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% al VOLUME 66

Number 1

Journal of the MARCH, 1976

ASHINGTON

ACADEMY... SCIENCES

Issued Quarterly

at Washington, D.C.

Symposium

Issue

MAY 2 1 1876

LIBRARIES

CONTENTS

Symposium — Energy Recovery from Solid Waste

Editorial . . 195

MAURICE J. WILSON aaa DAVID W. SWINDLE, ie : The Markets aS

and the Economics of Heat Energy from Solid Waste Incineration . 197

G.M. MALLAN and E.I. TITLOW: Energy and Resource Recovery from

Solid Wastes . - (207

B. VINCENT VISCOMI: Bee elie Study foe Burning BefiseWecived

Fuel in the District of Columbia by Potomaé Electric Power Company 217

DAVID KLUMB: Union Electric Company’s Solid Waste Utilization

System .. 225

WALTER K. MACADAM: Desens pad Polos Cantenl Features of ihe

Saugus, Massachusetts Steam Generating Refuse — Energy Plant . . 235

R.G. KISPERT, S.E. SADEK and D.L. WISE: An Evaluation of Methane

Production from Solid Waste. . . 245

R.C. RIGHELATO, F.K.E. IMRIE and " J. VLITOS: Production of

Single Cell Protein from Agricultural and Food Processing Wastes . 257

CHARLES J. ROGERS: Problems and Potential Associated with the

Production of Protein from Cellulosic Wastes . . 271

L.A. SPANO, J. MEDEIROS and M. MANDELS: Bieymatic Hydrolysis

of Polelocie Wastes to Glucose . . sane

JOHN T. PFEFFER and JON C. LIEBMAN: Beery oa Retace by

Bioconversion, Fermentation and Residue Disposal Processes . . . 295

E.R. MOATS: Goodyear Tire-Fired Boiler bie Rese ae ae Vea fs. RUN ee * ears

Book reviews . Sees ee

a - a A a a a -

Previously Published in Resource Recovery and Conservation

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Filer fe ear 9

ENERGY FROM WASTE BY

USING PYROLYSIS

Use our experience. We design and supply.

PYROLYSIS PLANTS:

e for the production of diesel fuel or heating oil

from old tyres and rubber waste

e for the recovery of metal from old cables using

minimal energy

e for the purification and safe reuse of sludge and

mixed polymers

Demonstrations using your own samples are given

in our plants.

=RBOLD PYROLYSE GMBH & Co, RECYCLING KG, Griiner Weg 5, 75 KARLSRUHE, G.F.R.

Now available, thoroughly rewritten and up-dated:

NORGANIC CHEMISTRY

A GUIDE TO ADVANCED STUDY

_ COMPLETELY REVISED SUCCESSOR TO HESLOP/ROBINSON, INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

|y R.B. HESLOP, Senior Lecturer in Chemistry and K. JONES, Lecturer

ly Chemistry, The University of Manchester institute of Science and

Technology

176. viii + 830 pages. £ 8.90/US $17.95/ Comments and Reviews

| 1. 49.00. ISBN 0-444-41426-6 Inorganic Chemistry, Heslop/Robinson:

find this a superb book and “This top-notch text is now even better!”’

‘7 only highly recommend it Prof. J.H. Day, Ohio University

use.” “An excellent book - indeed | found it so eee

/(of. Oliver Carrier Jr.,

|| Aversity of Mississippi, Prof. Kurt Niedenzu,

that | immediately adopted it as aclass text...

\dical Center

University of Kentucky

he amount of information presented i in readable form in this volume is astonishing...... certain to remain a

i indard text for many years.’ Talanta

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Resource Recovery and Conservation, 1 (1976) 195 195

Editorial

This issue is the Proceedings of a symposium, “‘Energy Recovery from Solid

Wastes’”’ held at the University of Maryland, March 13, 14, 1975. It was the

fourth in a series entitled, ‘““Science and the Environment”’ organized by the

Washington Academy of Sciences. The symposium was sponsored by the

Academy, the Chemical Society of Washington (the Washington, D.C. Section

of the American Chemical Society), the National Center for Resource Re-

covery, Inc. and Committee K-38, Resource Recovery, of the American Society

for Testing and Materials.

The utilization of solid wastes as a source of energy, particularly in storable

and transportable forms, can supply a portion of a nation’s energy needs. This

proportion may appear to be small, of the order of say two percent of U.S.

daily needs, but even this order of magnitude is large when compared with

some other alternative sources which are perhaps less readily available for

development and exploitation.

The purpose of the symposium was to review the state of the art and

practice of energy recovery from the organic portion of a variety of solid

wastes. The emphasis was on processing wastes to some other forms of energy

storage, ranging from solid fuel substitutes for coal to gaseous mixtures for

fuel to chemicals and proteins. This emphasis did not ignore the direct burning

of wastes to raise steam, which is less common in the U.S. than in Europe and

Japan. However, the current research interest in the U.S. (and elsewhere) is

toward fuels (and other products) prepared to a specification, rather than the

utilization of unprocessed mixed wastes in an incinerator. Energy conservation

possibly accruing from utilization of recovered materials (e.g., metals, glass,

paper and plastics) was not addressed.

This proceedings is simultaneously published as an issue of Resource

Recovery and Conservation and of the Journal of the Washington Academy of

Sciences. The editors wish to thank Dr. Richard H. Foote, editor of the

Journal for his assistance. The three editors thank the authors and organizers

for making the symposium possible.

J.G.A.

H.A.

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Resource Recovery and Conservation, 1 (1976) 197—206 197

THE MARKETS FOR AND THE ECONOMICS OF HEAT ENERGY FROM

SOLID WASTE INCINERATION*

MAURICE J. WILSON and DAVID W. SWINDLE, JR.

I.C. Thomasson & Associates, Inc., Nashville, Tenn. 37204 (U.S.A.)

(Received 24th March, 1975)

ABSTRACT

This study reviews the disposal and composition of solid waste with respect to its

material and energy resources. It evaluates the economics of front-end materials resource

recovery and the fluctuating markets for specific components, the energy extraction by

conventional incineration, and steam production not only for process needs but also for

coolant and/or heating. It touches briefly on energy recovery in the form of off-gas and

liquids from pyrolyzers, shredding to provide “‘fluff’’, and pelletizing.

MAXIMIZING RESOURCE RECOVERY FROM SOLID WASTE

The term “‘recycling”’ is used often these days, usually in the context which

leads one to believe that recycling of products has been going on for a long

time, wherever and whenever an economic incentive exists.

Today, we frequently hear words or expressions such as pollution, pollution

abatement, “‘urban ore’’, “‘cash for trash’’, solid waste, material resource recovery,

landfills, dumps, etc. Some undoubtedly will prove to be ephemeral; others

will live as long as our society demands.

We cannot engage in rancid rationalization. When we discuss solid waste

management, we should examine and evaluate the economic advantages of

material and energy resource recovery. Market strategies of consumer-oriented

companies have contributed to the amount of solid waste, perhaps excessively

at times with the no deposit—no return throwaways, individual packaging, etc.,

but the consumer is usually delighted with these innovative packaging methods

and the conveniences associated with them. He perhaps does not realize that

it may add to the price which he pays for the particular item.

We generate an ever-increasing quantity of solid waste. Approximately one-

half by weight is a renewable resource such as paper with a relatively high

calorific content. If all the 113,375,000 metric tons of residential and

commercial waste disposed of yearly were incinerated and the heat recovered,

* Paper presented at the Symposium “‘Energy Recovery from Solid Waste”, March 13—14,

1975.

198

this would amount to less than 2 percent of our total prime energy needs or

less than 6 percent of the heat energy required for heating and cooling our

residential and commercial buildings. Incineration of solid waste alleviates

the disposal problem. It has several advantages when compared with landfill

disposal. These are: (1) volume reduction by approximately 90 percent; (2)

sterile residue (ash) for which several uses exist; (3) recovery of heat which can

be used to produce steam at lower cost than any of the fossil fuels available

at today’s prices; and (4) air pollution can be reduced to the level required by

federal, state and local laws through the use of wet scrubbers or electrostatic

precipitators, usually more economically than in individual plants which are

replaced. In addition, front-end recovery of certain material resources such

as aluminum, copper, steel, etc., may be realized if the secondary materials

markets warrant. The reclaim value of some of the materials in our solid waste

varies significantly. Situations have developed in which the cost of separation

has been greater than the sales value.

The calorific energy resource continues to increase in value and is one of the

solid waste ‘“‘components”’ for which there is a profitable and growing market.

The heat energy may be extracted from ‘“‘solid waste fuel’’ in several different

forms: (1) shredded to produce “‘fluff’’, (2) pelletized, (8) gas, and (4) liquid

or incinerated to produce steam for process use, etc. This analysis will

evaluate the market for the heat energy when extracted in a conventional

incineration process to produce steam for use in cooling, heating, or certain

process requirements.

There are several markets or uses for the recovered heat. As examples:

(1) Process needs in manufacturing facilities.

(2) Industrial parks in which process and/or factory comfort cooling or

heating is required.

(3) Metropolitan urban or commercial areas where new as well as existing

offices, stores, banks, hotels, etc., require year-round climate control.

(4) College and university campuses with existing central heating and

cooling plants serving academic, dormitory, administration, student union,

library and other areas on campus.

(5) Medical centers with diverse usage such as laboratory, research, surgery,

patient and administrative areas.

(6) Airport complexes where central heating and cooling facilities provide

environmental control for each building.

(7) Shopping centers where sales areas, malls and miscellaneous spaces

are supplied with coolant and medium-temperature water for control of

temperature and humidity.

(8) Apartment complexes with several high-rise facilities as part of an urban

development program. |

(9) Power generation where solid waste heat energy may serve as supplement |

to the prime energy for base load or peak shaving usage. |

Kach of these applications or markets requires a different amount of coolant |

and heat per unit of demand. In other words, each will have a different load

factor. Reference to “load factor”’ throughout this paper refers to the ratio

of yearly unit sales or usage to the yearly production.

Potential yearly production must allow for the scheduled and unscheduled

outages of the incineration equipment. Expressed more succinctly, load factor

is the steam sales and/or equivalent metric ton-hours per year divided by steam

produced. In-plant usage, line losses and miscellaneous losses therefore are

excluded.

The load factor range for each of these applications as derived from ASHRAE

studies is shown on Table 1. Specifically, a manufacturing process which re-

quires a fixed quantity of steam each operating hour will have the highest

load factor of any of the markets analyzed. The demand is affected solely by

the production process. It is not dependent upon the weather or outside

conditions which affect transmission and ventilation air heating.

TABLE 1

Load factors

Applications (markets )

(1) Manufacturing facility

(process use only) 0.70—0.80

(2) Industrial park

(heating only ) 0.25—0.35

(heating and cooling) 0.50—0.60

(3) Metro urban area

(heating and cooling) 0.60—0.70

(4) University campus

(heating and cooling) 0.40—0.50

(5) Medical center

(heating and cooling) 0.47—0.57

(6) Airport complex

(heating and cooling) 0.55—0.65

(7) Shopping center

(heating and cooling) 0.85—0.45

(8) Apartment complex

(heating and cooling) 0.37—0.47

The second market of Table 1 has one condition — that when only building

heating is required, the consumption will be minimal. If heating and cooling

of the facilities in an industrial park are provided, this year-round need for

steam improves the load factor. However, the consumption in spring and fall

is quite low. During these periods, excess steam is condensed unless another

use is available.

The remainder of the markets listed in Table 1 in which the cooling and

heating needs are influenced primarily by the weather all have substantially

200 |

the same seasonal demands and yearly load factor. In some instances the t

internal feature of the cooling load has a noticeable impact on the consumption. |

The load factor has a significant impact on production cost, since it affects }

the revenue available from either steam, medium- or high-temperature water, |

or coolant. It is axiomatic that the higher the load factor the lower the pro-

duction cost; therefore, applications such as manufacturing with a daily and

year-round demand for heat energy will have the lowest production cost.

Initial investment for a solid waste incinerator facility with heat recovery

and pollution control equipment will be affected by several different factors;

specifically:

(1) Plant capacity.

(2) Type of pollution control equipment.

(3) Type of solid waste preparation and handling system.

(4) Type and quality of heat energy produced together with type of fluid

used for transfer from plant to point of usage.

(5) Area of country (i.e., Northeast, Southeast, West, etc.).

Some of these data may be incorporated in curves such as shown in Fig. 1.

From previous studies the data developed have been collected and interrelated

for budget cost estimates for a typical incinerator design. These curves apply

only to the Southeast area of the United States. Specifically, the heat recovery

equipment consisting of water wall furnace, main heat exchanger, superheater

and economizer section. A moving grate assembly, which provides “‘turnover”’

and mixing to obtain more complete combustion, would also be incorporated

in the overall design and operation of the incinerator.

The building is of standard industrial type construction with solid waste

storage pits sized for at least three full days of operation. Also included are

auxiliary oil burners and forced and induced draft fan assemblies. The stack

gas pollution control equipment is for both particulate and gaseous pollutants.

The piping, wiring, controls, on-site labor, and site preparation are included

in the budget curve. Also included are fees for financing, design, legal work,

and cost of money during the constructing period. These items are shown

under A in the figure.

When initial investment for the basic plant has been determined from

Fig. 1 and distribution system(s) type and length have been established, these

budget costs may be added to the basic plant cost and a total or new budget

cost per metric ton determined. This new cost may be used to calculate fixed charges

The distribution system(s) costs will vary depending on the type of fluid;

namely, steam or hot water and chilled water for service to an industrial park,

medical center, airport, urban development, etc. Assuming a representative

length for the distribution (namely, comparatively short run for only steam

to a manufacturing plant and an extensive “‘finger’’type distribution system

for the two commodities to serve an urban development project), the types

of piping and insulation excavation, filling, and resurfacing as required, a

budget cost for this portion of the project can be established and then added

to the base costs obtained from Fig. 1 to obtain a complete financial analysis.

201

Lo)

a |

INITIAL INVESTMENT ($ x103/ DAILY. TONNE ) i

o (00) Co) oO = pe)

OWNING & OPERATING COST ($/IOOOKG STEAM)

——————— eee eee eH

NMYNO WoO aw bp

BO MON SF, © Of

i | STEAM (MKG/HR. DEMAND) 7

00 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800

200 00 1000 =. 1200 1400

400 600 8

SIZE (DAILY TONNES DEMAND)

Fig. 1. Budget cost for incinerators applicable to southeast area U.S. and

adjusted to 1975 level. (A) Initial investment includes incinerator unit with waste heat

recovery, pollution control equipment, stack and breeching, building with solid waste

storage, piping, wiring, controls, charging system, on site labor, fees, supplementary fuel

facilities, financing cost during construction. (B) Owning and operating cost includes

fixed charges based on 20 year depreciation, 7% interest, taxes, insurance, operating

personnel, electricity, supplementary fuel, water, chemicals, routine maintenance, service

contracts and with yearly load factor = 0.50.

“Based on 2500 kcal/kg solid waste 65% conversion efficiency.

The incremental costs for the distribution system and complementary

changes in the incineration plant are shown in Table 2.

The cost additions are expressed as multipliers on the base cost of a con-

ventional incinerator plant. As an example, to provide 150 psi (1.03X 10° Pa)

steam to a manufacturer as shown by line A-2, base cost will be increased by

6 percent. This presumes a close coupled arrangement with plant on the

manufacturing site and the steam and condensate routed for minimum inter-

ference.

Should both coolant and steam be provided to several manufacturers in

an industrial park as shown by line B-2, the base cost will increase 56 percent.

202

TABLE 2

Initial investment multiplier (for use with Fig. 1 curve A)

Invest. multiplier

(A) Manufacturing (process use only )

(a-1) Steam at 15 p.s.i. (1.05 kg/cm? ) 1.080

(a-2) Steam at 150 p.s.i. (10.55 kg/cm? ) 1.060

(a-3) Steam at 265 p.s.i. (18.6 kg/cm? )

and 38°C superheat 1.050

(a-4) Steam at 400 p.s.i. (28.1 kg/cm? )

and 66°C superheat 1.045

(B) Industrial park

(b-1) Steam at 150 p.s.i. (10.55 kg/cm? ) 1.060

(b-2) Steam at 150 p.s.i. (10.55 kg/cm? ) 1.560

(c-1) Steam at 150 p.s.i. (10.55 kg/cm? )

coolant at 5°C 2.050

(c-2) Water at 143°C, coolant at 5°C 2.000

(D) University campus

(d-1) Water at 143°C, coolant at 5°C 224.0

(d-2) Steam at 150 p.s.i. (10.55 kg/cm? )

coolant at 5°C 2.260

(E) Medical center

(e-1) Steam at 150 p.s.i. (10.55 kg/cm? )

coolant at 5°C PASLFED)

(F) Airport complex

(f-1) Water at 143°C, coolant at 5°C 2130

(G) Shopping center

(g-1) Water at 143°C, coolant at 5°C 2.120

(H) Apartment complex

(h-1) Water at 143°C, coolant at 5°C 2.100

In this instance, a chilling plant is required and the facility will be located on

the complex. Two distribution systems with laterals are required, hence

approximately a 50-percent increase over the basic cost.

The metro urban complex, (market C), university campus (market D) and

the remaining markets analyzed require heating either in the form of medium-

temperature water or steam and coolant at about 5°C.

The increase in initial investment over that for the base plant is about 100

percent. This includes the chilling plant with auxiliaries such as heat rejection

equipment, low head and primary pumping equipment, piping, service valves,

etc., and building. The incinerator facility would be remote and the services

may be in the street, therefore an additional premium for the distribution

systems would be added.

The data gathered from various feasibility studies prepared during the past

several years have served as a basis for the design and description of the solid

waste facility referred to in the preceding paragraphs. Total initial investment,

203

thus determined, can be used for budgeting purposes. Also, fixed charges may

be readily calculated. Included, however in Fig. 1, curve B, are owning and

operating cost data for the basic plant when operated at a load factor of 0.50.

Bases for depreciation, value of money, etc., are indicated.

The owning and operating cost correction factors used for the different type

distribution systems and plant modifications for the different applications

are shown in Table 3. This multiplier, when used with curve B, will provide

for budgetary purposes the cost of steam production when the plant load

factor is 0.50. As an example, assume owning and operating costs for an in-

cinerator plant serving a metro urban complex are required. This figure must

include increased fixed charges for plant modification and for the distribution

systems over and above those indicated by curve B. With load factor of 0.50

and with steam at 150 p.s.i. (1.03X 10° Pa) for heating and coolant at 5°C for

cooling and dehumidifying, the multiplier for ‘“‘C-1”’ is 1.714 — in other words,

71.4 percent more than indicated by curve B. This presumes the load factor

is 0.50. .

TABLE 3

Owning and operating cost multiplier (for use with Fig. 1 curve B)

Fixed charge

multiplier

(A) Manufacturing (process use only )

(a-1) Steam at 15 p.s.i. (1.05 kg/cm? ) 1.055

(a-2) Steam at 150 p.s.i. (10.55 kg/cm? ) 1.041

(a-3) Steam at 265 p.s.i. (18.6 kg/cm? )

and 38°C superheat 1.034

(a-4) Steam at 400 p.s.i. (28.1 kg/cm? )

and 66°C superheat 1.034

(B) Industrial park

(b-1) Steam at 150 p.s.i. (10.55 kg/cm? ) 1.041

(b-2) Steam at 150 p.s.i. (10.55 kg/cm? )

coolant at 5°C 1381

(c-1) Steam at 150 p.s.i. (10.55 kg/cm? )

coolant at 5°C Wii

(c-2) Water at 143°C, coolant at 5°C 1.680

(D) University campus

(d-1) Water at 143°C, coolant at 5°C 1.823

(d-2) Steam at 150 p.s.i. (10.55 kg/cm? )

coolant at 5°C 1.857

(E) Medical center

(e-1) Steam at 150 p.s.i. (10.55 kg/cm? )

coolant at 5°C 1.796

(F) Airport complex

(f-1) Water at 143°C, coolant at 5°C 1.768

(G) Shopping center

(g-1) Water at 143°C, coolant at 5°C 1.762

(H) Apartment complex

(h-1) Water at 143°C, coolant at 5°C 1.748

204

Table 1 indicates the load factor range for different applications. Corrected

production costs due to deviation from the base load factor of 0.50 to that

applicable to the application under consideration may be obtained from Table

4. For a metro urban complex C a multiplier of 0.843 is used to correct from

0.50, the basic load factor used for curve B in Figure 1, to 0.65, the average

for such applications. The net correction, therefore, is 1.714X 0.843 = 1.445.

Subsequent calculation will amplify on this correction procedure. These multi-

pliers take into account the relative impact of owning as well as all operating

costs.

TABLE 4

Load factor multiplier (for use with Fig. 1)

Application (market) Load factor

multiplier

(A) Manufacturing (process use only ) 0.816

(B) Industrial park

(heating only) 1.445

(heating and cooling) 0.936

(D) University complex 1.081

(E) Medical center : 0.976

(F) Airport complex 0.883

(G) Shopping center 1.187

(H) Apartment complex 1.141

Generally speaking, the fixed charges for the incinerator facility with heat

recovery, proper pollution control for both gas and liquid effluent, chilling

plant, distribution system, etc., will be approximately 65 to 68 percent of

the overall owning and operating costs. Of the remaining 32 to 35 percent,

about 18 to 20 percent of owning and operating costs (that is, 55 percent of

operating costs) is independent of plant output. This segment of costs includes

operating personnel management, and general administrative expense. Other

operating costs such as electricity, water, chemicals, supplementary fuel, and

routine maintenance and service vary with steam production. This segment is

approximately 45 percent of operating costs or about 15 percent of owning

and operating expenses. As a result, the higher the load factor and yearly pro-

duction, the lower the production costs. Expressed in another manner, if the

system load factor were increased from the base factor of 0.50 to 0.60 (an

increase of 20 percent), the total costs would increase only about 3 percent.

In addition, if there were a 20-percent increase in gross income with only a

3-percent increase in owning and operating costs, the unit selling prices could

be reduced if it were a “not-for-profit” operation or the profit picture would

be enhanced if a profit-making corporation.

205

As an example of the foregoing, assume that budget costs are required for

(1) initial investment; (2) fixed charges; (3) owning and operating costs; and

(4) production costs for a 1,000 ton per day (907 metric ton) solid waste

capacity plant with chilling plant sized for a heating to cooling demand ratio

of 1.0 and serving an urban area with new and existing offices, stores, banks,

hotels, etc.

Table 1 indicates that the load factor for metro urban areas will vary be-

tween 0.60 and 0.70. This information will be used later.

Figure 1, curve A, indicates that initial investment for a 1,000 ton per day

(907 metric ton) basic plant is $ 8,000 per ton ($ 8,820 per metric ton) or

$ 8,000,000. Included in this figure are costs as listed in Fig. 1, item A.

Table 2 shows the multiplier for addition of distribution system and chilling

plant. For application to market C, “‘metro urban complex” (using steam at

150 psi [1.03X 10° Pa] for heating and 5°C coolant), the indicated correction

factor is 2.050. The revised investment figure is $ 8,000,000 X 2.05 =

$ 16,400,000. |

Fig. 1, curve B, indicates the overall owning and operating costs for a base

plant when operated at a load factor of 0.50. From curve B, the owning and

operating costs or production costs are $ 1.79 per 1,000 kilograms of steam.

Table 3 shows adjustment in owning and operating costs (production costs)

because of the additional expense of distribution system and chilling plant.

This correction multiplier for C (metro urban complex), with steam for heating

and water for the coolant is 1.714; therefore, production cost is $ 1.79 X 1.714

= $ 3.07 per 1,000 kilograms of steam. This is the cost if the load factor were

0.50.

Table 4 shows the correction due to the metro urban complex load factor of

0.60—0.70 (use 0.65) instead of the 0.50 which is the basis for curve B in

Figure 1. This correction factor is 0.843. Therefore, production costs are

$ 3.07 X 0.843 = $ 2.59 per 1,000 kilograms of steam.

The result of the above exercise is:

(1) In-place cost for plant with distribution system is $ 16,400,000.

(2) Production cost for services to the metro urban complex having a load

factor of 0.65 is $ 2.59 per 1,000 kilograms of steam.

Information such as this may be used during the preliminary stages of

discussion and before the feasibility study is complete.

Should there be interest in return on investment at this preliminary stage,

it is approximately 5 percent based on sales at $ 3.86 per 1,000 kilograms of

steam, initial investment of $ 16,400,00 per metric ton capacity, and conversion

efficiencies which provide 2,470 kilograms of steam per metric ton (103

kilograms of steam per hour per metric ton of waste). However, if the munici-

pality pays a nominal amount for incineration in lieu of landfill (namely, $ 2.72

per metric ton), the return on investment will be approximately 11 percent.

In time, economical techniques for recycling of certain components and

markets should develop which will provide additional income. Supplementary

income for paving base or building block can be obtained from the residue

after separation.

206

In conclusion, there will be an ever-increasing amount of solid waste. Dis-

posal will surely utilize the most economical techniques consistent with the

air, water, and land pollution constraints. Conventional incineration and

pyrolysis — processes in which the energy may be recovered and put to an

economical and useful purpose — are disposal methods which appear to have

merit.

Engineers are frequently called upon to evaluate the economics of the many

different disposal methods for our ever-increasing amounts of solid waste.

After a comprehensive study, they can recommend to the municipality the

best solution to the disposal problem. Some sections of our country do not

have sufficient amounts of certain low-cost convenience fossil fuels to serve

the needs of all industries in their area. The heat energy in our solid waste may

be a partial answer to this problem. |

This study may be helpful in analyzing problems and provide preliminary

information for budgeting purposes. The data could be used for preliminary

discussion prior to a more comprehensive study.

Resource Recovery and Conservation, 1 (1976) 207—216 207

ENERGY AND RESOURCE RECOVERY FROM SOLID WASTES*

G.M. MALLAN and E.I. TITLOW

Occidental Research Corporation, La Verne, Calif. 91750 (U.S.A.)

(Received 19th March 1975)

INTRODUCTION

In 1969, long before the present awareness of energy shortages and depleted

resources, the Occidental Research Corp. (formerly Garrett Research and

Development Company, Inc.), a subsidiary of Occidental Petroleum Corpo-

ration, set out to develop a process that would recover oil and other resources

from municipal refuse. A basic decision was made initially — the object of

the research was not to produce the least cost waste disposal system, but

rather to produce grades of recovered material which could find a ready and

high value market. The results of this research and marketing are summarized

here.

PROCESS DESCRIPTION

A simplified flow diagram of the Occidental Energy and Resource Re-

covery process is shown in Fig.1 and incorporates the following operations:

(1) Primary shredding of the raw refuse to smaller than 7.6 cm (3 in.).

(2) Magnetic separation of ferrous metals.

(3) Air classification to remove most of the inorganic material from the

pyrolysis feed.

(4) Drying of the shredded refuse to about 3 percent moisture.

(5) Screening of the dry material to reduce the content of free inorganic

material to below 4 percent by weight.

(6) Recovery of aluminum, and a clean glass product.

(7) Secondary shredding of the organic material to pieces smaller than

1.168 mm (14 mesh).

(8) Flash pyrolysis of the organics.

(9) Collection of the pyrolytic products under rigid pollution control con-

ditions.

All of these operations, except primary shredding which was conducted

under contract elsewhere, were studied in detail, both individually and in

various combinations. They may be grouped and evaluated as two distinct

*Paper presented at the Symposium “‘Energy Recovery from Solid Waste”, March 13—14,

1975.

208

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subsystems — feed preparation, including recovery of metals and glass; and

pyrolysis, including the recovery of salable fuels.

Feed preparation. The primary purpose of the feed preparation subsystem is

to deliver dry, finely divided, essentially inorganic-free feed material to the

pyrolysis reactor. An important secondary purpose is to allow the economic

recovery of magnetic metals, aluminum and clean glass. During investigations

of this subsystem, several combinations of the various unit operations were

evaluated in order to develop the most efficient process with respect to product

quality and operating costs.

One of the more important functions of the feed preparation subsystem

is to minimize the content of the inorganic materials in the pyrolysis feed

material. While the pyrolysis process itself is virtually unaffected by the in-

organics, these materials degrade the quality of the residual char and in-

crease maintenance costs for secondary shredding. During the early phases

of the pilot plant program, it was thought that the free inorganic content

of primary shredded wastes could be reduced to less than 4 percent by merely

drying the refuse before air classification; however, it was determined that

air classification must precede the drying step and air classifiers are now a

standard item in the process chain.

Separating ferrous metals from refuse is relatively simple and is done mag-

netically. This is a well established process. However, it was found that re-

covery of glass and aluminum required development of entirely new tech-

niques.

Glass recovery process. The glass recovery process developed uses froth flo-

tation (a process well-known in minerals beneficiation). An innovation was

a new selective chemical reagent to cause the previously classified and ground

glass to attach itself to the air bubbles generated in a froth flotation cell,

leaving non-glass impurities behind. The process is shown schematically in

Fig.2. About 70 percent of the glass contained in the as-received refuse can

be recovered as a 99.7 percent pure product which, we have found, can com-

mand a good price in the glass container manufacturing market.

Aluminum recovery (““RECYC-AL’’). In mid-1972, an assessment of non-

ferrous metal recovery technology was made as part of our resource recovery

effort. At that time, heavy media separation, and screening or hand sorting

seemed to be the only processes under active investigation for treating muni-

cipal refuse. Upon consideration of markets for scrap aluminum, it became

obvious that secondary metal processors would pay a high price for recovered

metal only if it meets rather rigid specifications. Occidental thus decided

upon a dry separation process using linear induction motors (LIM) to recover

selectively electrically conductive metals from the shredded, air classified

refuse.

210

OVERHEAD TO PYROLYSIS

MUNICIPAL

REFUSE

PRIMARY :

SHREDDED

——> + |.9cm(3/4") METALS, ORGANICS

CLASSIFIER =| - 71 +0.074mm

(-24 + 200 MESH)

FLOTATION

CELLS

INORGANIC REJECTS

-0.074mm

(-200 MESH)

TO WASTE

PRODUCT GLASS

(99.7% PURE)

Fig.2. Occidental glass recovery process.

In the Occidental RECYC-AL process, shown schematically in Fig.3, one

or more LIMs are positioned just beneath a non-conductive conveyor belt

which is driven by a variable speed drive. Refuse that has been previously

air classified and processed to remove magnetic metals is fed from a hopper

onto the conveyor belt. The linear induction motors operate on an alter-

nating current, variable-frequency power source. As the refuse containing

aluminum passes over the LIM, eddy currents are induced in the pieces of

aluminum, producing a magnetic field of opposite polarity to that field pro-

duced by the LIM. Because magnetic fields of the same polarity will repel

each other, the resulting magnetic force causes the aluminum pieces to

change direction rapidly toward the edge of the conveyor belt. A baffle

positioned at the edge of the belt traps the aluminum, which then flows to

LINEAR MOTORS

/ VIBRATING

OSCILLATING

FEEDER

NONCONDUCTIVE CONVEYOR

1.82 METERS

(6 FEET)

3.04 METERS

(lO FEET)

COLLECTION BIN

Fig.3. Occidental “‘RECYC-AL” aluminum separator process.

211

a product bin. The remaining refuse, which is essentially free of glass and

metals, is then recycled back into the process. Nearly 60 percent of the

aluminum present in the as-received refuse was recovered in experimental

trials. The capacity of the pilot machine developed to date is 1.8 to 3.6 t

(2 to 4 U.S. tons) per hour, of air-classified, screened rubbish usually con-

taining from 7 to 20 percent aluminum. The particle size of the metal that

can be recovered can be as small as 2.5 cm (1 in.) in the longest direction.

Secondary shredding. The heart of the Occidental feed preparation subsystem

lies in the secondary shredding operation. A finely divided organic feed to

the pyrolysis reactor is desirable if high oil yields at atmospheric pressure

are to be achieved. Extensive vendor testing was conducted on five different

units before a 40 hp, 454 kg (1000 pound per hour) hammer mill was in-

stalled for the pilot plant program. Prolonged testing over many months has

shown that power requirements and maintenance costs using dry, essentially

inorganic-free material from municipal refuse will result in acceptable oper-

ating costs.

Pyrolysis process. The Occidental pyrolysis process involves the rapid heating

of finely shredded organic materials in the absence of air using a proprietary

heat-exchange system. This technique was developed to maximize liquid fuel

yields, thus generating the maximum income per ton of wastes. There are a

number of solid waste pyrolysis processes under development today which

maximize gas yields rather than liquids. However, pyrolysis of cellulosic feed

stocks at gasification temperatures is usually endothermic by about 1400 to

1860 J/g (600 to 800 Btu/lb.), while the same reaction at 480°C (900°F) is

slightly exothermic. Liquefaction is thus a more efficient conversion process

and it also produces a more easily stored product which can be sold on the

basis of its heating value.

During laboratory pyrolysis studies using a small continuous 2.26 kg (5 |b.)

per hour reactor, oil yields of about 40 weight percent were obtained with

dried municipal wastes from which about 90 percent of the inorganic mate-

rial had been removed. These oil yields have now been confirmed on a larger

scale using 3,628 kg (4 ton) per day pilot plant. Pyrolysis of cellulosic mate-

rials also produces a residual char, combustible gases, as well as by-product

water. The distribution of these products has a significant effect upon the

economics of the overall process. The gas produced under optimum lique-

faction conditions has a moderate heating value of about 18.6 X 10° J/m°

(500 Btu/ft?) at the outlet of the reactor. This fuel is burned on-site for

process heat and a portion of the char is also used for the same purpose.

212

DESCRIPTION OF RECOVERED PRODUCTS

Perhaps the most important aspect of any resource recovery system is the

quality of the products to be returned to the economy. A great deal of nega-

tive comment has been generated during the past few years about the lack of

suitable markets for recycled materials. In reality, the problem is not so much

the markets but the quality of the recovered products. Magnetic metals

heavily contaminated with organic material and non-ferrous metals will not

find ready outlets, nor will any other contaminated commodity. A consider-

able amount of effort was thus spent on upgrading the quality of recovered

materials.

Glass

The effort to produce high purity recycled products from municipal re-

fuse is most graphically illustrated by the glass recovery process described

earlier. More than 70 percent of the glass contained in packer truck waste

can be recovered as a sand-sized, mixed-color product of greater than 99.7

percent purity. About two-thirds of the remaining impurities are carbonaceous,

and these present little or no problem upon remelting for the manufacture

of new containers. |

Laboratory melt studies conducted by Owens-Illinois on sample cruets

made from 100 percent recovered glass from the Occidental process have

shown none of the normal imperfections often found in reclaimed glass.

These imperfections are cords, stones, blisters or seeds, and none could be

found at 10—power magnification.

Aluminum

Although the “‘separating”’ action of the RECYC-AL machine affects all

conducting materials, there are considerable differences among various metals

and configurations. It has been found that the RECYC-AL process minimizes

the occurrence of such undesirable materials as stainless steel, lead and bismuth |

in the product stream. Because of the extreme qualitative variability in com- |

position of the input of municipal waste, it is difficult to produce a

standardized product. However, in experimental trials the RECYC-AL pro-

cess has been found to reduce greatly the incidence of undesirable compo-

nents in the product metal. At this stage in its development the process is

not expected to produce aluminum consisting almost entirely of aluminum

cans, but the product metal is expected to be composed of more than 90

percent by weight aluminum with small quantities of contaminant.

Markets for the recovered aluminum have been determined throughout

the U.S. and many secondary metal processors are willing to make long term

purchase commitments because of the consistent quality of the product

that can be attained.

213

Pyrolytic oil

The Occidental system employs a pyrolysis process which converts the or-

ganic portion of municipal waste to usable synthetic fuel oil. The pyrolytic

oil is, in fact, the single most important product obtained. As might be ex-

pected from its genesis, pyrolytic oil differs in many important respects

from fuel oil derived from petroleum. The synthetic product is a highly

complex, oxygenated, organic fluid rather than a hydrocarbon. The sulfur

content is from 0.1 to 0.2 percent by weight, far lower than most petroleum

based fuel oils. Because it is lower in both carbon and hydrogen than the

latter, the average calorific value of the synthetic oil is about 24400 J/g

(10,500 Btu/lb.) compared to 42,300 J/g (18,200 Btu/lb.) for a typical resi-

dual oil. However, since the densities of pyrolytic oil and typical No. 6 are

1.30 and 0.98 respectively, the fuel oils are generally sold by volume rather

than by weight; a comparison of heating values is much more favorable to

pyrolytic oil when expressed on a volumetric basis. Oil derived from the

pyrolysis of municipal waste contains some 76 percent of the heat energy

available from No. 6 oil.

It has been observed that pyrolytic oil is a good deal more viscous than a

typical residual oil. This means, of course, that it must be stored, pumped

and atomized at somewhat higher temperatures. Combustion tests with some

870 liters (230 gallons) of oil at the research facilities of a large manufacturer

of power plant equipment have shown that the pyrolytic oil could be pumped

without trouble at 71°C (160° F), and that satisfactory atomization was

achieved with 0.3 X 10° Pa (50 psi) steam when 37,85 liters (10 gallons) per

hour of oil was delivered to the burner tip at 0.2 X 10° Pa (25 psi) and 115°C

(240°F). Atomization with cold compressed air at 0.7 X 10° Pa (100 psi) re-

sulted in the formation of a much coarser droplet spray, and it is probable

that preheating would be needed.

It was also found that pyrolytic oil can be compatibly mixed with most

No.6 fuel oils. Laboratory tests have shown that equal quantities of each

can be blended together to produce a relatively easy-to-handle two-phase

mixture. This had not been anticipated. It was known that the heavier tar

fuels obtained from the carbonization of coal cannot be mixed with

petroleum oil fuels because of the precipitation of a gelatinous bituminous

material, and it was feared that pyrolytic oil might also exhibit the same be-

havior. Further studies are planned on the storage, handling and combustion

properties of blends of No.6 and pyrolytic oil. If further work confirms the

compatability of the two fuels, blends can be tailored to take advantage of ~

the superior properties of each. Thus, the high sulfur content of a residual

petroleum-based oil can be reduced by the low sulfur pyrolytic oil, which

in turn will have its viscosity lowered.

214

ECONOMICS OF THE OCCIDENTAL PROCESS

The Occidental pyrolysis process is designed as a flexible, pollution-free

system which requires relatively low capital costs per ton of installed capa-

city. However, since there are a number of distinct feed preparation opera-

tions required, the process will be fairly labor-intensive until a semi-auto-

mated system can be developed. For this reason, the economics of scale

currently have an appreciable effect upon operating costs. A summary of

the estimated economics for a 2,000 ton/day plant is shown in Table 1.

These operating costs include provision for a complete administrative staff

of 13 people, from plant manager to clerks and secretaries. The plant itself

will require nearly 60 operators for 24 hours per day, seven days per week

— this labor has been estimated at $50,000 per year, per shift-job.

TABLE 1

Estimated economics of 1,816 t/day (2,000 U.S. ton/day) solid waste pyrolysis plant

Total plant capital (excludes land) $ 32,800,000

Working capital 800,000

Annual op. cost (amortization, 20 yrs. at 6%) 11,600,000

Annual net revenue from sales 13,600,000

Annual profit : 2,000,000

Cost per ton (350 days per year) 16,57

Net revenue per ton (350 days per year) 19,44

Net profit per ton 2:87

In addition to these attractive economics, the Occidental process is also

thermodynamically efficient. The net thermal output of the plant, expressed

in electrical terms, is developed in Table 2.

TABLE 2

Overall energy balance of 1,816 t/day (2,000 U.S. ton/day) Occidental solid waste

pyrolysis process

Total energy in one ton as-received refuse” 10.548 GJ

~ (10 MM Btu)

Energy in 1.1 bbl of oil per ton refuse 5.569 GJ

(5.28 MM Btu)

or 1,547 kWh

At a power plant conversion efficiency of 34%

Recovered electric power per ton refuse 530 kWh

Consumed electric power per ton refuse 140 kWh

Net recovered electric power per ton refuse 390 kWh

7 Assumes 25% moisture

215

The pyrolysis process has been shown to be an attractive alternative for

recycling tires, tree bark, rice hulls, and other waste products in experimental

trials. Thus, the prospects for widespread utilization appear to be quite

promising.

SOLID FUEL AS A PRODUCT

This paper has described the Occidental Resource Recovery System that

produces, in addition to high grades of minerals, energy in the form of a

pyrolytic oil. To prove the technical viability of the flash pyrolysis process

on acommercial scale, a 181.5 t/day (200 U.S. ton/day) demonstration is

presently being built in San Diego County, California,with funding by the

Environmental Protection Agency. This technology will not be offered

commercially until this demonstration is successful. The “‘front end”’ of this

technology, however, is available with energy recovered as a dry fibrous solid

fuel.

Bridgeport, Connecticut

After many months of extremely complex negotiations, a contract has

recently been executed between the Connecticut Resources Recovery

Authority and Occidental. Under the terms of this contract, Occidental will

design, build and operate a 1,360 t (1,500 U.S. ton) per day facility in

Bridgeport to serve a large part of Southwestern Connecticut. Virtually all

of the municipal waste from the specified area will be disposed of by the

Occidental plant and its associated transfer stations under a 22% year

contract. In addition to the innovative technology that will be used, the

contract is a novel and remarkable example of successful cooperation be-

tween the public and private sectors.

Dry, fibrous fuel. The Occidental Resource Recovery System that will be in-

stalled in Bridgeport is schematically identical with the process described in

the paper up to the stage of secondary shredding. In the Bridgeport process

TABLE 3

Estimated economics of 1,816 t/day (2,000 U.S. ton/day) resource recovery plant

(solid fuel)

Total plant capital (excluding land) $26,000,000

Working capital 650,000

Annual operating cost (amortization, 20 yrs at 6%) 9,500,000

Annual net revenue from sales [fuel at $1.00/1.054 GJ ($1.00/MM Btu) ] 9,750,000

Annual profit ~ 250,000

Cost/ton (350 days/yr.) 13.57

Net revenue/ton (350 days/yr. ) 13.93

Net revenue/ton — 0.36

216

line, the secondary shredder reduces the material only to a nominal 1.2 cm

(44 in.) size, and the material will be then sent to a local utility for burning

in conjunction with heavy oil. This fuel can be utilized only in boilers

equipped with ash handling and “back end”’ cleaning equipment, or perhaps

in cement kilns.

The economics of a full line resource recovery plant that will produce such

a solid fuel are given in Table 3. 7

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Morey, B.T., 1974. Inorganic resource and solid fuel preparation from municipal trash.

In E.E. Aleshin (Ed.), Proc. Fourth Mineral Waste Utilization Symp., Bu. Mines and IIT

Res. Inst., Chicago, pp. 85—94.

2 Bauer, H.F., 1975. Preliminary Hydrogenation of Pyrolytic Oil from Municipal Refuse,

March, Occidental Research Corp.

3 Morey, B.T., Griffin, T.D. and Cummings, J.P., 1975. Recovery of small metal particles

from nonmetals using an eddy current separator — Experience at Franklin, Ohio. In:

Proceedings, 104th Annual Meeting, American Institute of Mining Metallurgical and

Petroleum Engineers, New York City, Feb. 16—20.

4 Morey, B.T. and Rudy, S., 1975. Aluminum recovery from municipal trash by linear

induction motors. In: Proceedings, 78th National Meeting, American Institute of

Chemical Engineers, Salt Lake City, Utah, Aug. 18—21.

5 Morey, B.T. and Cummings, J.P., 1972. Glass recovery from municipal trash by froth

flotation. In M.A. Schwartz (Ed.), Proc. Third Mineral Waste Utilization Symp., Bu.

Mines and IIT Res. Inst., Chicago, pp. 311—322..

6 Bauer, H.F., 1974. Corrosion Studies of Pyrolytic Oil from Solid Waste. Aug., Occi-

dental Research Corp. :

Resource Recovery and Conservation, 1 (1976) 217—224

FEASIBILITY STUDY FOR BURNING REFUSE-DERIVED FUEL IN THE

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA BY POTOMAC ELECTRIC POWER COMPANY*

B. VINCENT VISCOMI**

Lafayette College, Easton, Pa. 18042 (U.S.A.)

(Received 19th March 1975)

ABSTRACT

This paper describes a study conducted to determine the economic feasibility of a

project for producing and burning refuse-derived fuel RDF in the District of Columbia.

Alternate modes of processing,transporting, handling and burning RDF were considered.

The study concluded that it is economically feasible to implement the project and

identifies the most cost-effective approach for utilization of existing capital facilities. The

study can possibly serve as a model for implementation of this form of energy recovery

elsewhere.

INTRODUCTION

In May of 1974, a task force committee, consisting of representatives of

the District of Columbia’s Department of Environmental Services (DES), the

Potomac Electric Power Company (PEPCO) and the National Center for

Resource Recovery, Inc. (NCRR) was established to investigate the feasibility

of a refuse energy recovery project in the District of Columbia. Specifically,

the study was to consider the economic and design alternatives involved in

the preparation of RDF at the DES Solid Waste Reduction Center Number 1

(SW RC-1), transportation to the adjoining PEPCO Benning Generating Station

and firing of RDF in one of the boilers.

The District of Columbia generates in excess of 635,000 tons of solid waste

annually. This refuse is collected by three classes of collectors; the District’s

Department of Environmental Services, the Federal Government, and by private

commercial collectors. The collected refuse is disposed of by one of three

methods: direct disposal at landfills operated by DES; delivery to one of three

DKS transfer stations, and after reloading, disposal at the landfill sites; and

incineration of solid wastes followed by disposal of residues by landfill. The

District presently operates three landfill sites, three transfer stations and one

incinerator.

The Potomac Electric Power Company is an investor-owned utility serving

449,000 customers in a service area of 1.7 X 10? m? including Washington

. Paper presented at the Symposium ‘“‘Energy Recovery from Solid Waste’’, March 13—14,

197.5:

a Faculty Participation Research Fellow, National Science Foundation, Summer, 1974,

at the National Center for Resource Recovery, Inc.

218

D.C., a portion of suburban Montgomery and Prince Georges Counties in

Maryland and a small commercial area in Arlington County, Virginia. PEPCO’s

current generating capacity is from fossil-fueled facilities; however, two

1100-MW nuclear plants are scheduled to be added to the system.

The Benning Generating Station is located on a 186,000 m? site on the east

bank of the Anocostia River in the District of Columbia and has seven gener-

ating units with a total capability of 751MW. Solid Waste Reduction Center

Number 1 is located adjacent to the Benning Station and consists of six

refractory-type refuse burning furnaces with a total capacity of 1500 tons/day.

Incorporated in the design of SWRC-1 is a shredding facility and magnetic

separator to shred oversize bulky waste prior to burning in the incinerator

furnaces.

In March, 1974, NCRR entered into an agreement with DES to conduct a

resource recovery test and demonstration program at SWRC-1. The resource

recovery system utilizes the large (1000 hp = 746 KW) shredder, a suitable air

classifier, and other equipment. For the NCRR program, the shredder is

operated on household and commercial refuse. Considering the close proximity

of the Benning Station and SWRC-1, it should surprise no one that, in a short

period of time, a task force to study energy recovery was underway.

PROJECT CONSIDERATIONS

The project, as envisioned by the task force at its inception, was to consist

of two, or possibly three phases. Each phase would be concerned with the

evaluation of alternative modes of processing, transporting, handling and

burning refuse-derived fuel. The primary purpose of the project, if implemented, |

was to develop firsthand information and experience in the following areas:

(1) processing of solid waste and production of RDF at SWRC-1 by DES,

(2) transportation of RDF by DES to Benning Station on a mutually

agreeable schedule, and

(3) feeding and firing of RDF as supplemental fuel in a Benning Station

boiler by PEPCO (Boiler No. 26 was selected on the basis of size and its

capability for both oil and coal firing).

The benefits accruing to PEPCO and DES would include information and

experience useful in determining the relative economics and benefits of the

process, the evaluation of potential technical problems, and the development

of new working relationships between the parties. All of the above would

contribute to the determination of this form of resource recovery to DES as

a significant means of disposal of solid waste and to PEPCO as a significant

supply of an economical supplemental fuel. |

Originally, the studies were to concentrate on achieving the project |

objectives at minimum cost and modification of existing facilities. For example,

early in the study some of the possible RDF firing techniques which were 1

considered included injection of RDF into the bunker, or the pulverizer, or the |

existing distribution piping. Subsequent investigations and conversations with |

219

equipment suppliers indicated that injection into a separate distribution system

is preferred. Many technical ideas were pursued; most were abandoned early

in their life. The final result was a detailed consideration of a two-phase program

with several technical alternatives as described below.

Under both phases, RDF would be produced at SWRC-1 by primary and

secondary shredding to a nominal particle size of less than 4 cm. Under Phase

I, the RDF would be transported by DES to a receiving facility at Benning

Station. DES would be responsible for the unloading of the vehicles and the

transfer of RDF to the PEPCO receiving bin. From the bin, PEPCO would be

responsible for pneumatically transporting the RDF to two corners of Boiler

No. 26. If two corner burning was found to be unacceptable, the system would

be modified to permit burning at four corners. Phase I includes testing, as

described later.

Phase II differs from Phase I only in that truck transport of RDF is replaced

by pneumatic conveying of the RDF directly from SWRC-1 to the PEPCO bin.

The testing and evaluation for each phase are outlined below:

Phase I

(1) For PEPCO:

a. Evaluate the RDF conveying and injection system as provided by

the equipment supplier to include erosion effects.

b. Perform fuel analyses of RDF as received.

c. Evaluate effect of RDF burning on boiler performance-efficiency,

slagging, corrosion, particulates, etc.

d. Determine impact of RDF burning on air pollution control equip-

ment and emissions.

e. Evaluate the effect of RDF burning on the bottom ash handling

system.

f. Determine operating and maintenance costs.

(2) For DES:

a. Modify existing equipment and install materials handling and

separation equipment at the SWRC-1 as necessary.

b. Determine operating and maintenance costs.

Phase II

(1) For PEPCO:

a. Continue Phase I program to identify and resolve problems asso-

ciated with RDF burning.

(2) For DES:

a. Install and evaluate pneumatic transport line to PEPCO receiving bin.

b. Develop design parameters and estimate capital and operating costs

for a continuous full-scale system.

220

SYSTEM ALTERNATIVES

For each phase, the task force considered various alternatives for delivering

RDF to Benning Boiler No. 26. In Phase I, four system alternatives were

studied and are described below (see Figs. 1—4).

Option A — This system involves the trucking of RDF to a location south of

SWRC-1 on DES property. The fuel would be loaded into a feed

hopper and conveyed to a bin on PEPCO property in the vicinity

of Boiler No. 28 cooling tower. From the discharge valve of the

bin, RDF would be pneumatically conveyed to Boiler No. 26.

Option B — This option replaces the long conveyor between the feed hopper

and bin of Option A with truck delivery to the bin located on

PEPCO property as described above. The remainder of the

system is unchanged.

Option C — This system involves the trucking of RDF to the east side of

Boiler No. 26 where the feed hopper and bin would be located.

This option reduces the length of the pneumatic conveyor of

options A and B but requires truck unloading operations in

this cramped and congested area.

Option D — For this option, RDF is trucked to the west side of Boiler No.

26. The PEPCO fence must be moved to accomodate a truck

and the feed hopper. The bin, also located on the west side of

Boiler No. 26, would be adjacent to the feed hopper but on

the PEPCO side of the fence. |

The equipment requirements common to all options, specific to each

alternative, and the advantages and disadvantages of each system were identified

and evaluated. Option D was selected as the Phase I system for detailed

analysis and further study. The primary reason for the selection of this option

is that it is the one of minimum interference with normal PEPCO operations —

it does not require an additional gate or guard and also does not require that

DES trucks enter PEPCO property. In addition, this option requires the

shortest lengths of pipe from the bin to the boiler and, hence, lowest installed

cost as compared to the other options.

For Phase II operations, the ideal location for the storage bin is the yard

area at the east side of the unit to provide the shortest pipe route from SWRC-1

to the bin. It is not anticipated that the bin would be moved to this location

after Phase I because the cost of moving, providing new foundations, and

rerouting the feed pipes to the boiler would exceed the cost of a few hundred

feet of additional pipe. However, if a decision should be made to bypass

Phase I and start with Phase II, consideration would be given to locating the

bin as mentioned above.

Costs for the installation and operation of equipment for the project were

estimated for DES and PEPCO in three categories: (a) general project costs,

(b) Phase I costs, and (c) Phase II costs.

224

——

| O SWRC NO.1 o |

TRUCK ROUTE —+»+ —» —>6§FEED HOPPER

COOLING TOWER

yt COOLING TOWER

re | SWITCHYARD

a Ke) = Pneumatic or belt

BLR.NO. 27 ie O conveyor

a Pneumatic ~~ J

== eee ay conveyor ne BIN

e BLR.

LR.NO. 2

a) 8 " ,

As) COAL bs

STORAGE

= Hate NO. 25 ee

O ey ena a,

OLD PLANT

: <a

—\ Zz

Fig. 1. Site plan of PEPCO Benning Generating Station indicating operational features

of option A.

RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

The task force committee concluded that it is economically feasible to

implement a pilot project for the production of RDF at SWRC-1 and its

utilization in Benning Boiler No. 26. The most cost-effective approach to this

project is to bypass the Phase I operations and to adopt the Phase II program.

The costs and benefits utilized to arrive at the above conclusion are based on

a facility processing 20 tons per hour of refuse and producing 14 tons per

hour of RDF for 12 hours per day and 260 days per year.

The task force recommendations are:

(1) PEPCO modify boiler No. 26 to burn RDF using a system recom-

mended by Combustion Engineering, Inc.

(2) DES modify its refuse processing facility to produce RDF ona

continuous basis and of quality acceptable to PEPCO.

(3) DES construct a pneumatic transport system capable of delivering

up to 20 tons per hour of RDF to PEPCO. The pneumatic piping

extending within PEPCO’s property should be donated or leased at

a nominal fee to PEPCO and maintained by PEPCO.

222

M { © SWRCNOA ©

NEW GATE AND ROAD SECTION

COOLING TOWER | |COOLING TOWER |||

TRUCK ROUTE

SWITCHYARD

: oe)

Pneumatic ~~_ BIN

conveyor

COAL

: STORAGE

eWesigyt E We) | Sy

(ie

LOO

———————

ley (alert to] fete

)

Fig. 2. Site plan of PEPCO Benning Generating Station indicating operational features

of option B. |

N TRUCK ROUTE i!

— <4 —_— <= so a *‘

[a=]

1O).~e= OPPER a

Dee

ire : N

OBLR.NO.26 Fr Oy

O}pneumatic O/

conveyor 9 COAL

\ STORAGE

BLR. NO. 25 \

~=———--—

sotre TRUCK ROUTE

Fig. 3. Site plan of PEPCO Benning Generating Station indicating operational features

of option C.

“5 O SWRC NO. 1 @

TRUCK ROUTE

eS SS SS

| COOLING TOWER COOLING TOWER

i=] es]

vy Eves] ] (ees

y BLR. 28 | =

Fence to be ES

relocated BLR. NO. 27 cS a

HOPPER 8 Pneumatic Pag ae

BIN—= conveyor Srey, TELE ~—

& BLR. NO. 26 =

‘a COAL

; STORAGE

H |BLR. NO.25 \

7 = je= Tape) &

OLD PLANT |

Die Cleric

Fig. 4. Site plan of PEPCO Benning Generating Station indicating operational features

of option D.

Ezz

SWRC NO.1

Pneumatic O ©)

conveyor

peed is

|| COOLING TOWER

aed

cate

= BLR. NO. 26

CF COAL

4 ; STORAGE

A | BLR.NO.25 f IS

ple ee ince? Fy ©.

OLD PLANT |g

“

Jo Ooovoo

Fig. 5. Site plan of PEPCO Benning Generating Station indicating operational features

of phase II.

224

(4) An agreement between PEPCO and DES for a pilot project of five

operating years be executed.

(5) RDF be delivered at no charge to PEPCO during the first operating

year.

(6) Benefits to be shared equally during the remaining four years of

the initial agreement. 3

(7) The agreement be renegotiated at the end of the fifth operating year.

To avoid entagling this project in the larger and more complicated issue

of fuel pricing, it was reeommended that the net benefits be equalized. The

net benefit for each party would be based on benefits for four years less

capital costs and operating costs for five years. A benefit accrues to DES by

not having to incinerate or transport to landfill the weight of material sent

to PEPCO as fuel and PEPCO benefits by the savings in fuel costs from

substitution of coal with RDF.

The average net benefit is obtained by summing the DES and PEPCO net

benefits and dividing by two. The party with the highest net benefit then pays

the difference between its net benefit and the average benefit to the other

party.

The task force committee concludes that the project is an extremely

advantageous undertaking from both the DES and PEPCO standpoints and

offers a partial solution to the solid waste disposal problem within the District

of Columbia. ‘

During the planning process, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

expressed interest in the project as an opportunity to investigate the co-firing

of RDF with oil at low investment and within a relatively short time schedule.

Encouraged by EPA, in April, 1975, DES submitted a grant application for

partial federal funding of a greatly expanded project, with the remainder of

funding from DES and PEPCO.

The project submitted for partial federal funding is a different one. The

mutual benefit sharing aspects are not included; there is no payment for the

fuel during the grant period. The fuel acceptance provisions do not interfere

with the experimental nature of the project. First firing is planned approxi-

mately 16 months after grant award. Co-firing oil with secondary shredding

of RDF will be investigated first, before co-firing with coal without secondary

shredding. Plans include extensive monitoring of air emissions, including

analyses of heavy metals and various organic compounds. Project funding

and implementation are pending.

Resource Recovery and Conservation, 1 (1976) 225—233 225

UNION ELECTRIC COMPANY’S SOLID WASTE UTILIZATION SYSTEM”

DAVID KLUMB

Union Electric Company, St. Louis, Mo. 63166 (U.S.A.)

(Received 19th March 1975)

INTRODUCTION

Full scale testing to determine the feasibility of burning suitably prepared

solid waste in an existing pulverized coal fired utility boiler has been under-

way by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the City of St. Louis,

and Union Electric Company since April 1972. Approximately 45,400

metric tons of St. Louis residential solid waste has been processed, providing

a burnable supplementary boiler fuel of approximately 36,000 metric tons.

On February 28, 1974 the Union Electric Company announced that it

would build, own, and operate a 7,300 metric tons per day solid waste utili-

zation system (SWUS) capable of utilizing essentially all of the solid waste

generated in the 1.2 X 10'°m? St. Louis metropolitan region with a popu-

lation of about 2.5 million. The SWUS is scheduled for full operation on

June 1, 1977.

The SWUS, estimated to cost $70 million, will be built with private funds.

Revenue to support the investment and to cover operating costs will be

generated by dumping fees, sale of recovered metals, and sale of the burnable

fraction of the solid waste. The Union Colliery Company, a wholly owned

subsidiary of Union Electric, will build, own, and operate the system and no

monies to finance the system will come from the parent Company’s elec-

tricity customers.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

The St. Louis region covers 1.2 X 10'° m? and includes two states and

seven counties in addition to the City of St. Louis. The region includes more

than 150 governmental units and 150 public and private waste haulers. Cur-

rent solid waste practices include landfill, incineration, and roadside and

promiscuous dumps. Current solid waste generation including residential,

commercial, and industrial waste is estimated to be approximately 7,300

metric tons (mt) per day. The projection for 1980 is 9,000 mt per day.

*Paper presented at the Symposium ‘“‘Energy Recovery from Solid Waste’’, March 13—14,

197 5.

226

Union Electric Company is an investor-owned electric utility franchised

to generate and distribute electricity in the eastern portion of Missouri and

small areas in Illinois and Iowa. More than 90 percent of the Company’s

electricity is generated at pulverized coal-fueled steam-electric generating

plants. The two power plants of particular interest to SWUS are the 2,400

MW Labadie Plant 60 km west of St. Louis and the 900 MW Meramec Plant

about 32 km south of St. Louis. Coal consumption at Labadie is about 900

mt per hour and at Meramec about 360 mt per hour.

The St. Louis region is provided with railroads which radiate from the

center of St. Louis like spokes in a wheel. Interstate highways and four-lane

arterial roads also radiate from the core city and also encircle the metro-

politan area. This railroad and road network, along with the remote location

of the coal-fired power plants, provides for the efficient truck collection and

rail transport of solid wastes to the isolated power plants.

Figure 1 is a diagramatic representation of the Solid Waste Utilization

System. The previous arrangement for burning the refuse-derived fuel with

coal (now operating under an EPA demonstration grant to the City of St.

Louis) has been described [1].

Collection Truck

Collection

and transfer ?

station

Boiler/Furnace

| | pel Storage Bin

Packer ‘Container

2 Containers per Flat Car Air Classifier

Rail transit

Power plant li

Fig.1. Flow chart of Union Electric Company’s planned solid waste utilization system.

Union Colliery Co., a wholly owned subsidiary, will build, own, and operate the S.W.U.S.

Glass & Non-

Magnetic Materials 4

Coal

€ Precipilator

Ash to Storage Pond

COLLECTION AND TRANSPORT

A totally owned subsidiary, the Union Colliery Company, will operate

the SWUS but will not collect the solid waste where it is generated. Public

and private trash haulers will be offered disposal service at five truck-to-rail

transfer stations. These transfer stations will be located on arterial highways

and/or interstate highways to preclude heavy truck traffic in or near residen-

tial areas.

A typical truck-to-rail transfer station will have a capacity of from about

1,300 to 1,800 mt per day. The smaller station can be expanded to the lar-

ger capacity. Residential, commercial, selected industrial, and selected demo-

lition solid wastes will be accepted at transfer stations. Tires, appliances,

demolition lumber, yard wastes, and size-reduced trees and trimmings will

be accepted. Those wastes determined to be physically detrimental to the

SWUS or classified to be hazardous to be handled in the SWUS by govern-

mental agencies will be excluded. Only licensed trash haulers will be allowed

to dump.

Trucks will be weighed before entering the totally enclosed transfer station

building. A plan of a typical transfer station in shown in Fig.2. The trucks

will enter the building and be directed to dump in conveyor dumping pits or

on the floor, depending upon truck flow. All sizes of commercially available

trash trucks will be able to use the facility including large (75 yard? = 57m?)

transfer trailer trucks.

Front-end loaders will lead the solid waste from the tipping floor to the

stationary compactor conveyor. The front end loaders will also be able to

tow a stalled trash truck if it breaks down in the building or on building

BH ep

mae &

"aN 9 Zui, - ees — - =

A. tii EI i a — a

eee ss EE REE: Pag (4 > gh

Pre a Or 7 ‘ne y 3 (ag

2 ZB

2 ae

"7, FOXY, bd Ts ie

Fig.2. Typical transfer station plan. Site area approx. 90 X 10° m’.

228

access roads. Present plans are to accept waste 16 hours per day, six days

per week. Hours of operation will be scheduled to meet the demands of the

haulers.

The solid waste will be loaded into 76 m? (100 yard? ) containers by con-

ventional stationary packers having a nominal capacity of about 8m°. No

solid waste storage will be provided for in the stationary compactor con-

veying pit and there will be only peak dumping storage on the tipping floor.

Sufficient packer capacity is being provided to handle normal delivery, with

only 2 to 3h of peak delivery capacity being provided on the tipping floor.

The solid waste shipping containers are designed for a nominal capacity

of about 69m°. The design is similar to conventional end-loading solid waste

transfer trailer bodies. Two containers will be loaded on a conventional con-

tainer on flat car. With a tare weight of about 9,000 kg (20,000 lb.) the con-

tainer will carry a net solid waste payload of from 32 to 36 mt (35 to 40

tons).

The containers will be built to ISO and AAR standards for ship-board

containers and can be carried on conventional ship container truck trailers.

The 12m (40 ft.) long containers will be equipped with a telescoping cylinder-

operated ejection blade and a guillotine loading door.

The container will be set on a movable steel framework which will lock

the container to the stationary packer. The loading door will be operated

by hydraulic cylinders. Load cells in the container positioning frame will cut-

off the packer when the container is full.

The containers will be handled by conventional container handling vehicles.

For short-term storage the containers can be stacked two high when full and

three high when empty. Normal operation will provide for loading 36 to 50

containers on 18 to 25 rail cars per transfer station per day.

