demon-worshipper.

54 SPELLS OR CHARMS

or destruction by discord; 6, Marana or causing death; 7, Tamba-

naya or power of imprisoning; and 8, Paysana or power of curing

diseases. To each of these acts are assigned certain seasons, days,

and hours, in which alone anything relative to it can be performed

with any hopes of success. Thus, Wibaysana must be performed

during the eight hours elapsing between 6 Pp. M. and 2 A. M. at

night, during the season called Wasanta; Otchatana, during the

ten days intervening between the 10th and 20th day of the season

called Gunhana; Marana, in the season Wassana, from the 20th

day of the month, which commences that season, to the. 10th day

of the next month; Aakarsana, during the season Sasat; Stambana,

from the 10th to the 20th day of the season Haymanta; Mohana,

from the 20th day of the month, which commences the season

Sisira, to the 10th of that which closes it; and Paysana and Tam-

bana, during every part of the year.* Sei

It is believed that there are, or at least there were, in aN Is-

land 240,000 different charms or spells of every kind, belonging

to the art of Necromancy. An old legend says, that once upon a

time, long before the landing of king Wijeyo upon these Coasts,

one of the kings of this Island, wishing to marry from a royal

family, proceeded to Ayodhia pura (Oude) and being introduced to

the royal family of that country on the continent, was permitted to

select for his queen one out of the seven daughters of the king.

Upon this, being anxious to ascertain what their accomplishments

were, he asked each of them, what she was most skilled in. One

replied that she was skilled in the magical arts of sickening

and killing people by means of Hooniyan charms ; another

replied, that she could bring immediate death on any one by

means of Pilli charms; a third said that she could injure men

* Although there is not much difference of seasons in this Island, yet Sin-

ghalese writers have divided the year into six seasons. viz. 1. Wasanta which

corresponds to April and May; 2, Gimhana (hot] which, corresponds to

June and July ; 3, Wassana [rainy] to August and September ; 4 Sarat[dry]

to October and November ; 5, Gaymanta [dewy | to December and January ;

and 6, Sisira [cool] to February and March.

IN GENERAL. 5d

by dngam charms; three others also replied in the same way, men-

tioning some particular department of Sorcery, in which they were

most skilled, and by which they could bring diverse calamities on

men; but the seventh and last princess said that she knew none of

those in which her sisters were accomplished, but that she was

well learned in the other class of charms, by which she could restore

to health and life men suffering from the former. Upon this, the

King of Ceylon, being highly pleased with her, selected her to be

his Queen, and brought her away tohiscountry. The other sisters

being offended at this as an insult offered to them, determined to

take their revenge. For this purpose they collected from all parts

of the world every kind of charm, that was productive of evil to

man, and inserting them in some peculiar manner in a pumpkin*

sent it to their sister in Ceylon, as a present. Their object was

to destroy their sister and her kingdom by its means, for on being

touched by the hand of the person, for whom it was intended, it

was to set on fire both that person and everything else within a

hundred Yoduns.t But while the man, who carried it, was on the

sea on his way to the Island, it set fire to his head, and then fell into

the sea, from which it was afterwards picked up by a certain god,

and presented to the King of Ceylon. These evil spells together

with the charms in the healing department, which his own Queen

knew, constitute the 240,000 alluded to above. Whatever particle

of truth there may be in the story, it is certain that a majority of

the charms now in use among the Singhalese were introduced in

times much later, than those indicated by this legend.

* The pumpkin was selected for this purpose, because nothing else in the

whole universe could hold such dangerous materials without being immediately

burned to ashes! In the Ceremony of Hooniyan Kerema, by which all evil

influences produced by any malignant charms are sought to be removed, a

pumpkin is placed before the sick man, and after ordering, by means of incanta-

tions, all such evil influences to “descend to the pumpkin,” the Cattadiya cuts

the fruit in two, and then throws it into the sea or some other place of water.

t A Yoduna is 16 miles,

56 SPELLS OR CHARMS

Though a charm be ever so good in the number and proper dis-

position of those peculiar combinations of letters we have already

mentioned, and though it be complete in all other respects, yet it

can have no power for any practical purpose, unless it be subject-

ed to a certain process or ceremony called JEEwAMA, which liter-

ally means, “the endowing with life.” his it is, that makes a

charm efficacious for good or for evil. A Jeewama is considered

to be a ceremony of greater or less difficulty and danger, according

as the object of the charm is considered to be more or less easy of

accomplishment. For instance, the Jeewama of a charm to cure

a gripe or a headache is attended with no danger, whilst that of

another, intended to cause the death of a person or to seduce the

affections of a girl, is supposed to be fraught with great danger to

the life of him, who performs the ceremony. This danger arises

from demons, who endeavour to prevent in various ways the ac-

complishment of the man’s object. For, should the charm be per-

fected by the uninterrupted progress of the Jeewama, the demon

would be bound, nolens volens, to accomplish the object aimed at

by the charm. Hence their anxiety to interrupt a Jeewama, and

to frighten away those engaged in it; the consequences of that

fright to the men, being sickness and death,

When a Uattadiya is asked why it is that he cannot now do

any of those wonderful things, which his predecessors of earlier

days are said to have done, and which his omnipotent charms pro-

fess to be able at any time to effect, his answer is invariably an ar-

gument founded on this danger and difficulty of the Jeewama

ceremony. |

Every charm has a sort of rubric appended to it, in which the

object of the charm* is stated, and instructions are given in what

* Some people have been so anxious to prevent others from making use of any

of those “tried” [Singhalese Atdutu] charms, in whose efiicacy they have the

firmest belief, that they have managed to render their own manuscript copies

mere sealed books to the rest of the world, by writing the rubric in a way un-

intelligible to those not initiated into the mystery. For this purpose, they

IN GENERAL. lg

place and manner the Jeewama is to be performed, together with

a list of the offerings required on the occasion,

The Jeewama of some charms is as follows.—The Cattadiya, or

whoever has undertaken the task,* repairs to a grave at one of the

Yamas, and prepares what is called a Mal Bulat tatuwa or table

of flowers and betel leaves; this is a chair or something similar,

with a piece of white { cloth or a green plantain leaf spread on it;

on this cloth or leaf must be placed nine different kinds of flowers,

a few of each kind, the yellow fiowers of the Areca and the red

flowers of a small shrub called Hat Mal being generally of the.

number. With these is mixed some sandal wood powdered fine

and mixed with water; sometimes a few betel leaves,t with a

eopper coin, are added. The whole of this is called Mal Bulat

tatuwa. On this table is placed a thread or thin string called

Kan-ya Nool or Virgin Thread, so called from its having been

spun by a virgin from native cotton.| ‘This thread is coloured

generally use a language like that, which Reynolds describes in his Pickwick

Abroad and Mysteries of London as used by the abandoned desperados of

London,

* Excepting in regular ceremonies, which are performed to cure a disease,

persons other than professional Cattadiyas often engage in minor matters of the

Art, such for instance as the “‘ trying” of asingle charm, unless its Jeewama

be considered to be one attended with danger.

1 White has been the emblem of purity among all nations and in all ages of

the world.

t These betel leaves must be taken from a plant, from which none have been

previously removed by men for the purpose of chewing.

|| Kan-ya ool threads are used in almost every Demon ceremony, but, what

particular virtue they have, or what mysterious relation they bear to demons,

I have never been able to ascertain. ‘There are certain rules which are to be

observed by the girl in the spinning of this thread; but they are never strictly

observed now a days, lesta strict adherence to them may make her liable to

Tanicama or some other similar calamity. By these rules the girl must first

wash herself, and then putting around her neck a necklace of Rat mal flowers,

with her hair thrown loose on her shoulders, she must sit on the threshold of

the door of her house, looking towards the setting sun about 6 Pp. M., and then

| spin the mysterious thread.

08 SPELLS OR CHARMS

yellow by rubbing it with a piece of saffron.* Another table

called Pidayni tatuwa or Offering altar is then made, with the

green sticks of a shrub called Gurulla or Burulla for its legs, and

is covered with the inner white bark of the plantain tree, and the

broad green leaves of the Haburu plant.t On this altar are placed

Kita Etty or Seeds, being five different kinds of seeds roasted well

on a fire, the Hat Malu, or Seven Curries, consisting of vegetables,

fish, and flesh of land animals, and a little boiled rice.{ <A fire

* Saffron is an article used both in the rites of Demonism and in those of

Capuism. In the latter, the offerings, which consist principally of money and

images of silver, must be rubbed over with saffron, and then wrapped up in a

piece of a saffron leaf, before they are placed on the altar. A quantity of water

held in a species of jug called Cofaiay is also coloured and perfumed with

saffron; this water is thrown by the Capua on the persons of the devotees as

Holy Water.

+ Haburu is a sort of potatoe, cultivated in the dwelling gardens of most of

the poorer classes of the Singhalese. It also sometimes grows wild. It has

no stem nor branches. The leaves are heart-shaped and very large, sometimes

measuring 5 feet by 4. The root is large, being sometimes about a foot in

diameter, and three or four in length, perfectly cylindrical and of uniform

thickness from one end to the other; if the plant be allowed to grow long, this

root becomes a sort of stem rising to a height of four or five feet from the

ground, with a crown of five or six leaves on its summit. This stem (when

there is one), and the root are used by the people for food. It produces a

sharp, biting sensation, when taken into the mouth, so much so indeed, that it

is with great difficulty that it is swallowed. Some kinds however, which have

been carefully cultivated, do not possess this unpleasant quality in any great — q

degree, and some are almost entirely free from it. It is recommended by native

doctors as a very valuable medicine to those subject to piles, There are several

species of Haburu, most of which are used as food. One or two kinds are

especially prized for making Curries. Cohila Cola is one of the most favourite

dishes of a Singhalese, and it belongs to this genus, Its medicinal properties

too are considered to be very great. A medicine called Cohi/a Patmay is

prepared from it for those suffering from piles, and we have reason to believe

in its efficacy.

{ For fish, a piece of dry fish, and for flesh, a piece of skin from an old —

leather sandal are generally substituted for the sake of convenience. ‘The rice

_ directed to be used on this occasion is the kind called #/ Sa/ or Hill Rice, y

IN GENERAL. 59

is then made on the grave, with Pas Pengiri dara or the wood of

five different kinds of trees, the fruit of which is sour to the

taste, such as orange trees, lime trees, citron trees, and others of

that kind. On this fire is placed an earthen pot containing an egg,

and a gentle fire is kept up, till the egg is completely boiled.

While this boiling is going on, the Cattadiya lies down on the grave

at full length on his back, and pronounces his charm in a low tone

a certain number of times, 3, 7, 9, 16, 48, 49, 108, 128, or 1383

times, and in some cases so many as 1000 times, each time taking

care to throw a small quantity of powdered resin into a pot con-

taining some hot live cinders.* The resin produces a strong-scented

thick smoke, with which the Malbulat Tatuwa and the Pidayni

Tatuwa are performed. ‘This is done generally as many times as

the charm is recited. He then sits up on the grave, and taking

into his hand a cock pronounces over it another charm. Next he

takes the Kan-ya Nool thread, and, pronouncing a charm over it,

makes a knot in it. The charm is recited several times over the

thread, and each time a knot is made in it, the firepot being kept

smoking, with resin under the thread. Sometimes all this has to

be repeated at two succeeding Yamas, after which the charm is

considered to be complete. The whole of this ceremony is called

Jeewama. ‘The charmed thread is brought away, and used for the

purpose, and in the way, directed: for instance, if the object be to

cure sickness, the thread is tied round the arm, or the neck, or the

waist of the sick person; if the charmed substance be nota thread,

but something else, as a betel leaf, and if the object of the charm

be to gain the affections of a woman, the betel leaf is given to her

through some proper agent.

The above is only a general description of a Jeewama ceremony.

For each charm has its own particular Jeewama, differing from all

——:

which is considered to be the best; yet in point of practice rice of any kind

is used.

* The firepot or the Chafing dish is mentioned by Lane in his Modern Egyp-

trans, and seems to be as much in demand among the sorcerers of Egypt, as

among the Cattadiyas of Ceylon.

60 SPELLS OR CHARMS

others both in the offerings it requires, and in the time, place, and

manner of its performance. However the Kan-ya Nool, altars,

flowers, and the smoking firepot, are always required; and graves,

generally. |

An ordinary Aaraksa Nool, that isa charmed thread worn about

the person as an amulet against Tanicama, requires no greater

Jeewama ceremony than this—the Cattadiya having gone to the

back of the house with a Kan-ya Nool, some live cinders in a

cocoanut shell or a tile, and a little saffron and resin, pronounces

his charm in the usual low muttering tone, all the while perfuming

the thread with the resin smoke, and making a few knots in it,

equal sometimes to the number of times he pronounces the charm.

All this does not take up more than 30 or 40 minutes. But in

certain other Jeewamas, such as those relating to many kinds of

ffooniyan and Pilli, whose object is the destruction of some person,

these things are done on a greater scale, and are said to be attended

with great danger to the lives of those engaged in them,

The danger, it is said, consists in this,—When the Cattadiya is

going on with his incantation, but particularly about its conclusion

when the virtues of the charm are becoming perfected, demons

begin to arrive on the spot, one after another, generally in the

disguise of beasts and serpents, such as monkeys, black dogs, ele-

phants, tigers, Cobra-de-Capellos, polongas, and sometimes in the

shape of old wrinkled grey headed men and women, with the ex-

ception of the last demon who appears like a man. - Hach of these,

as he arrives, must be presented with the particular offering

appointed for him, such as an egg, a fowl, some boiled rice, a young

king-cocoanut, a few drops of blood, or something else as directed

in the charm itself; any mistake or delay in presenting the offering

being followed by immediate death or incurable sickness to those

engaged in the ceremony. ‘The demons, when they approach the

scene, do all they can to frighten away the men, either by felling

large trees near the spot, or by surrounding the men with a ring

of burning jungle, or by creating a thick darkness, such as Milton

speaks of in his Paradise Lost, or by uttering loud screams and

IN GENERAL: 61

howls like the roaring of thunder. All this the demons are said to

do, in order to prevent the success of the charm: for if the virtues

of the charm were to be perfected by the Jeewama, the demons

would be spell-bound to act) like slaves in effecting that, which the

charm is intended for. Hence their anxiety and efforts to frustrate

its success. These efforts, it is said, have generally been success-

ful, and many a story is related of men found lying dead on the

scene of a Jeewama, and of others, who lived raving maniacs for

the rest of their lives, or who died a few days after their attempt

to perform the ceremonies, from a delirious fever which no medicine

or demon ceremony could cure.

Charms, it is said, do not retain their virtues beyond a certain

period; some retaining them only 50 years, while others retain

- them 100, 300, 700, 900, 1000, 1900, 2700, or 3300 years. ‘Those

few alone, of which Brahma himself was the author, retain their

efficacy for ever. Besides, the loss of a single letter which belongs

to a charm, or the addition of one which does not, or any other

alteration, though the smallest possible, is supposed to affect it

equally; in this latter case, however, there is said to be a certain

method of revising the charm and of restoring its original reading

by means of a certain magic table called Siddhi Chakkray.

The principal works on the subject of charms are Narayena,

Mayrutantria, Mantra chinta Mania, and Mantra Kakse, which

are all in Sanscrit. Less important works treating both of Demon

ceremonies and of charms in general, are Mantra Mala Teeka,

Sanka pala Widia, Cola Widia, Bahirawa Widia, Bahirawa

Calpe, Cuhara Widia, Sagal Asna, Cumare Widia, and Asura

Widia, which are partly in Singhalese and partly in Sanscrit.

There are many Cattadiyas now living, who have more or less

studied these works, and are celebrated among their countrymen

_ for their professional attainments, among others Caduru Pokuna,

and Dandawe Ganitaya and Ratuwatte Catiadiya in the district

of Suffragam.

We have translated a few charms for the amusement of the

reader; and in doing so, we have selected those, which would be

62 SPELLS OR CHARMS

most intelligible. The following is one which is intended to drive

a man mad —

“Oh Brahma, Vishnu and Siva! I make my adoration to you!

Oh, come thou, Hanumana! Oh, come, thou god, Hamunanta!

Oh, come thou, Madana! Oh, come, thou goddess, Madana!

Come thou, Baddracali! Come, thou goddess, Baddracali! Come

thou, Curumbara! Come, thou god, Curumbara! Oh, come thou,

Maha Sohona! Oh, come, thou god, Maha Sohona! Come thou,

Gopolla! Come, thou god, Gopolla! Come thou, Reeri! Come,

thou god, Reeri Yakseya! Oh Samayan, come! Oh, come, thou

god of Samayan! Come thou, Wata Cumara! Come, thou god,

Wata Cumara! Qh, come thou, Calu Yakseya! Come, thou god,

Calu Yakseya! Oh Vishnu, come thou! Oh Vishnu’s Avatar,

come! Come thou, Ayiyanayaka! Come, thou god, Ayiya-nay-

ka! Come from on high! Come frem below! Come from all

directions! Come from all parts of the universe! Come, all the

dewo and all the dewatawas! * Come, all ye demons! Come, all

ye demon chiefs! Come, thundering from the sky! Come, mak-

ing the earth tremble as ye come! Ye demons Encadawara and

Malcadawara, all ye dewo and dewatawas, ye male demons and

female demons, look at this human being from head to toe! Look

at his bones, his sinews, his joints, his neck, his blood, his lungs,

his heart and his intestines of 32 cubits in length. Look, look at

them! And Oh! receive this human being, as a sacrifice unto

you! Take him for yourself! Take him! I dedicate him to

you. Idedicate him to you. I dedicate him to you with his dum-

mala { incense. Look at him and accept him. Let this be so.”

* Dewo are the gods; Dewatawas are the inferior classes of gods and the

superior classes of demons. But the Cattadiyas often carelessly apply the

latter term to inferior demons too. In charms however, flattery being one of

the means of drawing the attention of a demon, no distinction is observed in

the application of these terms, as is obvious from the above charm.

{ The incense offered to demons by the Sorcerers of this country is not

frankincense and myrrh, as elsewhere in the East, but a species of very inflam-

mable resin called dummaila, which is obtained from the ground a few feet

dod PS ae me ey

ee eg ee Ee Oe ee

IN GENERAL. 63

Then come the directions for performing the Jeewama, which

are as follow—‘‘ Make a Mal Bulat Tatuwa and three Pidayni Ta-

tuwas ona grave. Use the Etta Etty, the Seven Curries, blood,

boiled rice, opium, three lizard eggs, a cock, seven clusters of Rat

Mal flowers, the ashes of burnt hair, and roasted meat for these

altars. Make an image of wax, and write on it the name of the

person, who is to be injured. Take then seven Kan-ya Nool

threads, and pronouncing the charm 108 times, make seven knots

in the threads, one in each. Put the image on an Areca flower,

the first, which that tree has ever produced, and tie them up to-

gether by means of the threads. Then take this away and conceal

it in the back roof of the house. The man will be insane from

_ that day. To cure him, remove the image from the roof and throw

it into a stream, and the man will recover his reason.”

The following is a charm for curing any disease supposed to be

caused by the demon Reeri Yakseya:—

“Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva! Adoration be to you! The

demon Reeri Yakseya, who resides on the rock Mala Dola Gigi-

riana in the land of Sayurasla, came into this world from the

womb of his mother Laytali by tearing himself through her heart,

on Saturday in the month of Nawan, [corresponding to a part of

February and part of March.] This demon wears a crown of fire

on his head, a cloth of blood below his waist, and another cloth of

blood above, thrown across his shoulders. He has the face of a

below the surface, and also from certain trees, which produce gums equally

inflammable and also called dummala, of which the Sal tree is the principal.

The Ola books of the Singhalese being written with an iron stile, the charac-

ters are illegible, but by rubbing on them aa oil extracted from dummala, mixed

with the ashes of burnt rags, a black colour is imparted to the lines, and so the

letters become very legible.

The practice of offering incense to beings considered to be superior to men,

whether they are called gods or demons, is one which appears to have prevailed

from the earliest times, and its origin would indeed be a very interesting subject

of inquiry both in connection with the history of Ceylon Demonism, and in

relation to the Jews, with whom it was usual to make an incense offering to

Jehovah,

64 SPELLS OR CHARMS

monkey; his feet are of a bloodred colour, and the rest of his per-

son ofa golden hue. He brandishes in one hand the Bludgeon, and

in the other the Trap of death, by whose apparition he is attend-

ed. When he received his wurrun from Iswara, Sekkra, and

Brahma, he repaired to a place where three roads met, and standing

there, and licking at the same time two pieces of human bones,

which he carried in his mouth, his whole person dripping with

blood, he clapped his hands and bawled out so dreadful a cry of

triumph and defiance, that even the gods of ten thousand worlds

were struck with terror and dismay. When the four guardian

gods of the world asked, if there was not any one in the universe

powerful enough to subdue the demon, they were told that neither

Iswara,* nor Brahma, nor Natha, nor Gandharwas, nor Garundas,

nor Saman, nor any Sorcerer could do it. Upon this, the great,

the glorious, the wonderful Vishnu took a jungle creeper, which

grew on the Rock of Blood in Sayurasla Desey, which is situated

beyond seven seas and pronounced over it this charm—Oh Brahma,

Ob Siva, Oh Vishnu, Oh Walia, come! Come thou, Hanumanta!

Come, all ye gods! Come, all ye demons! Come instantly! I bind,

I bind. I confine, I confine. Be bound, be bound. Be confined,

be confined. Let this be so. By pronouncing these words he

bound and subdued the demon Reeri Yakseya. Therefore by the

power of Vishnu, and the overthrow he gave thee that day, I com-

pel thee, oh demon Reeri Yakseya, to be bound by my charm.

I bind thee, Be thou bound, bound, bound. I order thee to heal

at once this disease, which thou hast brought on this human being.

Let this be so.

“This charm is to be pronounced over a threadt or some oil,|| af-

terwards the oil must be rubbed over the person, or the thread must be

tied round his arm; and the patient will recover from that instant.”

* Iswara, I believe, is another name of Siva.

} This repetition of the same word is characteristic of most charms, espe-

cially in that part in which its virtues are supposed to be concentrated.

+ Whenever threads are mentioned in charms or in any thing else relating to

Demonism, Kan-ya Nool threads are meant.

| When od simply is mentioned, it is to be understood of cocoanut oil, But

IN GENERAL. 65

The following is a charm for curing headache. It is to be pro-

nounced over a little oil, which must be stirred incessantly with a

piece of iron all the time that the charm is being pronounced.

“Oh Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva! I make my adoration to you!

When Ginires dewatawi (she demon of fire), who resides in Ginires

Coville (temple of fire), in the country of Ginires Daysa (land of

fire), complained to Mangra Dewiyo of the fire which was burning

in her head, he (Mangra Dewiyo) sent for milk from the breasts

of the Seven Mothers of milk,* and with it put out the fire which

was burning in her head; for which he had received Wurrun from

sixty-four different persons. By the power he exercised that day,

I do this day command that the headache, which troubles this per-

son, do quit him instantly—do flee, flee this moment.”

Although by far the largest majority of charms are either for

inflicting or for curing diseases, yet there are many others for

various other purposes, and in fact there can hardly be a wish of

any kind, be it good or bad, which may not be gratified by charms.

Among others, the following is one for inducing demons to throw

stones into dwelling houses, so incessantly and so long, as to compel

the inmates to desert the house.

“Oh Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva! Adoration be to you! The

she-demon Calu Cambanee, who influenced the bile, the she-demon

Narasingha, who influenced the wind, and the she-demon Sen

in some cases when it is expressly mentioned, a composition of several kinds

of oil, called Pas Tel or the Five oils, is used. These five oils generally are

Cocoanut oil, Gingelli oil, Cohomba oil, Mee oil, and Castor oil.

* There is a certain Dana or Almsgiving ceremony called Kirt Ammavwa-

rvunnay Dana or the Alms of the Mothers of Milk, generally observed three

months after the birth of a child. Besides other people, who are invited to the

house to partake of food or Dana on the occasion, seven women, sometimes

- seven unmarried girls, named for the time Kirt ammala or Mothers of Milk,

are made to sit apart from the others, and are treated to a breakfast of boiled

rice, plantains, and a sort of jelly called “ Milk,” made of rice flour, jaggery

or country sugar, and the juice of the cocoanut. The dishes of the others,

who are treated on the same occasion, are different from these. ;

66 SPELLS OR CHARMS.

Cumari, who influenced the phlegm, in the disease, which afflicted,

the four great demons, who were the offspring of the great king

Carma; the demon Sanni Yakseya, who influenced all the three,

the Bile, the Wind, and the Phlegm; the demons, who produce

disease by means of the Evil Eye and the Evil Mouth; and the

demons and she-demons Takaree, Makaree, Kalaraksee, Yamadoo-

tee, Ailakkandi, Mailakkandi, Nanaroopee, Telokadewi, and Oddy

Curumbara, these demons and she-demons, who afflict man with

98 diseases, and 99 infirmities, and subject him to the risks of 208

dangers, all you male and female demons, I bind you first by the

power of the god Loka Natha; secondly, I bind you by the power

of the glorious god Vishnu; thirdly, I bind you by the power of

the worldfamous goddess Pattini; fourthly, I bind you by the power

of the god Saman; fifthly, I bind you by the power of the god

Dewol; sixthly, I bind you by the power of the god Canda Cumara;

seventhly, [bind youby the power of Andungini Dewatawa;eighthly,

I bind you by the power of King Wissamonny himself; ninthly, I bind

you by the power of the Graha gods (the Planet gods); tenthly, I

bind you by the power of the eight Guardian gods, who are in.

charge of the eight points of the sky. I bind you all. Ibind you

all by the power of all these gods. Ido this by the same power

which the great Prades Rusia* used. Do, asI do. Stay, where

I tell you to stay. Go, where I tell you togo. Eat, burn, destroy, —

when I command you to eat, burn, and destroy. Let this be so.”

The Jeewama of the above—* Put a Champica flower, a flower

of the iron wood tree, and a stone on a Mal Bulat Tatuwa, placed

on a grave, or at the point of junction of three roads, or near a tree,

whose bark has a great deal of sap in it. Then place around the

Mal Bulat Tatuwa a little blood, a little milk, a few flowers, and

some porrz,t each kind in a separate leaf. Then put up lights all

round; having done this take some resin, and pronounce over it the

* Prades Rusia was the first man, who followed the profession of a Cattadiya-

J Paddy, as rice in the husk is called here, being put into a vessel andheated =

over a fire, splits open into large white flakes, which are called porri.

IN GENERAL, 67

charm (not the above but the one used for consecrating resin), and

hold up the smoking fire-pot to the Mal Bulat Tatuwa. Next,

pronounce the above charm 108 times. Do this at three several

Yamas. Lastly, take away the stone, and bury it in the ground

under the stile of the garden fence, or at the back of the house.

Then throw a stone at the house; and from that day, that house

will be pelted with stones. To put astop to the pelting remove

the buried stone, and throw it into a stream or some other place of

water, and the stone-pelting will cease from that day.”

Charms may be divided into two great classes, viz., 1st—Those

intended to inflict death, disease, or some other inconvenience

upon men; 2nd—Those intended to counteract the first, and

remove their evil consequences. Under the head of the first class

come several departments of charms, chiefly Hoontyan, ANGAM,

and Pixu1 charms; under the second, BANDANA, DEHENA and a

few others. ‘These will be treated of in the succeeding chapter.

CHAPTER V.

Hooniyan CHarmMs.

Copiwina or Hoonryan is the name given to evils of whatever

kind inflicted by the agency of charms. Hence the charms which

cause these have been denominated Hooniyan charms. There are

said to be 84000 of these, of every degree of malignity, most of — ’

which more or less contribute to bring to an untimely death the

man affected by their influence, though that event may be deferred

for many years. Some Hooniyan charms have the effect of filling

a house or garden with so many demons, that the owner finds it

difficult to pass even a single night in the house, but if he take

heart to do so, it is most probable that he and his family will fall

sick, one after another, as if attacked by some contagious disease:

others frighten him by hideous night dreams, or by sudden appari-

tions, even in broad daylight, of large black dogs trying to bite him,

or of ugly monkeys grinning at him,* but who vanish the next

moment from his sight. |

Whatever may be the nature of the disease brought on aman by

Hooniyan charms, that disease always resists every attempt to cure

it by medicine, and invariably results in the death of the man,

unless other remedies be applied in time, viz., those which charms

alone afford. For although there are gods and god-worship (ca-

puism), and Buddhistical Pirit and Pirit Nool,} that hold out to

their votaries every protection against demons, and although these

gods are beings immeasurably superior to the demons in power,

* These superstitions about demons assuming the disguise of monkeys to

frighten men seems to have been current in the time of Shakespeare.

Caliban—“ His spirits hear Me. .1...:...cscncscsesonsseeoseresseatanes

“ Sometimes like apes, that mow and chatter at me—

Tempest Act II. Scene II.

{ Pirit is a certain Buddhist ceremony performed for the purpose of remov-

ing all sorts of demon influence; and Pirit Nool is a thread consecrated by that

ceremony, and used as an amulet for the same purpose.

HOOGNIYAN CHARMS. 69

yet ifa demon bring his malign influence to bear upon a man

through the agency of Hooniyan charms, no power on earth below

or in the sky above can save him, unless he resort to the very art,

' which in the hands of his enemies has injured him so much. Ge-

nerally, if a man often gets sick, especially from rheumatic attacks,

and if he frequently feels thirst accompanied by an unusual degree

of heat in the blood, especially about the region of the chest, he

will attribute it to Hooniyan charms and more so, if he recollects

that he has an enemy in one of his neighbours: and even though

he has no enemy, yet if his sickness seems to resist the skill of his

physician, and if a burning sensation in his body is one effect of

his sickness, and if he is often troubled by dreams in which black

dogs, monkeys, and horrible looking men try to frighten him, he is

sure that his sickness is a Hooniyan. If a man in climbing a tree,

or in moving from the top of one tree to that of another on the

ropes which connect them together (as is the case with cocoanut

trees during the season of distilling Arrack), makes a false step and

is thereby precipitated to the ground whereby he dies, the proba-

bility is that the calamity will be attributed to a Hooniyan*: and

this probability will not be the less strong, because the man may

sometimes happen to escape with only a few bruises and fractures;

but it will, on the contrary, be much more strengthened by what

the man himself relates, which generally amounts to this—that,

while he was on the tree, he was thrown down by somebody whom

however he did not see, or that he was frightened by some mons-

trous-looking being, which appeared and disappeared with the rapi-

dity of lightning, or that he suddenly and most unaccountably felt

giddy and faint and so lost his footing and fell; all which to the

* About twelve months ago, there was a lawsuit between one of our friends

_ and another man, so they were not on the very best of terms with each other,

Before the case was decided, the other man happened to fall from a cocoanut

tree and died instantly. It was therefore imputed to a Hooniyan charm prac-

tised by our friend, And the two families are now at deadly enmity with each

other. .

70 HOONIYAN CHARMS.

minds of his friends are so many proofs of a Hooniyan cause,

although some unfriendly wag of a neighbour might insinuate that

the man was tipsy with Toddy rather than affected by a Hooniyan

cause at the time. Suppose a man and his wife constantly quarrel —

and do not like each other’s company, especially at the commence-

ment of their matrimonial life, and neither of them can assign any

adequate reason for it, then, although the man’s friends will say

that the woman is wholly to be blamed, and the woman’s friends

that the man is solely to be blamed, it is most probable however

that both these sets of friends in their cooler moments will say that

a Hooniyan must be the sole cause of this domestic misery. A

young woman is betrothed to a young man, but sometime

afterwards the match is broken off through the non-consent,

say, of some of the girl’s relatives, and she is therefore given in

marriage to another young man, and in due course of time she

gives birth to a child; if, during the pains of delivery, she

suffers much, and is not easily delivered of her burthen, you will

then hear but one word whispered in low accents from mouth to

mouth among all the relatives and friends assembled there; and

that word is Hooniyan. You may see some of these relatives

standing in groups of 2 or 3 in the compound or behind the house,

engaged in an earnest, anxious, grave, and whispering conversation,

others hurrying here and there either in search of a skilful Catta-

diya, or in making preparations for performing some special demon

ceremony, although similar ceremonies had been performed months

before in anticipation of such a calamity, a suspicion of which

necessarily arose from the circumstances attending the marriage.

Or you may see one Cattadiya, standing near the house, muttering

his charms over a small tea-cup containing some cocoanut oil or

over a thread; and another standing before the distressed woman,

and with an “Arecanut Cutter ”* cutting three limes,} at the

* An Arecanut Cutter is an instrument, which is found in every Singhalese

house. As its name implies, it is used for cutting Arécanuts preparatory to

their being chewed with betel leaves, chunam, and tobacco.

+ The cutting of limes on this, and on every other occasion when it is intend-

Led

HOONIYAN CHARMS. \ il

‘same time pronouncing some short charms in a voice a little more

audible than usual. And after all, if the woman dies, it only con-

firms the truth of what they had but surmised at first.

In most Hooniyan charms, a small image made of wax or wood,

or a figure drawn upon a leaf or something else, supposed to re-

present the person intended to be injured, is necessary. A few

hairs of his head, some chippings of his finger nails, and a thread

or two from a cloth worn by him, and sometimes a handful of sand

from a place on which he has left his footprint, are also required,

when the image is submitted to the Jeewama, especially in Hooni-

yans directed against parties intending to marry. Also Pas Lo or

Jive metals, that is nails made of a composition of five different

kinds of metals, generally gold, silver, copper, tin, and lead, are

driven into the image at all those points, which represent the joints,

the heart, the head, and other important parts of the body. The

name of the intended victim is also marked on the image. After

the Jeewama, this image is buried in the ground in some suitable

place, such as under the stile of the garden fence, or in some other

spot, where the intended victim is likely to ‘pass over”* it.

This “passing over” is essential to the success of a large majority

of Hooniyan charms. After this, the image is either left in the

same place, or is taken out and secreted in some other place accord-

ing to the directions in the charm itself. 1n the case of some Hooni-

yans, which however form but a small minority, this “ passing over ”

is not needed 4t all, as, for instance, in those intended to produce

ampotency in a man.

To ensure greater certainty of success to a Hooniyan charm,

other precautions are also sometimes taken, such as ascertaining

from the horoscope of the party the particular season or day or

ed as a part of a demon ceremony, is done in a particular manner; the lime is

_ placed between the two blades of the Arecanut Cutter, where it is held firmly

by slightly pressing with the fingers the two ends or handle of the “Cutter,”

while the charm is being pronounced over it. Then, as the last word or

syllable of the charm is being pronounced, and before its sound can have time

to die away, the fruit is at once cut in two by a single effort.

* Panna-wana-wa is the Singhalese term for this.

72 HOONIYAN OHARMS.

hour, in which some planet or planets appear to threaten him with

some calamity, and regulating the time of performing the Hooniyan

accordingly.

Hooniyan charms are considered to be so powerful, that, even if

a person other than the one for whom the charm was intended

happen to be the first to “ pass over” the buried image, he too is

injured in some degree; the diseases produced in such a case being

generally sores, boils, and itches on the feet, especially on the soles.

A man, who sees a boil on the sole of his foot, and knows that he

has not been treading on any jungle thorns, immediately suspects

that he must have been “passing over” a buried Hooniyan charm,

intended either for himself, or for somebody else; and so the Cat-

tadiya and his Hooniyan kapeema ceremony are soon put in re-

quisition, together with the assistance of the physician, the Capua,

the Astrologer, the Balicaraya, the Buddhist priest and the Sooth-

sayer; who, each in his own way, contribute to the desired result;

for the creed of a Singhalese is, not to wait for a cure from one

source alone, but to avail himself of all within his reach, although

the art of Sorcery is positive in its dogma, that an evil caused by

that art can be remedied by it alone, and by none other,

The following are the names of a few Hooniyan charms, consi-

dered to be unfailing in their effects, together with a brief descrip-

tion of the nature of these effects.

1. Marulu Pennuma.—Causes madness—burning heat every

where in the body—frequent depfivation of the

senses—running into words and streams—shouting,

weeping, using violent and abusive language—pa-

roxysms of rage—fainting fits—eventual death.

2, Dala Reert Watey.—Causes the demon to be always in the

company of the man, which is a source of perpetual

disease of every kind which at last results in death.

3. Reerit Cuppey.—Sickness till death—the demon’s influence

never leaves the man till after death.

4. Maha Sohon Gini Maruluwa.—Lays desolate whole vil-

lages, depopulating them by sickness or death.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14,

15.

16.

17.

HOONIYAN CHARMS. 78

Mayga Patala Oddi Deheney.—The man vomits blood—

falls down senseless—in a short time dies.

Bamba Dristia.—The demon Reeri Yakseya shews himself

to the man in the disguise of Brahma, several times

in a day, which leads to sickness and death.

Calu Cumara Muriuwa.—Swoons and fits of insanity—

discharge of blood in the case of females—dancing

and uttering hoo cries—sudden death.

Sanni Calu Cumara Murtuwa.—Madness.

Reert Vak Murtuwa.—During the wedding procession the

bride will become mad, and the demon Reeri Yak-

seya will at the same time strike the bridegroom’s

head with his knuckles.

Wada Yak Murtuwa,—The wife gets mad—demons take

possession of the house—sickness and death.

Madena Cumara Muriuwa.—Madness.

Sanni Daepaney.—Continual disturbance, noise, and appa-

ritions of demons within the precincts of the family

residence—the house becomes uninhabitable, shrieks,

screams, and horrible cries are heard frequently at

night.

Sohon Gini Bandenay.—Insanity and delirious fever—

rheumatic attacks—pains in all the joints—para-

lysis—death at the end of three months, if not cured

sooner. (This is intended for married couples.)

Madena Sohon Bandenay.-—Quarrelling—hating each

- other—insanity—sores and boils at the joints—pa-

ralytic attacks of rneumatism—divers diseases. (Zn-

tended against married couples.)

Cadewara Iripenneema.—Madness—running into woods,

graveyards, and streams—shouting—dancing—ex-

treme heat in the blood—speedy death.

Golu Keelay.—Dumbness.

Madeno Sangiila Tatuwa.—Cough and consumption—

itching pain over the skin—insanity.

74 HOONIZAN CHARMS.

18. Wandi Bandu Jeewama.—A man cannot remain in his

house—he must run away from it. 3

19. Ratnimiti Well Penneema.—Death in seven days.

20. Wija Paluwa—A man forgets all that he knew of any

science or art.

21. Kamuruwa.—If you pronounce the charm over some water,

and sprinkle it on a person’s hand, the latter will

fall down on the ground.

22. Reeri Kamuruwa.—The same effects as the above, with

this addition, that the man who falls will bleed

through the nose.

23. Oddi Reert Dehenay.—¥ever—paralysis—rheumatic

pains—sores and boils—death in three years.

24. Cal-lu Carpuwa.—Immediate death,

25. Jala Rama Bandenocy.—Rheumatic atiacks—death within

three months.

The following is the Hooniyan charm called Cadewara Iripen-

neema (No. 15 in the above list.) |

‘* Adored be thou, Oh Buddha! The she-demons Cadawara

Reeri Yaksenee, Billey Reeri Yaksenee, Calu Candi Yaksenee,

Marana Keela Yaksenee, Samayan Cadawara Reeri Yaksenee, and

Calu Roopa Yaksenee, who all sprang into being from the blood,

which spouted up into the air from the heart of queen Seetapatee

of the city Seetapatee Nuvera, once upon a time rushed into Ban-

gala (Bengal) and thence to Nuvera Ellia, where they rested on the

rock Gala Tala (Pedro Talla Galla.) Each wore around her neck

a garland of flowers, a chain of gold, and a chain of silver. They

then sent forth a deadly ball of fire and smoke to Ramapura, and

another to prince Rama, by which both that prince and the prince

Sumana Disti Cumara were affected with demon-influence. Next

they looked down upon the rest of the world of human beings, and

took possession of 1000 children, 1000 women, and 1000 men,

making these creatures tremble, and cry, and shout, and rave, and

die. ‘These she-demons I bind by the power of the king Wissa-

monny. Let the she-demons Muni Cadawara Reeri Yaksanee,

HOONIYAN CHARMS. 15

Yamacali Yaksenee, Raticami Yaksenee, and Sanni Cami Yaksenee,

come hither. Come instantly. Come, thundering from the sky.

Make the sky and the earth roar and reel, as ye come. The she-

demons Cadawara Reeri Yaksenee and Muni Billey Yaksenee with

others once went to the city Capila, and began to devour the

citizens; whereupon the king Wissamonny and the king of the

gods, binding them with chains of fire and human bones, checked

their ferocity and frightened them exceedingly. Therefore by the

power of these gods, I command you, oh she-demons, to look here.

I command you to come directly to me without looking anywhere

else. I bow down to thee, Oh Buddha! The she-demons Lay

Cadawara Yaksenee, Reeri Cadawara Yaksenee, and Aawey,Cada-

wara Yaksenee once went to the mountain Nawasiagiri Parwatte,

where they devoured the heads of nine hundred princes, and killed

the great prince Cewulia Cumara, whose blood they drank.~ When

the son of king Wijeyo was playing in his royal father’s flower

garden, Aaweysa Cadawara Reeri Yaksence struck him with her

necklace of flowers, which hurled him many thousand fathoms high

into the air. She once went to the rock Maha Lay Parwatte, but

the great demon chief Malla told her to descend to the earth inha-

bited by men, and to feed on such as she liked. Oh Aaweysa

Cadawara Reeri Yaksenee, I call upon thee to listen to what thy

priest tells thee. Demon, thy own priest calls upon thee. I beg

thee to attend to what I tell thee, and not to any thing else, which

any other priest may tell thee. Oh Aaweysa Cadawara Reert

Yaksenee, oh great she-demon, I call upon thee this day to be

bound by my charm. JI call upon thee to accept an offering, which

I make to thee and thy sisters. I call upon thee by the power of

all the gods. Therefore, come here. Look here and come soon.

I call upon thee, and command thee by the power of Vishnu, to

east thy influence upon this human being, and to take him wholly

to thyself. I beg thee to protect me. I call upon thee to tell thee,

that from this day, and this hour, and this minute this human

Sacrifice, which I dedicate to thee, is wholly thine. The Cattadi-

yas are thy obedient slaves. Therefore protect me, but take this

76 HOONIYAN CHARMS.

human being as an offering acceptable to thee. Take him. Take

him this instant as an offering made by thy servant. Oh she-demon,

oh my sister, eat him, Tat his flesh and drink his blood, Lat his

bones, and muscles, and nerves. Drink his heart’s blood and suck ~

his marrow. Eat his liver and lungs and entrails. Look at him

from head to toe, and cover him this instant with thy influence.

I command thee this day, oh Aaweysa Cadawara Reeri Yaksanee,.

who wast born from three drops of blood, to suck the blood out of :

this human being. I give him over to thee. Take him. I ask

thee and all other she-demons to afflict him with heat, fever, and

p2in in all the 800 joints and 900 nerves of his body, and in the

800,000,000 pores of his skin. Remain thou with him, till I come — 3

back to thee. I teil thee, listen not to any other Cattadiya. By

Wissamonny’s power I bind mee to do this. I bind thee. I have

bound thee. Let this be so.

The Jeewama of the above—‘ Make three Pidaynz Tatu (alors)

and divide each Tatuwa into four compartments. Place in each

of these compartments boiled rice of a yellow colour, some of a

white colour, and some of a black colour; also place on any of the

Tatu some milk in two separate leaves, some blood in two separate

leaves, five kinds of fried meat, an arrow, and a cock. Surround

all these with three turns of a Kan-ya Nool thread. ‘Then placing

one of the Tatu to the east of you, and the other two at your feet,

pronounce the charm 133 times over a Kan-ya Nool thread and a

cluster of Rat Mal flowers, which you hold in your hand.* You

will then see three apparitions, but, without getting frightened by

them, bind them by your charm. ‘Then take away the thread and

the flowers, and get them passed over: after which, keep them

carefully seeured in a box. This Jeewama must be performed on

a grave during three Yamas ofa Sunday. The man will get mad

in three days.”

* The dummala incense, although not mentioned above, must also be used

on this and on all similar occasions. It is omitted here, only because it istoo =

well known as a sine qua non of every demon ceremony to require ae

mention.

HOONIYAN CHARMS. ei

The Jeewama of Sohon Gini Bandenay (No. 13 in the above

list) —“N ear a tree, the bark of which has much sap in it, draw on

the ground two figures representing the man and his wife, with a

piece of charcoal obtained from a place where a human corpse had

been burned. Write the names of the parties on the breasts of

these figures with the same piece of charcoal. Write also on each

of the figures the letters a. e. u. ‘Then pronounce the charm over

a steel nail, and drive the nail into those parts of the figures which

represent the private parts. Pronounce the charm again over 16

nails made of Pas lo, and drive them into those parts of the figures

which represent the joints. Remove then the earth on which the

figures were drawn, and bury it in a grave a few inches below the

surface, and make a fire over it with Pas Pengiri (the wood of

five kinds of trees the fruit of which is sour to the taste:) Keep

up this fire for sometime. For offerings, put on an altar some

blood, some Rat Mal flowers, a roasted egg, and some boiled rice,

each in a separate leaf, All this must be done ona Sunday. The

husband and wife will fall sick, become insane, have paralysis in

their legs, quarrel and fight with each other, and die at the end of

three months, if remedies are not applied in time. The remedy is

this—dig a hole in the ground where a human corpse has been

burnt. Throw in it nine kinds of flowers and some boiled rice,

each folded in 9 separate leaves. Put on an altar close by 9 leaves

containing the juice of Rat Mal flowers, and 9 containing boiled

rice, and 8 limes. Repeat then these charms (not given here), and

taking the limes to the sick people, cut them, pronouncing over

them the seven charms Hanama Wettu Alagu. Thesick people

will recover.”

The Jeewama of Madena Sohon Bandenay (No. 14)—“ Draw

the figure of a man on a tiger’s skin, and the figure of a woman on

a deer skin. Write the names of the man and his wife on the

breasts of the respective figures. Then put upon the figures a

Divi Caduru leaf,* a piece of charcoal obtained from a funeral

* Divi Caduru is a tree which grows to a considerable height. Its leaves

are about a foot long, and two and a half or three inches broad, very thick,

78 HOONIYAN CHARMS.

pile, and seven grains of unboiled rice. Fold these in the skins,

and tie the two skins together with seven turns of a Kan-ya Nool

thread. Before you use the thread for this purpose, repeat over it

this charm 49 times, taking care to make a knot every seventh

time. Then take 9 thorns from Pas Pengiri trees, and pronouncing

the charm 9 times over them drive them into the skins. Make

also an altar, and place upon it Rat Mal flowers, milk, porri, and

sandal wood, each in a separate leaf, place these at the four corners

of the altar, and the skins in the middle. ‘Then perfume them with

the smoke of resin, and pronounce the charm 7 times. All this

must be done on a Sunday during the morning Yama, After this

take away the skins and strike with them the stone, which is op-

posite to the door of the house. ‘The man and his wife will become

insane, and quarrel with each other, and die in a short time.”

Every Hooniyan, that produces sickness, ends in death, unless

it is prevented in time by charms; and no other remedy but charms

can effect a cure, whatever the nature of the disease may be. The

Jonger the Hooniyan influence remains on a man, the tess chance

there is of its removal, probably because the demon acquires a sort

of prescriptive right over his victim, until he bring the man to

death in his own time, that is within the time assigned in the

charm. Hence, in the mind of a Singhalese, suspicion is always

awake and ready to discover a Hooniyan cause in the various mis-

fortunes, which he may meet with in the ordinary course of nature,

in the form of disease and accidents. And hence also it is, that he

so often has recourse to charms and demon ceremonies, even when

he is in the enjoyment of perfectly good health, merely because he

wants to ease his mind, which otherwise would be made very un-

happy by a doubt, whether a Hooniyan influence may not then be

upon him, although as yet there does not appear even to himself any

thing, which he can consider to be a sign of it.

and of a dark green colour, When bent, the leaf breaks and exudes a thick

white sap considered to be poisonous. The fruit when ripe is of a beautiful

red colour, and is very tempting to the sight, from which circumstance proba- ‘

bly it is, that it has sometimes been called Eve's Apple.

ANGAM CHARMS.

There is another class of charms, which, though intended to in-

jure others like Hooniyan, have yet been called by a different name,

and are supposed to have been originated by a different Irshi.

While Hooniyans are supposed to affect a man at different intervals,

varying from a day to 30 or 40 years from the time of the Jeewa-

ma, and to cause death generally by slow degrees, preceded by a

variety of diseases, of which insanity, paralysis in the limbs, and

extreme heat in the region of the chest are the most common; these

are supposed to be more speedy in their effects, death taking place

invariably within seven hours, without any previous indication of

disease other than a throwing up of blood through the nose and

mouth. These charms are called AnGAms, of which there are on!

82. The following are their names:—

1 Udatringey Angam 17 Narapura Induwa

2 Hasta Angam 18 Narapura Inchia

8 Suruttu Angam 19 Naraporottuwa

4 Talpat Angam 20 Widurucodi Angam

5 Neecha Cula Angam 21 Widuru Maraney

6 Rodi Angam 22 Geri Angam

7 Caturu Angam | 23 Hasti Angam

8 Leynsu Angam 24 Cula Angam

9 Tadicara Angam 25 Sunaka Angam

10 Choragata Angam 26 Taruka Angam

11 Reeri Angam 27 Yakse Angam

12 Hanuma Angam 28 Wata Angam

138 Heywa Yakse Angam 29 Curumbera Angam

14 Hena Rawana Angam 30 Raja Angam _

15 Maha Sohon Angam 31 Dewa Angam

16 Muduhiru Angam 32 Neela Angam

These Angams are made use of in the following manner, After

the jeewama, the substance subjected to that ceremony, whether

it be a flower, a thread, an image, a stick, a handkerchief, a finger

ring, or a young cocoanut leaflet, is sometimes (1) buried in the

ground at some place, which the intended victim may happen to

80 ANGAM CHARMS.

“pass over” as in Hooniyan ; or (2) the operator may keep it in

his hand and blow upon it, so as to make the breath fall upon

him, or (8) he may touch his person with it still holding it in,

his hand, or (4) he may throw it into his face, or (8) he may

fan him with it, or (6) he may make him touch it, or (7) he may

leave it at some particular place, where he cannot but take it when

he sees it, or (8) he may stretch out his hand towards him, or (9) he

may keep it in his hand, and only look at his face ; which of these is

to be done, depends upon the nature of the particular Angam. In

almost all these cases, the victim is supposed to fall down suddenly

in a state of insensibility and to bleed, profusely from the nose and

mouth, and, if remedies are not applied within seven hours, death is

said to be the result. )

Udatringey Angam (No. 1 in the List,) is to be used against a

man who happens to be standing on any thing higher than the

ground, as for instance on a tree, for it is supposed that none of

the other Angams can produce any effect on him, so long as he

does not touch the ground with his feet. It is also thought that

those sailing on water can be affected only by this, but on this point

the scientific in these matters do not seem to be agreed.

In the next, No. 2, the charm is pronounced over the right hand’

which then, being extended towards any one, is supposed to make

him fall, bleeding from his nose and mouth, and death ensues at

the end of seven hours. |

In No. 3, a quantity of Rat Mal flowers, over which the charm

has been duly pronounced at the Jeewama, are rolled up with

tobacco intoa cigar, which is smoked, so as to let the smoke be

blown by the wind towards another. The same consequences follow

as in the lst, ;

In No. 4, an Ola being charmed is rolled up in the form of a

Talpotta or native Ola letter, * and is sent to the party marked

* Talpotta is the leaf of the Palmyra, as Talapotia is of the Talipot. The

leaf of the Palmyra was, a few years back, the “ Note” and “ Letter” paper of

the Natives; and it is still so generally throughout the Island, The leaf of the

Talipot is seldom used for this purpose, but is reserved for making books.

ANGAM CHARMS, 8]

for destruction, who, on breaking open or rather unloosing the bands

of what appears to him to be a letter, falls down senseless.

If a man however be fortified by charms against Angams and

other agents of demoniac power, he can be affected only by the Angam

ealled Neecha Cula Angam, (No. 5), which can break through all

such defences, and affect the man as easily as if he had never been

protected by any charms whatever.

If you tell a Cattadiya that his science of charms is nothing but

an absurd ridiculous fiction, calculated to delude only the most

ignorant and credulous; that it can do nothing to those who do not

believe in it, and if you ask him why it can not injure an English-

man, although the latter courts and challenges a trial, he will tell

you, if you are a Singhalese, (but if you are an Englishman, he

will give you a very different reason), that, though a demon revels

in blood and human carcasses, yet he possesses certain ideas of

cleanliness and decency, and that therefore he is unwilling to affect

with his influence an Englishman, who does not cleanse his person

with water after the discharge of the bodily functions; he will tell

you indeed that there is one low filthy demon, who, being indiffer-

ent to dirt, does influence even an Englishman, when forced to it

by the charm called Rodi Angam, (No. 6); but that in the Jee-

waa of this Angam, a green leaf of the Alu Kesel* plantain tree,

used by a Hodia (a man of the lowest caste in the Island) to put

his meals on, is necessary; and that it is extremely difficult to get

this, as no Rodia will leave it behind him after he has taken his

meals on it, and will not part with it to any but one of his own

caste.

If sticks or clubs, submitted to the Jeewama of Tadicara Angam

(No. 9), are left on roads and other places frequented by people, any

person passing by and seeing them will be irresistibly compelled to

take them up, and use them in assaulting every one he may happen

to see, and at last turn them against himself.

* Alu Kesel literally means Ash Plantain ; it is so called from its fruit being

covered with something similar to ashes.

eeptable to thee. Take him immediately. Throw him down.

82 ANGAM CHARMS.

The following is the charm Meela Angam (No. 32):—

“Oh Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, may you be adored! Oh de-

mon of blood, receive this human sacrifice, which I make to thee.

Accept it instantly. Look at it with thy thousand eyes. Oh

Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, may you beadored! Stop ye, Pilliran

and Neeliran. Wissamonny’s power is great. There is not ade-

mon, who does not feel his power. Stop thou, Caluga Pullay! 4

Vishnu is great. His authority prevails over all demons. Stop “3

thou, Hlendri Dewi! Stop ye all! Imake this sacrifice to you. q

I dedicate this human being to you. Blood of a delicious taste, a

heart, lungs, liver, and. marrow, all delicious, are yours. I deliver — :

him to you, Take charge of him. He is yours. Thou, Reeri

Yaksanee, look at him instantly, and take him as an offering ac-

Oh Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, adoration be to you! The powers — q

which originated from queen Yasodara, and the powers belonging — 4

to Vishnu, as they now prevail at the temple of the Cannibal de- q

mons, and who once destroyed the prince Wisamatoma— by these

powers I deliver this being to thy charge, Oh Siddhi Maha Sohon 7

dewatawa, and to thy charge, thou son of Gajacumbacari. By

those powers I command, that he, who crosses this stile before my q

return hither, be taken charge of by Billey Gopolu Yaksanee, Let |

the dewatawa [Maha Sohona] take charge of him, as his. Let

Billey dewatawa of the South take charge of him, as his. Let Dalla %

Seyna, chief of demons, take charge of him, as his. Take him.

Thou Siddhi Maha Schon dewatawa, look at him and take him.

Throw him down, Throw him. Doit. Let this be so.” q

The Jeewama, of the above—“ Make a Mal Bulat Tatuwa on a 4

grave, or at a place where three paths meet, and put on it some

sandal wood dissolved in water, a few Rat Mal, Idda Mal, and :

‘

* The difference between a Mal Bulat Tatuwa and a Pidyani Tatuwa is, that

on the former rice and other eatables are not offered, while on the latter they

are, with or without flowers and perfumes. a

ANGAM CHARMS. 80

and the fang of a Cobra de Capello, each in separate leaves, toge-

ther with a young king cocoanut cut open at one end without

spilling its water. Then surround the whole with a Kan-ya Noo!

thread, so as to include within the ring the Mal Bulat Tatuwa,

Pidayni Tatuwa, and yourself. Lie down on your back with you

head towards the north. Place one of the Tatus on your right and

the other on your left, and the fire pot and resin near your right

foot. Repeat then the charm 108 times, each time smoking the

two Tatus with the resin. Do this during the midnight Yama of

a Sunday. After this, put the sandal wood powder carefully into

a little box, and pronouncing over it the charm three times, shut

the lid with your right hand, while you support the box on the

back of your left hand. Then take this away, and rub some of the

sandal powder on any of the cross sticks of the fence stile with the

middle finger of your right hand; every one, who attempts to get

over that stile during the first seven hours, commencing from the

time you first rubbed the sandal on it, will fall down senseless and

bleeding, and, if not cured immediately, will die in seven hours.”

Angams and Wedding processions are so intimately connected

with each other in the mind of a Singhalese, that, if a bridegroom or

his bride happen to feel a little unwell while on their way to be

married, it will most probably be attributed toan Angam. During

these processions, that is, when the bridegroom oes to the ho

of the bride, or when he returns to his own accompanied by her

and all their relatives, it sometimes happens, that either he or she,

hieh

and sometimes both, get hysterical and fall into swoons which lass

about a quarter of an hour. ‘This is most probably owing to their

having, for the best part of the day, been obliged to remain over-

loaded with an amount of clothing,* to which they (especially the

* The ordinary dress of a man of the middle classes consists only of a Saron

or four yards of white cloth, wrapped round his person so as to cover it from

the waist to a little below the knee. When a man has occasion to go beyond

the precincts of his village, this dress is a little improved upon; he puts on a

jacket and sometimes a shirt and wears sandals on his feet, he adorns his head

too with a large comb, which is worn in different fashions by different castes.

84. ANGAM CHARMS.

man) had never been accustomed; combined with the heat, noise,

excitement, and their own consciousness of being for the time the

“ observed of all observers.” Hysterics or any sudden sickness on

such occasions is always attributed to an Angam caused by some

unfriendly person among the company. ‘The Cattadiya, who often

forms one of the company to be ready on such an emergency to

render his services, does his part on such an occasion, and of course

the patient generally recovers under his management, as much to

the glory and honour of the profession as to his own personal bene-

fit. I recollect several instances of this kind, which have occurred

in my own presence, among others, the following :—

About 19 years ago, when I was a lad of 15, I was on my way

to school with three or four school fellows, when we heard the

usual accompaniment of a Wedding Procession, viz., the sound of

drums and of brass cymbals, mingled with the loud voices of three

or four singing men all chanting together in a sort of chorus. We

all stopped to see the procession, which was slowly moving on

towards us at some distance in our rear; and as their way lay in

the same direction and on the same road as ours, we gladly kept

them company, keeping as near as possible to the tom-tom players

and the dancing boys, who interested us much more than anybody

else in the procession, the bride and bridegroom included. Imme-

diately behind us were some 10 or 15 people, and next to them

came the bridegroom. He was dressed, as is usual on such an

occasion, in the style of a Modliar, and was attended on his right

and left by his two “friends,” men nearly of the same stature and

dressed in the same style as* himself. Then came some more

people, and behind them the bride and another woman in a bullock

hackery. Scarcely ten minutes had elapsed from the time we

joined them, when we heard the cry apoyi (alas), the usual expres-

sion of distress. I turned round, and saw the bridegroom with

closed eyes and drops of perspiration pouring down his face in the

* Instead of men of the same height as the bridegroom sometimes two little

boys are substituted, which custom however prevails only in and near the

larger towns.

ANGAM CHARMS, Sa

ont

arms of three or four people, who were supporting him from falling

down, and apparently senseless. His great velvet coat was now

removed, and the shirt collar opened to give him the benefit of air.

In another moment a man was seen pronouncing in an inaudible

voice (the motion of the lips alone could be seen) his charms, first

over a lock of hair of the sick man, which he formed into a knot

after his mutterings were concluded, and then over a cup of water.

In 5 or 6 minutes more, some of the charmed water was sprinkled

over the man’s face, and some poured down his throat. He almost

immediately recovered, and the procession again moved on. When

the incantations were over, I heard the Cattadiya say, with an air

of confidence and triumph. “Now, don’t fear, he will be all right

soon,” and sure enough he was, which even then, young as I was,

I thought was more owing to the refreshing coolness of the water

he drank, than to any supernatural virtues imparted to it by the

incantations. Several members of the procession, especially the

nearest relatives of the bridegroom, gave vent to their feelings of

resentment in dark, mysterious hints, expressed in obscure and

sententious language, such as “‘ Very well” with a peculiar shake

of the head, ‘‘ Well, let us see,” “ You can see,” “ We are also still

living,” and other similar expressions, quite intelligible to a Sin-

ghalese, and which boded no good to the culprit, who had brought

this Angam on the bridegroom.

We can adduce instances like this in great numbers; but the

above will suffice to give an idea of a Wedding procession afflicted

by what is supposed to be an Angam charm.

In 99 eases out of a hundred, it is the bride, and not the bride-

groom, who displays these symptoms of what is supposed to be

Angam influence.

Whether a Cattadiya forms one of the procession or not, certain

precautions are always taken against the bridegroom or the bride

falling under the influence of an Angam. ‘These precautions con-

sist In pronouncing charms over one end of the handkerchief which

they carry in their hands, and then tying up that end into a knot.

Sometimes other amulets called Yantra are worn about their persons.

56 ANGAM CHARMS.

There are three other kinds of charms, called respectively Ka-

LAN, CULAMBU, and SERRA, intended for the same purpose, and

used nearly in the same manner as Angams, but slightly differing

from them in certain respects. This difference is said to consist

in this, viz., that, while Angams can only affect men, Kalang, Cu-

lambu, and Serra are powerful enough to afiect demons too, al-

hough in their case death does not result, as in the case of men.

These are said to be used sometimes in cases of demoniac possession,

when it is found difficult to exorcise the demon by ordinary charms.

The exact number of these has not been ascertained. We give

below the names of some of them,

Calang.

4. Pattini Calang

5. Dewol Calang

1. Vishnu Calang

2. Canda Cumara Calang

3. Dedimunda Calang | 6. Narapura Calang.

Culambu.

1. Vishnu Culambu 4, Pattini Culambu

2. Canda Cumara Culambu 5. Dewol Culambu

3. Dedi Munda Culambu i

| Serra.

1. Vishnu Serra 4, Pattini Serra

2. Canda Cumara Serra 5. Dewol Serra

3. Dedi Munda Serra ; 6. Wayissrawana Serra,

The Jeewama of these three classes of charms is supposed to be

attended with greater danger to those engaged in it, than of any

other class of charms yet mentioned, and it is pretended that on

that account they are seldom or never resorted to.

Pitti CHARMS.

We now come to that, which is considered to be the highest and

most important class of charms, which is said to exhibit the extra-

ordinary powers of the art of Sorcery in the most unequivocal

manner. Wemean Pilli. In the case of the other classes of

PILLI CHARMS. 87

charms already noticed, although the effects produced by them are

brought about by demons, yet these demons themselves, never

appear visibly to men even in disguise, except at the Jeewama

ceremony of some of them. But the Pilli charms are considered

to be so singularly powerful, that the demons assume some visible

shape, while executing the duty assigned them by the charm. Be-

sides, the effects of a Pilli charm are said to be instantaneous,

almost simultaneous with the conclusion of the Jeewama. In the

ease of Elooniyan (a very few excepted), several months may

elapse before the charm begins to take effect, and even then it takes

a considerable time to bring the man to his grave. In Angams

there is an interval of seven hours between the moment of death

and the time, when the charm first takes effect. But in Pilli, death

is the only effect, and that almost simultaneous with the Jeewama.

Again, both in Hooniyans and Angams, even after they have taken

effect, there is still a chance of a cure at any time before the man

breathes his last; but the moment a Pilli charm takes effect, there is

an end of every hope of escape, even though the actual moment of

death may be an hour or two later, Ifa man however bea sorcerer

himself, and, before the charm has taken effect on him, is able to

ascertain that a Pilliis directed against him, he can, if he is ac-

quainted with the necessary counter charms, ward off the danger,

provided he immediately does what is necessary. There areeighteen

different Pillis, of which Cumara Pilliis the most popular. We give

below the names of these 18. They are as follows:—

teers Pilli- 10. Maha Sohon Pill

2. Naga Piili 11. Oddi Pilli

3. Cumara Pilli 12. Debara Pilli

4, Coli Pilh 138. Bambara Pilli

5. Kan-ya Pilli 14, Widiga Pilli

6. Kana Mediri Pilli 15. Singha Pilli

7, Garunda Pilli 16, Gaja Pilly”

8. Curumini Pilli 17. Gini Pilli

9, Mala Pilli . 18. Neecha Cula Pilli.

88 PILLI CHARMS.

In each of these a particular demon is supposed to go to the in-

tended victim, disguised in some particular form. In the first he

is said to disguise himself as a fair looking young man; in the

second, as a Cobra de Capello; in the third, asa boy; in the fourth,

as a hen; in the fifth, as a little girl; in the sixth, as a firefly; in

the seventh, as a peacock; in the eighth, as a beetle; in the ninth,

as an old man; in the tenth, as a wild hog; in the eleventh, as an

old woman; in the twelfth, as ahornet; in the thirteenth, as a bee;

in the fourteenth, as a Malabar man; in the fifteenth, as a lion;

in the sixteenth, as an elephant; in the seventeenth, as a ball of fire :

and in the eighteenth, as a dog. |

Soon after the approach of the demon, the man is said saadeut

to drop down dead, or to vomit blood first and die immediately

afterwards. In some Pillis the demon uses violence, and either

stabs the man, or strangles him to death. In the preparation of

Cumara Pilli, the corpse of a male infant, the firstborn of his mother, —

is essential. This is first submitted to a sort of embalming process,

and then having been dried by the heat of a fire made with sandal

and Pas Pengiri wood, is locked up in a box made of Cohomba or

Banyan wood, and placed in some spot unfrequented by women, so

as to be safe from the pollution of Azli or Uncleanness.* At the

Jeéwama, two knives are placed in its right and left hands, and

the charm is then pronounced over ii, during the three Yamas of

a Sunday, on a grave not more than three days old. Of course,

offerings are made to the demons, as usual. It is supposed that

* The Uncleanness, or as itis called in Singhalese K7h, is a sort of imaginary

pollution anxiously avoided in every thing relating to Demon Worship.

The principal occasions or causes of uncleanness are the death of a human

being, the menstrual discharge in women, the flesh of certain animals such as

pigs, peacocks, monkeys, and the fishes Magura and Ingura, and the birth of a

child. In the case of death, the uncleanness is supposed to last for three —

months together ; and it extends its mysterious influence not only in and near

the dead body or the house where the man died, but to a distance of “seven

gardens” [about a } or 3 of a mile] from that house. The uncleanness arising

from death is the most malignant, and is supposed to come upon a person, even

when he passes by the house of a deceased person. The principal consequence

PILLI CHARMS. 89

demons then come in great numbers to the scene, endeavouring in

every possible manner to frighten away the men, who however

take care before the commencement of the ceremony to fortify

themselves by charms and other amulets against these attacks.

When the charm is perfected, the mummy becomes animated, and

stands up. ‘Then, certain other charms being pronounced over it,

the name of the intended victim written on an ola is tied round its

neck or its wrist; it then flies through the air like lightning to the

man, who is to be destroyed. If the latter happen to be himself a

man well learned in charms of this description, and if he recognize

the disguised demon instantly, he will be able by means of certain

other charms to send back the demon, who, when so sent, will and

must kill the person, who first roused him at the Jeewama, no

charm nor amulet of any kind being of any avail against him on

this occasion. But if the former fail to pronounce his charm, either

from not knowing one, or through fright, or from not suspecting a

Pilli demon in the animal before him, it will be all over with him

in a short time, no charms or any other demon ceremonies what-

ever helping him in the least, after the Pilli has once taken effect,

that effect being generally immediate death.

If you ask a Cattadiya or any other Singhalese, who is at all

conversant with these matters, whether these Pilli charms are ac-

tually put in practice now, and whether they are really followed

by the wonderful results ascribed to them, he will first consider

you, ifa Singhalese, to be a fellow spoiled by contamination with

Englishmen or by your English education, and then tell you that

of exposing oneself to the influence of this Uncleanness, is sickness, and in the

case of a man, who is already suffering from some sickness, the consequence

will be to aggravate the disease. A man bitten by a mad dog, if exposed

accidentally to this influence within three months, is supposed to get hydropho-

_ bia, and die most miserably. Hence this Uncleanness is greatly dreaded by the

| people, and none but the very nearest relatives will enter the garden of a house

_ in which a person has died, the more distant relatives remaining outside the

| garden fence, ©

90 PILLI CHARMS.

at present the science is on the decline, that now there are few or

none skilful enough to be able to perform those charms without

danger to themselves, and that therefore instances of Pilli charms

successfully performed in these degenerate days, are not so general

as those of Hooniyan charms, but that the science itself is as true,

as that Buddha was the greatest being that ever was born in the

world. He will confirm this statement by regaling you with a

hundred anecdotes, how such and such a Pilli had succeeded at

such and such a place, with all the interesting particulars connected

with them. Ifyou shew any symptoms of scepticism about the

accuracy of his marvellous accounts, he will endeavour to remove

all your doubts and scruples, by giving you the benefit of his own

experience of a certain Pilli charm, which actually killed, or was

very nearly killing, an acquaintance or relative of his.

The following is an anecdote of this kind, which we give in the

words of the narrator :—

“Well, Sir,” said he, “ you must freely pardon me, when I tell

you that young men—I beg your pardon again and again, Sir, for

saying so—know very little about these matters. You think—

pray, don’t be angry with me for saying so—that all that is great

and wonderful is peculiar to the European. You have been taught

to read English books and to imbibe from them notions, which

militate both against the faith of our forefathers, and against the

illustrious sciences they cultivated. This unnatural conduct has

in some instances been pursued so far, as even to make some of |

our young men cut their hair and putontrowsers. Long hair and

the Condey,* which have so long been the pride and honourable

badges of our nation, are now despised by some of these young

men, as if they were marks of degradation. Instead of combs, they

now wear English Piriwehi} oa their heads. But alas! there is

* Condey is the hair tied up into a knot behind the head.

1 Piriwehi is a basket made of cocoanut leaflets for some temporary purpose,

and if is sometimes used derisively as a contemptuous nickname for a cap or

hat.

PILLI CHARMS. 91

no help, no remedy for all this. Well, Sir, you speak of the omni-

potence of English science as being able to send news by an iron

rod thousands of miles in a few minutes, to make carriages loaded

with 70 or 100 cart-loads of goods move at the rate of 30 or 40

miles an hour merely by the agency of fire and smoke, without the

help of bullocks or horses. You speak of English medicine as

being superior to our medicine. But do you know, Sir, that none

of these sciences or arts originally belonged to the Englishman

himself. They all belonged formerly to Brahmins, and the English

or some other Europeans have somehow er other met with their

books; and, because they are men of sense and thought, they have

been able to apply the rules laid down in those books to something

practical, by which they may advance their interests. ‘The Brah-

mins may not perhaps have those books with them now; but even

if they have, they neither possess the opportunities, nor the means,

nor even the energy and grasp of mind, necessary to derive any

practical benefit from them, like the English.” He went on in this

manner for a full hour, and then continued, ‘“To remove then every

doubt from your mind respecting Pilli, [ will tell you what hap-

pened once under my own eye. One day about 25 years ago, my

eldest brother had a quarrel about some charm-books with a native

of the Matura district, who was then a guest at the house of a

neighbour. Of course, after the quarrel, which was confined only

to words, we thought no more of it. About 12 o’clock the follow-

ing night, there came into the Verandah of my brother’s house,

where I happened to be that night, a hen with a large brood of

chickens. I was awake, though my brother was fast asleep. Of

course to my mind there was nothing extraordinary in the matter,

but the next moment my brother awoke, exclaiming in a very loud

voice ‘Chee! Chee,!’ and then told me in* a hurried manner to

bring him a few grains of rice. Though I was surprised both by

his exclamation and by his excited manner, I obeyed and immedi-

* Chee is an Interjection expressive of disgust or contempt, and is nearly

equivalent to the English Pshaw,

92 PILLL CHARMS.

ately brought him a handful of rice from a Chatty* in the kitchen

opposite, wondering all the while what my brother was going to do.

He took the rice into his hand, and muttering a charm over it

threw it to the hen, which during this time, which was not more

than 4 or 5 minutes altogether, was moving round and round my

prother’s bed. The hen first fluttered its wings, and then very

quickly picked up the grains and went away, all the while croak-

ing and cackling in a peculiar way, My brother then shewed me

a small piece of flesh looking like the heart of a fowl, still dripping

with blood, which, he said, fell on his breast and roused him from

sleep; this was the Coli Pilli (No. 4 in the list); and he congra-

tulated himself on his narrow escape, and on his success in turning

back the Pilli to the very man, who had sent it to him. Well,

Sir, the next morning we heard that the Matura man had died

during the night, Well, now, what say you to that?’ Knowing

very well that the greatest miracle, that could be performed in

these modern times, would be to convince by reasoning an un-

educated old Singhalese of the absurdity of any of his opinions, we

contented ourselves with quietly remarking, “that it appeared to

us, that, without the agency of a Pilli or any other charm, it was

_ quite possible that a hen and its chickens should come into an open

Verandah, also carrying with it a piece of flesh picked up some-

where; that it was equally possible that the hen should, while

moving about the bed, drop the piece of flesh on the man sleeping

on it; and that it was not at all miraculous that a neighbour, with

whom your br other may have had a quarrel lately, should die by

some natural means the same night.” On this, the old man looked

daggers at us, but suppressing his rage he replied, “but I was

wide awake, and saw the hen from the first moment she came into

the Verandah to the moment of her leaving it, and during all that

time I did not see her getting on the bed or dropping a piece cf

flesh on my brother’s person.” ‘Could not the hen have come

* Chatty is the name given to any earthen vena) of a moderate size usedas

cooking utensil,

PILLI CHARMS. 93

into the Verandah,” said we, “‘sometime before you awoke, and

have left the flesh on your brother’s person without either of you

being aware of it at the time; and could not the hen then have

returned to the Verandah a second time, the time that you say you

saw her coming in.” ‘“‘ Nonsense, that was not possible,” said he,

“for the moment the piece of flesh fell on my brother’s person, he

called out, as I said before; and it was the fall of the lump of flesh

that roused him. Sir, Iam sorry you should thus cavil at things

which our forefathers believed, and which we old folks have our-

selves found to be as true now, as they were in the days of the

Irshis.” The old man seemed very excited, and the more untena-

ble any of his areuments appeared even to himself, the more dog-

matic and wrathful he got. When any of his statements or argu-

ments appeared to admit of explanation on ordinary reasonable

grounds, he was sure to oppose it by advancing a fact or two, for

which, we are quite sure, he was more beholden to his imagination

and invention than to his memory. This old man is a respectable

man in his own way, has had all the advantages of education ac-

cording to the native system, and is a type of a large class of the

Singhalese. What those say or think, who are still less enlighten-

ed, and who have not had the same ‘‘ advantages of education,” the

reader may easily imagine.

During a previous part of our conversation on the same subject,

he told us another anecdote of the same kind, which he had heard

from a “trustworthy” person. “Some 25 or 30 years ago,” said

he, “there was a man named Abileenu, a boutique-keeper in the

town of Kandy. Among other things exposed for sale in his

boutique, there were some green Aanamalz plantains.* Another

man named Bayi Appoo came to this boutique one day, and wish-

* Aanamalu isa kind of plantain very common in Ceylon ; the fruit is lon-

ger than in any other species, and is used by the Singhalese in curries. All

other kinds of plantain, when quite ripe, acquire a reddish colour, especially in

their outer coverings, but Aanamalu alone always retains, even when ripe, the

same green colour, that it had before it had become ripe.

94 PILLI CHARMS.

ing to buy some of the plantains enquired their price; on being

told that eight were sold for a pzce,* he offered to buy twelve for a

pice, which so irritated Abileenu, that he abused the other in very

indecent language, using among other expressions this—‘send

your mother to me with a bag to fetch plantains at twelve for a

pice.’ Well, Bayi Appoo, who had only done what any other man

would have done when he wanted to buy any article from a bou-

tique, was very much provoked by this language, which he had not

deserved; therefore when he heard the expression “Send your

mother to me with a bag to fetch plantains at twelve for a pice,”

he rushed towards the other intending to box his ears, but suddenly

checking himself he replied ‘‘very well, then I will send her to you

to-night,” and he went away. ‘That night about 12 o’clock there

came to Abileenu’s boutique an old gray-haired woman. How she

got in after the doors had been fast locked, was more than Abileenu’s

people could say. But there she was, sitting on a bag and looking

steadfastly with glowing fiery eyes at the sleeping Abileenu. In

a very short time Abileenu was heard to utter a loud, shrill scream,

and the next morning after daylight when the other people of the

boutique looked at Abileenu, they found him a cold corpse. One

of these. boutique people himself told me all this.”

About eight years ago, the death of a young woman from the

bite of a Cobra in a village not far from Caltura was attributed to

a Pilli; to prove that it was so, her relatives argued that, although

death may follow the bite of a Cobra without there being any Pilli

in the matter, yet in this particular instance the snake, which

could have bitten many other people who were more in its way,

purposely avoided them all; and that, although many attempted to

drive it away from the neighbourhood of the house, yet it did not

only not leave the premises, but ran through the midst of the other

people, until it approached the young woman, and fastened its fatal

fangs in her.

* A pice is three-eighths of a penny.

PILLI CHARMS. 95

‘Some five or six years ago, a man was killed by a wild hog,

while he was sitting near his own door in a distant part of Hewa-

gam Corle; and because this happened in broad daylight at his own

house, it was attributed to a Pilli caused by an enemy with the

assistance of some Cattadiya.

JEEWANG, BANDENA, AND Drnena CHARMs.

JBEWANG is the name of a particular class of charms, whose ob-

ject is to “‘bind” any demon in acertain manner to the will of aman,

so as to make him an obedient slave to the latter, whether he wishes

him to inflict sickness or to perform ordinary domestic work. In

all other charms a demon has only to execute a particular duty

on one particular occasion or during a certain length of time, and,

when that is done, he is free; but in Jeewang Charms the demon

becomes a perpetual slave, and ceases to be a free agent, as far as

the man, who has bound him, is concerned. The following are

the names of a few of these charms :—

I. Aacora Jeewama 6. Saraspatee Jeewama

2. Mohanee Jeewama 7. Aananda Bahirawa Jeewama

3. Irala Jeewama 8. Maha Bahirawa Jeewama

4, Oddiya Jeewama 9. Patthracali Jeewama

5. Bahirawa Jeewama 10. Hanuma Jeewama

A demon, who is under the influence of these charms, is supposed

to be always in the company of the man, never being able to leave

him for a moment, or to disobey him in any thing, until the death

of the latter dissolve the bond. He travels with the man, sits

wherever he sits, waits near his bed when he sleeps, and is his con-

stant companion. He doesevery thing his master commands, whe-

ther it be the infliction of death, or drawing water from wells, or

repairing the garden fence, or removing heavy stones which had

resisted the united exertions of hundreds of men, or felling large

trees, or doing any thing else desired by his master. A man, who

96 JEEWANG, BANDENA

has a demon under his control in this manner, is therefore supposed

to be a dangerous neighbour, for his power is considered to be such,

that, even when he speaks to or looks at another angrily, the latter

is supposed to fall sick. Such a man is supposed to have a very

disagreeable exterior, seldom combing his hair or washing his per-

son, and looking generally sulky and stern; ungracious in his man-

ner, soon put out of temper, and avoiding pork and other things

considered to be unclean. He is also scrupulous in avoiding houses

or other places contaminated by any Uncleanness.

This sort of close connection with a demon is however considered

to be very dangerous,in as much as the demon, though paying an

unwilling and forced obedience to the man, is yet always watching

for an opportunity of destroying him, and of cbtaining his own

release. Such opportunities, it is said, he will easily meet with,

unless the man be always on his guard, by fortifying himself with

those means of defence which other charms afford, and by living

agreeably to certain rules laid down for those who retain demons

in their service. Hence these charms are never tried in these days,

although many men in bye-gone times are said to have used them

successfully. If you challenge a Singhalese to prove any of the

absurd things he so confidently relates, and which, if true, must

from their very nature be susceptible of proof, he will always ap-

peal to the experience of the past ages, and declare that, 30 or 46

years ago, there were many men well skilled in these difficult and

important classes of charms. |

In the second class of charms, namely those intended to cure

diseases, or to secure one from falling sick from the influence of

demons and charms, there is a great variety, of which the principal

are BanpenA and DenHena. Bandena is a term, which simply

means “binding” or a “bond,” and although many of the Hooniyan

and other charms are also sometimes called by the same name, yet

it properly belongs only to those, by which diseases brought on by

demons are cured. The number of these charms is very great,

and we give below the names of a few:—

AND DEHENA CHARMS. 97

1. Maha Seyiyadu Bandena | 13. Cal-lu Bandena

2. DemallaSeyiyadu Bandena| 14, Agni Rama Serra Bandena

3. Raja Gingili Bandena 15. Mahammadu Bandena

4, Demalla Gingili Bandena | 16. Seyiyadu Bandena

5. Cadiramala Bandena 17. Subu Cama Bandena

6. Lanka Bandena 18, Garukee Bandena

7. Wahalla Bandena 19. Brahma Bandena

8. Canda Cumara Bandena 20. Wilocha Bandena

9. Maha Dewa Bandena 21. Mulu Sanni Bandena

10. Hanuma Bandena 22. Dewa Sanni Bandena

11. Seema Bandena 23. Rawura Rama Bandena

12. Rooban Cala Bandena

]

DEHENAS are less powerful than Bandenas, but are still more

numerous than either the Bandenas or any other class of Charms.

They are made use of in curing slight diseases, and in removing

in time any Tanicama influence from a man. Each Dehena con-

sists of seven classes or divisions. The following are the names

of a few of these charms.

Attrottra Dehena

Randaney Dehena

Visnu Dehena

Hena Wali Dehena

1. Diagat Dehena

2. Ginigat Dehena

3. Sunakat Dehena

4, Canda Cumara Dehena

When you try to convince 2 Demon-worshipper of the absurdity

of his belief in charms and other Demon Ceremonies, the greatest

difficulty you meet. with is not so much any captious or cavilling

arguments in defence of his faith and practice, as two other insu-

perable obstacles, which render all your arguments perfectly use-

less. One is a sort of mental apathy, an unenquiring, contented,

and lethargic state of mind, satisfied with what is, and incurious

or indifferent to learn any thing new—a state of mind, in which

the man sometimes mechanically acquiesces in all that you say,

and admits the force and truth of your arguments, without however

his reason being at all convinced or his feelings affected. The

98 JEEWANG BANDENA

other obstacle is, if possible, still more insurmountable, in as much

as when you think you have nearly convinced him, and that you

are in a fair way of converting’ him to the side of reason and truth,

you are at once stopped by an argument, which he throws in your

face, and which certainly you cannot answer,—an appeal to his

own experience of what he has “seen with his own eyes,” and

what he is certain cannot be otherwise than as he thinks itis. He

will tell you at the conclusion of your lecture, “ Sir, all this may

be true, indeed very true, but for what I have seen with these

eyes of mine.” If you ask him what those things may be which

he has seen with “his own eyes,” he will mention to you several

instances of men, women, and children cured of sundry dangerous

diseases by means of Charms and Demon Ceremonies, or of others

who were suddenly struck down with disease by demon influence,

and whom no medicine could cure until the Cattadiya performed a

certain ceremony. Ifyou try to argue with him on the possibility

of any of these things happening ia the ordinary course of nature

without the agency of any demon or charm, he will give you his —

reasons against such a belief. He will say “Oh TI have seen it

with these two eyes of mine, and I know very well that it is so.

It can’t be otherwise. If my eyes and ears do not deceive me in

other things of my daily life, why should they do so in this.

Chance cannot do these things, nor the ordinary course of nature.

If demons and demon-sickness, and demon-ceremonies be mere

fictions, I should be more glad of it than you, because it would save

my poor earnings for other purposes; but that they are not fictions,

I have often found to my cost. Only the other day Sanchy Hamy,

Tamby Appoo’s wife, fell sick; and who cured her? To be sure,

the Cattadiya, And why didn’t Juanis Wederalla (physician) cure

her, although he exhausted all his skill and art during four or five

weeks? Abanchy Appoo practised Hooniyan spells on my uncle

last year; and my uncle fell sick about 5 months afterwards.

Could the Wederalla cure him? Did he cure him? Or, did any —

other demon ceremony cure him until the proper one, namely —

Hooniyan Kepeema, was performed. Didn’t my uncle get better —

AND DEHENA CHARMS. 99

immediately after this ceremony? Didn’t Abanchy Appoo himself

tell us afterwards that he had practised Hooniyan spells on my

uncle?” The more you reason with him, the more unanswerable

does he become, in as much as he believes in “ his own eyes,” “ his

own ears,” and “his own judgment,’ much more than he can do

in yours. Really, credulity and its parent, ignorance, are demons

too powerful to be overcome by the mere charm of reason unassisted

‘by the Jeewama of education.

Another difficulty, is a sort of simulating hypocrisy, which a

demon worshipper assumes before you, if you are an Englishman.

He agrees with all that you say, and condemns the system of

demon-worship as a ridiculous absurdity, and while you are con-

gratulating yourself in the idea that you have succeeded in con-

vincing a couple of honest, sensible men of the propriety of abjuring

demon-worship, they go away laughing at your own ignorance and

simplicity, and at the same time charitably pitying you for being

a Christian, for they are sure that, the moment you leave this

world, you will go to the worst of all hells, the Lokanantarika

Narakaya.

100

CHAPTER VI.

DEMON POSSESSION.

Where the belief in demoniac agency, even in matters of a trivial

character, is so intense and universal, such a thing as demon _pos-

session, which was believed in even in more civilized countries till

very lately, cannot be expected to be unknown. Hence, we believe,

no Englishman will be surprised, when we say that there is scarcely

a single village in the Island, in which there are not to be found

at least half a dozen women, who are subject, at different intervals

and during a considerable portion of their lives, to this influence,

which, if it once comes upon a woman, will, it is said, last through

the whole of her life, displaying itself now and then in active

operation according to circumstances, unless removed by suitable

means. These circumstances are generally the presence of the

woman at the performance of any demon ceremony, or in the im-

mediate neighbourhood of one, though performed at another’s house;

or if she happens to roast eggs, or meat, or to eat them roasted; or

if she passes by a grave, not more than a day old, on a Saturday or

Wednesday; or if she is present at the ceremony of reciting certain

sermons of Buddha against demons called Pirit, especially of the

last portion of these called Aatanati Soottra, In the case of some

women, the demon influence is always ready to shew itself even on

less important occasions, as for instance when they make porrz; or

when they go abroad on a Saturday or a Wednesday, especially

during a Yama; or when they smell the smoke of Dummala resin;

or when they hear the sound of a Yak berray (a drum used in de-

mon ceremonies); and on other occasions équally trifling. Men are

very seldom subject to this influence, and even of women it is ge-

nerally the younger portion, who seem to have an attraction for

the demons. This influence sometimes shews itself suddenly with-

out there being any perceptible immediate cause for it.

The symptoms of demon possession vary at different times even

in the same woman. In some cases she begins by complaining of

DEMON POSSESSION, 10]

weakness and faintness, accompanied sometimes by a sort of invo-

luntary tremor in her limbs and shoulders. She then sinks into a

state of insensibility, as in a swoon, but continues ever and anon to

enash and grind her teeth, and now and then opens her eyes, and

looks at the bystanders with a fierce angry stare, rolling the eye-

balls so as to conceal the iris as much as possible, and to display

only the whites of the eyes. Some women do not fall into swoons

at all, but, get into a most excited state of frenzy, and shout and

how] in the most remarkable manner, the Hoo sound being the

most prominent, sometimes mentioning also the names of a demon

or two, and screaming out that the demon would not be satisfied,

unless an offering were made to him. Some attempt to run about.

Some rush into the Dancing Ring, if a demon ceremony is takine

place at the time, and wresting from the Cattadiya’s hands the

burning torch, dance away in the most violent manner. On these

occasions the Cattadiya performs his incantations over the woman.

and she recovers. If she is asked afterwards, whether she had any

consciousness of what she said and did during her “madness,” she

of course says that she had not. During the frenzy she sometimes,

but not often, uses very indecent language, although at all other

times in her life she has never been heard to use, even by way of

a joke among friends of her own sex, any expression unwarranted

by good manners and the rules of decency and morality.

There is one woman that we know, who is subject to ‘demon

possession” inapeculiar manner. Sheisa Pattint Hamy (priestess

of the goddess Pattini Dewiyo), and wife of a Capua (priest of

the gods.) Whenever this Capua happens to be engaged in any

ceremony peculiar to the worship of the gods, his wife the Pattini

Hamy, who is at home and at a distance from the scene of the cere-

mony, gets herself into this peculiar condition about 3 or 4 o'clock

in the morning, at which time the Capua is engaged in a particu-

larly important part of his ceremony. She does not shout nor

attempt to run away like many of those already mentioned, but

falls into a sort of partial swoon, during which, at short intervals

of time, she moves her head from side to side very rapidly, mutter-

102 DEMON POSSESSION,

ing at the same time, or seeming to mutter, something quite inau-

dible. In this state she continues for about a quarter of an hour,

and then falls into a sleep, which continues for nearly another

quarter of an hour.

In the removal of this influence from a woman, mere incantations

are supposed to be effectual no further, than in obtaining a momen-

tary cure only; but when such incantations do not succeed even so

far as this, a certain ceremony called Pralaye Kireema is performed.

This consists in repeating certain charms over the woman, or more

generally over asmall quantity of water which is afterwards sprink-

led over her; the immediate effect of this is to increase her frenzy

to such a degree, that she pants and foams at the mouth, throwing

her arms here and there ina most excited manner. ‘The Cattadiya

then speaks to her thus—“If it be true that demons must obey

king Wissamonny, if it be true that Wissamonny’s power is great;

if it be true that the authority of Wissamonny, of the gods, and of

Buddha still prevails in the world, then I command thee, demon,

in the name of Buddha, his priests, and his doctrines, to declare,

who thou art, and why thou afilictest this human creature in this

manner.” Upon this, the woman becomes, if possible, still more

frantic and “mad,” and mentions the name of some demon, suchas

Calu Yakseya or Reeri Yakseya, and adds, “I want an offering of

a human sacrifice; I will not leave her without having one.” ‘The

offering is then promised by the recitation of a charm, and the

Cattadiya having taken a little water in the palm of his hand, and

having pronounced a charm over it, throws it over her face, on

which she recovers in 5 or 6 minutes more. The promised offer-

ing—a cock being substituted for the human sacrific—is also given

by the performance of a certain appropriate demon ceremony in 3

or 4 weeks’ time or sometimes sooner. If, after this the woman

again shews symptoms of demon possession, the demon is “bound

and nailed” toatree. This business is performed thus—a nail &

made of Pas lo, having been submitted to the necessary Jeewama, — :

is driven into the trunk of a large living tree. A Kan-ya Nool —

thread, also charmed and subjected to the same Jeewama, coloured

DEMON POSSESSION. 103

yellow with saffron, and knotted during the Jeewama, is coiled

round the nail, the Cattadiya the whole time muttering charms.

The demon is supposed by this means to be “bound and nailed.”

Sometimes, instead of nailing the demon toa tree, he is ‘‘impri-

soned” in a small box made of lead, which is then thrown into the

sea orariver. If neither of these avail, the last resource is to go

to the temple called Gala Cappu Dewale at Alut Nuvera. What

takes place there we have already described in a previous chapter.

There the exorcism is supposed to be complete. But some women

even after this last exorcism, get a relapse which then is considered

to be incurable,

Demon possession is however not confined to Buddhists; women

of the Roman Catholic faith are equally subject to it. When a

Roman Catholic is suffering under demon possession, the exorcism

is performed by the Annevy, a native officer of the Roman Catho-

lic Church, or, if he fails by the Roman Catholic priest himself.

On these occasions the cross and the images of the Saints being

shewn to the woman, she is asked what they are. At this question

some women begin to tremble, and try to avoid looking at them.

By and bye by threats and prayers she is brought both to look at

them, and to acknowledge what they are. ‘The Lord’s Prayer and

the Prayer to the Virgin Mary are then read over her, each seven

times ; after this, the charm called Ratiu Mandiram, or binding

charm, is written on a piece of paper, which, having been folded

up into a small bundle and sprinkled with Holy Water, is suspended

from the neck of the woman ; and the same charm is again pro-

nounced over her. Some frankincense is then burnt and its smoke

held under her face. The Annevy then addresses her in nearly

these terms—‘“ Leave this woman and go thy way. I charge thee,

demon, in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost,

in the name of the Virgin Mary, and of all the Saints. Leave her

this instant, or thou shalt be punished severely.” Sometimes the

woman says, “No, I won’t leave her.” On one occasion about two

years ago, a woman, being asked during the exorcism why the de-

mon would not quit her, replied, “because she is the most beautiful

104 DEMON POSSESSION.

woman in the village.” At this stage of the business the woman is

struck across her back with the tail of a Skate fish, over which the

aforesaid Kattu mandiram charm had previously been pronounced ;

and if the demon still resist, the beating is repeated. After seven

or eight blows the demon is overpowered, and the woman regains

her senses.

It is said that with whatever strength of arm the fish tail or the

cane be used, it will leave no marks of blows on the woman’s back,

and that, even if there happen to be any, these will entirely dis-

appear in a few minutes, if the case be one of real demon possession.

As we ourselves however have never had the good fortune to ex-

amine the back of a lady after such an operation, we cannot give

the reader the benefit of our own evidence on the matter; we do é

indeed know one case, in which a very sensible husband, on seeing

his wife beginning to shew symptoms of demon possession, imme-

diately seized L/apota or the housebrush,* and with it gave her right 4

and left 20 or 30 smart blows, loudly exclaiming while doing so,

“Is there a greater demon here than myself? I will teach thee, de- — . |

mon, who Iam.” In this case we saw on her back the marks of

the blows as distinct and clear as possible. When we mentioned

this to some of the bystanders as contradicting the opinion, which

they all held on the subject, they told us, ‘Oh, but these will dis-

appear in a few minutes. We know it very well. We have al-

ways fouud it so. Indeed it cannot be otherwise, unless the lady

be shamming possession.” Some of the more ingenious but equally a

orthodox of the party remarked that the person, who inflicted the —__

* A large number of the strong, wiry midribs or central nerves of the leaflets

of a frond of cocoanut leaves, or of Areca leaves, being separated from the other __

parts of the leaflets, are tied up together into a bundle with a coir yarnat their

thicker ends, and this is called Z/apota. It is used in the native houses for

Sweeping the floor, which is always done by the women. Men may use other

sorts of brooms or brushes for the same purpose, but will never use this, as it =

is considered too low and mean a thing for a manto handle. The greatest

disgrace that one man can bring on another is to strike him with an Ilapota,

though it be but a gentle and single blow.

- Ae

DEMON POSSESSION, 105

_ blows in this case, being but an ordinary man and not a Capua, and

no charms or invocations being made to any demons ot gods for

assistance, the marks of the blows might or might not remain, with-

out in either case compromising the correctness of the doctrine.

The following is the charm Kattu Mandiram used by the

Annevy in the exorcism of demons.

“Oh God! May my head, neck, and throat be under the pro-

tection of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost! May they be

under the protection of the powerful Commander, the Archangel

St. Michael and his sword! May my right shoulder be under the

protection of the Archangel Gabriel and his sword! May my left

shoulder be under the protection of the Archangel Raphael and his

sword! May my breast and back be under the protection of all

the Saints! May my navel be under the protection of the twelve

Apostles! May my private parts be under the protection of the

11,000 virgins! May my feet, legs, the soles of my feet, and the

20 fingers and toes with their nails be under the protection of all

the Saints! [have taken God to be my protection. I have

brought the Ten Commandments to my mind. In the name of the

Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, who sit on a throne of glory

resplendent with the effulgence of starry gems, in the Holy Name

- of the Divine Mother, who obeys the Divine Will, I expel all ini-

mical demons, who come from the Hast, the West, the North, and

the South; demons who come from hell beneath the earth, from

the five points of the sky, and the sixteen points of the world. I

bind all poisonous creatures, be they beasts, birds, or fishes; be they

_ those, that ereep upon their bellies, or that move on their legs, or

that fly through the air by their wings. I bind elephants, horses,

bears, lions, tigers, and all other animals, that may be dangerous.

I bind all these, so that Angam, Pilli, Hooniyan, the dangers of

passing over, and all the demons, preteyas, and the diseases caused

by these, may break, break, flee, flee,* and be expelled again and

* Repetition of the same word, especially words like those in the text, is a

very common practice in charms, because such repetition is supposed to in-

erease the force and efficacy of a charm.

106 DEMON POSSESSION.

again. I bind by the divine power of the Cross. I bind by the

power of the five divine wounds. I bind by the authority of the

Angels. I bind so as to render the bond indissoluble. By the

divine power of the Cross. Amen, Jesu.” |

This remarkable phenomenon in the conduct of thousands of

Singhalese women throughout the Island can not, we believe, be

wholly explained away by the supposition, that all these women

are only humbugging every body by shamming madness, merely

for the unreasonable pleasure of putting themselves in a state of

frantic excitement or of assumed insensibility; an explanation the -

more unsatisfactory, when it is considered that this peculiarity is

often found even in respectable old ladies verging upon 60 and

7G—mothers of large families—very respectable, sober, honest,

modest characters—who, so far from wishing to simulate madness

or demon possession, have always appeared to be quite incapable

of such wilful folly. Further, we have often had ample opportu-. a

nities of minutely observing every thing said and done by one or

two such persons when under “ possession,’ and although on such

occasions we were very anxious to convince all around us that all —

this was nothing but shamming, or at best the effects of anexcited

and morbid imagination, we yet never failed to perceive much,

that could not be reconciled with any idea of imposture, and how- — |

ever much we endeavoured to believe in their being counterfeit,

we never succeeded in fully convincing our reason.

We must however state here in justice to these old ladies, that

their symptoms of possession were not exactly like those we have

generally described above; they did not call upon demons, nor

shout and ery, but simply sank down on the ground as in a fit of

insensibility, and then continued, now and then, to tremble very

violently, gnashing their teeth and rolling their eyeballs. In this i

state they generally remain about three quarters of an hour, and ©

then sit up as if awaking froma sleep. For nearly a day after

this they complain of weakness, and after that are as well as ever

and about their household duties as usual. In other respects they

DEMON POSSESSION. 107

do not seem to be suffering from any disease, but on the contrary

are in the enjoyment of good health.

Many of the so-called demon possessions are without doubt mere

shams, grown perhaps fashionable among a certain class of ignorant

coquettish young women; but some, forming of course a small

minority, do not, we are inclined to believe, admit of this explana-

tion, if we can place any reliance on our own senses and judgment.

Whether or not real demon possessions, such as those mentioned

in the New Testament, do take place in these days too, we do not

know; but if, as we think, they do not, this remarkable phenome.

non can be explained only by attributing it to involuntary Bies-

merism and what has been called the Cataleptic trance. But the

wonder is that it should be so frequent and common in this Island,

in so much as to exceed in the number of occasions and the number

of persons affected, all the demoniac possessions or what were so

called, which have ever been recorded as having occurred in all

other parts of the world put together, from the beginning of the

Christian era down to this day. We do not know what are the

causes which induce the mesmeric state in a person; but if an ex-

cited imagination, overwrought feelings of superstitious fear, and

an intense fervid belief in the existenceand the attributes of de-

mons, combined with very weak, credulous, timid minds, can do it,

then all these may be found in a high degree in a large majority

of Singhalese females.

However, whatever may be the cause, whether it be mesmeric

agency, or mere shamming, still the fact is remarkable in either

case. For, if Mesmerism or the Cataleptic trance, be the cause,

why or how it should be found in such active operation in so many

instances in this Island during every year, would be an interesting

subject of inquiry, nor on the other hand can the other imputed

cause (if cause it be in all those instances), viz., a morbid propen-

sity, which leads women to counterfeit demon possession, appear

to be a matter less remarkable, in as much as it shews the low

state of education which exists among the Singhalese.

Sa ee

108

CHAPTER VII.

DREADFUL CONSEQUENCES OF A BELIEF IN Demon INFLUENCE,

The reader, who has had the patience to follow us thus far, will,

we believe, have his mind impressed with one principal idea, ' viz.,

that credulity and superstitious fear exercise so powerful an influ-

ence over an uneducated Singhalese, as to blind his reason entirely, _ ’

the moment his mind reverts to demons or to any thing relating to

them. Without such an hypothesis, it is difficult to believe. that

there are men now living, who honestly and sincerely say and be-

lieve that they have actually seen demons, and have thereby fallen |

sick, from which they recovered only by the aid of charms and |

demon-ceremonies, and that by similar means it is in the power of

any man at any time to inflict disease or death or some other mis-

fortune on another. ‘The account we have given of these ‘spells, q

and of the wonderful virtues believed by the Singhalese to be in-

herent in them will, we believe, only raise a smile of contempt and

pity in an Englishman’s face; but if the Englishman knew to what. 7

deplorable results this belief often leads, his look of contempt would j

be changed to one of horror. | ee : 4

In many of the inland villages of this Island factions, quarrels,

bloodshed, and crime have often been the consequences of this 9

belief in charms, especially in Hooniyan charms. One family living q

at bitter enmity with another, with all their respective relatives ~

and friends ranged on either side and each trying to injure the ©

other in every possible way, by perjury, litigation, theft, and —

assault, turning peaceful villages into scenes of misery, and harm- q

less peasants into ruthless murderers, and thereby perpetuating the a

feud from one generation to another, are not things of rare occur- —

rence; and all this, either because a young man of one family hap- E

pened on one occasion to prepare Hooniyan charms against a young —

woman of another family, because he could not get her’ to marry

him; or because a man fell sick soon after an unfriendly neighbour a

had been seen to bury a charmed image under his garden gate, or a

DREADFUL CONSEQUENCES OF A BELIEF, ETC. 109

for some other similar reason, Among many instances of this kind

which have come under our own notice, we will give here one or

two for the benefit of the reader, from which it will appear that,

if the power and influence of demons are to be perceived anywhere

in these Hiooniyan matters, it must be in the miseries brought on

many an honest and happy family by their credulity.

Tn the district of Caltura in the Western Province of the Island,

there lived some years ago a man, we will call Hendrick Appoo,

with his family consisting of his wife, three sons, and one daughter.

The sons were grown up men, married and having children. The

daughter was the youngesi and still unmarried. . Hendrick Appoo

was considered by his fellow villagers to be a rich man, that is, he

had some 15 or 20 head of cattle, and about 6 or 7 acres of land

scattered here and there in the village in small pieces of a rood or

two each; and he had too his own paddyfield and sweet potatoe

and betel plantations with 50 or 60 cocoanut trees and 7 or 8 jack

trees: it was also supposed that he had in cash about 2 or 3 hun-

dred Rixdollars (£15 or £22 10s.) His father had beena Widhane

Aratchy, and so he was a village aristocrat. In short, he was a

* Country gentleman.” He had aneighbour we shall call Harmanis

Appoo, also well thought of by his neighbours as a man well to do

in the world. This man had only two children, both unmarried,

young men of good character. As he and Hendrick Appoo were

men in the same rank of life, and especially as they both happened

to be nearly equal to each other in the respectability of their pedi-

grees (an essential point in the matrimonial arrangements of the

Singhalese,) it was proposed and agreed between them that the

eldest son of the one should marry the daughter of theother. The

proposal met with the approbation of nearly all the members of

both the families; and so both the families became very friendly

and attached to each other, assisting each other in various small

matters, and in short living on the most intimate and happy terms

with each other, as is usual on the proposal, and before the con-

summation, of a marriage between any two families. Of course

the two young persons, who were most interested in the matter,

110 DREADFUL CONSEQUENCES OF

were not consulted, for they had no consent to give or withhold;

such things being always managed for them by their parents. But

somctime afterwards Aberan Appoo, a maternal uncle of the girl, :

and a man who was most scrupulously punctilious in matters of

family pedigrees, returned from Saffragam where he had been

trading for 4 or 5 months, and now for the first time hearing of the

intended marriage determined to frustrate it, because he found a

flaw in the pedigree of Harmanis Appoo, viz., that the father of

his grandmother had been married to the descendant of a bastard

slave. This in Aberan Appoo’s opinion was an insuperable obsta-

cle to the marriage, and so he set himself to work upon the family

pride of his brother-in-law and his sister, in which he succeeded so

well, that the match was soon broken off, and all intercourse between

the two families ceased. Harmanis Appoo taking this as a mortal

and unpardonable affront resolved to have his revenge. So he went

to a Cattadiya in the Southern Province, and got him to prepare a

Hooniyan charm against the young woman, and returning home,

quietly waited for the result, of which he had not the slightest

doubt. Curiously enough, just two months after this, the young

woman died from the effects of a fever, which she had contracted

through exposure to bad weather, Old Harmanis chuckling at

this and too vain to hold his tongue confided to one or two of his

confidential friends, how he had taken his revenge on Hendrick.

Hendrick himself had heard before this of the other’s visit to the

Southern Province, but had never learned the purpose of the jour-

ney. As usual with prudent parents especially when a marriage

proposal breaks off, he had taken every possible precaution, by

means of charms and other amulets, to secure his daughter from

the dangers arising from Hooniyan and other demon-influences;

but when he heard, the day after the funeral of his child, of what

Harmanis had been boasting privately to his friends, it confirmed

him in his previous suspicions, and roused all the evil nature in

him. These suspicions were still further confirmed by the disco-

very of a small wooden image buried under one of the front steps”

of his Verandah, So, a few days afterwards, he and his three sons

A BELIEF IN DEMON INFLUENCE. 111

with two others, hired with drams of arrack for the occasion, quietly

repaired in the dark to Harmanis’ house, and severely assaulted him,

his wife, his sons, and all others who were in hishouse. The next

day they went before a Magistrate and swore an affidavit, that he

(Hendrick Appoo) and his sons, while returning home one night

from Morottoo with a large sum of money, had been waylaid by

Harmanis Appoo and his sons with 5 or 6 other men, who assaulted

them and robbed them of their money. Harmanis also swore

an affidavit, stating in it the actual truth, with the addition of a

robbery and burglary committed on his property. Each was sup-

ported by false evidence, and both the complaints having been in-

vestigated by the Magistrate, both were dismissed by him, as

neither appeared to him to be true. A few weeks after this, Har-

manis with a party of his friends repaired to his enemy’s house,

and asaulted him and all his people with clubs, knives and rice-

pounders (long wooden pestles), and many on both sides were

severely wounded. The matter was tried before the Supreme

Court, but the jury acquitted the accused. ‘Then for a period of

nearly four years the two families were engaged in a series of civil

lawsuits arising out of certain bonds, in all of which judgment

was given against Hendrick—bonds, which came into existence

only after the rupture between the two families, Hendrick having

never borrowed a farthing from the other on a bond or without a

bond. And yet the deeds purported to have been duly executed

before a notary! Before execution was granted in the last of these

cases, the two sons of Harmanis were found one evening lying dead

in a neighbouring rice field, with marks of violence on them: and

although every possible exertion was made by those in authority

to discover the murderers, no trace of truthful evidence could be

had, and although a dozen relatives of the deceased swore to its

being the work of Hendrick’s sons, there did not appear any trust-

worthy evidence whatever against any one. The case was however

tried upon the evidence of these relatives, but the jury at once

acquitted the prisoners, Hendrick himself and his sons. Ina few

weeks afterwards every thing belonging to Hendrick was sold by

412 DREADFUL CONSEQUENCES OF

the Fiscal to satisfy the execution in the civil suits mentioned above,

and as there still remained a large balance due, Hendrick was in-

carcerated in a debtor’s prison. Harmanis lost both his sons, and

gota considerable sum of money recovered upon his bonds, but did

not live long enough to enjoy it, as in about a year’s time he was

poisoned, and died a miserable death. The suspected culprits =

were not brought to punishment, as there was not a tittle of legal

evidence against them. ‘Thus these two families, who had lived

comfortably and respectably in their quiet village for a long time, —

were ruined ; and other villagers, who had taken part in their

quarrels, did not fare better. Certainly a Hooniyan Charm, viewed

in this light, must appear to be a thing of greater malignity, than

the Cattadiya and his books represent it to be in its direct conse-

quences.

The following case is not less characteristic. It happened in a

village not very far from Colombo. Andris had a lawsuit with a 3

Siman Nydey respecting a small piece of land, not worth more than

£2 or £8, and judgment was pronounced in favour of Siman.

Andris, resolving upon revenge, had recourse to witchcraft, anda

Hooniyan being prepared, the image was buried at night in the yard

of Siman Nydey’s house, opposite to the front door. Unfortunately @

for Andris, he was detected in the very act, and was seized by the

inmates of the house, who headed by Siman, joined in giving him

a good thrashing. Not content however with this they cut off a 4

bunch of plantains from a tree close by, and placed it beside An-

dris, who lay on the ground, bound hand and foot and smarting 4

from the blows he had received. The Police Widhane was then

sent for, and on his arrival Siman charged Andris with intruding

into his dwelling garden at night and stealing plantains from it.

All Singhalese know well that Englishmen never punish people for

practising Hooniyan or any other sort of witchcraft, and hence this a

fictitious charge of theft. ‘The Magistrate tried the case, and the a

man being found guilty was sentenced to a month’s imprisonment

with hard labour. Before he could return home from the jail, his : FE

enemy Siman, wishing to pay him in kind, consulted a Cattadiya, q

A BELIEF IN DEMON INFLUENCE. 113

| and got a Hooniyan ceremony performed against him, On his re-

| turn from the jail, the first thing Andris heard was a rumour of

_ Siman’s having been seen going one night towards a graveyard in

company with another man, who carried with him a cock concealed

under his Saron cloth, together with some live coals in a broken

chatty. Ofcourse Andris immediately understood what it meant,

| and perhaps thinking within himself that “the best of all charms

- is a club-charm” (a popular Singhalese saying), the next evening

| about the time that Siman, who was a toddy drawer, generally re-

turned home after drawing Toddy in the neighbouring hamlet, he

shouldered his Mamottie (Anglice hoe) and walked along the

path, by which he knew the other would come. When he saw Si-

man approach, he concealed himself behind a bush, and, as he pass-

ed, witha single blow of the Mamottie, struck him to the ground.

The unfortunate man’s skull was completely fractured, and he lived

only 3 days. Andris was tried before the Supreme Court, and

being found guilty, expiated his crime on the gallows. Even after

his the two families had many quarrels and lawsuits, but none

productive of consequences so serious.

A young man, who was a “rising” astrologer, fell sick, and his

| physicians did all they could for him, but without any effect. Day

by day he grew worse, and was fast approaching his last end.

- From the first, the illness was attributed to demon influence, and

! nothing, that charms and Cattadiyas and Balicarayas and Buddhist

_ Priests and Capuas could do, was left untried. The patient how-

| ever grew no better, and at last he died. ‘The suddenness of the

| disease, and the speedy death it resulted in, were matters of sus-

| picion even in the minds of the neighbours, and much more certainly

in that of the father of the deceased. The old man suspected ano-

ther astrologer, who lived in the same village, of having practised

| Hooniyan Charms against his son, and all doubt was removed from

_ his mind, when he heard a few days afterwards that a certain Cat-

_ tadiya, who lived in a distant village, was seen, some three or four

months before, going to the house of the astrologer late in the

evening, and in such a manner as if he wished to gounseen. Whe-

114 DREADFUL CONSEQUENCES OF

ther this was true or a mere invention of some unprincipled vil-

lager, the old man did not care to enquire, he was but too ready ta

believe what he had all along strongly suspected. When he heard

it, he was maddened with anger. He could not bear the idea of his

beloved son being snatched away from him by foul play. He had

taken great pains and had been put to considerable expence in train-

ing his favorite son to the profession of an astrologer, and to be thus

suddenly disappointed, just as he was about to reap the reward of

all his labours in the fame and glory of his son, was past all human ~ a

endurance, especially the endurance of our old carpenter, who sel-

dom raised his chisel or his adze without consulting an astrologer

for an auspicious hour. ‘The old man burning with rage and resent-_

ment, resolved to have his revenge. He had a neighbour who,

being something of a sportsman, had a gun. Hehad also a mango

tree in his compound, the fruit of which was every day devoured

by monkeys, so he asked his neighbour for the loan of his gun to

drive off these troublesome robbers. Every day, when monkeys

were seen on or near his mango tree, he took out the gun, loaded it _

carefully, and first levelling it at the intruding monkeys, turned |

and fired it in a different direction ; for it was a great sin to kill

animals, especially monkeys. Besides, he was an Upasakaya.*

* An Upasakaya is a religious Buddhist, or at least one who professes to be — 4

s0, by the observance of certain precepts of Buddha called Sil or Seela. These

precepts or obligations are.

1. Do not take away life.

2. Do not take that which is not given.

3. Do not commit adultery.

4. Do not speak that which is not true.

5. Do not use intoxicating liquors,

6. Do not use solid food after mid-day.

7. Do not attend at dancing, singing, music, and masquerades.

Do not adorn the body with flowers, perfumes, or unguents.

9. Do not use seats above the prescribed height.

10. Do not receive gold or silver. a

Of these the first five, called Pan Sil or Pancha Scela, are considered to beob-

ligatory onall, These five with the next three, forming eight Obligations, are

called Ata Sw. One professing to observe these eight is called an Upasakaya. —

A BELIEF IN DEMON INFLUENCE. 115

So this sort of shooting at monkeys continued for three or four

weeks. One evening, as the astrologer was returning home from

another village, and was moving along a footpath flanked on both

sides by thick bushes, he was shot by somebody concealed among

the bushes and lived only a few hours. The Jury, who tried

the old carpenter, at once acquitted him, as, although there was as

usual a good deal of false evidence put in, which from its nature

was not, and could not be, believed, there was not a tittle of trust-

worthy evidence against him, excepting the mere fact of his having

had at his house a gun borrowed from a neighbour to shoot monkeys.

But all the villagers knew to a certainty that the old man was the

murderer.

Instances like the above can be multiplied by hundreds, if neces-

sary ; but the few already cited will, we think, be sufficient to give

the reader some idea of the nature of the evils, which a belief in

the power of charms often produces among our countrymen ; a be-

lief, which is not confined to those, whom we are in the habit of

styling common people, but which prevails equally, though with

less serious consequences, among Singhalese ofa higher class and

condition, with the exception of a very few well educated intelli-

gent people, not exceeding, we firmly believe, four or five hundred

individuals in the whole island.

There is a peculiarity, very general among the Singhalese, that

if an European questions a Cattadiya about any particular depart-

ment of his art, he will give just such answers, as he thinks will

be most in accordance with the opinions of the querist, as far as it

can be done without wholly condemning the entire system ;, but

whenever there appears to be no chance of avoiding this last dilemma,

he will make every possible excuse to make a hasty retreat, with-

out entangling himself in the difficulties of a discussion, in which

he knows he will not be able to triumph. If an Englishman tells

an advocate of Demonism that charms and Demon Ceremonies are

mere follies ; that no benefit whatever can be derived from them ;

that they are mere impostures intended to delude the ignorant’; and.

that the most learned Cattadiya cannot satisfactorily prove that they

116 DREADFUL CONSEQUENCES OF

possess any of the powers ascribed to them ; the answer most pro-

bably will be—“ Sir, I don’t know much about these things myself;

my forefathers have believed in them, my neighbours still do SO,

and what is good for them cannot, I think, do any harm to myself.

Possibly much of what you say may be true, and certainly a great

deal of what now goes under the name of charms is spurious, and

many of the Cattadiyas are ignorant impostures. Really, Sir, I

don’t understand these things well, but there may be some, who

can perhaps satisfy you on the subject, though I cannot.” Or he

will say—‘ Sir, I don’t know whether these things be true or false.

When we fall sick, we try every means within our reach of get-

ting better. We worship Buddha, the gods, and the demons, all at

once, to take our chance of recovering from the sickness through

the help of some of them. All my countrymen do so, and I am

only doing like them.” The demeanour of the man during this

conversation is like that of one, who has been convinced of the ab- _ 7

surdity of his worship, and who is anxious to profit by the advice

of a superior, although he evinces considerable impatience at being

stopped, and is anxious to get away as soon as possible. The mo-

ment he turns his back however, he will go away laughing at his

own skill in answering so well and cursing, or at least pitying the

Englishman for being an infidel and a Christian. Hence many an

Englishman is led to believe that Demon Worship has not at present

a firm hold of the minds of a portion of the people, and that it is

upheld amongst a few merely because custom, or habit has made it

familiar tothem. Nothing can be more erroneous than this opinion;

_ for so far from a portion of the people being indifferent to Demon 4

Worship from a conviction that it is an absurdity, we believe there —

is not (excepting 4 or 5 hundred well educated men in the whole |

Island) one Singhalese man, who believes in any thing more ~

firmly than in Demonism. In Colombo and its immediate neigh- — 3

bourhood alone, where the superstition does not command many — :

zealous votaries, there are some few who have no great faith in

charms, or who, though believing in them, have no opportunity of

reducing that belief into practice in the form of Demon cere-

A BELIEF IN DEMON INFLUENCE. 117

monies ; but inall other parts of the Island, Demonism exercises a

more commanding influence over the every day life and thoughts

of a Singhalese, than any other ism that we know of.

THE FIRST DISCOURSE DELIVERED BY BUDDHA.

RI eee

Translated by the late Rev. D. J. Gogerty, Chairman of the

Wesleyan Mission in South, Ceylon, and presented for pub-

lication by the Rrv. R. S. HARDY, M. R. A. 5.

On the birth of the prince Gotama, according to the native au-

thorities, it was known to certain Brahmins, from the signs they

saw upon his person, that he would become a supreme Buddha.

They themselves were too aged to expect to live until the time

when he would attain to this high position; but they instructed

their sons to prepare for places of privilege under the new dispen-

sation. Of these young Brahmins, only five were obedient to — ss

parental advice. ‘They retired to the forest of Uruwela, to await

the assumption of the Buddhaship by the prince. Not long after

Gotama had renounced the allurements of the palace, they met

with him in the place of his retreat, and remained with him six

years, hoping continually that the time in which he was to practise — 4

austerities would cease. But when this period had passed over,

and the prince, as he had done before, began to carry the alms-

bowl as a mendicant, without attaining the object for which he had

become an ascetic, their patience was exhausted, and they left him,

retiring to the neighbourhood of Benares. os

It was the wish of Gotama, on becoming Buddha, to say bana,

or to preach, in the first instance, to Alara and Uddaka, two

ascetics whom he had previously met with, whilst wandering in

the forest; but when he learnt that they were already dead, he 4

looked for the locality of the five Brahmins, and when he saw that —

they were near Benares, he repaired thither to open his commission

as the all-wise teacher. They received him with reverence and

worship, The preparations for this first sermon of the Tathagata

THE FIRST DISCOURSE DELIVERED BY BUDDHA. 119

are described in the most glowing terms. “The evening” says a

Singhalese author, “ was like a lovely female; the stars were as

pearls upon her neck, the blue clouds were her braided hair, and

the expanse was her flowing robe. Asa crown she had the hea-

yens; the three worlds were as her body; her eyes were like the

white lotus; and her voice was like the humming of the bee. To

worship Buddha, and listen to the first proclaiming of the bana,

this lovely female came.” All the worlds in which there was

sentient existence were emptied of their inhabitants, so that the

congregation assembled was in number infinite; but when the god

Sekra blew his shell, ‘‘all became still, as a waveless sea.” Each

of the countless listeners thought that the sage was looking towards

himself, and speaking to him in his own tongue, though the lan-

guage he used was Magadhi. Then Buddha opened his mouth,

and preached the Dhamma-Chakkappawattana-suttan. This ser-

mon is of importance, not only as being the first preached by Bud-

dha; but as containing the germ thoughts of his entire system.

The following translation of this Discourse has been found

among the papers of the late Rev. D. J. Gogerly, both the Pali

original and the English translation being in his own handwriting.

“Thus I heard. On a certain time Buddhu resided at Benares,

the delight of holy men and safe retreat of animals. At that time

Buddhu addressed himself to the 5 priests. O Priests, these two

extremes should be avoided by a Priest, an attachment to sensual

gratifications, which are mean, vile and contemptible, degrading

and profitless; or severe penances, which produce sorrow, and are

degrading and useless.

“Q Priests, avoiding both these extremes, Buddhu has perceived a

middle path for the attainment of mental vision, true knowledge,

subdued passions, the perception of the paths leading to the Su-

preme good, the preparation necessary for attaining it, and the

entrance to Nirvana.

“Q Priests, which is this middle path?

“This path has 8 divisions:—namely, correct doctrines, cones

perceptions of those doctrines, speaking the truth, purity of conduct,

120 THE FIRST DISCOURSE

a sinless occupation, perseverance in duty, holy meditation, and

mental tranquillity.

“This, O Priests, is the middle path, perceived by Buddhu.

“This, O Priests, is the important doctrine respecting sorrow:

there is sorrow in birth, in decay, in sickness, and in death, in

separation from beloved objects, and in being compelled to remain —

with those which are disagreeable; there is sorrow in not obtaining

the fulfilment of wishes, and, briefly, sorrow is connected with every

mode of existence.

‘‘This, O Priests, is the important doctrine respecting the con-

tinuation of sorrow: it is desire, which in transmigrations revels in |

sensuality and seeks enjoyment in whatever state it may be placed;

it is the desire of pleasure, of continued existence, and of annihi-

lation after death.* :

‘This, O Priests, is the important deetrine respecting the de-

struction of sorrow: it is complete freedom from passion, an aban-

donment of sensual objects; a deliverance from the desire of a

continuation of existence, a freedom from attachment to existing

objects.

“This, O Priests, is the important doctrine relative to the path

by which this state may be attained; this path has 8 divisions—

correct doctrines, a clear perception of their nature, inflexible

veracity, purity of conduct, a sinless occupation, perseverance in

duty, holy meditation, and mental tranquillity. Relative to the

important doctrine of sorrow being connected with all things, I, — Be.

O Priests, possess the eye fo perceive this previously undiscovered

truth, the knowledge of its nature, the understanding of tés cause,

the wisdom éo guide in the path of tranquillity, and the light to a

dispel darkness from it.

“O Priests, it is necessary that I should clearly understand this

previously undiscovered and important doctrine, relative to which

I have the eye to perceive; the knowledge, &c.

O Priests, this previously undiscovered doctrine that sorrow is i

——- — ——

* This passage stands as it is given in Mr. Gogerley’s translation.

| verse.

_ transmigrate no longer

DELIVERED BY BUDDAH. 121

necessarily connected with existence is clearly understood by me,

I having the eye, &c.

O Priests, relative to this before undiscovered doctrine of the

cause of the continuance of sorrow, I have obtained the eye, &c.

O Priests, it is proper that I should remove from me the cause

_ of the continuance of sorrow, relative to which previously undis-

covered doctrine I have obtained the eye, &.

O Priests, the cause of the continuance of sorrow no more exists

in me, relative to which previously undiscovered doctrine I have

obtained the eye, &c.

O Priests, relative to this formerly undiscovered doctrine of the

destruction of sorrow, I have obtained the eye, &c.

O Priests, this formerly undiscovered doctrine should be fully

ascertained by me, relative to which the eye, &c.

O Priests, this formerly undiscovered doctrine has been fully

ascertained by me, relative to which the eye, &c.

O Priests, relative to this previously unknown doctrine respect-

| ing the path by which the destruction of sorrow may be attained,

the eye, &c.

O Priests, it is proper that I should be accustomed to this path,

_ concerning which the eye, &c.

O Priests, I am accustomed to this path, &e.

O Priests, was I not fully informed relative to these 4 doctrines

| which my wisdom thus perceived in 12 ways?—

At that time, O Priests, did I not know that I had acquired the

most complete and irrefutable wisdom possessible in the uni-

From that time, O Priests, I have been fully informed relative

: to these 4 doctrines, which my wisdom has thus perceived in 12

ways.

At that time, O Priesis, I know that I had acquired the most

complete and irrefutable wisdom attainable in the universe.

This wisdom and knowledge have sprung up within me. My

| mental deliverance is permanent. This is my last birth: I shall

122 THE FIRST DISCOURSE DELIVERED BY BUDDAH.

Budhu having spoken thus, the delighted priests were exceedingly a

gratified with the discourse. .

When these doctrines had been thus luminously displayed, the

venerable Kondanya becoming free from pollution, obtained the — 4

eye of wisdom, and a complete deliverance from the cause by which | a

sorrow is continued.

When Budhu had thus declared these leading truths, the Gods

of all the heavenly worlds, to the extremity of the Brahma Lokas, — . |

were heard proclaiming —Budhu has declared at Benares the irre-

futable doctrines of truth, which couid not be declared by Sage, : e .

or Brahmin, or God, or by Maraya, or by any person in the worlds. |

(the names of the principal gods in each world being mentioned.) _

Thus at the same moment the sound ascended to the Brahma a

Lokas. a

Thus the foundations of 10,000 worlds were shaker and moved 4

about tumultuously, and a great and brilliant oe burnt upon the .

worlds. a

Then Budhu with a mellifluous voice said, most went the 4

venerable Kondanya has acquired an experimental knowledge of

these truths.

Thus he received the names of Annya Kondanya.

128

POOTTOOR WELL.*

It having been deemed desirable to investigate certain pheno-

mena in connection with this well, the following experiments {were

made. This paper will contain no attempts to explain these phe-

nomena, or to suggest any theory as a basis for discussion. Simply

narrating facts, I leave it for others to determine the cause of the

following effects.

As a guide however, I will venture to give an outline description

of the Peninsula of Jaffna in which this well is situated, and of the

appearance of the well itself with some general remarks on pecu-

liarities noticeable in most of the wells of the Jaffna Peninsula.

The Jatina Peninsula would appear to have been a comparatively

recent formation and principally formed by gradual coral deposits.

There would however seem to have been at some period or other, a

_ voleanie agency which has upheaved strata of an earlier period, as

the surface of large tracts consists of magnesian limestone, in which

(whether worn or otherwise I cannot say) exist numerous fissures

affording easy passage for an abundant supply of fresh water,

within a very few feet of the surface.

This Peninsula is so free from elevations of any kind that the

highest point found in its cross section was only 35 feet above low

water level. Elevated ground is found at both sides near the sea,

from which points the ground declines again leaving a table land

almost entirely level 13 or 14 miles in extent, at an elevation above

low water level of only 4 feet. This peculiarity during spring tides

(of the North-east monsoon particularly) allows the sea to flow up

numerous inlets, which seam the Peninsula in every direction and

which rise during freshes toa height of 3 or 4 feet, and afford abun-

dant opportunity for the manufacture of salt. It is worthy too of

consideration in connection with the subject ot the well, that, on

subsiding, large deposits of naturally formed salt are left, which

remain on the beds of the inlets throughout the year. Before leav-

ing this subject, I might mention that the greatest width from north

* I have been unable to find out the name of the author of this paper.

124 POOTTOOR WELL.

to south of the Peninsula is 20 miles, and its greatest length from

east to west 30 miles. 1

The wells of Jaffna are subject to certain peculiarities. Their

general level appears to be affected by the state of the tides, not

however to such an extent as to causea diurnal action. It is

however a well known fact that during the north-east monsoon the

wells of the district rise to their greatest height, and that height

diminishes as the force of the monsoon decreases. The large mass

of water in the Bay of Bengal affected by this monsoon causes the

level of the Jaffna lake to be affected to the extent of 18 inches in-

crease of tide, at the same time that the above-mentioned rise in

the wells occurs. Another fact is, that cultivators in digging irri-

gation wells are obliged to observe the greatest possible caution,

as after passing a certain depth the water becomes brackish, and

this peculiarity exists throughout the Peninsula. Again it is

equally curious to observe how closely fresh and salt water flow to-

gether without amalgamating. Whilst building a causeway at

Vannatipalam across the salt inlet, in this Poottoor district, the

foundations were laid in salt water, but close to this and in —

the centre of the inlet fresh water could be obtained in several

places and in large quantities, although during freshes those

spots are covered with 3 or 4 feet of salt water. These facts may

prove of interest and of some use in considering any theory which —

may be based upon the results of the experiments, hereafter to be

narrated. oe

The Pootioor well itself is a large rectangular pit in the lime-—

stone rock, and its dimensions are about 40 feet in length by 25 in

width. A slope down to the water level has been made, as is com-

mon to all the artificial tanks of Ceylon and India. ‘Tradition

connects it with some springs on the Coast near Tondamanaar, but

it is only tradition asit would be simply impossible to trace the

course or source of any springs in so levela country. The only pre-

vious experimenis made were in 1824, when engines of considerable.

power were employed, to raise water from the well, with a view of

irrigating the district, The only result obtained however was the

POOTTOOR WELL. 125

establishment of the fact that it was impossible to affect the level

of the well or to check the curious rise and fall of its water. This

latter phenomenon has earned for it the title of the “Tidal Well of

Poottoor.”

I think I have now mentioned all the facts 1 am aware of, which

might assist any one in forming an opinion as to the cause of the

peculiarities of this well. These peculiarities are three in num-

ber.

First in importance is the tide above mentioned.

Secondly, the presence of salt water from a depth of between 45

and 50 feet to the bottom of the well, &c.

Thirdly, its apparent inexhaustibility. The experiments just

completed were undertaken with reference to the two first conditions

only, the experiments of 1324 being considered conclusive as to

the third.

EXPERIMENTS.

The first step taken was, by a careful section taken from the

low water mark on the southern to the Jow water mark on the

northern shore, to ascertain the relation that the level of the sur-

face water of the well bore to the tidal marks of the sea on both

shores. Levels were taken for a distance of 17 miles from Jaffna

on the south coast to Valvettytorre on the northern coast.

The fact so established is, that the level of the fresh water in the

well coincides almost exactly with the low water level of the sea

on both coasts.

The next experiment was conducted with a view of ascertaining

at what depths the fresh water ceased and salt water commenced,

and to procure specimens of the water at various depths to be sent

to England for analysis. An instrument with a closely fitting

valve was made for this purpose, so arranged that the valve could

be opened and closed again at any given depth.

The first symptom of brackishness was found between 40 and

50 ft. down, and it appears certain that it is at this point that the

salt water enters. Specimensof the water at the surface, 45 ft., 95 ft.,

145 ft. (the bottom) were procured and put into sealed bottles.

126 POOTTOOR WELL.

The water from the bottom when first brought up, smelt strongly

of sulphureted hydrogen.

The surface of the fresh water is 14 feet below the ground line,,

and the total depth of the well varies between 140 and 148 feet.

Dr. Ferguson of the Army Medical Staff kindly assisted me in.

making these experiments,

It being desirable to ascertain how far the tide in the well coin-

cided with that of the sea on both coasts, Dr. Ferguson and my-

self at the well and two assistants at Jaffna and Valvettytorre

respectively, took notes at every half hour from 6 4. M., till6 P.M.

The following is a tabular statement shewing the rise and fall of

the tide observed at all three places in inches.

Time. Jaffna Lake. wall at Poottoor.| Valvettytorre.

6° A. M. 30) ° 0 ois 8)

6°30 Fell -60 Fell :12 Fell °36

7-0 » 60 le ie O6 » 60

7°30 5) 4) 384 53 206 papi Oe

8-0 > 296 | 06 > 2°04

8°30 » 1:08 pe OG. tal aioe

9-0 5» 132 » 06 » 32

9-30 144 Rose 03 | 4» 2.40

10:0 1:08 Keates ts » 2°40

10°30 » 1:08 ee » 2.40

11-0 ” 1-20 a aie | eae

11°30 seni egies aR 12 | 9 "48 low

Pa) Plegonss-) MEMS Feo) Stationary \ water

12°30p.m) ,, °84 | » 06 +48

1-0 60 » 06 ho 48

1:30 43, 2604 | ol 106 96

2-0 ae ee Fell “15 96

wat.

2°30 Rose *24 ae ial es, 1:92

3:0 ih Ag » 18 3:28

3°30 oO a 1-68

4-0 » 1:56 ey) 1:20.

4-30 » 1°08 ees | 1-92

5-0 ee 1 he 1:44

5°30 O08 ginueale, 24

6:0 gp NO ey DO

;

a at

om ae paneer,

POOTTOOR WELL. 12%

By the foregoing table it will be observed that the well alter-

nated 3 times during the day, whilst the sea was not affected to a

similar extent.—The well also rose whilst the sea fell, and this

part alone destroys all hypotheses that I have as yet heard discussed.

The subject therefore remains in an unexplained state and offers

a field for scientific enquiry and discussion.

128

On the air breathing Fish of Ceylon—-By The Ruvn-

PRINCIPAL BOAKE.

DODO ILI LILI EI III

Having been recently induced to make some experiments on the

respiration of certain species of fish, in order to ascertain the cor-

rectness of a statement of mine which had been communicated to

Professor Huxley by Sir Emerson Tennent, I am under the im-

pression that an account of those experiments with a description of

the habits of the fish in question, will come within the scope of the —

Asiatic Society’s operations, and may perhaps be deemed by the

Committee to possess sufficient interest to entitle a paper on the

subject to admission into its Journal.

During my residence in England in 1855—i856, I became ac-

quainted with the facilities which recent discoveries, or, to speak

more accurately, the ingenious application of old discoveries to the

construction and management of aquaria had afforded to those

who wished to observe the habits and natural history of the various —

tribes of aquatic animals. Knowing that very little attention had

been paid to that branch of natural history in Ceylon, I lost no

time, on my return to the Island, in establishing a fresh water

aquarium; and, in watching the proceedings of its inhabitants, my

attention was very soon attracted to a peculiar habit which some

of them had, of ascending at nearly regular intervals to the surface,

so as to bring the mouth for an instant in contact with the air.

That habit is particularly conspicuous in the fry of two species,

viz., the Loolla and the Maddecariya, which speedily cover the

surface of the water in which they are confined, with small bubbles

of air or gas. I noticed also that the species of fish, to which that

habit belonged, were much less sensitive to any impurity in the

water in which they were confined than were those which did not

pay periodic visits to the surface. Had I been a practised natura- |

ee A eda oe ea, Cee

Sis met

Se ae a a SC ee eT ee eS Sal

URE eS SR ORL NS eR Le a MANS NO © py SBS Lote A 1 Stone a hal

THE AIR BREATHING FISH OF CEYLON. 129

list these circumstances would probably have led to my discovering

at that time the fact that the fish, in which they were observed,

are air breathers, and as incapable of supporting life by breathing

water, and as liable to be drowned by being kept from access to

atmospheric air, as the whale or the seal or the turtle; but, not

being much accustomed to such investigations, I failed to perceive

the conclusion to which these habits obviously pointed. About

the same time, I learned from the natives, that there were certain

species of fish, generally inhabiting swamps and paddy fields, which,

when dry weather deprived their usual haunts of all their moisture,

were in the habit of burying themselves in large numbers in the

mud, and remaining there in safety even after a sod had been formed

by the growth of grass on the surface.

With the intention of verifying that statement, I caused a very

large earthen vessel to be made, which I nearly filled with mud,

leaving a few inches of water on the surface. In this I placed a

number of those species of fish which were stated to bury them-

selves in the manner described, expecting that they would act in

the same manner in captivity as they were said to do in their na-

tural state. It is obvious however, that the conditions were not

similar—The evaporation in my experiment was confined to the

surface, whereas in a paddy field the moisture may be supposed to

escape in all directions and not from the surface only. Again, in

the paddy field, grass would begin to spring up while the surface

was still covered with water, and before the strictly aquatic vege-

tation had disappeared; and a constant influence would thus be

exercised in keeping the water first, and the mud afterwards, free

from putrefaction. It.is not to be wondered at therefore that all

the specimens of fish which I subjected to that experiment died

long before a sod was formed on the surface of the mud; but they

survived for several days after the water had all disappeared from

the surface by evaporation, and continued to manifest so much

vigour as to bespatter, in a very unpleasant manner, any person who

approached them incautiously. The result of that experiment was,

therefore, merely to confirm what was already known to naturalists,

| s

130 THE AIR BREATHING

viz., that the fish experimented upon, were possessed of respiratory

powers which enabled them to exist in mud so thick that it would

be impossible for it to pass through their gills, and that they are

capable under such circumstances of breathing atmospheric air,

which they obtain by elevating their mouths to the surface.

For some years, I paid no further attention to the subject; but

happening, in a correspondence with Dr. Templeton, to mention the

alleged fact of these fish burying themselves in the mud in large

numbers, I was requested by him to make further inquiries on the

subject, the result of which was, that all the natives of the low

country, with whom I communicated on the subject, confirmed the

statement; while a friend, whom I requested to make similar in- |

quiries in the neighbourhood of Badulla, was not able to discover

that the natives of that district were acquainted with any such

peculiarity of the fish inhabiting their paddy fields.

I have not, however, been able satisfactorily to verify the state-_

ment that they are ever found in dry earth, although I have repeat-

edly offered a reward to any one who will let me see the operation

of digging fish out of such earth; and the result of a visit which J

paid to Moottoo Rajawelle, during the dry weather, when the swamp

was in a favourable state for it, in August last, had the effect of

making me suspect the truth of the statement, that they are ever

so found. The difficulty which I experienced on that, which was

my second visit to Moottoo Rajawelle, in procuring any satisfactory

information, affords a curious illustration of the suspicious charac-

ter of the Native Singhalese, and of the difficulties which it presents .

to the satisfactory prosecution of any investigation, the nature and

objects of which are not easily made intelligible to them. My

former inquiries, which were made more than twelve months before

(of which an account is given below), were recollected, and as the

inhabitants of the swamp were incapable of conceiving the possibi-

lity of my being actuated by purely scientific motives, they came

to the conclusion that I had been deputed by Government to inquire —

into the value of their fishery, with the intention of imposing a tax

upon it; and the consequence was, that instead of being allowed

“

FISH OF CEYLON. ll

the same facility of observation as in my former visit, I was taken

to a part of the swamp which had been fished a few days before,

and in which, consequently, only one or two very small fishes were

taken while I was present. My first visit to Moottoo Rajawelle

was paid in April 1862, and was much more satisfactory in its

results. 3

The swamp of Moottoo Rajawelle is not less, I imagine, than 30

square miles in extent; being, as well as one can judge by the eye,

fully ten miles long, by three broad. The Negombo Canal runs

through it, and must contribute in some degree to keep the water

in the swamp at a more nearly uniform level than would otherwise

be the case; but, notwithstanding any influence of that kind which

may be exercised by the canal, there are, I believe, very considera-

ble variations in the height of the water at different seasons. At

the time of my first visit, very little water was visible in the swamp,

nearly all the surface being covered with rank grass, which had

formed a nearly continuous sod over it. Beneath that superficial

sod were about two feet of water, or rather of diluted mud, about

the consistency of thick Pea Soup, and beneath that again, a solid

vegetable deposit very mach resembling that which is used as fuel

in Ireland under the-name of turf. I was at first unable to account

for the water being so muddy, as it might be expected that in water,

so perfectly still as to have a sod growing over its surface, the

earthy particles would soon subside and leave the water clear. The

phenomenon is, I believe, to be accounted for by the large number

of Hoongas and Magooras which inhabit it, which by the perpetual

motion of their ribbonlike bodies keep the mud in constant

agitation. So perceptible was this effect in the case of some which

I had in confinement, that I found it necessary, in order to maintain

the clearness of my aquarium, to exclude them from it altogether.

The sod, with which the muddy water was covered, was firm

enough to support the weight of natives, several of whom were

engaged in cutting the long grass for their cattle, while on some of

the firmer parts bullocks were to be seen grazing. ‘Thus the

singular phenomenon was exhibited of an extensive plain, on the

132 (THE AIR BREATHING

surface of which men and cattle were moving about, while beneatl=

the surface were quantities of fish, several of which I saw captured.

The mode in which the natives catch those fish is very peculiar,

and is in fact an ingenious application of their knowledge of the

fact, that they cannot long exist without atmospheric air.

When the swamp is in a proper state for such operations, 2. e.,

when the water is neither too high nor too low, and the surface is — =

covered, as I have described, with a firm sod having two or three a

feet of diluted mud beneath it, a native goes out at night, when the

air is still, and walking through the swamp, listens for the peculiar

sounds which the fish make in breathing. Having selected a part -

in which those sounds are heard so frequently as to afford a pros-

pect of catching a considerable number, he proceeds to remove the

sod from a few circular patches, each about three feet in diameter,

in those places, in which there already exist small holes in thesod,

which the fish frequent for the purpose of breathing. When that

is done, he returns home for the night. I did not think it necessary

to be present at the nocturnal part of the operations; but I accom-

panied the fisherman the following morning to the spot which he

had prepared during the previous night; and I found it a most 3

laborious effort to make my way over the treacherous surface, al-

though the natives appeared to traverse it without any difficulty.

When we reached the fishing ground, operations were commenced ~

by making a kind of enclosure, to cut off from the rest of the swamp

that portion in which the circular patches had been cleared of sod

the night before. This was done by breaking the sod in a narrow ~ i

line encompassing the space which it was intended to enclose, and

trampling a portion of it down to the more solid mud at the bot- 4

tom. The long grass, which is thus carried down, makes a kind 4

of fence, which is supposed to confine the fish; but which one can

hardly suppose to be very efficacious, as they would have but little

difficulty, if so inclined, in making their way through it. When

this is done the diluted mud in the holes that have been opened a

over night is thickened by mixing it with some of the more solid : :

FISH OF CEYLON. 133

mud, or peat, scooped up from beneath. Some of the long grass

which grows on the surface is then laid over the thickened mud

in two strata, the stalks of which the one is composed being at

right angles with those composing the other. The whole is finished

off with a coating of mud. Nothing then remains to be done, but

to watch for the appearance of fish. The first indication of their

presence is the rising of bubbles of air; and in each instance when

these bubbles appeared, the natives, who were standing by, named

correctly the species of fish by which they were emitted, being

guided probably by their size, and by their coming up singly or in

larger numbers. After a bubble of air has appeared, but a short

time elapses beforé the head of a fish appears protruding above the

surface of the mud. There is no difficulty in securing a fish when

he shews himself in this way, as the blades of grass, which have

been arranged so as to cross each other beneath the surface of the

mud, form a net through which he cannot readily force his way

back.

I remained watching the process for about an hour, during which

I saw eleven fish taken, and the natives told me, that, as the day

advanced, larger fish would be caught, andin greater numbers.

None of those that I saw taken were large. They were of three

species—Connia (Ophio-cephalus) Magoora and Hoonga(Siluroids.)

It is obvious that this mode of catching the fish is entirely based

upon the fact that they cannot breathe water, but are forced to

ascend at stated intervals to the surface, to breathe atmospheric

air—a fact which after I had verified it by drowning two or three

specimens by inverting a net over them, I communicated to Sir

Emerson Tennent, who in his reply forwarded to me a copy of a

letter from Professor Huxley, which contains the following passage.

“Your correspondent’s experiments on the respiration of the fish

are most interesting, and I trust he will continue them. It would

be a great fact should he establish the point he seems to be aiming

at, viz., that these fish habitually breathe air rather than water.”

T had already fully satisfied myself of the fact of which Mr. Huxley

134 THE AIR BREATHING

here speaks; but, in order to put the matter beyond doubt, I re-

peated my experiments on a larger scale, in the presence of several.

gentlemen who were so kind as to assist me, some of whom favour-

ed me with suggestions which enabled me to make my experiments

more satisfactory, by varying the manner in which they were made,

The first set of experiments was made in the presence of C. P.

Layard, Esq., and G. Molesworth, Esq. On that occasion the fish

experimented on were enclosed in glass receivers, which were sub-

merged in larger vessels containing other fish, which had free ac-

cess to the air. From some of the receivers, the fish inclosed in

which were so large as not to be able to make their escape through

the aperture, the stoppers were removed, so as to allow a free com-

munication between the water inside the receiver and that outside.

In others, in which smaller fish were inclosed, the stoppers were

replaced, as soon as the air had been allowed to escape but, were

from time to time moved up and down, so as to promote the cireu-

lation of the water between the receivers and the aquarium in which

they were placed. The fish confined in these receivers were of

five different species, viz., Maddhacariya, Loolla, Talcaddia, Kawa-

ya, Hoonga. Messrs. Layard and Molesworth remained for about

an hour and a half to watch the experiment. During that time

two Loollas and two Taleaddias were drowned, one Taleaddia sur-

vived after having been kept from the air for 50 minutes; and a

Maddhacariya, which had been confined for more than an hour,

when an attempt was made to remove it, revived immediately on

obtaining access to the air, and swam off so vigorously that it was

impossible to distinguish it from other fish of the same species

which were in the aguarium. When Messrs. Layard and Moles-

worth went away, there still remained two receivers with fish in

them, which continued to shew signs of life. One contained a Ka- a

waya, the other a Hoonga. These were left unobserved for about two

hours, when they were removed quite dead. In some of the re- a

ceivers several Tittiyas (water breathing fish,) were confined, along —

with the air-breathers, and did not appear to have suffered in the

least, when their companions were removed dead. |

FISH OF CEYLON. 135

The second set of experiments was tried in the presence of the

Revd. G. Schrader, Revd. W. F. Kelly, and W. J, Sendall Esq.,

Mr. Molesworth having suggested that the death of some of the

fish formerly experimented on, might have been accelerated by the

alarm experienced by them on finding themselves confined in so

small space as that ofa glass receiver, it was determined to attempt

to keep the fish from access to the air, in this second set of experi-

ments, by means of diaphragms fastened a couple of inches beneath

the surface.

Two vessels were employed. One was the bell glass of a hang-

ing lamp. In it were two Connias and two Loolas (both air breath-

ers,) and about fifteen or twenty Tittyas (water breathers). These

fish had been in the bell glass for some days; but were evidently

too much crowded, as the Tittyas, although the water was frequent-

ly changed, were constantly at the surface breathing air, as such

fish will do when the water becomes impure. ‘The diaphragm in

this case was a circular piece of tin, perforated with small holes.

The other vessel was a tank or aquarium of the following dimen-

sions, viz. 8364 16% 12 inches. In it were a considerable number

of fish, both air-breathers and water-breathers. A diaphragm of

Mosquitos net was stretched across it, about two inches below the

surface, by means of pieces of rattan. ‘These arrangements having

been made, the fish were left undisturbed for upwards of an hour.

On their being examined at the end of that time, all the air breath-

ers in the bell glass were found dead; but so also were about one

half of the water-breathers, whose death was probably attributable

to the fouling of the water, the volume of which was not sufficient

for the support of so many fish, especially when they were cut off

from all communication with the air.

In the larger vessel, the diaphragm was found to be imperfect;

several of the fish, both air-breathers and water-breathers, had

made their way into the space above it, and it is probable that

some of those which were found below it, when the vessel was

examined, had, during the course of the experiment, passed repeat-

136 THE AIR BREATHING

edly backwards and forwards between the space above and that

below the diaphragm. Two, however, were quite dead, a Loolla

and a Maddhacariya, both air-breathers. None of the water

breathers in this vessel had died.

These experiments not being satisfactory, in consequence of the

imperfection of the apparatus, it was determined to repeat them,

with a more perfect diaphragm, and a quantity of fish better pro-

portioned to the volume of water in which they were confined:

The diaphragm was extended about six inches below the surface

dividing the aquarium into two compartments, in the lower of |

which were confined specimens of Maddhacariya, Hoonga, Magoora,

- Connia, Loola, Kawaya, and Poolootta, all air-breathers, together

with six Ancoottas, water-breathers. In the upper compartment,

separated from those below only by a diaphragm of mosquito net,

were placed Maddhacariyas, Kawayas, Hoongas, Conniyas, and

Ankootas. In this compartment there were also aquatic weeds,

and a siphon was kept running for the greater part of the day, so

as to change the whole body of water frequently while the experi-

ment was going on. The diaphragm was fastened in its place

about 114 4. M., in presence of Mr. Layard. Very soon after the

fish in the lower compartment were cut off from communication

with the air, they began to emit bubbles of gas, and it was remark-

able, that, while the air bubbles which were carried down through

the mosquito net along with the fresh water fromthe siphon, made

their escape at once back to the surface, the bubbles of gas emitted

_ by the fish were detained by the net, shewing that the air had.

undergone a considerable change while detained in their systems.

Notwithstanding the pains which were taken to secure the dia-

phragm, one of the Pooloottas, and one or two of the Conniyas

contrived to escape into the upper compartment; the remaining

Poolloota, after having been confined for about three hours, began _ 3

to manifest great uneasiness, and contrived by a desperate effort

to force himself through a hole in the net, which did not appear to

be large enough to allow a fish of one quarter of his size to escape.

The diaphragm was removed at 63 Pp. M., in presence of Messrs. ‘

FISH OF CEYLON. 137

Layard and Molesworth. All the fish in the upper compartment

were alive and healthy, as were also the six Ancoottas in the lower

compartment. ‘Two small Hoongas likewise appeared vigorous;

and a large Hoonga which was nearly exhausted, revived immedi-

ately on obtaining access to the air. All the Kawayyas, twelve in

number, were dead, also six Maddhacariyas, three Magooras, one

Loola, and one Cooniya, being the whole number of each of those

species that had been confined beneath the diaphragm.

The different degrees of tenacity of life which were manifested, in

the course of this experiment, by the different species, and by dif-

ferent individuals of the same species, were very remarkable. Con-

trary to my expectation, the first fish that succumbed was a Ka-

wayyah, (Anabas) which turned over on its side at half-past twelve,

_. about an hour, or an hour and a quarter after the commencement

of the experiment. At a quarter to one, several Kawayyas were on

their sides, while a Loola, which, from the result of former experi-

ments, I had expected to die first, continued in its ordinary posi-

tion, and apparently alive. Atthree o'clock, two of the Kawayyas were

still alive, while all the rest had turned over on their sides nearly ©

an hour before. I attribute the great length of time required on

this occasion to kill the fish, as compared with the result of former

experiments, partly to the greater volume of water contained in the

aquarium, and partly to a constant stream of fresh water being

allowed to fall into it during the earlier part of the experiment,

which carried with it minute globules of air. That stream was,

however, discontinued about two o’clock, as it seemed that the

Ankoottas did not require it.

The struggles of all the air breathing fishes, and especially of

the Kawayyas, to get up to the surface were very violent; and their

breathing through their gills became after some time very laborious.

This was the more remarkable, because these fish, when they have

access to the surface, are remarkable for keeping their gill-covers

perfectly motionless, ‘This was especially observable in the Hoon-

gas, which survived the longest; and J infer, that, although none

of these fish can live long, when prevented from rising tothe sur-

188 THE AIR BREATHING

face, yet their gills are so constructed as to enable them to

extract some oxygen from the water, and thus to prolong their

existence, although not a sufficient supply to enable them to dis-

pense altogether with access to the atmospheric air.

Notwithstanding the success of the experiment just described,

there were two species of fish, which, from their habits, I believed

to be air-breathers, but which I had not succeeded in drowning.

To complete the investigation, therefore, I enclosed, on asubsequent

day, two Poolloottas, two large and two small Hoongas, and two

Ankoottas, in receivers, from which all communication with the

air was cut off. The Ankoottas, being water breathing fish, were

included for the purpose of proving that the others died solely in

consequence of their exclusion from the air. Both the Poolloottas

died in less than a quarter of an hour. The larger Hoongas died _

in about four hours. The smaller Hoongas were alive at the end ,

of six hours, when it was thought necessary to remove thé dead — 4

fish, during which operation the surviving Hoongas had an oppor-

tunity of obtaining a fresh supply of air. They were then enclosed

again, along with the Ankoottas, and at the end of seven hours

were found quite dead, the Ankoottas, which were confined along

with them, being alive and apparently vigorous. .

I think I have thus established, with regard to eight species of

fish, inhabiting the marshes of Ceylon, what Professor Huxley states

would be a great fact, if established, viz., that they habitually

breathe air, and are incapable of surviving, for any length of time,

_ if excluded from it; and I have the pleasure of presenting you

with specimens, for your Museum, of these species which have

been actually drowned in the manner described. ‘

The delay, which has occurred in the publication of the Society’s

Journal, enables me to add the following extract from a paper

which I drew up some time ago, giving an account of a singular — 3

circumstance, which I have ascertained since the previous part of ‘ ;

this communication was written, in the natural history of another a

species of fish, a water-breather, and, I believe, a Siluroid. t

“ Having occasion to visit Caltura periodically, I was told, onone of ~ ips

FISH OF CEYLON. 139

my visits, of a fish which is caught at certain seasons in very large

quantities, and which has the singular habit, when held up by the

tail, of emitting from the mouth a quantity of eggs. So great is

the number thus emitted, that, when many fish are captured, the

eges are eagerly collected from the bottoms of the boats, and car-

ried away to be fried, and are greatly relished by the villagers

when so prepared, while the fish themselves, being too numerous

to be consumed in their fresh state, are salted and dried, and often

form an ingredient in the curries which appear at our tables.”

“‘'The description, which I received of the manner in which the

eggs are procured, seemed to point to the conclusion, universally

believed by the natives, that the regular mode of bringing forth

their young is, in the case of these fish, through the mouth; a fact

which seemed to me to be so singular, that I determined to stay a

day or two longer at Caltura, when I next visited it, for the pur-

pose of investigating the circumstances which seemed to indicate

so Singular a conclusion.”