Two solid waste unit trains per day will deliver up to 5,500 mt per day to

the Labadie processing plant via two different railroads. Approximately

900 mt per day will be delivered to the Meramec process plant on a single

unit train by one railroad.

PROCESSING FACILITIES

The SWUS is being designed to provide a nominal processing capacity of

6,000 tons (approximately 5,500 mt) per day at the West (Labadie) facility

and 2,000 tons (approximately 1,800 mt) per day at the South (Meramec)

facility. Maximum peak processing capability will be 9,600 tons per day

(8,700 mt) at the west facility and 3,600 tons per day (3,300 mt) at the

south facility. Both processing facilities will be able to accept truck-delivered

solid waste. |

Containers at the processing plants will be handled by container handling

vehicles. Placed on container unloading frames, the containers will be un-

loaded by ground mounted telescoping cylinders which will operate the con-

tainer ejection blade.

229

The west processing facility will include four processing lines, each having

a capacity of 100 tons (90 mt) per hour. The south facility will include

three lines. Each facility will have a redundant processing line to provide

for hammermill maintenance. Figure 3 is the preliminary process flow dia-

gram for the west facility.

PRIMARY SECONDARY

SHREDDERS MAGNETIC GLASS SHREDDERS AIR STORAGE

6” SIZE GRIND SEPARATORS SEPARATORS 3/4” GRIND SIZE CLASSIFIER

5 TPH

2 rie TO UNIT 1and/OR 2

PROCESSING el 100 TPH (MAX)

LINE -1 .

25 TPH/ BURNER

TO UNIT/2and OR1

TOO TPH (MAX)

25 TPH BURNER

5TPH

> > can

PROCESSING

LINE-2

1 160 TONS

*{3WAY) (80 FT. DIA.)

6.000 TPD . Ky

1.800.000 TPY C7

172 CONTAINERS

86 RAIL CARS

PROCESSING

LINE-3

100 TPH (MAX)

25 TPH/BURNER

ONE SPARE PROCESSING LINE

PROCESSING

LINE-4

TO UNIT 4 and OR 3

100 TPH (MAX)

25 TPH/ BURNER

160 TONS

*(oway) | (@OFT.DIA.)

<==

THREE LINES IN SERVICE

24 HOURS PER DAY BURN

6 DAYS PER WEEK

3 UNIT TRAINS PER DAY

NORMAL PLANT BURN -200 TPH

ORGANIC

HEAVES

PROCESSING

TO STORAGE

115 TPH

, BINS

PROCESSING

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY

SHREDDERS FOR LABADIE AND

MERAMEC OF SAME SIZE, BUT

DIFFERENT MOTOR SIZE

2.5 TPH

FUEL

4800 TPD, 1.440.000

MAG NETICS

500 TPD, 150000 TPY

p--&-----e--4

'TO FILL 30 TPH

i mee ie in

ROCK, ETC.

500 TPD

O O

MAGNETICS BULK SOLID WASTE

RAIL CARS 6.000 TPD, 1.800.000 TPY

(= 750.000 TPY COAL)

2.5 TPH

MAGNETIC

SEPARATORS)

GLASS

NON-FERROUS

METALS

GLASS

600 TPD. 180.000 TPY

BOTTOM ASH, 150 TPD

(-45 TPD COAL ASH)

ROCK. ETC

SO TPD,15.000 TPY

FLY ASH, 600 TPD

(- 210 TPD COAL ASH)

Fig.3. Preliminary flow diagram for west process facility.

The first stage, reversible, auto shredder type, horizontal shaft hammer-

mill will reduce the solid waste to a nominal 6-in. size. The first stage will be

2,000 hp (1.5 MW).

The first stage mill product will be conveyed to magnets for separation of

magnetic metals. Both belt and drum magnets are being investigated.

The magnetic metals will be sold to a secondary metal processor for de-

tinning and production of tin and No.1 bundle steel scrap.

The coarse milled waste, including less magnetic metals, will be conveyed

to a glass removal device. This device has not yet been selected. Investiga-

tions have been underway for the past few months to develop a conveyor

and sizing device. Such a device appears to be commercially available; it is

230

expected to remove about 50 percent of the glass and grit.

The 1250 hp (0.9 MW) second stage, horizontal shaft hammermills will

produce a 3/4 to 1 in. (1.9 to 2.5cm) product size. The mill discharge will

be conveyed to air density separators for classification into burnable and

unburnable fractions.

At the west facility, there will be two air classifiers for each of the four

second stage mills, each with a capacity of 50 tons (45mt) per hour. The

south facility second stage mills will each feed a single 50 tons per day air

classifier.

The burnable fraction from the air classifier will be air transported to live

bottom surge bins. At the west facility there will be 4 bins each with an out-

feed capacity of 100 tons (91 mt) per hour via four outfeed chutes, as shown

in Fig.3.

The west facility surge bins will be equipped with 4 outfeed systems. Each

outfeed system will include two drag chain conveyors set into the circular

floor on 45° centers. The two conveyors feed into a common chute which

feeds the solid waste into a pneumatic, boiler charging system.

The surge bins provide only limited storage. At a boiler firing rate of from

80 to 100 tons (73 to 90 mt) per hour there will be only from 1/2 to 1 hour

storage in each bin.

At the south facility, the existing experimental prototype bin that has

been in service three years will.be modified to provide for higher capacity

and will be direct current powered. A new four conveyor bin will be used to

provide firing tc the two boilers at Meramec that were not used in the proto-

type. The south facility bins will be equipped with 4 outfeed conveyors and

the new bin will have a capacity of about 60 tons (54 mt) per hour.

BOILER CHARGING SYSTEMS

The boilers at the south facility Meramec Power Plant include: two

140 MW, combustion engineering (CE), tangentially fired units; a 250 MW,

Foster Wheeler , front-fired boiler; a 300 MW Foster Wheeler front fired

boiler. All are fired with pulverized coal and are equipped with electrostatic

precipitators.

The Meramec unit 1 and 2, CE boilers are presently equipped with 4 solid

waste (SW) burners per boiler. These will be relocated to deliver the refuse-

derived fuel just above the top level of coal burners. One SW burner will be

located in each corner of the boiler furnace at the top of the coal burner

assembly.

The SW burners for Meramec units 3 and 4 will be installed in the front

wall of the furnace above the top row of coal burners. There will be four

burners in unit 3 and four burners in unit 4.

The boilers at the west facility Labadie Plant include 4,600 MW, CE,

tangentially fired, pulverized coal boilers. All are essentially identical. Each

boiler will be equipped with 4 SW burners, one per corner. The burners will

be installed just above the top coal burner in the coal burner assembly.

The boiler charging system for each burner consists of one rotary air

feeder, positive displacement blower, and piping from the feeder to the boiler

burner. The infeed chute to the rotary air lock feeder is fed from one or

more surge bin conveyors.

Because the SW will contain residual ground glass and some metals the

SW piping will be installed with removable wear-back elbows. Ceramic lined

fiberglass pipe is currently being investigated for the straight sections of the

transport piping. The ceramic lined pipe is considerably lighter than plain

carbon steel pipe and appears to have good anti-abrasion characteristics.

The boiler charging system is being designed to provide up to 20 percent

of the full load heat input requirement of each boiler. The 8,000 tons per

day (7,300 mt) SWUS processing capacity can provide full firing at 10 per-

cent of full load heat input. Thus, there is redundant boiler capacity.

SOLID WASTE CHARACTERISTICS

Table 1 gives the analyses for 380 samples of air-classified solid waste.

Note that the figure for NaCl should be subtracted from the figure for total

chlorides to give an analysis for organic chlorides. It is apparent that the re-

fuse-derived fuel does not contain critical levels of organic chlorine (mea-

sured this way) which will be released during combustion (NaCl decomposes

at 1650° C; furnace temperatures are of the order of 1370° to 1480°C). More

than 75 percent of the chlorine in refuse-derived fuel can be accounted for

as NaCl. The analytical methods have been described [2].

The density of the refuse-derived fuel after milling to 1.9 cm varies from

64 to 112 kg/m? (4 to 7 lb./ft.3), loose. However, when placed in storage

to depths of from 9 to 12 m (380 to 40 ft.), the density increases to as high

as 400 kg/m? (25 lb./ft.? ). Moisture content and particle size have a signifi-

cant effect on density and flow characteristics and these characteristics vary

from day to day and through the system.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

Careful evaluation of the environmental impact of the SWUS has been

underway since initial operation of the prototype. Boiler gas emission tests

conducted independently by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and

Union Electric during November and December of 1973 disclosed no serious

emission problems.

Certainly when compared to disposal by landfill or incineration the SWUS

appears to offer significant advantages. Conservation by recycling metal re-

sources such as tin, steel, copper, and aluminum offers a significant environ-

mental advantage over disposal.

232

TABLE 1

Air-classified refuse analyses”

380 samples taken November 9, 1973 through December 10, 1974

As fired basis

Moisture Ash Sulfur Total Nacl? J/kg

(wt %) (wt %) (wt%) chlorides (wt%) x10°°

(wt %)

Average Dae) 18.5 0.11 0.34 Or 11.6

Maximum 63.0 53.8 0.31 0.94 0759 ow

Minimum 3.0 7.6 0.02 0.13 0.10 513

Air-classified refuse ash (wt %)

Average Maximum Minimum

PO: 1B 2.04 0.41

siO, 52.8 66.6 39.9

Al,O, a 26.90 3.43

TiO, 0.89 eS) 0.07

Fe,0, 6.40 Dee US Dsi5yi}

CaO 12.06 16.50 6.92

MgO 1.48 3.17 0.22

so, IS) 3.75 0.54

K,O 1.68 2.91 0.89

Na,O S22 19.20 Seti

SnO, 0.034 0.10 0.001

CuO 0.21 1.74 0.03

ZnO 0.34 DPS 0.09

PbO O19 0.73 0.04

piinalyses by “Research 900” Division of Ralston Purina Company, St. Louis, Mo.

NaCl percentage is subtractable from total chlorides.

ECONOMICS

The SWUS is being built as a free enterprise, profit making venture. The

risk capital to build the system will come from private investors. The SWUS

must attract the public and private haulers by offering a dumping service at

lower overall cost than any competing service.

The economics of scale, low unit train point-to-point rail transport costs,

sale of metals, and the sale of the burnable fraction of the solid waste will

provide the revenue to support the investment.

CONCLUSION |

The SWUS is expected to provide an environmentally sound economic

—_

system to utilize the materials available in the solid waste stream. It will

significantly reduce the water, air, and esthetic degradation of the environment

which is too often a product of poorly managed landfills. SWUS will provide

for conservation of irreplaceable fossil fuels and metals, and it will provide

these benefits within the framework of the free enterprise system.

REFERENCES

1 Dille, E.K., Klumb, D.L. and Sutterfield, G.W., 1973. Recycling Solid Waste for Utility

Fuel and Recovery of Other Resources, .In: Frontiers of Power Technology, Oklahoma

State University, October 10—11.

2 Lowe, R.A., 1973. Energy Recovery From Waste, U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency, Washington, D.C.

3 Klumb, D.L., 1974. Solid Waste Prototype for Recovery of Utility Fuel and Other Re-

sources, Air Pollution Control Association, Denver, Colo.

4 Klumb, D.L. and Brendel, P.R., 1974. Union Electric’s Solid Waste Utilization System,

American Society of Chemical Engineers, Salt Lake City, Utah.

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Resource Recovery and Conservation, 1 (1976) 235—243

DESIGN AND POLLUTION CONTROL FEATURES OF THE SAUGUS,

MASSACHUSETTS STEAM GENERATING REFUSE--ENERGY PLANT *

WALTER K. MACADAM

Wheelabrator-Frye Inc., New York, New York 10017 (U.S.A.)

(Received 24th March 1975)

INTRODUCTION

A steam generating plant using refuse for fuel is being constructed at

Saugus, Massachusetts which, on completion, will dispose of an average of

1,089 metric tons (1,200 tons) of refuse a day from some 16 communities

north of Boston and provide energy to a nearby industrial plant for electric

power generation and process steam. The system is an application of the

Von Roll type water tube cooled boiler system with stepped grates, firing

refuse essentially as received without the use of auxiliary fuel. Several recent-

ly developed features are incorporated in the design to improve reliability

and availability under the relatively high steam temperatures involved. The

plant is constructed to meet stringent pollution control standards for odor,

particulates, gas, noise and water emission, and will provide essentially com-

plete refuse combustion without the need for auxiliary fuels. Clean metals

and sterile ash suitable for road fill will be recovered initially and provision

is being made for expansion of materials recovery sub-systems in the future

as markets and technology make them economically viable. The design also

contemplates future doubling of all plant capacity to 2,177 metric tons

(2,400 tons) per day.

An unusual feature of the plant is that it is privately financed, owned and

operated and will pay real estate and income taxes. Severe requirements for

continuity and reliability of refuse acceptance have been imposed, since the

landfill currently available to the communities will be permanently closed

for environmental reasons as soon as the plant goes into operation. In addi-

tion, the demand for continuity of steam generating capability emphasizes

reliability in the system design and calls for the provisions of adequate stand-

by facilities. |

Ground was broken for the Saugus refuse energy plant in June 1973, with

initial operation scheduled for mid-1975. The 16 communities, with a com-

*Paper presented at the Symposium “Energy Recovery from Solid Waste’”’, March 13—14,

1975.

bined population of approximately 500,000, are expected to make their

own arrangements for refuse delivery to the plant weighing station and will

pay a tonnage fee for disposal. Complete and sanitary combustion of the

refuse will produce more than 900,000 metric ton of steam a year for sale to

the General Electric Company (GE) manufacturing plant at Lynn, Massa-

chusetts, across the Saugus River. This energy sale will help reduce disposal

charges to the communities and at the same time reduce fuel oil requirements

by approximately 260,000 liters (70,000 gallons) a day. It is significant that

a net improvement in air pollution conditions will result, since the sulfur and

particulate emission from the refuse plant will be even lower than for the

facilities being replaced which burn low sulfur fuel oil.

BACKGROUND

The need to provide a modern and clean refuse disposal system became

apparent in the Boston North Shore area when state environmental and

other requirements resulted in a court order to close down a large sanitary

landfill operation in the tidelands at Saugus, Massachusetts serving the area

communities.

The project is privately financed, owned and to be operated by the Refuse

Energy Systems Company (RESCO), a joint venture of Wheelabrator-Frye

Inc. and M. DeMatteo Construction. The system design and construction

management is being carried out by Rust Engineering Company of Birming-

ham, Alabama, a subsidiary of Wheelabrator-Frye, and construction is being

undertaken by DeMatteo Construction. The plant design concept is based on

Wheelabrator’s exclusive license with Von Roll, Limited of Switzerland and

is an updated version of, and similar in operation to other Von Roll refuse-

energy plants in Europe, Australia, Japan and Canada. In the Saugus situation,

however, it meets generally more severe environmental requirements, makes

use of several new features involving advanced technology, and meets a num-

ber of specialized demands imposed by site conditions and unusual require-

ments for reliability and continuity of refuse acceptance and steam produc-

tioned.

Low operating cost over the life of the plant is considered essential as a

protection against inflation. The estimated total initial capital cost of approx-

imately $30 million for the plant recognizes these requirements and special

conditions and includes land, maintenance shops, roads, weighing stations,

vehicles, spare parts, utilities bridge and a 0.8 kilometer pipe line system ex-

tending across the Saugus River for steam delivery, condensate return and

electric power.

SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS

As noted previously, there are a number of unusual conditions and require-

ments placed on the design of the plant and reflected in the cost. These can

be summarized as follows:

— The present landfill site has been ordered closed and cannot continue in

operation after plant completion. For this reason an unusually large storage

pit (6,100 metric tons capacity) is provided to accumulate refuse during shut-

down of a boiler for maintenance or repairs.

— Since the plant is constructed on the landfill, the site conditions are poor,

requiring all major structures to be supported by piles driven to bedrock,

some 24 meters below.

— The communities prefer a single type of collection as a cost saving

measure. As a result, minimum selectivity will be exercised at the plant in

accepting refuse and garbage, provided it has domestic or commercial origin.

Stoves, tires, mufflers, furniture, auto wheels, pipes, etc. will be taken as

normally present in municipal refuse.

— The steam delivery contract to GE requires not only standby oil jets in

the main boilers, but also two auxiliary standby oil fired boilers.

— No intake or discharge is permitted to the river.

— A utility bridge and pipe line system is required to transmit steam across

the Saugus River.

— Local air pollution control requirements are more stringent than Federal

standards.

BASIC REQUIREMENTS

The basic requirements are to accept an average of 1,089 metric tons per

day of domestic and commercial refuse and provide steam to the General

Electric Company at 4,309 kPa (625 psig) and 418—441°C (785—825°F).

These steam conditions were selected to coordinate with the output of

existing boilers in the GE plant [2]. Operation is 24 hours a day, 7 days a

week. Peak steam delivery is 159 metric tons per hour and not les than 29.5

metric tons per hour. A minimum of 90,000 metric tons of steam will be

delivered annually.

A dump charge will be made with escalation corresponding to half the

change in the local labor wage index. Steam charges are based on providing

somewhat lower energy cost to GE than would be involved if oil were used

as a fuel. Steam charges will escalate with oil price increases.

SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

The physical layout of the plant and its geographical proximity to the

steam customer is illustrated in Fig. 1. Refuse trucks will pass a weighing

station and move up a paved earthfill ramp to a receiving area. Here the

trucks are backed to the plant entrance doors and refuse is deposited in the

6,100 metric ton-capacity pit.

A simplified cross section of the plant is shown in Fig. 2. In general con-

figuration this is similar to other refuse boiler plants except for the stepped

grates and the pendant, vertically oriented tubes in the convection section.

238

UTILITIES BRIDGE

ee 1. TRANSFERS STEAM TO GE

2. TRANSFERS FUEL OIL, BOILER

af FEEDWATER, AND ELECTRICAL

ra, POWER TO RESCO

ee AC

RIVER

Fig. 1. Physical layout of RESCO.

ee F ct F

-s

=: Se On SSS

Fig. 2. Wheelabrator-Von Roll refuse—energy system.

The pit is served by a traveling crane system which serves the furnace feed

hoppers and also permits mixing refuse as required to promote uniformity.

Some unusually bulky refuse, such as furniture, will be transported by crane

to a 895 kilowatt (1,200 horsepower) fragmentizing hammermill which will

239

reduce the largest dimension to about 0.3 meters and discharge tne frag-

ments back into the pit.

Two steam generators are provided initially, with a maximum capacity of

680 metric tons per day each, for refuse with a heat value of 10.5 MJ/kg

(4,500 BTU/Ib.), Lower Heating Value. Provision is made for the addition of

two similar boilers at a later date. Two oil fired package boilers are also

provided as standby units with a total capacity of 108.9 metric tons per hour.

In each furnace, refuse is burned on a Wheelabrator/Von Roll reciprocating

grate system without the use of an auxiliary fuel. This consists of three grates

separated by steps over which refuse tumbles to provide complete combustion.

Combustion gas temperatures are in the range of 540—980°C. Under-fire and

over-fire air volume and temperature as well as individual grate operating

speeds are controlled to suit conditions and assure complete burnout. Much

of this control is automatic.

The flue gas and furnace radiation heats the water walls of the boiler.

Heated flue gases then pass through the convection section and come in con-

tact with pendant boiler tubes. Dust and scale buildup is controlled by a

specially designed boiler tube rapping mechanism. The system involves

periodic striking of the lower side of vertical boiler tube sections with a

hammer mechanism. Such operation dislodges dust buildup on the tubes

without disturbing the protective oxide coating on the tube exterior. This

recent development eliminates corrosion problems from soot blowers and

makes it unnecessary to shut down the boilers for periodic tube cleaning.

The cooled gases pass to two Wheelabrator-Lurgi electrostatic precipitators

[3], operating at approximately 99 percent efficiency, designed to reduce

the particulate emission to 5.7 X 107* kg/m? (0.025 grams/standard cubic

foot) corrected to 12 percent CO, (0.05 required). These are described in

more detail later in the section covering pollution control. Cleaned exit flue

gas is discharged to the atmosphere through a concrete stack 54.3 meters

(178 feet) above grade.

Fly ash collected by the precipitators, riddlings and clinkers are water

quenched and passed by conveyor to a rotating screen. Bulky metals are

separated for sale and the bottom ash screenings are further subjected to mag-

netic separation. This permits sale of the remaining ferrous metals. The resid-

ual ash (about 160 metric tons per day) will be sold or used as road fill or

deposited in a specially designated disposal area nearby. Quench water is dis-

charged in wet ash or evaporated. Blowdown water is almost entirely con-

sumed by transfer to the quench tanks.

FINANCING

Initial financing was arranged through Wheelabrator Financial Corporation,

a subsidiary of Wheelabrator-Frye. This financing of the plant construction

is not contingent on any signing of refuse disposal contracts with the munic-

ipalities. Subsequent debt financing is being arranged through tax exempt

industrial revenue bonds.

240

ESTABLISHMENT OF DUMP CHARGES

Dump charges, or so-called tipping fees, are based on individual agreements

with municipalities. It is contemplated that initial charges will be lower for

longer term contracts and that escalation of rates will be based on one half

the rate of change in the local labor rate index. RESCO has joined a number

of the communities in obtaining the services of the Mitre Corporation, a not-

for-profit corporation headquartered at Bedford, Massachusetts, to examine

the costs of the project and to determine the appropriateness of the proposed

charges, considering costs and risks. This has resulted in a contract structure

and pricing schedule adjudged fair to all concerned.

TECHNOLOGY

The RESCO project is designed to make use of updated technology applied

to established concepts proven by full scale experience in similar situations.

The importance of reliability, continuity in refuse disposal, pollution control

and steam generation were the principal factors in utilizing the total com-

bustion system concept supported by substantial experience in Europe,

Canada and Japan. No wholesale shredding of refuse is required, thus saving

shredding costs estimated in excess of $3.00 per ton and eliminating fire and

explosion problems [4—6].

The 5.3-hectare (13-acre) site and plant layout has been arranged for

maximum flexibility and to permit future construction of additional resource

recovery subsystems, either at the front end or back end of the energy recov-

ery unit when and if the technology, economics, experience and market

shows this to be a viable and reliable operation.

POLLUTION CONTROL DESIGN

Odor control

Odor control was an important consideration in both the construction and

operation of the Saugus plant. Since the facility is being built on a sanitary

landfill site covered by a layer of deposited refuse approximately 3.7 meters

(12 feet) thick, unusual measures had to be adopted during excavation for

the plant foundations and truck receiving area. A total of approximately

46,000 cubic meters of refuse material had to be removed to another area in

the existing landfill and covered daily with a layer of earth. Deodorizing

units, consisting of 19 liter (5 gallon) pails equipped with wicks and filled

with Air Kem water soluble deodorizing fluid, were placed at intervals of

about 15 meters to the windward side of the removal operation. Earth fill

was placed in the excavation in a concurrent operation to minimize exposure.

These procedures were carried out under permission and inspection of the

Massachusetts Bureau of Air Quality Control.

Refuse odors during plant operations will be closely controlled by dumping

all refuse into the indoor storage pit. A system of negative pressure will draw

fresh air through the entrance into the pit enclosure from which it is drawn

into the furnaces for use as combustion air. Furnace gas temperatures are

maintained in the range of approximately 540—980°C, destroying odors in

the combustion air and those emitted by burning refuse. The main control

room, administrative space and crane operator consoles are enclosed and air

conditioned to produce a temperature and odor controlled environment.

Control of particulates

Fly ash and particulates in the flue gas will be reduced well below levels

specified by federal, state and local requirements. This is accomplished by

means of collection hoppers under the boiler convection sections, followed by

Wheelabrator-Lurgi electrostatic precipitators. Precipitators were chosen in

place of wet scrubbers for reliability and to minimize generation of a steam

plume from the stack caused by introduction of additional moisture. An

individual, dry bottom precipitator is provided for each steam generating

unit. Each will handle 6,800 cubic meters per minute of flue gas at 220°C to

surpass the stringent Metropolitan Boston Air Pollution Control District

requirements of 11.4 X 10°* kg/m? (0.05 gr/scf), corrected to 12 percent CO,.

The precipitators are designed to control particulates to 5.7 X 10™* kg/m?

(0.025 gr/scf) and, therefore, are sized to operate at an efficiency of approx-

imately 99 percent.

The reliability and continuous availability of the precipitator units are en-

hanced by employing discharge electrode rods welded into rectangular pipe

frames in such a manner that the electrodes are firmly attached at points

separated by no more than 1.5 meters. The rigid support system was con-

sidered to offer advantages over a system using weighted hanging wires by

providing improved strength and controlling electrode failure due to mate-

rial fatigue, corrosion or oscillation. Any additional cost was considered to

be outweighed by advantages from the standpoint of maintenance and con-

tinuity of operation.

Air quality

Since refuse is a low sulfur fuel, typically with only about 0.1 percent

sulfur content, no special measures will be required to remove this component.

To fully disperse the exit gases, which consist almost entirely of nitrogen,

carbon dioxide and water vapor, a 54 meter (178 foot) concrete stack is being

employed, 2.7 meters (9 feet) in diameter at the top. No problems with

chloride emission are foreseen, based on experience with similar installations

[7]. Flame temperatures are kept below the level at which nitrogen oxides

would be produced in any significant quantity. Based on experience with

similar installations, these emissions are expected to be much lower than the

242

0.13 kg/10? J (0.3 pound/10° BTU) input permissible for liquid fossil fuel

fired systems. Because the standby oil fired boilers are planned to be operated

on low sulfur oil when no refuse is available, and will meet emission require-

ments, permission has been obtained to exhaust through smaller stacks ex-

tending over the roof, approximately 38 meters above ground level. Smoke

density requirement of less than Ringelmann No. 1 will be met.

Ambient particulate levels have been calculated using Weather Bureau data

and predicted emissions from the stack, using a computer program developed

by Rust Engineering on the basis of ASME procedures. Predictions for one-

hour concentrations under least favorable conditions indicated that the addi-

tion of the stack emissions to existing annual averages would not exceed the

allowable value of 75 micrograms per cubic meter. Actually, operation of the

refuse-energy plant should produce no net impairment to the average ambient

level since this includes the GE plant present emissions, which will be reduced

when the refuse plant becomes operational.

Water quality

Water for steam production, cooling, and ash quenching will be obtained

from the municipal supply in addition to that needed for the sanitary system.

Some steam condensate is to be returned over the utility bridge and optimum

recirculation and treatment is provided to minimize input water requirements

and effluent discharge. No river water will be circulated or used.

Waste water sources are the sanitary system, boiler blowdown, demineralizer

backwash, and quench channel overflow. All blowdown and backwash,

neutralized as required, is pumped to a holding tank which feeds the ash

quench conveyor channels. No ash quench water is recirculated since it is

progressively removed in the wet ash with overflow to the sewer. Under

operating conditions, total flow to the sewer is expected to consist primarily

of the sanitary system discharge.

Noise control

Most of the machinery that would make any appreciable contribution to

the noise level in the area of the plant is housed within the plant buildings.

The exceptions are the refuse boiler I.D. fans which are located between the

precipitators and the stack and the trommel screens located in the ash handling

system.

An ambient noise level survey was performed prior to the start of construc-

tion, and calculations have been prepared to show anticipated noise levels

when the plant is in operation. Application for permits have been filed, and

it is anticipated that the plant will meet all necessary requirements.

CONCLUSION

Unusual construction conditions and the need to provide essentially un-

243

interrupted availability of refuse reception, control of pollution and steam

generating capacity has resulted in specialized adaptations in the design and

pollution control measures for the Saugus Refuse Energy System. It should

provide an example of a multi-community refuse disposal service operated in

an environmentally sound manner on a private enterprise basis and privately

financed. Significant and important elements of the system plan included the

cooperation of a large industrial energy user and the decision to employ a

design based on demonstrated concepts with minimum preprocessing and

selectivity of refuse input.

REFERENCES

1 MacAdam, W.K. and Standrod, Jr.,S.E., 1975. Design and operational considerations

of a plant extracting energy from solid waste for industrial use. Presented at ASME

Industrial Power Conference, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, May 19—20. Copies available

from ASME Order Department, United Engineering Center, 345 E. 47th St., New York,

N.Y. 10017 (paper no. 75-IPWR-3).

2 Howard, A.H., 1975. The use of solid waste as a fuel to generate steam for an industrial

plant. Presented at ASME Industrial Power Conference, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, May

19—20. Copies available from ASME Order Department, United Engineering Center,

345 KE. 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017 (paper no. 75-IPWR-11).

3 Engelbrecht, H.L. and Graves, N.D., 1975. Electrostatic precipitator installation for a

low-odor recovery boiler. Presented at the 68th APCA Annual Meeting, Boston,

Massachusetts, June 15—20. Copies available from APCA Order Department, 4400 Fifth

Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213 (paper no. 75-662).

4 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1974. Second report to Congress — Resource

Recovery and Source Reduction. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

5 Hughes, O.G., 1974. The Cringle Dock pulverisation and transfer station, London.

The 1974 Australian Waste Management and Control Conference: The Conference

Papers, Department of Fuel Technology, University of New South Wales, Sydney,

Australia.

6 Fales, E., 1974. Now giant grinders gobble our waste problems. Popular Science,

February.

7 Vaughan, D.A., Miller, P.D. and Boyd, W.K., 1974. Fireside corrosion in municipal

incinerators versus PVC content of the refuse. Proceedings of 1974 National Incinerator

Conference: Resource Recovery Thru Incineration, The American Society of Mechanical

Engineers, New York, N.Y. 10017.

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Resource Recovery and Conservation, 1 (1976) 245—255 245

AN EVALUATION OF METHANE PRODUCTION FROM SOLID WASTE*

R.G. KISPERT, S.E. SADEK and D.L. WISE

Dynatech R/D Company, A Division of Dynatech Corporation, Cambridge, Mass. 02139

(U.S.A.)

(Received 19th March 1975)

ABSTRACT

A technical and economic evaluation of a process to convert municipal solid waste to a

pipeline quality gas has been carried out, based upon a previously reported conceptual de-

sign for a 907 metric ton/day (1000 tpd) facility. The process design is shown to be tech-

nically within the state of the art, although economically acceptable operating parameters

are at the upper limit of today’s technology. The calculated baseline gas cost of $0.074/m?

($2.09/mcf) is economically acceptable when compared with projected costs of synthetic

gas or alternative fuels. Experimental priorities to demonstrate the commercial feasibility

of the process are established.

INTRODUCTION

Because of the two problems of need for supplemental sources of fuel gas

and concern about municipal waste disposal, considerable interest has recent-

ly been shown in the related solution of applying anaerobic digestion to muni-

cipal solid wastes. The digestion of the organic matter in municipal refuse can

be carried out much as the digestion of sewage sludge is done. The organic

matter in typical solid waste is observed to be predominantly cellulose; there-

fore, the chemical conversion and stoichiometry of concern may be repre-

sented by

C;H,,»O; +H,O > 3 CO, +3 CH, (1)

In the process for preparing methane from municipal waste, the organic mate-

rial is slurried with water and inoculated with the proper microorganisms. This

inoculation is spontaneous in an operating digester since organisms are already

present. The organic matter is partially solubilized or digested and then fer-

mented, forming methane gas, carbon dioxide and a residue of undigested

material. Under these circumstances 1 kg of chemically convertible waste will

yield 0.41 m® (1 lb > 6.65 ft.*) of methane at standard conditions of tem-

perature and pressure [1]. The methane will be accompanied by an equal

volume of carbon dioxide. The methane is scrubbed free of carbon dioxide

*Paper presented at the Symposium “Energy Recovery from Solid Waste’’, March 13—14,

OTD:

246

and traces of hydrogen sulfide, then dried. The undigested residue is disposed

of by incineration or landfill. Ferrous and non-ferrous metals and glass may

be recovered prior to digestion, if that is economical.

Previous studies have focused attention on the scientific and the economic

feasibility of the process, and the conceptual design of a 907 metric ton/day

(1000 tpd) facility [2—8]. It is presently projected that pipeline-quality gas

can be produced commercially with a selling price of $0.074/m? ($2.09/mcf),

based on an American Gas Association public utility financing scheme

(Table 1) [9,10]. An evaluation of the energy balance indicates that oper-

ating energy requirements consume the equivalent of only 37.5 percent of the

gas produced [2].

TABLE 1

Summary of base-line gas cost items

$/m* $/mef

Contribution of capital costs to gas cost $ 0.076 S 2aud

Contribution of operating costs to gas cost 0.069 2

Penalties:

Filter cake ($30/dry ton) 0.055 1.55

Waste water from filter

($1.00/1000 gallons) ; 0.001 0.03

Waste rejected by trommel screen and

air classifier ($3.50/ton) 0.009 0.26

Credits:

Fresh waste ($10.65/ton) (0.102) 2.87

Sewage sludge ($50/dry ton) (0.018) 0.51

Scrap iron ($25/ton) (0.016) 0.46

$ 0.074/m?* $ 2.09/mef

EVALUATION OF THE PROCESS

There can be little doubt that the investigation of fuel gas production from

solid waste is both timely and significant. Fuel gas production from solid

waste appears to offer at least a partial solution to the search for alternative

energy sources, particularly for natural gas. In addition, the technology and

operating experience gained from this process have direct application to

other promising bioconversion concepts.

Process design

The conceptual process design proposed for fuel gas production from solid

waste, Fig.1, does not appear to require the development of any new tech-

nology to construct a commercial-scale facility. On the other hand, an ex-

tensive background of bench- and pilot-scale data which would permit the

247

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248

confident design and prediction of performance of a full-scale operating

plant is presently unavailable.

The design of the feed preparation system is based upon the current state-

of-the-art of commercially available equipment. Most of the components

selected have had previous application in mineral processing or pulp and

paper manufacture. The mechanical performance and reliability of each

component has been extensively proven in these fields, but application to

solid waste is somewhat limited. For example, production-scale air classifi-

cation of shredded municipal waste has only recently been accomplished. As

more facilities come on-line, additional operating data will become available

which will permit an optimization of the feed preparation system design.

Fifteen major resource recovery plants are expected to be on-line throughout

the United States by 1976 [11]. In addition, numerous publicly and private-

ly funded research projects are underway which should provide valuable

operating data for further optimization of the feed preparation design. How-

ever, few of these projects may be expected to concentrate on the preparation

of a high-purity cellulosic fraction suitable for anaerobic digestion, and none

will examine the interface between the feed preparation and digestion systems.

Many questions remain to be answered with respect to the design of the

backend of the system. The most important question pertains to the maxi-

mum permissible volatile solids loading for the anaerobic digesters. The vola-

tile solids feed concentration and the solids retention time selected by anal-

ysis to produce a minimum gas cost result in a volatile solids loading to the

digesters near the upper limit of that normally encountered in sewage sludge

digesters. None of the experimental data published to date for solid waste

digesters deals with performance under these operating conditions. Discus-

sions with equipment manufacturers indicate that the assumed solids con-

centrations in the digester feed and effluent are also near the upper limit of

that normally handled with the type of equipment proposed for pumping,

mixing and dewatering. As is the case for the feed preparation equipment,

process operating data are currently not available relating to various perfor-

mance characteristics in such a manner as to permit optimization of the pro-

cess. Experiments to date have not been run at a sufficiently large scale to

gather the type of data necessary.

Process ecnomics

The projected economics for the 907 metric ton/day fuel gas from solid

waste facility should be evaluated from two standpoints. First of all, do the

projected economics accurately represent those to be expected from a com-

mercial facility? Secondly, are the projected economics acceptable to the

user community and the gas consumer?

The projected economics are judged to be representative. Capital costs

have been determined from equipment manufacturer’s quotations, from en-

gineering estimates developed by consulting.engineering firms for similar in-

249

stallations, and from published, historical data. Where multiple quotes were

available, capital costs were chosen to represent what was judged to be the

best available equipment from the standpoint of performance. Capital costs,

therefore, tend towards the conservative side. All costs have been escalated to

uniform (June, 1974) construction costs using the Engineering News Record

(ENR) Construction Cost Index. Costs of installation and auxilliary equip-

ment have been included. The American Gas Association public utility cost

accounting structure used considers the associated costs of debt and equity

capital as well as operating costs [9]. It must be emphasized that while the

economics are representative of those realistically expected from a commercial-

scale facility, performance at the levels required has not yet been consistent-

ly demonstrated in the laboratory.

The projected net gas cost is judged to be acceptable. The economic anal-

ysis indicates that, under baseline operating conditions, the net cost of gas

will be in the range of $0.028 to $0.097/m? ($0.75—$2.75/mcf), depending

upon the ownership option selected for the plant and the cost of debt and

equity capital. Based upon figures published in the latest edition of Brown’s

Directory of North American Gas Companies, the average revenue for inter-

state gas sales was $0.028/m? ($0.75/mcf)[12]. At that time, the average

price paid producers was $0.007/m? ($0.21/mcf) at the well head. The

Federal Power Commission (FPC) has proposed an increase to $0.009/m?

($0.245/mcf) for ‘“‘old” gas [13]. ““New”’ gas, from wells commenced on or

after January 1, 1973, has recently been priced at $0.018/m? ($0.50/mcf)

by the FPC, with annual increases of $0.0035/m? ($0.01/mcf) allowed [14].

Intrastate gas sales, which are not regulated by the FPC, have reached

$0.057/m? ($1.60/mcf) or more [15]. Prices for other supplemental sources

of natural gas are even higher. Imported natural gas from British Columbia

is presently set at $0.035/m? ($1.00/mcf) with annual. $0.007/m? ($0.20/mcf)

increases set for each of the next three years [16]. Imported liquefied natural

gas from Algeria is estimated to have a landed cost of $0.07/m? ($2.00/mcf)

[17]. Synthetic natural gas from naphtha and coal is estimated at $0.070—

$0.088/m? ($2.00—$2.50/mcf)[18]. To each of these prices, an increment

equivalent to the pipeline transmission cost must be added to yield a cost

equivalent to the bioconversion process.

An appropriate comparison may be made with other energy sources. A

study conducted by the FPC showed that steam electric generating plants were

paying $0.412/G J ($0.436/MM Btu) for natural gas, $0.61/G J ($0.64/MM

Btu) for coal and $0.76/G J ($1.87/MM Btu) for oil, based on April 1974

prices [19]. A further evaluation of current oil prices is revealing. ‘“Old”’

oil is priced by the Federal Energy Administration at $4.25/bbl (1 bbl = 159

liters), or $0.825/GJ ($0.875/MM Btu) [20]. ‘““New’’ domestic oil may fol-

_ low the market and is priced at $10—12/bbl. Imported crude oil from the

Middle East is currently priced at $11.63/bbl and crude from Venezuela is

priced at $14.43/bbl [13]. Methane produced from solid waste appears to

be competitive with these prices. The gas produced from a privately owned

250

and financed fuel gas from solid waste facility at $0.075/m? ($2.09/mcf) has

an energy equivalent price of approximately $11.00/bbl of crude oil.

Potential impact

The potential for a process which converts refuse to methane is significant.

Residential and commercial refuse is produced at a rate of 1.4—2.3 kg

(8—5 lb.) per person per day. At 4 lb./person/day, a 907 metric ton/day

facility would service a population of approximately 500,000 people. Ac-

cording to the 1970 U.S. Census, there were 26 cities in the country with

populations in excess of 500,000. More significantly, there are 65 Standard

Metropolitan Statistical Areas (SMSA’s) in the U.S. with populations in ex-

cess of 500,000. The aggregate population of these SMSA’s is in excess of q

100,000,000 — half of the nation’s population. In terms of a 907 metric ton/day}

solid waste to methane facility, there is a potential market for over 200 plants |

in the urban areas of the United States.

A 907 metric ton/day bioconversion facility will produce approximately

105,000 m? (3.7 million ft.° ) of methane per day, or 0.21 m?(7.4 ft.? ) of

methane per person. The 65 SMSA’s with populations in excess of 500,000

have a potential for gas production from waste in excess of 21,225,000 m°

(750,000,000 ft.° ) per day. Based on published figures [21], this process, if

implemented in these 65 SMSA’s, could produce approximately 1.5% of the

total natural gas consumed in the United States. In order to identify further

those regions of the country in which fuel gas production from solid waste

could have significant impact, this study has been extended to each of these

major SMSA’s. The population of each was determined from the latest U.S.

Census (1970). Potential gas production from each SMSA was determined

based on an average daily production of 0.21 m? of methane per person. Ac-

tual gas consumption in each SMSA was estimated based upon figures

published in Brown’s Directory of North American Gas Companies [22]. Be-

cause gas-consumption figures were not usually broken down by SMSA, |

estimates were developed based upon the ratio of customers within the SMSA |

to the total number of customers served by each gas company within the

SMSA. On average, approximately 9 percent of the gas consumed in these

SMSA’s could potentially be produced by the municipal solid waste generated §

by their residents. The median ratio of potential production to estimated

consumption was 4 percent. A geographic evaluation of these results shows |

that these plants would have the greatest impact along the Boston-Washington |

corridor, an area highly dependent upon imported energy (Fig.2).

Figure 3 depicts the dramatic need for the additional fuel gas which could

be produced from solid waste. Interstate pipeline curtailments for firm con-

tract gas have been estimated for the five winter months — November, 1974

to March, 1975 — by the Federal Power Commission and the American Gas

Association. The potential gas production from these 65 major SMSA’s

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253

TABLE 2

Experimental matrix — program priorities

Necessary to Necessary Priority

prove concept to prepare rank

Tinayiekt See un oo eotulleseale

Technical Economics design

Feed preparation

Demonstrate capability to provide required x x x 9

digester feed

Determine sequence of operations x 13

Determine primary shredder output size x x 15

Determine secondary shredder output size x x 16

Determine trommel screen opening x x 14

Confirm separation efficiencies X x 10

Establish character of daily and seasonal x x LT,

variations

Determine properties of residual materials x x 19

Digestion

Confirm and demonstrate digester performance X x x 1

Obtain continuous operating data at highest

possible total volatile solids feed x xX Wk

Demonstrate effective digester performance x x x 2

when solids retention time is optimized

with respect to over-all process efficiency

Evaluate thermophilic and mesophilic modes xX x Xx 6

of operation

Evaluate effect of particle size on digester x Xx 12

performance

Evaluate effect of mixing power and mode x x x a

on digester performance ~

Evaluate effect of filtrate recycle on x X x 8

digester performance

Evaluate effect of solids recycle on x x 20

digester performance

Evaluate effect of various sewage sludge/ x x 18

solid waste ratios

Dewatering and residual materials disposal

Evaluate suitability of alternative dewatering xX x xX 3

equipment over range of potential operating

conditions

Evaluate cake produced by alternative x x x 4

dewatering equipment for different dis-

posal schemes

Evaluate the filtrate produced by alternative xX X x a)

dewatering equipment for different disposal

schemes

254

during these months is equivalent to 12 percent of the projected curtailment.

Over a full 12 months, fuel gas production from solid waste in the major

SMSA’s could provide almost 30 percent of the projected national curtail-

ment of interstate gas supplies.

Necessity for further work

A proof-of-concept experimental program has been developed to fill in

the gaps of knowledge in order to permit a confident design of a full-scale

processing facility for the production of fuel gas from solid waste. Table 2

has been prepared as a guide to the relative priorities of various elements of

the experimental program. Each experiment has been classified with respect

to its significance in proving the technical and economic feasibility of fuel

gas production from solid waste and the necessity to conduct the experi-

ment in order to prepare the full-scale facility design.

In January, 1975, the methane production from solid waste program was

transfered to the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA).

ERDA has recently announced that a 45,000—90,000 kg/day (50—100 tpd)

experimental facility will be constructed in Pompano Beach, Florida to

prove the concept of methane production from urban waste.

CONCLUSIONS

The above projections show that methane produced from municipal waste

can have significant impact as a supplemental source of pipeline quality gas.

The conclusions come at a time when energy shortfalls and rising costs of

refuse disposal are forcing many major communities to reevaluate their refuse

disposal practices. Anaerobic digestion of the organic portion of municipal

refuse is presently the only known process which will return the energy value

of refuse in the form of pipeline-quality gas.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The assistance of Ms. Lynne C. Anderson in developing the economic model

and sensitivity analysis and Mr. David H. Walker in preparing the performance

and cost data is gratefully acknowledged. Mr. Ralph L. Wentworth has provided |

over-all management and technical direction of this program since its incep- |

tion at Dynatech R/D Company.

This work was carried out under National Science Foundation Contract

C-827. The cooperation of Dr. Richard H. Bogan, Program Manager and Dr.

Lloyd O. Herwig, Director, Advanced Solar Energy Research and Technology

of NSF/RANN, is appreciated. We also wish to acknowledge the support of

Consolidated Natural Gas Service Company, Inc., and especially to give recog-

nition to the assistance of Dr. Robert C. Weast, Vice President, Research, and

Mr. Howard W. Scott, Research Engineer.

255

REFERENCES

Wise, D.L., Sadek, S.E. and Kispert, R.G., 1974. Fuel Gas Production from Solid

Waste. Progress Report NSF/RANN/SE/C-827/PR/73/4, Dynatech R/D Company,

Cambridge, Mass., Rpt. No. 1151.

Kispert, R.G., Anderson, L.C., Walker, D.H., Sadek, S.E. and Wise, D.L., 1974. Fuel

Gas Production from Solid Waste. Progress Report NSF/RANN/SE/C-827/PR/74/2,

Dynatech R/D Company, Cambridge, Mass. Rpt. No. 1207.

Wise, D.L., Sadek, S.E., Wentworth, R.L. and Kispert, R.G., 1973. Fuel Gas Produc-

tion from Solid Waste. Progress Report NSF/RANN/SE/C-827/PR/73/3, Dynatech

R/D Company, Cambridge, Mass., Rpt. No. 1127.

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No. EPA-R-08876, Dept. of Civil Engr., Univ. of Ill., Urbana.

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Univ. of Ill., Urbana, Rpt. No. UILU-ENG-73-2022.

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Cooney, C.L. and Wise, D.L., 1975. Thermophilic Anaerobic Digestion of Solid

Waste for Fuel Gas Production, to be published.

Kavanagh, J.F., 1961. General Accounting Procedures to be Used for Large Scale

Production of Gas from Coal and Oil Shale, Memorandum, American Gas Association

General Accounting Committee.

J.R. Schomaker, personal communication, 1971.

Anon., 1974. Resource recovery, NCRR Bulletin, 4(4): 8.

Hedin, D.G., Ed., 1974. Brown’s Directory of North American Gas Companies, 88 edn.,

Moore Publishing Co., Deluth, Minn.

Anon., 1974. Energy world news. Pipeline and Gas Journal, 201(12): 102.

Anon., 1975. Newsreel. Pipeline and Gas Journal, 202(1): 1. 3

Anon., 1974. Newsreel. Pipeline and Gas Journal, 201(14): 2.

Anon., 1974. Newsreel. Pipeline and Gas Journal, 201(13): 4.

Hale, D., 1974. Point of view. Pipeline and Gas Journal, 201(12): 6.

W.F. Morse, persona! communication, 1974.

Anon., 1974. Newsreel. Pipeline and Gas Journal, 201(14): 2.

Anon., 1974. Energy management report. Pipeline and Gas Journal, 201(13): 838.

Hedin, D.G., Ed., 1973. Brown’s Directory of North American Gas Companies, 87

edn., Moore Publishing Co., Deluth, Minn.

Hedin, D.G., Ed., 1971. Brown’s Directory of North American Gas Companies, 85 edn.,

Moore Publishing Co., Deluth, Minn.

Resource Recovery and Conservation, 1 (1976) 257—269

PRODUCTION OF SINGLE CELL PROTEIN FROM AGRICULTURAL

AND FOOD PROCESSING WASTES*

R.C. RIGHELATO, F.K.E. IMRIE and A.J. VLITOS

Tate & Lyle Ltd., Philip Lyle Memorial Research Laboratory, Reading, RG6 2BX (England)

(Received 19th March 1975)

ABSTRACT

A process has been developed in which carbohydrate wastes are fermented to produce

microbial protein suitable for animal feeds. The process consists of (i) a waste preparation

step, (ii) growth of a filamentous mould in submerged culture at a low pH (iii) recovery of

the mould by filtration (iv) drying and bagging. It is estimated that operating scales as low

as five hundred tons/annum can be made economic if the process can be used for most of

the year and labour costs are low.

INTRODUCTION

| Most crops are grown for only a small part of their bulk, so during harvesting

and processing various parts of the plants are discarded. Part is simply ploughed

back into the land and makes a valuable contribution to the structure and

fertility of the soil. Another part, notably straw and dry leaves, is sometimes

burned on the fields because collection and redistribution is too costly. There

remains, collected at farms and food processing plants, many hundred of

millions of tons per annum of very low value material. Steffgen [1] quoted

400 million tons per annum of solid waste from agricultural and allied in-

dustries for the U.S.A. alone. To this must be added many millions of tons

of BOD in liquid effluents, so for every ton of food produced a similar

quantity of carbohydrate waste is collected and subsequently disposed of,

often by burning or oxidation in effluent treatment plants.

The production of microbial protein from wastes of agricultural industries

has received attention in recent years with two main objectives in view — up-

grading the feed value of solid wastes and removing the BOD from liquid

wastes with a bonus in the form of high protein animal feed supplement.

| These processes face a number of economic and technical problems. The

| economic problems stem from the distribution of agricultural wastes. They

are produced worldwide but in relatively small quantities at individual sites

*Paper presented at the Symposium ‘‘Energy Recovery from Solid Waste’’, March 13—14,

1975.

258

and often for only a small part of the year (Table 1). A processing plant built

to take advantage of a fruit cull, for instance, would have a throughput of at

best a few tens of thousands of tons of fruit, yielding probably less than a

thousand tons of single cell protein (SCP). The factory would be inoperative

TABLE 1

Scale and seasonality of waste production

Papaya Olive Palm oil

Average processing plant waste, t/a dry solids 2,000 300 5,000

Season LOV1 4/12 1itfAg

Estimate of SCP production, t/a 500 100 1,500

for part of the year or would have to operate on a different waste; effluents

from e.g. olive processing plants pose similar problems of low throughput

and seasonality. These factors make for high amortisation costs, so the tech-

nology must be such that the capital cost of plant is minimised for an

economically viable operation. Plants that operate year round and ona

larger scale, such as those that process corn and palm oil, present less of a

problem but still require a simple technology to be commercially viable.

The technical problems of microbial protein production stem from the

chemical composition and physical form of the wastes. In general the solid

organic material is mostly carbohydrate, at least half of which is cellulose

(Table 2). Starches, pectins and sugars form the remainder. If the sugars of

TABLE 2

Composition of agricultural wastes

Bagasse Papaya Palm Potato

oil process

sludge water

Total solids,% 49 13 J a

Carbohydrate % of dry solids 82 80 60 75

Fibre 94 9 30 20

Pectins 0 a NT? NT

Starches 0 NT NT 60

Oligosaccharides and

monosaccharides 4.5 67 NT NT

Protein 0 5 0.4 8

Lipid 0 5 10 NT

Ash OF 6 NT NT

“NT = not tested.

the carbohydrate polymers can be mobilised, they can form the basis of

processes such as recovery of sugars or fermentation for ethanol or single cell

protein production. In recent years Tate & Lyle, along with other groups

[2—6], have developed processes for non-cellulosic carbohydrate mixtures. It

has been our intention to use as simple a technology as possible to enable

application to small quantities of material, particularly in developing countries.

The basis of the processes is the fermentation of the carbohydrate or other

organic materials to yield single cell protein (SCP) or in special circumstances

ethanol plus SCP.

GENERAL FEATURES OF LOW-TECHNOLOGY SCP FERMENTATIONS

The organisms used for simple recovery of biomass from wastes must have

a number of special properties (Table 3) — they must be capable of growth

TABLE 3

Properties of microbes for waste utilisation

Broad substrate specificity

High growth rate

High carbohydrate conversion efficiency

Growth at high temperatures (>35°C)

Growth at extremes of pH

Simple recovery from fermentation

High protein content

Non toxic

on a wide range of carbon sources, preferably simultaneously and they must

have a high efficiency of conversion of the substrate to biomass. The last

point restricts the choice to aerobic microbes, since in anaerobic growth

several times more carbohydrate is consumed to obtain the necessary energy.

The organisms that grow on waste in nature may fulfil these criteria and

could be used for SCP production. However, they present certain drawbacks —

they are usually mixed cultures of a wide range of microbes whose ratios may

vary widely with small changes in waste composition or the physical environ-

ment. Therefore, the organisms may vary seasonally or be influenced by small

upstream process changes, possibly resulting in harvesting problems and con-

siderable variability in the product specification.

An alternative approach is to use a microorganism which has the required

characters grown under conditions that favour its growth against that of other

microbes. Filamentous moulds have been used because they can be harvested

easily by filtration and some species can be grown at low pH and high tem-

peratures that inhibit the growth of contaminating bacteria and yeasts.

A strain of Aspergillus niger designated M1 has been isolated from naturally

rotting material and found to conform to most of the criteria listed above

[3,4]. More recently, a Fusarium sp. studied in our laboratories has been

260

found to have an unusually high protein content. Both species grow on a wide

range of carbohydrate-containing substrates (Table 4). Glucose, the most

common constituent of carbohydrates, is rapidly assimilated by most mi-

crobes. The glucose dimer maltose and the polymer amylose were almost as

TABLE 4

Growth of Aspergillus niger (M1) and Fusarium sp. (M4) on single carbon sources

The carbon source was added at 2 g/] to an inorganic salts agar medium in petri-dishes.

The plates were inoculated with a small amount of mycelium and conidia. +, growth;

—, no growth

Substrate M1 M4

Glucose + +

Maltose + ==

Lactose = ="

Cellulose (Whatman Cellulose powder CC41) — -

Rhamnose + +

Cellobiose + +

Xylose + +

Glycerol + +

Pullulan + +

Galacturonic acid + +

Soya oil — i

Pectin (apple) + #

Glutamic acid = +

Casein + +

Acetic acid — =

None po wi

readily utilized by both the Aspergillus and the Fusarium. Growth on

pullulan indicates the ability to cleave the a(1—6) glycosidic links that form

the branch points in starches. Pectin is a polygalacturonic acid present in

many fruits and pectinolytic activity was found in both strains. However,

neither were able to use cellulose as the carbon source. Amino acids, proteins

and lipids which are present in small amounts in most biological waste mate-

rials were used by the Fusarium. Clearly these mould strains, whose natural

habitat is rotting fruit, etc., have a very broad substrate specificity. In nature

substrates are normally found in complex mixtures which may also contain

compounds inhibitory to microbial growth. Growth tests using a wide range

of waste materials showed that in most cases the moulds grow well (Table 5).

Having established that the moulds were capable of growth on a wide range

of substrates, fermentation conditions were devised under which high yields

of protein could be obtained. The carbohydrate conversion efficiencies and

the growth rates were measured in 5 1 batch cultures in aseptic laboratory

261

TABLE 5

Growth of two moulds on agricultural wastes?

Scoring refers to a combination of colony radial growth rate and density on agar plates

Substrate A. niger (M1) Fusarium sp. (M4)

Carob extract ++ ++

Sulphite waste liquor + NT

Molasses cats ++

Olive blackwater ++ ++

Cassava flour NT ++

Papaya slurry tt Tot

Citrus waste te +

++ good growth; + poor growth; — no growth; NT not tested.

fermenters. Oxygen was supplied in excess as measured by in situ membrane

electrode, i.e. the oxygen concentration was greater than 2 X 10* Pa. The pH

was controlled to + 0.2 unit by automatic addition of sodium hydroxide or

hydrochloric acid. Temperature was controlled to within 0.5°C of the set

value. The basal salts medium contained (g/l), (NH4).SO.,, 7.0; NaH,POu,, 2.0;

MgSO, °7H,0O, 0.3; CaCl, -6H,0O, 0.3; KCl, 0.1; Zn Cl,, 0.2; FeSO, -°7H,0,

0.005; Difco yeast extract, 2.5.

The pH had little effect on the conversion efficiency or growth rate over

the range 3.0—6.0 (Fig.1). Below pH 4.0, the growth rate fell but the con-

version efficiency was almost unchanged. The ability to grow at pH 2—3 isa

valuable feature, since most saprophytic bacteria and yeasts grow poorly or

not at all at acid pH. Repeated open cultures in the pH range 2—4 have not

shown gross contamination by extraneous microorganisms. Aseptic precau-

tions, which are expensive on a production scale, are therefore unnecessary.

1.0

0.8

Fig. 1. Carbohydrate conversion efficiency (Y) and specific growth rate (u) of Fusarium sp.

(M4) in batch cultures: effect of pH. Carbohydrate: sucrose, 40 g/l; temperature 30°C.

262

The optimum growth temperature for Fusarium sp. (M4) was 35°C (Fig. 2),

growth almost stopping at 40°C at pH 4. At lower pH the growth rate was

higher at 40°C but stopped at 42°C. The ability to grow over a wide range of

temperatures is important since heating and cooling facilities must be avoided

to minimise the cost of fermentation. The conversion efficiencies found here

are close to the maximum growth efficiencies reported for filamentous

moulds [7,8].

1.0

0.8

0.6 .

0.4

0.2

0.1

20 25 30 35 40 45

Temperature°C

Fig. 2. Carbohydrate conversion efficiency (Y) and specific growth rate (u) of Fusarium sp.

(M4) in batch cultures: effect of temperature. Carbohydrate: sucrose, 40 g/l; pH 4.0.

The effects of pH and temperature on growth rates and carbohydrate con-

version efficiencies were established in the presence of excess oxygen. The

oxygen demand of rapidly growing cultures of a mould at 10—20 g/l dry

weight is in the range 100—200 mmoles/1/h. To satisfy this demand requires

the use of high-powered aeration and mixing systems. But to install such

systems would be inefficient since the peak oxygen demand occurs for only

a few hours in a batch fermentation cycle of 20 h. Lower power inputs which

would cause oxygen-limitation of growth would extend the fermentation

cycle but would consume less power overall. However, during oxygen-limited

growth, many organisms exhibit mechanisms for gaining energy which give a

low conversion efficiency of carbohydrate to biomass and leave a residue of

organic material in the process water. When the Fusarium sp. (M4) was grown

under oxygen-limited growth conditions the growth rate was lower, but the

oxygen respired and carbohydrate efficiency was unchanged and extracellular _

organic compounds did not accumulate (Table 6). Thus, oxygen-limited growth |

conditions may be used to control the rate of growth and to save power costs.

The product of this fermentation is a mass of fine filaments, or hyphae,

which make up the fungal mycelium. The crude protein content of the dry

mycelium was in the range 25—85 percent for A. niger (M1) and 41—51 per-

cent for Fusarium sp. (M4). The actual protein content calculated from the

amino acid composition was 70 percent of the crude protein for A. niger (M1)

and from 80 to 90 percent of the crude protein for Fusarium sp. (M4). The

263

TABLE 6

Effect of oxygen-limitation of growth on carbohydrate conversion efficiency of Fusarium

sp. (M4)

Inoculum, 2 g biomass/1; pH 4.0; temperature 35°C; 40 g/l sucrose.

Oxygen excess Oxygen-limited

Maximum O, transfer rate, 0.100 0.025

mole/1/h

Oxygen consumed, 0.56 0.53

moles/1

Biomass produced, iy 16.3

g/l

Carbohydrate yield constant 0.43 0.41

Time to reach max. biomass, h. 12 20

amino acid profiles (Figs.3 and 4) are similar to soya meal. Feeding trials with

chickens and pigs have shown the material for strain M1 to be non-toxic. It

was a good substitute for part or all of the soya bean meal in feeds for pigs.

The results of chick growth trials varied with the waste used for the prepara-

tion of the SCP and further tests are to progress to elaborate upon the results.

Aspergillus niger M1. Crude Protein content 31%

16 True ” ” 21/70

Ml Soya bean meal .

g/16g N.

Fig. 3. Amino acid content of mycelium.

18 Fusarium M4. Crude Protein content 47%

16 True» ” 46%

Gl Soya bean meal

g/16g N.

Met Cys Lys Arg ile Leu PA. Tyr Thr Val His Ala Glu Gly Pro Ser Asp

Fig. 4. Amino acid content of mycelium.

264

PROCESS DESCRIPTION

Waste materials suitable for the growth of the microbes described above

can be classified broadly into two categories. These are the solid or semi-solid

wastes such as spoiled fruit, carob pods, date waste and molasses, and low con-

centration wastes which are usually pollution hazards, such as olive and palm

oil process water, corn steep water and canning wastewater. Carob pods and

spoiled papaya have been studied in our laboratories (Table 7). The carob tree

is found in the Mediterranean countries. Its bean is collected for a valuable

gum. The pod has a high sucrose content and has long been used in cottage

industries for making syrup and sweets. The papaya is a soft-fleshed tropical

fruit which has a substantial local consumption and is also packed for ex-

pensive markets in the U.S.A. and Carribean.

TABLE 7

Analysis of carob and papaya waste

Waste Carob pod Papaya cull

% dry matter 70 13

Composition % of dry matter

Fibre eee) 9

Sugars 54.9 67

Pectin = i

Protein 4.5 5

Lipid 0.5 =

Ash 3.0 6

kg dry SCP production per ton

fresh waste 250 60

A waste such as papaya cullage may be slurried with water or in the case of

the carob pod a hot water extract may be made. The concentration is adjusted

to give approximately 4 percent fermentable carbohydrate and the medium is

fermented to give approximately 2 percent fungal biomass. Slurrying and fer-

menting the entire waste results in an increase in protein content of dry mate-

rial of from 15 to 25 percent. If an extract of fermentable carbohydrates is

made, the dry product contains from 30 to 50 percent protein, depending

upon the fungus used.

The simplest apparatus for treatment of solid wastes consists of a tank in

which the slurry or extract is prepared, a fermenter equipped with a stirrer

and an air compressor, and a rotary vacuum filter. The total power consump-

tion is about 1.0 kwh/kg biomass at 25 percent solids. A plant of this type will

be installed in Belize in the near future. It will produce about 100 ton/year of

single cell protein from a variety of waste materials. For plants much larger

than 100 ton/year, a cooling system is required to remove the heat of fermen-

tation. If possible, the wet cake should be fed, after pasteurisation, directly

to animals, thereby avoiding the expensive drying step. If dried, the material

can be bagged and is stable for months.

Microbiologically, the process is a simple batch fermentation. The waste is

prepared and a small quantity of diammonium phosphate, or other ammo-

nium salt, is added to give sufficient anions to produce a low pH as the am-

monium ion is assimilated. The fermenter is inoculated with a large number

of spores of the mould which germinate and grow as long branched filaments.

During growth the pH falls rapidly and the growth of contaminant microbes

is inhibited. After about 20 h the fermentable carbohydrate is exhausted and

growth stops. About 90 percent of the culture is harvested by filtration and

the remaining 10 percent is left as inoculum for the next batch of medium.

The capital cost of equipment is low, $56,000 for the smallest plant en-

visaged, 100 ton/year (Table 8). However, the operating costs per ton of

product are high on such a small scale (Table 9). In this example, the cost of

TABLE 8

Microbial protein production from solid agricultural waste — Capital costs

SCP production (300 day operation) 100 ton/year 500 ton/year

$ 000 $ 000

Material preparation 7 Uy

Fermenter 5 14

Aeration 6 16

Cooling = 6

Filtration 11 Al

Water filters 2 9

Installation 9 23

Buildings 5 14

Dryer 10 30

Total 56 165

TABLE 9

Microbial protein production from solid agricultural waste — Operating costs

SCP production (300 day operation) 100 ton/year 500 ton/year

$ 000 $ 000

Raw materials 2.7 13

Power (150 MWh/700 MWh) 3.0 15

Labour 20.0 30

Direct cost yaaa | 58

Amortisation (10 year) 5.6 16.5

Finance (10% interest ) 5.6 16.5

Total 36.9 93

Unit cost $ 369/ton $ 188/ton

266

skilled labour in Belize, and an arbitrarily chosen 10 year amortisation

period were used. The process could be economic on the 100 ton/year scale

only in countries with cheap labour since labour contributes over half of the

cost. As the scale of operation is increased, the unit price decreases.