‘The result of my investigation was, as might have been expected,

that I ascertained, that the circumstances had not been fully or

accurately observed, and consequently that the conclusion, to which

they pointed, was erroneous; but I, at the same time, satisfied my-

self of a fact in the natural history of those fish, which will perhaps

be regarded as but little less extraordinary, than their novel mode

of parturition would have been, if it had been established as true;

and which, as Ceylon has acquired some notoriety fer marvellous

stories respecting its Zoology, I should feel some hesitation in

stating, were it not, that, in addition to the abundance of unexcep-

tionable testimony, I was ne to procure specimens hnSinei the

whole extraordinary process.”

“ These fish produce their eggs, in the first instance, very much

in the same manner as other inhabitants of the waters do, with this

exception, that the eggs seem to come to maturity in batches of

ten or twelve. Bottle No. 1 will illustrate this. It contains the

roe of one out of a large number of fish that I examined. You will

perceive that, besides eight or ten large eggs, there is a whitish

140 — THE AIR BREATHING

mass, which, on being closely examined, will be found to consist

of other eggs of very minute size, the difference in size between

those which are ready for emission, and the others which are im-

mature, being very remarkable. The strange fact, however, is

that the large eggs, on being emitted, are immediately taken up,

either by the fish that has laid them, or by another of the same

species, and, not swallowed, but kept in the mouth, until they are |

hatched, and the fry are able to take care of themselves, a period

of some weeks, during which it is impossible that the fish, which

is swimming about with so extraordinary a mouthful, can swallow

any food, except such small nutritious particles as may be floating

about in the water. When these fish first make their appearance

at Caltura, in the beginning of the season, they are said to be so

fat, that the curry made with them resembles that made with pork;

but after swimming about for a few days, with their mouths full

of eggs, they become dry and insipid. In bottle No. 2, you will

see thirteen eggs, which I shook out with my own hands from the

mouth of a fish of eight or nine inches long, each egg being about

the size of a small grape. Preserved in that manner, viz., in Gly-

cerine, the eggs retain their natural colour and transparency, where-

as in spirit they soon become opaque. In the same bottle are some

other eggs, which were obtained by pressure, and which present

the same remarkable difference in size asthosein No.1. You will

perceive that these latter are perfectly transparent, the smaller ones

being scarcely visible, whereas those which were shaken out of the

mouth of the fish contain a perfectly formed embryo, and have a —

system of blood-vessels spreading over their surface on one side. |

In bottle No. 3, you will see one of the eggs in a more advanced

stage of development. Both the head and tail of the embryo have —

_escaped from the egg, which, very little diminished in size, remains

appended to the middle of the fish, giving it a very distorted appear-

nace.” .

“This adherence of the egg to the young fish, after it. has been —

hatched, is not peculiar to this species. ‘The same thing occurs in —

the case of the Salmon fry, which are being produced, under the

FISH OF CEYLON. 141

auspices of Mr. Buckland and other eminent pisciculturists, in such

quantities as to give us some grounds for hoping that that delicious

fish may become again so common in the rivers of England, that

it shall no longer be a luxury accessible only to the wealthy, and

that farm-labourers may again, as is said to have been formerly

the case in the neighbourhood of Newcastle, find it necessary to

stipulate, in their engagements with their employers, that they shall

not be fed on Salmon on more than two days in the week.”

““This is the only specimen I was able to procure in that stage of

development, the time not having then arrived for the general

hatching of the eggs; but an intelligent friend, who is at Caltura

at present, has promised to procure me other specimens, which

will, I trust, enable me to ascertain a fact which I am inclined to

believe, although I am not as yet prepared to assert it positively,

namely, that the egg so appended is, in fact, the stomach of the

animal in the state of enormous distention, and that, as its contents

are absorbed, while the other parts of the fish grow in size, it gra-

dually assumes a more natural proportion to the rest of the body.*

To this conclusion I am led by observing the system of blood

vessels, which is perceptible on the side of the egg opposite the.

embryo, and which certainly looks as if it was intended to form part

of the organization of the future fish.” I have since ascertained

by the aid of Wm. Ondaatje, Esq., Asst. Col. Surgeon, that the fish

which carry the eggs, and subsequently the young fry, for so long

a time in their mouths, are all males.

The name, by which these fish are known to the natives, is An-

guluwa. ‘They are regarded by them as all belonging to the same.

Species, nor would an unscientific observer be likely to discover

any specific difference between any of the specimens that I have

seen; but having sent several specimens to F. Layard, Esq., I

received a letter from him, in August last, in which he informed

me, that he had submitted the specimens which I sent him, to Dr.

Gunther of the British Museum, who had ascertained that they

* This has since been fully ascertained to be the fact.

(142 THE AIR BREATHING FISH OF CEYLON.

belong to two distinct species, both new, of the genus Arius. _ Mr. :

Layard further tells me, that the carrying of the ova in the mouth

is not so novel a phenomenon as I supposed it'to be, Dr. Gunther — ; :

having described that peculiarity in the propagation of the Genus: .

Arius, several years ago, from S., American species.

148

On the ‘Origin of the Sinhalese language’ Read before the

Ceylon R. A. Society on the 31st October, 1863.—By

JAMES ALwis, Esq., M. R. A. S.

When twelve years ago I published the Sidatsangara, and entered

into an investigation of the question as to the orgin of the Sinhala

language, I intimated my belief,* that it belonged to the Arian

or Northern family, as contradistinguished from the Dravidian, or

the Southern class of languages. My sentiments on many a colla-

teral subject have since undergone change. Ihave discovered errors

upon several points on which I then wrote. I find I have assumed

facts which have no foundation. I have drawn inferences which

are untenable. But the main question, the belief of which I then

expressed, has only received confirmatory proof in the course of

my later researches; and they enable me, moreover, with due de-

ference, but great confidence to disprove the statement in Sir Emer-

son Tennent’s History of Ceylon,—that ‘the Sinhalese, as it is spoken

at the present day, and still more strikingly as it exists as a writ-

ten language in the literature of the Island, presents unequivocal

proof of an affinity with the group of languages still in use in the

Dakken ;—Tamil, Telingu and Malayalim,f

Sir Emerson Tennent was, probably, indebted for this information

to Professor Lassen,{ and he to Professor Rask of Copenhagen—

all of whom were not conversant with the Sinhalese. §

* See Introd. to the Sidatsangara, p. xlvi.

+ Sir Emerson Tennent’s Ceylon, p. 328.

+ See his S. Ind. Alterthumsk, p. 368.

§ Professor Bachtlingk, lays down as a philological axiom that “it is dangerous

to write of languages of which we do not possess the most accurate knowledge.”

144 AN ESSAY ON THE ORIGIN OF THE

When more than forty years ago Rask wrote, the greatest mis-

-apprehension prevailed amongst Europeans on all Oriental subjects.

Eastern Languages were not extensively cultivated, A gloom

enveloped the science of comparative philology. Inaccessible was

the path to eastern history. Even the Sanskrit, the language in

‘the highest state of cultivation now-a-days, was then but imper-

fectly known to the European world. Some considered it a deri-

vative of the Zend, and others treated it as a creature of the Pali.

Little, if any thing, was definitely investigated of. the latter.

The relation which the Sanskrit bore tothe Préhkrit, was very im-

perfectly investigated; and was, at the time Wilson translated V2k-

rama and Urvast, ‘fav from being understood’; and, when the la-

bours of Lassen and Burnouf brought to light the Nepal books of

Buddhism, even the names of their Pali versions were unknown

in Europe. The distinction between the Arian and the Dekka-

nese groups of languages was not well ascertained. The Tamil

was supposed to have been an off-shoet of the Sanskrit. The An-

dhra merely existed as a book name. Between it and the Dravi-

da no relationship was established ; much less was the identity of

Dravida and Damila recognized. ‘The Sinhalese was not known

in Europe. Nor was it cultivated by the English in Ceylon until

after the annexation of the Kandian Kingdom (in 1815) to

the possessions of the British Government. Even then little was

ascertained of the Senhala by a careful inter-comparison of

south-Indian dialects ;—less, was known of the various modifica-

tions which the former had undergone ;—and least of all regarding

its history for upwards of two thousand years. ‘True it is indeed

that Mr. Chater published a Sinhalese grammar in 1815; yet this

led to no important results in point of philological researches. The

language adopted in it was the bastard Sinhalese of the fourteenth Cen-

tury. It was the language of the paraphrases —the Sanskrit, if I may

So call it, Stnhalicised. When, therefore, Clough published his

Dictionary fifteen years afterwards, he was led away with the belief

——_

——

* Speigel’s Kammavacha.—Intro: p. 1.

SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 145

that ‘the Sinhala was derived from the Sanskrit.’ THe moreover

perceived not the identity of the Hlw with Sinhala; nor could he

distinguish the Pali forms in the ancient Sinhalese from the Sans-

krit forms which predominated in our modern dialect. One would

_ have supposed that the share he had had in the publication of the

Bélavatara could not fail to enlighten him on the subject. But

such, unfortunately, was not the case. He recognized ‘the elements

of two distinct dialec ts, in the national language of Ceylon. Ono

he pronounced the Edu, and the other the Sinhala. ‘The former

he regarded as ‘the remains of the language originally spoken,

2. e. by the aboriginal inhabitants; and the latter, as the language

introduced after the Vijayan conquest.*

The subsequent labours of the Rev. S. Lambrick (1834), as well

as those of an anterior date (1821) of the Rev. John Callaway

were of little avail. ‘The Dictionary of the latter was intended for

elementary schools. The Grammar of the former, by his adoption

of the forms of language current amongst the vulgar, rendered but

little assistance to the Philologer. His denial, moreover, of the

_ existence of the passive voice, which he must have daily found in

_ the Sinhalese Version of the Lord’s prayer, only gave those who

_ placed the Sinhalese in the South-Indian class an additional handle

_ in support of their incorrect theory.

_ History, too, was then inits infancy. Upham’s works published

in 1833 tended rather to mislead than to direct the European

mind. No effort was made to set Sinhalese history in its true

light until Turnour entered the field of Oriental literature. The

_ commencement of true historic knowledge may be regarded from

_ the date (1837), when he published the Mahavansa, and exhibited

| the value of the Pali, not only in regard to chronological and_his-

_ torical researches, but also in point of philological investigations. +

_ * For explanation of the terms Elu and Sinhala see Sidatsangara p. xxvii et

seq. |

| + The learned author of the Dravidian Comparative Grammar in fixing the

_ date of Dravidian Civilization preparatory to an investigation into the origin

_ of the Dravidian language, says: ‘I am inclined to look to Ceylon for the best

| means of arriving at an approximate date.’ p. 81.

146 AN ESSAY ON THE ORIGIN OF THE

Yet, it may be truly said that no one applied his energies to glean

the information, which our historical works afforded to investiga-

tions connected with the language of the Sinhalese. Dr, Stevenson

of Bombay has written several papers in the pages of the Bombay

Asiatic Society’s Journal; but they are by no means calculated to

assist Philological investigations.* Even the Rev. Spence Hardy,

with a very intimate acquaintance with the Sinhalese, could not — .

trace the origin of that language.j Indeed in times later still (1853)

when the Sedatsangara appeared, I confess, I was not able, with

- all the assistance of European and Asiatic researches then at my :

command, definitely to state the origin of the Sinhalese.{ a

Jt was upon the publication of that Sinhalese Grammar, how-

ever, that people, in later times, began to pay greater attention to

acritical study of the Senhala. Since then has appeared an invalu-

able auxiliary to the investigation in hand—‘“The comparative —

Grammar of the Dravidian language by the Revd. R. Caldwell

(1856). Since then too has arisen a greater thirst fora knowledge

of the archxology of Buddhism; and, what is inseparably connec- : i

ted with it, the PAli language. These helps combined with the

light which History has shed upon the subject, and the knowledge

already possessed by them of the Sanskrit, have enabled the native it

pandits in our own island to investigate with success the originof

the Sinhala language: and those investigations establish, asI pur-

pose to show in a paper which I shall hereafter present to this

Society in continuation of these introductory remarks, a result, —

the very opposite of that which Sir Emerson Tennent states as being — a

founded upon “unequivocal testimony,” or which Prof: Spiegel hy

considers, is supported by certissemis testimoniis.§ :

Professor Lassen in his Indische allisthumus kunde, a work

designed to be a critical digest of all the researches of the last

i ; : a

* ‘In many instances Dr. Stevenson’s lexical analogies are illusory and dis-

appear altogether on a little investigation.’ Caldweill’s D. G. p. 40. a

+ Ceylon A. 8. Journal. a

{£ See Introduction. p. xxiv.

§ Kammavacha Introd: p. vii.

SINHALESE LANGUAGE. : 147

sixty years, relative to the antiquities of India, in speaking of the

languages of the Dekkan viz. the Tulva, the Malabar, the Tamil

the Telugu, the Karndta, and the Sinhalese, sums up their rela-

_ tions to the Sanskrit as follows:—

«A more critical investigation of the languages of the Dekkan

_ has shown that they have been enriched from the Sanskrit, buf are

: quite independent of it as to their origin. ‘Their phonetic system

_ is distinct, and so is the fundamental part of their vocabularies, em-

| bracing the words in most common use ; and farther, what is deci-

| sive, their grammatical structure is peculiar. With this philolo-

_ gical fact accord the traditions of the Dekkan, indicating, as they

do, that the Dekkanese were originally in a rude state, and that

: settlers from the North brought to them their civilization. ‘The

_ traditions of the continent agree here with those of the island of

_ Ceylon, and the phenomena of the religious and political state of

the Dekkan, at the present time, establish the fact of its having

| received its civilization from that source. Its alphabets, also, came

| fromthe North. Yet, certain peculiarities are likewise found, which,

_ not being referable to Arya teachers, must be considered as remains

_ of usages properly belonging to the South-Country. Nor has the

_ civilization brought from the North penetrated every where: many

_ tribes are met with in the Dekkan, which have adopted only a part,

q sometimes more, and sometimes less, of the imported culture; one

) indeed, that of the Tuda on the Nilgiri, had, until within a short

time, received no such civilizing influence.*’

With all the respect due to so distinguished an orientalist as

Pr. Lassen, I cannot but regard his remarks, so far as they relate

_ to the Sinhalese, as inapplicable, and therefore inconsiderate.

| It is quite true that the Sanskrit element, by which I mean the

| use of sibilants, aspirates, double letters etc. in the modern Sin-

_ halese, cannot be traced to our ancient dialect; and that these have

| been engrafted on the Sinhalese in comparatively modern times.t

= §. Ind: Altenth. p. 363.

| 7 Seethe history of thé Sinhalese language in my Introd: to the Sidat-

sangara p, cIXxxvii. et seq.

148 AN ESSAY ON THE ORIGIN OF THE

In view of the particular affinity which the Pali and the Prakrit

dialects bear to the Sinhalese, and the historical conjectures as to

the formation of the latter, it may also be affirmed that the Sin-

halese is not a direct off-shoot of the Sanskrit. Yet, all this may

be assented to without in the least affecting the proposition, that

the Sinhalese belongs to the Northern division of languages, and

cannot be classed amongst ‘the languages of the Dekkan,’ which,

in accordance with the language of Mr. Caldwell, I shall in future

designate the ‘ Dravidian,’

It may be here convenient to consider the historical before

entering upon the philological questions, that relate to the sub-

ject. I believe it is a universally admitted fact, that before the

Aryas or Sanskrit speaking people of Hindustan first emerged from

obscurity, and settled themselves in upper India, the whole of the .

Peninsula from Cape Comorin to Himalaya, and also the Lanka

of the Ramayana, had been peopled in every direction by an en-

tirely distinct race of people in different stages of civilization,

whom they designated Daitya, Danava, (Yakkhas or) Rakshas,

and Mlichhas*. ‘These were the Yakkhas or barbarians whom

Vijaya found on his arrival in Lanka, and of whom the early Sans-

krit and Bhuddhist writers speak with much aversion. ‘This taken

in connection with the fact that Demonolatry, or the worship of

devils in Ceylon, is identical with ‘the system which prevails in

the forests and mountain fastnesses throughout the Dravidian ter-

ritories and also in the extreme South of the Peninsula,’} leads to

the inference, that the early settlers of Ceylon were a portion of

the aboriginal inhabitants of India before its occupation by the

Arya race. But it isalsoa fact, as I shall show hereafter, that

they have neither retained their national character nor their na-

tional language.

* Dr. Stevenson’s Kalpa Sttra.—p. 133.

ee a ee

} Caldwell in his Dravidian Grammar says, ‘This system was introduced

within the historical period from the Tamil Country into Ceylon, where it is

now mixed up with Buddhism.-- p, 519.

SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 149

The only tribes, however, that have not intermingled with the

Sinhalese, and whose savage condition in modern times may be

identified with the ancient barbarity of the yakkhas, are the Veddas;

and these, be it remembered, are as distinct from the Sinhalese as

are the Tamils of the North. There is also a distinctive class

called the Rodiyas, and it is remarkable that their ranks were re-

plenished from time to time with Sinhalese convicts of all castes

from the Royal to the plebeian. Mr. Casie Chetty, the author of

the Ceylon Gazetteer in giving a number of words in current use

amongst the Rodiyas expresses a conjecture ‘that they were either

a colony of some of the wandering hordes from India, or a fragment

of the aborigines of Ceylon itself partially blended with the Sin-

halese.* ‘This is very probable; and although we have not sufficient

materials for comparison, yet the few words which have been col-

lected of this dialect, containing the names for the common wants

of mankind are, with six exceptions, different from ‘the Sinhalese

as it is spoken at the present day, and still more strikingly as it

exists as a written language in the literature of the island.’t

The mention of Nagas or Nagaworshippers, with whom the yak-

khas had shared the kingdom of Lanka, does not lead to any certain

results. For the Naga worship had been diffused from a very

early age throughout the whole of India{ as well as in the north-

west frontiers of the Arya-desha, as for instance, Cashmir.§

The woship of the Nagas, moreover, was confined to that portion

of this island, once called the Naga dipa, ‘the northern and north-

western parts of Ceylon, where ‘Tamilians commenced to form

+ CB. A.S: J. Vol. vi. p. 171.

+ From amongst 128 words given by Mr, Casie Chetty, of the Rodiya dialect

we can only identify 6 Sinhalese words e. g. bintalawa ‘earth,’ altho’ strictly

Speaking it is a ‘plane;’ halluwella for kaluwara ‘ darkness;’ boralowa for

boralu ‘ gravel; ’ bilinda ‘boy;’ muruian for mulutan that which is cooked;

ptkanawa for penenawa ‘perceive’ C. B., A. S.J, 1850—3. p. 177 et seq.

I Asiatic Researches xx p. 95. :

§ See Rajatarangani.

150 AN ESSAY ON THE ORIGIN OF THE

settlements prior even to the Christian era, and from whence they

have gradually thrust out the Sinhalese.’*

These are, however, points of inquiry which may be dispensed

with, in view of the fact, that, after the arrival of Vijaya both the

aboriginal inhabitants of Lanka’ and their language had been so

merged in the Arya invaders and their dialect, the Sinhalese, that

little or nothing physically, historically, or philologically can now

be traced to a Dravidian origin;} whilst all such considerations lead

to the inevitable result of the Sinhalese language being an off-shoot

of the speech of the Aryas, or the Pali, or a Prakrit dialect.

‘It is vain’ says Mr. Caldwell, and he says it truly,—‘ to expect

from considerations of colour and complexion any real help towards

determining the race to which the Dravidian belongs’, p. 512. For,.

to state a fact mentioned by himself, and known tous in Ceylon.

“‘ the descendants of the Portuguese who settled in India several:

centuries ago, are now blacker than the Hindtis themselves,” p.

513. Regarding, therefore, “colour as a most deceptive evidence

of relationship and race,” [ p. 515.] we may next direct attention.

to it in connection with a less fallible testimony, viz., “the shape

of the head and the more permanent peculiarities of feature;” (ib).

and here I need not labour to prove that the Sinhalese present.

a wide difference from all the races of the Dekkan. For instance,

the features of the Tamils of the Southern Peninsula are peculiar,

and though the complexion of the Sinhalese presents different

shapes, the ‘copper cclour’ is that which prevails over the rest:.

and this again it would seem is the colour of the Arya race, so

much honored by Manu (cap. iv. § 180) when he declared it an

* Caldwell’s Drav. Grammar, p. 4.

{ Caldwell says ‘‘It is undeniable that emigrations from Ceylon to the

southern districts of India have occasionally taken place. The Teers (pro-

perly Tivar islanders) and the Ilavars, ‘Sinhalese,’ (from ‘Ilam’, Ceylon, a

word which has been from the Sanscrit ‘Simhalam’ or rather from the Pali

* Sihalam’ by the omission of the initial ‘s’) both of them Travancore castes, —

are certainly immigrants from Ceylon”—Caldwell’s Com. Gr, p. 72.

SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 151

insult to pass over ‘even the shadow of a copper coloured man,

The colour as well as the features of the inhabitants of the Dekkan

are certainly distinguishable from those of the Sinhalese even by a

easual observer. An utter stranger to the various races cannot be

three weeks in this Island before he perceives the striking differ-

ence between the manners and habits of the Sinhalese on the one

hand, and those of the different other races on the other. Euro-

pean Teachers have frequently observed the facility with which

the Sinhalese pronounce European tongues, presenting in this

respect a quality distinguishable from every race of South-Indian

people.

It may, however, be urged by those who advocate a contrary

-opinion that the use of long hair by the Sinhalese, a practice to

which Agathemerus, a Greek Geographer of the third Century

bore testimony,* is worthy of notice in an inquiry into the rela-

tions of the Sinhalese with the early Dravidians. It is true

enough that the usage referred to is equally characteristic of the

Dravidian race.t} But I submit that we have no undoubted tes-

timony of the same usage not having existed in the Northern

territories from whence Ceylon was peopled. Onthe contrary,

the fact of Sagara’s having imposed ‘shaving the hair’ as a pun-

ishment on the Yavanas implies that it had been previously cus-

tomary to use the hair long: and itis also not a little remarkable

that Gotama Buddha a North-Indian is represented, like Siri San-

ghabodhi, one of our kings, to have worn tresses and a top-knot.

But even supposing that such was not the case, and that the prac-

tice of twisting the hair into a knot at the back of the head is

identical with that of the Dravidian race; and that, as stated by

Mr. Caldwell, ‘it was from Dravidian settlers in Ceylon that the

* ‘The natives cherish their hair as women among us and twistit round

their heads.’

+ “Up to the present day the custom of wearing the hair long, and twisted

into a knot at the back of the head is characteristic of all the inferior castes in

the southern Provinces of the Tamil Country”—Caldwell’s Grammar p, 75.

t See Attanagalwansa Cap. i § ii,

142 AN ESSAY ON THE ORIGIN OF TiikK

Sinhalese adopted the same usage’ (p.75); it may still be affirmed

that there is nothing in this circumstance which miltiates against

our position.

Historically Professor Lassen himself furnishes us with an item

of proof which I shall here notice. He says ‘ whenever an ori-

ginal language has been retained, as among the Gondas, the Kan-

das and the Padarias, there is nothing of the civilization of the

Aryas, or merely a sprinkling of it; but wherever, on” the other

hand, Arya civilization has penetrated and prevailed, as among the

Kolas of Guzerat and others, the language of the Arya has also

come into use.’ Applying this test to Ceylon and its language,

_I perceive the result to be in direct opposition to the opinion of ‘ :

Mr, Lassen to which I first attracted attention. For, to suppose

that Ceylon retained its aboriginal language even after the Vijayan

conquest is to affirm that the Sinhalese received not even a

* sprinkling” of the Arya civilization; which is not the case, the

fact being, that far from its being ‘a mere sprinkling’ Ceylon

has enjoyed from the very settlement of Vijaya a greater share of

civilization than any other Country in the Dekkan, or in the

fastnesses of the Vindhya. |

Nor is Sir Emerson Tennent of a different opinion, for he dis-

tinctly says “To the great dynasty (of Vijaya) and more espe-

cially to its earliest members the inhabitants of Ceylon were — ;

indebted for the first rudiments of civilization, for the arts of agri-

cultural life, for an organized Government, and for a system of

national worship.” (Vol. 1 p. 360.)

This being established, the converse of the proposition laid down

by Professor Lassen holds good, viz—that ‘with the civilization Bi

of the Arya invaders the aborigines adopted their dialect.’

History also shows that the new colonists retained a distinct and

separate character; and that although intermarriages might have —

taken place between the Yakkhas and the new settlers;* yet that the

ee A A

—

* The only mention however of this in the Mahawansa has reference to .

Vijaya; and the facts there stated clearly show that he was not ‘‘married”’ to

Kuveni as supposed by Mr, Caldwell p. 81, but that haying been captivated by

SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 1538

former remained, for a time, a distinct tribe; and that they wholly

disappeared after 275 A. D., at which period they are for the last

time spoken of in History as a servile class engaged in opening

Tanks, etc. But whatever inferences may be drawn from the

mention of the Yakkhas in the early part of our history; it is quite

clear ‘from all existing evidence,’ ‘that the period at which a

vernacular dialect was common to the Yakkhas and Vijayan Co-

lonists must have been extremely remote’* and that the former

soon disappeared either by amalgamation with or disintegration from

the conquerors. ‘The last supposition is however the more reason-

able; since we find until very recent times a distinct tribe of people,

in Ceylon, called the Veddas or Beddas, answering to the uncouth

“Yakkhas” or “ Monkeys” of ancient writers.

The language of our first monarch Vijaya was probably the Pali

or the Prakrit. He came to Ceylon shortly after Gotama, who

spoke the Pali or the Magadhi. He was descended through the

female branch of the Royal family of Kalinga, and his birth

place was Lala, a subdivision of Magadha. “And the position,”

says Mr. James Prinsep (Bengal A. S. Journal vol. ii. p. 280)

‘“‘assumed by Mr. Lassen that the Pali of Ceylon was immediately

derived from the shores of Kalinga, independently of its being

matter of history, is supported by the evidence of the records now

discovered in that country:”’

this as a question involved in obscurity, yet the very name given

to the Island by Vijaya, and which we find was shortly afterwards

used by the Indian Monarch Asoka, in his rock inscriptions, would

and although Professor Lassen regards

lead to the inference that the Pali was the language of the con-

her charms Vijayahad her for his mistress, and that when he had found he could

not according to the usages of the east be crowned without a queen consort,

whom a Yakkinni or ‘non-human being’ would ill represent, although the mother

of two children, he discarded them all for the daughter of King Pandiya of the

nearest civilized state.

- * Sir J. E. Tennent’s Ceylon p. 328, with whom [ entirely concur in the

matter, having long abandoned a contrary opinion which I expressed in my

Sidatsangara, p, xxiv.

154 AN ESSAY ON THE ORIGIN OF THE

querors. We are not told what was the language of the letters

which accompanied the embassy sent by Vijaya to ing Panduwa

for a Royal Princess; but itis probable that the letter of invitation,

to his brother (See Mahawansa p. 58,) Sumitia, was in the Pali

or the Prakrit, a language of the North, which, we learn from his-

tory, was greatly cuitivated throughout the greatest part of Central

India, which was at this time subject to Magadha. It is also ascer- Z

tained from our historical Annals that our Kings had frequent

intercourse with Arian and Dravidian Princes, and in some places

the Historian describes the correspondence as having been carried

on in ‘the Pali language.’ |

There is another circumstance which may be here noticed. The

birthplace of the first settlers of Ceylon was Lala, It is iden-

tical with Léta and Ldéda, and Dandi, the author of Kavyadarsa,

says that even in comparatively a modern age, that of the Dramas,

the language of Lata as well as of Banga (which latter is only a

different pronunciation of Vanga, and merely another name for —

Gawda) is usually the Prakrié. His authority goes further, for

he places the language of Lala in the same class as that of Gaw-

da, Surasena, etc: and his Commentator explains the ‘et cetera,’

to mean the Magadht (or Pali) and Panchala (the Zend). Hence

all circumstances considered it is very clear that the Pali was the

language of the band from Lala who colonized Ceylon, or rather

a modification of it which bore the nearest relation to such lan-

guages as the Suraseni, and the Zend—at all events a so-called 7

Prakrita dialect; therefore a language of the Arian and not of the

South Indian class.

The last inference receives confirmatory proof from another his- 7

torical fact, viz., that on the arrival of Mahindu in the Island he

was not only able to converse readily with the people, but without

loss of time to preach to them in ‘the Sinhalese’ language, or ‘the

language of the land.’ ‘This shows the intimate relationship which

originally existed between the Sinhala and the dialect of Pataliputtas

and although in course of several centuries as stated in the Sva-

basalankara, the Sinhalese has undergone a vast change, yel it

SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 155

may be readily believed that this change consisted in the dialect

of the conquerors, (which was probably the Prakrit) being melted

with the preexisting language—i. e. by a process of shortening the

words of that language, and modifying it so as to suit it to the

tongue of men, whose organs of speech were incapable of enunciat-

ing several of its elements, such as the aspirates and combined

consonants. I shall hereafter adduce ‘unequivocal proof’ of the

fact, that the Sinhala as it is known even at the present day, ex-

hibits the nearest affinity to the PAli and the most distant connection

with the Dravidian—a fact which is farther borne out by the

facility with which Buddhagosa of Pataliputza translated the Sin-

halese Atthakatha into the Pali. It is also a fact to which I may

briefly allude here, that the only Sinhalese Grammar now extant

in this Island, follows Sanskrit and Pali, and not Dravidian writers.

It is certainly true, as stated in the Sidatsangara,* that there

are three elements in the Sinhalese, one in connection with the

Sanskrit—another with the Pali

it must be remembered that the pure Sinhalese so formed upon the

and the third with the loeal; but

establishment of the Vijayan dynasty appears to have been drawnt

chiefly from the Sanskrit in the 15th Century after Christ, and

from the Malabar and Telingu after the domination of the Dekkan

princes, of whom the last deposed Sinhalese Kang, Sri Wekrama

Raja Sinha, spoke the Telingu well, and the Sinhalese but indif-

ferently.

lt was perhaps this latter phenomenon in the Sinhalese that led

the Rev. Dr. Stevenson to consider the Sinhalese also as a

branch of the Southern family.t His own observations, however,

* See Introduction p. xiviii.

+ See the comparative specimen of the ancient and modern Sinhalese in the

Sidatsangara pp, xxxvi, wherein, if one thing is clearer than another, it is that

nearly every word in the first is directly traceable to the Pali, and in thc second

to the Sanscrit.

t See Bombay Asiatic Journal for 1842 p. 195; he also places the Maldivian

under the head of the southern family ; but I may here remark that it is clear-

ly traceable to the Sinhalese,

156 AN ESSAY ON THE ORIGIN OF THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE.

militate against this opinion, for he says: ‘The Hindi which con-

tains the most (2. e. Brahminical words) is estimated by Mr.

Colebrook to have nine-tenths of its vocables of Sanskrit origin,

and the Marathi which contains the fewest has at least four-fifths

of its words derived from the same source. In the Southern family

again Sanskrit words are of rare occurrence, and enter less into the

common language of the people, except in the Sinhalese which

from the influence of the Pali chiefly derived from the Sanskrit and

the language of the Buddhist literature has nearly as many words

originally derived from the Sanskrit as the Hindi itself.

Before however I proceed to adduce the promised proof to esta-

blish the non-Dravidian origin of the Sinhalese, and which I purpose

to lay before this Society at a future opportunity upon several

distinct heads, I may conclude my introductory remarks by quoting

the expressed opinion of two of the most eminent linguists of the

day, viz., Caldwell and Max Muller, names which, as you know,

must be deemed to impart confidence to those who have the honor

to labour in the beaten path in which they have travelled. The

author of the invaluable Dravidian Grammar says, ‘There is no

relation, however, between the Sinhalese language—the language

of the Sinhalese properly so-called, who were Buddhists and Co-

lonists from Magadha or Behar—and the language of the Tamilians,

nor is there any reason for supposing that the natural course of

migration (viz., from the mainland to the Island) was ever inverted

to such a degree as to justify the supposition that the whole mass

of the Dravidians entered India from Ceylon.’ p. 73. 4

And although there is a slight difference of opinion between

Professor Max Muller and myself as to the relationship which exists

between the Sanskrit and the Singhalese; yet it will be observed

that that difference is one which does not affect the main question

in hand. He says:—‘The Sanskrit now lives only in its offspring,

the numerous spoken dialects of India—Hindustani, Maharatti

Bengali, Guzeraté, Sinhalese ete, all preserving in the system of

their grammar, the living traces of their common parent.’ — Survey

of Languages, p. 31.

157

A few remarks on the poisonous properties of the Calotropis

Gigantea, the Mudar of Bengal, the Yercum of the Tamils,

and the Warra of the Sinhalese Tre C. OnpaatJE, Esq.,

Asst. Col. Surgeon.

DADA OA ARARALRI ADD IA EIR DR AAR RAR

In the course of my public duties, as Medical Officer, in charge

of the Civil Medical Stores, I was called upon to discover, if pos-

sible the cause of the death of one John Melder. He died at Chi-

law, and the stomach and intestines with their contents were sent

to me on 8lst March last for examination, 12 days after death.

He died shortly after some drugs had been administered to him by

a native, who was considered to be a most experienced medical

practitioner. It appears that the deceased having required an

emetic, the native Doctor gave him a small quantity of powdered

Kukuroomang seed, (Randia dumetorum), a well known native

emetic, mixed in about 2 dessert spoonfuls of the milk of the plant

called Warra (Calotropis Gigantea) with a quantity of cow’s milk.

The immediate effects of the dose were incessant vomiting, and

excruciating pain in the bowels: the extremities became benumbed

and lifeless; and in about 2 hours after the medicine had been

given, death supervened. The mudar has not to my knowledge

been considered as a poison by Toxicologists either Indian or Eu-

ropean. I made some experiments with a view of ascertaining the

physiological properties of the fresh milk of the mudar. An ounce

of it being given toa pup, in 5 minutes it began tofroth at the mouth,

and violent vomiting ensued until the stomach was completely

emptied of its contents. The animal cried and groaned evidently

from pain in the bowels. It laydown on the ground and gradually

sank and expired within 24 minutes.

Ten minutes after lexamined the animal. The mouth and tongue

were of a violet colour. The stomach was quite empty, and the

158 POISONOUS PROPERTIFS, OF THE CALOTROPIS GIGANTEA,

mucous membrane corrugated, the intestines were contracted pre-

senting a cord-like appearance, and spots of inflammation were

visible.

The left ventricle of the heart and the larger vessels contained

fluid blood.

A second experiment was made on a little dog. The quantity

used was 60 drops diluted with water.

The symptoms already referred to followed each other in regular

succession being attended with bloody stools. Death ensued in this

case in 18 minutes.

These experiments afford sufficient and satisfactory data to lead

us to the conclusion, that the milk of the mudar may be placed on

the list of the most deadly vegetable poisons in Ceylon and India.

In the rapidity with which it destroys life, it is equal to the

poison of the Upas, the celebrated Java poison, which it is well

known is a milky juice drawn from the Antiaris Toxicaria pro-

ducing the same symptoms on the animal economy that the juice

of the warra does.

From the effects which the milk of the Calotropis gigantea has

thus been ascertained to produce, it appears to me to belong to the

class of Narcotic-Irritant poisons, a class of poisons that act on

the Cerebro-spinal system of the nerves paralysing the muscles

and finally the heart.

During the trial of the case it was clearly proved that the patient

suffered from exactly the same painful and fatal effects that were

noticed inmy two experiments; and the contracted cord-like ap-

pearance of the man’s Intestines sent to me for examination at once

convinced me that death was caused by the effects of the Mudar

Milk, which, though as I believed hitherto unknown asa poison,

is positively such, and that of an irritant character.

As this cannot but be of great interest to the Indian Toxicolo-

gist, I have in these few remarks brought it to the notice of this

Society, as this is the only literary and scientific body in Ceylon

through which the fact can be communicated. :

THE MUDAR Of BENGAL, &c. 159

The Native doctor who administered the drug was tried for man-

slaughter in September last. at Chilaw, and sentenced to 2 years

imprisonment within the gaol. The leniency of the sentence is to

be attributed to the circumstance, that the malpraxis in the opinion

of the Jury, was the result of carclessuess and ignorance,

160

On the Crocodiles of Ceylon—By the Revd. Principat Boaxs.

VSN IIOEIILEOIILOILOILIOIOaOaOeeer

The favourite haunts of Crocodiles being but seldom visited, in

consequence both of the insalubrity of the localities in which they

are generally to be found, and of the dangerous character of their

inhabitants, the habits of these animals are very imperfectly known.

The following account of two nests, which were recently found

within 2 few miles of Colombo, may therefore be interesting to a

Naturalists.

The first of these nests was discovered by Mr. Symonds of the if

Survey Department, who found it to contain about 150 eggs, which

he removed, not without considerable risk, having been repeatedly

charged by the old Crocodile who was guarding them.

My curiosity having been excited by the description which I

received of the nest from Mr. Symonds, I went to examine it -

myself. I found it amongst the bushes on the swampy bank of

the Bolgodde lake, at a distance of a few feet from the water.

The nest itself consisted of wet vegetable matter mixed with mud, — %

and was raised to the height of between three and four feet, pre-

senting in shape very much the appearance of a small conical hay-_ 2

cock, but in colour and consistency that of a heap of dung. Round a

the base of the cone, was a circular trench more than three feet — -

broad, and about two feet deep, in which the old Crocodile was a

wont to wallow while watching her nest. The circle enclosed by

this trench, the whole of which was covered by the base of the

nest, was between six and seven feet in diameter.

I am not aware that these conical nests have been previously -

noticed. The Rev. J.G. Wood, who makes no mention of the nests — *

of the Crocodile, says in speaking of the Alligator in his Illustrated — te

Natural History, that the parent deposits her eggs in the sand of iy

the river side, scratching a hole with her paws, and placing them — 2

THE CROCODILES OF CEYLON. 161

in aregular layer therein. ‘She then scrapes some sand, dry

leaves, grass, and mud over them, smoothes it, and deposits a second

layer upon them. ‘These eggs are then covered in a similar manner

and another layer deposited, until the mother has laid from 50 to

60 eggs. Although they are hatched by the heat of the sun and

- the decaying vegetable matter, the mother does not desert her young,

but leads them to the water and takes care of them, until their

limbs are sufficiently strong, and their scales sufficiently firm to

permit them to roam the water without assistance.”

It will be seen that the nest of the Crocodile of Ceylon differs

considerably from that of the Alligator as described by Mr. Wood.

_ In the former the eggs are placed at a height of at least two feet

above the surface of the water; and, although the nests in Ceylon

are principally composed of aquatic weeds in a wet state, which

might be expected to give out considerable heat in fermenting, yet

I do not believe that any artificial heat is required to hatch the

eggs, because several eges, which were procured from the Bolgodde

nests, were hatched in my house, being merely deposited in earth

which was kept damp and exposed to the rays of the sun.

While examining the nest that had been discovered by Mr.

Symonds, we were told by some natives who accompanied us, that

there was another nest, within a mile or two of the spot, which

had not yet been disturbed.

On visiting this second nest, we found it in all respects very like

the first, except that it was not so large, and that, besides the trench

which surrounded it, there were one or two holes in the swamp in

which the natives said that the old Crocodile was accustomed to Le.

Warned by the narrow escape which Mr. Symonds had when

examining the first nest, we approached very cautiously, expecting

an attack every moment, and when we were all assembled on the

edge of the trench surrounding: the nest, we hesitated to cross it,

because it was when he was in the act of stepping across the trench,

that Mr. Symonds was first attacked by the other Crocodile,

which raised its formidable jaws directly beneath him, and would

no doubt have effectually put a stop to his proceedings, had he not

162 THE CROCODILES OF CEYLON.

promptly discharged the contents of his fowling piece down her

throat.* On finding however that no Crocodile appeared, our con-

fidence returned; and at length one of our number ventured to —

approach near enough to remove the top of the nest, and to ta

away the eggs, of which he procured twenty-five.

On my expressing astonishment at the pacific conduct of the

| parent Crocodile, and suggesting that it was probably absent in

pursuit of food, the natives who were with us expressed their con-

viction, that it was at that moment in the trench; but that it was

of a different caste from the first. Further enquiries have satisfied 7

me that this belief in the existence of two different species, or, as 4

the natives call them, castes, of Crocodiles is universal in the coun- :

try; and Dr. J. Anderson, of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, informs 4

me that a similar belief prevails in Bengal respecting the Mugger, ~ 4

which closely resembles the Crocodile of Ceylon, if it be not iden-

tical with it. One caste is said to confine itself toa fish diet, while 3

the other attacks human beings. z

The former, called by the Sinhalese Elle Kimbola, or Greg a

Crocodile, grows to a larger size than the more savage species, and 4

is said to be that which is found about Kornegalle. As I have

two thriving specimens, hatched from the eggs of the Crocodile 4

which attacked Mr. Symonds, and am promised one of the pro-

geny of that which submitted so quietly to the plundering of its

nest in my presence, I hope that I shall be able to ascertain, by

the aid of some eminent English Naturalist, whether they belong

to the same or to two different species. At present they present

no difference in appearance that an unscientific eye can detect.

I may mention that there is some difficulty in bringing up young —

Crocodiles by hand, as they obstinately refuse every kind of food 4

that I have ever presented to them. One, which was brought to —

me some years ago, died of inanition, although, for a week or ten

days that it was in my possession, I constantly tempted it with

* This shot was not, however, fatal; for Mr. Symonds was subsequently

eharged twice by, as he believes, the same crocodile.

THE CROCODILES OF CEYLON.. 163

both flesh and fish. Those which 1 now have I feed by forcing

bits of raw meat down their throats with a stick, two or three times

a week. Under this treatment, they seem to thrive, having about

doubled in size since they left the egg; but the operation is not a

pleasant one, and requires some dexterity, as their teeth are exceed-

ingly sharp, and they lose no opportunity of turning upon the hand.

that feeds them.

164

Native Medicinal Oils.

MANS

The processes, by which all Medicinal oils are prepared, would

seem to be almost the same, except in the case of a few.

The general process followed in these preparations, is this:—

The drugs prescribed for the first decoction, being cut up and

pounded together, are put into a vessel (earthen or copper) with —

well-water four times the weight of the drugs; the whole is then

gauged by means of a piece of stick, on which accordingly a mark

is put to denote the quantity, and three times as much water is

again added. ‘This is boiled down to a quarter of the whole or —

until it is reduced to the mark. The boiling must go on very ~

slowly, continuing for seven days. Sometimes the juices of certain :

plants are substituted for this docoction. eh

This first decoction being then strained is put into a vessel,

generally copper, with oil (Sessamum or other as the case may be)

equal to a quarter of it in weight, and is next boiled with a medi-

cal composition, called “ Kalke,” compounded of a number of me-

dicinal drugs well ground together, which kalke itself must, in

weight, be equal to a quarter of the oil. The boiling of this, which

may be called the second decoction, is continued for nearly five |

days more, except where juices are used instead of the first decoc-

tion, in which case, the boiling should not exceed three days.

When the Kalke assumes the consistency of Bees’ wax, the vessel _

is taken off the fire, and the liquid being then well strained, becomes _

the Medicinal Oil.

Oits. No. 1.—Sidhearte Tiele.

First Decocrion.

Bely— gle marmelos, Corr.

Middy—Premuna serratifolia, Linn.

NATIVE MEDICINAL OILS. 165

Totilla—Calosanthes indica, Blume.

Palol—Spathodea adenophylla, D C.

Etdemata—Gmelina Rheedei, Hook.

Aswenna —Alysicarpus vaginalis, D C.

Polpala—_Airva lanata, Juss.

Endero—Ricinis communis, Linn.

Batu—Solanum Indicum, Linn.

Bewille—Sida species.

Take the roots of these in equal quantities, add them together,

and the roots of Satavaria, Asparagus racemosus.

| Pound them well and put all in a vessel with four times their

weight of water. Put a mark, and then add three times the same

quantity of water. Boil down the whole to a quarter.

Seconp DeEcoction.

Strain and put this first decoction into a clean vessel, with

Sessamum oil and cow’s milk, each equal to a quarter of it in

weight. ‘Then add Kalke composed of the following ingredients,

by grinding them together with cold water.

Satepuspe—Anethum sowa seed.

Wadekaha—Acorus calamus.

Inguru—Ginger.

Savindelunu—Rock salt.

Maha Arathe—Alpinia Galanga Linn.

Sulu Arathe—?

Ensaal—Cardamoms.

Dewedaare—Pinus Deodar.

Sandoon—Sandal.

Kottan—Aucklandia Costus, Falk.

Galmade—Tale.

Amukkera—Withania somnifera, Dun.

Meretemiris—Pepper.

Jatamanse—Nardostachys Jatamansi, D C.

Welmadete—Rubia cordifolia.

These should be taken in equal quantities, and when added to-

gether, the whole must be equal, in weight, to a quarter of the oil

166 NATIVE MEDICINAL OILS.

taken. All this must be boiled until the water is completely ex-

hausted, and the Kalke assumes the consistency of Bee’s wax.

Then strain the oil.

VIRTUES.

In all cases of pain in the sides, &c., Rheumatic or otherwise, —

the oil may be rubbed over the parts affected; if the ailment be

severe, a table spoonful to be internally applied,__immediate relief 4

is certain. Females far advanced in pregnancy may safely drink

this oil in cases of pain in the chest and abdomen, This is also

good for diseases in the ear and head, seven or eight drops may

be applied to the ear and a little rubbed on the head. ‘This oil is

of a cold temperament, and is specially adapted for persons who

suffer from excessive heat in the system. .

It may be safely used in cases of illness among children.

No. 2.—Yaamedewe Kase Tiele.

Make the First decoction of the following drugs by boiling them 2

in the manner prescribed.

Roots of Wara—Calatropis gigantea, R. Br.

Navehandy —Euphorbia Tirucalli, Linn.

Karande—Pongamia glabra, Vent.

Totile—Calosanthes Indica, Blume.

Waila—Gynandropsis pentaphylla, D. C.

Patuk —Euphorbia nereifolia, Linn.

Yakevanasse—Anisomeles ovata, R. Br.

Yakberiye—Crotalaria laburnifolia, Linn.

Welrukattene—Cryptolepis Buchanani, Reem. et Sch.

Kurundo—Cinnamon.

Lonuvarene—Cratceva Roxburghii, R. Br.

Saksande—Aristolochia Indica, Linn.

Batu—Solanum Indicum, Linn.

Ratnetul—Plumbago rosea, Linn. :

Tombe—Leucas zeylanica, R. Br,

Kariville—Momordica Charantia, Linn.

‘Madarutala—Ocimum canum, Linn.

Mike 4353

A Se eer a Cee gt UD etre me are Oper ak gas a

NATIVE MEDICINAL OILS. 167

Bely— gle marmelos, Corr.

Cohombe— Azaderachta Indica, Ad. de Juss.

Pamburu—Limonia Missionis, Wall.

Hingorupatta— Acacia concinna, D. C.

Eremudu—Erythrina Indica, Lam.

Murunga—Moringa pterygosperma, Geert.

Niyede—Sanseviera zeylanica, Willd.

Kukurumaan— Randia uliginosa, D. C.

_ Siviye—Chavica Chuvya, Mog.

Nike— Vitex Negundo, Linn.

_ _Inguru—Ginger.

SEconD DercoctTion.

Take the following oils in equal quantities, so that the whole

: may be equal to a quarter of the first decoction.

_ Sessamum oil—

Castor oil—

Mee-oil—Expre-sed from the seed of Bassia longifolia.

_ Cohombe-oil—Margosa.

_ Next add kalke made of the following ingredients taken in equal

proportions.

| Seeds of Daluk—Euphorbia antiquorum, Linn.

Moonemal—Mimusops elengi, Linn.

Medelle—Barringtoina racemosa, Rox.

Rukpenere—Sapindus emarginatus, Vahl.

Puhul—Benincasa cerivera, Lavi.

Dette—Baliospermum polyandrum, Wight.

Kekiry—Cucumis, sp.

Nelly—Phyllanthus Emblica, Linn.

Mee—Bassia longifolia.

Siviye—Chavica Chuvya, Moq.

_ Trastevalu—Ipomcea turpethum, R. Br.

Kaluduru—Black cummin seed, Nigella sativa, Linn.

Sududuru-—White cummin seed.

Asemodegan—Parsley.

Inguru—Ginger.

168 NATIVE MEDICINAL OILS.

Miris— Pepper.

Tippily —Long pepper.

Arelu— Terminalia Chebula, Retz.

Bulu—Terminalia Belerica,Roxb. fruit.

Nelly—Phyllanthus Emblica, Linn.

Noce—Nutmeg. aie

Wasawasi—Mace. _

Krabo—Clove.

Suduloonu—Garlic,

Wadekaha—Acorus calamus.

Peronkayan—Assa, foetida.

Seenakkaaran.

Palmaanikkan— Blue vitriol.

Savindelunu—Rock salt.

Yavekarelunu—Nitre.

Soweselunu-—Natron.

Balal lonu.

Harankaha—Cureuma Zerumbet, Rox.

Satepuspe—Anethum sowa, Rox.

Welmee—Liquorice,

Kottan.—Aucklandia Costus, Falk.

Maasakka—Oak Galls.

Boil these for five days, and strain the oil.

VIRTUES.

This oil cures all boils in the throat, It renders the aid of the _

Surgeon unnecessary, even in cases, in which it had at first appeared

to be indispensable. Even cases which had resisted the utmost ~

skill of the Surgeon, have often yielded to the application of this — |

Bhi

oil, when such application had been made after mere opening of ~

the hoil. In cases of boils inside the throat, it should be drunk ‘

by the patient, about a Tea-spoonful at a time, once or twice a day 4

In other cases it may be rubbed over the boil. j

In cases of scrofulous tumours round the neck, the oil should be —

rubbed over them and they should be fomented with burnt salt.

NATIVE MEDICINAL OILS 169

No. 3.— Wiridukomaare Tiele.

Make the First decoction of the following drugs..

Roots of Garide — :

Lonuvarene — Cratceva Roxburghii, Wall.

Waraa— Calatropis Gigantea, R. Br.

Totile—Calosanthes Indica, Bl.

Seenuk—Euphorbia Tortillis, Rottl.

Enderu—Ricinis Communis, —

Karende—Pongamia Glabra.

Beville—Sida Sp.

Ratnetul—Plumbago Rosea, Linn.

Nike—Vitex Negundo.

Daluk—Euphorbia Antiquorum, Linn.

SECOND DECOCTION.

Take equal quantities of the following oils, so that the whole

may be equal to 1-4th of the First decoction.

Sessamum oil—

Castor oil.

Mee-oil—Bassia Longifolia.

Cow-ghee.

Cohambe oil—Margosa.

Next make “ Kalke” of the following ingredients.

Seeds of Pusvel—Hntada scandens, Benth.

Cumburu—Guilandina Bondue, Linn

Karende—Pongamia glabra. _

Arelu—Terminalia Chebula, Linn.

- Bulu—Terminalia Bilirica, Linn.

Nelly—Phyllanthus emblica.

Sududuru—White cummin seed.

- Caluduru—-Black cummin seed.

‘Asemodegan—Parsley.

| Sadikka—Nutmeg.

if Kraboe—Clove.

| Wasawasi— Mace.

170 NATIVE MEDICINAL OILS.

Kottemally—Coriander.

Uluva—Trigonella Feenum-groecum, Linn.

Peronkayan—Assa foetida-

Suduloonu—Garlic.

Inguru—Ginger.

Miris——Pepper.

Tippily-—Long pepper.

Boil these and strain the oil.

VIRTUES.

' A remedy for all ““Sanny” diseases, fits. arising from excessive |

cold, especially in child birth,-and oppression in the chest. ‘To be

applied internally and poured in the ears and nostrils. :

For all pains and “Andevayo”, Hydrocele, it is to be rubbed on

the parts—and for costiveness of the bowels if is to be rubbed on —

the abdomen and fomentations must be applied.

This has also the effect of instantly warming the blood.

—

No. 4.—Wajjrekaanty Tiele.

Make the First decoction of Bewille roots.

SEcoND DECOocTION. :

Take each of the following liquids equal to the weight of the

First decoction. / ae

Juice of Kidaran-alle-—-Roots of Amorphophallus campanula

tus, Bl.

Tender cocoanut water.

Cow’s milk, |

Then take a quantity of Sessamum oil equal to one-sixteenth of

the aggregate weight of the First decoction and the other three

liquids. a.

Next add “Kalke” equal in weight to one-fourth of the Sessa-—

mum ou, by grinding together the following ingredients in equa "

quantities.

Dewedaare—Pinus Deodar.

Kalanduru ~Cyperus rotundus.

NATIVE MEDICINAL OILS. dah Vie

Satepuspe—Anethum sowa.

Inguru—Ginger.

Kaha—Curcuma longa.

Wenivel—Coscinium fenestratum, Colebr,

Kottan—Auckandia Costus, Falk.

Kattekumtchal—Frankincense.

Ensaal—Cardamoms.

Kurundopotu—Cinnamon bark.

Namal-reno—Pollen of Iron-wood flower.

Sandun—Sandal wood.

Hore-aretu—Core of the Dipterocarpus zeylanicus, Thw.

Nelun-alle— Nelumbium speciosum-root.

} Boil all these as usual, and strain the oil.

: VIRTUES.

_ Good for all sorts of diseases, to be drunk, or rubbed over the

parts affected, or to be applied to the nose. This is particularly suc-

) cessfull in cases of boils in the throat, and mouth, and Gum-boils,

| as well as all asthmatic diseases even in children.

| No. 5.— Vaate murtu Tiele.

Substitue the J uice of the following plants for the First decoction.

M owekeeriye —Sarcostemma viminale.

Waraa—Calatropis gigantea

| Daluk-—Euphorbia antiquorum.

Kansa-—Hemp.

Nike--Vitex, Negundo.

Timbiri—Diospyros glutinifera.

Extract the juice of the leaves of the first five plants, and of the

| Next take the following oils in equal quantities, so as to make

_ the whole equal to a quarter of the composition of the above juices,

| Mee-oil —Extracted from the seeds of Bassia longifolia.

Sessamum-oil.

Castor-oil.

172 NATIVE MEDICINAL OILS.

Cow-ghee.

Cocoanut-oil.

Then make “Kalke” of the following ingredients.

Kaha—Curcuma Longa.

Wenivel—Coscinium fenestratum.

Tippily—Long Pepper.

Peronkayan—Assa foetida.

Moonemal-ete-—-Seeds of Mimusops elengi.

Sodulunu—Garlic.

These should be taken in equal quantities, so that the whole

when added together, may be equal toa quarter of the weight or

the oils above mentioned. Boil every thing together during three

days, until the “Kalke” assumes the consistency of Bees’ wax, and

strain the oil.

VIRTUES.

Good for all diseases arising from the morbid or excited state of

the windy humour. ‘This oil is of a warm temperament and ad-

apted to persons frequently subject to cold sensations. In all cases

of pains it is to be rubbed over the parts affected.

No. 6.—Koleslesma Tiele.

ivxtract the juice of——

Batu-fruit—A species of the night shade.

Kukurumaan fruit—Randia uliginosa, D. C.

Demette fruit—Gmelina Asiatica.

Pusvel—Entada scandens.

Hinguruvel—Gueilandina Bonduc.

Niyede—Sanseviera zeylanica.

Pupule leaves—Vernonia zeylanica, Less,

Embuldoddan-~-Citrus aurantium.

Iremusu roots—Hemidesmus indicus.

Sooduloonu—Garlic.

Inguru— Ginger.

Welaa roots—Gynandropsis pentaphylla.

p. i

ee: Ye

NATIVE MEDICINAL OILS. 1738

Eremudu leaves—Erythrina indica.

Kuppeveniye leaves—Acalypha Indica.

- Murunga bark—Moringa pterygosperma.

Take these juices in equal quantities instead of the First decoc-

tion, add cocoanut milk equal to a quarter of the whole of the

Juices, Sessamum oil equal to half the cocoanut milk, and the same

quantity of Castor oil.

Next make “Kalke” of equal quantities of the following ingre-

dients, so that it may equal a quarter of the Sessamum and Castor oils.

Dewedare—Pinus Deodar.

Welmee—Liquorice.

Savindelunu-- Rock salt.

Wasavaasi— Mace.

Seenakkaaran—

_ Tippily—Long pepper.

- Yavekarelunu—Nitre.

Trastevaalu—Ipomeea turpethum.

_ Asemodagan— Parsley.

Akkrepatta—Pellitony of Spain.

Galis—-Gardenia latifolia.

Kaluduru—Black cummin seed.

___ Sududuru—White cummin seed.

Karaboe—Clove.

Noce--Nutmeg.

-Palmaanikkan—Blue vitriol.

Arelu-—-Terminalia Chebula.

- Bulu--Terminalia Belerica.

Nelly—Phyllanthus Emblica.

- Boil all these as usual, and strain the oil at the end of three days.

| VIRTUES.

_ Relieves diseases characterized by an excess of Phlegm, suchas

_ Oppression in the chest, boils inside the throat, Gum-boils, and all

kinds of “ Sanny” convulsion arising from a morbid state of the

three humours.

To be taken internally and rubbed over the body.

174 “NATIVE MEDICINAL OILS.

No. 7.— Vissassineely Tiele.

Take the Juices of the leaves of the following plants in equal

proportion. 3

Aweriye—Indigo plant.

Attene—Stramonium.

Naa—Iron wood tree

Kaha—Turmeric.

Erremudu—Erythrina Indica.

Aswenne—Alysicarpus vaginalis.

Nike—Vitex Negundo.

Daluk—Euphorbia antiquorum.

Magulkarende—Pongamia glabra.

Katukarendo—Barleria prionitis.

Siviye—Chavica Chuvya.

Kariville—Momordica charantia.

Wang Eppelle—Justicia adhadota.

Puak— Areca

Tippily—Long pepper.

Velekeeriye—Excecaria agallocha.

Wailaa—Gyandropsis pentaphylla.

Patuk—Euphorbia nereifolia.

Cohombe— Margosa.

Getetumbe—Leucas zeylanica

Keekerendeye—Eclipta erecta, Linn.

Maaraa— Adenanthera pavonina Linn.

Kalukammeriya— Solanum.

Katurumurunga—Agati grandiflora.

Totile—Calosanthes Indica.

Godemanel—Crinum ornatum, Herb.

Wasetel—Ipomeea sepiara, Konig.

Karal Sebo — Achyranthes aspera, Linn.

Niyede—Sanseviera zeylanica.

Polpala —Aarva lanata, Juss.

Bely—Cigle marmelos,

NATIVE MEDICINAL OILS. 17

Poataa—

Yakberiye—Crotalaria laburnifolia.

Pawatta—Pavetta Indica.

Andutala—A species of Ocymum.

Wadekaha——Acorus calamus.

And the juices of Polbadda~—Cabbage of the cocoanut tree.

Soduloonu— Garlic.

Mix a quantity of human urine equal to one-tenth of all these

juices put together. Add also Sessamum oil equal to one-tenth of

the aggregate weight of the whole. Next make “Kalke” of the

following drugs.

Kurundupotu—Cinnamon bark.

Ensaal—Cardamoms.

Inguru— Ginger.

Miris—Pepper.

Tippily—Long pepper.

Kollankole—Pogostemon Heyneanum.

Noce—Nutmeg.

Wasawaasy—- Mace.

Kraaboe——Clove.

Peronkayan——Assa feetida.

Gajetippily—A species of long pepper.

Kelende-ete—-Holarrhena mitis, R. Br.

Waddekaha——Acorus calamus.

Saarene——Trianthema decandra, root.

Katerolu——Clitorea ternatea, Linn.

Olinde-ete-—Seed of Abrus precatorius.

Patuk root-—A. species of Euphorbia.

Amukkera—Withania somnifera, Dun.

Madurutala—Ocimum canum, Linn.

These must be taken in equal quantities, and the whole when

prepared, should be equal in weight, to one-fourth of the oil taken.

Boil three days.

VIRTUES,

For all serpent-bites to be taken internally, a table-spoonful, and

176 NATIVE MEDICINAL OILS.

rubbed on the wound. If the patient lose his senses, a few drops

may be applied to the nostrils and eyes. |

This will be found equally efficacious in cases of poison.

No. 8.—Henerage Tiele.

First DEcocrTion.

Wenivelgete— Coscinium fenestratum.

Pananpety. !

Roots of Etdemete—-Gmelina Rheedei.

Ankende—Acronychia pedunculata, Walp.

Magulkarende—Pongamia glabra.

Anoedaa—Abutilon sp.

Welaa—Gynandropsis pentaphylla.

Kurundu—Cinnamon.

Nike—Vitex Negundo,

Wara—Calatropis gigantea.

Tremusu—Hemidesmus indicus.

Dehi—Lime.

Embuldodan—Citrus aurantium.

Second DEcocrTion.

To this First decoction add juices of:—

Batu fruit—A species of the night shade.

Demete do.—A species of Gmelina.

Kukurumaan do.—Randia uliginosa.

Dehi do.-—Lime.

Dodang do.—Citrus aurantium.

Kaameranka—Averrhoa Carambola.

Goreke do.—- Garcinia Cambogia.

Inguru—Ginger.

Pusul—Ash pumpkin.

Annasy—Pine apple.

Heeresse — Cissus edulis, Dalz.

These juices must be taken in equal quantities, and the whole

must equal the First decoction in weight.

NATIVE MEDICINAL OILS: Aan

Next add Sessamum oil.

Mee oil— Bazssia longifolia.

Castor oil.

Cow ghee.

Kohombe oil— Margosa.

Cocoanut oil.

These oils must also be taken in equal quantities, so as to make

the whole equal to one-eighth of the First decoction and the juices

put together.

Then make “Kalke” of the following ingredients, taken in equal

proportions, so that the whole Kalke may be equal to one-fourth of

the oils.

Areloo—'Terminalia Chebula.

Bulu—Terminalia Belerica.

Nelly—Phyllanthus Emblica.

Inguru— Ginger.

Suduloonu— Garlic.

Abe—Mustard.

Miris—Pepper.

Sewese-lunu— Natron.

Sawinde-lunu—Rocksalt.

Balal-lunu.

Yavekare-lunu.

Lewa-luou—Common salt.

Savukkaarang—

Degal. |

Oluva—Trigonella Foenum Greecum.

Manoseele—Red arsenic.

Hiriyal.

Aankarang.

Seenakkaarang.

Navesaarang-—Muriate of ammonia. _

| Penerepotu—Bark of Sapindus emarginatus.

| Boil as usual, and strain the oil.

178 NATIVE MEDICINAL OILS.

VIRTUES.

Relieves all sorts of Sanny-convulsion arising from a morbid

state of the three humours. To be taken internally and applied to

the nose and eyes.

No. 9.—Kayteke Tiele. —

Take the juice of Wetekeyya roots, Pandanus odoratissimus and

cow milk in equal quantities. Then take Sessamum oil equal to

one-eighth of the weight of both.

Next add “Kalke”’ made of the following ingredients, which,

when ground, must equal one-fourth of the oil.

Sandun—Sandal.

Welmee—Liquorice.

Kottan—Aucklandia Costus.

Kurundu—Cinnamon.

Ensaal—Cardamom.

Kollankole—Pogostemon Heyneanum.

Hingurupiyely—Kempferia Galanga.

Kalanduru-— Cyperus rotunduas.

Koketiye—A ponogeton crispus.

Orulesattang—-Civet musk.

Dewedaare—Pinus Deodar.

Sevenne-roots—Andropogon muricatuin.

Iriveriye do.—Plectranthus zeylanicus.

Sirivedy-beville do.—Sida species.

Kapukinisse seeds—Abelmoschus moschatus.

Jataamaanse—Indian spikenard,

Boil these for three days and strain the oil.

VIRTUES.

Relieves all diseases arising from the vitiated or heated states of

the blood, such as rheumatic pains, and to be drunk, or rubbed on

the parts affected. . :

No. 10.—-Chandrekaanty Tiele.

The juice of Wetekeyya roots and cow milk in equal proportions

hie as Ben

Bigs TE he ie

ti I gg a

NATIVE MEDICINAL OILS. 179

Sessamum and Castor oils equal to one-eighth of the juice and

milk.

Kalke made of the following drugs equal to one-fourth of the oil

as usual.

Dewedaare—Pinus Deodar.

Welmee— Liquorice.

Iriveriye roots—Pleogranthus zeylanicus.

Samedera roots—Samadera Indica.

Lotsumbulu bark—Symplocos racemosa.

Hingurupiyely—Kempferia Galanga.

Pambemul.

Kuppeveniye—Acalypha Indica.

Keekirindiye— Eclipta erecia.

Ingini seeds—Strychnos potatorum.

Orulesattang—Civet musk.

Kayippoo—Catechu.

Olinde roots—Abrus precatorius,

Kalanduru—Cyperus rotundus.

Bintamburu roots—Ipomea rugosa.

Arelu—Terminalia Chebula.

Bulu—Terminalia Belerica.

Nelly—Phyllanthus Emblica.

Sandon—Sandal.

Boil these for three days.

: VIRTUES.

Relieves Headache, heat in the brain and eyes, causing a cons-

tant .flow ef tears. Good for all diseases of the head arising from

heat. This is a very mild oil, and good for daily use by rubbing

on the head. .

_ No. 11.— Dewemurtukumaare Tiele.

Take the juices of

Mee-roots—Bassia longifolia.

Kurundu do.—Cinnamon.

Waraa do.—Calatropis Gigantea.

180 NATIVE MEDICINAL OILS.

Magulkarende do, —Pongamia glabra.

These must be taken in equal proportions, as also the following

juices, so as to make the latter equal to the former.

The juice of Kinihiriye leaves—Cochlospermum Gossypium.

Attene leaves—Stramonium.

Keekirindiye leaves—LEclipta erecta.

Mugunevenne do,—Alternanthera sessalis.

Madurutala do.—A species of basil.

Leeme do.—Dolichos catjang.

Kapperevalliya do.—Coleus aromaticus.

Iriveriye do.—Plectranthus zeylanicus.

Satavaariye do.—Asparagus racemosus.

Ahu do.—Morinda citrifclia.

Welaa do.—Gynandropsis pentaphylla.

Nike do.— Vitex Negundo.

Then add a similar quantity of cocoanut milk, thus you will

have the two compositions of the juices and cocoanut milk—all the

three in equal proportions.

Next add so much of the followiug oils, to be taken in equal

quantities—as will be proportionate to one-eighth of the whole of

these liquids.

Castor oil.

Mee oil—Bassia longifolia.

Cow-ghee. _

Kohmbe oil— Margosa.

Lastly make the “Kalke” of the following ingredients, which

must, when ground together, equal one-fourth of the oils.

Kaluduru—Black cummin seed.

Sududuru— White cummin seed.

Suduloonu— Garlic.

Perunkaayan—Assa foetida.

Kraboe—Clove.

Wasawase—Mace.

Sadikka—Nutmeg.

Asemodegan-—Parsley.

se)

iat

NATIVE MEDICINAL OILS, 181

Pepiliye —Hedyotis racemosa.

Nerivisse-—Aconitum ferox.

Palmaanikkan-——Blue vitriol.

Savindelunu—Rock salt.

Welmee—Liquorice,

Abing—Opium.

Harankaha—Curcuma zerumbet.

Atkaha—Turmeric.

Arelu—-Terminalia Chebula.

Bulu—Terminalia Belerica.

Nelly—Phyllanthus Emlica,

Inguru--Ginger.

Kattekumathal—Frankincense.

Jataamaanse—lIndian spikenard. .

Wadekaha—Acorus calamus.

Sevenne roots—Andropogon muricatum.

Iriveriye roots—Plectranthus zeylanicus.

Hingurupiyely—Kempferia Galanga.

Vildummella—A species of resin.

Boil these for seven days, using cinnamon wood for fuel.

VIRTUES.

To be rubbed on the head and applied to the ear and nose in all

eases of Sanny. ‘This oil will readily restore warmth. It is also

very efficacious in cases of cholera, for restoring warmth and relie-

ving cramps.

No. 12.—Gadu Tiele.

Take the Juices of Muruwa leaves, Marsdenia tenacissisna;

Magulwaaraa Do.—a species of Adenanthera, in equal quantities,

and cocoanut oil equal to a quarter of both these Juices put together.

Katka.

Sududuru— White Cummin seed

Kaluduru-—Black Cummin seed.

Kendegan—Sulphur.

182 '- NATIVE MEDICINAL OILS.

Suduloonu—G arlic

Boil these three days.

VIRTUES.

Cures all incipient boils, when rubbed and fomented with burnt

salt. —

No. 18.—Brungamaleke Tiele.

Take the Juice of Kekirindie—LKclipta erecta, and

Nelly fruit—Phyllanthus Emblica

With cow milk and Sessamum oil

All in equal quantities; mix them together, and to the weight of

one-sixty-fourth of this composition, take Welmee, liquorice which

being ground, must be boiled with the liquids, for three days.

VIRTUES.

Relieves heat in the head and eyes, attended with constant flow

of tears, blackens the hair and cures all headaches, to be rubbed

on the head.

No, 14.—Seepathe Tiele.

Make the First decoction of the bark of the Maadam tree—

Syzygium Jambolanum.

SEcoND DEcOcTION.

Sessamum oil equal to + of the First decoction.

Kalka.

Inguru—Ginger.

Miris—Pepper.

Tippily—Long Pepper.

Arelu—Terminalia Chebula.

Bulu—Terminalia Belerica fruit.

Nelly—Phylanthus Emblica.

Wenevel—Coscinium fenestratum.

Kaha—Turmeric.

Boil these for three days.

NATIVE MEDICINAL OILS. 183.

VIRTUES.

A cure for Elephantiasis. The oil should be rubbed on the

head and the legs, twice a day. This application must be continu-

ed for one month, when it is certain to give relief.

No. 15.—Balakorande Tiele.

First DECOCTION.

Bewille—Sida species.

Katokarendo—Phoberos Gcertnerii.

| SECOND DECOCTION.

Sessamum oil equal to a quarter of the First decoction. Cow

milk four times as much as oil.

Kalka Sandun—Sandal.

Kattekumatchal——Frankincense,

Kottan—Aucklandia Costus.

Ensaal—Cardamum.

Hingurupiyely—Kempferia galanga.

Iremusu—Hemidesmus indicus.

Agil— Logwood

Kideatuttan.

Satepuspe—Anethum sowa.

Amukkera—Withania Somnifera.

Jeweeke—Seweya.

Vresembeke.

Jataamaanse—Indian spikenard.

Welmee—Ligquorice.

Dewedara—Pinus Deodar.

Savindelunu—Rock salt.

Ratnetul— Plumbago rosea.

Asemodegam— Parsley.

Perunkayan—Assa feetida.

Tippily—Long pepper.

Munwenne. —

Maswenna.

184 NATIVE MEDICINAL OILS.

Inguru— Ginger.

Walega miris-— Piper Sylvestre.

These must be taken in equal quantities and the whole when

eround together must be equal to $ of the oil.

VIRTUES.

For all pains in the system, nervous debility, and oppression in

the chest. ‘To be drunk and rubbed over the parts affected, and

applied to the nose.

This paper was found among the Society’s papers without any

name attached to it.—It is believed to have been the production

of the late Dr. Pieris of Kandy, who paid considerable attention

to Native Materia Medica.

The Botanical names given of the plants have been corrected,

and those not given added by Mr. Ferguson F. L, S,

JOURNAL

_ OF THE re

|} °<CEYLON BRANCH

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCINTY:

1867—70.

Ee TSIOME, Gi) ite CONTENTS,

aa PGE,

On the Origin of the Sinhalese Language.—By James De Alwis,

eg. MER. ALS. .. l— 86

A Lecture on Budhism. —_By the Rev. D. J. Gogerly, with Notes

by the Rey. David De Silva si ... 87-137

: Dosen pion of two Birds new to the recor rded Fauna of Ceylon,—

By H. Nevill, Esq... .188—140 \

Description of anew Genus, and five new w species of Marine Uni-

valves from the Southern Province, Ceylon.—By G. N a ce

eee. Z. Sey and H. Nevill, Hon. Sec. B. A. S, (Ce Bk.

he és ae .. L41—142

e A brief notice of Becher Knox and his companions in captivity

: in Kandy. for the. Space of twenty years, discovered among

es ~ the Dutch Records preserved in the Colonial Secretary’s

_ Office, es and translated into Se —By J. R.

a : we ‘ ...143-—-150

~ COLOMBO.

‘PRINTED BY F. FONSEKA, CHATHAM STREET, FORT.

1870.

THE papers on Buddhism by the Rev. 8. Conzs, and its accompany-

ing Translations; with other papers, and the Proceedings of the Society,

will be printed in Part II, This it is hoped, will be published in the

course of the present year.

JOURNAL

OF THE

CEYLON BRANCH

OF THE

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY:

1367.70.

Pay aT,

COLOMBO.

PRINTED BY F. FONSEKA, CHATHAM STREET, FORT.

oe ee

1870.

JOURNAL

THE CEYLON BRANCH

OF THE

mMROYATL ASIATIC SOCIETY.

On the Origin of the Sinhalese Language ;

By James ALwis, Usg., M. BR. A. 8.

Section SEcoND.

In a previous paper I adverted to a few historical facts in proof

of the proposition, that ‘the Sinhalese is an affiliated dialect of the

Sanskrit, and that it bears no affinity to the Dravidian or South-

Indian class of languages.’ In the present I purpose to adduce the

promised proof: and here I may premise that (1) whether we

compare the phonetic system of the Sinhalese with that of the Dra-

vidians; or (2) resort to lexical analogies of the same languages;

or (3) compare their grammatical relations; or (4) examine the

syntactical arrangement of their words, we arrive at but one

conclusion, viz., that the Sinhalese is as independent of the Dravi-

dian as the latter is of the Sanskrit.

SOUNDS.

There is some- resemblance between a few of the modern Sinha-

lese and Tamil letters; but this does not lead to any important

2 ON THE ORIGIN OF

result, since both Alphabets are derived from the Deva Nagari,*

and since also the peculiarities which distinguish the Sinhalese from —

the Tamil are such as to render it very probable that each had an

independent origin. Before proceeding however to point them out,

it may be stated that the Sinhalese alphabet now in current use was

not the one employed in the third century, since the earliest unmis-

takeable record of a royal grant engraved on a rock about A. D.

261, intended to be read by the Sinhalese of after-generations, and

therefore written in the Sinhalese language, is in the Deva Nagari

character. .

To the Telagu, Canarese, and the Tamil, as well as to the Sinha-

lese, are known a short e and o ; but these have been of compara-

tively recent introduction into the Sinhalese; for our alphabet itself,

like the Deva Nagari, does not give any symbols for the long sounds.

The Tamil has no characters corresponding to the ri, Iri, au,

and ah; nor has it adopted the obscure anusvara.t Though

all these are found in the Sinhalese alphabet, yet it is only the last

which is necessary to express the Sinhalese, the other letters being

used for the purpose of expressing either PAli or Sanskrit words.

Among the Sinhalese vowels there are also two characters not found

in the Deva Nagari. These are x and de. It is true they are not

given in our alphabet, which is in every respect identical, as re-

gards sounds, with the Deva Nagari; and that they are not found in

the Sidatsangara. But, whether or not we regard them as modifica-

tions of the a and &, it is important to bear in mind that there are in

the Sinhalese many hundred words whose initials begin with these

sounds, whilst it is impossible 10 say how frequently they occur as

medials, as @ in ‘bat’ or a in ‘stand’, Now it is very remarkable

that, whilst this 2 is deficient in all the South-Indian Alphabets, no

* Caldwell’s Drav. Grammar, p. 93 et seq.

t See the Ceylon Almanac for 1834.

{ ‘There is nothing in any of the Dravidian Languages which corresponds

to the use of the obscure nasal Anusvdra as a final, in Hindi and in the north-

ern vernaculars.’—Caldwell’s Comp. Grammar. p. 108.

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 3

Dravidian organs of speech can pronounce it correctly. We have

often been amused in our intercourse with the Tamils by their

ludicrous pronunciation of it. If, e. g., a Tamilian wishes to

say eta ‘seed,’ he would invariably express it ea. So likewise wté

‘are, he would express et2 ‘come; bert ‘impossible, bera ‘very

ripe; eka, ‘waist,’ eka ‘one; etc. etc.

Again, we have the ‘ half-anusvara’ which is deficient in all the

Dravidian languages except the Telagu. It is true that our classi-

cal Sinhalese, like the Tamil, is deficient in aspirates; yet it will

be observed that the former possesses all the consonants known

to the Deva Nagari, whilst the latter adopts only the first and last

characters of each of the five classes into which the consonants are

divided in the Deva Nagari Alphabet. ‘Thus,’ as remarked by -

Caldwell, ‘the Tamil Alphabet omits not only all the aspirated

consonants,......but also all its soft and sonant letters” p. 96. The

Tamil, is moreover, deficient in the aspirate ‘h’ as well as the

sibilant ‘s’, both which have an existence in the Sinhala as

may be perceived in the very name given to our language.

The change of s into h is, moreover, a peculiarity which is to be

found in some Prakrit dialects,* asin the Sinhalese.t It exercises

such vast influence over those languages in the formation of sounds,

that on this ground alone we may determine the independence of

the Sinhalese Alphabet, in its origin, of the Tamil.

We may also point out four letters in the Tamil which are as

much unknown to the Deva Nagari, as to the Sinhalese Alphabet.

These are a deep liquid ‘r,’ another ‘r’ which is harsh and rough

in its sound, a peculiar ‘1’ with a mixture ofr, and an ‘n,’ between

which and the dental ‘n’ there is no difference except that the for-

mer is invariably used as a final,

These differences may be attributed to the high antiquity of the

literary cultivation of the Dravidian dialects as compared with the

northern. When Wijaya arrived in Lanka, at the latter end of

shou

* See Cowell’s Prakrit Prakasa, pata.

+ See Sidatsangara cap. i. § 22.

4 ON THE ORIGIN OF

the fifth century before the Christian era, the Dravidians were al-

ready acquainted with letters. So were the Sinhalese colonists; for,

soon after their settlement in the island, they ‘dispatched a letter of

invitation.’* But the two nations had no common origin. Their al-

phabets too are different. It would therefore be reasonable to con-

clude that the alphabet which the Sinhalese brought down to Ceylon

was, what their.earliest writings} exhibit, the oldest form of the

Déva Nagari, similar to the characters of the inscriptions of Asoka.

The following comparative table of the Sinhalese and the Tamil

Alphabets also proves that the former has not reached the Sans-

krit through a Dravidian medium.

VowELs.

Sinh, — a, a, :i,1:u, a:ri, ri :lrilri :—e: ai :—o : au : an :. ab

Tamil — a, 4:1, 1:u, &:——:— —:e,é : ei :0,0. au:— :—

CONSONANTS.

Gutturals, Sinh. HEM a Oy Mires KN n

Ditto, Vail os ko ee n

Palatals Sin. we eh chhe sya) ae ii

Ditto, Tamil .. ch — a

_ Cerebrals, Sin. a th d- dh nt

Ditto earl 2. Eig ha n

Dental Sin. th d dh n

Ditto, Tamil Sue

Labials, Sin.

Ditto, Tamil :

Semi-vowels, Sin. y r 1 v

Ditto, “anil yor 1 oy. tl oe

os So

Sibilants and aspirate,

Sink. -s,' sh. ’s;) ih

Tamil — — — —

* Mahawansa p. 53.

+ See the Inscriptions at Mihintala.

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 5

Though the Sinhalese alphabet contains, as above indicated, the

Sanskrit vowels ri, 77, Uri, lri, ai, and au; yet they are unknown

to the language itself, thus exhibiting a difference between it and

the Tamil, which has az and aw ; and, as the reader is aware, a simi-

larity to the Prakrit dialects which reject all the above vowels. The

changes, too, which Prakrits effect in the letters of words which are

taken from the Sanskrit aré exactly the same in the Sinhalese, e. g.

i. The Sanskrit 72 is changed into a, 7, u,* and e in the Sin-

halese; and in this respect the latter follows the Prakrit, of which

we shall quote the Pali.

Sanskrit. Pali. Sinhalese,

dridha dalha ' dala ‘coarse’

krifa kata kala ‘made’

hrida hada _ hada ‘heart’

mrita mata mala ‘dead’

rishi isl isi ‘a saint’

ridhi iddhi idu t

krimli kimi kimi ‘worm’

srigala sigala sival ‘jackal ”

riju wu udu ‘direct’

mridu mudu mudu ‘ soft’

vriksha rukkha ruk ‘tree’

eriha geha ge ‘house,’

ii. The use of 7? being not very different from that of ri, even

in the Sanskrit, I shall pass on to az, which becomes 7 or e; thus.

Sanskrit. Pali. Sinhalese.

aishvarya issariya isuru * prosperity ”

Airavana Eravana Eravana ‘a name’

Kailasha Kelasa Keles ‘a name’

taila tela tel ‘ oil’

vaira vera vera ‘hatred.’

* See Cowell’s Prakrit Prakasa, p. xviii. ;

+ A word signifying ‘power to go through the air.’

ON THE ORIGIN OF

iii, The avis changed into a (2) 0 and vw; thus.

Sanskrit.

nau

aushadha

gaura

chaura

mauktika

Pali.

nava

osada

gora

chora

muttika

Sinhalese.

neva

osu

gora

sora

mutu

‘ship ’

‘drug ’

‘white’

‘thief’

‘ pearl.’

Without entering into all the changes which the Sanskrit conso-

nants undergo in the Prakrits and the Sinhalese, I shali here request

attention to a few which may be deduced from the above examples.

iv. It will be seen that the Sanskrit dis changed into 1; as in

Sanskrit.

asadha

dridha

dramidha

praudha

Pali.

asalha

dalha

damila

Sinhalese.

esala

dala

demala

pavala

‘July’

‘coarse’

‘Tamil’

‘bold.’

v, The Sanskrit and Pali ¢ is also changed into Jin the Sin-

halese, as;

Sanskrit.

katu.

kita

krifa

bhata

Pali.

kaéu

kita

kriéa

bhafa

Sinhalese.

kulu

kirula

bala

‘pungent’

‘wild’

‘crown’

‘ soldier.’

vi. ‘The Sanskrit and Pali ch is frequently changed into s in

the Sinhalese; whilst no effort is spared by Dravidian organs, even

where a Sanskrit word with an s is adopted by the Tamils, to

change the s into ch, as Chinkala for Sinhala.

Sanskrit.

chaura

~ ehumba

chatur

chakkra

Pali,

chora

chumba

chatu

chakka

Senhalese.

sora

simba

satara

saka

‘thief’

(isis)

‘four’

‘ wheel.’ -

* T haye not met the equivalent of this in the Pali,

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. rf

vil, Here I am reminded ofa peculiarity which distinguishes

the Dravidian from the Sinhalese. It is that whilst the Sinhalese

loves to conclude a word with a, as in satara, the Dravidians lose

‘no pains to get rid of it, by adopting in its stead aw or ed; e. g.

aru for ura, ‘a village’; avei for ava, ‘those,’ ete. etc.

viii. ‘The Sinhalese d often represents the Sanskrit and Pali 7.

Sanskrit. Pali. Sinhalese.

rajan raja rada ‘king’

puja Ly puja puda ‘ offering’

majja majja mada ‘kernel’

ruja ruja ruda ‘pain.’

There are many other dialectic changes which unmistakebly

point out that the Sinhalese has proceeded from the Sanskrit; but

i have, I apprehend, already shown enough, without entering

largely into questions relating to dialectic interchanges of sounds,

euphonic permutation of consonants, the laws of harmonic sequence,

ete. etc., to prove that the Sinhalese, whilst it accords with the

northern dialects, essentially differs from the Tamil in its phonetic

system. In proving this, I believe, I prove also its difference from

the other affiliated Dravidian dialects; for their essential unity in

all important and minor matters cannot be denied.

(rere ee

SrcetTion THIRD.

Lexical Analogies.

Those who maintain an opinion different from our own, refer to

the existence in the Sinhalese, of words of undoubted Dravidian ori-

gin. This can no more be denied than the existence in the undis-

puted Sanskrit dialects of a vast number of Dravidian words.

Indeed we admit the fact; and the History of Ceylon gives

a sufficient explanation of this; for, we know that the northern

proviaces of this island have been, from very ancient times, held by

Tamilians; and that after the fall of the great Sinha dynasty in

Ceylon, the island’ was governed by Indian princes of undoubted

Dravidian origin, between whom and the Sinhalese a warfare had

8 ON THE ORIGIN OF

been previously carried on, commencing from a period so far back

as the age of the memorable Dutugemini.* It is perfectly reason;

able, therefore, to expect in the Sinhalese an admixture of Dravidian

words, such as vela (veil) ‘field,’ kappal ‘ship,’ gala (kallu) ‘stone,’

neli (nali) ‘a measure,’ adangu ‘to contain,’ adukku ‘to pile one

ever the other,’ paru to become ‘ over-ripe,’ etc. But, as very justly

observed by the author of the Sidatsangara, this element of local

origin and of casual accession (nipan), is but one of three elements,

the other two being —the pure, and the adulterated Sanskrit or Pali.t

Many words of the first class, though ¢orresponding with the

Dravidian, are yet allied to the Sanskrit, as the following; and it is

therefore impossible, in many instances, to determine whether they

have been borrowed directly from the Tamil, or from the Sanskrit

which has also, it is supposed by some, borrowedt{t from the Dra-

vidian: e.g. The Sinhalese word amma ‘mother,’ which is the

same in Tamil, is found in the Sanskrit as well as in some of the

Indo-European tongues; katw ‘pungent,’ corresponds with the

Telagu ‘atu,’ and the Pali and Sanskrit Ratu; the Tamil halez

‘arts,’ which is kala in the Sinhalese, Pali and Sanskrit, is supposed

to be derived from the Tamil Ral ‘ to learn;’ Rutz ‘house’ or ‘hut’

in the Sinhalese has much resemblance to the Tamil kudi or the

Canarese gudi, and kuti in the Pali and the Sanskrit; hotuva (hota

Sanskrit) ‘fort’ resembles the Tamil hote7; etc. etc.

* ‘Tt is undeniable that immigrations from Ceylon to the southern districts

of India have occasionally taken place. The Teers (properly Tivar, ‘islanders’ )

and the Llavars ‘Singhalese,’ (from Ilam ‘Ceylon; a word which has been cor-

rupted from the Sanskrit Sinhalam, or rather from the Pali Sihalam, by the

omission of the initial s), both of them Travancore Castes, are certainly

immigrants from Ceylon; but these and similar immigrants are not to be

considered as Singhalese, in the proper sense of the term, but as offshoots from

the Tamilian population of the northern part of the island. ‘They were the

partial reflux of the tide which peopled the northern and western parts of

Ceylon with Tamilians.’ Caldwell’s Comp. Grammar, p. 72.

t See Sidatsangara, p. 4.

£ Caldwell’s Comp. Grammar, p. 440, et seq.

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 9

But all the words in the Sinhalese that may be directly traced to

the Dravidian, are so few, that if collected, they will not, I am

persuaded, shew a larger proportion than one to nine. And, it is

very significant that the writer of the Sidatsangara does not, in

giving examples of his three classes, mention one single word which

is derived from the Dravidian.

Though, however, so far as the dictionary goes, it is perhaps

generally difficult to determine the relation of a language which is

composed of different elements, as, for instance, the English;* yet, I

believe, it may be affirmed that there is no language, like the Sinha-

lese, which has ‘ nine-tenths’ of its vocables clearly derived froma

Sanskrit source, that may be traced toa Dravidian origin. On the

other hand, there is no language, in which the Dravidian element

is far in excess of the Sanskrit, that may be placed in the northern

group. Take, for instance, the Hindustani, Marathi, Bengali,

Guzerati. The Sanskrit or north-Indian element of these idioms

is nearly as much in excess of the Dravidian, as in the Tamil, Telagu,

Karnataka, and Malayalim (the south-Indian languages) the non-

Sanskrit or the Dravidian is in excess of the north-Indian or the

Sanskrit element.t In proceeding therefore to an examination of

lexical analogies, I shall select on the one hand the ‘Tamil, the most

cultivated of the south-Indian languages,f in which the Sanskrit

element is less than in others,§ and from whence the other Dravidian

dialects are supposed to have been derived; and, on the other, the Pali,

to which, as I shall hereafter show, the Sinhalese mediately, if not

directly, owes its origin.

* Professor Max Muller’s Survey of Languages, p. 7.

f Caldwell’s Gomp. Grammar, p. 29.

+ ‘From the various particulars above mentioned it appears certain, that

the Tamil language was of all the Dravidian idioms the earliest cultivated :

it also appears highly probable that in the endeavour to ascertain the character-

istics of the primitive Dravidian speech, from which the various existing dias

lects have been derived, most assistance will be furnished by the Tamil’

—-Caldwell’s Comp, Grammar, p. 60.

§ 2b. p. 33,

10 ON THE ORIGIN OF

Before entering into direct proof, it may be here convenient to no-

tice the lexical analogies of the Dravidian and the Sinhalese, to which

Dr. Stevenson of Bombay refers in an artiele ‘on the language of

the aboriginal Hindus’.* If his conjecture be correct, we

might, as justly remarked by Caldwell, reasonably expect to find

in their vocabularies a few primary Dravidian roots,-~such as the

words for ‘head,’ ‘ hand,” ‘ foot,’ ‘eye’, ‘ear,’ &c.; but we have not

been able to discover any reliable analogy in-words belonging to

this class. But Dr. Stevenson professes to give us a compara-

tive list of “ forty-one primitive words, all expressive (as he says)

of such ideas as men must use in the infancy of society?’ let us

examine them. |

Referring the reader to that list, 1 shall confine my observations

to the Sinhalese and the Tamil, which are put down in the South-

ern class. At the outset the reader will observe, that of forty-one

words given of the nd, in order to show their agreement in

sound with the words of the Bengali, Guzarati, Marathi, Telagu,

Karnatika, Tamil, and Sinhalese, the learned Doctor has signally

failed to show the Sinhalese for seventeen.

i. Ofthe remaining twenty four, ‘ appan, Tamil,—appe, Sinha-

lese,’ appears first. This is not an ancient Sinhalese word; nor does

if occur in our books, which give us piyaand bap. But the word

which denotes ‘father,’ it would seem, is the same in nearly all lan-

guages. In the Indo-European and the Semetic families the base

is a p or 6, the difference being that in the former the word com-

mences with the consonant above given, e. g., pater; whilst in the —

latter, as in the Hebrew a, the vowel a is prefixed to that consonant.

In this respect the Dravidian follows the Semetic. Whether this

vowel is added or not, it is quite clear that the origin of the word

is the same, and that the one-ness of language in a few words, as in

the instance before us, proves the one-ness of origin.—‘ the one

language and one speech of the whole earth before the dispersion of

mankind.’

* Bombay A.S. Journal for 1842, p. 103.

+ Sce further remarks hereon under the table of names,—infra.

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE, Tj

ii. Papan, ‘holy father, Tam.;—éapa ‘holy father,’ Sinhalese,

The ‘Tamil word here given is the abbreviation of prdppan, [the

addition pra being the Sanskrit inseparable preposition denoting

‘pre-eminence,’ | ‘one higher than a full father’. The Sinhalese

appa means ‘uncle,’ and not ‘holy father; and it is derived from

bala ‘ young,’ and appa, ‘ sire.’

iii. Kudappéa, the Sinhalese word for ‘paternal uncle’ is com-

pared with the Telagu kakka, signifying the same. Now, in the

primary Dravidian dialect, the Tamil kakka means ‘ peddler;’ but

the Sinhalese kudappa has neo relation to either the Telagu or the

Tamil words, the former being, like bappa, a compound of uda,

* young,’ and appa, § sire.’

iv. Adz, Tamil, ‘ foot;’—adi, Sinhalese,‘ foot.’ The correct word

for ‘foet’ in Sinhalese is pa; see infra. But adi is found in the

vernacular to signify the ‘substratum ’ of one’s feet, or of any other

object; and I believe it comes from the Pali particle adha, ‘ under-

neath.’ Adz is also used to denote a measure of twelve inches.

In this sense it is clearly an imported word like many a word

expressive of modern arts, inventions, &c.

v. Serru, ‘bear a child,’ and petta pillet, ‘own child,’ in the

Tamil, are compared with pkaddh, bad, ‘the belly, the womb,’

Sinhalese. I am not aware that phaddh is a Sinhalese word;

but the word dada has no relation whatever to the Tamil words

given above.—See list under the head of Names,—infra. In refer-

ence to the general list of Dr. Stevenson, and particularly as regards

the words under this head, Caldwell remarks: ~“ In many instances

Dr. Stevenson’s lexical analogies are illusory, and disappear alto-

gether on a little investigation. Thus, he supposes the north-Indian

‘pet,’ the belly, the womb, to be allied to the first word in the Tamil

compound ‘ petia pillei,’ own child. ‘That word should have been

written ‘pettra’ in English, to accord with the pronunciation of the

Tamil word: the Tamil spelling of it, however, is ‘perra.’ It is the

preterit relative participle of per-u,’ tv bear, to obtain, signifying

that was borne. ‘Per-u,’ to obtain, has no connexion with any

12 ON THE ORIGIN OF

word which singifies ¢he womb, and its derivative noun ‘per-u,’

means a thing obtained, a birth, a favour.”* :

vi. Kulambu, ‘clay, loom; kolz, ‘a plough share * Tamil—are

exhibited as showing a resemblance to kumbur, ‘a paddy field’ in

the Sinhalese. The relation between the two sets of words is more

imaginary than real. The Sinhalese. words for ‘clay’ and ‘ plough’

are quite different, and have no reference whatever to afield. The

word kumbur is supposed to be derived from the Sanskrit kamb ‘ to

cover,’ hence kumbha in Pali is ‘an amunam in extent,’ generally

referring to the sowing-extent ofa field; and thence we get kumbura, —

Sinhalese, ‘a field’ My pandit, however, believes that this is

derived from the Pali kedara.

vii. Koliyan, ‘a weaver of the Pariah Caste,’ kolairur, ‘ hunts-

men,’ in Tamil, are compared with the Sinhalese hollaya, ‘ plunder’

Philologically or historically, there is no relation between these words.

The Sinhalese word is clearly derived from the Pali kéla-hala,

‘tumult,’ with which plunder is ever associated in one’s mind,

vill. Zorravu, ‘a herd of cows,’ totté, ‘a pound’ in Tamil—are

set against the Sinhalese tavalam, ‘a flock or herd. ‘The Sinha-

lese never use this word simply to indicate ‘a flock;—the sense in

which they do use it being to denote cattle employed to convey

goods; which, it is remarkable, are placed on either side of the ani-

mal’s back, so that the two loads may balance equally. Now, taula

in the Sanskrit is ‘a balance.’

ix. Atam ‘across,’ adkam ‘enclosing, hiding,’ adam ‘hindrance,’

Tamil—are shown as related to the Sinhalese adaya, ‘ prop,’ and

adassiya, ‘obstruction; but ade or adaya is strictly that which is

kept wnder an object in order to prop it up. In this sense it comes

from the Pali adho, ‘ under;’ whence adassé may be something that

obstructs the assa (ansa) or ‘side’ [inside. |

x. Kurrai, ‘ defect, Tamil;—koradus, ‘unripe grain,’ } —Sinha-

lese. It is here only necessary to refer the reader to the Sanskrit

* Caldwell’s Comp, Grammar, p. 40.

+ It does not mean ‘ unripe grain;’ but is a proper name ‘in the Sinhalese, as

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 13

koradusha, from whence we have obtained the Sinhalese word, to

show its non-relation to the Tamil kurrai.

xi. Alez, ‘a wave,’ Tamil, is said to be allied to rela, ‘a wave,’

in the Sinhalese. The English r¢pple would be nearer rela than

the Tamil alez. But the Sinhalese word comes from the Pali tarala,

* trembling ’—‘ to pass, to go or move,’

xii. Odukidam, ‘a recess,’ Tamil—odokkuva, ‘a place in the

waist for money,’ Sinhalese, ‘This is the only word’ in the list

before us which is derived from the Dravidian. It comes from

adukku ‘to heap,’ thence odokku-va ‘the place [generally the

waist | in which something is kept.’ This is however a modern

introduction, and is not to be found in the books, which use eka,

from the Pali anka.

xiii. Opa, ‘smoothness, beauty,’ Tamil ;—opa, ‘ polish, glittering,’

Sinhalese. This is clearly a child of the Sanskrit ojas, ‘light,

splendour,’ from whence we get oda, and thence opa.,

xiv. Kd, kavari, ‘a piece of wood with ropes attached,’ Ta-

mil—=kavandan, ‘a bullock’s yoke,’ Sinhalese. There is some mis-

take here. Mr. Clough, from whose Dictionary this is said to have

been taken, does not give it; and there is no such word in the

_ Sinhalese. :

xv, Korabu, ‘nibbling as a mouse,’ Tamil—kurutau, Sinhalese,

‘arasp.’ What resemblance there is between the nibbling of a

mouse and the action of kurute ‘scraping,’ ‘scratching,’ [e. g. apas-

kirate kuk-kutah ‘the cock furrows; ] I cannot say; but, I believe

the words are not related to each other.

Xvi. Tati, ‘skreen,’ Tamil—tatitw, Sinhalese, ‘a ceiling, ship’s

deck.” This word should be tattw (see Clough) from the Pali tat?

‘top,’ between which and a screen there is no relation whatever.

xvii. Podi, ‘full sacks or bags,’ Tamil—podi, ‘a bale,’ Sinha-

Jese. ‘The Sinhalese like the Tamil word, is derived from the

sanskrit and Pali puta, ‘concavity.’

in the Pali and Sanskrit, for ‘a species of grain eaten by the poor people’-—

paspalum scrobiculatum, Lin.

14 ON THE ORIGIN OF

xviii. Kannarali, ‘a melancholy event,’ in Tamil, is compared

with kanakal, ‘excellent,’ Sinhalese. Clough does not give this;

nor is there a word approaching to that sound in the Sinhalese.

But, what is the analogy between excellent and melancholy 2

xix. Mottamuta, ‘total,’ Tamil—monvata, ‘beautiful,’ Sinha-

lese. What coincidence there is between ‘total’ and ‘ beautiful,’ I

cannot perceive; but this I can state—that the Sinhalese word mona-

vata comes from mana, ‘ pleasingly,’ and kota, ‘ done.’”*

xx. Kargarapu, ‘a rattling noise like thunder,’ Tamil—ara-

dara, Sinhalese, ‘teazing.’ The Sinhalese word is deduced by some

from the Pali khara with the affix tara, changed into dara ; whilst

others trace it directly to the Pali kheda, ‘affliction.’

xxi. Pinru, ‘retreat,’ Tamil.=peral, ‘overturn,’ Sinhalese. The

latter is from parivatiana, and has no relation to the Tamil word

here given. :

xxii, olip, ‘a brief explanation,’ in Tamil==bdola, ‘a familiar

term ofaddress,’ Sinhalese. Here again we do not perceive the

analogy intended to be drawn. Bola comes from bhrutaka, Sans-

krit; bhataka, Pali; bala Sinhalese, ‘hireling’; hence bola is a

term of address for a subject, or a servant.

xxiii. Muri, ‘to break,’ Tamil—madanvé, ‘to squeeze,’ Sinha-

lese. Muri bears no relation to madina, which is directly derived

from majjama, the Pali word of the same signification.

xxiv. Apa, Tamil—qapoi, Sinhalese, an interjection. Without

exclaiming with Yaska, the eminent Hindu philologer, that ‘ words

are fixed in the world, we cannot say how,—svabhdvatah by na-

ture!,’ we may refer to the Sanskrit particle apa implying ‘loss,

negation, privation, wrong, bad, unnatural, as the source whence

we have obtained apoz.

“The only resemblances (says Caldwell) which have been point=

ed out are those which Dr. Stevenson has traced in a few words

remote from ordinary use, and on which, in the absence of analogy

in primary roots, and especially in grammatical structure, it is

impossible to piece ay dependence.” I may add that, as regards

tr te ee es ee

* K is changed into y as dandu-ham=dandu-vam; See Sidatsangara, p. 17.

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 15

the Sinhalese in Dr. Stevenson’s list of forty-one words, there are

but ¢hree which have any relation to the Dravidian. They are

appa, ‘father;’ odokkuva, ‘arecess in the waist;’ and adi, ‘a foot

of twelve inches.’ Thus, the proportion which the Sinhalese

bears to the Dravidian is, in the instances selected by the Doctor,

less than one to thirteen.

I have occupied more space than was actually necessary to dis-

prove the relationship attempted to be established between the Sin-

halese and the Dravidian. It is time to proceed to direct proof of

their non-relation.

I purpose to institute my comparisons with reference to what is

called by Abel Remusat, the ‘ prerogative instances,’ consisting of

nearly all the words given ina List issued by ‘the Anthropological

Society, to be noted and used for the radical affinities of languages,

and for easy comparison,’—words which may be classed into (1)

numerals; (2) names for days, and (3) months; (4) pronouns;

(5) names, and (6) actions expressive of the common wants of

mankind; (7) the earliest extant Sinhalese; and (8) words in our

authors, usually entitled the Elz.

NUMERALS.

Pali. Sinhalese. Tamil.

One eka ekn onnu—ore

Two dva deka rendu

Three ti tuna minu

Four chatu satara nalu

Five pancha pasa anji

Six : chcha saya aru

Seven satta sata élu

Hight attha ata etéu

Nine | nava nava ombadu

Ten dasa dasa pattu

Twenty visati vissa irivadu

Fifty paiifiasa panasa ambadu

Hundred * sata siya nuru,

The above comparisons clearly indicate that the Sinhalese nume:

46 ON THE ORIGIN OF

rals* stand in fraternal connection with the Pali and the Sanskrit.

There is not one Sinhalese word in the above list which has the least

affinity to the Tamil, if we except ettu, ‘eight.’ Its resemblance

to the corresponding numeral of the Indo-European family, is indeed

very remarkable; and itis generally supposed that the Tamil nume-

ral noun is derived from the Sanskrit ashta. But, as properly re-

marked and proved by Caldwell, ‘ this resemblance, though so close

as to amount almost to identity of sound, is accidental; and disappears

cn investigation and comparison, like the resemblance between onna

and unus, anju and pancha.’+ Again, it is true that oka is used

in the Telagu for ‘one;’ but the resemblance between it and the

Sinhalese eka is as illusory as that between the English ‘ one’ and

the Tamil ‘onnu.’ It is also true that the Canarese ondu, ‘ one,’

and the Malayalam renda for ‘ two,’ are occasionally used by the

Sinhalese as in of for ‘ one-tenth’ or ‘tithes, and ondu, ‘unit,’

wratte, ‘double,’ as in playing a Tamil game with chanks; but, as

every one conversant with our language fully knows, they are used

very seldom, and are not to be met with in our books. * ‘Though

eha is invariably used for ‘ one,’ yet, says Caldwell, a form has been

noticed which appears to be allied to the first numeral of the West-

ern languages,’ viz., una-s ‘less,’ which is prefixed to some of the

higher numerals to express diminution by one (e. g.) unavinshati,

‘nineteen,’ like the corresponding prefix wz in the Latin wndevi-

gintt.{ Professor Bopp is also of the same opinion; see his Com-

parative Grammar, i., p. 416. Where such eminent scholars have

expressed an opinion, I cannot but approach the subject with great

diffidence; but a careful examination forces a strong conviction into

my mind, that the dza in the phrase énavinshati is not allied to

the Latin wnws. ‘This expression for ‘nineteen ’ is nearly the same

* «The numerals are generally a very safe criterion of an original relation-

Ship between languages.’ Pr. Max Muller’s Survey of Languages, p. 13.

J See Dravidian Grammar, p. 279 et seq.

t ib. p, 264.

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 17

in the Sinhalese, as waw vissa. It is an elliptical phrase; and

though it literally means ‘less twenty,’ or ‘incomplete twenty’;

yet it conveys ekena wna vinshatih ‘twenty less by oné,’ or, as in

ehona-vinshatih ‘twenty minus one’=“‘nineteen.’ The wz in the

Latin word is, as I conceive, a negative prefix like the ma in the

Sanskrit ehanna-vinshatih, ‘by one not twenty?

This elliptical phrascology, it is curious to observe, is found in

different dialects in expressing numerals; e.g. addhend chatutto,

in the Pali, is ‘ four by half’—< four (less) by half,‘ four (less)

by haif (of one),’ [==‘ three and a half] eka being understood as

in the Sanskrit dna-vinshatih, or in the Sinhalese unw-vissa.

Again dasa-ada-masa ‘ten months by half’==‘ten months (less)

by half, or ‘ ten months (less) by half (of one), or ‘nine months

and a half” This elliptical form, moreover, is the same in the

Hindustani, which has unu-is (—una-bis), ali:hough the Murathi

has ek-un-isa, like the Sinhalese form which we sometimes find in

our books, ek-un-visi. The Tamil on-badu is indeed formed like

the Hindustani wna-bis; but except in the principle of its forma-

tion, I perceive no analogy between the two; for whilst da in the

latter expresses ‘ diminution,’ the oz in the former (on-patu, or

on-pattu) denotes ‘one* as in the Roman numeral ix==(i--x),

fone (less) ten.’ |

T shall next examine the names for days and months.

Days.

Pali Sinhalese. Tamil.

- Sun-(day) ravi-(dina) iri-(da) nair-ti-(keleme}

Mon. | soma sandu tinkal

Tues. . mangala angaharu sevai

Wednes. budha bada pudan

Bhar si guru brahaspati vyala

Fri. shukra sikura, velli

Satur. seni senasura seni

The above comparisons lead to this, if no other, important result,

~—that the Sinhalese names are not derived from the Dravidian.

But, the priaciple on which the names were originally formed

; D

18 ON THE ORIGIN OF

in both is the same; for the Dravidians, who had made great

strides in civilization* at the period of our colonization of this

island, were doubtless acquainted with the Astronomical causes

which led to the names of ‘days.’ The principle upon which the

assignment of the days to their respective guardians was made, is

indeed well known. The Sinhalese assign the days to the same

planets as the Hindus and the Tamils, and if there be any

difference in the names adopted, the reader will find that whilst

one nation uses one word, for instance ravz, another uses a synonym

for the same, as iru, and another, zair. The only peculiarity which

exists in the formation of the Sinhalese and the Tamil names is, that

whilst the former, like the Indo-European, adopt day after the

particular name of a deity, the latter use another expression, kila-

met, ‘that which belongs to,? The deities or planets named are

Sun, Moon, Mars (red- deity), Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, and Saturn.

MontTas.

Pali. Sinhala. Tamil.

Mar. 13 chitta bak chittare

April 12 vesikha vesak vaikasi

May 13 jettha, poson Ani

June 14 asalha zesala Adi

July 15 ae cee nikini avanni

savana

Aug. 16 ree da binara pere¢éasi

Sept. 16 assayuja vap atpasi

Oct. 16 kattika ik kartige

Nov, 15 méagasira undu-vap - markali

* See Caldwell’s Dravidian Grammar, p. 54 et seq.

+ There is another peculiarity which distinguishes the mode in which the

Tamils calculate the day from that in which the Sinhalese compute it; for the

former reckon from mid-day to mid-day, and the latter from sun-rise to sun-

rise, which is also the mode of computation in the Pali books.

+ Ihave here, as elsewhere, introduced the Sanskrit form to show its

relation to the Sinhalese.

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE, 19

Pale Sinhala. Tamil,

Dec. 15 phussa durutu tai

Jan, 13 magha navam masi

Heb. 11. * phagguna meedin-dina pangini

The Dravidian names of the months are derived, like the Pali,

from the names of the asterisms; and though the Sinhalese adopt

some of them, e. g. vesak, esala, etc., yet itis very remarkable that

they have for others, names which have no relation whatever to

the Dravidian, and which owe their origin to local and other

causes; e. g., Mcedin-dina denotes the month in which the sun

enters the ‘central meridian line’—madhya-rekha,—“ the line,

which, passing above Lanka and Ujjayani, and touching the region

of Kurukshetra, etc., goes through Meru.”t| MNavam, from nava

‘new,’ refers to the new-ness of the vegetable kingdom, which is

exhibited at this period, and means ‘ the spring,’ when all nature is

clothed with verdure. Du-rutu, from du ins. prep. and ritu

“season,” denotes the inclement season when the natives require

the use of fire and firewood to keep themselves warm. Undu-vap

appears to be the period when a kind of small grain called undu

was (vap) ‘sown.’ J denotes the month in which the moon is full,

nearly in the longitude of il-vald, the stars in the head of the

Antelope.{ Vap indicates an ad-interim season for sowing. Binara

comes from the Sanskrit bhadra ; and nikini from nikkhamaniya,

Pali, with reference to a custom of religious seclusion observed at

this period. #sala is from asalha, Pali. Fos-on ‘ flower-less ’ is

the period when flowers go out of season, Vesak is from the Pali

pesakha; and Bak indicates the month in which there is a‘ break ’”

in the computation of the year, though my Pandit intimates the

probability of its being expressive of (bakka ‘ great ’—) the chief,

or first month,

* j.e.* from Feb. 11th to March 12th’

+ See Surya Siddhanta, by the Rev. E. Burgess, p. 185.

t 2b., p. 466,

20 ON THE ORIGIN OF

PRONOUNS.

Pali. Sinhalese. Famil.

I amha ma fe

ahan ma(ma) (nom.)

We mayan api nam

tumh :

hon tvan : | : me

You tumhe tepi nir

My mama mage en

Thy tava tage nin

He (prox.} eso mohn ivan

He (remo.) “so ohu avan

They (prox.) ete movhu ivar

They (remo.) _ te ovhu avar

Lhe personal pronouns serve more to establish or disprove the

relationship of languages than any other words* of a language.

Now, on comparing the above there is not one Dravidian form

which has the most distant relation to the Sinhalese, whilst it is

quite evident that most of the latter bear the nearest affinity to the

Sanskrit, or the Pali.

The Sinhalese radical ma, which is mama in the nominative, is

clearly taken from one of the Pali oblique cases of ahan, and

exercises a great influence in the inflexions of the verb of the first

person. In the formation of the plural the vernacular Tamil

changes the za and the ni to nd(n)-gal and ni(n)gal; and it will

be shewn hereafter that this addition of ga/ bears no resemblance

whatever to the pz which the Sinhalese adopts, nor is that plural

inflexion to be found in the formation of any*of the Sinhalese

plural nouns. But this inquiry properly belongs to another head of

our investigations, viz., the Grammatical ; see infra.

* «The very last words which we should think of borrowing from a foreign

nation are pronouns, particles, and numerals ’—Professor Max Muller’s Survey

of Languages, p. 12.

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE.

NAMES

| Expressive of the common wants of Mankind. |

Hand

Foot

Nose

Hye

Mouth

Tooth

Ear

Hair

Head

Tongue

Belly

Back

Tron

Gold

Silver

Father

Mother

Brother

Sister

Man

Woman

Pali. Sinhalese.

hattha ata

aya

pete i ie

nasa nasa

achchi zesa

vata

vatta eee

danta data

data Sans.

kanna kana

kesa kes

- sisa—hisa

sisa Ati

jivha diva

kuchchhi os

pidéhi pita

aya ya-kada

suvanna ruvan

ee San. ran

rajata ridi

Pit vive

aes amma

* mavu

aooies — {Shaien

sahodari sahodari

manussa minis

“ itirl

ae stri

| itthi ; geni

Tamil,

kai

kal

mikku

kan

vai

pallu

katu

mair

talei

nakku

vayaru

mudugu

irunpu

pon

velli

appan

tai

sahodaran

tangachchi

maniden

manidi

Wife

Child

Son

Daughter

Slave

Cultivator

Field

Tank

Plough

Cow

Cattle

Yoke

Shepherd

God

Devil

Sun

Moon

Star

fire

Water

House

Horse

Dog

Cat

Cock

Duck

Ass

ON THE ORIGIN OF

Pali.

bhariya

apachcha

putta

dhitu

dasa

gahapati

khetta

A e

vapi

nangala

yonga

gopala

deva

yakkha

sura

chandra

chanda

tara

agegini

vari

geha

assa

basaka

bilala

kukkuéa

hasa

khara

Sinhalese.

beer

ambu

daru

puta

« dasa

2 vahal

goyi

keta

kumbura

veva

nagula

gon

yuga

3 gopolla

endera

devi

yaka

hira

} chandra

handa

taru-ka

gini

vatura

assa

balu

balala

kukula

| sevul

hansa

{ tara

kotoluva

| kaludeva

Tamil.

panchadi

pullei

magan

magal |

adimel

ulunan

+ ama

vail

kulam

kelappei

pasu

nukam

idayan

kadavul

suriyan

tinkal

nakshettra

neruppu

nir

vidu

kudirei

nai

ptinei

seval

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE.

Pali, Sinhalese. Tamil.

Camel ottha ofa ottakam

a eee paksi Oe

Bird pakkhi eee kurivi

Up uddhan uda méle

. samipa

Near as ; langa kitta

8s ki¢tu

Down hettha yata kilei

Before puralo peratu munnei

Far dura dura tira

Behind paccha pasu pinnei

ko kavuda R

Who katara kavuru ae

: kim

What kim mokada enna

Why kasma eeyi én

: \ sal

And or with saha rete um-afhix.

. ( yali A

But kintu | chet anal

If yadi ee al-affix

idin

Yes dma ovu én, ama

No na-no na-ne illei

Alas aho aho! ah!

Here are sixty four words,— not remote from ordinary use, but

expressive of the common wants of man, both in a savage and a

civilized state. On examining the Pali words, it will be noticed,

there is scarcely a single word which does not claim relationship

with the Sanskrit. If we examine the above Pali words with their

equivalents in the Sinhalese, especially as we find them in the books,

we shall find the latter, with one exception, to be allied to the

former. ‘That exception is kotalu, ‘ass.’ But this is clearly a

native word not derived from the Tamil, for the simple reason that

in our modern usage we have kaludeva, which is from a Tamil

24 ON THE ORIGIN OF

source, although the Tamil word itself is derived from the Sanskrit

khara. Again on comparing the Sinhalese with the Tamil, we do

not find a single Tamil word that has any relation to the ancient

Sinhalese words of the same signification. But whilst we thus

have for every Tamil word, its Sinhalese equivalent clearly allied

to the Pali and unconnected with the Tamil, it will be observed

that there are a few Sinhalese synonymes which have some resem-

blance to the Tamil. These secondary formations are nine in

number, and are the following, which I shall examine separately.

i, The Sinhalese word kakula is supposed to have come from

the Tamil al, ‘foot.’ Not finding it in our books, I am inclined

to treat it as a Tamil derivative; but it is very remarkable that

kakula, deflected from its original signification of kal, is used to

express—not the ‘ foot,’ but, the ‘leg.’

ii. There is some distant resemblance between olz and tale#,

‘head’; but it is purely a native word, and does not bear any rela-

tion to the Tamil. See Sidatsanzara, § 22.

ili, Some believe that our Sinhalese bada comes from the Ta-

mil vayaru, ‘belly.’ Thisisamistake. The resemblance between

these two words is not greater than that between bada, and tha

English belly or body; indeed it is reasonable to believe that it

comes from the Pali bondi, ‘body;’ although a friend suggests that

bada, as a name for the largest part of the body, may be from the

North-Indian bada, ‘ great.’

iv. Appa, Sinhalese—appen, Tamil, ‘father.’ I have already

noticed this word, ante p. 10, I may here add that its-use is

confined to the colloquial language.

v. Sevul, Sinhalese—Savel, Tamil, ‘cock.’ This is clearly

from the Tamil. So far as my observation goes, it has been intro-

duced into our language within the last four hundred years.

vi. Tara ‘duck’ is a modern introduction from the Tamil into

the colloquial speech of the Sinhalese. Neither Sanskrit nor Sin-

halese writers have ever drawn a distinction between the Swan

and the domestic goose or duck. The word used by both for all

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 25

these is hansa, The very English words ‘duck’ and ‘ goose’ come

from the Vedic hak-gttsa—hansa.

vii. The Tamil kaludez ‘ass,’ which is evidently allied to the

Sanskrit Ahara, has produced our Sinhalese haludevé. But the

original Sinhalese word kota-lu is independent of the ‘Tamil.

viii. The Sinhalese word for ‘bird’ is paksi ; but in colloquial

usage we meet with kurulu, so near the Tamil kuruvi. It is not a

generic term for bird, but a word for a species of small birds,

See my Contributions to Oriental Literature, i. p. 44.

ix. There is some resemblance between the Sinhalese A7ttw and

the Tamil kitta, ‘near.’ In the Sanskrit, Pali, and some of the

North-Indian vernaculars the word for ‘near’ is nikata. This

werd the Sinhalese have adopted for the ‘ chin,’ and have therefore

altered the same word into Acttw to denote ‘nearness.’ It may be

thence inferred that both the Tamil and the Sinhalese words are

derived from the Sanskrit.

Thus, in three out of the above nine words, the lexical analogies

disappear on a little examination; and we have only six out of

sixty-four words, or less than one-tenth of the words in the above

list, which are related to the Dravidian. Yet, it is very remarkable

that those six words are not what we find in the books, but what

may be termed a secondary fermation confined to the colloquial

speech of the Sinhalese. It would thence appear that, if we dispense

with all the Sinhalese words which we may trace to a Dravidian

origin, we may still express ourselves on all matters with the aid

of other Sinhalese words which are undoubtedly of Sanskrit origin;

or, in other words, that the Sinhalese may flourish without the aid

of the Dravidian.

Though generally, as J have already remarked, the terminology

of our classical authors is free from the Dravidian; yet, it is of some

historical interest to notice here an exception. It is the Sinhalese

version of the Pansiapanas Jatake, in which we find such words

as the following, and which it is impossible to understand now-a-

days but for the Pali work of which it is a translation; Aollu and

26 ON THE ORIGIN OF

kanan ‘a species of gram, the glycine villosa ;’ talahkattuva ‘head-

building’ for ‘the top of an edifice; nadaya ‘vp-stair;’ pambattiya

«snake charmer;’ parakku ‘sheet or coverlet;’ pulimukham ‘ tiger-

face; agampadi ‘ body-guard, retinue,’ ete., etc. ‘The presence,

however, of this foreign element in this particular Sinhalese book

may be traced to the foreign Dravidian agency which was: at, work

in the translation of the Jatakas. The Mahavansa says:—

Atha pi Chola-destyan nana bhasa visaradan

Takkagama dharan ekan mah§-theran Susafifiatan

Raja raja gurut¢hdne thapetva tassa santike

Jatakani cha sabbani sutv4 sutvaé nirantaran

Ugganhitva tad’atthampi dharetva tadanantaram

Tani sabbani pafiiasa ’dhike panchasate subhe

Jatake Pali bhasato Sthalaya niruttiya

Kamato parivattetva pitakattaya dharinan

Maha therana’ majjhamhi sAvetva parisodhiya

Lankayan pana sabbattha lekhapetva pavattay?.

Jatakani pune tani nija sissappaveniyA

Palayitva pavattetun aradhetvana dhimato.

Medhankarabhi dhanassa therassa tassa dapayi—

Tasseva saka namena parivenan cha kariya

Purana gaman Sannira selan Labuja mandakan

Moravankan’ti me game chaturova sadapayi.

‘ Afterwards, the king | Parakkrama] appointed a royal Teacher

(in the person of) a very humane Maha-thera of the country of

Chola (Tanjore), accomplished in different languages and in Logic

and religion; and having continually heard and studied under him

all the Jatakas; and, having (moreover) committed to memory their

significations, (he) thence gradually translated all the five hundred

and fifty J&takas from the Péli into the Sinhalese language, and

having thoroughly revised them, after reading the same to an

(assembly of) venerable priests who had mastered the three Pi¢akas,

caused them to be written, and published them throughout Lanka.

He next entrusted those Jatakas to a learned priest named Me-

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 2h

dhankara, requesting him to have the same perpetuated without

injury amongst the successive generations of his pupils. Having

also established in his own name, a collegiate ‘Temple, | he ] bestowed

the (following) four villages, Puranagaman | Paranagama | Sannira

sela {Tembili-hela] Labuja-manda [Del-mada] and Moravanka

| Moravaka ].’

VERBS

[Zzpressive of the actions of every-day life. |

Pali Sinhalese. _ Tami.

Be bhi Vu iru

ee ya at he

Come 6 i ae ve

Eat khada kan: tin

Sit ni-sida, indha irw

Beat ghansa gaha adi

Stand tha-(stha) hiti nil

Die mara mara sf

Give da da ta

Run _ dhava duva édu

Shoot vidha vidi sudu

Sleep nidda nidi - - padu

Peck pacha piha { eae

Drink pa-(pibana) bo (bona) kudi

Fall - pata vela vilu

Chew chabba vika (vi & ka) chappu

Break khadi kada odi

Play _ Kila keli adu

I ees

I er

* From &ripa comes the past participle Alipta—Sangkrit.

ON THE ORIGIN OF:

Pali Sinhalese. Tamil.

na ;

Know i at dana, ari

Walk Ahinda sevida nada

Plough ka-sa ha ulu

disa A

See dalichati daka kan

tha - ;

Keep fhapa _ taba val

: im é panna

Make sada sada akku

Bind badha, banda. kattu.

Bite dasa vika kadi

Write hikha liya eladu

Turn parivatia, perala tiru-pu

Fill pura purava. nirappu

Nearly every Sinhalese word is in the above list of thirty verbs,

allied to the Pali or the Sanskrit; and there are only two secondary

forms, as in the names, which have some resemblance to the Tamil.

They are pala ‘go’ and vara ‘come.’. Now, pala is not used in.

any of the variations of the verb, except in the second person. .

imperative; and does not, like all other verbs, come from any radi-

cal which denotes motion, or from which the other moods and

tenses are formed. The radical for ‘go” in the Sinhalese is ya,

from which we obtain yami ‘I go; giyemi ‘I went; yannemi ‘1

shall go,’ etc., with slight modifications in the other persons. So.

likewise va-ra ‘come thou” is a form for the second person. It

does not come from the root e, which alone enters into all the

variations of tense and person, as emi ‘I come; a(v)emi ‘I came;*

e nnemi ‘I shall come.’ The regular imperative forms of ya. and e

are also the following:—yan, yanne ‘go thou;’ en, enne ‘come.

thou;’ yavu ‘go ye; evu ‘come ye.’

Whence then do we get these stray forms of pala and vara

which we use to persons who are addressed with the offensive pro-

noun to? Pala is nearer the Pali paleti ‘he goes’ than the Tamil

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 29

po; but vara is supposed to be from the Tamil. We thus have

but one stray Dravidian form in the thirty verbs in the above list.

Having given the Sinhalese names and verbs in common use at

the present day; I now proceed to examine the earliest extant Sin-

halese, of which I have presented a specimen in the Sidat-Sangara,

p- xxxvi; and these words, be it remembered, being found on arock

inscription (of 262 A. D.), are unadulterated by the errors of

transcription.*

2 Fali. Sinhala. Tamil,

Prosperity sirl siri cru

Weight bhara bara param

Kshestriya khattiya ket chattriya |

Family kula kula kulam

Pinnacle kunta kot thuvi

Ashwaku okkaka oka-vas suvaku

King raja raja rasa

Succession parampara parapura parampara

Descend bhassa bata rangu

Tlustrious vasabha usabi prastava-mane

‘ Name’ Méghavanna Mevan a

Great mahanta maha magha

That ta ét anda = &

Equal sama sama same

Lineage jati jeyi jadi

ee te tema

Womb kuchehhi kusa Rerpam

Born upajja ipada upavital

First adi-pada cepa, modal

Enjoyed vinda vinda anubavitta +

Due-course _pati-pai pilivela hiramam

* In the above table I have given the root of every word omitiing only the,

inflections, names and repetitions.

+ This comes from the Bangali e-mata.

ON THE ORIGIN OF

Pali.

Self atuma,

Island dipa

Pleasing pasada

Stand tha

State Canopy chatta

Raised 3 langa

Sixteenth sdlasa

Year sarada

name of amonth

Moon chanda

Full punna

Month masa

Tenth dasa

Part pakkha

Day divasa

Temple vihara

And saha

Dwelling vasanta

Beggar bhikkhu

Association sangha

Lord sami

Gatherings sena

To do kara

Brother bhatu

Before pura

Kept thaphita

_ Custom charitta

Own nija

Desiring ruchi

Taking gaha

This ima

Is worth vattati

Proper nichchhati

Sinhala.

tuma

divu

pahsya

sita

sat

laga

solos

havurudu

vap

sanda

pun

mas

dasa

pak

davas

veher

isa

vasana

bik

sanga

himi

- sen

kara

bee

pera

tubu

sirit

nija

rus

gena

meé

vali

nisi

Tamil.

tan

CivU

impamanei

nitta

vidanam

uyartna

padinaran

warusam

tingul

purana

madam

pattam

pangu

nal

alayem

vasam

pichcha-karan

sangam

svame

kuttam

sey

sahodaran

mun

vaitta

valame

sonda

viruppam

eduttal

idu

poram

sarl

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 31

Pali. Sinhala. Tamil.

With and saha ha um

Assimilate sansanda sasadze oppakku

Labourer kamini kemi priyasi

Slave dasa das adime

An affix yutta yutu ————

Receive labha, laba | vangu

Give. da da kodu

Explain ~ viydkarana = vivaruna* vilakku

One eka ek oru

In the above list which contains sixty-four words, fifty seven, or

nine- tenths are clearly deduced from the Fali; and of the seven

words, for which I find no direct equivalents in the latter tongue,

it may be remarked, five are allied to the Pali, that is to say; e

‘that’ may be from eta ‘this; biso ‘ anointed queen’ is from

Abhiseka the name of the ceremony of regal anointment; vap is

clearly derived from the Pali vapa ‘to sow,’ and thence used for

* Sep-Oct,’ a period of cultivation amongst the Sinhalese; nzsz, which

here bears the secondary meaning of ‘ proper,’ probably comes from

the Pali niehcha ‘ sure,’ ‘certain,’ ‘ with judgment’ —thence ‘pro-

per’ in the Sinhalese; and vivara is most likely derived from the

Pali vohara ‘custom’ or ‘rules of justice’—thence voharika ‘a

raagistrate.’ Of the remaining two words, one (yutu) is a native

affix, and the other (isa) a native particle.

A comparison of the language of the original rock Inscription,

with that of the modern version (both which I have given in .my

Sidath-Sangara, p. xxxvi) also establishes the fact, which has been

noticed by philologers in reference to Prakrit dialects, viz., that

‘two-fold forms of the same Sanskrit words are found’* in the

Sinhalese—one more Sanskrit, the‘other more Pali—the latter being

decidedly anterior to the former. The Rev. B. Clough has given

both these forms in his Sinhalese Dictionary, sometimes omitting -

* Professor Lassen’s Inst. Prakritice. See Introduction p. vi.

32 ON THE ORIGIN OF

one, and sometimes the other; and this has led many Oriental

scholars, and amongst them Professor Spiegel in his Kamma-

vakya, to the error of believing that ‘a multitude of words have

been transferred from Sanskrit, and not Pali, into the Sinhalese.’

Under this belief he has given two instances; and he is in error as

to both. For, kana* ‘ear’ is the Sinhalese for the Pali hanna,

and not karna, Sanskrit—and vaira is the modern form of the

ancient Sinhalese vera,t so much nearer the Pali than the Sanskrit

form of the word for ‘ enmity.’ The use of the visarga, which has

nearly disappeared from the Pali, is indeed quite unknown in the

Sinhalese; and in the latter language the word ‘ pain’ is not duksha

but duk from the Pali dukkha. Such speculations as those to

which Professor Spiegel refers, and which I give in the note below, t

has made him say—‘“ Propius adhuc Elu ad linguam Sanscritam

accedere, quin etiam originem ex ea ducere fertur, quod tamen

addubitamus, ipsius Cloughi verbis innisi, quia Raskius, linguam

Singhalensem numero dikkhani carum esse adscribetidam, certissi-

mis probavit testimoniis.” —Kammavakya pp. Vi. Vii.

All my observations in this chapter will serve as a running

commentary on the above remarks; and the question as to the

Sinhalese being one of the Dekkhanse, or of the Malay-Polynesian

group of languages, is also disproved by the positive proof of the near

relationship which 1 have throughout exhibited between the

Sinhalese and the Pali.

On comparing, moreover, the Tamil words in the above list,

consisting of 64 words, (of which we shall for obvious reasons

exclude two, Meghavanna and yutta) with the Sinhalese, it is

quite clear that the relation which the 28 italicised Tamil words

* See Namavaliya, p. 44.

+ 2b., p. 18.

_ } ‘Eloo has undoubtedly given birth to the vernacular language of this Coun-

try. It appears to claim great antiquity, and being derived from Sanskrit, a

great portion of her may be traced from that source.’ Clough’s Sinhalese Die-

tionary, p. li.

THE SINHALESE LANGUEGE. 33

bear to the Sinhalese is not direct, that they are derived from the

Sanskrit, sometimes from the same word from which the Sinhalese

is derived, and sometimes from another Sanskrit word of the same

signification, e. g. anwbavitta; and that of the remaining 29 words

not a single one, so far as I can speak on the subject, has any rela-

tion to the Sinhalese, whilst every one of the 64 Sinhalese words

with the exception of e, (epa and vap) is directly derived from the

Pali. So that the result is ‘that the Sinhalese, as it is spoken at

the present day, and still more strickingly as it exists as a written

language’ in the uncorrupted tablets of rocks in this island, presents

‘unequivocal proof’ of its independence of the Dravidian, and of its

affinity with Sanskrit dialects.

Lastly, on a careful comparison of the old Sinhalese (which is

usually denominated the Elw) with the Pali and the Tamil, nearly

every word of the first is found to be derived from the Pali, and

not the Dravidian. Let us take, for instance, the first thirty words

in the alphabetical Index of the Revd. C. Alwis’ version of the

Namavaliya, avoiding proper names and different forms of the

same words, and compare them with the Pali and Tamil words of

the same significations,

Pak Sinhalese. Tamil.

Eye akkha ak kan

Lightning asanl akana min

Canopy akasa vitana akasana met-katti

Letter akkhara , akura | Ak fame

iattu

Goad ankusa akussa cree

Demerit akusala akusala pavam

Anger akkosa akos kovam

End agga aga mudivu

Depth agadha agada lam

Value agoha, agaya perumati

Unction angaraga agara, abishekam

ON THE ORIGIN OF

Pali. Sinhalese. Tamil.

Ditch agadha agala akal

Longwood co agil akil

Body anga anga ae

Woman angana angana manasi

Market assembly angane angani ankadi

Mars angara angaharu Sevel

A creeper ankola anguna kurinji

Ring anguliyaka anguva modirap

Ram aja aja adu

Hight attha ata ettu

Hight tastes attha-rasa ata-rasa ashta-suve

Tower _attala . atalla attala

Joy piti ati ava

Half addha ada padi:

Forest atavi adavi kadu

Less addha adu korenda

Body (member of) atta at angam

Branch sakha atta kombu

Hand hattha ata kai

From the above comparisons, it would seem that out of thirty

words there are but four which do not bear a close resemblance to

the Pali. They are agadha, ankola, pitti and sakhd. Now

agadha means ‘ exceedingly deep,’ and from it comes our agala

‘ditch. The resemblance between Anguna and ankola (‘Alangium

hexapetalum’) is apparent; since the substitution of z for / is frequent

in the Sinhalese, and also the interchange of k and g. ‘Thus lalata

becomes naldata ‘forehead; velando is sometimes expressed venado

‘merchants; and the 7 in el-bzju ‘ cardamum’ is sometimes changed

Piti

may or may not be the source from whence we get att; and though

into m, as in en-sal, ‘sal’ being another word for ‘biju.’

atta does not come from sakha, yet it is clear that the former

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 35

comes from hattha in the sense of an ‘arm’ of atree. Even if we

except the first and the two last of these four words, the result

of the comparison is that in the above list but one Tamil word

(akal) bears a relation to the Sinhalese, and that more than nzne-

tenths* of the words in the Sinhalese, especially ‘as it exists as 9

written language in the literature of this island,’ is traceable to a

Pali origin, exhibiting evidence, in some important particulars, that

the corruption of the Pali into the Sinhalese has arisen from that

natural process of change which we see exemplified in Europe ia

the corruption of the Latia into the Italian and the French,

A careful inter-comparison of Indian dialects with one another,.

and the Sinhalese with them, also furnishesus with proof confirmatory

of the Historical fact—that the Sinhalese was imported into Ceylon

by its first Colonists} from North-India.

Mr. Caldwell, who may be regarded as the best authority in all

matters relating to Dravidian languages, states: —‘ The Scythian or

Dravidian element is substantially one and the same in all the ver-.

nacular languages of India, whether Northern or Southern, but is

smallest in amount in those districts of Northern India which were:

first conquered by the Aryans; greater in the remoter districts of

the Dekhan, Telingana, and Mysore; and greatest of all in the.

Tamil country, at the Southern extremity of the peninsula, to

* “But the Sinhalese, the vernacular language of the Island, is decidedly

allied to the Northern family, as it is supposed to have nine-tenths of its

vocables from the Sanskrit ”»—The Rev. S. Hardy in C. B. A, S. Journal, ii,

p. 99.

+ ‘Atthe place where mention is made of ‘Sihala language,’ what can.

Sthala language signify? As it is said that king Sihabahu took Stha captive,.

so the name Siha-la is derived from that CINCUIMSAN Cees womens lee As, again,

the city in which Sakkra dwells is named Sakkra-city, so the Island in which

_ the Sihala dwell is called Sthala-island. As also people who are natives of a:

place speak in their native tongue, so likewise the people of this Sihala country:

make use of the Sihala speech—their language is thence named the Sthala dan—

guage.’ ~Pradipikava, quoted in the Sidatsangara, p. xxy..

36 ON THE ORIGIN oF

which the aggressions of the Brahmanical race had not extended

in the age of Manu and the Ramayana.’ p. 39.

This state of things precisely accords with the facts stated in

Sinhalese Historical records. For, if the Sinhalese was not im-

ported in an early age into Ceylon from North-India, it is but

reasonable to find that the Dravidian element, which grows great

and greater as we come downwards to the South, would be the

greatest in Ceylon, the most distant territory from North-

India. Far from such being the fact all the comparisons to which

I have submitted the Sinhalese, indisputably prove that the Dravi-

dian element is even less in the Sinhalese than ‘in those districts

of Northern India which were first conquered by the Aryans.’ No

one therefore, knowing the position which, geographically, Cey-

Jon oceupies in regard to the Tamil country,* can reconcile this fact

with the supposition that the Sinhalese is a South-Indian dialect.

On the contrary, the conviction must be inevitable, that the Sinha-

lese, like the Magadhi or the Pali,t had been long separated from

Northern-India, and had remained fixed in this Island, unaffected by

those changes which even the Maharashtri, the dialectus principua

of Vararnchi and Lassen, and other undoubted dialects of the Sans-

krit, have in course of time undergone in India.

Without entering into other inquiries as to how far the one-

tenth (I believe the proportion is really less), the apparently

Dravidian element in the Sinhalese, may be traced to other influen-

ees and causes, enough, I believe, has been shown to justify the

position which I maintain, that our vocabulary presents more cogent

evidence than even any of the verfiacular dialects of Northern India,

of the Sinhalese language having a Sanskrit basis with a very

small admixture of a foreign or non-Sanskrit element, In a case

* < From the evidence of the words in use amongst the early Tamilians,’

Mr. Caldwell deduces, amongst other facts, that they had ‘no acquaintance with

any people beyond sea, except in Ceylon, which was then accessible on foot at

low water.’ p. 79.

+ Kachchayana’s Grammar, p. cvi.

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. oy

like this where all leatcal analogies tend to establish a close affinity

to languages which are already ascertained to have sprung from a

Sanskrit source, I may indeed close the inquiry without at all

consulting Grammar. But, when with the evidence furnished by

the Dictionary we couple the testimony of History, and also find

historical facts confirmed by the analogies to which I have already

directed attention, it is impossible to resist the conclusion that the

Sinhalese is a legitimate descendant of the Sanskrit.

Section Fourtu.

Grammatical Relations.

‘The life and soul of a language, that which constitutes its sub-

stantial individuality, and distinguishes it from all others,’ says

Professor Max Muller, ‘is its Grammar, In accordance with this

undoubted belief, I purpose in this section, to examine the Gram-

matical forms of the Sinhalese with a view to ascertain whether they

have been imported from the South-Indian, or from the Sanskrit

family of languages. In doing so I may as well intimate that I do

not intend to enter into an investigation of all grammatical forms,

but of such only as have been pointed out as possessing an intimate

relationship between the Dravidian and the North-Indian (in which

the Sinhalese has been included by some), and also a few of

such other forms as may throw light upon the inquiry in hand.

The reader who has followed me through a variety of comparisons

of words, with overwhelming results in favor of the proposition with

which I have set out, must already be prepared to find the Gramma-

tical structure of our language to accord more intimately with the

Sanskrit than with the Dravidian. In this hope he will not indeed

be disappointed; but it is, perhaps, right to mention that the Sinha-

lese have also adopted some forms which bear some affinity to the

Dravidian. Founded upona few coincidences between the Dravidian

and the North-Indian vernaculars, in which last I include the Sinha-

lese, it has been suggested that it would be more correct to represent

38 ON THE ORIGIN OF

the latter as having a Scythian basis with a large and almost over-

whelming Sanskrit addition, than as having a Sanskrit basis with

a small admixture ofa Scythian element. The reverse however of

this proposition seems to be correct. For, though Grammar is the

best test that may be applied in philological investigations, yet the

existenve of astray Dravidian Grammatical form here and there can,

no more than a few Dravidian words, be regarded as decisive of

_ the question. ‘In general, it appears,’ says Bopp,* ‘that in warm

regions languages, when they have once burst the old grammatical

chain, hasten to their downfall with a far more rapid step than

under our milder Europear sun.’ Now, in Ceylon, it is the infu-

ence not only of climate, but of circumstances, that has led to a de-

parture from the original grammatical forms and the adoption of

others savouring of idioms, peculiar expressions, etc. These

analogies will find a solution in the centinuous intercourse which

we have had with the Dravidians for 24 centuries,—daily speaking

their language, and wishing not only to understand them, but to be

understood by them. In this state of things it is but natural to

find that we, like ‘the Bengali and other new Indian idioms,

have really laid aside our old grammatical habiliments, and have

partly put on new.’* ButI can promise at the outset, that the

changes which our grammatical forms have undergone, are far

fewer in number than have been experienced by the Northern

vernaculars.

Supposing, however, for the sake of argument, that they are

identically the same in the North-Indian vernaculars and the Sin-

halese, it is well worthy of consideration, whether the coincedences

might not have originated from other than Dravidian influences.

Mr. Caldwell, even without the evidence which I have already

adduced, and have yet to adduce, has arrived at this conclusion.

What he says, in the following extract, of those idioms, applies

equally to the Sinhalese:—‘ Whatever relationship, in point

—

* Bopp’s Comp. Grammar, vol. ii. p. 711.

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 39

ef blood and race, may originally have subsisted between the

northern aborigines and the southern—whatever ethnological evi-

dences of their identity may be supposed to exist,—when we view

the question philologically, and with reference to the evidence

which is furnisbed by their languages alone, the hypothesis of

their identity does not appear to me to have been established. It

may be true that various analogies in point of grammatical structure

appear to connect the Un-Sanscrit element, which is contained in

the North-Indian idioms, with the Scythian or Tartar tongues.

This connection, however, amounts only to a general relationship

to the entire group of Scythian languages; and no special relation-

ship to the Dravidian languages, in contra-distinction to those of

the Turkish, the Finnish, or any other Scythian family, has yet

been proved to exist. Indeed I conceive that the Scythian sub-

stratum of the North-Indian idioms presents a greater number of

points of agreement with the Oriental Turkish, or with that Scy-

thian tongue or family of tongues by which the New Persian has

been modified, than with any of the Dravidian languages.

“The principal particulars in which the grammar of the North-

Indian idioms accords with that of the Dravidian languages are as

follows:—(1), the inflexion of nouns by means of separate post-fixed

particles; (2), the inflexion of the plural by annexing to the unvary-

ing sign of plurality the same suffixes of case as those by which the

singular is inflected; (3), the use of a dative or dative-accusative

in ‘k6’ or ‘ku? (4), the use in several of the northern idioms of

two pronouns of the first person plural, the one including, the other

excluding the party addressed; (5), the use of post-positions,

instead of prepositions; (6), the formation of verbal tenses by means

of participles; (7), the situation of the governing word after the

word governed. In the particulars above-mentioned the grammar

of the North-Indian idioms undoubtedly resembles that of the

Dravidian family: but the argument founded upon this general

agreement is to a considerable extent neutralised by the circum-

stance that those idioms accord in the very same particulars, and

40 ON THE ORIGIN OF

to the very same extent, with the Turkish and several other families

of the Scythian group. Not one of those particulars in which the

Dravidian languages differ from the Turkish or the Mongolian

(and there are many such points of difference) has as yet been

discovered in the North-Indian idioms. For instance, those idioms

contain no trace of the relative participle which is used in all the

Dravidian tongues instead of a relative pronoun; they are destitute

of the regularly inflected negative verb of the Dravidian languages;

and they contain not one of the Dravidian pronouns or numerals —

not even those which we find in the Scythic tablets of Behistua,

and which still survive even in the languages of the Ostiaks and

Lapps. If the Un-Sanscrit element contained in the northern

vernaculars had been Dravidian we might also expect to find in

their vocabularies a few primary Dravidian roots—such as the

words for ‘ head,’ * hand,’ ‘ foot,’ ‘ eye,’ ‘ ear,’ &c.; but I have not

been able to discover any reliable analogy in words belonging to

this class. The only resemblances which have been pointed out

are those which Dr. Stevenson has traced in a few words remote

from ordinary use, and on which, in the absence of analogy in

primary roots, and especially in grammatical structure, it is impos-

sible to place any dependence. The difference between the Dra-

vidian vocabulary and that of the languages of Northern India

with respect to primary roots together with the essential agreement

of all the Dravidian vocabularies one with another, will appear

from the following comparative view of the pronouns of the first

and second person singular.* It sometimes happens that where one

form of the pronoun is used in the nominative, another survives

in the oblique cases, and a third in the verbal infiexions: it also

sometimes happens that the ancient form of the pronoun differs

from the modern. Where such is the case I have given all extant

forms a place in the list, for the purpose of facilitating comparison.

* To which I have taken the liberty to add the Sinhalese pronouns.

THE RINHALESE LANGUAGE. 41

Pronoun of the first person singular :—

Nortu-Inp1ian [proms. DRaviIpIAN Iproxs.

(Sanskrit primary form ‘aham;’ Tamil, nan, yan, én, en

secondary forms, ‘ma,’ ‘mi,’ ‘m;’ Canarese, 4n, nanu, en, éne

Turxish primary form, ‘ man.’) Tulu, yan, en, @

Hindi main Malayalam, njan, én, en, in

Bengali, mii Telugu, nénu, na

Marathi, mi Tuda, on, an, en, inf

Goujarathi, hun K6ta, ane, en, @

Sindhi man Gond ana, an

Sinhalese mar Ku anu, n&, énn, @

Rajamahal, en

Uraon, enan

Pronoun of the second person singular: —

Nortu-Inpran Ipioms. DRAVIDIAN Iproms.

(Sanskrit primary forms ‘ tvam,’* Tamil, ni, nin, nei, i,

‘tay,’ ‘te;? secondary form, ‘ 8i,’ Canarese, nin, ninu, f, i

‘s.’ Turkish primary form, ‘ sen.’) Tulu, f, ni, nin

Hindi, tun, tu, te Malayalam, ni, nin, nan

Bengali, tii, to Telugu, nivu, nf, nin

Marathi, tin, tu, to Tuda, nf, nin, i

Gujarathi, tin, ta Kota, nf, nin, i

* Sindht,. tun, to Gond, ima, nf, i

Sinhalese - ta, to Ku fnu, nf, i

; Uraon nien

Rajamahal nin

Brahui nf

Scythic of the Behistun tablets nf

* From the striking dissimilarity existing between the North-

Indian pronouns and the Dravidian, it is obvious that, whatever

from tv) proceeds the Sanskrit dative tu-bhayam, the base of which is allied to,

or identical with, the Latin, Armenian, and Pehlvi tu, the Aolic and Doric tu,

the Persian, Afghan, and Singhalese fo, and the Gothic thu. The th of the

Gothic and Zend, points out the path by which the old Greek tu was converted

into Su’— Cauldwell, p. 311.

4? ON THE ORIGIN OF

may have been the nature and origin of the Scythic influences by

which they were modified, those influences do not appear to have

been Dravidian. In the pronouns of almost all the North-Indian

languages, the Scythian termination—the obscure ‘2’ which forms

the final of most of the pronouns—is at once observed. We cannot

fail also to notice the entire disappearance of the nominative of the

Sanscrit pronoun of the first person singular, and the substitution

for it of the Turkish ‘men’ or ‘ man: but in no connexion, in no

number or case, in no compound or verbal inflexion, do we see the

least trace of the peculiar personal pronouns of the Dravidiaa

family. Possibly, after all, further researeh may disclose the ex-

istence in the northern vernaculars of distinctively Dravidian forms

and roots; but their existence does not appear to me as yet to be

proved; for most of Dr. Stevenson’s analogies take too wide a range,

and where they are supposed to be distinctively Dravidian, they

invariably disappear on examination. JI conclude, therefere, that

the Un-Sanscrit portion of the northern languages cannot safely be

placed in the same category with the southern, except perhaps in

the sense of both being Scythian rather than Indo-European.”

p. 42. | 3

In addition to the Grammatical relations which may be deduced

from the Lexical analogies, to which I have already alluded, I shall

now proceed with further proof, noticing in the course of my ob-

servations the coincidences to which Dr. Stevenson and Mr. Cald-

well have attracted attention. My remarks and investigations will

here be confined to (1) Formation of Words; (2) Nouns,—their |

gender, number, declension, inflexional and periphrastic; (3) Cases,

the nominative, the vocative, the accusative, the instrumental, the

auxiliary, the dative, the genitive, the locative, and the ablative; (4)

_ Adjectives ; (5) Pronouns,—personal, intensive, demonstrative, and

interrogative; (6) Prepositions; (7) Verbs,—the negative, and

passive voices, the causal and auxiliary verb; (8) Conjugations,—the

present, past, and future tense, the participle and the infinitive; (9)

the Relative Participal Adjective, (10) Adverbs.

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 43

FoRMATION oF WoRps.

i. The Dravidian dialects differ from the Sanskrit in generally

using the crude root of the verb as the imperative of the second

person singular. This, I venture to assert, was not the principle

upon which that mood of the verb was originally formed in the

Sinhalese. The Sidatsangara gives (see p. 61) four inflexions,

and the Sinhalese scholar knows that in practice we use a variety

of other honorofic terminations to suit the peculiar position of the

party addressed.* Take for instance the radical ka, ‘eat.’ If we

tell one &a eka, no one will understand the 2a in the sense of an

imperative; to convey which it would be necessary to say hanze,

ha-nne, ka-piya. So likewise denu, denne, diya, to form the im-

perative of de ‘give;’ karanu, karanne, harava, kara-piya, toexpress

the imperative Zara, ‘do; etc. The general rule in the Sidatsan-

gara is that the imperative takes ‘nu’ for its inflexion as karany

bojanu; see § 53. There is however an occasional exception to this

rule, which favors the Dravidian principle when the radical ends

with a, as boja, ‘eat,’ and éala, ‘behold. But this is of very rare

occurrence, for even in those cases the Sinhalese, in order to mark

the imperative mood unmistakeatly, adds a va to the root, as balava,

‘behold.’ See Sinhalese version of Mat. cap. iii, 16, 17, given in

my Contributions to Oriental Literature, vol. i. p. 95. The

peculiarity here noticed, and which is the rule in the Dravidian

dialects, can therefore only be regarded as an exceptional usage

in the Sinhalese. ;

ii, The Dravidians obtain many words for ordinary objects from

yerbal roots. Thus ad? is both ‘beat’ and ‘blow’; nilam ‘ground ’

comes from nil ‘to stand;’ médu ‘ox, from madu, Canarese ‘to

do; adu ‘sheep’ from adu ‘to frisk; Rurangu ‘monkey,’ from

kura ‘io sound; pakal ‘ day,’ from pagu ‘to portion;’ kan ‘eye,’

from kan ‘to see;’ mukku ‘nose,’ from mugu Canarese ‘to smell,’

etc. etc. For all these names, I need searcely say, we have differ-

ree

ae See Article on Terms of Address in Ceylon. A. 8. Journal for 1856—8.

44 ON THE ORIGIN OF

ent Sinhalese words, derived from different radicals, which bear

the closest affinity to the Sanskrit or Pali.

I shall tabularize them as follows:—

Pali Sinhalese. Tamil.

Ground bhimi bima nilam

Ox gava gon madu

Gost aja a du

Monkey va-nara {aaeee 7 kurangu

Day da da pakal

Eye achchi esa, kan

Nose nasa nasa mukku

Hand hattha ata kai

iii, As the Dravidian dialects adopt a class of derivative words,

which in the Sanskrit family may be treated as primitives, 80

likewise where the latter class of languages, especially the Sinhalese,

adopt different appropriate masculine and feminine names, the

former simply ulter the masculine into the feminine by inflexion;

e. g.

Pali. Sinhalese. Tami.

Man manussa minis maniden

Wo-man itthi ‘ ee manid}

Son putta puta makan

Daughter dhitu da makal

King raja raja rasa

Queen rajani ‘iso rasati

He 60 ohu avan

She. 88 re aval

iv. No one conversant with the Tamil can fail to have observed

_the successive formative and inflexional particles and pronominal

fragments which are added to a Dravidian monosyllabic root; as

per-ugugiradu ‘it increases’ from per. This expansion is not found

in the Sinhalese, which hardly takes a termination of more than two

THLE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 45

syllables; as debili-ni ‘it brightens.? Examine the nominal roots

in the Sidatsangara, § 58.

v. The Dravidian formatives are chiefly gu, ngu, kku==ch or

nehu, su or chu, du, ndu, ttu, bu, mbu or ppu. The Sinhalese

possesses none of these. It takes others such as a va, 7, ta,

vat, etc. ‘Take, for instance, the Tamil pada-gu ‘boat; the Sin-

halese cuts off the formative, and adopts simple pada, or adds a va

to it, whence it becomes paru-va. For the Sinhalese inflexical ter-

minations, See Sidatsangara, § 58.

vi. In the formation of the adjective from the noun, the Dravi-

dian presents a peculiarity distinguishable from the Sinhalese.

For this purpose, or for qualifying another noun, or for converting

an intransitive into a transitive verb, or for the purpose of forming

& noun from verbal themes, the Tamil has to reduplicate the final

consonant. ‘This process of reduplication is unknown to the Sin-

halese. E. g.; from harak ‘ox’ (Sinhalese) is formed harak-hama

‘ox-hide;’ but from ma@du ‘ox’ (Tamil) is formed mattu-(¢)-tol ‘ ox-

hide.’ Also, from duva (Sinhalese) ‘run’ comes duva-va ‘ cause to

run,’ 80 much like the Sanskrit ya; whilst the Tamil would redu-

plicate the d (=t) in odu and render it ottu. Again, whilst the

Tamil cannot obtain elattw ‘writing’ without reduplicating the

d (=t) in eladu ‘writing,’ the Sinhalese converts the simple

radical with a single m; as liya ‘write; liyu-ma ‘ writing.’

vii. The formation of compounds in the Sinhalese is entirely

after the fashion of Sanskrit compounds. See Sidatsangara § 38,

viii, ‘The Sanskrit and some of the Indo-European dialects are

fond of combining clashing consonants. The Dravidian dialects,

on the contrary, aim at ease and softness, and are unable to utter

two consonants of different classes as svami without introducing

a vowel between them, as suvami, or without cutting off one of

the consonants as in sam. In this respect the Sinhalese resembles

the Dravidian; but J must warn the reader against any inference

therefrom that the Sinhalese is related to the Dravidian. For, it

will be observed that this is a peculiarity which distinguishes the

46 ON THE ORIGIN OF

Sanskrit from not only the Sinhalese but its very parent the Pali,

and other Prakrits of undoubtedly Sanskrit origin. This will be

rendered manifest by the following table of Sanskrit, Pali, and

Sinhalese words, which show the growing reluctance with which

each generation has cast away, what even all Northerners must

admit, the difficulty of expressing heterogeneous sounds, ag in. the

following :-—

Sanskrit. Pali. Sinhalese,

Head sirsa sisa hisa

Full purna punna pun

Limb gatra gatta gat

Raiment vastra vattha vat,

Mouth vaktra vatta vat

Kye netra netta net

Demon raksha, rakkha rakus

Heaven svarga sagga saga

Pearl mukta mutta mutu

Name Laksmana Lakkhana Lakkana

Agent kartru kattu katu

Above urdhvan uddhan uda

ix. Another peculiarity observable in the formation of words

may here be mentioned. Whilst, as a general rule, in the Dravi-

dian, as in the Scythian family of tongues, ‘neither the vowel nor

the consonant (or consonants) of which the root is composed, sus-

tains any change or modification on the addition of the signs of

gender, number, and case, or of person, tense, and mood; which

are sucvessively agglutenated to the root, not welded into combina-

tion with it,*—the vowels in the Sinhalese as well as in the Indo-

European radical, are, in general, modified by the addition of

the suffixes of case andtense. E.g. the Sinhalese word holz ‘boy,’

which comes from kelz ‘to sport,’ is changed into kolla in the ©

masculine, and elt in the feminine. The word balu ‘dog’ be-

* Caldwell, p, 164.

es,

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. Ae

comes balla in the sinzular,—and dall/é in the plural. The same

word serves as an example of the change which it undergoes in

the different cases. Again, the root daka ‘to see,’ becomes daki-

me ‘I see’ in the present tense; duti-mi ‘I saw’ in the past tense;

dakinnemi ‘I shall see’ in the future tense; and deka ‘having seen’

in the participle.*

Noun.

Gender—In entering upon the Noun, its Gender demands at-

tention first. ‘The Sanskrit family recognize besides the two natural

genders, another—the zeuter or the eunueh. To the Sinhalese

are, however, known only the two first.t See Sidatsangara, § 24.

This is quite consistent with the practice of the Sanskrit. For,

although the &liva, according to its original intention, had to

represent inanimate nature only; yet when it is remembered that

it has not every where confined itself to these old limits, and that

the Sanskrit imparts life to what is inanimate, and, on the other

hand, (according to the view then taken), impairs the personality

of what is by nature animate; (Bopp. i. p. 126), a language formed

* For different other changes which the radical undergoes, see my Introduc-

tion to Sinhalese Grammar, p. 17 et seq.

T In the Dravidian languages all nouns denoting inanimate substances and

irrational beings are of the neuter gender. The distinction of male and female

appears only in the pronouns of the third person; in the adjectives (properly

appellative nouns) which denote rational beings, and are formed ‘by suffixing

the pronominal terminations; and in the third person ot the verb, which, being

formed by suffixing the same pronominal terminations, has three forms in the.

singular and two in the plural, to distinguish the several genders, and in accor-

dance with the pronouns of the third person. In all other cases where it is

required to mark the distinction of gender, separate words signifying ‘ male’ and

‘female’ are prefixed; but, even in such cases, though the object denoted be

the male or female of an animal, the noun which denotes it does not cease to

be considered neuter, and neuter forms of the pronoun and verb are required to

be conjoined with it. This rule presents a marked contrast to the rules res-

pecting gender which we find in the vivid and highly imaginative Sanscrit, and

in the other Indo-European languages, but it accords with the usage of all the

languages of the Scythian group. Caldweil’s Dravidian Grammar, p. 34.

48 ON THE ORIGIN OF

from it is sure to fail in recognizing the intention which was not

carried out in practice; and in its endeavour to simplify Gramma-

tical forms, is likely, as the Sinhalese has done, to make a distri-

bution of all nature into two classes, the male and female. The

rationale of this is to be found ‘in various other parts of our Gram-

matical System.

It appears very plainly that this absence of the neuter gender is

owing to an effort on the part of the Sinhalese to simplify the

difficult process of discriminating the genders in the Sanskrit, and

to adopt itself to circumstances, one of which is the absence in the

Sinhalese of that simple termination which the Sanskrit has adopted

for the neuter as distinguishable from the masculine and feminine. |

Now, according to the formation of words in the Sinhalese, no

system of Grammar or philology can devise a rational plan by which

the neuter may be distinguished from the two natural genders. If

the neuter was confined to inanimate nature alone, this would be

possible; but when the greater part of names expressive of inanimate

nature are found as masculines and feminines, there was no alter

native but to ignore the neuter altogether. This reasoning would

be inadmissible but for the undoubted testimony which this very

department of Grammar furnishes us as to the Sinhalese being a

derivative of the Pali and Sanskrit. I here allude to the rule by

which all Sanskrit and Pali neuter names are regarded in the

Sinhalese as masculine. Sce note (7) at p. 20 of the Sidatsangar4.

The formation too, of the two natural genders is precisely in accor-

dance with the development of the Sanskrit, the feminine marking

its distinction by broader and more sonant vowels. ;

When, however, we look to the Tamil which has all the three

genders, and therefore is different from the Sinhalese, we observe

that not only are all nouns denoting inanimate objects and irrational

beings, placed in the neuter gender; but in most cases separate

words denoting male or female are added to neuter nouns. It would

also seem, that the long 7, which constitutes the rule in the formation —

of the Sinhalese and the Sanskrit feminine, forms the exception in

the Dravidian dialects. See Caldwell, p. 181.

aT aes Oe = ae

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 49

Number.—In turning our attention to the Number of the Sin-

halese noun, we again meet with evidence of an effort to simplify

the superabundant forms of the Sanskrit. ‘'The dual,’ says Bopp,

¢ like the neuter, in course of time is the first to be lost with the

weakening of the vitality of the view taken by the same, or is

more and more straitened in its use, and then replaced by the ab-

stract plural expressive of infinite number.’ Vol. i. p.126. ‘The

Pali has only so much of the dual as the Latin viz.,a remnant of

it in two words, which signify ¢wo and both.’ p.127. It is entirely

wanting in the Prakrits as in the Sinhalese, which does not even

recognize the duality of the pronoun adopted by the Tamils in com-

mon with the Northern vernaculars. See remarks thereon zzfra.

Declension.—The Sinhalese, like some of the Dravidian dialects,

is not deficient in the number of cases required to mark the relations

of nouns. Unlike the Sanskrit, the Sinhalese employs the crude

radical without inflexion,* and therefore attempts to simplify a

variety of forms which even the Sanskrit has declined to adopt in

the primary forms of compounds; yet the rule in Sinhalese Gram-

mar is, as in the Sanskrit, to inflect the noun to express the

different relations of case. It is unnecessary to specify all the

modifications which nouns undergo. They are all given in the

Sidatsangara, p. 27.* Suffice it to present two declensions.,

SANDA=TINGEL, ‘Moon.’

Singular. Plural.

Sinhalese. Tamil, — Sinhalese. Tamil,

No. Sanda Tingel Sanda-hu Tingel-kal

Vo. Sanda Tingal Sand-enz Tingel-kal

Acc. Sandu Tingel-ei Sand-un Tingel-kalei

Ins. Sandahu Tingel-al Sand-una Tingel-kalal

Aux. Sandu ——— Sand-un polka

Dat. Sandata - Tingel-ukku Sanda-nata Tingel-kalukka

Ab. Sand-en Tingel-enindu Sanda-nen Tingel-kalinindu

Gen. Sand-uge Tingel-udei Sanda-nage Tingel-kal-udei

Loc. Sande Tingel-il Sanda-uhz Tingel-kal-il

* Also see my Introduction to Sinhalese Grammar, p. 17.

dO ON THE ORIGIN OF

Gas==Maram, ‘ TRER.’

Singular. Plural.

Sinhalese. Tamil. Sinhalese. Tani.

No. Gasa Maram Gas Maran-gal

Vo. Gasa Maram Gas-ni Maran-gal

Acc. Gasa-ta Marattet Gas Man-galei

Ins. Gasiz Mara-ttal Gas-val-in Maran-galat

Aux. Gas-enr Gas-val-in ——

D. Gasa-ta Mara-ttuku Gas-vala-ta Maran-galattuka

Ab. Gas-en Marattu-nindu Gas-val-in Maran-galinindy

‘Gen. Gas-e Marattudei Gas vala _ Maran-gal-udei :

Loc. Gas-e Marattil Gas-hé Maran-gal-il

On a eareful examination of the above forms, the reader vans

not fail to observe that in the Sinhalese (1) the radical 2s inflected

in the Nomenative ease,* as in all the oblique cases; (2) that al-

though the plural nominative oceasionally takes a sign of plurality,

yet it is not invariably éo that sign, but to the root, that the inflex- _

ional signs are annexed in the oblique cases; (3) that all the inflex-

ions in the plural are noé every where zdentical with those in the

singular,—facts, which serve to distinguish the Sinhalese not only

from the Dravidian but from the North-Indian dialects,}

With respect to the principle of pluralization, it will also be

observed that the Sinhalese noun, like the Dravidian, 7s noé ordi-

narily indefinite, and does not depend upon its connection in a

sentence to determine its number. Asin the primitive Indo-Hu-

ropean tongues, the plural of a Sinhalese word is carefully distin-

guished from the singular. It is true that in modern usage we

find a few nouns which take in the plural val, like the Tamil gal,

but it should be borne in mind that that formative is not an in-

flexion, but that which may be regarded as a complete word by

itself, serving, when added to nouns indicating inanimate objects, to

render the expression a compound, like ‘ stone-heap’ or ‘trees-mass.’

Thus ge, ‘house,’ becomes in the plural ge-val.

* The Dravidian nominative singular is simply the inflexional base. Cald-

well, p. 204.

+ The signs of cases are suffixed to the sign of plurality in the Dravidian. id,

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE, or

This is supposed by some to be identical with the. gal in the.

Tamil wttu-gal, ‘houses.’ Dr. Stevenson is of opinion that this:

addition is an abbreviation of the Sanskrit sakala (=sagala, Ta-

mil) ‘all.’ But, says Caldwell, the root signifying all, which the:

_ Dravidians have preferred to retain, viz., ell, is connected, not with.

the [ Greek] ol ‘ whole,’ the Hebrew hol, &c., but with the Saxon:

eal, English all. Whether it comes from the one or the other, it

is indeed very clear that this addition of pluralization conveys, like:

the Sinhalese word siy-al,—‘all’ Now in the Sinhalese only a

few inanimate nouns take this val as a sign of pluralization; and

in some instances it is found in the oblique eases, and never in the:

nominative; thus ata ‘hand,’ aé ‘hands’ at-vala ‘in hands; gasa-

“tree,” gas ‘ trees,’ gas-vala ‘in trees.’ Hence it accords well.

with Professor Max Muller’s belief of this being a compound ex-

pression like anin:al-mass for ‘animals,’ or stone-heap for ‘ stones.’

There is another reason which induces me to believe that this val,

in the sense of vana for a ‘mass,’ is a word by itself. It. is this,—

that like val the Sinhalese occasionally takes vara-in a few nouns:

for the formation of the plural, as guru ‘teacher,’ guru-varu ‘ teach-

ers’; raja ‘king,’ raja-varu ‘kings.’ In these instances vara is.

clearly an additional word to denote ‘respect;’ for it will be seen:

that as the plural of both words is ordinarily formed by the addi-

tion. of (h)u, as guru, guruhu; raja, rajahu, they take the same:

wv in the plural even after the addition of vara; and that this var:

termination is never used except in connection with masculine or

feminine names that deserve respect, as val is seldom used except

in connection with inanimate nouns implying objects thas are usually.

associated in the mind with heap or mass.

The Sinhalese has also, like some of the Scythian tongues, a:

secondary or periphrastic mode of denoting some of the relations of

nouns, and in.this respect it accords with, and adopts some of, the:

words found in the North-Indian vernaculars. E. g.

Nominative— tema.

Instrumental—visin, ‘by,

LN?)

ON THE ORIGIN OF

Auxliary—harana-hota, ‘by means of?

Dative—pinisa or vas, ‘ for,’

Locative—Kerehz, ‘in.

Ablative—Keren, ‘from.’

These signs are common to both numbers, except fema which

is only used in the singular, its plural being twmu. Nouns in the

sineular also take an ef in the Sinhalese, to express the indefinite

as harak-ehu-ta ‘ to-a-bullock.’*

Tema, in the Sinhalese, derived from the Sanskrit atman ‘self,’

not only expresses the Nominative case, but also conveys the

gender of the noun to which it is added. The Sidatsangara says:

*“‘ Observe also, that in this case the suffixes zema for the masculine

singular, tomo for the feminine singular, and ¢wmz for both genders

in the plural number, may be used in peraphrases and commenta-

ries.”

The periphrastic instrumental visinz, from the Pali vasena ‘by

authority,’ in the sense of the agent or instrument, is also used in

the Sinhalese. Karana-kota—the Pali karani-kritya ‘ having ac-

complished a@ means of action, is the periphrastic sign of the

auxiliary, which we have doubtless brought over to Ceylon from

Northern India, since we find it unmistakeably in the Murathi

karina, so different from all Dravidian case-signs. I may also

observe that the very name for the Auxiliary case (the Karana)

is derived from this case-sign. The dative pinisa—Pali panissaya,

is not exactly, as the others are, a universal case-sign for the dative; —

but is used to express ‘for,’ or ‘for the purpose.’ Kerehi is the

periphrastic locative sign, and comes from kara ‘to do; from

whence it obtains the signification of proximity or ‘nearness,’ and

thence, with the addition of the locative sign, the idea of locality.

The ablative keren is also from kara with the proper sign en.

* See Vibat-maldama in the Appendix to Sidatsangara, p. 91.

ye SS Ses te a.

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 53

CASES.

The Nominative, in the Dravidian dialects, is ‘the noun itself,’

or the inflexional base, without addition or alteration. The Sinha-

lese nominative takes e, @ in the singular, and 6, hw in the plural;

and these present the most marked difference to the exceptional

formations of the Tamil neuter nominative, and the Canarese n@

and fa. Dr. Stevenson observes that in the Dravidian as well as

in the North-Indian vernaculars, the nominative is substituted for

the accusative, e¢ vice versa. ‘This is not the case in the Sinhalese;

for no one, not even the rudest rustic amongst us who knows not the

use of case-signs, will ever say balla gasimi ‘canes percuti’ but

ballata gesimi ‘canem percuti.’ It is, indeed, true that the il-

literate Sinhalese do, as stated by Dr. Stevenson, occasionally use the

accusative for the nominative. ‘This, I have, and I believe satis-

factorily, accounted for elsewhere,* and shall therefore proceed to

The Vocative Case. In the Dravidian there is properly no

case-sign for the Vocative. It is formed by a simple sign of

emphasis, different from the Sinhalese, which takes @, a and a

in the singular, and in, en, nen, ini, ent, neni, and ni in the plural.

These, it may be remarked, are different also both in form and

principle from the zr, a fragment of the nir ‘ you,’ which the Tamils

use in the plural.

Again, it will be observed that the exceptional usage in the

Sinhalese, by which the Nominative is employed to express the

Vocative, accords with the Indo-European languages.

The Accusative Case. ‘Ordinarily,’ says Caldwell, ‘the North-

Indian vernaculars are distinguished from the Southern by their

use of the dative case-sign for the Accusative. This is no less a

peculiarity in the Sinhalese, which is distinguishable from the

Dravidian family, in which, if we except the Gond, the Dative is

quite distinct from the accusative.

—* See my Contributions to Oriental Literature, vol. i. p. 46,

54 ON THE ORIGIN OF

The only accusative sign which ihe Tamil has, is ei. This, I

need scarcely say, is different from all signs in the Sinhalese, in —

which the only termination that may approach the Dravidian, is

the Canarese a, and this is of very rare occurrence in our language.

In turning our attention from the mere formation of the case-

signs, to the Syntax of the accusative case, we find the Sinhalese —

to accord with the Sanskrit and the Latin; e. g., where reference

is made to duration of time, all the above languages use the accusa-

tive. For other affinities, see Sidatsangara, p. 29.

The Instrumental Case. The Telugu changes the locative ¢

into éa, to express the instrumental or the auxiliary, both which are

treated by Tamils and others as the instrumental. See Sidatsangara,

p. 31. Now, according to Caldwell, the Canarese instrumental. suffix

zm is identical with in, the Tamil ‘ablative of motion.’ If this is

the case, its tendency to confound the instrumental with the ablative,.

is in accordance with the Latin and the Greek, which confound the

auxiliary with the instrumental. Even the English, in which, as

Caldwell points out, ‘dy’ in the sense of ‘close by’ was originally a

locative, would indicate the origin of the Telugu instrumental.

The Tamil suffix for the instrumental is clearly al, and dears no

analogy to the Sinhalese terminations a, a, u, hu in the singular,

and an, dna, na, n, and un in the plural.

The use of the instrumental is gradually getting into disuse

amongst the lower orders of the Sinhalese. There is also much

difficulty felt by learners in comprehending the difference between

the nominative and the instrumental. YVeople say mama karana

vede=nan sehir velei, Tamil, Now, karana=sekir is not a

complete verb. It is devoid of vitality, though possessed of an

attribute, and the tense. It approaches nearest to an English par-

ticiple; and, considering its function in the above sentence, we may

call it the relative participle, or as the Tamil Grammarians name

it, peyer echam ‘noun-defect’ or ‘noun-complement;’ i e., as ex-

plained by Caldwell, a word which requires the complement of a

noun to complete its signification. We find it always associated

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 55

with two nouns, one which it qualifies, and another (either expressed

or understood) which indicates its agent. The proper designation

of it would then seem to bea relative participial adjective. Having

- ascertained the real force of karana, let us inquire in which of the

two agent-cases we should place the noun-agent. We cannot put

it in the nominative, because our Grammar teaches us that the

nominative should be followed by a complete verb ‘expressive of

an attribute, of time, and of an assertion.’”* We are therefore

constrained to use in the sentence before us the instrumental ma,

and not the nominative mama.

The sense of the instrumental is also preserved in a similarly

constructed English sentence; e. g., Aarana de is ‘ being-done thing ’

or ‘ the thing that is being done.’ Now, if we add an agent to the

act, we have mama karana de ‘I being-done thing’ or ‘the thing

that is being done [by] I.’ This sign ‘by’ or visin is understood

in the Sinhalese, in which case the noun takes the sign of the case,

and it is necessary that the nominative mama should be changed

into the instrumental ma ‘by me.’ The sentence itself would then

run grammatically both in Sinhalese and English, thus; ma karana

de ‘the thing that is done by me.’ On comparing the Murathi,

the Sinhalese, and the Sanskrit, I find that the prevalence of an

instrumental case in connection with the passive verb, and the

relative participial adjective, is one of the most remarkable features

in the Syntax of all these languages. ‘This instrumental con-

struction after passive verbs’ says Professor Mon. Williams,f ‘is

a favorite idiom in Sanskrit prose composition;’ and our best prose

writers abound with instances of the instrumental case in the

connection above stated.

It is unnecessary to say more on the subject; nor to inquire

into the usage in the Tamil. All my observations here as elsewhere

* See my Sinhalese Grammar, Section viii. § 92; also Harrison’s Structure of

the English language, p. 315.

+ See his Grammar, p. 366.

56 ON THE ORIGIN OF

show that the usage which is springing up in our language, is un-

warranted by Grammar and the usage of our standard writers. I~

shall treat of the idiom involved in the use of an expression, as in

ma karana de, when I shall have entered upon the Section on.

Verbs. «A

The Auxiliary Case, which is found in the Sinhalese, owes

its origin entirely to the Sanskrit. Although the Dravidians have

some notion of it, yet it is found confounded by them with the in-

strumental. ‘There is however one important particular by which

the Sinhalese auxiliary may be distinguished from even the Sans-

krit,—that whilst the latter adopts the instrumental suffixes for the

auxiliary, the former have generally an entirely different set of

inflexions for each of the two cases. A careful investigation of

grammatical forms in the Indo-European, the North-Indian, and

Dravidian dialects, convinces me that there is a tendency in all of

them towards a distinction between the instrumental and the

auxiliary, which Caldwell denominates the conjunctive, although

the Sinhalese alone have marked the distinction with special suffixes.

See Sidatsangar4, p. 30.

The Dative Case. One of the striking analogies, to which Dr.

Stevenson refers as running through the North-Indian and the

Dravidian dialects, is the resemblance in the Dative ki ku ge,*

which are different from the Sanskrit and all Indo-European dia-

lects.

Caldwell also states that ‘in the vernaculars of Northern India,

which are deeply tinged with Scythian characteristics, we find a

suffix which appears to be not only similar to the Dravidian, but

the same.’ p. 225, In giving examples from the Northern verna-

culars, Caldwell gives ghai as the ‘ Singhalese’ form of the Hindi

ko and ku. This is clearly not so. We have no g or & in the

* In the primitive Indo-European tongues we discover no trace of any such

dative suffix or case-sign as the Dravidian ‘ ku;’ but on turning to the Scythian

family, interesting analogies meet us at every step.

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. OM

in the Dative Case. The only Sinhalese dative termination, ta

presents the most unequivocal testimony of its none-relation to the

Dravidian ; and in this te may be recognized the MurAthi Ja, the

absence of which in her sisters is probably owing to Dravidian

influences. Turning our attention to the Syntax of this case we

find that words expressing ‘cause or purpose’ take a dative in

the Sinhalese as in Sanskrit and Latin. ‘ Connected , with

this application of the dative case’ says Professor H. H. Wilson*

‘is its optional substitution [in the Sanskrit] for the infinitive after

averb.’ So clearly is this the case in the Sinhalese infinitive, e. g.,

lia (n) ta as in the English ‘to-write,’ that the sign of the dative

case is found bodily transferred to the infinitive. It would be idle

to allude to various other syntactical laws which are identical in

the formation of the dative in these languages, and which an ordi-

nary acquaintance with them cannot fail to exhibit. I shall there-

fore pass on to’

vii. The Genitive Case.—The signs of this in the Tamil are

in, an, and ni, the first being the most frequent. Here again Dr-

Stevenson says the letter m is a general characteristic of the

genitive singular. Now, although it may be found in the Tamil

in, the Telegu ni, and in the English mine, it nevertheless is defi-

cient in the Sinhalese, and in the North-Indian vernaculars, ‘of all

which,’ as stated by Caldwell, ‘the Gujarathi is the only one which

contains a form of the genitive resembling that which we have been

examining.{ Ineed scarcely add that the Sinhalese take ge besides

the dative ta ; and that although a simple 2 is also given with wn, in

the Sidatsangara, yet the use of them is so very rare that the author

seems to have had some difficulty in finding out examples of their

use ; and even in those which the Translator has supplied, there

* Introduction to Sanskrit Grammar, p. 388

+ Caldwell’s Dravidian Grammar, p. 237.

58 ON THE ORIGIN OF

is this peculiarity to be observed—that the m is simply a plural

euphonic addition in a compound rendering. @

But the resemblance to which Dr. Stevenson refers is, that this 2

is a general characteristic of the genitive singular. It is decidedly

not found as a singular suffix in the Sinhalese ; see Sidatsangara,

p. 178. Even if it were, the fact would furnish no evidence in

favor of the analogy which Dr. Stevenson seeks to establish. For,

as remarked by Caldwell ‘‘ both in the Sanskrit and in other mem-

bers of the Indo-European family, we may observe distinct traces

of the adjectival or the genetivai use of a particle, of which the

consonant 7 is the most essential element.”* He also adds in the

same page, ** The- Lethunian goes further than any other indo-

European tongue in resemblance to the Tamil in this point, for it

not only uses 7 as a sign of the pronominal possessive (of the first

person,) but it adopts this genetival man as the inflexional base of

all the rest of the oblique cases of the same pronoun.”

Moreover, the analogy which Dr. Stevenson supposes to exist

between the Sinhalese ge and the Telegu yokka, entirely illusory.

Between the g in the Sinhalese genitive, and the & in the Telegu,

there is, I feel persuaded, no relation whatever, since the Sinhalese

genitive sign represents the ge or ‘ the habitation’ in the sense of

the “possession” which this case implies.

A peculiarity connected with the Sinhalese case-signs of the

genitive, exhibits its very near relation to the Sanskrit. It is this.

In the Sanskrit, the genitive is constantly interchangeable with

the dative and the accusative, ete. ‘This vague use of the genitive,’

says Professor Monier Williams + ‘to express various relations,

prevails also in early Greek.’ It likewise prevails in the Sin-

halese. Compare the case-sign given in the Sigatsanzara, p: 37;

as those peculiar to the genitive, the dative, and the accusative.

* Caldwell’s Dravidian Grammar, p. 238.

Tt See his Sanskrit Grammar, p. 354,

| ‘THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 59

viii. The Locative Case.—The Dravidian Locative sign pre-

sent a marked contrast with the Sinhalese. Compare Sidatsangaré,

p. 180, with Caldwell’s Dravidian Grammar, p. 247 et seq. ‘None

of the Dravidian affixes of the locative,’ says the last mentioned

writer, ‘bears any resemblance to the locative case-sign of the

Sanskrit, of any other of the Indo-European languages, or of the

North-Indian vernaculars.’ |

ix, The Ablative Case scems to have been introduced into

Dravidian Grammars ‘ out of deference to the principles of Sanskrit

Grammarians.’ It is therefore unnecessary to institute any com-

parisons between the Dravidian and the Sinhalese beyond stating

that in this respect the Sinhalese presents one other in addition to

the many unequivocal proofs I have adduced to show its non-rela-

tion to the Dravidian.

| ADJECTIVES.

All languages that are entitled to be considered as of high anti-

quity, whilst drawing a distinction in the sense of a name and its

attribute, look upon adjectives as nouns, and invest them with

number, case, and gender. Tuhiis peculiarity may be recognized in

all those dialects which stand in fraternal connection with the

Sanskrit. But in the languages which have arisen from these

Sanskrit daughters, the tendency to simplify the contractions, evo-

lutions, involutions, and inflexions of case, gender, and number,

in which their mothers delight, is indeed manifest. The Sinhalese

in their Grammatical System place the adjective amongst nouns

[see Sidatsangara, § 21 c.]; and even clothe it with a sign of gender,

and case ; as, helifrom hela ‘white ;’ kota ‘short one,’ from kota

‘short’; peti ‘lass,’ from petit ‘young’, gerd ‘ white person’ from

qgora ‘white ? heli ‘black person’ from kalu ‘black,’ etc. These

are only a few remnants of a large Sanskritic developement, which

must doubtless have existed upon the early formation of the Sinha-

lese. Even some of these are being eradually given up ; and we

find that, generally, the Sinhalese, like the English adjective, has

60 ON THE ORIGIN OF

at present no variation, undergoes no change of form, and takes its

position immediately before the noun which it qualifies. * This is

also the case at present with the North-Indian dialects ; and, what

is stil! more remarkable, they possess, like the Sinhalese, a few

remnants of the early developement of gender, number, and case ;

e. g., in the Murathi many adjectives have separate terminations

for the three genders, and have two cases. f

We are thus enabled to assign to the Sinhalese and the North-

Indian dialects a common origin, though like many modern Indo-

European tongues, they have gradually given up the peculiarities

of the adjective, which distinguish them from the dialects es

which they have arisen.

PRONOUNS,

Next to inseparable Prepositions, of which I shall treat here-

after, there is no class of words, which more clearly proves the non-

relation of the Sinhalese to the Dravidian, than the Pronouns.

Indeed they throw generally much. light on the relationship of

languages ; for, as remarked by Caldwell, ‘ the personal pronouns,

and especially those of the first and second person singular, evince

more of the quality of permanence than any other parts of speech,

and are generally found to change but little in the lapse of ages.’

In laying before the reader a long extract from the writer above-

named in which he compares the Dravidian, with the North-Indian

* “Tn Sanskrit and all the Indo-European tongues, adjectives are declined

like substantives, aud agree with the substantives to which they are conjoined,

in gender, number and case. In the Dravidian languages, as in the Scythian,

adjectives are incapable of declension. When used separately as abstract nouns

of quality, which is the original and natural character of Dravidian adjectives,

they are sucject to all the affections of substantives; but when they are used

adjectively, 2. e. to qualify other substantives, they do not admit of any inflex-

ional ehange, but are simply prefixed to the nouns which they ane n Cali

well’s Dravidian Grammar, p. 35.

¢ See Dr. Stevenson’s Murathi Grammar, pp. 77—78.

aed aed aes sk ee > Sy.

FR Ne

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 61

personal pronouns, I have taken the liberty to insert the Sinhalese

forms under the Sanskrit family to which they are allied ; and I

need therefore do little more here than refer the reader to his Tables,

given ante, p,41. But some further examintion into the subject

may not prove uninteresting.

From the results of the valuable investigations of the same writer,

nan appears to be the Tamil nominative of the first person. There

is very little difference, if any at all, in the other Dravidian dialects

_ which also take va as the radical of this person. Now the Sinha-

lese has mam which may be seen as in the Persian man, the Sindhi

man and the Oriental Turkish men, which is the same in a variety

of Scythian tongues. It is found in those languages, in which ni

is used as the equivalent of personality in the verbal terminations.

This usage may also be observed in the North—Indian vernaculars,

as in the Sinhalese.

The base of the ‘Tamil pronoun ni ‘thou’ [second person] is the

same in the Malayilam, the Tuda, etc., and seem to come from the

pronoun of the first person. Ona comparison of the several Dra-

vidian dialects nz, nw or na may be pronounced to have been its

original form. The Sinhalese td or to has no relation whatever to

these bases, and on the contrary bears the nearest affinity to the

Sanskrit ¢vam, a form which pervades nearly all Indo-European

and the North-Indian dialects.

From an examination of the pronouns for the first and second

person sengular, I shall proceed to examine their forms in the

plural ; and here we find a peculiarity in the Sinhalese, not only

distinguishable from the Dravidian, but also from the P4li and the

Prakrits, to which lexically it bears the nearest affinity. The first

person forms its plural in all the Dravidian idioms by changing the

inflexion ” into m, whilst the Prakrits adopt mhe. But the Sin-

halese use pi, a termination neither allied to the Dravidian, nor to

the Prakrit, nor indeed to the termination of pluralisation in the

ordinary form of the North-Indian vernaculars. There is also this

62 ON THE ORIGIN OF

difference to be observed between the Sinhalese api ‘we,’ and alt

the forms of the dialects above named,—-that whilst the latter —

retain the primary consonant of the first person, the former gives

it up altogether. Yet it will be observed that’ the Sinhalese

is indebted for this ap, not to the Dravidian, but to the North-

Indian ; e. g., the Murathi and Gujarathi dpane ‘we.’

Now, apane in the dialects above named, one of the two pro-

nouns for ‘we’—that is, ‘the party speaking, including those who

are addressed,’ whilst hame, the ordinary form, is simply ‘the

party speaking.’ The existence of this two-fold form of the first

person plural, in some of the North-Indian vernaculars has induced

Dr. Stevenson, and several other scholars to class them with the

Dravidian dialects, which also have this two-fold plural. Even

with regard to those North-Indian idioms, the utmost extent to

which an inference may be drawn from the above circumstance, is,

that one class has borrowed an idiom of expression from the other;

for the words which the Dravidians use are [mdm and nangal]

different from those adopted by the North-Indians. When we

turn from the North-Indian to the Sinhalese, we neither find

two pronouns of the first person plural, nor the distinction sought

to be cenveyed by the adoption of two sets of words.* The Sin-

halese apt means nothing more or less than what ‘ we’ means in

the English, or zos in Latin, or amhe in Pali; and it clearly

comes from apane, from the Sanskrit dual form avan, the v being

changed into p. :

This p, or the entire inflexion pane must have originally had

*“ The existence of two pronouns of the first person plural, one of which

includes the other excludes the party addressed, is a peculiarity of the Dravi-

dian dialects, as of many of the Scythian languages; but is -unknown to the

Sanskrit and the languages of the Indo-European ee oie, Dravi-

dian Grammar, p. 36.

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE, _ 63

some significant meaning, for we find it in the second person, as

in the first person plural.

Whilst we take the root ¢a@ ‘thou,’ it will be observed we add the

same p in apt to pluralize ¢a. The origin of pi, even if we

disregard the Sanskrit dvan, may, judging from the sense of

duality which it was intended to convey, be traeed to the dual

terminations in pi and pin, Greek; bhyam, bhis, Sanskrit ; and

bis, Latin. The Notherners, who have no dual number, seem to

have adopted this case-suflix, which so largely runs threugh several

of the dual cases in the Sanskrit, to express the two-fold relation

of the party speaking and the party spoken to ; and it seems to be

equally clear that the language which stands in fraternal connec—

tion with them, viz., the Sinhalese, was not so mindful of the

distinction, and therefore adopted one or two pronouns used by

her sisters, expressive of the plural pronoun for the first person.

It is unnecessary here to enter into the other terminations in the

oblique cases of the pronouns of the first and second person, since

they are the same as those to which we have referred under the

declension of nouns; nor is it, for obvious reasons, necessary to £0

into comparisons of the ohu ‘he,’ Sinhalese and avan Tamil; mohu

‘he [ proximate] ’ Sinhalese, and ivaz, ‘Tamil. Suffice it, however,

to notice the form of the Tamil reflexive pronoun fan singular,

tam pluarl ‘self,’ which may be traced to the ¢ama and tam—az in

the Sinhalese. This may at first sight seem to be a Dravidian

derivative; but there is no reason whatever to indicate why both

the Tamil and Sinhalese forms might not have had their origin in

the Sanskrit dtman. Tam-ai is used in the modern vernacular

Sinhalese as in the Tamil to express a strong affirmation of ‘self’

or ‘the very person’ whom the speaker intends to single out

as the man,’ as in, ‘Thou ; art the man ;’ but in the Sinhalese we

use it as in the English with a verb. Thus what in Tamil would

be expressed by zz-tan ‘thou self’ we would express in Sinhalese

to tam-ai ‘it ts thou (very) self’ Tan in the Tamil must

64 OM THE ORIGIN OF

therefore be regarded more in the light of a verb of affirmation,

than as a pronoun. This appears to be the case when we examine

another use of the expression which is identical in the Sinhalese :

e. g.. mez tan Tamil, sebe tam-a-t Sinhalese, ‘it is indeed true,’ or

ironically, poz tan, Tamil—boru tam-ai ‘false indeed ? Sinhalese.

But whether we accept this (tan—tama) as a pronoun or a noun

derived from the Sanskrit atman, it may be affirmed that the only

Sinhalese reflexive pronoun which the books adopt, and which the

Dravidian dialects do not possess, is siya, from the Sanskrit svayam

so near the Latin saz, szbz, and se.

The Sinhalese, like the Sanskrit, is devoid of a simple pronoun

of the third person. The Sidatsangara gives é (remote) and mé

(proximate.) ‘This looks like the Zend hé, and the Prakrit sé, for

své; for the s is changed in our language, as in the Prakrits, to h,

' and that consonant is sometimes altogether omitted, leaving but

the vowel which was inherent in the original word. The Sin-

halese also possesses another word ohw for the third person singu—

lar. Its affinity to the Zend héi, to which, as pointed out by

Bopp, the Greek oz is similar, is very clear. This pronoun, so

different from the Tamil, is in common use amongst us, and may

be traced to a variety of dialects. See Caldwell’s Dravidian

Grammar, p. 298.

The demonstrative bases in the Tamil seem to be @ (remote,)

and 1 (proximate;) e. g., apporadu; that time ,’ ipporadw ‘this time;’

I shall here compare the Tamil demonstratives, with the Sinhalese,

which bear some similarity in the sense in which they are applied

although there is as much dissimilarity in their formation.

Tamil. Sinhalese.

A-adu (remote) é (remote) ‘that ’

A-van é ka ‘ that person’

A-n-gu e-tena ‘ that there’

A-ndru e-da ‘that day’

Here the Sinhalese é is from the Bengali é; and the Tamil a as

a SES SENECA I SCA SEE TOE EE, ST I LL TELL I EC TT TD Te

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 65

well as the proximate i is more clearly allied to the Indo-European

than to the Sinhalese and the North-Indian.

Tamil. Sinhalese

i-idu (proximate) pine E bhis’

I-van me-ka ‘this one’

i-ngu me-teena ‘this place?

i-ndu me-da ‘phis day’

In the North-Indian dialecis the radical i is uséd more syste-

matically than the ‘remote’ a. In the Sinhalese, however, the

persoual pronoun ma is compounded with other words to convey the

proximity to ‘ego.’ Here the word ka, compounded of é and mé,

is derived from the Sanskrit kda—eka, ‘cone,’ and comes from eka.

So likewise tena comes from sthana, and da fromdd. —

_ There is. another demonstrative base which enters into an

adverbial expression, It is « in Tamil, and & and ara in Sinhalese,

Besides these, to which I have now referred, it would seem, the

Dravidian languayes have no pronouns, properly so called. *

INTERROGATIVES.

I take the following comparative table of interrdgatives from

Caidwell, p. 344, shewing their Sinhalese equivalents.

Prox. i _ Remote. a Interrogative Sinhalese.

Mas. Sin. . ivan, hic avan, tle evan, quis? ko (1)-(e) ka

Fem. do, ival, hac aval, cla eval, quae? ko (i)-(e) ki

Neuter do. idu, hoc adu, dlnd edu, guid? ko (i)-(e) ka

Epicine pl. ivar, hi, he avar, ili, ile evar. qui, qué? ee

Neuter do. ivel, haec avel, 2a evel. quae?

Though the Tamil presents a great similarity to the Latin

in having as many demonstratives designed to express ‘ so many

* All other words which correspond cither in meaning or in use to the pro-

nouns of other languages will be found on examination to be nouns regularly

formed and declined. Caldweil’s Comp. Grammar, p. 349.

: K

66 ON THE ORIGIN OF

relations as the above, yet it would seem that the latter have no

more relation to the former than the Sinhalese have to the same.

The interrogatives ké-ka, ko-ki, koka, kavara are all from the San-

skrit base a, and are allied to the North-Indian. Although I have

shewn an inanimate ké-ka, yet it must be remembered that this is

a usage of comparatively recent times, for inanimate objects as I

have shewn under the head of gender.

INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS.

If one circumstance, more than any other favors my position

that the Sinhalese bears a close affinity to the Sanskrit, and is not

allied to the Dravidian, it is to be found in the unmistakeable iden-

tity which may be established between the Sanskrit or Pali, and

the Sinhalese prepositions, none of which are known to the Tamil,*

or any other Dravidian dialect, except indeed what may be found

in words which may be clearly traced to a Sanskrit origin. It

would also seem that, except in a few instances, [e. g. pard-jaya,

etc.| these ‘prepositions are used in the Sinhalese and in the

later Sanskrit,f as prefixes, to qualify the sense of verbs, and

are thence named upa-sarga.

The following isa comparative Table of Sinhalese, Pali, and

Sanskrit inseparable prepositions:—

Sinhalese Pati. Sanskrit | Ezxamplest

a a By adara, © affection.’

abi abhi abhi ubi-seka * anointed.”

Atl in aut ati ait-sara, * dysentery.’

* Wherever prepositions are used in the Indo-European languages, the Dra-

vidian languages, with those of the Scythian group, use post-positions in-

stead,—which post-positions do not constitute a separate part of speech, but

are real nouns of relation or quality, adopted as auxiliaries.”—Caldwell’s Dra-

vidian Grammar p. 35.

+ See Professor Monier William's Sanskrat Grammar p. 316,

{ The above examples are only given in the Sinhalese.

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 67

Sinhalese. Pali. Sanskrit. Examples.

adi adhi adhi adikarana * supreme.’

apa apa apa apa-dan, ‘ ab-lative.’

api apl api *pi-yana,* “ cover.’

anu anu anu anu-sara, ‘ prevalence.’

ava ava ava ava-man, ‘ dis-grace.’

u U, ut u-legi, ' © up-risen,’

upa upa upa upa-ma, “ comparison,’

du du dur du-dana, ‘ wicked.’

ni. ni ni ni-dahas, “ leisure.’

pa pa pra pa-vara, * pre-eminent.’

pard pars para, para-jaya, ‘ de-feat.’

pas fT ni —nir pasa * to pass through.’

piri pari pari piri-vara ‘ retinue.’

pilit pati prati _—pili-gat, “ accepted.”

vi v1 Vi vi-ridu, “ opposed.’

sa san sam sa-banda “con-joint.’

su su su su-ralu, “very-red.’

THE VERB.

In turning from the noun to the verb, Dr. Stevenson says, the

second person singular in the imperative is the root in the Jan-

guages which he compares, that is, the Dravidian, under which he

includes the Sinhalese, and the North-Indian. I have already dis-

posed of this supposed mark of resemblance under the head of roots.

In further illustration of the facts therein stated, I may here refer

to the verb substantive. This is changed from bhu% in Sanskrit to

vt in Sinhalese. The imperative in the latter is never vd, but

wé or, more frequently (like the Sanskrit bhava—) veva ‘ be thou’

singular, and vevu *be ye’ in the plural ; see Szdatsangara, § 51.

* The initial a in apis generally lost in composition in the Sinhalese, as

in pi-nasa ‘nose-affection.’

+ This is the only word, the relation of which to the Sanskrit does not clear-

ly appear.

t Here, it will be observed, the Sanskrit ¢ is changed inte 7 in the Sinhalese,

68 ON THE ORIGIN OF

It may be convenient here to notice the other verbal analogies

to which Dr. Stevenson refers under the head of (1) Voices, (2)

the formation of tenses, (3) the Participle, (4) the eariit tine (5)

Verbal nouns, and (6) the Relative participle.

THe Voices.

The Negative Voice. Dr. Stevenson points out a Negative

Voice, in the Dravidian as well as in the North-Indian dialects,

but admits that ‘to the observations under this head, the Sinhalese

seems [it indeed ts] an exception, having no affix which it adds

to deny the existence of the act, beyond that which is known to

the Sanscrit family of languages.’ :

To render this more plain :—The Dravidian dialects add a

negative particle between the radical and the verbal theme, e. g.

var-@ du, ‘do not come’ ; whereas in the Sanskrit and the Sinha-

Jese the mark of negation, generally na, is prefixed to the radical.

Thus, asti Sanskrit, and e@ti Sinhalese ‘ it is,’ become naséz and

nett, respectively. in expressing ‘ it is not.’. :

Another peculiarity connected with the Dravidian negative verb,

is, that it has but one tense, which is an aorist, or is indetermi-

nate in point of time; e. g. pogen Tamil, ‘I go not,’ means

either ‘I do not go,’ ‘I did not go,’ or ‘I shall not go.’ There is

no such indefiniteness as to tense in the Sinhalese or the Sanskrit,

in both which the tenses are regularly formed notwithstanding

the negative affix; as no-yam: ‘I go not,’ no-giyemt “I went

not,’ and no-yannemi ‘ I shall not go.’

- The Passive Voice. Many who have not Morera tale master ed

the Sinhalese have laboured to shew that the Sinhalese language,

like the Dravidian dialects, is devoid of a regular passive voice.

This is as much a mistake as to suppose that it has not a relative

pronoun, or an instrumental case, The mistake arises from a

careless observance of our best writers, and too much adherence to

the ignorant usage of illiterate men. Iam free to confess that the

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 69

Sinhalese in their colloquial dialect make an effort to express

themselves in the active rather than in the passive voice. If is

alse true, as stated by Dr. Stevenson, that they generally express

themselves as in the North-Indian vernaculars, ‘I ate a beating’

instead of ‘I was struck’ This is after the fashion of the people

with whom they had been, and from whom the Sinhalese were

long ago separated. And the reason why the North-Indians have

adopted this idiom may be found in the constant intercourse which

they have had for centuries with their Dravidian neighbours.

Yet because a foreign idiom is adopted, or the Sinhalese shews

a tendency to adapt itself co circumstances it must net be concluded

that the language is destitute of a passive voice. It must moreover

be borne in mind that in the particular investigation in hand it is

not necessary to enquire what is the tendency of the Sinhalese at

the presevt day—twenty-four centuries after it had been fixed in

Ceylon—but what was its state, as to this passive voice, according

to its earliest writings, its acknowledged grammatical system, and

the learned usage in respect of it at the present day. There is

scarcely a single Sinhalese book in which the passive voice is not

upmistakeably expressed by its author. It is expressiy treated of

in the only ancient Sinhalese Grammar of authority, the Sidat-

sangara ; it is found in writings contained in the Newspaper Press

of this Island; and it is familiar to every one who reads his Lord’s

Prayer in Sinhalese. |

Bat it is said that the word used is Jeba ‘ receive.’ It signifies

nothing what the auxiliary verb is that is employed to express the

passive, so long as it conveys, when joined to the principal verb,

which /e@ba does, a passive signification. If exception be taken

as I have seen it has been, that /@ba is by itself a separate word,

what will the critic say to the verb substantive which enters into

the composition of the English passive verb ? What to the ya

(from ya ‘to go’) which is added to the Sanskrit verb ? Surely

the one or the other of these is as much a distinct word and a verb

70 ON THE ORIGIN OF

as leba or lada. Surely the addition of be in English or ya in

Sanskrit does not divest the verb, to which they are added, of the

passive signification which they impart. If not, it would seem that

leba, from its very meaning of, ‘ passion,’ ‘endurance’ or ‘ suffering’

is calculated to make this voice more distinctly marked than either

be or ya.

The formation of the passive voice in the Sinhalese is ¢wo-fold ;

one with inflexions, and the other with the periphrastic or

auxiliary leba. ‘The first may be regarded as the original form,

and the second the form adopted to render the voice distinctly

marked in such writings as paraphrases, dikas, ete. Of the first see

examples in all our ancient works ; and the latter the reader meets

in every modern writer. Now, the exceptional use of the ac-

tive for the passive with a turm of expression does not shew that

the Sinhalese is allied to the Dravidian any more than that the

Dravidian exhibits a relation to the Semetic, from the resemblance

which the one class bears to the other in the formation of roots

F Cald. p. 160. } Even after the too general adoption of this form

of expression, it will be found, we have not altogether ceased to.

use a passive voice: and I may indeed adopt the very language of

Dr. Stevenson in 1843, a year after he wrote his Essay published

in the Bombay A. S. Journal, and say “There is undoubtedly

such a thing @s a passive verb occasionally used | in Sinhalese as

well as | in Murathi; but its use is very limited, compared with that

of the English passive verb, and its place is generally supplied by

intransitive verbs, or by circumlocution. * |

There is also another peculiarity connected with the Sinhalese.

passive, or, as some call it, the middle voice, which may be noticed

here. ‘When’ says the Sidatsangara, ‘the agent and the object are the

same, (as when a thing is produced of itself,) the verb takes a pas-

* Murathi Grammar, p. 87.

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. Wi

sive termination.’ This is of frequent use in the Sinhalese, as: gaha

voetuni ‘ the tree fellv

The formation of the causal verb both in the North and South-

Indian classes, is according to the Sanskrit. The aya in the latter

is changed into ay or ave in the Prakrit, into wa in the Sinhalese

and Murathi,* and vé in some of the Dravidian dialects.

ConJUGATIONAL SYSTEM.

The present tense.—The Sinhalese verb, like the Prakrit, is

formed by suffixing pronominal fragments to the root, as kara roet

‘do’; kara-mi ‘I do.’ As in the Dravidian, there is ne sign what-

ever in the Sinhalese verb to indicate the gender of the third person.

The pronominal signs are however in both sufixed, not prefixed.

The Sinhalese has also of late years shewn a tendency, especially

amongst the lower orders of the people, to divest the verb of all

signs of personality, and to use it with a pronoun or a nominative.

This is certainly not after the fashion of the Dravidian, nor from

Dravidian influences; for the most ignorant Tamulian uses the verb

with its proper personal inflexion. The use of the substantive

verb, as an auxiliary in the formation of some of the tenses, is not

known to the Sinhalese as it is to the Dravidian, and some of the

North-Indian vernaculars. But these resemblances, and differences

lead to no im portant results in the particular investigation before

us: I shall therefore proceed to

The Past Tense —Here againI may allude to what Dr. Steven-

son has pointed out, under this head, as an analogy which pervades

all the Dravidian, and the North-Indian dialects, viz: that the past

tense of the verb is marked by affixes and not prefixes as in the

Sanskrit. The Sinhalese is not without a prefix to form the past

tense as yami ‘I go’ and gi-ye-mi ‘I went’; but, I admit that-

the Sinhalese verb generally accords with the Dravidian in the

* Dr, Stevenson’s Murathi Gr. p. 87.

ho ON THE ORIGIN OF

peculiarity noticed by Dr. Stevenson. This admission however

does not at all militate against the position, that the Sinhalese and

her North-Indian sisters are indebted for this grammatical form to

other than Dravidian influences. It is ‘true that the Sanskrit

takes the augment a in the [ Hiyattani, Ajjatani, and KAlatipatti]

past tenses ; but the Pali, which is the dialect which exhibits the

nearest approximation to the Sanskrits, shows the earliest traces of

a departure from this rule. or, on reference to Kachchayna’s Pali

Grammar [lib. vi.chap. iv. §38 | it will be seen that this change ofthe

present into the past by the augment a, is “ optional;”e. g. a-gamaé=—=

gama ‘he went’ After the PAli had taken this first step of depar-

ture from the Sanskrit the other Prakrit dialects have followed

the secondary formation of the Pali preterite. See Vararuchi’s

Prakrit Grammar, sec. viii. § 23. Not only they but the North-

Indian Vernaculars have along with the Sinhalese, and some of the

Indo-European languages * followed the practice of retaining the

radical without a prefix in the aorist, e. g. amo, amavi, Latin; do,

did ; Eng., etc., etc. Caldwell in summing up the relations which

several languages bear to each other in the formation of the preterite,

says ‘Ina large proportion of the verbs in the Germanic tongues,

in the modern Persian, in the Turkish and Finish families of lan-

guages, in the vernacular languages of Northern India, and, with a

few exceptions, in the Dravidian languages, the preterite is formed

by suffixing to the verbal theme a particle, generally a single con-

sonant only, which is significant of past tense.

The future tense.—The characteristic sign of the future in the

Dravidian dialects isav or 6. The Bengali has also adopted a 6,

which Professor Max Muller identifies with the 6 or de‘ which forms

characteristic sign of the Latin future, and which is considered to

be a relic of an old substantive verb.’ Now the Sinhalese future

has no sign in common with any of these languages. It takes

Hee eee

* Caldwell, p. 391,

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 73

nem, being simply an introduction of an 2 to the personal termi-

nation of the present tense.

_Participles—On examination, I find a peculiarity which

distinguishes the Sinhalese from the Dravidian Participle, viz., that

the latter is destitute of what the former, in common with all the

North-Indian.and Indo-European dialects, possesses, the verbal par-

ticiple, which participates in the nature of adjectives.*

I may here notice another analogy in the formation of the par-

ticiple to which Dr. Stevenson refers. He says that in the Sinhalese,

Telugu, Carnatika,and Tamil......the present participle active re-

ceives the signs of the persons as affixes, to form the present indi-

cative. ‘In the Northern family generally (he adds), I believe, as in

the Hindi, and with a negative in Gujarathi, the present tense is

formed by the participle and the substantive verb as in our form,

fam reading,

The sign of the Sinhalese present participle has indeed, appa-

rently, a distant resemblance to the sign of the first person; but L

feel persuaded that its formation is totally unconnected with the

principle apon which the verbal termination in the first person of

the indicative mood is formed. In the latter, the first person takes,

as in several other languages, the pronoun for the first person,

which is m in the Sinhalese; but the participle takes min, which is

the Sanskrit and the Pali ména in the same part of speech. e. g.

Gachchamanan, Pali and Sanskrit (neuter) ‘ going’; and this again.

is more like the termination in the English ‘sing-2ng,’ or the Scotch

‘sing-2n.’ |

The Infinitive—Dr. Stevenson says that in the languages, whose

agreement in grammatical forms he has noticed, the infinitive

adopts the sign of the dative. So far as appearances go this.

is quite correct. If any inference can be drawn from this resem-

_ blanee, it will be observed that the same inference may also be

drawn as between all these dialects, and the English. See ante p. 57.

* Caldwell’s Dravidian Grammar, p. 384.

44 ON THE ORIGIN OF

But, says Caldwell, ‘the supposition that the final ka of most Tamil

infinitives is in any manner connected with kw, the sign of the Dra-

vidian dative and of the Hindi dative-accusative, is erroneous. A

comparison of various classes of verbs, and of the various dialects

shows that the ka in question proceeds from a totally different,

origin.* J ana not prepared to state that in this I quite agree

with Mr. Caldwell; but I do believe that the Sinhalese, in which we

find, not a ka as already explained at p. 57, but, a éa both in the

dative and in the infinitive, is not indebted to the Dravidian fog

the principle of this formation. It sheuld however be borne.

in mind, that the analogy sought to be deduced is, not that

the same form kz occurs in the dative and the. infinitive of

both the Dravidian and the Sinhalese; but, that though each

uses different forms, yet each employs one and the same sign

in the dative noun and the infinitive verb, thus establishing

a common principle upon which the dative and the infinitive

are formed in those languages. If this principle were recognized,

we should indeed find no difficulty in tracing out the same analo-

gies in languages belonging to the Sanskrit family. In the Sans-

krit, as in the Sinhalese, the infinitive is ever to be received as. the

object of'a verb expressed or understood. ‘As the object of the

verb,’ says Monier Williams, ‘it may be regarded as an equivalent

to an indeclinable substantive, in whieh the force of two cases, az

accusative and dative, is inherent.’ Now in the Sinhalese the

infinitive, as well as the accusative and the dative, take the same

termination éa. ‘The reason for the adoption of the same inflexion

in the infinitive which occurs in the aceusative and the dative is

therefore obvious. The use of the infinitive, continues Professor

Williams, as a substantive, with the force of the accusative case,

corresponds to one use of the Latin infinitive; thus, tat sarvam

srotum techdmi, ‘I desire to hear all that,’ id audire eupio, where

srotum and audire are both equivalent to accusative cases, them-

* p. 423.

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 75

selves also governing an accusative. Similarly roditum pravritta

‘she began to weep;’ and mahin jeiun arebhe, ‘he began to conquer

the earth,’ where mahijayan arebhe ‘he began the conquest of the

earth’ would be equally correct.* All that is here said of the Sans-

kvit equally applies to the Sinhalese: and, when we moreover learn

from the authority already quoted, that ‘inflnitives in the Veda may

also be formed by simply adding the usual case terminations,’ we

need no longer hesitate to accownt for the existence of the da-

tive and accusative sign in the Sinhalese infinitive, and to trace its

cause to the genius of that language, the Sanskrit, in which ‘the

infinitive most commonly involves,’ as the Sinhalese dees, ‘a sense

which belongs especially to the Sanskrit dative viz., that of the

end or purpose for which any thing is done; and in which, as in

the cases above given, it would be equally correct to substitute the

dative for the infinitive.t

There is yet another peculiarity, to which Dr. Stevenson has called

attention, and which it is convenient to notice here. It is that of

“nouns being used with the verb’ ‘to do,’ ‘give,’ ‘take,’ &e. This dues

not possess a characteristic by any means distinguishable from the

Sanskrit. What is here described as nowns are verbal derivatives.

Though they present all the appearance of nouns, yet they are

deduced from, and are clearly traceable to, verbs; e. g., horakan

kala ‘he made séeal-ing.’ Now, as remarked ly Bopp, ‘the

Sanskrit verbs of the tenth class, and all derivative verbs, peri-

phrastically express the reduplicated preterite by one of the auxi-

liary verbs —kri, ‘to make,’ @s and bhu, ‘to bet E. g., chora-

yanchekara ‘he made stealing.” The Sanskrit also uses ‘oo’ as

an auxiliary, as vapushtamartham varayam prachakranuh, ‘they

went to a solicitation.’ So likewise in the Sinhalese, as well as in

* Mon. William’s Sanskrit Grammar, p. 367,

* tb. p. 868: also Sidatsangara, § 30, p; 35,

t Also see Panini, 11,1. 35 seq.

76 ON THE ORIGIN OF

other Indo-European dialects.” See Bopp’s Comp. Grammar, ii. p.

S41, et seq.

So again in the Pali, as in the Rule, bhu kara sabba dhatvatth-

esveva santi, tato setiti sayanan karotit yat ho* i. e. Bhu ‘be, and

kara ‘do,’ euter into the sense of all verbs; then seti ‘he sleeps’

has the sense of sayanan karoti ‘ he dces the sleep.’

Tie RELATIVE PartTIcIpIAL ADJECTIVE.

Though the Sinhalese participles, both in the active and: passive

voices, materially differ as regards their inflexions and their forma-

tion from the Dravidian, yet a peculiarity has been pointed’ out

with reference to their use, as shewing the affinity of those lan-

guages. It is this—that whenever practicable the Sinhalese as

well as the Dravidians use, as adjectives, the relative participles of

verbs in preference to nouns of quality, or adjectives properly so

called. Now, the Dravidian dialects have no relative pronouns what-

ever, and it is on that account they resort to this, if I may so call it,

make-shift, a ‘ relative participle’—a part of speech which is invari-«

ably followed by anoun, and which [ when not understood ] is preceded

by the words or phrases which depend upon the relative. E g.,

varum @l in Tamil ‘ the coming person,’ for ‘the person who comes.’

The Sinhalese and the North-Indian vernaculars, however, are not

destitute of the relative pronoun. ‘They have ya, yah, yad, ‘ who,’

‘which; and the same is clearly and distinctly found in the litera-

ture of Ceylon. In the Pansiapanas Jadtaka, in which the Trans-

lators have not disdained to use pure unadulterated Dravidian words

and phrases, as already shewn, at ante p. 25, we find the relative

_ pronoun as frequently as in any Sanskrit or Pali work. Here is

an example. Yam gasak mula sevane setapi yam-ek hunnevi nam

e gasa atlak vevai satpurusa tenette no-bidineya. ‘If a person

recline under the shade of a tree, even a branch of that tree does

* Bélavatara; also examine Prof, Mon. William’s Sanskrit Grammar, p. 347.

THE SINIALESE LANGUAGE. V7

not the righteous man break ’—‘ The righteous man does not break

even a branch of the?tree, under whose shade he reclines.’

This form of the relative clause, though different from that in

which it is expressed in the English, is nevertheless identical with

that used in the;Pali or the Sanskrit. It may be unsuited, or may;

as remarked by a late writer, sound ‘ludicrotis’ to the English

ear; yet it must be remembered that it is peculiar to the idiom and

usage of Sanskritic dialects. E. g. yena Bhagava ,vihari| tena

raja upasan-kami, in Pali is equivalent to, yam tenaka Buduhe

vistida, etanata raja peminiyeya in the Sinhalese. ‘Did Buddha

dwell any where, the king arrived there.’

Though the existence of the relative pronoun in the Sinhalese is

undoubted, and there is not a trace of itin any of the Dravidian

dialects; yet the use of the relative partiéiple is very frequent and

even common in the Sinhalese as in the North-Indian Vernaculars,

Caldwell thinks that this is ‘ through an under-current of Dravidian,

or at least of pre-Sanskrit influences—p. 412. Iam however inclined

to a different belief, not only on account of the simplifying process

to which all vernaculars resort, and the undoubted existence of the

relative pronoun in the Sinhalese; but because the so-called rela-

tive participle is known to Sanskritic dialects and even the Sans-

krit as much as to the Dravidian. E. %. bhdsayantah bhanavah

‘ brightening rays;’ avatarantan munin ‘descending sage;’ kri-

yamanan karma. ‘ycing-to-be-made act,—Sanskrit. The use of

this relative participial adjective is the same in the Pali, the Sinha-

lese, the Greek, the Latin, and Englisb. E. g. Sakin vutiani

vachanani—varak ki vachana—hapax legomena remata,—semel

dicta verba=‘ once spoken words,’

ADVERBS.

The Dravidian dialects have no adverbs at all; and as attempts

have been made by some writers to shew that in this respect also

the Sinhalese may be identified with the Dravidian, I annex the

18 ON THE ORIGIN OF

following comparative statement to shew that the Sanskrit, Pali,

and Sinhaiese adverbs present no great diversity either in form, or

in their use. For further examples I may refer the reader to the

Sidatsangara, Appendix, p. 170 et seq.

Sanskrit. - Pali. Sinhalese.

Mama puratas mama purato ma perata * before me.’

Adya gatah ajja gato ada giye ‘ gone to-day.’

Saha nidrayati sahaniddayati hd nidai * sleeps with.’

Ati mahan attva maha ité mahat ‘ very great.’

Diva yati diva yati daval yayi ‘ goes during-day.’

Paschat tapah paccht tapo pasu tevilla ‘e pentence.’

Tt would thus appear that, whilst the Sinhalese is admitted by

Dr. Stevenson himself to be an exception to éwo out of the ten

Grammatical peculiarities which he has cited* to shew a relation

between the North-Indian and the Dravidian, there are, as already

pointed out, five others [e. g., as regards (1) the inflexion of nouns,

(2) the interchange of the nominative and accusative cases, and the

formation (3) of the imperative, (4) the present tense, and (5) the

infinitive ], which bear no analogy whatever to the Sinhalese; that

the remaining three are secondary forms, which exist along with a

primary Sanskrit form distinguishable from the Dravidian Gram-

matical system; and that a// are traceable to Sanskrit influences.

So much for the ‘ unequivocal proof’ of lexical and grammatical

analogies. I shall proceed to an examination in,

SECTION FOURTH,

Or SyntacticaL ARRANGEMENT.

I am not quite certain whether it is necessary to enter into the

Syntax of the languages under consideration, which I have al-

ready partially done in the abi ve submitt d details, though, per-

haps, not so methodically as I could have wished; but, since it

* See Bombay As. Soe. Journal, vol, i. p. 106.

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 79

has been remarked by the same writer, to whom I have so frequently

referred in the course of my remarks, Dr. Stevenson, that the

general structure of all | the North and South-Indian dialects |

is the same, and has certainly remained unaffected [ by Brahmanical

influences |, a few remarks may not be deemed unnecessary.

“Mr. Caldwell in summing up all the Syntactieal differences be-

tween the Sanskrit family of languages and the Dravidian, says: —

‘The situation of the governing word is characteristic of each of

these families of languages. In Sanskrit and the Indo-European

family it usually precedes the word governed: in the Dravidian

and in all the Scythian languages, it is invariably placed after it;

in consequence of which the principal verb always occupies the last

place in the sentence. ‘The adjective precedes the substantive :

the adverb precedes the verb: the substantive which is governed

by a verb, together with every word that depends upon it or qua-

lifies it, precedes the verb by whieh tt is governed: the relative

participle precedes the noun on whichit depends: the negative

branch of a sentence precedes the affirmative: the noun in the

genitive case precedes that which governs it: the pre-position

changes places with the noun and becomes a post-position in vir-

tue of its governing a case: and finally the sentence is concluded

by the one, all-governing, finite verb. In each of these important

and highly characteristic peculiarities of syntax, the Dravidian

languages and the Scythian are thoroughly agreed.”—p. 36.

There seems to be some misapprehension here; for I

cannot perceive so great a diversity, as here stated, in the

construction of Indo-European and Dravidian dialects. I fail also

to perceive much difference, in many of the particulars above

stated, between the former and the Sinhalese. If the peculiar

characteristic in the construction of a Dravidian sentence is, that

the governing words are preceded by those that are governed, the

Sinhalese, like some of her North-Indian sisters, is certainly

an exception, in many respects, to the rule; and, where it is not, it

80 ON THE ORIGIN OF

is indeed remarkable, that it accords with the Pali or Sanskrit on

the one hand, or with the Latin or Greek on the other.

E. g., In the Dravidian as well as in the North-Indian dialects

including the Sinhalese, the adjective precedes the substantive

which it qualifies: so it does in Pali,* Sanskrit, Latin, and English.

2.—The adverb precedes the verb: so likewise in Latin, and Pali,

3.-—The genitive precedes its governing noun: so it does in Sans-

krit. 4.-~-The relative participle precedes the noun on which it

depends. Here therelative participial adjeciiveis evidently meant, for

there is no relative in the Dravidian dialects. In the use of the

relative participial adjective not only the Latin and Greek, but the

Pali and the Sanskrit are equally agreed with the Sinhalese.f

5.—The noun which is governed by 2 verb precedes the latter: so

likewisein the Latinand Pali; 6.—The finite verb takes the last place

in the sentence: so it does in the Pali and Sanskrit.t And 7, the

negative branch of a sentence precedes the affirmative. This, I

admit, is generally the case in the Sinhalese; but there are excep-

tions to the rule: and an exceptional rendering in one of the

examples given below is not the less elegant on that account, like

the English sentence—‘ Not that I loved Cesar less—but that I

loved Rome more.’

Let us, in the next place, examine these ‘highly characteristic

peculiarities’ of construction in Dravidian dialects, with reference

to the Syntax of a Pali, as compared with a Sinhalese, sen-

tence. If, by such comparison I can shew that the Sinhalese ap-

proaches very nearly toa very ancient type of the Sanskrit, of

undoubted Northern origin, I believe it will be unnecessary to

examine the construction of the Dravidian. Proceeding therefore |

* Agahita visesana buddhi visessamhi na-uppajjatiti visesanam pubban hoti

—Bala-vatara, i. e.*The mind unembued with the attribute comprehends not

the substantive: wherefore the adjective precedes (the noun.)’

t Vide supra, p. 77,

{ Vide remarks infra.

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. Si

to the comparison of the Pali and the Sinhalese, I shall divide my

observations into three classes: first their lexical, secondly their

grammatical, and thirdly their syntactical analogies.

_ Pali.—Tissadatta théro Aire Bédhi mande suvanna salakan ga-

hetva attharasasu bhasasu katara bhasiya katémi-iti pavaresi.

Sinhalese.—Tisdat tera vanaht Bodi mandapé suvarna (or raz)

salakava gena daha-aza basaven kavara basavakin kata karam-deyt

peeveri.

English—‘ Tissadatta thera having taken up the gold broomstick

in the Bé-yard, requested to know in which of the eighteen

languages he should speak.’

i. Here are fifteen words, of which two alone cannot be traced

to the Pali. They are eanahi and deyi, both indeclinable parti-

cles. Of the others, all which are independent of the Dravidian,

suvarna is nearer Sanskrit than the Pali. It is true that the

ancient Sinhalese word for ‘ gold’ is raz, different from the aboves

but even that word is clearly a derivative of the Pali aranna.

ii, ‘Though the Sinhalese nominative @ in tere is distinguish-

able from the Palis yet the Pali lecative e in mande is the same

as in the Sinhalese. The similarity in the termination of the verb

in the third person singular ‘pavaresi’ isobvious. The only differ-

ence in the grammatical construction of the two languages, as ex

hibited in the above versions, is that the Pali lecative bhasasu, is

expressed in the Sinhalese by the ablative. I have followed the

modern usage with a view to exhibit the difference between it and

the ancient, which, as we find from the Amévature and Pradipikava,

preferred the locative. The locative if used in the Sinhalese would

not be less elegant than the ablative.

iii. Syntactically, it will be observed that every word in the

Sinhalese takes the same position which it occupies in the Pali.

_ The nominative is the first word in the sentence; the adjective

precedes the substantive; the accusative swvanna precedes the

past participle gahefva, which it governs; the locative munde

| M

&2 ON THE ORIGIN OF

takes the precedence of the accusative; and the finite verb is placed

last'in the sentence.

Péli—Tan pana tena atthato ugeahetva psavaritan; na-patisam-

bhidava ¢hitena; sohi mahi pannatiya tan tan bhasan kathapetva

ugganhi: Tato uggahethatva evan pavaresi. Bhasan nama satta

uggenhantiti vutvacha panettha idan kathitan, Matapitarohi dahara

kale kumérake mancheva pitheva nipajépetva tan tan kathaya mé-

na tani tani kichchani karonti; daraka tesan tan tan bhasan va-

vaithdpentu ‘imina idan vuttan, imina ud4 vuttan ’-ti gachchante

kale sabbampi bhasan janantt..

Sinhalese—é& vanahi artayen igena pavarana-ladi; pilisimbi-

yavehi sitiyan-visin nove; hetema mahapena-vat beevin é é basa

kiyava ugati: eheyin igenmehi sifa mesé pevari. Basa nam satvayo

iganaganityayi kiydda vanahi mehi meya kiyana-ladi. Mavu-piyé

vanahi ladaru kala kumarun mess¢ho putuvého hova 6 é* [bas]

kiya-min @ é katayutu kara-d; ladaruvo ohunge é é bas—‘ meyin

meka kiyana-ladi meyin meka kiyana-lade’-y? niyamakaraganiti :

‘hal-yamen { siyalu-ma basava daniti.

English‘ He so (spake) from (a knowledge of the languages)

acquired by actual study—not through inspiration. For, being

a very wise personage he knew those several dialects by learning :

‘wherefore, being one of (such) acquirements, he so inquired. ‘This

‘is said here (to illustrate) that men acquire a language (by study).

‘Parents place their children, when young, either on a cot or a

chair, and speak different things, and perform different actions.

Their words are then distinctly impressed on the children (on

their minds, thinking,) that such was said by him, and such by the

OunErs ; and in process of time they learn the entire language.’

Here patisambhidiya Pali,== Pilistmbiyavehi; ‘inspiration,’

Ee has not produced hetema, which comes from he==‘ that,’ ‘ he’

* Yamak yamak would be better.

{ I have put this in the ablative, but the locative may be legal used a3

in the Pali.

©}.

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 8a

and tema ‘self’ as the sigu of the nominative. The nearness of

signification and form of uggahethaiva to igenmeht-sita isremark-

able; also of nama and nam ; and of kale and kala. Were is an

illustration of the Sinhalese words mavu-piya for ‘father’ and

‘mother,’ being of Sanskrit origin. No Sinhalese scholar, I am.

persuaded, will introduce into the above sentence appa or amma,

any more than an English writer would ‘ papa’ or ‘mamma.’ The

Pali dahara and the Sinhalese Ja-daru are synonymous, the la

being in the latter added to mark the ‘tenderness’ of the infant.

The Pali ¢i is expressed by the Sinhalese yé, and in the use of them

there is net the slightest difference. Again there is not a single

word, in the above sentence, which has the most distant relation to

the Dravidian.

ii, The Sinhalese auxiliary artayen is expressed atthaéo in the

Pali. The passive voice is here undoubtedly expressed by puva-

rana-ladi, and kiyana-ladi. ‘There is, moreover, no grammatical

form that may be pronounced to have had its origin in the Dravi-

dian. . |

iii. In rendering the above Pali passage into the Sinhalese,

idiom has rendered the displacement of only two words. One is

the negative particle na, which, in the Pali, is prefixed to pade-

sambhidaya when the verb is understood, but which in the Sin-

halese should be added to the verb substantive which is generally

expressed. The other is the principal verb vavatthapentu=miya-

makara-ganitt, ‘ determine,’ which in the Pali precedes the quota-

tion following, but which in the Sinhalese follows the passage ex-

pressed as the thought that is passing in the children’s minds.

Adverting to the only remaining analogy to which Dr. Stevenson

refers,—that in the Dravidian dialects ‘the verb is used, laséin the

sentence, I may remark that the difference here between the Pali

and the Sinhalese is, that contrary to the position of the verb in

the first example, the Pali finite verb in example second does not

occupy the last place in the sentence, whilst the Sinhalese verb

84 ON THE ORIGIN OF

does. As already remarked it isa mistake to suppose that this |

is at all a characteristic which distinguishes the Sinhalese from the

Sanskrit; for in the latter, as stated by Professor Monier Williams

(See his Grammar p. 348) ‘the verb is commonly, inereee not

always, placed das¢ in the sentence.’

Such is the evidence which I promised to adduce; and so far

as nistorical testimony, lexical, grammatical and syntactical analo-

gies go, I believe I have supported my position with the ‘unequivo-

cal testimony’ which others have claimed for a contrary theory.

Doubtless there are few Dravidian words and Grammatical forms

to be found in the Sinhalese; and these, which, like the oases in the

desert, are few and far between, I have not failed to point out.

But, which is the confessedly Sanskritic dialect that has not

departed more than the Sinhalese from its parent stem? In order

to establish an original identity between two dialects it is not essen-

tial that there should be a resemblance in all their words and

Grammatical forms. ‘Philology (says Bopp) would ill perform its

office if it accorded an original identity only to those idioms in

which the mutual points of resemblance appear everywhere pal-

pable or striking; as, for instance, between the Sanscrit dadami, the

Greek Lithuanian dumi, and Old Sclavonie damy. Most European

languages, in fact, do not need proof of their relationship to the

Sanscrit; for they themselves shew it by their forms, which, in

part, are but very little changed. But that which remained for

philology to do, and which (he adds) I have endeavoured to the ©

utmost of my ability to effect, was to trace, on one hand, the

resemblances into the most retired corners of the construction of

language, and, on the other hand, as far as possible, to refer the

greater or less discrepancies to laws through which they became

possible or necessary.’

In the comparisons, however, which I have instituted, if was

even unnecessary to resort to the ‘most retired corners’ here spo

ken of. For, the resemblance whieh the Sinhalese bore, both

hentai

Pe ae, hes 7“

THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. 85

lexically and grammatically, to the Pali, and therefore to the

Sanskrit, has been found to be so ‘palpable and striking’ that

their relationship appeared at once to be even greater than that

between the Sanskrit and the Indo-European dialects. Iam _ fully

persuaded that no one, who has followed me closely through the

investigations which are here submitted, could fail to notice

that the prominent features of the Pali are indelibly impressed

upon the very face of the Sinhalese, and so clearly, that it is

impossible to deny to them the aflinity of mother and daughter.

But whether their relationship is so close or more distant, the

points of resemblance which I have exhibited between some of

the North-Indian vernaculars (so entirely different from the

Dravidian), and the Sinhalese, especially in the case of Pronouns,

see p. 63; and the still closer resemblance which the Sinhalese

bears to the Pali, when compared with the North-Indian dialects,

must satisfy any candid mind that the Sinhalese had at one time

a local existence in the North of Hindustan, and that her early

separation from her Sisters, combined with the help which

Pali literature has rendered her, on the one side, and on the other,

the implacable hatred of our forefathers towards their Dravidian

neigbours which induced her to repel their advances, has enabled

her to live upwards of two thousand years without those material

changes which her Hindu Sisters have undergone. Indeed,

I may remark in conclusion, with far less weighty evidence, than

I have adduced, did Professor Max Muller} lay down his brief,

and leave his case in the hands of an English Jury, confident of

their verdict as to the relationship of the Llindu, Greek, and the

Teutonic. With, however, the venerable authorities which I have

cited, the overwhelming results of the cross-examination to which

I have subjected the witnesses on the opposite side, and the

ie ed

* Professor M. Williams’s Sanskrit Grammar, p 348.

+ Ancient Sanskrit Literature, p. 11.

86 ORIGIN OF THE SINIIALESE LANGUAGE.

very strong and irresistible testimony which the Pali has borne

in favor of its relation to the Sinhalese, I believe I have a right

to expect that the same English Jury will give their verdict in

my favor; and that they will, without retiring from the jury-

box, pronounce that ‘ Tue SINHALESE Is A SANskKRITIC, NoRTH-

InpIAN,-—-NOT A DRAVIDIAN—DIALECT.

BUDHISM:—A Lecture delivere! before the Colombo

‘Young Men’s Christian Association; by the late Rav. J.

GogEerLy.— With Introduction by the Ruv. JOHN SCOTT,

and Notes by the Rev. D. DE SILVA.

In a recently published essay on Buddhism, Professor

Mux Miller after referring to the Pali studies of the late

Mr. Turnour says, “The exploration of the Ceylonese

literature has since been taken up again by the Rev. D. J.

‘Gogerly, whose essays are scattered about in Sinhalese

periodicals and little known in Europe.” Mr. Gogerly

devoted a great part of the labour of forty years to resear-

‘ches in Buddhism as set forth in the original Pali works,

‘and the results of his investigations cannot fail to be of

value to the students ofa religion which is professed by

nearly one third of the human race. The following lecture,

delivered in Colombo shortly before Mr. Gogerly’s death,

contains, it is believed, the latest and most comprehensive

account published by him of this strange oriental system of

mingled religion and philosophy.

There are some of the lecturer’s conclusions to which it

may be desirable to attract attention. For instance, a

question much agitated some years ago was, which was the

earlier system, Brahmanism or Buddhism? It will be seen

“Mr. Gogerly holds the opinion now generally entertained,

that Buddhism was a reaction against the abuses of the

‘Brahmanical system. The second paragraph of the lectuve

‘refers to Goutama’s statement that many preceding Bud-

dhas had existed ;—-possibly some of his doctrines had been

88 BUDMISM.

taught by more ancient sages, and this fact may have been

exaggerated into the notion of the Buddhas of preceding

calpas.

A considerable part of the lecture is occupied with

Buddha’s description of the material universe. This is the

weak point of Buddhism, which is thus placed in antagonism

to the most obvious teachings of science. These statements

are no mere allusions to the popular belief of that period;

they are positive and detailed affirmations made by Buddha

on the authority of his omniscience. To escape from the

difficulty, an ingenious attempt was made a few years ago to

prove that these accounts of the universe were to be under-

stood in an allegorical sense. Mr. Gogerly however, in his

Christiani Pragnyapti demolished this explanation, shewing

that what Buddha taught concerning the world was in-

tended by him to be believed literally, as an essential part

of his religion. ‘Thus the states of reward and punishment

are assigned to definite localities in the universe, so that if

(for mstance) Maha Meru is allegorical, the heavenly worlds

on the sides and summit of Maha Meru must be allegorical

also.

Probably the chief novelty in the following lecture will

be the representation it gives of Buddha’s doctrines as to a

Creator. The usual opinion of persons acquainted with

Buddhism has been, that the existence of a Supreme Being

was neither affirmed nor denied in this system, the subject

being simply ignored by Buddha. This however was not

Mr. Gogerly’s view. He held that the idea of a Supreme

and Infinite Creator was familiar to the mind of the founder

of Buddhism, and deliberately rejected by him. Some cu-

rious extracts on this subject will be found in the lecture.

BUDDHISM. SY

There are three doctrines closely connected together and

sineularly characteristic of Buddhism. These doctrines

relate to the nature of man, transmigration, and Nirwana.

On each of these points Mr. Gogerly’s Pali studies led him

to conclusions which aré clearly stated in the following

lecture. First—Buddhism denies the existence of a soul in

man; therefore,—Secondly, there can beno transmigration, in

the poptlar sense of the term—there is only a series of

beings—the later bemgs in the series inheriting the merit or

demerit of the earlier beings. Thirdly—Nirwana is no

Paradise, for when the series of sentietit beings comes to an

end there is no soul to continue. Nirwana therefore is

simply extinction. This is the view of Nirwana held by

the highest authorities on Buddhism; and it will be seen

that the independent investigations of Mr. Gogerly caused

him to arrive at the samé coiiclusion,

The notes are written by the Rev. David de Silva of

the Wesleyan Mission. He was formeily a student of Mr.

Gogerly, and has acquired an extensive knowledge of the’

Bupiitsm, which was once the dominant religion of India

is now completely unknown in its native country; but

when excluded from that region it spread itself in other

directions, and at present prevails in Nepaul, Thibet, China

Burmah, Siam, Ceylon and other countries, and numnibers

among its votaries a large portion of the human ‘ace. (1.)

Brahimanistii certainly prevailed extensively at the time

(1.) The Right Rev. P. Bigandet, in lis preface to the first

edition of the ‘Life or Legend of Goudama,” says of Budhism,

that in our own days, it is, unde? different forms, the Creed pre-

| 6

90 BUDHISM.

when Goutama Budha was born, for upon his birth Brah-

mans were consulted respecting the fortunes of the new-born

prince (2.); and it is stated that the progress of Budhism

was most rapid among the inferior castes: the Kshatriya or

Warrior tribe rejecting it from the pride of birth, and the

Brahmans from the pride of learning: but the Brahmanism

of that period differed materially from that of the present

time; no trace appearing in the sacred books of the Bud-

dhists of the worship of Sivaand Vishnu. The Godtowhom

offerings were generally made, was Agni, the God of fire. (3.)

vailing in Nepaul, 'Thibet, Mongolia, Corea, China, the Japanese

Archipelago, Anam, Cambodia, Siam, the Shan States, Burmah,

Arreean, and Ceylon.”

Sir Emerson Tennent’s Christianity in Ceylon, page 199, tells us

the followers of Budhism amount to more than one-third of the

human race. Hardy’s Eastern Monachism says, “ It is computed,

there are 869,000,006 of Budhists.” *

(2.) On the birth of Siddharta, 108 Brahmans were brought

together, of whom there were eight chiefs ; seven of those having

observed the 32 attributes of personal beauty in the prince, lifted

each two of their fingers, and pronounced, that if he remained a

laic he would be universal monarch ; if he turned priest, he would

become Buddha wsoVemrd>o Ohana HetomBs IaimDnG sad

cainsS Qoeo mdusd Saché agdran wasissati raja hoti chak-

kawatti. Sache pabbejissati buddhobhawissati,’ while the young-

est Brahman 620-0) @aeae Kondanya positively affirmed, that he

would not remain a laic but would become Budhda, and lifted.

up one finger in token of this. (Manorathepurane a9

(3.) Professor Wilson, on Rig Veda Sanhita, affirms, that there

* Max Muller in his Essays on the Science of Religion, p- 214, says

that Goutama “became the founder of a religion which after more than

2000 years, is still professed by 455,000,000 of human beings.” He adds

however the following note : “Though truth is not settled by majorities ©

it would be iter esting to know which religion counts at the present mo-

ment the largest number of believers, Berghaus i in his ‘ Physical Atlas’

gives the following ie sion of the human race according to religion.

Buddhists . . 31°2 per cent. | Brahmanists . . 13°4 “per cent.

Christians . : “OF Ms Heathens si aie Ra ae ai

Mohammedans . 15:7 5 Jews 1 san) One LB

“As Berghais does not distinguish the Budde: ut China from the

BUDHISM. 9]

The state of caste at that time was also different from

that which prevails at present, the Warrior tribe being re-

garded as the first, and the Brahmanical as the second in

the seale of dignity. Many princes having embraced the

doctrines of Buddhism, the Warrior tribe became its suppor-

ters, but were ultimately subjected by the ascendancy, of

the priesthood. Much obscurity rests upon that historical

period which we shall not attempt to remove; confining

ourselves briefly to the doctrines of Buddha as recorded in

their sacred books.

Although the present system of Budhism is of compar-

atively recent origin, Goutama affirmed, that in the most

remote ages the doctrines which he taught had been pro-

claimed by’an incalculable number of Buddhas who lived

in previous kalpas; as wellas by three who preceded him

in the present kalpa. ‘The doctrines taught by them are

represented as being identical with those of the present

Buddha. (4) The whole field of truth is stated to have

been open before each Buddha, who is therefore named

wk) Sette7 sabannyu, omniscient ; Yoyo chackhuma, the

is no reference in the Vedas to Trimurti, Brahma, Vishnu and

Siva, to Durga, Kali, or Rama, or to any other of the gods that

are at present the most popular in india. ‘The principal dieties are

Agni and Indra.

(4. ) When the priests of Buddha were assembled in the sitt Ang

hall of Karéru in the garden of Anathapindika at Jetawana near

SAwatty, they were anxious to be taught respecting the former

states of existence. Buddha a rddressing them, says, that 91 kalpas

previous to his time there appeared a Buddha whose name was

S508 Wipassi; 31 kalpas previous, there was one 82 Sikhi; in

followers of Confacius and Lactse, the firs t place on the scale belongs

veally to Christianity.”

92 BUDHISM.

seeing one: ®eOsJam O24) samantuchakkhu, He who has

an eye seeing in every direction. The Buddhas there-

fore saw all things with unfailing accuracy, and their

teachings agreed with those of Goutama even on the

minutest points. But these teachers and their doctrines

had been long forgotten before the birth of Goutama

Buddha, and he became the unaided re-discoverer of the

system. (5. )

Goutama Buddha was born in Kapilawastu, a city in or

near to the present province of Oude, in the year 624 before

the self same kappa there was @®sset2 Wessabhu, in the present

Bhadda kappa, neces, there were @2peeI0 Kahusandha, 29209

©@s Konagamana, and sees Kassapa and himself. Wipassi,

Sikhi, and Wessabhu, were of the (daa Khattia) Warrior tribe.

Kakusanda, Konagamana, and Kassapa were of the Brahman tribe,

while he himself was of the Khattia tribe. (Digha Nikaya

Mahapadane Suttan). In 80. natiwral circumstances, all Buddhas

AGTEe BHABAIDe wOSo.uIde VOOas Gabbe buddhanan sametin-

sawidha dhammata (Sarasanga, page 24.)

(5.) Inthe Dhammachakkappawattana Suttan, Buddha says,

Gee saoPSHHOONDBOOGBDADD HOB) Hmaqayong™ VDOoosg

OMo GENIE aq are OGG organ, Ggwok & 955) ecie POGIOA.,

Bene Idan dukkan ariya sachchanti me Bikkhawé pubbé

ananussuthésu dhammésu chakkun udepddi nyanan udepddi, panya,

udepadi wijja udepadi aldk6 udepadi.—O priests! for the attain-

ment of these previously unknown doctrines, this noble truth,

that sorrow is connected with existence, the eye was developed

within me; knowledge was developed within me; wisdom was de-

veloped within me; clear perception was developed within me; and

light was developed within me.”

In the same Suttan it is said com0d9oa)2 OOHMADOD Qo0y

rors Hees GQo BaGOOOs OQacwvswGo CGQIMMe ApaMexses

So BUGAe HawWIE Ooz Bo poeseoos OMOMAOIOOSD

BHYHOOD aassOlemQoosansea aged OVI PDO Go

BOO sD@od. eHagaewo wddapag te Y Yathochakho me bikkhawé

imésu chatusu ariyasachchésu éwan tipariwattan dwddasékdran

yathabhiitan nydnadassanan suwisudhan ahosy athdhan bikkhawe

sadéweké Idké samdraké sabbrahmaké sassamana brahmaniy4

BUDHISM. 93;

the Christian era. His father was a sovereign prince named

Sudhodana. (6.) He was called the Prince Siddharta, and

lived in regal splendour till his 29th year. About that time

he became disgusted with sensual pleasures ; considered the

circumstances of disease, decrepitude and death, and being

desirous of obtaining deliverance from the continual repro-

duction of existence, embraced the life of an ascetic and re-

tired to the wilderness. His object appears to have been two-

fold: 1st, To obtain that complete freedom from the passions.

and affections which would ensure the entire cessation of his.

own personal existence: and 2nd, That he might attain to

that perfection of wisdom and knowledge which would ena-

ble him to teach others the paths of perfect liberty. For.

this purpose, during six years, he performed painful pe-

nances, and his abstinence from food was such that his body

was reduced toa skeleton; and, completely exhausted, he ©

fainted and was regarded by his associates as dead. Hehow-

ever revived, and finding no advantage from this eourse of”

life he abandoned it, and took the sustenance necessary for

the restoration of his bodily strength, and with renewed en-.

—

pajaya sadewemanussdya anuttaran samma sambhodin abhisam-

buddho patinyasin,—O priests! when my perception, relative to

these four grand truths, which are threefold, and therefore of

twelve kinds, was perfectly clear, then, O priests, I knew I had

acquired the most complete and perfect wisdom attainable in the

universe, includir& the human, heavenly and Brahma worlds.”

In the Aggappasadana Suttan, Buddha is said to have had no

preceptor mMo@p2Goawsgad namé dchariyo atthi.

(6) In the Mahapaddne Suttan, Buddha says “Qa. BmacCa

YNOSYoneosnmebmaoms Gxeed Qa vannds

Af&edag nando G63 Mayan Bikkhawé éterahi suddhd-

dano name pita ahdsy maya déwi mata janetty kapilawatthu na-

saran rajadhanithi.—Priests ! my father’s name was Suddhodano,

Queen Maya was my mother, Kapilawatthu was my native city.”

94 BUDHISM.

ergy bent his mind to intense meditation. (7.) This pro-

found meditation is termed Jhana, and while the devotee is

engaged in these exercises he becomes insensible to all ex-

ternal things: he can neither see, hear, nor feel, but is in a

state something similar to that which is called the mesmerie

trance, and no means exist by which he can be aroused from

this state until the meditation is ended. (8.) Budha states

to the Brahmin Weranjo, that he, being persevering, tran-

quil im body and mind, pure in heart and free from all sen-

suality, engaged in examination and research on the nature

of things, and thus enjoyed the first Jhana. Investigation

and research being terminated, with a tranquil and self-

concentrated mind he enjoyed the serene pleasure of the

second Jhana. Free from the disturbances of pleasure,

thoughtful and wise, and healthy in body, he enjoyed the

third Jhana, called the. state of thoughtful contentment.

Free from the emotions of joy or sorrow, previous exulta-

tion and depression being removed, with a contented and.

holy mind he attained to the 4th Jhana, being unmoved

either by pleasure or pain.

Being thus mentally tranquil, pure and holy, free from

passion or pollution, he recalled to mind former states of

(7) Itis no peculiar prerogative of the Buddhas to attain to the

42029 jhana : Brahmans, ascetics, as well as priests, may exer-

cise these meditations (See Samanyaphala Suttan in the Digha

nikaya.) $

(8) Inthe Parajika section of the Winnaya Pitaka we find, that

when Buddha was once residing with 500 priests, in the city ef

Weeranja, not far from the tree g8@<— Puchimanda Margosa,

which was the residence of a demon named mo@doz Naléru, he

gave to Brahman Weeranja the order in which he had overcome

sensual gratification and exercised the Jhana meditation. The

Jhanas are four; first, second, third, and fourth. Buddha had nog

only exercised these profound meditations and attained to all the

BUDHISM. 95

existence through many calpas, together with their causes

and circumstances.

He then with a clear and godlike vision, transcending

that of men, beheld Beings dying or being born, noble or

base, beautiful or deformed; marked their conduct and its

results. Having thus attained to a high degree of wisdom,

he afterwards ascertained the causes of sorrow and conti-

nued existence, and the mode in which the series of existence

and the wretchedness connected with it might for ever cease.

When he had obtained this knowledge he became a Budha,

perfect in wisdom, purity and knowledge, and the chief of

all existing beings from, the highest Brahma world to the

lowest hell ; rendering honor to no one as his superior, but

being worthy of receiving supreme honor from all.

We shall now briefly notice his teaching relative to the

system of the universe, embracing its inhabitants; and

afterwards consider his metaphysical and moral doctrines.

four, but he had also acquired the three Seto Wijj4. In this he

had sueceeded during the same night; he sat down at the foot of

the Bo tree determined to become Buddha; the night was divided.

into three watches. During the first watch, he recalled to mind

pr evious states of existence; one state of existence, two states born

in such a place, having a a name, sucha tribe, and so on to

thousands of births. During the second watch he beheld beings

dying, existing, and soon. During the third watch, at the

time of dawn, he attained the third Wijja, by which he was not

only freed from passion, but also obtained the knowledge of the

four grand truths: 1, ¢23a Dukkha—That every existing thing is

a source of sorrow: 2, «Qe Samuda—That continual sorrow re-

sults from a continual attachment to existing objects : 3, Bea)

Nirodha—That a freedom from this attachment liberates from exis-

_ tence: and 4, Oa» Magea—-The path leading to this state. The

action of the Seo is compared to the action of a chicken, which

_ by successive operations cleaves the shell and comes forth “ aan2zp2

O59 oaansh gomaom) sOm Kukktachchapakasséwa endaley

késamhaty.—As the chicken from the ege.

96 BUDHIsM.

Budha does not attempt to account for the origin of exist-

ing beings: he says “ Bikhus, the initial point of the series

of transmigration is not known: The commencement does

not appear.” (9.) He therefore confines his teachings to

the system as it is during the present calpa. The duration

of a calpa he does not arithmetically define, btit uses a

(9.) gSQBsaAHoanS mozeeneS. Purimd bikkhawé kéti

napanyayati.—O Priests! the commencement does not appear.” — _

Mahanidhana sutta wannena. | ‘4

The recital of Buddha’s own abstruse meditation and attain-

ment to the Wijja form a very favourite part of his sermons—not

many discourses can we turn over without finding them alluded to.

These are his words. e9920 Gn.AnO=m FIaVOOmoOHSIOOe

DHOCB QOOOG wSaHMao HIOI6o POOR BABA. sdOdaao

ADGosOewmdwrke, INNMINGcKH. QuwOs eA. sOvwe

De GHAGHH) BOSVE HID FID Mae GIVI BOIDGe EHH Qo.a He

BA e0 GVHOBMD mL. BAAHDICIan GouadomIdnsGowsasya

QaOaHawd HAO MadMTGa OOHEH. SHAD FSHIPTHA_ ADS

Gavdomm aos qdImS Board. exsGoWI woke gasses

@ BHIS>SMAHHOGMIMDIGO S| OO Mss AGO MDs) De GHAGQG

OQDIPS WMA FYA GVVDOMIHHIO HA OHMS AD IA» GSH sssgao He

Sokhéahan brahmana vivichchéve kaméhi viviclicha akusaléhi dham-

mehi savithakkan savicharan vivékijan péthesikhan patamajjh4nan

upasampajja vihasin—vithakka vicharanan vupasama ajjhatthan

sampasddanan chéthaso ekédibhavan awithakkan awicharan sam-

ddhijan péthisukan duthiyajj4nan upasampajja vihasin péthiyécha-

wirdga upéekhakocha vihasin sathécha sampajano sukhancha kayéna

patisanwedésin yanthan ariya dchikkhanthi—upekhakho sathima

sukawiharithi tathiyajjhanan upastiimpajja vihisin—sukassacha pa-

hané dukkassacha pahandé pubbéwe sdmendassa dhomanassinan

aththagamé adukkhan dsukhan upékhd sathi pdrisuddhin chath-

aththajjanan upasampajja vihasin.” (see the English in the lecture

pages 94-5. (Pdrajika Bhayaberewe Suttan; Majjhimanikaya;

Sangatawa Suttan, or Chulahatthidadopame Suttan, &c.)

The effects of the Jhanas are stdted in the followingé terms:

VLOSAMNOSH GOCHMMDDIVAo Ewes 1008 cSdssmouman

Bode Bd0nQOe OvwoQDG oBadzmomam EB. SaodtH

DoXxesmarsayacaiac snes.” Patamajjhinéne Néewarana

kowdtakan ugghatcti Dutiyajjhanéne Witakkawichdéranadhtiman,

BUDHISM. OF

similitude: If there bea solid rock forming a cube of a yo-

dun (about 14 miles) and a delicately formed shawl (10) should

brush against it once in 100 years, the rock by the contact

would be gradually worn away: but the calpa would not in

that tyme be completed. All large measures of length are

computed by yoduns: thus 4 singhalese ®; 2728 hetekma,

or miles form a gow, or league, and as the hetekma is less

than an English mile, the gow or league may be about 34

miles; 4 of these, or about 14 miles, constitute a yodun.(11.)

The universe comprises an infinite number of systems or

Sakwalas: each complete in itself, having its own sun, moon

and stars, and its own heavens and hells. (12.) The Sakwala

with which we are connected is surrounded by an immense

rocky circle, which is in height 82,000 yoduns or more than

Wapasaméti, tatiyajjhanéne, pitin wirdjéty. Chatuttajjhanéne

Sukha dukkhan pahayati.” The first Jhana elevates the window of

mental impediment; the second Jhana calms the smoke of investi-

gation, and research; the third Jhana frees from pleasure; and the

fourth Jhana removes both pleasure and pain. (See Sumangala-

wilasiny @) and Manorathepddreney.)

(10.) ‘* There is a species of cloth, fabricated at Benares of the

cotton that is unequalled in the delicacy of its fibre. Its worth,

previous to its being used, is unspeakable; after it has been

used it is worth 80,000 3G@a»j nilakarshas (of the value of 20

or 30 small silver coins) and even when old it is worth 12,000

karshas. Were a man to take a piece of cloth of this most delicate

texture, and therewith to touch in the slightest possible manner,

once ina hundred years, a solid rock, free from earth, a yojana

high, and as much broad, the time would come when it would be

worn down, by this imperceptible trituration, to the size of a mung

or undu seed. This period would be immense in its duration; but

it has been declared by Buddha that it would not be equal to a

Maha Kalpa.” (Manual of Buddhism, page 1.)

(11.) As to the exact size of a yojana it is not agreed. It is

~ more than 10 and less than 16 miles ; 14 miles is the nearest.

(12.) Goutama does not directly teach Physical geography, but

in defining certain expressions we are able to gather his views on

98 BUDHISM.

1,100,000 miles (13) above the surface of the sea, & is 3,610,350

yoduns in circumference, thatis, more than 16,000,000 miles

the subject. To explain the meaning of the expression WacrmaDNDo

wisayakkhettan, it is stated that “he knows anything which he

wishes to know within the infinite Sakwalas.” dSanadalomdec

oD endsio wd0song BOameaeH Go Go MINS)

IMIG. Wisayakkhettanpana ananth4parimanésuhi

chakkewalésu yan yan tathagathé 4kankathithan than janathi.

Wisayakkhettan, is, in the infinite and limitless sakwalas, anything

that the Tathagatha wished to know that he knows. @vdeooe

BBOIA ADAH PSSOQININ OPasIdHo OM ounogs

EmoscaodS aparimanésuhi chakkawalésu aparimandnan manus-

sanan wannasantanadiwaséna dwepi ekasadisadisan natthi. ‘ In the

infinite number of Sakwalas no two of the infinite number of men

are alike, in their features.” (Manorathepureni 7th Nipdta.) In the

Anguttara Nikaya, page 55 8) Buddha, speaking to Ananda, says

DeGoswnswD» QGIPMUEMe DEIG A eweswsosyS c69sd0 esBa0wdois

DRDOtSHDSIWH Ao WHI SOE GIS WWW PLOMWMICI Ae esWMesiSo

GODSDOrisre snes SASocmoe. tasmin sahassadha loké sa-

hassan chandanan sahassan surujanan, sahassan sinérupabbataraja-

nan sahassanjambu depanan sahassan aparagéyanan sahassan uttere-

kurtnan sahassan pubbewidéhanan. ‘In that Sapassadha world

there are 1000 moons, 1000 suns, 1000 maha merus, 1000 jambu-

dwipas, 1000 aperagoyanas, 1000 utterakurus, 1000 pubbewide-

has.” (It is evidently clear that although Buddha does not give a

description of the sakwalas, yet he takes it for granted that the po-

pular view of a sakwala is correet, and teaches accordingly). The

whole of the Pitakas and Atuwavas were caused to be written by

Rahats Pdaadrer AHerSmoe%o SxOa OHISj}wmIO) GSVDsNPGoweow

GewVeas OEGHOCOS HPa~anoe»r=Hs ABknnsvnsqdvGad

ONWCNa) AnH @A_@a@veyo atha sattanan buddhi parihanin

disw& mahanubhdwa, panchasata arahanta lankadipe malayadése

alokaléné nisenna, janapadadhipatina katarakkha podtthe késu likha-

pésun ; “then havingseenthe failure of men’s wisdom 500 Rahats

of eminent power in the cave Aloka in the province Malaya in

Lanka, under the guardianship of provincial rulers caused to be

written (2. e. the whole of sodomdsDQadoa sattakathan

sabban buddha wachanan, the whole of Budha’s words with their

comments) in books” (Sarasangaha).

(13.) Thesize of the Chakkawala is given in Wisuddimagga

GANVMDANDIGc PHIDOSWOSI GODID QwIes Sg Ado OQaewssmnawees

QHoOGossmBo aes sOowvtene siomAcoo, selves

BUDHISM. 99

in diameter. In the midst the mountam Maha Meru is

situated. This mountain Budha states, in the sermon on

therisingof seven suns, is84,000 yoduns in length, 84,000

yoduns in breadth, 84,000 yoduns in height above the sea,

and 84,000 yoduns beneath its surface. (14.) It is surrounded

by seven circles of rocks, each circle being half the height

of the preceding one, (15,) commencing with Maha Meru and

OasioauGOcmy)-@o exodOanamss HaQadoBams8d ékan

chakkawalan 4y4mathdé withtharithécha yojananan dwadasasatha-

sahassani chathutthinsa sathanipanyasancha yojanani parikképatho.

Sabban sathasahassani chatthinsa parimandalan dasachéva sahassdni

adduddani sathanicha. “ Each sakwala is 1,203,450 yojanas in length

and breadth. In circumference 3,610,350” (see also comment to

the Winnaya.) :

(14.) See Anguttara Nikaya, 7th Nipata8o26:8m9)99 sn

698) O8A6L3 omda anwswss Hanon WDHLBsawva woes

wd Anode DAGHLBGewmdy nanan Onsen aoa

OCW) DHABS omrdnanans CEmaBeeqddanmen, Sineru

bhikkawé pabbetharaja chaturdsiti ydjanasahassani dyaména cha-

turasiti yojanasahass4ni withdréna chaturdsite yojanasahassani

mahd samuddé ajjho galho chaturasiti yojanasahassini maha

samudda atchuggatho (also Wisuddhimagga, comment on the

Winnaya). “ Priests the great mountain Sineru is 84,000 ydjanas

in length; 84,000 yojanas in breadth ; 84,000 yojanas sunk in the

great ocean, and 84,000 ydjanas above the great ocean.

Maha Meru is not square, but circular and rests on three pointed

rocks, like a vessel on a tripod. Where these rocks rise to the

elevation of 4000 yojanas, there Maha Meru rests firmly clasped

by them, as by a pair of pincers. ‘The three rocks rest upon the

world of stone (Jinalankara. Chakkawdla dipeniya.)”

(15.) Gondise Gnddmmss0ass gazdose)san BoNdGio

wSmMaSDsLomnsi eral MOvIOHIaaH ESHSvBlomar wh

ABEDIS OMIALO. pnamais csSanows2 aNNvrAonWo2re

sdaae@eas Sinerussa upadda bhagappamané Yugandare

pabbato sinerun parikkhipitwa titho. Thassapi upaddabhagap-

_ pamane isadhare pabbato tan parikkhipitwa tithothi. wan assa-

kanna pariyosana satta palbbata sinerun parihkhipitwa titha. ‘ Half

the height of Maha Meru the rock Yughandare stands en-

circling Sineru ; half the height of Yugandare, the ruck Isadare

100 BUDHISM.

proceeding outward: thus the Yughandera cirele is half the

height of Maha Meru, and theseventh circle,or Aswarkarna,

is only 656 yoduns high above the sea. (16.) Between these

circles and the Sakwala rocks four large continents exist,

each accompanied by 500 islands, and separated from each

other by stormy seas, so as to be inaccessible to all who are

not possessed of super-human powers. ‘The four continents

are Jambudwipa (17) to the south of Maha Meru; this is the

world inhabited by men: Uttarakura is situated to the north,

Aparagoyana to the west, and Purwawideha to the east of

stands encircling that: thus to the end of Assakanna the seven

rocks stand in succession encireling Sineru” (Wisuddhimagga, and

comment to the Winnaya.)

(16.) ODWYQaDAHVAO Barco mnnsswss eGage pncsaao

DIOCHI DOOSOVVSESIOS0OHOO) FaVaGHkVHsn Gaowes mae

ses SIABAoos POC AdIDIO EMI9S 20 HOHnDonoug’e evsgqoaied so

/ HNHOHEDS)Tesu Y ugandaro dwachattdlisa yOjana sahasasni samud-

dé ajjho galho tattekaméwa upari uggaté Isadharopi chattalisa yojana

sahassani samudde ajjho galho tattakamdéwa upari uggatoti imind

nayéne sésésupy upaddhupaddhappamanetha wéditabba. ‘Of these

the rock Yugandare is forty thousand yojanas beneath the surface

of the sea, and as much above its surface. Isadhare forty thousand

beneath the surface of the sea, and as much above its surface; in

this order the others encircle Maha Meru by half their height.”

(Wisuddhimagga and commentary Winnaya.)

(17.) When speaking of the inhabitants of other Dwipas besides

Jambudwipa the continent in which men are said to reside, the

word @ e809 Manussa is used DAsQDIogemammnn9dnousBep

HUN ssoneoew MOK y6OneersdoendoQn8svOes. Tathwa

pubbewidehetho agatha manusséhi Awasithappadéso thayéwa

purimasanyaya wideherattanthi néman labhi. “‘The sphere inha-

bited by men who arrived from Pubbewidehe was called Widehirat-

tan from its original signification.” podaccdaa DIMPNHOS O08

BHOLDswoeaesVO.sMnGowOes8. Aperagoyanatho Agatha

manusséhi awasithappadeso aperanthajanapadothi naman labhi.

“The sphere inhabited by men who arrived from Aperagéyana was

BUDHISM. 101

Maha Meru. In reference to this a Pali stanza states:

« When the sun rises on this continent (Jambudwipa) it is

mid-day in Wideha, (18) evening in Goyana and midnight at

named A peranthajanapada” 62262610) Pe NOgQvoud pOkad

apeoes) ao.oesSon@.e8 Utterakurutho Agatha manussehi

awasithappadéso Kururattanthi naman Jabhi. “The sphere inha-

bited by men who arrived here from Utterakuru was called

Kururattan.’”’ (Mahanidane Sutta wannena.)

(18.) 9ge2e8eoeGsgs acHedmaIaoamoma dJdocndos

DOLOBGBISOHIVE WOO Baca WFaowndanawao oo Emambhi

depamhi yada udéthi majjhanthiké héthi widéhe dépa kurumhi

dépamhichaatthaméthi goyanadépé bhawathadda ratthin (See the

translation in the text.) Againitis added go BOeaud eoacndmnoae

CS DNBoOMOIBO FAO DOB nNesSHIPADSS gOeEes

OHd08 26053. Pubbécha dépécha udenthi kala majjanthiko hothicha

utteréna g6yanadépamhicha atthaméthi emamhi depamhicha

majjaratthin. “ When the sun rises in Pubbewideha, it is midday in

Utterakuru, evening in the continent of Goyana, and midnight in

this continent.” (Comment on Dijhanikaya.)

In the Aganya Sutta Wannena it is stated that ‘ the moon

resides in the palace of a gem, and the outside is covered with

silver, both being cold. ‘The sun resides within the palace of gold,

and the outside is covered with crystal both being hot. In size

the moon is 49 yojanas in diameter, and 147 yojanas in ecireum-

ference: the sun in diameter 50 yojanas, in circumference 150

yojanas. The moon is below and the sun above, between them one

yojana. From the lowest part of the moon to the highest part of

the sun, a hundred yojanas; the moon travels in a straight line,

slowly, and rapid crosswise; on her two sides the planets travel.

The moon moves towards them as a cow to her calf; the planets

do not change their position. The motion of the sun in a straight

line is rapid, and that crosswise slow. Heis, on the day after the

new moon 10,000 yojanas away from the moon ; the moon then

appears like a line ; on the second day 10,000 more, thus gradually

till the day of full moon, at the rate of 10,000 yojanas, he is

farther and farther away from the moon. ‘The moon then gradually

- grows, and on the fifteenth day is full. Then on the first day,

again the sun travels 10,000 yojanas closer; the second day

10,000 again, till the day of new moon, at the same rate daily.

The moon then gradually appearing less on the day of updsatha

102 BUDHISM.

Kuruna,” for the Sun, Moon and Stars are represented as

travelling daily round Maha Meru at the altitude of Yug-

handera.

In a sermon on earthquakes (19) in the Anguttara Nikaye

Budha states, that the earth rests on water, and that water

(new moon) she becomes totally invisible ; the moon being below

and the sun right above ; as the covering of a small vessel by a

larger one or the overpowering of a lamp by the sun’s rays at

midday, the moon is covered by the sun. ‘There are three paths,

the goat, the bull, and the elephant, the goats hate water, the ele-

phants desire it, and the bulls desire heat and cold in equal pro-

portions. Therefore when the sun and moon rise up to the goat

path, then there is not one drop of rain; when they are on the

elephant path the rain pours down as ifthe heavens were opened;

when they rise up to the bull path the seasons continue alike. The

sun and moon during six months of the year, move from Maha

Meru towards the Sakwala rocks; and during the other six months

from the Sakwala rocks towards Maha Meru. In the month of

July they move close to Maha Meru, then going off for two months

in November they move in the centre; thence going towards Sak-

wala, move near it three months, then coming off in April they

move in the centre, and afterwards, in two months, arrive near

Maha Meru. To what extent do they give light? They give

light at once to three continents. When the sun rises on this con-

tinent (Jambudwipa) it is midday in Pubbewidehe, it is evening in

Utterakuru, and midnight at Aperagoyana; when it is rising in

Pubbewidehe, it is midday in Utterakuru, evening at Aperagoyana

and midnight in this continent. When it is rising in Utterakuru,

it is midday in Aperagoyana, evening in this continent, and mid-

night in Pubbewidehe. When it is rising in Aperagoyana, it is

midday in this continent, evening in Widehe, and midnight in

Utterakuru (Page @o«.)

(19.) The same is stated in the Mahaparinibbana suttan in

Digha nikaya e@copacsOmudS ecomrSQmgeaHons8G

DDIOMIPMIGADI NOVO cIO AVY MMessOacssoOmO yD asaya

GFOeOVWarTGD MOEMead EGeMe Saoooss. Ayan Ananda

maha patewi udeké pathittith4, udakan wate pathittithan wathd

akasatto hothi yokhé aranda sameyo yan mahawdtha wayantha

udakan kampenti udakan kampitan patewin kampeti. “Ananda,

this great carth rests on water, the water rests on the wind, and

BUDHISM. 103

is established on air. When the air is agitated by storms

the water is violently shaken, and by this the earth trembles,

constituting an earthquake. The earth is 240,000 yoduns

in thickness, the water possesses a depth of 480,000 yoduns,

and the atmosphere on which the whole rests is 960,000

yoduns deep. (20.) The four great continents are very fre-

quently spoken of by Budha in his sermons. At the bottom

of the system eight principal hells, each accompanied by

16 subordinate hells, are situated. Under Maha Meru is the

Asura world. The Asuras were formerly Gods inhabiting

the summit of Maha Meru, but they gave way to intemper-

ance so as to become insensible, and Sakra (or Indra) with

his hosts, cast them down to the bottom of Maha Meru,

and occupied the conquered region. The Asuras (from 4, a,

negative, and 6, sura, gods) have frequently made war on

_ Indra in order to recover their lost possessions, but have in

every instance been ultimately defeated. Men, gods and

demons inhabit the earth and its atmosphere. The demons

are in many instances malignant and of horrid appearance,

while many others are beneficent and are devout Budhists.

———

the wind on 4k4sa or space. Ananda, whenever great wind blows

the waters shake ; when the water is shaken the earth shakes.”

(20.) GdaMamessBINOISAHHDIBIAD DAIHOCONHNSdVe

HomsHyaan OooSananans paQdngwsd davnaAne

DNDAS DIVA GGmmMsnGswom MOemenes AQIS)

DOAGHOMIA UoOunamBsvenrqoavisssOS. dwé satdisassani

chattari nahutanicha ettakan bahalatténa sankhatayan wasundhara

chattarisatasahassani attéwanahutanicha ettekan bahalatténa jalan

waté pathittitan. Tassapisan dhareko. Nawesatesahassani maluto

nabhemuggato sattinchéwasahassani ésa lokassa, santithi. ‘ This

earth is 240,000 yojanas thick, the world of water which

rests on the world of wind is 480,000 yojanas thick, the world of

wind which rises on space is 960,000: this is the position of the

world.” (Wisuddhimagga, and comment on Winnaya.)— See Note 18.

104 BUDHISM.

The general name for the demons is Yakshayo, anglicised

“Devils.” Half the height of Maha Meru, or 42,000 yo-

duns above the surface of the sea is situated the heaven

of the four guardian Gods (202)= OmoGeF 270) chétummaha4-

rijka. In this the sun, the moon and the stars are situated.

The sun is represented as having a resplendent circular re-

sidence 50 yoduns or 700 miles in circumference, and

the moon to have one of 49 yoduns in extent. The eclipses of

these bodies are stated to result from the efforts of the Asur

Rahu, inthe form of a largesnake, toswallow them. (21.) We

(21.) Ina Pali work called so6e-@ Sarasangaha, it is stated

HOOB BrMNVO_GMIDMIDOOADS 9YIOGBGAHGHEHS HOGS.

“ What! are the supernatural and mighty sun and moon swallowed

by Rahu? Yes, he swallows them. Rahu’s body in height is

4,800 yojanas; the breadth between his shoulders, is 12,000 yoja-

nas; his thickness is 600 yojanas; his head 900 yojanas; his fore- —

head 300 yojanas; the space between the eyebrows is 150 yojanas ;

the nose 800 yojanas; his mouth 300 yojanas deep; his palm and

his foot in breadth are each 200 yojanas; and the joints of his fin-

gers 50 yojanas. When he sees the shining of the sun and moon,

through hatred, he descends to the path they travel and remains

there with his mouth open; the residence of the sun and moon then

falls into it, which is 800 yojanas deep, as if it fell into the hell

Awichi. The dewata resident therein at once bawl out, trembling

with tear. He sometimes covers them with his hands, sometimes

hides them under his jaw, sometimes licks them with his tongue,

and sometimes moves them up and down in his mouth, like a

animal chewing its cud, but he is not able to prevent their motion.

Were he to keep them in his mouth saying ‘I will kill these,’ they

would cleave the crown of his head and fly off.”

Buddha says ngareBaAaod PFHOmIDalecHneyssac

Etadaggan Bhikkaweattebhawinan yadidan Rahuasurindo. “Priests

Rahu stands first in bodily size.” The comment gives his size as

the above.—(Anguttara, 5th Suttan—4th Nipata.)

Again Buddha says QGaiaodeysolos VIFORS amen)

8oeoe0. Rahu bhikkawe asurindo chandima suriy4nan upak-

kiloso. ‘Priests ! Asur Rahu desires injury to the sun and moon.”

(Anguttara—4th Nipata. )

BUDHISM. 105

should almost, have doubted that this were a doctrine of the

Budhist religion, were it not recorded in two Sutras (22) or

discourses of Budha, in the Sanyutta Nikaya, which forms a

_ part,of;thethree Pitakas. . Qn one occasion Suriya,-the God

of} the Sun, ),is,represented ‘as being’ .in great distress in

consequenee of the efforts of Rahu to swallow him and ‘his

residence. He invoked the aid of Budha, who. rebuked

Rahu and commanded him »to desist’ from his efforts, - Rahu

became terrified, and. trembling fied to the Asuralokaya.

Whe Sutra, immediately preceding this states that the Moon

experienced, a similar danger and called upon Budha for

helpy who delivered him from the power of Rahu. These

discourses, in addition to the one referred. to concerning the

cause of earthquakes in the Anguttara Nikayo, shew the

incorrect nature of Budha’s physical philosophy. On ‘the

summit.of; Maha. Meru, or 42,000 yoduns above the OS®

Qannrsy ano chétummahardjiké heavens 2n9D sees tdwatinsa

is placed, and in succession, above each other,, the heavens

92). yama, 2p Soy tusita, BO29en083 nimmdanarati, and

SOBDOSD 92535353. paranimmata wasawatti. (23) In this

world, and these six heavens, the pleasures of sense are enjoy-

ed, and either virtuous or vicious actions may be performed.

The period of the life of man, in this world is estimated

to be about 100 years, that of the gods of the heaven imme-

diately above the earth (chatummahar4j ika)is thus calculated; —

one je saa and danight, are eaquelst se 50 sic of men : 360. of Shese

i ¢gpy The darlin! of ‘the two suttras are found — in the

ey « Friend,” vale ll, p. 228.

to.) nee Wibhiatiga section of the " Abhidamma Pitaka, also

Anguttar a, 8rd Nipita. .

106 | BUDHISM.

days make one year, and the duration of life 500 of these

years: the whole period being 9,000,000 years of men.

The period of life in each ascending heaven is in a’four-

fold proportion, thus in taéwatinsa it is 36,000,000, in:yéma

144,000,000, in tusita 576 millions, in nimménarati 2,304

millions, and in’paranimmita wasawatti, the duration of life

is 9,216 millions of years.

The whole of these details are taken from the Wibhange

division of the Abhidarma Pitaka. (24)

Above these heavens there are 16 Brahma worlds. ‘A birth

in the Brahma worlds results from the performance of the

four Jhana, or courses of profound meditation. (25.) There

are three modes in which the Jhéna may be attended to, the

imperfect, the medial, and the perfect. ) BAULBD

The imperfect performance of the first Jhana, ‘compre-

hending investigation and research concerning the nature

of things, procures a birth in the lowest of the Brahma

worlds named QwOcnSae¥eh brahma parisajj4,the duration

of life being one-third ofa calpa. (26.) The'medial perform=

ance of thesame Jhana leads to the @WOGeGR brahma

~purohita Brahma world, in which the duration of life is half

(24.) See Friend, vol. IL. p. 65, 66.

(25.) s8a8> Paritian, imperfect; OteqQOo Majjhiman medial;

and s<«oa)0 Panitan, perfect. dmodeal

(26.) S808 Ad ATF Ao mod MAH e ves nHcrhOdad anes

BAAD MIGOOM YAO a SHeBHsro MEDIA UGHOxDe GUTTA Qise

BOO A PRsouonnsodandoammaacs patemajjhdnan pa-

rittan bhawetwa katthe uppajjanti, patemajjhdnan parittan bh4-

wetwa brahme parisajjanan dewanan sahawyatan uppajjanty tésan

kittakan ayuppamanan kappasse tatiyo bhagoti. “ To what.is the

initial contemplation of the first Jhana introductory. The initial

contemplation of the first Jhana introduces to a residence with. the

gods of Brahmaparisajja. What is the length of their life? One

third of a kalpa. ee SUNT ee ee

BUDHISM. 107

a calpa. The perfect performance of that Jhdna gives.an

entrance, into the Maha Brahma world, the duration of life

being an.entire calpa, These three Brahma worlds, the six

beavens, the earth, the residence of the Nagas and Asuras,

and the various hells are all meotroyed at the termination of

each calpa.

The performance of shi 2nd J héna, comprehending the

clear and. undisturbed perception of truth, procures an exist-

ence in the SSmnanne parittabh4 eseDsa0%&0, appamanabh4

and eeede06, abhassara Brahma worlds, the period of life

being 2, 4\and 8 calpas. We shall have occasion again to

refer to the eeedes6 Sbhassara Brahma world. The 3rd

Jhana, in which the devotee is free from the perturbations

of pleasure or pain, and being healthy in ‘body and in mind

lives in the calm and contented meditation on the doctrines

- of truth, gives access to three other Brahma worlds more

exalted than those previously mentioned, the term of life

being 16, 32 and 64 calpas. The 4th Jhana, in which the

passions are so subdued thatthe devotee is always contented,

being uninfluenced by the sensations of pleasure. or pain,

giyes:access to the remaining seven Brahma worlds, and the

four Arupa worlds. ‘The duration of existence is immense,

being from 500 to-16,000 calpas. There is a peculiarity im

‘In this order, by means of the Jhanas, residence is obtained in

the Brahma and Arupa worlds Se kee ana and Suman-

galawilasini ©@e.)

From the heaven Day@Wenociel Fis) above, the gods ebiany appari-

tional birth DHOWmMarvaomosgossod acHhasmBmeace chat-

tummaharajiketo pattaya uperi déw4 dpepatikayéwa. So the beings —

in hell and the Pretayas. DOHMH Aswaoonysy tatha nereyika

pétésupicha ; ; they spring up at once to full maturity, being twelve

years old OoemSmoaweuddgoeciomnads e., opepatiké

- solasawassuddésiko hutwa, (Sumangalawilasini &c.)

108 -* BUDDHISM

the first world in this last series, namely, the pes Seaweseyae

asannyasatté’ Brahma world.’ In. this: the duration ‘of life

is 500 calpas; but there is only corporeal existeniee without

consciousness: ‘they have ‘neither: gensation, ° perception,

thought nor’ knowledge;.but are as beings m a ‘dreamless;,

profound sleep. The whole of the inhabitants of the Brahma

worlds are entirely free from sensual pleasures or desires:

they are not subject to the laws of gravitation, but move'at

pleasure through the atmosphere without’ obstruction, aiid

their pleasures and pursuits are all intellectual’ and” pure,

resembling perhaps what St. Paul meant Sena os be ete of

Wiesed bodies.” : Pp ORS OF 3G:

In the four Arupa worlds Esanciake the series, thete are

no organised’ bodies, but the inhabitants possess sérisation,’

perception, reasoning, and knowledge or consciousness: ‘I

do not clearly understand the nature of the existence or’

modes of operation in these worlds, and therefore cannot’

attempt to explain: them. ‘The term of lifeis stated to! be

20,000,—40,000—60,000 and 84,000 calpas. \ This ‘last “is/

the longest possible duration of the existence of any ‘Being:

I have before stated that at the end of'a calpa the three:

lowest of the Brahma worlds, the six heavens; thé earth):

and all below the earth will be entirely destroyed: “The

next destruction is to-be by fire, and the mode in which

this is to be. effected. is thus stated by. Budas in, his: a,

course on the ascent of seven suns, contained in the Anguts

tara Nikay4: “Bikhus, Seneru (or Maha Meru). the. King,

‘of Mountains, isin length 84,000. yoduns, i m breadth 84,000>

yoduns, benieath ‘the great sea 84,000 yoduns, and above |

the, sea 84,000 yoduns. A time will come when, for, many.

hundreds, thousands, and hundred thousands >of years no

BUDHICM, 109

rain willdéscend ‘from the clouds, im consequence of “which

cultivated plants and herbs, forests, grass and trees will’bee

einé'conipletely°dried and burnt ‘up. “At the’ expiration

of a lone period after this; a second sun will appear, ( 27), and

by theheat of thesetwo suns the small rivers) ponds ‘and lakes

will be dried wp ‘and disappear.’ After another long period

a‘third ‘sun-svill arise, and by the ‘heat! of these’ three ‘sung

the large rivers, as the Ganges, the Jumna, &c., willbe

completely dried up. By the rising of a fourth sun, the

seas into which these large. rivers. flow. will be dried up:

A’ fifth: sun’ will afterwards arise, and ‘by the heat of. five

suns at one time the great ocean (84,000 yoduns deep), will

be gradually dried up until only a few puddles‘remain, A

sixth sun will arise, and by the conjoined heat’ of these’ six

suns, the great earth and Maha Meru will smoke’ continu-

ally like the kiln of a potter. At length a seventh sun

will arise; and by the heat of these seven’ stins, this great?

earth and'Maha Meru, the King of Mountains, will burn,:

blaze) up and" become one mass of fire, and the flames will

by the wind ascend as high as the Brahma worlds; and by

the accumulated heat of the burning and blazing mountain,

is rocky peaks, from 100 to 500 yoduns in extent, will be:

destroyed, and finally this great earth and Maha Merw

will be so completely consumed that even ashes shall not’

appear nor exist. Even as when butter or oil is consumed

in'a vessel: no residuum ashe. or ae ook. ate great

“Qi, des ii hea ieee are two suns, one line i rising’ and the

other ‘setting. When there are three, one rising, one setting, and,

one on the zenith, &e., sSaeqSamoacqvamearcBavomegeaads,

adamsquomeoqSuampaseAiamsdanamd, Dutiye:

sureyekiile eko udéti eko atthaméti, tatiyekdle-eko udéti He atines

méti Ckd majjéh oti. (Manorathapurene 66 2}

110 BUDHISM.

earth,and Maha Meru will be so completely desthoged thet

no jashes.of it will either appear or exist.”

. The learned Budhists extend this destruction, chro

than is.stated in this quotation from a Sermon of Budha’s. |

A. learned Priest, residing near Bentotte,. in'.a controver-

sial tract states: “ The waters, of the sea being dried jup,

and seven suns shining simultaneously, the earth, the moun-

tains, Maha, Meru, the Sakwala gala, and all other. things

being destroyed by fire, the three Brahma worlds, namely,

sISaEexs parisadyaya, YIQ GoaBa« brahmapurohitya,

OvwQwsOe mahabrahmaya, together with:the six heavens

will be burnt up: and thus one hundred thousand millions

of Sakwala omeG2se623 &2O@e kelalakshayak. adie as

will at. once be burnt up and destroyed.” (28)

_, Lhe worlds however thus destroyed will again come into

being, but not. by the power of en€® karmma, or the power:

of. the moral, merit of its preceding inhabitants, as some

among the Natives have affirmed, who should have been

better instructed in Budhism; nor by the power of a; Crea-

or. In the Milinda Prashna, a book of very. high autho-

rity among the Budhists, the Priest Nagasena, speaking of

the production of things, states: ‘All sentient beings are:

29H kammaja (that, is, produced by the accumulation of

the, merit or demerit of previous, actions,). Fire and all

kinds, of, vegetables are @m—H hetuja (produced. by ma-

terial, causes as seeds, &c.) The earth,,the mountains, the

(28:).° The priest was considered to have been learned and was

a great controversialist. One subject of controversy in which he’

was engaged with one Walegedere, a priest also of: Bentotte, was on

the season of Was. — His sect would not acknowledge the popular’

time, which the’ other priests, both of the Amerapura and Siam’

sects, would observe. He died some time ago.

BUDHISM. 111

waters and the) winds are 62) utuja (produced by the

seasons.) (29.).° What he meant by theseasonsbeing the pro —

ducing causes of the earth, the mountains, the waters and

the winds, it 1 is difftenlt if not impossible to ascertains

“We ee now cota our cketen of. ihe se, ai uni-

verse according to the system of Budhism, and shall. pro-

99.) Las D Aime Dow AdsheAGOudIaASIaaIS

GHHDABSIIOHANIIE = OHO MoOso Hone oews.Satta sachéta-

na sabbé té kammejé aggiche sabbaniche bijejdtani| hetujany pate-

Wwicha.. pabbetache udekanche, watoche sabbé te utuja. “ All

sentient beings are @©9e¢%, kammaj4, produced by m®®

kamma, good or bad action. Fire and all kinds ef vegetables: are

QADS, hethuja, produced by material causes... The earth, , moun

tains, water, and air, are all produced by 6a, uthu, seasons.” The

different circumstances of sentient beings are also caused by m@O

kamma, MOOWHAIOI DOLAHDIMOOS SEMVOODIB MOOWHQGaO

QedndOemMOD sonndInsvHorte Hndosonmc6s kammassaka-

satté kamma dadyada kammeyoni kamme bandhu, kamme patisare-

n kammen)satté wibhajati yadidan, heenappanite tayati “ Young

man, kamma is identical with their beings, kamme.is their inheri-

tance, kamma i is their origin, kamma is their relative, kamma is

their support, kdmma, divides to beings prosperity or adversity.”

This: is the answer given by Buddha toa question put to him by

Subha, GamgQoaarmamadanqQomsVOasIoanO@sjedes9 so

BOuDONQEsyHMAedsIHBaIasonm das Honiamnoo

QHec@daogen SdustAeeogan edaoslG@aoaravds edasdse

sorQao ShadBe ol <xmK EdawdRHd mmOna CdaTBedooued

ao Sees BGOonaalao Edie pedauqemors SaleosiIGOnsoeoes0 Sedes

SBHOyEG aw SdassIASdOo aor SdastGescece Gdaside

enka doias “Goutama, what is the cause or what are the means

oy which beings born as men are seen tobe high and low ;some are

seen to be short-lived, others are long lived; some have nich sick-

ness, others have constant health ; some are ugly, others aré Beau-

tiful; some are powerful, others have little influence ; some are —

poor, while others are rich; some are of high race, others are of

‘low. families; some are foolish; while others are wise :—Goutama,

‘what. is the cause or what the means by which beings, bornas men

are esen to be high and low?” (Chullawibhanga Suttan, in the

Majjbima Nikaya,)

112 BUDHISM.

ceed to examine the:moreprominent parts of its metaphy-

sics. | The existence of a Creator of all things,’and the dis-

penser to man of joy,or sorrow, ‘Budha) expressly» denies ;

affirming that the pains or pleasures experienced by: intel

ligent, beings are not in any way the result of the power of

a‘ Creator. He himself claims to be the supreme : hé said

to. Upako, | an ascetic, who enquired who was his teacher

and whose doctrine he embraced, “I have no teacher : there

is noone who resembles me.. In the worlds of the Gods I

have no equal.:(30) Iam the most noble inthe world, being

the. irrefutable teacher; the sole, all perfect Budha.” In the

Pérdjika section: of the Winiya Pitaka, Brahmin Weranjo,

who: accused him of not honoring aged Brahmins, of not

rising in their presence, and of not inviting them to be

séated, he replied, “ Brahmin, I do not see any one in the

heavenly worlds nor in that, of Maraya, nor among the j in-

habitants ‘of the Brahma worlds, nor among Gods or. men,

whom it would be proper for nie to honor, or in whose pre-

senee 1 ought to rise up, or whom I ought to request, to. be

seated.’ Should’ the ‘Tatagato (1. e. Budha) thus act to-

wards any one, that person’s head would fall off.” And in

the Jataka -Atuwawa it is stated, that from the lowest hell

+o the highest Brahma world there is no equal nor superior

to. Budha. in, wisdom, virtue, and knowledge. These as-

‘sumptions are altogether irreconcileable with the doctrine

of a ‘thiversal Creator, who must necessarily be superior to

all the beings formed and supported by him. Budha was

> (80.)- eon pdsBocqadadonre® aEDSoaqoaddencied

SANsoossyonoeo ne} me, Achariyo atthi sadiso.meé newijjati

sadéwakasmin lokasmin/natthi mé patipuggalo — J have no teacher,

there is:no,one who resembles me;.in the worlds of Gods: eee so

on J have no equal. ” | : 7.

oes

BU DHISM. LES

aware of the doctrine of a Creator being held by the Brah-

mins, and he endeavours to account for its existence. In

the Brahma Jdla Sutra, which is the first in the Dirga

Nikaya, he discourses respecting the 62 different sects in

the philosophical Schools,(31), for they can scarcely be called

religions, among whom four held the doctrine both of the

pre-existence of the soul, and of its eternal duration through

countless transmigrations. (32) (The Budhist doctrine of

208096 sansara is, antecedents and consequents.) Others

believed that some souls have always existed while others

have had a commencement of existence. Among these one

sect is described as believing in the existence of a Creator,

‘and Budha denies the correctness of this opinion. In ex-

plainine how the opinion originated he says: “ There is a

(31.) @seee brahmajdla. Brahminical net. These 62 dif-

ferent philosophical sects are arranged intwo general divisions,

with their ten subdivisions sQaams8e0 Pubbantha kappika,

philosophers on the past, and goédsmme8ao aperantekappiké

philosophers on the future.

(32.) These are aseamOs6 sassathawada, those who hold the

eternity of matter and spirit, sds PODIDOD@IMOuaeagouwns.

Sassathan atthanancha lékancha panaya penthi, they hold the soul

and the world to be eternal. They are of four,classes, viz.I.—Those

who have a recollection of former states of existence from one up

to many hundred thousand previous births. I1.—Those whose

recollection extends from 1 up to 10 «2.808800 sanwattawiwatta,

gz. €.. kalpas. IIJ.—Those who remember from 10 up to 40 e-8

SOOO kalpas. The philesophers of thesethree classes remember

the states in which they formerly existed. yoNRdagpnwsd dD;

Pubbeniwasan anussaraihi their names, caste, complexion, joys,

and sorrows, and the duration of their lives, at the termination of

‘which they were born in another place and thus continued until

they attained to their present state of being. The conclusion they

draw is “ Eternal are the soul and the world, unproductive of new

existence, immutable, firm. Living beingsflee away, they traveld

to and fro, they die, they are born, but they (the souland world)

i14 BUDIISM.

time Bikhus, when after a very long period this world is

destroyed. On the destruction of the world very many -

beings obtain existence in the Abassara Brahma Loka,

(which is the sixth in the series and in which the term of

life never exceeds 8 calpas) They are there spiritual

beimgs (having purified bodies uncontaminated with evil

passions or with any corporeal defilement) : they have in-

tellectual pleasures : are self resplendent, traverse the at-

mosphere without impediment, and remain for a long time

established in happimess. After a very long period this

mundane system is reproduced, and the world named Brah-

ma Wimane, (the third of the Brahma Lokas) comes into

existence, but uninhabited.” |

“‘ At that time a Being, in consequence either of the

period of residence in Abassara being expired, or in conse-

quence of some deficiency in merit preventing him from

living there the full period, ceased to exist in Abassara,

and was reproduced in the uninhabited Brahma Wimane.

He was there a spiritual being: his pleasures were intellec-

tual: he was self resplendent, traversed the atmosphere,

and for a long time enjoyed uninterrupted -felicity, After

living there a very long period in solitude a desire of hav-

ing an associate is felt by him, and he says, Would that an-

other being were dwelling in this place. At that precise

juncture another being ceasing to exist in Abassara, comes

into existence in the Brahma Wimane im the vicinity of

remain for ever identically the same.” wdaamg nad oqo

HoOSA)I QVDHIVLA MYGBamI@n 42 woDI Ds Rss. sss

BastssSensoBWdsxsaAHsdIG Sassatd attacha lokdcha

wanjho ktitatto Esikattayi tithd técha satté sandhawanti sansa-

ranti chawanti uppajjanti atthitwe sassati samanti. The fourth

class are reasoners who by induction arrive at the same conclusion.

BUDHISM. — 115

the first one. They are both of them spiritual beings,

have intellectual pleasures, are self—resplendent, traverse

the atmosphere, and are for a long time in the enjoyment of

happiness. Then the following thoughts arose in him who

was the first existent in that Brahma Loka : I am Brahma,

the Great Brahma, the Supreme, the Invincible, the Omni-

scient, the Governor of all things, the Lord of all. I am

the Maker, the Creator of all things. Iam the Chief, the

Disposer and controller of all; the Universal Father.

This being was made by me. How does this appear?

Formerly I thought, Would that another being were in

this place, and upon my volition this being came here.

Those Beings also, who afterwards obtained an existence

there, thought, this illustrious Brahma is the Great Brah-

ma,the Supreme, the Invincible, the Omniscient, the Ruler,

the Lord, the Creator of all. He is the Chief, the Dis-

poser of all things, the Controller of all, the Universal

Father. We were created by him, for we see that he was

first here, and that we have since then obtained existence.

Furthermore, he who first obtained existence there, lives

during a very long period, exceeds in beauty, and is of im-

mense power ; but those who followed him are short lived,

of inferior beauty, and of little power. It then happens,

that one of those Beings, ceasing to exist there, is born in

this world, and afterwards retires from society and becomes

a recluse. He subjects his passions, is persevering in the

practice of virtue, and by profound meditation he recollects

his immediately previous state of existence, but none prior

to that: he therefore says, that illustrious Brahma is the

Great Brahma: the Supreme, the Invincible, the Omni-

scient, the Ruler, the Lord, the Maker, the Creator of alle

116 BUDHISM.

He is the Chief, the Disposer of all things, the Controller

of all, the Universal Father. That Brahma by whom we

were created is ever during, immutable, the eternal, and

unchangeable, continuing for ever the same. But we, who

have been created by this illustrious Brahma, are mutable,

short lived and mortal.”(33)

By this extract it appears that Budha had a clear per-

ception of the doctrine of a supreme, self existing Creator,

yet he pronounces that doctrine to be false, for he says in

another part.of the samediscourse. “The teaching of those

samanas and Brahmins, who hold that some Beings are

eternal and others not eternal, is founded on their ig-

norance and their want of perception of truth, and is the

result of the impressions made upon the senses. ” (34.)

There are many who are called Budhists who acknow-

ledge the existence of a Creator: but they do this from

ignorance of the teaching of Budha. The Budhist system

——.

(33.) The second class of philosophers on the past is Oadesed

sSammenvngprdaGoo Ekacha sassatika ekatcha asassatika. These

hold that some beings are unchangeable and eternal, and others

derived and mutable. Under this head is the passage translated

in the lecture.

(34.) QdOoOmAQwsoeBynenBGinompeepengcomOsoas

gunrGnamBOe moacstosd mOB3e0 these epithets are

defined in the comment. The word 3®@209 is explained thus o

LIBOOHADLOADSW AMO GOHIHYROSEO HS HO ao HES ag

Patewi himewanta sinéru chakkawaéla maha sumudde chandime

suriyacha mayd nimmitati. ‘The earth, the Himala, the Meru,

the akwala, the great oceans, the sun and moon were created by

me.” ‘This was, Buddha says, an erroneous view of that school.

Budha says, again, that there are four subjects improper to think

about, eIaRNDd3) Os, achenteiya dhamma, one of which was

about the world (as the Comment says, who created the sun, moon,

&c.,) if any one would think about them he would turn insane

(Anguttara, page 97.

BUDHISM. 117

does not acknowlege the possibility of such a Bemg exist-

ing. (35.)

Having noticed the tenets of Budhism respecting a Crea-

tor, we will consider what it teaches respecting the nature

of man. The whole of the constituent parts of a sentient

Being is arranged in five divisions called 28J@ 2 khanda or

collections: they are the 64sa0sJ@@ ruphakkhando,

the organized body; @2é >osQgssjoW) wédanakkhandho,

the sensations of pleasure pain or indifference; wsagtg ana)

SJ@Qo sannyakkhanhdo, or the perceptions: meQsd6endst

@6)) sankharakhandho, or the thoughts contemplations and

reasonings ; and the Samtg mend5Jsq)) winnydnakhando

or the understanding, the conciousness. Except the body

there is no entity among these 2 5J@o. (36.) There is merely

(35.) The Budhists in general do now openly deny the exist-

ence of a Creator.

(36.) The Khandas are divided into—I. mame A’yatanani,

sentient organs and their relative objects; there are twelve of them

classed in 6 pairs:—1, 9a@) chakkhu and 67 rupa, the eye and

figure: 2 ,the ear and sound, o90 sdta and ees sadda: 3, the nose

and odour, #209 ghana and @3JQ gandha: 4, the tongue and

flavour, ’8m0 jewha and 6s rasa: 5, the body and touch, mc

kaya and &ee phassa; and 6, the mind and objects of thought Oza

mana and @@¢@o dhammd.

II. QaqQo@co Dhatuyo, which are arranged in 6 triplets, as the eye

and the figure, and the consciousness of the eye or vision, being

the first triplet

IIL. 9332593 Indriyani, the organs and their capabilities ; there

are 22 of them

IV. mmo A’hdra, the food of action, this is fourfold.

V. &e#e9 Phassa, contact.

VI. @D)gao Wedana, sensation ; there are seven of them,

VII. saee@e Sanna, perception.

VIII. g2a200 Chetana, thought.

IX. €a503 Chittani, thoughts. These are included in the five

Khandas. The Wedand, Sanna, and Sankhara khandas are s®@ed

«& elicited by contact with external objects (Wibhanga of the

Abhidhamma).

118 BUDHISM.

an organized body, and inherent in this body a capability

of sensation, perception, contemplation and knowledge, eli-

cited by contact with other objects: there is no feeling,

thinking or knowing soul in a man.(37.) The body itself is

mutable, and the other @sJq)) khandha are in a perpetual

flux. According to this system, man is never the same

for two consecutive minutes: the ¢5~4S0980 aripadham-

ma as the whole of the Q&Jqo khandha except the body

are called, are constantly changing: they are produced,

they cease to be, and never remain the same: they are

compared to the periphery of a wheel in motion, always

altering its position: and to the light of a burning lamp,

which though continuing to shine has its rays continually

changing. ‘The lamp continues to burn during the whole

night, constantly emitting fresh rays: so the man con-

tinues so long as his body lives, but the mental processes

are constantly changing. ‘This doctrine of Budha is cer-

tainly not held by the majority of the Budhist laity, and

was not, and perhaps up to the present day is not, received

by several of the priests, but it is most clearly taught in

the sacred books. To clear up this question it is necessary

to determine the meaning to be attached to the Pali word

ena) atta, translated into Singhalese by the word PSO

(37.) Of 6x Ripa khanda, it is said by Buddha, 610 8at@

OOGAA BEBIVo DMDoGAao SoG Malo DEWAN) SENMSIMe PQAD)0

COamesn HOAD moOoeo. eas, Ruipan bhikkhawé anichchan

yadanichcban tan dukkhan yan dukkhan tadanatta yadanatta tan

nétan mama nesd hamasmi namés6 attati. Priests body is imperma-

nent, that which is impermanent is sorrow, that which is sorrow

is not the soul, that which is not the soul is not mine, that is not

myself, and is not my soul. So of the other four Khandas (Sanyut

nikaya, Salayatanewagga).

See cote =

Bie a! Sf 3 ‘ ?

BUDHISM. 119

atmaya and which we render “soul.” In the Brahma

Jala Sutra, Budha states, that some taught that the soul

eam (atta) is eternal in duration; they said “living

Beings transmigrate: they die, they are born, but their

existence continues as being eternal.” In another part of

the same sermon when speaking of the doctrines of the

Edocsease, uchchédawada, or those who believe that the

soul will be finally annihilated, he relates a conversation

between some philosophers: ‘‘ Another will reply and say,

Friend, I do not deny that there is such a state as you

have mentioned, but the soul will not then be annihilated ;

there is, Friend, another state unknown and unexperienced

by you, but known and perceived by me; in that state the

form is godlike, the pleasures are mental, and all the pow-

ers and faculties are in perfection. Upon the dissolution

of that body by death the being is cut off, destroyed and

no longer exists.” WThese extracts are sufficient to prove

that by the word @’xd) atta or soul, is meant an immate-

rial substance which continues to exist after the death of

the body. The Comment states, that there are four lead-

ing opinions respecting the nature of the soul, the last of

which is, that it remains in the body as a jewel deposited

in a casket : and that upon death it flies away as a bird

from its cage. ‘There can therefore be no doubt but that

Budha attached to the word eam» atta the meaning we at-

tach to the word “ soul.”

We have already noticed that the whole constituent

parts of a man are divided into five Qs3q) but there is

algo another arrangement called mame dyatana or resi-

dences: they are the six personal ayatana; viz. the eye,

the ear, the nose, the tongue, the body, the understanding ;

120 BUDHISM.

and the corresponding external dyatana, figure, sound,

odours, taste, touch, and material or immaterial objects.

Budha declares that none of the khandha or 4yatan4 con-

stitutes a soul.(38) There is also amore compendious arrang e-

ment into 200@5x03 ndmartipa, the 616 ripa signiffying

the body, (39) and the #»@ nama, the intellectual faculties:

this is frequently used in the writmgs of Budha, Con-

cerning the Q33q@)) khandh4é he says, 6y~6o Bma@de

PEIN GVESIO PHAN Mase FSMD 5009H FSI

ad 9 Danse sto genom riipan bhikkhawe anattd, wédand

anatté sannyd anatté, sankhéra anatté winnydnan anatta

(38.) Salae Balad PABao BEsao Degadao GEwmae Mea

BDI AENDDS ON HOON awndwkd maoacs was, Chak-

khun bhikkhawe anichchan yadanichchan tan dukkhan yan duk-

khan tadanatté yadanatta tan nétan mama nésd hamasmi namésd

attati, Priests, the eye is impermanent, that which is impermanent

is sorrow, &c.

(39) Buddha, in the Wibhanga section of the Abhidhamma

defines what 209613 Namaripa is 2S2aQ00. Szeegenduaao

IQG1B EASayeo PIG, Tatthakathaman Winnanappach-

chaya namaripan atthinéman atthiripan. What, are the Nama

Rupa resulting from consciousness? there is Nama, there is Rapa,

DID MI Oo HDERMAAVDAIOD) saragaasads wa osaesds

@a9 QeoQ9nHRie0°, Tattha kathaman naman wedanakkhandho

sannakkhandho sankhérakkhandho idan wuchchati naman. Of

these what is nima? The assemblage of sensations, perceptions

and discrimination. ‘These form Nama, 103 @0@o 613. Oa

OSI ODI HHI G3IGI8 510 gee HAS Ors., tattha kathaman

ruipan chattéro maha bhithanan upddyaya rapan idan wuchchati

rupan. What is Ripa? The four elements and a form produced

from the four elements. This is called Rupa. Here we do not

see that the dareg masa)ai®) is included in 20 Nama, but it must

be borne in mind that it depends for its existence upon Nama and

Rupa 28615. wQeco Imeem. wFen wmO6is Boacaa

Saeegen Boos, nima riipan samuday4 winndnan samudaya

namarupa nirodha wififidna nirodho. With the origin of Nama

rapa is the origin of Winydéna, with the cessation of Nama rupa

is the cessation of Winyéna.

BUDHISM. peal

“ Bikhus, the body does not constitute a soul, the sensa-

tions do not constitute a soul, the perceptions do not con-

stitute a soul, the reasonings do not constitute a soul, the

consciousness or understanding does not constitute a soul.”

Thus he affirms of each of the khandé that it is not a soul.

Again he says 6150 8 xD9®D HAM ems ewmp-o

382m 6,OdsO EGSMEs ond foam go wow

Do 57 Go MOS) prmroro esB riipan bhikkhawey, anat-

+4, yopi hetu yopi pachchayo rapassa uppdédaya sopi anatté

anatté sambhutan ripan kuto atta bhawissati. “ Bikhus,

body is not a soul: if there be any kind of cause for the

production of body, that cause also is without a soul: how

can body become a soul since it is produced by soul-less

causes?” He repeats the same verbatim concerning the

sensations, the perceptions and the reasonings: and although

some unlearned Budhists have supposed that the daare <mo

winny4nan is a transmigrating soul, Budha says. (40) “The

understanding or consciousness (Saas, 58 winnydnan) isnot

a soul: if there be any cause by which the O-9¢qso win-

nyanan is produced, that cause also is without a soul: how

can O<ate <0 winnydnan be a soul, seeing it is produced

by soul-less causes. ?”

To remove all doubt respecting his doctrine being that a

soul does not exist, we refer to his conversation with 9&3

@9) 68005 z 4) Susimo Paribbajiko. Budha says, “Susimo,

the body, the sensations, the perceptions, the reasonings,

the understanding or consciousness (enumerating each dis-

tinctly) whether past, future or present, whether internal or

external, whether gross or minute, base or excellent, remote

or near, are not mine; none of them constitute “I.” None of

(40.) See Salayatana section of Sanyut Nikaya.

122 BUDHISM.

these are to mea soul. This is known by true wisdom.”

This teaching, which is again and again reiterated, is clear:

there is no soul: nothing of which an individual may say,

“ This is I.” Body exists ; the other @3JqQ) khandha are

only functions of the living body, produced by the con-

tact of external objects with the bodily organs. The same

doctrine is enforced, in similar language respecting the eye,

the ear and other bodily organs, together with the Oa se

mano, or 9822, <Mo winnydnan or understanding, the seat

of which is the heart, as the eye is the seat of vision; this

is repeated respecting the various organs, both individually

and collectively. (41)

But how does this affect the doctrine of transmigration,

or more properly the continued processes of perpetuated

existence ? In the book called Milinda Prashna, or the

Questions of King Milinda, the subject is discussed by the

king and the learned priest Nagaséna. This work is of

high authority among the Budhists, although not one of the

Sacred Books. The term 200©6x6o ndmartipan is fre-

quently used in this discussion, comprising all that we mean

by body and mind, I shall omit-the Pali, merely giving a

translation of the conversations.

The King enquired, Lord Nagaséna, what is conceived

(in a new birth)? The Priest replied, the body and mind

(41.) 989 SBA6is PBorswmm s*eosder awzdstaoda

@QBAID) DEG) HVOD) Baha con. wo Eno) wag

ODNHI BHD OND OD OADWHOSET Om SOO) FASS LORD

Do IMM sOOdueragss eH, susima yankinchirtipan atita

nagata pachchuppannan ajjhattanwa bahiddhaw4 olarikanwa su-

khumanwaé hinanwa panitanwa yan daréwa santikéw4 sabbannetan

mama nesohamasmi neso me attati ewametan yatha bhitan sam-

mappannaya dathabbha. So of all the other Khandhas (Sanyut

Nikaya also Budha’s conversation with Anuruddha).

BUDHISM. 123

(2996100 namardipan) Great King, are conceived. But,

Lord Nagaséna, are this same body and mind (8009570

namarupan) conceived ? No, Great King, this same body

and mind are not conceived: but by this body and mind

good or evil actions are performed, and in consequence of

these actions another body and soul are conceived (M2

BOAO Setar SGI. oFaeewns téna kamména

annyan namartpan patisandahati.)

To remove all doubt the King enquires, saying “ Lord Na-

gasena, you have spoken of ed©6»eo ndmartipan. Of

these what is Nama and what is Ripan? Great King, is

any thing material (@@ 6 so olarikan) that is Rapa. Is

any thing immaterial (200 sukum4) the thoughts, they

are Nama.” Thus nd4martpan is represented as constituting

the whole man, body and soul, and the doctrine clearly laid

down isoneof antecedents and consequents. (42) A man per-

forms good or bad actions: this is the antecedent, Because

of these actions another Being, another body and mind are

produced: this is the consequent. They are in no sense

the same: the latter is a result of the former, but there is

no transmigrating soul. The King does not appear satis-

fied, and prosecutes his enquiries: saying, “ Lord Nagaséna,

does conception take place without any being transmigrat-

ing? Yes, Great King, conception takes place without

any Being transmigrating. How does this take place? ex-

plain it by a metaphor. Great King, a man lights one

lamp from another lamp: does the one lamp transmigrate

to the other lamp? No, my Lord. In the same way, Great

King, conception takes place without transmigration.”

(42.) Milinda is referred to in Manorathepureni comment on

Anguttara Nikaya, page &.

124 BUDHISM.

The King further enquires, “ Lord Nagaséna is there any

Being who transmigrates from this body to another body ?

No, Great King. But,“ Lord Nagaséna, if there be no Be-

ing who transmigrates from this body to another body, is

there not a deliverance from the consequences of evil ac-

tions. True, Great King, if there be no conception there

is deliverance. By this body and mind good or evil actions

are performed, and in consequence of those actions another

body and mind are produced, and therefore there is not

deliverance from the consequences of sin.”

Budha explicitly declares that sin and punishment are

necessarily united. But it appears that it is sin that is

punished, and not the sinner. To avoid the difficulty con-

nected with this doctrine, the Budhists say, that although

the child born is not the same with the man who previously

existed, he cannot be said to be entirely a new Being,

because his present existence is the result of actions per-

formed by a person who formerly existed, but who is now

non-existent ; and they illustrate it by the metaphor of a

mango-tree. A mango from the tree having been eaten

the stone is planted, and a fresh mango-tree is produced,

which is not properly a new tree but a continuance of the

old one, being produced from it. (43) But according to this,

the son must be the same with his father, being produced

by his instrumentality. The mango-tree metaphor is this:

the mango tree represents an existing man: the mango

fruit the good or evil conduct of that man: as from a stone

of that tree another tree grows which is not altogether dif-

ferent from the first tree being a result of that first tree,

43.) ‘This metaphor of the Mango tree is also used by Naga-

acna a (Milinda Prashna.)

BUDHIeM. 125

so from the good or bad actions of a man another man is

produced, who is not properly another but a continuation

of the first. The metaphor will not bear strict investiga-

tion ; but the doctrine of Budha undoubtedly is, that the

performer of an action is not the recipient of the result of

that action. In the Sanyut Nikaya it is stated that a

Brahmin came to Budha and asked, “ How is it Goutama,

Does he who has performed actions (in a previous birth)

experience (in this world) the results? Brahmin, the doc-

trine that he who has acted receives the result is one ex-

treme (the edeamQoe sassata wada or doctrme of the per-

petual existence of a transmigrating soul.) How then, Gou-

tama, does one person perform the action, and another per-

gon endure the results? Brahmin, the doctrine that one

person performs the action and that another person endures

the result is the other extreme (the 696 Sa %6 uchehédawada

who teach the annihilation of an existing soul.) The Ta-

tagato avoiding both these extremes preaches a middle doe-

rine : namely, that in consequence of ignorance, merit or

demerit is accumulated, &c., declaring the doctrine of the

aeSawaegee@e patichcha samuppado which we shall ex-

amine hereatter. We quote part of another discourse,

where the subject ismore fully declared: The Paribajako

recluse, named Timbaruko, come to Budha and said, Gout-

ama, does a person receive happiness or sorrow as the re-

sult of his own conduct (in a previous state?) Budha re-

plied, Not so, Timbaruko. What Goutama! does he re-

ceives happiness or sorrow as the result of another person’s

‘conduct? Notso, Timbaruko. What Goutama! does he

receive happiness or sorrow as the result of the joint action

of himself and of seme other person? Bagawa replicd, Not

126 BUDHISM.

so, Timbaruko. What then, Goutama, does a man receive

happiness or joy, irrespective of his own conduct or of the

conductofothers? Notso, Timbaruko.” (44) He afterwards

declares that he has abandoned the doctrine of a trangsmi-

erating soul, as held by the swwm206, sassatawada and

also the excision of an existing soul, as held by the Gdoed

6506, uch’chédawada and has chosen a middle doctrine, and.

then recites the oSaayetoose patichcha samuppado,

which appears to be the key of his philosophical position, ex-

plaining the processes by which existence is perpetuated. (45)

We must in endeavouring to explain this, quote the Pah

and afterwards state the meaning, gESH Chlcacoa woQa

eoQDCdnaa Gzrexweer0 Gaeta ndsAso 800067 So 39

(44) The conversation with Timberuka is found in Sanyutta

Nikaéya, page ®), the Pali is Be@d:m cS8Sevdoan HOODIA OH|

@OHID Hatajyra)a OHI OMMD wo Mo ya ESDASA CoaMOo

BAStMGD AMD) EFOHID HOV OM OEIWDO GO MD Ba) caiaied

8 QHOwmOWo GOOiaIS MHD oho Holaqaowm ommneGxece

AND rOMNne® g@) ESD Ghand®. SAadianG wmmO) |For

BoOS OWI SMIMD HPsclo AISo EO6o aSo RA aBdamnre ya

EMSQDAGD GI9HHo BASi:anG wmmOHd |oO09, timbaruka paribba-

jako bhagawantan etadawocha kinnukhé bhdé gétama sayan katan

sukha dukkhanti-mahéwan thimbarukati bhagawé awécha kimpana

bh6 gétama parakatan sukha dukkhanti maéhewan timbarukati bha-

gawa awocha; kinukho bho gétama sayan katancha parakatancha

sukha dukkhanti mahewan timbarukati bhagawa awocha ; kinpana

bho gotama asayan karan aparan karan adichcha samuppannan

sukha dukkhanti mahewan timbarukéti bhagawa awocha. Go-

tama! does a person receive happiness or misery as the result of

his own conduct? Bhagawa replied not so Tembaruka. What

Gotama is joy and sorrow the result of another’s conduct, Bhaga-

wa replied not so Tembaruka | What Gotama is joy and sorrow,

the result of the joint acts of himself and others? Bhagawa, not

so, Ten biruka. What Gotama, does one receive happiness or

sorrow without any cause of his own acts, nor the acts of another ?

Bhagawa replied not so Tembaruka.

(45.) See note 30.