The treatment of watery effluents from agricultural processing plants

differs in several respects from that of solid wastes. Effluents are often pro-

duced 24 hours per day and for much of the year. The concentration of sub-

strates for fermentation is low — no more than 25 g/1 for palm oil process

water and more normally less than 5 g/l for wastes from the canning industry

and from starch processing (Table 10). In these cases, the reduction of the

TABLE 10

Analysis of potato and palm oil process effluents

Potato Palm oil

process process

water? water

Solids, % 0.7 5.0

Carbohydrate, % dry solids 80 60

Fibre 20 30

Pectin + +

Reducing sugars reser +

Starches 60 N.T.

Protein 8 0.4

Lipid + 10

Ash <10 ca. 5

BOD., mg/1 400 22000 |

Volume of effluent 80 m?/h 20 m*/h

Potential SCP production 180 ton/year ca. 3000 ton/year

*+ present as minor component; NT not tested.

biological oxygen demand (BOD) may be more important than the produc-

tion of SCP. At least three fungal processes are already in operation for simul-

taneous BOD reduction and SCP production. The ‘“‘“Symba”’ process using an

Endomycopsis to hydrolyse starch in wastes followed by yeast growth on the

sugar was developed in Sweden many years ago [6]. The Pekilo process for

starch wastes and sulphite waste liquor uses conventional aseptic continuous

culture in stirred fermenters [5]. The lagooning process described by Church

et al. [2] for corn processing wastes is reported to have turned effluent treat-

ment into a profitable operation. Work in our own laboratories, and in con-

junction with Dr. R.N. Greenshields at Aston University, has centred on the

use of unstirred tower fermenters [9]. The process water, after addition of

inorganic salts, is percolated up a column-shaped fermenter. Aeration is

accomplished by sparging air through a perforated base plate. The mould

grows in this column and is retained in the fermenter by means of a stagnant

zone at the top which causes the mycelium to settle back into the fermenter

whilst the water flows off. Thus, high concentrations of mould are held in

the fermenter to permit rapid processing of the waste in relatively low fer-

menter capacities. The form of the mycelium is important in such fermenters;:

it must be as tightly-branched tiny pellets, giving a macroscopic appearance

of sandgrains, to enable efficient aeration and sedimentation. In other aspects

the process is similar to that for solid wastes. Costings made on the basis of

a very high BOD material — palm oil waste from a typical factory — show the

process to have a capital cost of less than $250,000 for a plant processing

over 500 m?/day (Table 11). The process appears to be profitable using U.K.

labour costs when the product is sold at the U.K. soya meal price (Table 12).

TABLE 11

Microbial protein production from process effluents — Capital cost

$ 000

Fermenters, 4 X 10 m? 55

Air compressor, 20 m?/min 18

Filtration 46

Dryer and bagger 60

Installation 30

Buildings 25

Total 234

Land area required approx. 280 m?; Effluent: 20 m?/h; 22000 mg/l BOD, ; 300 day/year;

1500 ton/year SCP.

TABLE 12

Microbial protein production from process effluents — Operating cost

$ 000

Raw materials per annum 40

Power (1200 MWh) 24

Labour 125

Direct cost 189

Amottisation (10 years) 23

Finance (10% interest) 23

Total 235

BOD cost 7.4 ct/kg

SCP cost 16.0 ct/kg

SCP sale at U.K. soya price 20.0 ct/kg

Net profit 2.0 ct/kg BOD

268

MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE

It can be argued that in a world with limited material resources, in particular

energy, processes should be subjected to analyses of conservation mass and

energy as well as conventional costing procedures. The process can then be

compared with others which use the same raw material or produce the same

product and an assessment made of its relative efficiency. The practical value

of such analyses depends upon a knowledge of the factor limiting agricultural

productivity, e.g., supply of energy or provision of protein or of calorific

food intake. This value in turn depends on the social and political priorities

set by the community. Here we have made a restricted analysis of the mass

and energy balances for SCP production from wastes without the knowledge

of what limits overall agricultural productivity.

The substrate mass balances for SCP production (Table 13), show that

TABLE 13

Carbon and nitrogen balance

Carbohydrate is Oxygen SCP CoO,

——— 3.1 MJ

1 kg carbon 1.3 kg 0.5 kg carbon ¥ 1.8 kg ss

(NH,),HPO, SCP re Effluent

1kgN 0.9 kgN 0.1 kg N

most of the nitrogen is retained in the product, but half of the carbohydrate

is lost, used for energy for the synthesis of the highly ordered biological

macromolecules. However, if the materials would otherwise be burnt, buried

or discharged to the rivers and seas, the recovery of 50 percent of the carbon

represents a net increase in carbon available to the food system, gained at the

expense of a small quantity of fixed nitrogen. Similarly, a summation of the

energy inputs to the process can be made and compared with the energy con-

tent of the SCP recovered. The power consumption of the plant plus the

energy content of the ammonium salt is the input, equivalent to c 3.5 MJ/kg

dry SCP. The energy recovered as SCP is c 6.4 MJ/kg [10]. Thus, ignoring the

energy tied up as plant and the energy used as manual labour, there is a net

gain of 2.9 MJ/kg.

CONCLUSION

The partial recovery of agricultural wastes as single cell protein could make

a contribution to conservation of the fixed carbon resources produced on the

land. In certain circumstances, wastes can be recovered by commercially

viable processes, particularly where an expensive alternative disposal method

is necessary. Even operating scales as low as a few hundred tons/year can be

made economic if the process can be used for most of the year and labour

costs are low, conditions which can be met in many developing countries.

269

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Our thanks are due to Dr. G.G. Morris and Mr. S.A. Campbell who did

much of the laboratory work on which the processes are based.

REFERENCES

~1 ©

———————

Steffgen, F.W., 1972. Project Rescue — Energy from solid wastes. Pittsburg Energy

Research Center, U.S. Bureau of Mines, Pittsburg.

Church, B.D., Nash, H.A. and Brosz, W., 1972. Use of Fungi Imperfecti in treating food

processing wastes. Developments in Industrial Microbiology, 13: 30.

Imrie, F.K.E. and Vlitos, A.J., 1973. Production of fungal protein from carob.

Proceedings of 2nd Intl. Symp. on S.C.P. at M.I.T., Boston, U.S.A., 29th—31st May.

Morris, G.G., Imrie, F.K.E. and Phillips, K.C., 1973. The production of animal feed-

stuffs by the submerged culture of fungi on agricultural wastes. Proceedings of 4th

Intl. Conf. on Global Impacts of Applied Microbiology, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23rd—28th

July.

Romanschut, H., 1975. The Pekilo Process, in S.R. Tannenbaum and D.I.C. Wang (Eds.),

S.C.P., 2nd edn., M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, in press.

Jarl, K., 1969. Symba yeast process. Food Technology, 23: 1009.

Righelato, R.C., Trinci, A.P.J., Pirt, S.J. and Peat, A., 1968. The influence of main-

tenance energy and growth rate on the metabolic activity, morphology and conidiation

of Penicillium chrysogenum. J. Gen. Microbiol., 50: 399.

Carter, B.L.A., Bull, A.T., Pirt, S.J. and Rowley, B.I., 1971. Relationships between

energy substrate utilisation and specific growth rate in Aspergillus nidulans. J. Bacteriol.,

108: 309.

Imrie, F.K.E. and Greenshields, R.N., 1973. The tubular reactor as a simplified fer-

menter. Proceedings of 4th Intl. Conf. in Global Impacts of Applied Microbiology.

Sao Paulo, Brazil, 23rd—28th July.

Prochazka, G.J., Payne, W.J. and Mayberry, W.R., 1973. Calorific contents of micro-

organisms. Biotech. Bioeng., 15: 1007.

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Resource Recovery and Conservation, 1 (1976) 271—277

PROBLEMS AND POTENTIAL ASSOCIATED WITH THE PRODUCTION

OF PROTEIN FROM CELLULOSIC WASTES *

CHARLES J. ROGERS

Solid & Hazardous Waste Research Laboratory, United States Environmental Protection

Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268 (U.S.A.)

(Received 15th April 1975)

ABSTRACT

Annually, billions of tons of cellulose are included in agricultural and municipal waste

streams. This cellulose could be the feedstock for biological and chemical conversion to

useful and valuable products. Bioconversion could add to the world’s protein supplies as

well as supply a variety of chemicals. There still remain technical constraints hindering

development of viable bioconversion processes utilizing these wastes. The cellulose is

resistant to rapid assimilation by microorganisms because of its semicrystalline nature.

One way to overcome this resistance is to pre-treat the cellulose photochemically, followed

by a novel acid hydrolysis. Such processing yields a cellulose to glucose conversion of from

40 to 50 percent per pass through the reactor.

INTRODUCTION

The prevalence of poverty and pressure of population growth in various

parts of the world, especially in less developed areas, have made it difficult

to provide many peoples with an adequate nutritional diet, particularly with

respect to protein content. This problem, which may become even more

serious in time, is due, in part, to an inefficient world food distribution sys-

tem, a world shortage of fertilizers and energy, and climatological conditions

that have produced droughts and flooding in many parts of the world. Devel-

opment of technology for the conversion of renewable organic materials

(i.e., agricultural crop residues and the organic fraction from municipal and

industrial waste streams) could potentially have a profound impact on both

fuel and protein shortages throughout the world.

Historically, as early as 1883, Hoppe-Seyler recognized the decomposition

of organic matter under natural conditions [1]. Omelionski [2] pioneered

much of the early work on the fermentation of cellulose by microorganisms

to form gases, fluids, and humus. Many papers and patents have been published

*Paper presented at the Symposium ‘“‘Energy Recovery from Solid Waste”, March 13—14,

1975.

272

on the possibility of producing organic acids, alcohols, and methane through

fermentations of cellulose by microorganisms. Unfortunately, progress over

the last 100 years on the utilization of cellulose as a feedstock has not been

impressive nor has the use of organic waste fulfilled its potential as an inex-

pensive feedstock to produce food and energy products through fermentation

technology.

BIOCONVERSION PROCESSES

Although bioconversion processes have been extensively researched with

some success as a mechanism for utilizing organic waste, there appears to be

a growing, new interest in the process prompted by:

— the recent 300 percent increase in crude oil prices which improves the

competitiveness of processes considered marginal in the past,

— increased freakish weather patterns causing droughts in some parts of

the world and floods in others, resulting in unpredictable annual crop yields,

— costs of food, fertilizer, and fuel that have sharply increased in price,

and

— world food reserves that have now dropped to less than a 30-day supply,

with the United States and Canada no longer having substantial reserve food

stock to respond to world emergencies.

The sources of organic wastes for use in bioconversion processes include

agricultural crop residues, waste paper from domestic refuse, sewage, animal

wastes, paper mill sulfite liquor, and food processing waste.

Technical constraints that hinder development of viable bioconversion

processes

Cellulose is the major constituent of organic feedstocks. It occurs in the

presence of hemicellulose, a related structure, and with lignin, a nonpoly-

saccharide.

The cellulose molecule is a polymer with molecular weight generally in the

range of 600,000 to 1,500,000. Its degree of polymerization (DP) ranges

from approximately 3,000 to 10,000. Glucose, as well as cellobiose, cello-

triose, and cellotetrose, can be isolated when cellulose is hydrolyzed. Com-

plete hydrolysis by acid yields D-(+)-glucose as the only monosaccharide.

Other polysaccharides can also occur in the presence of cellulose. For example, |

cereal straws and bran contain pentosans (most commonly xylan, which is

built up from d-xylose units), which yield pentoses on hydrolysis, rather than

glucose. Starch is present in the majority of plants, and this material is syn-

thesized from glucose units.

Cellulose in organic materials occurs in two forms — the amorphous, which

is susceptible to enzyme and acid hydrolysis, and a much less susceptible

crystalline form. In crystalline or native form, the cellulose molecules are

stabilized laterally by hydrogen bonding between hydroxyl groups of adjacent |

273

molecules. Hydrogen bonding and the arrangement of the cellulose molecules

in native cellulose has been described by Liang and Marchessault [3]. An

excellent discussion and bibliography of review articles on this subject is

provided by Ward [4]. He points out that the consequence of the high degree

of order in native cellulose is that not even water molecules, let alone enzymes,

can enter the structure. Consequently, native cellulose is essentially inert in

the biological and chemical processes.

Pretreatment processes

Before agricultural crop residues and other cellulosic solid wastes can ef-

ficiently and economically be used as substrates for bioconversion processes

to produce energy and microbial protein, an inexpensive way must be found

to modify this material so that it can be consumed easily and quickly. A

number of physical and chemical processes with the potential for enhancing

fungal digestion of waste cellulose have been evaluated and reported on in an

earlier publication [5|. The treatment processes evaluated included alkali,

electron irradiation, microwave, laser, viscose, and photodegradation. Al-

though significant structural changes occurred in pretreated cellulosics, these

changes were not translated into dramatic improvements in the conversion

rates of waste to desired products. One of the cellulose pretreatment tech-

niques that appeared promising, inexpensive, and practical for conditioning

large quantities of waste was sensitized photodegradation.

Rader and Schwartz [6] revealed that polysaccharides such as starch and

cellulosic materials, in the presence of a water-soluble metal or nitrogen-base

salt of nitrous or hyponitic acid, are converted to saccharides of lower molec-

ular weight by irradiation with light that is rich in frequencies in the neighbor-

hood of 355 nm. On the basis of this information, Fookson and Frohnsdorff

[7] conducted a study to evaluate the technical and economic feasibility of

using the sensitized photodegradation process to increase the use of waste

cellulose in bioconversion processes.

Cellulose (Eaton-Dikeman cotton linter papers) was irradiated in a reactor

at varying wave lengths and intensities. The optimum NaNO, concentration

required to decrease the degree of polymerization (DP) was determined. The

cotton linter papers were subjected to 0, 0.1, 1.0 and 10 percent NaNO,

additions. The results of this experiment (Fig. 1) suggest, for the 253.7 nm

lamps and within the range of conditions used, that 1 percent by weight

NaNO, could reduce the DP of cellulose containing materials.

Test for fungal growth response

The samples of cellulose treated with NaNO, and irradiated to reduce the

DP were tested for their ability to be utilized by fungi. With reduced DP, in

addition to no significant increase in carboxyl or carbonyl groups, the rate of

cellulose degradation should have increased significantly.

274

1000 |

DEGREE OF POLYMERIZATION, DP

600 No. of

lamps

400 16

200 8,16

TIME, hrs

Fig. 1. Effect of 253.7 nm radiation on NaNo,-treated Eaton-Dikeman cotton linters paper.

One gram of each cellulose sample was placed in 100 ml of a mineral salts

medium and inoculated with a selected fungus as described by Rogers and

Coleman [5]. The reduction of the DP did not improve the digestion rate of

cellulose as expected. Future plans, however, call for studies to determine if

photodegradation can be implemented to improve the yield of glucose by

subsequent high temperature/high pressure acid hydrolysis.

Unlike conventional acid hydrolysis processes, a novel process will be in-

vestigated that brings an acid-treated waste cellulose at ambient temperatures

almost instantaneously to the optimal hydrolysis reaction temperature by |

contact with superheated water or steam. Preliminary data suggest that acom- |

bination of photochemical treatment and this method of acid hydrolysis could |

give a cellulose—glucose conversion of from 40 to 50 percent per pass through»

the reactor [8].

PROTEIN PRODUCTION PROCESS

The basic processing scheme for producing protein from organic waste is

outlined in Fig. 2. After separation from the inorganic materials, the organic

waste is ground and physically or chemically pretreated. For direct use of

cellulose, the pretreatment may involve the use of a swelling agent or hydrol-

ysis to glucose. The feedstock is passed into the fermenter, which contains

the growth nutrients dissolved (containing K, N, P trace elements) in water.

The microbes utilize the carbohydrates and nutrients to produce a biomass

which is recovered as protein (single-cell protein).

Feedstock

Sterilization

Organic

Waste

Grinder

Chem./Physical

Pretreatment

Recovery

Filter |

Unit

Fermenter

Dried

Protein

Product

Liquor to Fermenter

Fig. 2. Conversion of organic material to fungal protein.

Fermentation technology has been advanced to maximize microbial protein

production to the point that a highly instrumented fermenter can be coupled

to a digital computer for control [9]. Using this device, a “‘dose response”’

technique can be used to determine the optimum carbon to nitrogen ratio.

For example, yeast cells (7.5 g/l) were grown to a density of 105 g/l (dry

weight) in 14 hrs fermentation at a growth rate of 7.5 g/l/hr. This is reported

to be the highest yield ever reported for the yeast Candida utilis. The industrial

average is approximately 25 g/l dry weight [9]. Protein yields can further be

increased up to 15 percent by adding compounds such as indole-3-acetic acid

or 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid in concentrations of parts per million to

the growth media [10].

The production of microbial protein from organic wastes has already been

demonstrated on a small scale; what is lacking is information on the economic

feasibility and future markets for the protein product produced in this

country.

Potential advantages of using microbial production processes

A number of factors weigh heavily in favor of developing microbial protein

production processes to augment conventional protein deficits. Microbial

protein offers the following possible advantages over conventional processes:

276

— Greater feedstock conversion to protein (for cattle, 3.6 kg grain yields

0.453 kg beef on a feed lot; for single cell protein (SCP), 3.6 kg feed

yields 1.45 kg/SCP, dry weight.

— Prevents loss of nutrients such as N, P, K compared to the uncontrollable

loss with conventional farming methods.

— Is not influenced by freakish weather patterns (i.e., flooding, frost,

droughts, etc.). |

— Is produced from renewable resources without interfering with primary

productivity of agricultural land.

— Is less energy intensive than some conventional farming methods [11,12].

USE OF MICROBIAL PROTEIN

Tortula yeast grown on molasses or sulphite liquor has long been used in

food in small quantities, primarily as a vitamin source. There is a limitation

on the amount of microbial protein that can be used directly in human diets

since rapidly growing cells have a high nucleic acid content which man would

convert to uric acid. Too much uric acid may lead to its deposition in joints

where it causes gout, or in the kidneys where it may lead to stone formation.

As an alternative to direct human use of fungal protein, a short-term prelim-

inary trial of feeding fungal protein to rainbow trout was conducted at

Oregon State University Food Science and Technology Laboratory [13]. The

fungal protein was 25 percent of the total diet and fed to young rainbow trout

over a 2 month period. This fungal protein was substituted for fish meal and

the trout grew as well on this diet as they did on the control feed. The feeding

enthusiasm was excellent and the animals exhibited no signs of toxicity.

Presently, more extensive fungal protein feeding studies with chicks are being

conducted at Tennessee State University.

MARKETS AND FUTURE MARKETS VALUE OF SINGLE CELL PROTEIN

Many chemical specialists believe that single cell protein will become a

world commodity [12]. First, it is apt to be included in small tonnages in

specialty markets, such as milk powder replacements. Within 10 years, the

larger commodity class tonnage is likely, if a number of variables in world

protein production — such as soybean price level, weather, international

agricultural and monetary policies and sociological and psychological reactions

to eating microbial protein — permit. The potential market value of various

sources of single cell protein has been given [12].

CONCLUSIONS

The general consensus is that the malnutrition crisis in the world today is

largely a protein shortage [14,15]. Current research and development efforts

to obtain protein by growing microorganisms on hydrocarbon and waste

277

organics should be intensified to help provide protein to millions of people

suffering from starvation.

Because of the chemical and physical properties of cellulosic materials that

slow its microbial conversion to protein, new conceptual approaches should

be researched and developed to improve rates of conclusion and product yields.

Utilizing organic waste in biological systems is greatly simplified if the feed-

stocks are transformed to a more enzymatic active form or are hydrolyzed to

glucose. Until pretreatment technology for cellulose is developed to increase

rates and yields, the prospects of using organic wastes as feedstock in econom-

ically viable fermentation processes are not optimistic.

REFERENCES

1 Hoppe-Seyler, F., 1883. Ber., 16: 122.

2 Omelionski, W., 1902. Centr. Baktriol. Parasitenk, Abt. II, 8: 1938, 225.

3 Liang, C.Y. and Marchessault, R.H., 1959. Infrared spectra of crystalline polysaccharides.

I. Hydrogen bonds in native cellulose. Journal of Polymer Science, 37: 385.

_4 Ward, K., 1969. Symposium on Foods: Carbohydrates and Their Roles. In: H.W. Schultz,

R.J. Chain and R.W. Wrolstead (Eds.), Cellulose. Westport Avi Publishing Company,

Connecticut, p. 55—72.

5 Rogers, C.J. and Coleman, E., 1972. Production of fungal protein from cellulose and

waste cellulosics. Environmental Science and Technology, 6: 715.

6 Rader, C.A. and Schwartz, A.M., 1967. Method of degrading polysaccharides using

light radiation and a water-soluble metal or nitrogen base salt of nitrous or hyponitic

acid. U.S. Patent 3,352,777.

7 Fookson, A. and Frohnsdorff, G., 1973. The nitrite-accelerated photochemical degra-

dation of cellulose as a pretreatment for microbial conversion to protein. EPA-670/2-

73-052. NERC, Cincinnati, Ohio, NTIS No. 222 115.

8 Walter G. Brenner, Senior Research Scientist, New York University, personal commu-

nication.

9 Nyini, L.K. and Krishnaswami, C.S., 1974. Fermentation process analysis modeling

and optimization. New Brunswick Scientific Company, New Brunswick, N.J.

10 Szabo, M., Scarpino, P.V. and Rogers, C., 1975. Effect of auzins and herbicides on

enhancement of protein synthesis in fungi. J. Agr. Food Chem., 23, No. 2.

11 Gunkel, W.W., Cosher, G.L. and Erickson, J.H., 1974. Energy Requirements for New

York State Agriculture (part 1: food production). New York State College of Agri-

culture and Life Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.

12 Wolfson Laboratory for Biology of Industry in Conjunction with Peter Ward Associates

(Interplan) Ltd. of Craydon, London (Five Volume Report published Sept. 1974).

13 R.D. Sinnhuber, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Ore., personal communication,

OW.

14 Crossland, J., 1974. Ferment in technology. Environment, 16, No. 10: 17.

15 Scrimshaw, N., 1974. The world-wide confrontation of population and food supply.

Technology Review, p. 18.

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Resource Recovery and Conservation, 1 (1976) 279—294 ae

ENZYMATIC HYDROLYSIS OF CELLULOSIC WASTES TO GLUCOSE*

L.A. SPANO, J. MEDEIROS and M. MANDELS

U.S. Army Natick Laboratories, Natick, Mass. 01760 (U.S.A.)

(Received 19th March 1975)

ABSTRACT

Conversion of cellulose to glucose for the production of food, fuel, and chemicals can

be accomplished by acid hydrolysis or by enzymatic processes. Enzyme complexes derived

from the fungus Trichoderma viride have been found effective in the conversion of cellulosic

wastes into glucose syrups. Trichoderma viride, a fungus found in nature, is the only fungus

known that produces a specific enzyme which is capable of reacting with the crystalline

- fraction of the cellulose molecule.

This paper discusses the production and mode of action of the cellulase complex pro-

duced during the growth of Trichoderma viride, and the application of such enzymes for

the conversion of various municipal, agricultural and industrial cellulosic wastes to glucose

sugar. Included in the discussion are process variables, such as substrate pretreatment,

slurry concentration and enzyme activity, as they affect process conversion rates.

Cellulose is the most abundant organic material which can be used as a

source of food, fuel and chemicals. The net world-wide production of cellulose

is estimated at 90,718 Tg (one hundred billion tons) per year. This is approxi-

mately 68.04 kg (150 Ibs.) of cellulose per day for each and every one of the

earth’s 3.9 billion people. The energy to produce this vast quantity of cellulose

comes from the sun and is fixed by photosynthesis.

Since cellulose is the only organic material that is annually replenishable in

very large quantities, ways must be explored to utilize it as a source of energy,

food, or chemicals (Fig. 1). Cellulose can be converted to glucose by either

acid hydrolysis or enzymatic processes [1,2]. The use of enzymes is more ad-

vantageous. When using acid, expensive corrosion-proof equipment is required.

Moreover, the crystalline structure of cellulose makes it resistant to acid, there-

fore the temperature and acid concentrations needed to achieve hydrolysis

also cause decomposition of the resulting sugars. Consequently, the process

must be balanced so that the rate of hydrolysis is high enough to compensate

for decomposition of the desired products. Glucose yields of approximately

50 percent of the weight of cellulose used have been obtained [3]. Waste

cellulose invariably contains impurities which will react with the acid, thereby

producing other unwanted by-products and reversion compounds.

On the other hand, the Natick Development Center has developed an

enzymatic process which is specific for cellulose and does not involve reactions

*Paper presented at the Symposium ‘‘Energy Recovery from Solid Waste”, March 13—14,

1975.

280

Enzyme Hydrolysis

Animal Food = = Human Food

; o

x c - ‘

“ Microbial Conversion

Chemical Single Cell Protein Fuel (Ethanol)

Raw Materials Solvents (Acetone)

Chemical

Antibiotics

Enzymes

Fig. 1. Cellulose — A chemical and energy resource.

with impurities that may be present in the waste. Moreover, reactions take

place under moderate conditions so that the glucose yield is 111 percent of

the weight of cellulose used. The glucose syrups produced enzymatically are

fairly pure and constant in composition. This enzymatic process is based on

the use of the cellulase derived from mutant strains of the fungus Trichoderma

viride. A schematic diagram of this process is shown in Fig. 2. The first step is

the production of the enzyme. This is accomplished by growing the fungus

Trichoderma viride in a culture medium containing shredded cellulose and

various nutrient salts. Following its growth, the fungus culture is filtered and

the solids discarded. The clear straw colored filtrate is the enzyme solution

that is used in the saccharification reactor. Priot to its introduction into the

reactor, the enzyme broth is assayed for cellulase activity and its acidity is

adjusted to a pH of 4.8. Milled cellulose is then introduced into the enzyme

solution and allowed to react with the cellulase to produce glucose sugar.

Note that saccharification takes place at atmospheric pressure and at a temper-

ature of 50°C. The unreacted cellulose and enzyme is recycled back into the

reactor, and the crude glucose syrup is filtered for use in chemical or microbial

fermentation processes to produce chemical feedstocks, single-cell proteins,

fuels, solvents, etc.

The key to this process is production of a high quality cellulase enzyme

complex from Trichoderma viride capable of hydrolyzing insoluble crystalline

cellulose. This enzyme complex consists of two major components, C,; and Cx.

The Cy component consists of exo- and endo-6-1,4-glucanases. These enzymes

281

RECYCLE

ENZYME AND

UNREACTED

CELLULOSE

> 4 FILTER

REACTOR SYRUP |= ALCOHOL

in % FERMENTATION

ENZYME

(BROTH)

GLUCOSE

TRICHODERMA

VIRIDE

MUTANT

Fig. 2. Enzymatic conversion of waste cellulose to glucose sugar.

are very common and they rapidly attack amorphous cellulose or soluble

derivatives such as carboxymethy] cellulose (CMC) producing glucose and

cellobiose.

The C, is an enzyme required along with C,, for the hydrolysis of insoluble

and particularly crystalline cellulose. The action of C,; is not yet clear although

it has been separated from C, and it is a protein [4]. The simplest explanation,

and the one held by E.T. Reese, is that it is a prehydrolytic enzyme, i.e., it

decrystallizes or hydrates cellulose chains so the C,, can catalyze their hydrolysis

to glucose [5].

C, enzymes are fairly common but C,; enzymes are quite rare. The best

source known is Trichoderma viride [4]. When considering large-scale hydrol-

ysis of cellulose, C, is the limiting factor, consequently, it is essential to use

cellulases containing both C, and C, for effective saccharification. Most com-

with only traces of C,. The cellulase produced by Trichoderma viride is rich

in C, and endo-$-1,4-glucanase. It also contains lower levels of exo-6-1,4-

glucanase and £-glucosidase.

For twenty years, extensive studies of Trichoderma viride and its enzyme

have been made at the Natick Development Center in connection with the

prevention of deterioration of cellulosic materials. The conditions needed to

produce the enzyme in quantity have been defined, and mutant strains have

been developed that produce 2 to 4 times as much cellulase as the wild strain.

It is believed that the upper limit has not yet been reached.

As indicated earlier, the insolubility and crystallinity of pure cellulose and

the presence of lignin in waste cellulose make it a most resistant substrate.

The most satisfactory pretreatment found is ball milling. This reduces the

crystallinity and particle size of the cellulose [4], and increases its bulk density,

making it more reactive for saccharification.

282

mercial cellulases are obtained from Aspergillus niger and contain chiefly C,

}

METHODS

Methods used in this paper are described in ref. 4. The Filter Paper Cellulase

Unit equals micromoles of glucose produced per minute from 50 mg of What-

man No. 1 paper incubated with cellulase at a pH of 4.8 at 50°C for one hour,

and is based on the enzyme dilution to give 2.0 mg of reducing sugar as glucose.

The CMC (Cx) cellulase unit equals micromoles of glucose produced per minute

when the enzyme is incubated with 0.5% carboxymethy] cellulose (D.S. 0.50

manufactured by Hercules Powder Co.) at a pH of 4.8 at 50°C for 30 minutes,

and is based on the enzyme dilution to give 0.05 mg of glucose.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

Pestalotiopsis westerdijkii QM 381 (PW) produces a cellulase containing

largely Cy [4]. Consequently, culture filtrates from this organism can hydrolyze

only the amorphous or available portions of the cellulose. Figure 3 shows

several substrates which have been hydrolyzed by broth containing C,.. From

Fig. 3 the information shown in Table 1 is obtained. The data in Table 1

show the positive effect that ball milling has on increasing cellulase activity.

When these same substrates were hydrolyzed by the cellulase broth con-

taining C, and C, produced by Trichoderma viride QM 9414 (TV), the avail-

able or amorphous portion of the cellulose was hydrolyzed very rapidly [4].

Hydrolysis of the crystalline region followed at a less rapid rate. From Fig. 4

the information in Table 2 is obtained.

Total hydrolysis in 48 hours ranged from about 6 percent for fibrous cotton |

to over 90 percent for milled pulp, Sweco 270 [6]. Milled newspaper was 70

percent hydrolyzed. Since newspaper is 30 percent lignin [4], the 70 percent

hydrolysis represents total hydrolysis of the cellulose content of the news-

paper [4]. It is thus apparent that the rate and extent of hydrolysis depends

283

both on the quality of the enzyme used, and the nature and the pretreatment

of the substrate.

More conclusive evidence as to the significant effect C, has on the hydrol-

ysis reaction is shown in Fig. 5. Using filter paper as the substrate and enzyme

solutions with equal C, activity as adjusted on carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC),

NP-M 9425

__—— ~ Sweco 270

Oo ote

12 <

BW2

Cotton-M ieee

Glucose mg/ml

% Saccharification

/ TIME in HOURS 50°

Fig. 3. Hydrolysis of insoluble cellulose by a C,, cellulase from Pestalotiopsis westerdijkii.

(co) Newspaper, ground in a Sweco ball mill; (4) pure cellulose pulp, ground to 270 mesh in

a Sweco ball mill; (=) ball milled absorbent cotton; (4) BW 200, a ball milled pulp prepared

from SW40, 200 mesh, Brown Co., Berlin, N.H.; (©) Whatman No. 1 filter paper; (4) Avicel,

microcrystalline cellulose, American Viscose Co.; (¢) NEP 40, hammer milled uninked

newsprint, 40 mesh; (4) SW40, hammer milled sulfite pulp, 40 mesh; (2) absorbent cotton,

fibrous.

TABLE 1

Substrate Available cellulose Saccharification

after 1 hour (%) after 48 hours (%)

Absorbent cotton, fibrous 0.7 1.3

Pure cellulose pulp SW 40 1.6 ead

Hammer milled newsprint NEP 40 2.5 6.5

Whatman No. 1 filter paper 2.9 12

Avicel pH 105, microcrystalline 3.8 6.8

cellulose

Ball milled absorbent cotton 4.7 10.6

Ball milled pure cellulose pulp 3.8 11.5

— BW 200

Pure cellulose pulp Sweco 270 10.4 23.8

Ball milled newspaper NP-M 10.4 24.9

284

Sweco 270, ~ +

ae a

Glucose mg/ml

% Saccharification

Fig. 4. Hydrolysis of insoluble cellulose by a complete cellulase from Trichoderma viride.

(co) Newspaper, ground in a Sweco ball mill; (4) pure cellulose pulp, ground to 270 mesh

in a Sweco ball mill; (=) ball milled absorbent cotton; (4) BW 200, a ball milled pulp

prepared from SW40, 200 mesh, Brown Co., Berlin, N.H.;( ) Whatman No. 1 filter paper; (a)

Avicel, microcrystalline cellulose, American Viscose Co.; (¢) NEP 40, hammer milled

uninked newsprint, 40 mesh; (4) SW40, hammer milled sulfite pulp, 40 mesh; (°c) absorbent

cotton, fibrous.

TABLE 2

Substrate Available cellulose Saccharification

after 1 hour (%) after 48 hours (%)

Absorbent cotton, fibrous 1.4 6.0

Pure cellulose pulp SW 40 4.7 37.4

Hammer milled newsprint NEP 40 _ 6.8 28.8

Whatman No. 1 filter paper Oh 59.4

Avicel pH 105, microcrystalline 7.0 39.6

cellulose

Ball milled absorbent cotton 13.5 54.9

Ball milled pure cellulose pulp 12.6 62.1

BW 200

Pure cellulose pulp Sweco 270 23.4 91.8

Ball milled newspaper NP-M 18.0 70.0

285

3.0

Glucose - mg

re)

TIME in HOURS

Fig. 5. Hydrolysis of filter paper by cellulase preparations from Trichoderma viride and

Pestalotiopsis westerdijkii adjusted to equal activities on carboxy methyl cellulose (19 C,

units/ml). (4) Tv QM 9123 culture filtrate; (°c) Tv QM 9414 culture filtrate; (4) Pw QM

381 culture filtrate.

the concentration of glucose produced as a function of time was determined.

The results show that the enzyme solution containing both C, and C, pro-

duced 5 to 6 times more glucose than the enzyme solution containing only the

C,. component. The C, (PW) enzyme rapidly hydrolyzes the limited amorphous

portion of the substrate, after which the hydrolysis stops since it cannot attack

the crystalline portion of the substrate. The C; + C, (TV) cellulase attacks the

amorphous portion rapidly and then continues to hydrolyze the crystalline

cellulose at a slower rate.

Table 3 shows the hydrolysis of a number of pure and waste celluloses by

the culture filtrate of Trichoderma viride. Saccharification is slow for crystalline

cellulose such as cotton, untreated rice hulls or bagasse but milling will greatly

increase their reactivity. Shredded or milled papers also make good substrates.

The fiber fraction separated by the Black-Clawson hydropulping operation of

municipal trash [4] is an excellent substrate material, especially after milling.

The same is true for the shredded cellulose fraction of municipal trash which

is separated by air classification, using the Bureau of Mines resources recovery

process [4]. Waste cellulose from municipal trash is of particular interest

because such waste will be increasingly available in large quantity.

Pretreatment of the substrate is an important variable which will affect not

only the degree of saccharification, but also the economics of the process.

Using newspaper as a model substrate, various substrate treatments were tried.

The results are shown in Table 4. It should be noted from these studies that

milling the substrate gave the best results.

286

TABLE 3

Hydrolysis of cellulose by Trichoderma viride cellulase

Substrate % Saccharification

1 hr 4 hr 24hr 48hr

Pure cellulose

Cotton — fibrous 7 1 Qe 6 10

Cotton — pot milled 14 26 49 55

Cellulose pulp SW40 5 13 26 37

Milled pulp Sweco 270 23 44 74 o2

Waste cellulose

Bagasse 1 3 6 6

Bagasse — pot milled 14 29 42 48

Corrugated fibreboard Mighty Mac 11 DAT 43 55

Corrugated fibreboard pot milled 17 38 66 78

Black Clawson fibers oy 1a 32 36

Black Clawson pot milled 13 28 53 56

Bureau of Mines cellulose a 16 25 30

Bureau Mines pot milled 13 31 43 57

TABLE 4

Pretreatment of newspaper

% Saccharification

1 hr 4 hr 24 hr 48 hr

Boiled in water 4 9 zal 26

Cuprammonium 18 35 52 58

Fitzpatrick (hammer mill) 10 16 25 28

Gaulin (colloid mill) 9 dey PATI 31

Granulator-comminutor 96 14 24 26

Jay Bee-paper shredder 6 12 24 yal

Majac (jet pulverizer) 11 15 26 29

Mighty Mac-Mulcher 10 24 31 42

Pot mill 18 49 65 70

Soaked in water 7 13 24 28

Sweco mill 16 32 48 56

Treated 2% NaOH 8 14 28 35

Viscose 15 30 44 51

Because of its specificity, the cellulase enzyme reacts solely with the cellulose |

and does not react with other materials or impurities present in the waste.

Table 5 shows the results achieved with milled newspaper digested in a stirred

tank reactor. Glucose syrups of 2 to 10 percent concentrations were obtained.

The ink, lignin, and other impurities present did not cause any problems [7].

ee _

287

TABLE 5

Hydrolysis of milled newspaper in stirred reactors

Reactor volume 1 liter, stirred 60 rpm, pH 4.8.

Enzyme Newspaper Temp Glucose Saccharification

protein (%) (°C) (%)

(mg/ml) 1 hr 4 hr 24 hr 48hr

(%) (%) (%) (%)

0.7 5 50 0 2.0 2.8 a 50

0.7 5 50 1.0 2.0 As) = 42

1.0 10 50 Diadk 3.1 5:5 hes 66

1.6 10 45 2.0 3.6 5.4 6.5 59

1.6 10 50 223 4.2 6.4 6.3 57

0.8 15 45 ss) 2.8 5.3 (ed 46

0.8 15 50 0.8 2.8 6.1 6.3 38

1.8 10) 50 3.2 6.0 8.6 10.0 60

The residue after hydrolysis was a black sticky material that dried to a hard

nonwettable cake. This material is chiefly lignin which can be burned as a fuel

or\used as a source of chemicals [4].

Results achieved with newspaper show that it is technically feasible to

produce glucose syrups in good yield (40—50 percent) and at a practical rate

from waste cellulose. Newspapers were selected as the model substrate since

such waste is representative of most cellulosic waste present in municipal trash.

In addition to those wastes shown in Table 38, several other industrial and

agricultural wastes have been evaluated and classified as potential substrates

for hydrolysis [7]. Using ball milled newspaper as representative of all wastes

that could be used in the process, the degree of saccharification of other wastes

tested relative to ball milled newspapers are listed in Tables 6 and 7. Substrates

whose relative value is 1.0 or better are considered good substrates for hydroly-

sis.

Milling of the substrate to reduce its crystallinity is an energy-intensive and

costly process. Consequently, an intensive search for other physical, chemical

or combinations of both treatments must be explored to optimize the econom-

ics of the overall process.

A potential approach to reducing the cost of substrate pretreatment may be

the substitution of other pulp refining methods for the ball milling operation.

Preliminary studies with pulped government documents show that pulping

may be very effective as a substrate pretreatment. Saccharification studies

using hydropulped substrates at three cellulose slurry concentrations and at

three enzyme activity levels were conducted, and the results are shown in

Table 8. The weight of glucose and percent saccharification realized as a func-

288

TABLE 6

Wastes for conversion

Saccharified at 50°C, pH 4.8, with T. viride QM 9414 cellulase 1.2 units/ml.

Substrate Relative % saccharification 24 hours?

dry wt. As rec’d As rec’d Ball

wet dry milled

Pure

Cotton = 0.1 0.9

Filter paper aa 0.8 a.

Cellulose pulp = 0.5 1.4

Agricultural

Rice hulls == 0.03 0.4

Bagasse (sugar cane) ae 0.09 0.9

Rumen fibers (manure) 0.2 0.3 126

Paper

Corrugated fibreboard = O98 jal

Computer print out = 0.9 1.4

Key punch holes = 0.8 ae

Milk carton (polyethylene coat) a 130 dt

Newspaper a 0.6 1.0

Municipal trash fractions

Black Clawson 0.7 On 2

Bureau Mines = 0.6 0.9

Relative to ball milled newspaper (56% sacch.) = 1.0. Substrates whose relative value is

1.0 or better are considered good substrates for hydrolysis.

tion of reaction time at three enzyme activity levels are shown in Figs. 6, 7,

and 8. Figure 9 shows the weight of glucose produced and percent saccharifica-

tion realized as a function of enzyme activity level for a fixed reaction time of

twenty-four hours. Final glucose concentrations ranged between 1.6 to 4.6

percent and increased with either enzyme activity or substrate concentration.

Final saccharification ranged from 33 to 77 percent and increased with enzyme

activity, but decreased as the substrate concentration increased.

Milling, rather than chemical pretreatment, is preferred by the authors for

increasing the reactivity of the raw materials. The costs of milling and chemi-

cal pretreatment are approximately the same. The encouraging results ob-

tained with hydropulped substrates may prove to be most significant in cutting

substrate pretreatment costs, thereby improving the overall economics of the

process.

Having proved that this process is technically feasible, the Natick Develop-

ment Center is conducting an intensive pre-pilot plant study to optimize all

variables and to obtain the engineering and economic data needed for the

design of a demonstration plant. The pre-pilot plant was engineered in collab-

289

TABLE 7

Industrial wastes for conversion

Saccharified at 50°C, pH 4.8 with T. viride QM 9414; cellulase 0.08—1.5 w/ml (ave. 1.0).

Substrate Relative % saccharification 24 hours?

dry wt. As rec’d As rec’d Ball

wet dry milled

Percent saccharification > 1 as received

22 Nicolet sulfite pulp if. 2 0.8 ib 7/

15 Hydropulped Govt. documents 1.3 123 5

16 Hydropulped Govt. documents cael 0.9 1605)

21 Nicolet kraft pulp = 0.8 1.5

12 Kimberly Clark tissue mill waste 1.0 1.0 steal

! 1 St. Regis paper mill sludge 1.0 0.9 0.9

| 2 St. Regis glassine (PVD) waste = 0.8 0.9

3 St. Regis glassine (wax) waste — 0.8 0.6

Percent saccharification > 1 if ball milled

13 Cotton linters (miles) aa 0.2 ee)

18 Corey paper mill waste 0.5 0.3 2,

14 Extracted oat hulls (Hoffman La Roche) = 0.1 te

20 Nicolet waste filler 0.6 0.5 iLaal

23 Rye grass straw (Miles) = 0.3 elk

17 Covey paper mill waste 0.6 0.5 120

26 Hercules wood chips = 0.1 1.0

25 Welches seedless grape pomace = 0.6 0.9

19 Stuley corn fiber = 0.3 0.8

24 Welches grape pomace = 0.5 0.7

“Relative to ball milled newspaper (ave. 42% sacch.) = 1.0.

TABLE 8

Hydrolysis of hydropulped Government documents in 1 liter Str, 50°C, pH 4.8

Sample Enz. conc. S conc. Hydrolysis at 24 hrs

No. (u/ml) % dry wt.

Glucose Saccharification

(mg/ml) (%)

15 0.5 2.3 16 64

, 16 0.5 4.8 23 43

16 0.5 wa ies | 26 30

1) 16 1.0 2.3 20 77

16 1.0 5.0 33 59

16 1.0 7.5 39 47

16 5 2.4 21 79

16 1.5 5.2 39 67

16 1.5 eS 46 53

Enz. = cellulase of T. viride QM 9414; S = pulped documents as rec’d, wet;

glucose mg/ml xX 0.9 100

% Saccharification = ae

5 mg/ml (original)

290

se O

E <

fe?) U

E ve

ws <

O r

Og U

= <

S) ry,

0 5 10 15 20 25

TIME (hrs.)

2.5% S

40 5.0% S$

7.5%S

0 5 10 15 20 25

TIME (hrs.)

Fig. 6. Hydrolysis of hydropulped Gov’t documents by Trichoderma viride cellulase.

[E] = 0.5 units/ml (FP).

40 7.5%S

5.0% S

Ee. 30

w 20 2.5% §

VW)

©)

0 5 10 15 20 25

TIME (hrs.)

SACCHARIFICATION

80 2.5% §

60 5.0% S

7.5%S§

0 5 10 15 20 25

TIME (hrs.)

Fig. 7. Hydrolysis of hydropulped Gov’t documents by Trichoderma viride cellulase.

[£] = 1.0 units/ml (FP).

Me)

7.5% S

Of 5.0% § 5 80 2.5%S

2 x 5.0% S

2 30 = 60

ow 7.5%S

O 25%S

oO 20 ; U 40

> O

= <

O Y,)

10 5° 20

0 0

0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25

TIME (hrs.) TIME (hrs.)

Fig. 8. Hydrolysis of hydropulped Gov’t documents by Trichoderma viride cellulase.

[E] = 1.5 units/ml (FP).

50 | 7.5%S 100

- = 80 0

= O 2.5 ‘° S

N =

ne <I 50%5

ce 60

a 7.5% §

D <

E Za

bhi we)

a <

O os

S 20

= os

rb)

; 0

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5

ENZYME CONC. units/ml (FP) ENZYME CONC. units/ml! (FP)

Fig. 9 Relationship of T. viride cellulase activity level to 24 hour glucose yield and percent

. Saccharification in the hydrolysis of hydropulped Gov’t documents.

292

oration with Fermentation Design, Inc. of Bethlehem, Pa., and comprises the

following equipment:

(1) Fermenters

(2) Enzyme reactors

(8) Holding tanks and auxiliary vessels

(4) Instrumentation modules

(5) Substrate handling and preparation equipment

(6) Enzyme recovery and concentration equipment

The design and construction is such that the most sophisticated fermentation

techniques including batch, continuous, and semi-continuous processes can

be studied (Fig. 10).

ENZYME CELLULOSE

RECOVERY NUTRIENTS

AIR

WASTE CELLULOSE

ENZYME

STORAGE

T. VIRIDE

FERMENTATION

ENZYME I.

ENZYME tank “SOLID

REACTOR RECOVERY WASTE

GLUCOSE SYRUP

GLUCOSE © SCP ETHANOL CHEMICAL

RECOVERY FEED STOCKS

Fig. 10. Enzymatic conversion of waste cellulose.

Because of the sophistication of the monitoring and control instrumenta-

tion, both fermentation and enzyme hydrolyses are continuously monitored

and controlled to optimize the output of the individual processes.

The initial capacity of this equipment is 1000 lbs. of cellulose per month.

With minor modifications the capacity may be increased possibly four-fold.

This equipment is now operational at the Natick Development Center.

The potential world-wide impact of this process on the food, energy and

ecology problems has been recognized both nationally and internationally.

Upon completion of these studies, it will be possible to engineer larger pilot

demonstration plants and possibly full scale plants with confidence. Many

national and international chemical companies, pulp and paper mills, processors

of agriculture products and various governments have shown definitive interest

in the exploitation of this process. Because of this interest, the U.S. Army

Natick Development Center is working very closely with several industrial

firms to assure the transfer of this new technology to commercial scale as soon

as practicable for the benefit of the nation and mankind.

CONCLUSIONS

(1) The enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose is technically feasible and practi-

cally achievable on a large scale by 1980. The glucose produced can be con-

verted to food products, fuel and chemical feedstocks.

(2) The exploitation of our fossil fuel reserves — coal, oil shale, etc. — may

satisfy our energy demands for the next five to ten decades. However, the

ultimate long-range solution to the world’s energy problem may well be the

development of practical and economical processes to harness the inexhaustible

energy of the sun.

REFERENCES

1 Reese, E.T., Mandels, M. and Weiss, A.N., 1972. Cellulose as a novel energy source. In:

T.K. Ghose, A. Fiechter and N. Blackbrough (Editors), Advances in Bioengineering.

Springer Verlag, Berlin, 2nd edn., p. 181—200.

2 Mandels, M. and Kostick, J., 1973. Enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose to soluble sugars.

U.S. Patent 3,764,475. —

3 Goldstein, I.S., 1974. The potential for converting wood into plastics and polymers or

into chemicals for the production of these materials. NSF-RANN Report, Dept. Wood

_ and Paper Science, School of Forest Resources, North Carolina State at Raleigh, N.C.

4 Mandels, M., Hontz, L. and Nystrom, J., 1974. Enzymatic hydrolysis of waste cellulose.

Biotech. Eng., 16: 1471.

Reese, E.T., personal communications.

Mandels, M., 1975. Microbial sources of cellulase. Biotech. Eng., in press.

Brandt, D., Hontz, L. and Mandels, M., 1973. Engineering Aspects of the Enzymatic

Conversion of Waste Cellulose to Glucose. AIChE Symposium Series 69, No. 133,

py i 27133.

AD oO

SUPPLEMENTAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 Ghose, T.K., 1969. Continuous enzymatic saccharification of cellulose with culture

filtrates of Trichoderma viride QM6a. Biotech. Bioeng., XI: 239.

2 Ghose, T.K., 1972. Enzymatic saccharification of cellulose. U.S. Patent 3,642,580.

3 Ghose, T.K. and Kostick, J., 1969. Enzymatic saccharification of cellulose in semi

and continuously agitated systems. Ad. Chem. Ser., 95: 415.

4 Ghose, T.K. and Kostick, J., 1970. A model for continuous enzymatic saccharification

of cellulose with simultaneous removal of glucose syrup. Biotech. Bioeng., XII: 921.

5 Hottel, H.C. and Howard, J.B., 1971. New Energy Technology. MIT Press, Cambridge,

Mass., p. 4.

6 Katz, M. and Reese, E.T., 1968. Production of glucose by enzymatic hydrolysis of

cellulose. Applied Microbiol., 16: 419.

294

7 Mandels, M., Hontz, L. and Brandt, D., 1972. Disposal of cellulosic waste materials by

enzymatic hydrolysis. Army Science Conference Proceedings, Vol. 3, AD 750. 351:

L6—o4.

8 Mandels, M., Kostick, J. and Parizek, R., 1971. The use of adsorbed cellulase in the

continuous conversion of cellulose to glucose. J. Polymer Sci., Part C., 36: 445.

9 Mandels, M. and Weber, J., 1969. The production of cellulases. Adv. Chem. Ser.,

95: 391.

10 Mandels, M., Weber, J. and Parizek, R., 1971. Enhanced cellulase production by a

mutant of Trichoderma viride. Applied Microbiol., 21: 152.

11 Andren, R.K., Mandels, M. and Medeiros, J., 1975. Production of sugars from waste

cellulose by enzymatic hydrolysis. In preparation.

Ce)

Resource Recovery and Conservation, 1 (1976) 295—313

ENERGY FROM REFUSE BY BIOCONVERSION, FERMENTATION AND

RESIDUE DISPOSAL PROCESSES*:**

JOHN T. PFEFFER and JON C. LIEBMAN

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. 61801 (U.S.A.)

(Received 19th March 1975)

ABSTRACT

Biological conversion of organic refuse to methane by anaerobic fermentation is one

mechanism by. which the energy in urban waste can be reclaimed. Laboratory studies have

been used to determine the rate and quantity of gas production at various operating tem-

peratures. The dewatering characteristics of the spent fermentation slurry have been

evaluated. The spent solids can be dewatered to a sufficiently low moisture content such

that incineration is selfsustaining. The incineration system has been evaluated to determine

the possible energy recovery from the spent cake. A process for treating the liquid blow-

down from the system has been developed.

A mathematical simulation of the total system has been constructed to evaluate per-

formance under various Operating conditions. The operating cost of the system can be ob-

tained. A plant processing 908 metric tons of refuse per day will produce 3905 m? of

methane per hour. If the methane is marketed for $3.53/100 m’, the system will require

a dump fee for refuse disposal in excess of $5.34/metric ton. Sale of recovered steam from

the incineration of the spent cake can reduce the dump fee by about $3.00. Recovery of

just methane provides an efficiency of energy recovery of 32.6 percent. This efficiency can

be increased to 63.4 percent if the steam from the incinerator can be sold.

INTRODUCTION

Among the many challenges confronting the world as a whole, and the

United States in particular, are two seemingly unrelated problems. The first

and perhaps the more obvious of the two is the problem of solid waste dispos-

al. The second is the decline in certain energy resources as evidenced by the

increasing shortage in natural gas reserves. The development of a process to

convert organic refuse to methane would provide at least a partial solution to

both of these problems.

Anaerobic digestion has been used for decades in wastewater treatment to

*This research was supported by the National Science Foundation, Research Applied to

National Needs under Grant No GI-39191

**Paper presented at the Symposium ‘‘Energy Recovery from Solid Waste”, March 13--14,

O75:

296

effectively reduce the quantity of organic sludges and to transform them

into stable, more easily dewatered residues. The reduction is accomplished by

the biological conversion of the organic solids to methane and carbon dioxide.

Since anaerobic processes have a very low efficiency of biological energy con-

version, most of the energy of the substrate is lost. The gas produced has a

high energy content and is a valuable end product with potential for reclama-

tion.

Various studies have demonstrated that organic refuse, in particular garbage,

is amenable to anaerobic decomposition. Organic refuse is composed basically

of the same compounds (carbohydrates, proteins and fats) as sewage sludge,

though in different relative proportions. There appears to be no reason why

refuse cannot undergo adequate anaerobic decomposition. Proper environ-

mental conditions must be maintained, the deficient nutrients supplied and

potential toxicity problems controlled.

Using existing technologies developed for producing refuse derived fuel

(RDF), it is possible to produce a light fraction that can be used as substrate

for the anaerobic fermentation process. Laboratory studies were conducted to

evaluate the quantity and rate of gas production, reactor slurry dewatering

characteristics, and residue disposal. Data obtained from these studies, plus

those available in the literature, were used to construct a mathematical simu-

lator of the entire process. This simulator was used to evaluate the performance

of the system under various operating conditions.

QUANTITY AND RATE OF GAS PRODUCTION

To determine if a biological process could be developed that would effec-

tively convert municipal refuse to methane, a series of laboratory studies was

undertaken to establish the kinetic relationships at various operating tempera-

tures. This work is discussed in detail elsewhere [1—3]. The pertinent results

are shown in Fig.1 and Table 1. Figure 1 shows the gas production (dry gas

TABLE 1

Volatile solids destruction (percent )*

Temperature Retention time (days)

(°C)

4 6 8 10 15 20 30

35 16.5 26.4 28.6 29.8 32.0 32.7 34.0

40 31.0 33.6 35.7 36.8 39.0 39.9 40.7

45 26.7 29.0 31.2 32.3 34.1 35.4 36.4

50 34.9 38.6 41.0 42.2 44,2 45.4 46.1

55 40.4 42.6 44.5 45.2 47.2 48.2 49.1

60 “ar 46.6 48.3 49.6 50.8 51.8 52.4

“Percentage of organic material in the raw refuse that is converted to gas.

ie)

0.45

0.30

0.25

TOTAL GAS PRODUCTION _m?/ kg V.S. ADDED

0.20

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

REACTOR RETENTION TIME - DAYS

Fig. 1. Gas production obtained from the digestion of municipal refuse (dry gas at 0°C and

atmospheric pressure).

at O°C and atmospheric pressure) obtained at various temperatures and reten-

tion times. The substrate used in these studies was shredded refuse obtained

from the USEPA Center Hill Laboratory in Cincinnati, Ohio. The volatile

solids destruction in Table 1 was calculated from the gas production. Because

of the characteristics of the substrate and the laboratory reactors employed,

it was not possible to obtain the solids balance necessary to measure volatile

298

solids destruction accurately. It is important to note that the maximum

volatile solids destruction was only 52.4 percent. A significant portion of the

material added to the fermenter remains for final disposal.

The original laboratory studies used completely mixed digesters having an

operating volume of 15 liters. Additional data were collected from a 400-liter

digester that was operated at a 10-day retention time and at 60°C. When

refuse obtained from a local landfill was used as substrate for the larger unit,

gas production was 0.39 m°/kg (6.3 scf/lb) volatile solids added as compared

to gas production of 0.40 m°/kg (6.55 scf/Ib) for the 15 liter units operating

at 60°C and a 10-day retention time (see Fig.1). However, when the large

digester received refuse obtained from the Madison, Wisconsin shredding

facility, the gas production was only 0.32 m?/kg (5.22 scf/lb) of volatile

solids added. The gas yield was 18 percent lower than that previously obtained

from the large reactor. When refuse obtained from the St. Louis-Union Electric

project was used, the gas production was only 0.31 m*/kg (5.0 scf/lb) of

volatile solids added. This low gas production apparently resulted from aerobic

composting that occurred while the wet refuse was being transported and dried

for storage. While gas production may vary with feed stock, the variation will

not be excessive.

The effect of temperature on gas production is pronounced. The optimum

mesophilic temperature was found to be about 40°C. At 43°C, inhibition of

gas production was significant. Gas production at 45°C was only slightly

greater than at 835°C. The maximum gas yield in the mesophilic temperature

range was 0.29 m?/kg (4.65 scf/lb) of volatile solids added. The gas yield was

substantially greater in the thermophilic temperature range, with the maximum

being 0.45 m?/kg (7.25 scf/lb) of volatile solids added.

The rate of gas production is much greater in the thermophilic temperature

range. At 60°C the gas yield from a system operating at a 4-day liquid retention |

time was about 85 percent of that obtained at a 30-day retention time. The |

gas production at the 4-day retention time (60°C) was greater than that ob-

tained from digesters operating at 40°C temperature and 30-day retention

time.

SLURRY DEWATERING—VACUUM FILTRATION

The characteristics of the digester slurry, in particular the dewaterability,

were investigated. Laboratory evaluation of the vacuum filtration system was

conducted using the filter test leaf technique. The results of these studies are

shown in Fig.2. A coarse weave filter cloth was employed. No chemicals were

used to condition the slurry before dewatering. Solids capture was not high,

but since a major portion of this filtrate is expected to be recycled, high solids |

capture was not considered to be important. !

Exceptionally high filter cake yields can be obtained from vacuum filters if |

the solids concentration in the feed slurry is high and a dry cake is not required’

However, if it is necessary to produce cake with a low moisture content, the |

299

5.0 CAKE SOLIDS

4.0

aot

o +-3.0

= 2.0

[a4

ey)

—

1.0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

FEED SOLIDS CONCENTRATION PERCENT

Fig. 2. The effect of feed solids concentration and cake solids on filter yield, no chemical

conditioning.

loading on the filter is greatly reduced. The addition of a polymer (Nalco

73C32) significantly improved the dewatering characteristics. These results

are shown in Fig. 3. With unconditioned slurry at 3 percent feed solids, filter

yields of 48.8 and 97.6 kg/m?-hr (10 and 20 lbs/ft?-hr) resulted in a cake with

a solids content of 24 and 20 percent, respectively. With conditioned slurry

at the same feed concentration, a filter yield of 48.8 kg/m?-hr was achieved

with a cake containing 30 percent solids, and a filter yield of 97.6 kg/m?-hr

was achieved with a cake containing 27.5 percent solids, both substantial in-

creases over the unconditioned slurries.

The polymer dosages used in the first series of test runs were based on the

fine suspended solids in the feed and these dosages were chosen on the basis

of specific resistance values determined in preliminary work [4]. The dosages

used were not necessarily optimum. To determine the approximate optimum

dosage, a series of tests was run with 3.3 percent feed solids using a 30-second

form time and 3-minute dry time, and varying the polymer dosage from 0 to

5.4 percent. The results of these tests are given in Table 2. From these data it

would seem that the optimum dosage at 3-percent feed solids was about

2 percent. There was no substantial improvement in filtrate suspended solids

or cake solids as higher dosages were used.

While the results clearly show the advantages of using polymers to improve

vacuum filtration results, the costs associated with polymer use must be con-

300

CAKE SOLIDS -

FILTER YIELD - 100 kg/m--hr

3 4 Se, 6 7 8 9 10

FEED SOLIDS CONCENTRATION - PERCENT

Fig. 3. The effect of feed solids concentration and cake solids on filter yield when slurry

was conditioned with polymer (Nalco 73C32).

TABLE 2

Optimization of polymer dose for 3.3% feed solids?

Polymer Form rate Filter yield Cake Filtrate solids (g/l)

dose (kg/m?-hr) (kg/m?-hr) solids

(% of FSS) (%) TS SS DS

0.00 WPA ee 27.8 10.05 6.42 3.63

1.09 163 23.3 29.3 6.05) 0 270 Sea |

DAT 169 24.2 31.1 3.79 0.55 3.24

3.26 185 26.4 31.6 3.385 ~ 0.14 PE |

4.35 166 23.8 33.0 3.76 0.65 See

5.43 161 23.0 33.6 3.24 0.23 3.01

“FSS = feed suspended solids, TS = total solids, SS = suspended solids, DS = dissolved solids.

sidered. Since vacuum filtration is only one step in the total system, the

impact of this process on the remaining processes must be considered. High

filter cake solids will reduce the cost of auxiliary fuel for residue incineration,

or the haul and landfill costs if the residue goes directly to a landfill. Also,

an increase in filter yield will reduce vacuum filter costs. The cost of the

polymer must be offset by the cost reductions.

The following conditions were assumed in evaluating the cost of polymer

conditioning of the slurry prior to vacuum filtration. With a feed slurry of

6 percent, a filter yield of 56.1 kg/m?-hr (11.5 lbs/ft?-hr) at 25 percent cake

solids would be expected with unconditioned slurry. Conditioning the slurry

with polymer (1.25 percent of feed suspended solids) would increase the cake

solids to 30 percent at a filter yield of 56.1 kg/m?-hr. With polymer priced at

$0.66/kg ($0.30 per lb), the polymer cost alone would be $2.30 per metric

ton of refuse received or $87.30 per hour for a 908 metric-tons-per day sys-

tem. The savings possible in the downstream process do not warrant such cost.

This will be discussed later in more detail.

SLURRY DEWATERING — CENTRIFUGATION

Dewatering tests were conducted using a solid bowl conveyor (model P-600

Super-D-Canter) centrifuge unit obtained on loan from the Sharples Division,

Pennwalt Corporation. This unit was tested using the slurry from the 400 liter

reactor. The slurry was pumped from a mixed storage tank to the centrifuge

at a constant rate with a Moyno positive displacement pump. The centrifuge

was operated for one to two minutes at each test condition prior to sampling

the cake and the centrate. The machine was operated at 5700 rpm, producing

a centrifugal force of approximately 3200 X g. The results are shown in

Table 3 and Fig. 4.

' Based on these data, a full scale machine of similar characteristics could

process a maximum flow of 0.85 m?/min (226 gpm), or a maximum solids

loading ranging from 1476 kg/hr (3251 lbs/hr) per machine for a cake solids

of 38.3 percent to 2099 kg/hr (4624 lbs/hr) per machine for a cake solids of

27 percent. -As can be seen from Fig.4, the conveyor speed relative to the

centrifuge bowl speed was the major factor in determining the cake solids.

An increase in the flow rate had little or no effect on the cake solids ata

conveyor speed of 10 rpm. However, the solids loading does play a major role

as the solids-flow rate approaches the machine capacity. From these observa-

tions, it appears that the solids-handling capacity of the machine limits the

concentration of solids in the cake, particularly when the reactor slurry con-

tained 5 percent or more solids.

Solids capture was not high in these tests, ranging from a low of 63 percent

to a high of 90 percent. This high carry-over was a result of the presence of a

substantial concentration of fine solids present in the slurry as well as poor

capture of the fibers under certain test conditions. Chemical conditioning

would improve this capture, but at a cost. Since this liquid is expected to be

recycled back into the fermentor, solids capture is of limited significance.

RESIDUE INCINERATION

The ability to produce a cake with solids concentrations of 30 percent or

greater with the centrifuge system has substantially improved the economics

302

TABLE 3

Sharples P-600 centrifuge results

Flow Conveyor speed Cake solids Centrate solids (g/1) Suspended solids

(lpm) (rpm) (%) capture (%)

Total Suspended

Pond setting 3%, feed total solids 28.3 g/l

4.9 10 38.5 aj 7 a

22 34.9 — = +

36 32.8 ori a a

53 30.6 = = <a

10.0 10 39.4 = 2 i

22 39.9 8.26 5.06 80.6

36 33.8 9.45 5.94 77.6

53 30.3 8216-26 80.0

Feed total solids 28.6 g/l

18.5 10 37.6 EOS 17203 72.7

16 32.7 11.10 6.93 73.3

27.6 10 38.3 ihietor St al 7 Tig

16 29.1 LAAOL EDS 72.3

Feed total solids 21.4 g/l

958 16 32.5 9.50 5.20 70.4

13.2 16 30.3 9.86 5.51 68.7

16.7 16 31.2 11.22 6.44 63.5 :

20.1 16 33.6 ft-20 “6.50 62.8 |

Feed total solids 43.8 g/l

20.1 10 No separation, solids overload

16 34.2 12.44 7.40 82.6

28 27.0 10.01 4.54 89.9

Pond setting 3, feed total solids 25.7 g/l

13.6 10 36.3 9.78 spats? 16:8

16 36.2 10:19.5 5.95 73.8

32 34.4 9.27 5.66 75.2

53 32.7 9.20" D399 74.0

associated with the incineration of the dewatered residue. There are two

major gains associated with incineration. First, disposal by landfill of the large

quantities of organic residue represents a substantial cost in urban areas. The

costs of hauling to acceptable landfill sites would greatly influence the econ-

omics of this system. Secondly, the installation of a waste heat boiler in the

incineration system would provide more than enough steam to satisfy the |

process heating requirements and would improve the energy recovery efficiency,

even if the excess steam energy could not marketed.

py ee te

30 path ik req uastzeae

LiJ

2 FLOW FEED SOLIDS

= 20 o 4.8 gpm 2.83%

m x 10.0 &pm 2.83%

¥ O 18.4 2pm 2.86%

om © 27.6 &pm 2.86%

10 ® 20.0 2pm 4.38%

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

CONVEYOR SPEED - RPM

Fig. 4. Cake solids produced by a Sharpless P-600 centrifuge under various operating

conditions.

A total energy balance was made for the incineration system. The basis

for this balance was the energy input from the organic residue. Initial bomb

calorimeter data showed a calorific value for the residue of 17 X 10° J/kg

(7334 BTU per lb) of dry solids or 22.7 X 10° J/kg (9734 BTU per lb) of

volatile solids. These data were for refuse from Madison, Wisconsin. Calorific

values for the air classified light fraction from St. Louis are listed in Table 4.

TABLE 4

Calorific values for St. Louis refuse and residue

Volatile J J

solids eee ea tee reren ru AS acd a 2

(%) __ kg total solids kg volatile solids

Air classifier

light fraction 66.4 14 x 10° 21.6 xX 10°

Digester residue Ta 18.5 x 10° 24 x 10°

304

140

50% EXCESS AIR 120

100

25% EXCESS AIR

™s

. =

= '

™

=) >

~ 80 &

Ss aS

a re

1 ce

QO -

= =

Si a

= =

~—

— r <4

Li uJ

iz =

25% EXCESS

AIR 50% EXCESS

AIR ' 0

24 | 28 32 36 40

CAKE SOLIDS - PERCENT

Fig. 5. Auxiliary fuel requirements and heat recovery potential for incineration of the

digester residue.

The digester residue has the higher energy value in terms of both total dry

solids and volatile solids. This is expected since cellulose is the primary

material being fermented. Lignin, which is relatively non-biodegradable, has

a higher energy value than cellulose. Therefore, the higher lignin content in

the residue will cause an increase in the heating value.

An equal, if not more important, factor in this increased energy value is

the higher proportion of plastics in the residue than in the raw refuse, since

plastics do not degrade in the fermentation process. With as much as one-half

of the organic material being converted to gas, the plastic content in the

residue would be nearly twice the raw refuse content. Plastics have a very

high calorific value.

Based on a carbon, hydrogen and oxygen + Gale the chemical composition

of the residue was estimated from measured compositions of raw refuse. This

composition was used to calculate the theoretical air requirements at 9.76 kg

of air per kg of volatile solids. By performing a heat balance on the incinerator,

Fig.5 was constructed. This figure shows the auxiliary fuel requirements and

potential heat recovery for incineration of cake with various moisture con-

tents. With 50 percent excess air and a furnace temperature of 760°C (1400°F),

the cake solids must be about 35 percent for combustion to be self-sustaining.

Reducing the excess air to 25 percent reduces the required cake solids to

about 30 percent. Cake solids below these values will require auxiliary fuel.

Heat recovery from the incineration of the residue is desirable. The process

heat required for maintaining the digestion temperature and for mono-ethanol

amine (MEA) regeneration from the carbon dioxide scrubber is significant.

The potential heat recovery in cooling the stack gas from 760°C to 315°C

(1400°F to 600°F) is shown in the upper curves in Fig.5. At a cake solids

content of 30 percent and 25 percent excess air, approximately 90 X 10? J/hr

(85 X 10° BTU/hr) can be recovered from a 908 metric ton (1000 ton) per

day plant with the digestion system operating at 60°C and a 10-day retention

time.

Additional heat can be recovered if the stack gases are cooled to a lower

temperature. The installation of an appropriate preheater or economizer could

recover an additional 26 to 32 X 10° J/hr (25 to 30 X 10° BTU/hr) by cooling

these gases to 150°C (300°F). The availability of a market for this steam will

determine how efficient the recovery system should be.

TREATMENT OF FILTRATE—CENTRATE

The liquid generated from the residue dewatering process is of very poor

quality: dissolved solids range from 4 to 5 g/l, increasing with increasing re-

cycle of this liquid to the fermentation system; suspended solids range from

4 to 6 g/l or higher, depending upon the dewatering process (see Table 5).

A number of processes have been screened as candidate systems for treating

this liquid. The only process that appears to have potential for reducing the

pollution potential of this stream is chemical coagulation. The results of

preliminary jar tests showed that iron salts can coagulate the fine solids and

produce a supernatant that is low in suspended solids.

A series of tests was conducted to evaluate the use of ferric sulfate with

and without organic polymers (Nalco 73C32) as coagulants for this liquid.

When ferric sulfate only was used as a coagulant for the liquid prior to

306

initiating centrate recycle, the data listed in Table 6 were obtained. A

standard jar test procedure was employed in these tests. The pH was adjusted

to the values shown in the table prior to coagulant addition. At reduced pH

levels, lower iron dosages were required to achieve a substantial reduction in

COD and suspended solids. Since ferric ion reacts with hydroxide, the higher

iron requirements at the higher pH levels were probably required to reduce

the pH to an optimum level.

TABLE 5

Filtrate-centrate characteristics

Recycle ratio

0 0.5

Total solids 8350 mg/l 10507 mg/l

Suspended solids 4600 mg/1 5930 mg/l :

Volatile solids 4340 mg/1 6093 mg/l

COD 7057 mg/l mg

TABLE 6

Filtrate coagulation with ferric sulfate

Filtrate pH Fe,(SO,), X H,O Supernatant (g/1)

tot. solids dose

(g/l) (g/l) Tot. solids Dis. solids Sus. solids COD

10.795 6.0 1.5 5.482 5.015 0.467 2.347)

1.6 5.059 5.058 0.001 1.1089

dey, 5.058 5.008 0.050 1.22

O275 6.5 a 5.713 4.840 0.873 3.40 ©

222 4.800 4.732 0.068 1.346)

2.3 5.640 5.547 0.093 1.750

9.329 7.0 2.6 5.058 4.654 0.404 2.45

7 | 4.848 4.850 0.008 1.153)

2.8 5.180 4.740 0.440 2.394

Additional studies were conducted on the centrate from the 400 liter

reactor operating with a 50 percent recycle. These data (see Table 7) show

that the pH had a very pronounced effect on the clarification efficiency of

the coagulant. The pH shown in this table is the adjusted pH after coagulant

addition. A final pH of 4.2 provided very good suspended solids removal even

with ferric sulfate dosages as low as 0.9 g/l. At the higher chemical dosage,

the supernatant was very clear at the lower pH. However, high dosages of iron

and polymer did not achieve a clear supernatant at a pH of 6.2.

307

TABLE 7

Effect of pH and chemical dose on clarification

Fe,(SO,), X H,O Polymer __ Final Suspended solids (mg/1)

(g/1) (mg/1) pH

Centrate Centrate Supernatant

and chem.

1:5 100 6.2 4930 6693 102

iS) 100 4.5 5581 6087 3 Oe

ales) 50 4.5 5581 5844 16

dhe 100 6.2 4930 6240 135

0.9 100 4.5 6776 7620 50

0.9 50 4.5 6776 7640 50

These data also show that the polymer dosage was of little significance in

the efficiency of solids removal. The results were not affected at either the

50 or 100 mg/l dosage. The polymer was more important in determining the

character of the sludge produced. Not only clarification efficiency, but also

the settling velocity and final volume of the resulting sludge are important.

The settling characteristics of the resulting sludges were evaluated using

small laboratory settling columns. These columns were one-liter graduated

cylinders fitted with a stirrer mechanism operating at a speed of approximately

2 rpm. These data are shown in Table 8 for various coagulant dosages and at

a pH of 6.2 and 4.5. C, is the initial concentration of suspended solids in the

coagulated centrate; and C,, is the suspended solids concentration obtained

in the sludge after 3 hours of settling. Iron dosages of 1.5 g/l and polymer

dosages of 100 mg/l] gave the highest settling velocity (V;) and highest sludge

solids concentration. The pH was highly significant with this coagulant dose.

A pH of 4.5 produced a reasonable settling velocity and sludge concentration.

Because of the small settling columns, caution must be exercised in extra-

polating these data to large-scale systems. One can expect the sludge to settle

but at a rather low velocity. Consideration should be given to an alternate

TABLE 8

Settling characteristics of centrate sludges

Iron Polymer pH Cy V. Cu

(g/l) = (mg/l) (g/l) (cm/sec) (g/1)

1.5 100 6.2 6.24 2.8x107° 12.0

12 100 6.2 6.69 2.800 * 12.0

0.9 50 4.5 TCR es AES atO. 9.8

0.9 100 4.5 7-62 0) De x0"? tt .O

1.5 50 4.5 BrO9n ETO" Or* seul

1.5 100 4.5 5.84 Oe! a Gol Oa 15.8

308

dewatering system such as a centrifuge. The large volume occupied by the

settled sludge will require treatment of approximately twice the volume of

water needed for blowdown. This will substantially increase both capital and

operating costs for treatment of this water. Based on observations of the

ability of a solid bowl basket centrifuge to concentrate these solids, it is

probable that a solids concentration of 10 percent could be obtained. This

concentration would greatly reduce the volume of water to be treated for

blowdown purposes. Data have not been obtained to substantiate this observa-

tion, but the prospect appears promising.

The use of a centrifuge also has significance in dewatering the resulting

sludge. The specific resistance of the settled sludge was measured to determine

its dewatering characteristics. The specific resistance, r, was found to be

5.66 X 10° sec*/g for the highest coagulant dose at a pH of 4.5. For the lowest

coagulant dose, r was 1.65 X 10!° sec?/g. These are both. very high specific

resistance values. Low filter yields would be obtained if a vacuum filter were

used for dewatering of this sludge. The low volume of water — 0.378 m?/min

(100 gpm) — expected to be processed suggests that it would be more practi-

cal to take the flocculated slurry directly to a solid bowl centrifuge for both

clarification and dewatering of the cludge.

COMPUTER ECONOMIC STUDY

In order to explore the economic implications of the process, a computer

simulation was constructed. This program permitted investigation of the ef-

fects of changes in operating parameters and system designs on the overall

process. The process flow sheet shown in Fig.6 is one of the systems that was

simulated.

The program consists of individual subroutines for each unit process from

receipt of raw refuse to disposal of the dewatered residue. Each subroutine

receives information from the preceding routines on the quantity and quality

of the material entering the simulated process. Empirical design and cost

relationships are used to determine design parameters for the process and to

calculate mass, energy, and cost balances. The subroutines are designed to be

independent of one another so that alternate unit process steps may be inter-

changed. For example, subroutines for dewatering by centrifugation and

vacuum filtration are interchangeable in the program.

The capital cost routine for the simulator is not complete. It includes only

the installed costs for the various processes. Such items as land, site prepara-

tion, engineering, legal, fiscal, interest during construction etc. have not been

included. The data presented are for the purpose of comparing alternate

schemes for the process and do not represent total costs. Therefore, these

data must be used accordingly.

Table 9 shows selected results from runs of the entire process with in-

cineration of the cake and landfilling of the ash and heavy fraction. This

system was sized for 908 metric tons (1000 tons) per day of refuse. Run 1

Tromme]

Unload

Sirota

Storage shred Inert

Fines

Gas

Light

5 a

Raw Sev'age

Sludge 1

Fermentor

(60°C)

Tank

Liquid Recycle

Fig. 6. Schematic of proposed system.

TABLE 9

Results of simulation

Run number iL

Digester temp. (°C) 60

Detention time (days) 6

Digester feed conc. (%) 10

Digester volume (1000 m*) 30.3

Centrifuges req’d (No.) 9

Digester costs ($/hr) Fig eS)

Centrifuge costs ($/hr) 48.50

Incinerator cost ($/hr) 63.35

Methane (m?*/hr) 3905

Construction costs ($1,000,000) 14.29

Capital costs ($/hr) 185.50

x costs ($/hr) - 405.67

215.33

Net income ($/hr)

Magnetic

Separation

Ferrous

(Salvage)

; CH,

E 560

A f “

309

Air Separate

| '

Heavy Light

Inert Organics

(to energy

recovery)

Combustion

Products

Dewater

Ash

Blowdown Incinerator

(Treat)

2 3 4 5

60 60 50 40

8 6 8 8

10 15 10 10

40.4 20.0 20.1 40.4

9 9 10 11

80.90 64.70 81.41 ro er a (

48.50 48.50 53.95 59.39

61.92 63.64 67.99 12.28

4045 3877 3424 3000

14.90 3.56 i> ou 16.18

190.87 179.02 199.73 207.03

412.60 398.75 425.26 2 ies 5)

213.40 2IV25 178.74 153.65

310

serves as a base run; the other runs demonstrate the effect on the process of

variations in design parameters. Run 2 shows the relative insensitivity of the

process to digester retention time. The higher construction cost for the di-

gester is offset by a lower incinerator construction cost and a higher gas in-

come. Capital is assumed to be available at 6 percent; a higher interest would

slightly increase the cost of the system in Run 2. Using these cost relation-

ships, the cost of gas at higher retention times needed to have a net income

equivalent to the 6-day retention time would be $3.58 and $3.67 per 100 m?

($1.014 and $1.04 per 1000 scf) at 8-day and 10-day retention times, respec-

tively.

Run 3 shows a substantial savings due to a much lower construction cost

for the digester when a higher feed-solids concentration is employed. Runs

4 and 5 show added costs associated with the lower temperature of digestion

due to an increase in the cost of residue dewatering and incineration. Also,

the gas income is lower.

The system shown in Figure 6 can be priced for 908 metric tons per day

(1000 ton/day). The construction costs are shown in Table 10. These cost

TABLE 10

Construction costs

Shredder? 1,375,000

Separation? 592,000

Storage? 950,000

Fermentation? 2,230,000

Centrifuge ° 2,050,000

Incineration? 5,060,000

Gas purification? 2,032,000

Total 14,289,000

7Cost data from Wise et al. (1974) [5].

°Cost data from Patterson and Banker (1971) [6].

“Cost data from manufacturer [7 ].

data have been adjusted to July 1973. This analysis shows that approximately

65 percent of the construction cost is associated with the fermentation and

residue disposal processes. The centrifuge system and incineration accounts

for 50 percent of the construction costs.

The economic justification for this added investment is shown in Table 11.

Residue disposal by sanitary landfill after vacuum filtration has a low capital

requirement. However, with a haul and disposal cost of $3.30/metric ton

($3.00/ton) of wet cake, an operating cost of $153.72/hr is added to this

system, giving a total dewatering and disposal cost of $192.18/hr. Substitu-

tion of the centrifuge for vacuum filtration adds a higher capital and operating

311

TABLE 11

Residue disposal versus costs

Temp. 60°C, feed solids 10%, 90% volatile, time 6 days

Construction Total cost ($/hr)

Vacuum filter 1,315,000 23.01

Cake (25% solids) p< 153.72

Inorganics a 15.45

Total 1,315,000 1G zgilys

Centrifuge 2,048,000 48.50

Cake (35% solids) ae 109.67

Inorganics ad 15.45

Total 2,048,000 173.62

Centrifuge 2,048,000 48.50

Incineration 5,058,000 63.35

Credit for process heat = —36.01

Ash ae 3.00

Inorganics ra 15.45

Total 7,106,000 94.29

costs for dewatering. The cost savings in residue disposal due to a drier cake

compensates for this higher dewatering cost. The total residue dewatering

and disposal cost is only $173.62/hr. This system will probably still cost less

than the vacuum filtration system when the total capital requirements are

considered.

Incineration of centrifuge cake with landfill of the ash yields a total cost

for residue dewatering and disposal of only $94.29/hr. In addition to a very

substantial cost reduction in haul and landfill costs, recovery of heat for

heating of the digesters and regeneration of MEA gives a credit of $36.01/hr.

Even with a greatly increased capital cost, this system has a much lower cost

than either of the two previously discussed systems. Of course, haul and

disposal costs greater than $3.30/metric ton will only increase the cost reduc-

tion due to incineration.

A detailed analysis of the costs for the base run is shown in Table 12. The

shredding and separation processes have a relatively low construction cost.

The shredder has a high power and maintenance cost. The cost of shredding,

separation and storage, exclusive of operating labor, is $92.26/hr or $2.43/

metric ton ($2.21/ton) of refuse processed. The fermentation process has a

significant construction cost plus a high cost for heating and chemicals. The

chemical cost results from the large quantities of nutrients required. With

nitrogen priced at $330/metric ton, this cost becomes significant. If adequate

sewage sludge were available, the nitrogen in this sludge could be used to

reduce the nutrient cost.

35 LA :

TABLE 12

Cost analysis (37.9 metric tons/hr)

Const. cost Operating cost ($/hr) Maint. cost Total

($/hr) Fig A ee a ER OS ae a eh ($/hr) ($/hr)

Chem. Power Heat

Shredder Dede a 14.26 = 22.13 58.11

Separation 9.31 7 3.27 3.43 16.01 9§

Storage 14.94 == 2eL0) = 1.16 18.14 ©

Fermentation ZO AT 45.96 3.19 21.38 2.58 93.28 ©

Centrifuge 32.20 = 4.45 = 1V8S 48.50 ©

Incineration 55.16 — ~ — 8.20 63.36 —

Gas processing 32.00 0.30 1.55 14.63 2.35 50.83

Total 185.50 46.26 28.82 36.01 51.64 348.23

Construction cost is the major cost in the remaining processes. The centri-

fuge system does have a significant maintenance cost and a significant quan-

tity of heat is required for the regeneration of the MEA. There are additional

minor costs associated with the above processes that have not been identified.

Table 12 includes only the major cost items.

The efficiency of energy recovery is dependent upon the type of system

employed. An energy balance is presented in Table 13. The recovery efficiency

in a system solely producing methane is only 32.6 percent. Because of the

large amount of organic material remaining, a significant increase in efficiency

can be obtained by incinerating the organic residues. If a market for this

TABLE 13

System energy balance (10° J/hr)

Energy available 378.3

Refuse 358.3

Sludge 20.0

Energy consumed 70.0

Power (2780 HP, 30% Eff.) 25.0

Heat (85% Eff.) 45.0

Total energy input 448.3

Energy produced 284.1

Methane 146.3

Heat (incineration) 137.8

Recovery efficiency

Methane only 32.6%

Actual eT Pe fe

Potential 63.4%

313

steam could be obtained, 63.4 percent of the energy input possibly could be

recovered. There is a use for part of the recovered steam in the process. By

using incinerator heat for the process requirements, 42.7 percent of the input

energy can be recovered in the form of methane.

REFERENCES

1 Pfeffer, J.T., 1968. Increased loadings on digesters with recycle of digested solids.

Journal of Water Pollution Control Federation, 40: 1920.

2 Pfeffer, J.T., 1973. Processing organic solids by anaerobic fermentation. Proc. Inter-

national Biomass Energy Conf., The Biomass Energy Institute, Winnipeg, Canada,

p56.

3 Pfeffer, J.T., 1974. Reclamation of energy from organic refuse. EPA 670/2-74-016,

National Environmental Research Center, Office of Research and Development, U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.

4 Pfeffer, J.T. and Liebman, J.C., 1974. Biological conversion of organic refuse to

methane. Annual Report NSF/RANN Grant No. GI-39191, Dept. Civil Engineering,

University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill., Report UIUL-ENG-74- 2019.

5 Wise, D.L., Sadek, S.E. and iene R.G., 1974. Fuel gas production from solid wastes.

Deena Bee No. 1207, Dynatech R/D Co., Cambridge, Mass.

6 Patterson, W.L. and Banker, RBs, VO. Bermetine costs and manpower requirements

for conventional wastewater treatment facilities. Water Poll. Control Res. Series

17090DAN 10/71, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.

7 Personal communication, 1974. Sharples Division, Pennwalt Corp., Oak Brook, Ill.

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Resource Recovery and Conservation, 1 (1976) 315

Short communication

GOODYEAR TIRE-FIRED BOILER*

E.R. MOATS

The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co., Akron, Ohio 44316 (U.S.A.)

(Received 19th March 1975)

Recognizing the potential energy source of the 165-million tires discarded

annually in the United States, The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company is

testing a method of heat generating from whole tire combustion in a tire-

fired boiler at its Jackson, Michigan, tire plant.

This furnace, originally designed by Lucas American Recyclers, was chosen

after an investigation of tire-fired boiler equipment suppliers by Goodyear’s

Corporate Engineering Department in 1971. The basic furnace design was

developed by Lucas Furnace Development, Ltd., of England with the engi-

neering design and construction being rendered by Lucas American Recyclers

and Fluor Utah. The design included a furnace with the design capability of

burning 32.7 metric tons (36 tons) of scrap tires per day and a boiler to

generate 11,338 kg (25,000 pounds) of steam at 1.7 X 10° Pa (250 psi) per

hour. Stack gas cleaning equipment was incorporated as a contingency to

reduce particulate and SO, emissions (though tires contain less than one

percent sulfur) to comply with possible air pollution standards.

The furnace operates continually without supplementary fuel at a tem-

perature high enough (1093°C at the center) to melt all the non-combustible

material such as bead wire and fiber glass. It utilizes a rotary hearth which is

sloped to a central ash discharge port. This hearth is refractory lined and

water cooled around the center to protect its metallic body from the high

temperatures developed inside the furnace.

Gases rise in a vortex that causes smoke and odor molecules to be con-

sumed. An inert ash is all that remains after the whole tires complete the

burning cycle. |

Tires are fed onto the hearth from a vestibule by means of a pusher ram.

Tires enter the vestibule through a door which closes as the furnace door

opens to receive the tires. The hearth can revolve at rates of from 1/4 to 8-1/2

revolutions per hour with its rate set manually so that the tires are completely

consumed in two revolutions. (In normal burning, hearth rates are in the

range of 2.7 to 6.0 revolutions per hour.)

The tire-fired boiler thus meets the needs of the American society today;

it generates cheap steam at no drain on fossil fuel sources while contributing

a viable solution to the disposition of a troublesome solid waste component.

*Paper presented at the Symposium ‘‘Energy Recovery from Solid Waste”, March 13—14,

1975.

Resource, Recovery and Conservation, 1 (1976) 316—318

Book review

Resource Recovery and Utilization. Edited by H. Alter and E. Horowitz,

American Society for Testing and Materials, 1975, 200 pages, price $20.

This book is the proceedings of the National Materials Conservation Sym-

posium and Workshop on Resource Recovery and Utilization held in April/

May 1974 at the National Bureau of Standards in Gaithersburg, Md., U.S.A.

The objective of the meeting was to bring together the technology and im-

plementation of conservation, which is reflected in the content and layout

of the book. This is a particularly helpful approach with the current state of

the art and political attitudes.

The book is divided into five parts of approximately equal length, of which

the first introduces the subject and sets the scene with U.S. trade data and

reactions of a major industry to the problems and possibilities of conserva-

tion. This is followed by two interesting papers on what might be called the

business aspects. These include discussions on the problems of placing con-

tracts for recovery systems with local government and providing the neces-

sary financing.

The third part reviews the technology currently available for solid waste

recovery. Included here are descriptions of demonstration systems in current

operation or planned; a more detailed examination of one system; and a dis-

cussion of the range of unit operations available for recovering non-ferrous

metals. Five significant materials are singled out for more in-depth study in

the fourth part which considers ferrous metals, aluminium to represent non-

ferrous metals, glass, plastics and paper. All are examined from the positive

approach of practical recovery and provide useful up to date information.

These are followed by reports from workshops on each of these five mate-

rials recovery areas. While maximum benefit was no doubt obtained from

those attending the sessions, the reports are very valuable in that they pro-

vide a topical and practical assessment of the situation for each materials

followed by specific recommendations for encouraging and implementing

recovery schemes.

The book provides an interesting and valuable picture of current techno-

logy, practice, and attitudes to conservation in the United States, although

most of the content is equally valid in any industrialised area of the world.

It is therefore recommended as a concise statement of current thinking on

solid waste recovery.

A.V. Bridgwater

University of Aston in Birmingham

enti

Book review

The Energy Conservation Papers. Edited by Robert H. Williams, Ballinger,

Cambridge, 1975, 377 pages, price $ 17.50 cloth bound, $ 8.95 paperback.

The Energy Policy Project — a study which concluded that the ‘‘best’’

national energy policy was that which would encourage energy conservation

used this collection of commissioned research papers, in part, as source

material. The consequent occasional duplication and overlap, nonunitormity

of terms and other minor evidences of independently working contributors

is more than compensated by the sustained quality of presentation of widely

ranging but related information — and setting it into a framework for useful

application.

Two of the six contributed chapters directly address energy substitution/

recovery from wastes; a third deals with energy impacts/requirements of

specific pollution (waste) control strategies; and a fourth chapter on econom-

ic impacts is closely supportive. Two remaining contributed chapters discuss

transportation options and impacts. These chapters are supported by 15 ap-

pendices, extensive chapter notes, and thoroughly referenced sources. A

somewhat disjunctive but nevertheless valuable bibliography is included. An

unfortunately inadequate index (and a table of contents occasionally omit-

\ting titles) leaves the reader rather on his own. But it is clear that this com-

pact collection will — or ought to — soon become an often reached for and

well thumbed reference, particularly suited to two purposes: to provide

systems planning (but not actual design) information; and as an heuristic tool

for creative insight and idea production leading to waste and transportation

management solutions which satisfy the complex technological and econom-

ic ramifications which underly conventionally-approached solutions, There

are more than enough updates and new tabulations to motive the reader-user

to throw away his carefully garnered files and folders — at least of aggregate-

level data.

The chapter on metals recycling is illustrative of the general format. In

this instance, three metals: iron, aluminum, and copper, are depicted as com-

modity flow systems; with their relationships among sectors and markets

quantified. Energy demands, primary and recycled, are developed: carried

back to major system components, e.g., coal mining for iron production;

waste shredding. A realistic total conservation potential of about 0.4 quads

can result by utilizing these metals in U.S. urban waste. The chapter on

organic wastes (it includes feedlot and crop residues) which concentrates

(but not exclusively) on methane production concludes with a current net

energy potential of about 3.6 quads for the U.S. The chapters on transporta-

tion policy and consumer options/impacts are equally extensive, thorough,

and wonderfully illuminating.

318

These papers may be regarded as a concise source book — not complete,

to be sure — but invaluable for comprehensive systems analysis and design

of waste-to-energy management programs and transportation systems.

Jerome F. Collins

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VOLUME 66

Number 2

Jour nal of the JUNE, 1976

WASHINGTON

ACADEMY ..SCIENCES

‘Issued Quarterly

a), Washington, D.C.

CONTENTS

Features

H. GUYFORD STEVER: Science, Engineering and Social Change ........

J. PHIL CAMPBELL: The Role of Research in Agriculture............... 131

CAROL J. LEHTOLA: Experiences of an Engineer, Who Happens To

BS BV OITIEIN Sol diale ee ee cle & hicks tte elke Sia nie cloner ciorated aslo cece cee et otic oe

Profile

RAYMOND J. SEEGER: Benjamin Franklin, American Physicist .........

: Research Reports

KINGSOLVER, J. M.: The Correct Identity of Stator bixae (Drapiez)

With Lectotype Designation (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) ................. 147

KINGSOLVER, J. M.: A New Species of Amblycerus from Panama

(Coleoptera: Brachidae) ih ..< 5.5 aise. Sooke wien wae w ece eine ee ag eee ele as

Academy Affairs

The Awards Program of the Academy and Recent Honorees ..............

ING WRLC HO SUSE sett tat iam rier ie Ss ant nd Soe ateeni eacteat wince rb eyeing ea, ae 156

SclemistscmutheNOWS) «sh on ks dcrkeieic sou eS ses ode b ne walle dw Pane dein eles 158

Obituaries

Norman H. C. Griffiths .... »<oarias\pipemmec 162

Marjorie Hooker ....... MOON i oekaki ha |, aR oe nae 162

: A F

Washington Academp of Sciences

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President

Florence H. Forziati

President-Elect

Richard H. Foote

Secretary

Alfred Weissler

Treasurer

Richard: H. Foote

Members at Large

Norman H. C. Griffiths

Patricia Sarvella

BOARD OF MANAGERS

All delegates of affiliated

Societies (see facing page)

EDITOR

Richard H. Foote

EDITORIAL ASSISTANT

Elizabeth Ostaggi

ACADEMY OFFICE

9650 Rockville Pike (Bethesda)

Washington, D.C. 20014

Telephone (301) 530-1402

Founded in 1898

The Journal

This journal, the official organ of the Washington Aca-

demy of Sciences, publishes historical articles, critical

reviews, and scholarly scientific articles; proceedings

of meetings of the Academy and its Board of Mana-

gers; and other items of interest to Academy members.

The Journal appears four times a year (March, June,

September, and December) — the September issue

contains a directory of the Academy membership.

Subscription Rates

Members, fellows, and patrons in good standing re-

ceive the Journal without charge. Subscriptions are

available on a calendar year basis only, payable in ad-

vance. Payment must be made in U.S. currency at the

following rates:

U.S. and Canada ....... $14.00

POPl@h 1.04... ssn cee 15.00

Single Copy Price....... 4.00

Single-copy price for Vol. 66, No. 1 (March, 1976)

is $15.00.

Back Issues

Obtainable from the Academy office (address at bot-

tom of opposite column): Proceedings: Vols. 1-13

(1898-1910) Index: To Vols. 1-13 of the Proceedings

and Vols. 1-40 of the Journal Journal: Back issues,

volumes, and sets (Vols. 1-62, 1911-1972) and all cur-

rent issues. ;

Claims for Missing Numbers

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lowed because of failure to notify the Academy of a

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Published quarterly in March, June, September, and December of each year by the

Washington Academy of Sciences, 9650 Rockville Pike, Washington, D.C. Second class

postage paid at Washington, D.C. and additional mailing offices.

DELEGATES TO THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,

REPRESENTING THE LOCAL AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Binlaseaphical Society of WaSniMOton. .. 65 = 26.6 v2 ois 6 Sees cos ve ne eld oe chee es Ralph P. Hudson

Panurepolorical Society OF Washington ... 5.22.2. 00s fede cee oe ee ee cee ee ecg ees Jean K. Boek

EMPTIES OCIClV Ole WV ASHMMPLON s.55-2)) el iy ors bl ees ee ee tee ce ead Slee whales wh ds Inactive

ae TE SOCICHY OF NV ASMINGTON: seiere 6 os was cid ols Ose ee are Sine ww a sed aes ak b eh vod ee eell David Venezky

Pemeiarical’ Socicty Of Washington 3. 2. os5065 okks eee eee wees aoe be abe ane eu oes Maynard Ramsay

MER GCE AIC SOCIGLY 6.64. Giese ba cross Saye es dre be ole oo eS v ea slsa Se aes 4 Alexander Wetmore

PEILD ISS SOG CORA ENS NTT) 00) gen ee Charles Milton

Memeaesecic yor the District of Columbia... ce. 0 sete s fe be Rhos ewe be ds teehee ee Inactive

Sea aT AM AOS 90K CAN SOC ICE Var fsa. ays eh coe sais ca neds Sgn a Da ae Un ole A DIRE a bua weeds Paul H. Oehser

Pee eMMESRCICI VEO WASHINGTON) 65). 6s. 5s cic oo a cee Rl OS 8's Hab RO ASHE eee EOS Conrad B. Link

SE TLEEY Cif ANTRSVETORT IT BCT Pot 5 ee saa ea ee Alfred A. Wiener

Seat RE SOCICHY, Ol PNGIMCEIS:.¢ | .e c.2 ce con oa schwis ehe eee cles eacs cess Seeetes George Abraham

insarurcon Electrical and Blectronics Engineers... .. 4.5.2. 2s nee ee eee George Abraham

PmbHeanesectcty of Mechanical ENgineers .... 60s) os sad eee ee cde cde sae eee de Michael Chi

Hemmunhological Society of Washington 2... 2.0560 2000.0. sie ce cece ee eee eee James H. Turner

Pee HE SOCICLY. 10f MICTODIOIORY 5 sei ots «oc code ne ees sis Bee ws eas a else Sadree ess Thomas Cook

Parmer merican Military ENSINCEDs ..6 o..ce se cos ok wed cs cece cess ee eesacaucees H.P. Demuth

American Society of Civil Engineers .............. Peete SPIE arate ens ade Ores ovei cise: ts Shou Shan Fan

ReMicuvaieiee xpenmental Biology and MeGICINE . . 2.6.2.5 6.06. ccs ceeds eee e eee ena wde Donald Flick

A SRE ESTP SDGTS RY LEOTe I ISTE SR GS oe Glen W. Wensch

MaectinatienaleAssociation Of Dental Research... ..... 0)... osc ce ee cee ew eee e eae nes No delegate

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics ............. 0. ccc cece cece eens Franklin Ross

Pe ERE (COLOlOPICal SOCICLY ~.. «Susi so ceceicice cs Wok vise b's Sie owls c ea ee oa ele 6 wbaes A. James Wagner

MP eMIMCESEEICUVL OF VVASHINETON < 5.5. < snes Oc kon ie ce Unio beide wc oe ewig le elde ses Robert J. Argauer

AE DLS ST SDCTE ECT IMA U1 11S (C2 ne gr Gerald J. Franz

Ee TMI Ae SOCICLY go ee ok EE ee oe eS IE Le UE she Bde eee Dick Duffey

ame EOIOOM, TECHNOIOGISES, 220.5 5 sicca oS ned oats we ewe doe Salado blenlew waa Fs William Sulzbacher

A CUEFIOED CSAUCITC SIUC Te 0s lense re ein Ue, aS a RPC Po Ap ie ene A Inactive

eee PMC TRANS CU SOCIOL Yoo test Cara sna toaesod oe AEN oe SiS La EO eS Hae Delegate not appointed

DC Pane TISE OLY “Ol. SCIENCE GIUD 35 fog. ic. 0 scare sv uw so 8 Ree RES Ok bce 6 Mek ads Inactive

Pmencanesssociation Of Physics Teachers ii. 0.0 0s... 2256 2s NSN ee bs eh ea ee Bernard B. Watson

ees ENP IN AOL AGHCLICD 5: 5..o ssi Ne Sin Fok oh hina bw traces Neraleteleiaeta aie Ronald W. Weynant

PEMchicanE Society. of Plant PhySiOlOgistS: «6. acs Soc ice os ek news eee owen wees caw Walter Shropshire

Piauaeren) Operations: Research Counell .. 2.5.6.5 5. 56a ce se ede ont ode T a wee de ss John G. Honig

a AES OCC TY “Ole ATTIOHI CAN coo oir Nie uses nha cue tts sae ene MV SIS Ls RR OG wa as Clee Inactive

American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical

aE UEC TIE PARE CUS ee. oye, eee sy he ic ce oars ces ee Aten ie Lae 2s Carl H. Cotterill

Cen Ee AIM Ol ANS TF OMGOTMENS 156 i Sate se Cees sees GAY aS OE Saks aa SO eee John A. Eisele

Bee BCA ASSOCIILION, OL PAMICIICA® 2 h.00c.c 0k ahs's 0295 oie akg vk oo Oke os eae se Patrick Hayes

eS AIOE CLICHHSES Cte re oe cs Bein ik Caan ds sha woe & eRe Ln Miloslav Recheigl, Jr.

BEES CUOIOCICAl ASSOCTALIOIN 2 2.0 wi ils'c se. ciel eke beidrece'e. odode moeke Bok. bine OLA w wee BRR John O’ Hare

Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the representative societies.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976 125

FEATURES

Science, Engineering, and Social Change!

H. Guyford Stever

Director, National Science Foundation and Science Advisor to the President,

Washington, D. C. 20550

The role of the after-dinner speaker

seems to be growing more difficult each

year. Today’s speaker is expected to

address the serious issues of our time

and come up with answers. At the same

time, he is expected to be entertaining,

and to keep in mind such things as the

high cost of babysitting, and the desire

of some of his audience to get home on

time to catch the 11 o’clock TV news.

The worst fate is to be speaking on a

Monday evening, knowing that all the

men in your audience are silently cursing

you for each play and instant replay of

Monday night football they miss.

Fortunately, this is not Monday night.

Nevertheless, Ill try to take the other

factors into consideration. I want to

speak broadly, and briefly, on a subject

that I think is of importance to us not

only as members of the engineering

community but also as citizens —citizens

of arather problem-filled, perplexed, and

impatient world.

There are a number of reasons why it

is such a world. Two of them are science

and engineering, and their offspring,

technology. I am not blaming science or

technology for our current predicament.

Others have made this a pastime and a

profession by attempting to prove that

science and technology have somewhat

‘ Presented at the Annual Banquet, Washington

Society of Engineers, Nov. 21, 1975, National

Aviation Club, Washington, D. C.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

obtained a life of their own and taken

us in directions we did not want to go.

I do not believe this. Science and tech-

nology have given us, at each point in

history, what we wanted or thought we

wanted. They have been among our prin-

cipal forces for social and environmental

change, and will continue to be. It is only

today — within recent years—that we are

beginning to realize the extent to which

this process, with both its good and bad

effects, has been taking place, and the

consequences it holds for the future. In

short, we have gained an important new

insight into the relationship of science

and technology to social and environ-

mental change. And this insight, as evi-

denced by the great surge of public in-

terest and participation in the direction

and management of technological change,

indicates what may be the beginning of

a new maturity and wisdom on the part

of society in dealing with its future.

That technology has been a major initi-

ator of social change can be seen every-

where in the past. This is true, for ex-

ample, in the role it has played in changing

the condition of women in society. Take

the matter of Women’s Lib. With all due

respect to the present influence of the

Betty Friedans, Gloria Steinems, and

Germaine Greers in influencing the activi-

ties and outlooks of women today, there

were others over the years whose work

changed women’s lives, and sometimes

quite radically. Unfortunately, they were

127

all men, with such names as Elias Howe,

Alexander Graham Bell, C. L. Sholes,

Gail Borden, Clarence Birdseye, and

Charles Kettering. It was their innova-

tions which changed the conditions and

positions of women in society as much

if not more than the social champions of

their era. Take for example, the invention

of Elias Howe—the sewing machine.

Before this invention, four-fifths of all

clothing in America was made in the

home. The sewing machine moved most

of that activity out of the home and into

the factory, and with it, both for better

and worse, came changes in the lives of

millions of women.

Bell’s invention of the telephone and

Sholes invention of the typewriter had

similar effects. They literally helped

create the working girl, and the condi-

tions that led to women’s suffrage. At

the same time the innovations of men like

Borden in canning and later Birdseye in

frozen foods changed the work of women

in the home. And I mentioned Charles

Kettering of General Motors because it

has been said that his invention of the

automatic starter put women in the

driver’s seat in more ways than one, and

perhaps liberated women more at the

time than the work of Susan B. Anthony

and her suffragettes.

Just so I may give equal time to the men

in this audience, let me mention that there

were a number of inventions that changed

the lives of men too. Many of these were

what we might consider today simple

innovations, yet they changed the course

of history and the face of continents. One

was the invention of the stirrup, which

placed the knight on horseback and

allowed the growth of the feudal system.

Another was the invention of barbed

wire, which opened the western United

States to ranching and farming.

These may seem like small, inconse-

quential changes alongside those taking

place today. Yet they are the kind of tech-

nological influences that continue to grow

and have implications, both predictable

and unknown, for the future. For example,

no one would have considered a few

years ago that today’s refrigerants and

128

aerosol propellants might pose a future

threat to the environment and human

health. But there is mounting evidence

that this may be the case.

At the same time the continuing revolu-

tion in food processing raises some inter-

esting questions related to our eating

habits and our future nutrition. One

reason for this is because two-thirds of

today’s meals are now eaten away from

the home, and the percentage is growing.

The result is that the control of our nutri-

tion is going more into the hands of the

food processing and food service indus-

tries, with many scientific and regulatory

implications. (I learned this, by the way,

at an NSF seminar recently conducted

entirely by women nutrition experts.)

As I mentioned before, it is very

significant that we have now begun to

question and seek better control over the

relationship between our scientific and

technological changes and their effects

on society. And I would like to spend

the balance of my remarks on a few

aspects of this situation—what it means

for science and engineering, the Govern-

ment, and the public.

This new awareness of the large-scale

social and environmental effects of

science and technology adds a substantial

number of new responsibilities and diffi-

culties to those already borne by the

science and engineering communities.

For those of us on the optimistic side

we prefer to call them challenges and

opportunities. Nevertheless, they will

make great demands on us in terms of

calling for more and better basic research,

greater ingenuity and innovation in

applying what we learn so that it can

serve the best interest of society, and

efforts to establish a closer working

relationship with that society. This last

demand must include a strong move to

improve public understanding of science

and technology. It must particularly

convey a better knowledge of their limita-

tions as well as their potentials, and an

understanding of the costs, risks, and

benefits involved in the technological and

social alternatives being offered to

society by science and engineering. This

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

is an especially important matter in the

kind of participatory and activist society

evolving today. Unless we can improve

the lines of communication and the

dialogue between the expert and the

citizen, we are going to be a society that

is neither technologically sound nor polit-

ically satisfied—one in which we will

not have the best technologies available;

one of public confusion, distrust, and lack

of support.

In all cases involving scientific and

technological knowledge and innovations

the public has a right to know—and

should know—what these are, how they

work, and how they can affect its future.

There are a great many ways that this is

being done today, particularly through

public hearings involving environmental

matters such as the siting of powerplants

and other public engineering projects

which come under Federal regulation and

are subject to NEPA—the National

Environmental Policy Act. Most of you

are quite familiar with this so I won’t

go into detail on it. The National Science

Foundation, however, is now expanding

on this concept of involving the public

in scientific and technological affairs

through new programs we are consid-

ering in our Science Education Direc-

torate. One of these—called Science and

the Citizen—will seek to bring the

experts and the average citizen closer

together. It will support a program that

will allow scientists and engineers on

university faculties, and their graduate

and undergraduate students, to meet with

citizens’ groups to discuss and advise

them on matters of public decisions

involving complex scientific and tech-

nical knowledge. Beginning the first of

next month, we are going to hold a series

of regional meetings in seven major cities

to get the public’s reaction and input to

this proposed program.

On a broader scale we are supporting

Science education programs in our

schools and universities that should lead

to improved science literacy on the part

of all our future citizens. We hope this

will facilitate the process of making wise

choices when it comes to choosing among

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

complex technological options in the

years ahead.

Up to this point I have been empha-

sizing the roles of the experts and the

public in the discussion of technological

assessment and alternatives. Let me say

a few words about the Government’s role.

That role is critical for a number of

reasons. One of these is that the Federal

Government supports about 60% of the

Nation’s research and development, and

particularly the R & D which determines

long-term trends in technology. This, of

course, does not preempt private in-

dustry from research that will lead to

important breakthroughs, but it does

make it more likely that industry will

get much of its impetus for innovation

through Federally supported work. We

are, therefore, concentrating a great deal

of effort these days on making the

research results that come out of this

work available to industry and to State

and local government. This effort goes

under the name of ‘resource utili-

zation’’—the resource being chiefly

knowledge—which is going to have an

increasing influence on how well we use

all our material and energy resources

in the years ahead.

Another way that the Federal Govern-

ment influences the flow of the best

research and technologies into public

use is through its regulatory powers, and

through the incentives and disincentives

it can create through legislation, taxes,

subsidies, and so forth. We are very

interested in and concerned about this

matter today, and trying to come up with

more and better ways to get new and

advanced ideas into public use so that

they can be accepted and take hold

economically. This includes such con-

cepts as the solar heating of buildings.

As I’m sure you know, Federal

agencies and the Congress are strongly

involved in the matter of technology

assessment—examining the possible

long-range environmental and _ social

effects of proposed technologies and new

technological and social systems. The

Congress has its new Office of Tech-

nology Assessment, and we at NSF have

129

an Office of Exploratory Research and

Systems Analysis (ERSA), responsible

for supporting research in this field.

Technology assessment is a relatively

new field and is considered by many at

this point to be as much an art as ascience.

With this in mind, and interested in

finding out what people in Government,

the universities, industry, and various

professions thought about the matter,

NSF a few years ago sponsored an

extensive survey, part of which was

devoted to finding out what subjects these

people thought would be important candi-

dates for an assessment. More than 600

experts were polled and they came up

with some 188 technologies. The list

holds a great variety of concepts, some

quite possible to implement today or in

a few years, others requiring probably

years of work before they could be

adopted. And they deal with social as

well as technological concepts. Here are

a few examples from that list:

e Fabricated foods using soy and other

protein bases properly textured and

flavored.

e Bacterial and viral substitutes for

chemical pesticides.

e Electrical power generation using

nuclear breeder reactors.

e Government data bank recording

social security, tax, medical, mili-

tary service, criminal, educational,

and other information on nearly

everyone.

e Automated hog farming.

Sperm and ova banks.

e A national population dispersion

policy leading to the creation of new

towns.

e Chromosome typing for abnormali-

ties in humans within weeks of

conception.

e Accredited TV colleges and univer-

sities.

e High speed trains (200 miles per

hour) connecting large cities.

e Limited weather control.

e Alimony insurance.

Those are a small number—a rather

random sampling—of the 188 tech-

130

nologies suggested for assessment. I

chose those particular examples because

they include some ideas that are essen-

tially here and in use today, others

possible soon and already being debated,

and a few that are still only remote

possibilities. For example, we already

see in our supermarkets a few food items

fabricated from protein bases that have

been accepted by the consumer. But this

is On a very small scale. If this were to

be developed extensively, and we as a

nation began to switch largely to soybean

and alfalfa-based foods in place of meats

for our protein, the changes in our agri-

cultural economy as well as those of

other nations could be very significant.

Such changes would have their effect

on our land and water management, our

energy use, employment, and many other

situations. And we don’t know how

strong these effects would be.

In the case of the adoption of the

breeder reactor, there is already a

national assessment taking place on

several levels—within the Government

and by public interest groups—with the

outcome perhaps several years off.

We have seen a few small examples

of population dispersion to new towns

such as Reston and Columbia. But what

would happen if a national decision was

made to do this on a very large scale

throughout the country?

We know the dangers of using chemical

pesticides, but also their advantages.

What would a shift to bacterial and viral

pesticides mean? How would it affect

agricultural productivity? What would its

long-range implications be for wildlife

and human health?

And as far as tampering with human

conception, genes or even matters related

to marriage and divorce, these also have

complex and far-reaching consequences,

many of which are already being debated.

I have intentionally mixed technical

and social innovations in my list because

I think we are going to find them increas-

ingly overlapping in their activities and

influences. Hence, we are going to find

assessment a field growing in its inter-

disciplinary aspects and in the need for

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

people of widely different interests and

disciplines to cooperate closely. This

means that, perhaps, physicists and

psychologists, seismologists and social

scientists, and even engineers and ento-

mologists may find themselves working

together in ways they never imagined.

Of course, there will be a great number

of us in science and engineering who will

not be involved in this way, but will

remain concerned primarily with ad-

vancing our own fields, broadening the

base of knowledge, refining existing

technologies, and innovating in familiar

areas. In this way we will be laying the

groundwork for our incremental progress

and the development of alternatives to

those new ideas which go through the

mill of assessment and are found wanting.

Now that we are so acutely aware of

the possible environmental and social

implications of our new technologies we

will need more than ever enough alter-

natives and new ideas to be flexible and

avoid the crises that come from de-

pending too heavily on any one break-

through or purported panacea. I think

we are slowly beginning to see that we

live in a world where the only permanent

thing is change, and where even con-

ditions of stability are dynamic. This does

not mean we cannot pursue a utopian

vision or hold on to and live by long-

cherished values. It does mean we have

to grow in our knowledge and under-

standing, and in our science and tech-

nology, to control and direct the changes

they can bring. If we do this it is possible

to build a society and a world that, if not

perfect, is at least free from many of the

problems and fears we face today. And

that, I believe, is a very worthwhile— and

obtainable — goal.

The Role of Research in Agriculture’

J. Phil Campbell

Under Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. (retired).

Of all the modern miracles fashioned

and achieved by man—from television

to atomic energy and space exploration—

none has proved more beneficial to

mankind than American agriculture. Yet,

fortunately for the world, the dimensions

of its future have not yet been discovered.

Granted, we have been blessed with

hundreds of millions of acres of fertile

land in the United States and a climate

ideally suited to continuing bountiful

' Presented at a joint meeting of the Washington

Academy of Sciences and the Helminthological

Society of Washington, November 20, 1975,

Cosmos Club, Washington, D.C.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

agricultural production. Still, there are

other countries which have not yet begun

to match our agricultural production,

even though they, too, possess quantities

of arable land.

There are good reasons American

agriculture leads the. world.

First, we inherited and nurture a

politico-economic system that encourages

farmers to produce. No other political

system has ever provided so well for a

nation as the continuing American

Experiment. At the same time, no other

economic system can coax so much

efficient productivity from the farmer and

his coworkers in the food chain as

131

America’s capitalistic free enterprise

system.

Secondly, our American agricultural

miracle springs from a unique system of

scientific discovery and information dis-

semination that invariably meets and

usually surpasses the needs of its time.

It is a system that is supported by the

American people through all levels of

their government, as well as through

private enterprise, the scientific com-

munity, the educational system and the

farmer themselves.

Our winning combination is incom-

parable. Yet we want to share the pro-

duction that flows from our labor and

genius as well as the know-how that

produced our success. Practical as well

as generous, Americans know they can-

not feed all the world today, much less

the world of tomorrow, and that the more

nations which benefit from adoption of

our successful methods, the better.

Millions in the underdeveloped world

need the kind of productivity that science

and the farmer have achieved in America.

Consider:

e The time required to produce 100

bushels of corn in America has

dropped from 135 hours to just 6

hours in 60 years.

e The number of man-hours required

to produce 100 bushels of wheat

dropped from 106 to 9 in the same

period.

e In 1970-74, it took somewhat less

than 1 American man-hour to pro-

duce 100 lbs. of turkey. In 1910-14,

it took nearly 4 working days (31.4

man-hours).

e One hour’s farm labor now produces

nearly 9 times more than it did in

192%.

e In 50 years, U. S. crop productivity

per acre has more than doubled.

e The average farm worker in the

United States today supplies food

and fiber for 52 persons. Just 10 years

ago he was producing enough for

29. By comparison, a farm worker in

the Soviet Union today produces

enough for only 8 persons, while

132

a farm worker in France produces

enough for only 14.

e While an estimated one-third of the

work force in the Soviet Union is

engaged in agriculture, only 5% of

the work force in America is em-

ployed on farms. The other 95% is

free to produce such consumer

goods as refrigerators and auto-

mobiles, and to provide such needed

services as medical care.

e There were 242 times as many

farmers in America in 1950 as there

are today, yet agricultural output in

this country last year was twice what

it was 20 years ago. Obviously, we

must be doing something right.

Frankly, it is time the world recognizes

and applauds those scientists—past and

present—who have painstakingly per-

severed throughout the years to provide

our farmers with the keys that unlocked

such productivity.

Consider, for instance, the men and

women through the years who made it

possible for the United States to produce

half of the world’s corn in today’s market.

The development of hybrid corn and its

utilization in the United States has

become a classic example of the team-

work between scientist and farmer which

made the American agricultural miracle

possible. In the 1930s, 22 bushels per

acre was the average corn yield in the

United States. Today, the average is

about 95 bushels per acre. In 1973, one

farmer actually produced 306 bushels per

acre. And we’re still working with corn,

changing its color, its growing habits and

its nutritional content. ~

The number of our successes is

virtually endless, and the range is equally

impressive. Not only do we breed leaner

hogs to meet changing consumer pref-

erences, but we feed them better and

keep them healthier. Scientists and

farmers and those who help them have

practically eliminated hog cholera and

cattle brucellosis, two deadly livestock

killers, in this country.

It is the genius of man which stands out

when we look closely at the miracle of

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

American agriculture. The golden soy-

bean, said to be the world’s most effec-

tive producer of protein per acre, has a

history in the Orient that goes back more

than 3,000 years, yet it achieved its

present great stature as a hunger fighter

in the United States. Even the chicken

is not anative American bird, but a jungle

fowl of India and the Far East, brought

to this country by the first European

settlers. Which nation coverted the

Sunday special dinner into an everyday

feast at the dinner tables of millions of

people? You guessed it. America.

The economic benefits of such scientific

progress are immeasurable. Marek’s dis-

ease in poultry, for instance, was costing

the United States more than $200 million a

year until an effective vaccine was devel-

oped. Now losses have been cut by more

than 70%. Sometimes our successes

sound like the alchemy of changing lead

into gold. Scientists in my native state of

Georgia, for example, converted one of

nature’s peskiest grasses, common ber-

mudagrass, into an outstanding forage

plant by cross-breeding it with grasses

from South Africa.

I could go on and on. Each of you could

think of a dozen great scientific break-

throughs in agriculture that I have not

mentioned, discoveries that helped

change the course of history at least to

some extent. We who are close to Amer-

ican agriculture know the value of our

scientific accomplishments and it is only

human if we should wish that our work

be more appreciated. Beyond a doubt,

the delicately balanced forces of our

world are more stable today because

American agriculture is producing

enough to export $20 billion worth of

urgently needed farm products in the

world markets. That alone should

generate appreciation from the _ pre-

dominantly nonfarm-oriented segment of

our society. I can’t help wondering if the

Same stabilizing effect would result if

some other country were supplying these

femeeds.

Still, we do not seek appreciation so

that we may hear praise. We seek it,

_ father, so that when Americans assess

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

the role that they must play in solving

the problems of tomorrow, they will

realize the full worth of the tools they

already possess. Certainly, the miracle of

American agriculture is among America’s

and the world’s most potent implements

for good.

We in America cannot begin to absorb

the full productivity of our agriculture.

American farmers now are setting pro-

duction records in nearly every major

crop almost routinely. Yet consumers in

the United States, on an annual basis,

use only 40% of the wheat, less than half

the rice, one-half the soybeans, 60% of

the tobacco, two-thirds of the cotton and

three-fourths of the corn the American

farmers produce. Our successful agricul-

tural system demands markets beyond our

borders. That part of our production

which is not used at home is exported

for cash to meet the needs of customers

abroad, rather than being stored as

surplus, which was the unfortunate dis-

position of much of our production in

years past. Today, the markets are there

and I am convinced they will expand,

with fluctuations, in the years ahead.

American agriculture is a miracle today

because the scientists and farmers of

yesterday found the answers to yester-

day’s problems and more. There was a

time, in the early years of this nation,

when “‘going west’’ solved the problem

of infertile soil. When the white man first

came to this land of promise, he cleared

land and worked it until he had drained

it of its nutrients. As productivity de-

clined, he moved on. Then he cleared

more land or plowed up the native grass

and started farming in his new location.

Americans repeated this process until

finally there were no new lands left to

settle. Yields per acre sank lower and

lower as fertility declined. As they faced

an ever-growing population, Americans

saw their geographical frontiers suddenly

restricted by two oceans and the borders

of Mexico and Canada.

They turned to the new frontiers of

increased production. With the intro-

duction of the cotton gin, cotton produc-

tion in the South soared from 10,500 bales

133

in 1793 to 4% million bales in 1861. Steel

and polished iron plowshares were de-

veloped to open the heavy, sticky soils

of the prairie. The mechanical grain

reaper multiplied the harvests. A revolu-

tion was underway on American farms

in the 1800s, just decades after the politi-

cal revolution freed us as a Nation to

pursue our own destiny. It was the

beginning of the modern miracle of

American agriculture.

In their wisdom, our leaders in 1862

created the U. S. Department of Agricul-

ture, ‘‘the general designs and duties of

which shall be to acquire and to diffuse

among the people of the United States

useful information on subjects connected

with agriculture in the most general and

comprehensive sense of that word, and

to procure, propagate, and distribute

among the people new and valuable seeds

and plants.’’ The same year, the Congress

passed the Morrill Act, which established

our uniquely successful Land Grant

University system. A hundred years ago

this year, another significant step was

taken in Connecticut—the first State

Agricultural Experiment Station was

opened.

At this point, nearly all of the ingre-

dients of the miracle were in place. Later

(in 1887), the Hatch Act provided for a

nationwide system of State Experiment

Stations, and (in 1914), the Smith-Lever

Act created the Cooperative Extension

Service. Both moves were immeasurably

successful and key contributors to the

American agricultural miracle. Then and

later, farmers found they needed all the

help they could get just to stay even in

the face of world surpluses, depressed

prices and competition. Now, a more

demanding (though no less competitive)

world benefits from the successes of the

system we created.

From the beginning, the challenges to

our system have been real. But we grew

stronger, rather than weaker, as we met

them. As recently as in 1970, our agricul-

tural science community was tried and

proven strong. That was the year the

corn blight Helminthosporium maydis

struck the corn crop of the United States

134

and reduced it 20-25%. But we had a

scientific team put together that could

stop the blight in its tracks within a short

period of time. Within 24 months we had

a bountiful supply of blight resistant corn

seed. The episode, however, gave us a

warning. It reminded us—scientists,

farmers, and government employees

alike—of the danger of widespread

dependence upon plants which are genet-

ically uniform. Find a disease that can

kill one such plant and you could wipe

out the entire crop of a nation, we were

reminded.

Our American agricultural system is the

miracle of the modern world, but it is

not without problems. When the scientist

brings a new and shiny tool of production

to the farmer, for instance, there have

been times when the farmer felt he could

not afford to employ it. With the scien-

tist’s previous help the farmer may have

produced a record crop, but the prices

he received for that production may have

been discouragingly low. Fortunately,

with new and expanded markets at home

and abroad today, the prices of farm

products have brought returns that cover ~

the cost of modern agricultural tech-

nology. Traditionally, farmers have been

limited in the use of new technology by

low prices.

The American farmer has entered into

a new day of well-being, with all-time

highs set in net income—$29¥% billion in

1973; $27.7 billion in 1974 and an esti-

mated $25 billion this year. With this has

come a great surge in crop production

per acre and more efficient production

of livestock and livestock products.

Previously, for several years, farm

income in the United States fluctuated

between $11 billion and $17 billion, and

$2 to $4 billion of that came out of the

pockets of American taxpayers as a

subsidy.

Because of today’s favorable climate

and an encouraging outlook for marketing

in the future, most of the fruits of research

available today have been adopted by

farmers. It is imperative that new tech-

nology be developed for ready use when

the marketplace demands it. What are

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976 |

some of those needs, as we see them

today?

A meeting of scientists, farm leaders

and interested others in Kansas City,

Mo. in July indicated which direction

we must take. Energy is the field which

should claim our first priority in research,

the conference decided. The agricultural

scientist’s interest in energy spans a wide

area, from strip mining to photosynthesis,

from reduced tillage to frozen foods.

Farming uses only 2.8 percent of the total

fuel consumption in the United States,

but there is always room for improvement

in efficiency. The science-farmer team

has already made fuel savings on reduced

or no-tillage operations common through-

out the United States. But a further 20%

reduction in tillage by 1980 could reduce

fuel requirements for tractors by about

425 million gallons that year alone. Partly

offsetting this, of course, might be the

increased use of energy to produce more

pesticides and more _ reduced-tillage

equipment.

Strip mining could become a major

problem in the northern Great Plains as

the Nation strives to find substitutes for

foreign-produced oil. About 45% of the

Nation’s coal reserves are in the Dakotas,

-Montana and Wyoming and the terrain

invites intensive strip mining. But unlike

the East, where the mine spoil material

is highly acidic, a big problem in the West

is the high concentration of salts in the

spoil material. Research findings so far

are beginning to form the basis of a

technology for returning vast areas of the

northern plains to productive agriculture

after coal extraction. Researchers, for

instance, believe that the four-wing

saltbush may be a promising native

browse plant economically useful for

Teclamation of spoil surfaces. Sheep,

cattle, antelope and deer like it, too.

The second highest priority for re-

_ Search assigned by the Working Con-

ference to Meet U.S. and World Food

~ Needs was increased soybean produc-

_ tion. Soybeans, one of our most important

crops, have stubbornly resisted research

efforts to increase yields. The average

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

yield per acre was 20.1 bushels in 1955

while this year it is an estimated 28.4

bushels. Soybean research has taken

many approaches to the problem already,

with physiologists probing the photosyn-

thesis route and nutritionists seeking

ways to make the plant use fertilizer

nitrogen more efficiently. Other re-

searchers are seeking clues by studying

the overall relationship between plant

and nematodes, one of the great natural

enemies of soybean production.

The third priority area for research

assigned by the conference was the more

efficient use of water for agricultural

production. The problem is as old as

agriculture itself and promises no let-up

in the future. For one thing, if the coal

mined in low rainfall regions of the West

were to be processed there, considerable

quantities of water might be required,

perhaps competing with agricultural

needs in some localized areas.

The conference decided the fourth

priority should be assigned to research

on basic problems in plant growth and

production, while fifth priority should go

to the determination of the nutrient re-

quirements of people. Beyond those, a

wide range of other potential research

subjects were listed in descending order

of priority. These weren’t the decisions

of scientists alone or of farmers alone or

of consumers alone. Spokesmen for

farmers, ranchers, food processors, con-

sumers, marketing firms, nutritionists,

farm organizations, labor unions, inter-

national development experts, environ-

mentalists and federal and state re-

searchers attended that conference.

The setting of priorities on such a scope

shows us surely that the miracle of

American agriculture continues to thrive

and grow strong.

American agriculture continues to

meet its challenges. Farmers can look

forward to continuing good years ahead,

though occasional bad years will creep in

because of poor weather or low prices.

More than ever, successful farmers will

continue to need the fruits of research. I

am confident they will get them.

135

Experiences of an Engineer,

Who Happens To Be a Woman

Carol J. Lehtola

Agricultural Engineer, University of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742

ABSTRACT

The Equal Employment Opportunity laws see to it that women can get employment

in the engineering field; however, getting a job is only a small part of it. Women in

engineering face several problems and challenges—some subtle, some blatant—that

are discussed.

General Attitudes

‘‘Engineers who are women’’ and

‘‘women engineers”’ are not one and the

same. Therein lies the key to the biggest

problem and challenge facing women in

the engineering field today.

An engineer is a person who applies

scientific principles to practical ends as

the design, construction, and operation

of efficient and economical structures,

equipment, and systems to solve the prob-

lems of our time and improve our stand-

ard of living. Engineers have several

traits in common, among which are: The

ability to solve problems, an interest in

mathematics and science, and an urge to

make creative use of their intelligence. Is

it necessary to mention that these traits

cannot be defined as either masculine or

feminine, but rather as ‘‘personine’’?

However, society presents these as

masculine traits and discourages women

from using their intelligence by expecting

them to avoid responsibility, decision

making, and competition, and by under-

rating their ability. This was expertly

summed up in the February issue of the

Reader’s Digest in Dr. David Reuben’s

article, ‘‘The Marriage Game.’’ Dr.

Reuben states, ‘‘A whole mythology has

been developed; through endless jokes

and cartoons, about women who crumple

fenders, burn dinners, can’t balance the

checkbook and spend all their time play-

ing bridge with the girls. There are, un-

136

fortunately, no cartoons or jokes featur-

ing the women who don’t do these

things, but who hold down full-time jobs,

create gourmet meals and when the day is

over, become provocative companions.”’