BUDHISM. 127

6y OJEDS CMcHs osama Yeds enn Odes cd)

Co OVE S ODES GACINDM OME SAC EOE So

CHES SHE NEL) MHVGAA HS HY oO) USOG

So Gt) SS E69 EMQ GEO QECIE) BEMIS SH

awijja pachchay4sankhsra sankhérappachch4y4 winny4nan

winny4nappachchayanamartpan, namartipa pachchaya sala-

' yatanan, salayatana pachchaya phasso, phassa pachchaya

wédana, wédana pachchay4 tanha, tanha pachchay4 upaéda-

nan upadana pachchaya bhawo, bhawa pachchapé jati, jati

pachchay4 jaré maranan soka paridéwa dukka domanassup-

ayasa sambhawanti.

In consequence of ignorance, merit or demerit is pro-

duced. In consequence of merit or demerit the conscious-

ness, im consequence of consciousness the body and the

mental faculties, the six organs of sense; in consequence of

the six organs of sense, touch or contact (or the sensation of

touch); in consequence of contact the sensations, in conse-

quence of the sensations desire, in consequence of desire an

attachment to existence, in consequence of attachment or

cleaving to existence, a place of birth ; in consequence of a

place of birth, birth itself; in consequence of birth decay,

death, grief, weeping, yaIn, discontent and dissatisfaction

are produced. It is then added, that a complete cessation

of ignorance, necessarily results in a cessation of all the

consequents, so that being itself becomes extinct. It will

be observed, that the intervention of a previously existing

soul, or of a creator, or even of parents, is not regarded as

necessary to the completion of this chain of existence ; the

two first as being non-existent ; the other (parents) as

that which may be for the production of the body, but

which is not absolutely necessary, as in many instances the

128 BUDHISM.

SoeooHeno dpapitika formation, (which Turnour in: his

translation of Maha Wanso calls “the apparitional”

appearance) supersedes the necessity of parents, as in these

instances merit or demerit leads to the instantaneous and

full development of a perfect man or woman, as well as of

the gods and the sufferers in the hells. ;

This account appears to be very unphilosophical and

confused. In the Wibhanga division of the Abhidarma,

the terms used are clearly defined: thus goUh awijjd or

ignorance is defined to be the ignorance of the four princi-

pal doctrines of Budha: (46) they are 1. That sorrow is con-

nected with existence in all its forms. 2.—That its conti-

nuance results from a continued desire of existence. 3.

That a deliverance from existence and its sorrows can only

result from the complete extinction of this desire: and 4thly,

That this extinction can only result from a course of pure

morals, eight divisions of which are specified.

From this ignorance e0@060 sankharan results, which is

defined to be apx@: kusalé and ese akusala or merit

and demerit, accumulated in the various worlds of gods and

men, or ofthe Brahma gods, or of the inhabitants of the Arupa

(46.) mS mn gddh ealoa grrsecm esa NOES ©

aoe Sho Gwa) BID Panta do Essa) BaGHD condsia cduge

PertecKo Fao HHI9s GOSS, tattha kathama awijja dukkhé anna-

nan dukkha samudayé annanan dukkha nirodhé annanan dukkha

niodha gaminiya patipadaya annanan ayan wuchchati awijja.

(47.) 258 mods FSH sHOc woG qromeH waa wey

FREQ BSCa)IAD Heewsaeaaan mMaIcsecayag OHewavan Coo

wooo, tattha kathama awijj& pachchaya sankhar4 punnabhi

sankharo apunnabhisankharo ananjabhisankharo kayasankharo

wachisankharo chittasankharo, Of these what is the 2.406 san-

khara resulting from ignors ance? accumulation of merit and de-

merit, merit accumulated in the Aripa worlds ; that of bodily actions,

ot words and of thoughts.

BUDHISM. 129

worlds. (47) In the case of any individual coming into exist-

ence, this ec@2 sankhar’ is the merit or demerit of the

acts of his immediate predecessor in that chain of being.

From this 60Q:, sankhér4 Danese <0 winnydnan is pro-

duced, which is defined to be the consciousness of the eye,

the ear, the nose, the tongue, the body and the understand-

ing, which form the six Ayatana and are not in existence

until after the body is formed: Saee<«m. winnydnan

therefore can only be understood as signifying a power

hereafter to be developed, when the organs have come into

existence and come in contact withexternal objects. (48) How

Consciousness can exist in the abstract, without the exist-

ence of any conscious being, is difficult if not impossible to

understand. This undeveloped consciousness is regarded

as the antecedent of body and mind, and this body and

mind as the antecedent of the organs of the body and

mind. (49) The Saaze,<o winnydnan or consciousness, which

is the third in this chain of existence, is declared to be the

act s-0 winnyanan or consciousness of the organs of

body and mind which are the fifth in the series. All this

unphilosophical confusion of thought and ee is used

(48.) DEY DHQc wQrdssacto Danang so Vale Bence Hie o Ges)

Omaee cm. mKImence SOondaaea co ee Qos

ERER Ko QEo gvod wsoaddaacs Jaree<o, tattha kataman san-

kharappachchaya winnanan chakkhuwinnanan sotawinnanan gha-

nawinnanan jiwhawinnanan kayawinnanan manowinnanan idan

vuchchati sankharappachchayé winnanan. What is the Winnana

the consciousness, the consequence of Sankhura, the consciousness

of the eye, the consciousness of the ear, the consciousness of the

nose, the conssiousness of the tongue, the consciousness of the

body, the consciousness of the mind, this is the consciousness, the

result of Sankhara.

(49.) See DOO dalado OaHea gas, Dhamma chakkappa

wattana suttan,

130 BUDHIsM.

to avoid the necessity of acknowledging the existence of a

creator. Wemay observe that the SO3® or oa&co does

not signify that y which a thing is made or produced, but

that which is the antecedent of the thing produced, and

without which the thing would not be. Thus the beautiful

organization of the body, with all its indications of a de-

signing and powerful architect, is stated to be the conse-

quent of its own consciousness: and the eye with its com-

plicated mechanism is represented as being the consequent

of the OaiQeere sco chakkhtiwinny4nan or the eye con+

sciousness: and the same holds good with respect to the

other bodily organs. Besides, in this passage the soQi&

sankiré are not existing things, but merely the qualities of

actions previously performed, and Budha teaches, that the

qualities of actions performed by a Being (whether man or

animal) now non-existent, is the efficient cause of the pro-

duction of the body and mind of anew Man, without the

intervention of any active agent. This I believe is a cor-

rect statement of the doctrine of the oSQa dene paAticcha-

sammuppada so far as the production of the body and mind

of man is concerned.

The doctrine of Nirwana is intimately connected with

the preceding. The word 43829 nirwana (from & ni, a

negative, and O20 wana desire) signifies a complete free-

dom from desire, and this necessarily leads to a complete

cessation of existence. ‘Thus at the close of Budha’s first

discourse at Benares, having stated that he has experienced

this cessation of &) <0 tanh4 or desire, he observes,

SLODNAD MNNGEH3 GraQwnsHo ayamantima jati

natthi dani punabbawo. “This is my last birth; henceforth

I shall have no other state of existence” and at the close

BUDHISM. 131

of his discourse called Brama Jala (50) he says, Bikhus, that

which binds the Tatagato (i. e. Budha) to existence is cut

_ off, but his body still remains, and while his body remains

gods and men perceive him; but at the end of life, when

the body is dissolved neither gods nor men will perceive

him ; that is, he will no longer exist. (51)

(50.) BaaoD ndoonds mon odor Mwmdonsadoan

BQGS edamoc wo &dkwd mOoc& Esse esas bhik

khawe tathagatassa kayo uchchinna bhawanettiko titthati assakay

yawa thassati tawa dewa manussanan dakkhinti (see the Englis

in the Lecture).

(51.) There was a controversy at Matara some years ago on

the subject of Nirwana; one party holding that it was the entire

cessation of existence, while the opposite party held that some

part of the Wiffana (consciousness) existed and enjoyed perfect

happiness, although none but a Rahat could explain the nature of

that existence nor its enjoyment. Mr. G.’s view is the correct

one, according to Budhism there is nothing immortal. When

Buddha died it is stated that Sakrayé uttered the following stanza,

GROOIOD wo2G ewes V9 eedTaAo Bdo.assH

OHesHSsaeognsS, aniechchawatan sankharé uppddawaya

dhammino upajjitw4 nirujjhanti tésanvupasamo sukhoti. “Truly

the Sankharas, the component parts of human nature, are imper-

manent; their nature is to come into existence and die. Being

born they disappear ; their 2uaqOo wupasamocomplete subjection is

happiness. Then the Priest Anuraddha rehearsed this Gata, eo

EGODD FHoMD ODEs atkedooas cdevindend) BAA 29

Doosan ranges Asallitena chittena wedananajjha wasayi

pajjotassewa nibbanan wimokhochetasoahuti. With a firm mind

he bore the pain, as a fire which extinguished itself the mind

became free (from every thing existing) (Mahaparinibbana Suttan.)

As the eda@eGeka0e Patichcha samuppada gives the consequence

of ignorance and so on, the complete cessation of ignorance neces-

sarily results in a cessation of all the consequents, so that the being

himself ceases to exist. Itis said GARcHods YHOO owmn

sdacd gala egdndguocn BaGdods, jatinirodho jaré marana

Soka paridewa dukkha domanassupayasa nirodho. from the ces-

sation of birth is the cessation of decay, death, sorrow, crying, pain,

disgust and passionate discontent. Thus this whole body of sorrow

ceases t6 exist. (Sanyut Nikaya.)

ee BUDHISM.

Nirwana is represented by the metaphor of a large fire

which has burnt itself out, and by a lamp the oil and wick

of which are completely consumed so that nothing remains.

Nirwana is the entire cessation of existence. It differs

from annihilation, as that supposes that an existent soul

has been destroyed, whereas according to Budha there is

no soul in existence which can be annihilated.

The morality of the Budhist system is pure, no vice being

tolerated. The five precepts binding on every Budhist are

1. Net to destroy animal life,—2. To abstain from stealing.

3.—To abstain from lying,—4. To abstain from illicit inter-

course with women, and 5.---To abstain from drinking in-

toxicating liquors. (52) In addition to these precepts, tale

bearing, slander, harsh and injurious language, envy and

anger are prohibited, and the opposite virtues are recom-

mended. Almsgiving is specially recommended, and the

most excellent of all gifts is stated to be that of religious in-

struction. (53) Budha, however, only legislated for his priests ;

with respect to others he was only Fy Teacher. (54) His com-

mands respecting the morals of the Priesthood are contain-

ed inthe Pardjika and Pachitti sections of the Winiya

Pitaka. <A digest of these laws, called Pratimoksha is

directed to be read in each Chapter of the Order on the

(52.) cmosnSoomo panatipata taking away life, 2 g@&ersoeeca

adinnaddna theft (lit taking that which is not given) 3 Qas0206

musdwada lying 4 9850900 michchachara, illicit sexual intercourse

5 QBHA@6eOtSo@eeeos surameraya majjapam4 datthana.

The use of intoxicating liquor. —

(53.) In the Subhasuttan in Majjhamanikaya Budha enumerates

many a vice and many a virtue with their consequent reward.

(54.) Budha is called wstomeD Ovo er sattha dewamanussé-

nan. Teacher of gods and men.

BUDHISM. 133

new and full moon in each month, when an enquiry is to

be made respecting the morals of each priest. The

laws respecting ecclesiastical discipline are contained

in the Maha Waggo and Chula Waggo of the Winiya

Pitaka, but the subject is too large to be. entered upon in

this lecture. Great care has been taken to ensure the

moral purity of the Priesthood, and to preserve peace and

harmony between its members; with what success it is not

easy to state. The distinctions of Caste are not admitted

in the Priesthood. (55)

(55.) Budha says avis des~mamd nvadoomd aoddons

MOOS) Ong@osmd MOOmvomIS AawOouw, na jachcha wasa

lohoti najatchahoti brahmano kammanawasalo hoti kamman4hoti

brahmendé. By birth there is no chandala, by birth there is no

Brahmano, by actions there is chandala, and by actions there is

Brahmana.

When king Madhura waited on the priest Mahakachchana and

said, GowOs ot How CWOony BwdO@mOonads Dac

Bom 7oeen Ooctso Qoul€amd galom Ooenms macs

gorren Ocean GoviOamd goaded oo gaowOan BowOa0

Queen eM Locu FAems tin QWews Awe sidan Qwo

609663, brahmana bho kachchana ewamahansu brahmanawa

settho wanno hino anyo wanno brahmanawa sukko wanno kanho

anyo wanno brahmanawa sujjhanti no abbrahmana brahmana brah-

muno putta oraso mukhato jaté brahmaja brahmanimmita brahma-

dayadati. “Venerable kachchana the brahmins say that (the

Brahmins) alone are of high caste, cther castes are low, the brah-

mins are of white caste, others are of black caste the Brahmins are

pure, those who are not Brahmins are not so, the Brahmins are

the only beloved sons of Brahma, they proceed from his mouth,

begotten by Brahma, created by Brahma and are enheritors of

Brahma.” The Priest replied, 9&3 mh. aioe HEms owoeca

@aOoa) Bots Ommaney g@ormeG., iti bhawan kachchéno kimahati

ghésédyewakho eso mahé raja lokasmin, “The Venerable kach-

chana said great king this declaration was only a sound in the

world” and added, n- BOEaewweB Omad ANGade oOB gavsd

G3 Doammhs Asra@eaemho SCYEDMH) MHCiMoMbho AnAocoa

Edad SHAQGIS oBOs BS Bo ad deed Oe Lada

EH GoulOoam Celaosdes oNedeco Celecseles gdog Soluce SAQHa

134 BUDHISM.

The legends of Budhism are numerous, many are con-

tained in the Pansya panas Jataka book, and in the Rasa

Wahini. (56) The Singhalese translation of these latter tales

being contained in Saddharma Alankara, I give a sketch of

one of them exemplifying the pursuit of knowledge under

difficulties.

HISTORY OF DARMA SONDA.

Long after the doctrines of Budhism had been forgotten

and a comparatively short time previous to the appear-

ance of another Budha, a desire to know what the doctrines

of that religion were, sprang up in the minds of individuals.

Among them wasa King of Benares, named Dharma Sonda.

After he was established in his kingdom, he became deeply

impressed with the importance of religious knowledge. He

B sdQdd3enH} Goad cOdad Cawwd98 2aHoe, tan kimmannasi

maharaja khattiyassa chépi ijjheiya dhanénewa dhannenawa rajai

ténewa jataripenawaé khattiyo pissassa pubbutthayi pachchani psrt

kinkara patissawi manépachari piyawadini brahmano pissdaaa

wesso pissassa suddo pissdssa pubbutthayi pachchanipati kinkesa

patissawi manapachdri piyawadi. ‘What thinkest thou grth,

king, that if one of the khastriye (warrior) tribe abounded in wealet,

grain, silver and gold members of ‘the khastriya tribe rise befog

him and go to bed after him, await his commands, behave accordinr

to his pleasure and use pleasant words, so do the Brahmins, vaysyas

and the suddras, rise before him, go to bed after him await his

commands, behave according to his pleasure and use pleasant

words.” (MaApuHuriya SuTtan MAJJHIMANIKAYA.)

(56.) The Pansiyapanasjétaké (literally) 550 births, is the Com-

‘mentary on the Jataka gathas. Rasawdhine forms no part of the

sacred books of Budhism. It is however written in easy but very

elegant Pali, and is generally the first book the Pali bee! is

required to construe.

BUDHISM 185

thought much on the subject, and considered that a Prince

without a knowledge of religiou, was like a man, ornamen-

ted with jewels, but destitute of garments requisite for the

purposes of decency. He communicated his thoughts to his

councillors, and enquired if any of them conld either instruct

him or tell him where he could obtain information on this

importantsubject. Thenoblemenofhis Court acknowledged

their mability to give their Sovereign the information he

required. ‘The King then directed the public crier to

make proclamation, that if any individual could explain

any of the doctrines of Budha he should be munificently

rewarded, upon communicating his knowledge to the King.

He afterwards sent an elephant laden with the most costly

treasures, round the city, promising to bestow the whole

upon any person who could communicate to him any por-

tion of the teaching of a former Budha. Not meeting with

success he afterwards offered to become the personal slave

of any one who could recite to him only one stanza spoken

by a Budha.

His mind became exceedingly agitated with this un-

quenchable thirst for religious knowledge, and he deter-

mined to leave his kingdom in charge of his Chief Ministers

while he scught in foreign lands the information he so

much desired. During his travels he entered a thick forest,

and regardless of the fierce animals who dwelt there, enter-

tained a hope that he should succeed in his efforts even in

that unpromising place.

When a peculiarly meritorious act is performed by any

person, the Crystal Throne of India (or Sakraya, the King

of the Gods residing on the summit of Maha Meru,)

becomes hot, and by this his attention is directed to the

136 BUDHISM.

circumstance. In consequence of the eminent merit of the -

proceedings of Darma Sonda, the throne of India became

heated, and the God, perceiving the whole of the circum-

stances, determined to assist him. For this purpose he

assumed the form of a fierce man-eating demon, and armed

with a sharp sword and a massy club, and with blood drip-

ping from his jaws, stood before the King. The Prince

was unmoved by his fierce appearance, but hoping to eb-

tain, even from him, the knowledge he so earnestly desired,

courteously addressed him, saying, O thou who inhabitest —

this delightful forest, I have left my kingdom in search of

religious knowledge. Are you acquainted with any of the

teachings of Budha? The demon replied, I know one

stanza. Will you communicate it tome, said the Prince.

What reward will you give to your teacher, asked the

demon. Were I in my kingdom, observed the Prince, I

would reward you most liberally, but in this forest I have

nothing but my person to present to you. That will be

sufficient, said the demon, let me eat you. But, asked the

Prince, how can you instruct me after you have have eaten

me? And how can I teach while I am hungry, replied the

demon. But I will propose a plan by which both of us may

be gratified: and turning towards a rock perpendicular on

one side and a yodun (about 14 miles) high, which he had

miraculously formed, he said, Do you see this rock? Ascend

to its summit, and I will stand here below. I will open my

mouth wide, and you must leap from the rock into my

mouth, and during your descent I will repeat a stanza

spoken by a Budha. Agreed, exclaimed the Prince, and

moralising as he went ascended the mountain. When he

had gained the summit, he cried out, Demon, attend ! teach

BUDHISM. 137

me while I make my leap: and so saying, he sprang from

the rock towards the extended jaws of the demon: but

Indra assuming his own proper shape, received the King

in his arms, conveyed him to the summit of Maha Meru,

and after having treated him with the highest respect,

placed him upon his throne, and repeated the following

stanza :—

GBOODD “woos Edde OH 6t9aem EdaSmA

B61) BH @xsy Qsx0@o8s go anichcha wata san-

khaéra uppdda waya dhammino uppajitwa nirujjanti tésan

wupasamo sukho.

«The component parts of human nature certainly are

mutable: they are things produced and destroyed. Being

born they cease to be: Happiness consists in their com-

plete subjection.”

Many tales, equally improbable might be produced, but

little of the doctrines of Budha can be derived from them.

It is hoped that the sketch of Budhism contained in this

Lecture will be found correct, as it is drawn from the most

approved Pali authorities.

Description of two Birds new to the recorded Fauna of Ceylon:

By H. Nevixn, Esa.

The announcement that two birds have been discovered

new to the recorded Fauna of the Island, whieh I to-day

have the pleasure of making to the Society, is accompanied

by circumstances rendering it noteworthy. ,

Both species are from the country round Nuwara Eliya,

and both are already known as denizens of the Nilgherry

Hills of the continent. : |

The first, a solitary snipe, possesses no great interest,

as the birds of that genus are known to have a wide range ;

but the second, a Flycatcher of feeble flight, is one of those

instances of the repetition of a species in isolated localities,

that for the present are unaccountable, and act as a bar to

all but idle speculation; and, as it is only by patiently and

carefully tracing each link, that we can hope ever to find

the original chains that bound our Island to the Continent

or other tracts now covered by the sea, each species held im

common between two such widely separated highland dis-

tricts, brings us a step nearer to the original bond of affinity

or source of community.

The Snipe, Scolopax nemoricola, Hodg., is found among

low bushes at the edge of swampy Patina lands, and is

scarce.

Its flight is similar to the first rise of the Woodcock,

but it drops quickly, as that bird does at certain seasons;

and hence it is very probable that the Scolopax rusticola,

L., entered as a native of Ceylon in Sir E. Tennent’s list of .

NEW BIRDS. 139

birds, is no other than the present species. However, as

S. Rusticola, L., has been frequently obtained in India, it is

much to be desired that sportsmen would forward skins for

identification.

The Flycatcher, Leucocerca fuscoventris, Frankl., af-

fects the edges of jungle, living in pairs, though occasion-

ally two or more such pairs associate, and perch on the top-

- most twigs of the brushwood, whence they flit after passing

insects.

These, a Pericrocotas, and the Blue Creeper, Denaro-

phila frontalis, Horsf., have a curious habit of accompanying

_ each other in quest of food; probably the two former follow

_ to catch the insects started from moss and lichen by the

; active Creepers, though possibly they merely unite to guard

_ better against the swoop of the Hawk and Kestrel.

Whichever it may be, this peculiarity struck me most

| forcibly, when sitting hidden among the hills, I have gazed

atthe dark and lifeless shade around, and been almost

_ startled by the noisy twittering of the three allies, explor-

ing the recesses of the old Rhododendron trees above me

before passing on to other haunts, leaving the forest as

_ silent as before.

| J append a very brief description of each species for

_ information of any one who ae take an interest in our

| Ornithology.

| Scolopax Nemoricola, Hodg.

This species is very similar in general plumage to the

common snipe, Gallinago gallinula, L., but may be at once

i distinguished, by the whole of the plumage beneath being

i barred with dusky brown.

Mr. Hodgson remarks, “its general structure is that

140 NEW BIRDS.

of a snipe, its’ bill a woodcock’s, and the legs and feet are

larger than in Gallinago.”

Length, 123 inches, Extent 19—of wing, 54—bill 23

tarsus, 14—Weight, 6 oz.

Leucocercae fuscoventri’s Frankl.

Plumage above, dusky black—head, cheeks, and chin,

black. Beneath, white, somewhat tinged round the vent and

under tail coverts. Breast, broadly banded with mingled

black and white Tail dusky, lighter (save ‘on the central

feather) at the tips. JIrides brown. Bill and legs, dark.

Length 6? inches—wing, 3—+tail, 34.

This species may be at once distinguished from L,

compresstrostris, Blyth, by its breast band, which resembles

in colour the fur of the Chinchilla. |

Description of a New Genus and five new Species of Marine

Univalves from the Southern Province, Ceylon—By

G. NEvitu, C. M. Z. S., and H. Nevity, Hon. Sec.

‘R.A. S. (C. B.), F. Z. 8.

ROBINSONIA, N. G.

Typ: R. Ceylanica, G. & H. Nev.

Testa naticoidea, impervia ; anfrac: paucis, descenden-

tibus rapideque grandescentibus ; spiré elevaté; apertura

laté; collumella simplici, subcrassata; labro callo tenui

adjuncto.

Robinsonia Ceylanica, n. s.

Testa diffuse ventricosa, non nitente; spira acutiori ;

anfract: 4, rapide tumentibus, longitudinaliter obscure

striatis, convexis : juxta suturam, anfractisque ultimi par-

tem inferiorem, albescente ; collumella albida, apertura

interne fuscente.

Long 7-16th unc. Lat. 3-8th une.

Hab. Matara, Ceylon.

Robinsonia pusilla, n. s.

Testa ovata, spira acuta; anfract: 4. convexis, longitu-

dinaliter subtilissime striatis ; albida, castaneo varie fas-

ciata ; apertura pyriformi, fasciis interne perspicuis.

- Long. 4 unc. Lat. 3-16th une.

Hab. Balapitiya, Ceylon.

142 NEW SHELLS.

Pleurotoma (Mangelia) Boakei, n. s.

Testa fusiformi-oblonga, utrinque attenuataé, subopacé

nitente, costis propinquis levibus longitudinaliter costata,

interstitiis striis subtilissimis decussat&; fulvo-albescenti,

anfractis ultimi parte inferiori, (intus conspicue) castanea,

superiori castaneo bifasciaté ; anfract: 7. convexis, ad

suturam abrupte convexim incurvatis, sini indistincto,

labro externe incrassato, albido, intus minute crenulato.

Long. 4 unc. Lat. 3-16th une.

Hab. Balapitiya, Ceylon.

Pleurotoma curculio, n. s.

Testa pyramidali, longitudinaliter nodoso-plicata, trans-

versim forte costata, albida, juxta suturam basemque cas-

taneo ligata, apertura crenulata, castanea, labro externe

incrassato, anfractibus 5. paulim convexis, sinti indistincto..

Long. + unc. Lat. 1-10th une.

Hab. Balapitiya, Ceylon.

Pleurotoma lemniscata, n. s.

Testa ovata, spira brevi ; anfractibus 8. longitudinaliter

nodoso-plicatis ; solida, fulva juxta suturam basemque cin-

ereo ligataé, fasciisque 2. castaneis in anfracti ultima

ornata, apertura fortim crenulata, labro externe incrassato,:

sini rotundato, fasciis interne conspicuis. 7

Long. 2 unc. Lat. 4 une.

Hab. Balapitiya, Ceylon.

May 7, 1869.

A brief notice of Rosert Knox and his companions

tn captivity in Kandy for the space of twenty years, disco-

vered among the Dutch Records preserved in the Colonial

Secretary's Office, Colombo, and translated into English,

by J. R. BLAKE.

“on

The Dutch Records preserved in the Colonial Secre-

tary’s Office consist of a great number of volumes and em-<

brace a vast variety of subjects. The curious investigator

will have his labours amply rewarded by the rich store of

materials which those records will furnish on almost every

given subject; historical and political; educational and

ecclesiastical; foreign and domestic; despatches to Holland

and Batavia; official letters civil and military; reports con-

cerning tanks and cultivation, pearls and cinnamon; in-

structions to Dissdvas; terms of contract with natives ;

_ treaties with foreign powers; sailing directions for India-

men, and orders of battle for ships of war, &c. &c. Inter-

mingled with these and other important matters, one will

not only meet with a very orthodox Protestant catechism

_ for young people, but what also may have been regarded

by the sedate Dutch matrons of the period as equally

orthodox and important, a recipe for the making of beer !——

not indeed the veritable beer of Europe—-the offspring of

malt and hops—but some colonial invention, and designated

either Klein bier or Zet bier. The brave soldiers of the

garrison of Colombo were found to be poisoned by abomi-

nable mixtures sold in the market under the respectable

144 ROBERT KNOX.

name of beer; the supply ships from Holland used to arrive

only once in atwelve-month; and the soldiers, like all brave

warriors of ancient and modern times, would have their

beer. It is no wonder then, that in going over the multifa~

rious records of the Dutch period, that I happened to light

on a notice of RopERT KwNox and his companions in the

sad state of their captivity.

The first notice that I happened to discover is to be

found in the 2nd volume of the Dutch records, in a Minute

of Council, dated Saturday, 18th September, 1660. In

this document mention is made, not indeed of the arrival of

the frigate Ann (which was commanded, as is well known,

by Captain Knox, senior) at the Bay of Cottiar, but of its

sudden departure, “ sailing away from Cottiar, and leaving

her Captain and some of the crew in captivity among the

Kandians.” The Government is also informed by the

authorities at Trincomalee, that the crew of the English

vessel had come on shore at Cottiar, cleared the jungle, and

cut palisades with great labour and trouble, with the view |

of erecting a fortification; and that a raging fever had made

great havoc amongst them, sweeping away nine of them,

and leaving twenty-five in a miserable condition, The

Council express their astonishment on hearing these things,

and appear to be at aloss whom tu blame the most, whether the

Kandian monarch, whom they suspect of bad faith, or their

good friends and allies the English ; and finally resolve to

adopt effectual measures for securing the island against

foreign invasion, and guarding against the treachery of

Rajah Singha. The next notice occurs in the 7th volume,

where we find a Minute of Council, dated Monday the

21st, and [Thursday] the 24th October, 1669, which an-

ROBERT KNOX. 145

swers to the 10th year of Knox’s captivity. This Minute

is as follows:

“ By the Englishmen who, some years ago, came on

an embassy to Cottiar, and were carried captive by Rajah

Singha, and have to the present time been forcibly detained,

an ola, inscribed in English, and secretly despatched in the

hands of a Malabar named Perga, for the purpose of being

conveyed to Madras, having been handed by the said

bearer to His Excellency the Governor, it is translated

and_reads as follows:

“ HONORED SIR EDWARD,

“In the year 1664, we received a packet marked 61,

and particularly addressed to us, which is all that we have

received, although Mr. Vassal* has received some, but con-

cealed the fact from us, and money too, which we have not

once received, though our neediness isso great. Qur com-

rades are all still alive and in health. Only Arthur Emery,

the Captain, and John Gregory are dead. There are

twenty-three of us alive at present, who would be glad to

regain their liberty. As for news, we dare not write any,

fearing that our note may be intercepted or miscarried ;

and we refer you to the bearer, Perga, who can inform you

of all that has passed better than we can write. He has

hazarded his life in carrying this. We intreat you to

* This man, Mr. William Vassal, was one of the crew of the

ship “ Persia,’ wrecked upon the Maldives in the year 1658.

They made their way in boats to Ceylon, but upon landing to

recruit and buy provisions, were set upon and captured by the

natives. Knox gives particulars about him and his companions in

eh. 4, part LV, of his account of his captivity.

146 ROBERT KNOX.

reward him liberally. 3 The Dutch are not so careless as to

let him pass unperceived. If you can by any means send

some assistance, as the bearer Perga can direct you, to us

poor afflicted captives, we shall not cease to implore for you

long life, health, and prosperity, while we remain your

Honov’s servants.

(Signed) Jonn LOVELAND,

RoBERT Knox.”

The writing in the margin, is as follows: “ Zealand,

21st August, 1669.” The direction was, “ Into whatever

good Christian hands this note shall come, wé pray, for

God’s sake, to aid in forwarding it.”

This translation having been read, the Minute proceeds

to state :— |

“ With reference to the forementioned ola, it being

considered that we and the English nation are not only

neighbours, good friends and allies, but especially also of

the same religion, and are consequently so much the more

obliged in conscience, among other things to afford them

help in their necessity, so far as the circumstances of time

and place permit, in a more especial manner at present, when

the aforesaid bearer is persuaded by His Excellency to go

up again, in order to carry to them some relief and return

with further intelligence, it is, for these and other weighty

reasons, (and also that we may hereafter send through the

same some support to our own poor countrymen,) found

good and understood, to send back the said ola-bearer,

with a sum of 50 gold pagodas for the maintenance of our

aforesaid good friends and allies, and as much of clothing

ROBERT KNOX. 147

as he may dare, and can conveniently, carry on his shoulder

as a chitty, and also a note written in English as well as in

Dutch, enclosed in a quill, and containing as follows :—

«To ail our good friends and dear allies, the honora-

ble officers, and captives of inferior rank of the English

nation.

« Being informed of your great need and wretchedness,

we cannot refrain from performing the Christian duty of

assisting you with such articles of clothing as the bearer

will deliver to you, together with 50 pagodas ready money.

We have sent to Madras the ola addressed to Sir Edward,

as well as a copy of this. Send back the bearer as soon as

possible, that we may see whether through his fidelity, we

could, to some extent, assist such of our own countrymen

as are suffering great want [like yourselves]. Hold com-

munication with us through him, for we will always help

you by the bearer, so long as he shall be preserved by God,

and be successful. We remain, your good friend,

RyYKLOFF Van GOENS.”

“ Colombo, 22nd October, 1669.”

After this the Minute proceeds in the following strain.

« And since we find ourselves obliged to forward the

ola to Madras as early as possible, to the end that the

friends of these men there may become acquainted with the

condition of their poor countrymen, it is resolved to send

the forementioned ola, by the first opportunity, to Mr.

Paviloen, Governor in Coromandel, who shall thence for-

ward it to Madras, together with a despatch to the English

authorities there, conceived in the following terms :—

148 ROBERT KNOX.

“To His Excellency the Governor presiding at

Madras on behalf of the Honorable Company of the illus-

trious English nation.

<< SIR;

« Three days ago, a black man, calling himself Perga,

appeared before me in Colombo, and placed in my hands

the accompaning note written on the leaf of a sugar tree,*

and from it Your Excellency will learn the wretched state

of your people, and their great necessity, which permits not

of being any longer neglected. We have assisted them

with some clothes, and 50 pagodas ready money, which the

abovementioned Perga has undertaken to convey to them

without fail, and return, on a promise of a reward of 20

pagodas; and we hope we shall always be able by means

of him, to help both your people and ours. I have enquired

of the black, Perga, after the condition of both, and under-

stood him to say that 23 Englishmen are still alive, namely,

Captain Jon Lousiine* These four are ina

4 » Ropert Knox [village beyond Kan-

» JOHN BERRY dy named Legonder-

me Wiutuim Dett ry.

5 Persons under the command of Mr. Markes, who

were stranded at Calpentyn, are living in the town of

Kandy.

4 Persons in Zalimoer, a division of the town of

Kandy.

4 Persons in Oere Noere, another division of Kandy.

* The Caryota Urens, or Jaggery tree, or Borassus flabelli-

formis, the Palmyra or Fan palm.

* Perhaps John Loveland.

+ William Day.

ROBERT KNOX. 149

3 in the King’s court.

3 in Bulatgamme, a third division of Kandy.

23 in all, both of officers and common people. Of our

people there are living 18 or 20 persons out of 64, the rest

. having been put to death, after being distributed, like your

own people, in the King’s Court and in other places round

about Kandy. One of your people was lately put to death

for having broken a porcelain dish in the palace. We

hope that God will at length be moved with compassion,

and make provision for the release of these wretched men.

We shall all take great pains to attain this end, seeing that

Wwe are now, (praise God) arrived so far by our outposts

that we can reach both your people and ours in two days.

But the whole of the way lies through dense jungles, and

over wild mountains, which we may pass more by wariness,

consideration, and secrecy, than by violence. Letme assure

you that we will not be remiss, but attempt every thing in

our power to bring out both your people and ours, without

distinction, from their captivity. May God Almighty,

whom we ought to pray to and call upon, bless this resolu-

tion! <A copy of the letter which we have written to your

people in reply to their ola note in our tongue; with its

translation into English, accompanies this. (God preserve

your Excellency. I remain, Sir,

“ Your Excellency’s good Friend and obedient Servant,

(Signed) RykLOFF VAN GOENS.”

« Colombo, 23rd October, 1669. New style.” f

{ It was necessary for the Dutch Governor to subjoin new

style, as the English were using the old style, and did not adopt

the new till the year 1752. According to the old system, the

date would have been 13th October.

150 ROBERT KNOX.

This interesting document stops short here. That

there was no sequel may be conjectured from this considera-

tion; that, from the state of those troublous times, ae

further could have been effected.

The recipe for making Klein Bier (literally, small beer)

alluded to above is as follows:

For making 25 gallons.

ae ....lbs of sugar.

6 Measures of roasted paddy.

8 handfuls of the leaves called by the Siyhalese

Manoecoche.* |

4 handfuls of Marygosy ft

3 handfuls of lemon leaves, or of orange or lemon

peel.

These ingredients are to be boiled down together toa

fourth part, then strained through a cloth into a vessel of

25 gallons capacity, which, being further filled with cold

water, lees of [beer] or toddy, to produce fermentation, is

to be left fermenting two days on its lees, and then poured

out into another vessel, and, after the lapse of two days

and pouring it out into a third vessel, it may be kept for

some timé, if covered over with earth or sods.” |

* Leaves of the Margosa tree. (Melia Azidarachia oe)

Sinhalese Kohomba.

+ Called at the present day Pengirt-mana, i, e. lemon grass,

JOURNAL ss

OF THE

CEYLON BRANCH

OF THE

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.

1867_70.

AOR ET.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Office Bearers au ne sine v.

Rules of the Society aes ne sie vil.

Do. Library aie se Sea eA ere

Do. Museum ies iss ae xii.

List of Members. sas ee eae Xiil.

Treasurer’s Account from 4th December 1867, to 22nd March

1870 oes ae re Xv.

Proceedings of Meetings »»-XVil.— xl.

Summary of the Contents of the First Book in the Buddhist

Canon called the Parajika Book.—By the Rev. 8. Coles ee 151

Parajika Book—No. I. : bee 164

Parajika Book—No. Il. ace ee as 180

COLOMBO:

; PRINTED BY F. FONSEKA, CHATHAM STREET, FORT.

| 3 ; | oe re |

Rag 8 7 0. 7 | yA .:

JOURNAL

OF THE

CEYLON BRANCH

OF THE

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.

186 7—70.

TSH Mi

c Milic

g = AGW a SS

; OF Bisa caesidiony OSE CD

: (Gi Se

(SB Nee C2

Woe iy Qe ee

j ar’ 3

™ ch ~ Q

17 y

COLOMBO:

PRINTED BY F. FONSEKA, CHATHAM STREET, FORT.

4370.

Office Bearers

Rules of the Society

Do. Library

Do, : Museum

List of Members.

Treasurer’s Account from 4th Deguaher

1870

Proceedings of Meetings

a On the Origin of the Sinhalese Language —By i ames De Alvis

Esq., M. BR. A. 8.

A Lecture on Budhism.—By te Rev. D. J. Gogetly, with Notes

CONTENTS.

by the Rev. David De Silva

Description of two Birds new to the recorded Paine of oy bn —

By H. Nevill, Esq.

M. Z.8., and H. Nevill, Hon. Sec. R. A

A brief notice of Robert Knox and his companions in an im

Kandy for the space of twenty years, discovered among the

Dutch Records preserved in the Colonial Secretary’s Office,

1867, to 22nd March

Description of a new Genus, and five new species of Marine Uni-

valves from the Southern Province, ce —By G, Nevill, C.

S.(C.B),F 2.8

Colombo, and translated into Hnglish.—By J. R. Blake

‘Summary of the Contents of the First Book in the Buddhist

Canon called the Parajika Book.—By the Rev. S. Coles

P4rdjika, Book—No. I.

Parajika Book—No. Il.

XV.

, XVil.—xl.

14]

143.

151

164

180

ih / - k

Yer on

ier

} ‘

OFFICE BEARERS OF THE CEYLON BRANCH

OH) EEE

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.

PATRON:

His Excellency Sir HErcuss G. R. Ropinson, K. C. M.G.

PRESIDENT:

Capt. A. B. Fyers, R. E.

VICE-PRESIDENTS:

The Rev. Barcroft Boake, D. D.

C. P. Layard, Esq.

COMMITTEE:

T. B. Stephen, Esq.

RB. Dawson, Esq.

Rev. J. Scott

James D’ Alwis, Esq.

J. Capper Esq.

Keppel Jones, Esq.

C. L. M. Brown, Esq.

W. Skeen, Esq.

W. Bryan, Esq.

Dr. Koch.

R, V. Dunlop, Esq.— Treasurer.

Lieut, Vincent W. Legge, R. A. i cepts.

Lionel F. Lee, Esq.

Mudaliyar L. De Zoysa.— Librarian.

Vil.

Ruies anp REGULATIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

[ Mem. —The Asiatic Society of Ceylon was instituted 7th February,

1845 ; and by the unanimous vote of a Special General Meeting

of the Royal Asiatic Society, held on the 7th February 1846,

it was declared a Branch of that Society, under the designation

of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. |

1. The design of the Society is to institute and promote

inquiries into the History, Religion, Literature, Arts and Social Con-

dition of the present and former inhabitants of this Island, with its

Geology and Mineralogy, its Climate and Meteorology, its Botany

and Zoology.

2. The Society shall consist of resident or ordinary, honorary,

and corresponding Members ; all elected by ballot at some General

Meeting of the Society.

3. Members residing in any part of Ceylon are considered

resident.

4. Persons who contribute to the objects of the Society in an

eminent and distinguished manner, are eligible as Honorary Member’.

do. Persons residing at a distance from Colombo may, upon

special grounds, and with the recommendation of the Committee,

be elected Corresponding members.

6. Honorary and Corresponding members shall not be subject

to any fee on entrance, or any annual contribution, and are to be

admitted to the meetings of the Society, and to the privilege of the

Library, but are not to vote at meetings, or be elected to any of its

offices, or take any part in its private business.

7. All Military Medical Officers resident, or who may reside,

in Ceylon, are.Honorary Members of the Society without entrance fee

or Subscription.

Vili.

8. Every ordinary Member of the Society shall pay, on admis-

sion, an entrance fee of half a guinea, and an annual subscription of

one guinea. Annual subscriptions shall be considered due on the 1st of

January of each year. Members who fail to pay their subseriptions by

the end of the year (provided they have been called for), shall be con-

sidered to have relinquished their connection with the Society.

9. The privilege of a Life Membership may be ensured by the

payment of £10 10s., with entrance fee, on admission; £8 8s., after

two years; and £7 7s., after four or more years’ subscriptions.

10. The Office-bearers of the Society shall be, a President, two

Vice-Presidents, Treasurer and Secretary, with a Librarian, Curator

of the Museum, and Conservator of the Meteorological and other

scientific instruments of the Society :—all appointed from time to

time by open vote at some General Meeting of the Society ; and their

functions shall be as follows .—

[1.] The President, and in his absence one of the Vice-Presidents,

shall take the Chair at all meetings of the Society and of the

Committee, maintain order, collect the votes, and cause the

laws of the Society to be observed and enforced.

[2.] The Treasurer shall receive, collect, and pay out all

monies on behalf of the Society, keep an account thereof,

with the vouchers, and submit a statement of the pecuniary

affairs of the Society to the Anniversary Meeting, and at

other times as may be required.

[3.] The Secretary shall arrange, give notice of, and attend,

_all meetings of the Society and of the Committee, and re-

cord their proceedings ; he shall also edit the Journal, and

exercise a general superintendence under the authority of

the Committee.

[4.] The Librarian, Curator of the Museum, and Conservator

of the Scientific Instruments belonging to the Society, will

1%.

take charge of the books and other articles committed to

them respectively, keep a correct list thereof, and generally

conform in their management to the Rules of the Society

in that behalf, or in the absence of such, to the directions of

the Committee ; having respect at all times to the safety

and proper condition of the articles, and to the interests of

the Society in their increase and improvement : The Cura-

tor of the Museum, in particular, taking care to superintend

the reception of all articles in that Department, transmitted

to the Society, and have the same speedily submitted to

examination and reported on, and suitably arranged.

11. The affairs of the Society shall be managed by a Committee

of nine Members, (with power to add to their number), in addition to

Office-bearers, elected in like manner ; but subject always to the Rules

and Regulations passed at General Meetings; three to be a

quorum. ;

12. Members desirous of proposing persons for admission to the

Society shall give notice of the same to the Sceretary, in writing, at

least a fortnight before the assembly of a General Mecting. Admis-

sion to Membership of the Society shall be by Ballot at any General

_ Meeting. No candidate to be considered as elected, unless he has in

his favour two-thirds of the votes taken.

13. <A General Meeting of the Society shall be held Quarterly

namely, on the 7th day of February or first lawful day thereafter, and

in the first week of the months of May, August and November, and

at such other times as may be determined by the Committee : due

notice of the Meeting, and of any intended motion which does not

come through the Committee, except the nomination of new Members,

being always first given by the Secretary.

14, All papers and communications to the Society shall be for-

warded to the Secretary at least a fortnight before the assembly of the

General Meeting at which they are to be submitted ; when they shall

be read by the Author, or in his absence by the Secretary, or some

Member of the Society.

15, All papers and other communications to the Society read

or submitted at any General Meeting, shall be open to free discus-.

sion ; and such papers shall be printed in the Transactions of the

Society as shall have been approved of by the Committee on Papers.

16. The course of business at General Meetings shall be as

follows :—

[1.] The Minutes of the last Méeting shall be read by the

Secretary, and signed by the Chairman.

[2.] Reports of Committees shall be read, and communications

made of all articles received, and donations to the Society.

[3.] Any specific or particular business submitted by the

Committee, or appointed or open for consideration, shall be

proceeded with.

[4.] Candidates or new Members shall then be proposed,

ballotted for, and admitted or otherwise, as the case may be.

|5.] Papers and Communications for the Society shall then be ©

read. !

17. Special Committees may be formed for the prosecution of

any specific object or matter of research; but these must be named at

a General Meeting ; and they will act as much as may be in co-opera-

tion with the Secretary of the Society, who willalso be a constituent

Member of all such Committees.

18. Every Member of the Society has the privilege of intro-

ducing, either personally or by a card, one or two visitors to the

General Meetings.

19. One copy of each Journal shall be sent by the Secretary to

every Member who has paid his Subscription for the current year,

and to every Honorary member resident in Ceylon, and every -such

Member may procure a second copy, on application to the Secretary .

XI.

Members requiring more than two copies of the Journal, can be

supplied with them at half the price charged to the Publie,

20. Evening Meetings shall be held once a month, or at other

times as may be arranged, for discussion on papers read, or to be read

at General Meetings, (such papers however not necessarily being

before the Meeting,) the mutual improvement of the Members, and the

promotion of the objects and advancement of the interests of the Society.

21. Members who have been absent from Ceylon, on their return

to the Island, have the privilege of rejoining the Society within 12

months of their arrival, on payment of the Subscription for the current

year. |

22. It shall be competent for any General Meeting to suspend

temporarily any of the above Rules.

RULES OF THE LIBRARY.

1. All Books borrowed from the Library shall be duly entered

in the Receipt Book, with the date of giving out, and the date of the

return, which latter shall be initialled by the Librarian.

2. No book to be written on, or injured in any respect what-

soever, and every book borrowed shall be returned in proper condi-

tion, as received.

3. The period for which books borrowed may be kept shall be

as follows :— : |

[1.] Periodicals, and numbers or volumes of a series, while they

remain unbound, for 14 days only, and no more.

{2.] Books and Periodicals must be returned at.the end of the

month in which they were issued, to enable-the Librarian to

Xil.

verify his Catalogue. Members not residing in Colombo may

retain a book for a period not exceeding three months. But

[3.| All books borrowed, of whatsoever description the same

may be, shall be returned to the Library one week at least

before the 7th of February in every year,—that pamphlets

and serials may be bound up, and the Catalogues corrected ;

and that a proper Report on the state of the Library may

be prepared for the Anniversary Meeting.

4. Dictionaries, and works of reference, or of especial rarity or

value, do not go out : they remain in the Library for use or inspec-

tion ; and Periodicals lie on the table for one week.

5. All works in the Library, or on the table of the Society,

may be seen and consulted by Members, and also by others properly

recommended, with the leave of the Librarian, or of his assistants

under his direction.

THE MUSEUM.

No article under the charge of the Curator of the Museum, or

_ of the Conservator of Scientific Instruments belonging to the Society,

shall be moved or touched but by the Curator and Conservator

respectively, or their assistants under their express direction.

Xlli.

LIST OF MEMBERS:

Alwis, A. D’

Alwis, James D’

Andree, H. D.

Andree, R., M.D.,

Armitage, G. *

Bacon, Rev. J.

Bailey, Rev. J. H. B.

Becket, T. W. N.

Hell A.) J.

Birch, J. W.

Blake, J. R.

Boake, Rev. B., p.v.

Brighouse, J., M. D.

Brito, C

Brodie, J.

Brodie, W. C.

Browne, Capt. Horace A.

Brown, R. L, M.

Bryan, W.

Campbell, A.

Capper, J.

Catto, J.

Coles, Rev. S.

Coomara Swamy, M.

Creasy, Hon’ble Sir E.

Curtayne, J. B.

Davids, pays (life member.)

Dawson, R. (life member.)

De Saram, C.

De Saram, F. J.

Dias, C.

| Dias, H.

Dickman, C.

Drieberg, J.

Dunlop, R. V.

Ferdinands, C. L.

Ferguson, A. M., (life mem-

Ferguson, W. ber.)

Ferguson, J.

soles S. W.

Fyers, A. B. Capt, R. E.

Gabriel, H. D.

Gill ye:

Gilman, H. W.

Goonetillike, W.

Gower, E.

Green, Staniforth

Grenier, 5.

Grinlinton, J. J.

Guthrie, J.

Hawkins, G. H.

Herbert, W. H.

Home, J. W.

Jayesinghe, Cornelis

Jones, Keppel

Karunaratne, C. F. W.

King; An. A.

Koch, E. L.

XIV.

Layard, C. P. Rains, S. W., (life member.)

Leechman, G. B. Richmond, §. T.

Ledward, C. H. Robertson, W. R.

Lee, Lionel F. Robinson, E.

Legge, Vincent W., Lt. R.A. |

Loos, C., M. D. Scott, Rev. J.

Lorenz, C. A. Sharpe, W. KH. T.

Ludovici, L. Skeen, W.

Skeen, W. L. H.

Mackwood, F. W. Slorach, J.

Maitland, J. Sparkes, C.S.

Marsh, J. Spitteler, A.

Martensz, J. Stephen, T. B.

Mendris, G. Stewart, C. H.

Mill, Rev. J. Steward, G.

Mitchell, J. C.

Morgan, Hon’ble R. F. W. Patharnoc:

Morgan, R. H. se

Mutukistna, H. F. Thwattes, G. H.

Nevill, Hugh.

Nicholson, Rev, J. (life mem-

Venn, J. W.

Nicholls, G. ber. Why: Ln

O’ Halloran, C. Wijaysinha, Mudaliyar L.

Ondaat} Ce Winzer, J.

ee Woodward. Lieut. R.E.

Perera, Rev. H.

Prins, J. F. Young, Alia JB).

Pre tt, W. , ;

Pics: J. M. P; Zoysa, Mudaliyar L. De

Pole, H. :

Honorary Members.

Childers, R. C. Military Medical Officers,

Holdsworth, KE, while resident in Ceylon.

N. B.—Members are requested to give notice to the Seeretary,

in writing, on their leaving Ceylon for any length of time.

XV.

“LOANSVIL [

‘NVEOTIVH.O ‘O

Vote

OL OL

EEE OG OOOO II COOO IIS) O10 20 uo User)

COPA (eee OOOO Ga 2) "7 ne) 18 ome OL

PO A gp (Olexe | SUIpUL

sere SOLIpPUNG ‘A1OUOT}RIG

‘sdurwyg “z1a ‘socdreyo AV0q

erececcesce ccc cece. posvyoand

Syooq 10j unodoe AIBIQIT

Cee moore ooooererseceecoverves SOXVT,

ce cccceccvccecccce $0.08 AA SU00

sereecoecsecess SOTIOMIISIILOAP YW

ssseerere sO 4d1000%T OAT,

crovovovosTeMor sutjutid roy pred Aq

(13

‘NAaMQC °

eee { ne a

"JO9.L100 pUNOF pus poypny

vb IL eeF

9 G @eoeceeae* Soria) °F ‘O Aq yunoo

“08 JUIIIND UO POMOT[B Jso10yUT “

Il G ES eye UNS eee OS S[BVUIMo ¢? 6¢

Qe noise cissys ese EEO. suordtiosqng 66

@eocerveecccevreevcecese $90 fT eouvIJUG (14

GC 9G TPoAaEHE CO HGSO COO IO LMC OSES OsIry 66

GG 2 Dea rene eecsceonctoriayraclaa Ty

snotacid wWorZ PoAtoood dOURTe OT

es) & es) Se) &]

Len)

—

Xen)

‘OLSL ‘YILMPT PUTS 02 ‘1OQT waqguasagy YIP WOLL JUNOIIP 8 .LauNSVALT,

XVI:

PROCEEDINGS

MEETINGS OF THE CEYLON BRANCH

THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.

Committee Meeting, November 6, 1866.

Rev. B. Boake, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Messrs. C. P. Layard, R. Dawson, W. Ferguson, G. S. Steward.

Mr. Layard informed the Committee that Mr. Barnes had offered

the Society his entomological collection, if proper means for preserving

it were in the Society’s hands ; and Mr. Layard was asked to write to

Mr. Barnes and say that the Society would accept his offer.

The Committee gave permission to Mr. Layard to borrew the

Native fibres and oils in the Society's Museum, to exhibit at the

approaching Agri-Horticultural show.

It was settled that the price of each issue of the Journal to_

members should be 2s. 6d.,—to non-members, 4s.

Committee Meeting, November 22, 1866.

R. Dawson, Esq., in the Chair.

Messrs. De Zoysa, Primrose, and Steward.

The following papers were laid on the table :—

Engineer’s Journal for June, July, August and September,

1866.

€

XVill.

Annals of Natural History, June to October.

Proceedings of Asiatic Society of Bengal for May, 1866.

Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. 34, Pt. 1, and

Parts I. and II. of Journal for 1866 ; and

A packet of papers presented by the University of Christiana.

Mr. De Zoysa promised to read a translation from the Mahawanso,

on Irrigation, at the next General Meeting, which was fixed for Decem-

ber 8, at. 2p. m.

General Meeting, December 8, 1866.

Dr. Fraser in the Chair.

Rev. B. Boake, Messrs. Dawson, Capper, Jones, Steward, Marsh,

Hawkins, Ondatjie, and Blake.

The Secretary laid upon the table the following donations from

the Smithsonian Society of Washington :—

Results of Meteorological Observations from 1854 to 1859, Vol. 2,

Part, We

Smithsonian Reports for 1861, 1862, and 1863.

Annual Reports of the Trustees of the Museum of Comparative

Mythology, 1863, and 1864.

Journal of the Portland Society of Natural History, Vol. 1, No. 1.

Annnal Report of Lieut.-Col. J. D. Graham, on the Improvement

of Harbours.

List of American Writers on recent Conchology.

Report of Lieut.-Col. J. D. Graham, U. 8. Topographical

Engineers.

Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, Vols. 13, 14.

Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5.

Proceedings of the Portland Society of Natural Histery, Vol. 1.

The following Gentlemen were elected Members of the Society :—

Messrs. J. J. Grinlinton, F. Mackwood, W. H. St. Albin,

Staniforth Green, A. R. Dawson, L. Ludovici, J. Drie=

berg, and J. Prins.

x1X.

It was resolved, that steps be taken for the better care of the

Museum which the Society had taken over from the Medical Depart-

ment : that a copy of the Journal should be sent to Mr. Justice Starks

and a certain number be sent to Mr. Maitland and Mr. O’Halloran, for

pale.

The following Office bearers were then appointed :—

President.—Dr. Fraser. Vice President.—Rev. B. Boake.

COMMITTEE :

Messrs. C. P. Layard, J. Capper, R. Dawson, J. Alwis, W. Ferguson,

Rev. H. B. Bailey, Dr. Ondaatje, Mudaliyar L. De Zoysa,

Librarian; Mr. G. Hawkins, Curator; and Mr.G. S. Steward,

Secretary.

The Secretary having stated that he might not be able to continue

to discharge the duties of Secretary throughout the ensuing year, the

Rev. B. Boake undertook to act when necessary, until the appointment

of another Secretary.

Committee Meeting, February 2, 1867.

Rev. B. Boake, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Messrs. J. D’Alwis, Steward, Hawkins, and De Zoysa.

An application for a loan of paper from the Society was consi-

dered, but not agreed to.

Tt was resolved to call a General Meeting on or about the 15th

instant,

- General Meeting, February 14, 1867.

Dr. Fraser, President, in the Chair,

Messrs. Schultze, C. A. Lorenz, Hawkins, Primrose, Blake,

De Zoysa, Skeen, F. M. Mackwood, Jas. D’Alwis, W. Fer-

guson, R. Dawson, and the Rev. Bareroft Boake.

KX,

The Rev. Barecroft Boake, who acted as Secretary, opened the

proceedings by stating that he had reason to believe that the public in

Ceylon entertained a very low opinion of the value of the labours of

the Society, and. that he would therefore read the following extract

from a letter which he had received by the last Mail from Sir Emer-

son Tennent, in order to shew the opinion entertained by one so emi-

nent in literature, respecting the value of the Journal recently pub-

lished by the Society :—

“‘ To-day, the Post brought me the No. of the Journal of the Ceylon

Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society for 1865-6, and I am indebted to

you for a rare treat. I have done what I can seldom do, I have read

italmost éwéce over, before I could layit down. I never in any one

volume, got so much genuine and new information about Ceylon. In

addition to your own excellent contributions, which I already know

so well, there is that extraordinarily clever paper of Silva Gooneratne,

Mudaliyar, on Demonology, full of observation and knowledge. Then

Mr. D’Alwis on the Origin of the Sinhalese Language, abounding

in learning and good sense. In fact every paper in the No. is

excellent, and I have heartily to thank you for remembering me ir

sending it.”

Mr. J. D’Alwis stated that he had received similar letters from

several eminent European Orientalists, and especially from the Secre-

tary of the Parent Society, expressing the interest with which the

numbers of the Ceylon Journal are received in Europe.

The following Resolutions were then adopted :-—

_ 1.-—That twelve copies of the Journal be sent to Messrs. Triibner

and Co.; and the same number to Messrs. Williams and Norgate, to

be disposed of, at 5s. each.

2.—That a sum of Thirty Pounds, or such Smaller sum as the

Treasurer may report to be available, be set apart for purchasing books

of reference on Natural History, and that Mr. Holdsworth, Mr, F. M.

Mackwood, Mr. H. Nevill, and Mr. W. Ferguson, be requested to act.

as a Sub-Committee, for laying out that sum to the best advantage.

3.—That the Secretary be requested to communicate with the

Secretaries of the Parent Society, the Bombay Branch, and the Asiatic

Society of Bengal, for the purpose of completing the imperfect sets of

the Journals of those Societies which are at present in the Library.

XX.

4.—That Mr. Hawkins be requested to communicate to Mr.

Barnes this Society’s thankful acceptance of his collection of Lepidop-

tera, and that Mr. F. M. Mackwood be requested to make arrange-

ments for its preservation.

5.—That the Secretary be requested to make a commencement

of printing the next number of the Journal, by placing the continuation

of Mr. James D’Alwis’s paper on the Origin of the Sinhalese Lan-

guage, in the Printer’s hands,

The following gentlemen were elected members of the Society :—

Lieut. Woodward, r. E., Captain D, Graham, Messrs. Becket, C.

De Saram, S. W. Foulkes, Rhys Davids, E. L. Koch, L. Wi-

jesinhe Mudaliyar, Ratnapura ; H. Dias, W.R. Robertson,

Percy H. Alven, W. J. W. Heath, and the Rev. H.

Perera.

6.—That Lieut. Woodward be requested to undertake the office

of Secretary.

Several members having expressed their regret that the custom

of holding Evening Meetings or Conversaziones had been relinquished,

Mr. Lorenz proposed that a Conversazione in connection with this

society should be held at his house at 8 o’clock on the evening of

Friday, February 22nd, which proposition was unanimously agreed to,

A suggestion having been made, that some persons were likely to

be deterred from attending the Society’s Conversaziones by an idea

that none but subjects connected with Oriental Literature were admis-

sible for discussion in them, the sense of the meeting appeared to be

that,in order to make the Evening meetings more attractive, any subject

connected with general literature, with science, or with art, should be

considered to be admissible.

Mr. Blake promised to read to the Meeting at Mr. Lorenz’s an

unpublished letter from the celebrated Robert Knox, which he had

found amongst the Archives in the Colonial Secretary’s Office.

XXil.

Evening Meeting.

An Evening meeting of the Society was held on the 22nd

February, at the residence of C. A. Lorenz, Esq., Ely House.

Mr. Boake exhibited two young Crocodiles which he had succeeded

in hatching from eggs found by him.

Mr. Blake read the letter from Robert Knox, found by him in the |

Archives of the Colonial Secretary’s Office.

The Rev. Mr. Boake called the attention of the meeting to the

quantities of resin in small globules found among the sand on the shore

at Mount Lavinia. He said that Mr. H. Nevill, who had paid some

attention to the subject, had found the same globules at Ballipitimodera,

where he had also found large lumps‘of the same substance in the

swamps and backwaters. He considered them fossil, and thought they

might throw some light on the nature of Amber found on the German

coasts of the Baltic. There was however this difference between them,

that whereas Amber swam in water, these sank.

Dr. Ondaatje said that in the paddy fields near Cotta, masses of

a resinous nature had been found near the trunks of a particular kind °

of tree buried in the swamp, but now no longer growing there.

Mr. Dawson said that in New Zealand great quantities of a similar

resin were found, and were exported as an article of commerce, being

very extensively used in England as a valuable varnish. It is called

Kauri gum. The Kauri tree is stilla valuable forest tree in New Zea-

land. He had seen a spar 104 feet long and 4 feet square at the butt,

janded at Trincomalee. But it is strange that no Kauri gum is found

where the trees are still growing, but only in parts where they formerly

grew, and now bare of them.

Mr. Wall asked Mr. Boake, if he knew of the Dum gum, exuded

from the tree of that name, and whether there was any thing in common

between that gum and the resin he had observed on the beach. Mr.

Clerihew, a well known planter, had unsuccessfully endeavour ed to

make the natives collect it as an article of commerce.

Mr. Boake had not observed any similarity between the Dim gum

and that found on the beach. He would however allude to a valuable

XX1U.

secret said to be possessed by the Buddhist priests. Every one knows

how soon insects got into books in Ceylon, unless the latter were very

carefully looked after. Now he had often observed how free the dla

books of the Buddhist temples and Viharas were from the ravages of

these insects, an immunity to be wondered at, as the thick vegetable

éla leaf seemed peculiarly lable to their attacks. ‘These books smelt

very strong of some resinous substance, and he was informed that the

priests used some preparation of resin, it might be from the Dim tree,

to preserve their dlas from the insect. He had himself tried it, but

unsuccessfully, on books.

Dr. Ondaatje said that the gum used for the purpose named by

Mr. Boake, by the priests, was well known in Ceylon. It was from

a kind of Hal tree.

A discussion took place as_to whether the resin was a normal

or a morbid production of the Dum tree. Dr. Ondaatje held the

former view, Mr. Boake, Mr. Wall, and Mr. Ferguson, the latter.

General Meeting, 31st August, 1867.

Rev. B. Boake, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Rev. J. Mill, Messrs. Skeen, De Zoysa, Heath, Ferguson, Holds-

‘worth and Lorenz : —

The Minutes of the former Meetings were read over by the

Secretary.

_ A work by Dr. Balfour on the Forest Trees of Southern India,

presented by the Government of Ceylon, was laid on the Table.

A bronze box found under the ruins of a Dagoba near Avissawella

was presented to the Society by Mr. Rhys Davids. The thanks of

the Society were ordered to be givento Mr. Davids; and it was re-

solved to enquire whether the stone covering the box could be brought,

ata moderate expense, to the Society’s Rooms.

A letter from Mr. Hawkins resigning his post as Curator was

read. The Secretary also laid his resignation before the Meeting.

XXIV.

The resignations were aceepted, and Mr. Nevill was appointed

Secretary, with Mr. Skeen as his coadjutor in Colombo. Mr. W. Boake

was requested to act as Curator.

The Rev. B. Boake, Rev. J. Mill, Mr. Holdsworth, Lieut.

Woodward, and Mudaliyar De Zoysa, were appointed a Committee on

Papers. :

It was resolved, that the Secretary should take such steps as

he should think fit, to increase the sale of the last number of the

Society’s Journal among the general public, it being understood that

an impression prevails that it is out of print.

The following Gentlemen were then elected members of the

Society :—

Rev. J. Bacon; Dr. Loos; Messrs. H. M. Christopher, W. Boake,

J. Ferguson, L. Lee, C. Both, A. Spittler, C. O’Halloran, and the

Rev. Mr. Lovekin.

Committee Meeting, October, 5th, 1867.

Rev. B. Boake, Vice President, in the Chair.

Messrs. C. P. Layard, A. Primrose, W. Boake, Mudaliyar Zoysa,

and W. Skeen.

Read a letter from the Rev. Mr. Lovekin thanking the Society

for electing him as a member, but declining the honor. The Rev.

Barcroft Boake explained that Mr. Lovekin was proposed by him,

under the erroneous impression that he had expressed a wish to

that effect.

The Rev. Barcroft Boake stated that he had requested Mr. Skeen

to call the Committee together, in order to consider the propriety of

requesting Mr. Nevill to inform Messrs. Williams and Norgate, who

have published a book under the title of the Song of Solomon by

Satyam Jayati, that no person bearing that name is at present, or

has ever been, a member of this Society, and to request those gentle-

men to take such steps as they may think fit for undeceiving the

public on that point. The Committee approved of Mr. Boake’s

suggestion.

XXV.

Resolved, that Mr. Alwis be requested to expend a sum not

exceeding £15, at his discretion, in purchasing books at the sale that

has been advertised by Mr. Gabriel, especially Wight’s two Works

on Indian Botany, Prinsep’s Indian Antiquities, and Vans Kennedy’s

Comparison of the Mythology of India and Europe.

The Secretary laid before the Committee a Work on Chronology

by Cowasjee Patell, presented to the Society by the Ceylon Govern-

ment.

Resolved, that the Secretary convey the thanks of the Society

to the Government for the donation.

Committee Meeting, November 16, 1867.

Rev. B. Boake, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Messrs. W. Boake, James D’ Alwis, Mudaliyar L, De Zoysa and

W. Skeen.

Proceedings of the last Meeting read and confirmed.

The Secretary stated that he had called the meeting principally

for the purpose of appointing a Treasurer in the place of Mr. Primrose,

who had resigned, in consequence of his removal to Kandy.

A list of 22 books was handed in, bought at Mr. Gabriel’s, in

accordance with the vote of the last meeting ; they consisted of the

following :——

ey Shy

Icones Plantarum Indiz Orientalis, 6 vols. 710 O

Day’s Malabar Fishes... dle 110 O

Wight’s Indian Botany, 2 vols. use 310 O

Vans Kennedy’s Hindu Mythology ... 015 O

The Sankhya Karika, by Iswara Krishna 0 6 0

Prinsep’s Indian Antiquities, 2 vols.... Dio. 0

The Dabistan, or School of Manners, 3 vols). 015 O

Hampson’s Origines Patricia ie 0 4 0

£15 15 O

XXVi.

£: os jed:

Brought forward ...15 15 0O

Wight and Arnott’s Prodromus Flore

Peninsulee Indiz Orientalis 50 O90

The Sankita, or the Sama Veda Bae 0 6 0.

Thorpe’s Northern Mythology, 3 vols. 012 0

Total...£16 18 0

For which the Bookseller, Mr. Gabriel, accepted £15.

Nos. 117 and 118 of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History

were laid on the Table.

Also: a letter from Henry Tottie, Esq., Acting Consul at the

General Consulate of Sweden and Norway, enclosing receipts for

a parcel of Books forwarded to the Society by the Secretary of the

Royal University of Christiana.

And a number of the Hindu Commentary.

The Committee sanctioned the payment of a Bill of £1 1s. Od.,

for binding.

The Secretary submitted a paper by Mr. Blake,—a letter from

Robert Knox, hitherto unpublished.

The Vice-President submitted a paper by Mr. Nevill, on two

new birds.

The Secretary submitted an English Metrical version of the

Sela-lihini Sandése.

Resolved, that all the papers be referred to the Committee on

Papers. ;

The Committee requested the Secretary to act as Treasurer,

until the next General Meeting.

Mr. D’ Alwis intimated his intention of inviting the Members of

the Society and their friends to an Evening Meeting at his house.

Resolved.—Thai all books belonging to the Library in the posses-

sion of Members be called in twice a year, in the months of May and

December.

XXVil.

Evening Meeting.

An Evening meeting was held at Mr. D’ Alwis’s residence,

5, Silversmith Street, on the 28th November; about 30 members and

friends were present.

Numerous interesting articles were exhibited, consisting of Coins,

Olas, specimens of Natural History, and works of Art ; and a general

conversation took place upon the topics which they gave rise to,

General Meeting, November 29, 1867.

Rev. B. Boake, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Messrs. W. Ferguson, F. Mackwood, J. R. Blake, Rev. C:

Merson, Mudaliz;ar De Zoysa, Dr. Ondaatje, and Mr. W. Skeen.

Minutes of preceding Meetings read and confirmed.

Mr. C. O'Halloran was appointed. Treasurer, in place of Mr..

Primrose, resigned.

The Vice-President and members requested that the Secretary.

should make inquiries respecting the order for supplying the Society

with the Engineer Journal, which was ordered to be discontinued,

although no such Minute appears in the Proceedings of the Society.

Dr. Ondaatje intimated lis intention of drawing up a paper upon

the comparative differences in the skulls of the African, Northern, and

Asiatic races of mankind.

The Rev. The Vice-President, the Rev. C. Merson, Messrs. F.

Mackwood, J. D’ Alwis, and the Librarian, were appointed a Committee

for the revision and re-arrangement of the Library and the Catalogue.

Resolved.—That a sum of £10 be voted towards reprinting the

numbers of the Journal which are out of print.

The following Gentlemen were then elected members of the

Society :—

The Rev. J. Scott, Rev. David De Silva, Messrs. W. H. Herbert, ,

and H. C. Hancock.

XXVIll.

Committee Meeting, May 27, 1868.

Rev. B. Boake, Vice-President, in the Chair.

The Minutes of the last Meeting were read and confirmed.

It was proposed by the Secretary, that a new seal be procured for

the Society.

A letter was read from the Secretary, Mr. Nevill, containing

suggestions about the proposed Report of the Proceedings of the Society.

, Also, from the Rev. De Zylva requesting copy of the last Journal.

Resolved.—That Mr. Nevill be communicated with about the

Museum and the Journal, and Mr. Williams, of the Medical Store

Department, respecting a Catalogue of the specimens in the Museum.

The state of the Funds not allowing the Society to pay a regular

salary for a qualified Curator, it was considered that a representation

should be made to the Government upon the subject, soliciting assist-

ance.

It was resolved, that the Rev. De Zylva be requested to furnish an

Introduction, Notes, or additional illustrative matter to the late Rev.

D. J. Gogerly’s Lecture on Buddhism, which it is proposed to print in

the forthcoming Journal :

Also, that the Rules of the Society be reprinted:

That the state of the Library be reported upon, the Secretary to

be added to the Library Sub-Committee :

That the glasses containing preserved specimens of Natural

History be filled up with fresh spirits :

That the almirahs be shifted, the position of the cases altered,

and all the arrangements made that were possible to obtain more

space and better light for the specimens in the Musezm ; as well as to

find space for the remaining specimens which have to be removed

from the Military Medical Store Department.

The following letter from Mr. C. H. De Soysa, was then read.

To the Secretary of the Royal Asiatic Society, Ceylon Branch.

DEAR SiR,

T have the pleasure of sending my old Peacock, “ carefully stuffed,”

XX1X.

as a gift to the Royal Asiatic Society, Colombo, and hope you will

have no objection in receiving it to be placed in the Museum; and also

beg to state, that I shall be very glad to send in future some other

specimens that may be useful for the place.

| I have, &e.

C. H. DE Soysa.

Resolved.—That the thanks of the Society be communicated to

Mr. De Soysa, by the Secretary.

- Committee Meeting, August 15, 1868.

Rev. B. Boake, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Messrs. C. P. Layard, W. Ferguson, J. D’ Alwis, C. O’ Halloran,

Hugh Nevill, W. Skeen, and Mudaliyar De Zoysa.

The Minutes of the last meeting were read and confirmed.

Resolved, That interesting papers be for the future published —

as they are received and decided upon by the Committee on Papers,

without waiting for other papers to form a volume :

That special Curators be appointed from time to time to act in

communication with the Curator, for the arrangement and preservation

of the different departments of the Society’s Museum :

That Mr. W. Boake’s resignation of his office of Curator be

accepted; and that the thanks of the Society be given him for his past

services :

That Mr. Skeen, Assistant Secretary, be requested to act as

Curator; Mr. Skeen having signified his willingness to accept the

office. |

The Assistant Secretary reported the proceedings he had taken

for re-arranging the Museum.

A letter was read from Captain Horace A. Broune, of Moulmain,

Burmah, requesting the co-operation of the Committee and Members

of the Society, in ascertaining whether or not there existed in Ceylon

any work in the Pali language, corresponding with the “ Manoo-Kyay-

Dharma-That,” (the Dharma Sastra of Manoo); a judicial work of

AXX.

authority amongst the Burmese, which Captain Broune believes to

have been originally brought from Ceylon. To assist in the enquiry,

he enclosed the following

Memorandum on the Laws of Menu.

« Among the literature of Burmah there exists a book entitled

‘ Manoo-Kyay-Dharma-That.’ (The Dharma Sastra of Manoo.) This

book, together with much matter that is now entirely obsolete and

useless, and much indeed that could never have been in force in Burmah,

contains many provisions which constitute the lex loci of Barmah, as

regards inheritance, marriage, adoption, divorce, &., &e.

Much of the book has been translated from the Pali, but there

are other passages which seem to have been interpolated in more modern

days; and there are others again whose origin cannot be fixed with

any degree of certainty. None of it corresponds with the ° Institutes

of Manoo,’ as translated from the Sanserit. The original ground-work

of the book was no doubt at some time brought to this country from

Ceylon ; and it will be useful and interesting to ascertain whether

there is still extant among the Pali literature of that Island any work

at all corresponding with the Burman ‘ Laws of Manoo.’ The different

copies of this book as found among the palm leaf libraries of the

Burman monks, vary considerably ; the editors and copyists having

from time to time made omissions, amplifications, and additions, to suit

their own opinions or purposes. About twenty years ago, the best

obtainable edition was printed for the use of the judicial officers of

this Province. The following is a slight sketch of the contents of the

work, which may be sufficient to identify it with the original, if that

still exists in Ceylon. The work commences with a description of

the Genesis of the present world, taken, as is stated in the work, from

the Melinda pinya. It describes the gradual creation of the solar system;

the first appearance of mankind, who at first had no fleshly appetites

no need for eating, and no distinction of sex among them, and their

gradual degeneration, till at last it was found necessary to erect a

ruler in the earth, to keep in check the evil passions of its inhabit-

XXXI.

ants. This ruler was called Maha Thawada, because he was the

Elect of many. In his days arose a learned cowherd, who from’ the

age of seven years began to decide disputes among the people. His

first twelve decisions are recorded, and relate to boundary disputes,

thefts, damages, loans, interests, &c. Having decided a difficult case,

in which the evidence was conflicting, by examining the witnesses

apart, his fame reached the ears of the King, who sent for him, and

much against his will, appointed him his Chief Justice. Six more

of his decisions are then recorded. All of these, when pronounced,

“were applauded by both men and angels. The seventh case was

about a small cucumber. Two men had gardens adjoining one

another. A cucumber plant growing in one, spread into the other

garden. ‘The owner of the latter plucked the fruit. Manoo at first

decided that he had the right to do so. At this decision angels and

men were silent. Believing from this that he must have made mis-

takes, Manoo reconsidered his judgment, and decided that the owner

of the root was also the owner of the fruit. On this both men and

angelsapplauded. In consequence of this mistake, Manoo began to

doubt his own infallibility, and obtained permission to become Pathaya.

He went to live in a cave near the Mandageenee lake, and by virtue

of his religious exercises obtained the first state of ‘Zan,’ and

ascended into heaven. There, on the boundary wall of the world, in

letters as large as elephants, he found the ‘ Dhamma That’ inseribed,

This he copied and gave to King Maha Thamada. Then follows the

Dhamma-That in twelve books, a chaos of enactments on every sub-

ject. Various and often inconsistent provisions relating to cognate

subjects, are scattered here and there throughout the book, and topies

the most incongruous are jumbled up together, forming a strange

indigesta moles of law and custom, ancient and modern, Hindoo

and Budhist. ‘The provisions relating to adoption are found in four

different parts of the work. Those on divorce in a dozen different

places in juxtaposition with some other uncongenial subjects, such as

debts or bailments, as if the book were simply a collection of placita

of different judgments given in chronological sequence, and not

XXXil.

according to the subject matter of the judgments. Many of the terms

used in the Hindoo law are adopted in the Burmese translation; thus, the

legitimate son of a couple duly married is called Auratha. The two

principal classes of adopted children Diettaka and Kiettiema ; step-

children are Dweepooppakara, Mixed up with the positive legal

enactments are many traditionary tales, illustrative of the application

of the law.”

“Tf the above slight sketch is sufficient to identify the book with

any existing Pali works in Ceylon, a most interesting point would be

ascertained.”

The state of the Journal was inquired into; and Mr. Alwis

stated about 100 pages were printed. The Assistant Secretary was

requested to edit the Journal, and to complete the issue as quickly

as possible.

The Treasurer stated that the balance in hand was £93 16s, 6d.

Committee Meeting, November 23rd, 1869.

The Secretary laid upon the Table the following books and periodi-

cals received since the last meeting,

Quaritch’s General Catalogue of Books, arranged in classes, 1868,

Hunter’s Comparative Dictionary of the Non-Aryan Languages

of India and High Asia.

Ferguson’s Tree and Serpent Worship.

The Knuckles, a Poem, descriptive of a Mountain Jee and

Coffee Cultivation in Ceylon, by W. Skeen.

Classified Catalogue of Printed Books and Tracts in Sinhalese,

by J. Murdoch and the Rev. J. Nicholson.

Journals of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society.

Transactions of the Bombay Geographical Society.

The Publications and Journals of the Royal Philological and

Ethnographical Institute for Netherlands India,

The Publications of the Royal University of Christiana.

6 Numbers of Triibner’s American and Oriental Record.

Buddha and His Doctrines, a Bibliographical Essay.

XXXill.

8 numbers of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

The Secretary reported that 140 pages of the Journal were

printed, and that it would probably be completed in a month; also,

that the numbers of the Journal which were out of print were in

course of béing reprinted. :

It was resolved, that a Special Committee meeting should be

called in a few days to consider and adopt a report of past proceedings,

It was further resolved to call an Extraordinary General Meeting

of Members on the 4th December.

A list of 10 names of gentlemen who wished to become members

of the Society was laid before the Committee.

| Kxiraordinary General Meeting, December 4, 1869.

Rt. Dawson, Esq., in the Chair.

The Rev. 8. Coles, Messrs. A. M. Ferguson, W. Ferguson,

J. Capper, C. A. Lorenz, Keppel Jones, S. Grenier, C. O’Halloran,

and W. Skeen.

Mr. Skeen, on the motion of the Chairman, read the following

report :-—

_ The last General Meeting of the Society was held on the 29th

November, 1867. Committee Meetings were subsequently held on

the 27th May and the Ist August, 1868, and on the 23rd November,

1869, when it was resolved to cali the present Extraordinary General

Meeting.

The causes of 50 long a peried elapsing between the last and the

present General Meeting are similar to those which affect kindred

Societies in Calcutta and elsewhere. Office Bearers and Members

who have leisure and ability and take an interest in promoting the

objects for which the Society was instituted, are removed from the

Island, or to distant outstations, or by the hand of death; and a

period of inaction sets in ; the mere existence of the Society being

cared for by a few residents in Colombo whose business avvcations

RXKIV.

prevent them from taking a more active or prominent position in its

affairs.

The arrival of strangers, or the return to Colombo of old mem-

bers, elicits a spirit of inquiry ; a renewed interest in the Society is

kindled, and once more its proceedings are conducted with vigour -

papers of value are contributed ; the journal is issued ; and a fresh

period of prosperity is entered upon.

That such an interest exists at the present moment is manifest

py the number of gentlemen who have signified their wish to become

members of the Society, and whose names will be submitted for ballot

at the present Meeting. It may fairly be presumed that some amongst

the number will be found both able and willing to contribute papers

for publication in the Journal; and by this means sustain the reputa-

tion which the Society has won amongst the leading literati both in .

England and the continent of Europe. Now, more than ever before,

Oriental scholars in the western world are investigating the languages,

the literature, the religions, and the antiquities of India in general, and

Ceylon-in particular. Professor Max Miller, Dr. Rost, and Mr. R.

C. Childers, one of our member's resident in England, are engiged in

translating ancient Pali works into English, while other eminent

Orientalists are similarly occupied elsewhere; and the result is,

that not only the learned few, but the unlearned many, are taking a

most keen interest in all that concerns the religion and philosophy of

Gautama Buddha—the prevalent native faith of the Sinhalese, with

the exception of those who inhabit the northern parts of the Island.

The forthcoming Number of the Society’s Journal will be found

to contain valuable contributions bearing on these subjects. An cla-

borate and exhaustive essay by James De Alwis, deals with the ques-

tion of the Origin of the Sinhalese language; on Buddhism the ‘So-

ciety will find the last matured deliverances of their late lamented

President, the Rev. D. J. Gogerly, with an Introduction by the Rev.

J. Seott, and copious illustrations from the original Pali by the Rev.

David de Silva:—there is, besides, a contribution by the Rev. S. Coles,

which it is believed will throw 4 new and most unexpected light upon

XKXXV.

the morality of Buddhism as propounded by Buddha himself. Papers

by the Secretary on Ornithology and Conchology; and an hitherto

unpublished letter by Robert Knox, written during his captivity in

Kandy, will, with the proceedings of the Society since the issue of its _

last journal, complete a volume as interesting and important in its

contents as any of its predecessors.

A pleasing proof of the estimation in which this Society is held

in Europe is afforded by the following letter which accompanied a set

of the journals to which it alludes:—

THE Hague, February, 1868.

The Royal Philological and Ethnographical Institute for Nether-

Jands India, highly appreciating the valuable labours of your Society,

and taking a deep interest in its scientific works, would consider it a

privilege to entertain the same cordial relations,—especially by the

interchange of publications,—as has been for some length of time

established between the Institute and other scientific associations,

among the number of which also the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal

ranges. :

Our Board take the liberty of submitting this proposal to your

consideration, and will feel much gratified if, by acceding to it, your

Society will please to order the transmission of its periodicals or other

works to this Institution.

In anticipation of a favorable answer, the Board beg your Society

to accept of the last series of our Journal.

We remain most respectfnlly.

Your obedient Servants,

. P. BLEEKER, President.

J. MILLARD, Secretary.

To the Ceylon branch of the Royal Asiatic Society.

A set of the Society’s Journals, as faras can be completed, will

be forwarded to the Royal Philological and Ethnographical Institute

for Netherlands India, as well as to the Royal University of Chris-

tiana, from whom a similar communication, and a variety of valuable

publications have been received.

The attention of members is particularly directed to a communi-

cation from Captain Horace Broune of Maulmein, which will be found

RRO Vite

printed in the Journal, on the supposed Sinhalese origin of a Bur-

mese work, called the “Laws of Manu.” Communications of this

kind are very desirable, inasmuch as they form subjects of inquiry

and discussion, which are not only interesting in themselves, but lead

to many and varied points that would- otherwise elude the utmost

vigilance of an individual.

Since the last General Meeting several important steps have been

made towards a re-arrangement of the Museum. ‘The Cabinets have

been grouped, and numerous valuable specimens that, for want of

available space, had been long lying uncared for in the Military Medi-

cal Stores, have, through the exertions of the late Curator and the

Assistant Seeretary, been transferred to and located in the Society’s

rooms, which however they now most inconveniently crowd.

it has been decided to solicit assistance to the Curator from

members who may be willing to classify and arrange any branch of

the varied collections in which they may take peculiar interest, as it

has been found impossible for any merely honorary curator to give

the time and trouble required to superintend directly, every branch.

In accordance with this plan Mr. Nevill, the Secretary, has under-

taken to arrange the shells, and probably other members will volunteer

their services. The following additions have been made to the Museum

since the last General Meeting.

In Natural history :-—

A Peacock, presented by C. Soyza, Esq.

Specimens of the Palmeat, (Paradoxurus typus.)

The Indian Genette (Viverricula Malaccensis).

The Flying Fox, (Péerops Edwardsii,) and a large river Eel,

caught in the Mahawellaganga; presented by A. Whyte, Esq., of

Kandy: also a nearly full grown specimen of an Otter, caught on the

banks of the Colombo Lake, presented by W. Skeen, Esq.

In aniiquities:—two ancient swords dug up on the Leangawella,

Estate; presented by A. Waddington, Esq., of Happootella.

The specimens of birds and mammals are somewhat injured by

ett

XXXVI.

time and damp, and are all mounted in the grotesquely distorted man-

ner which characterized the taxidermy of former times. This collec-

tion is also not a local one, containing cockatoos, terriers, &c., and it

is highly desirable that a fresh one should be formed, strietly confined.

for the present, to our indigenous Fauna; while the difficulty of pre-

serving mounted specimens proves the desirability of retaining sets of

each species of the rarer specimens, in what is called the skin, in which

state they are also far more readily available for scientific examination.

The shells of the Society will shortly be arranged on tables under

glass, but in the first instance only those that are indisputably native

will be so classified; a member has undertaken to name these, and con-

tributions even of the commonest species will be most welcome.

The reptiles ean only be considered the commencement of a col-

lection, and as the Society bas purchased numerous glass jars for their

reception, it is believed they will quickly be increased by donations

from members, until they form a complete local collection.

The addition of fresh spirit has greatly improved the appearance

of the fishes and reptiles at present received.

Specimens of local minerals are numerous, but much in want of

systematic arrangement; those presented by Dr. Gygax are especially

interesting.

It is to be wished some members would assist in the formation of

collections of coins and insects, in both ef which they would probably

find many persons willing to aid the Society.

The Library has been enriched by the addition of 87 volumes,

Journals and numbers of publications. Of these 40 have been pur-

chases made by order of the Committee, and 47 are donations from the

Secretary of State for India, the Government of Ceylon, the Uni-

versity of Christiana, the Royal Philological and Ethnographieal

Institute for Netherlands India, the Smithsonian Institution of the

United States of America, the Royal Asiatie Society, the Bengal

and Bombay Branches, the Bombay Geographical Society, and private

individuals. -

Among the most important of these may be specially mentioned,

XXXVI.

Ferguson’s valuable illustrated volume on the Tree and Serpent

Worship of India, presented by the Secretary of State for India ;

and Hunter’s Comparative Dictionary of the Non-Aryan Languages

of India and High Asia, presented by the Author,

The state of the buildings occupied as the Society’s rooms is

such as to justify apprehensions as to the safety of the roof, a portion

of which is much damaged.

The Treasurer’s statement shews a balance of £99 19s. 7d. in

hand ; there is however a considerable amount of subscriptions in

arrear, which it is exceedingly desirable members should pay in

without delay, inasmuch as a large sum will be required for reprint-

ing back numbers ofthe Society’s Journal, some of which are quite out

of print, and of others only a few copies still remain on hand. Ar-

rangements for reprinting have already been made, and it is hoped

that before the close of another year complete sets will be ready for

delivery to all who desire to possess them.

On the motion of C. A. Lorenz, Esq., seconded by J. Capper,

Hsq., the Report was adopted, ard ordered to be printed.

The following list of names of gentlemen desirous of member-

ship was then read ; and each having heen duly proposed and seconded,

they were then ballotted for and elected : —

The Hon. T. B. Stephen, Messrs. H. W. Gillman, C. Dickman,

Captain Horace A. Broune, E. Robinson, Dr. Brighouse, W. C.

Brodie, J. B. Curtayne, R. L. M. Brown, C. Tatham, R. H. Morgan,

Hi. Gower, J. W. Venn, H. D. Gabriel, J. Maitland, C. H. Ledward,

T. Gill, J. W. Home, A Whyte, J. Slorach, W. Bryan, Geo. Nicholls,

Jas. Brodie, H. D. Andree, A. J. Bell, W. L. H. Skeen, J. Guthrie,

C. Brito, A Campbell, Rev. S. Coles, G. A. L. Bowling, G.

Armitage,

It was then resolved, that a Deputation from the Society should

wait upon His Excellency the Governor to solicit aid from the

Public Funds for the extension of the Society’s Rooms, which had

XERIX,

been promised during the alministration of Sir Chatles MacCarthy :

and for the payment of a permanent Secretary.

The Rev. S. Coles then read a paper on Buddhism, containing a

summary of, and extracts from the Tun Pittakas, which regulates.

the conduct of the priesthood.

The paper was referred to the Committee on Papers.

Special General Meeting, March 12, 1870.

C. P. Layard, Esq,, in the Chair.

Messrs. R. Dawson, W. C. Brodie, J. Capper, Keppel Jones,

W. Bryan, S. Grenier, Dr. Koch, and W. Skeen.

The Secretary laid upon the Table the first part of the Journal

for 1866—70; and presented the Society with a specimen of the

sea-snake Hydrophis sublevis of Gray, upwards of six feet long, which

had been caught about twelve miles off Colombo.

The following gentlemen were then elected members of the

Society :—

Capt. A. B. I’yers, R. E., Lieut. Vincent W. Legge, R. A., Messrs.

J.D. Young, W. E. T. Sharpe, As. A. King, C. S. Sparkes, and

R, Andree.

_ The Meeting then proceeded to elect Office Bearers for the ensu-

ing year. The following Gentlemen were clected : —

President.

Carr. A. B. Fyers, R. E.,

Vice-Presidents.

Rev. B. Boaxs, pv. p. | C. P. Layarp, Esq.

Committee.

Kerpret Jones, Esq.

C. L. M. Brown, Esq.

W,. SkEEN, Esq.

W. Bryan, Esq.

Dr. Kocu..

C. O'HaLporan, Esq.

T. B. Srerien, Esq.

R. Dawson, Esq.

Rzuv. J. Scort,

J. Auwis, Esq.

J. Carrer, Esq.

xl.

R. V. Duntor, Esq.— Treasurer.

Lieut. Vincent W, LEGGE

Lionet F. Leer, Esq.

Moupatiyar L. Dr Zoyza,—Librarian.

; \ Joint Secretaries.

ft was then resolved, that the Committee be empowered to

obtain the services of & competent Taxidermist :

That a vote of thanks be passed to the retiring Office Bearers for

their past services; and

That copies of the Journal be sent to the local Presses:

A Summary of the Contents of the First Book in the Buddhist

Canon called the Pérajika Book.—By the Rev. S, CouEs.

THE subjects of the following paper are extracted from a

portion of the Canonical Books of Buddhism, which, as far as

we know, has not generally been unfolded to Oriental scholars

and philologists. It is well known to all whose investigations

have been carried on in this direction, that the Canonical

Books of the Buddhist system have a three fold-division, and are

designated the Tun Pitakas, or The three Caskets. The first

of these is called the Winiya Pitaka, from the root “MM” “to

guide,” with its intensive prefix 7,” and signifies, propriety,

good conduct, or discipline; and it is in this latter sense

especially that this word is used as a distinguishing epithet to

the first five books of the Buddhist Scriptures, which entirely

belong to the Priesthood, and contain injunctions and regula-

tions relative to their moral and official course of actions. And

inasmuch as the contents of these books afford us information

on Buddhism as it practically existed in the time of its founder,

we are bound to examine them carefully and impartially, to see

whether the theories advanced in the Sutta Pitaka, the por-

tion delivered to the laity, and which contains the doctrines of

Buddha, are there maintained. It is well known that as to its

doctrines, Buddhism is asystem of Atheism, since, according to

its tenets, there is no Creator nor Preserver of the Universe;

no one to reward the virtuous or punish the ill-doer; but that

every animal is ever serving under one master—“ Kamma,” the

fruit of actions; and that every state which he arrives at is de-

termined by his previous deeds. Buddha never rewards nor

punishes. He was only the Teacher, and declared that

i U

eae BUDDHISM.

obedience to his commands would, ipso facto, bring a reward

superior to that of all other religiens.

With regard to these moral precepts it must also be borne

in mind, that they are not exclusively Gotamo Buddha’s; in

fact it may be doubted whether he even laid claim to originat-

ing any one of them. He himself declared that his Dhamma

(doctrine) was like that of the former Buddha’s; which evidently

means that he learnt it from other religious teachers of his

time, especially the Brahmans; anda very superficial glance

at the Vedas and other books of the early Brahmans will con-

vince any one that Gotamo, in addition to his inward monitor,

that judge of right and wrong, had ample materials around

him, to mould up into a religion, so far resembling Brahmanism

as not to make it unnecessarily distasteful to the populace, and

at the same time so different, that he might hope to break the

yoke of the Brahman priests, which was galling to the people,

but more especially to the kings. It would be interesting to

note how far the parallelism extends in the case of North

Indian kings favouring Buddhism in order to rid themselves

from the pretension of the Brahmans, and that of the monarchs

of Western Europe countenancing the Reformation in the

fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, so that they might deliver

themselves from the yoke of Rome; but we must haste on to

the consideration of the matter now before us, and remind our

readers that as regards his Dhamma,—the doctrines revealed in

the Sutta Pitaka,— Buddha claimed no authority except that of a

kind of temporary omniscience, possessed by him only at such

times as he wished, by means of which he declared the four

paths of virtue, with their fruition, and the summum bonum,

Niwan. i

But when we descend to the Winiya Pitaka, Buddha

appears to us in a new light. He is there the Primate and

BUDDHISM: 153

Chief Shepherd of the Buddhist Church—the master of his ser-

vants the Bhikkhus (priests) and the Father of his clerical

family. He claims here the power not only to legislate but

also to execute, and was the judge to give sentence when any

one of his laws had been violated. The remarkable feature in

these laws however is, Gotamo never legislated for the Bhik-

khus until some one of them had committed an act in direct

opposition to the general tenour of the religion.

The tame of the first book in this division is the Péra-

jika Book, from the root “ji” to conquer; with two prefixes,

“para” and “a,” the former meaning other, foreign, &c., and

the other a particle of negation. Consequently, the meaning

of the whole is overcome or defeated. ‘There are four Pard-

jikas or defeats mentioned in the book called Methuna Dham-

ma Paraéjik4, Adinna Dana Pardjik4, Manussa Wiggaha Paré-

jika, and Uttari Manussa Dhamma P4rd4jika, and the meaning

of each of the several terms is :—The cohabiting Parajika;

the taking of things not given Pérdjik4; the man-tormenting

Pérajik4; and the assumption of superhuman powers Parajika ;

or, more briefly, cohabitation, theft, murder, and the unwar-

ranted assumption of superhuman powers and faculties.

The nature of a Parajika fault is thus defined by Buddha ;

QUSROSGSIO BsWamE0 PNAVGQDs ODS wS6o QoI

HAM SIA. VOADY BAD QOQSI0 DEDs SHowdTao

SPRVOOSHAWIS) Pus Graco ae COO aod ana

60023. Seyyathapi nama sisachchinno abhabbo tena sariran

bandhanena jiwitun Ewamewa Bhikkhu methunan Dhamman

patisewitwé assamano hoti asakya puttiyo tena wuchchati para-

jika hott.

«*As one who has been decapitated is unable to live by

tying the head to that body, so a Bhikkhu who has been

guilty of the Methuna Dhamma fault becomes excommunicate

154 BUDDHISM.

and anon Sakyason. On this account he % said to become

euilty of a Pardjika fault.”

Again; onaxd8sn® sQHa@e«te ASIVS90 GYaDD

SMADA MEMmoG YBOOGOOD GmQ qvecdomnE6Mo Ps

QOD BIE) GEE. QOSB WAI PEBM FesO@asds

ON CHAS YHHOG) ANMQSIODS maAaF avons. Sey~

yathaépi nama pandupaléso bandhana pamutto abhabbo hari-

tattaya. Ewamewa Bhikkhu Padanwa Padarahan atireka

Padanw4é adinnan theyya sankhdtan Adiyitw4 assamano hott

asakya puttiyo. Tena wuchchati Pardjika hoti.

** Asin any way when a yellow leaf has fallen from its:

stem it cannot be again made green, so any Bhikkhu with a

dishonest purpose having taken a thing not given, to the value

of a Pada, its equivalent, or more than a Pada, becomes excom-

municate and a non Sakya son. On this account he is said to,

become guilty of a Pérdjika fault.”

Again; @66xO8 GALE QVaBmE eSaSeasasdena

GN YOOOD Bag cOdDO Osage Samm TIdn@Oo

DAHASWOI Pies DOSHOMD SWMBUMAacs ONmMm_ooOs3

HIST mo Os. Seyyathépi puthusila wedhé bhinn4 appati-

sandhika hoti. Ewamewa Bhikkhu sanchichchha manussa wig-

gahan jiwité woropetwa assamano hoti asakya puttiyo. Tena

wuchchati Parajika hoti. 3

** As in any way a perforated and broken rock cannot be

re-united, so any Bhikkhu with the purpose of tormenting man

having taken away life, becomes excommunicate and a non

Sakya son. On this account he is said to become guilty of a

Parajika fault.”

Athly ; @eaxd08en9 MNO@ sD anand PHAGQA

GNIS EKa BDoOO GaQnBass geHoomam ees

SH)0 FHMNo EMWUNCOWQwWABsANGo SEcSWDo epesOasn

ON eome YGntioac ome gdOR mndFamoaws.

BUDDHISM. 155

Seyyath4pindma thaélamatthakachchinno abhabbo puna wirul-

hiya. Ewamewa Bhikkhu pdpichchho ichchapakato asantan

abhutan uttari manussa Dhamman ullapitwa assamano_ hoti

asakyaputtiyo. Tena wuchchati Pérdjika hoti.

** As in any way when the head of the Palmyra has been

cut off it cannot be raised to the same place, 2. e., re-united,

so a Bhikkhu with a sinful aud premeditated desire having

declared that he possesses the Uttari Manussa Dhamma (Su-

perhuman powers) which does neither belong to him nor

exists (as far as he is conerned), becomes excommunicate and a

non Sakyason. Onthis account he is said to become guilty

of a Pardjika fault.”

From the above extracts it is evident that a Parajika is

an irremediable breach of discipline, and its meaning is that any

Bhikkhu who has thus become guilty can never in this life become

an Upasampada (superior) priest. Beside the Pardjikas there

are lesser faults, the nature of which is determined by various

causes, as willsubsequently appear. These are Sanghddisesa,

Thullachchaya, and the Dukkata faults, and can all be easily

remedied, the two latter especially, as after a fault of this kind

has been committed, the culprit has only to confess to his

Upajjha (ordaining priest) without much delay, and is then

exempted from all evil consequences; but the Sanghddisesa

being more serious (about half of a Pardjiké) a course of

penance has to be submitted to, and confession without delay

made to 25 superior Bhikkhus. The nature and extent of

these penances are not defined in the first book of the Winiya

Pitakas, but in others, to which reference will be made when

those books are brought under consideration. Suffice it to say,

that they can possibly have no deterring effect on crime, but

rather form loopholes through which most enormous and

disgusting misdeeds may be committed, and yet the perpetra-

146 BUDDHISM.

tor may remain not only as a Buddhist, but a Bhikkhu; and

what is more remarkable is, that crimes the most abominable

were judged to be less heinous than others for which some

possible excuse might have been pleaded on account of natural

desires and the force of temptation.

But we must leave it to all intelligent readers to draw

their own conclusions from premises which we will advance, by

giving a succinct and faithful account of the contents of the

Paérajika book.

This book opens with an account of Gotamo Buddha’s

disputation with Weranja Brahman, who accused the former

of being an uncivil, destitute, unpractical, scoffing, domineer-

ing ascetic, and barren person. Buddha accepted all these

epithets, but dexterously changed their signification so as to de-

clare by them the nature of his religion, and explained how he

arrived at the Buddhahood. The Brahman became a convert,

and requested Bhagawa, the blessed one, (the title of Buddha

used almost exclusively in this portion of the Buddhist Scrip-

tures) to come to his neighbourhood and pass the Was (rainy)

season there. Bhagawa assented and Weranja Brahman departed.

Anaccount is then given of the manner in which the

Great Mogeallano, one of the especial favourite Bhikkhus,

desired to overturn the surface of the earth, that he might pro-

vide the Bhikkhus with the edible crust of honey to be found

beneath. Bhagawa objected to this, saying, “It will disturb

the animal creation if such be done.” |

Another favourite Bhikkhu, Sariputto, asked Bhagawa,

why it was that the Brahma chariya, (state of celibacy,) enforced

by some previous Buddhas, lasted for only a short time; and

why that of others was of long duration. Bhagawa answered,

that the first mentioned Buddhas were easily discouraged, and

enunciated their Brahma chariya before the proper time; and

BUDDHISM. 157

this caused a speedy declension; the others were however more

wary and successful.

At the conclusion of the Was season, Bhagaw4 informed

Weranja of his intention to depart, and went to various cities

and provinces. It is difficult to surmise as to what could have

been the purpose of inserting the above mentioned matters in

_ the commencement of the book, as they appear to have no con-

nection with the name nor general subjects therein contained.

I have thought it possible, that Bhagawé4, if the order of the

subjects may be ascribed to him, from the brief mention of

former Buddhas having promulgated, some at the proper time

and some prematurely, their laws and discipline, wished to

intimate that his system could not be declared till the fit

opportunity had arrived. |

We next come to the subject matter of the book, the four

Pardjikas; and first im order is the Methuna Dhamma Paré4-

jiké. This commences with an interesting story of Sudinna,

the only son of a wealthy Chetty who became a Bhikkhu, re-

linquishing his possessions, and forsaking his wife before she

had any child. Shortly after he was very much persuaded by

his relatives to come and dwell with them again as a layman; .

but being invincible on this matter, they requested that he

would only cohabit with his former wife, so as to preserve the

family name and possessions from extinction. After much

persuasion, he thus far consented, and in due time a child was

born; but the whole course of nature was disturbed at the deed,

and the gods of the upper and lower worlds were greatly moved.

Sudinna was called into the presence of Bhagawa, and severely

reprimanded, but he endeavoured to excuse himself because the

injunction prohibiting cohabitation with women had not yet

been delivered. Bhagawa then reminded him that there was

the Dhamma in existence condemning evil desire, hatred, and

158 BUDDHISM.

ignorance, the three-fold sources of all evil; and issued his First

Péra4jik4é injunction, declaring that if any Bhikkhu should

cohabit with a woman, he became guilty of a Parajika and

excommunicate. It must be remembered that Sudinna was

exempt from this, as his fault was committed before the injunc-

tion was given. The Bhikkhus however were not slow in dis-

covering a way of evading this enactment, and one of them in

Wesali, (probably Oude,) cohabited with a female monkey, and

afterwards excused himself by saying that the previous injunc-

tion was given with regard to women and not beasts. Bhaga-

wa then declared that he henceforth prohibited cohabitation

with beasts.

One would be inclined to think that the matter would have

been finally settled here; but no, Bhikkhus disrobed them-

selves for the nonce, and as laymen satisfied their brutish appe-

tites. Menwithmen,men withdemons, with neuters, with Her-

maphrodites are reported to have done those things which it is

a shame even to speak of. Hvery possible plan was frequently

employed to evade the enactment, and yet satisfy the more than

brutish desires; and when their ingenuity was exhausted with

regard to the living, the Bhikkhus turned to the dead, in order

apparently to prove to their master that howsoever his enact-

ments might abound, their sins could still keep ahead, and they

could discover loopholes of escape. Ifthe corpse was free from

decay the fault was a Pardjika, but if not it was only a Thul-

lachchaya or Dukkata. Several instances of the latter are

enumerated as having been committed with skeletons, skulls,

&c.,* but these were declared to be only minor faults and easily |

* Tena khopana samayena afifiataro Bhikkhu siwathikap gantwa

ye bhuyyena khayitan sarirayn passitwa tasmin Methunan Dhamman

patisewi. Tassa kukkuchchan ahosi. Anapatti Bhikkhu Pérdjikassa.

A’patti thullachchayassati.

Tenakhopana samayena aiifataro Bhikkhu siwatikan gantwé

chhinna sisay passitwa wattakate mukhe achchupatta angaj jatan pawesi.

BUDDHISM. 159

atoned for, Very many instances are givenof the Bhikkhus

submitting to a little gentle violence, and afterwards declaring

to Bhagawa that there was no volition on their part. He de-

clared that then there was no culpability.

The account of the four Parajikas does not occupy more than

half of the book of that name, the remainder being devoted chiefly

to details, with the greatest minutia, of sins of self-defilement,

onanism, and its kindred abominations; because in the eyes of

the Great Teacher, the pure and sanctified Bhagawa, they

were less heinous than cohabiting with one’s former wife, or

stealing an article to the value of a pada.

There are many reasons for believing that this book con-

tains, on the whole, a true account of events which actually did

take place. There are very few instances of oriental exagge-

ration, as found in the Commentaries, to be met with here.

Bhagawa has generally only 500 Bhikkhus with him, who live

and act in amanner which we know exists in India. The

locality in which the various deeds were done is very limited,

and the crimes mentioned are in many cases those which are

peculiar to such semi-civilized countries.

‘The Second Parajika, called Adinna dana Pérdjika relates

to stealing; and here too the enactment was preceded by a

crime which compelled Bhagawé to declare that henceforth

such deeds should be denominated Pardjik4 faults. The crime

mentioned was as follows: —A Bhikkhu, the Venerable Dhaniyo,

was much troubled by grass women and collectors of firewood,

Tassa kukkuchchay ahosi. Anapatti Bhikkhu Pérdjikassa. A’patti

DukkhatassAti.

Yenakhopana samayena afifiataro Bhikkhu afifiatarassa ittiya

patibaddha chitto hoti. Sa kélakaté. Susdne chhaddité atthikani

wippakitta honti, Athakkho so Bhikkhu siwatikan gantwé attikdni

saykadditwa nimittena angajatan patipdjesi. Tassa kukkuchchan

ahosi, Andpatti Bhikkhu Parajikassa, A’pdtti Duhkhatassati.

160 BUDDHISM.

who several times destroyed his hut and made off with the

materials, while he was absent begging. To prevent the re-

currence of this, he resolved to make use of his knowledge as a

potter, he being of that caste, and formerly very expert in his

profession, and erect a house, like the tub of Diogenes, similar

to a water vessel, of only one piece, from clay burnt hard. His

efforts were crowned with complete success, the house was

completed, was of a brick red colour, and sounded like a bell

when struck; but the poor man had scarcely finished his work

and gone off to collect alms, when Bhagawaé saw the strange

structure and enquired whose it was. Being informed that it

was built by the Venerable Dhaniyo,one of his Bhikkhus, he

exclaimed “Go, O Bhikkhus! and smash it.”

Shortly after the owner returned, and his chagrin may be

more easily imagined than described. Bhagawdé severely cen-

sured him, because by such actions damage would be done to

insects, worms, &c. Dhaniyo then had recourse to an old friend,

a conservator of the royal forests, and requested him to supply

him with timber suitable for a wooden house. The keeper

declared his inability to give without permission from the king.

Dhaniyo said, “I have permission,” and took some timber which

was near a certain city. The timber was missed, and the con-

servator called to account for it. On his way to trial he was

met by the Venerable Dhaniyo, who promised to haste to the

king, and explain the matter; otherwise the conservator might

lose his life. He accordingly went and reminded the sovereign

of Magadha Seniyo Bimbi Saro, that when he was crowned, he

promised to all ecclesiastics “firewood, grass and water.”

The king acknowledged this, but replied that by the promise

of firewood, timber was not included, and severely reprimanded

the Bhikkhu for his dishonesty. People in general took up the

matter, and the whole company of Bhikkhus was charged with

BUDDHISM. 161

pilfering and theft. Bhagawé speedily collected his Bhikkhus,

censured Dhaniyo, and declared, that if any Bhikkhu with a

dishonest purpose shall take a thing not given, he shall become

guilty of a Pardjika and excommunicate. Several hundreds of

instances are then given of the Bhikkhus evading or endea-

vouring to evade Bhagawa’s enactments, by taking goods from

places which he had not then specified, or of such a value as

not to come within the definition of the Parajikaé fault. Thus

when Bhagaw4 had prohibited taking things in the jungle, the

Bhikkhus took from the villages, and when that had been pro-

hibited, they said the command applied only to things on the

eround, and took those which were ona table or any other

article of furniture; things suspended in the air, in the water,

&e. The Pada is mentioned as the value necessary to make

the fault a Pardjiké. This was a coin of gold or silver equal

to five masas, the latter weighing about 44 grains each.

There are three degrees of guilt mentioned as connected

with stealing any article:—(1) Approaching, examining and

feeling with a dishonest purpose the property of another is a

Dukkata fault; one only requiring confession to a superior

Bhikkhu.

(2.) Shaking the article is a Thullachchaya fault, only

a little greater, and atoned for by confession.

(3.) Removing it from its place is a Parajika.

We now proceed to give a brief summary of the Third

Parajiké, called Manussa Wiggaha Pardjika, which relates to

murder. This too opens with the story of Migalandaka

Bhikkhu, who, for the purpose of appropriating to himself

the bowl and robes of the Bhikkhus, went about sword in

hand and promised any one who wished speedy deliverance

from this evil world and admission into a better, to fulfil their

desire by the weapon he carried about with him. Itseems that

162 BUDDHISM.

many believed his word, for he succeeded in disposing of the

lives of 60 Bhikkhus before Bhagaw4 returned from a season

of meditation in the wilderness. On hisarrival, Buddha in a

long discourse descanted on the moral benefits to be derived

from slow and systematic breathing, and at its close severely

reprimanded Migalandaka for his wholesale murders, and de-

clared, that if any Bhikkhu wittingly takeaway the life of a

man, or take a weapon in his hand for that purpose, he becomes

guilty of a Parajika. Afterwards some Bhikkhus who had become

attached to the wite of a sick devotee, assured him that death

was far preferable to life, as by its means he would enter on a

state far superior to any he could possibly anticipate here. He

listened to their advice, refused food and medicine, and died.

His widow however spread an ill-report ofthe Bhikkhus, and

Bhagawa declared, that if any Bhikkhu henceforth persuade a

man to die, he shall be guilty of a Parajika fault and excommu-

nicate.

A vast number of instancesare then given of Bhikkhus

taking away life, yet so as to evade previous prohibitions, and

in many cases they were successful. Thus, a Bhikkhu ordered

a Bhikkhu, saying, take away the life of such anone. “This is

a Dukkata fault. He, mistaking his victim, murders another

man. ‘The originator is not guilty, but to the perpetrator there

is a Pardajika.

Again, A commands B to tell C to tell D to tell E to

take away the life of F. This is a Dukkata fault. EZ: consents;

this isa Dukkata. E kills F; the originator is not guilty;

but to Dand E there is a Parajika.

These two instances, extracted from a ane number, are

quite sufficient to enable us to estimate the standard of morals

which Bhagaw4 established for the Bhikkhus, and which they

very frequently sought to evade.

BUDDHISM. 163

| The fourth Paérajika, is called Uttari Manussa Dhamma

Pardjika, or the false assumption of the powers of Rahatship.

Here too we have a story of Bhikkhus finding it difficult

to obtain a sufficiency by alms-asking, except they could lay

claim to supernatural powers; and so they agreed that they

should say of each other that such an one was arrived at the

lst Jhana,* another at the 2nd, another at the 3rd, and another

at the 4th. Such an one was come to Sota, another to Saka-

dajama, another to Anagami, and another was a Rahat; the

several states approaching Niwan. This plan perfectly suc-

ceeded, and the people brought many offerings; but Bhagawa

when he had called them and made inquiries, declared, that if

any Bhikkhu for the sake of gain shall henceforth thus act, he

will become guilty of a Parajika. It is unnecessary to adduce

instances of the ingenuity of the Bhikkhus endeavouring to

transeress this command; they are quite equal in number to

those enumerated in relation to the first three Parajikas.

I proceed to give a translation of a portion of the Pardjiké

book. I have in this translation given as literal a rendering

as possible, not because it is the best form, but because it gives

the mode of thought and expression found in the Pali language.

This will be appreciated by the philologist, as it will enable

him to make comparisons between this and other languages, and

the tyro in Pali will be much assisted in understanding the

composition of sentences in this language.

* A state of superior knowledge, of which states there are four.

See ante, p. 94, et seq.

164 BUDDHISM.

Translation of the Pardjika Book.

W orSHIP to him (who is) the Blessed, the Sanctified, the

True, the Omniscient Buddha.

At that time Buddha the Blessed one dwelt in Weranja,

at Naleru, near the root of the Margosa tree, with about 500 of

the assembly of the Excellent Bhikkhus (1). Weranja Brah-

man heard that the’ Religionist, the truly blessed Gotamo, the

son of Sakya (2), of the Sakya family, having become a reli-

gious ascetic, lives at Naleru in Weranja, at the root of the

Margosa tree, with about 500 of the assembly of the Excellent

Bhikkhus. There is such a good and high report (concerning)

Gotamo, the Blessed. And so this Blessed one (is a) Saint, a

True one, and Omniscient, Proficient in Wisdom, and arrived

at a virtuous disposition. He who knows the world, who is the

subduing charioteer of men, the Teacher of gods and men is

Buddha, the Blessed one. He having obtained his own great

wisdom, declares this world, the Divine, the Mara(3), the Brah-

man, the Samana Brahman, the Sentient, the Regal and Human

(worlds). He preaches Dhamma (4), and declares the Brah-

machariya (5 ), which is perfect as regards time and quality,

meaning and grammar.

(1). Bhikkhu—A person who liveson fragments; a Buddhist

Priest.

(2.) Sakya—The reigning race at that time in India; Buddha

was of this race.

(3.) Mara—The Personification of death. The great opponent

of Buddha. !

(4.) Dhamma— Doctrine, also order, thought, &c.

(5.) Brahmachariya —Celibacy, chastity, continence.

BUDDHISM. 165

Very well! Such a form has the appearance of Rahatship.

Then Weranja Brahmin, Was Bagaw& in any place (1)

came to that place; and having arrived and accosted (him) —

concluded with Bhagawa, a complimentary conversation, sat

down on one side. Weranja Brahman, who was seated on one

side, said this to Bhagawaé :—It has been heard by me, O vir-

tuous Gotamo, that the Samana Gotamo neither salutes reve-

rently nor stands up (before), nor invites to a seat, decayed,

reverend, aged, ancient Brahmans. So it is, O virtuous

Gotamo, that the virtuous Gotamo neither salutes reverently

nor stands up (before) nor invites to a seat Brahmans who are

decayed, reverend, ancient, arrived at old age. This is not

proper, O virtuous Gotamo that it should be so.

I do not perceive, O Brahman, either in the Divine Mara

Brahman, Samana Brahman, Sentient, Regal or Human worlds,

beings who may either be worshipped, or stood up before, or

invited to a seat by me. O Brahman, if Tathagato (2) were

either to worship, or stand up before, or offer a seat to any one,

his head would fall off.

The illustrious Gotamo is uncivil.—_O Brahman, there is

a cause, and by that cause it may well be said, that the illus-

trious Gotamo is uncivil. O Brahman, these, viz., taste, the

desire for form, sound, smell, taste, and feeling, are separate

from Tathégato, and like the palmyra cut up at the root, which

has no further existence nor another birth. This is the rule,

O Brahman, and by that rule it may well be said, that the

Samano Gotamo is uncivil; but not on the account of which

you speak.

(1.) A set form in the Pali, used, as there is no relative pro-

noun. More lit: “By what was Bhagawa? By that he came.”

(2.) Tathacato—Various meanings, as, “he who thus has

departed,” or, “he who thus came.” The Teacher.

166 BUDDHISM:

The illustrious Gotamo is destitute—O Brahman, tlicre

is a cause, and by that it may well be said, the Samano Gotamo

is destitute. O Brahman, these, viz., food (objects) for form,

sound, smell, taste, and feeling are separated from Tathagata,

and like the palmyra cut up by the roots, which has no further

existence nor future birth. This is the cause, Q Brahman, and

by that it may well be said, the Samano Gotamo is destitute ;

but not on the account of which you speak.

The illustrious Gotamo is unpractical.—There is a rule,

O Brahman, and by that it may well be said, that the Samano

Gotamo is an unpractical person. I declare, O Brahman, my

unpractical state. I declare the non-practice of the various

kinds of sins and demerits connected with bodily misdemeanour,

verbal misdemeanour, and mental misdemeanour. ‘This is the

rule, O Brahman, and by it it may well be said that the Sa-

mano Gotamo is an unpractical person; but not on the account

of which you speak,

The illustrious Gotamo is an exterminator.—There is a

rule, O Brahman, by which it may be well said of me, that the

Samano Gotamo is an exterminator. I declare, O Brahman,

my extermination. I declare the extermination of the various

kinds of sins and demerits connected with desire, hatred, and —

ignorance. This is the rule, O Brahman, and by this rule it

may well be said of me, the Samano Gotamo is an extermi-

nator ; but not on the account of which you speak.

The illustrious Gotamo is a despiser.—There isa rule,

O Brahman, and by that rule it may well be said of me, the

Samano Gotamo isa despiser. I despise, O Brahman, the

arrivals at the various kinds of sins and demerits arising from

evil deeds, evil words, and evil thoughts. This is the rule,

O Brahman, and by that rule it may well be said of me, that

the Samano Gotama is adespiser; but not on the account of

which you speak.

BUDDHISM. 167

The illustrious Gotama is a subjugator.—There is a

rule, O Brahman, and by that rule it may well be said of me,

the Samano Gotamo is asubjugator. I declare, O Brahman,

the subjugating Dhamma. I declare the subjugating Dhamma

of the various kinds of sins and demerits connected with evil

desire, hatred, and ignorance. This is the rule, O Brahman,

and by that rule it may well be said of me, the Samano Gota-

mo is a subjugator; but not on the account of which you speak.

The illustrious Gotamo is an ascetic (1.)—There is a

rule, O Brabman, and by that rule it may well be said of me,

the Samano Gotamo is an ascetic. I declare, O Brahman, the

ascetism (literally scorching) of the course of sins and demerits.

I declare, O Brahman, the scorchings of evil deeds, evil words,

andevilthoughts. ‘To any personis there the renunciation ofthe

courses of sins and demerits, as the palmyra tree cut up by the

root has no existence and no other birth? I declare that as-

cetism. To Tathagato, O Brahman, are the scorchings and re-

nunciations of sins and demerits, as the palmyra tree when cut

up by the roots has no being nor future birth, This is the rule,

O Brahman, and by that rule it may well be said of me, that

Samano Gotamo is an ascetic; but not on the account of which

you speak.

The illustrious Gotamo is excluded from birth.—There

is a rule, O Brahman, and by that rule it may well be said

of the Samano Gotamo, that he is excluded from birth. As

to any person, O Brahman, there are exclusions from another

foetus, another state, and another birth, like the palmyra cut

up by the reots, which has no more being nor future birth. I

declare that exclusion from birth. To him (to me) there are

exemptions from becoming a foetus in the womb, another state,

(1.) Ascetic.—Pali mo@eed a sccrcher, a burner, with refer-

ence to bodily desires, &c.

168 BUDDHISM.

and another birth, as the palmyra cut off at the roots has no

future existence nor future birth. This is the rule, O Brahman,

and by that rule it may well be said, that the Samano Gotamo

is excluded from birth; but not on the account of which you

speak. :

Q Brahman, as the hen when sitting on 8, 10 or 12 eggs,

having warmed them and turned them, the one from her brood

who first either with his bill or claws breaking the shell comes

with health out of it,—what do you call him? The elder or

the younger? QO virtuous Gotamo, it is proper to call him the

eldest; he is the eldest.

In the same manner, O Brahman, I, having split the shell

of ignorance connected with the received shell of folly and ex-

istence, am alone in this world the incomparable, the true, the

omniscient and illustrious Buddha. That I, O Brahman, am

supreme and chief of the world. By me, O Brahman, was

begun untiring effort, durable, fixed, and unerring memory, a

subjugated body in which lust was conquered, and a peaceful |

heart having only one object (in view). That I, O Brahman,

arrived and dwelt in the First Jhana, (1,) having become

exempt from desire, and a sinning nature, (with which Jhana

is connected) reason, investigation, and the pleasure of isola-

tion. And having surmounted reason and investigation, I

arrived at and dwelt in the Second Jhdna, connected with

clearness of intellect, mental effulgence, the relinquishment of

reason and investigation, and the joy and pleasure arising from

mental tranquillity. Having subjugated joy, I arrived at and

dwelt in the medium state—possessed memory, fixity of mind,

and bodily ease, and that which the Rahats call the delightful

(1.) Jhana.—A stateofknowledge. There are four Jhanas, the

nature of which both in Brahmanism and Buddhism is very similar, —

See Wilson, Dhayana.

BUDDHISM. 169

abode of indifference and mind ; and thus Tarrived at and dwelt

in the Third Jhana. I (then) arrived at and dwelt in the

Fourth Jhana, connected with the extinction of former joys and

sorrows, the extinction of former pleasures and pains, which

has neither sorrow nor joy, (but) the purity of heart which

arises from isolation.

Thus, when I had subdued, purified, cleansed, washed,

separated from lusts, rendered soft, prepared for good action, and

made my heart firm, I bent my mind to the recollection of

former states (of existence). In what manner? 1 birth, 2

births, 3 births, 4 births, 5 births, 10 births, 20 births, 30 births,.

40 births, 50 births, 100 births, 1,000 births, 100,000 births,

various destructive kalpas, various kalpas of formation; in such

and such a place there was such and such a name, such a tribe,

such a colour, such a possessor of food, and endured such

pleasure and pain; and so he (I) having arrived at old age,

departed from that state, and was born in such and such a

place, and was of such a name, such a tribe, such a class, such

a proprietor, and endured such pleasure and pain. And thus

having reached the end of life, departed from that state, and

was born here.

In this manner I remember various prior states of exist-

ence. By me, O Brahman, in the first watch of the night

was attained the first (gradation) of wisdom. Ignorance de-

parted, and wisdom was attained; darkness fled, and light was

produced. In @ certain way, with a fixed memory, and the

purpose of subjugating desires, and separated from lust, to me,

O Brahman, came the first Great achievement, as the chick

comes out of the shell; and so that I, when I had established

a peaceful, pure, clear, abstract, separate from defilement, and

a good-natured heart, bent my mind to the deaths and births

of animals.

170 BUDDHISM,

That person (I) with a divine, clear, and superhuman eye

behold beings. I know beings who die, are born, are debased,

excellent, of good report, of ill report, of good disposition, of

ill disposition, according to the nature of their actions; that

certainly these creatures, O fortunate one, who are addicted

to evil actions, evil words, and evil thoughts, who are revilers

of Rahats, heathens, and partakers of the actions of heathens—

these, on the dissolution of the body, after death, are born in

the Apdya (1), Duggati (2), Winipéta (3), and Niraya (4)

hells ; and these creatures, O fortunate one, who are practised

in good deeds, good words, and good thoughts, who are not

revilers of Rahats, pure religionists, and partakers of the

actions of those religionists—these, on the dissolution of the

body, after death, are born in the good and heavenly world.

So I perceive with the divine, clear, and superhuman eye,

creatures, and know creatures who die, are born, are debased,

excellent, of good report, of ill report, of good disposition, of

bad disposition, according to the nature of their actions.

By this person, me, O Brahman was attained, the Second

Wijj& (5); ignorance was dispersed, and Wijjé produced ;

darkness fled, and light came. In this manner, to me, O

Brahman, who was industrious, active, and dwelling apart, hap-

pened the second Exodus, as the chick bursts from its shell.

That I, when I had thus established a peaceful, pure, clear,

abstract, separate from defilement, and a good-natured heart,

bent my mind to the wisdom of the extinction of sensual de-

sires. I knew that this is sorrow from its very nature, I knew

Apaya.—Apa, not; aya, ease.

Duggati.—Du, bad; gati, nature or disposition.

Winipdta.— Wi, intensive prefix ; ni, ditto ; pata, a falling.

Niraya.—Nir, not; aya, good fortune.

Wijjd.—An advanced state of knowledge.

INNO WE

Om wWdS =

e iS coetaweene

Sa a a a

BUDDHISM. 171

from its nature that this is the cause of sorrow. I knew from

its nature that this is the extinction of sorrow. I knew from

its nature that this is the means for the extinction of sorrow.

I knew from their nature these are sensual desires. I knew

from its nature this is the cause of sensual desire. I knew

from its nature this is the extinction of sensual desire. I knew

from its nature that this is the means of the extinction of sen-

sual desire. To that person, me, who thus knew and saw, hap-

pened the deliverance of the heart from sensual desires, from

the desire of existence, from the desire of external objects,

from cleaving to ignorance, and as regards emancipation came

wisdom ; and I knew the Brahmachariya which is called the

wasted state, how it is effected, and that afterwards it will not

be so and so. O Brahman, to me, in the last watch of the night

came the Third Wijj4; ignorance departed, and knowledge

was produced, darkness fled, and light came. Tome, O Brah-

man, in this manner, who was industrious, active, and dwelling

in seclusion, happened the Third Exodus, as the chick bursts

forth from its shell.

When he had thus spoken, Weranja Brahman said this to

Bhagawa :—The illustrious Gotamo is excellent; the illus-

trious Gotamo is supreme. It is refulgent, O Gotamo; it is

refuleent, O Gotamo! As by any means an. inverted thing

may be set upright, or a secret revealed, or to one who has

erred the path be shewn, or in darkness a lamp may be lit and

carried, or a figure shewn to the eye of him who sees; just so,

in various ways, the Dhamma. is proclaimed by the illustrious

- Gotamo. I goto the Refuge (1) of that illustrious Gotamo, and

to the Dhamma and company of Bhikkhus. May the illustrious

————

(1.) Refuge.--Sarana, from sara “to go.” This form is used

by all Buddhists, similarly to prayer by Christians.

We BUDDHISM.

Gotamo receive me as a Buddhist layman ; from this day for-

ward, till lite shall close, may the refuge be granted me, which

I have arrived at, and may I be favoured by the illustrious

Gotamo, with the great company of Bhikkhus, observing

Was(1)in Weranji. The illustrious Bhagawa assented by being

silent. Then Weranja Brahman knowing that Bhagaw4 had |

assented, rose from his seat, saluted Bhagaw4, and departed,

having his right side presented (2). |

At that time there was a famine in Weranja; men’s minds:

were distracted, they became like skeletons, their crops failed,

and it was not easy by begging to obtain a livelihood. At

that time horse-dealers from the North arrived at Weranja, in

the Was season, with about 500 horses, and there in the horse-

sheds were some measures of gram prepared. The Bhikkhus at

dawn of day having robed themselves and taken their bowl and

robes, and not having received any alms, came to the horse-

sheds, took some measures of gram, pounded and pounded them

in a mortar, and eat them. The Venerable Anando having

ground on a rock a vessel full of the gram, brought it near to.

Bhagawé. Bhagawé ate it. Bhagaw4, hearing the sound of

the mortars (and pestles)--(knowing amatter Tathagatas enquire,

knowing a matter they do not enquire; knowing the time they

enquire ; knowing the time they do not enquire ; purposely Ta-

thigatds enquire, not without a purpose, but for removing the

cause of there not being a purpose to Tathdgatas. There are

two modes in which the wise Bhagawas question the Bhikkhus

(saying) Shall we preach the Dhamma, or promulgate the

Commandments to the disciples ?)--Then Bhagawa called the

(1.) Was; lit. rain—A season of seclusion among Buddhist

Priests for a period of three months.

(2.) A respectful form of going out of the presence of a digni-

tary.

BUDDHISM. 173

Venerable Anando, What is this pounding noise? Then the

Venerable Anando made known the matter to Bhagawa. Very

well, very well, O Anando, mankind will think that by you

virtuous men victory was gained over grain, meat, and rice,

Then the Venerable Great Moggalano (1) came to the

place where Bhagawé was, and having arrived and reverently

saluted Bhagawa, sat down on one side, and the Venerable and

Great Moggalano who was seated on one side, said this to Bha-

gawi:—There is now a famine, O Lord, in Weranja, people

are distracted and reduced to skeletons, the crops have failed,

and it is by no means easy to gain a livelihood by gleaning

(begging). O Lord, underneath the surface of the Great Karth

there exists (something) comparable to small drops of honey,

and there being no bees, it will be good. Is it good, O Lord,

may I overturn the earth? The Bhikkhus will then eat that

edible crust of the earth. There are creatures, O Moggalano,

in the earth. How will you treat them? I will preserve the

creatures, O Lord (by making another world), and how many

creatures soever there may be in this world, I will collect and

place them there, and with one hand I will overturn the earth.

It is not proper, O Moggalano; do not wish to overturn the

world; the creatures may experience discomfort. Very well, O

Lord, shall the whole company of Bhikkhus go to the north to

ask alms? It is not proper, O Moggaldno; do not wish that

all the company of Bhikkhus should go to the northern con-

tinent to collect alms.

Afterwards this kind of thought and reasoning happened

to the Venerable Sariputtoo who was retired and in solitude:

—How is it that the Brahmachariya of such Buddho Bhagawas

(1.) Moggallano.—One of the two Chief Priests of Buddha, who

attended him throughout his ministrations,

174 BUDDHISM.

continued not for a long time, and how was it that the Brahma

chariya of such Buddho Bhagawas continued a long time?

Afterwards the Venerable Sériputtoo at eventide coming forth

from his solitude, came to the place where Bhagaw4 was, and

having reverently saluted Bhagawa4, sat on one side. The

Venerable Sariputtoo who was seated on one side, said this to

Bhagawa. Here to me, O Lord, who was in secret and soli-

tude, came this kind of thought and investigation: Which of

the Buddho Bhagawas’ Brahmachariya did not continue for

a long time; and of which of the Buddho Bhagawas did the

Brahmachariya continue for a long time? Of which of the

Buddho Bhagawas, O Lord, did the Brahmachariya not con-

tinue for a long time? and of which of the Budho Bhagawas

Brahmachariya did continue for a long time ?

O Sariputtoo, the Brahmachariya of Wipassa Bhaga-

wa, of Sikhi Bhagawa4, and of Wessabhu Bhagawa was not of

long duration ; and the Brahmachariya, O Sariputtoo, of Ka-

kusanda Bhagawa, of Konégama Bhagawa, and of Kasappa

Bhagawaé continued for a long time. .

O Lord, what was the cause, and what the means by which

the Brahmachariya of Bhagawa Wipassa, of Bhagawa Sikhi,

and of Bhagawa& Wessabhu, continued only for a short time ?

O Sariputtoo, Bhagawé Wipassa, Bhagawaé Sikhi, and

Bhagawa Wessabhu became disheartened in declaring their

Dhammaat length to their disciples. The Sutta(7), Geyya (8),

(1.) Wipassi Buddha. The 19th Buddha of this system.

(2.) Sikhi do. 20th do.

(3.) Wessabhu do. 21st do.

(4.) Kakusandha do. 22nd do.

(5.) KKanagamo do. 23rd do.

(6.) Kassapo do. 24th do.

(7.) Sutta, oral declaration.

(8.) Geyya, a kind of mixed composition of prose and poetry.

BUDDHISM. 175

methodical compositions, stanzas, pleasing words, their revealed

births, wonderful doctrines, and dialogues were few ; instruc-

tions and discipline were not imparted to the disciples, and

the Pati Mokkha (1) was not shewn ; and from the disappear-

ance of these Buddho Bhagawas, and from the disappearance

of their contemporary disciples, their subsequent followers

being of various names, various tribes, various castes, and

various kinds of ascetics, their Brahmachariyas quickly became

extinct. As in any way, whatsoever, O Sariputtoo, when flowers

of various kinds are placed on a shelf without being strung

together, the wind shakes, scatters, and strews them about.

What is the cause of that? Because they are not united by a

string. Just so, O Saériputtoo, from the disappearance of those

Buddho Bhagawas, and the disappearance of the disciples

contemporary with those Buddhos, their subsequent followers

being of various names, various tribes, various castes, and

various kinds of ascetics, their Brahmachariya quickly became

extinct.

These Bhagawas became not weary of declaring, advising

perfectly, the hearts of their disciples. O S&riputtoo, at a

- former time, the Blessed, the Sanctified, the True and Omnis-

cient Wessabhu Buddho, in a certain fearful jungle, knowing

intimately their hearts, exhorted 1,000 Bhikkhus:—Reason

thus; thus ye must not reason; thus consider; thus ye must

not consider; remove this; being thus situated, remain. Then

to Sariputtoo and the 1,000 Bhikkhus who had been thus

exhorted and admonished by the Blessed, the Sanctified, the

True and Allwise Wessabhu, came deliverance of their hearts

from the desire of existence. There, O Sariputtoo, to that

(1.) Pati Mokkha:—a book in the Winiya Pitaka, containing

rules on monastiésm.

1°6 BUDDIISM.

fearful jungle, happened a wonder. Any person who entered

that jungle, if he were not free from desire, all his hair stood

onanend. This was the cause, O Sariputtoo, and this the means

of the Brahmachariya of Bhagawé Wepassi, Bhagawé Sikhi,

and of Bhagawé Wessabhu continuing for a short time only. -

What, O Lord, was the cause, and what the means, by

which the Brahmachariya of Bhagaw4 Kakusandho, of Bhagawé

Konagama, and of Bhagawa Kassapa, continued for a long

time ?

O Sariputtoo, Bhagawé Kakusandho, Bhagawé Konagamo,

and Bhagawaé Kassapo became not weary of explaining their

Dhamma at length to their disciples. The Sutta, Geyya, me-

thodical compositions, stanzas, pleasing words, revealed births,

wonderful doctrines, and dialogues, Were very extensive. In

struction and discipline were imparted to their disciples, and

the Pati Mokkha was enunciated. (Therefore) on the dis-

appearance of those Buddho Bhagawas and their contemporary

disciples, their subsequent followers being of various names,

various tribes, various castes, and various kinds of ascetics,

established their Brahmachariya for a long time. As in any

way, O Sariputtoo, a number of flowers which are strung to-

gether and placed on a board, the wind neither shakes, scatters,

nor strews them about. What is the cause of that? Because

they are well joined by a string. Just in the same manner, O

Sariputtoo, on the disappearance of those Buddho Bhagawas

and their contemporary disciples, their subsequent followers

being of various names, of various tribes, various castes, and

various kinds of ascetics, they established for a long time their

Brahmachariya. This, O Sariputtoo, was the cause, and this

the means, of the Brahmachariya of Bhagawaé Kakusandho, of

Bhagawaé Konagama, and of Bhagawa Kassapa, continuing for

a long time.

BUDDHISM. 177

Afterwards, Sariputtoo having risen from his scat, with his

robe covered one shoulder, and worshipped Bhagawé in the

place where he was, by joining his hands at his forehead,

said this to Bhagawa:—O Bhagawd, this is the time for

that; this 1s a good time for that. May Bhagawé proclaim

the discipline to the disciples ; may he declare the Pati Mokkha,

In some way or other the Brahmachariya will continue for

a long time. Wait, O Sariputtoo; wait, O Sariputtoo, Ta-

thégata knows the time. Until that time, O Sariputtoo, the

Teacher proclaims not his discipline, nor declares the Pati

Mokkha. Until workings of lust descend to some of the

priesthood, and till after, O Sariputtoo, the workings of lust

have descended to the priesthood, the Teacher does not pro-

elaim the discipline to his disciples, nor the Pati Mokkha, for

the destruction of the operations of those lusts. Then, O Sari-

puttoo, some of the priesthood are not subject to the workings

of lust. The priesthood is not yet become experienced nor

extensive. O Sariputtoo, when the priesthood has become ex-

perienced and extensive, then the operations of desire descend

to some of the priesthood, and then the Teacher declares his

) discipline to the disciples, and proclaims the Pati Mokkha for

the destruction of the operations of lust. Then, O Sariputtoo,

the operations of lust do not descend to some of the priesthood.

The priesthood is not yet become great. O Sariputtoo, when

the priesthood has arrived at a great state, then, the operations

of lust descend to some of the priesthood ; and then the Teacher

declares the discipline to the disciples, and proclaims the Pati

Mokkha for the destruction of the operations of those lusts ;

then, O Sariputtoo, the workings of lust do not descend to some

of the priesthood. The priesthood has not yet come to the

state of receiving great offerings. When the priesthood has

arrived at thé state of receiving great offerings; then the

178 BUDDHISM.

operations of lust descend on some of the priesthood; and then

the Teacher proclaims the discipline to the disciples, and

declares the Pati Mokkha for the destruction of the operations

of those lusts; and then, O Sariputtoo, the workings of lust do

not descend on some of the priesthood. The priesthood has

not yet arrived at the great truths (of Buddha’s doctrine).

When the priesthood has arrived at the great truths, then the

operations of lust descend on some of the priesthood, and then

the Teacher proclaims the discipline to the disciples, and

declares the Pati Mokkha for the extinction of the operations

of those lusts. O Sariputtoo, the company of Bhikkhus being

faultless, separate from evil, reformed, pure, settled in merit,

among these 500 great Bhikkhus the least of them is arrived

at Sowan path, delivered from extinction, having Nirwana as

a certainty ; also the future paths.

Afterwards Bhagawé4 said to the venerable Anando, That

which I intend to declare will henceforth become a custom.

If any one has heen invited to pass the Was season, he must

not depart without informing (him who invited him). O

Anando, let us go and inform Weranja Brahman. Just so,

O Lord, answered Anando to Bhagawé. Then Bhagawa,

having robed himself, and taken his bowl and robes, with

Anando as his attendant, came to the place where Weranja

Brahman’s house was, and having arrived, sat on the prepared

seat. |

Then Weranja Brahman came to the place where Bhaga-

wa was, and having arrived and reverently saluted Bhagaw4,

sat on one side. Then Bhagaw4 said this to Weranja Brah-

man who was seated on one side: O Brahman, we have com-

pleted the Was, to which you have invited us. We inform

thee that we desire to depart to journey in inhabited districts.

Truly, O virtuous Gotamo, you were invited by me for the

BUDDHISM. 179

Was season; but I have not given anything which may be

proper to bestow. I did not give, not because I had it not, nor

because I did not wish to give. When can this be done by

the laity with their many duties and cares? May the illustri-

ous Gotamo consent to come with the company of Bhikkhus to

partake of food to-morrow ? Bhagawé by silence gave consent.

Afterwards Bhagawé having declared a doctrinal speech to

Weranja Brahman, implanted it in his heart, produced a desire

(towards it), and made him satisfied (with it), arose from his

seat, and departed.

Afterwards, when the night had gone, Weranja Brahman

haying provided proper and suitable food, made known the time

to Bhagawa (saying), O Lord, virtuous Gotamo, the meal is

ready. Then Bhagawd, in the morning, having robed himself

and taken his bowl, and robes, came to the place where Weranja

Brahman’s dwelling was, and having arrived, sat on the seat

provided for him, with the company of the Bhikkhus. Then

Weranja Brahman having provided with his own hands food

for the Bhikkhusg and their chief, Buddha, which food was de-

licious, fit, and suitable to be eaten,—when Bhagawé had

eaten, and the bowl was put aside, Weranja clothed Bhagaw4

with three robes, and each of the Bhikkhus with a pair of

cloths. Afterwards Bhagawé having declared a doctrinal

speech to Weranja Brahman, implanted it in his heart, pro-

duced a desire (towards it), and made him satisfied (with it),

arose from his seat, and departed. Afterwards Bhagawé, hay-

ing resided in Weranja as long as he wished, without going to

Soreyya, Samkassam, or Kantakujja, came to the place where

the river Payaga was, and having arrived and crossed over,

came to Benares, and having dwelt as long as he wished there,

came to Wesali city, and according to custom, dwelt there, in

the Rock Hall in the great jungle near Wesali.

The Weranja Bana portion is finished.

180 BUDDHISM.

No. Il. Perajikha Book.

THERE was at that time a village not far from Wesali,

ealled Kalanda village. A chetty, Sudinno, the son of Kalanda

lived init. At that time, Sudinno of Kalanda, from some

cause or other, went to Wesali with several of his companions.

On that occasion Bhagaw4 was seated in the midst of many of

his attendants preaching the Dhamma. When Sudinno of

Kalando had seen Bhagawé seated in the midst of his attend-

ants, and preaching the Dhamma to him, it thus happened (he

thought thus)—It will be good if I also hear this Dhamma.

Then Sudinno came where the crowd was, and sat down on

one side, and to Sudinno, who was seated on one side, came

this thought:—By some means or other I have heard the

Dhamma proclaimed by Bhagawaé; (but) it is not easy to

practise the truly complete, holy, and pure, Brahmachariya, by

those who are householders, and dwell in the lay state. It is

good therefore, if I having shaven my head and beard, assumed

the yellow robes, and renounced the lay state, become a

mendicant cleric. Then that company, when it was well in-

structed, had well taken to heart, was interested, and having

appreciated the Dhamma, rose from their seats, reverently

saluted Bhagawa, and departed keeping their right side towards

(Buddha.) , |

Then Sudinno, not long after the company had arisen,

went to the place where Bhagawaé was, and having arrived,

and reverently saluted Bhagawd, sat on one side. Sudinno,

who was seated on one side, said this to Bhagawaé:--By

(1.) Sudinno is always called the son of Kalando, throughout

the narrative, but I have omitted it.

BUDDOISM. 181

some means or other, O lord, I have heard the Dhamma

declared by BhagawéA, (but) it is not easy to practise the truly

complete, holy, and spotless Brahmachariya, by those who are

householders and dwell in the lay state; it is good, therefore,

if I, having shaven my head and beard, assumed the yellow

robes, and renounced the lay state, become a mendicant cleric.

May Bhagawé ordain me! Hast thou, Sudinno, obtained the

consent of thy mother and father, to renounce the lay state and

become a mendicant cleric? I have not, O Lord, obtained the

consent of my mother and father to renounce the lay state and

become a mendicant cleric. O Sudinno, Tathagato does not

ordain him who has not obtained the consent of his mother and

father. He said, I, O Lord, will do so, since my mother and

father may consent to my renouncing the world and becoming

a mendicant cleric.

Then Sudinno, having finished whatever he had to do in

Wesali, went to Kalanda village, where his mother and father

were, and having arrived there, said this to his mother and

father :—O mother, O father, by some means or other, 1 have

heard the Dhamma preached by Bhagawa4, (but) it is not easy

to practise the truly complete, holy, and spotless Brahma-

chariya, by those who are householders, and dwell in the lay

state. I wish to receive tonsure, assume the yellow robes,

and become a mendicant cleric, separate from the laity. Grant

permission to become a mendicant cleric, separate from the

haty. When he had thus spoken, the mother and father of

Sudinno said to Sudinno, O thou child, Sudinno, who art dear

(to us); thou hast pleasure, and hast been tenderly nourished,

thou hast not experienced any sorrow. Even by death we

cannot desire your separation. What! shall we then consent,

while you are alive, that you should separate from the laity,

and become a mendicant cleric ?

182 BUDDHISM.

And so the second time the mother and father of Sudinno

said to Sudinno, Thou art, O child Sudinno, our only son,

well-beloved, surrounded by pleasures, and tenderly nourished.

Thou art unacquainted with grief. And the third time, Sudin-

no said to his mother and father :—O mother, O father, by

some means or other, I have heard the Dhamma proclaimed

by Bhagawa, (but) it is not easy to practise the holy, complete,

holy, and spetless Brahmachariya, by those who are house-

holders and dwell im the lay state. I wish (therefore) having

shaven my head and beard, assumed the yellow robe, and

separated from the laity, to become a mendicant cleric. Give

permission that I may separate from the world, and become a

mendicant cleric. And the third time the mother and father

of Sudinno said this to Sudinno:—Thou art, O child, our only

son, well-beloved, surrounded by pleasures, tenderly nourish=

ed, and unacquainted with any grief. Even by death we can-

not desire to be separated from ycu. What then! shall we

consent, while you are still living, that you should separate

from the laity, and become a mendicant cleric.

Then Sudinno thought :—My mother and father do not

consent that I should become a mendicant cleric, separate from

the laity: and fell down there on the bareground (saying)

Hither here will I die, or become a mendicant cleric. Then

Sudinno did not partake of one meal, 2 meals, 3 meals, 4

meals, 5 meals, 6 meals and 7 meals. Then the mother and

father of Sudinno, said this to Sudinno:—Thou art, O child,

our only son, well-beloved, surrounded by pleasures, tenderly

nourished and unacquainted with any grief; even by death we

cannot desire separation from you. What then, shall we

consent, while you are still alive, that you should separate from

the laity, and become a mendicant cleric. Get up, O child,

Sudinno, eat and drink, and surrounded by your companions

BUDDHISM. 183

eating, drinking, with your retinue enjoying yourself, and

performing merits, become cheerful. We do not consent to your

separation from the world, and that you should become a men-

dicant cleric. When that was said, Sudinno was silent; and the

second time, &c. And the third time algo, the mother and father

of Sudinno said this to Sudinno :—Thou art, O child Sudinno,

our only son, well-beloved, surrounded with pleasures, tenderly

noutished, and unacquainted with any grief. Even by death

we cannot desire separation from thee. What then! shall we

consent, while you are still alive, that you should separate from

the lay state, and become a mendicant cleric? Get up, O child

Sudinno, eat and drink, and surrounded by your companions,

eating, drinking, with your retinue enjoying yourself, and

performing merits, become cheerful. We do not consent to

your separation from the world, that you should become a

mendicant cleric. And the third time Sudinno, the son of

Kalando, was silent.

Then the companions of Sudinno went to the place where

Sudinno was, and having arrived, said this to Sudinno :—Thou

art, O friend Sudinno, the beloved and only son of thy mother

and father, endeared, surrounded with pleasures, tenderly

nourished, and ¢stablished in ease. O friend Sudinno, thou hast

not known any grief; and by death even, your mother and

father do not desire your separation. What then! will they

consent, while you are alive, that you should separate from

the world, that you may become a mendicant cleric ?

Get up, O friend Sudinno, eat and drink, and surrounded

by your companions, &e.<= Vide supra.

When they had thus said, Sudinno was silent; and the

second time, &c.; and the third time, &c., &ce.

And the third time also Sudinno was silent. Then the

companions of Sudinno went to the place where the mother

184 BUDDHISM.

and father of Sudinno were, and said this to the mother and

father of Sudinno :—O mother, O father, that Sudinno, fallen

on the bare earth, says, Either here I will die, or receive ordi-

nation. If ye do not give leave to Sudinno to separate from

the world, and become a mendicant cleric, he will die there ;

(but) if you give permission to Sudinno to separate from the

world, and become a mendicant cleric, you will see him again ;

and if he does not delight in separation from the world, and

the state of a mendicant cleric, another disposition will come to

him, and he will return again to this place. Give permission

to Sudinno to become & mendicant cleric, separate from the

laity—We consent that our child, Sudinno, shall become a

mendicant cleric, separate from the laity.

Then the companions of Sudinno went to the place where

Sudinno was, and having arrived, said this to Sudinno :—Get

up, O friend Sudinno; thou art permitted by thy mother and

father to forsake the world, and become a mendicant cléric.

Then Sudinno said :—I am permitted by my mother and father

to separate from the world and become a mendicant cleric; and

being glad, well pleased, joyful, and rubbing his body with his

hands, he rose up.

_ Afterwards, Sudinno having for several days strengthened

himself, went to the place where Bhagawé was, and having

arrived and saluted Bhagawa, sat down on one side. Sudinno

who was seated on one side said this to Bhagaw4 :—I am permit-

ted, O lord, by my mother and father to separate from the world,

and become a medicant cleric. May Bhagaw4 ordain me.

Sudinno received ordination (Sdérmanera) (1) and (2) Oper

(1.) Samanera.—A clerical novice, whose age must be at least

eight years to receive ordination.

(2.) Upasampadé.—A superior priest, not under twenty years

of age.

BUDDHISM. 185

pada, near Bhagaw4; and the venerable Sudinno having

subjugated his desires, became a dweller in the wilderness, a

mendicant, a wearer of castaway garments, and a methodical

beggar (1) (¢. e., one who asks from every house) and resided

near a certain Wajji village.

Afterwards there was a famine in Wajji, men’s minds

were distracted, they were reduced to skeletons and every thing

sown become blasted. It was not easy, therefore, to gain a

living by gleaning (alms-asking). Then this thought came

to the venerable Sudinno:—In this Wajji is a famine, men’s

minds are distracted, they are reduced to skeletons, and the

crops are blasted. It is not easy, therefore, to get a living by

eleaning, (but) I have many relatives in Wes4li who are rich,

very wealthy, great proprietors, and have more than sufficient

gold and silver, superabundant means and enormous quantities

of grain, &c. Itis good if I reside near my relatives. My

relatives on my account will bestow gifts and perform merits ;

Bhikkhus will be benefited, and I shall not become weary in

begging. Then the venerable Sudinno having rolled up his

mat and taken his alms-bowl, and robes, departed for Wesali and

dwelt, there after the former (2) custom. Then the venerable

Sudinno dwelt in the great Wesali jungle near the great

Rock hall. ‘The relatives of the venerable Sudinno heard

that Sudinno had arrived at Wesali, and they brought and

presented about 60 vessels of rice to the venerable Sudinno.

Then the venerable Sudinno having divided the 60 vessels of

cooked food among the Bhikkhus, dressed in the early morning,

and taking his bowl and robes, entered the village of Kalando.

(1.) A command given by Bhagawa to his clerics, that they

should omit no house when alms-asking.

(2.) Appointed.

186 BUDDHISM.

As he was methodically collecting alms in Kalando village, he

came where his father’s house was, at a time when a female

servant of the relatives of the venerable Sudinno was thinking

about throwing away some stale rice, the remains of the

previous evening meal. Then the venerable Sudinno said to

the servant-maid of his relatives:—If you have a throwing

away Dhamma (purpose) O sister, put it into my bowl. The

servant girl of the venerable Sudinno’s relatives put the stale rice

which was left from the previous evening meal into the bowl,

and recognized the marks of his hands, feet, and voice. Then

the maid-servant of the relatives of the venerable Sudinno

went to the place where the mother of the venerable Sudinnoa

was, and having arrived, said this to the mother of the venerable

Sudinno:—What do you think! Our master Sudinno has

come.—Do you speak the truth, you wench? If so, I will

emancipate you.

Afterward the venerable Sudinno ate the stale rice in a

retired place. The father of the venerable Sudinno coming

home from his work, saw the venerable Sudinno eating the

stale rice in a retired place, went to the place where the

venerable Sudinno was, and having arrived, said this to the

venerable Sudinno:—Truly, O child Sudinno, will you eat

stale rice? ‘Truly, O child Sudinno, it is proper to go

to your own house.—I went to your house, and there I received,

this stale rice. Then the father of the venerable Sudinno.

having taken hold of the arm of the venerable Sudinno, said

this to the venerable Sudinno:—Come, O child Sudinno, we

will go to the house. Then the venerable Sudinno went to

the place where the house was, and having arrived, sat on the

seat spread out forhim. The father of the venerable Sudinno,

said to the venerable Sudinno,—Eat, O child Sudinno. Not so,

O layman, I have eaten my food for to-day.—Consent, O child,

BUDDHISM. 187

Sudinno to eat rice to-morrow! The venerable Sudinno by

silence assented. ‘Then the venerable Sudinno having risen

from his seat departed.

Then the mother of the venerable Sudinno, after that

night, having smeared the floor with new cowdung and caused

to be made two heaps for him, one of gold coins, and the other

of gold,—those two offerings were so great that a man on this

side sees not a man on that; et viee versa,—she covered over.

those heaps with mats, prepared a seat in the middle, suitably

surrounded (ornamented) them, and called the former wife of

the venerable Sudimno. Now, Q woman, put on those orna-

ments, and beautify yourself im a manner most pleasing to

Sudinno.—Just g0, O lady; answered the former wife of the

venerable Sudinno to the mother of the venerable Sudinno.

The venerable Sudinno at dawn having clothed himself

and taken his bowl and robes, went to the place where his

father’s dwelling was, and having arrived, sat on the prepared

seat. Then the venerable Sudinno’s father came where the

venerable Sudinno was, and having uncovered the heaps, said

this to the venerable Sudinno:—O child Sudinno, these are

thy mother’s property, the woman’s dowry, that whieh is proper

to be given to the female. The father’s property is separate—

our ancestors’ too 1s separate; Oson Sudinno, having disrobed

yourself, you may receive this property, and perform meritorious

actions. O father, I cannot attempt it, I am unable. I

having a desire to the Brahmachariyat, will practise it. So

the second time, &c., &c.; and the third time also the father

of the venerable Sudinno said to the venerable Sudinno :—

This is your mother’s property, which was given as her

dowry at marriage. The father’s property 1s separate, and the

evandfather’s too. Take these things. O child Sudinno,

possess these valuables, and perform merits, having come to the

188 BUDDHISM.

lay state. Make up your mind, O Sudinno, to possess this

property and perform merits.

Let us say this, O layman, if you will not become angry. —

Say, O child Sudinno, said the father. Well then, O layman,

get a large sack, fill it with the gold coins and the gold, put it

into a cart, and throw it into the current in the middle of the

river. Ifit be asked why. On account of these things may

arise either fear, trembling, horripilation or trouble in keeping

it. Then neither of these will happen tothee. When he had

thus spoken, the venerable Sudinno’s father became displeased,

and said:—-O child Sudinno, how can you speak thus ?

Then the father of the venerable Sudinno called the

former wife of the venerable Sudinno and said :—Because, O

woman, you are dear and pleasing, it may be my son Sudinno

will obey your word; if so, it will be well. Then the former

wife of the venerable Sudinno embraging: his feet, said this to.

the venerable Sudinno:—With what kind of expectation, O

dear lord, do you practise the Brahmachariya? (1)—I do not,

0 sister, live as a celebic for the purpose of receiving a divine

female, (said Sudinno.) :

Then the former wife of the venerable Sudinno said :—

From this day do you intend to call me sister; and fainted and

fell on the floor.

Then Sudinno said to his father: —O layman, give me the

food which is proper to be given, but don’t bother me.

Eat, O child Sudinno. Then the mother and father of

the venerable Sudinno with their own hands provided him

(1.) It appears that in those days men having: become dissatis-.

fied with their wives, became ascetics in order to accumulate merits,

on account of which they would be able to marry a most beautiful

goddess after death. Hence this question of the wife.

BUDDHISM. 189

with, and persuaded him to partake of excellent food, until he

was satisfied. Then the mother of the venerable Sudinno,

when she had provided him with excellent food, and when his

bowl was put aside, said this to him:—O child Sudinno, our

family is rich, has large possessions, much food, much gold,

and silver, much wealth and much grain. Receive all this, O

Sudinno ; to possess these things, and having come to the lay

state, perform merits. Come, O child Sudinno, possess these

things, and perform merits.—O mother, I will not attempt it ;

I am not able; (for) with great desire I practise the Brahma«

chariya, And the second time, &c. And the third time also

the mother of the venerable Sudinno said to the venerable

Sudinno :—Now there is, O child Sudinno, arich family, large

possessions, much food, much gold and silver, much wealth and

much grain. Therefore, O child Sudinno, give seed; do not

allow this, that the Lichchhawi (1) should carry off our heirless

wealth.

I can do that, O mother, he said. Where do you dwell,

O child Sudinno? In the great jungle, O mother, he said.

Then the venerable Sudinno having risen from hig seat, de~

parted ; and the mother of the venerable Sudinno ¢alled the

former wife of the venerable Sudinno: Now, O woman, when-

ever you are in your courses, and the menses come, tell me.

Yes, O lady, said the wife of the venerable Sudinno to the

mother of the venerable Sudinno. Then the wife of the ven=

erable Sudinno, after no long period, was in her courses, and

the menses came}; and then she said to the mother of the ven=

erable Sudinno, O lady, I am in my courses, the menses

have come. ‘Therefore, O datighter, bedizen yourself with

the same ornaments by which you formerly pleased my son

1.) Liehehhawi, probably Rajputs.

190 BUDDIIISM.

Sudinno, and gained his affection.—Just go, O lady; an-

swered the former wife of the venerable Sudinno to the mother

of the venerable Sudinno. Then the mother of the venerable

Sudinno, taking the former wife of the venerable Sudinno,

eame to the jungle where the venerable Sudinno was, and

having come, said this to the venerable Sudinno: — Now, O

child Sudinno ; now O child Sudinno; our family is rich, has

large possessions, much food, much gold and silver, much

wealth, and much grain. Receive all this, O Sudinno, and to

possess these things, come to the lay state, and to perform

merits ; come, O child Sudinno, possess these things, and per-

form merits:

O mother, I will not attempt it; I am unable to do it;

with great desire I practise the Brahmachariya. And the

second time, and the third time also the mother of the venerable

Sudinno said this to the venerable Sudinno:—Now, O child

Sudinno, our family is wealthy, has large possessions, much

food, much gold and silver, much wealth and much grain. Re-

ceive all this, O child Sudinno, and give seed. Do not allow

this, that the Lichchhawi should carry off our heirless wealth:

I can do that, he said ;—and having taken hold of the arm of

his former wife, and gone to the great jungle, cohabited (1)

thrice with his former wife; the discipline at that time having

not been declared, and he not knowmg that it was wrong.

From that time she conceived. (Then) earthly deities caused

this sound to be heard:—Certainly the company of the Bhik-

khus is faultless, and free from evil, (but) by Sudinino a fault

has been committed, and evil begotten. The gods of the Chatu

Maha Rajika worlds having heard the sound of the earthly

deities, caused that sound to be heard, &c. The Tawatimsa

(1.) Did “ Methuna Dhamma,” the name of the first Parfjika.

BUDDHISM. 19]

gods, &c. The Yama gods, &c. The Tusité gods, &c. The

Nimm4na, rati gods, &c. The Paranimmita Wasawatti gods,

&c. And the Brahmakayik& gods caused this report to be

heard :~-Cértainly thé company of the Bhikkhus is faultless,

and free from evil, (but) by Sudinno a fault has been com-

mitted, and sin bégotten. At the same moment, and at that

very instant, the sound ascended to the Brahma worlds.

Afterwards the former wife of the venerable Sudinno gave

birth to a son who had arrived at maturity inher womb. Then

the companions of the venerable Sudinno gave the name Bija |

(seedling) to his son; to the former wife of the venerable Sudin-

no, Bija Mata (the mother of the seedling); and to the venerable

Sudinno, Bija Pité (the father of the seedling). Subsequently,

both (the mother and the son) separated from the world, be-

came mendicant religionists, and attained the state of Rahat-

ship. Then to the venerable Sudinno came ‘perplexity, and

he repented, saying:+-Certainly, I have sustained losses ;

certainly it is not profitable to me; certainly it is a bad mat-

ter; and certainly there is no gain. (Although) I have become

a Bhikkhu of such a perfectly enunciated course of discipline,

I shall not be able, to the end of life, to practise the perfect

and holy Brahmachariya. In consequence of that perplexity

and sorrow, he became thin, ill-favoured, disfigured, sallow,

indifferent, morose, and sorrowful.

Then the fellow Bhikkhus of the venerable Sudinno said

to the venerable Sudinno :—Formerly, O friend Sudinno, thou

wast of a fair colour, of a captivating appearance, of a pleasing

countenance, and a good complexion; but now thou art

emaciated, ill-favoured, sallow, bent, with veins prominent,

unsatisfied, morose, and sorrowful. What! do you not practise,

I have practised the Brahmachariya, but not without lust.

192 BUDDHISM.

By me a sinful act has been committed, cohabitation with my

former wife. [am perplexed on account of it, and much grieved,

Certainly I have sustained losses ; certainly it isnot profitable

to me; certainly it is a bad matter; and certainly there is no

gain. And although I have become a Bhikkhu of the well-

enunciated course of discipline, I shall not be able, to the end

of life, to complete the perfect and pure Brahmachariya.—O

friend Sudinno, you may well be perplexed and sorrowful.

You having become a Bhikkhu of the well-enunciated coursé

of discipline, will not be able, to the end of your life, to fulfil

the perfect and pure Brahmachariya. O friend, has not the

Dhamma, for the abandonment of lust, been declared by Bha-

gawé in various ways? This is not on the behalf of lust. The

Dhamma for separation from lust, not for the fulfilling of lust ;

the Dhamma for the extinction of lust, not for the operation of

lust. Now then, O friend, when Bhagawé has in various ways

proclaimed the Dhamma for the abandonment of lust, you are

meditating on lust; when the Dhamma for separation from

lust has been declared, you are thinking of fulfilling lust,

when the Dhamma for the extinction of lust has been declared,

you are thinking on the operation of lust. O friend, has not

the Dhamma by Bhagaw4 for the abandonment of lust been

declared in various ways—for the subjugation of pride, for the

suppression of the thirst (of lust), for the destruction of being,

for the extermination of desire, for the refraining from lust,

for extinction, and for Niwan? O friend, has it not been

declared by Bhagawé in various ways, abandonment of lust,

the knowledge of the characteristics of lust, the suppression of

the thirst of lust, the excision of lustful thoughts, and the

quenching of the burnings of lust ?

This, O friend, is neither for the satisfaction of those who

are now dissatisfied, nor for the further satisfaction of those

BUDDHISM. 193

who are now well disposed. Again, O friend, it is for the

further dissatisfaction of those who are still dissatisfied. and

for causing a new state to those who are now well disposed.

Again, O friend, if it be for the dissatisfaction of those who

are still dissatisfied, some of those who are now well disposed,

will become of another mind.

Then those Bhikkhus in various ways scoffed at the ven-

erable Sudinno, and made known the fact to Bhagawa4.

Then Bhagawa, for that cause, and that subject, caused

‘ the company of Bhikkhus to be assembled, and enquired of

the venerable Sudinno :—Is it true, Sudinno, that you have

cohabited with your former wife? It is true, O Bhagawa.

Buddho Bhagawa4 censured him and said:—O wicked, empty,

cross-grained, hideous, irreligious, unsanctified, and worthless

man! QOvain man, after being initiated in the well-enunciated

course of discipline, how now will you be able to practise the

perfect and pure Brahmachariya? Has not the Dhamma

by me for the abandonment of lust, &c., &c,.— Vide supra.

It were good for thee, O vain man, thou shouldst place

thy private member in a most poisonous serpent’s mouth; but

it is not so, cohabiting with a woman. It were good for thee

if thou shouldst place thy private member in the black serpent’s

mouth, &c., &c.; in a heap of burning charcoal, &c., &c.

What is the reason? From either of those causes, O vain

man, you may possibly neither die, nor on the dissolution of

the body, by that cause, be born in either of the Apdya, Dug-

gata, Winipdta and Niraya hells.

From this cause, O vain man, after the dissolution of the

body, and death, you may be (will be) born in Apaya, Duggata,

Winipata or Niraya hells.

From that cause, O vain man, you will arrive at a sinful

nature, an adulterous state, a degraded condition, lecherous

194 BUDDHISM.

habits, unclean practices (di¢. such as require ablutions), secret

actions, and cohabitation. O vain man, thou hast been the

originator of many sins. O vain man, this is neither for the

satisfaction of those who are now dissatisfied, nor for the further

satisfaction of those who are well disposed. Then, O vain man,

if it be for the dissatisfaction of those who are ill-disposed,

some of those who are now satisfied will become of another

opinion. Then Bhagaw4in various ways censured the venerable

Sudinno, and having declared the disadvantages of the slothful

man with regard to the difficulties of obtaining a livelihood, of °

satisfying his innumerable desires, and of quelling his discon-

tent, declared in various ways the privileges of the man of few

desires, of the satisfied man, of him who regulates his passions,

of him who subdues his longings, of him who has a calm heart,

of him who has but few cares, and of him whose energies are

awakened; and having declared to the Bhikkhus a Dhamma

discourse concerning duties and obligations, he said this to the

Bhikkhus:—Now, O Bhikkhus, I will declare the precepts to

the Bhikkhus, for ten purposes, viz., for the good of the

assembly, for its ease, for the putting to shame sinful-minded

persons, for the comfort of expert Bhikkhus, for the regulation

of the desires concerning rewards in this life, for the extinction

of desires for rewards in a future state, for the satisfaction of

_ those who are ill-disposed, for the further satisfaction of those

who are well inclined, for the advantages of those who are

established in the true Dhamma, and for discipline. Therefore,

O Bhikkhus, receive this precept:—If any Bhikkhu is guilty

of cohabitation, he incurs a Parajikd fault, and becomes

excommunicate.

So this precept by Bhagaw4 has been promised to the

Bhikkhus.

| The conclusion of the Sudinno Bhana. |

BUDDHISM. 195

The next instance given is one of beastiality, committed by

a Bhikkhu in Wes4li, with a monkey. Many Bhikkhus were

witnesses of his crime, and when they charged him with it, he

endeavoured to exonerate himself by declaring that Buddha

had hitherto prohibited only cohabitation with a woman. Bhud-

dha, as in in the former case, severely reprimanded him, and

declared that if any Bhikkhu cohabits with any kind of beast,

from the least to the greatest, he is guilty of a Parajika fault,

and becomes excommunicate.

Very many Wajji Puttaka Bhikkhus in Wesdli having

indulged themselves in luxurious eating, drinking and bathing,

neglected their meditations, and through ignorance of their

imbecility with regard to the observation of the precepts were

euilty of Methuna Dhamma. Subsequently they, on account

of affection to their kinsman and continued desire, went to the

venerable Anando, and said thus to him:-—O lord Anando, we

have not despised, we have not despised the Dhamma, we

have not despised the Priesthood, we have not despised self, and

O lord Anando, we have not despised others; (but) we are

very unfortunate, and although we have a little merit from

having been initiated in this declared course of discipline,

yet we shall not be able, till the end of life, to complete the

perfect and pure Brahmachariya. Now, O lord Anando, may

we receive the cleric state, and the order of Upasampada, in

the presence of Bhagawa; and may we be permitted to pass

the first and last watches of the night in contemplation of the

revelation of the meritorious Dhamma, and of the orthodox and

wise Dhamma. It is good, O lord Anando, declare this to

Bhagawa.—Just so; the venerable Anando answered to the

Weséli Wajji Puttaka; and went to the place where Bhagawé

was, and having arrived, made known the matter to Bhagawa.

—It is difficult, O Anando: Tathdgaté has not the means cither

196 ‘BUDDHISM.

as regards the Wajji people or the Wajji Puttaka, of abrogating

the promulgation of the Paérdjika discipline as regards the

clerical body. Then Bhagaw4, for that cause and reason,

having delivered a Dhamma discourse, called the Bhikkhus

and said:—O Bhikkhus! if any Bhikkhu, through ignorance of

his imbecility with regard to the observance of the precepts,

is guilty of Methuna Dhamma, when he has come (for the

purpose of being ordained) is not worthy of being admitted to

the Upasampada order. Any one knowing his imbecility with

regard to the observance of the precepts, if he is guilty of

Methuna Dhamma, he is fit to be made Upasampada, when he

has come for it. And so, O Bhikkhus, receive this precept :—

If any Bhikkhu, through ignorance of his imbecility with

regard to the observance of the precepts, is guilty of Methuna

Dhamma with any beast, from the least to the greatest, he

incurs a Pardéjikaé fault, and becomes excommunicate.

The term any one is as follows :—A person of whatsoever

degree, of whatsoever race, of whatsoever name, of whatsoever

tribe, of whatsoever attainments, of whatsoever conduct, of

whatsoever ability, whether an elderly man, or a youth, or a

middle aged man ;—such an one is called any one.

mea

Relea sasy

r 4)

JOURNAL

LON BRANCH

OF THE

ROYAL: ASIATIC SOCIETY.

ee he EDITED BY

. TEE HONORARY SECRETARY.

{]

4 de

“ The design of the Society is to institute and promote enquiries into

the. History, Religion, Literature, Arts and Social condition of the present

and | fermer inhabitants of this Island, with its Geology, Mineralogy, ,its

Climate and Meteorology, its Botany and Zoology.” —RULES.

Price to Memters, per Number 2s. - -to Non-Memhe rs, 48.

ae Sy Copies are supplied! t to Booksellers at Home, ab ds.

A eb

r ae got Communications tntended fee, publication i the Journal must be for-

fe ss warded to the Secretary at least a fortnight before the assembly of

foie nee meee! Meeting at which they are to be «submitted.

aM! i / wy. Reaves .

pe | COLOMBOA™ oy.

PRINTED QT THES CEYLON

EIMES” OFFICE,

: §, we its

ea ea

3 : Bee & + Oe

\ } - d t Z

: or °° - = -

\ *

{ j '

j é t =

= yy

r &

= + «

os . i 5 n 7 ~

1 1 : ¢

; i 2: 3

Y 4 f =

t i j

{ 5S .

bei @

2s 5 s

»* i t

t ‘ 4

r x

= . ,

1 i

i i

5 x: t es

. 1 at

JOURNAL

OF THE

CEYLON BRANCH

OF THE

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.

1870—71.

COLOMBO:

PRINTED AT THE “CEYLON TIMES” OFFICE.

——=

1871,

bea tesp ec

eielay

CONTENTS.

On Methods of taking Impressions of Inscriptions.

Beemmeeiys Davids, CoC. 8. ..3-.0 2.02. --0c1bier trees

A Prose translation of the Introductory Stanzas

ene Kusa Jataka.”’ By Ioonel I. Dre, ©.C.S8...,...

Notes.on a Sannas. By /ionel &. Lee, Cc. C.s. ..

Notes on the Geological Origin of South-Western

Magen by Iiiugh. Newlle, BZ. 8.0... ccc. e eee eee ee

Inscription at Weligama W ihare: Text, Translation

anaeNotes. By TW. Tihys Davids, ©. C. 8. .0........2...

Dondra eae Norio? Bye dh SWe has

Darrds, Oni Ge SUNS pee otis ted ade Seeiccir aoe

On the Second species of Zosterop:

Ceylon. By W. V. Legge, Hon. See

oP)

inhabiting

Pht CONC) CE CCC AOR Cette eI

Further Notes on ae et Hae of | ape Be

By ton ST. LEG MV LYELL LON, Mag. € a ers eo

On various Birds of the i. estern Province. By

W. V. Legge, Hon. Sec

On the Origin ofthe Sri- Pada, or Sacred Foot-print

on the Summit of Adam’sPeak. By W. Skeen

The Romanized Text of the first five Chapters of

the Balavatara. By Lionel F. Lee, ¢.0°S...20..2 02.052 0000.

eee tte we ee eee ere OHH Seen seer sees eseeseeeese

Specimens of Sinhalese Proverbs. By L.d: Soyzu,

Mudaliyar ,

Translations of certain Documents, Family and

Historical, found in the possession of the Descendants

of Mons N. de Lanerolle, French Envoy to the Court

of Kandy. By LZ. Ludovici

Cece uwes Bes ae 8 E-O'O 6 8 0.6 S072 © e.6-w Boe 6

PAGE.

113

1°4

ERRATUM,

At page 52. Foot-note, —

for “500 feet” read “5,000 feet.”

ON METHODS OF TAKING IMPRESSIONS OF

INSCRIPTIONS.

Communicated by T. W. Davins, Esq.

Here are some ancient writings engraven upon rocks which poseth all that

see them.—nox, 7x Philalethes, p. 228

It is well-known that Ceylon is exceedingly rich in

old inseriptions, many of which are probably of great value,

and would, if deciphered, throw as great a flood of light on

Ceylon History as the Asoka inscriptions on that of India.

_ Their decipherment is not hopeless. It is true they are

graven in old and forgotten alphabets, but the sounds hidden

beneath the veil of these strange forms, are the sounds

of a language of which a great deal is already known, and

of which we are learning daily more and more. And as to

the forms themselves we are not hopelessly in the dark: we

know they are to be read from left to right, we know on

what principle the vowels are expressed, we know what are

the consonants to which the vowels give life. Several of

the more modern inscriptions have already been translated,

and inscriptions in cognate characters have been deciphered

in India.

Nothing however, can be done without the opportunity

of large comparison : and for this purpose the small number

of inseriptions in the Society’s Museum are almost useless, |

we therefore carnestly hope that those of our readers who feel

interest in these matters—and we hope that means all our

readers—will make and send us copies of the inscriptions in

their neighbourhood.

An eye copy must. be very carefully made to be of

much use, and it is often very laborious to make one at all:

but a friend to the good cause in London has been kind

enough to send us the following paper, of which we hope

that many will take advantage.

TO TAKE FAC-SIMILES OF INSCRIPTIONS, DECORA-

TIVE CARVINGS, éc.

FIRST METHOD.

If sufficient time be allowed to dry perfectly a few

sheets of paper. Take a sheet of any sort (a thick bibulous

paper is the best) and lay 2, previously damped, upon the

inscription ; it should then be pressed with the hand till it

enters into all the engraved letters; a good clothes brush

with a handle, struck hard upon the paper will com-

plete the operation; the paper should not be taken off

till at vs quate dry, when it should be carefully rolled up.

For greater safety, I have frequently laid a sheet of paper

pasted on the face, close down upon the preceding sheet,

‘while still damp, before it is removed from the inscription,

and beaten it down with the brush; if two or three pasted

sheets be thus laid down, you will have a thick impression,

which may, with care, be removed at once ; and when this is

quite dry, it may be rolled up, and put away with perfect

safety. JI have had some impressions taken in this way,

which I have kept for several years, they will bear any

amount of rough usage without damage.

SECOND METHOD.

Or a sheet of paper may be laid on the inscription, and

rubbed on the back with a piece of heel-ball, such as shoe-

makers use; or upon the first sheet, slightly damped, a

second sheet smeared over with lamp-black, may be laid, and

rubbed on the clean side with a smooth stone, piece of

smooth wood, or a billiard ball, or anything not so rough

as to tear the paper; two or three impressions may be taken

off at once if the inscription be at all deeply cut (as the

Uniyastic inscriptions usually are), by laying down first a

clean, and then a blackened sheet, with face downward, then

another clean sheet, with another blackened sheet, &c. &c.

I have taken six or eight impressions at once this way. If

you have not any lamp-black, you can make enough for the

purpose in a few minutes, by holding a dry and cold plate

over the flame of a lamp or candle.

This plan may be varied, according to circumstances, and

will be generally easy to an-unpractised person. i

A PROSE TRANSLATION OF THE INTRODUCTORY

STANZAS OF THE ‘‘ KUSA-JATAKA.”’

Communicated by LioneL F. Lez, Esq.

The following pages contain a literal prose translation

of the introductory stanzas of the Kusa-Jataka, one of the

Pansiyapanas Jataka.

| This ‘‘ Jataka’’ is said to have been translated from the

original Pali by Alajiyawanna Mohotal,a. D. 1610, (vide

James De Alwis’ Sidat Sangarawa, p.p. ccvii.—ccviil.), and

is deemed one of the finest specimens of poetry in the lan-

guage, although Alajiyawanna can hardly be defended

from the charge of plagiarism, which Mr. De Alwis proves

against him. Not only is the versification and metrical

arrangement of this work admirable ; the phraseology

and metaphor are as much to be admired. The translation

of the whole of the poem in the Society’s Journal would

usurp too much space, and I therefore submit the introduc-

tory stanzas for perusal, as a fair specimen of the whole

work.

Stanza I.

I worship the supreme sage, teacher of the three

worlds, who is as a sun in the midst of the gross darkness

of heathendom ; as the night opening flower-like moon to his

followers ; as a jewel of virtue in a great ocean.

IT.

I ever worship the inestimable doctrines preached to

the whole world, by him who, when he had explained the

happy joys of Nirwana, and torn out by the roots all the

evil faculties of his mind, became Buddha.

IIT.

I worship the great company of priests, which bestows

tranquillity on the world, a vessel of virtue, and a field of

merit, and which has given its lotus-like feet to the head of

Brahmas, gods, and men.

IV.

May the gods, Brahma, Sakkra, Vishnu, Ganiswara,

Iswara, Kateragama, the Sun, Balabaddra, and the king of

Nagas, bless the world of beings with peace.

Vo £0, XT.

_In the womb of this world who can be compared to

Visakawa, this woman, of full and blameless faith—faith of

the three gems—the famous Meniksami, gentle, of gloriously

beauteous form, her forehead marked with pure saffron,

of high lineage, who, as the softly flowering, quivering,

golden creeper encircles the trees of paradise, turns herself

round the chief minister Attanayaka, whose fame is pub-

lished in the world, and whose joy and honor have been in-

creased by his pleasant service at the beautiful feet of king

Singha, banner-bearer of the vase of the sun, who can

equal her—granddaughter of a chief minister—pure child of

parents, pure as milk in a white shelled chank, sweet of

speech, a goddess in her splendour, grand-daughter of that

SepalaAdikar—a holy man of merchant-caste—who received

the premiership from the excellent monarch, king of men,

Buwanekabahu, whom the goddess of victory adorned with

a sword, and who hearkens to the doctrines and preaching of

Buddha, whose feet are on his head ?

ml bea

She always honestly observes the five precepts, and

on holy days the eight precepts; as carefully as the blue-

jay guards her eggs, and the yak his tail.

XIII.

She never ceases giving her mind, her attention, and

her wealth to Buddha, his doctrines, and his great priest-

hood. Who, therefore, in the world is equal to her ?

XIV.

This woman was created beautiful and without defect,

by Brahma, after he had created the goddess of beauty and

the bride of Cupid, and had seen their defects.

XV.

~ As the ocean, into which all rivers and lakes fall, never

overleaps its banks, even so she in whom all honor and

wealth centred never, as long as she lived, became proud.

: XVI. |

Her mind was like the wishing gem, her eyes were blue

as sapphires. Therefore was she rightly named Meniksami.

AVIT.

She, long-eyed, falters not when she reads Elue, Pali,

and Sanskrit, and halts not in the midst, but only at the

end of a period.

XVIII.

Her locks are dark as the storm cloud; her eyebrows

arched. as the rainbow ; her face clear as the full cloudless

moon. Her motherly kindness overspreads the world.

XITXK.—XX.

At the invitation of this woman, who anxiously desines

to hear the good old story regarding Buddha, and at her

entreaty, I will try my best to rehearse the story of his pro-

found virtue, although my efforts may be as unsuccessful

as those of a mosquito trying to sting Mahameru.

XXI.

Give me your attention then, oh! Pundits, and hearken

to the great virtue of Buddha, and correct any error in this

work of mine !

NOTES ON A SANNAS.

by Lionen F. Liz, Esq., C.C.S. Hon. Szcy.

It is well-known that the kings of Kandy were in the

habit of bestowing upon their favourites particular lands, as

well as the services of tenants of royal villages, by grants

engraven on copper. |

A description of such a grant, or Sannas, upon which

are claimed large extents of land in the Four Korales, may

prove of interest to the readers of this Society’s Journal.

The Sannas of which I write is remarkable for beauty of

workmanship, as well as on account of the engravings on it,

of the figures of a lion and a leopard.

The plate of copper is about fifteen inches long and four

broad, and its thickness is such that it cannot easily be bent.

Round the plate on both sides runs an ornamental

border of silver.

On each side isa margin. In the margin on the one

side are figures of the sun and moon, and between them the

royal sign ‘‘ Sri’; on the other side are figures of the lion

and leopard.

The accompanying sketch shews the figures of the size

of the original. |

The interpretation of the figures of the sun and moon

is manifestly “as long as the sun and moon endure.”’ :

The lion represents either the royal lion-race, or the

Sinhalese people.

Various interpretations have been assigned to the figure

of the leopard. The most remarkable seems to be that

the figure stands for the word “ diwi,’’ signifying “life’’ as

well as “ leopard.”’

The interpretation then of the four figures would be

‘as long as the Sun and Moon endures; and as‘long as life

remains to the Royal Lion race.”’

The Sri. or royal sign; is-of gold, aud'so.are portions of

the other figures..

The Sannas bears date of Saka, 1665.

The: subjoined translation will, I hope, convey a fair

idea of the language employed in documents of this nature.’

‘The command issued from the grandeur, and light of

“divine knowledge, and benevolence of our most excellent,

‘most gracious, and most: high lord, anointed. king of all:

‘men.’

‘Whereas Wijeyasundara Rajakarunayaka Herat Mudi-

‘yannehe has from his earliest youth remained most true

‘and faithful to the most high royal family ; and has also

* contracted an auspicious marriage in obedience to our royal

‘instructions, with the view of perpetuating hereafter the

‘Ksatriya caste,.of which the line has remained unbroken,

‘ since we established oursovereignty over men at Sriwardana-

‘pura, formerly Senkada Sila, the most prosperous and

‘wealthy of all cities; and whereas Wijeyasundara Raja-

‘karunayaka Herat Mudiyannehé is descended from the Brah-

‘min Sri-vanea Chandraya, who was a descendant from the

‘ Brahmins summoned: from Dambadiwa by the King Dapu-.

_ fhessenam, and was afterwards called by his majesty Bhuwa-.

‘néka bahu who reigned at Dambadéniya, after having built

¢ the temple of Vishnu at Alut-nuwara and removed there the

‘ divine image from the city of the Gods, and was appointed

‘ Basnaya kaNilamaof the Maha-dewala,as instructed by Vish-

‘nu ina dream,after having received a grant of land and a she

“elephant and various offices of state, together with lands at

; B

‘ Lewuke, and having married a lady of the family of Wida-

‘gama Terunnanse, a favorite of the great and victorious

‘ Sri’-prakama-Bahu on account of his faithful services, and

‘ therecipient of mary emoluments and offices, lived at Lewuke

“to be [ Here follow the names of the lands and their bound.

‘ aries| possessed by Mudiyannehé and his children and grand-

* children from generation to generation free of all taxes and

* tolls.’

This copper sannas was granted in the year of Saka

1665, in the month Medindina on the 5th Wednesday after the

full moon, Mars being in the ascendant.

ef i

eee es

haf = in |

HIS

2 ot

We = 3

“Se Feat 3

Me { (9 ae ve

Cas ge”

SES ge G

soap

Hos #

¢ ,

i, Air

1 3

ae Nas

FIGURES ON A SANNAS for lands in the Four Korales.

NOTES ON THE GEOLOGICAL ORIGIN OF SOUTH

WESTERN CEYLON, TOGETHER WITH ITS

RELATION TO THE REST OF THE ISLAND.

By Hueu Nevitt, Esq., F. Z. S.

Let us for a moment:fancy ourselves‘on the summit of

one of the highest hills of the Central Province, and allowthe

eye to wander south and west over thestretch of land between

us and the sea; weare at once struck by the continuous and

step-like succession of hills and mountains, gradually rising

one over the other, from Galle to Pedrotallagalla; hills

rising too from deep time-worn valleys, which descend

‘similarly, in equal steps one after the other, with the heights

‘that overhang them. To the east and north the eye will

rest for awhile on similar hilly lines, till they vanish in the

distance, into the vast forests of the Northern and Eastern

Provinces, stretching to the horizon. s

There is a popular idea that the district we have thus

seen, was raised in its present form by some vast subterranean

effort, protruding at one time the masses of rock into the

form we still behold them. Ishall endeavour to shew that

the probabilities are, that the whole is the result of a slow and

uniform elevation, still going en around us, as it did in the

days when our highest mountain was a rock at the bottom of

some vast secondary ocean ; but it must be premised, my re-

marks cannot be considered as conclusive; on the contrary, as

our knowledge of this much-neglected subject increases, I

confidently expect to have in some respects to modify them.

I shall further shew, how this slow elevatory force is,

by reason of its gradual effects, itself, destructive of the

evidence of this change of the earth’s surface, but it is not to

‘be expected that the ordinary proofs of marine origin should

~ be found far away from the coast line of to-day. Hence the

proofs become facts, as regards the present coast zone, and

analogy as we-proceed inland.

Ifmy arguments be correct, this district is one of dolo~

mitic and submarine formation, modified and changed by

secondary and tertiary elevation and denudation, into its

present form; while from the denuded state of its strata,

we may conclude it was raised prior to the area of the

Jaffua formation, and by its sheltering influence saved that

deposit from the corroding action of coast waves. How

fax this theory will apply to the similar districts in the

Peninsula of India, it is not my intention to trace here;

inasmuch as I have not access to any work on the formation

of that country in a general sense, and containing details

sufficient to justify my considering them in connection with

our own, but this is of little importance, as the present paper

professes te be nothing more than an introduction of the

question among our circle. :

The general features of the south- western coast are a suc-

cession of rocky headlands, alternating with sweeping sandy

bays, fringed by long rows of cocoanuts, while broad man-

grove-lined lagoons are here and there drying up into sour

sterile marshes, dotted with the screw pine and kihila tree,

drained by streams of brackish water, and choked by bars of

sand.

Out to sea, we now and then find small rocky islets facing

the deeper bays, and flat coral reefs breaking the wash of the

south-western monsoon, while everywhere at varying depths,

rocky masses abound as far out as the fisherman’s craft can

tracethem. Further inland we find the rocky headlands as hil-

docks, the lagoon drying into flat open waste land, known as

Maana, or, as its-salts work off:and the black mud sweetens,

forming fertile tracts of paddy land, while the cocoanut is

‘replaced by the jak and kitul.

In this zone we shall find large fossiliferous deposits,

‘the appearance of which gradually lose their leading features

‘as we-advance:a very short way inland, until within a mile oer

‘so of the present coast they cease to be traceable; where

they disappear, we come upon valuable deposits of plum-

‘bago, which seem to extend from within a short distance

‘of the coast throughout the district. Still further inland

‘we find that the paddy fields, as they rise-step by step with

the hills.at whose feet they lie, are drying up more and more,

until, as‘we reach the Kandyan kingdom, they become replaced

‘either by patinas or bare epen glades in the jungle-clad

country and valleys here and there still cultivated with

paddy by the system-of terraces. The proof of this gradual

transformation by elevation may be capitulated thus :—

‘evidence from coral reefs and lagoons, fossils, products of

the soil, and rocks.

Adl along the coast, at intervals, we find submerged

‘-banks.or reefs of living corals, while a little nearer the shore

are half live ones, and again along the present coast line

are dead banks, continued inland till within a quarter of a

mile of the coast they lose their organic appearance. Now,

Mr. Darwin and others, have well proved that corals cannot

exist out of .a certain depth peculiar to their species ; and as

cur corals are the same in all these belts of ceast, it follows

that probably a change of level has killed some and is des-

troying the others, for by no other means can we account for

their death.

Again, as we find first living, then bleached, and lastly

fossilized corals and shells in those beds near the sea, and

observe them gradually falling to decay as we advance inland,

we must believe that their death, by change of level, is

attributable to elevation, and not depression. We have thus

established by its organic forms the slow elevation of a zone

bordering the present high-water line, but the microscopist

alone can tell whether in the various inland marls any trace

of marine origin can be found, to prove that they are

formed from similar decomposed materials.

Now these fossils are of existing species (for the most

part, ifnot entirely), and are of such mollusca as we generally

find on coral reefs at this day; for though I have failed to

find many on the present south-western coast, yet I have

specimens of them from other parts of the Island. As we

look at any series dug near the sea we find traces of colour

on Nassze and others, which are in good condition, but as we

advance inland we find them gradually more and more

corroded, until we cease to recognize them at all within a

mile of the coast.

These fossiliferous coral marl deposits, or, if we prefer

the name, these decayed reefs and lagoon beds, all occur in

open places where vegetation has not yet penetrated deep into

them ; wherever it has, the fossils seem to corrode at ence,

and we fail at first sight, to recognize marine origin. Thus

the beds of lagoons contain the most perfect shells,

&c., sedge covered marshes rank next, and wherever trees

begin to grow fossils disappear. In no place are any such

tertiary deposits many ‘yards deep, and’ under all suitable

circumstances they are penetrable by vegetation.

Now aswe find the fossils only in Lagoons, &c., and

lose them gradually when these get overgrown, so we establish

the connection between reefs and their lagoons, and again

between the brackish lagoons—Sir Emerson Tennant calls

“Gobbs’’—and the marsh, losing it in maana or dry

grassland. But as we proceed up the country we can at a

glance trace by the vegetation, &c., the very gradual change

of maana into patina, and as we follow coral to maana so

we proceed from maana to patina, and the link is complete,

although the latter partis graduated to an almost inappre-

ciable extent. Thus we see the improbability of any fossils

being found far inland, owing to their rapid decomposition,

as the elevation of the ground enables vegetation to encroach.

on the hollow they were originally preserved in.

Again, in the case of the mountains, we have no diffi-

culty in mentally stepping from one hill to another, until

we reach the sea, and stride down with equal steps beneath

its waves, and nothing is wanting in this self-evident gra-

dation of elevation. We find also, that asa rule the hills rise

at an uniform rate one over the other, from the rock on the

beach to Pedrotallagalla; of course the further inland we

go, the more the wear of ages has escarped the rocks and

scooped out the valleys, a natural effect of long-continue

elevation. | |

‘Wherever the receding sea leaves an elevated coast line,

the cocoanut and a few other trees at once establish them-

selves, to the exclusion of all others. Now the cocoanut is

peculiar and worthy of notice in the way it roots itself, not

deeply, for the wear of the breakers allows no deep deposit

over the rock, as the beach rises above their influence, but

eramped as they are to a few feet of soil, one

tree’s growth so permeates the surrounding earth, as to des-

troy its marine character, and convert it into a dry veg: table —

soil, capable, as I believe it was not before, of supporting

forest, and to such an extent dvesit alter it, that when it

has lasted two generations on one spot, the soil on moister

places may be dug, and is, to a great extent, and burned:as

peat in lime kilns. After it has perfected this function, it dies

out, and as the land rises, is succeeded by other vegetation.

Near the sea we find no forest grows on lands other than:

corresponding to that covered by the cocoanut and other

coast plants along the sea bord; and as we proceed inland, —

we find that soil unsuited for these plants remains bare and

grass covered, till it becomes patina land on some moun.

tain side.

The economical function of these coast plants &c., may

be merely owing to their seizing on ground fitted for trees,

but it seems probable that they themselves are the means of

so chemically altering the soil as to enable it to sustain forest

vegetation, while the lagoon and hollow estuary, on which

they never grew, preserve through all stages the character

of open grassy glades or plains.

The wonderful provision we have in this special vege-

tation, must be felt by any native cultivator, when he re-

flects that otherwise a years fallow would so choke his field

with chena, as to render it difficult to plough, and thus year

after a year his arable land would lessen, untill his descend-

ants ceased to till the ground at all. Nor were it not for

this would grassy tracts be left open for wild beasts to be

chased, or cattle to be herded.

By the presence of fossils, therefore, we adduce the fact

that the sea coast is being slowly elevated, and we also find

that within a mile or so of the coast they become de-

stroyed as vegetation penetrates the shallow strata ; further,

that trees grow on such spots as might be covered, on emerg-

ing from the sea, by cocoanuts, and not on those unsuited

for such vegetation, and therefore the absence of fossils

inland is no argument against the theory adduced. Again we

may also make a general deduction of some value : viz., that

in such deposits fossils are not preserved in strata perme-

able to vegetation.

By analogy we can see the gradual change deseribed

from the zone where fossils become totally transformed,

and undistinguishable, to that of our highest mountains ;

and I think we may conclude it is possible, and probable,

that those peaks are rocks raised from a former sea, despite

the absence of fossils, undisputably establishing it; and we

ean at a glance see how uniform has been its upward force,

if these elevations occurred from an ocean bed.

Now, as we find a gradually raised terrace-like country

stretching south and south-west, and descending abruptly

north and north-east, so we may safely conclude this slow

elevatory force acted from south-west to north-east.

As the north-east elevation proceeded, it is clear from

the peculiarly detached and sheitered situation of the re-

mains of magnesian strata, that a considerable deposit was

once extended over the land, but long since denuded as it

became gradually exposed to the action of the waves ; and

since we have no intermediate form, between this and the |

formation arising from its decomposition and that of the

gneiss, that is laterite, and the clays and plumbago found

with it, we may safely consider the land began to assume

its present form while a secondary ocean was depositing the

strata of the neighbouring continent.

| - C

Of the Jaffna formation and fossiliferous limestone

I know nothing personally, but from descriptions of its

fossils I confidently believe it to be contemporaneous with

Indian rocks, such as those of Pondicherry and Arrialoor.

Under any circumstances there is no doubt it is

far more recent in its origin, than the district we treat of,

and probably originated as an Island, when the sheltering -

, influence of the Central Province protected the intermediate

plain from the wash of a secondary ocean.

So far as I have had opportunity of examining this plain,

west and north of Kornegalle, there is no doubt it is in

a great measure the combined result of a gradual:elevations

and a rapid silt from the sea, as is shewn by the sand for-

mations daily increasing at Hambantota on the south-east,

and Arippo on the north-west, which doubtless result

from the decortication of the submarine formation of the

south-west coast. Hence it seems to me, the district we

specially treat of, is primary land of secondary and tertiary

elevation. The secondary Jaffna formation subsequently |

origmated as a late secondary or tertiary island, while later

than both there gradually rose the tertiary alluvial plains

of the Northern, North-Western and Eastern Provinces,

connecting and joining the two Islands of Lanka and Jaftna.

Thus then, [conclude that the district in question, formed

the nucleus of Ceylonin its present form, and is, therefore the

oldest part of the existing land; whether the Jaffna limestone

was subsequently elevated by a continuation of the same force,

it 1s not my purpose to enter into here, but my own surmises

are, that we there border on a separate region or tract of

elevation, totally distinct from the one we are describing, and

identical with that of Northern India.

To sum up, I have been endeavouring to prove south-west

‘Ceylon is not the remains of a vast Lanka gradually becoming

submerged, as the popular idea—referred to by Sir Emerson

‘Tennant—has fancied, but that south-west Ceylon and its

‘coffee-growing hills are an area of gradual elevation from

the sea bottom, and that as this elevation proceeded, so

the magnesian coating was almost entirely worn away,

and the formations of Arippo and Hambantota, subse.

‘quently created, protecting the limestone of Jaffna from

corroding forces. ‘’o support this view, we may proper-

ly cite our present molluscous fauna, since it has

afforded by its shells, the very keystone to geological

antiquity of allied strata. Here we findan extraordinary

confirmation of my views. Almost endemic in the south-

west of Ceylon are the genera Catanlus, Tanalia, Aulopoma,

‘Cyathopoma, Corilla, and Acavus ; while we find at Jaffna a

‘distinct fauna, almost identical with that of the opposite

-coast of India, of Helix, Bulimus, &c., which has extended

here and there into the plains that separate the north and

south of the Island; while, radiating from Kurunegalla are

traced forms of Aulopoma, Cyclophorus and Acavus, which,

however in their turn fail as a rule to extend their range into

the northern formation, thereby leaving this intermediate

-district one with no peculiar features, but a compound of the

other two; Kandyan on its southern, and Jaffna on its

northern limits. i

To appreciate the importance of rightly determining the

period of elevation of our district, we have only to consider

the attention elicited by Mr. Darwin’s views, even from those

who deny his theory.

If ours be a district of existence as land of a secondary

period, then its molluscous fauna must be the type from

which, were Mr. Darwin’s theory correct, that of Jaffna,

North India and Europe, have been developed.

Again to the agriculturist,. what commercial importance

may be derived from these facts, simple as they are. For

instance, Coffee: grows only on limited localities, to the exclu-

sion of others. If geology can prove that these are all of one

contemporaneous and similar origin, the discovery of similar

eoeval districts weuld be a signal for immediate enterprise in

the cultivation of those products known to succeed on the al-

ready cultivated. tracts of that age : and, while on this subject,

I may mention that in two of the coffee districts of the East,

Travancore and: Seychelles,. the molluscous fauna is allied to

ours, indeed the former isin many instances: hardly distin-

guishable, if distinct at all. Java presents also striking

analogies, and it probably may. be proved. of similar and

coeval origin with our district.

In. conclusivn,. I am conscious that this paper is but

‘incomplete, and itis impossible for me to avoid many and

great errors-on a subject hitherto untouched, and only to be

argued from analogy and not direct proofs; but I trust my.

present effort will lead: to more perfect ones from other

members, so-that ultimaiely we may more surely, know, by

eracing geological and zoological limits combined, which of

eur distinct types of fauna is the oldest, and how far traces.

of development from the older to the newer are still to be

found

KALPENTYN .

CHILAW

NEcomsBo.

TRINCOMALEE.

ATTICALOA.

MAP OF CEYLON ilusirst ng the Geological! Origin cf tho South-West portion of the Tslind,

21.

INSCRIPTION AT WALIGAMA WIHARE : TEXT,

- TRANSLATION, AND NOTES. .

By a -W. Ruyvs: Davipg, 2C. Cas.

There are two Wihares at Weeligama, the half-way

village between Galle and Matara, one called Agra Bhodi—

a fine wihare on the top of a hill, whose founder is unknown,

and which has a Gal-sannas of very modern date: ihe:

other is called Weligama Gane Wihare, and is on the plain.

There is a very ancient Bé tree andlarge Dagoba at this place,

but fora Wihare only a small building of modern date. This’

would correspond exactly to the wording of the sannas now

enclosed, which speaks not of a wihdre but only of a Sak

mana or covered corridor for Priests to walk in—correspond.

_ ing to the colonnades of more ancient times, and the crypts

and cloisters in medixval buildings.

This Sakmana is further proved to have been a place of

importance, for the name of the village Hakmana is derived ~

from it, and the following inscription is on a stone built into

| the wall round the dagoba. |

Text,

Sri. siri Sangabo siri Bhuwanaika bahu_ chakrawartti

swimin wahansefa sawana hawurudu, kalu Parakrama nam

mantriswarayanan mehekarawunta kuli dikerew me sanghika

sakmana pirimasa weedasitina de-namakata nirantarawa siwu

pasayak di, satara digin wadana sanghaya wahansetat dawasak

pasaya dena lesaéa, ranata gena Iu kumbura mul bijuwaila

das amune da pala-dé-pol-wattat wahal-dasa- denat sarak-

yalat wata-pandan kotali pan-woeta dolikinan telisan kotfa

mawula patfa-hani-cetirili manikaiya-madulu me 4diwa me

sdnghika pirikarat lawa, ma cetikala Bhuwanaika Bahu raj-

| D

yurauwan wahanseta pinpinisa karawu me Sakmana nohot

raja kula wadana wihdreya pawatina tek, kal idiriye ceti wena —

sat purusayan wisin nirawul kara pawatwe swargga moksha

Sean soediya a

TRANSLATION,

In the sixth year of the revered Lord Rinperor Sirk

Sangabo Siri Bhuwanaika Bahu, the minister named Kalu

Bardkarama having given wages to the workmen, and having

given in perpetuation the four gifts to the two priests who

reside economising in this (cloister) common to the priest-

hood; and also—in order that the gifts might be given for a

day to the reverend priesthood coming from the four direc-

tions—(having given) ten amunas sowing extent of paddy.

field which he had bought and a fruit-bearing cocoanut

garden, and ten slaves, and a yoke of. oxen, and round

torches and goblets with spouts, and a row of. lamp stands

(for illumination) and palankeens, and leather, and cushions,

and mattresses, and cloths woven with silk and hemp to

spread over (seats for guests), and tubs. and iron basins,

together with other things of this kind proper for the priest-

hood————————1t_ 1s proper for all good men who in

the future shall be, to maintain without dispute this

cloister or wihare improved by the king’s family, which,

(cloister) has been made to add merit to the revered,

King Bhuwanaika Bahu who brought me up, and (thus)

to obtain the bliss of release in heaven.

NOTES,

1. Sirt Sangabo Sirti Bhuwanaika Bahu. It is not

‘known which Bhuwanaika Bahu this was: but judgme

from the form of the letters it must be either the sixth, who

came to the throne, according to Turnour in 1464, but ac-

cording to Budugunalankara (quoted in Alwis’s Sidat San-

garawa, p. 92 and 200) in 1469: or the seventh who came to the

throne in 1534, and was shot by accident by a Portuguese

sportsman. |

2 Chak ‘War iti, ‘* He, the acc of whose eh iot roll

unhindered over the known world’’ means in Sinhalese simply

overlord, in contra:distinction to the semi-independent rulers

of provinces to whom the title rajjuruwo could be appled.

3. Kalu Parékrawma is not mentioned in any of the

books. . ;

4. Sirwu pasayal, viz: clothing, food, medicine, and

‘residence, see note 1 on the Dewanagala Inscription, in the

Friend, for May 1870, p. 59.

_ 9&. Wadana must be for a Can any other

instance of this be quoted, wadana being used below in a dif-

ferent sense? The whole expression means of course “ to all

_ priests on their Journeys wherever they come from.” Mr. J.

Alwis says ‘‘ poring to usage the finite verb takes @ and its

other forms a.’ ie |

9 Mr: de Soyza, the Chet ee ae says that wadana is

¢he classical form of wadina, and is always used in books.

— 6. Ranata the effort of self-denial in not taking the field

for nothing, i is doubtless of the essence of the merit which the

minister so diplomatically transfers below. to his master,

hoping—who can doubt it—to retain it also for himself.

Such a touch of life makes one wish to know the fur ‘ther

history of Kalu Pardkrama Bahu, or, to give the name an.

English dress, of the “black strong i’-th’arm.”’

7. -Wahal Tamil or Sinhalese? :

8. Wate pandan the exact article meant is not certain.

24.

9. Kotald Clough gives only the form kotale, the plural

of which would be kotala; the vessel seems to be like a small

round teapot. | oho ce

10. Doli-Kinan the Sanskrit form is dolé4, though

doli is mentioned in Sabda kalpa druma, and the Anglo-

Indian word ‘‘dooley’’ agrees with this; Clough gives délawa

as the more usual form. Kénaza is the royal palankeen

with crooked bambu, the use of which was so zealously guard-

ed. Pybus feelingly complains (at page 72 of his ‘‘ Mission to

the King of Kandy’ in 1762) of being forced to use a

“ dooley.’’—See also p. 89.

11. Welesan means probably the leather called patkada

on which the priests prostrate themselves. Mr. de Soyza,

Chief Translator to Government, has favoured me with the

derivation of this word—from talanawa, to beat, and san, skin.

12. Mé-ula, the word ulé is obsolete, and not given in

the Dictionaries ; What is its derivation ?

13. Pata-hand. Where were these clothes made ; they

cannot have been of native manufacture ? ? |

14. Madulu. I am not sure what this means, It is well

known that priests used signet rings, but madulla is not

the right word for them. Madulla, according to Clough,

means a circle, a ring, an are, circumference in general.

Probably the word is a mistake for maudu, a bason. Can

any passage be quoted i in id madulla is intentionally

used for maudu ?

215, Swarga.moksha sounds more Hindu than Buddhist.

Nirvana has no deep. reality for the Sinhalese mind. See

the concluding paragraph in my article on Sinhalese Burials,

in the Ceylon Friend for Sept. 1870.

Galle, August 9th, 1870.

DONDRA INSCRIPTION, No. 1, TEXT, TRANSLA:

TION AND NOTES.

By T./W. Ruyvs Davips, C.C.S.

This inscription was formed on an upright sab of gran-

ite very much resembling a gravestone, and standing under

the cocoanut palms on the sea shore at Dondra ina private

land, which was fast yielding to the encroachments of the sea.

On some rocks in the surf the villagers said there were more

letters, but I was not able to discover any—especially as my

time was limited, and I was obliged to be satisfied with pre-

serving the stone itself—which by the kind permission of the

owner of the land I was enabled to remove to a place of safety.

Probably the stone has not been noticed by any Euro.

pean before, for of the two stones mentioned by Forbes* one

is In my possessiont and the other has been completely de-

faced by the ignorant priests, who seemed. to have considered

that the stone was placed there opportunely by Vishnu, for

them to heap jungle round to burn.

The translation of the inscription will Sachi creel but

who shall explain its curiously abrupt termination? for it

ends in the middle of a line, in the middle of the sentence, and

almost at the top of the second side of the stone, the whole

of the side having evidently been smoothed for inscription !

Itis also extremely strange—and worthy of allthe greater

attention, that this is not the only instance in which such a

discrepancy oecurs—thatin the year 1432 of Saka, whichis1510

of owr era, the reigning Cakrawarti or overlord (as given

* Hleven Years in Ceylon, I., 178.

7 After many hours of fruitless labour more than half of the ins-

-cription on this stone, which is in very bad preservation, has become

clear. It is not, as stated by Forbes, by Parakrama Bahu the Great,

but dates from about 1400.

in Turnou?’s list)* was not Sango Bo Wijaya Bahu who caine

to the throne in 1527, but. his brother Dharma Parakrama

Bahu, in whose reign Huropeans first landed in Ceylon.

It can scarcely be disputed that unless this diser epancy

can be satisfactorily explained away, our present dates must

yield to the authority of this undoubtedly contemporaneous

record.

Text.

: Sun. Moon.

1. Swasti sri suddha saka warusha

2. Ek dahas sara siyade —

3. Tis wannehi raja poemini

4, Swasti sri maha sammata

5. Paramparanuyata suriya

6. Wanshabhijata sri iankadhipa

7. tisrimat siri Sanga—Bo _

8. sri Wijaya-bahu cakrawatti

9. SwdAmin wahanseta sata

10. rawannen matu awurudu

11. Posona awawiseniya —

12. Dewinuwarehi Nagarisa- nila :

13. Kowilata palamu peena poewoet

14, ten Parawasara kumburu

15. Mul bijuwata wisi amunak

16. Ha Nawadtinne Pategama

17. Na Kumburu bijuwata pas amuna

18. kha ata pattu drdcea

19. wen sarasa kotoe? petumalun

20. Batgama pasada salasmen

* Appendix to Mahawansa, p. 67.

Zi. Agayata ceragana doen Parawasara

22. Cituluwu tan dewiyanta pujé

23. Puna sakara akhandhawa pawat

24. Wana lesata salaswa raja raja-

25. Mahamatyadinta sa nayaka

96. Toen dammakata teen etulu—

27. Wange

TRANSLATION.

THe RoYAL SIGNS; SUN AND Moon.

In the year 1432, of the auspicious, revered and

correct Saka in the fourth year of the auspicious Lord of

Ceylon, the fortunate Siri Sangabo sri Wijaya Bahu, born -

in the family of the Sun, descended from the line of the

Royal auspicious and fortunate Maha Sammata, in the fifth

day of the dark half of the month Poson, granting to the Naga-

risa Nila (Vishnu) temple in Dondra twenty amunas sowing |

extent of the fields in Nawadunne and Pategama, and the

produce of Batgama, where the Atupatto Ar achchi made the

dam, having eranted (all this) so that it should remain for

ever in the game manner as the places bought for money

and now included in Parawasara, were offered to the god.—

Let all Kings and Chiefs and other ministers and Chief Priests

and Priests and . an Ng etary emer tie

NOTES.

1. Parawdsara is now called Parawehera; Nawadunne

is called nd ottunne ; Batgama and Pategama have - retained

their o!d names.

2. Yuperwmdlun is what the letters appear to be, but

the whole line is very difficult to read, and this word has

quite baffled discovery. Sarasa occurs in Scela Lihini San-

dese (v. 82 of Mr. Macready’s edition) for-tank, but it is spelt

Sarasa. The word could also mean ‘‘ ornamented.”

8. Puna (line 23) is quite clear, but must surely be a

mistake of the mason for wund.

4. Aréeca, line 18, is quite clear, nd seems also to

be a mistake for A’raccé.

29"

On thie second Species of ZOSTEROPS * inhabiting Ceylon:

By W. V. LEGGE, Esq., F. ZS. Hon: Sec: B.A.8. (C.B.}:

The only mention, that I can find, of the other ““ White

Eye’ or Hill Tit inhabiting Ceylon, is in Layard’s Notes,

“« Annals of Natural History’’ No. Ixx., page 267, under the »

head of Z. Annulosus, Swainson ; he remarks that Kelaart

found it in the hills, but that he (layard) doubts its

distinctness from the common bird Z. Palpebrosus, Temm.

A glance, however, at the bird must, I think, convince even

the casual observer. that it isa distinct species; besides the

difference in coloration, it is a larger bird than its low-coun-

try relative, has altogether different notes, and differs from it”

in its habits.. Since reading my note on this bird before the

general meeting of the 7th November, based ona speci-

men presented last year to the -Society’s Museum by Mr.

_ Holdsworth, I have had the good fortune, during a tour in the

Central Province,. of finding that it is widely distiibuted

throughout the Hill districts down to an elevation, in some

places, of 2,800 feet. I observed it in Pusselawa, Dimbula,.

the Knuckles district, on Rambodde pass, and near Nuwera.

Eliya, in some of which places it is very numerous. .

It affects the high jungle as well as the wooded

nullahs intersectine the hill patinas, and as far as my obser-

vation extends, I find that it does not usually associate

in large flocks, as does Z. Palpebrosus, but is generally

seen either singly or two. or three together, searching for

its food, in the active manner peculiar to its genus, among

the tops of low jungle bushes or in the lower branches

_ *® Since writing the above, I hear from Mr. Holdsworth, who

has lately sent askin of this bird to England, that he has identified

it as a new species, peculiar to Ceylon, and that he proposes to

callit Zosterops Ceylonenszs. Yn my formor M. S$. S. note, submitted

for publication in this journal, 1 had fully described the bird, but

30°

of trees. J only once met with a large flock, and this was-

in a valley in the Knuckles Ranges, at an elevation of about

5,000 feet. I was attracted by a peculiar sparrow-like-

chirp over -head, and on looking up, perceived numbers of

these birds in the extremities of the lateral’ branches:

of the trees above me; they were flitting actively. from one

spot to another, uttering in concert the note that had be-.

trayed their presence: This was the first time that I had

heard this note, the usual one being a very remarkable sound.

impossible to syllabise, but reminding one of the noise pro-.

duced by placing ‘a blade of grass between the thumbs and.

blowing through them.

The following are the dimensions ofan individual procured’

in the Knuckles district : Male, total length 4'8’; tail 1:7’:

wing “8; tarsus °7"; mid toe and claw °5’; bill'to gape °6"5.

bill -at front 9-20"; iris reddish brown; bill dark horn.

colour, base of under mandible light leaden ; tarsi and feet.

dusky bluish. Specimens from Dimbula, where the bird is —

very common, and those presented last year by Mr. Holds..

worth to the Society’s Museum, from the neighbourhood of”

Nuwara Hliya, have the bill 1-20" longer ; ‘the. head, cheeks

-and breast darker, the colour descending much lower over.

the latter part and the tail feathers not barred. It is, there-.

fore, just possible that there may be two. distinct. species

as, besides the difference in coloration, the sparrow hke

chirp seemed peculiar ‘to the flock which I found in the.

Knuckles district and, on other occasions when my atten-.

tion. was directed ‘to the bird with the longer bill, I have.

only been able to detect the peculiar note-above described.

{have expunged the description, after it had already gone to press,.

as Mr. Holdsworth informs me, that having drawn attention ‘to the.

bird in England, “he wishes to describe it himselé in the Proc. of the:

Zool. Sec. of sa

| 3h

FURTHER NOTES ON THE ORNITHOLOGY

| : OF CEYLON.

‘By Hucn Nevit, Eso, M. R. A. 8. (Ceylon) F. Z. §.

While travelling lately in the Central Province I was

‘much surprised to hear and see a large brown Owl,*Huhua

Nipalensis Hodgson, similar to, but very distinct from the

Bacha-muna or Fish owl, Ketupa Ceylonensis, Gmel, ‘This

bird, not hithérto recorded from Ceylon, was first, I be-

lieve, discovered by Mr. Blighe of Kandy, who showed me a

‘dried skin, obtained in that neighbourhood. It would

‘seem to be more crepuscular in habit than Ketupa, and

to replace it in the higher districts, the latter though com-

mon among the lower hills, as far as the Sea, not bein

‘as yet known to frequent any elevation over 4,500 feet.

During my recent residence at Kalpentyn and Putlam,

Thave had-occasion frequently to cross and recross the large

lagoon of that District, and on one occasion I recognised, by

its long tail, the white Boatswain Bird, Phaeton candidas,

Brisson, hovering over head. Being well acquainied with

the species, I did not shoot it, under the hope that it might

remain, but I have not seen it since. Mr. Holdsworth inform-

‘ed wie he had also seen this bird, which must now be class=

ed as a rare -visitant to our Island. }

In the month of Aprilsome of the islets in the same

‘Lagoon are visited by numerous species of waders, which

find a secure breeding place among the stunted mangrove

bushes. This year I saw several young nestlings of the

* While on recent tour in the Hills, I saw one of these birds in

the Knuckles district and learnt that it has becn several times shot of

Jate years, one or two skins having been sent home in private collec-

tions. It is found in the wooded nullahs and ravines intersecting

the higher patinas. — Ed,

common grey Heron, Ardea Cinerea, Linn. which has not, I

think, before been noticed breeding in Ceylon.

Some years ago, about the same season, I took the eggs

and young of the Purple Heron, Ardea purpurea, Linn. at

Balapitiya. The nests, mere platforms of twigs, were placed -

‘on some aloe-like water plants, called Induru, the ends of the

broad leaves being bent in so as to form a strong and level

support. eAce ;

I have not yet seen the grey Heron, between -Colombo

and Hambantota though the Purple Heron is abundant in

all suitable localities. In a bird of such powerful flight,

its occasional occurrence is probable, though exceptional,

in most places.

Never having met with a description of the duckling of

our common Whistling Teal, Dendrocygna arcuate, Cuv.

cand as the lovely little creatures are very characteristically

marked, the following description may not be uninteresting :

down of uniform silver-grey, or dull brown colour; throat —

and sides of head grey, with the crown and a streak from the

beak that divides and borders the eye, and is then continued,

brown ; back.and back of neck brown, the back having three

grey spots on each side ‘below the wings, and the brown of

the neck spreading out oneither cheek, but separated from

the crown by a narrow grey stripe; pinions grey, with a

paler spot at their base.

‘ Lutinos,’’ or yellow varieties of birds, are well-known,

the:common Canary beinga familiar example, but the brilliant

variety of celour displayed by such a form of the little Lory,

Loriculus Edwardsi, Blyth, is quite exceptional. A charming

specimen was obtained by me at Balapitiya, among a small

flock of the normal colour : Crown of head and rump brilliant

scarlet, shading into metalic orange on the nape ; Back vivid

‘golden yellow, dappled with emerald green, and tinged in

‘places with orange; wings green, mottled with bright

“yellow ; quills of the normal colour, but tipped with yellowish

‘white ; beneath bright but paler yellow-than the back, mot-

tled with brizht:pale grass-green; throat yellowish; cheeks

rufescent; underwing-coverts mottled green, yellow and

‘straw colour.

Among the birds ®net'with dt -cértain seasons on the

‘coast near Balapitiya, the following are ‘usually considered

‘to be confined to the Hills: Hirundo Hyperythra, Layard:;

occurs also in the lower Kandyan Hills and beyond Korne-

:galle on the Putlam road.

Dendrophila frontalis, Horsf, found also at Ratnapura

‘and Nuwara Eliya.

Parus cinereus. Vicill, which is the ‘Grey Tit” of

‘Nuwara Eliya.

Batrachostomus Moniliger, Layard; found also at Happu-

‘tella, Avisawella and Ratnapura, but one of our rarest birds.

The grey crow, Corvus splendens, occurs between Kalu-

‘tara and Galle only at Induruwa, and nowhere else

-and there is no doubt it is not indigenous to the South

‘cof the Island, having been introduced by the Dutch

‘at their various stations, as a propagator of Cinnamon,

‘the seeds of which it rejects uninjured. By ‘the same

agency, the Margosa, introduced from Jaffna, is being dif-

fused all‘round Kalpentin, and will soon form a leading

feature in the vegetation of the Akkara Pattu.

When the jungle fowl, Gallus Lafayetti, Lesson, is run-

ning, the cock bird ‘arries its tail almost straight, like the

English Pheasant, and not nearly erect as in the domesti-

cated breeds. This fact is analogous to the tails of wolves,

and various breeds of dogs.

In the Society’s Museum was a mutilated: skin of the

‘nen of this bird, which had all the feathers white and black,

resembling the plumage of the silver pheasant. Mr. Hawkins,

who presented this valuable specimen, had no reason to think

it was other than an accidental variety, though it is singular

in not being a pure-albino, the change having effected only

‘the brown, and not the black portions of its plumage.

| H. NEVILLE.

ANalpentyn, 29th September, 1870.

35:

On various Birds of the Western Province—By W. VINCENT:

Leecn, Esq, F. ZS. Hon:.Sec: B.. A.. 5. (C.. B.):

===

Tue following notes, which I have the honor to submit to this:

Meeting to day, are the result of personal observation on some:

of the birds that inhabit this district, and I trust that they-

may in a small degree add to what is already known of their:

habits and distribution. ‘To the: praiseworthy exertions of

Messrs. Layard, Kelaart and others, we are indebted for a list.

of the Ceylon birds, together with a few brief notes on their

habits. and range, but the subject has been merely touched

upon, and we have yet a great deal to learn as regards internal

migrations and distribution aud the habits of the peculiar island’

species, of which there are about 40 already identified.. Owing

to the existence of somany Zoological publications in England,.—

in which are recorded tlie experience of numerous observers,

a perfect: knowledve of the natural history of British birds has.

heen arrived at::.it is only by similar records that we can hope

to acquire a thorough insight into all that.1s yet. to be learnt.

respecting our Ceylon avifauna:

The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal has

been the channel through which the valuable experience of

Mz. Blyth and others has been given to the world, and as our:

Society has, among other objects, the promotion of enquiry

into the Zcology of this Island, I trust that it will not be

considered out of place to occupy some of its pages with the:

subject. of this paper.. |

' Harpactres: Fascratus (Gmelin.) The Malabar Tiogon.

This handsome bird is tolerably plentiful in the forest

between Cotta and Hanwella, Having always understood

that its range did not extend to the low country I was rather:

surprised at finding it so near Colombo* It has an wregular-

fluttering flight as it darts fromthe branches in pursuit of in-

sects on the wing, like that of a bird when frightened in:

its cage, and which often leads to the discovery of its

whereabouts before it is itself seen.. It affects the thickest-

parts of tall damp jungle, but it is a mistake to think that. it

confines itself to the topmost branches of trees as it is more

often seen at no great height from the ground. I have gene--

rally noticed it single or in pairs with the exception of onee,.

when. I met with three together. When perched motionless:

accross the branch of a tree it has very much the attitude of.

a cuckoo.

The food of those I have examined consisted of small beetles:

and flying bugs which it captures on the wing like a fly catcher..

In this neighbourhood it is in moult from April to July and

appears to be staionary here during both monsoons. I am

almost confident.that there is another species of Trogon in

Ceylon resembling H. Hodgsoni, Gould, although I have not

been fortunate enough to procure it. In May last while:

shooting in some thick jungle in the Hanwelle district a mag-

*T believe this-is the first notice of the occurrence of the Trogon in «this:

neighbourhood and its presence so near the sea coast is a convincing proof

that the range of many Ceylon birds, generally supposed to be hill species,

has yet to be determined: ‘There is no subject connected with the ornitho-

logy of Ceylon, except that of internal migration, which demands so much.

attention as the distribution of species. Parus cinereus, apparently a hill

bird in India, found in the Neillgherries and supposed by many to be ex-.

clusively monticolous in Ceylon has been procured by myself in Colpetty

and seen several times in. the neighbourhood.of Cotta: Dicrurus Edolifor--

mis, Hirundo Hyperythra and many others are further instances of Cosmo-

politan birds in Ceylon. It is, therefore, to be hoped that members of the

Society will record the results of their observations in this Journal in order-

that this interesting subject may be worked out,

‘37

mificent bird of the form ‘and ‘aspect of a Trogon alighted

‘on a low branch within a few yards of where I stood. It was

‘so close that it was-useless ‘to fire and on its taking flight I

missed it. The’sudden fluttering flight with which it came

‘upon me, and-its gorgeous plumage served at orice to identify —

it as a Trogon. The head, ‘throat and ‘chest were of a rosy

‘red colour, succeeded,:as far as I could determine, by a light

band accross thechest, The graduated lateral tail feathers

“were whitish.

PHNICOPHAUS PyRROCEPHALUS (Forst.) The Red-

‘faced Malkoha.

This bird is found in the more ‘cultivated districts as

‘well as in the wilder parts of the Island. It is not confined

to the higher regions, the specimen in the Asiatic Society’s

Museum, having been procured between Negombo and

Kurunégala. I have also seen one that was shot near

Heneratgoda. They affect the thick jungle.

Mracra AzurerA (Bodd.) Black naped Fly catcher.—

Seems to be extensively confined to the jungle, and is

‘common in the forest near Hanwella. It breeds in June.

The nest of this bird, in the Asiatic Society’s Museum, was

found in the upright fork ofa smallshrub, 4 feet from the

eround, and is a beautifully made cup shaped structure of

neatly woven mossand very fine bark with the edges and

exterior decorated with a white cotton-like substance. The

interior, 14” in diameter, is lined with a fine hair like material.

The eggs, 2in number, are buff white, spotted mostly at

the larger end, with light Indian red, mixed with a few darker

specs and dots.

Jerdon mentions (vol. I page 450.) that in the north of

India it frequents open places,

. ¥

CYORNIS BanyuMASs (Horsfield) Horsfield’s Redbreast. —

The red breasted fly catcher, C. Rubeculoides, Vig:, given ib

Emerson Tennant’s list as the Ceylon bird, is in reality an in-

habitant of north India -and ‘is represented in the south

of the Peninusula by C, Banyumas. The species which is

common in the thick jungle some few miles from Colombo

agrees with the latter in coloration and dimensions, and

has the chin and a line from it, along the base of the lower

mandible, to the cheeks, black. I think therefore that we

may conclude that C. Banyumas is our bird. I have not

succeeded in finding the nest of this bird but judging from

the fact of the young being plentiful in May and June, it must

breed in April. The female differs from the male in being

pzighter on the upper surface, in having the lores fulvous grey

‘and the chin concolorous with the chest and throat, which are

fulvous instead of rufous, and in the bill and legs being

_ lighter.

The young in nestling plumage have the upper plumage

bluish brown, the forehead head and hind neck striated with

light fulvous, the back and scapulars with terminal spots of the

same ; chin and throat dappled fulvous gray ; chest and under

surface fulvous, the feathers of the former with blackish mar-

eins and the abdomen albescent. As far as I have observed

this flycatcher is almost ‘exclusively confined to the jungle.

It is very active on the wing.

TEPHURODORNIS AFFINIS (Blyth). The allied Wood Shrike.

Migratory tothis Province, appearing in October. It is

plentiful in the Cinnamon gardens during the N. E. Monsoon.

In April the young birds are in the following plumage: the

upper surface has a spotted appearance, the feathers of head,

nape and wing coverts having a terminal white spot, some of

the greater wing coverts and inner tertiaries are yellow brown,

edged light with a dark line or border round the margin.

Dicrurus Epovrrormis ( Blyth.)

Dimensions of an immature bird—Length 12°3” outer taik

feather 6:3”; centre tail feather 4:95"; wing 5°45”; bill to

gape 1:35". The under tail and under wing coverts have a

few white bars. “ Not uncommon in the Ambegamowa range

of “hills at about2000 feet: elevation” (Layard.) ‘This is

‘another bird which, inasmuch as it affects entirely thick jungle

is not restricted in its range by~ elevation, but would appear

at least, as far as the Western Province is concerned, to be

found wherever there.is forest. Itis tolerably plentiful in the

jungle between Cottah and Hanwelle; rarely coming into the

open, and is a solitary birdin its habits. It sits on the hori-

zontal branches of high trees sallying out after insects, and

returning to its perch.

MALaAcocigcus STRIATUS’ (Swainson:) The Siriated

Babbler.

This is the Babbler so common about Colombo, and in fact

throughout the low country of this Province, being equally

plentiful in all cultivated localities.. I have not yet met with

M. Griseus, the Madras bird, nor do I think it is found

here, although it is smgular that such should be the case,

when we consider that our bird is allied to a much more

distantly located’ species viz., M. Terricolor of Bengal. If

have shot numbers of individuals, but have not yet pro-

cured M. Griseus so that probably it has been erroneously

entered in. Em. Tennant’s list. The Striated Babbler breeds

in this Province during the S. W. monsoon. <A nest I found

in June was built in the fork of a Cinnamon bush, 4 feet from

the ground, and was.a shallow. cup-shaped structure made

entirely: of stalks of plants and grasses, and lined with fine

green grass. It contained only two eggs, which I imagine

40:

was the whole clutch, as the bird was sitting. They are very-

small for the bird, measuring: only 1 inch in length by 9 lines:

in breadth, and are of an uniform,opaque greenish blue. Were-

it not for their larger size, the eggs. might be taken for those-

of the Magpie Robin, Copsychus. Saularis.

In its habits this Babbler resembles both the Bengal and’

Madras. birds, associating, like the former, generally in flocks:

of seven or eight, the whole following one after the. other

when a member of the flock starts off to. a neighbouring tree, ,

and, like the latter, suddenly dropping from a-branch.to the:

ground beneath, followed by its. companions who, commence:

examining with sundry eccentric hops, flapping of the wings,.

and jerking of the tail, the leaves. around them.in search of ’

food; then quickly flying up again, they mount from one branch: —

to another until they reach the: top when they quickly depart.

one after the other to the next tree. Two or three may

sometimes be seen: together, uttering alow chattering, and

apparently without any aim hopping to and fro accross a.

branch with quick beating of the wings and a circular motion.

of the tail.

In Ceylon it is popularly called the “Dung Thrush” although.

I have not often: observed it resort to the same localities for.

food which have gained for its Madras relative a similar nick-.

mame. Its special delight is a grove of plantains about the.

leaves of which it hops with wonderful agility.

Pirtra Bracuyura (Jerdon.) The short tailed Ground’

Thrush.

This beautiful bird arrives in the Western Province about

the begining of November, although it is found up country

somewhat.earlier in the season. It is migratory to Ceylon, and

appears from Jerdon, to be a seasonal visitant to the Carnatic:

and south of India, As it frequents tangled brakes, thick thorny

scrub and under wood of all sorts and lives on the grount'

almost entirely, it is. scarcely ever seen, and would be entirely

passed over by the closest’ observer, were he not acquainted

with its wild sounding, two-note whistle followed by the curi-

ous cry, tolerably well syllabised by the bird’s Sinhalese name,

Avitch-i-a. It is heard at day break and at sun-set, but

rarely ever in the day time. I have noticed that it whistles.

more in the morning than the evening; the: more: common note:

being thecry referred to, which it utters when.disturbed. It is.

found close to Colombo in the thick underwood beyond the:

Cinnamon Gardens. Up country it is common in the Coffee:

Estates, its clear. whistle being the first sound heard at

dawn. :

PoMATORHINUS MELANuURUS: (Dilyth). The black tailed:

Scimitar Babbler:

Some-up country specimens, that I have examined, have a

— rufous spot behind the ear coverts which Mr. Holdsworth.

judges.to be a, mark of a. young bird, although in all other

respect except length of bill (one of the. distinguishing marks.

between the adult bird and its Indian ally, P. Horsfield?);

they correspond with mature birds which,I have procured in:

the low country. The bill of an adult measures, at front along

the chord of the are, a little more than 1 inch..

The black tailed Scimitar. Babbler is common in the wild

jungle to the north-east of Cotta, and is sometimes seen it in:

the allotments quite close to that village, It is another instance-

of a Ceylon bird whose range in the Island. has hitherto been.

misunderstood, and which is controlled by the presence of

forest land rathey than by that of hills. When alone it is fre-.

quently very noisy, uttering its loud call note which some

syllabise by the words “ coo-ruk,” “coo-ruk;” when searching,

Tor

wad

Kowever, for its food in small parties as it sometimes does in com--

pany with the little Wren babbler,; Alcippe nigrifrons, (Blyth)

it may be seen noiselessly hopping about the branches of low

jungle, or hunting among fallen leaves for insects. Again they

are sometimes very garrulous when holding a:sort of parliament

which they carry on with a loud chattering, bowing to each

_ other with a puffing out of their long chest features, and then

suddenly disappearing in all’ directions uttering loud calls.

it is very active in its movements clinging sometimes like a

Tit tothe under surface of a branch and scrutinising the bark

thereof, and occasionally I have observed: it‘ attaching itself to

the trunks: of trees, up which it proceeds by a succession of

hops. In the low country it.moultsin June, July and August,

and therefore probably breeds, with many of the birds in this

Province, at.the beginning of the 5: W. monsoon or latter end

of the dry season. Mr. Bligh of Kandy, who was fortunate

enough to find the nest of this species in some wild jungle in

the Hapootelle district, during the month of February, has been

kind enough to give me some information concerning it: it

was built in ahole in the side of a tree, about 4 feet from the

ground, and: composed of stout grass stalks lined with the

fine roots of aspecies of moss.together with some fine grass and

a few feathers. The eggs were 3 in number, rather oval in

shape and perfectly white with a transparent shell.

ALCIPPE NigRIFRONS (Blyth,) The Ceylon Wren-Bab-.

bler.. =

There is some difference in the size of the sexes. Male,

total length 5°3;” tail 1:95 ;” wing 2°15.” Female, length 5.1;”

tail 1:9;” wing 1:9.” This Wren-babbler is common in the thick

jungle round Vore, and is also to be found nearer Colombo in

isolated spots of wood where there is much undergrowth.

1¢ delights in places where deadleaves have fallen from:

“trees on the serub berieath, about which ‘it niay be seen

‘silently hopping, sometimes alone, at other times in company

With Pomatorhinus melanurus in search ofinsects. It is fond

of frequenting the neighbourhood of jungle paths, near which

I found, in June and July last, several of the curious nests,

or dwellings of dead leaves, which itis in the habit of build-

ing, for what purpose I do not know, as Layard says “ the

nest is composed of grasses woven together in a dome with

the entrance near the top.” I was fortunate enough on one

occasion to see-one of these structures in course of construction:

my attention was drawn to a pair of these little birds flying

backwards and forwards, with dead leaves in their bills, from

the ground to a mass of branches close at hand. On approach-

ing somewhat nearer, I perceived that they were engaged in

building a ball of leaves, in and out of which, they were hop=

ping as fast as they could pick up the material from the ground _

beneath. On examining the nest I found that it consisted of

nothing but dead leaves neatly fitted one over the other,

forming a rounded interior. I visited the spot, a fortnight

Tater, and found the nest in the same state that I had left it

in. Several others that I found afterwards were also destitute

of eggs. | |

CrIniIGEeR IcTERUS (Strickland). The yellow-browed Bulbul.

This bulbul is evidently a bird of wide distribution, being

abundant in “the mountain zone,” (Layard), and also veiy

plentiful in the wild jungle in the interior of this Province

towards Bope. As far as I have observed, it is strictly a

jungle bird, moving about in small parties from tree to tree,

and searching actively among the smaller branches for insects.

It has a mellow pleasant note. It moults in this district in

June. Dr. Kelaart wrote correctly of this bird, that it was a

common species in the low country, although Layard * thought

~ * Anuval-Naty History Vol. xu. Sec. Series, Page 124.0 °°

iA xa, 58

“44

that he referred to Pycnonotus flavirictus, ( Strickland)

‘altogether a different bird. Birds that frequent jungles, and

which are found in the mountain zone have been much passed

over hitherto in the low ‘conntry, under the impression that_

they were strictly monticolous. Both this bird and Rubigula

Melanictera have nearly always the back of the neck destitute

‘of feathers.

RvuBiguLA MELANICTERA (Blyth). The Black headed

Bulbul.

This bird is very numerous in the thick jungle of the inte-

rior of this Province. It is entirely a denizen of the forest,

and goes about from tree to tree in parties of 5 or 6, or more,

innumber. The note is a mellow warble which they utter in

concert while feeding, sometimes in company with Crini-

ger icterus, in the topmost branches of high trees. I append

here a description of the bird as it is not given in Jerdon:—

Male, total length 6-5’; tail 2-8”; wing 3 1-20": tarsus -7”;

bill to gape 13-20". Iris dark brown ; bill black; legs and feet

blackish. Head and nape jet black; upper surface, wing

coverts and tertiaries dark olive green; quills brown and

tail blackish brown, both edged with olive green; the latter

tipped white, the colour increasing from the centre feather to

the outer one ; under surface bright yellow; chest and flanks

shaded with the color of the upper surface.

Copsycuus CEYLONENSIs (Sclater). P. Z. S. 1861. —

page 186. Copsychus saularis? Linn, The Magpie Robin.

Tt would appear from a note by Mr. Blyth in a paper on

the ornithology of Ceylon, Ibis July 1867, that the species

Ceylonensis is scarcely admissible, and that our bird is after

all the Sazlaris of India, the only distinction being, that the

females of the Island bird are darker on the back than those of

45 Leds hate

the main-land. It is strange, however, that Jerdon in his des-

cription of Saularis should omit the conspicuous white patch

on the wings.of our bird. Again, the colour of the eggs, as”

given by this author, is bluish white or pale. bluish, with pale.

brown spots;. and he goes on to say,,vol. ii, page: 116:.

“ Layard says the eggs.are bright blue. ... . he must: be mis-.

taken, I think, in the identity. of the owner-of the nest.” On

the contrary, however, Layard is correct: the eggs (in the

Society’s Museum) which are rather large: for: the bird. and:

much roundéd'in form, are of an uniform deep. greenish blue ;:

they, were taken; from: a: losely constructed nest, lined with

fine grass stalks.and situated 1n the hollow of a cocoa-nut tree.

Axis 114 lines, diam. 81 lines. This difference in the egg is

I think, of itself, sufficient to separate our species from, the.

Indian.. The Ceylon. Magpie Robin breeds. im this province.

during both monsoons. FE am not aware whether the: Con-.

tinental bird, which is said to affect wooded districts, 18 so

domesticated, in his habits as ours is ;- every one. about. €o-.

lombo knows this 18 one of the most familiar of our feathered .

friends, becoming sometimes so tame that. it will enter the:

louse and pick up.the crumbs that have fallen from the table.

Its. Habit of raising and depressing its tail is worthy of notice;

this is done particularly when alighting on the ground, and if.

the bird be closely watched while so doing, it will be observed

that it is not merely the tail that is thrown back, but that

the whole abdominal region and rump are up raised, thus

accounting for the tail almost touching the back of the head,

a feat which some authors do not believe in..

OrTHOTOMUs LoNnGICcAUDUS( Gmelin). The Indian Tailor.

bird. :

The tail in Ceylon specimens does not appear to attain to

the same length as given for Indian birds; in fact the difference

between the lateral and centre feathers is scarcely perceptible at;

a distance in the living bird. [have not been able to procure any

bird measuring more than 4% inches, total length, and in this,

the centre tail feathers are only 2} inches long. This specimen

was shot in the north of the island ; individuals from this Pro-

vince, as far as I have observed, scarcely reach the above

dimensions. The length of an Indian bird is given as 6%

inches ; tail 34 inches; centre feathers 14 inches longer than:

the rest (Jerdon.)

The Indian tailor bird is one of the most familiar occu-.

pants of the gardens and compounds in the vicinity of Colombo -

particularly where its favourite lettuce tree abounds, about the

branches of which it delights to hop. searching along the

bark for larve and insects, and uttering every now and then

its loud and varied notes. The number of different monosyl-

labic sounds in, this bird, leading one almost to suppose that

there are several species close at hand, and each one of whicli

it reiterates, at times, for several minutes together, is very

remarkable. Some of them may be syllabised—tchuh-up ;

tew-ihe ;, quyh; twike, &c. The most singular, however, is

the loud metallic sounding call, which may be likened to the

sharpening of a large saw, and which the male in the breeding

season repeats without, an interval, until, if he be close at

hand, the sound becomes quite deafening. The peculiar black

mark or spot which is displayed at the side of the throat while

the bird is uttering its note, and’ particularly when it is

excited, is caused more by a dark naked portion of skin in the

neck, just below the cheeks, than by the base of the feathers,

as some suppose.

The tailor bird breeds in this district from May to Novem-

ber, the same pair probably rearing several broods in the year.

The nest is nearly always built in the leaf of a lettuce

“

tree, and. generally at a height of two or three feet from the

ground. The bird often chooses a tree near the nursery door,

or the spot in the verandah where the “ Dirzee” plies his trade,

and where there is generally an ample supply of bits of cotton,

thread, &c., which it uses in the construction of its wonderful

nest. It is frequently constructed in a single leaf, the edges

of which are stitched, but not drawn together, for about three

parts of the length from the point, with cotton or any fibrous

material which the bird can find, the point of the leaf being

drawn up to form an additional support for the bottom of the

- nest, which is constructed, inside the cavity thus formed, of

‘coir fibre, wool, fine roots, small grass, Or such like. The body

of the nest is attached or sewn to the edge of the leaf, the cen-

tre of which, without any lining, forms the back part. The

interior is lined with feathers, and measures generally three

inches in depth. Other nests are constructed with the addi-

tional support of one or more leaves (there is one in the Socie-

-ty’s Museum with three) stitched to the front or bottom of that

in which they are built. Another, that I found last June, was

a compact structure cleverly hung to two leaves, the larger

of which was secured to the back of the nest, and formed a

hood over the top of it. It was made of fibres of coir from the —

door mats, worsted, cotton wool, feathers, &c., the whole of

which were sewn and worked together so as to form quite a

stiff and substantial piece of workmanship. The eggs are

generally three, sometimes four, in number, and of a greenish —

white ground colour, spotted and speckled mostly at the larger

end with brown. Axis 73 lines, diam. 54 lines.

CisTICOLA SHENICOLA. (Bonaparte.) The Rufous Grass

Warbler.

Abundant about Colombo, and stationary in the same spot

throughout the year. It affects, by choice, guinea-crags fields,

out of which it may constantly be seen rising into the ‘air, ‘and

hovering for a minute over some chosen spot with its peculiar

jerking flight and single note ¢jzk, tjtk, tik. It is much more

_terrestial in its habits than any other genus of the family,

spending most of its time on the ground, running about quickly

and treading its way with ease among tufts of grass. It

sometimes alights on a grass stalk or topmost branch of a tree

when descending from one of its little flights,and may now

and then be seen perched on the top rail ofafence. It breeds

in this Province from May until October, more nests being

constructed in the former month than in any other. Wonder-

ful as is the ingenuity displayed by all the members of the

family Drymoicine, in building their nests, there is none

that excels this little bird in the amount of labour and skill

required to construct its little habitation, the lining of which

is one of the most beautiful pieces of workmanship that can

be imagined. The nest is almost invariably fixed between the

upright stalk of the guinea grass plant, at a height varying

from eighteen inches to two feet six inches from thé ground, and

the bird displays, in its construction, the same propensity and

talent for sewing that is exhibited by nearly all the family.

A delicate net-work of cotton or spider’s web is formed round

several upright blades of grass, the materials being sewn into

them and passed round from one to the other. One or two

blades are bent under this net-work and sewn to the upright

stalks to form a foundation for the nest, which is constructed

of fine roots or small grass blades within it. It is narrower at

the top than at the bottom, being generally about three inches

in depth and about the same in diameter. At this stage some

nests are finished with a partial lining of fine grass, mixed

with a few spider’s webs, but most of them are beautifully and

ingeniously lined with the white, hair lke-substance which

-prows to the stalk of the guinea grass, and which the bird fixes

with its saliva to the interior of the nest; this process is con-

tinued until the bottom is almost of the ‘consistency of felt. A

piece of this material at present in the Society’s Museum will

repay the trouble of inspection. One of the many nests I

watched building in my grass field this season was commenced

on the 25th May and finished on the Ist June. How wonder-

ful the diligence displayed in its construction, when we think

of the ‘countless humber of these hair-like atoms contained in

the lining! The eggs are three or four in number, of & greenish

white ground, spotted and blotted sometimes all over, at other

times in a zone round the larger end, with brownish red and

reddish grey or lilac. Axis 74 lines, diam. 6 lines. The

bird scarcely ever sits during the daytime, resorting to the

nest at nightfall only,* and leaving the rest to the sun to

perform ; the time of incubation, as noticed by me this season,

being eleven days, which is about the same time taken to hatch

a similar sized egg in a cold climate with the bird sitting all

day.

_ There is some doubt now whether Mr. Blyth’s species,

C. homalura, said by Dr. Kelaart to be found in great abun=

dance at Nuwera Ellia, is really distinct from this bird.

The dimensions of Schenicola in perfect plumage are—total

lencth 4-3 inches ; tail 1:5 inch; closed wing 1°7 inch; tarsus

‘8 inch.; bill to gape 13°20 inch; mid toe and claw °6 inch.

An individual procured by myself on the Lindoola Patinas,

Dimboola, differs slightly in having the edges of the upper

surface less rufous than those of the low-country bird, the cen-

tre feathers lighter, shewing the spot near the top as distin-

guishable from the rest of the colour and the under surface

Heentinged with fulyous.

* The same thing is observable with many other birds in Ceylon.

although it is a fact which I think is not generally known to Naturalists.

‘Drymoipus Inornatus (Sykes:) The conmon Wren

‘Warbler. —

This bird is séarcely so plentiful in the vicinity of Colombo

‘as the Ceylon species D. Validus, Blyth. It is ‘to be found

generally in guinea or water grass fields, butin-places where

‘these do not exist, it affects sedgy or marshy spots as well as

the borders of paddy fields. Two or three pairs inhabit the

grass near my house during the greater part of the year,

disappearing in the dry weather, when there is but little

growth. It is often to be seen perched on the top of a tree

in the vicinity of its haunts, uttering its peculiar metallic

sounding note, which may be syllabised kink—hink—hink xe-

peated some times for a minute without cessation. It is a

‘prolific bird, as I have found it nesting from May until

November, and from close observation I am nearly sure that

the young hatched at the beginning of the season breed at the

‘end of it.* Imay mention that a pair that bred near my

house in May last, commenced building again before their

brood had forsaken them, the whole family roosting in the

Vicinity of the new nest during the time it was being con-

-structed.

In the construction of its nest D. Inornatus displays the

_'same propensity for sewing as the other members of its family.

The structure is leosely but very ingeniously made, and

is generally built between the top blades of a guinea

grass plant, which the bird attaches one to the other by means

of small grass fibres, sewn through them, and passed round so

as to form a net-work, inside wan the body of the nest is

placed; this is constructed entirely of fine grass, and lined with

the same material. The blades of grass, between which the

* The young assume the adult plumage immediately, so that I cannot posi

tively assert this ; but if my observations have been correct, this is a remark-

able instance of fecundity.

a1:

nest is fixed, are bent over the top and interlaced with fine.

grass, so as to form 4 dome with an opening at the side. The

eggs are four in number, and very beautiful: -ground colour

clear blue green, clouded here and there, or blotched: mostly.

towards the obtuse end with sepia. Axis 7} lines, diameter

6 lines. In several instances that have come under my notice,

they have. been hatched without: the assistance of the bird

during the daytime. |

- Bupytes Viripis (Gmelin). The Indian. Field-W agtail.

This Field Wagtail is migratory to Ceylon, appearing about,

Colombo during the first week in October and disap pearing sud.

denly in. the beginning of. May. Nearly all individuals on ar-

riving here are young, and in the first plumage, with a few dusky

spots on the chest and the light under surface tinged more or

less with yellow. Some specimens have a few bright, yellow,

feathers on the foreneck, in October; these are probably adult

birds with a remnant of the breeding plumage. This bird moults

here about January, and. assumes the spring dress with the

ashy gray head. before leaving us, but I have not met with any

so far advanced as to have the black cap. Itis very plentiful

on the Galle Face, its elegant little figure adorning the green

sward asit runs to and fro, pecking in its singular way, to one

side and. then to the other.

Corypatta Rorvza (Vierllot.) The Indian Pipit.

The Indian Pipit is stationary in this Provincethroughout the

year, but is more plentiful about Colombo during the south-west

monsoon, than at other times. A partial migration to some

Other part of the Island seems to take place during the dry

season. In this neighbourhood its numbers seem to increase

in May, about the time when the two larger species C. Striolata

and C. Richardi, which arrive during the first week in October,

migrate to the Continent to breed. It prefers open bare

land to other localities, and is exceedingly abundant on the:

Galle Face.* This. Pipit breeds in this district from July ta.

September, and builds the same cup-shaped nest under the

shelter of a tuft of grass or little inequality in the gound that

the European meadow Pipit does. The eggs are-three in number,

ground colour greenish white, thickly spotted with two shades

of sepia, and blotted here and there with bluish grey. Axis

84 lines, diam. 6 lines. This bird is a very close sitter, proba-.

bly on acconnt of its nest, being exposed to lizards and other.

ground reptiles.,

ZosteRoPs Patprsrosus (Temminck.) The white-eyed Tit.

This Tit is widely distributed, found in the hills and_plenti.

ful about Colombo and the low-country in its vicinity. I

notice that it appears in this neighbourhood in July, and is.com-.

mon in the groves in the Cinnamon Gardens. about that time.

It may also be seen, or rather its clear note may be heard, in the.

tops of the Suriah trees in the Fort during August and

September. It has the same whistle as, the Australian bird

Z. dorsalis. It affects by choice thick jungle, flying in flocks

from tree to. tree, and searching among the top-most branches.

and leaves for larve. As soon as the flock has overhauled one

tree the whole take flight, and move.on to the next, whistling

all the while. A nest I found in August in the Pooprassi dis_

trict, was made of fine grass stalks, very frail, and placed high

up on the horizontal branch of a tree.

Corvus Serenpens (Vieillot.)

Although the common Indian Crow is nut strictly gregarious,

it resembles the Rook of Europe in some of its habits, roosting

often in flocks, and building where a suitable locality presents

itself, in company. There is this difference, however, that, though

* Thave foued it in the Hills up to 500, feet.

it is fond of selecting trees in close proximity to one anothef,

it is rare that more than three or- four nests are found in the

same.tree.. Isolated nests are to be found in the Fort and in the

trees about Slave. Island, but the principal nesting place in the

vicinity of the former, is at the back of the Cemetery on the Galle

Face, where, in the small Suriah-trees on the border’ of the ~

lake, numbers of nests are built every year. The nest is smaller

than that of other crows; it is made of sticks lined with

coir pulled from the heads of cocoanut trees, and is built either

in the fork of a top branch or on a horizontal bough, sometimes

close to the ground. About Colombo the eggs are, as a general

rule, laid by the Ist of May, and are three or four in number.

They vary. very much in size and coloration, some measuring

‘Lin. 54lines. by 1 in. 2 lines., others 1 in. 8 lines. by 114 lines. The

general ground colour is light green or light blue-green, speckled,

dappled and blotched, chiefly at the larger end, with dark grey

and olive brown, and pencilled sometimes with a few fine dark

streaks,

Not the least amusing spectacle among the many sights

afforded by the habits of this bird is the noonday bath=-two or

three birds up to the thighs in water, ducking and splashing in

all directions, while half a dozen more are drying themselves on

the bank, probably engaged in some angry debate ona culprit

standing by, who has refused to perform his ablutions.

Esrretpa Amanpava* (Iinneus.) The Red Wax-Bill.

As far as I can ascertain, the occurrence in Ceylon of the

Amaduvad or Red Wax-Bill has not as yet been recorded, and i¢

is somewhat singular that its presence should have been over-

looked, as it frequents at one season of the year no less public a

® It is possible that this bird has beep acclimatized about Colombo

from individuals having escaped from confinement. Numbers are

brought in cages from the various Indian Ports.

spot than the Galle Face. Jerdon says of it (vol. II. page 360)

‘' Thave seen it tolerably frequent in the lower hills of the

Neilgherries, in Mysore, and here and there throughout the

‘Carnatic.’’ In Ceylon it would appear to be an occasional

-visitant to the-low-country of the Western Province; and it

semains ‘to be proved whether as regards other parts of

the island it is migratory or resident. My own experience is that

it appears in the guinea-grass fields about Colombo at

‘various times in the year, whenever the grass is in seed.

A small flock frequented the field attached to my quarters

last year, from September till January, disappearing at intervals

when the grass was cut down, until it had grown up again. In the

latter month the males-were in all states of transition, to the plu-

anage of the female. .A specimen, shot at that time and now in the

Asiatic Society’s Museum, has-the fore-neck and breast mingled

‘dark grey and red, with the under surface patched black and

grey, with a few of the white flank spots remaining; others, shot

at the same date, were still further advanced into the female

plumage, having the under surface grey ‘with a few black

patches. It would thus appearto breed about the end of the

north-east rains.. From Jerdon’s account -it would appear to

frequent the lower hills in the South of India, and therefore it

would be interesting to know whether it occurs up-country in

Ceylon. _ The dimensions of a male Wax-Bill, shot in June near

Colombo, are total length 4-1"; tail 1-7"; closed wing1°6." It

has a very pleasant song, resembling somewhat that of the

Goldfinch of Europe.

ORTYGORNIs PonrsceRtana (Gmelin). ‘The Grey Partridce.

The Grey Partridge is not uncommon about Colombo, where

it frequents sandy spotsin the Cinnamon Gardens. It is not

found, as far as Tam aware, tothe south of this, and very prob.

ably has been introduced into:this district by having escaped, .

a8 they often do, from confinement.* Nearly all the birds

brought to this country from the coast of India are young and_

have the throat dark ferruginous brown.

_ ExcanractToria CHINENSIS. (Linn.) The Chinese Quail.

Layard gives the south of the Island as the habitat of this.

bird, adding, that he has not met with it elsewhere. It is however -

tolerably common in theCinnamon Gardens, frequenting the

thick fern-brakes near swampy grounds. Layard remarks with.

justice, that it is most difficult to flush when once put up..

Although I have not been fortunate enough to find its nest, Iam.

aware that it breeds as early in the season as the Black-breasted

Quail, as I shot a female last. May, containing an. egg ready for

laying. It was ofa pale greenish colour,and muchsmaller than the

egg of the other bird. They are sometimes to be seen in confine-

ment, but being of a very wild nature they do not adapt them-

selves to this sort of life. This is one of the most widely.

distributed of Asiatic quails, ranging from China and Assam:

through India as far as the South of Australia. Jeg

Turnix Puenax (Sykes.) The Black-breasted Quail.

This bird may be said to be the commonest: of our game:

birds. It is very plentiful in the. Cinnamon, and would make

capital sport if one could only bring a setter to bear uponit..

The females, which might be styled the amazons of quails, being

the handsomest and the most pugnacious of the two sexes, may.

often beseen in the ‘‘ Circular” engaged in a stand-up fight,

and so bent are the little combatants on having the last blow,

that [have heard of one or two instances of their nearly having

been caught while settling their quarrels. Layard has found

the eggs as early as February, and Ihave had young birds

-® Since this went to print, I have discovered a ‘pair of these birds in

the scrub: under the remparts of the Fort at Galle.

‘brought to me at all times during the 8. W. monsoon, and eggs

as lateas October, on the 3rd of which month I obtained a ‘nest

containing four, together with the cock bird, which the native,

from whom I purchased the eggs, assured me he had caught sit-

ting on them. Theeggs were’ round in form, and of a greenish

white ground, thickly spotted all over with dark brown spots,

and blotched, over this, round the larger end, with bluish grey.

Axis 11 lines, diam 8} lines.

CHARARDRIUS LONGIPES (Temminck. ) The Indian Golden

Plover.

‘These birds vary “Cor iew in size ; they arrive in the vicinity

of Colombo about the first week in October, about which

time, after wet weather, they may be seen on the Galle Face in

little flocks of three or four. They are plentiful in suitable

localities throughout the Province, affecting commons and the

drier parts of large paddy fields, and marshes: they arrive

here in their winter dress, without a vestige of black on the

under surface, and they leave again before assuming any of the

nuptial plumage.

ARGIALITIA PyRRHOTHORAX (Temminek. } The Lesser Sand

Plover. ;

Se ied be ar ationed by Layard as found in Ceylon,

nor is it included in Emerson Tennant’s list. I fancy the former

mistook it for the larger bird, Geoffreyt, Waghler, which he

saysis very common in some parts of the Island. No doubt, how-

ever, both species are found here. This little Plover arrives

in flocks in this district about the first week in September, and

frequents the; Galle Face during the winter months. Ihave

shot a good-many specimens on their first arriving, and have

always found them females, both adult and young, the former

still in a partial spring dress with the light parts of the face and

fore-neck, between the chest patches, buff. The young have the

upper surface greyish olive brown, some cf the feathers. with

lightish margins ; throat and fore-neck whitish.

N Ruypouaa Brneatensis (Linn.) The Indian Painted Snipe:

Although we have no record of this bird nesting in Ceylon, it

would appear that it occasionally breeds here—as in two in-

stances ‘hat have come under my notice, perfect eggs have been

taken from it, after death, in December. This is all the mors

singular, as in India, according to Jerdon, it breeds in June

and July; it can only be accounted for on the supposition that

the birds in question were stationary in the island and had

become subject, as regards their breeding, to the influence of

the seasons here. An egg in the possession of Mr. C. P. Layard

measures 1°4’’ in length by 1’’ in diameter, is pointed in form

and of a rich yellow stone-ground colour, streaked, scratched

and clouded all over with large patches of dark sepia, with a

few blots of bluish grey appearing from beneath them. Another

ege, laid in acage by a wounded bird on the last day of the

year, and now in the possession of Mr. Holdsworth, has the

markings smaller, resembling those of a plover’s egg. The habit

of diving which this bird has, when wounded, shows its affinity

to the sand-pipers. |

It is pretty common in this Province, being found generally

in the proportion of one pair to every large tract of paddy field,

where there are any thick grassy spots, in which localities they

are always found together.

Actitis HypotEucos ( Linn.) The common Sand-Piper. This

is the only Sand-Piper I have met with about Colombo, fre-

quenting the rocks round the Fort (being often seen on the

ramparts), as well asthe shores of the lake. They arrive here

about the 10th of August and are then partly in summer and

partly in winter plumage. They put on their summer Gress,

5§

which consists of the darker and more shining green of the

upper surface, in April, and leave for their breeding grounds at

the end of May. The very short time they are absent is somewhat

remarkable, if, as must be the case, they breed to the northward

of India. In May they collect in flocks of adozen or more

before taking their departure, and may be seen thus ° con-

gregated onthe shores of the lake. JI have never yet.shot.a

male bird in Ceylon.

Gartinuta Pua@nicura. (Pennant.) The White-breasted

Water-hen. | | hs

The white-breasted Water-hen is much more given to perching.

than the common Water hen of Europe, G. Chloropus. It may

often be seen on the top of a fence, pluming itself in the shade,

or drying its feathers after a shower of rain. Unlike its Huropean

congener, which often builds among reeds, piling its nest up

from the bottom of the water, this bird chooses a tuft of ‘grass

in the vicinity of water, on the top of which it builds a flat

nest (the same being often used more than once) or places it

among the leaves of the Screw Pine (Pandanus), sometimes

at a height of not less than ten feet from the ground.

Theeggss are nearly always fourin number, those of the same

clutch* varying sometimes as muchas a line in length or breadth.

Average dimensions : axis 1 inch7 tines, diam. 1 inch 2 lines.

Ground colour creamy-white or yellow grey, sparingly blotted,

and spotted all over, but mostly at the larger end, with

light red and yellow brown, with a few bluish-gray blotches.

The young are covered with black down, and are helpless for

several hours after birth. The immature bird wants the white

throat and breast, and has only a few traces of grey down the

centre of the foreneck. .

* Noticeable also in the eggs of the English Water-hen..

Arpgerra Sinensis (Gmelin.) The Yellow Bittern.

This pretty little Bittern is very common in this Provinee,

‘being found in marshy districts and round the Pantura Lake 3

in/all spots suitable to its habits. Layard, however, seems to

thave noticed it only in the south, where it may be still more

abundant. It affects principally scrubby places and reed beds,

‘and is, perhaps, the least terrestial of the Ardetta, being nearly

always flushed froma bush, and after taking flight it generally

‘alights on the top of another. It perches easily on an up-

right reed stalk in the same posture as a warbler.

ARDETTA CinnaMOMEA (@melin.) The Chesnut Bittern.

This bird is excessively plentiful round Colombo. It fre-

‘quents the damp fern-brakes and marshy spots in the Cinna

mon Gardens, where it breeds. It does not seem to alight on

trees as readily as the former bird, and is more skulking in its

habits.

ArpeTTa FLavicouiis (Zatham.) The Black Bittern.

This bird is migratory to this district, arriving in October or

the beginning of November, at which time all individuals that I

have procured, or seen shot, were in immature plumage, with the

feathers of the back, wings, coverts and abdomen edged pale.

It is tolerably numerous in the marshes between Colombo and

‘Cottah, and all round Pantura Lake. — |

Nycticorax Grisgus (lanneus.) The Night Heron.

There is a colony of these birds on the Pantura Lake: when

frightened out of the low bushy trees overhanging the water,

in which they roost by day, they fly heavily to some neigh~

bouring perch, only te return again as soon. as the intruder

is out of sight. Most of the birds, I ebserved there, were

immature and in the following plumage: occipital feathers form-

ang a slight crest: ; head and interscapular region brown with a

green lustre, tue former, with light centres to the -feathers .

sides of head and neck-light brown. with: yellowish centres ;

wings and tail dusky bluish, the wing coverts brownish with pale

centres and edgings. Primary wing coverts tipped white ;

scapulars brownish ; under surface yellowish-white, with brown

streaks on the | reast. :

GELOUHELIDON ANGLICUS (Montague.) -

HYDROCHELIDON [npica (Stephens.)

THaLasszeus Crisrarus (Stephens.) -

THALASSEUS BENGALENSIS ( Lesson.)

STERNA MINura. (/4nn.)

STERNA JAVANICA ( Horsf.)

The above are the Terns that frequent the neighbour-

hood of Colombo during the winter. The Crested Tern arrives —

here in the early part of December, and may generally be

seen flying along the coast or seated on the rocks off the

Fort. It never frequents the lake. ‘The Marsh Tern, Hydro-

chelidon Indica, is one of our commonest species frequenting

the paddy fields in the neighbourhood of Colombo, as well as

the Slave Island Lakes and the sea-beach round the Fort. It

arrives here at the beginning of October, being seen first of all

out in the country and afterwards appears in small numbers

about the Colombo Lake, becoming very numerous in Decem-

ber, about which time it may often be observed seated in rows

on the Telegraph wire stretching across the water to the Galle

Face. I suppose that there is scarcely another spot in the world

where sucha spectacle, as a web-footed bird seated on a single

wire, would be presented.

The Black-bellied Tern, S. Javaniea is rare; I pro.

cured but one specimen this year, shot on the 12th of March,

with the under-surface changing to darkiron gray. |

I put the lesser Tern (8. Minuta)as doubtful. The

bird in question however, is plentiful about Colombo, arriv-

ing after the other species and remaining behind some three

weeks later into the summer, All individuals that I have

shot, have the bill en‘irely black and the legs and feet dark,

reddish brown. It agrees in measurements with S. minuta

which however (according to Jerdon) has the legs orange and

the bill yellow.

The lesser Sea Tern (7h. Bengalensis) is perhaps more

numerous than the Marsh Tern. It hunts singly or in pairs

over the Slave Island Lake, and congregates in company with

the latter bird in great numbers on the rocks off the Fort.

It is a splendid fisher and a bird of very powerful flight ;

I have watched it hundreds of times pouncing on the silver

fish in the Lake, and never yet saw it rise without a prize

in its bill. It frequently drops a fish when jerking the head

in the direction of its throat, but seems to have no difficulty

in recovering it again with a rapid swoop before it has proceed-

ed far on its downward course. I think that as a rule it does not

reach the size of 16 inches given in Jerdon, its dimensions

generally corresponding more with those which this author gives

for S. affines. vol. IIT. page &43.

Thave shot adult birds measuring 14? inches, and have

procured no specimen of more than 15 inches in length. The

bill appears to vary with age; immature birds, which are as

numerous in this district as adults, have it two inches at front.

The white-winged black Tern (Sterna leucoptera) which, as

far as I can ascertain, has not yet been recorded from India, has

been shot at Aripo. This specimen is now in the possession of

Mr. Holdsworth, who procured it, three or four years ago, at

the above-mentioned place.

The Gannet (Sula fiber ) has also been observed by this gentle-

man on the Pearl Banks. |

In concluding these notes, I. append a list of some of our

migratory birds, both foreign and internal, the dates of whose

first appearance about Colombo I have observed myself this

season.

Common SAnp PIPER—Actites hypoleucos, ... 12th Oct.

LESSER SAND PLOVER— Aigialites pyrrhothorax, 12th Sept.

SWALLOW—AHirundo rustica, .. ... ,.. 19th Sept.

SNIPE—(; allingo stenura, ntoeerion . 2ithy Sept.

Marsu Tern—Hydrochelidon imdica, ...... Ast Oct.

Wactart—Budyles viridis, ...... ... i. Sth Oct

Pipi1t—Corydalla Richardt, ...... “Ota Oct,

Lesser Sea TeErn—Thalasseus Bones 1th, Oct.

WarBLeR—Phyllopneuste nitidus, ... ... 18th Oct.

Fry CatcHEer—Butalis Latirostris, ....... 14th Oct.

ON THE ORIGIN OF

THE SRI’.PA’DA, OR SACRED FOOT-PRINT ON

THE SUMMIT OF ADAM’S PEAK.

By WitiiAM SKEEN, Esq.

THe tendency of the human mind to attach itself to visible

objects in matters of religious belief, and to attribute especial

sanctity to objects and places associated with the presence of the

Beings it adores, is one so widely spread as to be almost universal.

It operates alike among Brahmans, Buddhists, Romanists, Russo-

Greeks and Mohammedans. With different degrees of intensity it

influences men of most opposite views. Polytheists, atheists, image

and picture worshippers, and the most fanatical of deistic icono-

clasts are swayed by it; while Heathendom at large is more or less

permeated with it. Intimately connected with it, is the idea that

the practice of penance, or other rigorous austerity, propitiates the

Being adored, and thus becomes a meritorious act, conducive to the

ultimate happiness of the individual practising it. This tendency,

with its associated idea, is strikingly manifested among the

Buddhists of Ceylon, in the annual pilgrimages made to the summit

of the Samanala, to worship the so-called Foot-print, which, it is

alleged, was there made by Buddha in the eighth year of his

Buddhahood ; an occurrence which, from the fifth century onwards

of the Christian era, has been recorded with much circumstantiality

of detail by the historians and poets of the Island, and which is

thus referred to in the “ Samantakiita -wannana,” supposed to have

been written in the early part of the 14th century, by Wédéha,

chief priest of the Patiraja Piriwena Vihara,

BOODAQM HHIOKIG EusGo

GQOABIVOH OE YS3 GSSIOIBo

Heres BAB DIO DISA

BACOOAM CiusOWoasd QHNOQSX)

Sambodhito atthama s4radasmin

Wésdkha m4se Muni punnam&yam

Padass’ abhinfianamaka ’paranké

Sadéwake sassamane mahante.

When noon had pass’d and offerings meet were him presented there

By gods and priests and denizens of earth and heaven and air,

At full moon of the month of May, when eastwards fell the shade,

In his eighth year of Buddhahood the Sage the Foot- print made.

This Foot-print, to the eye of the unbeliever, is nothing more

than a shallow weather-worn hollow, artificially shaped by the aid

of the chisel and cement into something that rudely resembles

the impression of a foot, five feet seven inches long, and two feet

seven inches broad. To the eye of the Buddhist, however, it is

the veritable impression of the foot of the Founder of his Faith,

whom he believes to have been very gigantically proportioned,

measuring, according to some authorities, 18 cubits in height,

which at the carpenter’s cubit of 2’ 3”, would give him a stature

of 40’ 6”, while at the old cubit of 2’ 9”, he would measure a

fathom and a half more: feet of the size of the impression would

therefore be required to support so gigantic a being.* And this

impression is resorted to by, it has been computed, a hundred

thousand pilgrims a year ; and is devoutly believed in and wor-

shipped by myriads of Buddhists throughout the world, as having

been actually made by Buddha on the afternoon of Friday the 6th

of May, in the year 580 B. c.

The origin of such a belief is a subject of interesting inquiry.

* According to ‘the “Sadharmmaratnakéré,” the Foot-print, when originally

made, was “in length three inches less than the cubit of the carpenter.” This

would give, according to the old carpenter’s cubit, a measure of 2’ 67; but the

Foot-print has grown with the growth of ages, like the legends which record its

impression,

Tn a recent work upon Adam’s Peak,* I was led to conclude, from

the information then before me, “that the belief in the existence

of the Foot-print was not of an older date than a century and a

half before the Christian era,” but I was doubtful “if even it was

as old.” Subsequent investigations, in which I have been much

assisted by Mr. Advocate Alwis, Mudaliyar L. de Zoysa, and the

Rev. C. Alwis, have convinced me that the origin of the belief

must be dated several centuries later. There are good grounds also

for concluding, that the discovery of the impression was a conse-

quence of the existence of the belief; the belief having existed for

centuries before any intimation can be found in historic records

that the impression, which was thenceforth to justify it, had been

seen or visited.

The current belief of the Sinhalese Buddhists upon this subject

is that given in the Raja Ratnacari,t written about the end of the

14th century, It is less loaded with the supernaturally mar-

vellous than the account extracted from the “Sarwajna Gund-

lankara,”{ (quoted in Appendix D. of Adam’s Peak), and is as

follows :—

‘“‘ Buddha, at the prayer of the father-in law of the king snake Maho-

dara, on the day of the full moon, in the month of May, came to the

place where now stands the great monument and temple of Calany, and

having sat down, the said snakes entertained Buddha with his priests,

with a banquet of the choicest’ meats, such as the gods make use of;

after which Buddha preached, and afterward, at the prayer of the snake-

king, left the print of his foot in the bottom of the river Calany. And

* Adam’s Peak: Legendary, Traditional, and Historic Notices of the Samanala

and Sri-Pada: with a Descriptive Account of the Pilgrims’ Route from Colombo

to the Sacred Foot-print. Fep. 4to., pp. 412, with Map and Illustrations.

+ Upham’s Sacred and Historical Books of Ceylon, vol. ii. pp. 22—25.

t See also the account given in the “‘ Manual of Buddhism,” by the Rey. Spence

Hardy, pp. 210—213.,

having converted three times four thousand of the said snakes to his

religion, who offered to him an infinity of offerings and thanksgivings ;

which the god called Saman-dewa Raja, looking westwards from Adam’s

Peak beheld, and rejoicing said, ‘Now Buddha is come to Ceylon, what

I greatly longed for shall come to pass.’ And instantly he, with all his

train of inferior gods, presented themselves before Buddha, and humbly

worshipped, saying, ‘O Buddha! beholdest thou this lofty rock, the name

of which is Samanta Coota (Adam’s Peak) which appears like a rock

of blue sapphire, and which being five leagues high, is constantly touched

by the passing clouds? On the top of that said mountain, several

Buddhas have left relics, by which they are still kept in memory, the

same being as it were the crown of my head: do thou, O mighty one!

vouchsafe to add one gem thereto, by leaving the impression of thy foot

thereon, which shall be a precious blessing to this isle. Buddha, then

turning his eye towards the east beheld the spiral top of the elevated

mountain,—as the woman of the Island of Ceylon, with head liftedsup, and

with anxious expectation looking out for the coming of her lord, on

account of having been twice disappointed of her expected dowry, namely,

the print of the foot of Buddha, who had twice come to Ceylon without

having visited the said sacred place, she had become disconsolate, and

through the depth of her affliction, had sent from her eyes two rivers of

tears, namely Calany-Ganga, or the river Calany, and Mahawelle Ganga,

or the river of Mahawelle; and had also divested herself of all her

ornaments and jewels, and had strewed them round in the agony of

despair (from whence it came, that in her vicinity there were to be found

innumerable mines of gold and precious stones), Buddha said to her.—

‘This day will I comfort thee, O thou woman of Ceylon! as other

Buddhas have done; and so with 500 attendant ministers ascending

through the clouds, shining like pillars of gold, and hovering over the top

of the said rock, the rock on which the print of Buddha’s foot had

formerly been made, started from its foundation, and meeting this our

Buddha in the air, received the impression of his left foot, and fell down

upon the place where it now lies. Upon which she who had long

remained sorrowful and disconsolate, now became cheerful. By a shower

of rain which began to fall at a time when rain could not have.been

expected, she was enabled to wash away hersorrow. She clothed herself

with the shining colours which issued from the body of Buddha. Through

the favor of the god it also rained gold, sweet smelling flowers, and

all kinds of perfumes; the sea lifted up its voice and roared aloud with

joy, which served as cymbals to celebrate the joyous day; all kinds of

music were supplied by the humming of the Brangaya; the earth and

the heavens clapped hands in concert, the trees of the field blossomed

with flowers, and all nature shouted for joy. Thus Buddha comforted

the woman of Ceylon by stamping the impression of his foot on the said

mountain, from which place he departed, and visited the monument at

the place called Anurawdapura Nuwera,” &c., &c.

The authority, or perhaps I might say, authorities, on which this

and all other Sinhalese accounts of later date than the dth century

rest, are the writings of Mahanama, the priestly author of the first

portion of the Mahawanso, describing events from 543 B.C. to

301 a. D., written between the years 459 and 477, during the

reign of his nephew, king Dhatu Sena; and those of Buddha-

ghosa, the great propagandist of Buddhism in Burmah, who in the

year 400 a. p.* visited Ceylon for the purpose of translating from

Sinhalese into Pali the sacred Canon and the Comments thereon.

‘His stay in the island lasted three years, during which time he

himself composed comments on the Pitakas. These Comments

are so highly prized by Buddhists, that they are considered

divinely inspired, and of equal authority with the original texts

which they illustrate and explain.

* This is the date given by Bp. Bigandet, on the authority of Burmese records.

Turnour, in his Introduction to the Mahawanso, says “the precise date is not

specified of either Buddhaghdésa’s arrival at or departure from the island.” But he

fixes the reign of Mahanamo at a.p. 410—432, and it was apparently, in the early

part of this king’s reign, that Buddhaghdsa’s visit took place. This discrepancy is

however of no moment as regards the argument in the text. The visit of Buddha-

ghosa and that of Fa Hian, (413-415) may have happened at one and the same time.

The following quotation is taken from the Hon’ble Georges

Turnour’s translation of the Mahawanso, ch. i. pp. 6, 7.

“In (this) eighth year of his [Gautama’s] buddahood, [he] the van-

quisher and saviour, was sojourning in the garden of Jéto, with 500 of

his disciples. On the second day, being the full moon of the delightful

month of Wésakho, on its being announced to him that it was the hour

of refection, the vanquisher, lord of munis, at that instant adjusting his

robes, and taking up his sacred dish, departed for the kingdom of Kalyani,

to the residence of Maniakkhiko. On the spot where the Kaly4ni dagoba

(was subsequently built) on a throne of inestimable value, erected in a

golden palace, he stationed himself, together with his attendant disciples.

The overjoyed Naga king and his retinue provided the vanquisher, the

doctrinal lord and his disciples, with celestial food and beverage. The

comforter of the world, the divine teacher, the supreme lord, having then

propounded the doctrine of his faith, rising aloft (into the air) displayed

the impression of his foot on the mountain Samantakuta (by imprinting it

there). On the side of that mountain, he, with his disciples, having

enjoyed the rest of noon day, departed for Dighawapi; and on the site

of the d4goba (subsequently erected), the saviour, attended by his

disciples, seated himself; and for the purpose of rendering that spot

celebrated, he there enjoyed the bliss of “Samadhi.” Rising aloft from

that spot, the great divine sage, cognizant of the places (sanctified by

former Buddhas) departed for the station where the Méghawana estab-

lishment was subsequently formed (at Anurddhapura). The saviour,

together with his disciples, alighting on the spot where the sacred bé-tree

was (subsequently) planted enjoyed the bliss of the “Samadhi” medi-

tation : thence, in like manner, on the spot where the great dag. ba (was

subsequently built); similarly, at the site of the dagoba Thupar4mo,

indulging in the same meditation: from thence he repaired to the site of

the Sila dagoba. The lord of multitudinous disciples preached to the

congregated Dewos, and thereafter the Buddha omniscient of the present,

the past, and the future, departed for the garden of Jeto.”

In the Atthakatha on the Vinaya-pitaka entitled “Samanta

Pasadika,” Buddhaghdésa writes:—

BQ BODIGED HNOHOASI SEQO HH 43, BoIv@OS DA,

AES SOSH. DD QADJadw FAOO Vows SEVH3<o

O3 gaasnadaticn BOsnS3oD HH 60 Bag.

BOADH GEQAM EIS DOHED Mews QUHKCAHOL

DID) 6S OOOO BROS.» BHO HeVo Mw

BODDAQOO GEo EQUHNLD) FRO.”

“Tinikhopana Bhagavat6 padachetiyani. Lagkadipe ekay. Jam-

budipe Yonakaratthe dvéti. Tattha bodithé atthame vassé Kalyaniyap

Maniakkhi nagarajena nimantité Bhagavé paychahi bhikkhusatehi pari-

vuto Lankadipamagamma Kaly4ni chetiyatthane kate ratanamandapé

nisinno bhattakichchan katw4 Samantakute paday dassetwa agamasi.”

“There are three foot impressions of the Deity of felicity: one in the

Island of Lanka, and two in the Yonaka country in Jambudipo. In

the eighth year after his attainment of Buddhahood, the Deity of felicity

at the invitation of the Naga king Maniakkhi, arrived at Lanka attended

by five hundred priests, and having taken his seat in the ratana-mandapa

(gem-decorated hall) on the site of the Dagoba at Kelani, and having

partaken of his repast there, left the impression of his fout on the

Samantakuta mountain, and departed.”

These extracts shew that Buddhaghésa and Mahdnama agree

with each other as to the origin of the Foot-print on the Samanta-

kita, although the latter gives particulars which the earlier writer

abstains from doing. Both however are silent in regard to the

Foot-print in the bed of the Kelani. Buddhaghésa’s account is

corroborated by Fa Hian the Chinese pilgrim who visited Ceylon

in the year 413. During his two years’ stay he visited the whole

of the sacred places in the Island; but all that he remarks in

connection with the Foot-print is contained in the following brief

sentence :—“By the strength of his divine foot he [Foe, i. e.

Buddha] left the print of one of his feet to the north of the royal

city [ Anuradhapura |, and the print of the other on the summit of

a mountain.” Of these two foot-prints, the one on the mountain

is no doubt the same as that to which Buddhaghosa refers. But

the other could not have been the impression in the Kelani-ganga,

that spot being a long distance south-west of Anuradhapura.

There is however, near the Wiharai Tampiran Kovil,—arock temple

at Muttakal, in the Tammankaduwa Pattu of the Trincomalee

District,—the representation of a human foot-print engraved on

stone, “the length of which is four cubits, and breadth two and a half.

Near this foot-print is an inscription in the Nagaram language.”*

This may possibly have been the one first mentioned by Fa Hian,

removed from its original to its present site when the capital of

the Island was transferred from Anurddhapura to Pollonnaruwa

in the year 769. Be that as it may, neither the one nor the other

appears to have been an object of special reverence in Fa Hian’s

time ; and it is certain that pilgrimages were not then made to the

Sri-pada at Samantakita. Had such been in vogue, Fa Hian

would undoubtedly have proceeded thither, and described both it

and his journey in the same graphic manner in which he has re-

corded his visits elsewhere; the main purpose of his pilgrimage

through India and Ceylon being, to see the places rendered famous

and venerable by the birth, life, doings, and death of Buddha.

Carrying our researches still further back, we come to the

Dipawansa, written certainly not more than a century and a half

before the commencement of the Mahawanso, its narrative extend-

ing only to the end of the reign of king Maha Sen, a.p. 302. It is

the oldest work’ extant on early Sinhalese history, and appears

to have been compiled from the annals of chroniclers appointed by

the reigning kings. It is quoted by Mahanama, in the Maha-

wanso, and is probably the source from which he obtained the

principal materials of his history. The work is written in Pali,

and was first made known to European scholars by the Hon’ble

* Archeological Returns, p. 50.

George Turnour, who obtained a copy from Burmah through the

intervention of Mudaliyar Nadoris de Silva.* The following

extract, referring to the same period as that in the preceding ones,

is taken from the concluding portion of the second Bhanavara or

section of the work :—7j

PHOS FROQDWOKS eMNAA VMNadIE409

BODINE 90I60 5D BaQ sa wo

ESHA DID GPHQo O¥8 MNMORA a0

6 28 BBD) DUNVAD MNO) OMNDOQNYS

B2WESo FAYBODND)) NA) Mew GeeQo

BWOADSDD ODSo GOHMD) OGHHOE

DITIGADB VASHB EAegoawsB Soecgo

S029 6DNSI GoDwWA enve90 GELBI Nd an0

DISNSANNAANIDN QYASo SHISVPo~—HNo

BAD BO CLIN GABE QSMDIEN MW So

Qa SYD toBSY SQVDUM&) H3¥egGo

BHBEDIN BBO) SHBaxy sonaw

OQ) SAND BOSSI QOD 08) Sto YS

ANDI) Do BWSSS ™oOrzao<M0 wevVa sno

* The few copies of this work hitherto accessible in the island,—transcripts

from that obtained by Nadoris de Silva,—are in many respects defective, owing,

presumably, to the ignorance of the transcribers. An opportunity will however

be speedily afforded to Pali Scholars for collating them with one which, with other

historical and religious works, His Majesty the King of Burmah. has liberally

presented to the “Government Oriental Library.”

+ In a note at p. 52 of “ Adam’s Peak,” it is stated—“ Both Buddhaghésa and

Mahanama seem to have been indebted to the Dipawansa for what they have

written on this particular subject,” i.e. the Foot-print. I had not then obtained

access to the work, and my informant was, as it will be seen, mistaken in this

particular.

NAG. Qa OsnGgacn oeH®) B53 eeces

QED GYAN SWNHAHAA PAID

BIAWNOMND) BAOG) erIGESSdo wsesVoano

DIO PBYOAOIDER) DHOAHNE wseIamM

QDIBDRDWIS) DQ) Dr<Ho@esOoGcso

BOSS wOoSNo BDISI0 OBIDNA MLOHOM

DOR) BDOHIAS NDOADHIOD SBM

GQVBDISCo MMDOIOED) DEVS weno ana

ONGAOSB DANDAND QAAIDA Ho EHog

GEDHH Os OQ08 SHGosyy OHHCE

DQ Eo GGHNBDOIN NMA: wOostIS

BOvI OA)ID QVYoQH Mo SSI QS)ISI 090OS9

COLO ©2953 SHAISNN QDVNVONAH FEA)

BRITON) SOISHNS GARD) sd, Maws

SDAOS DQSISGWo HOPI MIAGAaw

HIGH) WBOIND OSS ween

GORD) BQGMBe DW AS GI SHAOIA

QEo GBHEWe GAYo MIAPBGONGDI CSIADSHIGO AI

QOo SEQv DAN BSED) SINS

QWo SOEHe GOICo ADNISNHIAI MAW

QOo SQ@QDHNLH BLE) sIanH

QQ SOE HS3Go Me OGSSIAD BISOAA

QOo GEQoDNNL BBEMD) SIDHS

PNGIDYD BBOQES)I SHAMBGOMD)I SIHAOw

Qc SEQoMNW9H} BLED) VeBansS3

‘* Aparampi atthame vasse nagaraja Manakkhiko

Nimantayi mah4viray pancha bhikkhu sate saha

Pariwaretvana Sambuddhan vasibhita mahiddhiké

Uppatitva Jetavane kamamano nabhe muni

Lankadipan anuppatto ganea Kalyaniyan mukhag

Sabbe ratanamandapan urag4zkatva mahitale

Nanarahehi vatthehi dibbadussehi chhadayun

Nénaratana ‘lank4ré n4n4 puppha vichittak4

Nanaraha dhaja ’neké mandapan n4né lapkatag

Santhatay santharitvana pafifidpetvana 4sanan

Buddha pamukha Sagghancha pavesetva nisidayuy

Nisiditvana Sambuddho panchabhikkhu sate saha

Samapatti samapajji mettan sabba disan phari—

Sattakkhattuy samapajji Buddho jhanan sasivako

Tasmig thane maha thtipo patitthasiti addasa

Mahadanan pavattesi n4gar4j4 Manakkhiko—

Patiggahetva Sambuddho nagadanay sasavako

Bhutvana anumodetva nabhugganchhi sasavako—

Orohitvana tan Buddho thanan Dighavapiyan

Samapajji samapatti jhanan lokanukampako

Vutthahitva samapatti tamhi thane pabhankaro

Vehasayan Kamamano dhammaraja Sasavako—

Mahameghavane tattha bodhi thanan upagami

Purima tini maha bodhi patitthinsu mahitale

Tanthanay upagantvana tattha jhanan samaépajjayi—

Tisso bodhi imap thanan tayo buddhana sasane

Mamanchabodhi patitthanan idheva hoti anagate —

- Sasavako samapatti utthahitva naruttamo

Yattha meghavanarammay, agamasi narasabho--

Tatthapi so sam4pattin samapajji sasavako

Utthahitva sam4pattin vyakari so pabhankaro—

Iman padesan pathamam kakusandho lokanayako

Iman pallanka thanamhi nisiditva patiggahi

Iman padesan dutiyan kénagamano narasabho

Imay pallanka thananhi nisiditva patiggahi

Iman padesan tatiyan kassapo lokanayako

Iman pallanka thanamhi nisiditva patiggahi—

Ahan Gotama Sambuddho sakyaputto narasabho

Iman pallanka thanamhi nisiditva samappito.”

« Again in the eighth year, the king of the Nagas invited the great

hero, with five hundred priests. These passion-subdued sages, possessed

of great miraculous powers, rising aloft in the air at Jétawane, and

travelling through the firmament, arrived at the Island of Lanka, near

the mouth of the river Kalyani. All the Nagas, having built a ‘jewelled

hall,’ greatly decorated and ornamented with varieties of gems, with

flowers of various hues and with many flags, and having covered it with

celestial cloths, and other cloths of great value, having put up seats,

and spread carpets over them, they (the Nagas) made the supreme

Buddha, and the priests enter (the hall) and be seated.

‘The supreme Buddha having taken his seat with his five hundred

disciples, entered into samapatti meditation, and extended mercy in all

directions. Seven times did the supreme one enter into holy meditation

with his disciples, and he foresaw that the great Thupa would be built

upon that site.

“The Naga-RAéja Maniakkhika bestowed great offerings of food, and

Buddha having accepted these offerings, and partaken of the same with his

disciples, went up in the air accompanied by them; and the omniscient

one having alighted at the place (called) Dighavapi, the sympathizer of

mankind entered into holy meditation on that spot.

‘“‘ Having risen, after there enjoying his holy rest, the illuminator, the

king of the law, passing through the air, attended by his disciples, arrived

at Maha méghavana, the site of the Bo-tree, where the holy Bodhi-trees

of the former three Buddhas (of the kappa) stood, and having arrived

there he again entered into holy meditation.

““¢ During the existence of the sarana (the continuance of the religion)

of the three former Buddhas, their three Bodhi-trees, stood on this spot,

and my own Bo-tree will stand here in future’ (thought he.)

*“ Having risen from the samadhi meditation, the supreme of men, with

his disciples went to Meghavana. There too, he entered into holy

meditation with his disciples, and rising therefrom the illuminator (of

the world) declared. ‘First of all Kakusandho, the chief of the world,

seated on the site of this very seat vouchsafed to accept this spot of

ground. Secondly, Konagamano, the supreme of mankind, seated on

the site of this very seat, vouchsafed to accept this spot ef ground.

. 75

Thirdly, Kassapo, the chief of the world, seated on the site of this very

seat, vouchsafed to accept this spot of ground. I too, Gotamo Buddha, of

the Sakyarace, the chief of men, seated on this seat, enjoyed holy rest.’”

Here, plainly, there is an entire absence of reference to any-

thing that isin any way connected with the Foot-print; an omission,

the significance of which is all the more remarkable, because of

the terms in which the rest of the holy places are spoken of. The

sites of all these places, it is alleged, were visited by Buddha with

his attendant train of five hundred priests, on the self-same day.

At each place, entering into a state of profound and holy abstrac-

tion, he foresaw, on the spot, what centuries later would there be

done, in the erection of Dagobas, the planting of the Bé-tree, &c.,

and the veneration with which each would be regarded as having

been sanctified by his presence. ‘The narrative is marvellous

enough to satisfy the cravings of the most credulous, but with all .

its statements that partake of the miraculous and supernatural, it is

nevertheless an exceedingly valuable one, inasmuch as it shews

what were considered the holy places at the time it was written,

and that amongst them the Foot-print had no place,—that, in fact,

its existence was then unknown.

The Buddhists of Ceylon affirm that the Founder of their religion

visited the Island on three several occasions; and the Dipawansa,

the Mahawanso, and other native works have much to say concern-

ing these visits; but the conclusion that their statements are

wholly groundless, a conclusion arrived at by such writers as the

Rev. Spence Hardy,* and Professor Edward E. Salisbury ¢ is one

sustained by internal evidence furnished by the Mahawanso itself,

as well as by that derivable from other sources.

* Vide article “On the Language and Literature of the Sinhalese,” published

in the C. B. R. A. Society’s Journal for 1846.

Memoir of Buddhism, Journ. Am. Or. Soc. vol. i. p. 106.

The Buddhistic annals and traditions of the Burmese are

peculiarly valuable to students of Buddhism in Ceylon, not only

from the intimate connection that has for so many centuries been

kept up between the two countries, for the express purpose of

promoting the interests of their common religion; but from the

circumstances which, from the original introduction of Buddhism

into Burmah, have there preserved it from the corrupting influences

which have more or less affected that faith in other countries.

Upon this subject the Right Rev. P. Bigandet, Bishop of Ramatha

and Vicar Avostolic of Ava and Pegu, observes, in theintroduction

to his interesting work, “‘ The Life of Gaudama, the Buddha of the

Burmese :”—-

‘‘ Buddhism, such as we find it in Rurmah, appears to have retained

to a great extent, its original character and primitive genuineness,

exhibiting the most correct forms and features of that Protean creed.

“At the epoch the Burmans left the northern vallies and settled in the

country they now inhabit, they were a half civilized Mongolian tribe,

with no kind of worship, except a sort of Geniolatry, much similar to

that we see now existing among the various tribes now bordering on

Burmah. They were in the same condition when the Buddhist mission-

aries first arrived among them. Deposited in this almost virginal soil,

the seed of Buddhism grew up freely, without meeting any obstacle to

check its growth.

‘‘ Philosophy, which, during its too often erratic rambles in search of

truth, changes, corrects, improves, destroys, and, in numberless ways,

modifies all that it meets, never flourished in these parts: and therefore

did not work in the religious institutions, which have remained up to this

day nearly the same as they were when first imported into Burmah.

The free discussion of religious and moral subjects, which constituted

the very life of the Indian schools, and begat so many various, inco-

herent, and contradictory opinions on the most essential points of

religion and philosophy, is the sign of an advanced state of civilization,

which does not appear to have ever existed on the banks of the Irra-

waddy.

dad

“Owing to its geographical position, and perhaps, also, to political

eanses, Burmah has ever remained out of the reach of Hindoo influence,

which in Nepaul has coloured Buddhism with Hindoo myths, and habited

it in gross idolatric forms. Jn China, where already subsisted heroes’

and ancestors’ worship, at the time of the arrival of the preachers of the

new doctrine ; Buddhism, like animmense parasitic plant, extended itself

all over the institutions which it covered rather than destroyed, allowing

the ancient forms to subsist under the disguise it afforded them. But

such was not the state of Burmah, when visited by the first heralds of

Buddhism.”—pp. vill. ix.

That being the case, let us ascertain what the Burmese autho-

rities say with reference to the introduction of Buddhism into

Ceylon. In the account given of the memorable occurrences

which took place when Phralaong at last attained the fullness of

the Buddhaship, it is stated, that after giving vent ‘“ to the feelings

of compassion that pressed on his benevolent heart, Phra [Bur-

mese for Buddha] glancing over future events, delighted in

contemplating the great number of beings who would avail them-

selves of his preachings, and labour to free themselves from the

slavery of passions. He counted the multitudes who would enter

the ways that lead to the deliverance, and would obtain the

rewards to be enjoyed by those who will follow one of those ways.

The Baranathee country (Benares) would be favoured first of all,

with the preaching of the law of the wheel. He reviewed the coun-

tries where his religion would be firmly established. He saw that

Mahinda, the son of king Asdka, would carry his law to Ceylon,

236 years after his Neibban.” Not a word here as to the three

visits which Sinhalese authorities assert he made, and which if

he actually had made, or but one of them even, would undoubtedly

have been recorded as one of the things foreseen, just as it is

stated he foresaw the preaching of the law of the wheel at Benares—

an event which came to pass not long after he became Buddha :—

or the mission of Mahinda to Ceylon, which was part and parcel

of a grand scheme for the propagation of Buddhism, resolved

upon at the third great Buddhist Council, held at PAtilipura or

Patna, under the auspices of the king Asdéka, and presided over by

Moggaliputtatissa in the year 309 B.c. This resolution of the

Council is thus stated in the Burmese Life of Gaudama Buddha,

pp. 887, 388.

“At the conclusion of the council, the President, who was acknow-

ledged the head of the Buddhists, thought of extending throughout the

whole of Dzampoudipa the sway of the new religion, Hitherto, it had been

confined within the limits of Magatha. Now the time had come to make

it spread far and wide among the nations and tribes of the whole world.

To carry out such a bold and comprehensive plan, Mauggaliputta made

an appeal to the ablest and most zealous members of the council, and

charged a certain number of them, to go and preach the true law, into

the countries beyond the boundaries of Magatha. The venerable

Mitzaganti, with four companions, was directed to proceed to the country

of Kashmara-gandara. Rewati was ordered to go to Mahithakan-pantala.

Gaunaka-damma Reckita went to Aparanta. Maha-damma Reckita was

sent to the Mahratta country. Damma Reckita received mission to

proceed to Yaunaka, which is the country inhabited by the Pantsays.

The venerable Mitzi directed his steps, in company of several brethren,

towards some parts in the Himalayas. Thauna and Outtara proceeded

in a south-eastern direction, to the country of Souwani-boumi. Finally,

Mahinda, Ittia, Outtia, Thamala, and Baddathala went to establish

religion into the Island of Tappapani (Ceylon.)”

Turning now to the Mahawanso, we find an account, in the

13th chapter, of Mahinda’s arrival in Lanka, [B.c. 307 | after receiv-

‘ing from ‘“‘Magindo (Sakké the dévo of dévos)” the following

command : ‘“ Depart on thy mission for the conversion of Lanka:

it is the fulfilment of the prediction of the Supreme Buddha

(pronounced at the foot of the bdé-tree). We also will there

render our assistance.’ The 14th- chapter describes the manner

in which Mahinda introduced himself to the king Dévanan-

plyatissa, near the Missa mountain, or Mihintalle ; his discourses

with, and the consequent conversion of the monarch, followed by

that of his sister-in-law the princess Anula, the Court, and large

numbers of the people. Numerous donations of land, sites of the holy

places, were then made to Mahinda by the king ; who was informed,

to his intense satisfaction, that these sites had already been sancti-

fied by the presence on them of Gautama and the three preceding

Buddhas. In the account which Mahinda gave the king of the

proceedings of these Buddhas, he mentions that the first, Kakusandha,

stationed himself on the summit of Déwaktta (Adam’s Peak), in

order, amongst other things, to deliver the inhabitants from a pre-

vailing febrile epidemic. ‘The second Buddha, Kondgamana, in

order to bring about the cessation of a terrible drought, also

stationed himself on the summit of Sumanaktita (Adam’s Peak)

The third Buddha, Kassapa, in order to put a stop to a sanguinary

civil war, stationed himself, in a similar manner, on the summit of

Subhakuta (Adain’s Peak). In each case that elevated position was

chosen by the Buddha for the simple purpose of making manifest his

presence in the land, the same resolution (or command) being each

time adopted “ Let all the inhabitants of this land Ojadipo [after-

wards Waradipo, then Mandadipo | this very day see me manifested.

Let all persons who are desirous of repairing to me repair instantly

(hither) without any exertion on their part.” Whereupon, each

time, ‘* The king and inhabitants of the capital observing the divine

sage, effulgent by the rays of his halo, as well as the mountain

illuminated by his presence, instantly repaired thither.” The

divine sages then successively went to the sites of the various

holy places already mentioned in the quotation from the Ist chapter.

But there is no mention whatever of the impression of a Foot-print

having been made on the summit of the mountain on either of

these occasions.

Mahinda, proceeding with his discourse, comes to the advent of-

Gautama. He tells the king :—

“The fourth divine sage, the comforter of the world, the omniscient

doctrinal lord, the vanquisher of the five deadly sins, in this * kappa,’ was

Gotama.

‘‘In the first advent to this land, he reduced the Yakkhos to subjection,

and then in his secon advent, he established his power over the nagas.

Again, upon the third occasion, at the entreaty of the naga-king

Maniakkhi, repairing to Kalyani, he there, together with his attendant

disciples, partook of refreshment. Having tarried and indulged in (the

‘samapatti’ meclitation) at the spot where the former bdé-trees had been

placed; as well as on this very site of the (Ruanwelli) dagoba (where

Mahinda was making these revelations to Dévananpiyatissa), and having

repaired to the spots where the relics used (by the Buddhas themselves,

viz., the drinking-vessel, the belt, and the ablution robe had been

enshrined) ; as well as to the several places where preceding Buddhas

had tarried, the vanquisher of the five deadly sins, the great muni, the

luminary of Lanka, as at that period there were no human beings in the

land, having propounded his doctrines to the congregated devos and

the nagas, departed through the air to Jambudipo.”*

Here again neither the mountain nor the foot-print is made

mention of, and the fictitiousness of the whole narrative is made

* These visits not having been foreseen, (see ante), but being essential at and

after 236 A.B. ‘for the greater glory of Buddha,’ there was an awkward necessity

compelling the Buddhist historians to limit the time occupied by the visits of

Buddha to Ceylon, and to force him to fly with electric speed, from Jeto (at Sa-

watthipura in India) to Lanka, and back from Lanka to Jeto, in the universally

accepted belief that no Buddha could possibly absent himself for a longer period

than twenty-four hours at any one time from the country in which he was

originally manifested. It is however, a lamentable fact, that occurrences no less

wonderful are gravely recorded in certain Jewish, Christian, and Mohammadan

writings, which are greatly reverenced, and the incidents of which are most

implicitly believed in by the superstitiously devout of large sections of each of

these religious communities.

patent by the announcement that at the period of Gautama’s third

visit to Lanka, B. Cc, 589, eiglit years after his attainment of the

Buddhahood, there were then *“‘ no human beings in the land,’—

u strange and singular admission immediately after the statement

respecting the manner in which the kings and inhabitants of the

capital repaired to the preceding Buddhas when they manifested

themselves, thousands of years before, on the summit of the variously-

named mountain. This discourse of Mahinda, however, almost

exactly tallies with the statements of the Dipawansa, and there can

be no doubt but that both had a common origin. Chapters 15 and

16 continue the accounts of Mahinda’s successful labours in the land.

Chapter in states, that after the holding of the ‘“ wasso” at the

Chétiya mountain, which terminated on the full moon day of the

month “ Kattika” (Oct.-Nov.) five months after his arrival, Mahinda

“this great théro of profound wisdom,” thus spoke : —

“‘ Maharaja, our divine teacher, the Supreme Buddha, has lone been

out of our sight: we are sojourning here, unblessed by his presence. In

this land, O ruler of men! we have no object to which offerings can be

made.” (The king) replied “ Lord, most assuredly it has been stated to

me, that our Supreme Buddha had attained ‘nibbutd’ (and that a lock of

his hair, and the ‘giwati’ relic have been enshrined at Mahiyangana.)”

‘Wherever his sacred relics are seen our vanquisher himself is seen,”

(rejoined Mahinda). “I understand your meaning,” (said. the monarch)

‘‘a thiipo is to be constructed by me. I will erect the thtipo: do ye pro-

cure the relics.” The théro replied to the king: “ Consult with Stimana.”

The sovereign then addressed that s&émanéro, ‘ From whence can we

procure relics?” ‘‘ Ruler of men (said he) having decorated the city and

the highway, attended by a retinue of devotees, mounted on thy state

elephant, leaving the canopy of dominion, and cheered by the music of

the ‘talawachara’ band, repair in the evening to the Mah4n4ga pleasure

garden. There, O king! wilt thou find relics.” Thus to the piously

devoted monarch, spoke Sumana, who fully knew how the relies of Buddha

had been distributed.”

Now, supposing that about 236 A.B. there had been any founda-

tion, either legendary or traditional, for the assertion, in the first

chapter of the Mahawanso, that Buddha had, on the occasion of his

third visit to Ceylon, left his Foot-print on the summit of the

Samantakuta, some allusion to that circumstance would assuredly

have been made by Mahinda, in the various discourses he had with

the king, which are reported in the 14th and following chapters.

But such is not the case. The alleged visits are fictions; the _

inventions, most probably, of the zealous Mahinda, aided by the

astute Sumana, who knew so well how the relics of Buddha had

been distributed, that when the king was led by Mahinda to ask

for them, he was ready at once to make miraculous journeys to

Magadha, the Himalayas, and the court of Sakko, the devo of dévos

or king of gods, to procure them :—all which, says the historian,

he did; and had the relics ready for the king on the afternoon of

the same day on which he inquired after them. Further, had there

been a belief amongst Buddhists, at the time of Mahinda’s visit, of

the existence of such a Foot-print, there would have been no reason

for that théro’s lament to the king, that there was no object in the

land to which offerings could be made.

But we have still stronger and more conclusive evidence upon

this subject in the sacred Pitakas—the very fountain head and source

of all the authentic information we possess concerning Buddha and

the origin of Buddhism. These, consisting of the Vinaya, the Sutra,

and the Abhidhamma, contain the discipline, and the discourses of

Gautama, and the pre-eminent truths of his doctrines. That these

works were partly collected and reduced to writing during the

lifetime of Buddha, there are strong grounds—perhaps the strongest

possible—for believing, notwithstanding the assertions of Sinhalese

Buddhist historians to the contrary.* The art of writing, -hiero-

* With reference to this subject, the importance of which in its bearings upon

glyphieally and phonetically, was known amongst the Egyptians,

Hebrews, Chaldeans, Moabites, Ninevites, and Assyrians, as well as

amongst the Chinese, hundreds of years before the birth of Buddha.

It was known and practised amongst the Babylonians and the Medes

and Persians at the time of his advent ; and there are no grounds for

supposing that it was unknown in the country in which he lived.

On the contrary, we know that the ten books of the Vedas, com-

prising 1028 hymns, existed in a written form, and had existed in

India for, at least, four hundred years before.* A king’s son, sur-

rounded by learned Brahmans, the prince Siddhartha, the coming

the Buddhist religion car hardly be over-estimated, Mr. Turnour remarks, in his

‘Examination of the Pali Buddhistical Annals, No. 4,” published in the Journal

of the Asiatic Society in 1838, ‘It has been shewn in the introduction to the

Mahawanse, that its author Mahdndmo, compiled his history in the reign of his

nephew Dhatasino, the monarch of Ceylon who reigned between A. p, 459 and

477, from the materials above described—[the Sfhaia Mahawanso, the Attha-

katha of the Mahawihdro, the Sfhala Atthakatha and the Mahawanso of the

Uttarawihdaro fraternities ],—a part of which was the version of the Atthakatha

brought by Mahinda from India in 307 before Christ, and translated by him into

the Sihala language. This fact, coupled with many other circumstances in-

advertently disclosed in the histories of the Convocations, go far to prove that

the Pitakattayan and Atthakatha were actually reduced to writing from the

commencement of the Buddhistical era, and that the concealment of their record

till the reign of the Ceylonese ruler Wattagamini [Walagambahu] between B.c.

104 and 76, was a part of the esoteric scheme of that creed, had recourse to in

order to keep up the imposture as to the priesthood being endowed with the gift

of inspiration. The cessation of the concealment of these scriptures at that parti-

cular period, though attributed to the subsidence of the spirit of inspiration, in all

probability proceeded from the public disorders consequent upon the Chdélf4n

invasion, which led to the expulsion of that king and the priesthood from Anu-

radhapura by a foreign enemy, and to their fugitive existence in the wilderness

of the Island during a period of nearly 15 years.”

* The collection of the Vedas in their present form has been referred, from

general considerations, and with much of probability, to the earlier half of the

Buddha, was educated in all the knowledge possessed by perhaps

the then most civilized country in India, His principal adherents

were, like himself, of regal, as well as of princely and priestly

families, and they too would be highly educated men. It is not

therefore reasonable to suppose, that while for a period of forty-

five years he continued to propagate his doctrines in the adjacent

kingdoms of Maghada, (North and South Behar) Bhagalpur,

Gorukhpur, Oude, Benares, and the territory of Tirhut, his disciples

did not commit to writing the more important, if not the whole of

them; or that he himself did not from time to time revise and

correct what had been written.

Even the Aséka inscriptions, the great Indian enigma until

deciphered by Prinsep, whatever else they prove, prove this,—

that although not cut until about 230 years after the death of

Buddha,* the art of writing was not, and could not have been

second thousand years preceding the Christian era, but at whatever time the

collection was made—when its verses were first rescued from the custody of oral

tradition, and committed to writing—it constituted a decided era in Indian

literary history, and “from this time the texts became a chief object of the science

and industry of the nation, as their contents had always been of its highest

reverence and admiration; and so thorough and religious was the care bestowed

upon their preservation, that, notwithstanding their mass and the thousands of

years which have elapsed since their collection, not a single various reading, so

far as is yet known, has been suffered to make its way into them.”—See article

*On the main results of the later Vedic Researches in Germany, by William D.

Whitney, in Journal of Amer. Or. Soc. 1853, vol. iii. p. 309.—Also, Professor Max

Miiller’s Lecture on the Vedas in ‘Chips from a German Workshop,’ vol. i. pp. 15-16.

* There is abundant reason for conclading that the Buddhist era, commencing

B. C. 043 has been antedated by 66 years, and that the correct date should be 477

B.c. Asdka acceded to the throne 214 a.B. and was inaugurated four years

later. The inscriptions were cut subsequent to his inauguration;—one of them,

that at Girnar, fixes the date at 12 years after that event = 230 a.B., or 313

B.C. accepted Buddhist era; but B.c. 247 according to the corrected chronology.

at that time, of recent acquisition in the dominions of the monarch

whose edicts they recorded, The application of the art to the

‘perpetuation of such edicts in imperishable letters graven on

rocks and stone, might be a novel and a happy idea—the sug-

gestion of a Buddhist hierarch,—but as edicts so made public——

at Allahabad, and Delhi, in northern India; at Girnar in Gujarat,

in the west; at Dhauli in Katak, in the east; and, in a wholly

different alphabet, at Kapurdigiri in Afghanistin,—edicts which

were intended to be read by every one, the cutting of the inscrip-

tions presupposed a wide-spread possession amongst the subjects

In his discussion of the accuracy of the dates assigned to the death of Buddda and

-the landing of Vijaya in Ceylon, Mr. Turnour writes (Journ. As. Soc., Sept. 1837)

“IT proceed to offer the following remarks as explanatory of the grounds on which

I am disposed to consider, that the error of the above discrepancy was designedly

- committed by the early compilers of these Buddhistical annals, partly in India,

and partly in Ceylon, for the purpose of working out certain pretended prophecies

hereafter noticed.

“Tn the tirst place, these minutely adjusted dates are to be found only in

BuppHaGguosa’s Pali version of the Atthakatha, and in the Mahdawanso.; the

latter history being avowedly compiled from the Sinhalese Atthakatha, from

which Buddhaghosa translated his version also of the sacred commentaries into

Pali..... Both works, therefore, are derived from the same source, viz. the

Atthakatha brought from India by Mahinda in B. c. 307, and promulgated by

him in Ceylon in the native language. : ;

“Tn the second place, these dates are called forth, for the purpose of shewing

that certain pretended prophecies of Sdkya and his disciples, all tending directly

or indirectly to invest the Indian emperor Asoka, the hierarch Moggaliputtatissa,

and the island of Ceylon, with special importance, as the predicted agents by whom,

and the predicted theatre in which, Buddhism should attain great celebrity, were

actually realized. In the third place, xo mention whatever is made of these

prophecies in those parts of the text of the Pitakattaya in which the other

revelations of Sakya himself, are recorded; and where indeed, until a recent dis-

cussion raised by me, the heads of the Buddhistical Church in Kandy believed

they were to be found.”

of the great king, as well as the neighbouring people of Af-

ghanistan, of the ability to read the ordinances thus inscribed

for their information and observance;——and that ability indicated

a familiarity with writings on more perishable substances than

rocks and stately monoliths,—a familiarity which, considering the

fixity of Indian habits and grooves of thought, could not possibly

have been attained to in the course of a single generation.*

The notion, founded on the assertions of the old Sinhalese

* “No inscriptions have been met with in India anterior to the rise of Buddhism.

The earliest authentic specimens of writing are the inscriptions of king Priya-

darst or Aséka, about 250 B.c. These are written in two different alphabets.

The alphabet which is found in the inscription of Képurdigiri, and which in the

‘main is the same as that of the Arianian coins, is written from right to left. It

is clearly of Semitic origin, and most closely connected with the Aramaic branch

of the old Semitic or Phenician alphabet. The Aramaic letters, however, which

we know from Egyptian and Palmyrenian inscriptions, have experienced further

changes since they served as the model for the alphabet of Kapurdigiri, and we

must have recourse to the more primitive types of the ancient Hebrew coins and of

. the Phenician inscriptions, in order to explain some of the letters of the K4pur-

digiri alphabet. :

“But while the transition of the Semitic types into this ancient Indian alphabet

can be proved with scientific precision, fhe second Indian alphabet, that which is

found in the inscription of Girnar, and which is the real source of all other Indian

alphabets, as well as of those of Tibet and Burmah, has not as yet been traced

back in a satisfactory manner to any Semitic prototype. (Prinsep’s Indian

Antiquities by Thomas, vol. ii. p. 42.) To admit, however, the independent

invention of a natwe Indian alphabet is impossible. ; Alphabets were never

invented, in the usual sense of that word. They were formed gradually, and

purely phonetic alphabets always point back to earlier, syllabic or ideographic

stages. There are no such traces of the growth of an alphabet in Indian soil ;

and it is to be hoped that new discoveries may still bring to light the intermediate

links by which the alphabet of Girnar, and through it the modern Devandgari,

may be connected with one of the leading Semitic alphabets.”—Prof. Max

Miiller’s Sanskrit Grammar, 1866. pp. 1-2.

writers--Buddhist priests whose object was to exalt their own

order,—that neither in Buddha’s lifetime, nor for a period of four

hundred and fifty years subsequent to his death, his precepts and

discourses were preserved otherwise then orally, by men gifted

with infallible memories, is one that requires a stretch of belief

which only minds of a peculiar character can attain to.* Religions

as well as Governments, to be durable, must have their laws and

doctrines recorded, The necessity for so doing is imperative. It

is the only safe foundation on which political and religious commu-

- nities can be based. So obvious a truism needs but to be stated to be .

assented to. And sage and savage have alike felt its force all over

the globe. Passing from the old world to the new, the sculptures

and hieroglyphics discovered in the palaces and temples of cities of

an unknown race that within the memory of living men have been

disentombed from beneath the roots of forests, the growth of ages,

in the wilds of Central America, prove this; and proof as strong

is shewn in the wampum belts of the Indians of North America—

those records of treaties between tribe and tribe, and the red men

of the west and the pale faces from beyond the sea, to which chiefs

and sachems make ‘solemn reference when assembled on affairs of

state in the Council lodges of their tribes. Writing of any kind is

but the art of recording in visible symbols language that has been

spoken, as well as of rendering communicable from mind to mind

thoughts unuttered by the tongue ; and the art in its essence is

the same, whether the medium be the crude wampum belt of the

nomadic American Indian, or the elaborate combination of thick

and thin strokes in lines and curves and angles and circles of the

ablest writer of the most polished age of antient or modern times.