Thirty-three percent of Russia’s en-

gineers are women, 1% of America’s

engineers are women. Are American fe-

males less intelligent than Russia’s, or is

it due to the fact that in Russia, a woman’s

intelligence is accepted and utilized? It

is unfortunate that this country continues

placing numerous social stigmas on the

intelligence of women rather than utilizing

this vast intellectual potential.

When a man makes a career choice of

engineering, choosing a career for which

he is suited is the only thing he must

resolve. However, a woman is faced with

two items of concern—that of choosing a

career (which in itself goes against the

norm of society); and that of resolving

the inner conflict of doing something that

is considered masculine and consequently

the fear of not being accepted in the career

for which one’s abilities are best suited.

Women who are in engineering are usually

of strong character, tend to be more stub-

born, and are not afraid of going against

the accepted norm of society.

Once a woman is in the engineering

profession she may encounter some ob-

stacles. These obstacles are a result of

the attitudes—some subtle, some bla-

tant—that have developed from the

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

}

mythology about women. Engineers who

are women are too often looked upon as

women engineers, thus all the social stig-

mas are attached. Consequently, we have

an intelligent person who is fully capable

of solving problems, being creative and

dedicated; however, she cannot be given

full responsibility and a decision-making

position, since she is a woman.

Let us examine some of these myths,

connotations, and prejudices:

Longevity in the Work Force

Many employers feel that it’s not worth

the cost and investment of training, etc.

for a woman since she will drop out of the

work force in a short time to raise a family.

Isn’t that a decision to be made by the

woman, not her employer? When an em-

ployer hires a man he has no guarantee

as to how long he will stay there. If a

woman has made it through engineering

school and into the business world,

chances are pretty good she’s not going

to give up her career too easily.

It is also said that a woman will put her

family first; certainly a man should too!

Many women successfully combine

career and family. An excellent example

of this was Dr. Lillian Moller Gilbreth,

a very prominent woman in the field of

industrial engineering and management.

She also happened to be the mother of

twelve children—which is recounted in

the book, ‘‘Cheaper By the Dozen.”’

Travel |

Many women are denied the travel

which may be necessary for their job

or for their career development since it is

felt they may not be able to fend for them-

selves. Anybody who can get through

engineering school is perfectly capable

of riding on an airplane, renting a car,

following directions, and carrying a suit-

_ case. Any person who can drive in the

rush-hour traffic of our asphalt jungles

to work every day should be just as safe

attending an engineering conference in

Chicago or Los Angeles.

Travel is even more frowned upon if a

_man from the office must also go on the

_ J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

trip. In this situation a woman takes with

her a suitcase containing the taboos and

fears of society which are amplified by the

attitudes of co-workers and wives.

Influence

It is frequently stated that ‘‘women

subtly influence men.’’ The irony of this

statement is that for a woman this is con-

sidered to be a bad characteristic and is

detrimental; whereas if a man has this

trait, it is known as leadership.

Women are having an influence on the

engineering field as a whole by ‘‘soften-

ing’’ its image. People are beginning to

realize that engineers work in decent en-

vironments and solve challenging prob-

lems rather than just tramping around at

construction sites in hip boots and hard

hats.

Management

It is usually stated that women can’t

be promoted to management since men

won’t work for women. This goes back to

society’s stigma of men being superior

and women inferior. People work for

people and engineers work for engineers.

To be a manager one must be competent

in the profession, have self-confidence,

and be able to cooperate with others. One

must also be compassionate, under-

standing, and tactful. These are traits

which, again, can’t be attributed as

specifically masculine or feminine, but

personine.

Personal Experiences

An agricultural engineer is an engineer

who applies the principles of engineering

to agricultural problems such as soil and

water conservation, waste management,

power and machinery, food processing,

farm structures, and energy conservation.

The combination of growing up on a

farm, being interested in soil conserva-

tion, and liking math and science led me

to select agricultural engineering as my

career. During the summers (between

college terms) I gained work experience

by working as a student trainee engineer

with the USDA-Soil Conservation Serv-

137

ice. I was fortunate in that they did not

deprive me of field work (one of the

reasons I chose agricultural engineering

was to be able to work outside); however,

they did ask if I wanted to do field work,

whereas for a man this is taken for

granted.

Being an engineer who happens to be

a woman has at times had its problems.

Such things as convincing the profes-

sional societies’ mailing lists that it’s

Mrs., not Mr.; thatif I am to be an officer,

if I’m good enough to be a secretary, why

not president?; when surveying in the field

and climbing up and down gullies, pants

will split; yes, Ican carry my own transit;

and yes, I can change a flat tire!

A frequent problem is that the people

with whom I work will tend to assume

what I want to do, rather than let me make

my own decisions, especially when it

comes to achoice between desk work and

field work. They will assume (rather than

ask) that I’d prefer to do the desk or lab

work. ,

I worked in industry for a year and en-

countered a major obstacle. My manager

refused to give me any challenging work

or anything that may require training since

he had the attitude that “‘women only

have a career of about seven years.”’

He also was the very protective father

image and wouldn’t let me stand on

my own two feet, lest I fall. Needless

was that his manager was a very compe-

tent engineer who happened to be a

woman.

Fortunately, I find the engineer just out

of college is more capable of compre-

hending working with or for an engineer

who is a woman, than does a man who has

been on the job for 40 years. The younger

engineer is more likely to have had girls

in his engineering classes and after awhile

just takes it for granted that women can

138

be engineers. For example, if a female

told my husband she was an engineer

he’d probably just say, ‘“what’s unusual

about that?’’ Considering only 1% of

America’s engineers are women, he is

in a unique position—he is married to an

engineer, and in the group of six engineers

with whom he works, two are women.

Personally, I think engineering is a

good field for a woman. I am satisfied

with the career I selected and find it

challenging and rewarding. It’s a career

that trains a person to think and reason

things out. This aspect of engineering is

important, no matter where you are or

what you do.

Conclusion

Recruiting efforts, etc. are beginning

to make an impact, and girls with an in-

terest in math and science are starting

to consider engineering as a career choice.

In 1975 about 820 women were obtaining

engineering degrees in the U. S. and

about 1,000 are anticipated for the cur-

rent year.

As more women become successful in |

the engineering field, the stigmas should

gradually ebb away. The challenges and

problems faced by women in the profes-

sional fields are dynamic—they are con-

stantly changing. The law protects

women as far as employment goes— only

time, patience, competence, and success

will be able to fully remove the myths

and ‘‘old husband’s tales’’ that go with ©

being a woman. |

Let us stress the term good engineer, |

regardless whether man or woman. |

The most important thing that can be

done for women in engineering is to

emphasize the fact that they are engineers

who happen to be women, rather than

emphasizing women engineers.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

PROFILE

Benjamin Franklin, American Physicist*

Raymond J. Seeger

National Science Foundation (Retired), 4507 Wetherill Road, Bethesda, MD 20016.

Benjamin Franklin, called the first true

American, was born on January 17th

(NS) 270 years ago in the seaport town of

Boston, soon to become the cradle of

American liberty. His father, a tallow

chandler, was an emigré from England;

his mother, a Folger from Nantucket. He

was baptized across the street from his

home in the puritanical Old South meet-

ing house, where colonial patriots would

later congregate; a pragmatic freethinker,

a deist, he would be buried alongside his

Anglican common-law wife, Deborah

Read, in the Christ Church burial ground

in Philadelphia. Despite his inability to

marry his landlady’s daughter, owing to

the disappearance of her husband, and

her desire not to accompany him on his

sojourns abroad, he had a strong sense of

family ties and obligations, verging on —

nepotism; he early acknowledged publicly

his premarital illegitimate son William and

included him in his household.

When eight years old he entered the

one-room grammar school that later be-

came the Boston Latin School; two years

later he became its most famous dropout.

Self-educated, he received at 47 an

honorary M.A. from Harvard and from

Yale, at SO one from William and Mary,

‘Based on ‘‘Benjamin Franklin: New World

Physicist’’ by Raymond J. Seeger (Pergamon,

Oxford, 1973). This paper is written to celebrate

Franklin’s birthday in the Bicentennial year.

__ J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

at 53 an honorary LL.D from St.

Andrews (hence the appellation doctor)

and at 56 an honorary D.C.L. from

Oxford.

At twelve he was apprenticed to his

brother James, who published one of the

two Boston journals. Five years later he

ran away from Boston, which now boasts

a statue in his honor in front of its City

Hall, to metropolis Philadelphia, later to

become the capital of a new nation.

Penniless, he entered this city, which

now has a commemorative statue atop

its postoffice center. He worked there

and temporarily in London as a journey-

man printer. At 22 he opened his own

printing shop; two years later he became

the official printer for the Pennsylvania

Assembly. Personally ambitious, indus-

trious, and shrewd, he was able to retire

wealthy at 42 from active service. On a

statue in Washington, D.C., the front

bears the inscription Printer; his will

began, ‘‘I, Benjamin Franklin, Printer.’’

On the right side is inscribed Philan-

thropist, on the left Philosopher, and on

the back Patriot. A many-sided person-

ality, nevertheless he was an integrated

person.

At 16 he wrote letters under the

pseudonym of Silence Dogood for his

brother’s newspaper; seven years later he

himself started publishing the ‘‘Pennsyl-

vania Gazette’’ (later named the ‘‘Satur-

day Evening Post’’) and at 27 the annual

139

ae:

Fig. 1. Benjamin Franklin at 56 (M. Chamber-

lain, Metropolitan Museum of Art).

‘Poor Richard: an Almanack,’’ written

by a fictitious Richard Saunders. At 65,

during a week’s stay at the Twyford home

of his friend Jonathan Shipley, Bishop of

St. Asaph, he wrote Part I of a literary

classic for his son, his celebrated ‘**‘Auto-

biography’’ (Part II was begun at the age

of 78, Part III completed at 82, Part IV

unfinished). He wrote simply about the

daily concerns and intimate thoughts of

the first fifty years of the life of a self-

made man; it was not published until

1868. Later he was regarded as the best

writer in 18th-century America; some

even claim that he established the so-

called style of American literature.

A city man of affairs, he was active in

promoting the public welfare; he him-

self had a flare for organizing. He seemed

to be guided by Poor Richard’s apothegm

of 1857. *‘The noblest question in the

world is, ‘What good may I do with it?’ ”’

With nine leather-apron companions at 21

he formed the Junto, a society for mutual

improvement. To facilitate its activities

he organized four years later a Library

Co. (at the time of his death he had the

140

best and largest (4,000 volumes) private

library in the colonies); he himself was an

avid reader. At 30 he helped to form the

voluntary Union Fire Co.; in 1752 he was

instrumental in organizing a Fire Insur-

ance Co. At 31 he was appointed

Philadelphia postmaster; sixteen years

later he became a royal-appointed deputy

postmaster general of North America and

at 69 was elected the first postmaster

general by Congress. At 37 he proposed a

society for promoting useful knowledge,

which led to the founding of the American

Philosophical Society; upon its reor-

ganization in 1769 he became the first

president of this prestigious national

group. At 43 he became president of the

public Academy of Philadelphia (for —

practical education) which developed

subsequently into the University of

Pennsylvania. At 49 he assisted the ill-

equipped forces of General Edward

Braddock in procuring transportation and

helped to organize defense against

marauding Indians who were wont to

prey upon the peace-loving Quakers and

German settlers. The following year he

promoted the formation of a volunteer

Philadelphia militia. At 81 he was still

busy with organizations—for example,

he then helped form a Society for Political

Enquiries and was elected president of a

Society for the Abolition of Slavery. A

common man, he remained a man of the

people throughout his whole life; he was a

true philanthropist, a lover of man and a

promoter of the general welfare. No

wonder he was affectionately called *‘the

sage of Philadelphia,’’ a modern wise

man.

Franklin’s industry was productive not

only in his professional trade and in his

social philanthropy but also in his

amateur science. The generic term philo-

sophy at that period included natural

philosophy, what we nowadays call

physical science. Franklin had a per-

sistent curiosity about such natural

phenomena; he had an innate desire to

understand them and an ingenious ability

to ferret out their secrets as well as to

make use of their properties. He did not,

however, have sufficient leisure to enjoy

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

a -

performing experiments until he retired at

41, when he became inquisitive about

electrostatic phenomena, which were

popular as fashionable demonstrations at

that time. His own observations over the

next four years were compiled as an

English book on *‘Experiments and Ob-

servations on Electricity’’ (no American

edition was published until 1941).

Up to that time only four basic facts

were known about electricity; one theory

had been proposed to explain them. In the

first place, as early as the 6th century

B.C. the attraction of amber for light

materials had been recorded by Thales,

one of the seven wise men of Greece.

Other substances with the same property

were noted through the ages; they were

said to be electric, i.e., like amber (Greek

electron), as distinct from non-electrics

which did not exhibit such a condition

when rubbed. Early in the 17th century a

second fact was discovered, namely, the

repulsion of light objects after making

contact with an electrified body; it was

observed by the Italian Jesuit Nicolo

Cabeo. The French scientist Charles F.

de C. du Fay inferred in 1733 that there

are two electric fluids contained in each

body (like water in a sponge) that would

be released by friction; one resinous (like

rubbed amber), the other vitreous (like

rubbed glass). In the 17th century Otto

von Guericke, a German physicist, was

the first to note that such an electric effect

could be transmitted to some degree by a

linen thread. This third property, the

conduction of electricity (a term intro-

duced about 1646 by the English phy-

sician Sir Thomas Browne), was investi-

gated by the Charterhouse pensioner

Stephen Gray: conductors turned out to

be the non-electrics; insulators, electrics.

Electricity did behave like a fluid. One of

his spectacular experiments (1730) was

repeated in 1744 at Philadelphia by a

lecturer, Archibald Spencer: an electric

Spark was drawn from the nose of a sus-

pended boy whose feet had been rubbed

with a piece of glass. The fourth fact was

the possibility of storing electricity. The

Dutch natural philosopher Pieter van

Musschenbroek, who in 1750 advised

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

Franklin ‘‘to study nature, not books,’’

was shocked in 1746 when he tried to

store some electric charge in a phial con-

taining a gun barrel in water (he had

grasped the gunbarrel with one hand and

the phial with the other). The resulting

Leyden jar (partly coated on the inside

and on the outside with tin foil) became

popular for demonstrating electric dis-

charges—a glorious entertainment, as

when in Paris a charge was passed

through Carthusian monks, lined up

hand-in-hand 900 feet. It is not surprising

that at this very time Franklin became

fascinated by these new electric phe-

nomena. Fortunately, the field was un-

cultivated and could be made productive

with simple experimental techniques

(mathematics, a Franklin weakness, was

not then a prerequisite). It should be

borne in mind that Franklin himself was a

skilled craftsman, adept at handiwork.

Probably his greatest scientific contribu-

tion was his design of crucial experiments

for testing hypotheses.

In 1746 the Library Co. had received a

greenish glass tube for electric use from

its London agent, Peter Collinson, a

Quaker mercer and botanist. Franklin re-

ported his own findings, beginning in

1747, to Collinson in letters. The very

first one begins with the following

experiment. Two persons each stand ona

cake of wax (an insulator). The first

person rubs a glass tube which causes a

spark to jump (no contact) to the second.

Both appear electrically charged to a

third person standing nearby on the floor.

If the first two persons touch each other,

neither will be finally electrified. Franklin

offered a simple explanation. Assume

that the rubbed glass has an excess of a

single electric fluid and then some of it is

transferred by a spark to the second

person. The net result is a deficiency of

the electric fluid for the first person, an

excess for the second; contact neutralizes

their differences—an implicit assump-

tion of the conservation of electric

charge. The normal amount of electric

fluid is an uncharged body is neutral in its

electric effect. Franklin designated an

excess as a positive electric charge, a

141

Fig. 2. Franklin electric machine (American

Philosophical Society).

deficiency as a negative one. This one-

fluid theory requires only electricity and

matter, not two kinds of electricity and

matter. An unresolved problem, how-

ever, was the apparent repulsion of

matter without electric fluid (i.e., nega-

tively charged), whereas matter per se

exhibits only gravitational attraction.

Both theories were then adequate to

explain known electric phenomena—a

dilemma arising from the study of the

conduction of electricity in metals. A

second dilemma arose later through

Michael Faraday’s investigation of the

conduction of electricity in certain

liquids. . Electrolytic results could be

simply explained by the supposition of

atomic ionic carriers each with an integral

number of positive or negative charges.

Were there discrete units of electric

charges or were the carriers themselves

limited to integral capacities? Was

electricity a continuous fluid or essen-

tially atomic in structure? The answer to

both these dilemmas was latent in the

neglected field of the conduction of

electricity in gases. It had to await the

1897 discovery of the negative electron

by Sir Joseph J. Thomson, who regarded

142

Franklin as ‘‘a physicist of the first rank.”’

Both theories were partly right and partly

wrong; there are two electric charges,

but only one moves in a metal, the nega-

tive electrons. (The generally accepted

direction of an electric current is that of

the motion of the positive charge, oppo-

site the actual motion of the electron

current—linguistically confusing, but no

more so than speaking of the rising and

setting sun.)

Franklin found that a conductor could

be given a permanent charge (opposite)

by induction (no contact) and then

grounding it. He was thus enabled to

explain the behavior of a Leyden jar,

which was found to have equal but

opposite charges inside and outside, 1.e.,

a condenser. In 1755 he observed that a

cork suspended in an electrified silver can

was neither attracted nor repelled by the

walls (cf. Faraday’s famous _ice-pail

experiment in 1843). Later his friend the

Unitarian minister and chemist, Joseph

Priestley, who came to Northumberland,

Pennsylvania, in 1794, correctly inferred

(1766) from this fact the existence of an

inverse-square law of force between

relatively small electrified bodies—the

beginning of a quantitative outlook in

electricity.

Undoubtedly Franklin’s most spec-

tacular scientific success was his experi-

mental confirmation of the hitherto

speculation about the relation of electric

sparks to atmospheric lightning. The

basis for his thinking was his recognition

of the peculiar discharge by pointed

conductors, called to his attention by his

coworker, the lawyer Thomas Hopkin-

son. Franklin compared the two phe-

nomena: in twelve respects they were

similar. Accordingly he designed a criti-

cal test; in 1749 he was satisfied and

wrote in his notebook, ‘‘Let the experi-

ment be made!’’ Some members of the

Royal Society of London laughed at his

notion when it was reported by Collin-

son (1750). The French, however, took

the idea seriously. At the suggestion of

the naturalist George L. le Clerc, Comte

de Buffon, the botanist Thomas F.

Dalibard succeeded on May 16, 1752, in

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

drawing electricity from a (charged)

cloud during a clap of thunder by means

of a 40-foot iron rod erected vertically in

a Marly-la- Ville garden just outside Paris.

The experiment was successfully re-

peated the following week in Paris by

M. Delor. Meanwhile, apparently waiting

for the completion of Christ Church

steeple and unaware of the European

work, Franklin performed a modified

experiment with a kite flying on a wet

string, probably with his 21-year old son

on the outskirts of Philadelphia, away

from any skeptical spectators. Electricity

was induced by a nearby (charged) cloud

on a metal point protruding from the

kite; it was conducted by the string to a

key attached to the end. Here Franklin

was able to produce a spark when his

knuckle was brought near it—obviously

not a lightning bolt, otherwise he would

have been killed as was the less fortunate

Swedish physicist, George W. Richmann,

who was struck dead in experimenting

Fig. 3. Franklin electric machine (Franklin

Institute of Philadelphia).

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

" \

‘\ \)

ANN |

ANA \

Fig. 4. Franklin spark demonstration models.

with a rod at St. Petersburg the year

following. A modern Prometheus, he had

truly stolen fire from the heavens. As the

French finance minister and physiocrat,

Anne R. J. Turgot, stated in a Latin

epigram in 1776, ‘‘Eripuit coelo fulmen

sceptrumque tyrannis’’ (he snatched

lightning from the sky and the scepter

from the tyrant).

A friend of the best scholars in

America, he proved to be a vital link of

communication between the new world

and the old world. In 1753 he became the

first foreigner to receive the coveted

Copley medal awarded by the Royal

Society for the “‘most important scientific

discovery.’ Three years later he was

made a Fellow of that society. In 1772 he

was elected one of the eight foreign

associates of the French Académie

Royale des Sciences (it was 100 years

before another American was so

honored).

Franklin’s curiosity about nature was

not restricted to electrical phenomena.

He was interested in the German pulse

glass, in the variation of thermal absorp-

tion by differently colored fabrics, in the

use of some oils to calm water waves, in

the dependence of the fluid drag of a boat

upon the depth of a canal. He pursued a

funnel-shaped whirlwind of dust in the

Maryland countryside; he associated the

wind blowing from the northeast with a

storm following a path from the south-

west; he ascribed a constant European

‘‘dry fog’’ to volcanic smoke; he identi-

fied the Gulf stream by his daily measure-

ment of ocean temperatures during his

eight month-long trans-Atlantic voyages.

143

Fig. 5. Franklin stove (1795 model—Metro-

politan Museum of Art).

Franklin is more commonly remem-

bered for his practical interests and

utilitarian concerns epitomized in his

1761 comment to his London landlady’s

daughter, Mary Stevenson—‘*What

signifies philosophy that does not apply to

some use?’’—and in his sententious

retort to a disparaging remark about the

Montgolfier brothers’ hot-air balloon

flights — **What is the use of a new-born

baby?’’ We recall his many inventions,

his household gadgets: a flexible catheter

for his ailing brother, bifocal spectacles

for himself, a mahogany armchair con-

vertible into a ladder, a ‘‘long arm’’ for

reaching books on high shelves, a closed

cast-iron stove in lieu of the open-stove

Fig. 6. Armonica (1762).

144

seat) (1785— American Philosophical Society).

fireplace, a musical armonica with 37

revolving glass hemispheres—not to

mention his pointed lightning rod, which

George the 3rd regarded as a Whig plot to

attract lightning to government buildings

for their destruction.

Franklin is known most widely for his

successful venture into international

affairs. A colonial patriot, he truly served

his country unstintingly. He began at the

age of 30, when he was appointed clerk

(for 15 years) of the Philadelphia

Assembly. Twelve years later he was

elected to the Philadelphia Council

and within three years an Alderman and

Philadelphia member of the Assembly.

He participated in the Carlisle Pow-wows

(1753) with representatives of the Indian

Confederation of Six Nations—his first

diplomatic mission. The following year

he proposed a similar plan of union at the

Albany Congress. In 1757, at 51, he sailed

to England as a special Assembly agent to

seek military defense and tax relief. Five

years later he returned, only to be sent

back to England within two years. He be-

came an important factor in the defeat of

the Stamp Act in 1766 when, as the voice

of America, he made a major address

OX—w"Vv—w

Fig. 7. Leather armchair (note folded ladder under

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

during the 11-hour debate by the House of

Commons. Franklin has been regarded

by some as “‘‘one of history’s pre-

eminent diplomats.’’ In addition to his

urbanity and versatility, Franklin found

doors opened to him by virtue of his

scientific prestige, which had preceded

him. Five times he was elected to the

Royal Society Council. On the other

hand, he was persona non grata to

George the 3rd, whose coronation he

attended in 1761; the king, being indif-

ferent to both science and trade, learned

to dislike this colonial patriot more and

more. A political storm arose when

certain letters containing inflammatory

comments by Thomas Hutchison, Gov-

ernor of Massachusetts, were indis-

creetly used by colonial agitators as

evidence for having the governor de-

posed. Franklin publicly admitted on

Christmas day 1773 that he had sent them

to Boston for private circulation. He was

summoned to appear before the Privy

Council two weeks later, when he was

summarily dismissed as deputy post-

master general; the petition for deposal

was rejected. He departed from England

in disgrace on May Sth, 1775, a trip

saddened by news of his wife’s death.

Franklin’s dual role (royal appointee and

colonial agent) had raised doubts on both

sides of the Atlantic as to his true loyalty.

Until the Revolution to be sure, he was a

moderate, attempting reconciliation, but

thereafter there was no question as to his

colonial patriotism.

The day after his arrival, he was elected

a Pennsylvania delegate (its oldest mem-

ber) to the Second Continental Congress.

A year later he was a member of the Com-

mittee that drafted the Declaration of

Independence. He was elected a Pennsy]l-

vania delegate to the Constitutional Con-

vention. At 70 he was appointed one of

the three Commissioners to negotiate

treaties of amity and commerce abroad,

particularly at the French court of the

22-year-old Louis the 16th and the 21-

year-old Marie Antoinette. As he had

been accompanied to London by his son

William, so he now went with the latter’s

illegitimate son, William Temple.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

‘*A Genie D. Franklin’’

J. Fragonard).

Bigs. 8: (1778—

He received personal acclaim by the

French as a philosopher of the En-

lightenment, due primarily to his scien-

tific achievement. He was more or less

the official representative of American

learning abroad. His reception was

greater than that for any other American

before or after him. He was, indeed, the

first American to attain a truly inter-

national reputation; his scientific prestige

was America’s greatest asset abroad. The

simplicity of his sober attire (wigless, fur

cap) in the country of the romantic J. J.

Rouseau and his ready wit in the city of

the satirist Voltaire endeared him to the

populace. Despite his old age, Franklin

was welcomed also by a galaxy of

intelligent women; in the prevailing

French mood of flirtation he charmed

them with his almost Parisian gallantries

and bons mots. At the same time he

sought to promote the public understand-

ing of remote America. (He never could

refrain from hoaxes; the French novelist

H. de Balzac remarked that Franklin was

the inventor of the lightning rod, the

hoax, and the republic.) The 1777

Saratoga defeat of the English com-

145

mander (and dramatist) J. Burgoyne

turned the tide of French sympathy

toward America. Among his many duties

Franklin recommended various indi-

viduals to Congress; among them were

the 20-year old Marquis de Lafayette and

the Prussian Baron von Steuben, both of

whom became major generals in the

colonial army. Franklin, together with

commissioners John Adams and John

Jay, signed the 1783 peace treaty in Paris.

At 75, Franklin submitted his resignation

but was not permitted to do so by Con-

gress until four years later. Before he

left Paris he served on a French Com-

mission with the physician J. I. Guillotin;

the chemist, A. L. Lavoisier, et al. to

evaluate the claims of the Austran

charlatan physician F. A. Mesmer.

In 1787 he was a member (its oldest) of

the Constitutional Convention. His com-

promise of a bicameral Congress satisfied

both the proponents of equal state repre-

sentation and their opponents, who de-

manded proportionate population con-

sideration—adopted 17 September

146

(Constitution Day) 1787. On September

16, 1788, at the age of 82, Franklin

resigned his presidency of the special

Pennsylvania Convention for ratification

of the Constitution—the last Colony

had approved it. His political career was

ended; two years later he signed a

memorial about slavery, his last act of

public service.

Ever curious and industrious, Franklin

had wistfully hoped to devote his retire-

ment to scientific pursuits, but gout,

bladder stone, and failing eyesight com-

bined to produce a lingering painful ill-

ness. He died April 7, 1790. Four days

later a cortege of 20,000 persons followed

him mournfully from the State House

(later Independence Hall) to the burial

ground.

Our Franklin heritage is his full life as a

wholesome person, who walked rever-

ently in this wonder-full universe, and

who touched his fellow sojourners with a

loving heart and uplifting hands. He had

personal integrity.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

;

RESEARCH REPORTS

The Correct Identity of Stator bixae (Drapiez)

with Lectotype Designation (Coleoptera: Bruchidae)

John M. Kingsolver

Systematic Entomology Laboratory, LIIBIII, Agr. Res. Serv., USDA. Mail address:

clo U. §. National Museum, Washington, D. C. 20560.

ABSTRACT

Two species of Bruchidae, Stator bixae (Drapiez) from Brazil and French Guiana,

and §. championi (Sharp) found from Costa Rica to Brazil, have been treated as 1 species.

Both breed in seeds of Bixa orellana L. The 2 species are differentiated, and the lectotype

of S. bixae is designated.

An examination of the type-specimens

of Stator bixae (Drapiez) has revealed a

misapplication of the name to a species

now known as Stator championi (Sharp)

described from Panama. A redescription

of the true bixae and designation of the

lectotype is presented, and characters

distinguishing it from championi are

given.

A number of references concerning the

biology of *“‘Bruchus bixae’’ appear in the

literature, and these are discussed at the

end of this paper.

Stator bixae Drapiez

_ Bruchus bixae Drapiez, 1820, p. 120; Gyllenhal

in Schoenh. 1833, p. 32; Pic, 1913, p. 19; Everts,

1923, p. 199.

Bruchidius bixae: Herford, 1935, p. 16.

Acanthoscelides bixae: Blackwelder, 1946, p. 759.

Body length—2.5-2.75 mm; width—1.6-1.8

mm. Integument red to piceous, eyes black;

vestiture of gray, golden, and dark brown fine

setae in variable pattern (Figs. 1, 2).

Body subovate. Head subtriangular, eyes pro-

truding, ocular sinus about one-third length of

eye; frontal carina prominent, frons and clypeus

finely punctate, frontoclypeal suture angulate;

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

segments 4-11 of antenna slightly eccentric.

Postocular fringe narrow, postocular patch of

setae present. Pronotum subconical, lateral margins

straight, disk evenly convex, finely, evenly,

punctate, slightly depressed basally on each side of

and at middle of basal lobe, lateral carina present

only in basal one-third, nearly hidden by vestiture.

Scutellum subquadrate, emarginate apically. Elytra

as long as wide; striae not distorted, shallowly

sulcate, only 2nd and 6th reaching basal margin,

3rd, 4th and Sth beginning basally on a level with

base of scutellum, striae not coalescent apically.

Pygidium in both sexes subtriangular, with 3 large

subbasal yellow-gray spots, vestiture between spots

sparse, becoming denser toward apex. Front and

middle legs unmodified; entire hind coxal face

densely, finely punctate; hind femur bicarinate on

ventral margin, sulcate between carinae, mesal

carina with acute subapical spine preceded by 2 or

3 setose notches, lateral carina sinuate sub-

apically; hind tibia stout, ventral carina ending in

short, acute mucro, lateral carina ending in short

spine, lateroventral carina ending in sinus between

mucro and lateral spine.

Male genitalia (Figs. 3, 4): median lobe broad;

ventral valve triangular, ending in small tubercle;

internal sac armed with acute, flat denticles in

basal 12, with slender spicules in 2 membranous

lateral sacs, and scattered short denticles in apical

half; apex cylindrical, armed with many fine

spicules. Lateral lobes arcuate, flattened, expanded

then attenuated apically.

147

thee tend

2 NEE

< ; <e ;

an BSS tai .

a aS pat 5 a oe

Stator bixae: Fig. 1, dorsal habitus, fully developed pattern; fig. 2, dorsal habitus, teneral pattern;

fig. 3, ¢ genitalia, median lobe, ventral view; fig. 4, ¢ genitalia, lateral lobes, ventral view.

148 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

Type-locality.—‘‘Bresil.’’ Type-

series (3) in the Institut Royal des

Sciences Naturelles de Belgique, Brus-

sels. Lectotype ¢ here designated with

labels ‘‘Bresil,’’ ‘“‘coll. Dejean, Coll.

Roelofs,’ “‘Bixae Hoffmansegg’’ agree-

ing with original description. My label

‘‘Lectotype, Bruchus bixae Drapiez, by

Kingsolver’’ is attached to this specimen.

Paralectotypes: 2 2 2, same data as for

lectotype, and my labels indicating their

designation are attached.

Stator bixae is known only from

Brazil and French Guiana, but championi

is found from Brazil to Costa Rica. Both

species apparently breed only in the

seeds of Bixa orellana L. (Bixaceae), a

dye and drug-producing plant locally

called annatto, which has a geographical

distribution (probably artificial) from

Mexico to Brazil. Standley (1923) in-

cludes a discussion of the various uses of

its vegetative parts. Bridwell’s biological

notes (1923) apply to championi as deter-

mined by examination of his material in

the United States National Museum of

Natural History; and Champion’s notes

(1923) probably pertain to championi;

but Evert’s description (1923) indicates

that he likely had bixae. Kingsolver

(1970), in transferring the name bixae to

Stator, used specimens now known to

belong to championi, but the placement

of both specific names in Stator is

correct.

Stator championi can be distinguished

from bixae by the broad, dark stripe

bisecting the pronotal disk; the basal

pygidial ornamentation of 3 white patches

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

of setae set in a yellow, transverse band;

and the apical two-thirds of the pygidium

being nearly glabrous except for a very

narrow medial line of setae. The male

genitalia are also distinctive.

I have examined 2 series of S. bixae. In

both series, 2 patterns of dorsal markings

appeared: 1 with an abbreviated elytral

pattern combined with a large basal

thoracic spot (Fig. 2), 2 with a more

developed elytral pattern associated with

paired thoracic spots (Fig. 1), as illus-

trated from the lectotype.

References Cited

Blackwelder, R. E. 1946. Checklist of the coleop-

terous insects of Mexico, Central America, the

West Indies and South America. U. S. Nat. Mus.

Bull. No. 185, part 4: 551-763.

Bridwell, J. C. 1923. The habits of Bruchus

bixae. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 13: 261-62.

Champion, G. C. 1923. An American Bruchus

introduced in seeds of Bixa orellana. Entomol.

Mo. Mag. 59: 257-258.

Drapiez, M. 1820. Description de huit especes

d’insectes nouveaux. Ann. Gen. Sci. Physiq.

5: 117-123.

Everts, E. 1923. Bruchus bixae Drapiez. Entomol.

Bericht. 9(no. 133): 199-201.

Gyllenhal, L. 1833. In Schoenherr, C. J. Genera

et species curculionidum, cum synonymia hujus

Familiae. Paris 1: 1-681.

Herford, G. M. 1935. A key to the members of the

family Bruchidae (Col.) of economic importance

in Europe. Trans. Soc. Brit. Entomol. 2: 1-32.

Kingsolver, J. M. 1970. A new combination in the

genus Stator Bridwell. Proc. Entomol. Soc.

Wash. 72: 472.

Pic, M. 1913. Coleopterorum Catalogus, Pars 55,

Bruchidae. Junk, Berlin, 74 p.

Standley, P. C. 1923. Trees and shrubs of Mexico.

Contrib. U. S. Nat. Herbar. 23: 517-848.

149

A New Species of Amblycerus from Panama

(Coleoptera: Bruchidae)

John M. Kingsolver

Systematic Entomology Laboratory, IIBII, Agr. Res. Serv., USDA. Mail address:

clo U. §. National Museum, Washington, D. C. 20560.

ABSTRACT

A new species of seed beetle, Amblycerus tachygaliae, destroys seeds of Tachygalia

versicolor Standley and Williams, a large leguminous tree growing on Barro Colorado I.,

Panama. A. tachygaliae is described and figured, and A. subflavidus (Pic) is designated as

a new synonym of A. pollens (Sharp).

Tachigalia versicolor Standley and

Williams is a caesalpinoid leguminous

tree 75—100 feet in height found in rain

forests from Costa Rica to Panama. It

produces great quantities of large, flat,

single-seeded samaras each 6 to 7 cm

long. From fruits collected on Barro

Colorado I., the following new species of

bruchid was reared.

Amblycerus tachigaliae Kingsolver

(Figs. 1—4)

Body length—9.5 mm. Body width—S5.5 mm.

Pronotal length—2.5 mm. Pronotal width—

4.5 mm.

Color.—Integument orange red in following

areas: base of head, apex of clypeus, labrum,

pronotum, elytra, abdomen, calcaria. Piceous

suffused with reddish: prosternum, mesopleura,

anterior portion of metepisternum, fore legs,

antennae. Piceous: mesosternum, metasternum,

middle and hind legs. Vestiture of very fine

grayish hairs evenly distributed over body, those

on orange red portions with golden sheen; pygidium

with faint median line of closely spaced hairs.

Body elliptical, broad, somewhat depressed

above. Head broad, short; eyes strongly pro-

tuberant, moderately incised at antennal insertion,

postocular fringe of hair transverse; frons convex,

vertex and frons finely punctate except along

median; clypeus slightly depressed basally, finely

punctate except on apical margin; labrum impunc-

tate except for basal row of setae; antennal length

equal to width of pronotal base, moderately serrate.

Pronotum trapezoidal, lateral margins moderately

arcuate, apex subtruncate; basal lobe broad,

shallow; fine submarginal sulcus visible for nearly

entire basal margin, in basal third of lateral

margin, and on apical margin except for middle

150

third, this sulcus hooked laterally around insertion

of the 3 acromial setae on antero-lateral angle;

disk finely punctulate with coarser punctures on

slightly flattened lateral thirds of disk. Scutellum

(Fig. 4) quadrate, slightly longer than wide,

trilobed apically. Elytra somewhat depressed

medially, intervals flat, all striae except 6 and 7

free apically. Pygidium nearly flat, oblique,

slightly emarginate in male, evenly rounded in

female. Prosternum narrow before coxae; inter-

coxal process narrow, apex slightly expanded,

contiguous with vertical face of mesosternal lobe,

hypomeron strongly concave, limited laterally by

shiny sulcus. Metasternum slightly depressed along

midline on posterior margin; postcoxal sulcus

complete across midline, continuous with para-

sutural sulcus which extends to posterior margin;

metepisternal sulcus right angled, extending half-

way along pleural suture. Face of hind coxa

densely covered with fine hairs in lateral three-

fourths, sparsely, finely punctate; polished circular

area surrounding trochanteral articulation with

cluster of fine punctures. Hind femur relatively

slender, ventral margin only slightly sinuate; hind

tibia elliptical in cross section, ventral margin not

flattened; outer calcar four-fifths as long as basi-

tarsus, inner calcar half as long as outer calcar.

Abdomen unmodified except last ventral sternum

broadly emarginate in male, truncate in female.

Male genitalia.—Median lobe (Fig. 2) short,

rather broad; ventral valve broadly triangular,

lateral margins emarginate, dorsal valve semi-

circular apically, narrower at base than ventral

valve; internal sac near apical orifice with paired

lunate sclerites each with a coarse, granular

posterolateral facet, middle of sac with an elongate,

forked sclerite, and a pair of flat, serrate,

curved blades. Lateral lobes as in Fig. 3.

Holotype. — 6, Panama: Barro Colo-

rado I., Feb. 1975, Robin Foster, coll.,

reared from seeds of Tachigalia versicolor

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

Amblycerus tachygalia. Fig. 1, habitus, dorsal view; fig. 2, ¢ genitalia, median lobe, ventral view, with

dorsal view of forked sclerite; fig. 3, ¢ genitalia, lateral lobes, ventral view; fig. 4, scutellum.

Standley & Williams.

#72813.

Allotype.— 2, Panama: Barro Colo-

rado I., 24-II-1975, T. L. Erwin, coll., at

light. In USNMNH Collection.

Paratype.— 6, Panama: Barro Colo-

rado I., 10-III-1961, J. M. Campbell,

coll., at light. In Canadian National

Collection, Ottawa.

USNM Type

Amblycerus tachygaliae is most

Closely related to A. pollens (Sharp)

(=A. subflavidus (Pic), NEW SYN-

ONYMY). The abdomen in A. pollens is

entirely black (red in A. tachygaliae), the

hind femur is lobed on the medioventral

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

carina (straight in A. tachygaliae), the

ventral margin of the metepisternum has

a fusiform, polished, finely ribbed boss

(absent in A. tachygaliae), and marked

differences are present in the ¢ genitalia.

The two species are of comparable size

and are the largest species in Amblycerus

I have seen. The host plant of A. pollens

is not known.

References Cited

Pic, M. 1902. Description de coléoptéres nouveaux.

Bruchidae de |’Amerique meridionale. Natura-

liste 24: 172.

Sharp, D. 1885. Biologia Centralia-Americana,

Insecta, Coleoptera, Bruchidae 5: 437-504.

151

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

THE AWARDS PROGRAM OF THE ACADEMY

AND RECENT HONOREES

Five research scientists and two

science teachers were recipients in the

Spring of the Academy’s awards for out-

standing scientific achievement. The pre-

sentations were made at the Annual

Awards Dinner meeting of the Academy

on Thursday, March 18, 1976, at the

Cosmos Club.

The following research investigators

were honored: Dr. Julius E. Uhlaner

(U. S. Army Research Institute for the

Behavioral and Social Sciences) for Be-

havioral Sciences; Dr. Wayne A. Hend-

rickson (U. S. Naval Research Labora-

tory), for Biological Sciences; Dr. Gerard

V. Trunk (U. S. Naval Research Labora-

tory) for Engineering Sciences; Dr.

Charles H. Johnson (University of Mary-

Julius E. Uhlaner

152

land), for Mathematics; and Dr. William

K. Rose (University of Maryland), for

Physical Sciences.

In the area of Teaching of Science,

the Awardee at the college level was Dr.

Peggy Dixon of the Montgomery College

Faculty. The recipient of the Berenice

G. Lamberton Award for the Teaching of

High School Science was Ms. Edith G.

Durie of the West Springfield High School

faculty.

Behavioral Sciences

Dr. Julius E. Uhlaner, - Chief Psy-

chologist of the U. S. Army and Tech-

nical Director of the Army Research

Institute for the Behavioral and Social

Sciences, and Adjunct Professor of Psy-

chology at George Washington Univer-

sity, was cited for ‘‘his outstanding tech-

nical direction and leadership in Applied

Psychology.’’ As a psychologist, he is

best known for contributions to military

psychology, having spent the major part

of his career as a civilian research

psychologist in the Army. However, he

also kept closely in touch with academia

and industry. He is best known for some

of his innovative contributions to the

Army, having developed the first psy-

chological military qualifications test

legislated by Congress; introduced the

use of the computer as a major tool and

partner in Behavioral Science research;

pioneered night vision testing research

and driver research; introduced the first

differential classification system based on

psychological aptitude testing anywhere

in the military services; pioneered the

‘*system measurement bed,’ a method-

ology which influenced the field of in-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

dustrial psychology; and fostered the

interdisciplinary approach to much of

his research. Also, he has exhibited very

active professionalism, including the

holding of elective offices in divisions of

the American Psychological Association.

His awards in the Federal service in-

clude the Citation for Meritorious Civilian

Service, 1960; Citation for Exceptional

Civilian Service, 1969; and Citation for

Outstanding Performance, 1972.

Dr. Uhlaner pursued a course of train-

ing and education in science, statistics,

and graduate psychology. While earning

his doctorate at New York University,

he established a driver research labor-

atory. Later, he became associated with

industry. It is this combination of

experience and education which has led

to his trademark for the conduct of re-

search in the Behavioral Sciences—an

interdisciplinary approach, systems or-

iented, and the utilization of research

products.

In addition to his having been elected

a Fellow of the Washington Academy of

Sciences in 1963, he is also a Fellow of

the American Psychological Association.

Also, he is a Fellow of the Human Fac-

tors Society and the Iowa Academy of

Sciences. Other learned societies of

which he is a member are Operations

Research Society of America, Interna-

tional Association of Applied Psychology,

Psychonomics Society, and District of

Columbia Psychological Association.

Biological Sciences

Dr. Wayne A. Hendrickson, Labor-

atory for the Structure of Matter, U. S.

Naval Research Laboratory, was cited

for ‘‘his significant contributions to

knowledge of the structure of the active

sites of oxygen-carrying molecules.’’ He

was born in Spring Valley, Wisconsin.

His B.A. degree was completed in 1963

at the University of Wisconsin (River

Falls). His Ph.D. degree in Biophysics

was conferred by The Johns Hopkins

University in 1968. Dr. Hendrickson was

a postdoctoral fellow at Johns Hopkins

for another year before being awarded

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

Wayne A. Hendrickson

an NRC Postdoctoral Research Associ-

ateship at the Naval Research Labora-

tory in 1969. Professional societies to

which he belongs include the American

Crystallographic Association and the

American Society of Biological Chemists.

His research interests are concerned with

the structure and function of biological

macromolecules as revealed by X-ray

crystallography. Since 1971, Dr. Hend-

rickson has been a Research Biophysicist

in the Laboratory for the Structure of

Matter at the Naval Research Labora-

tory, Washington, D. C.

Engineering Sciences

Dr. Gerard V. Trunk, U. S. Naval Re-

search Laboratory, was cited for ‘‘his

contributions to theory and practice of

processing radar signals in clutter.”

Dr. Trunk was born in Baltimore, Mary-

land on May 9, 1942. He received the

B.E.S. and Ph.D. degrees from The Johns

Hopkins University in 1963 and 1967,

respectively. Since his graduation in 1967,

he has been employed by the Radar

Division of the Naval Research Labora-

tory, Washington, D. C. During the 1974

—1975 academic year, he was on sab-

batical leave and taught at The Johns

Hopkins University.

His research areas are signal detection,

153

Gerard V. Trunk

estimation theory, and pattern recogni-

tion. He has done considerable work in

the area Of sea clutter return from high-

resolution radars. This work entailed

understanding the basic nature of high-

resolution sea clutter, finding a statistical

description of it, and of generating an

optimal detector. At the present time,

he is involved in developing tracking

systems for radar data supplied by mul-

tiple radars located either on the same

ship or on different ships.

Dr. Trunk is a member of Sigma Xi,

Tau Beta Pi, and Eta Kappa Nu.

Mathematics

Dr. Charles H. Johnson, University of

Maryland, was cited for ‘“‘his outstanding

contributions in matrix theory, stability

and eigenvalue location.’’ The theory of

matrices, or linear transformations, is a

field of broad applicability within mathe-

matics as well as to the sciences gen-

erally. Dr. Johnson’s primary interests

within matrix theory include eigenvalue

location, stability matrices and the

numerical range, entry-wise nonnegative

and stochastic matrices, and Hadamard

products. The numerical range is the set

of all values taken on over the surface

154

of the unit ball by the quadratic form of a

matrix. Dr. Johnson is also interested in

the relation of such aspects of matrix

theory to mathematical economics and

modelling, discrete dynamical systems

such as those of demography, and to

combinatorial mathematics.

He was born in Elkhart, Indiana on

January 28, 1948. Dr. Johnson received

his B.A. degree from Northwestern Uni-

versity in 1969 and his Ph.D. in mathe-

matics and economics from the California

Institute of Technology in 1972. From

1972 to 1974, he was an NAS—NRC post-

doctoral research fellow in the Applied

Mathematics Division at the National

Bureau of Standards. In 1974, he came

to the University of Maryland, where he

is now an Assistant Professor. Also, he

serves as a Consultant at the National

Bureau of Standards and as a Visiting

Staff Member at the Los Alamos Scientific

Laboratories. He has served as a Visiting

Lecturer for the Society of Industrial and

Applied Mathematics and also as an in-

vited speaker at meetings of the Amer-

ican Mathematical Society and Mathe-

matical Association of America. He is the

author of more than 40 research papers.

Charles H. Johnson

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

Physical Sciences

Dr. William K. Rose, University of

Maryland, was cited for his *‘important

contributions to our understanding of

highly evolved stars.’’ He was born in

Ossining, New York on August 30, 1935.

Dr. Rose received the A.B. and Ph.D.

degrees from Columbia University in

1957 and 1963, respectively. He was a

research scientist at the U. S. Naval Re-

search Laboratory from 1961 to 1962 and

at the Department of Astrophysical Sci-

ences at Princeton University from 1963

to 1967. In 1957, he joined the M.I.T.

Physics Department, where he held the

positions of Assistant Professor and of

Associate Professor. Since 1971, Dr.

Rose has been an Associate Professor in

the Department of Physics and Astron-

omy at the University of Maryland.

Dr. Rose’s research has included early

work on masers, radio astronomy, and

infrared astronomy from balloons. Since

1965, he has worked on a number of prob-

lems in theoretical astrophysics. Most of

his theoretical research has been con-

cerned with the physical properties and

evolution of stars. Dr. Rose has de-

veloped theories relating to the evolu-

William K. Rose

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

Peggy Dixon

tion of the sun, the origin of planetary

nebulae and novae, X-ray emission

from compact objects, pulsar radiation,

and the physical state of the in-

teriors of red giants and neutron stars.

Recently, Dr. Rose has investigated

several problems in the field of plasma

astrophysics.

Teaching of Science

(College Level)

Dr. Peggy Dixon, Montgomery College,

was cited for “‘improving, and gaining

recognition for, local and national com-

munity college science teaching.’’ She re-

ceived her A.B. degree from Western

Reserve University and her M.S. and

Ph.D. degrees in Physics from the Uni-

versity of Maryland. Memberships in

scientific organizations include the fol-

lowing: American Association of Physics

Teachers (Member-at-large of Executive

Board, 1973-1976; Vice-President of

Chesapeake Section, 1976— ; Represen-

tative to Metric Education Committees,

1974— ; Chairman, Panel on Physics in

Two-year Colleges (PPT YC) of the Com-

mission on College Physics, 1968-1970);

National Science Teachers Association;

155

Edith G. Durie

American Association for the Advance-

ment of Science; American Association

of University Professors; Sigma Xi; and

Sigma Pi Sigma.

Her professional experience includes

three years as Research Associate,

University of Maryland, and fifteen years

at Montgomery College, teaching Mathe-

matics and Geology as well as Physics

and Physical Science.

Some significant educational projects

with which she has been associated are

the following: Resource Packet Project of

PPTYC; NSF—COSIP Grant, Co-Direc-

tor, for articulation in all sciences be-

tween the University of Maryland and all

Maryland Community Colleges, 1970

— 1974; development and teaching of two

honors courses at Montgomery College

(as a member of the Honors Program

Committee over a period of ten years).

Teaching of Science

(High School Level)

(The Berenice G. Lamberton Award)

Ms. Edythe G. Durie, West Springfield

High School, was cited for ‘‘being an out-

standing science teacher who is suppor-

tive of the student on and off the campus.”’

She was born June 3, 1915 in Hellier,

Kentucky. Ms. Durie received her A.B.

degree from Marshall University in 1937

and her M.S. degree from the Graduate

School of Medicine, University of Penn-

sylvania, 1942. She has also done graduate

study at the University of Kentucky and

at the University of California.

From 1942 to 1952, she was supervising

bacteriologist for the Virginia Depart-

ment of Agriculture. Later, she taught

at Hopewell High School, Hopewell,

Virginia, and at the Orleans American

High School in Orleans, France. In

1961, she came to Fairfax County and

taught at Robert E. Lee High School in

Springfield, Virginia. She transferred to

West Springfield High School when it

opened in 1966. She has been Science

Department Chairman there since 1967.

Professional organizations with which

she has been associated are the following:

National Science Teachers Association;

Virginia Academy of Science; W. S.

Junior Academy of Sciences, Wash-

ington Academy of Sciences; and Joint

Board on Science and Engineering

Education (currently serving as Chairman

of the group.—

Kelso B. Morris, General Chairman

NEW FELLOWS

William W. Cantelo, Research Entomolo-

gist, USDA, in recognition of his contri-

butions to entomology, especially to

insect behavior in response to blacklight

traps and to pheromones. Sponsors:

Floyd L. Smith, Richard H. Foote.

156

Lowell E. Campbell, Project Engineer,

USDA, in recognition of science educa-

tion activities on JBSEE, 1960-65, and

professional contributions to electrical

equipment performance and utilization in

agriculture, including recent establish-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

ment with Dr. H. M. Cathey, USDA,

that vegetative growth in plants is de-

pendent on level and duration of ra-

diation in the 400 to 850 nm region

without spectral preference. Sponsors:

Hajime Ota, Henry M. Cathey, Milton

S. Schechter.

Satya D. Dubey, Chief, Statistical Eval-

uation Branch, Bureau of Drugs, Food &

Drug Adm., in recognition of his contri-

butions to mathematical statistics and in

particular to his publications on Weibull

and other distributions. Sponsors:

Grover C. Sherlin, Joan R. Rosenblatt,

Nelson W. Rupp.

Alan O. Plait, Principal Staff Engineer,

Computer Sciences Corp., in recognition

of his extensive educational programs in

training persons in the mathematical arts

and sciences for application to engineer-

ing and quality assurance problems and

for his work in transfering the technology

of the assurance sciences to new fields

such as housing and environmental

problems. Sponsors: Grover C. Sherlin,

Joan R. Rosenblatt, Nelson W. Rupp.

James M. Schalk, Research Entomolo-

gist, USDA, in recognition of contribu-

tions in entomology, particularly on

developing host plants resistant lines of

forage and vegetable crops to arthropod

pests. Sponsors: Floyd L. Smith, Richard

H. Foote.

Herbert H. Snyder, Prof. Mathematics,

Southern Ill. Univ. at Carbondale, in

recognition of his contributions to elec-

tromagnetic theory and in particular

to the mathematical theory of propaga-

tion of electromagnetic waves in periodic

_ Structures and the interactions of such

waves with beams of charged particles;

and for his contribution to the theory of

regular functions on linear associative

algebras. Sponsors: Joan R. Rosenblatt,

_ Florence H. Forziati.

_Manya B. Stoetzel, Research Entomolo-

_ gist, USDA, in recognition of her contri-

bution to the biosystematics of scale

insects, and in particular to her studies

on the life histories and the adult male

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

and immature stages of the aspidiotine

scales. Sponsors: Richard H. Foote,

Louise M. Russell, R. R. Colwell.

Howard E. Waterworth, Research Plant

Pathologist, US Plant Introduction Sta-

tion, Glenn Dale, Md., in recognition of

his contributions to Plant Pathology,

especially in the field of virology and

serology. Sponsors: Floyd L. Smith,

H. Ota, Richard H. Foote.

Sajjad H. Durrani, Senior Engineer,

Goddard Space Flight Ctr., in recognition

of his contributions to the conceptual

design and analysis of space communica-

tion systems. Sponsors: Edward Wolff,

George Abraham, Emanuel Brancato.

Lloyd Knutson, Chairman, Insect Iden-

tification and Beneficial Insect Intro-

duction Institute, ARS, USDA, in rec-

ognition of his outstanding research

contributions to the systematics and

taxonomy of snail-killing flies and his

leadership as Chairman of ARS’s Insect

Identification & Beneficial Insect Intro-

duction Institute at Beltsville. Sponsors:

Richard H. Foote, Louise M. Russell,

Ashley H. Gurney.

Kendall G. Powers, Research Parasitolo-

gist, NIH, in recognition of his contribu-

tions in the field of chemotherapy and

immunology of parasitic diseases; par-

ticularly malaria and schistosomiasis.

Sponsor: James H. Turner.

Roger H. Lawson, Research Pathologist,

USDA, in recognition of his contribu-

tions to an understanding of viral cause

and identity of diseases of orchids and

chrysanthemums, and of his studies on

ultrastructural cytology and the develop-

ment of inclusion bodies associated with

plant virus infection. Sponsors: Henry

M. Cathey, Lloyd F. Smith.

Ralph E. Webb, Research Entomolo-

gist, USDA, in recognition of his contn-

butions in entomology, especially his

research on the biology and control of

insect pests of ornamentals and vegetable

crops, also induced and natural resist-

ance of plants to insect attack. Sponsors:

Floyd L. Smith, Richard H. Fooie.

157

Armand B. Weiss, Director, Systems

Integration, Federal Energy Adm., in

recognition of his contribution to opera-

tions research, in particular his research

on quantitative aspects of policy level

decision making, his research leading to

improved economic models of logistic

support processes, and his significant

contributions to modelling the national

energy needs, distribution and resources.

Sponsors: John Honig, Jean K. Boek.

Robert L. Gluckstern, Chancellor, Uni-

versity of Maryland, in recognition of

his scientific contributions to high energy

physics and his design of cyclotrons.

Sponsors: Joseph M. Marchello, S. N.

Foner.

SCIENTISTS IN THE NEWS

Contributions in this section of your Journal are earnestly solicited.

They should be typed double-spaced and sent to the Editor three

months preceeding the issue for which they are intended.

HARRY DIAMOND LABORATORIES

Frank Reggia has received an Army

R & D achievement award for his pi-

oneering efforts and outstanding accom-

plishments in the design, development

158

and demonstrated use of a novel group of

conformal antennas for military systems.

These high performance antenna designs

are capable of eliminating many mechan-

ical and electrical problems while en-

hancing overall system performance. The

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976 |

antennas are constructed as an integral

part of a body, at any position along its

length and flush with the surface.

Born in Northumberland, PA, Frank

married the former Betty Jo Patterson of

Clarksville, Arkansas in 1945. The couple

| have two sons James Allen, 26, and Daniel

Lee, 22, and currently reside in Bethesda,

MD. Frank has attended George Wash-

ington University and the University of

Maryland majoring in Engineering and

Physics. In 1970 he earned a BS (cum

laude) and in 1971 a MS from Bucknell

University, both in electrical engineering.

He isa member of Tau Beta Pi, a National

| Engineering Honor Society; a Fellow,

Institute of Electrical and Electronic

Engineers; a Fellow, American Associ-

| ation for Advancement of Science; and a

| Fellow, Washington Academy of Scien-

ces. In addition, he is the author of 50

_ technical articles in the microwave field,

and holds 16 patents on microwave ferrites

and acoustic components.

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

| Dr. Florence Forziati, President-Elect,

_Washington Academy of Sciences, pre-

sented a scroll commemorating the 75th

anniversary of NBS to Dr. Ernest Ambler,

Acting Director, NBS, on March 4, 1976.

Dr. Ambler’s acknowledgment follows:

Dear Dr. Forziati:

I wish to express my appreciation to you for

the beautiful commemorative scroll from the

Washington Academy of Sciences which you

_ presented to the Bureau yesterday, on the oc-

_ casion of our 75th birthday.

I am sure that the Bureau and its staff members

will continue in the future, the close relationship

with the Academy which has existed so many

years in the past.

I think it was especially appropriate that the

__ presentation be made by you, because of your

employment for so many years at the Bureau

as a scientist.

_ Sincerely,

Ernest Ambler

Acting Director

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF HEALTH

David B. Scott has been named Direc-

tor of the National Institute of Dental

Research. Dr. Scott was dean of the

School of Dentistry, Case Western Re-

serve University.

‘Dr. Scott . . . brings to this post an

outstanding background in dental re-

search, education, and administration,”’

said Dr. Donald S. Fredrickson, NIH

Director.

The new NIDR Director joined the fac-

ulty of Western Reserve University in

1965 as the Thomas J. Hill Distinguished

Professor of Physical Biology in the

School of Dentistry and was jointly ap-

pointed as professor of anatomy in the

School of Medicine. Following the feder-

ation of the University with the Case

Institute of Technology to form Case

Western Reserve University, Dr. Scott

became dean of the School of Dentistry

in 1969.

Dr. Scott, whose appointment was ef-

fective Jan. 1, has returned to NIH,

where he served from 1944 to 1965.

He was with the Dental Section,

Division of Physiology, Experimental

Biology and Medicine from 1944 until

1948, when the NIDR was established,

and he served as chief of the Institute’s

Laboratory of Histology and Pathology

from 1956 to 1965.

Dr. Scott received the B.A. degree in

physical biology from Brown University

in 1939 and his D.D.S. from the Baltimore

College of Dental Surgery, University of

Maryland, in 1943. The next year he was

awarded the M.S. degree from the Uni-

versity of Rochester where he was a

Carnegie Fellow. In 1956, he received

one of the awards given the 10 most out-

standing young men in Government serv-

ice by the Arthur S. Flemming Awards

Commission.

Dr. Scott was cited for his develop-

ment of new methods for applying the

electron microscope to the study of en-

amel and dentin, and the development of

new techniques for studying the structure

of teeth. Other awards accorded Dr.

Scott include: honorary membership,

159

Finnish Dental Association; honorary

lecturer, Tokyo Dental College, and the

International Association for Dental

Research Award for Research in Miner-

alization, 1968. 7

Dr. Scott is a Fellow, American

Association for the Advancement of

Science, a Fellow, the American College

of Dentists and the International College

of Dentists; and a Fellow, Washington

Academy of Sciences.

He has served in scientific posts

with the Federation Dentaire Interna-

tionale.

He is a member of the Electron Micro-

scope Society of America, the American

Dental Association, and is president of

the International Association for Dental

Research.

NATIONAL OCEAN SURVEY

Hyman Orlin, author, teacher, mathe-

matician, and geodesist, has retired after

more than 33 years of service with the

Federal government. Orlin, who leaves

the post of Chief Scientist of the National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra-

Hyman Orlin

160

tion’s National Ocean Survey, will be-

come Senior Scientist with the National

Academy of Sciences in Washington,

D. C., later this month.

————

A recognized authority in the field of ©

geodesy, Orlin has been with NOAA’s

National Ocean Survey and its pred-

ecessor, the Coast and Geodetic Survey,

since 1947 when he was employed as

mathematician. In 1969, he was ap-

pointed Special Assistant to the Director

for Earth Science Activities as the prin-

cipal advisor in geophysical matters.

Orlin has represented NOAA at Inter-

national Astronomical Union Symposia,

since 1958. He has served as Co-Chair-

man of the Sea Bottom Surveys Panel of

the U. S.-Japan Natural Resources

Committee, and has held discussions ©

with Japanese officials on international

cooperative programs and the exchange

of scientists. He is an authority on the

geodetic aspects of offshore boundaries

and Law of the Sea and serves as advisor

to and member of the U. S. Interagency

Committee on Law of the Sea.

Orlin has taken an active role in inter-

governmental agency efforts which have ~

resulted in improved services and prod-

ucts for the general public. He has served

as president of the Geodesy Section of the

American Geophysical Union, and has

received the coveted Silver Beaver

Award for his contribution to Boy Scout-

ing. In 1970, he was presented the

Heiskanen Geodesy Award from Ohio

State University where he had received

his doctorate in geodetic science in 1962.

As an author, Orlin has published num-

erous scientific articles on his gravity

observations, geodetic astronomy, geo-

physics, law of the sea and the earth’s

external gravity field. He has taught grad-

uate and undergraduate courses in geo-

detic sciences at George Washington

University and is coordinator for the

Geodetic and Cartographic Science and

the Oceanographic Science programs at

the University.

A native of New York City, Orlin has |

received degrees from the City College

of New York, George Washington Uni-

versity, and Ohio State University. He |

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

and his wife, the former Lenore Driller .

of Bronx, N. Y., live in Silver Spring, Md.

He is a member of Sigma Xi and the Inter-

national Astronomical Union and a Fel-

low of the American Geophysical Union

and the Washington Academy of

‘Sciences.

NAVAL RESEARCH LABORATORY

Dr. Isabella L. Karle received the

American Chemical Society’s 1976 Gar-

van medal and $2,000 on April 5 during

the Society’s Centennial meeting in New

York City.

Dr. Karle was named to present the

award address this year on April 8 at a

symposium arranged by the Biochem-

istry Division of the ACS. Among the

speakers at this symposium was _ her

daughter, Dr. Louise Karle Hanson, a

spectroscopist at the National Institute

of Health. Coincidentally, Dr. Karle,

who is also president of the American

Crystallographic Association, presented

greetings from that society to the ACS

at a ceremonial session, along with the

presidents of many other scientific

societies from the United States and

around the world. .

An authority in x-ray crystallography,

Dr. Karle has developed a practical pro-

cedure to determine molecular structures

of complex substances, including mate-

rials of biological and medical interest,

that previously could not be studied by

x-ray techniques. Before she introduced

her method, the direct method of phase

determination, scientists were limited to

restricted types of compounds that could

be examined by x-ray crystallography

-—the best technique to determine the

three-dimensional atomic arrangement in

a molecule. In particular, compounds of

biological interest, because they are

composed of lightweight elements, were

not amenable to the x-ray technique. Dr.

Karle’s method changed that.

_ Dr. Karle is recognized for her struc-

tural investigations employing the new

method. She has elucidated structural

features in antibiotics; radiation damage

to genetic material; heart drugs; drug

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

antagonists; frog venoms; compounds

induced by ultraviolet radiation and

associated with primary visual response;

and ion-transport in biological systems.

A native of Detroit, she received the

B.S. in 1941, the M.S. in 1942, and the

Ph.D. in 1944 at the University of

Michigan, completing the doctorate at the

age of 22. She remained at the Uni-

versity of Michigan as an instructor in

chemistry until 1946, when she joined the

Naval Research Laboratory as aresearch

physicist. Author of more than 100

papers on electron and x-ray diffraction

studies of crystal and molecular struc-

tures, Dr. Karle has supervised several

programs of postdoctrol research and

maintains collaborative research proj-

ects with government laboratories and

research institutions throughout the

world.