* In considering this subject, it must be borne in mind that the Tripitaka con-

tains matter equal in bulk to eleven or more times the amount of that contained

‘

in the books of the Old and New Testaments,

Whatever may have been the form of record adopted, whether on

papyrus or skins, on clay or metal, on olas or any other substance,

it will hardly be contended in the face of the evidence extant of the

extent to which the art prevailed at the period under discussion, that

in the country and age which saw the birth of Buddha, kings, philo-

sophers, poets,and priests were less advanced in civilization in this

particular respect, than the North American Indians of the present

century. But if it be admitted, that, 2,500 years ago, Maghada and

-its adjacent kingdoms, had attained to a high degree of civilization,

then it is inconceivable that Buddha and his principal disciples

should deliberately have chosen to entrust the future of the new

religion to mere oral and traditional deliverances, when a surer

method fer securing its lasting stability was at their command.

Professor Max Miller has well said, that “Buddhism, as a

religion and a political fact, was a reaction against Brahmanism,

though it retained much of that more primitive form of faith and

worship.”* ‘To ensure the permanency of such a reaction no

means could be better adapted than the record in writing of the

laws and teachings of its promulgator, who, as he claimed to be

omniscient, the sage and seer supreme in wisdom, would not, nay,

could not, overlook the importance of the art. That it was not

overlooked weare assured, for how otherwise can the remarkable fact

be accounted for, that from the time of Buddha is to be dated the

commencement of authentic Indian History,—a fact entirely attri-

-butable to Buddhism and Buddhist writers. Upon this point the

following remarks by Professor Salisbury are most apposite :—

‘“A result of the general elevation of society effected by Buddhism, is

seen in its creation of history. In India, while Brahmanism held un-

disputed sway, there were indeed traditions of the past handed down by

* Chips from a German Workshop, vol. i. p. 238.—Doctors differ upon this as

upon other matters. The able author of the paper on the ‘ Literature and Origins

the epic bards; but so blended with mythology were these traditions,

that their historical meaning was obscured, or obliterated. The only

memorialists were of that caste, which could not justly preserve the

remembrance of most of the great events determining the destiny of the

nation, without giving undue prominence to matters which concerned

classes of society, depreciated by themselves as inferior and not worthy

of account, and especially their chief rivals, the warrior and regal caste,

whose glory they would be most reluctant to celebrate. But to the

Buddhists the affairs of kings were of the highest moment, and as they

deeply sympathized in the growth of their power, even when they pre»

sumed to sway it to their own advantage, they would be disposed to

treasure with the greatest care the remembrance of the events by which

it was obtained: and the concern they professed for the general welfare

of the people, would lead them to take note also of events of more general

interest. Hence we find, that the proper history of India opens with the

promulgation of Buddhism, and that every Buddhist nation has annals,

which have a claim to the name of history, far superior to that of the

epic or puranic traditions of Brahmanism.”*

This question has been carefully investigated by Mr. J. Alwis.

In the Introduction to his edition of a portion of Kachchayana’s

Pali Grammar ( p. XxXvil.) he states:—“as the result of those

investigations, that, at the time when Buddhism first started into

existence, writing was known in Maghada, as much as painting.

It was practised in the time of Gautama. Buddhist doctrines

were conveyed to different countries by its means. Laws and

usages were recorded. Little children were taught to write.

Even women were found able to read and write. The character

of Buddhism,’ which appeared in the October number of the Calcutta Review for

1869 declares, “ there is no greater error than to represent it [Buddhism] as a

Turanian revolt against Aryan supremacy. It was in its origin a purely spiritual

influence, and its explanation must be sought in the spiritual rather than the

social history of the time.”

* Journal Amer. Or. Soe. vol. 1. pp. 134-5.

used was the Nagari. Vermilion was the ‘ink,’ and metal plates,

cloth, hides, and leaves, constituted the “paper’ of the time. That

Buddhist annals, therefore, were reduced to writing from the very

commencement, is not only reasonable, but is indeed capable of

easy and satisfactory proof.” And in the Appendix to his work,

he gives extracts from the ‘Papancha Sudaniya,’ the ‘Maha Vagega,’

the ‘Atthakatha of Sanyutta Nikaya,’ the ‘Sumangala Vitasini,’

the ‘Atthakatha to the Dhammapada,’ and the ‘Samanta-pasddika,’

which contain proof of each particular stated in the passage we

have just quoted. i

The style and method of recording occurrences in the Vinaya-

pitaka are moreover convincing proofs that they, or the most of them,

were noted down at the time they are said to have taken place; and

the same may be said of the discourses and doctrines forming the

bulk of the Satra and Abhidhamma-pitakas—which three works,

taken collectively, form the Tripitika, or sacred words of Buddha.

That much was committed to memory by the early Buddhist

converts there can be no doubt, for the memory was a faculty

highly cultivated in India in olden times as well as at the present

day. That many copies of the Pitakas were written is not likely.

The art of writing would not be an universal accomplishment ;

and while Buddha was still living, and so long as his followers

were confined to Maghada, one authenticated copy would suffice.

The acute researches of the Hon’ble George Turnour, Csoma

de Korési, James Alwis, and others, upon this subject, are sufficient

to establish the point beyond the region of doubt. But there is

another consideration which, although not that I am aware of

hitherto mooted, seems to possess a certain value in the discussion

of this and other matters connected with the establishment of

Buddhism.

Gautama in his yearnings after truth, before attaining to the Bud-

dhahood, sought information from every source where he thought

col

his object could possibly be gained. ‘The pure morality of his

doctrines, and the general conformity of his precepts to those

contained in the Old Testament writings, have often been remarked

upon. Helived at a time when, for more than a hundred years, the

ten tribes of the kingdom of Israel had been scattered, and, as it

were, sifted over and among the nations of the earth; when more-

over the inhabitants of Judea had been carried captive to Chaldea ;

and when princes and priests of the children of the captivity were

holding the reins of power in places of highest trust in the

Babylonish empire,—that empire which was then the mistress of

the world, and whose king, in the zenith of his greatness, chose

Daniel the Jewish prophet for his Vizier. What more likely then

than that Buddha may have become acquainted with the Book of

the Law, which the Israelites and Jews carried with them

wherever they went,*—the divinely inspired code of a people, the

fame of whose kings, David and Solomon, had rang through every

known land.t It was an age when the whole race of mankind was

agitated with the throes of a religious revolution—a mighty mentay

regeneration, which developed itself, in the Gentile world, by the

production of such master-minds as Gautama, Pythagoras, Con-

fucius, and Laotse. In the tenets taught by these men, and in

* Just as nearly twelve hundred years later, the Arabian prophet Mohammed

became acquainted with, and obtained much, if not the whole, of the morality of

the Koran from the sacred writings of both Jews and Christians.

+ “The natural division of India is that into Hindustan and the Deccan, not

because the one is continental, and the other peninsular, nor because the one con-

sists‘mainly of two extensive river valleys, and the other of an elevated table land,

but because they are separated by a barrier of mountain and forest, the Vindhya

range, which renders impossible any but a very slow infiltration of ideas and

peculiarities of race. At the time of which we speak [the fifth and sixth centuries

before the Christian era] such infiltration was already at work. Aryan merchants

visited the harbours of both coasts of the peninsula; and as far back as the age of

Solomon (1000, 8.c.], brought the produce of Malabar,—conspicuous animals,

the doctrines of Zoroaster as exhibited in the} Zend-Avesta, with

which Buddha may also have been acquainted, the morality of

the.Pentateuch is clearly discernible; and whatever he may have

learnt from the five books of Moses,—and his precepts and dis-

courses lead to the conclusion that he learnt a great deal,—he could

hardly fail to obtain a knowledge of the means by which the law

was preserved in its pristine purity; of the command given by

the great Lawgiver for the deposit .of the original written copy

‘in the side of the Ark of Covenant; ”—of the ordinance (Deut.

xvii. 18 —20), which required each king, when the appointed time

for choosing a king arrived, to transcribe for himself “a copy of

the law in a book out of that which is before the priests the

Levites : —to read therein all the days of his life :’—-as well as that

other (Deut. xxvii. Sul 4) which commanded, for the benefit of

the people, that when they had passed into the land which should

be given them, great stones, plaistered over with plaister, should

be set up, on which stones should be written “‘very plainly” “all

the words of this law.” *

Assuming thus much, and recollecting that as the Founder of a

new Religion, Buddha would naturally take every possible means

to preserve to his followers his laws and his doctrines, exactly as

elephants’ tusks, fragrant woods, and such things as savages barter,—to factories

at the mouth of the Indus, whither arrived, at measured intervals, the adventurous

Phoenician squadron, bringing the Hindus the first news they had heard of foreign

lands and gods and races, and of the alphabet, that wondrous instrument for

expressing thought, which the Semitic mind had brought to maturity before its

want was felt by other nations.”—The Literature and Origins of Buddhism, Cal-

cutta Review, No. xevili. 1869, pp. 107-8.

* Possibly king Asoka may have been led, from the same source of information,

to erect the pillars and make tablets of the rocks in various parts of his dominions,

on which are found his edicts concerning religion,—the oldest inscriptions known

in India.

he himself propounded them; what can be more natural than the

dying charge which he gave to his friend Ananda, and his other

accompanying disciples, a portion of which we shall now quote :—

“Buddha, calling Ananda and all the Rahans, said to them: When I

shall have disappeared from the state of existence, and be no longer with

you, do not believe that the Buddha has left you and ceased to dwell

among you. You have the Thoots and Abidama which to you I have

preached; you have the discipline and regulations of the Wini. The

law, contained in those sacred instructions, shall be, after my demise,

your teacher. By the means of the doctrines which I have delivered to

you, I will continue to remain among you. Do not therefore think or

believe that the Buddha has disappeared or is no more with you.”*

The above passage from the ‘ Mulla-linkara-wouttoo’ is from the

translation by Bp. Bigandet, a decided advocate of the oral pro-

pagation theory. The same passage, translated by an equally com-

petent scholar, is given below. Both translations, it will be seen, are

so rendered as to convey no suspicion whatever to the reader’s mind

that the dying Buddha referred to a collection which existed solely

in the memories of his hearers, or otherwise than in writing.

‘“‘Gaudama then called Ananda, and said, You suppose that when I am

gone there will be no Boodh: now this is not correct. Ihave given the

several books of the law, and those books, when I am gone, will be the

teacher; therefore it will be wrong to say, We have no Boodh.”

That Buddha felt the pressing need of such a charge on so

solemn an occasion is clear from several circumstances stated to have

happened just before his death; and the breath had scarcely passed

from his body, before the necessity of an appeal to the “law” was

made manifest to those to whom he had bequeathed the sacred trust.

* Bigandet’s Life of Gaudama, p. 315.

+ Life of Gaudama, translated by Rev. Chester Bennet, Missionary of the

American Baptist Union in Burma, published in vol. iii. of Amer. Or. Soc.

- Journal, 1853. .

This is shewn in the following passage recording the resolve of

Maha Kassapa to hold a general Council immediately after the

death of the great Master.

“ Kassapa was thunderstruck at hearing such unbecoming language

from the mouth of the Rahat Supat [Subaddo, the first Buddhist heretic].

He said to himself; If at this time, when there are but seven days since

Buddha entered Neibban, there are to be found people holding such a lan-

guage, what will happen hereafter. ‘These persons will soon have followers

who will embrace the profession of Rahats; and then the true religion

will be totally subverted, the excellent law shall be in the hands of such

persons, like a heap of unstrung flowers that are scattered by the wind.

The only remedy to such an impending misfortune, is to assemble a

Council composed of all the true disciples, who, by their decisions, shall

insure stability to religion, and fix the meaning of every portion of the

law, contained in the Vinaya, the Sutras, and the Abhidhamma. Iam, as

it were, bound to watch over the religion of Buddha, because of the

peculiar predilection he has ever shewn to me. On one occasion I

walked with Buddha, the distance of three gauwas; during that time he

preached to me, and at the end of the instruction, we made an exchange

of our tsiwarans, and I put on his own. He said ‘ Kassapa is like the

moon; three times he has obtained the inheritance of the law. His affection

to my person, his zeal for my religion, has never been equalled. After

my demise it will behove him to stem the current of evil, to humble the

wicked, and condemn their false teachings as subversive of the genuine

doctrine. With such energetic means, my religion shall remain pure

and undefiled, and its tenets shall not be lost and drowned in the midst

of the raging waves of errors.’ Therefore, said the great disciple, I will

hold an assembly of all the disciples, for the promotion and exaltation of

the holy religion.” “As soon as the funerals of the most excellent Phra

(Buddha) shall have been performed with a becoming solemnity, I shall

congregate together the most zealous and learned members of the

assembly, and with their united efforts and energy, I will oppose the

spreading of false doctrines which obscure the true ones. I will put

' down the newly invented erroneous disciplinary regulations, by setting

in a strong light, the genuineones. To prevent, in future, the recurrence

of similar evils so detrimental to religion, all the preachings of Buddha,

as well as the disciplinary rules, shall be arranged under several heads,

and committed to writing. The books, containing the above, shall be

held as sacred.”*

This, the first great Council, was accordingly held at Rajagaha,

the capital of Ajatassato or Magadha (South Behar), three months

after the death of Gautama. It was attended by 500 of the chief

of his disciples: and the ‘Mulla-linkara-wouttoo,’ } from which

Bigandet translates the life of Buddha, and which gives a narrative

of the steps taken for the preservation as well as the propagation of

his doctrines, describes the proceedings as follows. After forty days’

preparation, all being assembled, Kassapa, as president, inquired

which of the three parts, the Instructions, the Discipline, or the

Metaphysics, should first be considered. The Discipline obtaining

the preference, the théro Upali was chosen as its expositor. Kassapa

thereupon questioned him upon the contents of the Vinaya, com-

mencing with the first section; and after each answer, addressing

the assembled Council, said, ‘‘Brethren, you have all heard what

regards the circumstances connected with the first Parajika: Let

this article be noted down, and its admission be proclaimed aloud.

* Bigandet’s Life of Gaudama, pp. 335, 336, and 350. It is only fair to the

Bishop to state, that he does not agree with his author in regard to the writing

mentioned in the text. He says, “I feel inclined to believe that this expression

is put into the mouth of the Patriarch, and that, in all likelihood, he never uttered

it. It is probable that during the first ages of Buddhism, the doctrines were not

put in writing, but orally transmitted. . For supporting this apparently incredible

assertion, we have the testimony of the authors of the Sinhalese collection, who

distinctly state, that during more than 200 years after the introduction of the

religion in Ceylon, tradition was the only vehicle for transmitting the contents of

"the Pitagat.”

+ The precise date of the composition of this work is not known. But it is

said to have been written long before the invention of gunpowder.

It was done so. All the members accepted it.” So with the 2nd

and 3rd Parajika, which constituted the whole of the Vinaya -pitaka.

In the same manner Ananda was selected for examination on the

whole of the Sutras; and Anuradha on the Abhidhamma ; Maha

Kassapa being the examiner throughout.* The Council, after

sitting seven months, and arriving at unanimous conclusions upon

the whole of the subjects brought before it, concluded by fixing

the Buddhistic era; the commencement of which they dated from

the day of Buddha’s death, B.c. 543.

A second general Council was held at Wesalie, or Allahabad,

under the following circumstances. “In the 20th year of the

reign of Kalasoka, in the year 100, there happened a sort of schism

amongst the Rahans of Wesalie .... The venerable Rassa was then

living in the monastery of Mahawon in the district of Wesalie.

Chancing to travel through Vajji district he ...was greatly

scandalized at all that he saw.... The venerable Rassa anxious

for the safety of the genuine practices, and zealous:for the exal-

tation of religion, hastened to Kosambi, to warn the religious of

that and the neighbouring districts, against the evil practices of

the Vajji rahans. Yo those he could not meet in person he sent

letters und messengers, to say to them ‘Brethren, before the evil

doers succeed in their iniquitous efforts to subvert religion, and

render doubtful and uncertain the genuine regulations of the Viui,

ere they have time to set up false tenets, let us assemble, and with

* The Mahawanso, which asserts the oral propagation of the Pitakas, describes

this transaction in these terms :—‘“‘ The high-priest (Mahakassapo) reserved to

himself (the part) of interrogating on ‘ winaya,’ and the ascetic théro Upali that of

discoursing thereon. The one seated in the high-priest’s pulpit interrogated him

on ‘winaya’; the other, seated in the preaching pulpit, expatiated thereon.

From the manner in which the ‘ winaya’ was propounded by this master of that

branch of religion, all these théros, by repeating (the discourse) in chants, became

999

perfect masters in the knowledge of ‘winaya.

our united efforts, let us give strength and confidence to the good

and righteous, and crush the wicked and the impious.’”........

After some time spent in arrangements and preliminary discussions,

the Council was held a. 8. 102, under the presidency of Rassa, and

was attended by 700 priests, chief amongst whom were six of the

disciples of Ananda, and two of those of the venerable Anuradha.

“The assembly lasted eight months. The canon of scriptures was

likewise arranged and determined as it had been done by Maha

Kassapa, in the first Council.” *

The third great Council, held in the seventeenth year of the

reign of Asoka, has already been referred to.t

At each of these Councils it is stated Attakatha or Commentaries

were compiled, and adopted as canonical by the assembled priests.

Now with reference to these Councils, the occasions which called

for them, and the authenticated results, the Dipawansa makes the

.* Bp. Bigandet’s Life of Gaudama, pp. 364—368.

+ The accounts in the text, from Burmese authorities, are corroborated and con-

firmed by the Thibetan narrative referring to the same events. In an abstract

by Professor Wilson of an analysis of the Thibetan version of the Pitakattaya

made by M. Csoma de Kirisi, the following observations occur :—

“On the death of Sakya, Kasyapa, the head of the Baud’dhas, directs 500

superior monks to make a compilation of the doctrines of their master. The “Do”

is also compiled by Ananda; the ® Dul-va” by Upali; and the “ Ma-moon,” Abhi-

dharma, or Prajnd-pdéramita, by himself. He presides over the sect at Rajagriha

till his death.

“‘ Ananda succeeds as hierarch. n his death his relics are divided between the

Lichchivis and the King of Magadha; and two chaityas are built for their recep-

tion, one at Allahabad, the other at Pataliputra.

“One hundred years after the disappearance of Sakya, his religious is carried

into Kashmir.

“One hundred and ten years after the same event, in the reign of Asoka, king of

Pataliputra, a new compilation of the Jaws of Sakya was prepared by 700 monks,

at Yanea-pa-chen-Allahabad.’’—Turnour’s Mahawanso, Introd. p. xlviii.

ga-p )

following remarks, which clearly indicate that from the very begin-

ning Buddhism depended upon the written laws and discourses of

its Founder.

“Many individuals (viz.) ten thousand sinful Vajjian* bhikkus who

had been expelled by the theras, assembled together; and, having formed

another party, held a council of Dhamma. This is thence called Maha

Sangiti.

‘The bhikkhus who held the Maha Sangiti reduced the religion into

confusion, set aside the first compilation, and made another. They placed

in different places the Suttans which occurred in different other places,

and distorted the sense and the words of the five nikaya. They did so,

ignorant of (the difference between) the general discourses, and those

(delivered) on particular occasions, and also (between) their natural and

implied significations. They expressed in a different sense that which

was otherwise declared, and set aside various significations under the

unwarranted authority (shadow of) words. They omitted one portion

of the Suttan, and Vinaya of deep import, and substituted (their own)

version of them and the text. They left out the Parivaran annotations,

six books of the Abhidhamma, the Patisambhida, the Niddesa, and a

portion of the Jatakas, without replacing anything in their stead. They,

moreover, disregarded the nature of nouns, their gender, and (other)

accidents, as well as the (various) requirements of style, and corrupted

the same by different forms.

_ The originators of the Maha Sangiti were the first seceders. Many

followed their example. * 5 .

‘The schisms of the seceders were (thus) seventeen, the vada of those

who had not seceded, was one; and with it there were altogether eighteen

sects. ;

“ Like the great Nigrodha (among) trees, the orthodox discourses alone

* « Vajji,—a portion of Behar in which the Lichchavi Princes were settled. It is

however not stated where the Council was held. Doubtless it was at a distance

from the principal seat of Government and Buddhism, which at this period was at

Vesali or modern Allahabad.”

ie)

are supreme among doctrines ; and they are moreover the pure (very)

word of Buddha, without retrenchment or addition. The doctrines

which have arisen from it are like the thorns of a tree.

“There were no (heresies) in the first century (anno Buddha), but in

the second, seventeen sprung up in the religion of Buddha.”*

With the results of the third Council—the Vinaya, the Sttra,

and the Abhidhamma, recompiled, collated, and made conformable

with those of the two Councils which preceded it,-- Mahinda and

his fellow missionaries went forth to foreign countries as propa-

gandists of the Buddhist faith.

These books, the Tripitaka, or sacred Baskets, describe with

great minuteness Bud dha’s journeyings to and fro, and the occasions

which gave risé to his ordinances and discourses ; and their contents

are essentially the same to this day, whether found in Ceylon, in

Burmah, in Siam, in Cashmire, in Nepaul, in Thibetia, or in China.

Under the circumstances stated, and with the conviction that they

were written documents, we feel assured that no important event

iz the life of Buddha, or in the establishment of his religion, can

have been omitted from them. Butin none of them is any mention

made of Buddha having ever visited Ceylon; or, of his having

left a memorial of himself, which as a monument worthy of

adoration could not, and would not, escape particular notice.

That Mahinda and hisassociates had with them, on their arrivalin

Ceylon, a copy of the Tripitaka, as well as the Attakatha, written

in the Pali language, there can be no reasonable doubt.t The asser-

* Alwis’s Introduction to Kachchayana’s Pali Grammar, Appendix, pp. 66—69.

+ There is a tradition in Ceylon which speaks of the first introduction of

writing in the island in the reign of the king Dévananpiyatissa.—See Asiatic Re-

searches, vol. vii. p. 422. That this tradition was well founded, and arose from the

mission of Mahinda with the Pitakas in his possession, as well as from the Com-

ments he wrote upon them in Sinhalese, is extremely likely. The Mongol author,

Ssanang Ssetsen, in his account of the propagation of Buddhism in Cashmire

indicates that the Pitakas were also first carried thither in a written form, ‘This

100

tion to the contrary is simply incredible—as incredible, in point of

fact, as the assertion that their accurate knowledge of the Bana

was owing to the powers of supernatural inspiration with which they

claimed to be endowed. ‘That they had excellent memories may

be admitted without the shghtest hesitation. But the source of

their alleged inspired knowledge of the contents of the Tripitaka, |

was the sacred treasure, the Pitakas themselves, which they kept

carefully hidden from eyes profane, and from which, as occasion

served, they could refresh their memories. Unless endowed with the

gift of tongues, as well as with the other supernatural powers attri-

buted to them, how, without a written copy to guide them, could they,

Indian foreigners speaking a strange language, have translated the

Pali Pitakas into Sinhalese, without imminent risk of ‘ disregarding

the nature of nouns, their gender, and (other) accidents, as well as the

(various) requirements of style ?”+—for which flagrant sin, as we

have seen in the extract quoted from the Dipawansa, the Vajjian

bhikkus, at the birthplace of Buddhism, were, along with other

causes, denounced as heretics at the several Councils, at the third

of which Mahinda and his associates were present. ‘These foreign

Indian missionaries also composed, in Sinhalese, Attakatha on these

Pitakas, which were accepted as canonical, which Attakatha were

extant at least seven hundred years after they were originally com-

author, quoted by Schmidt, speaks of the three revisions of ‘the words of Buddha,’

as ‘so many collections of them,’ and further states, that ‘three hundred years after

Buddha had disappeared in Nirvana, when king Kanika was master of alms-gifts

(grand almoner of the mendicants), a collection of the last words of Buddha was

made in acloister in the kingdom of Keschmeri. At that time all the words of

Buddha were put into books,’ ”»—(Prof, E. E. Salisbury’s Mem. of Buddhism, Journ.

Amer. Or. Soc. i. pp. 83, 100.) This would be at least a hundred and fifty years

before the period assigned for their collection into written books in Ceylon, sup-

posing even that previous to the days of king Kanika they had remained miraculously

preserved in the tenacious recollections of priests endowed with infallible memories.

101

posed. Mahinda, the son of the powerful Indian conqueror Aséka,

asserting the possession of such gifts and powers, found a ready and

a credulous convert in the king Dévénanpiyatissa ; and to establish

his faith, declared, by virtue of his ‘divine inspiration,’ that the spots

and places dedicated by the monarch to the service of the new

religion, had ages before been selected and foreordained by pre-

ceding Buddhas, as well as by Gautama, to the purposes to which

they were then assigned.

Mahinda, “a luminary like unto the divine teacher himself,” com-

posed, as already hinted, additional Attakathas in the Sinhalese

language, and from these, as well as from the Pitakas, the authors of

the Dipawansa would necessarily draw much of their materials.

That these works were kept as a sacred secret, and specially guarded

by the chiefs of the Buddhist hierarchy, we may well infer, from

the events which took place on the restoration of King Walagam-

bahu, in the year 88 B. co. King and priests had, for a period of

nearly fifteen years, been fleeing and hiding as refugees from the

usurping dhamilos. There was, consequently, a peril lest the *‘Pita-

kattaya,” and the “ Attakatha” might be lost. The priests there-

fore, to prevent such:a possibility thereafter, or, as they phrased

the occurrence, “ foreseeing the perdition of the people (from the

perversion of the true doctrines) assembled, and in order that

the religion might endure for ages, recorded the same in hooks.” *

Their ‘profound wisdum and inspiration’ had previously enabled

them to promulgate the Bana orally, but now that under the auspices

of the king, and the théro Maliyadéwo, the sacred books were made

public, the age of inspiration passed away. The place at which

this publication was made was at the Alu-vihdra in Matale.

Now, as the contents of the Tripitaka are regarded by Buddhists

*“‘as a record of pure unmixed truth, without any deposit of error,

* Mahawanso, ch. xxxiii.

102

or possibility of mistake,” it follows, that all the statements made

in the Commentaries by Mahinda having reference to the presence

of Buddha in Ceylon, and for which there is no warrant whatever

in the Pitakas, were after-thoughts; pious frauds, invented for

the express purpose of imposing upon the Sinhalese, from the king

downwards, the authority of Buddha himself for rendering sacred

certain places and objects of worship ;—a trick to which priest-

craft has resorted in all ages, in order to buttress up what was

false and hollow, and to practise upon the credulity of mankind, in

matters of religious belief, from the days of Nimrod down to those

of the Mormon prophet Joseph Smith.

We have thus seen, that neither in the Pitakas, nor in Mahinda’s

Commentaries, nor in the account of his mission to Ceylon given

in the Mahawanso, nor in the Dipawansa, is there any evidence

of a belief in the existence of the Foot-print in Ceylon, from

543 B.c. to 302 a.v.* a period of 880 years from the date which

Buddhist legends assign as the time of its impression.

But, as has been already stated, in the year 400 a-p., Budda-

ghosa arrived in Ceylon for the purpose of translating into Pali

the Commentaries of Mahinda:{—and so extraordinary were the

* There is an allusion in the Mahawanso (in the account of the death of Duttu-

gamine, B. C. 137,) to the mountain Sumana, where it is said, the théro Maliyadéwo

and five hundred of the fraternity resided; but the object of the statement being

to elevate the order of the priesthood, and to shew that the smallest alms to them

outweighed in merit the greatest of all other kingly deeds, the account is at best

a very apocryphal one. It is however possible that from an early period priests

resided in viharas at the base of the mountain, perhaps even at Palabaddala. But

such a fact, taken by itself, is no evidence in favor of a belief in the existence of

the Foot-print at that time.

+ These commentaries, in the original Sinhalese, are not now extant, having

been destroyed in the raids against religious writings, which were made by usurp-

ing Tamil and apostate native kings, in their efforts to extirpate Buddhism in

Ceylon. These efforts were so far effectual that on more than one occasion, after

103

talents he displayed, that the priests to whom he presented himself

at the Mahavihdro, at Anur4dhapura, exclaimed “Most assuredly

this is Mettéyo, Buddho himself.” Upon the completion of the

task he had undertaken, “all the théros and acharayos held -his

compilation in the same estimation as the text (of the Pitakattaya.)”

——Mahawanso, ch. xxvii.

Now, it is in this compilation by Buddhaghésa, that the first

mention of the Foot-print occurs; although there is absolutely

nothing in the sacred Text to lead to or call for any such notice.

Whence then did Buddhaghoésa obtain his information ? During

the 4th century, the Kings of Ceylon, successors to Maha Sen, were

eminently pious sovereigns, looked at from a Buddhist point of

view; their reigns were long and peaceful, and religion fiourished

under their fostering care. In the ninth year of the reign of Kitsiri

Maiwan Ist (802—330), the tooth relic was brought over from

Kalinga, and the Mahawanso relates many particulars of events,

other than this, tending to the extension and glorification of Bud-

dhism in the land; but there is not in the annals of the century

a single syllable respecting either the Sumana mountain or the

Sri-pada. Not until six centuries later is the former referred to,

the expulsion or death of the persecuting rulers, embassies had to be sent to Siam

and Burmah to procure copies of the sacred writings, and obtain priests, and ordi-

nation, with a view to the revival of the national faith. It thus happened that up

to a very recent period a large proportion of the sacred books were in the Pali lan-

guage. AS however but few in the priesthood understand Pa4li, this was felt to bea

serious drawback ; to remedy which Maha Nissaya Karaka chariya Pafifiasiha

Terunnanse, principal pupil of the late learned Lankagoda Siri Saddhamawansapala

Dhirananda Nayaka, high priest of the Amarapura fraternity (d. Jan. 25, 1871),

widertook the translation into Sinhalese of the Samanta pasadika, or commentary

on the five books of the Vinaya Pitaka, a work which he completed about 1864.

This translation having been read and approved in a convocation of priests, held

in Sabaragammuwa, the original copy was deposited at Welitota vihara in

Keppina-mudali-arama near Balapitimodara,

104

and then only as a place of residence for priests; nor is it at all

clear on what part of the mountain the abodes to which reference

is made were situated. ‘Two centuries more elapse before we come

to an allusion to the Sri-pada, when Prakkrama the First (1153—

1186) made (according to the Raéjawalia) a pilgrimage to the

mountain, worshipped the priest of the Foot-print, and caused a

shrine to be built on the rock to Saman-Déwiyo ; so that the first

really historic notice of the actual existence of the Foot-print, is

about seventeen and a half centuries later than the time at which it

is alleged to have been made.

Thus far, historic evidence of but one kind has been referred

to—that contained in the ancient writings or olas. But there is

another, —the rock and stone inscriptions of the country,—cut in

the Nagari or old Pali character, the testimony of which is

indisputable, and the value of which cannot be overrated. These

inscriptions, at Mihintelle, Anur4dhapura, Pollonnaruwa, Dambul,

Matelle, and elsewhere, corroborate the statements in the olas re-

specting the origin of other hoty places, especially those selected by

Mahinda, or bestowed upon him by king Dév4nanpiyatissa, and to

which the arch-priest affixed the seal of sanctity by his affirmations

that they were sites formerly chosen by Buddha and his three

predecessors, and hallowed by their personal presence. Now of

this description of evidence there is not a tittle on Adam’s Peak,

although inscriptions of a more modern date are to be found on

both the eastern and western sides of the summit of the Peak.

History from sp. c. 543, to about a, D. 1160, being thus silent as

to the origin of the Sri-pada, we must fall back upon tradition ; and

here native help is not of much avail; for, although a local tradi-

_ tion ascribes its discovery to king Walagambahu, in the course of

his fourteen and a half years’ fugitive wanderings (from 104 to

&9 B.C.) through a revelation made to him by the god Sekraiya,*

* For an account of this tradition, see ‘Adam’s Peak,’ pp. 16, 17.

105

we have already shewn that so late as the year 302 a.p. a belief in

its existence was not entertained in Ceylon ; this tradition therefore

must take its place with the Buddhistic legends, invented as after-

thoughts to stamp with the seal of a hoar antiquity tales and places

of but recent origin. It is also to be borne in mind, that as

Walagambahu (who the tradition asserts was in hiding at Bhaga-

walena,* when the revelation was made to him) did not fail, after

his recovery of the throne, to found rock temples in the caves and

mountains in which he abode while a fugitive—places where

inscriptions, cut at the time, still bear witness to the fact—it can

scarcely be an allowable supposition, that if he had really abode at

Baghawalena, and discovered the Foot-print while there, he would

not have founded similar vihdras, and located companies of priests

at spots so memorable, with suitable endowments for their sup-

port,—a course of proceeding which was not adopted until many

centuries subsequent to his death.

Tradition does not however leave us altogether in the dark

upon this subject. A ray of light is imparted to it from a quarter

where it is much to be desired that further investigations should

_be carried on.

In the inquiries made by Sir J. Emerson Tennent, respecting the

early intercourse of the Chinese with Ceylon, it came to his know-

ledge, that in the records of travels and pilgrimages made by

adventurous Chinamen at the commencement of the fourth century,

the writers speak reverentially of the sacred foot-mark impressed

by the first created man, who in their mythology bears the name

of Pawn-koo.t ‘This appeared to me so very remarkable, that in

a note at p. 24 of my work upon Adam’s Peak, I said, “one is

* The cave on the eastern side of the mountain, where, according to the legend,

Buddha rested after making the Foot-print.

7 Sir J. Emerson Tennent’s Ceylon, vol. i. p. 586-7.

106

inclined to suspect there must be some error on the part of the

translator of the books in which it is recorded, unless indeed it be

the record of some antient tradition which was afterwards grafted

on to Buddhism.”

Concerning this intercourse of the Chinese with India the follow-

ing extract from Professor Salisbury’s Memoir on the History of

Buddhism will suffice for our present purpose :—

“Tt is known that Khotan, the Western part of Lesser Bochara, was

a great mart of commercial intercourse in ancient times between China

and Persia, and of the traffic of the remote East with the countries west-

ward of the Persian Empire, by the way of the Oxus and the Caspian

Sea; and that it had also intimate relations with Central India, across

Cashmere, is conclusively proved by the names of many places there, as

given by the Chinese authors, of which, according to Rémusat, the San-

skrit origin may still be recognized. We further know that at the time

of the Mongol conquest, Khotan had been long a centre of Buddhist

influence ; for the Buddhists of countries further to the east were then

‘wont to make pilgrimages thither to inquire after the gacred books, and

the traditions of their religion.* The period of the introduction of Bud-

dhism into that country is entirely undetermined, unless a certain tradition,

which was current in Khotan in the time of the Chinese dynasty of the

Thang, may afford the desired clue. ‘The tradition is, that the prince of

Khotan was miraculously descended from the deity Pi-chamen, which, if

it has any foundation in fact, can scarcely be interpreted to signify less

than that the civil state had been established under Buddhist influence. :

But we have the information of a Chinese author, that from the time of

Wouti of the dynasty of the Han, an emperor whose reign was from B. c.

140 to's. c. 87, Khotan began to have political relations with China, and

that the succession of its princes was not afterwards interrupted, down to

the age of the Thang ; consequently the tradition respecting the estab-

lishment of the principality must refer to a period as remote, at the

* See Hist. de la Ville Khotan, by M. Abel Kémusat, and Ritter’s Erdkunde von

Asia, i. 228, &c.

107

very least, as the close of the firat century before our era; and, though

beyond this, there is ground only for conjecture, 1t 1s worthy of remark,

that the tradition relates to an event, which might very naturally have

been connected with the expulsion of the Turushkas from Cashmere

about B. c. 249.”*

“The date ordinarily assigned to the introduction of Buddhism into

China, first stated by Deguignes on Chinege authority is a. p. 65.— But

since it has been shewn that the influence of Buddhism had probably

extended to Khotan, as early at least as the end of the first century

before Christ, and that political relations began to arise between Khotan

and China, not far from that time; we can scarcely hesitate to believe,

that the propagandism of the Buddhists had carried their religion into

the Celestial Empire even before our era; more especially as we find it

to have been common, in later times, for Buddhist mendicants of the

cloisters of Khotan, to be employed in political negociations with the

Chinese Empire.{ During the first three or four centuries Buddhist

pilgrims were constantly on the way from China to India, and the eastern

part of the Sassanidan empire, to obtain instruction in the faith of Bud-

dha, and to collect the books ofthe religion ; and a missionary zeal carried

many from afar to China.§ The first great era of the propagation cf

Buddhism amongst the Chinese early in the fourth century, was owing

to the influence of an Indian Buddhist, named Fo-thou-tching, or Purity

of Buddha, who, by adroitly availing himself of a knowledge of the

powers of nature, to effect the semblance of miracles of healing and of

raising the dead to life, and by fortunate predictions and shrewd auguries,

and the so-called gift of second sight, gained entire command of the

popular mind.” || )

Considering, in connection with the foregoing, that a missionary

of the Buddhist faith had established himself in China as early

* Journal of Amer. Or. Soe. vol. i. pp. 119-120.

+ Histoire Générale des Huns, &c., par. M. Deguignes, i, p. 30, Paris, 1756.

t Hist. de la Ville Khotan, pp. 83, 85, 96.

§ Foe Koue Ki. Introd. pp. 38, 41.

|| Journal of Amer, Or. Sec. vol. i. pp. 125-126.

108

as 217 B.c.;* that Buddhism obtained so great a hold and spread

so widely throughout the Chinese dominions, that by 68 A. D. it

was officially recognized as the third religion of the state; and

that high state functionaries were about that time sent to India

by the Emperor Ming-ti of the dynasty of Han, for the purposes

of studying its doctrines at the fountain-head, and translating into

the Chinese language its most important works ;+ it is by no means

likely, that, if a belief existed amongst the Buddhists of India at

that early period, that the Founder of their Faith had left behind

him so tangible a memento of his presence in Ceylon, as his foot-print

on the summit of the Samanala—such belief would not have been

carried to and become prevalent in China. But, as we have seen, and

other writers have shewn, neither in the antient Burmese annals,{

nor in those of Cashmire, Nepaut or ‘Thibetia, nor yet in the narrative

of the original propagation of Buddhism in Ceylon by Mahinda, as

recorded in the Mahawanso, is there any ground for supposing that

such a belief existed; and as there is no mention of any such belief

in the account of Buddha’s three mythic visits to the island, given

in the Dipawansa, it follows, that it is exceedingly unlikely such a

belief could have obtained currency in China; and therefore, that

the supposition,—that ‘the sacred foot-mark impressed by the first’

created man” spoken of by the Chinese in the beginning of the

* Foe Koue Ki, p. 41, and xxxviii. preface.

+ Professor Max Miiller’s ‘ Chips from a German Workshop,’ article ‘ Buddhist

Pilgrims,’ vol. i. pp. 258-9. :

{ The modern Burmese are as devout worshippers of the Sri-pada as the modern

Sinhalese ; the Buddhists on the banks of the Irrawady having apparently accepted

the legends current in Ceylon without inquiry or demur. But same of the more

intelligent of their priesthood, as well as those from Siam, have had their faith

rudely shocked, when at the end of their toilsome pilgrimage up the Samanala,

they have looked upon the chiselled and cemented hollow which they were told

was the veritable Foot -print of Gautama Buddha.

109

fourth century, was an antient tradition grafted on to Buddhism

and attributed to Buddha at a later date,—is by no means impro-

bable. As Buddhism spread in China so would the likelihood

increase that such an engraftment on to it of an old tradition of so

striking a character would take place. Devotees and votaries of

all human-born faiths have at all times manifested the strongest

tendencies to glorify the founders of their religion by attributing

everything possible and impossible to their lives and acts ; and to

transfer the making of the impression of a venerated foot-print in a

remote land, from the first-created man, to the first of men, the

supreme Buddha, is a step which those disposed to take, would

find most faeile, and one which an enthusiastic Indian Buddhist

prepagandist like Fo-thou-tching would not hesitate a moment

in taking. Intercourse between the countries where Buddhism

prevailed would soon give currency to the belief wherever and

however it originated. And it is highly probable that in this way

it was brought to India and Ceylon, and that thus Buddhaghdsa

and Mahanama became acquainted with it, and inserted it in their

works, without venturing upon particulars, which the fertile ima-

sinations of later writers,—after the spot was rendered accessible,

and a weather-worn hollow was manipulated into the resemblance

of a foot-print,—have abundantly supplied ; and thus established it

as a place of transcendent holiness, to be resorted to by pilgrims

from all parts of the world.

A tradition that on the far-off inaccessible summit of the Sama-

nala was to be found the impression of the Foot-print of the great

Buddha,—a tradition which had held its ground in Ceylon and else-

where from the fifth to the twelfth century, must have powerfully

affected the minds of all who professed to be Buddhists, and prepared

them to believe, with an undoubting faith, that the mark, the route

to which had at last been opened out, was indeed the visible me-

mento of the presence of the founder of their religion in the land.

110

As Buddhists they could not but believe it. They were bound

to do so by the initial formula of their faith, which avows belief

in Buddha—in the sacred writings—in the priesthood.* These, the

“triple gems,” are objects of equal, fervent adoration to the people.

Buddhaghosa’s Comments, accepted as inspired when written,

became, if not a part of the Canon of the Buddhist scriptures, at

any rate, in the estimation of “all the théros and Achariyas” his

contemporaries, of equal authority with the Tripitaka; and in that

estimation they are still held by the majority of Buddhists. In

those Comments is first found the authority for the statement, that

Buddha left his foot-mark upon that particular spot. Reverenced

equally with the sacred code, and read and expounded to the laity

by the priests, they have thus become a portion of the foundations

upon which the whole superstructure of the Buddhist faith is

built and upheld. The foot-mark therein referred to pilgrims can

visit and behold for themselves. This they yearly do, flocking

thither daily, by various routes, hundreds and thousands at a time,

between the months of January and April. Eye and ear and

heart and mind are thus convinced; for none but impious scoffers

will dare to doubt what priests affirm, what sacred books record,

and what the rock itself bears witness to.

eg Ql\e)o 050 <0 oexo0

QOQe Heme HOSP

Geko BOSo MOSIG

Buddham saranam gacchami

Dhammam saranam gacchami

Sangham saranam gacchami.

I put my trust in Buddha,

TI put my trust in Dhamma, (a)

I put my trust in Sangha. (6)

(a) Dhamma—the sacred law; the Doctrines of Buddha; the canenica]

seriptures. .

(b) Sangha—the Priests; the associated Priesthood.

111

Nore.-—At page 9, in the extract from Buddhaghésa’s Attha-

katha on the Vinaya-pitaka, entitled Samanta Pasadika, it is stated

that ‘in the eighth year after his attainment of Buddhahood, the

Deity of felicity ... . left the impression of his foot on the Saman-

takita mountain, and departed.” As this statement by Buddhaghosa

is the original authority upon which the Buddhist belief in the

Foot-print rests, it is not a little remarkable, that in another Attha-

katha by the same author,—that called the “ Maduratthawilasini”

on the Buddhawanso, the fourteenth book in the Khuddakanikayo

of the Sutta-pitaka,—in the account he there gives of the various

places at which Buddha resided during his lifetime, he makes no

mention whatever of the visits to Ceylon which Gautamais elsewhere

alleged to have made. Such visits, involving tedious journeys by

land and sea, or most miraculous passages through the air, and fraught

with consequences so important to the Island, as well as to Buddhism

generally, could not have been overlooked in such an account, had

they ever really occurred. This account, taken from Turnour’s

translation, which appeared in the Journal of the Asiatic Society

for August 1838, is as follows :—

‘* By whom was this (Buddhawanso) propounded? Where, on whose

or what account, and when was it delivered? Whose discourse is it,

and how has it been perpetuated ?

“By whom was this Buddhawanso propounded? It was propounded

by the supreme Buddho, who had acquired an infallible knowledge of all

the dhanma, who was gifted with the ten powers, who had achieved the

four wesarajjani, was the raja of dhanma, the lord of dhanma, the omni-

scient Tathagato.

‘““ Where did he propound it? He propounded it at the great city

Kapilawatthu at the great Negrédho wiharo, in the act of perambulating

on the Ratanachankamo, which attracted the gaze of dewa and of men

by its pre-eminent and exquisite beauty.

“Qn whose account? He propounded it for the benefit of twenty-

two thousand kinsmen, and of innumerable kétiyo of déwo and men.

112

‘¢On what account? He propounded it that he might rescue them

from the four Ogh4 (torrents of the passions).

‘Where did he propound it? - Bhagawa, during the first twenty years —

of his Buddhohood led a houseless life (of a pilgrim), sojourning at such

places as he found most convenient to dwell in; viz., out of regard for

Bardnasi he tarried the first year at the Isipatanan, an edifice (in that

city), near which no living creature could be deprived of life,—establish-

ing the supremacy of his faith, and administering to eighteen k6tiyo of

brahmans the heavenly draught (nib4nan). The second year, he dwelt

at the Wéluwano mah4 wih4ro in Rajagahan for the spiritual welfare of

that city. The third and fourth years he continued at the same place.

The fifth year, out of consideration for Wésali he dwelt in the Kutagara

hall in the Mah4wano wih4ro near that city. The sixth at the Makulo

mountain. The seventh at Tawatensa Bhawano (one of the Dewaldka).

The eighth year, for the welfare of the Sansumara,* mountain near

Bhuggo, he dwelt in the wilderness of Bhésakala. The ninth year, at

Késambia. The tenth year, in the Paraleyyako wilderness. The

eleventh year, in the brahman village Nala. The twelfth at Wéranja.

The thirteenth at the Chali mountain. The fourteenth at the Jétawano

maha wiharo in Sawatthipura. The fifteenth at the great city Kapila-

watthu. The sixteenth at Alawi subduing Alawako (an evil spirit); and

administering the heavenly draught to eighty-four thousand living crea-

tures. ‘The seventeenth at Rajagahan. ‘The eighteenth at the Chali

mountain. The nineteenth at the same place, and he resided the twen-

tieth at Rajagahan. From that period he exclusively dwelt either at the

Jétawano maha wiharo for the spiritual welfare of Sawathipura, or at

Pubbaramo for the welfare of S4kétapura, deriving his subsistence by

alms (from those cities.)”

« <Sunsumaro is synonymous with Kapilo, in Sinhalese Kimbulwatpura, the

birthplace of Gotomo Buddho.”

113

THE ROMANIZED TEXT OF THE FIRST FIVE

CHAPTERS OF THE BA’LA’'VATA/’RA.

A Pai GRAMMAR, WITH TRANSLATION

AND EXPLANATORY NOTES.

By Lionet F. Ler, Ceylon Civil Service.

The Burmese priests attribute the authorship of the Baélava-

fara toa priest named Dhammakitti; it does not, however,

appear that they have any good reasons for so doing. The

editor of the recently published edition of the Bilavatara while

noticing this assertion, remarks upen the common occurrence of

the name Dhammakitti, and the want of evidence in sup-

port of the Burmese theory. It is, however, probable that the

book was written about seven hundred years ago; and, that the

author was acquainted with Sanskrit is apparent, from the

examples of the various rules.

I propose, if health and leisure be afforded me, to publish early

next year the Romanized as well as the Nagari text, with a trans-

lation and explanatory notes.

It was originally my intention to publish simply the transla-

tion, but a well-known Oriental scholar was good enough to

suggest to me that to European scholars the Romanized text

would be valuable, while the Pandit Dewarakkhita suggested

the addition of the Nagari text, to render the work of use to

Pali students in the East. I have thankfully adopted both these

suggestions, as they confer upon the publication an intrinsie

value which I fear my translation will not possess.

In the separation of the Sutras, I hav» followed the example

of Professor Ballantyne, in his translation of the Laghy

Kaymudi. i

114

I have, in translation, endeavoured to keep as closely as possi-

ble to the original, and where that-course gave rise to oe

the foot-notes will afford the necessary explanation.

I have used: the edition published in 1869, bythe Pandit

Dewarakkhita. (better known in Ceylon as Bhatuvantudave) ;

and I may here render to him, as-well as to the talented Sipka-

duve Sumangala, and Waskaduve Subhuti, my thanks for: the

_ assistance which they afford me.

~ ete -

-BA’LA’ VATA’ BA,

Buddhan tidha ’bhivanditva buddhambuja wilochanan.

- Baldvatdran bhasissay balanan buddhiwuddhiya.

‘Having saluted in the three «ways the ‘full-blown-lotus-

eyed Buddha, I will compose the Bélavatéra for the increase of

_the knowledge of the ignorant.’

Akkhardpédayo ekachattailisan.*

“The letters a, &c., are forty-one.’

_Akkharépi -akaridayo ekachattélisan suttantopakéra—tan

~yatha.

‘ According to the sutra there are forty-one letters, including a

and the rest—how is it?

a4 10 um e o-ka Icha, pa pha ma) cha chet ene

ha ta tha da dha na ta thada dha na pa pha ba ‘bha 3 ma

ya ra la wa sa ha la an—iti.

Thus;—a 4 i i uu eo ka kha ga gha fia cha chha

ja jha fia ta tha da dha na ta tha dadha na pa pha ba

-bhama ya ra la wa sa ha la an.

* Alwis’ Introduction to Kachchayana’s Grammar, page xvii. Note.—

- Moggaiayana disputes the correctness of this suttan, and.says that the

Pali alphabet contains forty- three - characters, including thip short e

‘(epsilom) and o (omikron).”

115

Tatthodanta sara attha.

Tattha akkharesu okdranti attha sara nama.

Thus as far as 0 eight vowels.

Thus the eight letters from a to o inclusive are called vowels.

Tattheti wattate.

Carry**on ‘‘ tattha.”’ ©

Lahu matta tayo rassa.

Tattha saresu lahu matta a i u iti tayo rassa.

The three quickly pronounced are short. -

Thus amongst vowels the three quickly pronounced, V1Z.,

a 1 u-are short.

Ante digha. -

Tattha saresu rassehaiiie digh4a—sanyogato pubbe eo rass&

iwochehante kwachi—anantaré byanjana s:nyogo—LHttha seyye

ottho sotthi. -

The rest long.

Thus amongst vowels, exclusive of the short vowels, th erest~

are long. Before compound consonants e and o are pronounced

short, at option. Compound consonants are consonants next

each other. [Examples]

Ettha, seyyo, ottho, sottht. .

Sesa byanjana,

*-That isto say,. ‘let tattha be understood in the following rule.”

vide Ballantyne’s Laghu Kaumudi, page 2. ‘‘ A word which is not seen

in a sutra, but which is necessary to complete the sense, is always to be

supplied from some other sutra. The reason ot thisisas follows: in

the treatises of the Sanskrit Grammarians, brevity is regarded asa primary

requisite.. According to the author of the Mahdéohashya, or great com-

mentary, ‘the grammarians-esteem the abbreviation of halfa short

vowel as equivalent to the birth of a son.’

Acc¢ordingly Panini in his Ashtadhyayi, or ‘Grammar in eight lectures,’

avoids repeating in any sutra, the words whichcan be supplied from a

preceding one. When the original order of the sutras is abandoned, as

in the present work, it becomes necessary to place before the student, in

the shape of a commentary,. the words which Panini left him to gather

from the context.”

116

Sare thapetwa sesat kddayo nigeahitanta byanjana.

The rest are consonants.

Except the vowels the remainder from ka to nigegahita are

consonants.

Wagga pancha panchaso manta.

Byanjandnan kidayo makéranté pancha panchaso akkhara=

wanto wagga.

Classes of five each as far as ma. .

The consonants from ka to ma, inclusive, are divided inté

elasses of five each.*

Wageanan pathama dutiya

sochéghosd. Lantdniie ghosé.+

The first and second letters of éach class and sa are sufds:

The rest up te la are sonants.

Ghosdghosa saffidcha ‘‘parat samanfdpayoge”’ ’ti sangahita.

These terms ghosa aghosa have been borrowed from the usage

of foreign grammarians. |

Ewan linga sabbénama pada upasagea nipata taddhita akhyata

kammappawachaniyadi safifid cha.

Thus also have been borrowed Linga, Sabbandma, Pada;

Upasagga, Nipita, Tadhita, A’khydta, Kammapawachaniya &e:

An iti niggahitan. ,

An iti akarato paran yo bindu stiyaté tan niggahitan

* For facility of reference these five classes are here given:

ka kha ga gha ta

chachha ia jha fa

ta tha da dha na

ta. tha dal> dha na

pa pha ba bha ma

_ + Vide Laghu Kaumudi, page 8 ; and Wilson’s Sanskrit Grainmar;

ee Me

¢ Vide Alwis’ Introduction, page xxv. ‘ Para samaiina payoge:

(Vutti) ya cha pana sakkata gandhésu samanhha ghosa’ ti va aghosa’ ti

va ta payoge sati ettha’ pi yujjante: In composition other’s appelations:

(Vutti) such [grammatical] terms as are called ghésa, (sonants) of

aghosa (surds) in Sanskrit (Gandhas) compositions are here adopted as

exigency may require.”

1i7

Nama.

N iggahita as an.

The dot* which ts placed after aas an; thatis called Niggahita-

Binduchtlé manikéro niggahitan ’ti wuchchate, kewalassap:

payogatta akdro sanuidhi yate.

The dot which is like a jewel in a crest is called Niggahita :

the letter a must be combined with it, for it cannot be formed

alone.

A kawagiga h4 kantha ja.t I chawagga yd télu ja. U pawagga

ottha ja.

Ta wagga ra 14 muddha ja.

Ta wagga la sa danta ja. E kanthatdlu jo. O kanthottha jo.

Wo dantottha jo.t |

The letters a and haand the ka class have as their place of

6rigin the throat. The letters iand ya and the cha class have

as their place of origin the palate. Tae letter u and the pa

class have as their place of origin the lips. The letters ra and

la and the ta class have as_their place of origin the head. The

letters la and sa and the ta class have as their place of origin

the teath. The letter e has as its place of origin the throat and

palate. The letter o has as its place of origin the throat and

lips, he letter wa has as its place of origin the teeth and lips.

Safina,

So much for terms.

* Vide Laghu Kauinudi, page 8. ‘* A character, in the shape of a dot,

following a vowel, is anusvara.”

7--Literally “ are born in:”

£ The throat is the organ of the gutturals aka kia ga gha nia: the

palate, of the palatals i ya cha chha ja jha fia : the lips, of the labials u

pa pha ba bha ma : the head, of the cerebrals va la ta tha da dha na:

the teeth, of the dentals la sa ta thada dha nai the throat and palate,

of the letter e : the throat and lips of the letter o{ the teeth ard lips of

the letter wa. (Compare Ballantyne’s Laghu Kaumudi, page 6, whence

this is adopted. It will be observed that the Pali is wanting in the

following Sanskrit letters : ri, ri, lri, Iri, ai, au, s'a, sha, and visarga. The

organ of Niggahita is not given.

118

CAP.—2.

Loka aggo ityasmin.

“ Pubbamadho thita massaran sayena wiyojaye”” ti mibEs

byanjanan sarato puthakka tabban.

Here are [the words] Loka aggo..

It is proper first to cut off the consonant from the vowel

according to the rule] “separate first the consonant below*

3 pe

from the vowel.”

Sara sare lopan..

Anantare sare pare sar4 lopan papponti..

Vowels must be elided before any vowel.

The vowels at the commencement become elided before’

the vowel at. the end [of the combination. |

‘“‘Naye paran yutte” ’ti assaro byanjano parakkharay netabbo-

lokaggo.

The vowelless consonant should be carried over to the:

the second vowel [of the combination]: [according to the

general rule] ‘‘carry over to the second [vowel] when.

proper. +

{ Example] lokaggo

Saretyasmin opasilesikokdasa sattami tato wanna kdélawya.

wadhdne kdériyan na hoti—man ahasiti—pamadamanuyunjan—

tityAdi géthayan jana appamadanticha.

Here ‘‘Sare’’ isin the seventh case with the opasilesika

* Sanskrit and Pali writings are likened to trees : the beginning being

the roots, and the end the branches. The consonant ka is nearer the

commencement than its inherent vowel a, and ka is therefore called

+ The example given is loka + aggo. According to the first part of

a Tule eG. Separate first the consonant below from the vowel”) the

combination becomes lok + a + aggo. The next rule is ‘‘ vowels must

be elided before any vowel : the combination: then becomes loka x aggo.

The iast operation is to carry over the vowel-less consonant (k) to the

second yowel : the combination then becomes “ lokaggo.”

et ae

FLI9

“signification ; therefore when there has been a letter or a stop

inserted sandhi will not occur: [for example] man ahasi :

sand in the Gatha [commencing] Pamada Manuyunjanti’ &c.,

[for example] jandé appamadan.*

Ewan sabba sandhisu.

This holds good in all Sandhi.

Anantaran parassa sarassa lopan wakkhati tasamanena

pnbbassa lopo nayati tenewa sattami nidditthassa paratapi

gamyate.

Hereafter [Kachchayana] speaks of the elision of the second

vowel, therefore from that the elison of the first vowel is known,

‘therefore too the sense [of the word | para is known [in the word]

in the seventh case.+

Saretyadhikaro.

{In the combination of vowels] “Sare” is the regulating

expression{.

Pana ime pana imetiha.

Sara lopan itwewa.

Wa paro asartipa.

Asamanartip4é saramha paro sarowa lupyate: paname panime.

Take as an example pana ime.

Understand ‘‘ sara lopan”’ §

* The signification of opasilesika is close conjunction. The rule sig-

mnifies, therefore, that, where close conjunction does not take place on

- account of the insertion of a letter or of a prosodial stop, there is an

exception to the rule preceding. Thus the niggahita in may prevents

man ahasi becoming mahasi. There is a prosodial stop between jana

sand appamaday: so that sandhi doés not occur. The Gatha referred te is

:a part of the Dhammapada.

+ This is an answer to the supposed enquiry, “‘ why should pare be

‘understood in the sutra ‘‘ sara sare lopan” ?

t+ That is; throughout the chapter on vowel combination it must be

understood that the elision, &c., takes place on account of a vowel in

the second place.

For the term “ regulating expression” vide Laghu Kaumudi, page 387,

No. 1020.—Compare Alwis’ Introduction, page 5, No. 8and Note.

§ Sara lopag, ‘“‘ The vowels [must become] elided.”

120

At option the second [vowel is cut off] from the diss‘milaz

‘Tvowel. |

On account of a dissimilar* vowel the second vowel is elided at

option: [for example] panamet panime.

Bandhussa iwa na upetitidha.

Kwachdsawannan lutte.

Sare lutte para sarassa kwachi asawanno hotita iu ichche

tesan thanasanna e.o.

Bandhussewa nopeti.

Take as examples bandhussa iwa, na upeti.

Sometimes.after the elision [the second vowel takes the form]

of a dissimilar [ vowel. |

After the elision of the vowel for the second vowel sometimes

there is [substituted] a dissimilar t [vowel,] therefore for these

two iu are substituted e 0, having their origin partially in the

same organ§: [thus] bandhussewa, nopeti.

Tatra ayan ydni idha bahu upakaran saddha idha tatha

upaman tyetasmin. |

| Dichan.

Sare lutte paro saro kwachi thdndsannan § dighan yéath

tatrayan yanidha bahtipakdran saddhidha tathtpaman.

* The vowels called ‘‘ similar” to cach other are: a and a:i andi ;

u and t. .

7 “Paname” is the result of the combination of pana and ime, the

“‘para saro”’ ibeing elided. Panime is the result of the combination

the ‘‘ pera saro” a being elided.

£ This substitution can 6nly take place when the “‘ para sara’’ elided is

a ora. Vide Wilson’s Sansk: Gram: p. 9. And Rupasiddhi— Etthacha

satipi hettha waggahane kwachiggahana karanato awanne ewa lutte

idha wutta widhi hotiti datthabban.” ‘Why repeat ‘‘ sometimes’’ when

sometimes is already repeated once? because this substitution only

occurs when the aclass has been elided.

§ Vide Laghu Kaumudi, page 15. No. 29.

4 Ihave translated the word thanasannay ‘‘ proximate,” the literal

meaning being “ having their origin partially in the same organ.”’

121

Take as examples tatra ayan, ydni idha, bahu vpakéray

saddha idha, tathéd upaman.

Long.

After the elision of the vowel the second vowel is sometimes

changed into the proximate long vowel : thus tatréyan, yanidha,.

bahupakaran saddhidha, tathupaman.

Kinsu idhetyatra.

Pubbo cha.

Sare lutte pubbo cha kwachi dighan yati. Kinsudha.

Take as an example kinsu idha.

And the first.

After the elision of the vowel” the first vowel also becomes

long at option: [thus] kinstiidha.

Te ajja te ahan tettha..

Yamedantassadeso.

Sare pare antassa ekdrassa kwachi yo ddeso hoti—tyajja.

“ Dighan’’+ ‘ti byanjane pare kwachi digho—tyahan.

Kwachiti kin, nettha,.

Take as examples te ajja, te ahan:

Ya is substituted for the preceding e,

When there is a vowel in the second place for the preceding”

vowel e, sometimes ya,is substituted : [thus] tyajja.

According to the rule ‘‘ Long,’’ before a consonant the vowel:

sometimes becomes long : [thus] tydhan.

¢t Why “ sometimes’’ ? [because of] nettha..

So assa anu etityattha..

Wamodudantanan:

Sare pare antokérukdéranan kwachi wo adeso hoti.

Swassa anweti—kwachiti kin, tayassu sametdyasma.

a ees SY 05 3 a

ue The elided vowel is in this case the second vowel of the combi-

nation.

+ Vide Kachchayana

papponti.”

¢ WNettha is the result of the combination of the words ne + ettha.

“‘sarakho byanjane pare kwachi dighan

122

Take as examples so assa and anu eti.

W for the preceding 0 and u.

When there is a vowel in the second place for the preceding

o and u w is sometimes substituted : thus swassa anweti.

Why ‘‘sometimes’’ ? [because of] tayassu*¥ and sameta-

yasma.

Idha ahantidha.

Do dhassa cha.

Sare pare dhassa kwachi do hoti.

Dighe—idéhan—kwachiti kin—idhewa—cha kérena byan-

janepi, idabhikkhawe.

~ Take as an example idha ahan.

Da for dha and} [in other cases. |

_ When there is a vowel in the second place sometimes da iS

‘substituted for dha e

[After making the vowel] long: as id&han. Why “ some-

times”’ ? [because of] idhewa. [This occurs] before a consonant

on account of [the word] cha [in the rule]: thus idabhikkhawe ¢

Pati antan wutti assetiha.

J wanno yannawa.

Sare pare iwannassa yo nawa hoti. Katayakérassa, tissa.“‘sabbo§

chan ti”? ’ti kwachi chadese ‘‘ paradwe { bhaéwo thane’ ‘ti

* According to preceding rule tayo x assu the combination should

be effected by the substitution of w foro: and on account of this excep-

tion the qualifying Kwachi occurs in the rule. Sametdyasma.is the result

of the combination of Sametu + ayasma. ee sia Aa ees

+ The general rule isthat the change of da for dha only takes place

when there is a combination of two vowels : the force of cha therefore is

to convey that the same change takes place also when there is a conso-

nant in the second place.

{ This change occurs by force of the copulative cha although the

consonant bha is in the second place of the conjunction. —

§ Vide Kachehayana—“ Sabbho ichcheso ti saddo byanjano sare pare

kwachi chakaran pappoti.’’ ‘‘ When there is a vowel in the second

place all ti sounds at option become cha.” ae

4| Vide Kachchayana. “ Saramha parassa byanjanassa dwe bhawo hott

thane.’’ “In the proper place the consonant following a vowel is doubled.”

153

sarato para byanjanassa thandsannawacd dwittan—pachchantay

wuttyassa.

Nawati kin, patagei—ettha ‘‘kwachi pati patisse’*. ‘ti

patissa pati

Wannaggahanan sabbattha rassa digha sangahanatthan.

Take as examples pati antan, and wutti assa.

The i family is changed into ya at option.

When there is a vowel in the second place y is sometimes

substituted for the i family.

At option cha may be substituted for “ ti’ after the substitu.

tion of y, according to the general rule ‘‘ Sabbo chan ti,”’ and

on account of the preceding vowel the consonant is doubled

according t6 thetule, ‘‘ Paradwe bhawo thane’: thus

pachchantay, wutyassa.

Why “ sometimes’ ? [because of] pataggi.

Here pati for pati according to the rule ‘‘ kwachi pati patissa’’

I say “‘ family’ because the long and short vowels are always

taken together.

Yatha ewetiha.

Ewa dissa ri pubbo cha rasso.

Sarato parassa ewassddi ekdro rittan nawd ydti pubbocha

thanasannan rassan—yathariwa yathewa.

Take asan example yathé ewa—for the first letter in ewa ri,

and for the preceding vowel the short vowel.

On account of the preceding vowel the first letter e in the

second word ewa becomes ri, and the first letter of the combi-

nation is changed into its proximate short letter: as yathariwa

or yathewa.

Na imassa ti angikan lahu essati atta atthan ito Ayati tasma

iha sabbhi ewa chha abhinna putha ewa pa ewetiha

* “ Pati ichche tassa sare wa byanjane pare kwachi pati adeso hoti.”

Vide Kachchayana,

124

“Watwewa.

Ya wa ma da na ta ra la ché gama.

Sare pare yadayo agama wa honti chakdrena gocha.

Nayimassa tiwangikan lahumessati attadatthan ltonayati

-tasmatiha -sabbhirewa chhalabhinna puthagewa.

“ Rassan”* ti byanjane pare kwachi rasso—pagewa—wati

kin, chha abhiifié puthaewa pdewa. Ettha “ sare} kwachi’’

‘ti saranan pakati hoti sassarupamewa na wikdérotyattho.

Take as examples na imassa, ti angikan, lahu essati, atta

-atthan, ito 4yati, tasm4 iha, sabbhi ewa, chha abhinnha, putha

ewa, pa ewa.

Carry on wa.

[The letters] ya wa ma dana ta ra la &c. are inserted.

There being a vowel in the second place y and the rest are

‘sometimes inserted, and (by the face of &c.) ga also. 3

Thus nayimassa, tiwangikan, lahumessati atta datthan ito-

ndyati, tasmdtiha, sabbhirewa chhalabhififid, puthagewa.

According to the siitra ‘‘ Rassant when there is a consonant

‘in the second place the vowel is sometimes short ; thus pagewa.

Why ‘‘ sometimes’ ? [because of] chha abhinna, patha ewa,

pi wa. Here according to therule “-Sare kwachi’’ &c the

vowels keep their crude form, that is, they do not change.

Abhi uggato tyatra.

‘“¢ Abho Abhi’”’ ’ti abhissa abbho abbhuggato.

Take as an example abhi uggato. According to the rule

“ Abho Abhi” for abhi abbha : thus abbhuggato.

—_

** Vide Kachchayana. “ Sarakho byanjane pare kwachi rassay

papponti.” When there is a consonant in the second place, vowels at

option become short. :

+ Vide Kachchayana. ‘‘ Sarakho sare pare kwachi pakati rupani

honti” vowels when there is a vowel in the second place sometimes

keep their crude forms.

+ Vide Kachchayana. ‘“‘ Abhi ichche tassa sare pare abbhadeso hoti

when there is a yowel in the second place for abhi abbha is inserted.

125

7 Sara-sandhi.

So much for vowel combinations.

CAP: III.

Byanjanetyadhikaro.*

Understand the word *‘ byanjane.”’

K wachitwewa.

Understand the word “ kwachi.’’

So bhikkhu kachchinu twan janema, tan tiha.

Lopancha tatrakaro.

Byanjane pare sarénan kwachi lopo hoti tatra lutte thane |

akdéragamo chakdrena okarukarapi.

Sabhikkhu kachchinotwan janemutan—kwachiti kin,

so muni.

Take as examples so bhikkhu, kachchinu twan, janema tan,

Elision and there the letter a.

When there is a consonant in the second place vowels are

sometimes elided, and in place of the elided the letter a is in-

serted and the letter o and u too.

Thus sabhikkhu, kachchinotwan jd4nemutan—Why “ some-

times’? Because of so muni. |

U ghoso 4 khatantiha.

Dwebhawo thane itwewa. )

Wagge ghosa ghosanan tatiya pathama Wagge ghosa ghosa

nan chatutthadutiyanan tabbagge tatiya pathama yathasankhyan

yutte thane dwittan yanti.

Ugghoso—rasse—akkhatan.

Take as examples u ghoso, 4 khdtan. Understand the words

‘¢ dwebhawo thane.”

To the hard and soft letters of the class the third and first.

_* © Adhikdro” is more forcible than “ ewa” and signifies that the word

is to be carried on throughout the chapter, while ewa signifies that it

is to be understood occasionally. Compare the word ‘‘ wattate.”

126

Before a letter of the same class to the fourth* atid second hard

and soft letters of the class the third and first letters of the

same class must be doubled, according to position in the proper

place.

Thus ugghoso: and, shortenitigf the véwel; akkhdtan.

Para sahassan atippa kho tiha.

“* Kwachit o byanjane”’ ’ti okérégamo.

Parosahassan—gagameécha—atippagokho:

Take as examples para sahassan, atippa kho. According to

the rule ‘‘ kwachi o byanjaie’’ o is inserted.

Thus parosahassan : and after msertion of g, atippa gokho.

Awa naddhatyatra.

99 9

** O awasse”’ ’ti kwachi awassa o.

Onaddh4a—kwachiti kin—awasussatu.

Take as an example awa naddha.

According to the rule “ O awassa’’ sometimes 0’ for awa.

Thus onaddha : why “ sometimes’’ ? [because of} awasussatu.

Byanjana sandhi

So much for combination’ of

Consonants.

* T have found it impossible (without entirely abandoning the attem pt

to translate the words) to translate this rule into plain English. Conso-

nants are divided into classes of. five each (vide Chapter I. Note 3.)

These are subdivided into soft and hard letters. The first two letters

of each class are hard : the remainder soft. The signification of the rule

is, therefore, that in reduplication the first and second letters go together

and the third and fourth. Thus; taking as an example the ka-class,

comprehending the letters ka kha ga gha na; ka and kha (the

first and second) go together ; and ga and “gha ga cannot precede ka :

nor gha kha.

} The 4 of the combination 4 + khdtay becomes short when sandhi

occurs : thus akkhatan, not akkhatan.

t Vide Kachchayana—‘ Byanjane pare kwachi okaradgamo hoti.”

§ Vide Kachchayana. ‘“ Awaichche tassa byanjane pare kwachi

okaradeso hoti.’’ When there is a consonant in the second place ois

sometimes substituted for awa.

For force of awa in combination, vide Wilson’s Sansk. Gr: page 98.

127

CAR Bony.

Niggahitan* tyadhikdro.

Understand here niggahitan.”’

Kin kato say jéto san thito tan dhanay tay rmittantiha.

Waggantan wi wagee.

Wagga byanjane pare bindussa tabbagganto wa hoti,

Kinkato Satjéto santhito tandhanan tammittan, wati kig

natankamman.

Take as examples kinkato, san jato, san thito, tan dhanan tan

mittan.

[When there ist a consonant in the second place| of thecom- —

bination [substitute] at option [for the N iggahita] the last

letter of the class.

When there is a consonant in the second place the last

consonant of that class is sometimes substituted for the

Nageahita.

Thus kinkatof sanjato santhito tandhanan tammittan. Why

**sometimes’’ ? because of natankamman.

W akarenewa le lo eha—pullingan.

[I say] sometimes indeed [because when] la [is in the second

place] [niggahita become,] la thus pullingan§.

Watyadhikaro.

Understand the word ‘ wall.”

Ewan assa etan awochetiha.

Mada Sare.

Sare pare binduno mada wa honti.

Hiwa massa etada wocha.

Wati kin, manf ajini.

———

* For the description of Niggahita vide Cap: I.

+ Itis impossible to translate the words “waggantay wa wagge”

without the insertion of the words in brackets,

{ In the combination of kin + kato, forthe niggahita the nasal 4,

the last letter-of the ka-wagga, is substituted.

: Pun + lingan becomes pullingay.

| «Sometimes

128

Take as aniplos ewan assa, etan awocha.

[When there is a] vowel [in the second Berl m or d (for

niggahita].

_ When there is a vowel in the second place niggahita some-

times become m or d.

Thus ewamassa etadawocha.

Why “ sometimes’’? because of may ajini.

Tan ewa tan hi tiha.

Ehe fifian

kare hecha pare binduno fio wa hoti.

-Dwitte—tafifewa tamewa—tahhi tanhi.

Take as examples tan ewa tan hi.

When e or ha fia

When there is e or ha in the second place the niggahita

sometimes becomes ii

After doubling—taiiiiewa (or tamewa) tanhi (oe taiphi)

San yogo tiha.

Sa ye cha-

Yakdre pare tena saha binduno fio wa hoti.

Dwitte—saiifiogo sanyogo,

Take as example sanyogo.

[And when] ya [is in the second place] also.

When ya is in the second place niggahita and ya sometimes

change into n—after reduplication as saiifiogo (or sanyogo).

Chakkhu anichchan awa siro tiha. .

A’gamo Kwachitwewa.

Nigeahitancha.

Sare byanjane wa pare kwachi bindwdgamo hoti.

Chakkhun anichchan awansiro

Take as examples chakkhu anichchan awa siro.

Undertand “‘ 4gamo kwachi.”’

Se ee

4] Akkochhi may awadhi may ajini man ahdsime

sae ae :

weran tesay nasammati. (Dhamma pada) eje tan upanayihanti

120

And niggahita [is sometimes inserted. ]

If there be a vowel or consonant in the second place some,

times niggahfta is inserted.

Thus chakkhuy anichchay awan siro.

Widunan aggan tasan ahay tiha.

“ Kwachi lopan’’ ‘ti sare bindulopo.

Widunaggan—dighe—tasahan.

Take as examples widunan aggayn tasan ahan.

According to the rule “ Kwachi* lopay’’ there being a vowel

{in the second place] the niggahita is elided.

Thus widunaggan: and after lengthening tasdhan.

Buddhanan sasanan san rago tiha.

** Byanjaneche” ’ti bindulopo.

Buddhanasdsanan—dighe—sarago.

Take as examples Buddhanan sasanan, san rago.

According to the rule “ Byanjanecha’’+ the niggahita is elided.

Thus Buddhanasdsanan : and after lengthening sarago.

Bijan iwetiha. |

_ Paro wa saro.

Binduto paro saro w4 lupyate—bijanwa.

Take as an example Bi'an ewa.

Sometimes the vowel in the second place [is elided. |

From the Niggahita the vowel in the second place is some-

times elided : thus bijanwa.

Ewan assetiha.

Byanjano cha wisannogo.

Bindutot pare sare lutte sapyogo byanjano winattha sanyogo

hotiti pubba sa lopo—ewansa. :

* Niggahitan kho sare pare kwachi lopan pappoti.— Vide Kachchayana.

+t Niggahitankho byanjane pare kwachi lopan pappoti.—Vide Kach-

chayana.

{ In the sandhi of the words ewan + assa, the vowel inthe second

place (viz: a) having been elided, the sandhi becomes ewanssa ; but

this is an improper conjunction ot three consonants ; wherefore one of the

letters s is elided.

130

‘Take as an example ewan assa.

‘Consonants also improperly combined [are elided. }

When there is a niggahita in the first place, and the vowel

‘in the second place has been elided, an improper conjunction

of consonants takes place, wherefore the first s must be‘elided :

thus ewansa.

Niggahita Sandhi.

So much for Niggahita Sandhi.

CHaPrerR V.

Anupaditthanay wutta yogate.

Idh4 nidditth4 sandhayo wuttunusdrena heyy4.

From the rules above stated of unmentioned [Sandhi. ]

In this chapter, remembering the rules already given, learn

the sandhi of the cases not mentioned.

Yathaé~-yadi ewan bodhi ang. tiha.

Yadese* imina suttena daya kdrasan yogassa jo dha ya

‘kérasay yogassa jho—dwittet—yajjewan bojjhang4.

Thus take as examples yadit ewan, bodhi anga.

According to this rule after the insertion of y from the com.

bination of d and y comes j; and from the combination of

dh and y jh :—after reduplication yajjeway bojjhanga.

Asadisa sanyoge eka sarupata cha—pari esandtiha—yadese

rakdrassa yo—payyesana.§

4 ® Vide Chap. If. I wayno yannaw4. Sare pare i wannassa yo nawa

oti.

{ Vide Chap. III. Wagge ghosaghosanay tatiya pathamé.

{ According to the rule referred to in Note I. yadi + eway becomes

yady + ewag. Then according to this rule j is substituted for dy:

yady fe ewan=yaj x eway. Then according to rule referred to in.

Note 2. the Sandhi is yajjewan.

§ According to rule referred to in Note I. ye is substituted fori in part

+ esand: the word then becomes pary + esana: and according to this

rule y ig substituted for r, so that the Sandhi is payyesana.

131

When dissimilar letters are combined they must become

‘similar.

Take as an example pari esana.

When the letter y has been inserted, y is substituted for

‘yr: as payyesana.

Wanninan bahuttan wiparitata cha.

Multiplicity of letters and changes.

Sa rati iti ewan sa itthi bus4 ewa bahu abidho adhi abhawi

Sukhay dukkhay jiwo tiha.

Take as exanovles sa rati iti ewan sa itthi bus& ewa bahu

Ab4&dho adhi abbawi sukhan dukkhay jiwo. |

Mazimo sakare akdérassa u cha—sumarati*—issa wo—it

~wewan—paralope 4ka rassa o—sotthit—magamef{ pubba rasse

cha§ ekdras3a i—busamiwa—wadese|| hawakdra wipariyayo—

bawhabadho—adhissa - kwachiaddho—dighe{—addhabhawi—

binduno okarassa cha e—sukhe dukkhe jiwe.

The insertion of m and substitution of u forthe a inherent

in sa, as sumarati :—the substitution of 'w fori, as itwew ‘D

—ufter the elision of the vowelin the second place o for 4, as

sotthi :—-after the insertion of mz and the abbreviation of the

first letter, the substitution of i for eas busamiwa :—the sub-

stitution of the letter w and the change of placesof w and

h, as bawhabadho:—at option addha for adhi, and lengthening

-asaddhibhawi :—substitution of e for nigzahita and o: as

sukhe dukkhe jiwe.

® In the Sandhi of sa + rati, first insert ma (vide Chap. II. ya wa ma

da na ta ra 14 chagama), and then for the a in sa substitute u : the com-

bination is then sumarati.

ft According to the rnle ‘“ Wa pare asarupa” (vide Chap. IL.) sa + itthi

becomes sa + tthi, and, substituting o for 4 sotthi.

t¢ Vide note 5.

§ Vide Chap. I“. “‘ Rassay’’ ’ti byanjane pare, &c.

|| Vide Chap. IL. ‘‘ Wamodudantanan.”

q Vide Chap. IL. “ Dighay’’ ’ti byanjane pare, &c.

Radanan Jo—pali bodho—parilaho.*

Forr and d ]: as palibodho parilého +

Sare byanjana w& pare binduno kwachi mo—mamahasit—.

-buddham saranam—pubbe mo parannane tabbo ayuttatta.

If there be a vowel-or a consonant in the second place the

letter m is at option substituted for niggahita: as mam ahasi

buddham saranam. Do not in this case carry over the consonant

m to the vowel, for it is not proper.

Binduto para sara namaiifassara tapi—tan imina ewan

iman kin ahan tiha—issa a—tadamind—issa u akdrassa cha e—

bindu lopédo—ewuman kehan.

A vowel in the second place after niggahita is changed into

another vowel. Take as examples tan imina—ewan iman—kin

ahan: for ia, as tadamina; foriu and for a e—and elision of

niggahita—thus ewuman kehan.

Wakyasukhuchcha ranatthan chhanda hanitthancha wanna

lopopt.

Letters are elided for euphony as well as for the sake of pro-.

_gody.

Patisankhdya yonisotiha—pubba ya lopo—patisankhayoniso.

In the example patisankhdya yoniso the fist ya is elided;

thus patisankhayoniso.

Alaputyado akaralopo—lapuni§ sidanti sifépalavwanti

In the verse alapu, &c., the letter'a is elided—thus la punt

sidanti silapalawanti.|

Wuttyabhed4ya wikdropi---akaramhase te ‘tyado - sakare

garuno ekarassa imina lahu akaro---akaramhasate kichchan.

In order not to break a prosodial- line a change’is necessary.

® By change of r into | paribodho becomes palibodho.

+ By change of d into | paridaho becomes parilaho.

{ This is a breach of the general rule “ Naye paray yutte’ &e aig

Chap. IT.)

§ In this word the initial a is elided.

| Gourds sink ; stones float.

£390

hus in the line ‘‘ akaramhasate” &c., according to this rule for

the long e inherent in se the short a is substituted : thus

akaramhasa te kichchan.

Akkhara niyamo chhandan---garu lahu niyamo pha’ we wutti

digho stnyogidi*—pubbo rasso cha garu lahu turasso-yatha @

assa, al a

Prosody is the calculation of syllables.

The proper position of long and short syllables forms the

prosodial line. Long are those which are originally long, and

those before combined consonants or niggahita : short are short,

thus @ ass. an a.t :

Ewama’ fifapi wiffieyyd sayhita tantiyé hita.{

Sanhita ’ticha wanndnan sannidha ’byawadhanato.

Thus are to be known other sandhis fit for Pali text. What

issandhi? The combination of letters when there is_no stop.

W omissaka Sandhi.

So much for mixed Sandhi.

| Lions F. Lae§

December, 1879.

* Vide Chap. I. “ Anantara byanjana sanyogo.”

: A is the original long : the first a in assa is long before the combin-

ed consonants : the vowel in an is short before the niggahita : the letter

a is originally short.—Vide Chap. J.

{ Vide Alwis’s Introduction, page V. ‘‘ The Pali has also received

the designation of Tanti, ‘ the string ofa lute,’ (Abhidhanapadipika,

p. 16,) its Sanskrit cognate being tanti—from its application to the

Buddhist doctrines, Tanti has become a name for the sacred Janguage

itself of the Buddhists, viz., the MAgadhi or Pali.”’

§ I must ask the indulgence of my readers in respect of the diacritical

markings of the letters. Notwithstanding the care I have exercised in

the revision of numerous proofs, I have no doubt that errors will be

found in the text.

SPECIMENS OF SINHALESE PROVERBS.

By Louis pm Zoysa, Mudaliyar.

A' complete collection of the proverbs of the country, is a

desideratum in Sinhalese literature. No such collection has —

ever been made, either by a Native or European author. If

do not, by this remark, intend to ignore the existence of such

works as the Loképakaré,* Subhasita,t &c., &c., but these

works contain moral and political maxims, and not proverbs,

strictly so-called. The only native work in which a number

of proverbs is found embodied, is an anonymous little poem

by a modern author, entitled Updratnaméle. : .

It is a curious and interesting fact, that the first writer

who has recorded any number of Sinhalese proverbs, is no

other than the first Englishman who has left us an account

of Ceylon. In Captain Robert Knox’s well-known and

interesting work on Ceylon, published upwards of 200 years

ago, he has recorded a few Sinhalese proverbs, of which he

gives us not only the translation in English, but also the

' original Sinhalese, romanized in his own quaint way. I select

a few specimens, to .shew how correctly he has translated

them, and also to exhibit his peculiar mode of transliteration.

‘* Miris dilah ingurah gotta. “ I have given pepper, and

got ginger. —Spoken when aman makes a bad exchange ;

and they use it in reference to the Dutch succeeding the

Portuguese in that island.”’

* Ascribed by tradition to Maytirapdda, a learned Buddhist priest,

the author of Pzz7avalk and other works, who flourished in the reign of

Pandita Parakramabahu, a.p. 1267—1300.

+ A well-known Sinhalese poet, who flourished in the beginning

of the seventeenth century, the author of Avsajdiahe, Séwul sandésé, &c:

135

*¢¢ Datta horrala badda perind. “ Pick your teeth to fill |

your belly.’—Spoken of stingy, niggardly people.” |

“* Hingowna wellendam cor cottonwat geah par wardenda

vetta. A beggar and a trader cannot be lost.’-—-Because they

are never out of their way.’ ”’

“* Tssara atting bollanawa pos cotting. First look in the

hand, afterwards open the mouth.’—Spoken of ajudge who first

must have a bribe, before he will pronounce on their side.’ ”’

The next writer who has recorded a few Sinhalese pro- —

verbs is the Revd. Samuel Lambrick, who in his Vocabulary

of the Sinhalese language, has published fifteen Sinhalese

proverbs with their translation, and explanatory remarks.

The late Sir J. Emerson Tennent has also published about

thirty Sinhalese proverbs in his work entitled ‘‘ Christianity in

Ceylon,” published in 1851, but they were selected by him out

of my own MS. collection, which had been placed at his disposal.

In 1868, Mendis Mudaliyar of Morotuwa, the well-

known compiler of the list of Timber trees of Ceylon, publish.

ed an interesting collection of Sinhalese proverbs, about 300

in number. This little work appears to have been highly

appreciated by the native reading public, as all the copies

have been sold, and the work is now out of print. Jam not

aware of any other writer upon the same subject.*

~Tcommenced collecting Sinhalese proverbs many years

ago, and my collection now amounts to nearly 800, it having

recently received considerable accessions from several parts

of the island, both in the Kandyan and low-country, through

the kindness of various friends.

I have much pleasure in laying before the Society a few

specimens of these, as a first instalment, and hope they may

———$ $$.

* Since the above was written, a few Sinhalese proverbs have been published in

4 local periodical, the ‘Ceylon Friend.’ y, Nos., for December 1870, and January 1:71.

136

not be found altogether devoid of interest. They throw con-

siderable light on the history, manners, and customs of the :

people amongst whom they are current, and while they serve as

exponents of their feelings and sentiments, they also afford a

clear insight into their national character.

As Ido not consider myself competent to translate these

proverbs in that terse and epigrammatie style in which they

should be rendered, I have only endeavoured to make the

translation as faithful as I can, leaving it to others to clothe

them inmore suitable Hinglish. I have, in addition, appended

a few brief explanatory notes, wherever the application of the

proverb is not apparent; and also added the stories on which

some of them are founded.

}). DE -ZOYSA.

1, Gaewes OHXAO ‘The Lala* that has escaped

is the bigger one.’ |

A man is apt to magnify the

value of anything that he has

not obtained.

2. BONA oNS aval ‘There is no smoke without

cone a fire.’

There is no rumour, however

false, without some slight foun-

dation of fact, or supposed

, fact.

38. ad ere 96000 ‘Like a line described on

water.’

It leaves no impression on

the water : applied to a thank.

less ingrate. ;

4. 8A8o03 ceo 2€e ‘Like:the mad woman’s basket

Haw of herbs.’ ,

A writing abounding in in-

congruous, or heterogeneous —

matter.

# The name of a fish,

5. GOODIE CQ ISTIVSS

ay EQLGOSIE, EO SOSA

6. EO OL AGI Stolen)

1. OGG HCOIOHNS

OSNHGoOMO GBodoad

8, HANS OHIO Rono

G) DIS) S SVaT

9, - B36ODnISOaDS De

BOYGWIOS MD ODIGaVSd

10. Soereniod %,9

OAMBSoasdse, ood

pall eudado GQINIDOO

(a)

‘Cannot drink as- it is hot,

and cannot throw away as it is

Kanji.’

An unpleasant dilemma.

The idle man has divine eyes

(eift of prophecy.)

He forebodes, and magnifies

difficulties in the execution of

any work, which are not patent

to others.

‘Like going to consult the

thief’s mother (as an oracle.)

When a theft is committed,

it is usual to consult a Kapu-

yala,(demon’s priest), or Patti-

nihdmi (priestess), as to who

committed the theft, and they

pretend to know the thief by

the inspiration of their fase

demon. ‘The opinion of an

interested party. |

‘ Like an ox goring a man that

has fallen from a tree.’

Calamity upon calamity.

‘The tree which you could

have nipped off with your nail,

you could not (afterwards) cut

with your axe.’

Evils which one could have

easily checked in the begin-

ning, become insurmountable if

allowed to exist long.

‘You can judge of the Sinné

by his hat.’

‘like changing the pillow

when suffering from head-ache.’

An ineffectual remedy.

* A term applied to a Hurepean descendant, corrupted from Portu-

. se Senhor.

12, Oma Ss) 9 i>)

Aaa gdosdos, BEVeS)

FiO EO SILOS,

13. @y@ODadssd 82306

SSA)

144. 2D wHooas 2.0

Z2iQOID CofOO FrDGav

S89

(1d. 08 DS O6<mo0 2

WS QSHE) QAI5V0

16. GAdDEG OMS GOSd.

ORD VaG

138

_‘ Hiven in the coast of Soli,

there are starving men, and

even in Gilimale there are-

white-teethed men.” ‘3

The coast of Soli 1s Chola-

mandala, or Coromandel coast,

and the proverb shews that

even in ancient times it was

considered a land abounding in

corn. Gilvmaleis a villagein .

Salaragamuwa, which was re-

markable for the quantity of

betel leaves it produced. ‘The

expression white-teethed, is ap-

pled te a man who abstains

from chewing betel.

‘Murdering with cold water.’

Attempting to injure a man

by deceit and plausible words.

‘When one bullock breaks

the fence, the whole herd will

enter.’

When one individual of a

family, class, or nation, comes

into a place, others of his class

will soon follow.

‘He murders saints, but

drinks water after straining.’

To strain at a gnat, and swal-

low a camel.

The Buddhist devotees are

enjoined not to drink water

without straining, to prevent -

the destruction of animalculz

in it.

‘ Like seeking for cotton in a

house where iron had been

burnt.’ :

1S. ox Rovntores)

C@QQeZ

QEECHOSINECO

19.

DQesomBete! ?

EOLDHANOOS —

20, Mugg QRNeg Oss

aj o@ian8 Lee eee

€ OAGINS OCIDES

20 GOS OAS 54 28

OHES GIDSH GU NCO DESH

OHIO

22. #645 wdjad od3Q

HMNVIEAG

23 sebsdO OOO we

M6 a0 : ss

[39

‘Like the Portuguese going te

Kotte.’

Appliedtoalong and circuitous

path. Itissaid that shortly af-

ter the Portuguese had landed at

Colombo, they were conducted

to Kotte, then the capital of the

Kings of Ceylon, by a long and

circuitous road, through Pana-

dure, and Raygam Korale, with

a view to conceal from the new-

eomers the close proximity of

the capitalfrom the sea-port of

Colombo, which was then the

-head-quarters ofthe Portuguese.

(2)

“Kino’s business (rajakariya)

is oreater than God’s business,

(Deyyanné kariya.)’

‘How can you expect to-find

fowls in a house where they eat

ehildren,’

‘He is a fool who bows down,

whilst he is beaten, and he is

a fool who beats whilst he is

bowed to.’

When the deer trespass on

his field, he comes home and

beats the deer’s skin.

When aman is unable to

punish the real offender, he often

wreaks his vengeance on some

poor unoffending @ person.

é Like the chastity of the ugly

woman,

‘What is the use of Re

cattle for Paduwas, (a low

caste so-called.)’

Throwing pearls before

swine.

ODL of BoEoBar NADLVON

aoe 9

25 GODS ACD

Hoy GOVSEV a, Goda

= oy) DO

26 OwoIje€ HOE C Sores

Qave

27 Os #SID6 OVC £0

AANOBDAS Sd

«The man who had sworn “I

will never go to Kokkanan-

gala,” went there seven times,

and died on his way to it.’

Expressive of fickleness and

inconsta ancy in men.

‘When it is impossible, noth.

ing is possible; when it is possi-

le, nothing is impossible.

‘The whole Solai mandala

coming.”

Applied to denote a very

large multitude.

This is a very interesting

historical proverb, which has

floated down the stream of time.

It must have no doubt origi-

nated at a period when it was

usual for swarms of Solians

(Tamils from the neighbouring

eontinent) toinvade Ceylon, as

hosts of barbarians from the

North similarly invaded Bri-

tain in aneient times.

Andara, and that Tamil.’ |

Applied to an unintelligible

jargon.

This is also a historical pro-

verb, which has come down to

us froih very remote times. The

word Andara, which I have

no doubt is a corruption of

the Sanskrit Andhra (another

term for Telegu) is not known

at present toany native, except

perhaps to learned scholars,

and the proverb therefore must

have originated at a time when

that word was commonly

known. ;

28 QOD NOE Fi

EC dess me

(29 MADOC DiES 520

30 8 nSocsned

21E DAG

31 Bosiemad o8add

GODGQHA OQ onQHav

$2 Bonkce And

O08 Sass

33 Qal@ss Gan0O

14}

One pats on the head, to

pluck out the eyes.

Employing arts of flattery to

work one’s ruin.

Even kanji (rice water-

gruel) is bad in common.

Like the kanji of the seven

A’ndiyas.

The story is that seven A’n-

diyas (Mahommadan fakeers), —

when travelling together, agreed

to prepare a pot of kanji in-

common, each contributing his

quota of rice. The first man

whose turn it was to put his

portion of rice into the pot,

thought that as there were six

more partners to contribute

rice, his own share would not

be missed, and so, putting his

hand into the pot, pretended

to throw in rice. And it so

happened that each of the other

six devotees thought so too, and

acted precisely in the same way,,

and theresult of course was an

empty pot, to their inexpressi-

ble chagrin and disappointment.

Like Saturn falling into the

bag of the beggar.

Misfortunes never come

singly.

If a man’s fire-place is

strong, he will have many re-

lations.

Aman will not want rela-

tions and friends as long as he

can entertain them.

Haste (is) slow.

Like the Latin proverb festina

lente. ?

142

34 e1.8eoe SOsn0 ®

sor 9ggy®

35 «6@eDO = an68

MADOS PFHEOSIO 2,60

36 Aa VEe@0 How

37 asd FHgs AG

Gatien Vac

38 egdood geod BD

623 WD

ESISS GENES

40 AEMDOEe Mesany

QO 69G DOE 6a wa

ADQVIE

41 LOGSND GnNGBxHs

OOS B61iOQO odsapsn6

Hse oO

42. ea0@9 One 2089

acs

43. wad ad Qo

endve ? 0s OOomDoe?

44, 80 NOD F394

on XAG OBmansds J

2 Q@qODI0

45. Sao Fae goss

Sones]

The swelling must be pro-

portionate to the size of the

finger. .

The ambition of men should

not exceed their abilities.

When in a hurry, one can.

not put his hand even in the

mouth of a Koraha.

A Koraha is a wide-mouthed

earthen jar.

Like sowing on a rock.

Like a flea caught in the

fingers ofa blind man.

Caught steadily and firmly

without any chunce of escape.

Hiven in the léwdayas, there

are peoplewho eat without salt,

To be a headman is good

even in hell.

If a dog bite your leg,

would you bite his ?

They say when a man’s

béard wason fire, another went

to light his cigar.

Like the Nayd (Cobra) and

Polanga.

T'wo associates equally wick.

ed.

What does an old man want,

and what does he not want?

The man whohad nine bags

of paddy, asked the man who

had one, to give it also to him,

to complete the ten.

How much more will the.

grand-father who is always

weeping for nothing, weep

when his grand-son dies.

143

46.0 866 55 emeoo

— OABRA SS AO ASS

47, seoP76o@ Udo0

geno 0a

48. BIQY2DIG) VEE)

BA QUASNIS OEMOU MDA

BDIO

49, BM @NSD @aHO

DA) OHIES Bn| OQ oc

50 ssies #.5 <ose

Eo Bad EDsvad SHI,

OBIE

51. ANSON NN DNMY

Oaedt asnd@o, S?

52. AD Eston GBs

ONE MNHE@) Haase?

53. OSHHad 51 29

BMNSHO GOLXsve ?

54. AOKI OMaVs

(Oo B6HsNaAag SOSH

55. OxAQet GQaXsIoVS

WMBaaHoadaeS

The foot of the traveller is

worth a thousand of the man

who remains at home who is

not worth a dog.

Don’t allow an animal to

go, and then eatch his tail.

The rat who was returning

home drunk with toddy said,

if [ meet a cat, I will tear him

to pieces.

The house in which you

drink kanji, is better than the

house in which you starve.

Although the chetah goes

from one hill to another, will

he change his spots ?

When you throw — seven

stones, will not oneat least hit ?

Why pluck and shew leaves

to a man who knows the tree.

It is useless to attempt to

deceive by plausible reasoning,

a man who has a _ thorough

knowledge of his subject,

Can one transform a young

rat snake into a cobra?

Dried cow-dung floats on the

surface, and terumandgal (a

kind of white stone, quartz)

sinks below.

Unworthy men succeed in

life, while men of merit remain

in the back-ground.

Women increase, the water-

pots become empty.

It is the business of women

to draw water, and when there

are too many in a house, they

are too apt to neglect the duty.

56. QDI DOHSIas

ANQOo OEHHA

BY BOwMeES AWO Gc

SEBO ONS DAHSDIO

58. oo BEC SAO

S62 aedawoea

59. abaaiesO 40961

Orns FQ6 Arq Diwo

asso Qa |

60. HE amqenSDg o

3 QHIE

& 61. OH gSQomed e

BODMSO OOQAB.

The bullock smarts from

the pain of his wound, and the

crow from greedivess for flesh.

The allusion is to the crows

attacking the wounds of bul-

locks for the purpose of picking

out the flesh.

Menof mean minds endeavour

to take advantage of others’ mis-

fortunes for their own benefit,

lt is said that the monkey

who went from tree to tree will

suffer from exposure, and perish.

To the man who swallowed

the temple, the image is like

an aggala (a ball of sweetmeat).

One who has committed an

act of great wickedness, will not

scruple to commit one ot less

magnitude. —

Ifone personatesa dog, hemust

go wherever he is whistled for.

‘In for-a penny, in for a

pound.”

The grinding-stone must be

good, for the sandal to be good.

Like the advice ofthe great

wise man.

_ This has reference to the fol-

lowing story. A bullock while

endeavouring to drink water

out of a pot introduced his head

into it, and the bystanders not

knowing how to extricate the

pot without breaking it, sent

for the wise man of the village

to take his advice on the matter.

Jie came, and after much deli-

beration, declared that the only

course he could suggest was to

_ cutoffthe neck of the bull, and —

then break the pot and removeit.

145

62. DODGE ona ce LE

6) BIQVEE

SNDIOGS

64. Hesedo Bedz Gg OSs

SNHVOw

65. BOWS O,.OOHO9S

£6 QeO8 omamsnHacvd

66. HAomsd ey GBH

ePQOO S608) Haw

67. BB ooamndeesd

MzOO ay GB MDE

S59 GQO1O eds

68. @Mé~dOSS edz OS

SEoR OR)

69. Amd 98 219

Ove

70. DBE SOree

OOAaS QS

ets Sos 219008 OD

@) OAI80 Ay

72. QPOBO A259 Qs

OHO

73. OOS) CGS) 61S

OQLSI GANS ade Hoo

85), 4)

Will the bear who slighted

the gamarala (the village head-

man) regard me ?

Like singing to a deaf man.

Like throwing straw into a

burning fire.

Like searching for mellum

(a medicine applied in cases of

falls from trees) before a man

falls from a tree.

. Like placing a man who has

been burnt inthe broiling sun.

The man who has received a

beating from a fire-brand, runs

away when he sees a fire-fly.

Even teachers commit blun-

ders in letters (in reading and

writing).

‘¢ Good Homer nods.”’

Like cutting fence sticks

into the river.

Waste of labour.

Even a Rodiya will throw

a stone at you if you throw one

at him.

When a man falls into a

river, he cannot strain water for

drinking.

Conversation in travelling

is like a ladder (in climbing).

From the way in which a

bullock walks, you can say

whether it will be devoured by

the Chetah.

From the outward demeanour

of a man, you can guess whe-

ther he is a harmless or a

viclous man.

146

AGeIOG MOD ES BHC

OID

OD)6 Boa»

Se Sear

OmndéomoS IEdi

EDD QUIT EOE

70. GHS OFNG MASI

EGO

77. 3082 E@D0 93

OH BQOo Haw

78 &8D)

ODA D SID

DIE @OwHeE

79 SBR QDHVO OH

CRS cass

It is ssid that the teeth. of

the dog which barks at a lucky

man will fall out

Itis useless to resist those

who are favored by-fortune.

Stealing straw (pidurw) ‘is

theft, and stealing diamonds

(widuru,) is theft.

The above is founded on the

following story.

A devotee (tapasyvi) who pro-

fessed great sanctity of life,

sought the acquaintance of a

rich man, and havine lived

in his house for a few days de-

parted on his Journey. Return-

ing shortly afterwards, he resto-

red tothe owner of the house,

a piece of straw which had stuck

in his clotted hair from the roof

of the house, observing that

‘* stealing a piece of straw is a

theft equally with stealingadia-

mond.’’ Having thus gained the

confidence of the man, the tapas.

soon found an opportunity to

rob the man ot all his property.

One can easily discover

the man who stole the ash

pumpkin, from his shoulder.

The white ashy substance of

the gourd sticks on his shoul-

ders, whilst carrying it.

Like placing a ladder to the

jumping monkey.

Affording facilities to a vicious

man.

A full pot of water does not

shake.

It isto a fruitful tree that

even the bats have recourse to.

147

80, DENSE OY 250

SAHAIGSI PCIE?

8]. encsco Gam M6e)29

ONS) FHSIODWS

a2 sSo1g Fess) O80

OWES G66 MDI ce®

83. soso enss wad

Qos

84, 300 oBalsian 69

Qe YOVS) MEE B20

85, SIVSIO =2(O710)

ONOO BOS EV

86. H&aces @sstI mad

esto &a)

87. margdaoo Be ge

88. 9, VQVo QiQaos

PODS

89. 26) @Q5O83.26 590)

699 DOB wABBay,

EQ Er ADMNO

90. @5nESIS OECRO

amRad Dad MNnaASTO

259

91 SSSBnat SS ®)

md) Sxdaw MdssoO dao

Why inquire of the road to

a place to which you do. not

intend to go.

The Cobra listens to the

voice ofthe charmer, but not the

rat snake.

Better widowhood, to which

one is accustomed, than a

strange marriage.

A certain advantage is prefer-

able to a doubtful one.

Kiven though there is no

cobra in it, one is afraid of the

white ants’ hill.

Hiven the goat offers his beard,

when he sees a poor barber.

Not that you cannot dance,

but that the ground is crooked !

Used when a man makes a

pretended excuse, concealing the

real cause of his failure.

Don’t awakesleeping chetahs.

Is the poison less, because

the snake is small ? .

Kiven when a dancer misses

his step, 1t is a summersault.

When the rat-snake saw

the Cobra expanding his hood,

he took up in his mouth a

broken piece of an earthen pot. -

Mimicking the great.

Don’t speak in Tamil with

which you are not acquaint-

ed, and bring disgrace on your

family.

Don’t trust a short man,

nor a low white ants’ hill.

Cunning is considered the cha-

racteristic of a man of low

stature. .

ODS nHaI9) Daw

928. QHeo Same Fs

SHNDOE Gd

94. Bsn@ ACD Ve

QDMACWOS Fra

95. @B2D0 Qxtnd @

ODS 2450 Had _

96. ZHNQSND HYD Fx

NAN 2160082 O89)

97 AMEDD OBS OOo

HMIS QHRSI OIIAMG

98. AAasey~Hawd ago

QSH yD Weéeo ASG

BIS esas BDO

99. ADO 090 DARBSB

100. GAd68Od H126

148

Like extracting the sweets

of a flower without bruising it.

Like stabbing a man, after .

killing him.

Why feel with your finger the

bag thatyou will have to open.

Like taking medicine before

one is sick.

The enemy living near you

is preferable to a relative living

at a distance.

The tale-bearer receives one

tokka (a knock on the head)

there, and one tokka here.

(7. €. he is despised both by

the party to whom he carries

tales, and by him whom he

slanders. |

‘A Kaballéwa having entered

into the cave of a Porcupine,

said ‘ I wont go, by my grand-

father.”

Hunger is the best curry

for rice.

You cannot know the depth,

when the water is muddy.

ns alia v Ye ¥

TRANSLATIONS OF CERTAIN DocuMENTS, FamMILy AND HISTORICAL, FOUND

IN THE PossESSION OF THE DrscENDANTS OF M. Nanciars

DE LANEROLLE, FrencH Envoy to THE Court oF

oF Kanpy.

Contributed by L. Lupovici, Esq.

The documents, of which the following are translations, were

met with by me, in the course of a visit to Hangwela, in the pos-

session of the descendants of M. Nanclars de Lanervlle, French

Envoy to the Court of Kandy in 1685. The Sinhalese originals

are written on Ola, and the Dutch on paper. So far as can be

tested by historical and traditionary evidence, there is hardly any

doubt that the present Lanerolles of Hangwela are the lineal

descendants of the French Envoy, but there is nothing in physique,

language, or costume, to distinguish them from the surrounding

Sinhalese, except perhaps the fairer complexion common to every

member of the family. They profess to be Christians of the Re-

formed Church ; and one of their immediate ancestors appears to

have held the office of Saperemado Appu or Commissioner, under the

Dutch Government. A collateral branch of the family, I under-

stand, is settled at Katelowe in the Galle district. The amusing

reply of the late Mr. H. EH. O’Grady to a petition presented by

a member of the family, praying for official rank on the strength

of his descent, will be found extracted from the Hxaminer News-

paper of the 238th October, 1869, in the appendix.

The other letters, relating to the siege of Vienna, &c., were

most probably intercepted at Trincomalee by the emissaries of

Raja Singha, on their way from Holland to the Dutch Governor

of Colombo, and translated into Sinhalese for his information

by one of the many “captives” detained by him at Kandy. These

documents carry on their face every mark of genuineness, while

150

the notes which I have appended from Sir Edward Creasy’s “ His_

tory of the Ottoman Turks” further corroborate every import-

ant detail. |

No. f.

AN ACCOUNT oF THE FrencH Empassy To THE Court or Kanpy IN

1685, AND SOME PARTICULARS oF THE Dp LANEROLLES OF CEYLON,

(Translated from the Sinhalese.)

In conformity with the command of the illustrious King

Raja Singha, ous Supreme lord of the Universe, endowed with a

pair of lotus feet, and resplendent with the nine gems, incom-

parably great, and esteemed as a precious jewel which sheds its

glory on the diadem of innumerable foreign Kings, and who

occupied the throne of Lanka,* the following epistle is addressed

to the humble Amerekon Mudianse.

For the purpose of subduing the pride of the Dutch people,

the Supreme King, Raja Singha, who was gifted with anall-power-

ful arm, in his wrath against them, privately despatched an

embassyt requesting to be favoured with an army from France

together with a proper officer in command ; and the Great

Emperor of France, in glory like the rays of the sun,t having

agreed thereto, despatched in charge of the General de Lanerolle,

a fleet of forty vessels with men and arms, accompanied by a

variety of valuable presents to be offered to the victorious and

illustrious Lord of Lanka, ‘These vessels having arrived at the

harbour of Trincomalee without meeting with any mishap on

the voyage, the soldiers were landed on Thursday after the new

® Reigned from A. D. 1632 to A. D. 1687. i

+ Sir Emerson Tennent’s acvount of the arrival of Admiral De la Haye

at Trincomalee, leads to the supposition that he came with the object of attack-

ing the Dutch, rather than in answer to a special embassy from Rajasingha.

The Sinhalese narrative, from which I translate, is however very explicit to

the contrary. .

{ Louis XIY,—no inapt compliment to the “Grande Monarque.”

151

moon of the month of Nikinni in the year of Saka 1574,* the

intelligence whereof being conveyed to the victorious Lord of

Lanka, in whom dwells the gift of prescience, His Majesty with

great joy despatched Atupella Dissamahatmeya and other chiefs

with presents for the Ambassadors, and provisions for the Army ;

and, directing the vessels to be kept in the Trincomalee harbour

invited the Commander of the French,Captains La Haye, Bahau-

ten, Dupleix Roche, and Freuelmans, accompanied by their Aides-

de-Camp De Lun, Blume, Gascoign, and Alexandre, and the two

Frenchmen who had been sent to France on the embassy, to the

Court of Kandy.+ Hereupon, accompanied by thesaid Dissa-

mahatmeya and Chiefs, and carrying many valuable presents, they

proceeded, and arrived at the Rest-house of Sanguruwankete

town in Namen Deniya. From this place the Ambassadors, with

their presents, were conducted in state to the palace of the vic-

torious king, and introduced into the august presence of His Ma-

jesty, who received them kindly, and after a friendly interview,

* A.D. 1652.

+ Of these eight Frenchmen, we lose all trace of five, Bahauten, Du-

pleix Roche, de Lun, Blume and Alexandre, nor am I sure that their names

are correctly givenin the Singhalese. Commodore La Haye, we know on the

authority of Valentyn, sailed back with the fleet to France. M. Nanclars de

Lanerolle, as detailed in the body of this paper, remained at Kandy. Gascoign

too, no doubt, remained and died at Kandy, as one of his descendants, probably

a son, rose to the rank of Adigar in the following reign.

This Gascon Adigar, as he was called, added that of Poet to his many other

accomplishments, and seems also to have inherited more than an ordinary share

of the spirit of French gallantry with his father’s blood—a possession which after-

wards cost him his life. He had been carrying ona secret correspondence with the

Queen, but in an unguarded moment, while watching the painting of an image of

the Queen, he snatched the brush from the artist’s hand and spotted a mole on a

part of her body, which none but the royal eyes could have seen. The King,

who was passing by, charged the Adigar with his faithlessness, and the self-

convicted Minister was cast into prison and subsequently beheaded. The verses

which he addressed to the Queen, from his cell, are accounted among the best ex-

amples of Sinhalese amatory poetry.

I Valentyn’s account of this reception, as cited by Sir Emerson Tennent,

is somewhat different. ‘* On this occasion the French Admiral de la Haye sent

M. Nanclars de Lanerolle as ambassador to Kandy. But this gentleman,

having violated the imperial etiquette by approaching the palace on horseback,

and manifested disrespectful impatience on being kept too long, waiting for an

audience, Raja Singha ordered him and his suite to be flogged ; a sentence which

was executed on all but the envoy, whom he detained in captivity for a number

of years.”’

152

the Ambassador was sent back to the Rest-house, where he was

bade to stay until proper arrangements should be made. In the

meanwhile the Dutch in Colombo, who had heard of the arrival

of the French Ambassador and army, became overwhelmed with

grief and terror, and shewed their obsequiousness to the King

(who had allowed them several ports for the purposes of trade,)

by sending Ambassadors with the presents which they had with-

held for some time past, whereby the King understood that they

were in great fear. However, His Majesty shewed that he was

pleased with this mark of submission, and: having thought that

the key of the fortress of Colombo could be taken with the aid

of the French Ambassador, detained him and his retinue of ten

persons, while the French at Trincomalee, considering that theiy

army was not sufficient, went back to return with reinforcements,

advising those whoremained behind to hold themselves in readiness

for war; and after they had left, the Ambassador received all

honors atthe hands ofthe King. For his service five male and five

female slaves were given him from the Royal palace, besides the

sum of five ridi* a day and rations three times aday. His ten -

followers were also allowed fifteen ridis per day, contributed from

the several districts. When the presents which had been taken

care of were produced before His Majesty, the illustrious King,

His Majesty, privately directed that the same should be kept

safely to be produced before His Majesty’s successors.

After the demise of His Majesty, che illustrious Raja Singhat

who had incorporated into one kingdom the three divisions

of Lanka,f the most glorious and powerful Wimala Dharma

Suriya, supreme Lord of the Universe, succeeded to the throne

of Lanka, § when the French Ambassador made known to His

Majesty his intention to produce the presents before His Majesty.

* A ridi is equal to about 4d. of our money.

+ According to Valentyn, 6th December, 1687.

+ The three divisions were Ruhunu, Maya, Pihiti, which pope formed

Tri- Sinhele.

§ A.D. 1687.

14 5

153

His Majesty having made every preparation to receive them,

and to give the Ambassador an audience in Kandy, sent for

him, when the Ambassador went up to Kandy and presen-

ted himself before His Majesty with the presents. His

Majesty descended from the royal line and whose virtues

were like unto gems, after making the necessary enquiries

granted to the companions of the Ambassador presents near the

Atuwe * in Welate, and to the Ambassador the Walauwwet

of the Attepattu Chief of Udu Dumpela, directing him to

occupy the said Walawwe. His Majesty having learnt that

the Ambassador had gone with the presents and taken his

residence at the Walauwe, made him perform the duties

of the palace with the great chiefs, and promised him honors and

wealth if he should form an alliance with any house he liked.

Accordingly the hand of the daughter of Rajagooru Pandit Mu-

dianse was solicited in marriage, whereupon the king made pre-

sents of acap of state embroidered with gold lace, jackets, balts,

swords, knives, and a box containing gold rings and chains, and

female ornaments, such as earrings, hair pins, bangles, anklets,

rings and necklaces, and a hundred loads of rice, meat, and con-

fectionery and two female slaves ; and the marriage was duly

solemnized. After the lapse of several years, the Mohottale {

who held the post of Secretary of the Chamber of Golden

Armour, and two sons§ were born, and when His Majesty was

informed of their not being able to support these children, an

endowment of seven amunams of Welate, and four gardens and

‘some Uhena land belonging thereto, and the royal village of Ha-

diramalana,’was made and delivered to the Amerekon Mudianse,

to be possessed from generation to generation.

* Granary.

7, Mansion.

t Secretary.

§ The Sinhalese has Mohottale and three daughters, but from the

context it is evident two sons were intended. The error most likely is a copy-

ist’s,

154

When the most illustrious king, Wimala Dharma Sariya,

departed this life,* and was succeededft by the illustrious

Prakrama Narendra Singha, descended from the royal line, and

whose virtues were like unto the splendour of gems, the three

Appuhamys of the Ambassador were allowed to come into the

Royal presence and to perform the duties of the palace, and the

two Nindagamast of Selewe and Kendewele in the Dissawony of

Welasse ; and many lucrative offices, including the farm of the

arrow manufactory of Hapuwide, the Maha Kottal, and the Dis-

saweship of Welasse, were conferred on the eldest Appuhamy,§

while the two younger Appuhamys received shirts and jackets of

velvet after the French pattern ; and while they were so living,

the Mohottale proposed to marry the daughtér of Dippitiya Mudi-

anse of Podape in Four Korles, to which he received His Majes-

ty’s gracious consent.|| :

Afterwards, the second Mohottale received the Nindagamas

and offices which the first Mohottale had held, together with the

Maha Mohotty-ship{ of the Chamber of Golden Armour ; and

while he was thus performing the duties of the palace, tke

grand-daughter of Mahimi Bandara of Dambadeniya in Seven

Korles was proposed to him in marriage, and he married her

with the knowledge of His Majesty. The youngest Appuhamy

of the Ambassador, after having received the Nindegam called

Medegame and the office of Hetepane Bocotuwe Gate Mohan-

dram, was united in marriage to the daughter of Medegama Mu-

-dianse of Medegama in Madura; and after this was intimated

to the king, His Majesty, the ruler of the world, supreme,

pure, eminent and illustrious, protector and upholder, descend-

LS Se aia ear tan (ere ee

* AD. 1707. :

f A.D. 1707 to 1739.

I Royal Fief.

§ Gentleman, son of a Chief.

|| Here the history of the eldest son of M. Lanerolle breaks off abruptly,

and we are left to guess either that he died, or was deprived of his offices, as

was not uncommon in those days, forthe purpose of ad ing t. I

q. Gent ae ; purp vancing the next favorite.

155

ed from the solar race, ordered an account of these trans-

actions to be committed to writing, and it was so done

and delivered on Thursday, the seventh after the full moon

of the month Wessak* in the year of Saka l645+ at the city

of the Senkadagala.f

No. II.

EXTRacts OF A RESOLUTIGN PASSED IN THE COUNCIL oF CEYLON, ON

Tugespay THE 24TH oF SzepremsBer, 1765.

Whereas the descendants § of a certain Frenchman,

fuaisne De Nanclars De La Nerolle, who arrived in Trincomalee

with the Viceroy of that nation, the famous Monsieur De

La Haye, from whence he was sent as an envoy to the Court of

Kandy, and wasdetained by King Raja Singha but subsequently

liberated, and was residing in the Kandian Dominion, where he

contracted a marriage with a Sinhalese woman, after the

conquest of Kandy|| resigned themselves to the Company’s

protection, and as the Hon’ble the Governor considered it proper

that they should in future dwell together with their Christian

friends; and having no means of supporting themselves, they

were suffering bitter poverty ; under these circumstances, and

considering the general and universal moral duties, chiefly our

Christian love and attachment inducing us to provide for the

maintenance of these poor people who have followed for nearly

a hundred years the Christian faith amongst Heathens, we

have therefore resolved to make provision for their subsistence

with the Revenues of the several paddy fields and gardens ofthe

chief rebel Paulus Alwis of Hewagam Corle, a list whereof,

* May.

t A.D. 1723,

{ Kandy.

§ Great-grand-children,

|| The occupation of Kandy by the Dutch in 1763.

156

having been framed by Captain Dessave De Coste, is specially

_ inserted herein.*

aes eee SEY eee

ENporsEMENT BY THE LATE Mr. O’Grapy, GovERNMENT AGENT OF

GALLE, ON A PETITION PRESENTED BY ONE OF THE LANE-

ROLLES, APPLYING FoR THE Rank or MOoHANDIRAM.

“ The petitioner is to be informed that, without questioning

for a moment his being the rightful representative of the ducal

house of Lanarole, or Lignerolles, it would be better, perhaps,

for the present, to lay less stress upon that matter, and confine

his claims to consideration within narrower bounds. Properly

speaking the Petitioner ought to have been guillotined asa

ci-devant, any time between the 21st September, 1795, and the

25th October, 1795, by the National Convention; or, at least,

shot as a Vendean, by Westerman or Rossignol. These privi-

leges were unquestionably his ; but as instead of asserting them,

he preferred vegetating at Cattaloowa, disguised as a Police

Headman, and still further denationalized himself by allowiug

his hair to grow to its full length, and girding his loins with a

Comboy, he must not be surprised to hear, that while he was

thus losing the numerous opportunities which Monsieur de Ro-

bespierre lavished upon his order, of being decapitated, shot,

hanged, drowned, sabred, starved, or blown up in the air, a

needy and remote scion of his (the Petitioner’s) house contrived

to survive the ferric and fulminating ordeal which the Petitioner

shrunk from encountering, and, on the return of the Bourbons,

1814 (while the Petitioner was ingloriously chewing betel at

Cattaloowa), claimed to be acknowledged as the sole remaining

their of the once powerful house of Lignerolles, and, being unhe-

sitatingly recognized as such by Louis XVIII, took his seat, as

Here follows alist of eleven gardens valued at an annual rental of 148 Rix

dollars or £11 2s., and 36 paddy fields valued at anannual rentalof 200 Parahs

[150 bushels] of paddy.

157

Duke, in the House of Peers, between the Viscomte de la Garonna

and the Marquis de Carrabas, with whom he continued to sit, vate

and take snuff, till 1830.

These circumstances being within the Government Agent’s

own knowledge he having during his Parisian career, been fre-

quently invited by the duke to “couper son mouton” with His

Grace, the Petitioner will admit that it would be anything but

graceful on his (the Government Agent’s) part, to degrade his

former friend from his rank and titles, on the Petitioner’s bare

dictum, as he would be doing, by implication, were he to recom-

mend the Petitioner’s prayer, to be created a Mohandiram, to His

Excellency the Governor, on the strength of his being the true,

authentic, and genuine Duke.

Perhaps the Petitioner’s best course under the somewhat

dubious light which now encircles his pretensions, would be, to

throw up his situation of Police Vidahn at Cattaloowa, lay ina

stock of a few white Jackets, a couple of Comboys, and a spare

comb, and start in an outrigger dhoney for France, via the Red

Sea, and having reached his (de jwre) native land, lay claim at

once to his ancestral halls, his coronet and his arrears of pay ;

in respect of each of which the Government Agent has only to

ejaculate the fervent hope, that he wishes the Petitioner may

get it.”

No. III.

A Lerrern From HoLand GIVING AN ACCOUNT OF THE SIEGE OF

Viewna in 1683. |

A letter despatched from the’city of Amsterdam in Holland,

dated 8th day of the first quarter of the moon in the month of

Wap, in the year of Saka 1605 (a.v. 1683) was received here and

translated into Sinhalese,

158

The Grend Vizier of Turkey* having in conjunction with

his Bashaws, Generals and Officers, collected an army of 355,190

men from among the Turks, Tarcars, J anissaiies and other tribu-

tery states, ard entered the counuzy of Allemagneon the 7th

day of Hsele (July),-and having laid siege to the city of Vienna

where the Emperor was residing, displayed his strength cease.

lessly for sixty-two -days,t by bombarding the works, and

making assaults on the city, which he shelled with four large

cannon and other smaller guns, besides distressing the city in

‘various ways by springing several mines under the ramparts,

and breaching the walls. Finally by placing scaling ladders he

‘attempted to enter the city at midnight. During this siege

nearly half of the ,pulation, which consisted of 60,000, composed

ot the gaicison of 14,000 and resident population of 46,000, had

either fled, or perished from starvation, -and there would not

have been provision enough for the sustenance of the garrison

alone, had the siege been protvacted for 120 hours more. But

the place was saved by the interposition of-a miracle. ,

The Emperort who was residing out of the city, having con-

sidered it impolitic to remain there, entiasted the palace and his

army of 40,000 men to the Duke of Lothringia§ and proceeded

himself to the town of Lintz, when for the purpose of aiding

the Emperor, the King of Poland, distinguished for his mili-

_tary prowess, came with a body of 60,000, men including Generals

* Kara Mustapha.

+ The second siege of Vienna lasted from the 15th of July to the 12th of

Sept, 1683, during which the most devoted heroism was displayed by the garri-

son and theinhabitants, The numerous artillery of the Turks shattered the walls

and bastions, and the indefatigable labors of the miners were still more effective.

The garrison was gradually wasted by the numerous assaults which it was

called on to repulse, and in the frequent sorties, by which the Austrian Com-

maoder sought to impede the progress of the besiegers.—Creas,,’s Hist. of the

Ottoman Tui'ks, vol. I. page 57.

~ Leopold of Germany.

§ Filace Charles of Lorraine.

os.

159

and Officers ; the Elector of Bavaria, sub-king* of the Emperor;.

with 13,000 men ; the Duke of Saxony. with 12,000 men; and the-

Duke de Waldek and other: princes with 16,000 men. These

allies haying assembled at the palace of the Emperor, accom-

panied the General. who. hai entrenched himself there, to the

head quarters of the King of Poland, and having conferred’

with him.as to how they could check the arrogance of the enemy,

proceeded to attack him in this wise :—The Elector of Bavaria,

the Duke of Saxony, and the Duke de Waldek, with their res-

pective forces led the van; the-King of Poland, w:th:his troops

and chieftains, took the right, and the Duke of Lothvingia, who.

was at the Emperor’s palace, and his army, took the left wing,

and attacked the Turkish Army with such fury, that the King of

Poland who had thrown himself on the enemy’s centre} cut.

him: down as if he were slicing yams.t The: Turkish Army

thus thrown into disorder was nearly annihilated, while the

remainder took. to» flight, and Vienna has been saved. The

Turks who fell round the city, in tle camp, and in the pursuit,

amount to: 300,000: The whole camp, including a magni-

ficent tent, belonging to the Grand Vizier, many engraved arti-

cles of gold and silver, money to the value of two. millions, much:

August ; and even then, they only amounted to 20,000 men, but he was

joined by the Duke of Lorraine and some of the German commanders, who*

were at the head of a. considerable army, and the Polish King crossed the

Danube at Tulm, above Vienna,'with about 70,000 men.”—Creasy, 1. ¢..p. 57..

Ottoman centre, where the Vizier’s tent was conspicuous ; and the terrible

presence of the victor of Khoczim was soon recognized. * * * * * The

mass of the Ottoman Army broke and fled in hopeless rout, hurrying Kara,

Mustapha with them from the field, The Janissaries, who had been left in

the trenches.before the city, were now attacked, both by the garrison and the

Poles, and were cut to pieces. The camp, the whole artillery, and the military:

stores of the Ottomans became the spoil of the conquerors ; and never was:

there a.victory more complete, or signalized by more splendid trophies.”—

Creasy, 1..c. p. 60.

A purely Oriental simile, resorted to perhaps under the difficulty of better

Ulustrating the figure employed in the Dutch original.

160

jweasure, and military equipments, and material consisting of

chariots, muskets,* cannon and guns, were taken by the vic-

-srious King and the allied Princes. In commemoration of

this victory, festivals are being held in every kingdom of Europe.

The King, the Princes, and the allies who took part in this battle,

propose to proceed to Hungary and take New Hausel, Oppeny

ond other towns under the dominion of Turkey. let us pray to

God for his blessing, to enable us, when opportunity offers, to rid

ourselves from the grasp of these inveterate enemies.

No. IV,

Lurrer rrom JoHNn Sopreski, Kina or PobAnp, TO THE QUaEN.

A letter written by His Majesty the King of Poland to the

Queen, informing her of this victory, received at Amsterdam, and

forwarded here>was translated into Sinhalese to the following

effect : ea

“ May the Almighty power of the Lord of the Universe,

who has given us a Victory, the like unto which there never had

been before, live for ever! We took the camp of the Turks,

their cannon and all their war material. When these defeated

foes observed the bodies of the dead so thickly strewing the field,

they were panic stricken and took to flight. Our men began to

impound camels, asses, oxen and goats, while the Turkish Troops

were fleeing in companies. The powder, weapons of war, and

ammunition left behind by them cannot be estimated in millions.

I saw last night a sight which I had longed to see, when the pow-

der (exclusive of what remained in the magazines and what was

* The Sinhalese word used literally means Land guns, Bub Kiluvakky

itself is a Tamil term. ee : :

+ The present Buda,

161

taken in the rout) collected by our people was set on fire, and

the smoke obscured the sky and formed a thick cloud. ‘The loss

inflicted on the Turks, besides these, if assessed, would amount

to millions. ‘This has unmistakeably been a vreat calamity to the

Turks. The Grand Vizier fled, his army being routed, leaving

behind the robes with which he was decked while on his horse.

T have become entitled to all his wealth, the extent of which

I have learnt by enquiring of the master of his camp, who was

taken while fleeing in disguise. Among other treasures that

have come/to our hands is the sacred banner of the prophet

Mohammed,* and which has been sent to the Pope of Rome.

Besides these, there are in our possession other spoils, numerous

scimitars, swords, daggers, scabbards set with emeralds and

torquoise, and other treasures which I had never before seen.

Having taken the caparisoned horse of the Grand Vizier of

Turkey, we used our utmost endeavours to take him also, but he

escaped. ‘The second in command of the Grand Vizier, and

several Generals, who go by the name of Pachas, have fallen.

Their best troops, the Janissaries, who were left in the

trenches, were all destroyed. The Turkish troops who fell, in-

cluding the Janissaries and excluding the Tartars, amount to

about 300,000. Numerous scimitars, mounted with gold, of the

conquered foe, have also fallen into our hands. The bravest of

the enemy’s troops retreated fighting, but unfortunately for us

they could not have been totally destroyed, owing to the setting

in of night. There were 100,000 tents left behind, and it is said

there are many more uncounted. The number of these tents suf-

ficiently indicates the strength of the enemy. Our army and the

inhabitants of this city have been counting the dead since two

days, but if they continue to do so for eight days more, it 1s very

** Mohammed is called in the Sinhalese translation, the prophet of the Yor

religion, probably because the only Mohammedans then known to the Sinhalese

were the Yonas or Moormen of Ceylon,

162

doubtful they will arrive at the correct number. A great nunber

of the women of the people of Aust.’a, while being driven along

by the Turks, were killed. Besides this, I saw yesterday a

cruel fellow give a sabre cut on the mouth of a boy of exquisite

beauty, and cut off his head.

It would be utterly impossible for me to give a full deseriy -

tion of the articles which have come into my possession from the

Grand Vizier, while the manner in which those mines were laid:

by these Turks baffles all description. Unable to make an effort,

and shedding tears of g-rief at the signal defeat of his forces, the.

Grand Vizier appealed to his son for succour, but he went away

saying ‘ We do not want another taste of this King, we cannot.

help you, we must devise. means to save ourselves!” When I

think of the number of leaden bullets and the powder which these.

Turks have lost, 1 cannot imagine how they can ever fire another:

gun again, Reports have been received that this defeated host

have even abandoned the cannon which they took to cover their

retreat, A great number of cannon and turbans are being col-.

lected and heaped up. The enemy was so completely beaten.

that the adherents of Mohammed have some cause to enquire

where is now their god. Let us joyfully offer our thanks: to the:

Almighty for this victory. The whole of our army is offering- up.

praises to God and invoking blessings on me, inasmuch as the.

destruction of the army of the Grand Vizier was brought about.

by me.

The Elector of Bavaria and the Duke de Waldek, the Generals,

Ministers and Officers of the Emperor of Allemagne, : have kissed

me and greatly praised me, and the people who accompanied

them testified their appreciation by plaudits louder than the

officers of our army could imagine. The Count de Stahremberg

who was in charge of the inner Fortress, and his army, and others,

have called me their deliverer, and their Generals kissed me and —

praised me yery highly, while several men and officers who came

163

along with them pointing to me shouted “Here is our greatest

Monarch.” When I visited two of the Churches at Vienna, the

people assembled in them came up to me saying, ‘““We mus: satisfy

‘ourselves of our joy by kissing the victorious hand so celebrated

for its gallant deeds.” They embraced me and kissed my robes

and feet, and so shewed theirjoy. When the people began sing-

ing my praises in the public gardens, I begged my allies of Al-

Jemagne to put a stop to the demonstration ; however, “ May your

Majesty live prosperously for ever” was shouted on all sides. My

son,* whom you bore unto me, behaved bravely in the battle,

without moving a foot from my side, and he in concert with the

Elector of Bavaria, sub-king of the Emperor, divided in a friendly

manner between them the wealth taken from the enemy. All our

_ troops are rejoicing over the good fortune which has given them

sso much plunder as if it had been bestowed by Heaven. My son

Alexander has also reason to be pleased, for every one in this

camp heartily thanked him for having led the attack on the

Grand Vizier’scamp. As the Hlector of Bavaria fought the enemy

in my sight, some of my horses, and the banner of Victory and

ten cannon of the Pacha of Egypt were presented to him,

with a promise to present to his sister Davon Pienyt a

set of precious ornaments. In our endeavours to win the

battle, we lost a great number of our troops, including officers.

My aide-de-camp Iskar Ztahlikke is among the killed. My

Paymaster Patia Markus de Awiano having observed a

white dove flying above our armies before the battle began,

kissed my feet, declaring it was an omen which promised us

victory. ‘Ihe Emperor is living about a league off from this

place, and I could not speak to him, being very busy in

gathering information as to the results of this battle. We leave

this with the Emperor’s General to fo'low the enemy, but though

* Prince John, whom he intended should succeed him.

+ This is the nearest ap proach to the onginal name.

164

we may go to the extreme limits of the world, I still entertain

a strong desire to flee to you. On our way to Hungary, riding,

we passed two leagues of country, where the exhalation from the

decomposing bodies of men, horses, and camels was intolerable.

A letter was also sent to the King of France, informing him

of this victory, though it was hardly competent for me to write

to another King of the feats of valour performed by me. ButI

know that i made strenuous efforts in the very heat of the battle,

without alighting from my horse for thirty hours, and this

shews that the soldier is greater than the King. Since I enter-

ed on this war my bed has been the earth, and my covering the

heaveus.

INO oe

THE MUSTER-ROLL OF THE TURKISH ARMY.

Tians Kinerlin, a Christian, who had been captured when the

city of Canea belonging to Venice was taken by the Turks,*

came as the Grand Vizier’s Master of the Horse, and while the

Turks were being repulsed, fed into the city of Vienna and wrote

down the following muster-rollf of the invading army, which,

also brought from Amsterdam, 1s translated into Sirhalese.

The household troops of the Grand Vizier...9890

Troops ofthe Red Flag rears 19 100.0)

Be », Yellow Flag see Sage h Saeoo00

9 » Green Flag we fi bo eeeeO

» . », White andGreen Flag ... 5500

p » Whiteand Red Flag... ... 3800

* The siege of Candia. under Vizier Azem Mustapha, in 1645.

+ The strength of the regular force which Karn Mustapha led to Vienna, is

known from the muster-roll which was found in his tent after the sieve. Tt

amounted to 275,000 men. The attendants and camp-followers cannot he recke

oned ; nor can any but an approixmate speculation be made as to the number ~

of the Tartar and other irregular troops that joined the Vizier. It is proba-

ble that not less than half a million of men were set in motion in this last great

aggressive effort of the Ottomans against Christ-ndom.”’— Cea sy, 0. c. p. 56,

The

_ 165

Troops of the Pacha of Alexandria ...12000

bs e Pacha of Bulgaria ... 4000

i o Pacha of Walachia.... 6000

x Pacha of Moldavia ... 7000

a $5 Pacha of Capadocia .,. 5000

é ,, Pacha of Jerusalem ... 3000

a Pacha of Hastern Arabia 4500

2 55 Pacha of Siwas ... ... 2000

a3 Pacha of Anatoha.... 9... 2580

i Pacha of Belerade .- ... 1000

4 Pacha of Barbary... ... 4500

e Fo obacnay Of Moyo... 6 4 10.000

a je baend of Podeha, 4.2. 7000

Cavalry under the Pacha of Babylonia ... 3000

9 ob) 35 Kourdistan... 9000

The Troops of the Khan of Tartary ... 30,000

‘The

The

‘5 i Hussen Ibrahim, Pacha of

Meso pOLamMae nr. ee 24,000

= of the Pacha of Damascus ... 4400

Troops from the other side of Constanti-

MOWOL CHES Wiel hosel eran... teh SCO OOO

Janissaties under the Aga -.. ... ... 8000

Troops under Kuruisin Pacha ...- ... 8000

Dastram Bache... 5 11 7 o000

9 59

‘f 55 the! Pacharof So... a000

' Ranwel Pacha- .2. ~..., 3/00

eee aay Hrlan-Pachae gi pn) 6 2300

3 i Senis Khan Pacha ... 6000

as ; Kanis Khan Pacha ... 1800

‘ Kozsin Pacha aie ieee 7 OOO)

. Flardim: Pacha. Asie ac: 3000

The Troops from Croatia, Christian perverts to

Mohammedanigmeeiuca tee se OO

Cavalry from the same Country fod et OOO

166

Sappers a Miners an pee ee OO)

Men for buildmg Ramparts, Be So e700 08

Baggage bearers... Loh oh es OO OO 0r

Officers below the rank of Pace BUA See 8000

No. VI.

Of the residue of the spoil (after appropriation by the vic-

tors and the peasantry) removed to Vienna, the following is an

account brought from Amsterdam. translated into Sinhalese.

40,000 lbs. of lead | 5,000 lbs. saltpetre

40,000 ,, gunpowder 500 guns of the Janissaries

18,000 Brass grenades | 200,000 flint guns ‘

10.000 Tron grenades 4 quarter cannons

2000 Bombs 160 large and small cannons

9000 lbs. Pitch 1,000 large bombs

30,000 Mining tools. 18,000 cannon balls

: 200, 000 Hand grenades 8,000 tumbrils

1100 Stink pots | 1,000 painted chariots

2000 Halberts | 1,000 carved chests

5,000 bags of cotton | 1,000 camels

4,000 goat skins | 1,000 oxen

400 large grass knives | 1,000 buffaloes

1,000 spades A large quantity of stores and

0,000 lbs. bolts for bridges provisions, jams, sugar and other

6,000 lbs. horse shoes & nails , delicacies, sufficient for the sup-

40,000 ornamented tents, each | port of 150, 000 men for twelve

worth 1,000 ecru | months.

86,000 common tents | * 10,000 worth provender

Z 000 lbs. of rope made of | for horses and cattle, in casks.

camel and eattle hair | Allthe treasure and jewellery

20,000 empty powder bags brought by the Grand Vizier

1,200 Ibs. Lees oil were taken by His Majesty the

1,000 lbs. catto oil King of Poland. Mohammed’s

50,000 lbs. rappol oi banner of victory set with gems

100,000 Ibs. grease and precious stones, handed to

4 vessels for melting lead | the Grand Vizier by the Grand

1,000 woollen bags Sultan, also fell into the pos-

2,000 iron shields | session of the King of Poland,

5,000 lbs. iron who gent it to His Holiness the

16,000 Tbs. rags for wadding {| Pope of Rome.

* The original does not mention the coin,

167

No. VIL.

The following letter relating to trade, &e., in Amsterdam,

was brought here from that city and translated into Sinhalese.

As it was found impracticable to improve the country of

Surinam belonging to the chiefs of Zealand in Holland, it was

sold to the chiefs of Amsterdam and to Samuel Deak and the

rich merchants of West India. This territory was divided ac-

cordingly into three equal parts among the purchasers, and

Samuel Deak having built and equipped four ships, proceeded

with a great number of men and their families to colonise

the said country of Surinam in the West Indies. Some more

ships are taking in cargo to sail for that country. These will

materially add to the increase of ships, and assist the trade of

that place. And inasmuch as this region has fallen into the

hands of opulent gentlemen, it will by God’s help now thrive,

and many and great advantages may be expected yearly, for the

sugar and jaggery made in that country now load twelve ships

~a year; their profits, which only showed for the last two yeasr

at five per cent., have now increased to 80 per cent. Besides this,

the trade with Egypt and the city of Cairo has also been develop-

ed, and if we be relieved of the troubles of war, everything will

conduce to a prosperous end. Asit was known that the king

of Hngland* had sent a message to the fleet which sailed for

Bantam not to execute the orders first given, we have reduced the

number of ships intended for India, and we now believe that the

tumults in Hurope will come to an end, and that peace will reign

everywhere. Let us pray God for his blessing hereunto.

- * Charles II.

fee hee pay =) : Ne abe Sorat yan Rs tae i

' j ‘ f Z

7 f 4 4 é

fa (GF Q Fife! a. wel Poem,

JOURNAL

Cay LON SPRANG

ASIATIC SOCIETY.

1878.

PAR ls

“EDITED. BY

THE HONORARY SECRETARY.

“The design of the Society is to ‘institute and promote enquiries

into the History, Religion, Literature, Arts and Social condition of the

if ‘present and former inhabitants of this Island, with its Geolozy,

‘Mineralogy, its Climate and Meteorology, its Botany and Zoology.” —

~ . Prices to Members, per Number 23., to Non-Mombars, 4s.

_"-* Copies are supplied to Booksellers at Home, at 5s.

9 Communications intended for publication in the Fournal, must be

forwarded to the Secretary atleast a fortnight before the as-

sembly of the General Meeting at which they are to be submitted,

COLOMBO:

AO Re renee w ass wenseenneseuenuat

JOURNAL

OF THE

BEvVLON BRANCHES

OF THE

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.

PART 1.

EDITED BY

THE HONORARY SECRETARY.

AGENTS:

‘Messrs, TRUBNER & Co,, 57 &59, LUDGATE HILL, LONDON,

Messrs, THACKER, SPINCK & Co., St. ANDREW’S

LIBRARY, CALCUTTA.

J. CAPPER, CEYLON TIMES PRESS, COLOMBO, CEYLON.

MDCCCUXXIII.

UT ees

Ce ceakee

Reah apne

Vee

VAD cee

CONTENTS,

: PAGE

On Oath and Ordeal.—-By Bertram Fulke Hartshorne... ... ie

Notes on Prinochilus Vincens.—By W.'V. Legge, F. Z. S. ss 13.

The Sports and Games of the Singhalese.—By Leopold Ludovici. 17,

On Miracles.— By J. D’Alwis, M. R.A. S.... 42.

On the occurrence of Scolopax Rusticula and Gallinago Scolopa-

cina in Ceylon.—By W. V. Legge, F. Z.S. .. 64,

‘Transcript and Translation of an ancient Copper-plate Sannas.—

By Mudliyar Louis de Zoysa, Chief Translator to Govern-

ment eee Dos @eo feo @os eea eee gea Gea eee ate ea

75,

ON OATH AND ORDEAL.

BY BERTRAM FULK* HARTSHORNE, C.C.S.

It has been a common practice in all ages of the

‘world to ratify a solemn agreement, and to settle any dis-

‘puted question regarding a moral obligation, or a mutual

‘contract, by means of some form of oath or ordeal. _The

‘reason of this is obvious. It is supposed that such a pro-

‘cedure affords a security for truthful and honest dealing;

‘and it 1s curious to observe the various metheds in which

‘different races of people have set about attaining this

‘desirable end. ‘The Sinhalese Buddhists are in no way

‘conspicuous for devotion to truth; but although ordi-

mary lying is regarded by them as venial, if not commend-

cable, they put the fullest confidence in any statement

made according to one of the many forms of eath which

they themselves employ, and they consider that any vio-

dation of such oath is followed by the most disastrous con-

‘sequences. The story of king Chetiya, in the Ummagga

Jaiakaya, is one which illustrates the Buddhist idea upon

this subject. It's narrated that ‘“‘ at the time when the

“life of man was longer than it now 1s, king Chetiya ruled

“over Dambadiwa. His body was redolent of sandal wood,

“‘and frem his mouth preceeded the odour of the blue

“lotus flower; he was.endued ‘with the superhuman power

“ (irdhi) of sitting cross-legged in the air. He-was ever

“« euarded, night and day, by the four gods of the Kamawa-

“chara world. His fourfold army consisted of innumera-

“ble elephants and horses, and he exercised supreme

“royalty over Dambadiwa, which is ten thousand yoduns

“in extent (that is 130,000 miles). But in consequence

“of the lie of which such a king as this king Chetiya was

“* guilty, the scent of sandal wood departed from his body,

“the lotus scent which issued from his mouth gave place te

“a foul odour, and the deities which kept guard about him

“ in the four quarters of the heavens deserted him. He was

“* deprived of the power of sitting cross-legged in the air,

“‘ and so fell to the ground. Then by reason of the false-

** hood which he had uttered, the earth parted asunder,

‘* and his living body was enveloped, as in a red blanket,

** with flames of fire from the lowest of the infernal regions

“** and he was born again in hell.”

In the same way the educated and refined Greeks

believed that some of the worst punishments in the infer-

nal regions were allotted to these persons who had broken

their oaths. The consequence of this crime was detailed

in the answer of the Delphic oracle to Glaucus, and

the story is given by Herodotus (vi, 86.) Aman from

Miletus had entrusted some money for safe keeping to

Glaucus.; after a time he died, and his heirs claimed the

‘money by bringing the tokens, upon the production of

which it had been arranged between Glaucus and the

Milesian that the money was to be returned. Glaucus

however denied all knowledge or recollection of the alleged

transaction, and went to Delphi and asked the oracle

if he should restore the money, or keep it by swearing an

oath that he had never received it, The answer of the

oracle was this: ‘‘ Glaucus, son of Epikydes, for the pre-

* sent it is more profitable for you by swearing to succeed

“*in carrying off the booty. Swear, then, for at any rate

“« death awaits even the man who swears truly. But there

Srp

“is anameless son of Oath who has neither hands nor

s tcet-—-yet he isswift in his pursuit. urtil he seizes.and

' destroys'the: whole house and race. But the posterity

@ of a man whose oath is true is the better hereafter.”

Upon hearing this answer Glaucus asked to be for-

given for what he had said, but the Pythian goddess re-

plied that to tempt the god was the same thing as if he

had actually carried his purpose into: effect.

| He then restored the deposit, but, as Juvenal says,

through fear, not because it was his duty to do so—and

he adds that the response of the oracle became literally

true, for the whole family and posterity of Glaucus were

utterly des royed.

The Greeks, however, commonly applauded falsehood,

if it were clever and turned out to be successful ; and even:

Plato said that the lie which the gods hated was the truth-

ful statement of a misinformed mind.

In the time of Homer, the river Styx was considered

_to be the most sacred object by which either mortals or

immortals could swear, It was the river, as Virgil says,

** Di cujus jurare timent et fallere numen,” and a compa-

rison was drawn by Aristotle between this idea of the

Greek mythology and the theory of Thales, that water was

the first principle of allthings. Some very suggestive re-

marks were made by Hegel upon this point: ‘‘ This an-

‘cient tradition,” he says, ‘‘is susceptible of a speculative

* interpretation. When something cannot be proved—that

“is, when objective monstration fails, as, in reference to

Sea payment, the receipt; or,in reference to an act, the

“witnesses of it ;—then the oath, this certification of my-

“self, must, as an object, declare that my evidence is

“ absolute truth—as now, by way of confirmation, one

‘“‘ swears by what is best, by what is absolutely sure, and as

‘“‘ the godswore by the subterranean water,. there seems:

“to be imphed here this, that the essential principle of

“pure thought, the innermost being, the reality in: which.

“ consciousness has-its: truth, is: water ; I declare; as i¢

“were, this pure certainty of my own self as object, as

= God.

That isto say, the basis of the oath is laid upon the

essential and purest form of absolute reality. It is easy,

then, to see why the many different oaths of the Simha-

lese Buddhists, who deny all such ideas as essence and

reality, do not fall within the canon laid down by Hegel,.

and are not referable to any one distinct principle ; while

they are thus unlike the various forms of oath observed

by people of different race and religion. |

Fhe most solemn Suphalese oaths are governed by no

considerations of the absolute and immutable reality of

their object, such as are characteristically assigned. by

Hegel to the essence by which truth may be demonstrated...

They are various in form and arbitrary in principle. The

respective weight which each carries with it is due to an

estimation of the purely material advantage or disadvan.

tage which, in the end, it is likely to secure, rather than

to any beliefin its real & preori efficacy. Thé worst evil

which can happen to a Buddhist is the misfortune of re-

peated birth, and we have often heard Kandyans seriously

attribute their disasters in this life to some deficiency of

merit on their part in a previous state of existence.—Nir-

wana is the great final cause of life, and ‘every thing

which is likely to stand in the way of attaining to Nirwana

is scrupulously and conscientiously avoided. Hach Bud-

dhist, then, has his own individual standard of moral exc.

cellence, and, according)to his lights,.he regulates his con--

duct, by that which he considers best calculated to pro-

mote his ultimvate welfare. At Pantura, in the Déwale,.

is a. colossal image of Vishnu bedizened with the thank--

offerings of many Buddhists, who by an inconsistent-ano--

Maly, regard it. with great reverence; the oath held. most:

sacred by the people of the neighbourhood is taken by

laying the hand upon the image.

It is frequently resorted to. in cases of disputed civil

claims, and even if a convert from Buddhism sues a Bud--

hist for a debt, he will usually be content to be non-suited:

if the defendant will go through the customary formality:

ef thus swearing by Vishnu that he is not liable.

In the Kandyan:country there is.a great variety in:

the forms of solemn oath..

The Bana book, the weSadoeo 45) Sate pat-

thang Su'vraye, is sworn upon, as in the low country. Salt,,

tinkling armlets of devil dancers, 23, Kapu, or ihe cotton:

used for spinning, and the blacksmith’s forge, are each in:

their turn, the chosen: objects to which the Kandyans ap-

peal in truth of their assertions. The peculiar efficacy of

the forge is said to consist im its manifestly powerful cha-

P racter, while each of the others is selected for the solem-.

Mity on account of the relative degree of. excellence attri-.

buted to it by its simple-minded votaries

Perhaps the most obligatory of all oaths is taken by

a Sinhalese man when he swears by laying his hand on:

the head of his. eldest son. His belief being that any

falsehood uttered under such circumstances will involve:

the ruin and destruction of his whole family and posterity-

@.-

His father mother and sister as well as his gurunanse or

teacher are invoked in testimony of the truth; and he is

ready if necessary to swear by the sun. But he ignores,

the beautiful passage in Romeo and Juliet :—

Romeo.—Lady by yonder blessed moon I swear.

That tips with silver all these fruit-tree tops.

Julie¢.—O swear not by the moon, the inconstant moon,,

That monthly changes in her circled orb,

Lest that thy love prove likewise variable.

Romeo.—What shall I swear by ?

—JSuliet.— Do not swear at all ;

Or, if thou wilt, swear by thy gracious self,

Which is the god of my idolatry,

And [il believe thee.

Act 2, Scene II.

For an oath taken by the moon is in this country by

no means a mere sentimental formula.

The so-called tooth of Buddha enshrined in the Da-

fada Malicawa at Kandy is an object of profound reverence,

and an oath taken thereby is supposed to carry with it an

obligation proportionate to the general veneration paid to

the relic, whilst one of their most important oaths is.

taken by the head of Buddha.

We learn from Herodotus, that the most sacred oath

of the ancient Scythians, was sworn by the king’s hearth.

It was an oath which had a peculiar significance and effect

—whenever the king fell ill, he sent for three of his sooth-

sayers, and inquired the reason of his malady. They in-

variably said that it was because some one had sworn

falsely by the king’s hearth. The person whom they ac- -

cused was sent for, and charged with thus being the author

of the king’s-sickness, and he, of course, protested his in-

nocence. Thereupon other soothsayers were called in; and

if they agreed with the opinion of those first consulted,

the perjurer was put to death, and his property divided

”

-ramongst those who had originally accused him; but if

there was a difference of opinion among the soothsayers,

"a large number were summoned, and the truth determined

by a majority of votes, In case the verdict went in favor

-of the accused, the persons by whom he was first charged

were put to death, with certain formalities, the prospect of

‘which must have imparted a feeling of great uneasiness

#o the discharge of the function of divination. Whether

the result of the inquiry affected the king’s health in any

way it is not recorded. The Scythian method of swearing

to a treaty was attended with a ceremony which is not,

we believe, without a parallel among other barbarous

mations of later date. It is thus described by Herodotus:

“* They pour wine into a large earthenware bowl and mix

“ therewith the blood of the parties who are entering into

‘« the treaty, by striking a part of the body with an awl or

“or cutting it with a sword. They then dip into the

“bowl a scimitar, and arrows, and an axe, and a javelin.

| “ After this they recite their solemn vows at length, and

““ then the contracting parties themselves and the most

*“* worthy of their followers drink off the libation.”

Herodotus says that without doubt the Scythians

‘were masters of Asia for twenty-eight years, and we have

heard it alleged that there is ground for the helief that

‘some remnant of that ancient race found their way to the

South of India. It is more probable that,'the course which

they took lay in quite the opposite direction. At any

' rate we look in vain for any+trace in Ceylon of the cus-

toms or traditions of that people. It would, however,

be interesting to know if among any class of the inhabi-

tants ‘of this Island such indications may be observed.

dt is to be remembered that this is a country where special

cites and ceremonies have been perpetuated unimpaired

‘through countless eenerations, and that a custom 2,400

‘years old would be by no means a marvel of antiquity.

The celebrated Bo-tree at Anurddhapura has a re-

‘corded and well-authenticated history extending over

‘2000 years, and, as may be supposed, at that place an

‘oath taken by it is considered to be a most binding obliga-

‘tion on a Buddhist to speak ‘the truth.

In the neighbourhood of Minnériya there is a proverb

“OSOS lod Bene Sood” Minnériyé panam tiyanda--

‘referring to the custom of taking a solemn oath by laying

-a silver fanam upon a sacred rock by the side of the lake.

“The rock or slab upon which the coin is deposited was

“fermerly part of the bund or embankment. It seems to

‘have been theught, in some way or other, to be indued

‘with a peculiar holiness, and it was removed about half a

imile from its original position, and a Déwala built near

‘it. The oath is taken in presence of the Kapurdla; and

it Seems to be an essential part of the ceremony ‘that the

‘money should first be deposited.

In the same way a relic has been recently discovered

aun the Morowak Kéralé, and it is turned to a similar

devout, and at the same time profitable, purpose. Both

these relics, however, have areal and very remarkable

characteristic. Jt is reported that they positively gua-

rantee that a man who swears by them speaks the truth;

whereas In a court of justice it is too well known that as

a general rule no such result can be looked for.

There are few localities regarded with more universal

reverence in ‘Ceylon than Kataragama. The legends con-

mected with Kandaswamiy, the tutelary deity of the place,

' are surrounded with much interesting and extravagant

” -+tradition .of a purely oriental type, and this probably

" constitutes the chief reason why the annual pilgrimage to

a “nis chief temple is so largely attended by people of various

' -nations and creeds.

A shrine in honour of the deity is to be seen in the

vbranch dewale or temple at Kandy, and a-civil claim was

_ xecently decided there between two chetties in the follow-

ing manner. The plaintiff sued the defendant for £5 15s od.

for board and lodging. By mutual agreement they repaired

to the temple where the defendant lighted a .candle, and

holding it before the shrine declared that he did not owe

the money. He then extinguished the light, and the

’ plaintiff with apparent cheerfulness subsequently with-

‘ drew his claim and paid the costs.of his adversary.

_ M@here is, however, a case mentioned by Sir Charles

» Marshall (Judgments p. 142) in whicha similar ordeal at

Jaffna does not seem to have been attended with infallible

os wesult. He says : ‘“‘ a Judge of one ci the northern districts

» *‘suggested to the Supreme Court the expediency of

” -*sending the Malabar witnesses to a temple, tu be sworn;

~ ‘in the hope that the more imposing nature of the

‘“ ceremony, being one to which the Malabars sometimes —

| “have recourse among themselves, might be more

a -* efficacious in obtaining the truth. After a full consider-

_ ‘directed the District Judge to be informed -that they

| should not feel justified in sanctioning the cousse prO-

| G posed---that though they were fully aware of the diffi.

culty of arriving at the truth, and though they agreed

that this object might sometimes be attained by the

‘“ method proposed, still it would often fail as had ‘been

‘‘ shewn by former experience. That a striking instance

‘‘ of such failure occurred about the year 1816, when the

“ witnesses in some criminal case of importance, having

“been sworn in the temple of Kandaswamy near Jaffna,

“as being reputed a temple of peculiar sanctity, the whole

** of the witnesses on one side or the other were afterwards

‘‘found to have perjured themselves; and that ‘the

“* practice was afterwards discontinued by the Supreme

“* Court from:a conviction of its inefficiency.”