Honors accorded Dr. Karle are the

Navy Superior Civilian Service Award

(1965), the Naval Research Laboratory’s

Scientific Research Society of American

Applied Science Award (1967), the

Society of Women Engineers Annual

Achievement Award (1968), the Hille-

brand Award of the American Chemical

Society’s Washington section (1969), the

Federal Woman’s Award (1973), and

membership in Phi Beta Kappa and

Sigma Xi.

She is a fellow of the Washington

Academy of Sciences, an honorary life

member of the Society of Women

Engineers, and a member of the U. S. A.

National Committee for Crystallography,

the American Crystallographic Associa-

tion, the American Physical Society,

the American Chemical Society, the

American Association for the Advance-

ment of Science, the Biophysical Society,

the Research Society of America, and the

Advisory Board of the publication

Biopolymers, an international journal

of research on biological molecules.

In addition to the honorarium and the

gold Garvan Medal, Dr. Karle received

a bronze replica of the medal. The award

was established in 1936 through a dona-

tion from Francis P. Garvan and is sup-

ported by a fund set up at that time.

161

OBITUARIES

Norman H. C. Griffiths

Norman H. C. Griffiths throughout

his professional career served his family,

Howard University, and the world. He

was a Skilled prosthodontist, educator,

researcher, and humanitarian. Dr. Grif-

fiths passed away quietly on June 22,

1976 in the Howard University Hospital

after a lengthy illness. He would have

retired from his faculty position at the

University on June 30, 1976 after 28 years

of full-time service.

Dr. Griffiths graduated from the

Howard University College of Dentistry

in 1947 with honors. He received his

graduate education at Northwestern Uni-

versity, where he earned the M.S.D.

Degree in 1948 and at the University of

Pennsylvania where he received his

diploma in Prosthetic Dentistry in 1953

and the Doctor of Science Degree in

1957. He was first appointed to the

dental faculty of Howard University in

1948 as an Assistant Professor.

During his very active career in teach-

ing and dental practice, he spent many

hours devoting his professional services

to hospitals in the Washington area and

lecturing to state, national, and local

dental societies throughout the United

States.

Dr. Griffiths has been an ambassador

of health and the College’s international

faculty member. He taught and provided

dental health care in India, Africa,

Egypt, Ceylon, the West Indies and

Europe. He spent 2 tours of duty on the

S. S. Hope—the American Hospital

Ship—where he provided dental serv-

ices in Guinea, West Africa. He subse-

quently served as a consultant and ad-

visor to the Hope staff.

His long list of honors and service

include (President of the Caribbean

American Intercultural Organization;

Visiting Professor, University of Ceylon;

Visiting Professor in India and Egypt on

a U.S. State Department grant; member,

Washington Academy of Sciences; Past

President, Chi Delta Mu fraternity;

162

Past State Vice President, National

Dental Association; Past President, Pi Pi

Chapter, Omicron Kappa Upsilon, the

dental honor society; and the American

Cleft Palate Association. |

Professor Griffiths has made numerous

contributions to the dental literature in

his field of removable prosthodontics.

His articles appear in the Journal of

Dental Research; the Bulletin of the Na-

tional Dental Association; Journal of

Dental Education; Journal of the Ameri-

can Dental Association; Journal of the

D. C. Dental Society, and the Egyptian

Dental Journal.

His scholarly lectures and clinical

expertise in the treatment of patients

with missing teeth and other oral dis-

orders will be missed by his professional

colleagues, the faculty, staff, and stu-

dents of the College of Dentistry. He

has made special contributions to the field

of prosthodontics through advances in

technical and clinical diagnostic pro-

cedures for patients with missing teeth.

Dr. Griffiths is survived by his devoted —

wife Peggy S. and six children: Stephanie

Denise, Dwight Norman, Michael Craig,

Arthur Alexander, Peggy Manel, and

Jacqueline Deneen; one sister, Stephanie

G. Brown; and a host of relatives,

colleagues, and friends.

Marjorie Hooker

Marjorie Hooker, 67, a geologist with

the U. S. Geological Survey for nearly

30 years, died of cancer May 4, 1976.

With the Survey since 1947, she was

responsible for abstracting geological

literature, compiling data on the composi- |

tion of igneous and metamorphic rocks of |

the world, and for international correla- |

tion of chemical data on granitic rocks.

Miss Hooker had received worldwide |

recognition for her work in scientific |

bibliography and for her activities with |

international scientific societies. |

Born in Flushing, N.Y., she was a |

graduate of Hunter College and received

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

a master’s degree in geology from Syra-

cuse University. She took graduate

work at Columbia University.

She worked for 4 years as a mineral

resource analyst with the State Depart-

ment before joining the Geological

Survey.

As organizer of abstracts from Amer-

ica for ‘‘Mineralogical Abstracts’’ since

1969, Miss Hooker had published 64

papers and was an adviser on chemical

data.

She helped organize conferences for

international societies, developed new

programs in mineralogical and petrologic

studies, and corresponded extensively

with geologists all over the world. Miss

Hooker had been a delegate to 4 interna-

tional geological congresses, including

the one in Prague in 1968 that was in-

terrupted by the Soviet invasion.

She was a fellow of the Mineralogical

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 2, 1976

Society of America, the Geological

Society of London and the American

Association for the Advancement of

Science. She also was a member of

the American Geophysical Union, the

American Institute of Mining Engineers,

the Association of Earth Science Editors

and the mineralogical societies of Great

Britain, France, Canada, Switzerland

and Japan.

Miss Hooker, who lived at 2018

Luzerne Ave., Silver Spring, had served

as a judge at area science fairs. She

had been active in the North Woodside—

Montgomery Hills Citizens Association

for 22 years and had served as a trustee

of the Woodlin Elementary School PTA

in Silver Spring.

She is survived by two sisters, Elsie

A. Hooker, of Flushing, and Vera H.

Heidrick, of Addison, N. Y.

163

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PRW23

VOLUME 66

Number 3

| J Our nal of the SEPTEMBER, 1976

WASHINGTON

ACADEMY... SCIENCES

Issued Quarterly

—, at Washington, DC.

Directory Issue

CONTENTS

Directory, 1976:

Directory of The PNCAGC INNS. Sete sk oe akon s Pa Seren

MIME IICAMOISUINO Meee 2 os ceca we se we eee bbs ae ee

Order form for Tape Cassettes from

Symposium—Energy Recovery from Solid Wastes ...

Washington Academy of Sciences

Founded in 1898

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President

Florence H. Forziati

President-Elect

Richard H. Foote

Secretary a

Nelson W. Rupp

Treasurer

Mary H. Aldridge

Members at Large

George Abraham

Grover C. Sherlin

BOARD OF MANAGERS

All delegates of affiliated

Societies (see facing page)

EDITOR

Richard H. Foote

EDITORIAL ASSISTANT

Elizabeth Ostaggi

ACADEMY OFFICE

9650 Rockville Pike (Bethesda)

Washington, D.C. 20014

Telephone (301) 530-1402

The Journal

This journal, the official organ of the Washington Aca-

demy of Sciences, publishes historical articles, critical

reviews, and scholarly scientific articles; proceedings

of meetings of the Academy and its Board of Mana-

gers; and other items of interest to Academy members.

The Journal appears four times a year (March, June,

September, and December)—the September issue

contains a directory of the Academy membership.

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Published quarterly in March, June, September, and December of each year by the

Washington Academy of Sciences, 9650 Rockville Pike, Washington, D.C. Second class

postage paid at Washington, D.C. and additional mailing offices.

DELEGATES TO THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,

REPRESENTING THE LOCAL AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

ERAacapiiicdls SOCIElY Of WaASMIMSTOM ao. c eo ..6 ole Pe nah eee age ee ees ob eee James F. Goff

Paine polorcical Society o£ Washimpstont ee... loess. fee. ee ee ce ee ee ee ee Jean K. Boek

Seee CAMS OCICS VOR VAS MIN GCOMs, cr). cs. cece hee oe wee eidi es sue ele sun cege ces tae seh ess be has Inactive

Me AmSOCICLYy, Ol Washimetones! «tn! 2k seca as «leas LaGas dwindles Delegate not appointed

Eeamalseicalesociety of Washington), 2-252... 02s. osc eee ce eee bbe este cence Maynard Ramsay

eh ee OO LAPIN CLS OCIC UN ns Ce eo. es as ye. has ae ee ee ee T. Dale Stewart

PmMeone ae SOCIcty ol WashingtOM 2... 2.0.50. 6 sce cee Jee eee cs ceee ee Marian M. Schnepfe

MemeEsocienzo the Distictior Columbia”... . 0.2.00 62. cose en eet ptm ence e sens cseeeues Inactive

PNA DH CAM HISTORIC SOCICUY = oie coe) o cerc ist as te ses b gid viele to Wael wie Sl viale aug eis Slee bres Paul H. Oehser

Pec ESOcictyeoO! WashimetOn, ... 06.6 access qmes sees ot woe ete Sp ea mec e ew dese snes Conrad B. Link

PeecmmOle Mine miCan FOLESUCTS).. 2225.5. .6 ekeG eh lelds bia ea dlba as oe ee cas we lees Thomas B. Glazebrook

ESPERO TOMESOCICIV TON MH MOINGCES . <2. 20 eke aces eet) et wef ee we dees cae core Oo ele George Abraham

Pmunteeoielectiical and Electronics Engimeers ................00.00 0 PBR ees wees George Abraham

PinMcMtcanmSOcieny on Mechanical BNOMEES 45.65. 6 ccc es tee eee bene sees usaweus Michael Chi

Ammo occa Society Of WaShiNgtOMi ... 4.26. oid cue ce ens oe eee ve wee eee Robert S. Isenstein

PieMecanESOciety 1OL, Microbiology tsa le. Weed One Tk eh le lo Se ee a als Delegate not appointed

Meroe AMeM cam Military EMPITCENS, .....6 00 onda ec 6 aes gba ys ves ns oe ee cae eae eee H.P. Demuth

AUSSI SOGISIY Cie Crk IN Bo (2410 Vee) he eee ee Shou Shan Fan

Seicw mone xpenmental Biology and Medicine ..........5 60.0.0. c0ccscnesscgectess Donald Flick

-SPERISAMD SOCISIN] TON G1 I ee ere er ee en ee Glen W. Wensch

International Association of Dental Research nies A RA ae Aatieel base ead Raeaa ener RERE William V. Loebenstein

eimemean Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics .............. 000 00c cece e cent ees Franklin Ross

aca Met COrOlogzical SOCICLY 65... «<5 net cee OMe ce a eae He ee he le ds A. James Wagner

Reel CESOCIehy Ol WASMINGTON 3 ieee oe ch ce ss oles evens saws agsecseuces Robert J. Argauer

PRUE TESOCICNyCOL AINGIICA 2.5. acer fe tac secu sca ce sent sceeswuss Delegate not appointed

ECL CRIT: INIIGCISRIE SCENE Re else Ae en Dick Duffey

PereMecrOnmsOodmlcchnologists: 012-4. syenuies. Bead aces ed wees Jes Vode William Sulzbacher

Pete AMMO CHANITICESOCCIY er ee ee ee ss de ie inde en eee e eek a vawoe tees Inactive

2 LE SURDELNSIITCall SCTE See ee te Ae tee a Pana Onn ne ane PR Delegate not appointed

DEAGEStOM) TEISUD ROE SCTE ere CUT oes te rite sea Inactive

PeienICAneNSSOCIAtION Ol-Physics: TeaGhers . 2.0.60. 6 cca ee eee bbe ee eee Bernard B. Watson

DCMS OCI OlONINCIIC Aen cere oar ok eset oe bot vs tees hese Gewese ewbieas Ronald W. Waynant

PneMcAnSOciciyaor Plant Physiologists 4 4.h. 226. leds ves see wekdew ose ees Chae Walter Shropshire

PemnooniO perations Research Council) 2). oo5 5)... ee eee ee ke. John G. Honig

PeMMUMCHIASOCICMYAOIO ANI CIRCA EE 6 the a. io 2) pee as hen eat aa en Rie eww eee ee ae ODS Inactive

American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical

ane MOL SUM I OMNIS CTS Memento sae aye eves, AYe¥s esos dc, J) cane dee.) = kos Sets nd ae ewe Carl H. Cotterill

Beeson CapilolvNstonomers: 24098008 .o.. c hee x. eae SPOR UA Delegate not appointed

REMC MICMICAIUNSSOCIANOMOL AMENCA 0.022.206 o0. snc se cae seca eee teceecccvescacce Patrick Hayes

2: LRSEMUIS CHGS ee eR es ee Miloslav Recheigl, Jr.

PS Chol OorcalmASSOCIIEOM A!) as ace be ites ve cet MG bbe be bible sdb be'eee eee eeene John O’ Hare

Peay ashineton) Pant LechmicaliGnroupltcic... 5... 0s. 0 se eee ee cee eee cence nes Paul G. Campbell

Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the representative societies.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 3, 1976 165

us ’ , ‘ en oe i

> — |

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se i Agee

166 J. WASH.

THE DIRECTORY OF THE ACADEMY FOR 1976

Foreword

The present, 51st issue of the Academy’s direc-

tory is again this year issued as part of the Septem-

ber number of the Journal. As in previous years,

the alphabetical listing is based on a postcard

questionnaire sent to the Academy membership.

Members were asked to update the data concerning

address and membership in affiliated societies by

June 30, 1976. In cases in which cards were not

received by that date, the address appears as it was

used during 1976, and the remaining data were

taken from the directory for 1975. Corrections

should be called to the attention of the Academy

office.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 3, 1976

Code for Affiliated Societies, and Society Officers

The Philosophical Society of Washington (1898)

President: Robert J. Rubin, 3308 McKinley St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015

Vice-President: Paul A. Willis, 2824 W. George Mason Rd., Falls Church, Va. 22042

Secretary: James F. Goff, 3405 34th Pl., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016

Delegate: James F. Goff

Anthropological Society of Washington (1898)

President: Robert Humphrey, George Washington Univ., Washington, D.C. 20037

President-elect: Priscilla Reining, Catholic Univ. of America, Washington, D.C. 20064

Secretary: Mary F. Gallager, American Univ., Washington, D.C. 20016

Delegate: Jean K. Boek, National Graduate Univ., 3408 Wisconsin Ave., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20016

Biological Society of Washington (1898)

President: Joseph Rosewater, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560

Secretary: Richard C. Banks, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560

Chemical Society of Washington (1898)

President: Robert F. Cozzens, George Mason Univ., Fairfax, Va. 22030

President-elect: David Venezky, Naval Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375

Secretary: John Moody, NBS, Chemistry, Bldg. 222, Washington, D.C. 20234

Delegate: None appointed

Entomological Society of Washington (1898)

President: H. Ivan Rainwater, Rm. 635, Federal Bldg., Hyattsville, Md. 20782

President-elect: George C. Steyskal, W-617, NMNH, Washington, D.C. 20560

Secretary: Theodore J. Spilman, W-605, NMNH, Washington, D.C. 20560

Delegate: Maynard J. Ramsay, Rm. 660, Federal Bldg., Hyattsville, Md. 20782

National Geographic Society (1898)

President: Robert E. Doyle, National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C. 20036

Chairman: Melvin M. Payne, National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C. 20036

Secretary: Owen R. Anderson, National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C. 20036

Delegate: T. Dale Stewart, Smithsonian Institution, Museum of Natural History,

Washington, D.C. 20560

Geological Society of Washington (1898)

President: Joshua I. Tracey, Jr., U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Va. 22092

Vice-President: Dallas L. Peck, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Va. 22092

Secretary: Penelope M. Hanshaw, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Va. 22092

Delegate: Marian M. Schnepfe, 2019 Eye St. N.W. #402, Washington, D.C. 20006

Medical Society of the District of Columbia (1898)

President: William S. McCune

President-elect: Frank S. Bacon

Secretary: Thomas Sadler

Delegate: Not appointed

167

9 Columbia Historical Society (1899)

President: Hemer T. Rosenberger, 1307 New Hampshire Ave., N.W., Washington,

D.C. 20036

Vice-President: Wilcomb E. Washburn, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560

Secretary: Edward F. Gerber, 1233 30th St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007

Delegate: Paul H. Oehser, National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C. 20036

10 Botanical Society of Washington (1902)

President: Peter M. Mazzeo, U.S. National Arboretum, 28th & M Sts., N.E.,

Washington, D.C. 20002

Vice-President: Laurence E. Skog, Smithsonian Institution, Dept. of Botany, Washington,

D.C. 20560

Secretary: Erik A. Neumann, U.S. National Arboretum, 28th & M Sts., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20002

Delegate: Conrad B. Link, Univ. of Md., Dept. of Horticulture, College Park,

Md. 20742

11 Society of American Foresters, Washington, Section (1904)

President: Thomas B. Glazebrook, 7809 Bristow Dr., Annandale, Va. 22003

President-elect: Arthur H. Smith, 3301 Wessynton Way, Alexandria, Va. 22309

Secretary: George Cheek, American Forest Institute, 1619 Mass. Ave., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20036

Delegate: T. B. Glazebrook

12 Washington Society of Engineers (1907)

President: Joseph H. Seelinger, 5367 28th St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015

Vice-President: Dean Harold Liebowitz, Sch. of Engineering, George Washington Univ.,

Washington, D.C. 20052

Secretary: Guy S. Hammer, II, 1526 17th St., N.W., #107, Washington, D.C. 20036

Delegate: George Abraham, 3107 Westover Dr., S.E., Washington, D.C. 20020

13 Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers, Washington Section (1912)

Chairman: Alvin Reiner, 11243 Bybee St., Silver Spring, Md. 20902

Vice-Chairman: Dennis Bodson, 233 North Columbus St., Arlington, Va. 22203

Secretary: C. David Crandall, 12214 Old Colony Dr., Upper Marlboro, Md. 20870

Delegate: George Abraham, 3107 Westover Dr., S.E., Washington, D.C. 20020

14 American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Washington Section (1923)

Chairman: Darnley Howard, Postal Service Research Institute, Rockville, Md.

Vice-Chairman: Michael Chi, 2721 24th St. N., Arlington, Va. 22207

Secretary: Robert L. Hershey, Booz-Allen Applied Res., Bethesda, Md. 20014

Delegate: Michael Chi

15 Helminthological Society of Washington (1923)

President: Robert S. Isenstein, Animal Parasitology Inst., BARC-East, Beltsville,

Md. 20705

Vice-President: A. Morgan Golden, Nematology Lab., Plant Protection Inst., BARC-

West, Beltsville, Md. 20705

Secretary: William R. Nickle, Nematology Lab., Plant Protection Inst., BARC-

West, Beltsville, Md. 20705

Delegate: James H. Turner, Division of Res. Grants, NIH, Westwood Bldg.,

Rm. A25, Bethesda, Md. 20014

16 American Society for Microbiology, Washington Branch (1923)

President: Joseph C. Olson, Jr., Food & Drug Adm., Washington, D.C.

Vice-President: Charles H. Zierdt, NIH, Bethesda, Md. 20014

Secretary: June W. Bradlaw, Food & Drug Adm., Washington, D.C.

Delegate: None appointed

17 Society of American Military Engineers, Washington Post (1927)

President: Lt. Col. Elton D. Scheideman, HQ USAF/P REN, Washington, D.C. 20330

Vice-President: Capt. Clayman C. Meyers, OICC Bethesda, 200 Stovall St., Naval

Facilities Engrg. Command, Alexandria, Va. 22332

Secretary: Capt. Terry M. Fenstad, HQ USAF/PREV, Washington, D.C. 20330

Delegate: Hal P. Demuth, 4025 Pine Brook Rd., Alexandria, Va. 22310

168 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 3, 1976

—

American Society of Civil Engineers, National Capital Section (1942)

President: L. Gary Byrd, 2921 Telester Ct., Falls Church, Va. 22042

Vice-President: James W. Harland, 1511 K St., N.W., Suite 337, Washington, D.C. 20005

Secretary: John J. Duffy, American Concrete Pipe Assoc., 8320 Old Court House Rd.,

Vienna, Va. 22180

Delegate: Shou-shan Fan, 2313 Glenallen Ave., #202, Silver Spring, Md. 20906

Society for Experimental Biology & Medicine, D.C. Section (1952)

President: Juan C. Penhos, Dept. of Physiology & Biophysics, Georgetown Univ.

School of Med. & Dentistry, Washington, D.C. 20007

President-elect: Cyrus R. Creveling, 4516 Amherst Lane, Bethesda, Md. 20014

Secretary: Marvin Bleiberg, 3613 Old Post Rd., Fairfax, Va. 22030

Delegate: Donald F. Flick, 930 19th St., So., Arlington, Va. 22202

American Society for Metals, Washington Chapter (1953)

Chairman: Klaus M. Zwilsky, U.S. Atomic Energy Comm., Washington, D.C. 20545

Vice-chairman: Alan H. Rosenstein, Air Force Office of Scientific Res., 1400 Wilson Blvd.,

Arlington, Va. 22209

Secretary: Joseph Malz, NASA, Code RWM, Washington, D.C. 20546

Delegate: Glen W. Wensch, U.S. Atomic Energy Comm., Washington, D.C. 20545

International Association for Dental Research, Washington Section (1953)

President: Robert W. Longton, Dental Sciences Dept., Naval Med. Res. Inst.,

NNMC, Bethesda, Md. 20014

Vice-President: Nelson W. Rupp, Dental Res., NBS, Washington, D.C. 20234

Secretary: Donald W. Turner, Dental Sciences Dept., Naval Med. Res. Inst.,

NNMC, Bethesda, Md. 20014

Delegate: William V. Loebenstein, 8501 Sundale Dr., Silver Spring, Md. 20910

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, National Capital Section (1953)

President: Philip R. Compton, 6303 Mori St., McLean, Va. 22101

Vice-President: Jack Suddreth, Code RLC/Aero. Prop. Div., NASA Headquarters,

Washington, D.C. 20546

Secretary: Paul M. Burris, The Boeing Co., 955 L’Enfant Plaza North, S.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20024

Delegate: Frank J. Ross, Deputy for Rqmts., Off. Asst. Sec. of A.F., The Pentagon,

Rm. 4E973, Washington, D.C. 20330

American Meteorological Society, D.C. Chapter (1954)

Chairman: G. Stanley Doore, NOAA/NWS/TPB/WIIX2, 1302 Gramax Bldg.,

8060 13th St., Silver Spring, Md. 20910

Vice-Chairman: Robert Ellingson, IFDAM, Space Services Bldg., Univ. of Md., College

Park, Md. 20742

Secretary: H. Michael Magil, NOAA/NWS/PSB/WII2X3, 1425 Gramax Bldg.,

8060 13th St., Silver Spring, Md. 20910

Delegate: A. James Wagner, NOAA/NWS/NMC W31, 604 World Weather Bldg.,

5200 Auth Rd., Washington, D.C. 20233

Insecticide Society of Washington (1959)

President: Richard Back, Union Carbide, 1730 Pa. Ave., N.E., Suite 1250,

Washington, D.C. 20006

President-elect: John W. Kennedy, APHIS, USDA, Hyattsville, Md.

Secretary: John Neal, ARS, ARC, Bldg. 467, Beltsville, Md. 20705

Delegate: Robert Argauer, ARS, ARC, Bldg. 309, Beltsville, Md. 20705

Acoustical Society of America (1959)

Chairman: John A. Molino, Sound Section, NBS, Washington, D.C. 20234

Vice-chairman: Charles T. Molloy, 2400 Claremont Dr., Falls Church, Va. 22043

Secretary: William K. Blake, Naval Ship R & D Ctr., Bethesda, Md. 20034

Delegate: None appointed

American Nuclear Society, Washington Section (1960)

President: Andre Gage, Potomac Electric Power Co., 1900 Penn. Ave., N.W.,

Washington, D.C.

Vice-President: B. E. Leonard, Institute for Resource Management, 4948 St. Elmo Ave.

Bethesda, Md. 20014

Secretary: S. Bassett, NUS Corp., Rockville, Md. 20852

Delegate: Dick Duffy, Nuclear Engineering, Univ. of Md., College Park, Md.

20742

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 3, 1976 169

170

Institute of Food Technologists, Washington Section (1961)

Chairman: Tannous Khalil, Giant Foods, Inc., Landover, Md. 20785

Vice-chairman: Florian C. Majorack, Food & Drug Adm., Washington, D.C.

Secretary: Glenn V. Brauner, National Canners Assoc., Washington, D.C. 20036

Delegate: William Sulzbacher, 8527 Clarkson Dr., Fulton, Md. 20759

American Ceramic Society, Baltimore-Washington Section (1962)

Chairman: W. T. Bakker, General Refractories Co., P.O. Box 1673, Md. 21203

Chairman-elect: L. Biller, Glidden-Dirkee Div., SCM Corp., 3901 Hawkins Point Rd.,

Baltimore, Md. 21226

Secretary: Edwin E. Childs, J. E. Baker Co., 232 E. Market St., York, Pa. 17405

Delegate: None appointed

Electrochemical Society, National Capital Section (1963)

Chairman: Judith Ambrus, Naval Surface Weapons Ctr., White Oak, Md. 20910

Vice-chairman: John B. O’Sullivan, 7724 Glenister Dr., Springfield, Va. 22152

Secretary: John Ambrose, NBS, Washington, D.C. 20234

Delegate: None appointed

Washington History of Science Club (1965)

Chairman: Richard G.Hewlett, Atomic Energy Comm.

Vice-chairman: Deborah Warner, Smithsonian Institution

Secretary: Dean C. Allard

Delegate: None appointed

American Association of Physics Teachers, Chesapeake Section (1965)

President: William Logan, D.C. Teachers College, 2565 Georgia Ave., Washington,

D.C. 20001

Vice-President: Eugenie V. Mielczarek, George Mason Univ., 4400 University Dr.,

Fairfax, Va. 22030

Secretary: John B. Newman, Towson State College, Towson, Md. 21204

Delegate: Bernard B. Watson, 6108 London Lane, Bethesda, Md. 20034

Optical Society of America, National Capital Section (1966)

President: James B. Heaney, NASA, Goddard Space Flight Ctr., Greenbelt, Md. 20770

Vice-President: Diane Prinz, Naval Research Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375

Secretary: Marilyn J. Dodge, National Bureau of Standards, A-251, Physics Bldg.,

Washington, D.C. 20234

Delegate: James B. Heaney

American Society of Plant Physiologists, Washington Section (1966)

President: Aref Abdul-Baki, USDA, ARCW, Beltsville, Md. 20705

Vice-President: Dale G. Blevins, Dept. of Botany, Univ. of Md., College Park, Md. 20742

Secretary: Anne H. Datko, NIMH Bldg. 32A, Rm. 101, Bethesda, Md. 20014

Delegate: W. Shropshire, Jr., Smithsonian Institution, 12441 Parklawn Dr.,

Rockville, Md. 20852

Washington Operations Research Council (1966)

President: Frank T. Trippi, 5809 Clermont Dr., Alexandria, Va. 22310

President-elect: Craig C. Sherbrooke, 8513 Kingsgate Rd., Potomac, Md. 20854

Secretary: Neal D. Glassman, 1 Paddock Ct., Potomac, Md. 20854

Delegate: John G. Honig, 7701 Glenmore Spring Way, Bethesda, Md. 20034

Instrument Society of America, Washington Section (1967)

President: Francis C. Quinn

President-elect: John I. Peterson

Secretary: Frank L. Carou

Delegate: None appointed

American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical & Petroleum Engineers (1968)

Chairman: Phil W. Guild, U.S. Geological Survey, Natl. Ctr., Mail Stop 952,

12201 Sunrise Valley Dr., Reston, Va. 22092

Vice-Chairman: Gus H. Goudarzi, U.S. Geological Survey, Natl. Ctr., Mail Stop 920,

12201 Sunrise Valley Dr., Reston, Va. 22092

Secretary: John Patterson, Energy Res. & Dev. Adm., Washington, D.C. 20545

Delegate: Carl H. Cotterill, Bureau of Mines, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 2401 E St.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20241

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 3, 1976

Si)

National Capital Astronomers (1969)

President: Benson J. Simon

Vice-President: Geoffrey P. Hornseth

Secretary: William R. Winkler

Delegate: None appointed

Maryland-District of Columbia and Virginia Section of Mathematical Assoc. of America (1971)

Chairman: Geraldine A. Coon, Goucher College, Baltimore, Md.

Secretary: John Smith, George Mason University, Fairfax, Va.

Delegate: Patrick Hayes, 5565 Columbia Pike #812, Arlington, Va 22204

D.C. Institute of Chemists (1973)

President: Kelso B. Morris, 1448 Leegate Rd., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20012

President-elect: Leo Schubert, 8521 Beech Tree Rd., Bethesda, Md. 20034

Secretary: Fred D. Ordway, 2816 Fall Jax Dr., Falls Church, Va. 22042

Delegate: Miloslav Rechcigl, Jr., 1703 Mark Lane, Rockville, Md. 20852

The D.C. Psychological Association (1975)

President: Lee Gurel, 2723 Woodley Pl., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008

President-elect: Richard P. Youniss, 6111 43rd Ave., Hyattsville, Md. 20781

Secretary: Eugene Stammeyer, 419 Timber Branch Parkway, Alexandria, Va. 22302

Delegate: John J. O’Hare, 301 G St., S.W., #824, Washington, D.C. 20024

The Washington Paint Technical Group (1976)

President: Rufus F. Wint, Hercules, Inc., 910 Market St., Wilmington, Delaware 19899

Vice-President: William Georgov, J. M. Huber Corp., P.O. Box 310, Havre de Grace,

Md. 21078

Secretary: Robert F.Brady, Jr., General Services Adm. (FMBP), Washington, D.C.

20406

Delegate: Paul G. Campbell, National Bureau of Standards, B-348 Br., Washington,

D.C. 20234

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 3, 1976 171

Alphabetical List of Members

M = Member; F = Fellow; E = Emeritus member L = Life Fellow. Numbers in parentheses refer to

numerical code in foregoing list of affiliated societies.

ABELSON, PHILIP H., Ph.D., Carnegie Inst. of

Washington, Carnegie Institution of Washing-

ton, 1530 P St., N.W., Washington D.C. 20005

(F-1, 4, 7, 16)

ABRAHAM, GEORGE, M.S., Ph.D., 3107 West-

over Dr., S.E., Washington, D.C. 20020 (F-1,

Gril alaot. Se)

ACHTER, M. R., Code 6416, U.S. Naval Research

Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (F-20, 36)

ADAMS, CAROLINE L., 242 North Granada St.,

Arlington, Va. 22203 (E-10)

ADLER, SANFORD C., 14238 Briarwood Terr.,

Rockville, Md. 20853 (M-1)

ADLER, VICTOR E., 8540 Pineway Ct., Laurel,

Md. 20810 (F-5, 24)

ADRIAN, FRANK J., Applied Phys. Lab., Johns

Hopkins Univ., 8621 Georgia Ave., Silver

Spring, Md. 20910 (F)

AFFRONTI, LEWIS, Ph.D., Dept. of Microbiology,

George Washington Univ. Sch. of Med., 2300

Eye St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037 (F-16)

AHEARN, ARTHUR J., Ph.D., 9621 East Bexhill

Dr., Box 294, Kensington, Md. 20795 (F-16)

AKERS, ROBERT P., Ph.D., 9912 Silverbrook Dr.,

Rockville, Md. 20850 (F-6)

ALBUS, JAMES S., 6100 Westchester, 1406, Col-

lege Park, Md. 20740 (F)

ALDRICH, JOHN W., Ph.D., 6324 Lakeview Dr.,

Falls Church, Va. 22041 (F-3)

ALDRIDGE, MARY H., Ph.D., Dept. of Chemistry,

American University, Washington, D.C. 20016

(F-4)

ALEXANDER, ALLEN L., Ph.D., 4216 Sleepy

Hollow Rd., Annandale, Va. 22003 (F-4)

ALEXANDER, BENJAMIN, Ph.D., Pres., Chicago

State Univ., 95th St. at King Dr. Chicago Ill.

(F)

ALGERMISSEN, S. T., 5079 Holmes PI., Boulder,

Colo. 80303 (F)

ALLEN, ANTON M., D.V.M., Ph.D., 11718 Lake-

way Dr., Manassas, Va. 22110 (F)

ALLEN, FRANCES, Ph.D. 7507 23rd Ave.,

Hyattsville, Md. 20783 (F)

ALTER, HARVEY, Ph.D., Nat. Center for

Resource Recovery, Inc., 1211 Connecticut

Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036 (F-4)

ALTMAN, PHILIP L., 9206 Ewing Dr., Bethesda,

Md. 20034 (M)

ANDERSON, JOHN D., Jr., Ph.D., Dept. Aerospace

Eng., Univ. Maryland, College Park, Md.

20742 (F-6, 22)

ANDERSON, MYRON S., Ph.D., 1433 Manchester

Lane, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20011 (F-4)

ANDERSON, WENDELLL., Rural Rt. 4, Box 4172,

La Plata, Md. 20646 (F-4)

ANDREWS, JOHN S., Sc.D., Animal Parasitology

172

Inst., Agr. Res. Cent. (E), USDA, Beltsville,

Md. 20705 (F-15)

ANDRUS, EDWARD D., BS., 1600 Rhode Island

Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036 (M-7, 25)

APOSTOLOU, Mrs. GEORGIA L., 1001 Rockville

Pike, #424, Rockville, Md. 20852 (M)

APPEL, WILLIAM D., B.S., 12416 Regent Ave.,

N.E., Albuquerque, N. Mex. 87112 (E-6)

APSTEIN, MAURICE, Ph.D., 4611 Maple Ave.,

Bethesda, Md., 20014 (F-13)

ARGAUER, ROBERT J., Ph.D., 4208 Everett St.,

Kensington, Md. 20795 (F-24)

ARMSTRONG, GEORGE T., Ph.D., 1401 Dale Dr.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F-1, 4)

ARONSON, C. J., 3401 Oberon St., Kensington,

Md. 20910 (M-1, 32)

ARSEM, COLLINS, 10821 Admirals Way,

Potomac, Md. 20854 (M-1, 6, 13)

ASLAKSON, CARL I., 5707 Wilson Lane, Be-

thesda, Md. 20014 (E)

ASTIN, ALLEN V., Ph.D., 5008 Battery Lane,

Bethesda, Md. 20014 (E-1, 13, 22, 31, 35)

AXILROD, BENJAMIN M., 9915 Marquette Dr.,

Bethesda, Md. 20034 (E-1)

AYENSU, EDWARD, Ph.D., 510 H. St., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20024

BAKER, ARTHUR A., Ph.D., 5201 Westwood Dr.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-7)

BAKER, LOUIS C.W., Ph.D., Dept of Chemistry,

Georgetown University, N.W., Washington,

D.C. 20007 (F-4)

BALLARD, LOWELL D., 722 So. Colonial, Ster-

ling, Va. 22170 (F-1, 6, 13, 32)

BARBROW, LOUIS E., Natl. Bureau of Standards,

Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-1, 13, 32)

BARGER, GERALD L., Ph.D., 17 West Blvd. N.,

Columbia, Mo. 65201 (F-23)

BARNHART, CLYDE S., Sr., Rt. 4, Box 207A,

Athens, Ohio 45701 (F)

BARRETT, MORRIS K., Mrs., Ph.D. 5528

Johnson Ave., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-7)

BEACH, LOUIS A., Ph.D., 1200 Waynewood

Blvd., Alexandria, Va. 22308 (F-1, 6)

BEASLEY, EDWARD E., Ph.D., Physics Dept.,

Gallaudet College, Washington, D.C. 20002

(F-1)

BECKER, EDWIN D., Ph.D., Inst. Arthritis & Meta-

bolic Dis., Bldg. 2 Rm. 122, National Institutes

of Health, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-4)

BECKETT, CHARLES W., 5624 Madison St.,

Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-1, 4)

BECKMANN, ROBERT B., Dean, College of

Engineering, Univ. of Md., College Park, Md.

20742 (F-4)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 3, 1976

BEIJ, HILDING, K., 69 Morningside Dr., Laconia,

NH. 03246 (L)

BEKKEDAHL, NORMAN, Ph.D., 405 N. Ocean

Blvd., Apt. 1001, Pompano Beach, Fla. 33062

BELLANTI, JOSEPH A., Ph. D., 6007 Carewood

Lane Bethesda, Md. 20016 (F-6, 10)

BELSHEIM, ROBERT, Ph.D., 2475 Virginia Ave.

#514, Washington, D.C. 20037 (F-1, 12, 14)

BENDER, MAURICE, Ph.D., 621 W. Mallon, Suite

201, Spokane, Wa. 99201 (F)

BENESCH, WILLIAM, Inst. for Molecular Physics,

Univ. of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742

(F-1, 32)

BENJAMIN, C. R., Ph.D., IPD/ARS, USDA, Rm.

459, Federal Bg., Hyattsville, Md. 20782

(F-6, 10)

BENNETT, BRADLEY F., 3301 Macomb St., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-1, 20)

BENNETT, JOHN A., 7405 Denton Rd., Bethesda

Md. 20014 (F, 20)

BENNETT, MARTIN TOSCAN, Ch.E., 3700 Mt.

Vernon Ave., Rm. 605, Alexandria, Va. 22305

(F-4, 6)

BENNETT, WILLARD H., Dept. of Physics, North

Carolina State Univ., Raleigh, N.C. 27607 (E, 1)

BENSON, WILLIAM, Ph.D., 2101 Constitution

Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20418 (M-32)

BERGMANN, OTTO, Ph.D., Dept. Physics,

George Washington Univ., Washington, D.C.

20006 (F-1)

BERLINER, ROBERT W., M.D., Dean, Yale

School of Medicine, New Haven, Conn. 06510

(F)

BERNSTEIN, BERNARD, M. S., 11404 Rouen Dr.,

Potomac, Md. 20854 (M-25)

BERNTON, HARRY S., 4000 Cathedral Ave.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-8)

BERRY, Miss ARNEICE O., 5108 Hayes St.,

N.E., Washington, D.C. 20019 (M)

BESTUL, ALDEN B., 9400 Overlea Ave., Rock-

ville, Md. 20850 (F-1, 6)

BICKLEY, WILLIAM E., Ph.D., Dept. of

Entomology, Univ. of Md., College Park,

Md. 20742 (F-5, 24)

BIRD, H. R., Animal Science Bg., Univ. of Wis-

consin, Madison, Wisc. 53706 (F)

BIRKS, L. S., Code 6480, U.S. Naval Research

Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (F)

BLAKE, DORIS H., A.M., 3416 Glebe Rd., North

Arlington, Va. 22207 (E-5)

BLANK, CHARLES A., Ph.D., 5110 Sideburn Rad.,

Fairfax, Va. 22030 (M-4, 6, 39)

BLOCK, STANLEY, Ph.D., National Bureau of

Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-4)

BLOOM, FLOYD E., M.D., Div. Spec. Mental

Health Res., NIH, St. Elizabeth’s Hospital,

Washington, D.C. 20032 (F)

BLUNT, ROBERT F., 5411 Moorland Lane,

Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F)

BOEK, JEAN K., Ph.D., Natl. Graduate Univ., 3408

Wisconsin Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C.

20016 (F-2)

BOGLE, ROBERT W., Code 53071, Naval Res.

Lab., 991 Skylark Dr., La Jolla, Cal. 92037

(F)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 3, 1976

BONDELID, ROLLON O., Ph.D., Code 6640, Naval

Research Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (F)

BORTHWICK, HARRY A., 13700 Creekside Dr.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20901 (E)

BOTBOL, J. M., 2301 November Lane, Reston,

Va. 22901 (F)

BOWLES, ROMALD E., Ph.D., 2105 Sondra Ct.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20904 (F-6, 14, 22, 35)

BOWMAN, PAUL W., 3114 5th St. N., Arlington,

Va. 22201 (F)

BOWMAN, THOMAS E., Ph.D., Dept. Invert.

Zoology, Smithsonian Inst., Washington,

D.C. 20560 (F-3)

BOZEMAN, F. MARILYN, Div. Virol., Bur.

Biologics, FDA, 8800 Rockville Pike, Rock-

ville, Md. 20014 (F-16, 19)

BRADY, ROBERT F., Jr., Ph.D., 706 Hope Lane,

Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F-4, 41)

BRANCATO, E. L., Code 4004, U.S. Naval Re-

search Lab., Washington, D.C. 20390 (F-4, 41)

BRANDEWIE, DONALD F., 6811 Field Master Dr.,

Springfield Va. 22153 (F)

BRAUER, G. M., Dental Research A-123 Polymer,

Natl. Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.

20234 (F-4, 21)

BREGER, IRVING A., Ph.D., 212 Hillsboro Dr.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F-4, 6, 7, 39)

BREIT, GREGORY, 73 Allenhurst Rd., Buffalo,

N.Y. 14214 (E-13)

BRENNER, ABNER, Ph.D., 7204 Pomander Lane,

Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-4, 6, 29)

BREWER, CARL R., Ph.D., 8113 Lilly Stone Dr.,

Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F)

BRICKWEDDE, F. G., 104 Davey Lab., Dept. of

Physics, Pennsylvania State Univ., University

Park, Pa. 16802 (F-1)

BRIER, GLENN W., M.A., Dept. Atmosph. Sci.,

Colorado State Univ., Ft. Collins, Colo.

80523 (F-23)

BROADHURST, MARTIN G., 504 Blandford St.,

Apt. 4, Rockville, Md. 20850 (F)

BROMBACHER, W. G., 6914 Ridgewood Ave.,

Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (E-1)

BROOKS, RICHARD C., Ph.D., 6221 N. 12th St.,

Arlington, Va. 22205 (M-13, 34)

BROWN, RUSSELL G., Ph.D., Dept. of Botany,

Univ. of Maryland College Park, Md. (F)

BROWN, THOMAS, McP., S. 25th St. and Army-

Navy Dr., Arlington, Va. 22206 (F)

BRUCK, STEPHEN D., Ph.D., 1113 Pipestem PI.,

Rockville, Md. 20854 (F-4, 6, 39)

BRYAN, MILTON M., 3322 N. Glebe Rad.,

Arlington, Va. 22207 (M-11)

BURAS, EDMUND M., Jr., M.S., Gillette Research

Inst., 1413 Research Blvd., Rockville, Md.

20850 (F-4, 6, 39)

BURGER, ROBERT J., (COL. M.S.) 5307 Chester-

field Dr., Camp Springs, Md. 20031 (F-6, 22)

BURGERS, J. M., Prof., 4622 Knox Road, Apt. 7,

College Park, Md. 20740 (F-1)

BURK, DEAN, Ph.D., 4719 44th St.,

Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-4, 19, 33)

BURNETT, H. C., Metallurgy Division, Natl.

Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.

20234 (F)

N.W.,

173

BYERLY, PERRY, Ph.D., 5340 Broadway Terr.,

#401, Oakland, Calif. 94618 (F)

BYERLY, T. C., 6-J Ridge Rd., Greenbelt, Md.

20770 (F)

CALDWELL, FRANK R., 4821 47th St., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-1, 6)

CALDWELL, JOSEPH M., 2732 N. Kensington St.,

Arlington, Va. 22207 (E-18)

CAMERON, JOSEPH M., A345 Physics Bldg.,

Natl. Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.

20234 (F-1)

CAMPAGNONE, ALFRED F., P.E., 9321 Warfield

Rd., Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F)

CAMPBELL, LOWELL E., B.S., 10100 Riggs Rd.,

Adelphi, Md. 20783 (F-12, 13)

CANNON, E. W., Ph.D., 5 Vassar Cir., Glen Echo,

Md. 20768 (F-1, 6)

CANTELO, WILLIAM W., Ph.D., 11702 Wayneridge

St., Fulton, Md. 20759 (F-24, 6)

CARNS, HARRY R., Bg. 001, Agr. Res. Cent. (W.),

USDA, Beltsville, Md. 20705 (M-10, 33)

CARROLL, Miss KAREN E., 11565 N. Shore Dr.,

#21A, Reston, Va. 22090 (M)

CARROLL, WILLIAM R., 4802 Broad Brook Dr.,

Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F)

CARTER, HUGH, 2039 New Hampshire Ave.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20009 (F)

CASH, EDITH K., 505 Clubhouse Rd., Bingham-

ton, N.Y. 13903 (E-10)

CASSEL, JAMES M., Ph.D., 12205 Sunnyview Dr.,

Germantown, Md. 20767 (F-4, 21)

CHANEY, JAMES G., Rt. 2, Box 232L, Sotterley

Hghts., Hollywood, Md. 20636 (M)

CHAPLIN, HARVEY P., Jr., 1561 Forest Villa

Lane, McLean, Va. 22101 (F-22)

CHAPLINE, W. R., 4225. 43nd. ‘St.,

Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-6, 10, 11)

CHERTOK, BENSON T., Ph.D., Dept. of Physics,

American Univ., Wash. D.C. 20016 (M)

CHEZEM, CURTIS G., Ph.D., Middle South Serv.

Inc., P.O. Box 61000, New Orleans, La. 70161

(F)

CHI, MICHAEL, Sc.D., Civil-Mech. Engr. Dept.,

Catholic Univ., Washington, D.C. 20064

(F-6, 14)

CHOPER, JORDAN J., 121 Northway, Greenbelt,

Md. 20770 (M)

CHRISTIAN, ERMINE A., 7802 Lakecrest Dr.,

Greenbelt, Md. 20770 (M-1, 25)

CHRISTIANSEN, MERYL N., Ph.D., Chief Plant

Stress Lab. USDA ARS, Beltsville, Md.

20705 (F-6, 33)

CHURCH, LLOYD E., D. D. S., Ph.D., 8218 Wis-

consin Ave., Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-1, 9, 19,

21)

CLAIRE, CHARLES N., 4403 14th St., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20011 (F-1, 12)

CLARK, FRANCIS E., ARS Research Lab., P.O.

Box E, Ft. Collins, Colo. 80521 (F)

N.W.,

174

CLARK, GEORGE E., Jr., 4022 North Stafford

St., Arlington, Va. 22207 (F)

CLARK, JOAN ROBINSON, Ph.D., U.S. Geologi-

cal Survey, 345 Middlefield Rd., Menlo Park,

Calif. 94025 (F-7)

CLAUSEN, CURTIS P., 2541 Northwest 58th,

Oklahoma City, Okla. 73113 (E-5)

CLEEK, GIVEN W., 5512N. 24th St., Arlington, Va.

22205 (M-4, 28, 32)

CLEMENT, J. REID, Jr., 3410 Weltham St.,

Suitland, Md. 20023 (F)

CLEVEN, GALE W., Ph.D., RD. 4, Box 334B,

Lewistown, Pa. 17044 (F-1)

COATES, JOSEPH F., Off. of Tech Assessment

U.S. Congress Wash. D.C. 20510 (F)

COHN, ROBERT, M.D., 7221 Pyle Road, Be-

thesda, Md. 20034 (F-1)

COLE, KENNETH S., Ph.D., National Institutes

of Health, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-1)

COLE, RALPH I|., 3431 Blair Rd., Falls Church,

Va. 22041 (F-13)

COLLINS, HENRY B., Dept. Anthropology,

Smithsonian Inst., Washington, D.C. 20560

(E-2)

COLWELL, R. R., Ph.D., Dept. of Microbiology,

Univ. of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742

(F-6, 16)

COMPTON, W. DALE, Sci. Res. Staff, Ford

Motor Co., P.O. Box 1603, Dearborn,

Mich. 48121 (F)

CONGER, PAUL S., M.S., U.S. National Museum,

Washington, D.C. 20560 (E)

CONNORS, PHILIP I., 12909 Two Farm Dr.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20904 (F)

COOK, HAROLD T., Ph.D., 1513 Londontown Ct.,

Edgewater, Md. 21037 (E-10)

COOK, RICHARD K., Ph.D., 8517 Milford Ave.

Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F-1, 25)

COONS, GEORGE H., Ph.D., 7415 Oak Lane,

Chevy Chase, Md., 20015 (E-10)

COOPER, KENNETH W., Ph.D. Dept. Biol., Univ.

of California, Riverside, Cal. 92502 (F-5)

CORLIS, EDITH L. R., Mrs., 2955 Albemarle

St. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (F)

CORLISS, JOHN O., Ph.D., 9512 E. Stanhope

Rd., Kensington, Md. 20795 (F)

CORLISS, JOSEPH J., 6618 Bellview Dr., Colum-

bia, Md. 21046 (M)

CORNFIELD, JEROME, G.W.V. Biostat-Ctr., 7979

Old Georgetown Rd., Bethesda, Md. 20014

Sec LOUIS, Chief 241. 02, Natl. Bureau

of Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F)

COTTERILL, CARL H., M.S., U.S. Bureau of Mines

2401, E. St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20241

(F-36)

COX, EDWIN L., NAL, Room 013, Beltsville,

Md. 20705 (F-6)

COYLE, THOMAS D., National Bureau of Stand-

ards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-4, 6)

CRAFTON, PAUL A., P.O. Box 454, Rockville,

Md. 20850 (F)

CRAGOE, CARL S., 6206 Singleton Place,

Bethesda, Md. 20034 (E-1)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 3, 1976

CRANE, LANGDON T., Jr., 7103 Oakridge Ave.,

Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-1, 6)

CREITZ, E. CARROLL, 10145 Cedar Lane, Ken-

sington, Md. 20795 (E-32)

CROSSETTE, GEORGE, 4217 Glenrose St., Ken-

sington, Md. 20795 (M-6, 17)

CULBERT, DOROTHY K., 812 A St., S.E., Wash-

ington, D.C. 20003 (M-6)

CULLINAN, FRANK P., 4402 Beechwood Rad.,

Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (E-6, 10, 33)

CULVER, WILLIAM H., Ph.D., 2841 Chesapeake

St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (M)

CURRAN, HAROLD R., Ph.D., 3431 N. Randolph

St., Arlington, Va. 22207 (E-6, 16)

CURRIE, CHARLES L., S.J., President, Wheeling

College, Wheeling, W.Va. 26003 (F-4)

CURTIS, ROGER, W., Ph.D., 6308 Valley Rd.,

Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F)

CURTISS, LEON F., 1690 Bayshore Drive, Eng-

lewood, Fla. 33533 (E-1)

CUTHILL, JOHN R., Ph.D., 12700 River Rad.,

Potomac, Md. 20854 (F-20, 36)

CUTKOSKY, ROBERT D., 19150 Roman Way,

Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F)

DARRACOTT, HALVOR T., M.S., 3325 Mansfield

Rd., Falls Church, Va. 22041 (F-13, 34, 38)

DAVIS, CHARLES M., Jr., Ph.D., 8458 Portland

Pl., McLean, Va. 22101

DAVIS, R. F., Ph.D., Chairman, Dept. of Dairy

Science, Univ. of Maryland, College Park,

Md. 20742 (F)

DAVISSON, JAMES W., Ph.D., 400 Cedar Ridge

Dr., Oxon Hill, Md. 20021 (F-1)

DAWSON, ROY C., 7002 Chansory Lane, Hyatts-

ville, Md. 20782 (E-16)

DAWSON, VICTOR C. D., 9406 Curran Rd., Silver

Spring, Md. 20901 (F)

DE BERRY, MARIAN B., 3608 17th St., N.E.,

Washington, D.C. 20018 (M)

BEDRICK, R. L., Bg. 13, Rm. 3W13, NIH,

Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-1)

DEITZ, VICTOR R., Ph.D., 3310 Winnett Rd.,

Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F)

DE PUE, LELAND A., Ph.D., 9710 Dilston St.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20903 (F-6, 20)

DE VOE, JAMES R., 17708 Parkridge Dr., Gai-

thersburg, Md. 20760 (F-4, 6)

DE WIT, ROLAND, Metallurgy Division, Natl.

Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.

20234 (F-1, 6, 36)

DELANEY, WAYNE R., The Wyoming Apts., 111,

2022 Columbia Rd., N.W., Washington, D.C.

20009 (M-6, 20, 22, 32)

DEMUTH, HAL P., MSEE, 4025 Pinebrook Rad.,

Alexandria, Va. 22310 (F-13, 17)

DENNIS, BERNARD K., 915 Country Club Dr.,

Vienna, Va. 22180 (F)

DERMEN, HAIG, Ph.D., Plant Industry Station,

Beltsville, Md. 21250 (F)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 3, 1976

DESLATTES, RICHARD D., Jr., 610 Aster Blvd.,

Rockville, Md. 20850 (F)

DETWILER, SAMUEL B., Jr., 631 S. Walter Reed

Dr., Arlington, Va. 22204 (F-4, 39)

DEVIN, CHARLES, 629 Blossom Dr., Rockville,

Md. 20850 (M)

DI MARZIO, E. A., 14205 Parkvale Rd., Rockville,

Md. 20853 (F)

DIAMOND, J. J., Physics B-150, Natl. Bureau of

Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-1, 4,

6, 28)

DIAMOND, PAULINE, Ph.D., 6436 Bannockburn

Dr., Bethesda, Md. 20034

DICKSON, GEORGE, M.A., Dental and Med.

Materials Sect., National Bureau of Stand-

ards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-6, 21)

DIEHL, WALTER S., 4501 Lowell St., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-22)

DIEHL, WILLIAM W., Ph.D., 4435 N. Pershing Dr.

Arlington, Va. 22203 (E-3, 10)

DIGGES, THOMAS G., 3900 N. Albemarie St.,

Arlington, Va. 22207 (E-20)

DIMOCK, DAVID A., 4800 Barwyn House Rad.,

#114, College Park, Md. 20740 (M-13)

DIXON, PEGGY A., Ph.D., 422 Hillsboro Dr., Silver

Spring, Md. 20902 (F)

DOCTOR NORMAN, B.S., 3814 Littleton St.,

Wheaton, Md. 20906 (F-13)

DOFT, FLOYD S., Ph.D., 6416 Garnett Drive, Ken-

wood, Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (E-4, 6, 19)

DONNERT, HERMANN J., Ph.D., RFD 4, Box 136,

Terra Heights, Manhattan Ks. 66502 (F)

DONOVICK, RICHARD, Ph.D., 16405 Alden Ave.,

Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F-4, 6, 16, 19)

DOUGLAS, CHARLES A., Sec. 221.12, Natl.

Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.

20234 (F-1, 6, 32)

DOUGLAS, THOMAS B., Ph.D., 3031 Sedgwick

St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-4)

DRAEGER, R. HAROLD, M.D., 1201 N. 4th Ave.,

Tucson, Ariz. 85705 (E-32)

DRECHSLER, CHARLES, Ph.D., 6915 Oakridge

Rd., University Park (Hyattsville), Md. 20782

(E-6, 10)

DUBEY, SATYA D., Ph.D., 7712 Groton Rd.,

Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F)

DUERKSEN, J. A., 3134 Monroe St., N.E. Wash-

ington, D.C. 20018 (E-1, 6)

DUFFEY, DICK, Ph.D., Nuclear Engineering,

Univ. Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742 (F-1,

26)

DUNCOMBE, RAYNOR L., Ph.D., 1804 Vance

Circle, Austin, Tx. 78701 (F-1, 22)

DUNKUM, WILLIAM W., M.S., 3503 Old Dominion

Blvd., Alexandria, Va. 22305 (F-31)

DUNN, JOSEPH P., 14721 Flintstone La., Silver

Spring, Md. 20904 (M)

DUNNING, K. L., Ph.D., Code 6603D, Naval Res.

Lab., Washington, D.C. 20390 (F-1)

DU PONT, JOHN ELEUTHERE, P.O. Box 358,

Newtown Square, Pa. 19073 (M)

DUPRE, ELSIE, Mrs., Code 5536A, Optical Sci.

Div., Naval Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 20390

(F-32)

175

DURIE, EDYTHE G., 5011 Larno Dr., Alexandria,

Va. 22310 (F)

DURRANI, S. H., Ph.D., 17513 Lafayette Dr.,

Olney, Md. 20832 (F)

DURST, RICHARD A., Ph.D., Chemistry Bldg. Rm.

A 221, Natl. Bur. of Standards, Washington,

D.C. 20234 (F-4, 6)

DYKE, E. D., 173 Northdown Rd., Margate, Kent,

England (M)

EASTER, DONALD, Inst. Gas Technology, 1825

K St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20006 (M)

EDDY, BERNICE E., Ph.D., 6722 Selkirk Ct.,

Bethesda, Md. 20034 (E)

EDMUNDS, LAFE R., Ph.D., 6003 Leewood Dr.,

Alexandria, Va. 22310 (F-5)

EGOLF, DONALD R., 3600 Cambridge Court,

Upper Marlboro, Md. 20870 (F-10)

EISELE, JOHN A., 3310 Curtis Dr., #202, Hillcrest

Hghts., Md. 20023 (F)

EISENBERG, PHILLIP, C.E., 6402 Tulsa Lane,

Bethesda, Md. 20034 (M-14, 22, 25)

EISENHART, CHURCHILL, Ph.D., Met B-268,

National Bureau of Standards, Washington,

D.C. 20234 (F-1, 30, 38)

EL-BISI, HAMED M., Ph.D., 135 Forest Rd., Millis,

Ma. 02054 (M-16)

ELLINGER, GEORGE A., 739 Kelly Dr., York, Pa.

17404 (E-6)

ELLIOT, F. E., 7507 Grange Hall Dr., Oxon Hill,

Md. 20022 (E)

EMERSON, K. C., Ph.D., 2704 Kensington St.,

Arlington, Va. 22207 (F)

EMERSON, W. B., 415 Aspen St., N.W., Wash-

ington, D.C. 20012 (E)

ENNIS, W. B., Jr., Ph.D., Agricultural Res. Ctr.

U. of Florida, 3205 S.W. 70th Ave., Ft. Lauder-

dale, Fl. 33314 (F-6)

ETZEL, HOWARD W., Ph.D., 7304 River Hill Rd.,

Oxon Hill, Md. 20021 (F-6)

EWERS, JOHN C., 4432 26th Rd., N, Arlington,

Va. 22207 (F-2)

FAHEY, JOSEPH J., U.S. Geological Survey,

Washington, D.C. 20242 (E-4, 6, 7)

FALLON, ROBERT, 8251 Toll House Rd., Annan-

dale, Va. 22003 (F)

FAN, SHOU SHAN, 2313 Glenallen Ave., Apt. 202,

Silver Spring, Md. 20906 (F-18)

FARROW, RICHARD P., National Canners Assn.,

1950 6th St., Berkeley, Calif. 94710 (F-4, 6, 27)

FATTAH, JERRY, 3451 S. Wakefield St., Arling-

ton, Va. 22206 (M-4, 39)

176

FAULKNER, JOSEPH A., 1007 Sligo Creek Pky.,

Takoma Park, Md. 20012 (F-6)

FAUST, GEORGE T., Ph.D., 9907 Capitol View

Ave., Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F-7, 31)

FAUST, WILLIAM R., Ph.D., 5907 Walnut St.,

Temple Hills, Md. 20031 (F-1, 6)

FAYER, RONALD, Ph.D., USDA ARS Animal Para-

sitology |, Beltsville, Md. 20705 (M-15)

FEARN, JAMES E., Ph.D., Materials and Com-

posites Sect., Natl. Bureau of Standards,

Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-4)

FELDMAN, SAMUEL, NKF Engr. Associates,

Inc., 8720 Georgia Ave., Silver Spring, Md.

20910 (M-25)

FELSHER, MURRAY, Ph.D., NASA Cocle Ek.,

Wash. D.C. 20546 (M-1, 7)

FERRELL, RICHARD A., Ph.D., Dept. of Physics,

University of Maryland, College Park, Md.

20742 (F-6, 31)

FIFE, EARL H., Jr., Box 122, Royal Oak, Md.

21662 (E)

FILIPESCU, NICOLAE, M.D., Ph.D., 4836 S. 7th

St., Arlington, Va. 22204 (F)

FINN, EDWARD J., 4211 Oakridge La., Chevy

Chase, Md. 20015 (F-1, 31)

FLETCHER, DONALD G., Natl. Bureau of Stand-

ards, Rm. A102, Bldg. 231-IND, Washington,

D.C. 20234 (M-4)

FLICK, DONALD F., 930 19th St. So., Arlington,

Va. 22202 (F-19)

FLINN, DAVID R., 8104 Bernard Dr., Oxon Hill,

Md. 20022 (F)

FLORIN, ROLAND E., Ph.D., Polymer Stab. and

React. Sect., B-324, National Bureau of

Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-4, 6)

FLYNN, DANIEL R., 17500 Ira Court, Derwood,

Md. 20855 (F)

FLYNN, JOSEPH H., Ph.D., 5309 Iroquois Rd.,

Bethesda, Md. 20016 (F-4)

FONER, S. N., Applied Physics Lab., The Johns

Hopkins University, 11100 Johns Hopkins

Rd., Laurel, Md. 20810 (F-1)

FOOTE, RICHARD H., Sc.D., 8807 Victoria Road,

Springfield, Va. 22151 (F-5, 6)

FORSYTHE, ALLAN L., Boher Bridge Rd., RFD. 3,

Lincoln, Ma. 01773 (F)

FORZIATI, ALPHONSE F., Ph.D., 9812 Dameron

Dr., Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F-1, 4, 29)

FORZIATI, FLORENCE H., Ph.D., 9812 Dameron

Dr., Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F-4)

FOSTER, AUREL O., 4613 Drexel Rd., College

Park, Md. 20740 (E-15, 24)

FOURNIER, ROBERT O., 108 Paloma Rad., Por-

tola Valley, Calif. 94025 (F-6, 7)

FOWELLS, H. A., Ph.D., 10217 Green Forest,

Silver Spring, Md. 20903 (E-11)

FOWLER, EUGENE, Int. Atomic Energy Agency,

Kartner Ring 11, A-1011, Vienna, Austria

(M-26)

FOWLER, WALTER B., M.A., Code 673, Goddard

Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md. 20771

(M-32)

FOX, DAVID W., The Johns Hopkins Univ.,

Applied Physics Lab., Laurel, Md. 20810 (F)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 3, 1976

FOX, WILLIAM B., 1813 Edgehill Dr., Alexandria,

Va. 22307 (F-4)

FRANKLIN, PHILIP J., 5907 Massachusetts Ave.

Extended, Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-4, 13,

39)

FRANZ, GERALD J., M.S., Box 695, Bayview,

Id. 83803 (F-6, 25)

FREEMAN, ANDREW F., 5012 N. 33rd. St., Arling-

ton, Va. 22207 (M)

FREDERIKSE, H. P. R., Ph.D., 9625 Dewmar

Lane, Kensington, Md. 20795 (F)

FRENKIEL, FRANCOIS N., Applied Math. Lab.,

Naval Ship Res. & Develop. Ctr., Bethesda,

Md. 20034 (F-1, 22, 23)

FRIEDMAN, MOSHE, 3850 Tunlaw Rd., Washing-

ton, D.C. 20007 (F)

FRIESS, S. L., Ph.D., Environmental Biosciences

Dept., Naval Med. Res. Inst. NNMC, Bethesda,

Md. 20014 (F-4, 39)

FRUSH, HARRIET L., 4912 New Hampshire Ave.,

N.W., Apt. 104, Washington, D.C. 20011

(F-4, 6)

FULLMER, IRVIN H., Lakeview Terrace Retire-

ment Center, P.O. Box 116, Altoona, Fla.

32702 (E-1, 6, 14)

FULTON, ROBERT A., 530 Merrie Dr., Corvallis,

Oregon 97330 (E-1, 4, 6)

FURUKAWA, GEORGE T., Ph.D. National Bureau

of Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-1,

4, 6)

FUSILLO, MATTHEW H., VA Hospital, 50 Irving

St., N.W. Wash. D.C. 20422 (M)

GAFAFER, WILLIAM M., 133 Cunningham Dr.,

New Smyrna Beach, Fla. 32069 (E)

GAGE, WILLIAM, Ph.D., 2146 Florida Ave., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-2)

GALLER, SIDNEY, 6242 Woodcrest Ave., Balti-

more, Md. 21209 (F-6)

GALTSOFF, PAUL S., Ph.D., Morgan Rad.,

Woods Hole, Mass. 20543 (E-3)

GALVIN, CYRIL J., Jr., 7728 Brandeis Way,

Springfield, Va. 22153 (F-7, 18, 30)

GANT, JAMES O., Jr., M.D., 4349 Klingle St., N.W.