The same.learned writer also relates an interesting

‘circumstance regarding the method whereby an cath was

‘Said to be usually taken by a Rhediya, It is interesting be-

cause, aS we believe, it has now iallen entireiy into dis-

use; it formed .one of those peculiar social distinctions

~which-are:so:-rapidly disappearing in Ceylon, and which

umake it so-neeessary ‘that the ethnological characteristics -

‘of the people should be carefully observed and accurately

recorded. ‘A «question,” he writes, ‘‘ arose in 1834

‘** whether-a:witness:of the Rhodiyan -caste, who-was ex-

“amined in the Court of one.of the Southern Districts,

“ ought to prostrate himself on the occasion-of taking the

‘‘ oath, which was represented to be the ceremony pre-

‘‘* scribed by custom for persons.of that class. The'King’s

‘‘ Advocate, to Whom the matter was:referred, and whe

‘‘ was naturally startled at a mode of taking an oath, so

‘‘ revolting to English customs and feelings, and so un-

‘* usual even in Ceylon, consulted the then Chief Justice

‘on the subject.” The opinion of Sir Charles Marshall

was given thus: ‘‘ Such distinctions unquestionably do

,», exist, and are observed, almost necessarily, I believe,

%G 6%

yee

‘fin the Courts. In the Northern Districts, the low caste

‘* Malabars, instead of swallowing the Ganges water, take

off one of their cloths, and step over it as the mode of

imprecation. I never heard of this ceremony of pros-

“tration, nor indeed do I ever remember a witness of the

™ Rhodiyan caste, being examined before me.” At the

present time a Rhodiya comes into court and gives his evi-

dence after the usual form of affirmation inthe same way

as any other witness. This form: of affirmation is repeated

by every witness who is not a Christian and renders him

liable, in case of falsehood, to the consequences of perjury.

It’s moral value, however, must be admitted: to be almost

infinitessimal. About forty years ago a system was adopt-

ed whereby Buddhist Priests or Kapuralas,, and Moorish

Priests were employed in some of the Courts to adminis-

ter oaths to witnesses in accordance with the rites of their:

Fespective religions. But either in consequence of the -

failure of this plan to secure veracity, or from some odiwm

theologicum, 1t was soon afterwards abandoned.

- @ordiner mentions (vol. I. 262) a somewhat similar

¢éremony which we believe is now wholly obsolete: ‘‘ one

* day while the Supreme Court of Judicature was sitting at

“ Batticaloa, | had an opportunity of seeing the ceremony of

administering an oath to a Ceylon Brahmin. The

sacred book, written on palm leaves, lies on a small

oblong table, carefully wrapped up, bound round with

-*“a long cord, and covered over with several folds of

“coloured muslin. The table has six turned legs and is

* placed upon the head of a young boy, behind whom an

** older Brahmin stands, holding the two legs of the table

“which are nearest to him, one in each hand; afterwards

‘it is laid aipon’ the floot, the covers taken off, and the

‘volume displayed: The officiating Brahmin repeats the

“ nature of the obligation, and pours a little water into —

‘the hand of the person who’ swears, which he shakes

“and sprinkles’ on his’ head: then, bowing down; he

** touches the book with his hafds, repeating the preéscrib-

‘** ed words, and rising up, the ceremony is finished.” 3

Two ancient forms of ordeal remain to be mentioned

which we frequently find alluded to in old Kandyan deeds.

They seem now to have quite gone out of use; the one was’

the ordeal of thrusting the hand into boiling oil and cow

dung, the particular merit or significance of which it is

hard to see. It was specially resorted to in cases of dis-

puted title to land. The other was the ordeal of putting

the hand into a chatty, wherein a live cobra had been

placed. -This is thoroughly intelligible. It was a

form of ordeal which no doubt commanded genuine

belief, not only on account of the risk of personal injury

involved in the process, but also by reason of the belief

which invested this snake with infallible and sacred attri-

butes.

MR. LEGGE ON PRIONOCHILUS VINCENS. 1s”

4 N ote on Prionochilus Vincens,* Sclater, (Legge’s Flower-"

- Pecker) by W. V. Lecce, F. Z. S.

(Read Feb.; 3d. 1873.)

-Dimensions.—Male, total length 4°15-in.; wing 2°3 ;-

tail 1°2; tarsus °5; middle toe with claw ‘5; hind toe

0:25; bill to gape 0°45.

Description.—Iris' reddish brown; bill black, lower

i mandible light at base; legs and feet blackish brown.

Head, face, hind neck, upper surface, with lesser wing:

coverts and margins of greater wing covert and tertiary |

' feathers dull steel blue, palest on the rump (whichin some

_specimens‘has the feathers edged whitish) and with the

frontal feathers dark. centred; wings blackish brown with

' the basal portion of inner webs and under -wing coverts:

white; tail black with a white terminal spot, mostly

-on theinner webs of the four outer feathers and decreas-~

‘ing towards the innermost ; chin, throat and chest white

changing.on the breast and under surface to primrose

' yellow ; flanks dusky, under tail coverts white, washed

with yellow.

_ Female, length 4 in.; wing 22°25; tail 1:1. The

» female is throughout lighter and duller in plumage than-

‘the male.

Bill and iris as in that sex; legs and feet lighter in

hue. -Head and hind neck faded bluish ashen; back

_ dusky elivaceous ; wing coverts margined with the same;

‘Wings lighter brown than in the male ; uppertail coverts

” This bird has already been described in the Pree. EZ. Society

. this year, but as itis quite unknown to ae member of our Institution

Tsubjoin the above description.

14 MR. LEGGE ON PRIONOCHILUS VINCENS.

pervaded with dark grey; sides of neck and chest ashy;- in

the white of throat being less clearly defined; the yellow

ofunder surface less bright and less in extent, the brows a

éfthe flanks encroaching more on it.

History of Species.---1 had the good fortune to discov :

this curious little bird in the Southern Province, on the

¥3th of March last. The genus to which it belongs was’ ff

totally new to me and as it did not occur in India, I was,

from want of books of reference on malayan Avifauna, |

fore transmitted specimens together with my notes, to’ —

the Zoological Society of London, at a meeting of which

in the 18th of June last, the species was submitted, and

named by the Secretary, Dr. P. L. Sclater, Prionochilus |

Vincens. The existence in Ceylon of this genus of the@

Dicceine is most remarkable ; it is a malayan typé un. |

known as yet in India, and has for its nearest ally a bird of

the same genus, discovered by Wallace in the Molluccas

islands. How then are we to account for the occurrence

of a species so’ far from the haunts of the rest of its: [&

family ? It would seem to indicate, at some very remote |

period, the existence of a connection between’ our island |

and the Malay archipelago, in support of which theoryy

from an ornithological point of view, I may mention the

féecent discovery in the hills at N. Elliya of a whistling |

thrush *(Miophonus) belonging to a malayan section of its:

family. |

The distribution of our little bird will doubtless be |

found to be very local, and I question whether further re~ :

i ey: Blight, Holdsworth, named after its discoverer, Mr. Sa

Bligh of Kandy.:

Wie.

"MR. “LEGGE ON PRIONOCHILUS VINCENS 16

search will extend its range beyond the limits Inow assign

7 toit. It was discovered in one of the primary forests of-

® the Gangebodde Pattoo, not far’ from Galle, and after

‘wards traced by me through the Hinedoom Pattoo to the

Lion King Forest (Singha Raja Avidea), on the southern

_ ‘borders of the Kookoc! Korle, where I procured it at an

4 ‘elevation of about 2500 feet above the sea level. Itis there-

more, like most of our forest-loving birds (the limits of

~whose distribution, by the way, have been very erroneously

' fixed) botha low country and hill species: The district

| lying to the North ofthe valley which divides the central

mountain group from the Southern ranges, or, in other

words, the :region extending from Ratnapoora to the

Hapootella Slopes has been searched by naturalists and

collectors without:meeting with this bird, and therefore it

“may be concluded that ‘it ‘is confined to the hills of the

South-west of the Island, ranging from perhaps the

_ Eastern side of the Morowa Korle through the ‘ Lion

' King” and other forests bordering the Gindurah, and

from thence through the extensive jungles of the Gange-

bodde pattoo to the Kottowe district where I first met

with it. Should these limits prove to be correct, the

habitat of this little bird is exceedingly confined and

_ has no parallel in Ceylon with the exception perhaps, of

4 the White-fronted Starling, (-Temenuchus Senex) which has

«only been found as yet, in the forest along the upper part

of the Gindurah, indeed jin just the same locality as the

subject of this note.

This Flower-pecker aavells .exclusivéely in the high

jungle or“ Mookalaney” of the ‘Sinhalese, and effects the

_ Jeaves and smaller branches of moderately sized trees, but

pre

16 “MR. LEGGE ON PRIONOCHILUS ‘VINCENS.

“amore particularly the luxurious creeper, (Fi veycinetia angustt-

_folia), which grows so plentifully in the Southern forests |

round the trunks of tall trees, entwining and clothing them _

completely until they have the appearance of columns of |

ivy. It associates in smallflocks and when this plant is in |

fruit, may be seen in little parties, feeding on its seeds,

Its movements are most active, now hovering for an ing |

-.stant-over a flower, like other members of its: family, now a

clinging -“tit-like” to the under side of some vchosen Pd

deaf. “I have but once observed it in the open and that —

-was in a forest clearing where ‘it was searching the

‘flowers of the ‘* Bowitteya” plant, (Osbeckia virgata.) 4

Although it usually takes but short flights from tree to tree ~

in the jungle, its powers of locomotion are considerable and 5

it may be seen wending its way across openings in the Z

forest from one belt to another. EY

The note of this little denizen of the woods isa wealal

‘*tse-tse-tse”’ scarcely audible on a stormy day amidst the

sighing of the mind in the trees and is generally uttered 4

in concert when searching for its food in small flocks.

I know nothing as yet of its incubation, but it woul

appear to breed in the South-west monsoon at different

dates according to the locality it inhabits ; individuals

‘procured in the low-country forests in June had the

sexual organs developed, and those killed in the Singha

Rajah forest in pu emeey were in a similar condition.

THE SPORTS AND GAMES OF THE SINGHALESE. 17

The Sports ‘and Games of the Singhalese, by LEopoLp

Lupovict.

(Read Feb., 3d. 1873.)

Ifthe Sports and Games of a people like their popu-

lor songs and Ballads, may be supposed to serve as an

index of character, the favorite pastimes of the Singha-

lese but too faithfully reflect the tame and undemonstra-

tive nature of the national temperament. Inhabiting

a climate which renders exertion of any kind distasteful,

the Singhalese in common with all inter-tropical races, in-

dulge in exercise for exercise’s sake, but to a very small

extent, Hence it is hardly matter for surprise that their

“games and sports should be cast after the tamest and

soberest of patterns. In venturing on this remark the

writer does not mean to convey the impression that the

Singhalese as a race, are incapable of much sustained

_ physical exertion ; on the contrary, any one who has seen

a Singhalese peasant at work in his Paddy field or Chena,

under a burning hot sun, will allow that, provide him

with the motive for labour, he can rise superior to the

disadvantages of climate. But this motive, it will be con-

ceded cannot operate where arnusement or pastime is the

only object. His-work done, the inducement for further

exertion ceases, and rest and repose under the cool and

refreshing shade of a tree, are hishighest enjoyment. To

expect therefore, a people so circumstanced to take delight

in violent out-door sports, would be to look for an exhibi-

tion of physical energy alike incompatible with their

natural instincts, and inconsistent with those climatic con-

ditions which forbid superfluous exertion. Nevertheless,

18 THE SPORTS AND GAMES OF THE SINGHALESE.

that the Singhalese should in spite of an enervating

climate, still count among their field games at least, one

demanding nearly as much violent exercise as Cricket, is

sufficient proof that when the inducement is present, the

Singhalese youth is as capable of exertion and endurance

as his more favored brother of a colder climate. While,

however, the climate may be considered the principal

cause which tends to make the Singhalese an ease-loving

~ people, it must not be forgotten that there are others

which conduce to the same end. Among these latter may

be mentioned the entire absence, till very lately, of any

thing like a spirit of emulation, in consequence of the

equally entire absence of a system of school organization,

that recognized the importance of the play ground. They

have no public schools, colleges, or universities, the

youth of one institution competing among themselves or

with those of another, for the laurel crown or palm of

victory. Under their own Native Sovereigns, and cen=

turies before the Portuguese secured their first foot-hold on

the shores of Lanka, every district and every province had _

its public school aad its college, but these institutions

were, aS a rule, under the supervision and control of

the priesthood—staid sober old dons who would have as

much tolerated any manifestations of spirit, pluck, or mis-

chief, as the violation of any of the ‘‘five precepts.” It

necessarily followed that under such a system of scholas-

tic discipline, the alumni of these colleges could indulge _

in no kind of exercise more violent than the composition

of learned essays on the recondite subject of the Buddhist

metempsychosis, or the less elevating if more tiresome

task of manufacturing diagram poetry. The later Kings,

THE SPORTS AND GAMES OF THE SINGHALESE. 1g

whatever may have been the extent of their acquirements

in the arts and sciences, set but little store on the physi-

eal developnrent of muscle anl sinew, and though they

_ May occasionally condescend to go out a hawking, or to

treat themselves and their Court to the spectacle of a

cock-pit, or a bull, or rather buffaloe fight, the gymnasium

was an institution as utterly unknown to their Majesties

of Kandy as it was to their predecessors of Anurajepoora-

and Poelannaru:e. After the sceptre of Lanka had de-

parted from the Royal line who had wielded it for more

than twenty-two centuries* and the Malabar dynasty suc-

ceeded to the throne of Kandy, whatever of spirit the nation

had possessed was utterly crushed out, while the maritime

provinces which had passed under the iron rule of the

Portuguese and the Dutch, were so completely denational-

ized, that it is only within the last quarter of a century

that the natives of this island have begun to realize under

the benignant sway of Britain, the high privileges of

British subjects. Enjoying as they now do, the blessings of

civil and religious liberty in a degree to which many of

the oldest States of civilized Europe have hardly attained,

the national character of the Singhalese is being silently but

surely moulded into habits of independence and self reliance;

waile every step made in advance, draws closer t 1032 ties

of loyalty to the British throne, for which they are so emi-

nently distinguished. The impulse given towards pro-

_ gress, moral, social, and material, by the example of the

' ruling race, may take mriny years to fructify, and though

even some of the vices of Eurepean clivilization may

* Sovereigns of the “ Great Dynasty” reigned Hoan B.C, 543 to

A. D. 302 ; those of the *‘ Lower Dynasty” from A. D, 802 to 1706.

20 THE SPORTS AND GAMES OF THE SINGHALESE.

leave their taint on the national character, the good will

yet so far counterbalance the evil, that, with the generous

influences already at work, with the agency of a higher

and nobler education in operation, and the principles of a

purer Religion permeating the masses, the day if distant,

will yet dawn when every village will have its school-

house and its own play-ground, and the village green

resound with the chants and merriment of a future genera-

tion of Singhalese Youths assembled in the generous

rivalry of those athletic sports, which if they had ever

existed at all, have very nearly died out, or re-echo to the

sound of bat and ball when cricket shall have displaced

their own “ Buhu Kellya”. Then, if there is’ any truth

in the saying, ‘‘ The child is father of the man”, shall

the Singhalese Youth begin to give promise of a more

vigorous manhood than can be predicated of the pre-

sent generation. But to return from this digression.

The Sports and Games of the Singhalese may be

classed under four heads, Ist Religious Games, 2nd Gut-

door sports, 3rd Games of skill, and 4th Games of chance,

It may however, be necessary to mention here that, with

but a few exceptions, all the games and sports of the

Singhalese appear to have been borrowed from India,

and even from the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the

English. 3

Among the Religious Games the first is the Ang-

Ediema (@o%.@®) or the “ Pulling of horns,”’ the idea

of the mexry-thought of European superstition developed on

a gigantic scale. It is not a game in celebration of 4

victory, nor in commemoration of any great national event,

like the games of classic Greece and Rome, but rather in

THE SPORTS AND GAMES OF THE SINGHALESE 2X

propitation of some offended diety; and whether sickness

has visited the people, murrain attacked the cattle, insects

and grubs settled on the young rice fields, or a protracted

drought threatened calamity to man and beast, the alarmed

Singhalese peasant knows of no more efficacious remedy

than an appeal to Vishnu or Siva, Pattiny deyo, Kateregam

deyo, or Basnatre deyo, through the medium of an Ang-

Ediema. The village elders, as soon as they awake to a

sense of the impending danger, wait in solemn deputation

on the Kapurale or priest of the district Kowzle or temple,

carrying presents with them for the seer, very much after

the manner of Saul when he waited on Samuel, to learn

the name of the particular deity that ought to be appeas-

ed, and generally to concert measures for the due and

proper celebration of the Games. The Kapuralle promises

to obtain the desired information, but as this must be

done at a lucky hour, on an auspicious day, and after

sundry ablutions and purifications, he dismisses his visi-

tors with a promise to communicate with them on a

subsequent day. He next proceeds to consult the Oracle,

and fixes upon a day for the celebration of the Game,

taking care however, that it should be sufficiently remov-

ed to allow of the real crisis of the danger to be passed.

The day fixed upon is communicated to the elders who invite

the villagers interested, by distribution of betel leaves ;

and preparations for the celebration commence in earnest.

The villagers next divide into two parties or teams, the

upper and the lower. This distinction is merely topo-

graphical, the villages lying towards the head of a valley

or stream being the upper, and those further down being

the lower. Each party next chooses its Captain or Vham-

22 THE SPORTS AND GAMES OF THE SINGHALESE.

pion, who brings with him the stout branch of an elk

horn with the frontlet stang on. This horn is held in

proportionate veneration according to the number of

victories it may have achieved, and there are some handed

down from father to som—for the championsh ip is here

tary—that have come

“ O’er a’ the ills o’ life victoriows,”

for a hundred years. The place appropriated for the game

is called the Angfitya, an open place, in scme central

situation, and generally under the shade of an overspread-

ing Bo tree, thus making the tree sacred to Buddia parti-

cipate in a purely Hindoo ceremony. At one ead of the-

Angpitya

“ Stands there a stump s ix feet high, the ruins of a tree,

“Yet unretted by rain and tempests’ force.”

The stump selected is generally that of a cocoanut tree put

loosely into a dzep hole, with the root end up; and is

called the Henekande or thunderbolt. A hole large enough

for a man’s arm to pass, is cut or burnt througn this

upper end. The respective teams are now ready with

stout ropes made of buffaloe hide and strong jungle

eepers, when the Kapurale opens the game, proclaim-

ing like Pelides at the funeral pyre of Patroclus.

“Come ye that list this prize to win, and ye this bout decide.”

The men of the upper team now pass a stout buffa-

loe-hide rope through the hole in the Henekande and firmly a |

make fast to its end the elk horn of their champion.

The horn of the lower team is similarly got ready and

tied to the nearest tree; the Henekande is now leaned

forward and the two champions hook the horns one into

* The Iliad. Merivale’s translation. Book XXIII.

But what is curious about this stump is, that in the Singhalese

Game it is always from a tree struck by lightning.

| pep pecenay Ty

ener,

an wae ots

| ee ioe

ae ton ft Wa? Rg .

i at wre { ; Ma aby,

ay Aout os,

— yo

— ay

THE SPORTS AND GAMES OF THE SINGHALESE. 23

the other, and lash them together with cords. The

two champions grasp the horns in their hands to prevent

their turning or slipping, and the word is given to pull.

Both teams now unite and haul at the rope passed through

the Henekande, while some half a dozen men of’ both

parties lay hold of the Henekande and sway it up and down,

as the rope inthe hands of the pullers is tightened or

relaxed. Thetwo champions hold on to the horns like

grim death, and are swayed hither and thither with every

motion of the rope. The contest lasts for hours, the

snapping of a rope only serving to prolong it with a fresh

splice, until one of the horns yields, and the pullers go

rolling and sprawling on the ground.* All the time the

mighty tug has been going on, the Kapurale isengaged at

a small booth constructed of white olahs under the Bo

tree, chanting the sacred hymns appropriate to the occa-

sion, jingling the Halemba or consecrated armlets, and

burning incense to the accompaniment of Tom-tom, fife,

-andcymbal. After the contest has been decided the whole

assembly go in procession through the villages that

participated in the ceremony, the Kapurale leading with

-achant, the champion carrying the victorious horn in a

basket on his hand, and every one joining in the Hoya

chorus at the proper stops. By the time the procession

returns to the ground, a feast consisting of rice boiled in

Cocoanut milk, vegetable curries (for flesh of any kind is

forbidden) tive and honey is laid out on green plantain

* In this as well as in the striking of cocoanuts, it is considered a

bad omen should the horn, or cocoanut of the upper team break. Such

an accident is looked upon as the consequence of the continued displea-

sure of the offended deity. Hence itis not unusual to concede the

victory, to the upper team by opposing a weaker horn,

24 THE SPORTS AND GAMES OF THE SINGHALESE.

leaves. The feasting over, they all rise at a sign from

the Kapurale, and give one united shout of Hoyia, and

then disperse. The Kapurale receives the customary

presents, and the victorious elk horn is again laid up in

lavender—if a liberal sprinkling of o1! of resin may be so

called, until some other threatene1 danger brings it out.

Another religious game also got up under similar

circumstances as the one already described, is called

villagers who join in the game divide into upper and

lower teams, and after selecting each its Captain, proceed

to the usual place of meeting, each individual carr\ing a

number of husked cocoanuts. <A line is then measured

off generally, about thirty feet, and stations marked at

each end for the Captains. The Kapurale commences his

invocations, rosin burnt, tom-toms beaten and Cymbals

struck, and the ‘ aptain of the upper team gives the chal-

lenge by pitching a cocoanut at his opponent, who stands

ready to meet it with another held in his hand. The

great art in throwing the cocoanut is to send it straight,

and with the stalk or eyed end foremost, as that being

the hardest part of the shell is better calculated to resist

the impact against the one held in the opponent’s hand,

Should the cocoanut thrown be broken, the sender repeats

the throw until the cocoanut held in his antagonist’s hand

is broken when he becomes the thrower in turn, This

game goes on until some hundreds of cocoanuts are

smashed on either side and the stock of one party 1s ex-

hausted, when the other is declared winner. The cocoa-

nuts used, are called Porepol or ‘‘ fighting cocoanuts” and

are chosen for the extreme thickness of their shells, which

/ Sg

ms eae

grb Pa,

Regent WT

ant

rue ;

LF UN !

¥ Frail y;

Soy LN

ae.

° te se

| ee

. \

Mi ae

y fans

CLs Pa

oe ‘

Ayiyd

THE SPORTS AND GAMES OF THE SINGHALESE. 25

in some cases have been known to exceed a quarter of an

inch, and as much as 15 Rupees have been paid fora

single nut of this kind from well-known favorite trees.

While the game is going on, the broken nuts are gather-

ed, and rasped down and boiled into oil for lighting the

ground during the banquet, which, asin the previous game,

takes place on the return of the procession through the

villages. The feasting over, the assembled people disperse

after the prescribed Hoyia.

It is the belief of the Singhalese peasantry that both

these games “‘ are very efficacious” in expelling sickness:

and pestilence, and even in bringing down rain ; and the

popular faith is not a little confirmed by the astute Kapu-

vale fixing the games at the tail end of an epidemic, or

when unmistakable indications of a change of weather in-

spire him with sufficient confidence in his own powers. of

forecasting the future. Inconclusion, it may be remarked,

that both these games appear to have been introduced

from India, probably with the accessron of the Malabar

Princes to the throne of Kandy.

Among the out-door sports of the Singhalese, Buhu-

kelya (QJH}ANE+L) or throwing the ball, takes rank first,

both on account of the enthusiasm with which it is played,

and the skill and energy it calls forth. Itis also perhaps,

the only purely indigenous Singhalese game. It is usual-

ly played just before and immediately after the Singhalese

New Year, and the season of festivity and enjoyment extends

over a fortnight in prosperous years. The play?,ground is

an open place, where the§boys, and not unfrequently the

young men, of the village assemble, and after choosing.

26 THE SPORTS AND GAMES OF THE SINGHALESE,

Captains, divide into two teams, each under its own leader.

The players on either side count the same number and the

innings is decided by mutual consent, or tossing up a_ brick -

or a pebble. When the parties have-ranged themselves

on either side, two cocoanut shells with the husks on, are

placed on end three or four inches apart, with a piece of stick

onthem forming a bridge. This may be considered the

wicket. ‘The ball used is an unripe Pommelow rendered

soft and elastic by being put under hot ashes, and protect-

ed against the rough usage it has to encounter by a

closely plaited envelope of strips of bark. The in players

who hold the ball, now retire to an agreed upon distance,

usually about twenty or thirty yards, while of the other

team some take their stand behind the bridge or wicket,

and others disperse themselves over the ground as fielders.

The game commences with the captain of the first team

bowling, his object being to knock over the bridge while

that of the other party is to catch the ball as it bounds

along past the wicket. Jf the bowler knocks the bridge

over, one of the opposite team goes out, while if the bail =

is caught, the bowler goes out. The ball must be caught

while it is on the bound, at least above the height of the

knee. The ball, whether caught or not, having passed into

the ground of the second team, one of them becomes the

bowler, and the game goes on alternating between the two

sides, until one team has all gone out, and the game is won

by the other stillon the ground. The winners celebrate

their victory with song and joke, quip and crank, jeer and

jibe, and in the unbounded license of their exultation, show

nothing like consideration for the feelings of their van-

quished opponents. ‘The apparent spirit of vindictivness,

is apenas

jee

aan: <)

THE SPORTS AND GAMES OF THE SINGHALESE. 27

the almost malicious delight with which the usual old

songs are sung, or new ones improvised by the Captain of

the winners, and the perfect stoicism aad callous indiffer-

ence with which the humiliation of defeat and the degra-

dation of his position are submitted to by the loser, is the

most remarkable, though certainly the least attractive, fea-

ture of this game, and can hardly fail to merit the unqua-

lified condemnation of men whose ideas of victory are asso-

ciated with generosity towards a fallen foe. The songs

alluded to, not unusually degenerate into coarse ribaldry

and filthy obscenity, but how cruelly humiliating soever

they may be, the victim of defeat has to sit on the bridge

of cocoanut shells, which in this case has becomesa verita-

ble bridge of sighs, his head bowed down on his knees, and

submit with patient resignation to the sneers and jibes

of the victors, who, while they dance round him in savage

exultation, emphasize a more than ordinarily biting sar-

casm with a knock on his head.

The following specimens of comparatively mild vitu-

peration, may serve to convey an idea of the wild latitude

of abuse, which the winners feel privileged to exercise.

Hurrah ! hurrah ! we have won, hurrah !

Hurrah ! hurrah ! exult over this fellow

Fellows ! let us give him a name, call him Rakossa

Fellows let us give him a name, call him Uguduwa.

Fetch the conquering hero and seat him on his head,

Knock him on the head one, two, three and drive him away,

His head is hollow, crows have hatched their young there,

His mouth is foul, he has eaten Aszu and mwadu leaves

From the Dolowewe Tom-tom-beater’s garden

Did he not once steal coccanuts,

28 THE SPORTS AND GAMES OF THE SINGHALESE.

And did he not and his fellows get a thrashing ?

There is no evil in his head from this day

(accompaniment of knocks)

There is no trusting earth and water, you dog!

Were your antecedents known, not even O/yas would beg of you

‘One after another we are come to-day to sing,

Go, go, hence away, you vagabond dog.*

Another game, a favorite with small boys is Kally

Kelya resembling very much the Tip-cat of the English

play ground—that it was however, not borrowed from the

English, is telerably certain from the fact of its having

been known long before the British period. Any number

may play this game, but the sides must be numerically

of the same strength. The implements of the game are

a stick about cighteen inches long, called the “ striker”

and a smaller piece of about three or four inches like the

‘‘ cat” in the English game of Iip-cat’”. A small hole

sloping down at one end cf about three inches by one, is

made in the ground, near which one of the in-players

takes his stand. A line the length of the tallest boy

from feet to tip of fingers, isthen marked off en the further

side, where a boy of the opposite side takes his stand

with the ‘‘ cat” in his hand. He cries out ‘ play” and

on being answered “ready ”, throws the “cat”, trying

to put it inthe hole. The boy with the “‘ striker” watches

his opportunity to strike, which if he succeeds in doing,

the distance to which the ‘‘ cat” may have been carried,

* Calculated as these taunts are to exasperate the loosing party,

they have seldom led to quarrels and fights. Indeed the writer has

been assured that they never created “ bad blood”—an assurance

which he however regrets to state was contradicted by disclosures

made at the Matura Criminal Session for 1871, when the provocation

to a murder was traced to this game of Buhukelya.

THE SPORTS AND GAMES OF THE SINGHALESE. 89

1s measured with the “ striker,” ten, fifteen or any num-

Der of lengths previously agreed upon counting for game,

and throwing out a player on the other side. Should the

*“ cat” drop into the hele, er within one length of the

striker, or be caught when struck, the in-player goes out

and the player who had the ‘“‘ cat” succeeds him. After

one whole set of players oe been outed, the winners

enforce a penalty in the following manner: the “ striker’

is thrown about six feet away from the hole, and struck

with the cat, the loser tries to catch the cat and if he

succeeds he escapes the penalty, if not the player takes

up the striker and going up to where the ‘‘ cat” may be,

throws the striker from him as before, and strikes it.

This goes on until he fails to hit the ‘‘ striker”, or

it falling within reach of the loser (whe must take : up

stretched on the greund) is taken up by him. From this

point the joser hasto run back holding his breath and

crying ‘‘ goodo”’,, “ goodo”’, “‘ goodo’’, to the hole where the

game commenced. Should he give in, the throwing of

the ‘ striker’ and the “USES with the cat, is resumed

from that place.*

Ettan Kally (ODM0a@E) which is exactly the same

as the ‘‘ Tip-cat”’ of the English play ground, is played

with a striker” eighteen inches long, and a “‘ cat’’ or piece

ef wood four inches long and pointed at each end; a hole

asin the previous game, is the starting point, and the

“cat” being laid lengthwise in the hole, the projecting

for an English game bearing any resemblance to this. Mr. Robert

Dawson tells me that he saw it played in the North of England

by some Norwegian boys, exactly in the same manner as above des-

cribed.

sx0) THE SPORTS AND GAMES OF THE SINGHALESE.

end is tipped with the striker, and as it leaps up is struck —

away toadistance. The distance from the hole is then

measured with the striker. and the cat again tipped and

struck until the agreed upon score or number of lengths

is made, when the winner exacts the same penalty as in —

the previous game. Should the cat be caught when

struck, or fall within a distance that can be reached by

the loser lying stretched on the ground on his stomach,

with his feet on the point last attained by the player, the

player goes out, but he is entitled to exact so much of the

penalty as remains due between that point and the hole.

Walekadju. ‘*‘Cashew-nut hole” is a favorite game

with boys when cashews are in season. It is played very

much. in the same way as “ Tip Shares’ or ~ Hlanders =

A hole about three or four inches wide, and as many deep,

is made in the ground, and an offing seven or eight feet

away is marked. The players then retire to three times

that distance, and quoit a batta towards the hole. The

player that gets into the hole or nearest to it has the

right to begin, the others following in the order of proxi-

mity. The order of succession being thus determined, the

boy who has the right to begin takes up the cashew nuts

in the hole and from the offing station, pitches them back

into the hole. Should an even number get in, he takes —

them all, but should it be odd, one cashew is thrown to

him by the next player, and he has to pitch it back into

the hole, which if he succeeds in doing, he takes all in the

hole, but failing is out. Should he have holed an even

eine

* See Routledge and Son’s “ Every Boy’s Book,” p. 65,

THE SPORTS AND GAMES OF THE SINGHALESE. 31

number, or succeeded in putting back the odd one, the next

player calls upon him to strike with his batta any cashew

he points out on the ground. Ifhe succeeds in this he

has won the game, but if in striking he holes his batta, or

strikes any other cashew nut than the one pointed out, he

goes out and is succeeded by the next player. This game

is also played with ‘‘ Batias’’, ‘‘ Kumburuetta’, and some-

times also with “ copper challies.”’

Walenameya (2@wY<) or nine holes, is played

with the bean called Kumburuetta,* any number may

play it. Nine holes in three rows of three each, about

six inches apart are made in the ground, and bounded on

three sides by banks of earth, or pieces of stick, each

player puts intoa hole as many beans as there are players.

An offing or boundary fifteen or twenty feet away, 1s marked

off, from which each player bowls or rather shoots a bean

into the holes, Should this bean fall into the centre

hole, the player is winner andtakes the beans in all the

holes, should it fall into any other hole he takes only the

beans in that hole. Shoulda player send his bean into

a hole already emptied he forfeits the original number,

which must be put back into that hole.

Kundubatu (2>S29). played with the bean Pus-

baiu.f isa favorite game with smaller boys, and takes

very much the same place in the Singhalese play ground

which marbles doin the English. The beans selected are

round small ones, artificially flattened by the application

of heat and pressure. Two holes about fifteen feet apart,

* Guliandina bonduc.

+ Entada pursaetha.

32 THE SPORTS AND GAMES OF THE SINGHALESE.

are made in the ground, and a fair-way smoothed betweer

them in a straight line. The players now take their stand,

and shoot their Battas into the epposite hole. The shoot-

ing is performed by holding the Batta between the fingers

of the left hand, resting the thumb of the right on the

ground, and using the middle finger of the right as a

spring. The player who succeeds in holing his Batta goes

out as winner, while the others continue the play, the

player furthest from the hole taking precedence. He

shoots at the nearest Batia onthe ground, gathers then:

all up and putting all but two into the hole, places one at

its edge and with the cther shocts at it. ‘Fhe owner of

this Batta then shoots at the nearest Batta, and should

he strike one and get into the hole, he goes out as winner ;

but should he only strike, he is entitled to play upon all

the others gradually lessening the circle until he can him-

self get into the hole, when he stands out, The others

then go on repeating the play, the one nearest the hole

beginning, until only one is left, who is the loser, and has

to hop on one leg from one hole to the other. The num-

ber of times he has to hop for each defeat is determined,

by the first player placing a batta at one hole and shooting

at it-from the other, andi® he, succeeds) in? hitting ie

exacts seven runs, should the second player also succeed

in hitting a Batta in the same manner, he is entitled to

fourteen runs, and so on, increasing by as many sevens aS

there are winners.

Iva Batu (958Q) or Line “ Batiw. This is played

very much in the same manner as the Kundubatiu, the

difference being that, instead of holes, a circle of about

six inches is drawn on the ground, with aline through the

THE SPORTS AND GAMES OF THE SINGHALESE. oo

centre, From a boundary or offing thirty feet away, the

' players shoot for innings, the nearest the centre of the

a circle taking precedence, and the others following in the

order of proximity. The batta of the last is placed up- -

mentein =the centre of the, circle, and the. first: player

- shoots at it from the outside of the circle, and then at

the nearest on the ground, and so on until he can come back

into the circle, after having scattered the other players far

apart. lithe succeed in this ‘he retires the winner. The

other players continue the game in the order of their innings,

urftil one is left last, who, as the loser, has to pay the same

forfeit as in the previous game, —

Among the games recently taken to by the Singhale:

and generally played in the towns, may be mention

Hop Scotch,* Prisoner’s base, and marbles which are all

played on the same rules as the English games

Dis

CAG

Among the games of skill or rather Seidduae eames,

though the Singhalese may have in ancient times had a

knowledge of Chess, they have not even a popular name

for it now, it being known to the leafned only by i's San-

"scrit name of Chaturange. Games, however, much or the

same principle as draughts are not uncommon, and while

' the Hatdioiyan or-‘‘ Seven Leopards” may be taken as the

“simplest, the Ketw Ellime or ‘Taking. of the Castles”

pinay ‘be considered the most eloborate. The former is

played with seven pieces representing the leopards, and

one representing the tiger. “The moves are made in a tri-

% a diagram with one perpendicular line in the middle

a" WE, Jas. d’ Alwis tells me that he has seen this or a game very

ad , like it, described in an ancient Pali Buddhistical work. It is

eas

now known among Singhalese boys by the names of Masop and Tatto

pi indifferently, but both these terms would seem to be of Tamil origin.

54. THE SPORTS AND GAMES OF THE SINGHALESE.

and two cross lines at right angles to it. | The player or @

the tiger lays down his piece first, and as the apex of the a

triangle is the most advantageous, chooses that. The |

other player then lays down a piece when the tiger makes ~

a move. Until all the seven pieces are laid, there is very @

little chance, if skilfully played, of taking a piece or check- —

ing the tiger. When all the pieces are laid, the moves go |

on with greater deliberation until either the tiger is check-

ed, or the greater number of leopards being taken, all hopes

of checking the former is lost; when the game ends.

The ‘‘ Taking of the Castles” is played exactly the

same as draughts, each player taking one diagonal half of

the board, which is a square with a reversed triangle in the

middle of each side, and forty-nine intersections? in all.

The counters are of different colors, generally coffee beans

and Indian corn seeds. Hach player lays down histwenty- |

Tour pieces, covering all the points and intersections with the

exception of the middle one. The first move made into

this point isa sacrifice, for the piece is immediately taken _

by his opponent, and sothe game proceeds until one party

is entirely checked or has all his pieces taken.

Niranchy§ which is the same as ‘‘ Nine men’s morrice”’,

is a very common game, played by both young and old, in

the intervals of business. The game is won when a player —

succeeds in laying down three pieces in a line, while the |

object of the opponent is to prevent this by giving check. |

Should the game not have been decided by the time one of |

the players has laid down his twelve men, the game pro- |7

ceeds by moves. |

+ See Diagram A. § See Diagram C,

t See Diagram B,

a ar.

Yotiee ce ag

A =

y Re

a ‘ef

és

= eae)

aay eels

ool \ tee

Ve bed

Lie

{

;

{

‘

THE SPORTS AND GAMES OF THE SINGHALESE. 35

A very favorite game among the women, played with

cowries, is called Panchy, and from the Tamil terms em-

ployed would seem to have been introduced from the Ma-

labar Coast. Any number may play, but they must divide

equally into two sides. The right to begin is decided by

one taking up the cowries, which are six in number, and

calling out odd or even when the cowries are thrown down,

and if an even number turns up the evens have it, and if

odd then the odds, The progress of the game is marked by

counters called ‘‘ dogs,’’ three on each side, on a diagram.*

The first player takes up the cowries and shaking them in

the hand throws them down. Should all six turn up on

their backs which is called ‘‘ Panchy by six’, or five;

** Panchy by five,” or one, called the ‘“ ace,’ the player

has won his innings and is in the game, and has the right

to move and score. If the throw was what for convenience

we would call a sixer, the player places one counter in the

third house counting from his side of the bottom horizontal

row. A player throwing a sixer, fiver, or ace repeats the

throw until three, four or two ora blank turns up. A blank

is when all the six cowries fall on their face and counts

| nothing. After the first sixer, fiver, or ace, has been made

the twos, threes, and fours count. The players on each

side play alternately, So long as the play is on the first

horizontal bar of the diagram, no taking of an opponent is

allowed, nor coulda piece at the corner houses or last

house be taken, When one player throws the same number

aS that of a house already occupied, the latter is taken. A

‘piece once taken can only re-enter the board at the first

* See Diagram D,

36 THE SPORTS AND GAMES OF THE SINGHALESE. |

house. The game is won by the party whose pieces by —

regular progression, go out of the board at the last house. ~

The loosers are bound to give the winners a treat called |

merende. The cowries used in the game are usually load- —

same danger as the ninth hole in whist, and can only go

out by the throw of an ace, or fiver, or sixer, and not un- —

frequently the player who has got thus far, is outstripped

by the other who may have recommenced from the first.

Another favorite game with women, especially young

girls is called Petikittan.. It is played with Cashew nuts,

_or more commonly small stones or pebbles, six or seven to

each player being the usual number. Any aumber of

players can join in the game. ach player shakes up his

pebbles in the hollow of his right hand, and throws, them

up, gently trying to keep. them as much together as possi.

ble, and are caught as they descend on the back of the ~

hand, ‘The player who so catches all, or most of the stones

has the right to begin, the others following in order ac-

cording to the number they have caught. Should two

have the same number, the tie is decided by throwing

again. After the order of the player has been thus set:

tled, the first player gathers up all the stones and throws: j

them up as before, catching as many as she~can on the ~

back of her hand, but if it happen to be too many she

may drop some of them. She next throws these up again

and if she catch them all, she takes one stone towards

game. ‘The next thing is to throw up one stone, pick up

one or more on the ground, and catch the stone thrown up

as it comes down. If in this manner she succeeds in ~

clearing the ground she counts another stone towards

‘fHE SPORTS AND GAMES OF THE SINGHALESE, 37

game, and begins a-fresh. If when she throws up the

stones and catches them on the back of her hand, it

be only one, any player may strike it off, and she is out.

Should she also in picking up the stones on the ground,

touch a stone and fail to pick it up, or leave only one

stone the last on the ground, or fail to catch the stone

thrown up, she is out. When the play is over, the winners

are entitled to give the losers as many raps as there were

stones won.

Ivvrata Kelya. This game is usually played with

* Tekels” (pieces of the mid-rib of the cocoanut leaf about

4 inches long) of which each player has from six to twelve,

asagreed upon. The order of play is decided as in the

previous game, each player tossing up her “ Iekels,” in a

bundle and catching them on the back of her hand. This

settled, the player that has the right to begin, gathers up all

the “ Iekels,’’ and shaking them in her hand drops them

on the ground in a heap, and with a hook also of ‘* Iekel,”’ of

which each player is provided with one, proceeds to remove

them Iekel by Iekel at a time, taking care not to disturb

or shake those in the heap, which if she does she is out, and

the play passes to the next in order. The players who at

the end of the game have taken more ** Jekels” than what

they brought to the game, are winners by so many, and

claim the agreed-upon penalty, A game very much like

this called ‘Spelicans” is described in ‘* Every Boy’s

Book” published by Routledge & Sons.

Madinchy or Oticy Irattey, ** Odd or Even”;. this is

_ also a common and favorite game among women during the

Cashew season. A number of women sit in a circle on the

ground each with a heap of cashew nuts beside her. One

38 HE SPORTS AND GAMES OF THE SINGHALESE.

player takes up a number of cashews in her hand and hold-

ing them close covered cries Oltey Ivattey. If the next player

euesses cdd or even right, she wins the cashew nuts held in

the other’s hand, if wrong she loses and has to pay that

number te the winner, and the play preceeds in regular

order. Sometimes a whole heap of cashew nuts is staked,

the player who guesses right taking all, or paying back

a Similar number if she guesses wrong.

Among the games of chance, cards and dice occupy —

but too lamentably a conspicuous place. Allthe games

played with cards are of European origin, the commonest

being “‘ Thirty one’ played on nearly the same rules as

“‘Vingt-un’’. Another very common gameis called “ Ajuda”

(Portuguese for helf,) and was probably borrowed from them,

or perhaps introduced and popularised by the Dutch, judg-

ing fromthe namies of the cards themselves. ‘The ace is

called Asya (aas) the king Heera (heer). The Queen, Porowe

(Vrouw) and the Jack, Booruwa, (Boor) all Dutch terms. —

Four, five, or six can play. Each player has eight cards

dealt him and if the person entitled to begin is flush, and

can count upon making five or more tricks by himself, he

calls out Solo, meaning that he elects to dispense with Juda

and play alone. He names trumps. The other players in

such a case are opposed to him and make common cause

among themselves. Should he have any doubts of success,

he calls out for ‘‘ Juda” which any player having two or

more aces, or one ace and two kings supported by smaller

cards of the same suit, is bound to give. Between the two

they are expected to make five tricks. The player next

to the right of the dealer leads and is entitled to call out

Solo or Juda first, the other players taking precedence —

“—

oe ee ee

pic:

_ Sea

“Rae

sone

Lo ee

is é

ep tet tame pentane i

Spgrey

lars

THE SPORTS AND GAMES OF THE SINGHALESE. 39

according to deal. The deal is from right to left. Should

the first player call out Solo and another player also have

6° Solo” consisting of a sequence of Spades, that player has

the preference. Shoulda player playing Solo, or two play-

ers by Juda, make only four tricks, it is called a Rapoor ;

should they make only three it is calleda Kudjito. in

Rapoor the stakes are not paid immediately, but go to the

winners of the next hand;in kudjito, they are paid at

once. ‘The first rafoor pays seven, and should the same

player be vapoor in the succeeding hand which is called a

** double rapoor’” he pays fourteen, should he hecome

yapeor a third time he pays twenty-one and the game ends ;

should he become kudjito over one vapoor he pays fourteen,

over two, twenty-one when also the game ends. <A hudjito

_ pays only seven. If it be a rapoor or kudjito by juda, the

person giving juda pays only one, if he had made two

tricks, if not he pays three, and the other four.

Of toys the Singhalese have hardly any.

The Top,.-at least the Peg Top, they owe to their

European masters, though the name Bambere, a purely

Singhalese word, would seem to point to a native origin.

The Humming top calledthe andana (crying) bambere is

made of the wood-apple emptied of its core through a hole

in the side, Two holes opposite each other at top and

bottem are next made and a peg five or six inches longis

fastened through them, the upper end of the peg protrud-

ing an inch or so out to which any little ornament may be

attached. A string is next wound round the peg from

bottom to top, and the end passed through a small hole in

a piece of wood called the “ key.” The Top is spun by

holding this ‘‘ key” firmly against the peg, and steadily

pulling the string out.

AG THE SPORTS AND GAMES OF THE SINGHALESE.

The Natchambewe or Pea-shooter may be said to be

a very ancient Singhalese toy, and considering the uni-

versality of the Bamboo throughout the Island, it could x

hardly fail to suggest the idea of the pea-shooter, A

straight joint of bamboo and clay pellets complete the —

anaratus.

The Epele tuwakkowe or Pop-gun also no doubt sug:

gested hy the bamboo, is alsoa very ancient and very com-

mon toy. A joint of bamboo eight or ten inches Jong, has

a rammer, shorter by the size of one pellet, with a handle

fixed to it. The pellet used is the fruit of the epela or kivilla

tree or the flower of the Jamboo, The pellets should fit

the bore tight, to make.a loud pop.

Roongpeita, answering in every respect to the English

* Cut water,” 1s made out of the flat circular piece of cocoa-

nut shell with its edge notched like a saw, and two small

holes about an inch part in the middle. Astring is passed

through these holes and the two ends tied together, and ta

Set in motion, the double string hasto be alternately pulled —

and slackened.

The Bow of which several varieties are known to the

Singhalese though it once held a high place in the Royal

armoury, now only takes rank with the toys. The Gal-

donne, from which small pebbles or pellets of dried clay

are shot is the favourite, It is made of some tough elastic

wood and has a double string passing over two small cross

pieces let into the ends. At the middle of the strings there

is a small lacing ofcords im which the pebbleor pellet

is placed. The bow is held in the left hand, and the string —

with the pellet pulled back with the right with a slight side

twist to prevent the pellet when shot, catching the bow or

TH SPORTS AND GAMES OF THE SINGHALESE. AY

other hand of the shooter, which not uncommonly happens.

with the inexperienced. |

The Yaturu dunne or Cross-bow is another variety. The

bow is passed through a stock which has a trigger attach-

ed to it, a groove is made along the middle to wards the

t op, for the arrow, or pellet that may be used. The bow

after being bent, the string is caught in the trigger, and

the arrow laid on the groove against the string is dis-

charged by pulling the trigger. Instead of the groove along

the stock, a bamboo with two slits on each side for the

-string.is used. In this case the bamboo acts like a gun

barrel and greater accuracy of aim obtained.

The Watwra wedille or Water gun is a squirt made of

a straight bamboo joint with one or more small holes at

the closed end, a ramrod with some tow or cloth tightly

wrapped round at one end acting like the piston of a pump.

** Borupaa,” ‘** False-feet” or Stilts, though no doubt

known to the Singhalese from very ancieat times, are not

in common use, except on occasions of religious proces-

sions, when numbers of boysand even grown up men can

be seen performing wonderful feats of locomotion on them.

“The Sling”, Galpatya, though sometimes used does

not appear to have been known to the Singhalese in_ its

character of a weapon. Perhaps the first time they gained

an idea of the Sling was when reading the account of the

encounter between David and Goliah, a supposition not a

little strengthened by the name “ Galpatya,” a modern

eompound word into which the word “‘ Sling” has been

rendered by the Translators of the Bible.

__Note.---Almost ‘all the games described in this paper are common

Eso the Southern Province,

42 ON MIRACLES.

On Miracles, by J. D’ALWIs, M. R. A. S.

The truth or error of a novel religious system isa |

matter of such perplexing uncertainty, that the inquiring

mind is never inclined to accept new doctrines without a

sign of ‘ miraculous power’ on the part of the propounder.

‘“‘Hixcept ye see signs and wonders, ye will not believe,”

said a great Teacher. Indeed there never was a teacher

of a newreligion, from whom his hearers did not claim the

performance of Miracles as an evidence of truth. Moses |

complained that the children of Israel did not believe him,

nor hearken unto his voice, until he gave them a ‘sign’ ||

by the performance of miracles. So when Gotama pro- |

claimed his supremacy by exclaiming settho h’amasmi

lokassa ‘I am the greatest in the world’—it is probable

that the people sought for a ‘sign,’ especially as the "|

Tirthakas, who arose in opposition, exhibited powers

which seemed supernatural. Indeed it is stated that —

Kevatta suggested to Gotama the necessity of working

miracles to satisfy the incredulous.* The Kevatta Sutta,

which we give at length in the Appendix, leads us to the |

belief that the supremacy which he claimed was regarded |

by Gotama solely in a moral and intellectual point of view. |

* It is indeed recorded that Gotamia, anticipating this desire on |

the part of the people, explained, in his first discourse, that his supre- |

macy consisted in his achievement of supernatural knowledge. See |

explanation inthe Vinaya, quoted in the Descriptive Catalogue, vol. Hy |

p. 6, /

ON MIRACLES. 43

More of this hereafter. In the meantime, it may be in-

quired if Gotama possessed the power of working miracles?

The possession of such a power is, as we shall explain

opposed tothe first principles of Buddhism. ‘‘ None of the

miracles with which the old histories are filled,’ says

Renan, ‘“‘ took place under scientific conditions. Obser-

vation, which has never once been falsified, teaches us

that miracles never happen but in times and countries in

which they are believed, and before persons disposed to

believe them. No miracle ever occurred in the presence

of men capable of testing its miraculous character. Nei-

ther common people nor men of the world are able to do

this. It requires great precautions and long habits of

scientific research. In our days, have we not seen almost

all respectable people dupes of the grossest frauds, or of

_ puerile illusions ? Marvellous facts, attested by the whole

population of small towns, have, thanks to a_ severer

scrutiny, been exploded.* If it is proved that no con-

temporary miracle will bear inquiry, is it not probable

that the miracles of the past, which have all been per-

formed in popular gatherings, would equally present their

share of illusion, if it were possible to criticise them in

detail? It is not, then, in the name of this or that philoso-

phy, but in the name of universal experience, that we

banish miracles from history. We do not say, ‘ Miracles

are impossible.’ We say ‘up to this time a miracle has

never been proved.”’

Miracles, like many other matters of History and

Physiology, may not admit of positive proof,and may there<

% «See the Gazette des Tribunaux, roth September and 11th

November, 1851, 28th-May, 1857”—Renan’s Life of Fesus, p. 29,

44 ON MIRACLES.

fore be generally open to doubt ; but there is one matter “|

which the instincts of our nature prompt us, even without |

proof, to accept as-a positive fact—and that is, the exis- q

tence of an absolute almighty Creator of the universe; |

and this belief unquestionably enables us to say positively, 4

that Miracles are possible with a Being possessed of al- at

mighty power. Miracles, therefore, presuppose the exis- :

tence of an Almighty Being, or an omnipotent power. _

They are either His act, or that of His accredited agent. ;

Now, it is quite clear that Buddhism acknowledges no ‘

such Being, nor the possession in any human being of a

miraculous power, in the sense of an ability to work a

supernatural act, proceeding from the mere order or wish

of the performer, and affecting any other being, If Bud- —

dha and his sanctified disciples had, as it is stated, pos-

sessed iddhi, they could have, in seasons of famine, con- |

verted stones into rice ; and they would have had no occa- 7 |

sion to go a begging. But we are expressly told, that,

although he fasted for forty days during his profound medi-

tation, Gotama required, at the expiration of that period,

to satisfy the cravings of hunger; and the requisite food —

was not crated by him, but was given to him by some |

itinerant merchants. So likewise Buddha had no power |

to perform any other aet by which he could miraculously —

contribute to his own personal comfort. Where, how- |

ever, such an act was indispensable, the intervention of

the gods is expressly stated.

We certainly read of wonderful acts slightly affecting

_other people than the party performing them, (vide post) ;

but they are such as come within the category of cases |

expressly stated by Gotama in the Kevatta Sutta, in |

ON MIRACLES. 45

which he describes the different kinds of iddhipatihariya.

Yhey are not such as may be pronounced to be altogether

impossible, nor such as may not be explained by the pres-

ence of other causes than an inherent power of iddhi in

the worker. But this at least is certain, that the possess-

-ion of such a power cannot be reconciled with the doc-

trine of Buddhism, which declares a man to be a free

‘agent, uncontrolled by any power except that of his own

kamma. According to this doctrine, we find Gotama quite

incapable of doing aught directly, and of his own power,

for the temporal or spiritual benefit of his fellow beings,

It is indeed expressly admitted, that Buddha could not

save a being who was destined to hell. He could not

vivify the body from which the spark of life had fled.*

We read of no miraculeus healing of the sick. In the

age of Gotama, the people, including his disciples, suffered

more from sickness than from other causes. The Vinaya

exhibits the precautions taken by the priests in cases

of sickness, and the attentions paid to the sick priests

‘even by the Sovereign. The four paccaya included ‘ medi-

cines. Nearly every rule was relaxed in favor of the

tec mt there is not a single instance on, “record

where disease was healed by Gctama by any superhuman

power, True it is that he visited the sick, c. g. Kassapa,

who was greviously ill in his cave. But he did not bid

him, “‘ Rise, take up thy bowl, and walk.” The patient was

momienled by touching “the hem of his earment.” He

preached to him on the Sattabhojjanga ;—Contemplation,

Ascertainment of the truth, Perseverance, Contentment,

* See Attanagaluvansa, p. clxiv,

AG ON MIRACLES.

Placidity, Tranquility, and Equanimity. He soothed his

mind. He reduced the pain of the body by promoting,

what modern medical treatment does not ignore, cheerful-

ness in the mind.

So, when priests suffered from the attacks of beings

denominated Yakkhas, he did not drive them away. They

were not expelled by his command, But he averted the

danger by ordinary, legitimate, human means. He appeal-

ed to their own chief, Vesavanna. ‘The latter, loyal to

Gotama, and willing to redress the grievance, required a

‘sign’ to distinguish the true from the false ascetics of the

age. That signi was furnished by the recital of the

Attanatiya Sutta; and Gotama saved the afflicted, not by

any iddhi, but by procuring an edict of the Yakkha-king,

prohibiting the evil, and imposing a penalty for a breach

of the command.*

Again, when the Vijjians suffered from drought, pesti-

lence and famine, and the crimes consequent thereon,

the alleviation of the general misery was not, as is sup-

posed, owing to the recital of the Paritta, or Exorcism

or the sprinkling of holy water by A’nanda; but the same

may be traced to natural causes. Tor, even whilst Gotama

was traversing eight miles to reach the afflicted city, the

unfavorable weather had already commenced to change.

Rain fell in abundance, purifying and cooling the atmos-

phere, clearing the country and removing the maladies

which in times like the one under notice were usually

attributed to demoniac influences. By-and-by, too, when

the sage had repaired to Vesali, and the people had

* See Attanagaluvansa, p. cxlvii,

ON MIRACLES. 4}

congregated together from different parts, their presence

alone was a sufficient check to the evil-disposed ; and we

may easily believe that the latter either abandoned their

mal-practices, or ‘tled away’ from a place where they

could not any longer carry on their thievish propensities

with impunity ; and that the precautions, in a sanitary

point of view, which the people were enabled to take,

restored peace and health to their households.

Buddha, mioreover, could not delegate his miraculous

power. ‘Every one for himself’, seems to have been his

motto. ‘Self isthe lord of self; who else could be the

lord ? ’—was his undoubted doctrine.* Neither he nor

any of his eminent disciples could ever set aside natural

laws, so as thereby to affect another party. If, torinstance,

we readof Buddha, as of Abarus the Hyperborean, that he

traversed on foot a large sheet of water,} we know for cer=

tainty that he could not by his command cause others to

do the same. Though, like the Magicians of Egypt,

Pilindavaccha was able to convert one substance into

another, he could not cause ‘the little girl” to do what he

did,—‘ change a coil of rushes into a gold ornament.’ A

careful examination of all the wondrous deeds recorded in |

the Tepitaka,—indeed the very exemplification of them

in the Kevatta Sutta given below, clearly proves

them to have been myths, dumb-shows, or optical delu-

sions,

Buddha it seems, clearly saw the impropriety of such

frauds ; and though it would not enter into the plan of a

* Dhammapada.

+ Maha Vagga in the Vinaya Pitaka.

48 ‘ ON MIRACLES.

propagator of a new Religion expressly to disclaim the —

possession of iddhi; yet we have Gotama’s own authority,. —

as to two facts—ILst, that ‘ all miraculous acts which he

could work might be easily performediby Vijja or Magic

and 2nd, that he abhorred, refrained from, and censured —

the working of Miracles ;’ vide Kevatta Sutta. in the Ap- —

pendix. So much did he set his face against it, that he

not only considered the mere fraudulent representation of —

the possession of iddhi, or a super-human miraculous

power, to amount to an offence as grave as murder, but

he visited the offender with the same punishment that he

assigned to that offence, and expelled him for ever from —

_the priesthood,*

It may also be readily believed that the peculiarly |

practical mind of Gotama did not fail to perceive that, in

the state of society in which he lived, and which was by

no means inferior in the possession of Arts and Sciences,

to that in which the Magicians of Egypt practised

wonders,—the working of ‘ miracles’ led to no practical

benefit. When therefore Moggallana, with an overweeti-

ing confidence in his own prodigious capacity for working —

miracles, wishing to relieve the distress of his fellow-pupils.

consequent upon a terrible famine,—asked his Master's

permission—not to convert stones into food, but to over-—

turn the upper stratum of this globe so as to get at whatis

called its honied-substratum, the answer was simply—

‘Don’t.’ The fact, too, involved in the question by

FASEe Viner Pitaka, lib. 1. |

+ Arrian in his History of Alexander’s Expedition, speaking of

the Indians, says: ‘ They [Brahmans?] are the only dzviuers

throughout all India ; neither are any suffered to practise the art of

divination except themselves, vol. 11. p. 204,

ON MIRACLES. yet

Gotama—‘ what would in that case become of the denizens

of the earth’?—divests the proposed work of all miraculous

power: and though it is stated that Moggallana replied,

‘ that he would collect all the inhabitants of the earth into

one of his hands, whilst with the other he would turn the

earth over,’ Gotama knew perfectly well, that he had no

such power. For, if he had, Gotama’s common-sense, of

which his doctrines show he was not deficient, must have

not only shewn that Sariputta might have produced rice

out of stones, but that the same mighty power, which

could be exerted to turn the earth over, would enable him

to save living beings from distress. And that such was

Gotama’s opinion is pretty clearly implied in the reply

with which this part of the dialogue concludes, and

which the narrator in his innocence records—‘ Don’t; it

will cause much distress to the people.’ It is then reason-

able to believe that Gotama not only abstained himself

from working miracles, and forbade others to do so; but

did not believe in any supernatural power.

Buddhists may, however, refer us toan Admonition in

the Vinaya,* or to the beginning of the Kevatta Sutta,

and tell us that the prohibition was confined to ex-

hibitions ‘ before the laity clad in white.’ The concluding

words of the Sutta, viz., ‘ J abhor, refrain from, and cen-

sure miracles’—are certainly not open to such a construc-

tion. The words which we have quoted are not controlled

by the words quoted against us. The absence here of the

repetitions generally used in the Bauddha discourses,

_ faises a suspicion in our minds, and renders it necessary

* We are obliged to omit the notes, and quotations for want of |

the necessary type.

50 ON MIRACLES.

to examine the genuineness of the qualifying words which

only occur in the beginning of the Sutta. Miracles are

intended, 2s Kevatta himself says, to infuse feelings of

greater attachment into the minds of the people generally

—not of the converted, but of the non-converted to Bud-

dhism. House-holders too must have formed, and they

did form, a far numerous body than Ascetics; and the

Dhama was not, like the Vedas, designed for a privileged

class. It was the property of all without distinction. The

most earnest desire of its teacher was to add the greatest

number to his ranks.

As regards the prohibition to ‘the laity clad in

white’-—we gather from the very Vinaya, that ‘ Ail the

Ascetics of the age, were not clad in raiment other than

white.’ Svetambaras formed a very numerous class who

wore white. ‘The Digambaras wore neither white not colour-

ed clothes. We have no information as regards the dress

of the lire-worshippers of U’ruvelaya ; and, although they

were all of that faith, it does by no means follow that they

were Ascetics, or—except their chief, whom we may admit to

be their priest—that they were not in the strict sense of the

word ‘ laics’ or ‘ house-holders.’

- Again, kings, princes, and nobles Wore rich garments

of various colours, Why should miracles be worked to ac-

celerate the conversion of such alone, to the exclusion of

the ‘laity clad in white’? But it may be said that Buddha

meant that miracles should be confined to all Ascetucs, to

the exclusion of the laity. Of course there is some warrant

for this in the Pingola Bharadvaja Sutta, where the pro-

hibition against the performance of miracles is confined to

the laity. Here too the words ‘dressed in white’ do not

ON MIRACLES. AL

eccur. We have already seen the unreasonableness of the

limitation to the yellow-robed priests, and the impropriety

of the laity being excluded from the influence of miracles,

It is indeed unreasonable to believe that Gotama could

have ever intended to confine his miracles to the priest-

hood, who were dressed in yellow, or to any other denomi-

“mation of Ascetics. We think we may reject the words

‘clad in white’ as an addition of the compilers: and still

we have the word ‘ laity’ which also occurs in the Vinaya

Lib ; iii.

It has been suggested to us that the intention of

Gotama to restrict the prohibition to the working of

miracles before the laity, was shewn with sufficient clear-

ness in the Pingola Bhéradvaja Sutta—that intention being

‘to prevent his disciples from acquiring pacaya, or the

necessaries of life by the exhibition of miracles.” That in-

tention, it will be observed, is not expressly stated. It muy

eertainly be gathered from the legend; but against the

acceptance of such an intention there are several reasons.

In the first place the express reason given in the Kevatta

Sutta against Eddhi patihariya generally, is, that miracles

which could be worked—and they are enumerated—were of

a kind similar to wonderful acts of a Chirmachargist, and

that therefore the populace might ascribe them to magic.

This reason appears to enter into the very essence of the

question, and is inconsistent with the belief that the pro-

hibition had for its object the prevention of abuse of power.

It establishes the absolute impropriety of the act. It admits

ofro exception. Andif an exception were possible, the alle-

ged exception in favour of the laity is cut from under the

ground of the party alleging it; for it is quite clear that the

52 ON MIRACLES.

reason expressly assigned leaves no loop-hoie for escape ;

and to say, that although miracles might be ascribed to

magic by the masses who are utterly devoid of scientific at-

tainments, and therefore very credulous—may neverthless.

be exhibited to Ascetics—a class, who, whatever might have

been their sectarian learning, were generally better inform-

ed, more intelligent, and more competent than the common

rabble to form an opinion as to the similarity of iddhi patiha-

riya to the feats of the Magician. In the second place, there

was no occasion to fear any extortion by the exhibition of

miracles to the laity. By a rule already enacted by Gotama,

a priest could not ask for anything, Nor did Pingola Bhara-

dvaja ask for the bowl mentioned in the legend. It was a

free-will gift of the donor, who had been first satisfied of the

sanctity and the iddhi of the donee. The former witnessed

the miracle, and it is remarkable, did not ascribe it to

devilry or magic. He sincerely believed it to be iddhi ~

patihariya, and parted with his bowl in the spirit in which

he might have given it, had he been edified by a discourse

on Nibbana.

In the next place, ifthe exception was intended to

guard against extortion, how was the object to be attained

by limiting the exception to the laity? True enough that

Bhikkus were ‘beggars’ or ‘houseless mendicants,’ and

had nothing to give; but the same cannot be said of other

classes of ascetics—e. g. the Brahmans, the Tirthakas, the

Fir-eworshippers (supposing they came under the desig-

nation of Ascetics), and many others.

But it is expressly stated that Buddha performed

miracles, doubtless with a view to conversion. This from

a Teacher who ‘ abhorred, refrained from, and censured

ON MIRACLES. 5S

miracles’ is, to say the least, contradictory; and being

contradictory incredible : and eur incredulity is intensified

when on examination, we find that nearly all his miracles

were such—as Gotama himself thought, and’ Kevatta

acknowledged—as might be ascribed to magic. We think,

titerefore, that we may safely trace the word ‘ laity’ to

the compilers, and pronounce it to be an unauthorized ad-

dition to the Sutta, and to the Sikkha.

How then are we to account for the existence of records

eoncerning miracles by Gotama and his disciples‘*

We have no difficulty in pronouncing some of them

to be allegorical representations, like the battle with

Mara ; others exaggerations, like the taming of the Cobra

in the Fire-house, vide post; others inventions, like the

traversing over water ; others again magical delusions,

like the conversion oF one substance into-another: but

they are all Myths.

That some wonderful feats were performed by Gotama’s

disciples we need not hesitate to admit. Tor instance, we

do not disbelieve that Pilindavaccha, like his Master,

possessed the art of illuminating a place; and since the

legends shew that the illumination of Bimbiséra’s palace?

like that of a Chirmachurgist was of momentary duration?’

we need not hesitate to ascribe the work to magic, and pro-

nounce it to bea ‘ Myth.’ As myths, we need not necessarily

pronounce these miracles to be entirely ‘ conscious fiction,’

for, as remarked by Strauss} ‘the Myth, in its original form,

was not the conscious and intentional invention of an indivi-

* Mahinda is stated to have produced a mangoe at an unscason-

able period ; see Manavansa.

+ New Life of Jesus, p. 206.

54 ON MIRACLES.

dual, but a production of the common consciousness of a

people or religious circle, which an individual does indeed

first enunciate, but which meets with belief for the very

reason that such individual is but the orzan of this univer-

sal conviction.’ Wecan easily imagine how such a thing

was not only possible but probable. Take, for instance, the

group of miracles at U’ruvelaya, which we shall hereafter

notice more in detail. They are stated to have taken place

when Buddha was alone in the neighbourhood of 500 Vire—

worshippers. Itis not stated that any of his disciples.

were present ; nor does it appear that some of his miracles.

at least were witnessed by any accept one, viz,, U’ruvela

Kassapa. It is then probable that the record contains.

what the compilers had heard from others. Doubtless they

heard of the conversion of a thousand Jatilas. This of

itself was a wonderful result ; and the disciples probably

were anxious to learn, and did learn, how that result was.

brought about. ‘ Why,’ said their informants, ‘ Gotama

practised miracles, and conversions followed.’ If when

these miracles were related with the inexactitude of

persons who had no regard to strict truth, but every wish

to exalt the sancity and virtues of the new Teacher, the

listeners depicted the legends in high colours, with a desire

also ‘ to paint their master,’ who had just before died, and

whom death had raised in their estimation and affections,

we need not be surprised at legends such as the following,

which we shall now proceed to examine :—

During Gotama’s stay at U'’ruvela he found three

fraternities of Jatilas, or Fire-worshippers. One U/ruvela

Kassapa was at the head of 300; Nandi Kassapa was the

chief of 300; and Gaya Kassapa of 200. When Gotama

ON MIRACLES. 55

réquested of the first permission to stay one night in his

hcuse set apart for ‘ Fire-worship,’ U’ruvela told him that

there was a huge Cobra in it, and that he feared Gotama

was not safe there. Unmindful of the danger pointed out;

Buddha took his lodgings there, when the Naga emitted

a venomous blast, and Buddha returned it by sending forth

a volume of smoke and fire, which completely tamed the

animal. On the following morning Gotama put the reptile

into his bowl, and with triumph exhibited it to his friend.

This was ‘ Miracle No. 1; and it is similar to another per-

formed by Sagata,* which we shall here notice.

Once upon atime Gotama, accompanied by his disci-

ple Sagata went to Bhaddhavatika, where he was advised

by some husbandmen not to enter Ambatittha, because

there was a formidable Cobra in the Temple of a Jatila.

Regardless of the warning thus received, Sagata entered

the Fire-house of the Jatila, and tamed the Cobra very

nearly in the same manner indicated in Miracle No. 1.

When the fame of the priest, for working miracles spread

abroad, people flocked around him and gave him some

Kapatika. The wonder-working priest had not imbibed

many doses of this red liquor, before be became intoxi-

cated, and fell down at the gate of the city. Gotama

seized the opportunity to shew the utter prostration of

man’s power by intoxicating drinks, and to remark, that

‘the man, who fought with a formidable naga, could not

overcome, in that condition, a feeble and harmless water-

snake’ ; thus clearly shewing that the power of alchohol

proved superior to what is called his iddhi.

* Vinaya Pitaka, lib. 11. Cap. 1, Section 6.

co Py

ON MIRACLES.

Now, taking the legends to be substantially true, we

fail to perceive any miracle in the acts ascribed either to

the Master or his disciples. It is only invested with such

a character by the grandiloquent language used in the re-

lation of a simple act, characteristic of Hastern writers.

It was indeed very likely that the Cobra on seeing the

new-comer hissed ; and this induced the idea of a ‘ vene-

mous blast.’ We know that ‘ fire’ and ‘smoke’ are some of

the agents employed in the east to catch Cobras; and

there is no wonder, that being in ‘ the Fire-house’ of the

Jatila, Gotama soon kindled a heavy fire, and raised a

volume of smoke---all which so much oppressed the poor

creature that he tamely submitted to the ‘ dominion’ of

man. It will thus be seen that if we exclude the haze of

miracle and mystery with which a simple story is surround-

ed by the narrator, viz., that the volume of fre and smoke

issued spontaneously without material agency, and at the

will of Gotama,---we have no reason to regard this as a

miracle. Nor did U'ruvela Kassapa, it is stated, so re-

gard it ; and we shail proceed with.

Miracle No. 2. In the course of the day following his

stay at the Fire-house, Gotama took his seat in a brush-

wood ; and four guardian gods of the world ministered

to him at night, and exhibited a most resplendent illumi-

nation.

Miracle No. 3. Onthe third day Indra excelled the

guardian gods in illuminating the same brushwood.

Miracle No. 4. Sahampati Maha Brahma, on the

fourth day exhibited a light more resplendent, than any

that had been previously witnessed by the Jatila chief.

ON MIRACLES. 57

These, it will be observed, are strictly no miracles.

They were not the work of Buddha. Though they are

referred to the agency of the popular Indian gods* of the

time ; yet if we divest the agents of their alleged divine

character, there is nothing wonderful in an illumination,

which, perhaps, did not exceed the light produced by a

single gas light of the present day.

Miracle No.4. On the fifth day the Jatila Chief

reflected that, Gotama being such a wonderful person, it

would never do to have him at the grand Sacrifice, which

was to take place on the following day; since the people,

who would then assemble, might treat him with greater

veneration than they did himself. Gotama, perceiving

what passed in the Jatila Chief’s mind left U'’ruvela, and

spent the sixth day in the Himaleya. When he returned on

the seyenth day Kassapa inquired from his friend where he

had been, adding that he had kept some cakes for him.

Gotama replied that divining his thoughts he had left the

place.

Again we see nothing in this story, which leads us to

doubt its historical accuracy, if we except the mode in

which it is related. A shrewd observer like Gotama,

without any power of divination, might have seen a hund-

red circumstances whence to suspect the uneasinesss

which the Jatila Chief felt at his presence, That he there-.

fore left the place not to interrupt the arrangements of the

next day’s ceremony is indeed very probable; and it is still

more probable that he stated the fact afterwards when

questioned—a fact which consisted of asimple suspicion,

_ * The popular gods of India---the objects of a constant and exclu-

sive worship of the times,

58 ON MIRACLES.

but which the Narrator would have us know, was positive

knowledge on the part of Gotama by the power of divina-

tion. * ‘

Miracle No. 5. In process of time, whilst dwelling in

this brushwood, Getama found a pansakula robe; and he

reflected where he could wash it. Instantly the gods

-ereated a pond. When he had descended into it and

washed the robe, he found it difficult to get out; and the

gods instantly brought within his reach an arm o7 a neigh-

bouring Kumbuk tree. When, again, he was at a loss

chow te procure a stone on which he might wash his robe,

he was miraculously provided with one, as well asa large

-stone-slab for spreading the cloth. The Jatila, on seeing

these four objects in places where they had not previously

existed, was filled with wonder, and asked his friend te

-breakfast.

If one thing is here more remarkable than another

it is that all these four objects were created,—not by

Buddha who had no creative power, but by the gods.

But putting all supernatural agency out of the question,

the facts stated admit of an easy interpretation; and we

‘may trace the presence of these four objects to human

agency, We learn from the subsequent pari of the nar-

rative (see Miracle No. 13 infra) that the place which

Gotama occupied was soen after cevered by a flood. That

‘circumstance taken in connection with the presence of

Kumbuk trees, which generally grow near rivulets and

water-courses{, renders it very prebabie that the brushwood

See nn

* Arrian tells us that ‘ Divination’ was an art known to the

Indians,

T See Forbes’ Eleven Years in Ceylon vol. ii, p, 186.

ON MIRACLES, — 59

Was at no great distance from’ a running stream. These

tivulets in the East-are ever covered with stones of different -

kinds. The digging of'a small well in such a place, in the

vicinity of water,could not bea formidable task for a couple »

of men,-nor a matter which would occupy more time than.

a few hours during night. The bending down of a branch

of a Kumbuk, so that it might extend over the pond was not

an impossibility. The removal of a stone, and a slab. from

the river into the-brushwood was. certainly within the

power of human agency. Though the presence of Gota--

ma’s disciples-at-this spot is not mentioned, yet on the

other hand it is not expressly denied. Why not then at--

tribute the digging of a pit, which receives. at the hands

ef the Narrator the proportions of a pond,—the rcHing.

ef a couple of stones, and the bending or twisting down of

a branch of a neighbouring tree to the agency-of those who.

_ were anxious to exhibit some ‘signs’ of iddhi patihariya

to the Jatila Chief? Of. course: the: presence. of. these

four objects was observed, and they surprised the Wire-wor-

shipper; but though surprised, it is very remarkable that

te himself did not. regard them’ in the light of Muvacles ;:

for, it is expressly stated in the legend that on this occa- ,

sion as well as on the performance of each-alleged Miracle

of this group, the Fire-worshipper reflected that ‘though

his friend was a very distinguished person, yet he did not.

surpass himself in- sanctity.’

Miracle No. 6. We left the Legend at. the mention

of an invitation to. Buddha for breakfast, which Gotama

accepted, and desired the Jatila Chief to precede him.

When he had accordingly left the spot Gotama went

through the air to- “that tree from which Jambudipa ‘is

60 ON MIRACLES.

named’; and, taking some of its fruit, went to the residence

of his kind friend before he himself arrived in it. When,

however, the Jatila Chief saw Gotama whom he had just

before left behind, he was not a little amazed, and inquired,

how that came to pass. Gotamia it is said explained, and

gave his host some Rose-apple, which he refused to accept.

Going through the airis a Miracle, the performance

of which is stated by Gotama himself to be possible. But

it is not alittle remarkable that he admits that the same

feat may be worked by Magic, and that the gods had to

provide him who could rise in the air with a Kumbuk

branch to help his ascent from the well. We therefore

refrain from any further comments beyond stating that if

Gotama intended an ocular deception, which we, for rea-

sons which will be explained, are rather disposed to disbe-

lieve, he might have overtaken the Jatila Chief by a nearer

passage, andreached his house before him,

Miracies?Nos. 7, 8, 9, and to, are similar to the last ;

and have reference to the fetching of different fruits and

flowers from very distant places, one of which was the

heaven called Tivatinsa. On all these occasions Kassapa

was overawed by the might and wondrous power of his

puest ; but reflected, as before, that Gotama was not

superior to himself. |

When such is an acknowledged fact, we may easily

conclude, that whatever mystery and miracle there may

seem to be inthe representation of these acts by the Nar-

rator by importing ‘ heavens’ into an otherwise plain story,

and however much the acts might have been declared as

‘clever,’ yet there was nothing in them so miraculous as

to-shake the pre-existing faith of the beholder, for whom

ON MIRACLES. 61

they were expressly intended,—or to elevate his reverence

for, orto fall down and worship, the worker of Miracles,

Miracle No. 11, Forthe celebration of another Festival

the Fire-worshippers of U’ruvela attempted to get some fuel

ready, and with this object they set about making fagects.

But, so long as Gotama willed it the logs did not yield to

the axe, neither did they take fire; nor was the fire

extinguishable,

Miracle No. 12. It is nextrecorded that Gotama mira-

culously produced five hundred mandamukhi, or fire-urns,’

which he presented to the 500 Jatilas. Both these miracles

are also recorded in the following verses, which are stated

to be the interpolaticn of a subsequent date.

Bhagavato adhittdne na apancakatth satani na

paliyinsu na ujjalinsu ujalinsu navijjayinsu pafica

manda mukhi satani abhinimmini. ‘By the mighty opera-

tion of Buddha [was it that] the 500 pieces of firewood

were not split,;and tookno fire: [and it was by the same

power that] they did take fire, were not extinguished,

and were [afterwards] extinguished ; and that he created

500 urns for fuel’—Mahdvagga, Vinayapitaka.

These two Miracles do not easily come within the cate-

gory of iddhi patihariya given in the Kevatta Sutta. They

are not, as the exemplified cases are, ‘ dumb-shows’ or occu-

lar deceptions.’ One of them, at least, if true, proves what

Buddhism does not claim for its founder, a creative power.

As such, therefore, it is clearly a myth; but it is not im-

possible to believe that the fire-urns were produced by Gota-

ma’s followers; and by a little jugglery they attributed

their exhibition to miraculous power; and at a time too

62 ON MIRACLES.

when conveniently all the 500 Jatilas were, as is stated,

enjoying a plunge in the Neranjara.

There is then no difficulty in ascribing both thise Mira-

cles, as Buddha himself has suggested, to the art of Magic.

There is indeed another view as regards Miracle No. il.

We have no clear evidence to prove that Magnetism was

known as ascience in ancient India; but we are inclined to:

the belief that many a marvellous feat of the /adian Juggler

re of 16s power.

is aseribable to a knowled

“Miracle No. 13. The Legend conelades the relations

of these Miracles by stating that at this period there was:

unseasonable rain, that the whole country was imundated

including the plice in which Gotam: had his lodgings, and.

that by his miraculous powcr the spot on which he sat was not

covered by the water, and was consequently dry. Kassapa,

who went ina boat to fetch his friend,was again amazed, not

only at the phenomenon just described, bat at his frie.d:

coming over the water to nreet him.

It does not appear whether the spot on which Gotama:

was seated was either high or !ow. Nor do we find. that the

waters which flooded the country, stood in a wall around the

sage. But itis notimprobable that the place was a billcck, and:

the waters had not risen so high as to cover its brow. As to’

his going over the water, we can only regard this as a myth,

oran optical delusion, At all events Kassapa did not re-

gard it as a Miracle.

We have thus reviewed some of the most important of

the Miracles ascribed to Gotama Buddha, We have ex-

amined them with a view to ascertain if they are not simple

exaggerations. We have shewn how some of them, at least,

are liaconsis‘ent with the undoubted principles of Buddhism,

ON MIRACLES. 63

The question which next presents itself is, what opportu-

nities had te compi'ers for observing’and correctly re-

ecrding the particulars eonnected with these so-called

Miracles #

The disciples were not always present with the Mastvr.

Even if they -were, they did not themselves perceive

and hear all that they recorded. Even if. they did,

they could not record, and, as we can shew, did not record,

everything; and it was not the wont of any of the

ancients 10 abstain from importing all their own ideas and

notions into a matter which they described, er recorded.

Zealous in the cause of a lKeligion wheh they believed to be

the true—over-enthusiastic in extolling the praises of a

‘Teacher whom {they regarded as omniscient—credulous in

the-extreme of matters whichithe more ignorant people of the

present times generally accept as fabuleus—ignorant of th

most trivial laws of nature—unaccustomed to weigh and

balance the evidence necessary to establish a fact however

simple,—:nd led away by the current of superstitions, and

belief in Miracles, which were the order of the day, Gotama’s

disciples, it would seem, hesitated net, for a moment, in

recording what they heard, to amplify the tale like ‘the

story of the three black Crows,’*

* N.B.---The remainder of this paper containing the text and

translation of Kevatta Sutta, is held back for want of the necessary type

for its publication,---Ed.

64 THE WOODCOCK AND BRITISH SNIPE IN CEYLON.

Qn the occurrence of Scolopax Rusticula and Gallinago

colofacina in Ceylon, By W. VINCENT LEGGE F. Z. S.

—

The occurrence of the woodcock and common snipe

in Ceylon, has been more than once recorded, on ‘‘ Sports-

man’s authority,’ by those naturalists who have given

their attention to the ornithology of the island, in addition

to which, during the past ten years, the former bird has

been reported .to“have’ been’ killed Several “times m ‘the

vicinity of Newera Eliya; unfortunately, however, the

specimens have never been preserved, falling to the lot of

the cook and not the ornithologist, and therefore, as re-

gards the ends of science they have been worthless. It

may be well, before I enter upon a notice and description

of the first scientifically identified examples of these inter-

esting birds, procured in Ceylon, to recapitulate and com-

ment upon, the remarks made by Messrs. Kelaart and

Layard, on the existence of the two species here, and

which are contained respectively in the Doctors Prodromus

Fauna Zeylanice and in the notes on Ceylon birds, pub-

lished. by the. lutter gentleman’ im the 4th. vol. of the

Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 1854.

Kelaart says, P. 110, Prod, F. Zey., ‘‘ the woodcock,

“the same as the European species, is found on Horton

‘Plains and occasionally at'!N. Eliya. We have not

‘seen the bird, in the feathers, but we have seen a couple

‘of birds, called “‘ woodcocks” at a dinner table, which

“tasted uncommonly like the birds of that name. We

THE WOODCOCK AND BRITISH SNIPE IN CEYLON. 6) -

*‘ English sportsmen assured us of their having shot it.”

So much for the woodcock. With regard to its smaller

ally, the Common’ or British snipe, he remarks in the same

paragraph : ‘the English snipe is found in some of the

“highland districts : we have seen a few at N. Eliya.” It

is doubtful in what sense this concluding sentence is to be

taken, as, farther on,in his list of the birds found in

Ceylon, P. 135, Kelaart gives both G. Scolopacinus and

G. Gallinula (the jack snipe) with an asterisk, and says in

a foot note at the bottom of the page, ‘‘ we have only

sportsmen’s authority for the species of snipe, marked

with an asterisk ‘‘ leading I would surmise, to the inference

that he had only seen, or thought he had seen, the bird on the

wing, and not handled it in the flesh, and this is the more

likely, when we consider that he occupied himself much

more with reptiles and animals than with birds. Layard

(loc. cit., p. 266) depends chiefly on Kelaart’s evidence,

and says hut little in favour of the Occurrence, here, of

either of the birds in question. Of the woodcock he re-

marks as follows :—‘‘ The woodcock has been shot several

“times at Newera Eliya, but has never fallen under the

‘ notice of either Dr. Kelaart or myself:” and then quotes

the Doctor’s words, vide supra.

* When remarking on the prevalence of the Indian snipe, in this

Island, to the exclusion of the European species, I haveso often been

met with astonishment on the part of sportsmen and others, under

the impression that our winter friend was identical with the bird found

at home, it may perhaps be as well to remark here that the two species

are very different indeed although to the casualobserver they may

seem to be the same, the Indian bird differi ing chiefly 27 the markings

of the flank and under wing coverts and tn “the structure of tts tail,

Trom the remarkable “ pin” feathers of which, it takes its specific name

of Stenura or “ Pintail.”

~—666 THE WOODCOCK AND BRITISH SNIPE IN CBYLON.

Touching the Common snipe, Layard says “ not having

‘met with it, lam obliged to quote Dr. Kelaart for its

“identity; he says‘ It is found. &c. &e.’ Ishot- many ;

‘snipes at Gilleymally, which proved to be the preceeding

‘‘ species * ; but I see no reason why the bird: should not —

‘exist in the Island, as it is found: at Calcutta, -Why

‘f however in this case’’—referring to Kelaart’s mention of

it at Newera Eliya—‘ should it be confined to the hills +”

Mr. Holdsworth, when in Ceylon, devoted his atten-

tion to the identification of these two species, but was

unsuccessful, although he passed much of his time at —

Newera Eliya ; but the news of the securing of the wood-

cock, which I shall presently refer to, reached him before

the completion of his Catalogue of Ceylon Birds, pub-

lished last year in the proceedings of the Zoological

Society, and he was therefore enabled to speak with

certainty as to its occurrence in the island. With regard to

the British snipe he remarks, No, 241, Catalogue, Ceylon

Birds ‘ of the four reputed Ceylon species G. Stenura ap-

pears to be the only one which has been positively identified.”

So much for the previous history of these two members :

of the Scolopacine as regards Ceylon, and though it has ~

taken up some little space in what I would wish to make ~

view, it cannot but prove of some interest, as shewing the

Spirit of enquiry displayed by these naturalists as to”

whether our island should prove to be the most southerly

point reached by birds of such wide northern distribution

* Gallinago Stenura, the “ Pintail.”

+ And so I would ask too---this remark of Kelaart’s leads to the |

“A fe

belief that he was mistaken in his identification,

THE WOODCOCK AND BRITISH SNIPE IN CEYLON. 67

as they are. And there is no doubt whatever, that in most

of the instances referred to, the woodcock at any rate, had

been rightly identified by those who had shot it : further-

more it is very improbable indeed, looking at its geographi-

cal distribution, as regards Southern India, in the cold

season, viewed in connection with the remarkably ana-

logous avi-fauna of the Nilgherries and Newera Eliya, that

a single season passes without its visiting the higher parts

of our mountains. In some few instances, nevertheless,

the Wood snipe, G. Nemoricola, Hodgson, which I shall

presently refer to, has probably been mistaken for the

«« Oock” by those who were not. acquainted with the dis-

tinguishing characteristics of the latter, the most important

being the feathered tibia down to the tarsal joit, in contras-

distinction to the bavespace above that part, which speci-

alizes at once ali the members ofthe genus Gallinago or

Snipe.

The example which has at last enabled us to speak

with certainty of the occurrence of the woodcock in

Ceylon, was shot last* year in February near Newera

Eliya, by Mr. Fisher of the Ceylon Civil Service, and was

given to a Planter by whom it was sent home not long

ago, to Mr. Holdsworth. Through the kindness of a

gentleman who was taking the skin to Mngland, I was

enabled to examine it and take a description of it which I

propose to introduce here for the benefit and information

of those members of our Society who are sportsmen, and

whose experience of the bird at home, has perhaps not

“ Iam unable to procure a copy of the paper in which the event

was noticed, and I cannot therefore, give the precise date.

(

68 THE WOODCOCK AND BRITISH SNIPE IN CEYLON.

been sufficient to make them thoroughly, acquainted with

its plumage.

Dimensions. Wing, from carpal joint 8 in. Bill at front

nearly 3°15; tarsus 1°4; mid toe 2° its claw 0°3 hind toe 0:5.

Soft Parts. Not having seen the bird in the flesh,

am compelled to quote from Dr. Jerdon’s Birds of India,

‘* Bill fleshy grey ; legs livid ; iris dark brown.”

Description. Lores, chin and sides of forehead greyish

fulvous, top of head and occiput dark sepia brown, barred

and tipped with rich fulvous tawny, a darkish line runuing

down the forehead to base of bill; a broad sepia brown line

from gape to eye; above, general aspect of plumage dark

sepia brown and ferruginous, the back and wing coverts

being barred with the latter and the interscapulars, sca-

pulars andtertials mottled marginally and indented with

the same ; interscapulars, and scapulars tipped and crossed

with rich buff mostly on the outer webs, and with the dark

markings on the inner webs black; greater wing coverts

barred with buff; lower back and upper tail coverts more

narrowly barred than the adjacent parts; quills dark hair

brown, spotted marginally with buff and barred . with

ferruginous on all but the first and second, which are

only edged and indented with white, and with buff respec-

tively ; tail black, marginally spotted with rufous and

broadly tipped smoky grey, which shows white beneath;

under surface fulvous tawny, narrowly barred with brown ;

under wing coverts the same, the tawny ground color

darker than elsewhere beneath. _

The woodcock, as far as Asia is concerned, breeds

and spends most of the year in the north of the continent,

and migrates in October to the Himalayas and wooded

THE WOODCOCK AND BRITISH SNIPE IN CEYLON. 69

regions of all the mountain ranges of central and south.

ern India, some few, as we can now safely testify, straying

as far south as the mountains of this island. According

to Jerdon it is tolerably numerousin the Neilgherries, and

in Coorg, in which latter place, good bags are frequently

made. I have no doubt, that ifthe woods round Newera

_iiliya were beaten with the help of dogs, stray birds

would often be picked up. lt should be looked for, as

in England, along the damp boggy edges of streams in

the forest, say between the Sanatarium and Horton plains.

The woodsnipe, Gallinago Nemoricola Hodgson, is re-

corded, by Jerdon (Vol. III, P. 672 ofhis Birds of India) as

occurring in Ceylon, but itis not clear where he obtainedhis

information from*. Mr. Neville, however, (J. A.8S., C, B.,

He70--70,, Pp, 138) has set the matter at rest by des-

cribing there a specimen of this species that was shot near

Newera Hliya four to five years ago. Itis much to be regret-

_ ted that the skin was not preserved, as it would have been

an exceedingly valuable addition to the Society’s museum.

Looking at various characteristics of this snipe, such as

its size, large ample wings and-consequent heavy flight,

resembling that of the woodcock, it is possible that.

in the absence of specimens of the latter for comparison,

it may have been mistaken, as I have remarked (aniz,

p. 67)+ for that bird, but with the very limited data to hand,

concerning either species in Ceylon, it is impossible to

speak with certainty on this point.

| * Neither Layard or Kelaart makes mention of this bird from

Ceylon, .

+ The woodsnipe according to Indian Authors is as_ rare, if not

_ rarer, in India than the woodcock, and therefore it will be as well to

- emark that my reasons for stating that it “had probably been mis-

70 THE WOODCOCK AND BRITISH SNIPE IN CEYLON,

The example of the Common snipe, Gallinago Scolo- —

facinus, which Thave the pleasure of bringing to the notice - |

of the Society to-day, and which furnishes the first ~

authenticated instance of its occurrence in this country,

was shot at the great snipe ground of Tamblegam,

near Trincomalie on the 6th of January last, by Major @

Meaden of the Ceylon Rifles. On proceeding to that station e |

sin October last, I was informed by more than one gentle-

nan, of the existence during the last few seasons, in the FA

immedi ate neighbourhood ofthe port and atthe above 7

mentioned place, of a different kind of snipe from the Pin.

tail. It was described to me as being about the same size

as that bird, possessing a white bar on the wing and

taken, oc: (aie p. 07) “ane endcd on remarks I once heard from

a eentleman Bornicetn ung a reputed woodcock seen at Newera Eliya

some yeas ago, and w hich were to the effect, that “it was only: a

large snipe.’; ‘It is not unlikel y also that itis a ee to the lower

country of Ceylon, as I have it on very good authority that a very

large snipe, which by the way. I wish I had seen, was shot near

Galle last March twelve months. I append here Jerdon’s description

ot this species (Birds of India, vol. If. p, 672).

“Top of the head black, with rufous yellow longish markings ; upper |

‘* part of back black, the feathers margined with pale rufous yellow and -

“ often smeared bluish ; scapulais the same, some of them with zigzag

“markings; long dorsal plumes black with zigzag markings

vo8 rufous grey, as are ‘most. of the, wing coverts ; winglet andam

“ primary coverts dusky black, faintly edged whitish ; quills dusky ;

s » lower back and upper tail coverts barred reddish and dusky ; fail

‘with the ccna feathers black at the base, chestnut with dusky tips,

“ towards the tips ; laterals dusky with whitish bars : ; beneath, the chin

“ shite, the sides of the neck ashy, smeared with buff and blackish ;

“ breast ashy, smeared with buff and obscurely barred ; the rest of the i

“bars ; lower -tail coverts “rufescent with dusky markings; under |

‘“sving coverts barred black and whitish. Bul reddish brown, pale aaa

“ beneath ; iris dusky brown ; legs plumbeous green.

- tail 22 in, + Bill af |

Length 124 in. ; extent 18 in. ; wing 52 in.

front 2 &-8th in. ; mid toe 1 10-16th in,

THE- WOODCOCK AND BRITISH SNIPE-IN CEYLON. v1

having, on being flushed, a very hoarse kind of “ pipe,”

reminding one ofa bird with a cold!

I was unable to premise from this diagnosis* what the

Species might prove to be ; my friends however, promised

to keep a sharp look-out for the stranger, and accordingly

my curiosity wasere long rewarded by a specimen of the

British Snipe being brought to me on the 29th of December,

but which had been so devoured on the way home by ants

thatit was useless. <A week later I again received through

the kindness of the same gentleman, a second example, the

sex of which, however, | am unable to record, as it was

shot and skinned forme while I was absent on a shooting

trip. Nevertheless I propose to describe it in the pages

of the journal of this Society, as being the first of its

Species zdentified in the island, and as affording a means of

comparing it with, and distinguishing it from, the allied

Malayan form so common with us every year.

Dimensions. Wing &2 inches ; tail 2°25; tarsus 1:2 ;

mid toe eat -its claw 0°23; outer toe and claw 1; ‘bill to;

forehead .2°7..

_ Soft Parts. Iris brown; legs and feet greyish green ;

bill reddish brown, paler beneath.

Description. Centre offorehead, crown and occiput dark

sepia brown, edgéd rufous on the latter part; chin, throat

and cheeks, with a stripe over the eye from base of bill

and another mesial line on the head, buff grey with a

dividing stripe from nostril'to eye; back of neck and

upper part of its sides dark brown, with buff and grey

_ * My informants referred, as I afterwards ascertained, to the white

tips of the secondaries, when speaking of a white wing bar,

") THE WOODCOCK AND BRITISH SNIPE IN CEYLON.

terminal spots on the outer webs; interscapulars, scapulars —

and dorsal plumes black, with buff outer margins and —

tips, and irregular cross lines of rich fulvous ; back brown —

changing into rufous yellow with black interrupted bars;

quills and median wing coverts, hair brown, the latter

edged and tipped greyish ; primary wing coverts and secon-

daries tipped white, the latter very broadly so ; Ist primary

with a white outer web to within an inch of the tip ; tail

black, the terminal half-inch rich rufous with whitish tips

and narrow cross lines of black ; beneath, foreneck and

sides brown with fulvous edgings, and dark mesial lines”

breast and belly white, flanks brown with light tips and

bars ; auxilliary plumes white with narrow, distant brown

bars ; under wing coverts white, barred lightly with brown,

Major Meaden whose attention was forcibly drawn to

the existence of this snipe near Trincomalie by its peculiar

note, informed me that he had not noticed it prior to some

two or three seasons back, although he had _ been shooting

over the same ground for the past ten or eleven years. A

pair frequented the vicinity of the ‘‘ Salt Lake,” a small

snipe ground, some four miles north of the town, the year

before last, but were not seen there this season.

As remarked by Layard (see ante, p. 66) I dont

comprehend why the common snipe, in the days of Kelaart

should have been ‘‘ confined to the hills,” and, as frequent

inquiries of late years, have failed to elicit any information

as to its occurrence in the Central Province, it is highly

probable that, as Kelaart most probably never handled

the bird in the flesh, he was mistaken in his identification

of the species. It no doubt occurs in the Jaffna peninsula —

THE WOODCOCK AND BRITISH SNIPE IN CEYLON. 13

in common with the jack snipe, G. Gallinula, which Iam

informed, ona very good sportsman’s authority, is frequently

shot there. This species again, requires scientific identifica-

tion, and I am very sanguine ofobtaining specimens next

season when I shall hope to have the pleasure of introduc-

- ing it to the notice of the Society.

The distribution of G. Scolopacinus in India during

the cold season, has, it appears, lately been exciting

some attention. Inotice that Mr. Hume (Stray Feathers,

Pp. 235) found it, with G. Gallinula,in Sindh, to the

‘exclusion of the “ Pin-tail,” and, as regards his opinion

that it is the snipe of Bengal, Sienura being

‘* scarcely ever found” there, “‘ Z.” awell known Indian

naturalist, remarks in the ‘‘ Field” newspaper of February

8th, 1873, that he cannot agree with Mr. Hume and writes,

Joc cit., “that of the myriads of snipe. which are

‘“‘ brought yearly to the Calcutta provision bazaar, I know

‘*‘ from long experience that one occurs as commonly as

“‘ the other,’’ and adds, further on in the same notice, that

Mr. W. T. Blandford remarks (J, A. 8. Bengal, 1869, p.

104) that he has never seen a specimen of G. Stenura, the

Pin-tail, from central and western India, and quotes, in

addition, another writer in the same journal (1871, p, 215) _

who says that G. Scolopacinus is the snipe of Nagpore ; that

at the Nilgherries and at Bangalore allthe snipe he had

killed were Pin-tails, whereas at Madras in December, the

two species were in about equal proportions, ‘These

observations, therefore tend to shew that the Common or

British snipe affects the north-west (Sindh) and west of

India, to the exclusion of the Malayan or Pin-tail, and

that they both inhabit the Eastern side of the peninsula in

74° THE WOODCOCK AND BRITISH SNIPE IN CEYLON.

the coldest part of the season. This, on consideration, would

seem to be the most natural range for the two birds, the

former breeding in the western parts of Siberia and coming

in round the western end of the great Himalayan range ;

while the latter, which most likely breeds in the central part

of the great Russian territory, and the country to the north

of China generally, would,as a matter of course, enter India

by the north of Burmah, and spread through Bengal and

down the east coast of the Peninsula, monopolizing likewise

the whole of our little Island, to the almost entire exclusion

ofits western and less tropical congener.

#RANSCRIPT OF AN ANCIENT COPPER-PLATE SANNAS 75

Transcript and Translation of an ancient Copper-plate

Sannas, by Mudaliyar Louis DeZoysa, Chief Translator to

Government.

ee ead

I have the pleasure to lay before the Society, an

ancient Copper Sannas, together with translation and

transcripts of the text in modern Sinhalese, and Roman

characters. lt was discovered a few years ago, under

ground, in the Kadirana Cinnamon Plantation near

Negombo, by some women while digging edible reots.

The Sannas bears no date, but purports to bea grant,—

or rather the confirmation of a previous grant of a former

sovereign at Kurunegala,—by King Vijaya Bahu, of Udu-

gampolain Alutkiru Korale,

} ‘There. are seven Kings of. this name in the list of

sovereigns of Ceylon; but from the forms of letters used,

which are similar to those engraved in the Rock Inserip-

tions of the 14th or 15th Century, and from the allusion to

a previous grant made when the seat of Government was

at Kurunégala (between A. D. 1319-1346), it is evident

_that this grant ‘must be ascribed, (unless indeed it was issued

by a Provincial Raja. of Udugampola not included im

Lurnours List) either to King Vijaya Bahu VI., who

| reigned (according to Turnour) at Gampola [Udugam-

pela?| A. D. 1398—1409, or to Vijaya Bahu VII., who

_ reigned at Kotte A. D, 1527---1533. Ifto the former, this

Sannas derives a peculiar interest from the fact of its being

a grant made by the unfortunate monarch whose capture

by the Chinese is one of the strangest episodes in the

76 TRANSCRIPT OF AN ANCIENT COPPER-PLATE SANNAS

history of Ceylon. This event is represented in the Sin-

Falese annals, as an act of “ Treachery,” on the part oi

the Chinese, but in the Chinese version given by Sir

Emerson Tennent,* asthe result of a battle fought between

the Chinese and Sinhalese armies, A writer in a local

Newspaper + having recently charged the Sinhalese annal-

ists with having omitted “‘some unpleasant episodes”

in their history, I have collected some interesting parti-

culars on this subject, which, however, instead of apypend-

ing to this note, [hope to embody in a separate paper and

lay before the society on a future occasion.

I have succeeded in deciphering the whole of the text

of the Sannas, with the exception of a few unimportant

words, the reading of which is doubtful, and 1 shall feel

thankful to any gentlemen who may kindly favor me with

their remarks on the doubtful words, which I have under-

lined in the Sinhalese, and italicised in the English Tran:

Scripta: | |

On the caitee ath day of the dark half of the month of

nm (1), in the ninth (2) year of the reign of the illus:

trious Emperor Sirisangabo Sri Vijaya Bahu, lineally des-

cended from the happy, illustrious, progeny of Vaivassuta

(3) Manu, born of the solar race, son (descendent) of Raja

Sumitra, of pure race, lord of the three Sinhalas (4) and lord .

* Vide his History of Ceylon Vol. I. p.p. 416-17, and p.p. 622-625,

! Ceylon Observer March 7th 1872.

(1) June—July.

(2 ies ale succeedi ng year to the eighth.” .

8) More correctly, Vacvasvata, The son of the Sun, the manu of

ef the seventh (or present) Manvantara.

(4) Litthe “ ines Ceylons.” In reference to the ancient divisions

af Ceylon into Pihiti, Maya, and Ruhunu, ee.

TRANSCRIPT OF AN ANCIENT COPPER-PLATE SANNAS 77

of the nine gems,—(His Majesty) by his royal command

delivered while seated at thenew palace at Udugampola

oni the midst of all engaged’ in (State) affairs, has

granted a second time, on the day of an eclipse of the

sun, (6) by way of a second (or confirmatory) grant, on the

terms of a previous grant received from the Court of

Kurunégala, the field (?) Walala* Palle Rérawila, situated

close to it, the field Lindora, A’kata Diwela, Kekulan

Owita (7) together with villages, moneys (7), trees, jungles,

marshylands, fields, Owitas, belonging to the s:zlaya (office?)

of the two pélas of husked rice (8) of Dombawala hohae

* The readings of the words in Italics, are doubtful.

(5) A village in the Dasiya Pattu of the Alutkuru korale. It is

mentioned in the history of Ceylon so far back as the second Century

B, C. Prince Uttiya, brother of the king of Kelani, is said to have made

it his retreat on the detection of his criminal intrigue with his

brother’s Queen. Col. Forbes, who gives a full and int cresting account

of this romantic legend, [| “‘ Eleven years in Ceyl lon, Vol. I, p.p, 154--156]

states that the Prince fled to Gampola, but the native histories distinctly

mention that it was Uduganzpola. We learn from the Rojavalt that

a branch of the royal family of Szvzsangado setiled itself in that village

and from several circumstances mentioned in history, [ think it is

probable that king Vijaya Bahu VI who was treacherously taken

captive by the Chinese, was a Provincial Raja oi Vdugampola, ‘and not

the king of Gampola, as stated by Turnour and ‘Tennent. I shall

recur to this subject, when treating of the Rock inscription at Pepili-

yana near Kotta, which I intend to lay before the Society on a future >

occasion.

Udugampola is situate about 25 miles from Colombo, and about

4 miles from the Veyangoda Railway Station. There are some Ruins

still te be seen in the locality consisting of the remains of an ancient

tank with retaining walls of masonry, and some stone works, The

site of the palace is still pointed out as Méigagode(/a (Palace Hill)

and from our grant, it would appear that more ian one palace exist

there, for this grant is stated to have been issued from ‘‘the New

Palace at Udugampola.” :

(6) The granting of lands “ at the time of an eclipse” appears to

have been an ancient custom of Indian kings (vide ° Franslation of a

Gopper Plate grant of A. D. 1448, by Jchn Beames Esq. B.C. S., in

the INDIAN ANTIQUARY for December !87?, p. 305.)

(7) This field still retains its old name.

(8) This, I suppose, is the amount of rice contributed to the

State by the tenants of these lands,

78 ‘TRANSCRIPT OF AN ANCIENT COPPER-PLATE SANNAS

ing to Udugampola in the Alutktru Kérale,—to the Brah-

man Venrasu Konda Perumal * * * * making arrange-

ments for its protection so that the grant may endure

permanently. In proof whereof, I, Sanhas Makuta Veruna

Vanapa Perumal, have written and granted this Copper

sannas.

‘“‘ Good men do not eat rice leit in charity by good

men ; dogs eatsuch rice, and although they vomit, they

eat it again. like them (the good men) if ye protect ints

grant given by good men, O good men! you will acquire

merit in both the worlds.”

SRI’.

Svasti sri Vaivassuta manu sankhyata maha Sammata ~

parampardnuyata Strya vansotbhita Sumitra rajaputra

pavitra gotrabhijata tri Sinhaladhisvara navaratnaddhipati

Srimat Siri Sangabo Sri Vijaya Bahu Chakravarti swamin

wahanséta atawanen matu awurudu posona awa pasaloswake

Alutktiru Kéralaye mehibada Udugampala santalanl

Dombawala sal depéle nilayata etulatwu Walala yima Pallé

Rerawila Tei Kumbura, A’kata Diwela, Kekulan~

O’wita mehibada gam mudala gasakola walwil kumburu

éwiti palamu kurunégaldilat dana-patraya niyd4 wata dewani-

wat Stryagrihana dinaye bamunu Venrasu Konda Perumé-

lita ydruppdwa uvaddna kshetra kota sit&é wadard chakra

araka sapdya svastirawa pawatind niy4yen Udugampala

alut méligawe wedahinda kériyata niyukta emaden’ meda

waddla mehewarin me témbrapatraya liya4dun bawata

Sanhas makuta werun Vanapa Perumdlumha. Sudané

anun hala pinbatda noma kati. SBallé é bat ka nezuwat

neweta kati. Unsé topi me sujanan dun ayati rekaduna

svjanayeni delowatama pin eti. |

TRANSCRIPT OF AN ANCIENT COPPER-PLATE SANNAS 79

ee)

TCE GOSH Oesyd? Cqgeoadwe Oto wOOD 660s

BAHLID HePOos GSMO GC HOHASES ol aamsposd3

GHD MHomeoMO6 w6HsdSH GOS 2oeanaad

EBSLOIE OQOWHNS wood sjEMsiano rOdI@HH VM

FOG Otrewme FOoXOE MIA, FOSMS, osvde|

CH OEGQVE GHHDDCG oe OEMVES 50 TOEGLSS

BRCLO qwesig Eee E92 ose G655e.GME6

ZZ OS eogno e0de 7 SEO O39 6OB QENS GEe

MEeme O€OE HAO. DES SES HS. 1 HEE BSI

6,2) Gc 31080 cEds3y5! galGnwm Coe QVQcyj

ene) LOVED O27 GOD) GOISG KEWEISS HOS}o03

Baoeces Chorse (co Eo DARE anS2O

BBE) &, OGESWO.E OCF 6G GDOWHSS) GOD.® ox

BagHQ00 eXnOad 0 6igt O05 CO6E0

CO) BEC) GTAHNIHE Sos te Gonads Adecad

Bod gat qoB dmg gonaaS o¢5@1909 Sat

, O,

aie

Bil

talnitegrie

a a. sigh:

JOURNAL

OF THE i

CEYLON BRANCH

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, ||

DASPSESPN END SIRI NININISINININIRDNIN ODDS

bes Ne

¢ jet

; |

esibeal

1 8 4, en |

~~ SPINAL L LOD IOI t

VY ~

PART I. i:

EDITED BY

THE HONORARY SECRETARY.

“The design of the Society is to institute and promote enquiries

into the History, Religion, Literature, Arts and Social condition of

the present and former inhabitants of this Island, with its Geology,

- Mineralogy, its Climate and Meteorology, its Botany and Zoology.” | '

—fiules.

Price per Number to Members, 2s., to Non-Members, 4s. 1

Copies are supplied to Booksellers at Home, at 5s. |

forwarded to the Secretary at least a fortnight before the assembly |

of the General Meeting at which they are to be submitted, ||

| _ AGENTS IN LONDON: |

Messrs. TRUBNER & Co. 57 & 59, LUDGATE HILL.

| i}

Communications intended for publication in the Journal musi be | | |

AGENTS IN CALCUTTA: 3 sy

us Messrs. THACKER, SPINK & Co., ST. ANDREW’S LIBRARY. a]

JOURNAL

CEYLON BRANCH

OF THE

/ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY,

PART 7.

EDITED BY

THE HONORARY SECRETARY.

COLOMBO:

W. HENRY HERBERT, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, CEYLON.

MDCCCLXXIYV.

CONTENTS.

Deseription of a supposed new genus of Ceylon Batrachians.

— By W. Ferguson, F.1.s. ... ors

Notes on the Tdentity of Piyadasi and Asoka.—By cadet aL

Louis de Zoysa, Chief ‘Translator to Government

On the Island distribution of the Birds in the Society's

Museum.—By W. Vincent Legge, R.a., ¥.Z.S.... re

Brand Marks on Cattle—By J. D’Alwis, M.R.A.s. ~ eee

Notes on the occurrence of a rare Eagle new to Ceylon ; and

other interesting or rare birds.— By 8. Bligh, Esq. , Kotmalé

Extracts from the Records of the Dutch Government in

Ceylon.— By R. Van Cuylenberg, Esq. ae =

The Stature of Gotama Buddha.—By. J. D’Alwis, ™.R.A.3.

PAGE.

JOU RON AL

THE CEYLON BRANCH

OF THE

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.

DESCRIPTION OF A SUPPOSED NEW GENUS OF

CEYLON BATRACHIANS.

BY W. FERGUSON, F.L-S.

VY ew

TRACHUCEPHALUS.

Fingers and toes tapering, very slightly webbed. Lower

jaw with marked, but not prominent apophyses, with a small

fang-like process in the centre; the internal openings of

the nostrils and eustachian tubes small; tympanum small,

but conspicuous. Small parotoids present? The transverse

processes of the sacral region dilated, (Maxillary and

Vomerine teeth present.) Vomer with two separate toothed

prominences. A toothed prominence on each side between

the choane and the jaw. The upper eyelid well developed,

but not prominent. A cutaneous fold between the fore and

hind limbs. |

TRACHUCEPHALUS CEYLANICUS.

Head very broad, much depressed, and very short in

proportion to its breadth, the upper lip having a marked rim

all along it, forming nearly a section of a circle, somewhat

convex in front; the whole of the upper part of the

2 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

head including the eyelids and the tympanitic region,

covered with small, irregular, granular tubercles. Snout

considerably pointed, with its extremity prominent and

perpendicularly truncated, and very slightly overreaching

the cleft of the mouth. Canthus rostralis obtuse, loreal

region concave, with a smooth groove running through it

from the lower part of the orbit to the nostril. Occiput

deeply concave. Nostril slightly below the extreme end of

the canthus rostralis and the snout. Eye of moderate size,

prominent, but concealed from above by the eyelid. Tym-

panum distinct, one half as large as the eye, A linear fold

runs from the hinder edge of the orbit over the tympanum

towards the armpit. Cieft of the mouth twice as broad as

long; tongue not large, broadly but not deeply notched

behind, attached to the cullet nearly its whole length.

There is a toothed prominence on each side of the vomer,

a little lower than the openings of the nostrils, and running

in a straight line across the jaw. Vomerine teeth on long

ridges gradually rising from the inner angle of the choane,

running back and convergent behind, terminating in toothed

prominences. Skin of the back, belly, throat, legs and

inside of fore hmbs smooth. The whole of the upper part

of the head including the eyelids, the front of the fore limbs,

and a remarkable cutaneous expansion on the side of the

trunk between the fore and hind limbs covered with granular-

like tubercles, with a few smaller ones on the tympanum.

The smooth portion of the skin of the back is separated

from the rough head by a somewhat elevated ridge, caused

by a depression of the head, and running in a line across

just behind the orbits, and continued into the linear fold

behind the tympanum, a good deal like that in the adult

Rana Kuhlii, figured by Dr. Giinther, Indian Reptiles

t. xxvi. fig. A. Limbs of moderate length, the length of

the body two-tenths of an inch longer than the distance of

SUPPOSED NEW GENUS OF CEYLON BATRACHIANS. oy

vent from heel. The third finger is about one-tenth of an

inch longer than the fourth, which is slightly longer than

the second, These three fingers form a palmated group in

advance of the first, and are very slightly webbed. First

finger about half the length of the third. Metatarsus with

a small tubercle -below the first toe. The fourth toe

(including the metatarsus) is exactly one half the length of

the body. The third toe is slightly longer than the fifth. A

very short web between the first, second, third, and fourth

toes only. The fifth appears to be quite free.

Upper parts (in spirits) dark brown with lighter coloured

epots; outer parts of hind and fore limbs clouded with

brown; inner sides, and the cutaneous expansion coloured

dark grey, with small brown spots; belly dark livid colour;

throat suffused with brown. —

The following are the dimensions of the only specimen in

my possession: —length of body 1°8; vent to heel 1-6; hind

limbs 2°8;. fourth toe (including the metatarsus) 0°9 inches..

——seee

I do not know any frog with which to compare this one

in its general appearance and character; it is one of a few

set aside from my collection by Major Beddome, when on

a visit to Colomko lately,.and pronounced by that gentleman

to be new to science, and which, from a feeling of delicacy

he declined to accept from me. In searching for its place

in the synoptical list of the characters of the genera of

Batrachians given in page 400 of Giinther’s work on Indian

Reptiles, I felt that it could scarcely be removed from the

first division, 4, of the group of Ground Frogs, and i

seemed most closely allied to the genus Xenophrys, of which

one species X. monticola, 1s described and figured by

Giinther in the work referred to, p. 414, and plate xxvi,

figure H..

4 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

In the generic and specific descriptions which I have

given for this supposed new Ceylon frog, I have followed

the exact order of Dr. Giinther’s description of the Indian

frog above referred to, to facilitate comparisons between

the two.

The generic descriptions of Xenophrys and Trachucephalus

(rough head,) are in many respects so similar that it is not

unlikely the former may be so amended as to include the

Ceylon Frog, but the very distinct aspects of the two, and

some remarkable differences more fully given in the specific

description, have induced me to include our Ceylon frog in

a new genus with a name indicating its singular rough head,

In page 85 of the Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of

Bengal, for March 13870, the late Dr. Jerdon in the follow-

ing extract from his ‘‘ Notes on Indian Herpetology,” has

shewn that vomerine teeth are present in the genus Xeno-

phrys: —“I obtained numerous specimens of Xenophrys

monticola, Giinther, both at Darjeeling and the Khasi hills,

It has distinct vomerine teeth which Giinther was unable to

detect in the specimens of the British Museum. I also

obtained five specimens of a larger species of Xenophrys both

in Sikim and the Khasi hills, which I propose describing

as Xenophrys gigas.”

It is very likely that if these specimens of the undescribed

species referred to, exist, it may be found that they have

peculiarities of structure connecting them with Xenephrys

monticola, Giinther and our Ceylon frog.

I regret to say that I have only one specimen of this

supposed new frog, and that I am not certain as to where

it was found, though I believe I caught it on the sides of a

stream near Hewisse in the southern portion of the Western

Province, and famous as one of Mr. Thwaites’s best botanical

districts. I regret also to state that like many of the

earlier frogs caught by me, this one was put into strong

SUPPOSED NEW GENUS OF CEYLON BATRACHIANS. 5

spirits, which have shrivelled it up to a certain extent. It

is very thin and flat in proportion to its size, and I doubt

not that, like species of Hylorana, it is a powerful leaper.

In the specific description given, I have tried not to omit

a single character which might assist in the identification of

this frog.

The interdigital membrane connecting the first, second,

third, and fourth toes, is just perceptible, but I have no

doubt that in newly caught specimens it will be found quite

distinct.

I have marked the presence of Paurotoids with a query

thus (?)—because I am not certain whether the slight

enlargements behind the orbits are parotoids or not.

Writing about Rana Kuhl, Schl. of Ceylon, W. Theo-

bald, junr., Esq., in his catalogue of Reptiles in the Museum

of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, makes the following very

appropriate remarks, which are equally applicable to all

the Indian and Ceylon Batrachians, and the Geckotide.

“There are no reptiles in India in such a confused state as the

Ranide, and I can add but little towards disentangling the

shadowy species, real enough perhaps, but not as yet characterised.

The series in the Museum is a very poor one, and the fanide

from all parts of India must be assiduously collected, before sound

results can be obtained. Let us hope that an urgent appeal for

frogs from all parts of India [and Ceylon, W. F.] will be liberally

responded to by local naturalists and collectors, without which aid

the subject must long remain in its present unsatisfactory state.

Each contributor should not send merely the most conspicuous

frogs from his neighbourhood, but all the species and varieties he

can procure.”

As an illustration of the liability to add to, and per-

petuate the confusion connected with some of the frogs and

other reptiles, I may refer to a rare Ceylon frog found first

on Adam’s Peak, several years ago by Dr. Schmarda,

6 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

Professor of Zoology in the University of Prague. On @#

fly sheet after page 21 of the second part of Dr. Kelaart’s

Prodromus of the Faune of Ceylon, published in 1853,.

this frog is very briefly described by the late Dr. Kelaart

under the following name, “ Polypedates (?) Schmarda. n.

s. nobis.” The ‘* Schmarda” being no doubt a slip of the

pen for “ Schmardana,” under which latter name, and under

the genus Ixalus, Gtinther refers to this, then doubtful frog,

in his Indian Reptiles, p. 433. Theobald in his Catalogue

referred to, p.85; gives this frog as follows:— :

‘“‘Polypedates Smaragdinus, Kelaart, Ceylon. Eye bones armed

with spines. Limbs studded with tubercular sharp pointed spines.

A very peculiar species, and probably a distinct generic form.”

Jerdon in the paper referred to, pp. 83-84, and Ander-

son in his list of accessions to the collection of reptiles

in the Indian Museum, since 1865, refer distinctly to an

Indian frog described by Blyth in foot-note to p. 48 of

Appendix to Kelaart’s Pro. Faun. Zeyl, as the Polypedates

Smaragdinus, found on the Khasi hills. The specific name

here means Emerald Green, and Mr. Theobald’s P. Smarag-

dinus, ought to have been P. Schmardana. On page 85 of —

the Annals and Magazine of Natural History for January,

1472, containing “ descriptions of some Ceylonese Reptiles

and Batrachians by Dr. Giinther, this frog is finally and I

suppose properly named, though not yet described, as [zalus

Schmardanus,” (Kelaart.)

[Read 5th February, 1873. ]

NOTE ON THE IDENTITY OF PIYADASI AND ASOKA.

BY MUDALIYAR LOUIS DE ZOYSA, CHIEF TRANSLATOR

TO GOVERNMENT.

RPDUNNYYYYYYY V

When James Prinsep discovered the lost alphabet of

ancient India, and read the rock inscriptions at Delhi, Girnar,

Cuttack and Affghanistan, which had baffled the attempts

of all previous Orientalists and others to decipher, he found

that they were written in the Pali language, and were

edicts issued by a king whose name was “ Devanampiya

Piyadasi Raja,” ‘ Piyadasi, the beloved of the gods;” but he

was unable to find the name of such a sovereign in any

Indian history, or record. He however lost. no time in

communicating his wonderful discovery to his friend and

fellow-labourer in Ceylon, the late Honourable George

-~Turnour, who at once identified the sovereign as “Asoka”

or “ Dharmasoka,” the great Buddhist Emperor of India,

under whose auspices Buddhist Missionaries were sent to

Ceylon and various other countries in Asia, and in support

of his statement, quoted a passage from the Dipa Vansd, an

ancient history of Ceylon. Mr. Prinsep in acknowledging

the service thus rendered to him by Mr. Turnour, wrote as

follows:-—‘‘ The first correction in point of importance,

comes, as usual, from Ceylon, the very Lanka (to apply its

own fabulous prerogative metaphorically,) the very first

meridian whence the true longitude of all ancient Indian

history seems destined to be calculated!” And again,

‘*Mr. Turnour has thus most satisfactorily cleared up a

difficulty that might long have proved a stumbling-block to

8 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

the learned against the reception of the lat inscriptions as

genuine monuments of a fixed and defined period, the most

ancient yet achieved in such an unequivocal form.’ ee

Asiutic Society’s Journal for September, 1837.)

In 1849 however, after the death both of Prinsep and

Turnour, the late Professor H. H. Wilson, the great Sans-

krit scholar, read before the Royal Asiatic Society of

Great Britain and Ireland, an elaborate paper, extending

over 100 pages, giving a proposed re-translation of Prinsep’s

edicts, together with the translation of one, then recently dis-

covered at Kapurdigiri in Affghanistan. In this paper, the

learned Professor while admitting the probability of these

edicts being issued by a Buddhist king, and for the purpose

of disseminating Buddhism, contended that the evidence on

which these opinions were expressed by Mr. Prinsep, was

not “ conclusive,” and that the identification of “ Piyadasi”

with the Buddhist emperor Asoka, rested on an isolated

passage quoted by Mr. Turnour from the J%pa Vans6é of

Ceylon.*

Mr. Edward Thomas, the learned Editor of “ Prinsep’s

Indian Antiquities,” says,—‘“ that in a subsequent article

on the Bhabra Inscription, the Professor frankly admits that

‘although the text is not without its difficulties, yet there

is enough sufficiently indisputable to establish the fact, that

Priyadasi, whoever he may have been, was a follower of

Buddha.” Mr. Thomas adds, ‘‘Our leading Orientalist,

it will be seen, still hesitates, therefore to admit the identity

of Priyadasi and Asoka, With all possible deference to so

* The doubts raised by Professor Wilson on the identity of Piyadasi,

and Asoka, have induced Dr. R. G. Latham to read before the Royal

Asiatic Society an elaborate paper entitled “ Date acd Personality of

Priyadasi,” in which he proposes to identify Piyadasi, with Phraates,

king of Parthia!

THE IDENTITY OF PIYADASI AND ASOKA. 9

hich an authority, I am bound to avow that I see no

difficulty whatever in the concession. We may stop short

of absolute and definite proof, that Asoka enunciated his

the gods,’ but all legitimate induction tends to justify the

association which is contested by no other enquirer.”—

( Turnour, Lassen, Burnouf, Cunningham, ie Maxz-

Muller, &c).

J venture to think that something like “ the absolute and

definite proof” alluded to by Mr, Thomas may be found in

the Buddhist annals of Ceylon. The identification of

Piyadasi and Asoka, does not rest, as supposed by Professor

Wilson, on a single passage of the Dipa Vansé, but the

fact is well known to all Buddhist nations, at least to those

of Ceylon, Burma, and Siam.

I am happy to be able to produce a few passages from

Buddhist works other than the Dipa Vansé, in which the

name “ Piyadasi” is applied to king Asoka.

The first passage i shall quote is from Sumangala Vilastni,

Buddhaghosa’s Commentary on the “ Digha Nikdya.” In

his Commentary on the “ Mah4-parinibbana Suttan,” the

Commentator gives an account of the death, and funeral of

Buddha, and the division of his relics amongst the various

kings of India and the surrounding countries. He relates

moreover, that after the distribution of the relics amongst

the Princes of India, the main portion was deposited in a

“ Thupa” built of stone, and in it was also placed a golden

plate en which the following words were inscribed :—

“eenjnad) SoEows S09 Dtoadh GOMeo ecceso

SOM) 5099920 DEWAA NHIxsD—On QOoWADIKI

SaoSenr Sex 43S)”

“Anagate Piyadéso nama kumaro chattan uss4petvé Asoko

Dhamma R4jé bhavissati So ima dhatuyo vittharita karissatiti.”

10) ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANOH:)

“Tn a future (age) a prince named Piyadaso, raising the um-

brella of dominion, will become king Asoka the righteous, and he

will distribute these relics.”

The Commentator further relates that 218 years after-

wards, when king Asoka after his conversion to Buddhism,

caused the relic receptacle to be opened for the purpose of

obtaining relics to build “ Thupas,” he found to his in-

expressible wonder and joy, the gold plate on which the

above prediction was inscribed, and thenceforward, he

became the most zealous patron that Buddhism ever had.

In Rasavdhini, which is a Collection of tales and stories

relating to ancient India and Ceylon, the author in his

account of Asoka, quotes the abovementioned prediction, and

also mentions the fact that Asoka in his youth was named

prince ‘‘ Piyadaso.”

The Saddharmdlankéra, which by some is supposed to be

a Sinhalese version of the Rasavdhint, and by others its

original, gives the following interesting and additional

particulars, which are not found in any other work I

have met with. It states that Asoka, on his birth, received

the name of prince “ Piyadasa,” “ because his countenance

was radiant as the polished surface of a mirror and pleased

all beholders;”* ‘that when he held the Government ot

‘ Avanti’ under his father Binduséra, he was known as

prince ‘Asoka’”f That he was afterwards surnamed

“ Chandaéséka,” or ‘Asoka the Cruel,” on account of his

- putting his brothers to death, and finally “‘ Dharmasoka.” +

or ‘* Asoka the righteous,” on his conversion to Buddhism,

and becoming a zealous patron of religion.

L. Dr Z:

* Vide selections from Saddharmalankara, p. 4.

eu ids p85).

{ ibid, p. 14.

THE ISLAND DISTRIBUTION OF

THE BIRDS IN THE

SOCIETY'S MUSEUM.

BY W. VINCENT LEGGE, H.A., F.Z.S.

<LI ANAND

List or Birps in THE MusEeum on 818r May, 1878.

No.

INO} 10:

Semornis Bacwa, Daudin.

HALIAETUS LEUCOGASTER, Gmel.

Porroartvus Ioruyagrtus, Horsf.

Haxrastur Inpus, Bodd.

Mirvus Govinpa, Sykes.

- TINNUNCULUS ALAUDARIUS, Gmel.

Micronisvus savius, Gmel.

Exvanus Metanorrercs, Daudin.

Circus Swainson, A. Smith.

Do. CrineraAceus, Montague.

ATHENE CASTANEONOTA, Blyth.

Ninox Hirsuta, Vemm.

Eprrartres BAKKAMUNA, Forster.

SyrniuM InDRANEE, Sykes.

Caprimuteus Astaticus, Latham.

Do.

Cyrsenvs Bartasstensis, Gray.

DENDROCHILIDUN CoRONATUS, Tick.

Coracias Invica, Linn.

PrELarGorsis Guriau, Pearson.

Hancyon Smyrnensis, Linn.

Atcepo Bencauensis, O'mel.

Ceryie Rupis, Linn.

-Merrors Puiripeensis, Linn.

Do.

‘Tuckus GINGALENSIS, Shaw.

viripis, Linn.

QuInticoLoR, Vieill.

Loricutus Invicus, Gmel.

Pate@crnis ALEXANDRI, Linn.

Do.

Do. —

MeGaLaAIMa ZEXLANICA, Gmel.

Do.

TORQUATUS, Bodd.

Rosa, Bodd.

CALTHROPmH, Layard.

FLAVIFRONS, Cuvier,

XANTHOLEMA RURRICAPI LLA, Gmel.

]

3 Harpacres rasciatus, Forster.

]

Do. Inpica, Lath.

ATRIPENNIS, Jerdon.

wo He =| PP HO CO

rm PB DO PR & OC OH A co HD

Yunoipicus GyMNoPTHALMos, Blyth.

CHRYSOCOLAPTES CHLOROFHANES,

Vieill.

BracuyPrernus CeyLonvs, Forster,

Do. PUNCTICOLLIS, Malh,

Cruntropus Ruri rennis, Illiger.

PoLYpHAsIA FASSERINA, Vahl.

Surnticutus Dicruroipes, Hodson.

Coccystes JAcopinus, Bodd.

Eupynamis Honorata, Linn.

PH@NICOPH@US PYRRHOCEPHALUS,

Forster,

: [don,

ZANCLOSTOMUS VIRIDIROSTRIS, Jer

, Necraropiia Znyianica, Linn.

ARACHNECHTHRA Lorenta, Linn,

DeENpRopHina rRoxTanis, Horsf.

Upupa nicRivEennis, Gould.

Hemirus Ficatus, Sykes.

VoLvocivora Syxkesi, Strick.

GravucuLus Laryarnr, Blyth.

PERICcROcOTUS FLAMMEUS, Forster.

Do,

AnrtTamus Fruscus, Viezll.

PEREGRINUS, Linn.

Lantus cristatus, Linn,

‘T EPHRODORNISPONDICERIANA,Gmmel,

Dissemurvs Lopuornines, Vieill,

BucuanGa Lrucopyearis, Blyth,

Myrarestgs CINEREO-CAPILLA,

Vieill,

Leucocerca aurrona, Lesson.

TCHITREA PARADISI, Linn.

ALSEONAX LATIRi 8TRIS, Raffles.

Cyornis Jervont, G. R. Gray.

PITTA BRACHYURA, Jerdon.

(REOCINCLA SPILOPTERA, Blyth

ALCIPPE NiGRIFRONS, Blyth.

Dumeria ALvocurarts, Blyth,

DryYMOCATAPHUS FUSCICAPILLUS,

Blyth.

Owe nrne WB — SES WO WH HD — Lb

pot

we me HO = HH 8 = Ww OF Pw

PoMATORHINUS MFLANURUS, Blyth.

GARRULAX CENEREIFRONS, Blyth.

MAatacocERcus striatus, Swains.

LAYARDA RUFESCENS, Blyth.

HypsreeTes Ganegsa, Sykes. -

Crinicer Icrericus, Strickl.

Ixos LuTEOLUS, Lesson.

PycnonoTus HHMORRHOUS, Gmel.

RupicguLa MELANICTERA, Gel.

Puytiornis Jerponti, Blyth.

Do.

Iona Zrrtonica, Gmel.

MALABARICUS, Lath.

Ontoius CrYLoNENgis, Bonap.

CorsycHus SAULARIS, Linn.

KirTAciINncLA MACRUMA, Gmel.

THAMNOBIA FULICATA, Linn.

CisTicoLA ScHa@nicoLa, Bonap.

Printa Socrauis, Sykes.

DRyYMOIPAS VALIDUS, Blyth.

Payiioscorus nitipus, Latham.

CALOBATES SULPHUREA, Beckst.

LimonipRomus [npicus, Gmel.

BupytTEs viripis, Gel.

CorypaLua hicuaropr, Vierll.

Do.

ZOSTEROPS PALPEBROSUS, Lemm.

Do.

Pagus cINEREUS, Viel.

RuUFULA, Vieill.

CEXYLONENSIS, Holdsworth.

Corvus Levainuanti, Lesson.

Do.

Cissa onnata, Wagler.

SPLENDENS, Viedld.

ACRIDOTHERES TRISTIS, Linn.

HULABES RELIGIOsA, Linn.

Piocnus Baya, Blyth.

Mounia unpunata, Lath.

Do. Manacca, Linn.

arRIATUS, Linn.

Kevaarti, Blyth.

EaTeELpA AMANDAVA, Linn.

Parser Inpicos, Jerd. and Shelby.

Migarea arrinis, Jerdon.

PynRuvULAUDA GRISEA, Scop.

Ww BB — — Ww oo bo

]

OS moe FP Ne NON WON HEH KH Oe

oo G =

oO WD NM =

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

ALAUDA GULGULA, Franklin,

OsMOTRERON BICINCTA, Jerdon.

Do.

CARPOFHAGA SyLvATica, Tickell.

Pompapoura, Gmel.

TurtTuR SuRATENSIs, Gmel.

CuHaLcorpHaps Inpica, Linn.

GaLius STANLEYI, Gray.

GALLOPERDIX DicaLcarATa, Forsé.

Orrycornis PCNDICERIANA, Gimel.

ExcaLracroria CHInEnsiIs, Linn.

Turnix Tarcoor, Sykes.

Cuaraprius Futvus, Gmel.

ANGIALITES MoNGOLICUS, Pallas.

Do. Dounivs, Scop.

Logsivangetuus Inpicus, Bodd.

CEpICNEMUS CREPITANS, Zemm.

STREPSILAS INTERPRES, Linn.

GALLINAGO STENURA, Lemm.

Ruyncu#A Brencarensis, Linn,

AcTITISs HyroLEucos, Linn.

I YDROPHASIANUSs CHIRURGUS, Scop.

PORPHYRIO POLIOCEPHALUS, Lath.

GALLINULA PH@NICURA, Forster.

GALLICREX CRISTATUs, Lath.

Porzana Fusca, Linn.

Ratuina Zerionica, G'mel,

ARDEA PURPUREA, Linn.

Buruus Coromanpus, Bodd.

ArproLa Grayu, Sykes.

Buroripes JAvANICA, Horsf.

ARDETTA FLAVICOLLIS, Lath.

Do.

Nycricornax Grispus, Linn,

CINNAMOMEA, Gel.

GOISACHIUS MELANOLOPHUs, Ruffles.

Awastomus oscirans, Bodd.

DeNDROCYGNA JAVANICA, Horsf.

Popicers PHitiprensis, Bonn.

STERNA NIGRA, Linn.

HlyDROCHELIDON LEeUCcOPARCIA,

Natt. pas

THALASSEUS CRISTATUS, Stephens.

Do. Benaavensis, Lesson.

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN THE SOCIETY’S MUSEUM. 13

Tue large collection of birds which the Society possesses at

the present time, and which the foregoing catalogue, numbering

in all 154 different birds, fully testifies to, may perhaps be con-

sidered to possess sufficient interest as a public exhibition, and

an important branch of the Museum, to warrant a few remarks on

the distribution, throughout the*Island, of the different species

composing it. I therefore venture to submit for the Society’s

perusal the following notes, which are chiefly the result of four

and-a-half years’ labour among my feathered friends in Ceylon.

I have also availed myself of the experience of Messrs. Layard

and Kelaart, and of Mr. Holdsworth, in cases where they have

recorded birds from parts which I, myself, have not visited. I

regret to say that my knowledge of what birds in particular are

located in the Eastern Province proper is very limited, and there-

. fore I fear that these notes will contain but little information

‘concerning either the residents in or migrants to that part. It

is a district which I have as yet only touched upon from the

north and south, but neither myself nor either of the abovenamed

gentlemen have ever collected in or explored that extensive and

wildest of all Ceylon regions—the Friar’s Hood and False Hood

ranges, and the immediate south-lying flats, known as the “ Park

Country.” It is here that more new » ecies await discovery at

the hands of some enterprising naturalist, and when they are found

they will, I am confident, possess the additional interest of being,

like Mr. Bligh’s newly-discovered Arrenga and my Prionochilus,

analogous to Malayan and not to Indian forms. Setting

aside the Eastern Province however entirely, the distribution

of species in the other great divisions of the Island is exceed-

ingly interesting, and demonstrates in a remarkable manner

how closely vegetation and features of soil are affected by

climate, and how birds in their turn are influenced in their

choice of habitat by that vegetation and the natural resources of

sustenance which it affords them. The north-western and

south-eastern districts, or the country surrounding Mannar and

14 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

Hambantota, respectively, possess a similar avifauna, with the

difference perhaps, that natatorial birds abound more in the latter

than in the former, owing to the presence of large tanks in the

Magam and adjoining Pattus, but the list of insessorial birds

in the two places is precisely the same: the great mountain zone

districts are peculiar features lying asa dividing medium between

them. Again, the damp hill-country of the south-west, and the

vast forest-covered region of the north-east, lying between

Anuradhapura and Trincomalee, possess the same birds, with the

exception of one or two very local species, such as Temenuchus

senex and Prionochilus Vincens, which are only located in the

mountains of the former part; moreover, the south-western corner

of the Island possesses scarcely anything in common with the

adjacent lying hot and flat country of the south-east, the eastern

slopes of the Kolonn4 and Morowak Koralé mountains and their

off-shoots, leading southwards to Matara, acting as a barrier or

dividing line beyond which, on either side, the typical forms of

the two regions (Temenuchus senex, Rubigula melanictera,

Prionochilus Vincens, &c., on the west, and Pyrrhulaunda grisea,

‘Temenuchus pagodarum, Sarciophorus bilobus, &c., of the east)

do not appear to pass. While on the subject of the south-west

and its avifauna, it would be well to remark that it is somewhat

noteworthy, that two species of ‘“ Ceylon” birds, vide supra,

should only be found in that district, and this certainly would

allow us to premise that others, as yet undiscovered members of

our Fauna, may be confined solely to the hills of the Eastern Pro-

vince. Lastly, there exists another region which, as the late Dr.

Kelaart prophesied in his “Prodromus Faunew Zeylanica” has

proved to be ‘‘a distinct centre of creation” analogous to that of the

correspondingly elevated zone of the Neilgherries in South India.

I speak of Nuwara Eliya and its surrounding mountains. |! /octor

Kelaart referred generally to Zoology and Botany, but we have

there, as far as birds even are concerned, three of the peculiar

Ceylon species, Merula Kinisii, Arrenga Blighi, Brachy pteryx

Palliseri, and perhaps a fourth, Ochronella Nigrorufa (found also

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN THE SOCIETY’S MUSEUM. 15

on the Neilgherries), confined to the immediate vicinity of the

sanatarium. Notwithstanding that this singular concentration of

these restricted species to such a small area can be easily accounted

for on the strength of their being peculiar to the Island, and the

highest mountains about Nuwara [Eliya being the only district of

such an elevation, and therefore with the same cool climate, in

the country, yet there is no parallel to it in the distribution of

birds throughout the whole peninsular part of India, and it must

therefore 1 think, be viewed as the mest remarkable feature in

the history of Ceylon birds. Students of our Ornithology are

much indebted to Mr. Holdsworth, who, assisted by the most

eminent Indian Ornithologists at home, has worked out, in his

catalogue of Ceylon birds, published last year in the proceedings

of the London Zoological Society, the right nomenclature of all

our birds, and the history and authorship of all those species about

which there was any doubt. He has shewn that several members

of our old lists, such as Yungipicus gymnopthalmos, Tephro-

dornis affinis (Blyth), and Grauculus Pussillus (ibid), hitherto

assigned to Ceylon only, are found in South India, and that one

of our hill fly-catchers, Euymias serdida, Walden, on the other

hand, as an inhabitant of the peninsula, is peculiar to this

Island, and was hitherto confounded with E. melanops, Vigons; -

while again he has proved that a few species described as new

by Layard and others, such as Butalis Muttui, Zoothera imbri-

_ cata, are identical with the hitherto recorded from India,

Alseonax terricolor and Oreccincla Neilgherrienses, It is a

pity that this gentleman confined his Jabours and attention to

the cultivated districts of the Western Province and the neigh-

bourhoods of Mannér and Nuwara Eliya only, instead of

exploring the Island to a greater extent, particularly in the south-

west and east, and thereby acquiring a thorough knowledge of the

distribution of eur species; by so doing he would have rendered his

catalogue much more valuable to the enquirer, and afforded much

information as to where different birds were to be found. In the

16 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

following notes I have adopted Mr. Holdsworth’s nomenclature,

tollowed by Layard’s and Kelaart’s synonyms, used in the Annals

and Magazine of Natural History for 1853-54, and the “ Prodro-

mus Faune Zeylanica” published in 1852.

1. Sprroris Bacua, Dandin.—The Crested Serpent Eagle,

the “Ceylon Eagle” of some writers; Rajali, Sink. In young

plumage, Spilornis Spilogaster, Bik ice Holdsworth. Cata-

logue Ceylon Birds, P. ZS. 1872, No. 13. Hematornis Cheela,

Layard, Annals Natural History, 1853, page 99, volume 123

Kelaart, Prodromus Faune Zeylaniva, page 114.

Distributed throughout the whole Island up to the highest parts of

the Central Province; common in all the coffee districts, and

both in lew wooded und the hill country of the south-west;

Numerous in the neighbourhood of ‘Trincomalee, and occurs

throughout the Eastern ‘and Northern Pr ovinces, affecting marshes

and tlie borders of large tanks; scarce in the dry districts of the

south-east.

2. HaviarTus LeucocastreR, Gmelin.—The white-bellied

Sea Eagle, Grey-backed Sea Eagle. Pontoztus Leucogaster—

Layard, Annals Natural History, 1853, volume 12, page 100;

Kelaart, Prodromus Faune Zeylanica, page 112.

Distributed round the whole coast of Ceylon, affecting chiefly mouths

of large rivers, brackish lakes, salt lagoons, and large inland

back waters; most numerous in the Hambantota district, and on

the chain of lagoons and lakes between Trincomalee and the

Jatina Peninsula ; common at Jaffna and down the west coast to

Puttalam; scarce in the south-west, occurring at the mouths of

rivers and on brackish lagoons in that parts extends some distance

up large rivers, but it is not found on ‘olan tanks.

8, PonroAETus IcHrHyantus, Horsf.—The white-tailed

Sea Eagle. Pontoaetus Ichth yaetus.-- Lay yard, Annals Natural

History, page 101, 1553; omitted from Kelaart’s list, Prodromus

Faune Zeylanica.

Numerous about tanks in the Eastern Province, on the north-

eastern coast, and in the Vanni: frequents the salt lagoons and

_estuaries to the north of Trincomalee ; occurs on the north-west

coast (Holdsworth’s Catalogue Ceylon Birds), rare on the south-

east coast, but observed in the Hambantota and Kataragama

country. This species is nowhere so abundant as P. leucogaster.

4, Haurastur Inpvus, Bedd.—Brahminy Kite; Brown-

backed Kite; Rajali, Sinh.

Abundant about most of the bays, mouths of rivers, salt lagoons, and

brackish waters round the whole Island, affects in particular Galle

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN THE SOCIETY’S MUSEUM. 17

and Trincomalee harbours and the Jaffna lake, though not so

numerous in the latter gets as Milvus Govinda; frequents paddy

lands in many districts far inland, and breeds sometimes as far as

thirty or forty miles up large rivers.

Mitvus Govinpa, Sykes.— Pariah Kite.

Numerous only about the Jaffna peninsula and down the west coast

as far as Kalpitiya and Chilaw districts; extends sparingly to

the south; pairs now and then seen in Galle and MAtara districts,

but I Thaw not observed it on the south-east coast. Affects Trin-

comalee harbour in the south-west monsoon, but leaves in the

north-east.

Note.—It is strange that this Kite should be comparatively

local in Ceylon, when it is so widely distributed round the Indian

coast. I have seen it in no part of the Island so abundant ag

about the town of Jaffua.

TINNUNCULUS ALAUDARIUS, Gmelin.—Kestrel.

_ The Kestrel, which is a winter visitor to Ceylon, is found all round

) a,

the coast wherever there are rocky clifis, about which it always

remains, roosting on the same spot the whole season. I did not

observe it on the south-east coast, but it no doubt affects that

part as well as Trincomalee, Jaffna, and all round the west coast

to Galle, where an individual takes upits abode each year regularly

at the hich corner of the ramparts overlooking the sea. Arrives

about first week in October, and leaves again as late as the 20th

April in the extreme south. Layard says of this bird, Annals

Natural History, 1853, page 102, “common in all open plains

throughout the Island which are dotted with jungle.” I conclude

he means open plains along the sea border, as I have never

observed it far inland; the only district where I should imagine it

would be found at any distance from the sea, would be the Northern

Province, south of Jatina, and in the upper part of the Vanni.

MicRONISUS BADIUS, Gmelin. —The ‘“ Shikra,” Indian

Sparrow-hawk; Accipiter Badius—Layard, Annals Natural His-

115

tory, 1853, page 104; Kelaart, Prodromus Faun Zeylanica, page

Common throughout the low country on both sides of the Island;

abundant in the north-east of the Province and in the south;

extends into the Central Province up to 4,000 feet; occurs

frequently in Dumbara.

Evanus MreLanoptrrerus, Daud.—The black-shouldered

Kite; Layard, Annals Natural History, 1853, page 104.

Western Province, hill district of south-west and flat country of the

south-east; occurs at Bdépé and throughout the Rayigam and

18 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

Pasdun Koralés; frequents citronella grass estates and open lands

in the Galle district, more numerous however in the Kataragama

2 country, and probably frequent throughout the Eastern Province.

I did not cbserve it in the north-east, though Layard, loc. cit.,

records it from Jafina as one of our rarest Raptores,

9. Circus Swainsonu, A. Smith.—The Pale Harrier;

Swainson’s Harrier. Layard, Annals Natural History,1853, page

104.

Local in distribution, common in parts. In the Southern Province

on large tracts of paddy land and open hill sides near Galle, in

parts of Tangalla and near Hambantota, and round the south-east

coast generally ; in the north-west and about Trincomalee, where

it is common.

Note.—The Harriers, which are all winter visitants to this

country, arrive in September mostly in young eee and are

more humerous some years than others.

10. Circus Cineracreus, Mont.— Montague’s Harrier.

Layard, Annals Natural History, 1853, page 105. :

Inhabits open bushy plains in dry parts of the country, differing in

its choice of habitat from the foregoing species, which frequents

by choice marshy and paddy lands in company with Cireus Cirugi-

nosus. Found about Colombo, but is rare; more numerous on the

south-east coast, tolerably frequent in the Kataragama district.

ll. ATHENE CastTaNnronoTa, Blyth.—The Chesnut-winged

Owl, Athene Castanotus, Blyth—Layard,Annals Natural History,

1853, page 105; also Kelaart, Prodromus Faune Zeylanica, —

page 110.

This little owl, which is our only raptoral bird peculiar to the Island,

is local in its distribution. Inhabits both low and high country ;

have seen itin Upper Dimbula ; common in the Knuckles district,

where it is found about mountain streams at sunset ; numerous in

the south-west, particularly up the Gindurah; found about Colombo

at times, frequenting also the Negombo districts, Recorded from

Nuwara Eliya (Kelaart, Podromus Faune Zeylanica, Natural

History of Nuwara Eliya.)

12. Ninox nizsuta, Temm.—The brown Hawk-owl. Athene

Scutellata, Gray—Kelaart, Prodromus Faune Zeylanica, pagel 10.

By Seutellata, Raffiese—Layard, Annals Natural History, 1853,

page 106.

This is the rarest owl. Found in the wooded districts round Bopé

and Avisdwélla, also in the neighbourhood of Puttalam. I am

unable to say whether it is found in the hills, but I have seen it

once in the wooded country of the south-west.

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN THE SOCIETY’S MUSEUM. 19

13. Epnratres BAKKAMUNA, Forster,—The little-eared Owl.

Ephialtes Lempigu, Horsf.— Lay ard, Annals Natural History,

1854, page 106; Kelaart, ee Baur Zeylanica, page 116.

Numerous throughout all the low country, abundant in the neigh-

bourhood of Galle ; common round Colombo, also in the north ;

extends to considerable elevation in the hills. Frequents rows

of trees in towns, church steeples, also bamboo thickets and low

jungle, native gardens, &e.

14, Syrnium Inpranen, Sykes.— The brown Wood Owl.

Bacha Muna, Sinh.

Affects forest (1 Mukalana) in the low country and in the hills; ranges

up to 5,000 feet in Central Province ; found in the forests near

Hanwella in the Western Province, also in all forests of the

south-west of the Island; frequents the low jungle of the Mannar

district. (Holdsworth’s Catalogue Ceylon Birds, 1872, No. 27.)

fote.—It is as difficult to define accurately the range of

Strigide and to note the particular districts they affect most,

as it is to acquire a thorough knowledge of their economy. Their

nocturnal habits lead to their: being passed over in some instances

by all but the most diligent observers, particularl, if their notes are

not well known. Until the past few years the Forest Eagle Owl

of the South of India (Huhua Pectoralis, Jerdon) which has, of

course, always been resident in this island, was not known to

inhabit it, but since Mr. Bligh procured his specimens in the

Central Province, a good many of the species have been either

shot or seen. I met with it in the great forests of the north-

east last January, and find that it inhabits the higher “ Mukalana”

all throughout the south-west.

15. CaprimuLeus AsiaTicus, Latham.—The Indian Night- |

jar. :

Abundant in the scrubby country along the sea border at Trinco-

malee, also in all similar localities on the north and west coast,

for instance, in the Cinnamon Gardens near Colombo; not so

plentiful as the next species in the south; very plentiful in the

jungles of Hambantota and in the Magam Pattu.

16. CAPRIMULGUS ATRIPENNIS, Jerdon.— The black-winged

Night-jar. Bassa, Sinhalese, for this family as well as for small

Owls. Caprimulgus mahrattensis, Sykes: erroneously )—Layard,

Annals Natural History, 1853, page 166; Kelaart, Prodromus

Faune Zeylanica, page 117. Vide Holdsworth, Catalogue

Ceylon Birds, No. 46.

Numerous in the low country and subsidiary hill districts of the

south-west (notably round Wakwella and Baddegama), in the

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

low jungles cf the Hambantota and Kirinda country, and toler-

ably plentiful in the north-east near Trincomalee; occurs spar-

ingly in the Western Province, and almost absent from the North.

(Layard, loc. cit.)—I presume he speaks of the Jatina district.

Note.—This species, unlike the foregoing, perches much on

trees; the male when uttering at sunset the remarkable note, so

much heard in the south, is always perched on a branch of a tree.

CrpseLus BatTassIEnsis, Gray——The Palm Swift.

Wahelayna, Sinh. Cypselus ‘ Balassiensis,” Gray—Layard,

Annals Natural History, 1853, page 167. Kelaart, Prodromus

Faune Zeylanica, page 117.

Equally numerous in all parts of the country, and extending into

18.

Swift.

the hills to the elevations of Nuwara Eliya and Horton Plains.

{ observed it less numerous in the north-east monsoon about the

neighbourhood of Kataragama than elsewhere, which may have

been owing to their having been collected in other parts to breed.

It ranges throughout the Morowak Koralé, and other southern

hills. Kelaart omits it from his list of Nuwara Eliya birds,

Prodromus Faun Zeylanica.

DENDROCHILIDON Coronatus, Tickell.—The Crested

Macreptenyx, Swainson; M. coronatus— Layard, Annals

Natural History, 1853, page 167; Kelaart, Prodromus Faunz

Zeylanica, page 117.

Resident all the year round in the south, but not always affecting

19.

the same localities; migratory to the Western Province in the

north-east monsoon, occurs about Trincomalee at the same

season, probably more numerous there in the other monsoon.

Abundant generally in the vicinity of Galle; affects precipitous

hill-sides and open clearings where there are dead trees, on which

it perches much.

Coracias InpicA, Linn.—The Roller. “Jay” of Europeans.

Distributed throughout the low country, but very local in its habitat.

20.

I have never met with it in any part of the south-western hill-

country. Most numerous about Jaffna and the “ peninsula,” and

in the open country near the tanks throughout the north coast

from ‘Trincomalee to Anuradhapura. Near Colombo it occurs

at Bopé, Pora, and many parts of the Rayigam Kéralé.

HarpactTes Fasciatus, Forster—The Trogon. Har-

pactes fasciatus, Linn.—Layard, Annals Natural History, 1853,

page 171.

Throughout the whole Island where there is primeval forest or

“Miukaldna ;’”’ abundant in such spots in the Rayigam Koralé,

being found near Haywella, within twelve miles of Colombo; in all

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN THE SOCIETY’S MUSEUM, 21

the forests of the Gangaboda and Hinidum Pattus and Kukulu

and Morowak Koralés, as regards the south of the Island ;

throughout all the coffee districts and highest hills of the Central

Province, and in the great forests between the north road and

Trincomalee.

21. PELARGOPSIS GuRIAL, Pearson.—The Cape King-fisher,

Buff-breasted King-fisher. Maha Pilihnudua, Sink.; vide Holds-

worth’s Catalogue Ceylon Birds, P.Z.S. 1872, No. 54; Halcyon

Capensis, Zinn.— Layard, Annals Natural History, 1853, page

171; Kelaart, Prodromus Faune Zeylanica, page 119.

Throughout the low country wherever there is water. In the

Western Province it is found about Bolgoda Lake and up the

Kalu Ganga; in the Southern Province it is abundant on the

Gindurah and Nilwelle rivers, extending to the foot of the hills;

numerous on all tanks of the Eastern Province and about all the

Swamps and inland waters of the Northern Province, from

Trincomalee to Anuradhapura ; abundant about Batticaloa, accord-

ing to Layard.

22. Hatcyon Smyrnensis, Lian.—The Smyrna King-

fisher, White-breasted King-fisher. Pilihudua, Sinh.—Layard,

Annals Natural History, 1853, page 172.

Common throughout the low country, extending into the hills to

4,000 feet, and Kelaart includes it in his Nuwara Eliya list of birds

(Prodromus Faunze Zeylanica); abundant in the Western and

Southern Provinces, occurring in the Morowak Koralé sparingly,

not so numerous in the south-east.

23. ALCEDO BENGALENSIS, Gmelin—The Indian King-

fisher, Little King-fisher. Pilihudua, Sinh. |

Distributed throughout the whole Island, extending into the Central

Province to the plains of Nuwara Eliya, very abundant about

paddy fields, rivers and streams in the Western and Southern

Provinces, and less numerous in the south-eastern district ;

plentiful in the Northern Province and in the neighbourhood of

Trincomalee ; common close to Galle; believed may at times be

seen on the rocks at the entrance to the Dutch Canal; occurs in

Colombo lake in numbers,

24, CrryLe Rupis, Linn.—The Pied King-fisher—Layard,

Annals Natural History, 1853, page 172.