Wash. D.C. 20016 (M)

GARNER, C. L., The Garfield, 5410 Connecticut

Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015 (E-1, 4,

i272 18)

GARVIN, DAVID, Ph.D., 18700 Walker's Choice

Rd., Apt. 519, Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F-4)

GAUM, CARL H., 9609 Carriage Rd., Kensington,

Md. 20795 (F-18)

GUANAURD, GUILLERMO C., Ph.D., 4807 Macon

Rd., Rockville, Md. 20852 (M-6, 14, 25)

GHAFFARI, ABOLGHASSEN, Ph.D., D.Sc., 7109

Connecticut Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C.

20015 (L-1, 38)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 3, 1976

GHOSE, RABINDRA N., 8167 Mulholland Terr.,

Los Angeles Hill, Calif. 90046 (F)

GIACCHETTI, ATHOS, Dept. Sci. Affairs, OAS,

1735 Eye St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20006

(M-32)

GIBSON, JOHN E., Box 96, Gibson, N.C. 28343

(E)

GIBSON, KASSON S., 4817 Cumberland St.,

Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (E)

GINTHER, ROBERT J., Code 6445, U.S. Naval

Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 20390 (F-28, 29)

GISH, OLIVER H., 7107 S. Indian River Dr., Fort

Pierce, Fla. 33450 (E-1, 23)

GIWER, MATTHIAS M., 204-206 S. St. Asaph St.,

Alexandria, Va. 22314 (M)

GLADSTONE, VIC S., 8200 Andes Ct., Baltimore,

Md. 21208 (M-6, 25)

GLASGOW, A. R., Jr., Ph.D., 4116 Hamilton St.,

Hyattsville, Md. 20781 (F-4, 6)

GLICKSMAN, MARTIN E., 8 Via Maria Scotia, N.Y.

12302 (F-20, 36)

GLUCKSTERN, ROBERT L., Ph.D., Chancellor

Univ. of Md., College Park, Md. 20742 (F)

GODFREY, THEODORE B., 7508 Old Chester

Rd., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (E)

GOFF, JAMES F., Ph.D., 3405 34th Pl., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-1)

GOLDBERG, MICHAEL, 5823 Potomac Ave.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-1, 38)

GOLDBERG, ROBERT N., Ph.D., 19610 Brassie

Pl., Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F)

GOLDMAN, ALAN J., Ph.D., Applied Math. Div.

Inst. for Basic Standards, Natl. Bureau of

Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-34, 38)

GOLDSMITH, HERBERT, 238 Congressional

Lane, Rockville, Md. 20852 (M)

GOLUMBIC, CALVIN, 6000 Highboro Dr.,

Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F)

GONET, FRANK, 4007 N. Woodstock St., Arling-

ton, Va. 22207 (F-4)

GOODE, ROBERT J., B.S., Strength of Metals

Br., Code 6380, Metallurgy Div., U.S.N.R.L.,

Washington, D.C 20390 (F-6, 20)

GORDON, CHARLES L., 5512 Charles St.,

Bethesda, Md. 20014 (E-1, 4, 6)

GORDON RUTH E., Ph.D., Waksman Inst. of

Microbiology, Rutgers Univer., New Bruns-

wick, N.J. 08903 (F-16)

GRAHN, Mrs. ANN, M.A., 849 So. La Grange Rd.,

La Grange, Ill. 60525 (M)

GRAMANN, RICHARD H., 1613 Rosemont CT,

McLean, Va. 22101 (M)

GRAY, ALFRED, Dept. Math., Univ. of Maryland,

College Park, Md. 20742 (F)

GRAY, IRVING, Ph.D., Georgetown Univ., Wash-

ington, D.C. 20007 (F-19)

GREENOUGH, M. L., M.S., Greenough Data

Assoc., 616 Aster Blvd., Rockville, Md. 20850

(F)

GREENSPAN, MARTIN, 12 Granville Dr., Silver

Spring, Md. 20902 (F-1, 25)

GRISAMORE, NELSON T., Nat. Acad. Sci., 2101

Constitution Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C.

20418 (F)

177

GRISCOM, DAVID L., Ph.D., Material Sci. Div.,

Naval Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375

(F-6, 28)

GROSSLING, BERNARDO F., Rm. 7213, USGS

Nat. Ctr., 12201 Sunrise Valley Dr., Reston,

Va. 22092 (F)

GURNEY, ASHLEY B., Ph.D., Systematic Ento-

mology Laboratory, USDA, % U.S. National

Museum, NHB-105, Washington, D.C. 20560

(F-3, 5, 6)

GUTTMAN, CHARLES M., 9510 Fern Hollow Way

Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F)

[-f

HAAR, JAMES W., 9503 Nordic Dr., Lanham,

Md. 20801 (M)

HACSKAYLO, EDWARD, Ph.D., Agr. Res. Ctr.,

West, Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F-7, 10, 11, 33)

HAENNI, EDWARD O., Ph.D., 7907 Glenbrook

Rd., Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-4, 39)

HAGAN, LUCY B., Ph.D., Natl. Bur. Stds., Rm.

A155, Bg. 221, Washington, D.C. 20234 (M-4,

32)

HAINES, KENNETH A., M.S., ARS, USDA, Federal

Center Bldg., Hyattsville, Md. 20781 (F-5, 24)

HAKALA, REINO W., Ph.D., 707 Prospect St.,

Sault Ste. Marie, Mi. 49783 (F)

HALL, E. RAYMOND, Museum of Natural History,

Univ. of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans. 66044 (E-3,

HALL, R. CLIFFORD, M.F., 316 Mansion Drive,

Alexandria, Va. 22302 (E-11)

HALL, STANLEY A., 9109 No. Branch Dr.,

Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-24)

HALL, WAYNE C., Ph.D., 557 Lindley Dr.,

Lawrence, Kans. 66044 (E-6, 13)

HALLER, WOLFGANG, Ph.D., National Bureau

of Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F)

HAMBLETON, EDSON J., 5140 Worthington Dr.,

Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-3, 5, 6)

HAMER, WALTER J., Ph.D., 3028 Dogwood St.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015 (F-6, 13, 29)

HAMMER, GUYS, Il, 4626 River Rd., Chevy Chase,

Md. 20015 (M-12, 13)

HAMMERSCHMIDT, W. W., Ph.D., 7818 Holmes

Run Dr., Falls Church, Va. 22042 (M)

HAMMOND, DAVID H., 14 Chappel St., Brock-

port, N.Y. 14420 (M-10)

HAMPP, EDWARD G., D.D.S., National Institutes

of Health, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-21)

HANCOCK, JUDITH M., Biol. Dept., St. Joseph’s

College, North Windham, Me. 04062 (F)

HAND, CADET H., Jr., Bodega Marine Lab.,

Bodega Bay, Calif. 94923 (F-6)

HANSEN, LOUIS S., D.D.S., School of Dentistry,

San Francisco, Med. Center, Univ. of Calif.,

San Francisco, Calif. 94122 (F-21)

HANSEN, MORRIS, H., M.A., Westat Research,

Inc., 11600 Nebel St., Rockville, Md. 20852

(F)

178

HARDENBURG, ROBERT E., Ph.D., Agr. Mktg.

Inst., Agr. Res. Ctr (W), Beltsville, Md. 20705

(F-6) 7

HARRINGTON, FRANCIS D., Ph.D., 4600 Ocean

Beach Blvd., #204, Cocoa Beach, Fla.

32931 (F)

HARRINGTON, M. C., Ph.D., 4545 Connecticut

Ave., N.W., Apt. 334, Washington, D.C. 20008

(E-1, 22, 32)

HARRIS, MILTON, Ph.D., 3300 Whitehaven St.,

N.W., Suite 500, Washington, D.C. 20007 (F)

HARRISON, W. N., 3734 Windom PI., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20008 (F)

HARTLEY, JANET W., Ph.D., National Inst. of

Allergy & Infectious Diseases, National In-

stitutes of Health, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F)

HARTMANN, GREGORY K., 10701 Keswick St.,

Garrett Park, Md. 20766 (F-1, 25)

HARTZLER, MARY P., 3326 Hartwell Ct., Falls

Church, Va. 22042 (M-6)

HASKINS, C. P., Ph.D., 2100 M St., N.W., Suite

600 Washington, D.C. 20037 (F)

HASS, GEORG H., 7728 Lee Avenue, Alexandria,

Va. 22308 (F-32)

HAUPTMAN, HERBERT Ph.D., Med. Fndn. of

Buffalo, 73 High St., Buffalo, N.Y. 14203

(F-1, 6, 38)

HAYDEN, GEORGE A., 1312 Juniper St. N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20012 (M)

HAYES, PATRICK, Ph.D., 5565 Columbia Pike,

#812, Arlington, Va. 22204 (F-38)

HEADLEY, ANNE R., Ph.D., Ms., 2500 Virginia

Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037 (F)

HEANEY, JAMES B., 6 Olivewood Ct., Greenbelt,

Md. 20770 (F)

HEIFFER, M. H., Whitehall, #701, 4977 Battery

La., Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F)

HEINRICH, KURT F., 804 Blossom Dr., Woodley

Gardens, Rockville, Md. 20850 (F)

HENDERSON, E. P., Div. of Meteorites, U.S. Na-

tional Museum, Washington, D.C. 20560 (E-7)

HENDRICKSON, WAYNE A., M.D., Ph.D., Lab. for

the Structure of Matter, Naval Res. Lab. Code

6030, Washington, D.C. 20375 (F)

HENNEBERRY, THOMAS J., 1409 E. North

Share, Temple, Ariz. 85282 (F)

HENVIS, BERTHA W., Code 5277, Naval Res.

Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (M)

HERBERMAN, RONALD B., 8528 Atwell Rd.,

Potomac, Md. 20854 (F)

HERMACH, FRANCIS L., 2415 Eccleston St.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F-1, 6, 13, 25)

HERMAN, ROBERT, Ph.D., Traffic Sci. Dept.,

General Motors Res. Lab., 12 Mi & Mound

Rds., Warren, Mich. 48090 (F)

HERSCHMAN, HARRY K., 4701 Willard Ave.,

Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (E)

HERSEY, JOHN B., 923 Harriman St., Great Falls,

Va. 22066 (M-25)

HERSEY, MAYO D., M.A., Div. of Engineering,

Brown Univ., Providence, R.|. 02912 (E-1)

HERZFELD, KARL F., Dept. of Physics, Catholic

Univ., Washington, D.C. 20017 (E-1)

HESS, WALTER, C., 3607 Chesapeake St., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20008 (E-4, 6, 19, 21)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 3, 1976

HEWSTON, ELIZABETH, Felicity Cove, Shady

Side, Md. 20867 (F)

HEYDEN, FR. FRANCIS, Ph.D., Manila Observa-

tory, P.O. Box 1231, Manila, Philippines D-404

(E-32)

HIATT, CASPAR W., Ph.D., Univ. of Texas Health

Science Center, 7703 Floyd Curl Dr., San

Antonio, Texas 78284 (F)

HICKLEY, THOMAS J., 626 Binnacle Dr., Naples,

Fla. 33940 (F-13)

HICKOX, GEORGE H., Ph.D., 9310 Allwood Ct.,

Alexandria, Va. 22309 (E-6, 14, 18)

HILDEBRAND, EARL M., 11092 Timberline Dr.,

Sun City, Ariz. 85351 (E)

HILL, FREEMAN K., 12408 Hall’s Shop Rad.,

Fulton, Md. 20759 (F-1, 6, 22)

HILLABRANT, WALTER, Ph.D., Dept. Psychol-

ogy, Howard Univ., Washington, D.C. 20059

(M-40)

HILSENRATH, JOSEPH, 9603 Brunett Ave., Silver

Spring, Md. 20901 (F-1, 38)

HILTON, JAMES L., Ph.D. Agr. Res. Ctr. (W),

USDA, ARS, Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F-33)

HOBBS, ROBERT B., 7715 Old Chester Rad.,

Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-1, 4, 39)

HOERING, THOMAS C., Carnegie Inst. of Wash-

ington, Geophysical Lab., 2801 Upton St.,

N.W. Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-4, 7)

HOFFMANN, C. H., Ph.D., 6906 40th Ave., Univer-

sity Park, Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (E-5, 11, 24)

HOGE, HAROLD J., Ph.D., 5 Rice Spring Lane,

Wayland, Me. 01778 (F-1)

HOLLIES, NORMAN R. S., Gillette Research

Institute, 1413 Research Blvd., Rockville, Md.

20850 (F-4)

HOLMGREN, HARRY D., Ph.D., P.O. Box 391,

College Park, Md. 20740 (F-1)

HOLSHOUSER, WILLIAM L., 513 N. Oxford St.,

Arlington, Va. 22203 (F-6, 20)

HONIG, JOHN G., Office, Dep. Chief of Staff

for Res., Dev. and Acquis., Army, The Penta-

gon, Washington, D.C. 20310 (F-1, 4, 34)

HOOD, KENNETH J., 2000 Huntington Ave.,

#1118, Alexandria, Va. 22303 (M-6, 33)

HOOVER, JOHN I., 5313 Briley Place, Washing-

ton, D.C. 20016 (F-1)

HOPP, HENRY, Ph.D., 7604 Winterberry Place

Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-11)

HOPPS, HOPE E., Mrs., 1762 Overlook Dr., Silver

Spring, Md. 20903 (F-16, 19)

HORNSTEIN, IRWIN, Ph.D., 5920 Bryn Mawr Rd.,

College Park, Md. 20740 (F-4, 27)

HOROWITZ, E., Asst. Deputy Director, Institute

for Materials Res., National Bureau of Stand-

ards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F)

HORTON, BILLY M., 14250 Larchmere Blvd.,

Shaker Heights, Ohio 44120 (F-1, 6, 13)

HUANG, KUN-YEN, M.D., Ph.D., 1445 Laurel

Hill Rd., Vienna, Va. 22180 (F)

HUBBARD, DONALD, 4807 Chevy Chase Dr.,

Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-4, 6, 32)

HUBERT, LESTER F., 4704 Mangum Rad., College

Park, Md. 20740 (F-23)

HUDSON, COLIN M., Ph.D., Chief Scientist, U.S.

Army Armament Command, Rock Island, Ill.

61201 (F-22)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 3, 1976

HUDSON, GEORGE E., Code 026, Naval Surface

Weapons Ctr., White Oak, Silver Spring, Md.

20910 (F-1)

HUDSON, RALPH P., Ph.D., National Bureau of

Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-1)

HUGH, RUDOLPH, Ph.D., George Washington

Univ. Sch. of Med., Dept. of Microbiology,

2300 Eye St. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037

(F-16)

HUNT, W. HAWARD, 11712 Roby Ave., Beltsville,

Md. 20705 (M-6)

HUNTER, RICHARD S., 9529 Lee Highway,

Fairfax, Va. 22030 (F-6, 27, 32)

HUNTER, WILLIAM R., M.S., Code 7143, U.S.

Naval Research Lab., Washington, D.C. 20390

(F-1, 32)

HUNTOON, R. D., Ph.D., 7901 40th Ave. N.,

#122, St. Petersburg, Fla. 33709 (F-1, 13)

HURDLE, BURTON G., 6222 Berkeley Rd., Alex-

andria, Va. 22307 (F-25)

HURTT, WOODLAND, Ph.D., ARS-USDA, P.O.

Box 1209, Frederick, Md. 21701 (M-33)

HUTCHINS, LEE M., Ph.D., Cacao Ctr., Institute of

Agriculture, Turrialba, Costa Rica (E-6, 10, 11)

HUTTON, GEORGE L., 809 Avondale Dr., W.

Lafayette, Ind. 47906 (F)

INSLEY, HERBERT, Ph.D., 5219 Farrington Rd.,

Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-1, 7)

IRVING, GEORGE W., Jr., Ph.D. 4836 Langdrum

Lane, Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-4, 27)

IRWIN, GEORGE R., Ph.D., 7306 Edmonston Rad.,

College Park, Md. 20740 (F-1)

ISBELL, H. S., 4704 Blagden Ave.,

Washington, D.C. 20011 (F-4)

ISENSTEIN, Robert S., Animal Parasitology Inst.

Barc-East, USDA, Beltsville, Md. 20705 (M)

N.W.,

JACKSON, H. H. T., Ph.D., 122 Pinecrest Rd.,

Durham, N.C. (E-3)

JACKSON, PATRICIA C., Ms., Rm. 207, Bg. 001,

Agr. Res. Ctr. (W), ARS, USDA, Beltsville,

Md. 20705 (M)

JACOBS, WOODROW C., Ph.D., 6309 Bradley

Blvd., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-23)

JACOBSON, MARTIN, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture,

Agr. Res. Center (E) Beltsville, Md. 20705

(F-4, 24)

JACOX, MARILYN E., Ph.D., National Bureau of

Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-4)

JAFFE, LOUIS S., M.A., 1001 Highland Dr.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F-4)

JAMES, MAURICE T., Ph.D., Dept. of Ento-

mology, Washington State University, Pull-

man, Washington 99163 (E-5)

179

JANI, LORRAINE L., P.O. Box 898, Lutz, FI.

33549 (M)

JAROSEWICH, EUGENE, NMNH, Smithsonian

Inst., Washington, D.C. 20560 (M-4)

JEN, C. K., Applied Physics Lab., 8621 Georgia

Ave., Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (E)

JENSON, ARTHUR S., Ph.D., Westinghouse

Defense & Electronic Systems Ctr., Box 1521,

Baltimore, Md. 21203 (F-13, 31, 32)

JESSUP, R. S., 7001 W. Greenvale Pkwy., Chevy

Chase, Md. 20015 (F-1, 6)

JOHANNESEN, ROLF B., Ph.D., National Bureau

of Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-4, 6)

JOHNSON, CHARLES, Ph.D., Inst. for Fluid Dy-

namics & App. Math. Univ. of Md., College

Park, Md. 20850 (F)

JOHNSON, DANIEL P., 9222 Columbia Blvd.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F-1)

JOHNSON, KEITH C., 4422 Davenport St., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20016 (F)

JOHNSON, PHILLIS T., Ph.D., Nat. Marine

Fisheries Serv., Oxford Lab., Oxford, Md.

21654 (F-5, 6)

JOHNSTON, FRANCIS E., Ph.D., 307 W. Mont-

gomery Ave., Rockville, Md. 20850 (E-1)

JONES, HENRY A., 1115 South 7th St., El Centro,

Calif. 92243 (E)

JONES, HOWARD S., 6200 Sligo Mill Rd., N.E.,

Washington, D.C. 20011 (F-6, 13)

JORDAN, GARY BLAKE, 1012 Olmo Ct., San

Jose; Calif. 95129 (M-6, 13)

JUDD, NEIL M., Georgian Towers, Apt. 120-C,

8715 First Ave., Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (E-2,

KABLER, MILTON N., Ph.D., 3109 Cunningham

Dr., Alexandria, Va. 22309 (F)

KAISER, HANS E., 433 South West Dr., Silver

Spring, Md. 20901 (M-6)

KALLBOM, CLAES, Box 13017, 58320, Link-

oping, 13, Sweden (M)

KARLE, ISABELLA, Code 6030, U.S. Naval Res.

Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (F-4, 6)

KARLE, JEROME, Code 6030, U.S. Naval Re-

search Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375

(F-1, 4)

KARR, PHILIP R., 5507 Calle de Arboles, Tor-

rance, Calif. 90505 (F-13)

KARRER, ANNIE M. H., Ph.D., Port Republic,

Md. 20676 (E-6)

KAUFMAN, H. P., Box 1135, Apt. 461, Fedhaven,

Fla. 33854 (F-12)

KEARNEY, PHILIP C., Ph.D., 13021 Blairmore St.,

Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F-4)

KEGELES, GERSON, RFD 2, Stafford Springs,

Conn. 06076 (F)

KENNARD, RALPH B., Ph.D., 3017 Military Rd.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015 (E-1, 6, 31, 32)

KESSLER, KARL G., Ph.D., Optical Physics Div.,

Natl. Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.

20234 (F-1, 6, 32)

180

KEULEGAN, GARBIS H., Ph.D., 215 Buena Vista

Dr., Vicksburg, Miss. 39180 (F-1, 6)

KLEBANOFF, PHILIP S., Aerodynamics Sect.,

National Bureau of Standards, Washington,

D.C. 20234 (F-1, 22)

KLINGSBERG, CYRUS, Springs, Apt. 322, 303

Gage Blvd., Richland, Wash. 99352 (F-26, 28)

KLUTE, CHARLES H., Ph.D., Apt. 118, 4545 Con-

necticut Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008

(F-1, 4)

KNAPP, DAVID C., 4695 Osage Dr., Boulder, Colo.

80303 (F)

KNOBLOCK, EDWARD C., 12002 Greenleaf Ave.,

Rockville, Md. 20854 (F-4, 19)

KNOWLTON, KATHRYN, Apt. 837, 2122 Massa-

chusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008

(F-4, 19)

KNOX, ARTHUR S., M.A., M.Ed., 2006 Columbia

Rd., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20009 (M-6, 7)

KNUTSON, LLOYD V., Ph.D., Systematic Ento-

mology Lab., ARS, USDA, Bg. 003, ARC (W),

Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F-5)

KRUGER, JEROME, Ph.D., Rm B254, Materials

Bldg., Natl. Bur. of Standards, Washington,

D.C. 20234 (F-4, 29)

KRUL, WILLIAM R., 13814 Sloan St., Rockville,

Md. 20853 (F)

KURTZ, FLOYD E., 8005 Custer Rd., Bethesda,

Md. 20014 (E-4)

KUSHNER, LAWRENCE M., Ph.D., Commis-

sioner, Consumer Product Safety Commis-

sion, Washington, D.C. 20207 (F-36)

LABENZ, PAUL J., 9504 Kingsley Ave., Bethesda,

Md. 20014

LADO, ROBERT, Ph.D., Georgetown Univ., Wash-

ington, D.C. 20007 (F)

LAKI, KOLOMAN, Ph.D., Bldg. 4, Natl. Inst. of

Health, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F)

LANDIS, PAUL E., 6304 Landon Lane, Bethesda,

Md. 20034 (F-6)

LANDSBERG, H. E., 5116 Yorkville Rd., Temple

Hills, Md. 20031 (F-1, 23)

LANG, MARTHA E. C., B.S., Connecticut Ave.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-6, 7)

LANGFORD, GEORGE S., Ph.D., 4606 Hartwick

Rd., College Park, Md. 20740 (E-5, 24)

LAPHAM, EVAN G., 5340 Cortez Ct., Cape Coral,

Fla. 33904 (E)

LARMORE, LEWIS, Off. of Naval Res., 800 N.

Quincey St., Arlington, Va. 22217 (M)

LASHOF, THEODORE W., 10125 Ashburton

Lane, Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F)

LASTER, HOWARD J., Ph.D., Dept. of Physics

& Astron., Univ. of Maryland, College Park,

Md. 20742 (F-1, 31)

LAWSON, ROGER H., 4912 Ridge View Lane,

Bowie, Md. 20715 (F)

LE CLERG, ERWIN L., 14620 Deerhurst Terrace,

Silver Spring, Md. 20906 (E-10)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 3, 1976

LEE, RICHARD H., RD 2, Box 143E, Lewes Del.

19958 (E)

LEINER, ALAN L., 580 Arastradero Rd., #804,

Palo Alto, Calif. 94306 (F)

LEJINS, PETER P., Univ. of Maryland, Inst.

Crim. Justice and Criminology, College Park,

Md. 20742 (F-10)

LENTZ, PAUL LEWIS, 5 Orange Ct., Greenbelt,

Md. 20770 (F-6, 10)

LEVY, SAMUEL, 2279 Preisman Dr., Schenec-

tady, N.Y. 12309 (F)

LIDDEL, URNER, 2939 Van Ness St. N.W., Apt.

1135, Washington, D.C. 20008 (E-1)

LIEBLEIN, JULIUS, 1621 E. Jefferson St., Rock-

vile, Md. 20852 (F-34)

LIERS, HENRY S., Intertechnology Corp., Box

340, Warrenton, Va. 22186 (F)

LINDQUIST, ARTHUR W., Rte. 1, Bridgeport,

Kans. 67424 (E-6)

LINDSEY, IRVING, M.A., 202 E. Alexandria Ave.,

Alexandria, Va. 22301 (E)

LING, LEE, 1608 Belvoir Dr., Los Altos, Calif.

94022 (E)

LINK, CONRAD B., Dept. of Horticulture, Univ.

of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742 (F-6,

10)

LINNENBOM, VICTOR J., Ph.D., Code 8300,

Naval Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 20390

(F-4)

LIPKIN, LEWIS E., Bg. 36, Rm. 40-25, NIH,

Bethesda, Md. 20014 (M)

LIST, ROBERT J., 1123 Hammond Pkwy., Alex-

andria, Va. 22302 (F-23)

LITTLE, ELBERT L., Jr., Ph.D., U.S. Forest Serv-

ice, Washington, D.C. 20250 (F-10, 11)

LOCKARD, J. DAVID, Ph.D., Botany Dept., Univ.

of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742 (M-33)

LOEBENSTEIN, WILLIAM V., Ph.D., 8501 Sun-

dale Dr., Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F-4, 21)

LONG, B. J. B., Mrs., 416 Riverbend Rd., Oxon

Hill, Md. 20022 (M)

LORING, BLAKE M., Sc.D., Rt. 2, Laconia, N.H.

03246 (F-20, 36)

LOTT, GEORGE A., 1812 Queens Lane, Apt. 218,

Arlington, Va. 22201 (M-1, 37)

LUSTIG, ERNEST, Ph.D., GMBF, D3301 Stock-

heim/Braunschweig, Mascheroder Weg 1, W.

Germany (F-4)

LYNCH, Mrs. THOMAS J., 4960 Butterworth PI.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (M)

LYONS, JOHN W., Rte. 4, Box 261, Mount Airy,

Md. 21771 (F-4)

MA, TE-HSIU, Dept. of Biological Science, West-

ern Illinois Univ. Macomb, Ill. 61455 (F-3)

MADDEN, ROBERT P., A251 Physics Bldg., Natl.

Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.

20234 (F-32)

MAENGWYN-DAVIES, G. D., Ph.D., 15205 Totten-

ham Terr., Silver Spring, Md. 20206 (F-19)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 3, 1976

MAGIN, GEORGE B., Jr., 7412 Ridgewood Ave.,

Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-6, 7, 26)

MAHAN, A. |., Ph. D., 10 Millgrove Place, Ednor,

Md. 20904 (F-1, 32)

MAIENTHAL, MILLARD, 10116 Bevern Lane,

Potomac, Md. 20854 (F-4)

MALITSON, IRVING, Physics, A251, Nat. Bureau

Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F)

MALONEY, CLIFFORD J., Div. Biol. Standards,

Nat. Insts. Health, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F)

MANDEL, H. GEORGE, Ph.D., Dept. of Phar-

macology, George Washington Univ. Sch. of

Med., Washington, D.C. 20037 (F-1)

MANDEL, JOHN, Ph.D., A345 Chem. Bg., Natl.

Bur. of Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234

(Fa)

MANDERSCHEID, RONALD W., Ph.D., 202

Montgomery Ave., 1, Rockville, Md. 20854 (M)

MANGUS, JOHN D., 6019 Berwyn Rd., College

Park, Md. 20740 (F)

MANNING, JOHN R., Ph.D., Metallurgy Div.,

Natl. Bur. of Standards, Washington, D.C.

20234 (F-20)

MARCHELLO, JOSEPH M., Ph.D., 3624 Marl-

borough Way, College Park, Md. 20742 (F)

MARCUS, MARVIN, Ph.D., Dept. Math., Univ. of

California, Santa Barbara, Calif. 93106 (F-6)

MARGOSHES, MARVIN, Ph.D., 69 Midland Ave.,

Tarrytown, N.Y. 10591 (F)

MARTIN, BRUCE D., P.O. Box 234, Leonardtown,

Md. 20650 (F-7)

MARTIN, JOHN H., Ph.D., 124 N.W. 7th St., Apt.

303, Corvallis, Oregon 97330 (E-6)

MARTIN, ROBERT H., 2257 N. Nottingham St.,

Arlington, Va. 22205 (M-23)

MARTON, L., Ph.D., Editorial Office, 4515 Lin-

nean Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (E-

Up us)

MARVIN, ROBERT S., 11700 Stony Creek Rad.,

Potomac, Md. 20854 (F-1, 4, 6)

MARYOTT, ARTHUR A., Natl. Bur. of Standards,

Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-4, 6)

MASON, HENRY LEA, Sc.D., 7008 Meadow Lane,

Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-1, 6, 14, 35)

MASSEY, JOE T., Ph.D., 10111 Parkwood Dr.,

Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-1, 13)

MATLACK, MARION, Ph.D., 2700 N. 25th St.,

Arlington, Va. 22207 (E)

MAUSS, BESSE D., Rural Rt. 1, New Oxford, Pa.

17350 (F)

MAXWELL, LOUIS R., Ph.D., 3506 Leland St.,

Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F)

MAY, DONALD C., Jr., Ph.D., 5931 Oakdale Rd.,

McLean, Va. 22101 (F)

MAY, IRVING, M.S., U.S. Geological Survey,

National Ctr. 923, Reston, Va. 22092 (F-4, 6, 7)

MAYOR, JOHN R., Francis Scott Key Hall, Rm.

1120H, Univ. Maryland, College Park, Md.

20742 (F)

MC BRIDE, GORDON W., Ch.E.,3323 Stuyvesant

PI. N.W., Chevy Chase, D.C. 20015 (F)

MC CAMY, CALVIN S., 54 All Angels Hitl Rd.,

Wappingers Falls, N.Y. 12590 (F-32)

MC CULLOUGH, JAMES M., Ph.D., 6209 Apache

St., Springfield, Va. 22150 (M)

181

MC CULLOUGH, N. B., Ph.D., M.D., Dept. of

Microbiology & Public Health, Michigan State

Univ., East Lansing, Mich. 48823 (F-6, 8)

MC ELHINNEY, JOHN, Ph.D., 11601 Stephen Rad.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20904 (F-1)

MC GUNIGAL, THOMAS E., J.D., 13013 Ingleside

Dr., Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F-1, 13)

MC INTOSH, ALLEN, 4606 Clemson Rd., College

Park, Md. 20740 (E-6, 15)

MC KELVEY, VINCENT E., Ph.D., 6601 Broxburn

Dr., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-7)

MC KINNEY, HAROLD H., 1620 N. Edgewood St.,

Arlington, Va. 22201 (E-6, 10, 16, 33)

MC KENZIE, LAWSON W., 5311 West Pathway,

Washington, D.C. 20016 (F)

MC NESBY, JAMES R.., Chief, Off. Air and Water

Measurement, Natl. Bur. of Standards, Wash-

ington, D.C. 20234 (F)

MC NICHOLAS, JOHN V., Ph.D., 1107 Nelson St.,

Rockville, Md. 20850 (M)

MC PHEE, HUGH C., 3450 Toledo Terrace, Apt.

425, Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (E-6)

MC PHERSON, ARCHIBALD T., Ph.D., 4005

Cleveland St., Kensington, Md. 20795 (F-1,

4, 6, 27)

MC WRIGHT, CORNELIUS G., 7409 Estaban PI.,

Springfield, Va. 22151 (M)

MEADE, BUFORD K., 5516 Bradley Blvd., Alex-

andria, Va. 22311 (F-17)

MEARS, FLORENCE, M. Ph.D., 8004 Hampden

Lane, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F)

MEARS, THOMAS W., B.S., 2809 Hathaway Ter-

race, Wheaton, Md. 20906 (F-1, 4, 6)

MEBS, RUSSELL W., Ph.D., 6620 32nd St., N.,

Arlington, Va. 22213 (F-12, 20)

MELMED, ALLAN J., 732 Tiffany Court, Gaithers-

burg, Md. 20760 (F)

MELOY, THOMAS P., Ph.D., 5124 Baltan Rad.,

Sumner, Md. 20016 (F-14)

MENDELSOHN, MARK B., Psychology Dept.,

George Mason Univ., 4400 University Dr.,

Fairfax Va. 22030 (F-40)

MENIS, OSCAR, Analytical Chem. Div., Natl.

Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.

20234 (F)

MENZER, ROBERT E., Ph.D., 7203 Wells Pkwy.,

Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (F-4, 24)

MERRIAM, CARROLL F., Prospect Harbor,

Maine 04669 (F-6)

MESSINA, CARLA G., M.S., 9916 Montauk Ave.,

Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F)

MEYERHOFF, HOWARD A., Ph.D., 3625 S. Flor-

ence PI., Tulsa, Okla. 74105 (F-7)

MEYERSON, MELVIN R., Ph.D., A347, Polymer

Bg., National Bureau of Standards, Wash-

ington, D.C. 20234 (F-20)

MEYROWITZ, ROBERT, 1946 Overland Ave.,

#306, Los Angeles, Calif. 90025 (F)

MICHAEL, A. S., B.S., 7215 N. Magic Pl., Casas

Adobes W., Tucson, Ariz. 85704 (M-5, 6, 16,

24)

MICHAELIS, ROBERT E., National Bureau of

Standards, Chemistry Bldg., Rm. B316,

Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-20)

182

MIDDLETON, H. E., Ph.D., 430 E. Packwood, Apt.

H-108, Maitland, Fla. 32751 (E)

MIDER, G. BURROUGHS, M.D., Exec. Off., Amer.

Soc. Exper. Path. & Univ. Assoc. Res. & Educ.

Pathol., 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Md.

20014 (F)

MILLAR, DAVID B., NMRI, NNMC, Stop 36,

Physical Biochemistry Div., Washington,

D.C. 20014 (F)

MILLER, CARL F., P.O. Box 127, Gretna, Va.

24557 (E-6)

MILLER, CLEM O., Ph.D., 6343 Nicholson St.,

Falls Church, Va. 22044 (F-4, 6, 39)

MILLER, J. CHARLES, Ph.D., 10600 Eastborne

Ave., Apt. 7, W. Los Angeles, California 90024

(E-7, 36)

MILLER, PAUL R., Ph.D., ARS, USDA, Beltsville,

Md. 20705 (E-10)

MILLER, RALPH L., Ph.D., 5215 Abington Rd.,

Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-7)

MILLER, ROMAN R., 1232 Pinecrest Circle, Silver

Spring, Md. 20910 (F-4, 6, 28)

MILLIKEN, LEWIS T., SSL Res. Inst. 43-20,

NHTSA, 400 7th St., S.W., Washington, D.C.

20590 (M-1, 4, 6, 7)

MITCHELL, J. MURRAY, Jr., Ph.D., 1106 Dog-

wood Dr., McLean, Va. 22101 (F-6, 23)

MITCHELL, JOHN W., 9007 Flower Ave., Silver

Spring, Md. 20901 (F)

MITTLEMAN, DON, 80 Parkwood Lane, Oberlin,

Ohio 44074 (F-1)

MIZELL, LOUIS R., 108 Sharon Lane, Greenlawn,

N.Y. 11740 (F)

MOLINO, JOHN A., Ph.D., Sound Section, Nat.

Bureau Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234

(M-25)

MOLLARI, MARIO, 4527 45th St., N.W., Washing-

ton, D.C. 20016 (E-3, 5, 15)

MOLLER, RAYMOND W., Ph.D., Catholic Univ.

of America, Washington, D.C. 20017 (F-38)

MOORE, GEORGE A., Ph.D., Natl. Bur. of Stand-

ards 312.03, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-6,

20, 29, 36)

MORRIS, J. A., 23-E Ridge Rd., Greenbelt, Md.

20770 (M-6, 15, 16)

MORRIS, JOSEPH BURTON, Chemistry Dept.

Howard Univ., Washington, D.C. 20001 (F)

MORRIS, KELSO B., Howard Univ., Washington,

D.C. 20059 (F-4, 39)

MORRISS, DONALD J., 102 Baldwin Ct., Pt. Char-

lotte, Fla. 33950 (E-11)

MOSTOFI, F. K., M.D., Armed Forces Inst. of

Pathology, Washington, D.C. 20306 (F)

MOUNTAIN, RAYMOND D., B318 Physics Bg.,

Nat. Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.

20234 (F)

MUEHLHAUSE, C. O., Ph.D., 9105 Seven Locks

Rd., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-1, 26)

MUELLER, H. J., 4801 Kenmore Ave., Alexandria,

Va. 22304 (F)

MUESEBECK, CARL F. W., U.S. Natl. Museum

of Nat. Hist., Washington, D.C. 20560 (E-3, 5)

MULLIGAN, JAMES H., Ph.D., 12121 Sky Lane,

Santa Ana, Calif. 92705 (F-13)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 3, 1976

MURDOCH, WALLACE P., Ph.D., Rt. 2, Gettys-

burg, Pa. 17325 (F-5, 24)

MURRAY, THOMAS H., 2915 27th St., N. Arling-

ton, Va. 22207 (M)

MURRAY, WILLIAM S., 1281 Bartonshire Way,

Potomac Woods, Rockville, Md. 20854 (F-5)

MYERS, ALFRED T., 11675 West 31st PI., Lake-

wood, Colo. 80215 (E-4, 6)

MYERS, RALPH D., Physics Dept., Univ. of Mary-

land, College Park, Md. 20740 (F-1)

NAESER, CHARLES R., Ph.D., 6654 Van Winkle

Dr., Falls Church, Va. 22044 (F-4, 7, 39)

NAMIAS, JEROME, Sc.D., 2251 Sverdrup Hall,

Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La

Jolla, Calif. 92037 (F-23)

NELSON, R. H., 7309 Finns Lane, Lanham, Md.

20801 (E-5, 6, 24)

NEPOMUCENE, SR. ST. JOHN, Villa Julie, Valley

Rd., Stevenson, Md. 21153 (E-4)

NEUENDORFFER, J. A., 911 Allison St., Alex-

andria, Va. 22302 (F-6, 34)

NEUSCHEL, SHERMAN K., 7501 Democracy

Blvd., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-7)

NEWMAN, MORRIS, Natl. Bur. of Standards,

.Washington, D.C. 20234 (F)

NEWTON, CLARENCE J., Ph.D., 1504S. 2nd Ave.,

Edinburg, Texas 78539 (E)

NICKERSON, DOROTHY, 4800 Fillmore Ave., Apt.

450 Alexandria, Va. 22311 (E-6, 32)

NIKIFOROFF, C. C., 4309 Van Buren St., Univer-

sity Park, Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (E)

NOFFSINGER, TERRELL L., Spec. Weather Serv.

Br., NOAA/NWS, Gramax Bldg., Silver Spring,

Md. 20910 (F-23)

NORRIS, KARL H., 11204 Montgomery Rad.,

Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F-27)

NOYES, HOWARD E., Ph.D., Assoc. Dir. Res.

Mgmt., WRAIR, Walter Reed Army Med. Ctr.,

Washington, D.C. 20012 (F-16, 19)

O’BRIEN, JOHN A., Ph.D., Dept. of Biology,

Catholic Univ. of America, Washington, D.C.

20064 (F-10)

O’CONNOR, JAMES V., 10108 Haywood Cir.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (M-6, 7)

O’HARE, JOHN, Ph.D., 301 G St. S.W., Washing-

ton, D.C. 20024 (F-40)

O’HERN, ELIZABETH M., Ph.D., 633 G St., S.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20024 (M-16)

O’KEEFE, JOHN A., Code 640, Goddard Space

Flight Ctr., Greenbelt, Md. 20770 (F-1)

OEHSER, PAUL H., 9012 Old Dominion Dr.,

McLean, Va. 22101 (F-1, 3, 9, 30)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 3, 1976

OKABE, HIDEO, Ph.D., Rm. A-243, Bg. 222, Natl.

Bur. of Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234

(F-4)

OLIPHANT, MALCOLM W., Ph.D., Hawaii Loa

Coll., P.O. Box 764, Kaneohe, Oahu, Haw.

96744 (F)

ORDWAY, FRED, Ph.D., 5205 Elsmere Ave.,

Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-4, 6, 28, 39)

ORLIN, HYMAN, Ph.D., Natl. Academy of Sci-

ences, 2101 Constitution Ave N.W., Wash-

ington, D.C. 20418 (F-17)

OSER, HANS J., Ph.D., 8810 Quiet Stream Ct.,

Potomac, Md. 20854 (F-6)

OSGOOD, WILLIAM R., Ph.D., 5101 Ridgefield

Rd., Rm. 108, Bethesda, Md. 20016 (E-14, 18)

OTA, HAJIME, M.S., 5708 64th Ave., E. Riverdale,

Md. 20840 (F)

OWENS, JAMES P., M.A., 14528 Bauer Dr., Rock-

ville, Md. 20853 (F-7)

)

PACK, DONALD H., 1826 Opalocka Dr., McLean,

Va. 22101 (F-23)

PAFFENBARGER, GEORGE C., D.D.S., ADA Res.

Unit, Natl. Bur. of Standards, Washington,

D.C. 20234 (F-21)

PAGE, BENJAMIN L., B.S., 1340 Locust Rd.,

Washington, D.C. 20012 (E-1, 6)

PARKER, KENNETH W., 6014 Kirby Rd.,

Bethesda, Md. 20034 (E-3, 10, 11)

PARKER, ROBERT L., Ph.D., Metallurgy Div.,

‘ Natl. Bur. of Standards, Washington, D.C.

20234 (F)

PARMAN, GEORGE K., 8054 Fairfax Rd., Alex-

andria, Va. 22308 (F-4, 27)

PARRY-HILL, JEAN, Ms., 3803 Military Rd.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015 (M)

PATTI, JOGESH C., 8604 Saffron Dr., Lanham,

Md. 20801 (F)

PAYNE, FAITH N., 1745 Hobart St. N.W., Wash-

ington, D.C. 20009 (M-7)

PELCZAR, MICHAEL J., Jr., Vice Pres. for Grad.

Studies & Research, Univ. of Maryland, Col-

lege Park, Md. 20742 (F-16)

PEROS, THEODORE P., Ph.D., Dept of Chem-

istry, George Washington Univ., Washington,

D.C. 20006 (F-1, 4)

PETERLIN, ANTON, Polymers Div., Inst. Ma-

terials Res., Nat. Bureau Standards, Wash-

ington, D.C. 20234 (F)

PHAIR, GEORGE, Ph.D., 14700 River Rad.,

Potomac, Md. 20854 (F-7)

PHILLIPS, Mrs. M. LINDEMAN, M.S., 2510

Virginia Ave., N.W., #507N, Washington, D.C.

20037 (F-1,.6, 13,25)

PIKL, JOSEF, 211 Dickinson Rd., Glassboro, N.J.

08028 (E)

PITTMAN, MARGARET, Ph.D., 3133 Connecticut

Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (E)

PLAIT, ALAN O., M.S., 5402 Yorkshire St.,

Springfield, Va. 22151 (F-13)

183

POLACHEK, HARRY, 11801 Rockville Pike

Rd., Rockville, Md. 20852 (E)

POOS, F. W., Ph.D., 5100 Fillmore Ave.,

Alexandria, Va. 22311 (E-5, 6, 26)

POLLACK, Mrs. FLORA G., Mycology Lab., Rm.

11 North Bldg., Beltsville Ars. Ctr. W. Belts-

ville, Md. 20705 (F-10)

POPENOE, WILSON, Antigua, Guatemala, Cen-

tral America (E)

POWERS, KENDALL, Ph.D., 6311 Alcott Rd.,

Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-15)

PRESLEY, JOHN T., 3811 Courtney Circle,

Bryan, Tx. 77801 (E)

PRESTON, MALCOLM 6&., 10 Kilkea Ct., Balti-

more, Md. 21236 (M)

PRINZ, DIANNE K., Ph.D., Code 7121.5, Naval

Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (M-32)

PRO, MAYNARD J., 7904 Falstaff Rd., McLean,

Va. 22101 (F-26)

PRYOR, C. NICHOLAS, Ph.D., Naval Underwater

Systems Citr., Newport, RI. 02840 (F)

PURCELL, ROBERT H., 17517 White Grounds

Rd., Boyds, Md. 20720 (F)

PYKE, THOMAS N., Jr., Techn. Bg. A231, Nat.

Bur. Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F)

RABINOW, JACOB, E. E., 6920 Selkirk Dr.,

Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-1, 13)

RADER, CHARLES A., Gillette Res. Inst., 1413

Research Blvd., Rockville, Md. 20850 (F-4)

RADO, GEORGE T., Ph.D., 818 Carrie Court,

McLean, Va. 22101 (F-1)

RAINWATER, H. IVAN, Plant Protect. & Quaran-

tine Programs, APHIS, Fed. Center Bg. #1,

Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (E-5, 6, 24)

RAMIREZ-FRANKLIN, LOUISE, 2501 N. Florida

St., Arlington, Va. 22207 (M)

RAMSAY, MAYNARD, Plant Prot. Quar., APHIS,

USDA, Hyattsville, Md. 20780 (F)

RANEY, WILLIAM P., Code 102, Office of Naval

Research, Arlington, Va. 22217 (M)

RAUSCH, ROBERT, Dept. Microbiol., Western

College of Veterinary Medicine, U. of Sas-

katchewan, Saskatoon, Sask., Canada 57N

OWO (F-3, 15, 16)

RAVITSKY, CHARLES, M.S., 1808 Metzerott Rd.,

Adelphi, Md. 20783 (F-32)

READING, O. S., 6 N. Howells Point Rd., Bellport

Suffolk County, New York, N.Y. 11713 (E-1)

REAM, DONALD F., Holavallagata 9, Reykjavik,

Iceland (F)

RECHCIGL, MILOSLAV, Jr., Ph.D., 1703 Mark

Lane, Rockville, Md. 20852 (F-3, 4, 19)

REED, WILLIAM D., 3609 Military Rd., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20015 (F-5, 6)

REEVE, WILKINS, Ph.D., 4708 Harvard Rad.,

College Park, Md. 20740 (F-4)

REEVES, ROBERT G., Ph.D., U.S. Geol. Surv.,

EROS Data Ctr., Sioux Falls, So. Dak. 57198

(F-7, 36)

184

REGGIA, FRANK, MSEE, 6207 Kirby Rad.,

Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-6, 13)

REHDER, HARALD A., Ph.D., U.S. Natl. Museum

of Nat. Hist., Washington, D.C. 20560 (F-3, 6)

REINER, ALVIN, B.S., 11243 Bybee St., Silver

Spring, Md. 20902 (M-6, 12, 13, 22)

REINHART, FRANK W., 9918 Sutherland Rd.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20901 (F-4, 6)

REINHART, FRED M., M.S., P.O. Box 591, Oak

View, Calif. 93022 (F-20)

REINING, PRISCILLA, Ph.D., 3601 Rittenhouse

St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015 (F-2)

REMMERS, GENE M., 7322 Craftown Rd., Fairfax

Station, Va. 22039 (M)

REVEAL, JAMES L., Ph.D., Dept. Botany, Univ.

of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742 (F)

REYNOLDS, ORR E., Ph.D., Amer. Physiol. Soc.,

9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F)

RHODES, IDA, Mrs., 6676 Georgia Ave., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20012 (F)

RHYNE, JAMES J., Ph.D., 15012 Butterchurn La.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20904 (F)

RICE, FREDERICK A., 8005 Carita Court,

Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-4, 6, 16, 19)

RIOCH, DAVID McK., M.D., 2429 Linden Lane,

Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F-3, 8)

RITT, P. E., Ph.D., GIE-Labs2 ing Sa sua

Rd., Waltham, Mass. 02154 (F-6, 13, 23, 29)

RIVLIN, RONALD S., Lehigh University, Bethle-

hem, Pa. 18015 (F)

ROBBINS, MARY LOUISE, Ph.D., George Wash-

ington Univ. Med. Ctr., 2300 Eye St. N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20037 (F-6, 16, 19)

ROBERTS, ELLIOT B., 4500 Wetherill

Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-1, 6, 18)

ROBERTS, RICHARD B., Ph.D., Dept. Terrestrial

Mag., 5241 Broad Branch Rd., N.W., Wash-

ington, D.C. 20015 (F)

ROBERTS, RICHARD C., 5170 Phantom Court,

Columbia, Md. 21044 (F-6)

ROBERTSON, A. F., Ph.D., 4228 Butterworth PI.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (F)

ROBERTSON, RANDAL M., Ph.D., 1404 Highland

Circle, S.E., Blacksburg, Va. 24060 (F-6)

ROCK, GEORGE D., Ph.D., The Kennedy Warren,

3133 Conn. Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C.

20008 (E)

RODNEY, WILLIAM S., 8112 Whites Ford Way,

Rockville, Md. 20854 (F-1, 32)

RODRIGUEZ, RAUL, 254 Torrs Sato, Baldrich,

Hato Rey, PR. 00918 (F-17)

ROLLER, PAUL S., 1440 N St., N.W., Apt. 208,

Washington, D.C. 20005 (E)

ROSADO JOHN A., 1709 Great Falls St., McLean,

Va. 22101 (F)

ROSE, WILLIAM K., Ph.D., 10916 Picasso Ln.,

Potomac, Md. 20854 (F)

ROSENBLATT, DAVID, 2939 Van Ness St., N.W.,

Apt. 702, Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-1)

ROSENBLATT, JOAN R., 2939 Van Ness St.,

N.W., Apt. 702, Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-1)

ROSENTHAL, JENNY E., 7124 Strathmore St.,

Falls Church, Va. 22042 (F-13, 32)

ROSENTHAL, SANFORD M., Bldg. 4, Rm. 122,

National Insts. of Health, Bethesda, Md.

20014 (E)

Rd.,

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 3, 1976

ROSS, FRANKLIN, Off. of Asst. Secy. of the Air

Force, The Pentagon, Rm. 4E973, Washing-

ton, D.C. 20330 (F-22)

ROSS, SHERMAN, National Research Council,

2101 Constitution Ave., N.W., Washington,

D.C. 20418 (F-40)

ROSSINI, FREDERICK D., Ph.D., Dept. Chemis-

try, Rice Univ., Houston, Tex. 77001 (F-1)

ROTH, FRANK L., M.Sc., 200 E. 22nd St., #33

(Roswell, NM. 88201 (E-6)

ROTH, ROBERT S., Solid State Chem. Sect.,

National Bureau of Standards, Washington,

D.C. 20234 (F)

ROTKIN, ISRAEL, 11504 Regnid Dr., Wheaton,

Md. 20902 (F-1, 13, 34)

ROWEN, JOHN W., Washington Towers #2407,

9701 Fields Rd., Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F)

RUBIN, MORTON J., M.Sc., World Meterol. Org.,

Casa Postale #5, CH-1211, Geneva 20,

Switzerland (F-23)

RUDOLPH, MICHAEL, 4521 Bennion Rad., Silver

Spring, Md. 20906 (M)

RUPP, N. W., D.D.S., American Dental Assoc.,

Research Division, National Bureau of Stand-

ards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-21)

RUSSELL, LOUISE M., Bg. 004, Agr. Res. Center

(West), USDA, Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F-5)

RYALL, A. LLOYD, Route 2, Box 216, Las Cruces,

N. Mex. 88001 (E-6, 10, 27)

RYERSON, KNOWLES A., M.S., Dean Emeritus,

15 Arlmonte Dr., Berkeley, Calif. 94707 (E-6)

SAALFIELD, FRED E., Naval Res. Lab., Code

6110, Washington, D.C. 20375

SAENZ, ALBERT W., Ph.D., Radiation Techn.

Div., Naval Research Laboratory, Code

66035, Washington, D.C. 20375 (F)

SAILER, R. I., Ph.D., 3847 S.W. 6TH PI., Gaines-

ville, Fla. 32607 (F-5)

SALLET, DIRSE W., 12440 Old Fletchertown Rd.,

Bowie, Md. 20715 (M-1, 14)

SANDERSON, JOHNA., Ph.D., 303 High St., Alex-

andria, Va. 22203 (F-1, 32)

SARIMENTO, RAFAEL, % UNDP, P.O. Box 400

GPO, Kaduna, Nigera (F)

SARVELLA, PATRICIA A., Ph.D., 12104 Dove

Cir., Laurel, Md. 20811 (F-6)

SASMOR, ROBERT M., 4408 N. 20th. Rd. Arling-

ton, Va. 22207 (F)

SAULMON, E. E., 202 North Edgewood St.,

Arlington, Va. 22201 (M)

SAVILLE, THORNDIKE, Jr., M.S., 5601 Albia Rd.,

Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-6, 18)

SAYLOR, CHARLES P., 10001 Riggs Rad.,

Adelphi, Md. 20783 (F-1, 4, 32)

SCHALK, JAMES M., Ph.D., 4600 Barbara Dr.,

Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F)

SCHECHTER, MILTON S., 10909 Hannes Court,

Silver Spring, Md. 20901 (F-4, 5, 24)

SCHINDLER, ALBERT I., Sc.D., Code 6000, U.S.

Naval Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375

(F-1)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 3, 1976

SCHLAIN, DAVID, Ph.D., P.O. Box 348, College

Park, Md. 20740 (F-4, 20, 29, 36)

SCHMIDT, CLAUDE H., Ph.D., 1827 No. 3rd St.,

Fargo, No. Dak. 58102 (F-5)

SCHMITT, WALDO L., Ph.D., U.S. National

Museum, Washington, D.C. 20560 (E-3)

SCHNEIDER, SIDNEY, 239 N. Granada St.,

Arlington, Va. 22203 (E)

SCHNEPFE, MARIAN M., Ph.D., 2019 Eye St.,

N.W., #402, Washington, D.C. 20006 (F-4, 7)

SCHOEN, LOUIS J., Ph.D., 8605 Springdell PI.,

Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F)

SCHOENEMAN, ROBERT LEE, 9602 Ponca PI.,

Oxon Hill, Md. 20022 (F)

SCHOOLEY, ALLEN H., 6113 Cloud Dr., Spring-

field, Va. 22150 (F-1, 13, 23, 31)

SCHOOLEY, JAMES F., 13700 Darnestown Rad.,

Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F-1, 35)

SCHUBAUER, G. B., Ph.D., 5609 Gloster Rd.,

Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-1, 22)

SCHUBERT, LEO, Ph.D., The American Univ.,

Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-1, 4, 30)

SCHULMAN, FRED, Ph.D., 11115 Markwood Dr.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F-4)

SCHULMAN, JAMES H., Ph.D., U.S. Off. Naval

Res., Branch Off., 223 Old Marylebone

Rd., London, England NW1, 5TH (F-1, 32)

SCHWARTZ, ANTHONY M., Ph.D., 2260 Glen-

more Terr., Rockville, Md. 20850 (F-4)

SCHWARTZ, BENJAMIN, Ph.D., 888 Mont-

gomery St., Brooklyn, N.Y. 11213 (E)

SCHWARTZ, MANUEL, 321-322 Med. Arts Bg.,

Baltimore, Md. 21201 (M)

SCOTT, DAVID B., D.D.S., Dean, Case Western

Reserve Univ., Sch. of Dentistry, 2123 Abing-

ton Rd., Cleveland, Ohio 44106 (F-21)

SCRIBNER, BOURDON F., National Bureau of

Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-4, 32)

SEABORG, GLENN T., Ph.D., Lawrence Berkeley

Lab., Univ. of California, Berkeley, Caiif.

94720 (F-26)

SEEGER, RAYMOND J., Ph.D., 4507 Wetherill

Rd., Bethesda, Md. 20016 (E-1, 6, 30, 31)

SEITZ, FREDERICK, Rockefeller University, New

York, N.Y. 10021 (F-36)

SERVICE, JERRY H., Ph.D., Cascade Manor, 65

W. 30th Ave., Eugene, Oreg. 97405 (E)

SHAFRIN, ELAINE G., M.S., Apt. N-702, 800 4th

St., S.W., Washington, D.C. 20024 (F-4)

SHAPIRA, NORMAN, 86 Oakwood Dr., Dunkirk,

Md. 20810 (M)

SHAPIRO, GUSTAVE, 3704 Munsey St., Silver

Spring, Md. 20906 (F-13)

SHELTON, EMMA, National Cancer Institute,

Bldg. 37, Rm. 4C-06, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F)

SHEPARD, HAROLD H., Ph.D., 2701 S. June St.,

Arlington, Va. 22202 (F-5, 24)

SHERESHEFSKY, J. LEON, Ph.D., 9023 Jones

Mill Rd., Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (E)

SHERLIN, GROVER C., 4024 Hamilton St.,

Hyattsville, Md. 20781 (L-1, 6, 13, 31)

SHIELDS, WILLIAM ROY, A.M.S.S., 1 Deauville

Ct., Pikesville, Md. 21208 (F)

SHMUKLER, LEON, 817 Valley Forge Towers,

1000 Valley Forge Circle, King of Prussia, Pa.

19404 (F)

185

SHNEIDEROV, A. J., 1673 Columbia Rd., N.W.,

#309, Washington, D.C. 20009 (M-1, 22)

SHOTLAND, EDWIN, 418 E. Indian Spring Dr.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20901 (M-1)

SHROPSHIRE, W.,Jr., Ph.D., Radiation Bio. Lab.,

12441 Parklawn Dr., Rockville, Md. 20852

(F-6, 10, 33)

SHUBIN, LESTER D., Proj. Mgr. for Standards,

NILECJ/LEAA, U.S. Dept. Justice, Washing-

ton, D.C. 20530 (F)

SIEGLER, EDOUARD HORACE, Ph.D., 201 Tulip

Ave., Takoma Park, Md. 20012 (E-5, 24)

SILVER, DAVID M., Ph.D., Applied Physics Lab.,

Johns Hopkins Univ., Silver Spring, Md.

20910 (M-4, 6) ;

SIMHA, ROBERT, Ph.D., Case Western Reserve

Univ., Cleveland, Ohio 44106 (F)

SIMMONS, LANSING G., 3800 N. Fairfax Dr.,

Villa 809, Arlington, Va. 22203 (F-18)

SITTERLY, BANCROFT W., Ph.D., 3711 Brandy-

wine St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016

(E-d,.01, S2)

SITTERLY, CHARLOTTE M., Ph.D., 3711 Brandy-

wine St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016

(E-1, 6, 32)

SLACK, LEWIS, 106 Garden Rd., Scarsdale, N.Y.

10583 (F)

SLAWSKY, MILTON M., Ph.D., 8803 Lanier Dr.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F-6, 12, 22, 31)

SLAWSKY, ZAKA I., Ph.D., 9813 Belhaven Rad.,

Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F)

SLEEMAN, H. KENNETH, Ph.D., Div. Biochem.

WRAIR. Washington, D.C. 20012 (F)

SLOCUM, GLENN G., 4204 Dresden St., Ken-

sington, Md. 20795 (E-16, 27)

SMILEY, ROBERT L., 1444 Primrose Rd., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20012 (M-5)

SMITH, BLANCHARD DRAKE, M.S., 5265 Port

Royal Road, Springfield, Va. 22151

SMITH, DAYNA, 1745 Pimmit Dr., Falls Church

Va. 22043 (M)

SMITH, FLOYD F., Ph.D., 9022 Fairview Rad.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F-5, 24)

SMITH, FRANCIS A., Ph.D., 1023 55th Ave.,

South, St. Petersburg, Fla. 33705 (E-6)

SMITH, JACK C., 3708 Manor Rd., Apt. 3, Chevy

Chase, Md. 20015 (F)

SMITH, PAUL A., 4714 26th St., N., Arlington,

Va. 22207 (F-6, 7, 18, 22)

SMITH, ROBERT C., Jr., %Versar, Inc., 6621

Electronic Dr., Springfield, Va. 22151 (F-4, 22)

SNAVELY, BENJAMIN L., Ph.D., 721 Springloch

Rd., Silver Spring, Md. 20904 (F-6, 25, 32)

SNAY, HANS G., Ph.D., 17613 Treelawn Dr.,

Ashton, Md. 20702 (F-25)

SNOW, C. EDWIN, 14317 Chesterfield Rd., Rock-

ville, Md. 20853 (M-32)

SNYDER, HERBERT H., Ph.D., RFD. 1, Cobden,

IL. 62920 (F)

SOKOLOVE, FRANK L., 2546 Chain Bridge Rd.,

Vienna, Va. 22180 (M)

SOMERS, IRA I., 1511 Woodacre Dr., McLean,

Va. 22101 (M-4, 6, 27)

SOMMER, HELMUT, 9502 Hollins Ct., Bethesda,

Md. 20034 (F-1, 13)

186

SORROWS, H. E., Ph.D., 8820 Maxwell Dr.,

Potomac, Md. 20854 (F)

SPALDING, DONALD H., Ph.D., 17500 S.W. 89th

Ct., Miami, Fla. 33157 (F-6, 10)

SPECHT, HEINZ, Ph.D., 4229 Franklin St., Ken-

sington, Md. 20795 (E-1, 6)

SPENCER, LEWIS V., Box 206, Gaithersburg,

Md. 20760 (F)

SPERLING, FREDERICK, 1131 University Blvd.,

W., #1807, Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F-19)

SPIES, JOSEPH R., 507 N. Monroe St., Arlington,

Va. 22201 (F-4, 19)

SPOONER, CHARLES S., Jr., M.F., 346 Spring-

vale Rd., Great Falls, Va. 22066 (F-1, 13, 25)

SPOONER, RONALD L., Ph.D., Planning Sys-

tems, Inc., 7900 Westpark Dr., McLean, Va.

22101 (M-25)

SPRAGUE, G. F., Ph.D., Dept. Agronomy, Univ. of

Illinois, Urbana, III. 61801 (E-33)

ST. GEORGE, R. A., 3305 Powder Mill Rd.,

Adelphi Station, Hyattsville, Md. 20783 (F-3,

5, 11, 24)

STAIR, RALPH, 1686 Joplin St. S., Salem, Ore.

97302 (E-6)

STAKMAN, E. C., Univ. of Minnesota, Inst. of

Agric., St. Paul, Minn. 55108 (E)

STALLARD, JOHN M., Ph.D., Hdgtrs., Naval

Material Command, MAT-035, Washington,

D.C. 20360 (F-6, 25)

STAUSS, HENRY E., Ph.D., 8005 Washington

Ave., Alexandria, Va. 22308 (F-20)

STEARN, JOSEPH L., 3511 Inverrary Dr., #108,

Lauderville, Fl. 33319 (E)

STEELE, LENDELL E., 7624 Highlange soc,

Springfield, Va. 22150 (F-20, 26)

STEERE, RUSSELL L., Ph.D., 6207 Carrollton

Ter., Hyattsville, Md. 20781 (F-6, 10, 19)

STEGUN, IRENE A., National Bureau of Stand-

ards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F)

STEIDLE, WALTER E., 2439 Flint Hill Rd., Vienna,

Va. 22180 (F)

STEINER, BRUCE W., 6624 Barnaby St., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20015 (M)

STEINER, ROBERT F., Ph.D., 2609 Turf Valley

Rd., Ellicott City, Md. 21043 (F-4)

STEINHARDT, JACINTO, Ph.D., Georgetown

Univ., Washington, D.C. 20057 (F-4)

STEPHENS, ROBERT E., Ph.D., 4301 39th St.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-1, 32)

STERN, KURT H., Ph.D., Naval Res. Lab., Code

6160, Washington, D.C. 20375 (F-4, 29, 30)

STEVENS, HENRY, 5116 Brookview Dr., Wash-

ington, D.C. 20016 (E)

STEVENS, RUSSELL B., Ph.D., Div. of Biological

Sciences, N.R.C., 2101 Constitution Ave.,

Washington, D.C. 20418 (F-10)

STEVENSON, JOHN A., 3256 Branoy Ct., Falls

Church, Va. 22042 (E-6, 10)

STEWART, KENNETH R., 12907 Crookston La.,

#16, Rockville, Md. 20851 (M-25)

STEWART, T. DALE, M.D., 1191 Crest Lane,

McLean, Va. 22101 (F-2, 6)

STIEBELING, HAZEL, K., 4000 Cathedral Ave.,

Washington, D.C. 20016 (E)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 3, 1976

STIEF, LOUIS J., Ph.D., Code 691, NASA God-

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(F-4, 39)

STIEHLER, ROBERT D., Ph.D., Natl. Bur. of

Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-1, 4,

14, 39)

STILL, JOSEPH W., M.D., M.P.H., 1408 Edge-

cliff Lane, Pasadena, Calif. 91107 (E)

STILLER, BERTRAM, 1870 Wyoming Ave., N.W.