Numerous on canals, streams, and the stiller parts of rivers in the

“Southern Province, extending inland to the foot of the hills ;

tolerably frequent in the Western Province, at Kalutara, near

Bentota, on Bolgoda lake, and the like spots; found on the salt

lagoons of the Hambantota and Trincomalee districts. In the

25.

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.) ~

south it is particularly numerous on the Gindurah as far up as

the ‘“ Haycock.”

Mrrops PHILIPPENSIS, Linn. —The Blue-tailed Bee-

eater. “ Fly-catcher” of Europeans. Layard, Annals Natural

History, 1853, page 173. Kelaart, Prodromous Faune ES

page 119,

Migratory to Ceylon, arriving at the beginning of September in

26.

the north, and reaching the south about the middle of that month, —

Spread thr pu hout the Central Province up to 6,000 feet, at which

elevation I have found it numerous near Puscellawe and in the

Knuckles ; exceedingly abundant throughout the low country of

the south-west and about the Fort at Galle ; scarce in the Morowak

Koralé, and not plentiful in the south-east; tolerably numerous in

parts of the Trincomalee country and in the extreme north. Kelaart

records it from Nuwara Eliya in his list from that part. It is

rare about Colombo. Leaves the south about the Ist of April,

though stragglers remain some years as late as the middle of that

month. Holdsworth also records it as very numerous at Aripo;

says it leaves the north during the same month.

Merrops Viripis, “inn.— The Green Bee-eater.

This charmingly tame little bird is partial to certain districts of the

low country, and does not extend into the hills. 1% prefers the

dry and hot portions of the Island, is absent from the south-west,

but exceedingly abundant trom ‘Tangalla round the south-east

and east coasts to ‘Trincomalee and the extreme north. Itis more

numerous in the neighbourhood of Hambantota than about Trin-

comalee, and is, I imagine, resident in that district throughout

the year. Holdsworth says itis abundant at Aripo, and mentions

it being seen sometimes about Colombo. I have not remarked it

there.

MeEROPS QUINTICOLOR, Vieill.—The Chesnut-headed

Bee-eater.

Very local in its distribution. Affects the borders of rivers, in

particular, in the south-west up to thirty or forty miles from the

sea, but does not extend to an elevation of more than 1,000 feet.

Notably numerous on the Gindurah, from where the banks become

hilly to beyond the Haycock, also on the Kaluganga to Ratnapura.

Note.—I confess I cannot look on this as a strictly hill species;

it is very partial to rivers with hilly banks, and follows them up

into or just to the foot cf the mountains ; although it has been

found in the vicinity of Kandy, it must be far scarcer there than

on the rivers of the south-west, where it breeds in numbers.

When Layard says, Annals Natural History, 1853, page 174,

“ Whilst the two former frequent low open plains and are rarely,

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN THE SOCIETY'S MUSEUM. 23

if ever, seen in the elevated districts, the present species on the

contrary affects the hilly forest region;’ I cannot but think that

he must have been mistaken in his identification. ‘These remarks

of a certainty donot apply to M. Philippinus, which I have found

on all elevated patanas from the Knuckles to Upper Dimbula, in

which localities I have never seen a sign of the Chestnut- headed

bird. I do not think itextends above the elevation of Kandy. I

have never met with,it in the south-east, though it is found

sparingly near the borders of jungle in the Trincomalee districts.

Holdsworth records it in his catalogue from near Kandy.

2h Tuckus GIncaLensis, Shaw,— The Ceylon Horn-Bill.

*“Toncan” of Europeans. Kéndétta, Sinh.; Buceros apud, Shaw.

Buceros Gingalensis, Shaw.— Layard, Annals Natural History,

1554, volume 13, page 260. Kelaart, Prodromus Faune Zeylanica,

page 126.

Affects all forests on the south-west and north-east, the high jungle of

the Morowak and Kukulu Koralés and all parts of the Central

Province up to 2,000 feet, likewise the jungle in the north-west,

according to Holdsworth; but I did not observe it in the ana-

logous district of Kataragama, though it is possible it inhabits the

forests along the rivers of that part. It is numerous near Galle

in the Kottowe Mukalana and in the great Opaté and Udugama,

as well asin the Morowak Koralé and Hinidum forests; also com-

mon in the jungles between Anuradhapura and Trincomalee, and

probably in the wild country between Ratnapura and Avisawélla.

29. Loriouuus Inpicus, Gmelin.—Ceylon Lorikeet. Girawa

Malitchia, Sink. Vide Holdsworth’s Catalogue Ceylon Birds,

P. Z.5,, No. 66; Loriculus Asiaticus, Lath.— Layard, Annals

Natural History, 1854, page 261; Kelaart, Prodromus Faune

Zeylanica, page 127.

Very abundant in the south-west (which part is its head quarters) in

the cocoanut districts throughout all the cultivated parts of the

interior, and also in the forests at certain seasons when various

species of timber trees are in flower; common in the Central

Province, about wooded patanas in the Pussell4awa, Dumbara,

Knuckles, and other districts of similar elevation. Occurs in the

Pasdun and adjoining Kéralés in the Western Province, but not so

abundantly asin the south. Layard traced it as far east as Ham-

bantota, but I believe it is absent from the country beyond that,

as also from the Eastern Province. Idid not meet with it in the

districts between Anuradhapura and Trincomalee, where I found

so many of our peculiar Ceylon birds (vide Note on Phenico-

phous phyrrhocephalus), but I should not be surprised if it were

added to my list from that locality before long.

24 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

30. PaLnmorNIs ALEXANDRI, Linn.—The red-shouldered

Parokeet. Loku Girawa, Sinh. —Layard, Annals Natural History,

1854, Volume 13, page 262.

Appears to be chiefly confined to the east coast, always abundant

in the Batticaloa country, and at seasons near Trincomalee ; oceurs

as astrageler in the low country from Panaduré down to MAtara,

but I did not meet with it in the south-east.

31. PALHORNIS TORQUATUS, Bodd.—The Rose-winged

Parokeet. Rana Girawd, Sinh. Paleornis torquatus, Briss.—

Layard, Annals Natural History, 1854, page 262; Kelaart,

Prodromus Faune Zeylanica, page 127.

Very abundant round Trincomalee, particularly about Tampala-

k4mam; numerous near Hambantota and about Tangalla; very

abundant down north-west coast (Puttalam, Chilaw, &c.) Accord-

ing to Layard, this Parokeet frequents maritime districts for the

most part. I have not met with it in the interior, it is a low-

country bird.

32. Panmornis Rosa, Bodd.—Purple-headed Parokeet.

Paleornis Cyannaphalus, Linn. — Layard, Annals Natural

History, 1854, page 264. Kelaart, Prodromus Faune Zeylanica,

page 127,

South-western and central hill districts. Common all through the

low wooded country of the south-west, up to highest parts of

Morowak Kéralé, where however it is less numerous than at

lesser elevations; abundant about the patanas of the Knuckles,

Pussellawa, and Deltota districts, and in fact all through the Cen-

tral Province up to 3,000 feet. Absent from the south-east.

33. PaLtmornis CaLTHROP, Layard.--Ceylon Parokeet.

Alloo Girawa, Sinh.

Note.—Kelaart seems to have reversed the English names of

this and the last species (Prodromus Faunew Zeylanica, page 127)

when he calls this bird the “‘ Purple-headed Parokeet,” and the

former the “Ashy-headed Parokeet.”

Ranges from the hills north of Kandy to the subsidiary ranges at

the Upper Gindurah, down to 70% or 800 feet above the sea;

this latter is the lowest point at which it is found. Common round

Kandy, in the valley of Dumbara, and about the lower patanas in

the Knuckles and Pussellawa districts; exceedingly abundant in

the Sinha Rajah forests and on the south of the Kukulu Koralé

(the head-quarters of so many “ Ceylon” birds), and tolerably

abundant in parts of the Morowak Koralé. Kelaart notes it at

Nuwara Eliya (List of Nuwara Eliya Birds, Prodromus Faunze

Zeylanica. )

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN THE SOCIETY'S MUSEUM. 25

34. MErcGaLAImMA ZEYLANICA, Gmelin.—The Ceylon Barbet,

Kottéruw4, Sink.; Megalaima caniceps, Frank, (the Indian

species);— Layard, Annals Natural History, 1854, page 446,

Very abundant throughout most parts of the low-country, more so

in the south than the north however ; extends up to about 2,000

feet in the Central and Southern Provinces. I did not find it in

the Kataragama districts, nor did Mr. Holdsworth in the north-

west; it is however tolerably numerous in the north-eastern

jungles between the Central road and Trincomalee. It is more

abundant some little distance inland from the vicinity of Colombo

than anywhere else.

35. MEGALAIMA FLAVIFRONS, Cuvier.—The yellow-fronted

Barbet; Kottéruw4, Sinh.

Southern, Western, and Central Provinces. Occursin the Rayigam

Koralé, some little distance from Colombo, and ranges into the

Central Province up to 3,000 feet, being particularly abundant in

all the coffee districts and patanas of that part; but, common as it

is there, it is nowhere so numerous as in the Kukulu Koralé,

Sinha Rajah, and Udugama forests of the Southern Province.

Those magnificent reserves of timber too low for coffee cultivation,

and which sweep up and down the hills and valleys of that part,

stretching away for miles in an unbroken sea of green, without

scarcely a kurakkan clearing to arrest the eye, are the choice

resorts of most of our peculiar Ceylon species, and there they are

found in greater abundance than elsewhere. M. Flavifrons

inhabits all the hills on the banks of the Gindurah down to Kot-

towe forest, ten miles from Galle.

36. XanTHoLt#ma [npica, Lath.—The red-breasted Barbet,

“Copper-smith” of Europeans; Megalaima Philippensis, Briss.—

Layard, Annals Natural History, 1854, page 447; Kelaart,

Prodromus Faunz Zeylanica, page 127.

Very abundant throughout the north, extending beyond Trincomalee

towards Batticaloa on the east, and down to the forests between

Kurunégala and Puttalam on the west. It is rare in the latter

district and very numerous in both jungle and cultivated country

between the Central road and Trincomalee. Holdsworth records

it as common at Aripu.

37. XANTHOLZEMA RUBRICAPILLA, Gmelin.— The red-headed

Barbet, “Copper-smith” inthe Western Province. Megalaima

rubricapilla, Gmelin.—Layard, Annals Natural History, 1854,

page 448; Kelaart, Prodromus Faune Zeylanica, page 127.

Most parts of: the low-country, except in the dry and hot districts

of the south-east and north-west, extending into the hills to about

1,000 feet. Layard records it from Batticaloa and Jaffna. The

26° ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.) -

Western and Southern Provinces are however its head quarters,

in all districts of which it is exceedingly abundant; occurs”

throughout the wooded country of the north-east, but is not.

plentiful there.

38. Yuneipicus Gymnorruaumos, Blyth.—The Pigmy

Wood-pecker. Jayard’s Wood-pecker, Picus Gymnopthalmos,

Blyth.— Layard, Annals Natural History,1854, page 448. Kelaart,

Prodromus Faune Zeylanica, page i128.

Western and Southern Provinces. In the Colombo district it is

found some little distance inland, particularly about the wooded

country round Hanwelia; in the Southern Province it is more

numerous, and affects all the low hill-country up to 2,000 feet in

the Morowak Koralé. In the Central Province I have traced it

up to 2,000 feet in the Pussellawa coffee districts.

39. CHRYSOPHLEGMA CHLOROPHANES, Vietll.—The South-

ern Yellow-naped Woodpecker; Gecinus Chlorophanes, Viedll.—

Layard, Annals Natural History, page 448; Kelaart, Prodromus

Faune Zeylanica, page 128.

Sparingly distributed throughout the north-east, west, and south-

west of Ceylon, and extending into the hills, where Kelaart pro-

cured it as high as Nuwara Eliya. Found within ten miles of

Colombo; tolerably frequent up the valley of the (indurah, and

rare in the north-east near Trincomalee. It most likely affects

the Anurdidhapura, Vanni, and the country to the east of the

central mountain zone,

40. Bracuyprernus Ceytonus, Forster —The Ceylon red

Woodpecker; Kérald, Sinh.

Widely distributed throughout the low-country of the southern half

of the Island and in the north-east, and extending into the hills

up to 3,000 feet or more in the Pussellawa and Knuckles districts.

The headquarters of this Woodpecker are from a little south of

Colombo round the south-west to Matara; in this locality it is

exceedingly abundant, especially in the cocoanut lands of the

maritime districts. I did not observe this species as frequent in

the Morowak Koralé as I should have expected.

41. Bracuyprernus Puncricoiyiis.—The Lessen Golden-

backed Woodpecker. Vide Holdsworth, Catalogue Ceylon Birds,

POG. ere. No. (3, bes.

Jafina peninsula and Vanni district, and in the maritime districts of

the north-east. I found this Woodpecker near the sea coast in the

neighbourhood of Trincomalee, and likewise in the forests between

the Central road and that-place; it is nowhere common, unless

the bird mentioned by Layard under the name of B. Aurantius,

as being so numerous in the Jaffna peninsula, be this species.

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN THE SOCIETY’S MUSEUM. 27

42.

Note.—Mr. Holdsworth says with justice, /oc. ctt.: “ A further

examination of the golden-backed Woodpeckers of Ceylon appears

desirable, as the species generally met there is more likely to be

B. Punciicollis, common in Southern India, than Brachypternus

Aurantius, which has a more northerly range.” I think that it is

extremely probable that future investigation will shew that the

Jaffna bird, spoken of by Layard, as so numerous there, is the

former species and not the latter, as noted in his Catalogue, Annals

Natural History, 1854, page 448, under the name of B. Au-

rantius. I received two specimens from Doctor Ondaatje in

1870, which were shot in the peninsula, and presented by him to

the Soeiety’s Museum, and these proved to be B. Puncticollis,

and not B. Aurantius.

CentTropus RuFipennis, Jiliger.— The red-winged

Ground Cuckoo, “Jungle Crow.” Eti-kukul4, Sink. Centropus

-Philippensis, Cuvier.— Layard, Annals Natural History, 1854,

page 450. Kelaart, Prodromus Faune Zeylanica, page 128..

Numerously distributed in the low-country, and extending up to:

43.

3,000 feet in the central zone and in the Morowak. Kéralé.

Kelaart has it in his list of Nuwara Eliya birds (Prodromus Faune

Zeylanica.) This Cuckoo is specially numerous throughout the

Western Province, among the low wooded hills and cultivated

lands of the south-west, and in the maritime districts of the

north-east, Holdsworth found it once even in the north-west

about Aripu. It is also an inhabitant of the jungles on the south-

east coast.

POLYPHASIA PasseRINA, Vahl.— The Plaintive Cuckoo.

Cuculus apud, Blyth, in his Catalogue, Birds in Asiatic Society’s

Museum. Cuculus tenuirostris, Gray.—Layard, Annals Natural

History, 1854, page 453; Kelaart, Prodromus Faune Zeylanica,

page 129.

Migratory to Ceylon, appearing, according to Layard, about Jaffna

44,

in February, and in tae north-east (about Aripu), according to

Holdsworth, in January. ‘hey were however plentiful in the

neighbourhood of Trincomalee in October last, so that they would

appear to frequent the eastern side of the Island at an earlier date

than the entrance north. Particularly abundant in the Northern

and Eastern Provinces and south-eastern districts ; frequents the

Euphorbia jungles about Hambantota in numbers. It is rare

in the south-west and likewise in the Western Province.

SurnicuLus Dricrurorpss, Hodgson.—The Drongo

tailed Cuckoo. -Omitted from both Layard and Kelaart’s lists.

Inhabits inland jungles in. the Western and Northern Provinces

(Trincomalee district), and has been procured in the lower hills

28 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

near Kandy, (Holdsworth, Catalogue Ceylon Birds.) I have not

met with it either in the south-western hills or in the low-country

of that part; but it probably occurs on the south-east coast in

the jungles there. It occurs rarely in all these localities. Also

found as near Colombo as Kétté, and has been procured in several

places in the Héwagam Koralé and in the Kurunégala district.

All examples that have been brought to me, or that I have myself

shot, have occurred in the north-east monsoon, If it is resident

in Ceylon, which I doubt, it is most probably migratory from the

eastern side during that season.

44 bis. Coocystres Jacosinus, Bodd.—The Crested Cuckoo.

Oxylophus Serratus, Spars.—Kelaart, Prodromus Faune Zey-

lanica, page 128. Oxylophus Melanoleucos, Gmelin.—Layard,

Annals Natural History, 1854, page 451.

Abundant in the north and south-east, where the country is covered

with low jungle ; sparingly distributed through the low-country

of the south-west; occurs in the Trincomalee distriet in the north-

east monsoon; it is decidedly migratory to the south-west during

that season. It extends into the hills, being found in Dumbara,

44. Eupynamis Honorata, Linn.—The Koel: Koha, Kavadi-

koha, Sink. Eudynamis Orientalis, Linn. — Layard, Annals

Natural History, 1854, page 451; Kelaart, Prodromus Faune

Zeylanica, page 129.

Very numerous in the south-west, where it is resident all the year

round; common in the Hambantota and Trincomalee districts

during the north-east monsoon; tolerably plentiful in the Western

Province, where I have procured it in the south-west monsoon not

far from Colombo. I am not aware that this species extends to

any considerable elevation into the hills.

Note.— Holdsworth says (Catalogue Ceylon Birds, No. 88) that

he never met with this bird after April, and that he believes it to

be “a true migratory bird.” This, as it appears from the above

distribution, is erroneous. I have shot it in the Galle district at

the end of June, and seen it during the whole of the south-west

monsoon. It is possible that it may, like some few of our birds,

notably Dendrochelidon Coronatus and Tephrodorius Pondiceriana,

migrate from the south to the north of the Island at certain seasons.

46. PHa@NICOPHAUS PYRRHOCEPHALUS, Forster.— The red-

faced Malkoha. Mal Kéndetta, Sinh. |

This rare and beautiful bird I have discovered lately to have a much

more extended range in Ceylon than has hitherto been supposed.

It inhabits the high tree jungles and forests situated some distance

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN THE SOCIETY'S MUSEUM. 2g

inland in the Western Province, those of the south-west from

Baddégama to the foot of the hills, and the vast stretches of

timbered country between the Northern road and Trincomalee.

I have never seen or heard of any examples of this Cuckoo from

the Central Province or southern hills, and am therefore of the

opinion that it is exclusively confined to the low-country.

Note.—The discovery that I made last January of this and other

Ceylon birds hitherto only recorded from the Southern and Central

Provinces, such as Oreocincla spiloptera, Chrysocolaptes Strick-

landi, Drymocataphus fuscicapillus, and the present species, in

the northern forests between Anuradhapura and Trincomalee, very

agreeably surprised me, and it only shews how imperfectly the

more remote parts of the Island have been worked, and how much

information as regards some peculiar Ceylon birds there is yet in

store for the persevering naturalist.

47. ZaNcLosTOMUS VIRIDIROSTRIS, Jerdon.—The green-

billed Malkoha. Mal-koha, Sitnh.—Layard, Annals Natural

History, 1854, volume 13, page 453; Kelaart, Prodromus Faunz

Zeylanica, page 129.

Widely distributed throughout the low-country; tolerably frequent

in the south-west in low, thick, scrubby jungle near the sea

(Watering Point, &c.); abundant in the districts of the south-east,

also in the maritime districts near Trincomalee, and, according to

Holdsworth, in the neighbourhood of Aripu and Mannér. It

occurs, but not very frequently, in the Western Province.

48. NECTAROPHILA ZEYLONICA, Lirn.— The yellow-breasted

Honey-eater. ‘ Sunbird,” “ Humming bird” of Europeans;

Leptocomo apud Cabanie, Nectarina Zeylonica, Linn.— Layard,

somes Natural History, 1853, page !75; Kelaart Prodromus

Faunez Zeylanica, page 119,

Found in abundance in all parts of the Island (except the shee

where Holdsworth and Layard did not observe it) up to 4,000 feet

in the Central Province. Most abundant in the Western and

Southern Provinces; tolerably numerous al] throughout the north- >

east up to Jaffna; found on all patanas of the coftee districts, and

frequents the forests of the low-country when certain trees are in

flower.

Note.—Layard, loc. ett, remarks that Nectarina minima replaces

this species in the north. It is not clear what part he writes of,

except it be the north-west. I did not meet with it anywhere in

the ‘Trincomalee district, nor have I even been fortunate enough

to procure a specimen in Ceylon, so that I imagine it 1s very rare.

N. Zeylonica is common enough about the Naval Port.

30 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.) - -

49. ARACHNECHTHRA LOTENTA, Linn.—The Long-billed

Honey-eater, Purple Honey-eater, “Humming bird” of Europeans.

Equally widely distributed wiih the above, but not so common in the

hills; abundant in the Western and Southern Provinces; not so

numerous in the Hambantota country or in the north-east.

Note.—It is singular that the other species of this genus, A. Asiatica,

should be almost absent from the south-west, where its place is

taken by the last named, when it is so common on either side of

that district, viz., in the Western Province and in the south-east.

50. DENDROPHILA FRONTALIS, Horsf.—The Creeper.—

Layard, Annals Natural History, 1853, volume 12, page 176.

Distributed throughout all the hill districts, from Nuwara Eliya,

where Kelaart and Holdsworth procured it, to the low-country, in

which it occurs sparingly and at uncertain times. It is very

common in the Udugama and Morowak Koralé forests as well

as in the central mountains.

51. UPUPA NIGRIPENNIS, Gould.—The Hoopoe. Upupa

Senegalensis, Swains.— Layard, Annals Natural History, 1853,

page 174; Kelaart, Prodromus Faune Zeylanica, page 119.

Abundant in the north-west (Aripu district) in the winter months,

according to Holdsworth; common in the Jaffna peninsula, where

I found a pair breeding in January; abundant in the Kataragama

district in the north-east monsoon, where it frequents the edges

of the scrubs surrounding the salt lakes. It is rare in the

Western Province.

52. Hemipus Picatus, Syes.—-The little Pied Shrike.

Distributed throughout the low-country of the Western, Southern,

and part of the Northern Provinces, and likewise extending into

the hills of the Central Province to the highest altitudes. ‘The

only part of the low-country where it is common is among the

woods and low hills of the Southern Province, becoming ‘still

more abundant in the intermediate forests of the Gindurah. It is

found all through the Kukulu and Morowak Kéralés, and is com-

mon in all districts in the ceutral zone that I have visited. It is

rare about Colombo, affecting the wooded country near Hanwella,

and it is sparingly located in the forest country between Trinco-

malee and the central road. It affects the finer and more verdant

strips of jungle along the rivers of the south-east coast. Layard

records it from Jaffua.

53. Vouvocivora SyKesil, Strickland.—The lesser Cuckoo

Shrike. Campephaga Sykesii, Strick.~--Layard, Annals Natural

History, 1854, page 128; Kelaart, Prodromus Faune Zeylanica,

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN THE SOCIETY’S MUSEUM. 31

omitted; vide Holdsworth, Catalogue Ceylon birds, P. Z. S.,

1872, No. 106, as to female.

Found throughout all the low-country, and extending into the

Central Province and southern hills to an elevation of 3,000 feet;

rare in the Western Province, where it appears confined to certain

districts; common in the south-west up the valleys of the Gin-

durah and its tributaries, plentiful on the south-east coast, abundant

in the bushy lands surrounding some of the salt lakes of the

north-east, and, according to Holdswor th, very common in the

north-west (Aripu. )

Note.— My experience of the plumage of the female of this bird

accords with that of Mr. Holdsworth, /oc. cit. I have never

obtained or seen a single example with the black head and

neck,

54, GravucaLus Layarpt, Blyth.—The large Southern

Cuckoo. Campephaga Macei, Lessen.— Layard, Annals Natural

History, 1854, page 128; Cunmenlne Pussellus, Blyth.

’ Arare bird in Ceylon; Layard mentions it as found in the Southern

Province, Anuals Natural History (/oc. cit.), but I have never

yet met with it here. It occurs in the Western Province between

Colombo and Ratnapura, and is likewise procured now and then

in Dumbara.

55. Prricrocotus FLaMMeEUS, Forster.—The Scarlet

Minnivet. “ Fly-catcher” of Europeans. ‘ Sultan” of Coffee

planters.— Layard, Annals Natural History, 1854, volume 13,

pave 127; Kelaart, Prodromus Faune Zeylanica, page '23.

Widely distributed, inhabiting the hills in numbers and descending

into the low-country im some parts, though not occurring near

the sea. Abundant in the Knuckles and Pussellawa districts,

affecting mostly the high jungle in * mukalana,” and very numer-

ous in all the fine Southern forests. Hoidsworth says it is

abundant at Nuwara Eliya, where however Kelaart did not seem

to have observed it. I have not met with it nearer Colombo

than the small tract of forest at Poré é, where the Trogon is alse

common. It is found inthe north-eastern forests.

56. Pertcrocorus PEREGRINUS, Linn.— The little Minnivet.

Layard, Annals Natural History, 1854, volume 13, page 127;

Kelaart, Prodromus Faunez Zeylanica, page 123.

Common throughout the Island from the maritime districts up to

3,5C0 feet, according to my observation, and extending in the

north-east monsoon up to Nuwara Eliya, where Holdsworth found

it plentiful, ‘and from where it is recorded in Kelaart’s list, loc. ett.

It is common at all seasons in the Galle district, and I have met

with it in the Fort at Jaffna.

32 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

57. ArtTamus Fuscus, Vieill.—The Wood Swallow. Layard,

Annals Natural History, 1854, volume J3, page 128; Kelaart,

Prodromus Faune Zeylanica, page 124, also gives in addition, by

some mistake, A. Leucorhynchus, a Philippine Islands species.

Abundant in many localities of all parts of the low-country, notably

round the Bolgoda and Panaduré lakes in the north-east monsoon,

up the valley of the Gindurah at all seasons, and about Trincomalee

in the winter season. Rare about Colombo and common in the

north-west, according to Holdsworth. It does not appear to

extend far inland, being found mostly along the sea border.

68. Lanius CRISTATuS, Linn.—The Rufous Shrike. “ Butcher

bird” of Europeans. Lanius superciliosus, Linn.—- Layard, An-

nals Natural History, 1854, page 130; omitted from Kelaart’s

list, Prodromus Faune Zeylanica.

Although Layard does not mention it, I am sure this bird is migratory

in the north-east monsoon to Ceylon. Holdsworth and myself

have only procured it in that season. Abundant on all dry, bushy,

open lands throughout the low-country, particularly so at Ham-

bantota and parts of the south-west in the vicinity of Galle,

near Lrincomalee, and according to Holdsworth, at Aripu. Ihave

found it in patanas in all the coffee districts, and Mr. Holdsworth

obtained it at Nuwara Eliya. It sometimes remains in the

Southern /’rovince as late as the last week in April.

59, TEPHRODORNIS PONDICERIANA, Gmeln.—The Wood

Shrike, Tephrodornis affinis, Blyth. (Vide Holdsworth, Catalogue

Ceylon Birds, P. Z. S.,1«72.) Tephrodornis affinis, Blyth.—

Layard, Annals Natural History, 154, page 131; Kelaart,

Prodromus Faunz Zeylanica, page 124.

Resident all the year round in the south of the Island, and appears

to migrate to the north and west in the north-east monsoon ;

common in the valley of the Gindurah, also in the Western

Province, and at Trincomalee in the north-east monsoon; likewise

on the south-east coast at the same season. I have never seen it

at Colombo in the south-west monsoon, nor has Mr, Holdsworth

observed it in the north-west during the prevalence of that wind.

Note.—The movements of this and some few other birds in our

list, are extremely puzzling; they would seem (these apparently

adventuresome individuals) to move in part from the south, where

they are resident throughout the year, to the north and west in

the face of the north-east monsoon, or else those we have here do

not migrate to the east during the south-west monsoon, finding

shelter enough from the wind among the countless little hills of

which this corner of the Island is composed, and hence are station-

ary here at all seasons, whereas their congeners, inhabiting the

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN THE SOCIETY’S MUSEUM. $133

north and west, are driven from those more exposed parts to the

other side of the Island, and return again with the influence of the

north-east monsoon. If this latter is the correct hypothesis, and

I am inclined to think it is, no migration takes places at all up

the west coast in the north-east monsoon from this district, those

parts being supplied only from the eastern side ; but I regret to

say my knowledge of what species frequent the Eastern Province

from May until Octcber is not sufficient to enable me to arrive at

any definite conclusion in the matter. |

60. DiIssEMURUS LOPHORHINUS, Viedll.—TheCeylon crested

Drongo. ‘ Kaputu béale” Sinhalese name for all the family. Di-

erurus Edolifornis, Blyth.—Layard, Annals Natural History,

1854, page 129; Kelaart, Prodromus Faune Zeylanica, page 124,

Exclusively confined to forests and has its head-quarters in the

south-west, where it is found in the “ Mukalana” up all the lower

hills up to 3,000 feet or more in the Sinha Rajah ranges and

inthe Morowak Koralé; occurs also in the jungles of the Héwagam

and Kuruwiti Kéralés. Layard procured it at Ambagamuwa, but

I did not meet with it in the coffee districts of the Central

Province, and therefore I would put it down as one of the most

locally distributed birds we have.

61.. BUCHANGA LECOPYGIALIS, Blyth.—The Ceylon Drongo

“ King Crow” of Kuropeans.

Confined to the Western, Central, and Southern Provinces ; very

abundant all through the hilly country of the south-west, affecting

cultivated lands in the valleys, clearings, copses, &c. I found it

in one or two of the coffee districts at an elevation of 3,000 feet,

and I met with more examples in the Pupuressa district than

elsewhere to the south of Kandy.

62. MyIALEstTes CINEREO CAPILLA, Vieill.--Theorey-headed

Fly-catcher, Cryptolopha. Cinereo capilla, Véeil/.—Layard,

Annals Natural History, 1854, page 127; Kelaart, Prodromus

Faune Zeylanica, page 123.

An inhabitant of the upper hillsof Ceylon. I have failed to find this

little bird anywhere out of the Central Province, but in the higher

parts of the Morowak Koralé. In India, Jerdon says that it

visits the plains in the cold weather, but however it must be looked

upon as strictly a hill species. It is abundant all through the

coffee districts down to about 3,500 feet, affecting especially the

edges of the forests above the estates. Holdsworth has it as very

common at.Nuwara Eliya.

63. LerucocERCcA AUREOLA, Lesson.—The White-fronted

Fan-tail. Leucocerca compressisostris, Blyth.— Layard, Annals

34 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

Natural History, 1854, page 126; Kelaart, Prodromus Faune

Zeylanica, page!23. Leucoterea Albotrontata, Franklin.— Holds-

worth, Catalogue Ceylon Birds, P. Z. 8. 1872, No. 119.

A rare species in Ceylon, being found sparingly here and there, both

in the low-country and Central Province, up to 3, 000 feet. Xt

occurs in the south-west, the specimen in the Museum having

been shot at Matara, and I have procured it at Baddégama ; ;

frequent about tanks in the south-eastern Province, affecting

the magnificent tamarind trees which grow on those spots. I

have seen it in the Knuckles in November, and Mr. Neville writes

habiting the neighbourhood of Nuwara Eliya, but whether it be

_ this bird or L. fuscoventris, is not as yet quite clear.

64. TcoHITREA Paranist, Linn.—The bird of Paradise Fly-

catcher. ‘ Bird of Paradise” of Europeans. ‘ Gini-hora,” Sinh.

(in the red stage) ‘ Redi-hora (in the white stage). Layard,

Annals Natural History, 1854, volume 13, page 136; Kelaart,

Prodromus Faune Zeylanica, page 123.

Migratory to Ceylon in the north-east monsoon, very numerous in

the north-east about Trincomalee as early as. the first week in

October; in the Western and Southern Provinces at the end of

that month. In the latter district it is abundant until March,

particularly on the tanks of the Gindurah as far as the “ Haycock ;”

I found it on the rivers of the south-east in March.

65. Auseonax Larirosrris Raffies--The Brown Fly-

catcher. Butalis Latirostris, Raffles.—Layard, Annals Natural

History, 1854, page 127; Kelaart, Prodromus Faunz Zeylanica,

page 123.

A winter visitant to Ceylon, and distributed throughout all parts of

the low-country and the hills up to 4,000 feet. It is nowhere

numerous, isolated examples being now and then met with in the

season, affecting detached clumps of trees, native gardens, the edges

of woods, and such like spots.

66. Cyornis JERDONI, G. &. Gray.—The Blue Red-breast.

omitted from Layard and Kelaart’s lists, but perhaps C. Rube-

culoides, Vigors.— Layard, Annals Natural History, 1854, page

125, as it is doubtful what species he wrote of at the time.

Occurs plentifully in forests in the Western Province (Héwagam

Ké6ralé) where it breeds; numerous in the jungles round ‘Trinco-

malee, even close to the sea, and in the forests between the Central

road and that place; common in the hill forests of the south-west,

but not found in the maritime districts of that part.

67.

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN THE SOCIETY’S MUSEUM. 35

Note.— The bird found in the Southern Province bas more blue

at the chin and along the side of the throat than my Western and

Northern Province examples, corresponding in fact to the descrip-

tion Holdsworth gives (Catalogue Ceylon Birds, P. Z. S. 1872,

No. 125.) of the peculiarity in the throat, of Ceylon examples of

C. Rubeculoides. I however have examples of this species from

the north with the entire blue throat and not with “the orange

colouring of the breast running up the centre” of it. Can there be

a third species peculiar to the Island, which has been mistaken for

Pirta BracuyurRa, Jerdon.—-The Pitta. The Short-

tailed Ground Thrush; “ Avichiya, Sinh,”

Migratory to Ceylon, arriving here in September, distributed over

68.

the whole Island up to Nuwara Eliya, and almost equally common

in all parts. It is perhaps less numerous in the hills and in the

cultivated parts of the Western Province than in the low jungles

of the south-west, north-east, and south-east. In the neighbour-

hood of Hambantota and Trincomalee I have found it more abundant

than in this district. It seems especially fond of the low Euphorbia

scrub in the Kataragama district.

OREOCINCLA SPILOPTERA, Blyth. Ath Bported Moun"

tain Thrush. |

I have lately discovered this bird to have a much more extended

69.

range than hitherto supposed. It is distributed throughout parts

of the Central Province, not mounting as high as Nuwara Eliya

according to Holdsworth, over the Morowak and Kukulu Koralés,

and occurs plentifully in places in the Northern Province in the

northeeast monsoon. I met with several in one spot in the splendid

forests on the road from Trincomalee to Anuradhapura. It doubtless

occurs in the low-hill forests of the Gangaboda Pattu in the Galle

district. I have once or twice got a glimpse of a bird along the

_ rocky streams of those jungles which could have been no other than

this species It is, as regards the Central Province, especially

common in Dumbara.

Atciprpe Nuierirrons, Blyth.—The Ceylon Wren-

babbler. Battichcha, Sinh. Layard, Annals Natural History,

1853, volume 12, page 269.

Numerous in jungles all over the Island, except perhaps the dry

country of the north-west (Aripu), where I observe Mr. Holds-

worth did not fisd it. Itis however abundant in parts of the

Trincomalee district, and likewise occurs (though not in jungle

near the sea) in the neighbour hood of Hambantota and Kataragama.

In the Central Province it is numerous up to the highest points,

and it is especially abundant in the bamboo thickets of the low-

36 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.) _

country near Galle, becoming perhaps a little less plentiful in the

Morowak Koralé and higher parts of the Hinidum Pattu. Ié is

found close to the Cinnamon ‘cardens, as regards Colombo, and is

numerous in all the woods and jungles of the Western Province.

70. DumetTia ALBOGULARIS, Blyth.—The White-throated

Wren-babbler; “* Pig Bird” of Europeans in India; Battichcha,

Sinh.— Layard, Annals Natural History, 1853, volume 12, page

202.

Great mistukes have been made about the range of this babbler owing

to its shy and skulking habits. I have discovered it to be widely

distributed throughout the Island and in some localities common,

although Layard remarks, loc. cit., “confined to the vicinity of

Colombo,” and Holdsworth (Cataitogue Ceylon Birds, P. Z. S. 1872,

No. 138) says that he only saw it in the vicinity of the Cinnamon

Gardens. It appears, it is true, to be rather numerous in that

particular locality, but it occurs in various parts of the Western

Province, ane all through the low wooded districts of the south-

west, as well as in the Central Province up to 2,500 feet, at which

elevation I met with it near Madulkele in the Knuckles.

71. DrymocaTapHus FusctcaPiLuus, Blyth.—The whist-

ling Wren-babbler; Battichcha Sinh.—Layard, Annals Natural

History 1853, volume 12, page 269.

Another bird hitherto passed over and considered very rare. Ex-

ceedingly numerous all through the low-country of the south-west

up to 2,000 feet in the Morowak Koralé and Hinidum Pattu, and

equally so in the Trincomalee district. Holdsworth remarks of

it in his Catalogue, No. 139, “I only know of three specimens

having been obtained, two of them by Layard in Colombo and

on the central road leading northwards from Kandy, and one by

myself also from the latter part of the Island.” It thas hitherto

escaped observation owing to its shy habits and frequenting thick

jungle, and I might have missed it as well as my predecessors, had

not my attention, on first collecting in this district, been directed

to the very remarkable note or whistle resembling the words, “to

meet you,” which I found on procuring a specimen emanated from

this bird. Having once identified its voice, I found it an inhabi-

tant of every bit of jungle and thicket in the neighbourhood. Jt

occurs rarely, I imagine,in the Western Province, and will be found

also in the lower parts of Sabaragamuwa. Mr. Bligh of Kandy

has procured it in the Central Province, but I am not aware at

what elevation.

72. PomatToruinus MeLanurus, Blyth.—The Ceylon Sci-

mitar Babbler.

Numerous in the jungles of the Héwagam Koralé and interior of

the Western Province generally, throughout the wooded country

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN THE SOCIETY’S MUSEUM. 37

of the south-west, but not so plentiful as I expected, in the upper

parts of that district, in the Kandy country, and all throughout

the Central Province as high as Nuwara Eliya. In the low-

country of the south-west it affects by choice bamboo jungles.

73. GARRULAX CINEREIFRONS, Blyth.—The Ashy-headed .

Babbler.

Nistributed sparingly throughout the Western, Central, and

74,

Southern Provinces (south-west), and inhabiting the damp and

gloomy “mukalana” only. It is somewhat common in parts of

Dumbara, I am told, and I have met with it in the Kukulu

Koralé, where I bave no doubt it is more numerous than any-

where else, as the great Sinha Rajah forest contains so many of

our peculiar Island species in abundance.

MALACOCERCUS STRIATUS, Swainson.—The striated

Babbler, “ Dung Thrush” of Huropeans; Demalichché, Sinh.;

Malacocercus Bunalensis.—Layard, Annals Natural History,

1853,

page 271; Malacocercus Striatus, Swainson; Kelaart,

Prodromus Faune Zeylanica, page 122.

Throughout all the low-country in great abundance, especially

15.

numerous in the maritime districts of the Western and Southern

Provinces, extending both into the Central and Morowak Kéralé

hills to an elevation of about 2,500 feet ; common up the valleys

of the Gindurah and other southern rivers, numerous in the north-

east; in fact, Layard says, loc. cit., “it is one of our commonest

birds,” to which I would add also, Allcippe nigrifrons, Pyeno-

nottus hemorrhous, Ixos luteolus, Orthotomus longicanda, our

two species of Corvide, and a few others.

LAYARDA Rurescens, Blyth.—The Rufous Babbler,

* Red Dung Thrush” of Europeans; Kalu-parandal, Stnh.; Mala-

cocercus Rufescens. Blyth.—Layard, Annals Natural History,

1853,

volume 12, page 271; Kelaart, Prodromus Faune Zey-

lanica, page |22.

Central, Western, and Southern Provinces. In the former it is

common in parts of Pussell4wa, Deltota, Dumbara, Knuckles, and,

according to Holdsworth, at Nuwara Eliya in the north-east

monsoon, in the Western Province ; it is abundant in the jungles

and sometimes in the native gardens of the Héwagam, Rayigam,

and Kuruwiti Koralés (1 noticed it particularly plentiful at

Labugama during the Kraal in 1871); in the Southern Province

it is numerous all through the low wooded country on either side

of the Gindurah up to the Sinha Rajah and Morowak Koralé

forests, where I found it at the latter end of the south-west mon-

soon. It is remarkable that out of the seven species of Babblers

found in this Island, five are peculiar to it.

38 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

76. HypstpEeTes GANEESA, Sykes.— The Cinereous Bulbul;

The Neileherry Bulbul; Hypsipetes, Neilgherrienses, Jerdon ;

vide Holdsworth, Catalogue Ceylon Birds P.Z.5., 1872, No. 144;

Kelaart, Prodromus Faune Zeylanica, page 123; Layard, Annals

Natural History, 1854, page 125.

Western, Central, and Southern Provinces. More abundant in the

latter than elsewhere, frequenting the Morowak Koralé, Kukulu

Kéralé, Upper Gindurah, Udugama, and Kotuwa forests in vast

numbers. It is perhaps more numerous in the latter low hiil-

forest ten miles from Galle than in the other parts ; affects the

chena-covered hills between that place and the sea and those on

the banks of the Lower Gindurah, above Baddégama. Common

in the low hill-jungles of the Western Province and in the Central

Province on wooded patanas. Holdsworth found it at Nuwara

Eliya in February, and Kelaart has it in his list from that place.

77. Crinicer Ictericus, Séricklund.—The yellow Forest

Bulbul.— Layard, Annals Natural History, 1854, volume 13,

page 124.

Abundant in many parts of the Island: throughout the Central Pre-

vinee to an elevation of 3,560 feet, in all the coffee districts, and

in all parts of the low-country where there is forest. In the west

it is tound in all the forests of the Héwagam and Rayigam

Kéralés, in the south-west in the “ mukalana” of Kottowe (ten

miles from Galle), Udugama, Opata, and in all the high-tree

jungle of the Hinidum Pattu and Kukulu and Morowak Kéralés.

It is more abundant at the medium altitudes of the above southern

ferests than elsewhere in the Island. In the north-east it is

common in the district between Trincomalee and the Central

road, and, as regards the south-east, it frequents the luxuriant

parts along the Kirinde Ganga, and other rivers. This species

together with Harpactes fasciatus, Dissemurus lophorhinus,

Brachyptenus Stricklandi, and one or two others, is exclusively

confined to forests.

78. Ixos LurTrEnoLus, Lessen.—The White Bulbul, “ Cinna-

mon Thrush” of Kuropeans. Pycnonotus flavirictus, Strickland.—

Layard, Annals Natural History, 1853, pape 128; Kelaart, Pro-

dromus Faunez Zeylanica, page 123.

Western, Northern, Southern, and Central Provinces up to 4,500

feet. Very abundant throughout all the low-country, particularly

in the neighbourhoods of Colombo, Galle, Hambantota, and Trin-

comalee, and (according to Holdsworth) Aripu, It is common at

all elevations up to that abovenamed, but decreases in numbers

as it ascends.

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN THE SOCIETY'S MUSEUM. ay)

79. Pycnonotus HamorrHous, Gmelin.—The common

Bulbul, Madras Bulbul, “ Dysentery Bird” of Europeans; Konda

Kurulla of the Sinhalese.

This may perhaps be styled the commonest of Ceylon birds ; it is

abundant in all parts of the low-country except where there are

large stretches of forest, and is numerous in the Central Province

up to an altitude of about 4,000 feet. It is less numerous in the

Morowak and Kukulu Koralés on account of their being so heavily

timbered, than at corresponding, heights in the Kandy country.

Tt is found throughout the low scrubby districts of the Magan

Patiu, and in the north it is as abundant as anywhere else.

80. RupiguLta MELANICTERA, Ginelin.—The Black-headed

Bulbul. — Pycnonotus Atricapilus; Layard, Annals Natural

History, 1854, volume 13, page 125. Pycnonotus nigricapillus;

Kelaart, Prodromus Faune Zeylanica, page 123.

Tolerably plentiful in the woods of the Héwagam Koralé, and

exceedingly abundant in all situations in the south-west from the

sea border up to 2,000 feet in the Morowak and Kukulu Koraleés ;

throughout the Central Province up to the same altitude, and

occurring in considerable numbers in many parts of the wooded

country between Trincomalee and the Central road. It will be

found in the damper parts of the south-east, in all probability, but

it is most likely absent from the arid tracts of the north-west.

81, PHyLiorNiIs JERDONI, Blyth.—The Green Bulbul.—

Layard, Annals Natural History, 1853, volume 12, page 176;

omitted from Kelaart’s list, Prodromus Faune Zeylanica.

Northern, Western, Southern, and lower hills of the Central Pro-

vince ; numerous in the low cultivated country of the Western

and Southern Provinces, occurring also in the forests of those

parts; tolerably plentiful in some districts of the north-east;

occurs in Dumbara, in company with many other low-country

species, but I have not heard of it from higher parts.

82. PHyritornis Maxuaparicus, Latham.—The golden

fronted Bulbul.—Layard, Annals Natural History, 1853, volume

12, page 176.

Not nearly so common as the last species, but much more widely

distributed than has been supposed, Found in the north-eastern

forests between Anurddhapura and Trincomalee, likewise in the

Kottowe and Udugama “miukalana,” along the sources of the

Gindurah, and in the Sinha Rajah and Kukulu Kéralé forests,

throughout the Hinidum Pattu, and in the jungles of the

Morowak Koralé. Mr. Laurie of Madulkelé has procured it in the

Knuckles district. Layard, doe. evt., remarks that Dr. Kelaart got

40 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

this species at Nuwara Eliya, but that naturalist does not include

it in his list from the sanatarium. Layard himself got it at

Gilly wally. :

83. IorA ZEYLONICA, Gmelin. —The black-headed Bush Bual-

bul; the ‘* Ceylon Bush-creeper” (Kelaart).—Layard, Annals

Natural History, 1853, volume 12, page 267.

Abundant throughout the whole low-country both north and south,

and extending into the hills of the Central and Southern Pro-

vinces to an elevation of about 1,000 feet; as far as I have observed

this is one of the most strictly low-country species of its order

that we have.

84, OrtoLus CEYLONENSIS,—The Southern Oriole “ Mango

bird” of Europeans; “ Kaha Kurulla, Sink.

Throughout the low-country ; generally common in the north-west

(Holdsworth), likewise in the north-east, frequenting the forests

there by choice ; occurs in the Western Province in some districts

more than others ; numerous in the south-west, frequenting there

open cultivated lands studded with clumps of trees, native gardens,

and the like; occurs in the interior of the south-east.

85. CopsycHus Saunaris, Linn.—The Maepie Robin;

Pollichcha, Sinh.— Layard, Annals Natural History, 1853, volume

12, page 263, :

Throughout the low-country and extending into the hills to an

eJevation of 3,500 feet. It may be often seen in the latter part,

about the patanas near the bungalows of coffee estates; very

numerous in the south-west and north-east, but somewhat occurs

in the Hanbantota, and Kataragam districts, where its place is in

a great measure taken by the equally charming and familiar

little species, Thamnobia fulicata.

86. KirracincLA Macrura, Gmelin.—The Shama. The

Long-tailed Robin, Long-tailed ‘* Thrush.” |

Western, Northern, Central and Southern Provinces. The districts

in which this bird is most abundant are the Kataragam country

(Magam and adjoining Pattus) and the jungles of the north-east,

particularly in the neighbourhood of Trincomalee. As it is a shy

bird and frequents the densest part of the woods, it is seldom

seen, but its melodious notes are heard on all sides in both those

parts. Rare in the south-west, frequenting the bamboo jungles

of the country round Baddégama, but rarely or ever seen owing

to the thickness of the scrub; occurs in the interior of the Western.

Province, ranging up to the altitude of Kandy, where it is more

plentiful; it probably occurs in the higher parts of the south as

well. Holdsworth notices that it is abundant along the Kandy

and Trincomalee road.

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN THE SOCIETY’S MUSEUM. 41

87.

TuaMNoBIA Futrcata, Linn.—The Black Robin.—

Layard, Annals Natural History, 1853, volume 13, page 266.

Distributed throughout the whole of the low-country. According to

88.

Holdsworth is numerous at Aripu on the north-west; it decreases

then towards the Western Province, being found there about

chena clearings in the interior; becomes more plentiful in the

same localities of the south-west, and abounds in the dry maritime

districts from Hambantota round to the north-east. It is more

plentifulin the south-east than in the latter district. I have not

traced it, in the hills, toa greater elevation than 1,000 feet.

PRINIA SOCIALIS, Sykes.—The Bluish Wren Warbler. —

Layard, Annals Natural History, 1853, volume 12, page 263;

omitted from Kelaart’s, Prodromus Faune Zeylanica.

Northern, Western, Central, and Southern Provinces. Sparingly

89,

distributed in all these parts, frequenting grass fields in the

Western Province, sugar-cane fields about Galle and Baddégama,

and patanas in the Central Province, up to, as far as I have

observed, 3,000 feet. I did not find it in the north-east, but it

most probably occurs there, as Layard, loc. cit., found it at Point

Pedro.

CISTICOLA SCH@NICOLA, Bonap.—The Rufous Grass

Warbler. Cisticcla Cursitans, Blyth.— Layard, Annals Natural

History, 1853, volume 12, page 262; Kelaart, Prodromus Faune

Zeylanica.

Widely distributed over the whole Island from the sea coast up to

90.

Nuwara Eliya and the Horton Plains, in both of which districts

it is said by Kelaart and Holdsworth to be very abundant, equally

so on all patanas of the Central Province, and in paddy fields and

grassy lands in most parts of the low-country. Less numerous

than elsewhere in the south coast, there being but little land in

that part suited to its habits,

DrYMoIPus VALIDUS, Blyth.— The Ceylon Wren Warb-

ler. Drymoica Valida, Blyth.—Layard, Annals Natural History,

1853, volume 12, page 262.

- Western, Southern, and Central Provinces, and likewise in the north-

91.

eastern districts. This species, according to my observation, is

not so abundant as D. Jerdoni, the common species ahout Colombo;

it occurs in the Central Province in hill paddy fields, in the

southern parts of the Island, in clearings in the valleys, and in the

upper districts of the Hinidum Pattu in “kurukkan” fields.

Not observed in the south-east.

PuHYLLOscoPpuS NITIDUS, Lathum.—The Green Tree

Warbler. Phyllopneuste nitidus, Blyth.—Layard, Annals Natural

42 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

History, 1853, page 263. Omitted from Kelaart’s list.

Migratory, appearing in September, and leaving in the latter part

of April. Wt affects the tops of high trees in the forests of the

Central Province, and in the jungle bordering the patana streams ;

the same in the southern and north-eastern parts of the Island ;

and affects pieces of detached jungle where the timber is large

in the low-country of the south-west. It is met with near

Colombo, about Péré, Hanwella, Bépé, and such parts as are wild

and uncultivated. ;

92. CALOBATES SULPHUREA, Beckst.—The Grey and Yel-

low Wagtail, the Grey. Wagtail. Motacilla boarula, Linn.—-

Layard, Annals Natural History, 1853, page 268; Kelaart, Pro-

dromus Faune Zeylanica, page 121.

Migratory, as are all the Wagtails, arriving in September and leaving

in May. I have found it in the Western, Central, and Southern

Provinces; it remains about the coast for the first three weeks,

during which time I have often seen it on the rocks of the sea

shore, and then ascends to the hiils, where it is found on every

stream up to 6,000 feet. Mr. Holdsworth procured it at Nuwara

Eliya; it is scarcely ever seen about streams at intermediate

heights under 2,000 feet.

93. Limonrpromus Inpicus, Gmelin. —~The Indian Wood

Waetail. Gomarita, Sinh.—Nemoricola, Blyth. ; Motacilla indica,

Gmelin.--Layard, Annals Natural History, 1853, volume 12, page

268; Kelaart, Prodromus Faune Zeylanica, page 121.

Migratory to the Northern, North-Eastern, and Western Provinces;

common in the jungles from Dambulla to Trincomalee and especially

numerous in the vicinity of the latter and along the Anuradhapura

road, affecting alike jungle paths and roads through the forest and

open glades; very rare in the Western Province, having once or

twice been procured near Colombo, and occurs no doubt in the

jungles of the northern part of the Seven Koralés.

Note.— This is, without any exception, in my opinion, the most

charming of our birds. Fearless and most inquisitive in its dis-

position, it is the constant companion of the naturalist in his

wanderings through the lonely jungles of the Northern Province,

exhibiting on all occasions the most familiar and confiding

character ; often when I have been resting in some silent spot,

the branches of the trees forming a thick canopy overhead and the

open ground beneath strewed with dead leaves, this little denizen

of the woods has come to within a couple of yards of me, busily

searching about, running to and fro, and ever and anon “ balanc-

ing” its elegant little body in the peculiar manner common to all

its genus, and after surveying me for a moment with the quietest

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN THE SOCIETY’S MUSEUM. 43

curiosity, has hopped up, with its lively little “chuck, clinck,”

to the nearest branch, and, after running along it for an instant, has

again commenced feeding within a few yards of the murderous

weapon lying across my arm. I never could find it in my heart to

shoot more than two specimens of it.

94. BupyYTEs viripIs, Gmelin.—The Indian Field Wagtail.

Budytes viridis, Scop. liayard, Annals Natural History, 1853,

volume 12, page 268.

Migratory, as the others of its family; common in all open grass

lands in the Northern, Western and Southern Provinces; frequents

newly-ploughed paddy fields, at times, in great numbers, and is

especially noticeable on the esplanades of Galle, Colombo, and

Trincomalee.

Note.— These birds remained very late this year, occurring at

Galle as late as the 6th May.

95. CorYDALLA RicHarpI, Vieill.—Richard’s Pipit. An-

thus Richardi, Temm.--Layard, Annals Natural History, 1853,

page 268.

A winter migrant tothe Northern, Western, and Souther Provinces,

arriving in September, and departing as late as the first week in

May; common on all such open lands as those cited for the last

named species ; not so numerous in the Southern as in the

Western Province and north-eastern districts. Found plentifully

in the Jafina peninsula.

96. CorypaLLA Ruruta, Vieill,—The common Indian Pipit.

Layard, Annals Natural History, 1853, page 288.

Abundant all over the Island, to an elevation from the sea coast;

frequents plains and patanas in the Central Province, and open

grass lands, paddy fields, &c., in the low-country. It appears to

be nowhere as plentiful in the south-west as in the north-east

monsoon.

97. ZosTEROPS PALPEBROSUS, Temm.—The common White-

eye; “ Tit” of Europeans. The Zosterops.

Widely distributed over the whole Island, and found in the hills of

the Central Province up to 3,400 feet, at which elevation it is com-

mon in the Pussellawa district. Abundant at times in the trees

in the Colombo and Galle forts, 2nd found in both open groves

and jungle where there are large trees.

98. ZosrERops Crruonesis, Holdsworth.—The Ceylon

White-eye. Ceylon Zosterops; vide Holdsworth, Catalogue

Ceylon: Birds, Pi Z. §.,.1872, | No.. 181, (Plate xx, Fig. 2.)

44 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

Zosterops om, Swains. mee Annals Natural History,

1853, page 267.

One of our late additions by Mr. Holdsworth, and confounded hither-

to with Z Annulosus, Swainson (an African species), as well as

with the subject of the forgoing note by Layard, loc. cit. In-

habits the hills from Nuwara Eliya, down to an altitude of about

2,000 feet in the Southern Province; abundant in the higher

forests of the Knuckles, Upper Dimbula, and Pussellawa, as well

as in the high mountain jungle round Nuwara Eliya. In the

Southern Province it inhabits ail the high parts of the Morowak

Koralé, and is very abundant in the great Sinha Raja forest

and other similar localities in the Kukulu Koéralée and Hinidum

Pattu; occurs sparingly on the highest parts of the Udugama

and Op: ata hills (2,000 feet.)

99. PARus CINEREUS, Vietid.—The Indian Titmouse, «Coffee

bird” of Pianters.—Layard, Annals Natural History, vol. xii,

1853, page 267.

Distributed throughout the hills of both the Central and Southern

Provinces, affecting much coffee bushes in the plantations. Not

resident much below 2,000 feet, and scarcer above that altitude

in the Morowak Kore than in the central zone. Descends to

the low-country at times in the North-Hast monsoon, occurring

rarely along the west coast, at Colombo, Panaduré, Kalutara,

and Ambalangeda.

100. Corvus Sprenpens, Vieill.—The Ghat Crow, Karavy-

kékké, Sink. —Layard, Annals Natural HAstony volume 13, 1854,

page 214,

Abundant in the low-countr y of the north, north-west, and north-

east, likewise at Colombo, and all down the west coast as far

as Bentota, where, according to my experience and that of

Mr. Neville (J., R. A. S. Ceylon, 1870-71, page 38) it suddenly

ceases, and is replaced entirely on the south-west by the next

species, Corvus Levaillanti. At Hambantota I believe it occurs

now and then, but the prevalent species at that place is the same

as at Galle.

101. Corvus LevaILtanti, LLessenw—The Carrier’ Crow.

Goyagamma-kakké, Sink. Corvus Culminatus, Sykes.— Layard,

Annals Natural History, 1854, page 213; Kelaart, Prodromus

Faune Zeylanica, page 124. :

Distributed throughout the low-country and occurring in the

hills up to 5,500 feet, at which altitude it is scarce. ‘om-

mon in the north and west, and very abundant in the extreme

south, where it takes the place, as a citizen, of the last species.

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN THE SOCIETY’S MUSEUM. 45

In places where the grey bird is abundant, as at Colombo and along

the west coast generally, this bird frequents rather inland districts,

being invariably found about native villages and detached cottages

in the woods.

102. Crssa ornava, Wagler.—The Ceylon Jay. Cissa puella,

Blyth.—Layard, Annals Natural History, 1854, page 213;

Kelaart, Prodromus Faune Zeylanica, page 124.

Throughout the Central Province and Morowak and Kukulu Kéralé

hills. It affects the upper forests in the north-east monsoon,

coming down in the other season much lower. I have found it on

the Gindurah, in the interior part of the Hinidum Pattu, perhaps

under 1,500 feet. It is very numerous in parts of the Rakwana

districts and towards the Sinha Raja forest at all seasons.

103. EuLases Revigrosa, Linn.—The Hill Myna, “ Sela-

léniya,” Sinhk.; Gracula Religiosa, Linn. — Layard, Annals

Natural History, 1854, page 216; Kelaart, Prodromus Faune

Zeylanica, page 126.

Western and Southern Provinces and lower parts of mountain

zone; commences at some little distance from the sea in the south-

west, and occurs up the valley of the Gindurah in abundance, and

in all the subsidiary hill forests up to about 1,700 feet in the

Morowak Koralé and Hinidum Pattu. It is found about Negombo,

in the Western Province. Compared with other Indian species

inhabiting the Island, its distribution is very local.

104. Proceus Baya, Blyth.—The common Weaver Bird,

the “Baya.” Tatteh Kurullé, Sink. Ploceus Philippinus,

Linn.— Layard, Annals Natural History, 1854, volume 13, page

257.—P. Bengalensis, Linn.; Kelaart, Prodromus Faune Zeyla-

nica, page 126.

Western, Northern and Southern Provinces. Numerous in the north-

west, in the Mannar district, breeding there, according to Holds-

~ worth, in December; frequents the Western Province about K6tté

and other localities not far distant from Colombo, breeding there

in May and June; abundant in the south-west, breeding in all

parts of that district from Ambalangoda to Matara, from May until

August; the same in the north-east, breeding about Trincomalee

in the north-east monsoon from October till December.

105. Munra unDULATA, Lath.—The spotted Munia, Ama-

dina undulata, Lath.—Layard, Annals Natural History, 1854,

page 258; Kelaart, Prodromus Faun Zeylanica, page 125.

Entire low-country, North and South, and Central Provinces, and

southern hills up to 3,000 feet, at which elevation I have observed

46 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

it on the patanas of all the coffee districts. It is equally abundant

in all parts of the low-country (except perhaps in the Kataragama

district) wherever the features of the locality suit its habits.

106. Munra mauacca, Linn.--The Black-headed Munia,

The Cinnamon-backed Munia; Amadina Malacca, Linn.—lLay-

ard, Annals Natural History, page 258; Kelaart, Prodromus

Faune Zeylancia, page 125,

Northern, Western, and Southern Provinces. Appears not to ascend

into the hills, and is not very abundant anywhere in the low coun-

try. Found in the Western and Southern Provinces about inland

paddy fields, surrounded with wild jungle, and occurs in such

like localities in the north-east, about Trincomalee. In the south-

west it occurs near Galle, when the paddy is in ear, coming

down from the interior, and evidently retiring again after the

harvest. Layard found it at Jaffna, loc. cit.

107, Muntra Srriatus, Linn.—The White-backed Munia.

« Wi-kurullé,” Sinhalese name for all the Munias. Amadina

Striata, Linn,—Layard, Annals Natural History, 1854, page

258; Kelaart, Prodromus Faune Zeylanica, page 126.

Throughout the low-country of the north-west and south and proba-

bly the east, and ascending up to 3,000 feet on the patanas of the

Central Province. In the western district occurs about K6tté

and its neighbourhood, and throughout the country at the same

distance from the sea-dewn to the Galle district, where it is

numerous about Baddégama and such places. Affects grassy,

scrubby clearings and overgrown gardens in preference to paddy

fields. Not abundant in the north-east,

108. Munta Keraarti, Blyth.— The Ceylon Munia.

Kelaart’s Munia. Amadina pectoralis,* Jerdon; Layard, Annals

Natural History, 1854, volume 13, page 258. __

Common in the Central Province from Nuwara Eliya down to as

low as 2,500 feet, where I have seen it in the same patana with

M. Undulata and M. Striatus. I have not met with it in the

Kukulu or Morowak Koralé, and doubt if it occurs in the Southern

hills.

109. EstreLDA AMANDAVA, Linn —The Amaduvad, Red

Wax-bill. Vide my notes (J., R. A. S., C. B., 1870-71.)

Neighbourhoods of Colombo and Galle. No doubt this bird has

become acclimatised in, or rather been introduced into, the Island

_* An Jndian species, allied to our bird, which has been separated from it

since Layard wrote.

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN THE SOCIETY’S MUSEUM. 47

from having escaped from cages brought from India to both the

above towns. JI have only seen it twice in Galle, and that was at

the Esplanade close to the Fort.

110. Passer Invicus, Jerd. and Shelby.— The Indian House

Sparrow. Gé-kurulla, Szxh.

Throughout the whole island wherever there are inhabitants.

111. MIRAFRA AFFINIS, Jerdon. The Southern Bush-

Lark.—Layard, Annals Natural History, 1854, volume 13,

page 258.

On dry, open grass and scrubby land in the northern, western, and

south-eastern districts; scarce in the Western Province, occur-

ring in the Cinnamon Gardens; absent from the south-west ;

abundant in the lowlands of the south-east, particularly near the

sea, and from thence round the east coast to Trincomalee and the

north; very numerous about the grassy margins of tanks in the

north-east. Layard found it at Point Pedro, and Holdsworth

records it as plentiful at Aripu, just the kind of country to suit it.

112. PYRRHULAUDA GRISEA, Scop.— The Indian Finch

Lark.— Layard, Annals Natural History, 1854, volume 13, page

299)

Abundant in the Northern Province, in the south-east, and probably

all round the east coast to Trincomalee, where it is numerous;

also strays into the Central Province. Jaffna, the north-east

coast, and the Kataragama and Hambantota country are the

localities where I have found this bird numerous, and on the 17th

November, 1870, while riding up the Ramboda Pass I was

astonished to find a male feeding in some grass by the road side

at an elevation of 6,000 feet’ I was within ten yards of it, and

watched for five minutes; so I made no mistake when noting this

extraordinary occurrence dowu.* In India I am not aware that it

has ever been recorded at such an elevation, being essentially

a low-country, plain-and-desert-loving bird.

113. Ataupa GuLeuLa, Prank.—The Indian Sky-Lark. |

Northern, western, and south-eastern districts, and probably through-

out the Eastern Province; migratory to the south in the north-east

monsoon. It is abundant throughout the dry districts of the north,

north-west, and north-east, and occurs on the western and south-

western coasts in such places as the “Galle Face” at Colombo,

and esplanade at Galle, or on any similarly situated open land.

I did not find it anywhere on the hill patanas, and am of opinion

that it never leaves the low-country.

48 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

114. Osmorreron Breincra, Jerdon.— The Oranve-breasted

Fruit Pigeon, “ Green Pigeon” of Europeans. Batagoya, Smha-

lese name for all the genus. Treron Bicincta, Blyth.; Kelaart,

brodromus Faune Zeylanica, page 13v.

Northern, Western, Central, and Southern Provinces. Occurs rarely

in Dumbara; tolerably numerous in Trincomalee district; scarce

about Columbo, becoming more plentiful a little distance inland,

and towards the south, where it is (in the Galle district) almost

as numerous as Turtur Suratensis. It extends in that part, up

the valley of the Gindurah, to about 30 miles in a straight line

from the sea, and then seems to be replaced almost entirely by

the next species. This pigeon visits certain districts according

as its favourite fruits abound; common along rivers in south-east.

115. OsmMoTRERON PompapourRA, Gmelin.—The Maroon,

Maroon-backed “Fruit Pigeon; vide Holdsworth, Catalogue Cey-

Lom birdsian.2205) lone. No, 20,

Northern, Western, Central, and Southern Provinces. Local in its

distribution through these parts. Common about Trincomalee

and inland from thence to the Vanni district ; abundant in parts

of the south-western hill country, commencing some distance

inland, and extending up to 2,000 feet in the Hinidum Pattu

and Morowak Kéralé; plentiful on the Kirinde Ganga and other —

rivers of the Kataragama district; occurs in the country round

Kurunégala, and in the wilder parts of the Héwagam and Pasdan

Kéoralés. Layard found it in the central mountain zone, but I

do not think that it ranges about 2,000 feet.

116, CaRpoPHAGA SYLVATICA, Tickell. — The Green

Imperial Pigeon, “ Wood-pigeon” of Europeans in the low-

country. Maha Nil Goya, Sinh.—Kelaart, Prodromus Faune

Zeylanica, page 130. Carpophaga, Pussilla, Blyth.—Layard,

Annals Natural History, volume 14, page 59 ?*

Throughout the forest-covered and heavily-wooded districts of the

Island: more abundant below 2,500 feet than above that height;

common in the district between Anuradhapura and Trincomalee ;

abundant in parts of the Eastern Province and also in the south-

east, especially in the vicinity of Tissamaharama; in all

the forests of the south-west from the Kukulu Koéralé to the

neighbourhood of Galle ; likewise in the wilder parts of the

Western Province, between Ratnapura and Colombo.

* Unfortunately the few pages containing Layard’s notes on this and one or

two other pigeons are torn out of the volume in the Royal Asiatic Society's

Library.

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN THE SOCIETY’S MUSEUM. 49

117. Turtur Suratensis, Gmelin—The spotted Turtle-

dove. ‘ Kebeyd,” Sinkh.—Kelaart, Prodromus Faunz Zeylanica,

page 130.

Common throughout the whole Island up to 2,000 feet in the Central

Province; especially abundant in the north, north-east and

south-west. I have not met with it above 1,500 feet in the Hini-

dum Pattu and Morowak Kéralé, although it occurs at greater

elevations than that in the Kandy country.

118. CancorpHars Inpica, Linn.—The Ground Dove,

Green Dove. “Green Pigeon,” ‘“ Bronze Wing,” and Beetle-

winged Pigeons of Europeans. “ Nil-Kobey4&;” Sinh.— Layard,

Annals Natural History, 1854, volume 14, page 62.

North-east, Central Province, West, and whole of the South. Very

common in the Bamboo chena country from Galle inland to the

Hinidum Pattu and parts of the Morowak Koralé.

119. GALLUS STANLEYI, Gray.—Ceylon Junele Fowl.

1851, volume 14, page 62. Gallus Lafeyetti, Lesson,—Kelaart,

Prodromus Faunz Zeylanica, page 131.

Found on the whole Island, extending from all parts of the coast

where there is jungle up to Nuwara Eliya; less numerous in the

cultivated maritime districts of the west and south-west coasts

than elsewhere ; not very abundant in the hill country of the

south-west, becoming exceedingly numerous east of Tangalla,

through all the flat country of the Hambantota and Kataragama

distriets round to the north ; equally se in the Trincomalee dis-

trict, particularly in the jungles along the sea coast ; abundant in

the upper hills, especially when the “nelloo” (Strobilanthes vis-

cosus ?) is in flower, at which time I am informed the jungles

round the Horton Plains swarm with this species.

120. GALLoPERDIX BicaLcaRATaA, Foster.— The Spur-fowl,

Spurred Partridge. Haban-kukulé, Sinh.— Layard, Annals

Natural History, 1854, volume 14, page 105; Kelaart, Prodromus

Faune Zeylanica, page 131.

Central, Southern and Eastern Provinces. Does not appear, as far

as the low-country is concerned, to extend north of Negombo on

the west and Batticaloa, although on the northern slopes of the

Knuckles its range would of course extend beyond the latitude of

those places. It may occur in the forests of the north-east, but I

was not successful in tracing it there. Abundant throughout the

Central Provinee, in the north-east monsoon especially, frequent-

ing the jungle above the coffee estates to an altitude of about

5,000 feet. I noticed it particularly numerous in Upper Dimbula.

‘50 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

‘Common in the Sabaragamuwa district. It is more numerous in the

south-western hill groups than in other parts of the Island, this

part being its headquarters ; it frequents all the bamboo and

chena scrub, secondary jungle, and primeval forest from close to

‘Galle up to the highest parts of the Morowak Koralé. I did not

meet with it in the maritime districts of the south-east, but it is

‘doubtless found at some little distance inland, as it occurs in the

Friar’s Hood district of the Eastern Province.

121. OrrycGornis PonDICERIANA, Gmelin.-—-The grey Par-

tridge. Oussa Watuwa, Sink. Francolinus Ponticerrinus, Gmelin.

— Layard, Annals Natural History, 1854, volume 14, page 107 ;

Kelaart, Prodromus Faune Zeylanica, page 131.

Northern and Western Provinces. Common from Jaffna along the

west coast down to Puttalam, not found at the east coast however ;

tolerably numerous near Colombo about the Cinnamon Gardens,

where I imagine it has introduced itself by escaping from con-

finement. Layard, lor. cié., says it is found at Tangalla; I have

however not heard of it from that part, and did not meet with it

further round to the south-east. Kelaart procured it at Nuwara

Eliya.

122. EXCALFATORIA CHINENSIS, ZLinn.—The Chinese

Quail. Blue-breasted Quail. “ Wenella-watuw4,” Sink. Cotur-

nix Chinensis, Lien.— Layard, Annals Natural History, 13854,

page 107, volume 14, page 107.

Western and Southern Provinces; abundant in all the paddy fields

of the south-west, and extreme south as far round as Matara, not

extending far inland however; common in swampy fernbrakes

in the Cinnamon Gardens near Colombo and in like situations

down the West Coast.

123. Turnix Tarcoor, Sykes.—The Black-breasted Quail.

“Rain Quail.” Panduru Watuwa, Simhk. Turnix Occellatus,

Scop. — Layard, Annals Natural History, 1854, volume 14, page

107; Coturnix Coromandelica, Gmelin.— IS elaart (erroneously)

Prodromus Faune Zeylanica, page 131.

Throughout all the low-country north and south, where the features

of the land suit its habits. Abundant in the north-west, and

tolerably common on the other coast near Trincomalee; inhabits low

copses, overgrown clearings, &c., in the low hills and intervening

flats of the south-west. It is not numerous in the Hambantota

district, being probably found more in the open “park” country

than near the sea. -

Note.—Layard, loc. cit., says this species is abundant in the

south, and the variety which Mr. Blyth designates as T. Bengalen-

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN THE SOCIETY’S MUSEUM. 51

sis, in the north. P. Bengalensis is however synonymous with P.

‘Taigoor; I did not see any difference, in examples procured in the

Trincomalee district, from many south country specimens, and [

notice that Holdsworth, Catalogue Ceylon Birds, P. Z. S., 1872,

No. 223, does notice the fact of another variety existing in the

north.

124. CHaraprius Futvus, Gmelin——The Indian Goldew

Plover. “Oleya,” “Rana Watuwa,” Sinh.; Charadrius longipes,.

Femm.—Charadrius Virginicus, Beck.— Layard, Annals Natural:

History, volume 14, page 109.

Migratory to Ceylon, appearing in September and leaving in April,

generally distributed in the low-country and found where there

are open lands; more numerous. between Baddégama and Galle

than. anywhere else in the south; occurs near Colombo in hot

weather; found in the maritime districts of the south-east, but not

in. any great numbers. ‘This species wanders about a good deak

in hot weather, being found there in spots which.it never fre-.

quents at other times.

(125. ALGIALITES MONGOLICUS, Fallas.—The Lesser Sand!

Plover; “ Watuwaé,” Sih. Hiaticula Leschenaulii, Lesson.—

Layard, Annals Natural History, volume 14, page 109; Kelaart,

Prodromus Faun Zeylanica, page 133.

Around the whole coast of Ceylon, arriving: in October and depart--

ing as late as the first week in May. Frequents sandy banks of”

rivers and open lands in the south-west; found after rain in such:

spots as the “Galle Face” at Colombo, and the esplanade at Galle ;-

numerous round all the salt lakes and lagoons from Hambantota:

to Trincomalee, and very abundant north of that on Nilaveli,.

Kumburaputty, Pertya Karrety, and Mullaittivu back-waters and:

in all lagoons to the extreme north. At the west coast it is:

numerous: from Jaffna down to Negombo lake:

126. AigraLiTes. DuBins, Scop.—The Indian Ringed Plover.

Afigialites Philippensis, Scop. —Hiaticula Philippina, Scop. 3:

Layard, Annals Natural History, 1854, volume HM, page 109.

Worth, west, east, and south-east coasts. Not nearly so abundant

as, and. more local than, the last species; common in the north-.

west, where Mr. Holdsworth thinks it is resident; occurs at times:

down the west coast on grass lands near the sea; absent from the:

south-west and not frequent on the salt pans of Hambantota and’

Kirinda; more numerous, as far as I have observed, along the:

north-east ‘coast than elsewhere, where it affects the shores of alk

the salt lagoons beyond Nilaveli to Mullaittivu. All these:

small species of charadrine are met with on the lagoons and estua»

ries of Jaffna.

52 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

127. Loxsivaneiius Inpicus, Bodd.—The Indian Lapwing.

Red-wattled Lapwing; Kibulla, Sah. Lobivanellus Geensis,.

Gmelin; Layard, Annals Natural History, volume 14, page

109; Kelaart, Prodromus Faune Zeylanica, page 132.

Abundant throughout all the low-country both in the maritime

distriets and at some distance inland, wherever there are open

lands, swamps, tanks, paddy fields, &c. Less plentiful in the

south-west, perhaps, than in other districts. In the south-east

frequents borders of tanks and the flat lands around the salt pans.

128. /EDICNEMUS CREPITANS, Zemm.— The Stone Plover.

Norfolk Plover. ‘‘ Thick-knee.”—Layard, Annals Natural

History, 1854, volume 14, page 108; omitted from Kelaart,

Prodromus Faunz Zeylanica.

Northern, Western, and Eastern Provinces, and south-eastern dis-

tricts. Common on both coasts in the north, being numerous

about Trincomalee. In the south-east it is plentiful at Kirinda

and all that neighbourhood; in the west it is scaree, oecurring

in the Cinnamon (sardens during the first part of the north-east

monsoon. I have never met with it in the Galle district; it

appears to be migratory to those parts ef the south which it

frequents.

129. STREPSILAS INTERPRES, Linn.— The Turnstone.—Lay-

ard, Annals Natural History, 1854, volume 14, page 110;

Cinclus Interpres, Linn.—Kelaart, Prodromus Faune Zeylanica,

page 133.

Migratory; very local in its distribution, and our rarest wader.

Layard records it, loc. czt., at Point Pedro in the month of January.

Occurs down the north-west coast, and probably on the salt lakes

and lagoons of the Mullaittivu and Trincomalee districts. It is

absent from the south-west, and more numerous, I am of opinion,

in the south-east than elsewhere; I found it in that district in

pairs, frequenting the shores of the salt lagoons.

130. GALLINAGO STENURA, Temm.—The Pin-tailed Snipe.

Indian Snipe. Kas-watua, Sinh.—Layard, Annals Natural

History, 1854, volume 14, page 266; Kelaart, Prodromus Faunce

Zeylanica, page 135.

Found throughout the Island up to an elevation of 3,000 feet, beyond

which a few stray to the upper hills. Arrives in the Western

Province as early as the 20th September, and remains as late in

the Southern Province as the 6th of May; these are of course

only individual instances. Especially numerous in the Kuruné-

gala district, at Tamblegam in the north-east, about some of the

tanks in the Eastern Province, and at Udugama in the south

western forest district.

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN THE SOCIETY’S MUSEUM. 53

131. Ruynon@a BenGALEnsis, Linn.—The Painted Snipe.

‘King Snipe.” ‘* Rajah-watuwa,” Sink. — Kelaart, Prodromus

Faune Zeylanica, page 135; Layard, Annals Natural History,

1854, volume 14, page 266.

Found throughout the whole of the low-country, arriving about the

same time as the ‘“ Pin-tail,” and leaving in May, although many

individuals remain here to breed.* It is locally numerous, being

common in some districts where there are marsh and descrted

paddy lands, and rare in others equally favourable to its habits of

concealment. Numerous about Pénaduré and Bolgoda lakes, near

Kalutara and Wakwella, Matara, &c.; likewise in the north-east

about Tamblegam, the “salt lake,” and other localities in the

vicinity of the Naval Port. In this latter district it affects much

the salt marshes near the edge of the tidal flats round the salt

lagoons. ‘Volvrably frequent in the Jaffua district. I am not

aware whether it frequents the south-eastern parts of the Island

in any quantity.

132. <AcTitis GLAREOLA, Gmelin.—The spotted Sandpiper.

“ Watuwa,” Sinh.

On salt marshes, near and on tidal flats, along margins of brackish

lagoons, on the borders of tanks, and in paddy fields newly

ploughed all round the shores of the Island, extending into the

interior where there are tanks and cultivated fields; more numerous:

perhaps in the north-west, about Jaffna, and all down the north-

east coast, and also all the salt-pans of the south-east, than in the

Western Province and south-western districts; in these latter parts,.

however, it is generally distributed, being, in company with the

next species, the only waders found on the dreary shores of the

mangrove-lined lagoons of Amblangoda, Rogalla, and the like

places,

133. ACTITIS HYPOLEUCOS, Linn.—The common Sandpiper;

Totanus hypoleucos, Linn.—Layard, Annals Natural History,

1854, volume 14, page 265; Jelaart, Prodromus Faune Zey-

lanica, page 134.

Throughout all the low-country and up to 3,000 Res in the hills, fre-

quenting the borders of rivers far inland, the shores of the salt

lagoons and. brackish lakes, and the rocks of the seashore round

the Island. For the greater part migratory, arriving very early

in September and leaving in May, but some few remain throughout

the year; whether they breed or not, I am unable to state.

* This bird has been known to breed at Anuradhapura, Kalutara, Udugama,

and P6ré, near Colombo, from which latter place the ‘“ nestling” in the Society’s

Museum was procured.

54 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

134. HyYDROPHASIANUS CHIRURGUS, Scop.—The Pheasant-

tailed Jacana, the ‘‘ Water Pheasant;” Ballat-saaru or “Cat Teal”

of the Sinhalese.— Layard, Annals Natural History, 1854, volume

14, page 267, Uvydrophasianus Sinenses, Waghler.—Kelaart,

Prodromus Faunz Zeylanica, page 135.

Throughout the whole of the low-country, on all fresh water tanks,.

swamps, and Jakes. Very numerous on all the inland tanks of the.

Vanni and Trincomalee districts, in Bintenna lake, on the tanks:

of the east and south-east (particularly Tissa Maha Rama and

Sittrawella in the Kataragama country), about Matara, on Bol-

goda lake, and on Kotte Jake, and other sheets of water in the:

Western Province.

135. PORPHYRIO POLIOCEPHALUS, Lath.—The Blue Coot,.

Purple Coot. Kittala, Stak. —Layard, Annals Natural History,

1854, volume 14, page 268, Omitted from Kelaart’s Prodromus:

Faune Zeylanica.

Throughout thelow-country generally. Rare on Bolgoda, Amblan-

goda lakes, frequenting secluded nooks ; occurs about the

marshes near Matara; more common on the tanks of the south-

east and throughout the Kastern Province, and abundant on the:

tanks of the Western Province and on Bintenna lake.

136. GALLINULA PH@NICURA, Forster:—The white-breasted

Water-hen. “Korowaka,” Siuh.—Gallinula Phoenicura, Pennant.

—Layard, Annals Natural History, 1854, volume 14, page 268 ;:

Kelaart, Prodromus Faune Zeylanica, page 135.

Abundant throughout the low-country, and oecurring in the valleys.

of the Central Province at about 2,000: feet.. Affects swamps,

marshes, paddy fields, tanks, ditches, and all spots where there is:

water permanently.

137. GALLICREX cCRISTATUS, Lath.—The Water-cock.

“Kora” in India. “Willi-kukula, Scr2h.—Gallinula cristata,

Lath.—Layard, Annals Natural History, 1854, volume 14, page

268; Kelaart, Prodromus Faunz Zeylanica, page 135. |

Occurs sparingly in all marshy districts throughout the low-country.

In the Western Province at Kotté, and in Panaduré and Bolgoda

lakes; im the south-west about Amblangoda, Wakwella, and

Matara; on Tissa Maha Rama and all tanks of the south-east and

Eastern Province; in similar localities in the neighbourhood

of Trincomalee, where it is tolerably plentiful. It appeurs to be

migratory to the south.

Note.—This species is always found in damp places covered

with long grass.

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN THE SOCIETY’S MUSEUM. 59d

138. Ratitina Ceyionica, Gmelin.—The Banded Rail.

Porzana Zeylonica, Gmelin.—Layard, Annals Natural History,

1854, volume 14, page 267. Covettuera Zeylanica, Brown.—

Kelaart, Prodromus Faune Zeylanica, page 135.

Migratory to the west coast, coming in with the long shore wind in

October. It extends to the Kandyaa country, being occasionally

found in Dumbara. Ihave not heard of it from the east coast.

139. Porzana Fusca, Linn. The Ruddy Rail; Layard,

Annals Natural History, 1854, volume 14, page 267. Omitted from

Kelaart, Prodromus Faune Zeylanica.

Western and Central Provinces. This is a very rare species; Layard

got it at Kotte, near Colombo, and I have heard of individuals

from the Kandy district, these being the only places where it

has as yet been observed.

140. ArpEA Purpurea, Linn.—The Purple Heron; Blue

Heron. “ Karawal Koka,” Stah.—Layard, Annals Natural His-

tory, volume 14, page 110; Kelaart, Prodromus Faune Zeylanica,

page 133.

Throughout the marshy, well-watered districts of the Island, but

more numerous down the west coast than on the opposite side of

the Island, where the Grey Heron takes its place in some measure.

Numerous about Kalpitiya, Negombo, Bolgoda and Amblangoda,

Jakes and marshes to the south of the latter, and about Matara;

occurs on the tanks in the Kataragama district, and generally

throughout the Eastern Province; more plentiful again towards

the north, frequenting Topur tank and all the salt lakes from

Trincomalee and Nilaveli northwards through Terria and Mullait-

tivu to Jaffna.

141. Buruus Coromanpus, Bodd.—The Cattle Eeret.

«Paddy Bird” of Europeans. ‘Gelevi Koka,” Simh.— Ardea

bubuleus, Javzg.— Layard, Annals Natural History, 1854, volume

14, page 111; Kelaart, Prodromus Faunz Zeylanica, page 133.

Throughout the low-country ; more abundant in the south and west

than on the east side and in the Northern Province. JIJInhabits

paddy fields and open lands in the vicinity of streams and swamps

between Colombo and Ambépussa, throughout the Rayigam and

Pasdun Koralés, and in the Galle and Matara districts; occurs in

similar localities, but not so plentifully, in the neighbourhood of

Kataragama and throughout the Eastern Province, likewise in the

vicinity of all the salt lagoons between Trincomalee and the Jaffna

district, and occurs frequently i in Dumbara.

142, ArppoLa GRAyil, Sykes.—The Pond Heron. ‘ Paddy

Bird.” “Kanna Koka,” Sink. — Ardeola leucoptera, Bodd.—

- 56

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

‘Layard, Annals Natural History, 1841, volume 14, page 112;

Kelaart, Prodromus Faune Zeylanica, page 133.

Throughout all the low-country and extending into the Central

Province to 2,500 feet ; abundant in all marshes and paddy fields

and in the vicinity of fresh water; perhaps less numerous in the

dry districts of the north-west and south-east than elsewhere.

Note.—There is a small colony of these Herons in the Fort at

Trincomalee, around which they may be seen perched on the rocks

catching fish. This is the only place where I have ever observed

the species in such situations.

143. Burorives JAvanica, Horsf.—The Little Green

Bittern.—Layard, Annals Natural History, 1854, volume !4,

page 113; omitted from Kelaart’s List, Prodromus Faune

Zeylanica.

Throughout the low-country generally, but most numerous in the

144,

north, north-east, and south-west. In the north it is found in the

Fort ditch at Jaffna and other similar spots, and frequents the

borders of all salt lagoons in the Trincomalee district which are

immediately surrounded by underwood and jungle, in which it

lurks by day, coming out just before sunset to feed. Occurs on

Colombo lake and about Kétté, likewise on Bolgoda and Amblan-

goda lakes ; numerous on the banks of some of the south-western

rivers to a distance of thirty or forty miles from the sea, Layard,

loc. ett., remarks that it replaces Ardetta Sinensis in the north, and

appears to have overlooked it inthe south. It affects the imme-

diate banks of rivers, hiding during the day under the overhang-

ing bushes and jungle, and is thus likely to be passed over-in places,

where, as on Gindurah river, it is common.

ARDETTA FLAVICOLLIS, Lath.-—The Black Bittern;

Layard, Annals Natural History, 1855, volume 14, page 113;

omitted from Kelaart’s list, Prodromus Faunz Zeylanica.

Migratory to the west and south of Ceylon during the north-east

145.

monsoon; frequents the swamps in the vicinity of Colombo, where

it first arrives ; occurs in reedy, grassy spots on “the borders of all

the lakes of the Western Province. I did not meet with it either

in the south-east or in the Trincomalee district. Layard, doe.

cit., says it is “not uncommon about Matara.”

ARDETTA CINNAMOMEA, Gmelin.—The Chesnut Bittern.

*‘Nati- K orowaka,” also ‘‘ Meti-Korowaka,” Sinh.— Layard, Annals

Natural History, 1854, volume 14, page 113; Kelaart, Pro-

dromus Faun Zeylanica, page 133.

Western and south-western districts. Common in the Cinnamon

Garden fernbrakes and in paddy fields throughout the Rayigam

_ DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN TH® SOCIETY’S MUSEUM. 57

Korald, and in the neighbourhood of Bolgoda and Amblangoda

lakes; likewise in the (Galle district as far east as Matara. I did

- not meet with it in the north-east, but it most likely inhabits that

_ district, which has much in common with the south.

146. Nycricorax Grisrus, Linn.—The Night Heron.

Ra-Kana Koka,” Sinh.— Layard, Annals Natural History, 1854,

volume. 14, page 114; omitted from Kelaart’s lst, Prodvomus

| Haunze Zeylanica.

On the borders of secluded lakes and tanks JON S08 all the ee

country; frequents sequestered spots, living in “colonies” on

Amblangoda, Bolgoda, and ‘Tangalla lakes, Sittrawella and

Uduwella tanks in the Kaiaragam ‘countr ‘y, and similar localities —

in the north-east.

147. GoIsacHius MELANOPHOLUS, Raffles. —The Malay

Bittern. Tigrisema Méelanophila, Raffies.—Layard, “Annals

Natural History, 1854, volume 14, page 114; omitted from

Kelaart’s list, Prodromus Faune Zey lanica.

a occasional visitor occurred in the vicinity of Colombo in Novem-

ber, 1852, vide Layard, doc. cit.; at Aripu in the north-west,

during hie same month of 1866; and, finally, near Colombo, ae

the Society” S specimen was obiained during last November. It

has generally been obtained in marshes, the natural abode of

Bitterns, the only exceptioa to that rule having been in the case of

Mr. Holdsworth’s example, which was found lurking among some

thick bushes in his compound at Aripu, and had, in all probability,

not been more than a few hours in the Island,

Note.—The occurrence of this Malayan form, in Ceylon, which

appears to be migratory to the country with the north-east

monsoon, is extremely interesting. It has never yet been pro-

cured on the Indian coast, and would seem to be drifted to the

south-west from the opposite side of the Bay of Bengal purely by —

the influence of the wind from that quarter. Its visits certainly

are few and far between, aud it must accordingly be viewed in the

light of an ‘‘occasional visitor, and not a regular migrant.” It has

always, it will be cbserved from the above remarks, been found

here at the beginning only of the north-east monsoon, but this is

easily explained by the fact, that birds on first arriving in a new _

country are always more readily procured than afterwards, when

they have wandered into their accustomed haunts. It has moreover

been shot, in-each instance, on the west side of the Island—that

farthest removed from its natural habitat, Malacca, but this, I

think, is entirely owing to the absence of any very diligent

researches into the avifauna of the east coast during the neorth-

east monsoon or at any other time of the year.

148, Ayako: Olgas. Bode the She Lt

Dastee” of the Indian spertsmen. Gombelli-koka, Sink

Annals Natural History, 1854, volume 14, page 115.

Thr oughout the low-country, but rare along the ae

There is a ‘ colony” on the lake 1 near Amblangoda, oe

ee ee and extending from theuce thro ough the Ka

ern Province. It is rare in the north-east, occurring on Toppt

cot tank. Probably namerous on the Paderia sad other inland sheet

Ee of water in the Northern Province. ‘

149. Denprocyena JAVANICA, Horsf.—The Whistling T

“Teal” of Europeans. Saaru, Sinkh.— Dendrocygna arcuata, Cu

_ —Kelaart, Prodromus Faune Zeylanica, page 136; Layar

oo Annals Natural History, 1854, volume 14, page 269. |

Throughout the whole of the low-country, not extending into the hills

In the Western Province particularly abundant at times, ab

eee -Bolgoda and on the borders of the Bentota river; about ‘Matar

pe SS and in the neighbourbood of Baddégama in the south; ie

. on all the eastern and northern tanks,

150. Popicers Puitierensis, Bonn.— The Indian Gr

14, page 270; Podiceps nimor, Lathun.— Kelaart, Prodrot

Faune Zeylanica, page 137.

a Common inthe Northern, Eastern, and Western Provinces somewh

scarce in the south. Found on Colombo lake, and numerous om

many of the tanks in the north.

ee ee STERNA NIGRA, Linn.—The white-winged Black Ter

ek Leucoptera, Temm.— Holdsworth, CaioloouE eo ‘Bird:

'P, iL. 8., 1872, No. 310.

North- west coast. oe by Holdsworth near vipa in -

North Africa, and South Europe.”

152. Hyprocnenipon Leucoparcia, Natt.--The sr

Marsh Tern. Hy. Indica, Stephens,—Layard, Annals Na

a 1x54, volume 14, page 270.

“round the whole coast. Abundant also on the salt inkoee

north-east, and extending inland in that part to the ta

ties; common on Bolgoda lake.

* PISTRIPUTION OF BIRDS IN FHE SOCIETY'S MUSEUM. 59

153. (?) THALASSEUS CRISTATUS, Stephen.— The large Sea-

Tern.. May be St. Bergii, Licht—Hume, “ Stray Feathers,”

volume I, page 283; Layard, Annals Natural History, 1854,

volume 14, page 270; omitted from Kelaart’s list, Prodromus

Faunz Zeylanica. |

Chiefly along the west and south coasts. Numerous at Colombo and

Galle, and frequenting all parts where there are isolated wells at

_-a little distance from the shore; less so on the south-east, and not

so abundant along the north-east coast as the next species.

154. THaLasseus MEpIus, Horsf.--The Lesser Sea Tern.

Thalasseus Bengalensis, Lessox.— Layard, Annals Natural His-

tory, volume 14, page 270; omitted from Kelaart’s list, Prodromus

Haunz Zeylanica.

Equally abundant on parts of all our coasts: Aripu, Colombo, Galle,

on the west; Hambantota, Batticaloa, and Trincomalee, on the

east; the Jaffna peninsula on the north. More numerous than

any other species of Tern, with perhaps the exception of Gelo-

ehelidon anglica.

Galle, 20th May, 1873.

BRAND MARKS ON CATTLE,

BY JAMES D’ALWIS.

PSNI IDI YO SO YY YY VY

Carrie, as considered by all Oriental nations, ar 2

newesary pare of a man’s Sule Bucs, & was s therefore the

‘known in the land. The ee of this habit however ie?

_ gradually so strong that the Sinhalese had as much aversio

as beet - a tier aS a UTS for bo Be

here was us on the table. W hen, in one Ao our visits rt

BRAND MARKS ON CATTLE. 61

The laws and usages relating to cattle were universally

the same in the East. Those of the Sinhalese were parti-

eularly identical with the Iustitutes of Manu.

The principles, as laid down in that primeval law, are —

briefly as follows:—If cattle, fed and kept in one’s house,

trespass, by day, the blame falls on the herdsman; if by night,

onthe owner. But, if the place in which they are secured be

different, the keeper alone is responsible for any damage.

He, too, is responsible for the loss of a beast, which, for want

of due care on his part, has strayed, has been destroyed by

wild animals, or has died by falling into a pit. He is ex-

empted from all responsibility when a loss is occasioned by

vis major ; but, even in such a case, he is required to give

prompt notice to the owner, and to make diligent search

soon after the loss. So great seems to have been the

jealousy with which the acts of herdsmen were watched

over, that he was required, upon the death of any cattle in

his charge, to produce to his master their ears, hides, tails,

limbs, &c.—a practice still rigidly observed in all parts of

Ceylon, by the production of the hide containing the familiar

* brand-mark ” of the owner.— Manu viii. 299. et seq.

The punishment for violence against cattle was the same

as if the injury was inflicted on man. The offender received

punishment as severe as the presumed suffering; and, where

such injury resuited in “hurting a limb, wounding, or

fetching blood,” the offender was also to make good the

expense of a perfect cure.— Ld. viii. 236, 7.

Besides punishment adequate to the offence, which was.

inflicted in ordinary cases of cattle-stealing, thefts of cattle

belonging to temples, &c., were punished more severely.—

Tp 324, 5.

These regulations were not less salutary im a moral point

of view—putting cattle-stealing beyond all temptation—

than in the promotion of agriculture. Even after the

eign

nae

practice of branding cattle is carried on by all parties

Deen 3 invasions a internal commotions ace. the long

_ period which preceded the British conquest in 1815, the

number of cattle in the Island, as we gather from casual _

observations of travellers, diplomatists, and historians,

was greater at that date than they are now. It is @

_ positive fact that the Island now produees, annually, less

than the number slaughtered by honest or foul means.

Though, perhaps, the number killed by the butcher exceeds.

that which falls a prey to the knife of the cattle-stealer, |

yet, few—very few, people have a correct conception of the —

_ great loss which the country, and the interests of agri-

eulture in general, have suffered, and suffer by cattle

‘stealing.

To prevent this great evil, or rather to promote the

agricultural interests of the land, various enactments have —

been ordained from time to time by the legislature of this

country. Two proclamations declared it penal to introduce

into healthy districts cattle, suffering from contagious.

diseases. When, in 1816 and 1828 an extraordinary mur-

rain produced an extensive mortality among cattle, the

Government unconditionally prohibited the destruction for

a time of “cows and cow-calves,” under a penalty of

_ Rds. 50. In 1836 eattle-stealing increased so much that

_ the legislature prevented the private killing of cattle by

restrictions of different kinds, of which the description of

___ the animal by its “‘ marks” was made a condition precedent.

for obtaining a ticket authorizing its slaughter. Besides:

_ other measures, by which even the possession of beef, unless ,

_ satisfactorily accounted for, was made criminal, a provision

| was made by the Ordinance No. 2 of 1835, amongst other |

_ things, for the registration and the branding of cattle —

{see cl. 7.] However leniently this law is enforced, the

ee REFERENCES

ce: Page

; oe ULvet VA 2M SNL ids fp Mone AO to te TF

baladan | eet eS NSS Wy —— 7 fs, 7} i), aaa “ch :

ee Boherd argon ay pry ROE OES

at ie Chances. Po —

i. Bleck ie aie Gor 5. e

ua, a

4 Vie Gar (7 as (€4d_____—~ ene 4” 26 MO (pe OR ”y

p- ie Se ee Sy) £9 dtl aE VASE Ef Ca

Fae fom OO AG ioe tae Tey

a Wad .. ay 3, ey

Mee eager

a { y ah

- ee J y OF ee

co Berewayas SEL ie ay ees om

LNSy) on Ypygn iz es TE boats Zaz) sae ENS Pom n ol) AO Dr, Maer 22

=. 2 / Lf

Page Pd Al Lest hia Pala yobs ¥ Le, ane

ee Gad aste..

a ve ie @..07

oe am Fey, a

ie | Hoormen f Chia 5B x SAR,

—_

ax ONS

So OO GIG) —

UG. oro Bae eats

whe Bears a ee

hun oiye

’ roy eo : : \ :

(EX Ca acne 7

nhimbiye

Lib. Of a te

. Lye is

}

( x

ns t

> 4

( \? f

7 ’

‘ ; a.

ri yy ¥7,

) eh

Ve = pee

monn \

oe !

Saran ee

5 “i

(6 5 x

Wey 2 ;

fea a 5 2

j ay -

h z

=; L re

SPN Ke nt

a wr PS

ad — bs )

Bar oe =|

= - Se ie 2 Sails

y Z

= =

i we (e

N' 7 = v t.

re a :

3 TE

eee

Nts

Yatooro0 Harpe

wae) ae

Nveoorm Male

i Pe Patsy ee ay

fad Wes

oy GOS. 2, “PS

cb Melon Hatlhdites ante

ae oe sels 2g

W210 Ne

ed : ee - Bowpuate Addeh vanede

ie ry

seal ge 4

}

ot ae Sa a a a~ A

\ 4 oi 2 « ¥

Ves, Ai if / He area wath a

i) ry H H oN \ \ \ :

TOS tHe

xe 4 \ Sea vi

% ve

\. Oe se J

SS ~ ome we

mat NR ery asa

ae Se Heat, LOO F Vorclic

LAarroo0 kerelle

By Fl tSPLERS — oe (30 Q a

A Se.

CrooHanag

‘ r

Ke AF } i

c Se 4

-* = i ;

a ») ; :

eam |

aa t (fos

; c

? a

| 5; : Tes i y ee, im _ : \ Ns alae

OME 4l¢ ie eae

rad Ls see ct :

: Shey i hee |

- Fy i =f

ihe : i

ea dyn

tp Sia hy :

4 mi is

2 eee ;

: ie

i , if

eee

‘ hte Po ewes 4

OPLGUPCRE yok pe eas

& &

s GC. t

* 1 S

}

2 a SP

Dal

: ie i

Nicp nl

4 5

Bye enatiiny } 7

a ‘t :

J hes

yest ice

{ , . , $

rT eee ae

pe ji © ja iy

x ; .

y at

t : Bon

> { Shya ;

Mars G :

a f rs ies

aa ath he

Cae Gers. fa

By handos

mye

Re ;

vee 2 i

FrOITL ie = ho 0 toh

aie (9B)

ee ty,

Tttte Hann’

PRCT ENGR 6)

Ges ee

Ak00sé€ pr

Vat -Cavle

Viele y f

yg = Pp SX eye

VOD

- La. foore

RANGE SA.

Luonno Jee

Foe SS en So ES

My ~

Nettie Alle ee :

? e é ( S

ea re

= 2 p wh ‘ ;

faye loroowe. =

a te Se ROE SERED PEER AS PE EN ER A VER I SE EPCS REESE SSS DSO 8 AT OTRAS SES TS

DP . ‘ os

Vi 3S

B ‘CF VaASS 5 Cutters NA

j ee : | ee

S.. */ . CE3xAaas?

| es Sa Ge

Decatie H. Havre

Bye B Creway’ 46 N23B9

fom

Poe NS Cn \ oe

beret fot le

} j oe

a af Ni ‘=

¥ ag ate

Petiye

By Tom Tom Bakers fronud * 40

tee

NAAT

NEL

Beray, >

Mirae G cuine

} | aye

oe eae

thist frvests Le MEAS FA3

Waka Atte

Wada

. Yackede Sereyuliye

Sif

7 : C4 if if, Ve : f f; , be

By Schoot Masters V24LOGA:

: P eiripan wor ee ao Sy “g

ff “g oN Coy he . Sa Gye

[ \. ) Kt

"i /

2 Bs} é vA he np

tee? ; =~ hg U = si

; Foe N : Se

) ly Gelay

Nc SR

4 ~

it Waiad ——~ ae

Qe a @) Go: saa NO

Pulanas tore VL)

oe 552 | *~ , oo Vy

139 COPOOSAMEELV AS &

Ga,

Ny ee

: oe 4 mS #, : ;

SIP EY GSS

499.50

By Moorne v}

+ ASY wa CA ALAS ws 2 52

| i fe be )

if}

/ | \ Badan Alle

By Movrmen of Chiltan

Pa Gger

xXUNOO-S ALdov

as is 3 a a

(resc cre.

05 |

Ave =) os

Hlam Pirvrea

BRAND MARKS ON CATTLE. 63

as it was done from great antiquity ;* and it serves asa

more powerful check to cattle-stealing than any which the

owner may devise.

Shortly after the enactment in question, when Mr. (since

Sir) William Ogle Carr became the Queen’s Advocate, he

found some difficulty in retaining the different names given

for cattle-brands, during prosecutions for cattle-stealing,

and requested an officer of the Court to collect the names

in a descriptive catalogue. The following is the result of

that officer’s labours, which I have the honor to present to

this Society.

NOTE.

The plates are given in the Appendix in the integrity in which they

were found in the original. I regret that 1 have not been able, as I

anteaded, to add explanatory notes to the namés.

* Arrian states that an Indian nation called Sibse marked their oxen

with a club to distinguish them.—Vol. 2, p. 195.

NOTES ON THE OCCURRENCE OF A RARE EAGLE NEW

TO CEYLON; AND OTHER INTERESTING OR RARE

BIRDS.

BY S. BLIGH, ESQ., Kotmaleé.

1 HAVE the great pleasure of recording the occurrence of

that rare and beautiful eagle, “Limnaetus Kienieri,” of De

Sparre, called by Jerdon (‘‘ Birds of India,” page 74) the

“ Rufous-bellied Hawk Eagle.” I shot a fine male example

of this splendid-looking bird on the 20th October last; and as

it has not hitherto been recorded as occurring in Ceylon, and

is rare even in India, the following particulars of its capture —

and description may be of interest and worth recording.

An hour before sundown, as I was walking by the skirts

of a narrow belt of jungle surrounded by patanas, I heard

the call-note of a Java Sparrow; being desirous of obtaining a

specimen, I went in search of it, and soon discovered a small —

flock of these birds on the top of a very high tree, evidently

enjoying the beautiful evening as much as myself after so

many weeks of rain, as they were piping their pleasant notes

incessantly. Whilst waiting for the chance of a shot, I saw a

large bird of prey leisurely sailing just above the trees in ~

circles, in a very buoyant and graceful manner, rarely flap-

ping its wings, evidently hunting for a supper (on dissection

the stomach proved to bequite empty). My little terrier was

frisking about some thirty yards off, and on arriving over the

spot, the bold bird at once altered its flight, hovering in

small circles, with a heavy flapping of the wings, evidently

with a view of examining the dog-—giving me an opportunity

of making a clear but long shot. I brought it down with a ~

broken wing. On going to pick it up, I saw it was an un-

knewn species to me. It put itself in an attitude of defence —

| NOTES OF A RARE EAGLE NEW TO CEYLON, ETC. 65

at once, and a formidable bird he looked, with beak open,

head thrown back, wings spread, and talons ready for action,

and its beautiful brown eyes looking so fierce. Securing it

with some difficulty, 1 should have wished to have kept it

alive, but found the wing too much fractured. I may here

remark, as it may not be generally known, that a good plan

of killing large birds, when wounded and desired as speci-

mens, is to tightly press the thumb on the trachea just by the

roots of the tongue. I killed the eagle so very quickly with-

out injuring a feather.

I look upon the capture of this rare Indian eagle in Cey-

lon as not only a highly interesting addition in itself, but

also as full of promise that some of the more commoner kinds

found in India may yet be added to the local list, as yet not

half the species of diurnal raptores found in India have

been recorded as occurring in Ceylon.

Jerdon records two specimens only as existing in Indian

Museums. My specimen agrees most accurately with Jerdon’s

description as to plumage, but differs in measurement, mine

being smaller anda male. I presume his was a female, as

the sex of the specimen he describes is not given, the differ-

ence being no more than what is usual between the sexes of

raptorial birds, the female being the larger, The species

may be readily distinguished from others of the same family

in the adult state, having but three colours, each well defined

and separate, the whole upper parts black, chin, throat and

breast white, afew feathers on the side of the breast having

oblong streaks or spots of black, the rest of the under parts

rufous, each feather having a faint line or streak of black in

the centre, excepting those of the tarsus which are much paler

and without streaks, the larger under wing-coverts having

but a very narrow inner edge and tip of rufous, the rest

black form a very conspicuous band of that color across the

wing when extended, the- base of the crest feathers pure —

66 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

white, that of the rest of the body not so pure or tinged

with grey; I noticed that the bird did not elevate its crest

but slightly above the level of the head. Wangs when closed

reach within 12 inch of the end of the tail; weight, 12 lb.;

spread of wings, 45 inches; carpal joint, 144 inches; length,

193 inches; tail, 9 inches; longest crest feather, 24 inches;

tarsus, 3 inches; greatest spread of foot, 5 inches; depth of

closed beak, 1 inch; eye rich dark brown and 11-16th of incly

in diameter.

A few of the upper wing-coverts and the 5th to the 10th

primaries have a decided brownish tinge; the 9th and 10th

also have a terminal edge of albescent. These feathers I

should say, though quite perfect and shew no signs of abra-

sion, and are quite consistent with adult plumage, indicate

that the bird has lately worn a browner livery. Probably the

plumage of the first two or three years may bear a resem-

blance to that of commoner species, and in which stage

may not be readily distinguished from them, and thus

possibly this rare bird has been overlooked, and suffered

their too often inglorious fate in this Island of being stuck

on a tall pole as a warning to their congeners that an

Appu’s rusty gun is only too ready to protect his master’s

fowls.

Nisox Hirsuta, Lemm.

On the 12th November about noon, when making my way

through a dense jungle, I suddenly came upon three owls

sitting together on a horizontal branch of a low-tree, well

shaded with foliage. The instant they knew they were ob-

served, they dashed off in a sudden manner in different

directions. I secured one which proved to be an adult male

of this species. Three years since, I received a pair in the

flesh from Kotté near Colombo, shewing that it frequents

both the low and Ill country; they are said to be rare in

Ceylon. The above are the only instances I haye met

NOTES OF A RARE EAGLE NEW TO CEYLON, ETC. 67

with the species. The stomach contained the remains of

beetles and grasshoppers.

CucuLus Canorus, Linn.—The “ Cuckoo.”

Now the name recalls “Home” and floods the memory

with recollections of far different scenes to those where I

procured the second recorded specimen of this rare visitor

to Ceylon. The only cther specimen was procured by

Layard near Colombo many years since. My specimen was

flitting from bush to bush on the Harangolla patanas, and

was very shy.. Its stomach contained the remains of large

hairy caterpillars.—(Shot on October 7th, a male in good

plumage.)

HiERococcyx varius, Vahl.

On the 7th of November I shot a male of this species.

Its flight is so like that of a small hawk, that I at first mis-

took it for one. It seems to prefer the skirts of the jungle

bordering grass land to the open country. I flushed it

several times before obtaining a shot. The plumage is

partially moulting. The stomach contained the remains of

grasshoppers.

TRINGILLA Ornizivora. “ The Java Sparrow.”

This well-known cage-bird I believe is often seen in a wild

state near Colombo. Ihave frequently seen them in the

jungle here. They are so wild and keep so much to the

tops of the highest jungle-trees, in inaccessible places, that

I have not yet been able to obtain a specimen. They seem

to be quite at home in this wild district, and I think the

species is entitled to a place in the future local collection

in the Colombo Museum.

ERYTHROSTERNA HYPERYTHRA, Cabanis.

So little seems to be known of this lately discovered

species, that I watched for its appearance this season with

interest, and first observed it on the 12th of October. I

heard two on that day ina field of coffee. I was well

68 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

acquainted with its call note, having procured specimens

in Haputalé in 1869. Not knowing at the time that x

had only recently been made known, I looked upon it then

as a winter visitor to this Island; now I have no doubt

but they leave this for more northern climes for nesting

purposes. As I have noticed with many other species of

small migratory birds here, so with this; the males precede

the females and immature males by several days. By the

24th of the month, their robin-like notes could be heard on

all sides, and seemed to be the commonest bird here. Now

(18th November) the greater number seem to have moved

on, but still they are to be found in every suitable locality.

Three or four are now chirping round the bungalow. ‘Their

most favourite haunts seem to be thick rocky chenas, inter-

spersed with a few trees bordering on open ground. They

are very restless birds; in habit they have much more

affinity to the robins and chats than to fly-catchers. Its

most common notes are like, “ hwit, jur, tick, tick, tick,”

inditferently uttered, separately or all together, and it has

a pleasant little song. When the “#tck, tick,” is uttered,

the bird always elevates the tail, and reminds one most

forcibly then of the familiar robin. They are the earliest

birds to get up that I know of here; they are early enough

to see the bat off to bed, and the other evening when

watching one of those creatures breaking its day’s fast ona

luscious guava, the robin-chat was chirping his goodnight

in an orange tree hard by.

[Read 3rd February, 1873. ]

EXTRACTS FROM THE RECORDS OF THE DUTCH

GOVERNMENT IN CEYLON.

BY R. VAN CUYLENBERG, ESQ.

PSD NP REE RR RANI:

I BEG to lay before the Society certain notes I have taken

from the Dutch Records preserved in the Government

Record Office. They comprise extracts from Minutes of

Councils held by the Dutch during some time of their rule

in this Island. It may be mentioned that their Council

proceedings were always opened with prayer.

November 13, 1658.—Ata meeting held this day 1t was

resolved that the Council do place on record their grati-

tude to God for their suecess in having conquered the

Portuguese. They set apart the 20th of that month asa

special day of thanksgiving and supplication for His further

aid—to be observed by all, under a penalty of one hundred

Rix-dollars for neglect of the order. Clergymen required

to announce the same from their pulpits.

My next extract is from a Minute of Council bearing date

the 10th June, 1659, where the Council after due delibera-

tion on the subject of the welfare and prosperity of the

Dutch and Native Burghers come of opinion that it was

principally owing to their general apathy that their means

were small and accordingly suggest a remedy. ‘They pro-

pose that the body of Burghers should have a Captain over

them. The qualifications necessary for a person holding this

position having been discussed, it was agreed that George

Blume the Captain of the Cinnamon Department be select-

ed to fill the post, he being a man of active habits, and one

possessing an intimate acquaintance with the people of the

country and would be sure to incite them to the pursuit of

useful and honest occupations.

70 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

Another measure brought before the Council on this day

was one having reference to the baking of bread, and it was

ruled that the best white bread should weigh 8 ozs., and

mixed brown bread 16 oz., and that the price of a loaf was.

to be 2 stivers* when the parrah of wheat was sold at

Rds. 1 18 stivers. Eight Dutchmen and eight Natives

(whose names are mentioned) were to have licenses as-

bread-bakers, and the Captain of the Burghers was to make

Inquiries and find out what was the number of Christians:

who were engaged in baking bread, and none were for the

future to have licenses to carry on this trade unless they

were known to be pious men and regular attendants at

divine worship.

20th December, 1659.— At a meeting held this day it was

brought to the notice of the Council that out of those

villages in the Belligam and Galle Kéralés that yield a

revenue to Government, no less than sixty were found to

be inhabited by dancing women and other useless people by

which the Company suffered a loss. It was therefore

decided that they be expelled from thence, and that 300

recently enlisted Lascoryns be sent there on a monthly

allowance of one laryn each, and one parrah of rice.

May 24, 1664.—At a meeting held this day it was

decided that all Storekeepers and Cashiers employed under

Government were to be called upon to give security for

the due discharge of their duties,and when neglect cf duty

was brought home to them they were to be deprived of

situation and rank and employed as soldiers.

July 18, 1664.—It was brought to the notice of the Coun-

eil that there were frequent complaints by Clergymen of

the evils resulting from the practice, which was daily gaining

ground, of Dutch soldiers marrying women of the country,

* Stiver—a Dutch coin of the value of 2 cents,

EXTRACTS FROM THE DUTCH RECORDS. 71

and it was resolved that these marriages should not be per-

mitted to take place for the future, unless a certificate from

the Clergyman was produced shewing that the woman pro-

fessed the Christian religion.

It was also ruled that native women, wives of Dutch sol-—

diers, were to be required to attend the weekly services of

the church. The penalty for neglect of this order was that

their husbands should forfeit their wages.

October 4, 1667.— Amongst other things that came before

the Council on this day was the subject of agriculture in the

Galle District, and it was resolved to reward those who were

chief in promoting the same in the following manner.

To the Commander, a silver jug weighing 200 Rds.

To the Dissawe, a silver gorget and tray weighing 35 Rds.

To his Assistant, 150 Rds. in cash.

To Lieut. Hans Jacob Boeff, 100 Rds. in cash.

To the Native Chiefs, 150 Rds. in cash.

I BEG to place before the Society certain notes I have

made from the Dutch Records, in continuation of the paper

presented by me on the 3rd February last. They comprise

Minutes of Councils held by the Dutch from November,

1667, to August, 1669,

November, 1667.—The Council resolve to purchase the

house of the late Assistant Engineer, Adriaan de Leeuwe,

situated in the east end of the street called Prince Street

east of the Fort of Colombo, in breadth along the street

over against the Fort, six Renish (?) roods, and in length

alone Prince Street, fifteen roods, for the sum of Rix-

dollars 875*.. This is interesting as serving to shew the

value of property at that time as compared with the present.

* A rix-dollar == usually from 4s. to 4s. 8d.

72 ROYAL ASIATIU SOCIETY (CEYLON BRANCH.)

November, 1667.—The Council permit Adriaan Baach, as

a special favour, to disembark some rice brought from Tutu-

coreen, the same being contrary to express orders and very

detrimental to the progress of cultivation here.

The Council receiving an application from one Clara

Van Der Hart, requesting that she may be exempted from

paying the duty of 20 per cent., on imported cloth, grant

her request, but on the distinct understanding that for the

future none should be exempted.

January, 1668.—The Council learning that the ship

* Vlaardingen” was sea-worthy, resolve to despatch her to

Holland with a cargo of Saltpetre, Pepper, and Cinnamon,

along with two other ships. These three vessels to be

manned with 185 to 190 men, and to be supplied with all

the necessaries for a ten months’ Voyage.

Itisalso resolved that the two ships, the “ Wassende Maan”

and the “ Wapen Van Der Jour,” that have arrived from

Amsterdam, were to be sent back laden with Pepper, and

one of them was to carry a chest of Pearls of the late fishery

that was bought in for the Hon’ble Company at 38,582

guilders.* The Council moreover learning that these two

vessels had performed their voyage to Ceylon in seven and

six months respectively, direct that the half reward of

300 guilders be given to the former, and the half reward of

600 guilders to the latter, as ordered by the Hon’ble Com-

pany, which was to be expended in procuring necessaries for

the return voyage.

Lhe Council also set apart the 2nd of February as a day

of supplication and fasting, owing to the departure of these

ships for Holland.

The Council learning with pleasure that a new arrival

by one of these vessels, in the person of Serjeant Cornelius

* Guilders, Dutch coin=38 cents, or 1s. 9d., Rs. 14,661 and 16 cents.

EXTRACTS FROM THE DUTCH RECORDS. 13

Seybol, was a Lawyer and an Advocate, it wasdecreed that he

be made a member of the Council of Justice, and receive

the salary of a junior merchant. .

March, April, 1668.— Amongst other instructions by the

Council on ecclesiastical matters, were the following. The

native languages were to be learnt by all Clergymen. The

Sinhalese and Tamil languages were to be used instead of

the Portuguese, which was to be discontinued,

Slaves were not to be permitted to wear hats or long hair,

who were not able to speak the Dutch language intelligibly.

August, 14, 1668.—The Council on hearing that certain

fishermen were about to relinquish their calling, and being

of opinion that the same would be prejudicial to the public,

appoint a Committee to revise the list of the fishers, and to

enjoin these men to continue to pursue their calling accord-

ing to ancient usage.

May, 1669.—The Council finding that the cocoanut plan-

- tation at (Souti Tangh) yields a revenue of not more than

1,260 rds, per annum, against an outlay of 620 rds. per men-

sem, resolve on renting it out to the Burgher Louis Tramble

at 900 rds. per annum from the 21st June next to the end

of February, 1671.

July, 1669.—The Council offer a reward of 400 laryns*

to the person who shall produce the body of a certain

murderer, alive or dead.

August 5, 1669.—The Council commute the sentence

passed by the Court of Justice on Cappure Camby Chetty

of Hunnupittia for adultery, which was, that he be hanged

by the neck until he is dead, and his corpse be put into a

sack and thrown into the sea: thus—that he be whipped

severely beneath the gallows, branded and banished from

the Island, and interdicted from returning to it on penalty

of forfeiting his life.

* Laryn.—A Portuguese coin.

THE STATURE OF GOTAMA BUDDHA.

BY JAMES D’ALWIS, M.R. AVS.

THERE is no statement in any part of the Buddhist

Canon regarding the stature of Buddha, or the ordinary

stature of man in hisage. Nor, so far as my investigations

have extended, have I found any allusion to them in any

of the Commentaries to the Canon. Dimensions, however,

are recorded of habitations, furniture, clothes, &c., designed

for the priesthood; and they are generally expressed by

the terms “ sugata vidatthi.” At the place, where it is

first mentioned (vide Vinaya Pitaka, lib. 1, chap. 4)

Buddhaghosa defines the measure thus :—

Sugata vidatthi nama idini majjhimassa purisassa tisso vidat-

thiyo vaddhaki hatthena diyaddho hattho hoti—z. e. ‘ Sugata

vidatthi, is three spans of a middle-size person of this (age), and

one and a half cubits by a carpenter’s cubit.’

Upon the above authority, and on the supposition, I

believe, that by sugata, “ Buddha’s” was meant, the cal-

culation of his height is in this wise. . Taking Buddha’s

span to have been the length of “ three spans of an ordinary

person,” and giving nine inches to the ordinary span, the

sugata span is put down at (three by nine, equal to) twenty-

seven inches. Two spans being generally considered to be

a cubit, or the length of the lower-half of a man’s arm - and |

four times that length being the average height of a well-

proportioned man—Buddha’s stature is said to have been

(twenty-seven x two x four, equal to two-hundred and

sixteen inches, or) eighteen feet.

It is not easy to ascertain with precision if Buddhaghosa

in his gloss meant, by sugata vidatthi, “Gotama Buddha’s

THE STATURE OF GOTAMA BUDDHA. (a

span,” and thereby imtended to give his height, He

does not anywhere state, on what authority he, nine and-a-

half centuries after the sage’s death, fixed the standard of this

measure, by which he would assign to Buddha’s stature three

times the average height of a middle-size man of his age.

It is indeed extremely doubtful, that in this explanation he

simply translated what Mahinda had previously stated in

his Sinhalese Comment; for Buddhaghosa unquestionably

refers to the size of a span of this, z.e., his age; and it will

be observed, that 700 years had then elapsed since Mahinda

wrote his Simhalese Commentary. That Buddhaghosa was

therefore led into an error, from a misapprehension of the

expression sugata, there is less reason to doubt, than that

he was misled by any traditional account that might have

come down to his own times; for, there is abundant testimony

in the Tepitaka to prove that Gotama was an ordinary man

of his age. What, therefore, was the height of man in the

6th century B.C., or what was meant by sugata vidatthi in

the Institute already noticed, will form the subject of

investigation in this paper which I respectfully submit to

this Society. |

Anciently people wrote the most extravagant things of

man and his nature. Their books abound in the mar-

vellous. We read of giants, and gigantic men, Even the

Old Testament, using the current phraseology of the times,

alludes to them in different places, in the same way that

the Mahavansa speaks of them as once existing in Ceylon.

But, I believe it may safely be affirmed that these giants

were no more gigantic than the Yakkhas of Mahanama;

or that the latter were no more devils than the “evil

demons,” who, according to Buchanan’s History of Scotland,

“having been allied to the daughters of Dioclesian, begot

| giants, whose descendants remained even at the landing of

Brutus.” The miants of the Bible, and the Mahavansa were

76 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

doubtless extraordinary men, both in ‘stature, valour! and

strength, like a Nimrod, a Nila, or a Porus.2- That they

were great in stature we readily believe; but that they

were three times taller than men are at present, to say the

least, has not been proved. That ‘the mighty men of old”

were in stature greater than mankind of the present day,

may, moreover, be conceded on the ground that they were

also long-lived. But, when the average age of man came

down in round numbers to 100 years, that man generally re-

tained his abnormal stature cannot be easily credited. All

that can be safely predicated of such, is, that people of extra~

ordinary stature have appeared from time to time, like men

of extraordinary mental calibre. Not a single statement in

any book authorizes the conclusion that mankind were

altogether gigantic in stature after the date assigned to the

flood. If Goliath was ten feet seven inches high,? Moses

was by no means of the extraordinary height which he

records. _ If, again, the ten warriors of Dutthagamini were

1 Mahawanso calls them “ warriors,” p. 137.

2 Arrian says that when Alexander saw Porus “ he stopped his horse,

-and was seized with admiration at his tallness, for he was above five

cubits.” Five cubits are equal to about seven and half feet of our mea-

‘sure. Plutarch, p. 37, says, that, according to most authors, he was.

reckoned to be four cubits and a hand’s breadth ; but Raderus thinks that

his four cubits ought to be five; because Eustathius in his notes to

Dionysius, ver. 1027, tells us, that many of the Indians were above five

cubits high. Curtius gives us no certain rule by which we may guess at

his stature, he only affirming, lib. viii., chap. 18, 7, “that Porus exceeded

the common height of men, and that his elephant as far surpassed the rest

of the elephants in bulk, as he did the rest of his army in strength and

stature.” Diodorus, p. 559, adds, that “his body was so big, that his

breast-plate was twice the dimensions of the rest.”—See Arrian’s History

of Alexander, vol. ii, p. 37.

‘3 -1.Sam., xvii, 4:

THE STATURE OF GOTAMA BUDDHA rear

strong men, it is nowhere stated that they reached even

the alleged height of Goliath.

It may be perfectly true that, anciently, men varied

in stature in different regions of the world, as they do

now. ‘Those who were of Anak’s race might have been

of such extraordinary height that the Israelites looked like

grasshoppers before them.! Some of the European nations

may excel the Londoners of the present day. So likewise,

the Indians might have been a well formed people, measuring

much above the average height of other nations. We may

oo farther, and admit, that even in one and the same region, the

distinctive character of each race of man was, and is hichly

variable.2 Ithas been also noticed that there was a difference

in stature between the Polynesian Chiefs, and the lower orders

within the same islands. In like manner, the Prussian

Grenadier Guards present a striking difference to the rest

of the same nation. Further, the self-same Indians of the

time of Alexander, as Arrian states, were “taller in stature

than all the rest of the Asiatics.” 4

But, we can by no means believe that they were eighteen

feet high. For, the utmost height which the self-same his-

torian gives to “‘ many of them” (i.¢., the class of Indians just —

above deseribed) is “little less than five cubits.” Five

cubits, however, is not a very marvellous height of man even

in modern times.

The result of modern investigations is, that the tallest

-man who ever lived was no more than nine and-a-half feet

high. The skeleton that was found on the site of the

1 This is simply a form of expression, or figure of speech to heighten

_ the idea of extraordinary height.

2 Darwin’s Descent of Man, 1, p. 225. .

3 Ibidem, 115.

_ 4 Arvian’s History of Alexander, vol. u., p. 9.

78 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH. )

Roman camp at St. Alban’s was only eight feet high.!

A Swede, once in the Prussian army, was found eight and-

a-half feet high. Charles Byrne, or O’Brien, an Irishman,

whose skeleton is in the Museum of the College of

Surgeons, London, was eight feet four inches high when

alive. 2

Now, there is no satisfactory evidence to shew that

Gotama exceeded in height, any of. the above persons.

Nor, on the other hand, can we believe that he was of the

height of the “many” Indians, whom Arrian describes as

having been “little less than five cubits high;” for, he is

unquestionably represented in the Buddhist canonical

works, as we shall hereafter shew, as an ordinary man of

his age; and Arrian himself records that “five cubits” was

such ah extraordinary stature, that Alexander the Great

** was seized with admiration” (amazement ?) at the tallness

of Porus (for he was above five cubits high), as well as at

his beauty, and the justness of the proportion of his body.”

The maximum age to which people lived in the times of

Gotama was in round numbers one century;? and it is the

same that is assigned in Buddhist works to men of the

present day. The fact is indeed undoubted, that he had not

attained the age of a Mathusela, or that of any other ante-

deluvian, or other ancient personage mentioned in Buddhist

works; or much less the age of Henry Jenkins of Yorkshire,

who was 157 years old at his death in 1670.4 For, Gotama

died in the ‘‘ fulness of time,” when he was only “ four-

score” years of age; and it must be borne in mind that the

1 Philosophical Trans., No. 333.

2 Penny Cyclopedia.

3 See Parinibbana Sutta, translated by Turnour in the Bengal Asiatic

Society's Journal.

4 See Lardner’s Annual Physics, p, 693.

THE STATURE OF GOTAMA BUDDHA. 79

Buddhists nowhere venture to state, that the people generally

of the age of Gotama were eighteen feet high. We shall

now turn our attention to some of the legends regarding

Gotama Buddha.

1. Itis said that Nanda, Gotama’s foster brother, who

was four angulas shorter than Gotama, wore a robe in size

equal to that of the sage.

ui. More authorities than one, consisting of the Canon

and the Gloss., mention the fact that Gotama exchanged

robes with Mahé Kassapa ; and that they both used the robes

of each other.

ii. It is expressly stated that Maha Kassapa was a

middle-size man of his age. _

iy. When king Ajatasattha visited Mandamalaka, the

monastery in Jivakambavana in Rajagaha, he saw, and

entered the presence of a large concourse of priests sur-

rounded by Gotama; and yet, seeing nothing extraordinary

in Gotama different from those by whom he was surrounded,

asked an Ajivaka where Buddhawas? The Ajivaka replied,

“* Maharaja, he is the same (person), who, facing the east,

and leaning against the central pillar, is seated, surrounded

by the bhikkhus and sanighas.”

v. There appears to have been so little, if any, differ-

ence between Gotama and his disciples, that when the

Bréhmana Sundarika Bhadradvd4ja saw Gotama with his

head covered, he approached him, mistaking him for one of

his fraternity ; and, when he afterwards saw his bald head,

the Brahmana left the sage in disgust.

vi. When king Pukkusdti of Takkasilé heard of the

great renown of Gotama Buddha, he went down to see him;

and on his way, met the sage in a public hall, and entered

into conversation. It was not until they had spoken

together for a good while that the sage was recognized.

Nor even then was it, indeed, from any personal characteristic

80 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH. )

which distinguished him from the rest of mankind. It

was after he had been told of the fact.

Without multiplying authorities to prove, what is already

manifest, that Gotama Buddha was an ordinary man of the

passage in the Vinaya, from which it is inferred that he was

eighteen feet high.

This inference is drawn, it is believed, from a misappre-

hension of the meaning of “sugata” in sugata vidatthi.

Sugata, it is true, is an appellative for Gotama. The

Buddhists in Ceylon, following the definition of Buddha-

ghosa, interpret sugata as “ Bauddha” or “ Buddha’s,” and

sugata vidatthi as “ Bauddha span,” or “ Buddha’s span.”

A little reflection, however, must convince the reader that

such could not be the meaning of this word. Gotama was a

man either of extraordinary, or ordinary stature. If the

former, and if moreover by sugata his ownself was meant,

it is quite clear the measures given by the phrases sugata

vidaithi, and sugata angula, were exceptional, and therefore

conveyed no correct notion to any person who had not

pr eviously known the exact size of Buddha’s hand or finger:

and it is remarkable that ¢hat measure is not stated by the

law-giver in any part of his Canon, which was intended

for priests scattered about in different parts of the Maj-

jhimadesa,—some of whom had never seen the sage,—and

for priests who night come into existence centuries after his —

death. We are, therefore, constrained to distrust, that he

meant by sugata vidatthi his own span—the size of which

is not stated. That he did not mean the ordinary span,

which might vary from age to age is sufficiently proved

by the use of sugata before vidatthi.

On the other hand, if, as we may abundantly prove,

Gotama was an ordinary person of his age, it is simply

absurd to believe that he would speak of an ordinary

THE STATURE OF GOTAMA BUDDHA, 81

common measure by reference to his own span; or

by qualifying it by the word sugata. It would be

far more reasonable to beleve that he had referred

to a particular measure in use, or to any other that

was then sanctioned by usage or authority. Indeed

at may be believed tuat he meant, not an ordinary measure,

but one of several measures which were known in his

time. It may be then inquired; if sugata does not mean

Bauddha, can it have any other sense? We are not

at a loss to assign to it that ‘“‘ other sense.” Sugata, from

su ‘well, aud gata ‘taken, received, accepted,’ besides

being a name for Buddha, means ‘approved,’ ‘accepted,’

“well received;’ equal to ‘standard, imperial.’ With this

interpretation before us let us investigate the meaning of

the expression sigutassa and sugata in the following passage

in the Vinava, lib. 2, chap. 1., section 5.

Yo pana bhikkiu sugata civarappamanan civaran kdrdpeyya

atirekan va chedanakay pacittivan—tatri’?dan sugatassa sugata

civarappamanan dighaso nava vidatthiyo sugata vidatthiyé tiriyan

cha vidhatthiye —iday sugatassa sugata civarappamanan . . ti .

Before critically examining the meaning of sugata in the

above Institute, it is necessary to examine the cause which

led to its enactment. Nanda, Buddha’s foster brother, who

was a priest, once wore a robe as ample as the one usually

worn by Buddha. Ozher priests, seeing Nanda at a dis-

tance, and mistaking him for Gotama, evinced the usual

marks of respect; but soon found out their mistake, and

expressed their disapprobation of the conduct of one of their

fraternity. Now, it was to mect the wishes of those who had

been deceived, that Gotama enacted the above rule. If then

we translate sugata as Bauddha, the above rule will run

as follows :—

“ Should a priest cause to make a robe of the size of Buddha’ 8

robe, or in excess, [he would commit] Pacittiya, and [ the excess |

82 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

should be cut off. Here; this is the size of Buddha’s bauddha

robe—nine vidatthi long in Buddha’s vidatthi, and six in width,

This is the size of Buddha’s bauddha robe.”

From a careful perusal of Buddha’s edicts we find that,

where one matter or thing is stated in one set of words, the

same set of words is repeated, as in an old act of Parliament,

wherethe same matter or thing is again referred to. In the

edict before us, however, we have a deviation from this

principle of Buddhist composition. We have sugata civara

in the beginning, and sugatassa sugate civara twice repeated

afterwards. But, where vidatthi is mentioned sugata alone

occurs here as elsewhere,—shewing clearly an omission of

sugatassa before the first sugata; and shewing, moreover,

that a different meaning was intended by sugata when used

adjectively. If we render sugata-civara as Buddha’s robe,

we can assign no meaning to the word sugatassa which

precedes the expression. ‘That word, moreover, is a noun

in the genitive case, and is not given as an attributive of

civara, which sugata is. Taking then sugatussa to mean

“ Buddha’s,” sugata which follows must have a different

meaning, and we perceive no reason whatever not to assign

to it the meaning of “the accepted,” in the sense of the

‘authorized robe,” 7,e., the robe approved by usage, or

prescribed by rule.

By supplying the supposed omission, which, I must not

omit to state, is found in all the books, to which we could

gain access —and assigning to sugata the meaning of ‘ approy-

ed,’ or ‘the imperial,’ the Pali text may be translated, thus:

‘“‘ Should a priest cause to make a robe [exactly | to the dimen-

sions of Buddha’s approved robe, or in excess, he shall be guilty

of pacittiya; and the excess [ over the prescribed dimensions! ] shall

1 We have supplied the words by reading the text in connection with

the following rule, which prescribes the dimensions of a priest’s robes

THE STATURE OF GOTAMA BUDDHA, 83

be cut off. Here,—this is the size of Buddha’s approved robe, —

nine vidatthi long, in imperial vidatthi, and six in width. This

_ is the size of Buddha’s approved robe.”

Applying,. therefore, to the word sugata the same sense

when it is added to vidatthi or afigula, we cannot, we

apprehend, be far wrong if we interpret sugata-vidatthi as

the “accepted span,” “the legally prescribed span,” as

opposed to “the span measured by the extended thumb,

and little finger.”

Let us thew venture to: ascertain what this, if I may so

call, ¢mperial measure was? It is stated that twelve afigulas

make a vidatthi or span; and two vidatthi’s a hdstha, [or

ratana, Pali] “the lower half of the arm.”

Vidatthi is a Pali form of the Sanskrit word vitusthz.

It was a measure known to Brahmans as well as Buddhists.

According to: both, it is “along span, measured by the

extended thumb and little finger”; Asvaléyana Grihyas

Iy.1. Both are agreed’as to a span being considered “ equal

to twelve angulas or fingers.” [7. e., finger’s breadth. ]

Now, to determine the exact value of angula mentioned

in any system: of lineal measure, one must naturally look

to the unit from which it is raised. This unit, according to

the Abhidhdnapadipika, is a Uékkha or dot; and, according

to the Amarakésa, a yava, or “barley corn.” It is however

impossible to form:a correct idea as to what this Wkkhd was,

er what was the size of the yava, “ proceeding downwards

to the paramanu, or the “most minute atom,’ according to

the authoritative works of the Hindus.”! The Greek writers

on India have given extraordinary’accounts of the size of

Pacchimantena. satehati dighato mutthi pancakan

Mutthittikan ca tiriyan tato unan navattati:

‘The outer robe [shall be], at least, five short (cubits) in length, and

three short (cubits in width—less (shall be) unlawful.”

k Princep’s Ind. Antiq., vol. ii, Part:2, p. 122:

84 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON. BRANCH. )

srains. Herodotus speaks of “a sort of Indian seed about

the size of the panicum im a cod.”!

Being thus compelled to abanden all attempts to arrive

at a satistactory conclusion by “beginning from the begin-

’ we shall next resort to some intermediate measure,,

ning,’

which, as it refers to, and is descriptive of, a member of the

human body, may be looked apon as the basis of ai! measures.

inancient times. This is afigula, or finger being one-twelfth

of a vidatthi or span—tw:ce its length being equal to a

hdstha, San., or ratana Pali, “a eubit.” Princep, in his

Useful Tables, treating on the subject says, “That the

eubit was of the natural dimensions (of eighteen inches

more or less) can hardly be doubted. [?] Indeed, where

the hath is talked of, to this day, among the natives, the

natural human measure is both understood and practically

used, as in taking the draft of water of a boat, ete. In many

places also, both in Bengal and in South India the English

eubit has been adopted as of the same value as the native

measure.”2 Here, it may be conceded that the hastha was:

also of the natural dimensions of the lower half of an ordi-

nary well-proportioned man’s arm ; but, we are not therefore

warranted in putting down its leneth in ancient times:

as having been etghteen tuches, especially in an investi-

gation to ascertain through its means, the stature of ancient

Indiaus, which is variously stated by different writers. And

this difficulty is the more increased, when we find that the

linear measure in ancient India was totally altered during

Akbar’s administration, and that “the introduction, since,

of European measures iv the British Indian territories, and

in the Dutch and Portuguese settlements before them’?

1 Herodotus, Thalia ii1., § 100.

2 Princep’s Ind. Antiq. 11., Part 2, p. 122.

3 Ibid.

THE STATURE OF GOTAMA BUDDHA. 85

has contributed not a little to eonfeund all calculations

upon the basis of the natural dimensions of the hdstha.

It is, therefore, I apprehend necessary that we should

fall back upon a/gula “ finger’s breadth.” Upon this too, —

no accurate calculations can be made. For that too must

have varied according to the size of the men of a particular

age orlocality. ‘Treating on this subject, says Thomas in his

Usetul Tables:

“The gaz, or yard, now in more general use throughout India,

is of Muhammadan introduction: whether this is derived also from

the cubit (for the Jewish cubit is of the same length) is doubtful;

but, like the haséa, it was divided into 24 ¢astis, or ‘ digits, corres-

ponding more properly to inches.

“ Abt-’1-Fazl in the ‘Ayin-i Akbari,’ gives a very full descrip-

tion of the various gaz in use under the emperors, as compared

with the earlier standards of the Khalffs. He expresses their

eorrect length in finger’s-breadths, which may be safely taken as

three-quarters of an inch each.

“For facility of reference, his list is here subjoined, with the

equivalents in English measure at this rate :—

ANCIENT GAZ MEASURES ENUMERATED EN THE ‘ AYI'N-I AKBARI’.”

The Gaz-sauda of Harun-al-Rashid = 242 (some MSS.

have 252) fingers of an Abyssinian slave, the same nglish.

used in the Nilometer of Egypt! ...... seceseecs sesseene —= 182 in.

The Kasbah gaz, of Ibn Abililah = 24 fingers ......... = 18 fe

The Yusufi gaz, of Baghdad es Oe Jonsson. SSS Se

1 The cubit of the Nilomet)r is supposed to be the same as that of

the Jews, which is exactly two feet English:—if so, the 24 digits will be,

precisely, inches. Volney, however, makes it 203} French, or 22 English

inches. Some allowance must probably be made for the broad hand of

a negro, but the other measures will not be affected by the same error,

as they must be referred to the ordinary delicate hand of a native of Asia.

86 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY,.(CEYLON BRANCH.)

Fhe small Hashamah gazt of English.

Abt Miisa Asharf........ we. a. OBEY 201 1) cine One

The long Hashamah gaz of Man-

sar ’Abbas........ sik Re EY 292 > ese —— es

The Umriah gaz of the Khalif

(Wnts, sisweion dz sine soiats aati Pte =p ie wires eS ze

The Mamuinitah gaz ef Mamutn

VADDASE “usec accceosssivecce! ensses == ODS ir so) \inenceeseri i ee

Whe waz: Masalat,.0.<) 020s: ose.) oe nce

Sikandar Lodi’s gaz of 414 silver

Sikandaris’ diameter, modified:

by Humayun to 43 Sikandaris = 32: ,, vessels a eae ses

This was used in land measurements till the 31st year of Akbar.”

Major-General Cunningham? also puts down the Indiaw

ancula at “ somewhat under three quarters of an inch,” and,

adds —

“By my measurement of 42 copper coins of Sikandar Ludi;

which we know to have been aljusted to fingers’ breadths, the

angula is *72976 of an inch. Mr, Thomas makes i slightly less,

or °72289. The mean of our measurements is.°72632 of an inch,

which may be adopted as the real value of the Indian finger, or

angula, as I found the actual measure of many native fingers to be

invariably under three-quarters: of an inch. According to this

value the Aasta, or cubit, of 24 angulas would be equal to 17°43168

inches, and the dhanu or “ bow,” of 96 angulas would be 5:81 feet...

But as 100 dhanus make one nalwa, 100 nalwas make one krosa

or kos, it seems probable that the dhanyv must have contained 100

angulas to preserve the centenary scale.s According to this view

1 These two are also called the Gaz Mullik and Gaz Ziadiah, because

Ziad, the adopted son of Abu Scfian, made use of them for measuring

the Arabian Irak. ,

2 See his Ancient Geography of India, p. 575.

3 The same confusion of the numbers 96 and 100 exists in the mone-

tary scale, in which we have 2 bdraganis, ov ‘twelvers, equal to 1 panchz,

or ‘twenty-fiver.’ ‘

THE STATURE OF -GOTAMA BUDDHA. 87

the hasta, or cubit, would have contained 25 fingers instead of 24,

and its value would have been 18:158 inches, which is still below

the value of many of the existing hastas, or cubits of the Indian

Bazars.”

That this measure falls very far short of the Buddhist

vidatthi may be proved by the following references to the

Vinaya.

1. A priest’s habitation should be twelve by seven spans

from wall to wall.— Vede lib, 1, cap. 2.

Taking a span or vidatthi at nine inches, the room will

prove to be nine, by five and a quarter English. feet.

Though Gotama enacted this. rule with a view to economy,

and to shew that large spacious halls, which his followers

“had been unable to complete,” were inconsistent with the

“begearly” character of the monastic system which he

founded ; yet, on the other hand, [ am inclined to believe

that he could have scarcely considered that an apartment of

nine by five and-a-quarter feet would be sufficient for the

occupation of a priest. At least, the width is such as to

render it fit for nothing more than stretching one’s self down

to sleep.

2. The height ofa bed or chair should be eight afgulas. —

Seelib. 2,cap. 1, rule5. At the above rate of calculation this

height will represent six Hnglish inches. There is no doubt

that the object of this rule, as stated in the legend, was the

prevention. of “high seats,’—but at the same time we

cannot help thinking that a seat above six inches from the

ground was inconveniently low.

3. The regulated dimensions of a cushion or carpet are

two, by one and-a-half spans, which will be equal at the

above rate, to eighteen, by thirteen and-a-hal? Englishinches.

This may not appear to be an unreasonable or inconvenient

size, representing as it does the size of an ordinary chair of

the present day, but it is very remarkable that the very

‘

88 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

rule which follows the above provides for an enlarged

cushion or carpet. The reason stated in the legend is not

without importance. A priest by the name of Udayi once

sat upon a cushion of tue above dimensions, and it was

thoroughly covered over by his robes, and Buddha altered

the above rule by

4, Adding ‘a span of fringe to the above dimensions’,—

See lib. 2, cap. 1. ‘ais will raise the dimensions. to

twenty-seven by twenty-two and-a-half inches—a space

which certainly suffices for the stontest man to occupy.

But the next rule, as well as the first, which we have

noticed, suggests the propriety of an increased standard

for the measurement of the vidaithi.

5. It was necessary to provide for those afflicted. with

cutaneous diseases, with an under-shift, 2. ¢., a coil of cloth

round the loins; and the prescribed dimensions of this is

This in English measure will be three feet by one and-a-

half feet. Supposing that the object was to prevent the

robes being saturated with matter in that part of the body

which is generally put into action by sitting dewn, it is not

reasonable to believe that three feet correctly represented the

rotundity of an ordinary man; and from experience in this

country, we find that that length is barely sufficient to go.

round the broader part of an ordinary man’s body.

6. In examining the provision as regards a bath-cloth

of a priest, we find it to be six by two and-a-half spans, or

four and-a-half feet by twenty-two and-a-half inches.

Lhe twenty-two and-a-half inches represent the width,

that is the space between the waist and the knee; and

though four and-a-half feet would be just sufficient to cover

the nakedness of the body ; yet, it will be granted, that in

order to give to all these rules as a body, reasonable effect,

we must raise the standard of our measure; especially in

THE STATURE OF GOTAMA BUDDHA. 89

view of the same rule,as adapted to the priestesses, which is—

7. That the bath-cloth of a »hikkuni should be four, by

two spans, or three feet by one and-a-half feet.

This is ridiculously low according to our modern notions

of propriety. Making all allowances for the narrow and

illiberal views of society in general in remote antiquity,

and the contempt with which woman was held by man-

kind in those days, Gotama Buddha not excepted,—we may

not be surprised, that, in regulating the size of the garments

for women, the sage reduced the dimensions prescribed for

the males. Yet, judging from the great good sense which

predominates his social ascetic system, we are justified in

expecting from the law-giver a rule by which he effectually

carried out the object for which a bath-cloth was at all

provided—the concealment of shame. Bearing in mind

that ablutions in the age of Gotama were performed in public

places, and at open ferries (see Vinaya lib. 4) we certainly

- think that the same dimensions of a wrapper, intended as an

under shift in the case of males afflicted with cutaneous dis-

eases [vide Supra, Case 5], would scarcely suffice for women

| bathing at public rivers. Not only this, but the following

- rule which regulates the size of Buddha’s robe clearly indi-

cates that the standard of our measure should be raised.

8g. The size of Gotama Buddha’s robe is nine by six

_ spans, equal to six and three-quarter by four and-a-half feet.

If the height of man in the age of Gotama was six feet, a

robe of six and three-quarter feet, making allowances for

a coil round the shoulder would scarcely fit him “from

neck to ankle,” but the same cannot be said of the width of

the robe of a “decently clad” priest, which is put down at

four and-a-half feet—little above the length for a wrapper

provided for by rule given in the fifth case cited above.

Abandoning therefore the standard of nine inches for a

vidatthi, we shall here notice what has been said on the

90 ROYAL ASTIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

subject by a learned Buddhist priest of Siam named Ran-

sistiriya-bandhu. He agrees with us that Gotama was an

ordinary, or a middle-size man of his age, and cites muchof the

very circumstantial evidence which we have been at great

pains to collect in proof of the fact. He does not, however,

understand by sugata vidatthi an imperial measure, but

takes it for granted, that by it Buddha’s span was meant.

He ridicules the idea of a sugata vidattht having been, as

stated by Buddhaghosa, three times the length of the span

of an ordinary man of his age, And,though he holds the

ancients in high esteem, and acknowledges that to them we

are greatly indebted for much of what we know; he never-

theless affirms that in this respect Buddhaghosa’s account

cannot be accepted, and concludes that part of the subject

by—not calling the ancients, as Lord Brougham did, “ chil-

dren” as compared with the age of moderns,—but, boldly

asserting, that “ we are not the slaves of the ancients.”

In fixing Buddha’s height, he says! —“ Buddha was by

one-fourth taller than an ordinary man of his age. That is,

when you divide such an ordinary man’s height into three,

three such parts, plus one more, constituted Buddha’s

height,2 Buddha’s height, he adds, was, by the carpenter’s

cubit of the present day, 129 inches. His fathom was of

the same length.4 The height of man in Buddha’s age was

ninety-two angulas> and one kala.6 Their fathom ninety-

seven afigulas. |

«* Now that twenty-three centuries have elapsed since the

death of Buddha, and we are in the twenty-fourth century, —

TEM ss

1 Free translation from the Pali.

2 i.e., He was taller by one-third the height of an ordinary man.

3 i.e, ten and three-quarter feet.

4 He agrees here that the height was four times the hastha.

5 ie, little more than seven and two-third feet.

6 And yet he says Buddha was an ordinary man,

THE STATURE OF GOTAMA BUDDHA. 9}

we find the height of man to be seventy-five afigulas! ;

and their fathom, eighty. Century after century the height

of man ts reduced by three hala. The height of a child born

2n that age,2 is. fifteen and three-quarter angulas, by the

finger’s breadth of a man of the present age. The growth

of man is at the rate of two and-a-quarter angula per year,

from his birth to the completion of his twenty-sixth year.

Then his height in his twenty-sixth year is seventy-four

and-a-quarter angulas. The height of a child born in

Buddha’s age was eighteen and-a-quarter angulas in

Buddha’s afgula. He grew till thirty-three years of age,

at the rate of two and three-eighth afgulas; and when he

had attained his thirty-third year he was 129 inches by the

carpenter's cubit.

The maximum age of manin Buddho’s time (aukwutige-

bandhu continues) was 100 years. That of man at present

is seventy-seven. Thirty-four anigulas of an ordinary man of

Buddha’s ageare equal to twenty-four and-a-quarter inches

of the carpenter’s cubit. Seven masa, or undu seeds con-

stituted the size of the afgulas of an ordinary man of

Buddha’s age. Those kinds of seeds may be taken as

equivalent toseeds of paddy. Be it known, that an inch by

the carpenter’s cubit represented the afigula of an ordinary

man who lived :50 years after Buddha. The custom in Siam

at present is to accept one-fourth of a carpenter’s inch as a

kala, and one kala as four anu-kalés; that is, at the rate

of seven seeds for an angula. This agrees with the lineal

measure given in Abhidhanapadipika, and Sammohavino-

daniya.”

Amidst much that is interesting and contradictory, we

notice that the writer has made his calculations on the

1 «.¢., six feet three inches,

A .

2 Ms. doubtful, contradictory.

92 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

supposition that man’s stature is reduced by three kala every

century,—a dictum for which there is no more foundation

or authority, than for the statement that “the average age

of man was greater in Buddha’s age” than it is at present.

Yet, in testing his measure by the cases already considered

we obtain the following results. 3

Taking the Siamese author’s angula (7. e., sugata angula)

to represent two Inches, that is treating an angula as one-

twelfth of a carpenter’s two feet rule, we find that

1. <A priest’s residence was twelve by seven feet.

2. The height of a bed sixteen inches.

3. A cushion or carpet two by one and-a-half feet.

4. The same, with a fringe of one span, will make it

three by two and-a-half feet. ;

5. The under shift four by two feet.

6. A priest’s bath-cloth six by two and-a-half feet.

7. A priestess’ bath-cloth, four by two feet ;

8. And Buddha’s robe measured nine by six feet.

If these results are on the one hand in excess of our

notions of propriety, from a general view of the principles

of ascetism upon which Gotama seems to have enacted his

rules—the evidence which we have adduced on the other, as

to the stature of Indians in Buddha’s age, leads to the con-

clusion that the dimensions produced upon the standard of.

Buddhaghosa’s measure is inadmissible ; and that therefore

the standard itself must be rejected. For, according to him

—. e., at twenty-seven English inches per span

1. <A priest’s residence would be twenty-seven by fifteen

and three-quarter feet—a spacious hall more than enough

for a nobleman’s sitting room even at the present day.

2. A cushion or carpet; four and one-third feet, by

three feet four-and-a half inches—would be quite an incon-

venient appendage for even an ordinary chair, for which

the carpet was intended ;

THE STATURE OF GOTAMA BUDDHA. 93

4. The same with a fringe of twenty-seven inches,

equal to six and three-quarter feet by five feet seven and-a-

half inches, would render its size unreasonably large ;—

5. An under shift nine by four and-a-half feet ;

6. A bath-cloth, ten feet one and-a-half inches by five

feet seven and-a-half inches;

4. The same for a priestess, six and three-quarter feet

by three feet four and-a-half inches; and

8. Buddha’s robe, twenty and one-third’ by thirteen

and-a-half feet.

In confining our remarks to the last case, it may be stated

that the length of the robe is to go round the body, and that

its width represents the length to which it is to hang down

from the neck. If, therefore, Buddha was eighteen feet high

according to the standard measure of Buddhagosa, it is quite

evident that the prescribed robe of thirteen and-a-half feet

would, with the folds round the neck, scarcely reach his ankle

when hung from his shoulder, as it should according to

rule; see Vinaya.

Hence, we are again forced to abandon all the measures’

founded upon the supposed length of the Mohammedan gas,

or the Indian afgula, the Siamese standard, and Buddha-

-gosa’s lineal measure: of twenty-seven inches for a span;

and to resort to conjecture founded upon circumstantial

evidence, which we shali here notice.

~(.) Both Buddhist and Brahaman writers are agreed

as to vidatthi or vitasthi. being, not ‘‘the span,” but “ the

long span.” By “long span” is doubtless meant a measure

different from the ordinary span, measured by extending

‘the thumb and the little finger.” That difference con-

sists, moreover, in the vidatthi being /unger than a span,

which may be put down as nine English inches. This is

further confirmed by Buddha, who lays down in his Ca-

nonical Rules, that the vidatthi meant by him was the

94 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, (CEYLON BRANCH.)

sugata, not the common, but (see ante) the ¢mpertal measure.

The Greeks would also have us believe that the Indians

were larger than the ordinary people of other Asiatic

regions. It is thence also reasonable to believe that their

span was larger; and, they being nevertheless various, a

standard measure was doubtless fixed upon, as the sugata

vidatthi or “ imperial span,” two of which made a hdstha or

“cubit.”. This is the same cubit of which Major-General

Cunningham says is longer than 18°158 inches, and which,

he adds, is still the “ hastha of the Indian Bazaars.” This

is moreover generally believed to be the “ carpenter’s cubit

or the carpenter’s two-feet rule,” which to this day is

used in Ceylon—par exeellence—as “‘ the cubit.”

ii. When again, we find in History that the ancient

Indians kept a constant intercourse with the Egyptians, and

that between their habits and the Israelites there was

scarcely any difference, we are naturally led to resort to

Egyptian and Jewish standards for the ascertainment of the

standard for the Indian cubit.. Thomasz says, “The cubit

of the Nilometer is supposed to be the same as that of the

Jews, which is exactly two feet English :—if so, the twenty-

four digits will be precisely inches”; and it is very remark-

able that the constituent parts of a hastha are twenty-four

angulas; and angula or finger is still the word which the

Buddhists of Ceylon use to express a carpenter’s inch, or

an inch according to the English standard. ‘This measure,

when again applied to the height of a man (which is generally

four times a hastha, we obtain eight feet as the stature,

nearly the height of an Indian’s height, as stated by the

Greeks in round numbers, to be “five cubits” or seven and-

a-half feet.