#604, Washington, D.C. 20009 (F-1)

STIMSON, H. F., 2920 Brandywine St., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20008 (E-1, 6)

STIRLING, MATHEW W., Mrs., 3311 Rowland PI.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-2)

STOETZEL, MANYAB., Ph.D., 2600 Millvale Ave.,

North Forestville, Md. 20028 (F)

STRAUSS, SIMON W., Ph.D., 4506 Cedell PI.,

Camp Springs, Md. 20031 (F-4)

STRIMPLE, HARRELL, L., Dept. of Geology, The

Univ. of lowa, lowa City, IA. 52242 (M)

STUART, NEIL W., 1341 Chilton Dr.,

Spring, Md. 20904 (F-10)

SULZBACHER, WILLIAM L., 8527 Clarkson Dr.,

Fulton, Md. 20759 (F-16, 27)

SWICK, CLARENCE H., 5514 Brenner St., Capitol

Heights, Md. 20027 (F-1, 6, 12)

SWINGLE, CHARLES F., Ph.D., 431 Humboldt

St., Manhattan, Kans. 66502 (E-6, 10, 11, 33)

SYKES, ALAN O., 304 Mashie Dr., S.E., Vienna,

Va. 22180 (M-25)

Silver

TALBERT, PRESTON T., Dept. of Chem., Howard

Univ., Washington, D.C. 20059 (F)

TALBOTT, F. LEO, R.D. #4, Bethlehem, Pa.

18015 (F-1, 6)

TASAKI, ICHIJI, M.D., Ph.D., Lab. of Neuro-

biology, Natl. Inst. of Mental Health,

Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F)

TATE, DOUGLAS R., B.A., 11415 Farmland Dr.,

Rockville, Md. 20852 (F-1)

TAYLOR, ALBERT L., 2620 S.W. 14th Dr., Gaines-

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TAYLOR, B.N., Bg. 220, Rm. B258, Nat. Bureau

Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F)

TAYLOR, JOHN K., Ph.D., Chemistry Bldg., Rm.

B-326, Natl. Bur. of Standards, Washington,

D.C. 20234 (F-4, 29)

~ TAYLOR, LAURISTON S., 7407 Denton Rad.,

Bethesda, Md. 20014 (E)

TAYLOR, LEONARD S., 706 Apple Grove Rad.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20904 (M)

TAYLOR, MODDIE D., Ph.D., 4560 Argyle Ter-

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TCHEN, CHAN-MOU, City College of the City

Univ. of New York, New York, N.Y. 10031 (F)

TEAL, GORDON K., Ph.D., 5222 Park Lane,

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TEITLER, S., Code 4105, Naval Res. Lab.,

Washington, D.C. 20375 (F)

THAYER, T. P., Ph.D., U.S. Geological Surv.,

Mail Stop 954, Reston, Va. 22092 (F-7)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 3, 1976

THEUS, RICHARD B., 8612 Van Buren Dr., Oxon

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THURMAN-SCHWARTZWELDER, E. B., 30 Ver-

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TILDEN, EVELYN B., Ph.D., Calu Retirement

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TITUS, HARRY W., 7 Lakeview Ave., Andover,

N.J. 07821 (E-6)

TODD, MARGARET RUTH, Miss, P.O. Box 902,

Vineyard Haven, Mass. 02568 (F-7)

TOLHURST, GILBERT, Ph.D., 7 Red Fox Lane,

Amherst, Mass. 01002 (F-25, 40)

TOLL, JOHN S., Ph.D., Pres., State Univ. of New

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TORRESON, OSCAR W., 4317 Maple Ave.,

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TOUSEY, RICHARD, Ph.D., Code 7140, Naval

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TOWNSEND, MARJORIE R., B.E.E., 3529 Tilden

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TRAUB, ROBERT, Ph.D., 5702 Bradley Blvd.,

Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-5)

TREADWELL, CARLETON R., Ph.D., Dept. of

Biochemistry, George Washington Uhniv.,

2300 Eye St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037

(F-4, 19)

TRENT, EVAN M., Mrs., P.O. Box 1425, Front

Royal, Va. 22630 (M)

TRUEBLOOD, EMILY E., Ph.D., 7100 Armat

Dr., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (E-19)

TRUNK, GERALD, Ph.D., 503 Tolna St., Balti-

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TRYON, MAX, 6008 Namakagan Rd., Washing-

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TUNELL, GEORGE, Ph.D., Dept. of Geol. Sci.,

Univ. of California, Santa Barbara, Calif.

93106 (E-7)

TURNER, JAMES H., Ph.D., 11902 Falkirk Dr.,

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UHLANER, J. E., Ph.D., U.S. Army Res. Inst. for

Behavioral and Soc. Sci., 1300 Wilson Blvd.,

Arlington, Va. 22209 (F-40)

VACHER, HERBERT C., 19225 N. Cave Creek

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VAN DERSAL, WILLIAM R., Ph.D., 6 S. Kensing-

ton St., Arlington, Va. 22204 (F-6)

VAN TUYL, ANDREW H., Ph.D., 1000 W. Nolcrest

Dr., Silver Spring, Md. 20903 (F-1, 6, 22)

VERGE} EFEIGHER- Ps re “PhD, Dept. ot

Chemistry, Univ. of Maryland, College Park,

Md. 20742 (F-4)

VIGUE, KENNETH J., Dir., Internatl. Projects, ITT

Corp., ITT Bldg., 1707 L St., N.W., Washing-

ton, D.C. 20036 (M-13, 31)

187

VINCENT, ROBERT C., Dept. Chem., George

Washington Univ., Washington, D.C. 20006

(F)

VINTI, JOHN P., Sc.D., 44 Quint Ave. 8, Allston,

MA. 02134 (F, 1, 6)

VISCO, EUGENE P., B.S., 2100 Washington

Ave., Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (M-1, 34)

VON BRAND, THEODOR C., M.D., Ph.D., 8606

Hempstead Ave., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (E-15)

VON HIPPEL, ARTHUR, 265 Glen Rd., Weston,

Mass. 02193 (E)

WACHTMAN, J. B., Jr., B. 306, Matls. Bldg.,

National Bureau of Standards, Washington,

D.C. 20234 (F)

WAGMAN, DONALD D., 7104 Wilson Lane,

Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-4)

WAGNER, A. JAMES, NOAA Nat. Weather Serv.,

Nat. Meteorol. Ctr., W31, World Weather Bg.,

Washington, D.C. 20233 (F-23)

WALKER, E. H., Ph.D., 7413 Holly Ave., Takoma

Park, Md. 20012 (E-10)

WALTHER, CARL H., Ph.D., 1337 27th St., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20007 (F-6, 18)

WALTON, W. W., Sr., 1705 Edgewater Pkwy.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20903 (F-4, 6, 41)

WARGA, MARY E., 2475 Virginia Ave., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20037 (F-32)

WARING, JOHN A., 8502 Flower Ave., Takoma

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WATERWORTH, HOWARD E., Ph.D., 10001

Franklin Ave., Seabrook, Md. 20801 (F)

WATSON, BERNARD B., Ph.D., 6108 Landon La.,

Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-6, 31)

WATSON, ROBERT B., 1167 Wimbledon Dr.,

McLean, Va. 22101 (M-13, 25, 31, 32)

WAYNANT, RONALD W., Ph.D., 13101 Claxton

Dr., Laurel Md. 20811 (F-6, 13, 32)

WEAVER, E. R., 6815 Connecticut Ave., Chevy

Chase, Md. 20015 (E-4, 6)

WEBB, HAMILTON B., Chief, Health Services,

Library Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540

(M-6)

WEBS; RAEPH ES Ph.D: 21\P* ‘Ridge “Ad:

Greenbelt, Md. 20770 (F-5, 24)

WEBB, RAYMON E., Agr. Res. Center, USDA,

Beltsville, Md. 20705 (M)

WEBER, EUGENE W., B.C.E., 2700 Virginia Ave.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037 (F-6, 12, 17, 18)

WEBER, ROBERT S., Box 142, Harlingen, TX.

78550 (M-6, 13, 17)

WEIDA, FRANK, 19 Scientists Cliff, Port Repub-

lic, Calvert County, Md. 20676 (E-1)

WEIDLEIN, E. R., Weidacres, P.O. Box 445,

Rector, Pa. 15677 (E)

WEIHE, WERNER K.,2103 Basset St., Alexandria,

Va. 22308 (F-32)

WEINBERG, HAROLD P., B.S., 1507 Sanford Rad.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F-20)

188

WEINTRAUB, ROBERT L., 305 Fleming Ave.,

Frederick, Md. 21701 (F-4, 10, 16, 33)

WEIR, CHARLES E., Rt. 3, Box 260B, San Louis

Obispo, Calif. 93401 (F)

WEISS, ARMAND B., D.B.A., 6516 Truman Lane,

Falls Church, Va. 22043 (F-34)

WEISS, MICHAEL S., 17609 Cashell Rd., Rock-

ville, Md. 20853 (M-25)

WEISSBERG, SAMUEL, 14 Granville Dr., Silver

Spring, Md. 20901 (F-1, 4)

WEISSLER, ALFRED, Ph.D., 5510 Uppingham

St., Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-1, 4, 25)

WELLMAN, FREDERICK L., Dept. of Plant

Pathology, North Carolina State Univ.,

Raleigh, N.C. 27607 (E)

WENSCH, GLEN W., Esworthy Rd., Rt. 2, Ger-

mantown, Md. 20767 (F-6, 20, 26)

WEST, WILLIAM L., Dept. of Pharmacology,

College of Medicine, Howard Univ., Washing-

ton, D.C. 20059 (M-19, 26, 39)

WETMORE, ALEXANDER, Ph.D., Smithsonian

Inst., Washington, D.C. 20560 (F-3, 6)

WEXLER, ARNOLD, Phys. B 328, Natl. Bur. of

Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-1, 35)

WHERRY, EDGAR T., Ph.D., 41 W. Allens La.,

Philadelphia, Pa. 19119 (E)

WHITE, HOWARD J., Jr., 8028 Park Overlook Dr.,

Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-4)

WHITELOCK, LELAND D., B.S.E.E., 5614 Green-

tree Rd., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-13)

WHITMAN, MERRILL J., 3300 Old Lee Highway,

Fairfax, Va. 22030 (F-26)

WHITTEN, CHARLES A., 9606 Sutherland Rd.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20901 (F-1, 6)

WICHERS, EDWARD, 9601 Kingston Rd., Kens-

ington, Md. 20795 (E)

WIENER, ALFRED, B.S., USDA Forest Service,

3226 South Agricultural Bldg., Washington,

D.C. 20250 (F-11)

WILDHACK, W. A., 415 N. Oxford St., Arlington,

Va. 22203 (F-1, 22, 31, 35)

WILHELM, PETER G., 6710 Elroy Pl., Oxon Hill,

Md. 20021 (F)

WILLENBROCK, F. KARL, Director, Inst. for Appl.

Tech., Natl. Bur. Standards, Washington

D.C. 20234 (F)

WILLIAMS, DONALD H., 4112 Everett St., Kens-

ington, Md. 20795 (M)

WILSON, BRUCE L., 20 N. Leonora Ave., Apt.

204, Tucson, Ariz. 85711 (F-1, 6)

WILSON, WILLIAM K., M.S., 1401 Kurtz Rd.,

McLean, Va. 22101 (F-4)

WINSTON, JAY S., Ph.D., 3106 Woodhollow Dr.,

Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-6, 23)

WISTORT, ROBERT L., 11630 35th Pl., Belts-

ville, Md. 20705 (F)

WITHINGTON, C. F., 3411 Ashley Terr., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-7)

WITTER, RUTH G., Ph.D., 83 Bay Dr., Bay Ridge,

Annapolis, Md. 21403 (F-16)

WOLCOTT, NORMAN N., Computer Sci. Div.,

Adm. Bldg. A224, National Bureau of Stand-

ards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 3, 1976

WOLFF, EDWARD A., 1021 Cresthaven Dr., Silver

Spring, Md. 20903 (F-6, 13, 22, 23)

WOLFLE, DAEL, Graduate School of Public

Affairs, University of Washington, Seaittle,

Washington 98195 (F)

WOLFSOW, ROBERT P., 10813 Larkmeade Lane,

_ Potomac, Md. 20854 (M)

WOMACK, MADELYN, 11511 Highview Ave.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F-4, 19)

WOOD, LAWRENCE A., Ph.D., Natl. Bur. of

Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (E-1, 4)

WOOD, MARSHALL K., M.P.H., P.O. Box 27,

Castine, Me. 04421 (F)

WOOD, REUBEN E., 3120 N. Pershing Dr.,

Arlington, Va. 22201 (F-4, 29)

WORKMAN, WILLIAM G., M.D., 5221 42nd St.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015 (E-6, 8)

WULF, OLIVER R., Noyes Lab. of Chem. Phys.,

Calif. Inst. of Tech., Pasadena, Calif. 91125

(E)

YAO, AUGUSTINE Y. M., Ph.D., 4434 Brocton

Rd., Oxon Hill, Md. 20022 (M-23)

YAPLEE, BENJAMIN S., 6105 Westland Dr.,

Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (F-13)

YOCUM, L. EDWIN, 1257 Drew St., Apt. 2, Clear-

water, Fla. 33515 (E-10, 33)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 3, 1976

YODER, HATTEN S., Jr., Geophysical Lab., 2801

Upton St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008

(F-4, 7)

YOLKEN, H. T., 8205 Bondage Dr., Laytonsville,

Md. 20760 (F-29)

YOUNG, BOBBY G., Dept. of Microbiology, Univ.

of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742 (M-16)

YOUNG, DAVID A., Jr., Ph.D., 612 Buck Jones

Rd., Raleigh, N.C. 27606 (F-5)

YOUNG, M. WHARTON, 3230 Park PI., Washing-

ton, D.C. 20010 (F)

YUILL, J. S., M.S., 4807-A Hartwick Rd., College

Park, Md. 20740 (E-5, 6, 24)

ZELENY, LAWRENCE, Ph.D., 4312 Van Buren

St., University Park, Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (E)

ZIES, EMANUEL G., 3803 Blackthorne St., Chevy

Chase, Md. 20015 (E-4, 6, 7)

ZOCH, RICHMOND T., 12642 Craft Lane, Bowie,

Md. 20715 (F)

ZON, GERALD, Dept. Chemistry, Catholic Univ.

of America, Washington, D.C. 20064 (M)

ZWEMER, RAYMOND L., Ph.D. 3600 Chorley

Woods Way Silver Spring, Md. 20906 (E)

189

—NOTICE—

Tape cassettes of the Symposium are still available. The cost is $10.00 per hour. Minimum

order 30 minutes. Use this form to order. Cassettes will be made and mailed to you in

2 weeks from receipt of this form. Note: Not all of these papers are available in published

form.

ORDER FORM FOR TAPE CASSETTES

Symposium—Energy Recovery from Solid Wastes

Approx No.

Keynote Session of Minutes

ey a HARVEY ALTER: Introduction to the Symposium....... 15

_ ay ee RIGHARD Ll. EESHER= Keynote address -2)..'...-.-..... 30

Session 1—Refuse Derived Fuel

ee 3 DAVID L. KLUMB: Union Electric’s Solid Waste Utilization

S\ASIIGIG) Gio 5 68 as cea ech penn nC 30

my 4 DR. NATE SNYDER: Fuel From Refuse for Utilities .. 30

ae |} VISCOMI, ET AL.: Feasibility Study for Burning RDF in

Dl Ca tO IPE PAG ©) actly secrete zara an Temaelanir a ak ee ava 30

a 6 WILLIAM DELL: The CPU-400 Gas Turbine System ..... 30

Session 2— Steam Generation from Waste

a W. K. MACADAM: The Design and Pollution Control

Peas OlmeMesNES CO ee 8k a) succeed este aes gene 30

pe #8 MAURICE J. WILSON: The Markets for and the Economics

Crile AMEN CLOVE catia seco ie cuss 5 Aone eee acs mo mieus 2'@ 000s Gree a 30

ay 9 BRUCE PYEE: Akron s Recycle Energy system ......... - 30

#F 10 JACK ADAMS: Red Lion Energy Recovery Project ...... 30

Session 3—Biological Conversion

ee 11 LOUIS SPANO: Enzymatic Conversion of Cellulosic Wastes

WOK GIN COS SUSE Es ct Oe ee tea era ae eer 30

me Ff 12 KISPERT, ET AL.: An Evaluation of Methane Production

PROMMOO MCR ASIC Rowe rc sty ccs cone a a see oe ek es 30

mos 13 PFEFFER, ET AL.: Energy From Refuse by Bioconversion-

ReMMeMUAMOMN eee cee re tae ee eke lees enw eia las 30

oe # 14 DISCWSSION re ee os. et eee Su teen 45

Session 4—After Dinner Address

a #15 ORs ALERTED) 1 Cl GEL Gos | ipa ere ar are ee 45

Session 5—Pyrolysis of Wastes to Oils and Gases

= # 16 T. DONEGAN: A Summary of the Performance of the

PUROXDemonstration Plant .5-)2.55-26.2.+- 62.6.2 30

ee 17 JOHN STOIA: TORRAX—A Slagging Pyrolysis System for

| COMMUN Sse Rete on Sak a oe dG t 30

ma * 18 EDSEL STEWART: Landgard System for Energy Re-

COWEN cia. eig hc ee APO eS Agi eee eae ee 30

= # 19 GEORGE MALLAN: Garret Oil Conversion Pyrolysis

SV GUST Sa ene re ne er nae 30

mo #F 20 DiS CW SSION re eto e eae caves eee ea ebot etme = 30

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 3, 1976 191

Session 6—Conversion of Wastes to Protein

chee Ha? | CHARLES ROGERS: Problems and Potentials Associated

withthe: Productionins: webs We eee ee Sek ene 30

me R.C. RIGHELATO: Microbial Protein from Agricultural

Wastes- ooo sie occ ho eid oe wake «ot ais os seem eee ee 30

ee GENE WEISBERG, ET AL.: Engineering Design and Eco-

nomic Feasibility of a Feedlot Waste Bio-Conversion

SVSICIN «cafe cueg oe be pin, oe eaves cate esl ee 30

Session 7—Specialized Wastes and Energy Recovery

ee sw GEORGE INGLE: Energy Recovery From Paint Sludges

and Miaste: Plasticsy:a20-s(cte sens h «SEU oh, Ate 30

Peg 5 HENRY JOHNSON: Wastes as Fuel for Industry ....... 30

Ae 26 ERWIN C. MOATS: Operation of the Goodyear Tire

Fired Oiler 025: deadt ducobsailt ee eee a0 eee 30

saree awd DISCUSSION coe Ova besae @ nas ated nen 45

NAME:

ADDRESS FOR MAIL:

ADDRESS FOR BILLING:

)

192 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 3, 1976

Acknowledgments for Symposium

The publication costs of this issue were met in

part through grants supplied by the Environmen-

tal Protection Agency and the Federal Highway

Administration of the Department of Transpor-

tation.

For recording the Symposium we acknowledge

the assistance of David S. Garber, a specialist in

corporate life development recording. As an in-

dustrial personnel specialist he has had wide ex-

perience recording and communicating every

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 3, 1976

: Energy Recovery from Solid Wastes

phase of corporate life from human _ factor

changes in top management personnel to produc-

ing, indexing and editing minute-by-minute

archival recordings of important meetings and

symposia.

Richard H. Foote, Editor

Elizabeth Ostaggi, Editorial Assistant

193

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NAN PED)

Women

Chemists

NATIONAL SCIENCE

FOUNDATION PROGRAM

The National Science Foundation in an attempt to

tap the underutilized resource which women repre-

sent has funded a series of projects under their

Women in Science Program, whose objective is to

develop and test methods to attract and retain

women in scientific careers.

The Science Career Facilitation Project grants

are aimed at women who received bachelor’s or

master’s degrees in science between 2 and 15 years

ago and who are not presently employed in the fields

for which they were trained. The women selected

to participate in the project will be provided with an

educational experience designed to increase their

level of knowledge to that expected of a current

graduate at the same degree level. Participants se-

lected for these projects will be expected to be pre-

pared, at the end of their training to enter directly

into graduate training or employment.

These grants provide funding for educational

costs only; no funds are provided for stipends or

travel.

THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY

PROGRAM

The American University Chemistry Program will

be current topics from organic, physical, analytical

and biochemistry with approximately seven weeks

in each area. The topics will be taught by the faculty

of The American University assisted by outside con-

sultants in selected areas.

The program will include both theoretical and

experimental developments of the last fifteen years

designed to bring the participants up-to-date on

current thinking in each area. The heavy emphasis

on laboratory skills should provide substantial ex-

perience whether the individual takes a job in gov-

ernment or industry or enters graduate school.

The American University Program will be a

twenty-eight week program beginning October 5,

1976 and ending May 13, 1977. The program will

meet five days a week Monday through Friday from

10:00 a.m. until 2:00 p.m. and will normally be one

hour of lecture and three hours of laboratory per day.

COSTS

The costs for the faculty and supplies are covered

by the grant from the National Science Foundation.

Therefore there is no charge for the program to the

participants.

There is no university course credit for the pro-

gram. However each participant will receive a cer-

tificate and letter indicating the topics covered and

the numbers of hours completed in the program.

APPLICATION DEADLINE

Twenty participants will be selected for the pro-

gram on the basis of the applications submitted no

later than September 3. Participants selected will be

notified by September 15. An application form is

enclosed.

Application forms and transcripts should be sent

to:

Dr. Nina M. Roscher

Women in Science Program

Department of Chemistry

The American University

Washington, D. C. 20016

WOMEN IN CHEMISTRY PROGRAM

Project Director: Dr. Nina M. Roscher

Associate Professor of Chemistry

B.S. University of Delaware

Ph.D. Purdue University

Faculty

Dr. Mary Aldridge

Professor of Chemistry

B.S. University of Georgia

M.A. Duke University

Ph.D. Georgetown University

Dr. Frederick W. Carson

Associate Professor of Chemistry

B.S. Massachusetts Institute of Technology

M.A. Washington University

Ph.D. University of Chicago

Dr. Paul F. Waters

Professor of Chemistry

B.S. University of Scranton

Ph.D. Rutgers, The State University

Dr. Thomas Cantrell

Associate Professor of Chemistry

B.S. University of Southern California

M.S. University of Southern California

Ph.D. Ohio State University

For information call the Project Director at

202 —686-2445

(94

yen) ae

ant mdi) ray)

General

_ Type manuscripts on white bond paper

either 84 by 11 or 8 by 10% inches. Double

‘space all lines, including those in abstracts,

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|) Write an informative digest of the significant

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) each pertinent table on the same page.

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\( x 3) or page (2 x 3) type-dimensions,

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typewriter is not recommended.

References to Literature

Limit references within the text and in

synonymies to author and year (and page if

needed). In a “Reference Cited” section, list

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papers you have included in the text. Like-

wise, be sure all the text references are

listed. Type the “References Cited” section

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text. Abbreviations should follow the USA

Standard for Periodical Title Abbreviations,

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Submission of Manuscripts

Send completed manuscripts and sup-

porting material to the Academy office (see

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Return Requested with Form 3579

BOG. 735

Pp2W22

VOLUME 66

Number 4

Journal of the DECEMBER, 1976

WASHINGTON

ACADEMY .. SCIENCES

Issued Quarterly

at Washington, D.C.

CONTENTS

Feature:

EDWARD S. AYENSU: Alternatives for Biological Resources in Africa ...

Profile:

ASHLEY B. GURNEY: A Polish Naturalist in Peru: The Life and Work

lM e USAW ONIUKOMISIG oe core eee ls eae tan vnle sc) wale a obamae aie led ianiue

Research Reports:

T. J. FREST, H. L. STRIMPLE, and M. R. McGINNIS: A New Species

of Platycystites (Echinodermata: Paracrinoidea) From the Middle

Ordovician of Oklahoma

T. J. FREST and H. L. STRIMPLE: Evolutionary and Paleoecologic Signifi-

-eance of Abnormal Platycystites cristatus Bassler (Echinodermata:

AAC TER ONG CAN sh es eee AE A aot 2 gear Tae, a Jem OM slap 221

L. C. KNORR, H. C. PHATAK, and H. H. KEIFER: Web-Spinning Erio-

(LAG. YORUMCIES pa a se NS ay ts rem on ene rer ef, ee SO DR 228

W. R. HEYER and M. H. MUEDEKING: Notes on Tadpoles as Prey for

INeticigl smc pslitnithe Sos ies, torte een amen te te clin aN ata wee mayen dred tyes 235

P. WILLEY and D. H. UBELAKER: Notched Teeth from the Texas

JP evra ey gi Nee ea allo Metab eae he ESTE 4 AO tt nD aI eo 0 ge CP CEP ne ORO a Rene

Academy Affairs:

Board of Managers Meeting Notes—February 25, 1976...................

INSERTION ttle Rae ie ie eae ay tp et gee aie nee Mage ae "ce ne ee 248

Selene’ Ae te NEWS ache ees owed ores ya "e aoe oe ONDA ae 249

FAAMNOUNCEMENtS 0.5. cache ke bce cee es ff cht lene oe Mant Oa ee tet ores 196, 246

SS L/BRARIES

Washington Academy of Sciences

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President

Florence H. Forziati

President-Elect

Riciu.ard H. Foote

Secretary

Nelson W. Rupp

Treasurer

Mary H. Aldridge

Members at Large

George Abraham

Grover C. Sherlin

BOARD OF MANAGERS

All delegates of affiliated

Societies (see facing page)

EDITOR

Richard H. Foote

EDITORIAL ASSISTANT

Elizabeth Ostaggi

ACADEMY OFFICE

9650 Rockville Pike (Bethesda)

Washington, D.C. 20014

Telephone (301) 530-1402

Published quarterly in March, June, September, and December of each year by the

Washington Academy of Sciences, 9650 Rockville Pike, Washington, D.C. Second class

postage paid at Washington, D.C. and additional mailing offices.

Founded in 1898

The Journal

This journal, the official organ of the Washington Aca-

demy of Sciences, publishes historical articles, critical

reviews, and scholarly scientific articles; proceedings

of meetings of the Academy and its Board of Mana-

gers; and other items of interest to Academy members.

The Journal appears four times a year (March, June,

September, and December)—the September issue

contains a directory of the Academy membership.

Subscription Rates

Members, fellows, and patrons in good standing re-

ceive the Journal without charge. Subscriptions are

available on a calendar year basis only, payable in ad-

vance. Payment must be made in U.S. currency at the

following rates:

U.S: and Canada’. 23 $14.00

FOreicn +. 42): one 15.00

Single Copy Prces=.saa 4.00

Single-copy price for Vol. 66, No. 1 (March, 1976) —

is $15.00.

Back Issues

Obtainable from the Academy office (address at bot-

tom of opposite column): Proceedings: Vols. 1-13

(1898-1910) Index: To Vols. 1-13 of the Proceedings

and Vols. 1-40 of the Journal Journal: Back issues,

volumes, and sets (Vols. 1-62, 1911-1972) and all cur-

rent issues.

Claims for Missing Numbers

Claims will not be allowed if received more than 60

days after date of mailing plus time normally required

for postal delivery and claim. No claims will be al- |

lowed because of failure to notify the Academy ofa |

change in address.

Change of Address

Address changes should be sent promptly to the Aca- }

demy office. Such notification should show both old }

and new addresses and zip number.

DELEGATES TO THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,

REPRESENTING THE LOCAL AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Biivimsap ical: SOCiety Of WashiMgtOMl (5.62645 t05 6h cee ocd aie se ey ms ae oes oe wo Me James F. Goff

Panag aocical Society Of WasDINGlON: 2. 2.2.5 6.2 ts o be dds se Ee See koe owe ee oe Jean K. Boek

een ee MES OCICIVTOr WASMINCLOME re a6. 2. ses ec lec oes Pee ee ee ae Ba ewe Inactive

enEMmie AESOCIeDY Ol WASHINGTON. . ss... oshcc os... eee es ee ee de ee eaves Delegate not appointed

Emmonmarocical Society Of Washington .....:.<...s2--5 62 eee e eb eb ba hese eee ee eee Maynard Ramsay

See CORA MIC SOCIELY Po pp aoe ey ake Dad See oe cota shes ee Sean ee es T. Dale Stewart

Re mectealesoctetyao! Washinton 2. . 220i ns .cn ess ee. kenge the ce eee de cine oe ee Marian M. Schnepfe

Mimic sesoeic Ol the Disiict or Columbia . 22.00... oe eee eke ee ne ee Bes nde ce ens Inactive

emai CME AIS SOC ALES OCI CMY ety coe hg Ss Foe gees i ead inc ein aehois Guat & 242 ae eae ee Paul H. Oehser

Eee eAmOOCIeOy “Ol ASIMIMStOM <<... 6 irmc.2 hc ope Hale hoe ns oe eek oe He RS Conrad B. Link

ae mOMe MCCA BONESICKS . 5 5s 55-0 ak ae ce ee cc eo bee eet beeps s Thomas B. Glazebrook

Sn MOMESOCleiys OLE MEINCERS Af. 14: ho tetas ais. jad ae... se eae de lS George Abraham

lnisimtcroneeicctical-and Electromes Engmeers ................ 2.460.208 eee eet George Abraham

aie MESO CIehy OM VICCHAnICal EMPINCEIS. o..-6.. gas Ae eae ences oes nena hae s See eee Michael Chi

rem£nitholocical Society of Washington 5... 1b ... yb ae ee i ee pete ee Robert S. Isenstein

eMC EAMES Ociety 1Ol MICTODIOIOL Yer. « aot ahs 8 ade asda a @ ea dew shoe sie, Bie aeals sarees Delegate not appointed

SOIC HAO NIMC HI CAT VITILATY sEeMPIMECLS vs atone 28s Se Re WO oe eee ee MSs be Sheek ee H.P. Demuth

PM SAS OCI OMOIVIl MH MOMMCCIS: . 42. ce ac oj: 2 ave erie fe cee see Eten eee eee ete Shou Shan Fan

Sociwenonme xpemimental Biology and Medicine .... 0.426 .. o2 2s hee ee ee ee ee we Donald Flick

ALPE PCDI SOCIGI sO I UE SP etre re ore gee Glen W. Wensch

intcmational Association of Dental Reséarch ......<...........-00eecec ne des William V. Loebenstein

Amenecaninsiture of Acronautics and Astronautics © ...... <5. 0.42226 n- ede cee ee eee Franklin Ross

Pion Sane iC LC OROlOPICAl, SOCICLY oh: 8 oi) aed ee Adie edie ds = Hie eE ogee vs bees A. James Wagner

Insecticide Society of Washington A ook Be Tees 3 ONS RE POUR ER: AP eae Robert J. Argauer

ECO USUCAN SSOCISINE CATT CE aah re a ee Delegate not appointed

MMC AEN CIOAMSOCICIV= tne ss ayia a see eRe oe ck cae oda eh ee bone eee dS Dick Duffey

SURO OOCmne CHNOLOPIS(S os cas a acs ae hs hones BH Ladd ae edot mee eer eet William Sulzbacher

Pia fle oO CICANI CaS OC IC Ua ane el Si gk a oad 5a ee res Sapte Sa on aS Inactive

RC eimMencIMMiCA EN OCICIVE cassie os tone ) hcl eh techs a Rede Ps eed oe ae nee Delegate not appointed

Se cOneslOLycOmOClenGerG Ibi. <5 fn. Ae ews 6c feu send net eo alee ne wietee doa te dus wets BASS Inactive

PUMchCAney ASSOciAtiOn Of Physics: PEachers: . 2.2... 2.4. 5.2525 eww ne oe le ee eee Bernard B. Watson

BIG MicAlpS OCICHV EO ANNCINCA rth nO es has dg ide chia hide We ee HD a Ronald W. Waynant

EMM Ce MES OCIS UTOlg Ani PMV SIOLOGISES. 6 2m soc) ech oi eo << Geto cos ee es Gees Aa ge eee Walter Shropshire

as dine tons OpermationssrescarcheCOUncill is, ni s.an noe eyes onus se ance Hanes Sone ss John G. Honig

IMUM CMIES OCIS Wy MON TMCIICANE | me... ces wn en eh ee, ahem ia sate wise in Shee Inactive

American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical

ANGE eROlCMIMMIS MOM CUS ett se ae ike i os Ee eee emit a sg uel « enw Carl H- Cotterill

NAMM APIO le NSULOMOMMERS «285-4 os cela c 2 Sas suatosde aed Geegee see eon ee es Delegate not appointed

PAN eMIANCaAlwASSOCIAMOn NO! AIMenICae sana see ets SER Se cede eens Patrick Hayes

De Sem liisciinicn@ie @MeMISES a Senet an os poly wl ae mee es Bok baleen Qs Miloslav Recheigl, Jr.

DOr SCN OlOCICAl ONSSOCIAMON ose. 54.cnis As aw yasina obo ase Ae cena ee SP John O’Hare

hei ashinetonsPamt mechmicalvGroup:..24 08 ao. 0< eek ged oe oe ee eee fe we Dee oe Paul G. Campbell

Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the representative societies.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976 195

ANNOUNCEMENT

BELTSVILLE SYMPOSIUM II: BIOSYSTEMATICS IN AGRICULTURE

BELTSVILLE AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH CENTER

BELTSVILLE, MARYLAND

MAY 9-11, 1977

In 5 symposium sessions leading investigators will lecture or engage

in panel discussions on the role that biosystematics has in agriculture.

Main topics will include new techniques, taxonomic theories, uses of

taxonomic and biosystematic data, especially predictive applications,

and the planning and direction of biosystematic research. In addition,

a poster session and mixer is scheduled for the evening of May 9.

Manned displays at the mixer should generate valuable discussion.

For further information, send lower portion of this notice to:

Dr. James A. Duke

Publicity Committee, BARC Symposium II

Plant Taxonomy Laboratory

Room 117, Bldg. 001, BARC West, USDA

Beltsville, Maryland 20705 U.S.A.

BELTSVILLE SYMPOSIUM II: BIOSYSTEMATICS

IN AGRICULTURE

Please send further information on the Symposium to:

NAME

ADDRESS

196 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

FEATURE

Alternatives for Biological Resources in Africa’

Edward S. Ayensu

Director, Endangered Species Program, National Museum of Natural History,

ABSTRACT

This paper calls attention to the fact that most of the current basic food items that

feature in the diets of African homes were historically recent introductions to that

continent. Attention is directed to the need for the development of the underexploited

plants and animals that seem to have economic potential. The local sources of plant

and animal proteins including fish proteins are discussed. Observations are made on

the changing food habits of the people on the African continent. The need for sub-

stantial research in the biological resources of the continent are discussed.

Over the years I have become painfully

aware of the fact that we in Africa

have been making very little use of the

biological resources available on our con-

tinent. In fact, the current use of only

a few of the many biological resources

with which Africa is endowed is a re-

flection of our inactivity in exploring

the new and alternative resources of this

magnificent part of the world. I would

venture to say that since the Neolithic

practically no new major food item

emanating from the African flora has

been added to the diet of the people.

I had the good fortune of being ap-

pointed the Co-Chairman of the U. S.

Academy of Science’s panel on ‘‘Under-

exploited Tropical Plants of Promising

Economic Value’’ in March 1974. The

work of the panel culminated in the

gathering of an unbelievable amount of

information on the many plants that

people in the third world have not been

‘Paper presented at the Seminar for African

Alternatives at the National Assembly, Senegal,

from 4—6 February 1976.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

using to their best advantage. The panel

was charged with three main objectives:

to identify neglected but seemingly useful

tropical plants, both wild and domesti-

cated, that have economic potential; to

select the plants that showed the most

promise for wider exploitation through-

out the tropics; and to indicate the

requirements and avenues for research

that will ensure that selected plants

reach their fullest potential.

I offer these same objectives to African

scientists as a basis for seeking alterna-

tives for the judicious exploitation of our

biological resources.

Of the approximately 40,000 species of

plants that occur in Africa, only a small

number have been used throughout

human history. Furthermore, of the

handful of crops that form the bulk

staples, a significant portion consists of

plants that are not native to Africa.

For example, the tropical root crop

cassava (Manihot esculenta), an im-

portant carbohydrate source in the diet

of many African people today, is a native

of Brazil, from whence it spread to other

197

parts of Latin America and the rest of

the tropical areas of the world. The

groundnut (Arachis hypogaea), which is

rich in non-drying oil and protein as well

as vitamins B and E, is also a native

of South America. It was the Portuguese

who introduced the plant from Brazil

to West Africa in the 16th Century. The

sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), with

its edible tubers and tender leaves, is

likewise a native of tropical America.

Ethnobotanical records show that the

sweet potato was grown in Mexico and

many parts of Central and South America

during pre-Columbian times but was

unknown in Africa, Asia, and Europe

during the same period. The cocoyam

(Zanthosoma sagittifolium) is a native of

tropical America. Although the Portu-

guese and the Spanish had known about

this plant, it was not until 1841 that

missionaries from the West Indies intro-

duced it to Ghana. Rice (Oryza sativa),

which plays a very important role in the

diet of Africa, traces its origin to south-

east Asia. Once again it was the Portu-

guese who introduced rice into Brazil

and West Africa. Maize (Zea mays) is

undoubtedly one of the most important

cereals in the African diet today. Like

most of the above-mentioned cultivated

plants, maize is not native to Africa. The

plant was in cultivation in the New World

during pre-Columbian times. Maize in its

present form has never been found grow-

ing in a wild state anywhere. There is

very reliable evidence that maize did not

reach the Old World (including Africa)

before 1492.

Of the commercially) important cash

crops that are grown in Africa, cocoa

(Theobroma cacao) is perhaps the most

important— certainly for Ghana, Nigeria

and the Ivory Coast. I hope you will not

be too surprised to learn that, again,

the cocoa tree is a native of tropical

South America. The plant was introduced

to the islands in the Gulf of Guinea in

the 17th Century by the Spanish and

Portuguese. A few cocoa pods of the

Amelonado variety were taken to Ghana

in 1879 from Fernando Po and, as you

are all aware, these few pods gave rise

198

to a very important industry in a major

portion of West Africa. Another cash

crop that features prominently in the

industrial activity of some African coun-

tries is para rubber (Hevea brasiliensis).

As its scientific name suggests, this plant

originated in the tropical rain forests of

the Amazon basin in South America.

I could go on and on citing examples

of a number of other crops that are

currently used in Africa but have their

origins elsewhere. I do not want to leave

you with the impression that Africa has

not contributed something to other coun-

tries. For example, sorghum, which is of

African origin, was introduced to China

early in human history. This crop is now

widely distributed in China because of

the development of several local varieties.

Nevertheless it is a sobering feeling to

visualize what our dietary situation might

have been on this continent if all the

foreign crops I have mentioned were not

available to us today. I feel uncomforta-

ble even to think of the striking readjust-

ments in our lives that would be neces-

sary if we had not been exposed to all

these introductions.

Why is it that throughout our history

we have made but little use of our bio-

logical resources? The answer to this

loaded question should be viewed from

an historical perspective. During the

colonial era very little attention was

given to scientific research on the many

indigenous plant and animal species that

may be of promising economic value,

because the consumer demands of the

metropolitan countries of Europe were

the principal determinants of the agrarian

practices encouraged in the colonies.

The scientific research institutes that

were established in a number of African

countries during the colonial era were

slanted to fulfill specific missions. For

example, many of the research organisa-

tions established by the British and the

French in West Africa were mainly con-

cerned with problems connected with the

production of raw materials for export

to the colonial and other European and

North American markets. As I pointed

out during my presentation to the West

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

African Science Association Conference

here in Dakar some two years ago, the

research efforts of the science institutes

in Africa have not changed materially

since the attainment of independence.

The same mentality that guided research

activities in Africa before political inde-

pendence is being perpetuated today.

Furthermore, several food items that

were featured in the diets of Africans

before the coming of the Europeans

have been discarded gradually and

replaced by kinds of foods that are

readily acceptable to Europeans. It is

only in relatively recent years that

Africans have become proud to present

indigenous dishes to their foreign visitors.

Apart from the colonial influence on

agricultural research priorities in Africa,

there is a fundamental attitude towards

agriculture that separates, for example,

the American Indian farmer from the

African farmer. Historically the Central

and South Americans of Mexico and

Peru (to mention but two countries)

were more interested in developing dif-

ferent strains of crops while their African

counterparts were interested in the

domestication of animals. And, as Afri-

can civilization progressed, animals often

became the equivalent of money, e.g.

cattle culture in Rwanda.

Another limiting factor in the proper

exploitation of our plant resources has

been the quality of African soils. By and

large, the soils of Africa are poor. You

are all familiar with the typical weather-

ing processes of our soils that often

result in the formation of hard, reddish

clay soils commonly known as laterite.

Lateritic soils develop when the fertile

topsoil is eroded away by the intensive

rainstorms that expose the red clay soils

underneath to the high solar radiation

that often follows a big downpour of rain

in the tropics. In the arid regions of

Africa, wind erosion results in the re-

moval of the fertile topsoil and renders

the land unsuitable for efficient agricul-

tural use. Over-grazing in certain parts of

Africa has resulted in more serious abuse

of the land than have other causes of

soil erosion. The browsing habits of

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

goats, for example, are very familiar

to many of you. Until marked soil con-

servation measures are taken to safe-

guard the land, we cannot begin to think

seriously about the efficient use of the

limited suitable farmlands that are still

available in Africa.

I think it is very important for us to

understand that soil biology is a crucial

component in the assessment of our

biological resources because it is the

basis of virtually all plant life, and hence

all faunal elements depend on it as well.

In a sense the soil is the most important

biological medium since its composition

includes both organic and inorganic sub-

stances. I need not remind you that our

lack of knowledge of tropical soil was

the principal reason for the Groundnut

Scheme failure. It is, therefore, important

that throughout our assessment of the

biological resources of Africa, we bear in

mind the state of our soils.

Plant Protein Production

When I began to reflect on the alterna-

tives for biological resources in Africa,

my mind immediately centered around

the problems of protein production for

food. Of all the possible sources for

protein, I consider plants the most

important. Plant proteins are basically

cheaper than animal proteins. Let us

first consider edible leaves of tropical

origin. Proteins are first created in leaves.

The process of photosynthesis is prin-

cipally responsible for the creation of

many intermediate reactions such as the

production of keto acids. Briefly, soluble

nitrogenous compounds and minerals are

brought to the leaves where the ammonia

portion is combined directly with the keto

acids to form amino acids, which lead to

the process of building-up of protein

aggregates. From the standpoint of nu-

trition, there is no excuse for the diet

of the African people to be short of pro-

teins, because edible green leaves are

abundant on the continent. The green

leaves are rich in proteins but, in addi-

tion, they are physiologically important

as regulators of the digestive tract. The

green leaves also contain important

199

vitamin and mineral components that

offer further enrichment to diets that

are basically starch-based. Vitamin A is

often found in large quantities in dark

green leaves and is often resistant to

the effects of cooking. Vitamin C, which

is also present in leaves in appreciable

quantities, often tends to be destroyed

by cooking. Vitamin B, which is soluble

in water, tends to be lost when cooking

water is discarded. Other ingredients

such as riboflavin and thiamine occur in

reasonable quantities in leaves.

If I may digress a moment, just before

I visited the People’s Republic of China

in July 1975, I was invited to dinner by

the Chinese Ambassador in Ghana. At

dinner several delicious dishes were

served, including a wide assortment of

green vegetables. The delectable quali-

ties of the greens were so distinctive

that I naturally paid the Ambassador a

special compliment on them. The Am-

bassador quickly made the point that the

green vegetables were all from Ghana. I

was somewhat embarassed because I be-

came distinctly aware of the lack of

imagination that has surrounded our use

of the vegetables that are readily avail-

able. I hasten to add that throughout my

travels in Africa and other parts of the

world, I have encountered a number of

plant species whose leaves are accepted

as edible. My plea is that a number of

these green-leafed plants may be high

protein sources, and therefore it is our

responsibility as research scientists to

investigate these plants for their nutri-

tional importance both for human food

and for animal feed.

In addition to the native plants that

should be reviewed for their possible

use, there are some important tropical

plants that can be introduced to Africa

which could assume the importance that,

for example, maize, rice, cassava and

groundnuts have achieved. The winged

bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus) is a

legume of far-eastern tropical origin with

tremendous nutritional possibilities. In

the recent report *‘Underexploited Trop-

ical Plants with Promising Economic

200

Value,’ it was described as follows:

‘‘The winged bean is a tropical legume

with a multitude of exceptionally large

nitrogen-fixing nodules. It produces

seeds, pods, and leaves (all edible by

humans and livestock) with unusually

high protein levels; tuberous roots with

exceptional amounts of protein; and an

edible seed oil.”’

The winged bean has important poten-

tial for small-scale farmers. It is a fast-

growing perennial that is particularly

valuable because it grows in the wet

tropics where protein deficiency in

human diets is not only great but difficult

to remedy. Winged bean seeds rival soya

beans (Glycine soja) in oil and protein

content, and the plant has the added

advantages of protein-rich roots and

edible foliage.

Though relatively unknown, this multi-

purpose legume appears to meet many

dietary needs of the tropics.

I can forsee this legume assuming the

same importance as soya beans in the

very near future. After all, it was only

fifty years ago that the soya bean became

a prominent Asian crop, especially in

China and Japan. Today, because of in-

tensive agronomic research on the soya

bean, it has become one of the principal

crop plants in the world. When I visited

Sri Lanka in June 1975 as a member of

the U. S. Academy of Science’s team

that participated in a workshop on

‘‘Natural Products for Sri Lanka’s

Future,’ I discovered that the tender

pods of the winged bean plant are

delicious and heavily consumed in that

country. The flowers, leaves, and shoots

are eaten as vegetables. The stem of the

plant serves as animal feed. Some vari-

eties of this plant produce a fleshy tuber

similar to the potato. It tastes very

much like potato, and it contains 20%

more protein. Its protein content is there-

fore 20 times that of cassava and certainly

10 times more than yams and other

edible root crops.

I am delighted to inform you that to

my knowledge the Agricultural Research

Station of the University of Ghana and

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

the International Institute of Tropical

Agriculture in Nigeria are already doing

some work on this highly promising plant.

In addition to looking for new crop

plants, it is essential that we do not

lose sight of the limited uses to which

we are currently putting the existing

crops that feature in our diets. For

example, a substantial portion of the

cassava harvest in Africa is eaten boiled,

roasted, or in the form of Gari. A certain

amount of bulk cassava is used in pre-

paring tapioca and starch. The potential

for world market uses for cassava

products is substantial. Apart from grow-

ing cassava for human consumption,

two major markets have not been ex-

ploited to the fullest. The industrial

starch market is still open. People often

forget that cassava starch has found

application in the manufacture of food-

stuffs, textiles, and adhesives for stamps

and envelopes, as well as newsprint,

cardboard, gelling agents, fillings and

munitions. The major markets for indus-

trial starch include Japan, the United

States and Canada. Because of the erratic

supply of cassava starch from many

developing countries (and this includes

those in South America) the developed

countries have been using only a small

percentage of cassava starch in their

manufacturing industries. If we can

prove to prospective buyers that we are

able to supply this needed raw material

on a sustained basis and at competitive

prices, I have no doubt that we can be

assured of handsome financial returns.

The other use for cassava requires

substantial quantities of pellets for the

animal feed market. Several European

countries are now using large quantities

of cassava as a cheap source of carbo-

hydrate for livestock. Many livestock

production concerns have realised that

it is relatively cheaper to prepare feed

from cassava and soya beans than to use

cereals. In fact it has been shown that

an equal mix of cassava and soya beans

is a feed superior to an equal mix of

soya beans and maize. To my knowledge,

Thailand is shipping large quantities of

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

cassava chips to Europe. Obviously,

because of our proximity to Europe and

because of the large amount of marginal

land available to grow cassava, the West

African countries can develop a sub-

stantial market for this product.

Several other plants of tropical origin

have been identified in the report on

‘‘Underexploited Tropical Plants of

Promising Economic Value.’’ I urge you

all to take a look at the report and make

use of as many of the recommended

plants as possible.

Plants Containing Special Qualities

The exploitation of our biological

resources should not be confined to only

those plants and animals that feature in

our daily diet. Some plants can indeed be

exploited in external markets for sorely

needed foreign exchange. In recent years

it became obvious that the cyclamates

used as a sweetening agent in a number

of baby foods as well as soft drinks have

some deleterious effects on man. It,

therefore, became necessary to seek a

sweetening substitute. After much exper-

imentation in the United States and

Europe, special interest was centered on

the Miracle Berry (Synsepalum dulcifi-

cum), a West African plant. The pulp of

its fruit obscures the sour taste of various

food substances. As I pointed out in an

earlier publication, Ghanian children

often show great delight in impressing

their friends that they can consume sour

fruits such as lemon, lime, and grapefruit

without expressing any distaste. This

plant soon became a subject of intensive

research in a number of American and

European laboratories. The amino acid

composition of the protein of this berry

was soon worked out. The active princi-

ple of the berry was found to be a glyco-

protein with a molecular weight of about

44,000. Soon after the labile glycoprotein

was Stabilized, and this enabled its use

in a pill form as a sweetening agent. I

must add that its use has not been con-

fined to sweetening ordinary foods and

drinks; it has also been used as a

sweetener for diabetics. Imaginative

201

individuals in America and in Europe

have taken advantage of the natural

chemical properties of the berry only to

enjoy vaginal secretions that change in

taste from sour to sweet as part of their

sexual amusement. The pills manufac-

tured from this plant are known as the

‘‘Miracle Fruit Drops.’ The Miracle

Berry plant is an economically important

biological resource that should be ex-

ploited further. The plant grows in the

wild in West Africa. It could easily be

brought into cultivation and the harvest

exported to pharmaceutical companies

that manufacture the pills.

Medicinal Plants

Historically, plant-derived drugs have

featured prominently in the treatment of

all kinds of disease in Africa. The admin-

istration of the drugs has been in the

hands of native herbalists. Plant species

have been variously used to arrest con-

vulsions, stop natural habitual abortions,

cure syphilis, suppress chronic ulcers,

remove warts on the sole of the foot,

de-worm the afflicted, arrest asthma,

serve aS mosquito repellent, induce the

flow of breast milk, etc. Over the years

I have accumulated information on the

uses of over 200 plant species from

Ghana alone. No doubt several impres-

sive lists could be obtained for other

African countries.

Throughout the world today there is a

serious shortage of supply of plant-

derived drugs. Several of the drug-

producing plants available in Africa can

be developed into the basis of a highly

sophisticated natural products industry.

Some of the plants could be cultivated

for the manfacture of end-product drugs

or processed to yield compounds that,

on chemical modification, can yield

additional drugs. In some cases extrac-

tions could be made for use as primary

Starting material for the synthesis of

several drugs. My own studies of yams

(Dioscorea sp.) over the years have

shown that the active principle diosgenin

is not a useful drug by itself, but it is a

starting material for the synthesis of most

of the oral contraceptives on the market

202

today. In recent years the plant Fagara

xanthoxyloides has become a very im-

portant material in the cancer research

programs in the United States. Other

plants such as Griffonia simplicifolia,

Fagara macrophylla and Rauwolfia

vomitoria are being collected from the

wild in large quantities for shipment

abroad. The financial possibilities are

endless. I will only remind you that, for

example, in 1974 the United States of

America produced great quantities of

drugs derived directly from plants and

sold them to the consumer to the tune

of three billion dollars. This figure does

not include the sales of antibiotics. I

wish to emphasize again that a carefully

planned screening program of the drug-

producing plants will yield fantastic

financial results for Africa.

Animal Protein Production

Throughout the history of Africa, the

utilization of wildlife as a major source

of meat protein has been significant.

However, traditional hunting practice

has led to a decrease in the populations

of some of the choice game meats. In

Ghana, for example, meat of the grass-

cutter (Thryonomys swinderianus) seems

to get more and more expensive in the

local open markets even if its availability

seems to be quite normal. In fact, it has

been observed that the more the supply

of the grasscutter meat in the city markets,

the higher the price. This observation

simply means that the supply of this

particular bushmeat is not meeting con-

sumer demand.

There are several species of game

animals that have proven to be good

protein sources. In East Africa game

animals such as the eland, impala, zebra,

wildebeest, giraffe, duiker, warthog,

steenbuck, waterbuck, buffalo, bush pig,

elephant and kudu feature daily in the

diets of many people. One of the game

reserves I am familiar with is the Mole

National Park in Ghana. The game ani-

mals I encountered there include harte-

beest, buffalo, waterbuck, roan antelope,

kob, bushbuck, oribi, duiker, warthog,

baboon, patas monkey and green mon-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

key. All these animals constitute sub-

stantial sources of protein if their num-

bers are allowed to swell and then

cropped. Unfortunately, very few sys-

tematic attempts have been made to

establish game ranches in order to

maximize their production. From the

few studies that have compared cattle

and game animals, it is evident that the

production of game animals generally

outstrips that of cattle on all counts,

especially if we take into consideration

the marginal status of the available land

and the carrying capacities of the various

habitats for the two groups of animals.

It is now a well-known fact that the

effects of domesticated game animal

grazing pressure on natural vegetation

are less harmful than those of cattle

and certainly more favorable than those

of goats. Several detailed studies con-

ducted on game ranches in East and

South Africa have demonstrated that

game animals can be supported without

damage to grass cover and without any

serious destruction of the soil. On the

other hand, lands used for cattle ranching

are almost invariably rendered useless

because of the serious damage to the

soil and vegetation. Different species

of game animals graze and browse on

different plant species within a habitat.

Hence the presence of a variety of dif-

ferent game animals within one particular

vegetation-type should not give cause for

much concern. In a recent study con-

ducted in the Serengeti-Mara Game Re-

serves, it has been shown that the two

most abundant grazers in the reserves,

the wildebeest and the Thomson’s gazelle,

manage to co-exist instead of competing

for food. The wildebeest is a heavy

grazer, and as it migrates across the

Serengeti Plains it somehow stimulates

the growth of the plant species that

are exploited by the gazelle in the dry

season. This clearly shows a co-existence

between two heavy grazers which depend

upon the same habitat for their survival.

Another important factor to consider

is the fact that the total biomass of

game animals living on low quality land

is about equal the total biomass of cattle

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

on a much better quality land. Further-

more, and perhaps most important, is the

quality of protein produced by game

animals as against that produced by

cattle. Various studies on the nutritional

value of bushmeat have shown that the

quality of protein is at least as high as

that of cattle. In addition, the vitamin

content of bushmeat is much higher than

that of beef, mutton, or pork.

Another advantage in favour of game

animals, as a source of protein, is that

less food energy is needed to bring

their weight up before cropping. The

amount of grain used in feeding cattle,

sheep and pigs before they are slaughtered

is being questioned by energy conserva-

tion minded persons all over the world

today. It is, therefore, important that we

seriously consider the feeding require-

ments of the conventional domesticated

animals as against the natural feeding

habits of game animals.

There is no doubt that the demand for

bushmeat is increasing in many parts of

Africa. It is, therefore, necessary that

proper investments are made to infuse

sophisticated management into game

ranches so that those establishments

can be self-sustaining and yet produce

a greater quantity of protein.

As I intimated earlier, East and South

Africa have had more experience in game

ranching than has West Africa. In

Botswana, for example, a number of

game farms manage wildlife along with

cattle on a sustained-yield basis. The

Galana Game Ranch Research Project

in Kenya was started in 1970 to explore

the best methods for exploiting domes-

ticated game. One of the Project’s activi-

ties is the management of both game and

conventional livestock under identical

ranching conditions. In a screening pro-

gramme, game animals such as the

fringe-eared oryx, eland, buffalo, ostrich,

and the Peters’ race of Grant’s gazelle

have been herded with Boran cattle,

small East African goats and crossbred

Dorper, Masai, and Merino sheep. I

have no doubt that this project is going

to be successful in view of the quality of

203

the scientific manpower and institutions

involved in the entire programme.

I also have learned that a proposed

Nazinga Game Ranch Project for Upper

Volta is being planned at the moment by

the African Wildlife Husbandry Develop-

ment Association of Canada and various

agencies of the Upper Volta Govern-

ment. If this project becomes a reality

it will be the first well-planned game

ranching project for West Africa. The

practical information that will be derived

from the proposed project undoubtedly

will be of tremendous benefit to other

West African countries contemplating

similar projects.

In addition to bushmeat production,

properly managed industries can be

developed to handle the production of

processed animal skins and trophies for

sale. It seems logical that we can combine

game ranching and sport hunting in our

quest to seek substantial alternatives

for the biological resources of Africa.

Fish Protein Production

No discussion of the biological re-

sources of Africa can be complete

without careful consideration of the fish

fauna of the continent. We are all aware

that fish is abundantly rich in high quality

protein in addition to fat, minerals and

vitamins. It is well known also that the

nutritive value of fish is, in many cases,

superior to that of beef and that it also

is readily digestible and not easily

denatured by cooking. For centuries our

fishermen have exploited both marine

and fresh waters. Based on earlier

figures, I estimate that nearly 3.5 million

metric tons of fish are currently harvested

annually in Africa. Unfortunately, a sub-

stantial proportion of the catch is spoiled

because of the lack of refrigeration

facilities in most homes. Furthermore,

because of the fish preferences of our

people, several perfectly nutritious spe-

cies of fish are not eaten. It seems ob-

vious that with current techniques

available in Africa, many of the unpopu-

lar fish, as well as the large quantities of

204

perfectly desirable fish that are lost by

spoilage, can be used in preparing fish

protein concentrates for direct consump-

tion by humans as well as in the prepara-

tion of fish meal for cattle and poultry

feed:

In recent years a number of our coastal

countries have been engaging in deep-sea

fishing on a commercial basis. While on

a recent visit to Japan, I was gratified to

eat some prawns and shrimp that were

of West African origin. However, certain

foreign fishing fleets have been invading

the territorial waters of Africa to the

extent that if international agreements

are not concluded soon most of the choice

fish will be overexploited before Africa

is ready to embark on a full-scale fishing

industry.

In the case of fresh-water or inland

fishing practices, many changes are

necessary. In most cases, the fishing

techniques of the Neolithic have not

been improved upon. In areas where

fishing techniques have improved, very

little study has gone into the assessment

of the fish populations in rivers, lagoons

and lakes. As a result of our lack of

knowledge of the breeding systems of

the various species of fish in African

inland waters, certain fish populations are

being overly exploited. In a number of

cases we do not know the species com-

position of many of the inland waters on

the continent. I need not emphasize that

a number of the natural and man-made

lakes in Africa have tremendous potential

for the production of fish protein if

proper management principles are fol-

lowed. Most of us are familiar with the

importance of species of Tilapia in the

diet of many peoples of East and West

Africa. Unfortunately, our enthusiasm

for eating this delicious fish has not

been matched by our desire to study in

detail all aspects of the biology of this

fish, particularly its adaptation to pond

culture. It is essential that if we want

to derive maximum financial benefit from

our fish resources, we must encourage

systematic scientific research in all areas

of fish biology.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

Changing Food Habits

Seeking alternative biological resources

for food, especiaily for home consump-

tion, presupposes that the dietary habits

of our people are not static, but are

dynamic. Every society’s food habits

are governed to some extent by customs,

traditions, and cultural beliefs. In some

societies the taboos against certain food-

stuffs are so rigid that even in the case

of acute famine, the overly zealous would

rather die than eat “‘forbidden’’ foods.

Fortunately, most African societies are

more flexible and capable of practical

considerations in their eating habits than

some of their Asian counterparts.

As I have indicated earlier, most of

the major food items that feature con-

stantly in our diets have been introduced

into Africa. There are many Africans

who cannot even accept the fact that

plants such as cassava, corn, groundnuts

and rice are foreign foods. On the basis

of our past history, we already have the

propensity to adapt to new food items.

In 1968 a book entitled ‘‘Food Com-

position Table for Use in Africa,’’ was

published jointly by the United States

Department of Health, Education and

Welfare (HEW) and the Food and Agri-

culture Organization of the United Na-

tions (FAO). As its name implies, this

work contains information on the protein,

carbohydrate, mineral, vitamin and mois-

ture content and the food energy value

of many of the biological resources of

Africa. The nutritive value of many

plant and animal species has not been

studied as yet. Nevertheless, this book

is a good starting point from whence

we could begin to take a hard look at

the nutritive potential inherent in our

biological resources.

Many of the food items discussed in the

book are already being utilized in various

sections of our societies. What is needed

is the popularization of many of the foods

not being utilized by introducing them

into the commercial markets.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

Summary

It is interesting to note that of the

continents composed of developing coun-

tries, Africa is certainly the one in which

most is known of its flora and fauna. The

plant resources of Africa are certainly

better known than those of South Amer-

ica. What is lacking is a rational asess-

ment and utilization of the botanical

resources of Africa. This is equally true

of the level of our knowledge of the

major faunal elements. Much work is

needed to improve our knowledge of the

biology of the small mammals and the

lower plants.

Be that as it may, a number of our

scientists (both pure and applied) and

their administrative superiors are not

even aware of the magnitude of and the

potential inherent in our biological

resources. [t seems obvious that for

African governments to obtain maximum

utility from their biological resources,

a concerted effort should be made to

review the existing structures of scien-

tific and technical organisations and to

intensively review the native flora and

fauna, so that their facility for solving

problems and applying imaginative think-

ing to their research efforts can be

realised to the fullest extent.

Bibliography

Ayensu, Edward S. 1972. Morphology and Anatomy

of Synsepalum dulcificum (Sapotaceae). Bot.

Jour. Linn. Soc. 65(2): 179-187.

. 1975. Science and Technology in Black

Africa, pp. 306-317. In World Encyclopedia

of Black Peoples, Vol. 1. Scholarly Press, Inc.

St. Clair Shores, Michigan.

Dasmann, Raymond F. 1964. African Game Ranch-

ing. Pergamon Press. London.

National Academy of Sciences. 1975. The Winged

Bean—A High-Protein Crop for the Tropics.

National Research Council, Washington, D. C.

. 1976. Underexploited Tropical Plants of

Promising Economic Value. National Research

Council, Washington, D. C.

Purseglove, John W. 1972. Tropical Crops, Vol. 1

and 2. Wiley Inter-Science, New York.

United States Department of Health, Education and

Welfare and Food and Agriculture Organization

of the United Nations. 1968. Food Composition

Table for Use in Africa. Maryland and Rome.

205

PROFILE

A Polish Naturalist in Peru:

The Life and Work of Felix Woytkowski

Ashley B. Gurney

Collaborating Scientist, Systematic Entomology Laboratory, IIBII, ARS, USDA.

Mail address: clo U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. 20560.

Museums of natural history throughout

the world are filled with specimens of

animals and plants which bear labels

telling where they originated, and when

and by whom they were collected. Other

label information may explain field con-

ditions, abundance, and local importance

where found. The names on labels of

collecting localities and of collectors are

necessary for adequate documentation

and may be of much special importance

if it is desired to revisit the locale for

more material or to clarify some obscure

aspects of the original collection. Apart

from practical considerations, however,

the student, whether expert or novice,

using preserved specimens often develops

a personal interest in a collector, whom

at first he may know only as a name on

labels. If those of us handling specimens

do not Know the collector’s background,

we often wonder what kind of person he

was and whether his label data reflect

accurate observations. Why did he de-

vote time to such a pursuit in those

perhaps long-past years? What were his

life-style, his aspirations, and the nature

of his family?

In future years, many scientists may

wonder about Felix Woytkowski, whose

name appears on the labels of thousands

of insects and plants which he collected

in Peru during 1929-64. This large body

206

of material, located in numerous museums

in the U. S. and elsewhere, is of so much

importance, and Woytkowski’s life was

of such dedication to energetic collecting

and the accumulation of accurate field

data, that a short review of his career

is timely because of an extensive recent

biography (1, 2).

In 1929, at the age of 37, Felix Woyt-

kowski arrived in Peru with his wife and

4-year old son; he left in broken health

in 1965 to return to Poland, where he

died in April 1966. For most of 35

years he actively studied the plant and

insect life of Peru, chiefly as a collector

who took pride in gathering specimens

for leading professional botanists and

entomologists who benefited from the

carefully recorded information which

accompanied the material. He travelled

throughout most of Peru (his expedition

itineraries list 16 Departments in which

he collected) and noted the altitudes

and zonal regions in which the various

species occurred. Much of the country

had never been examined with equal

thoroughness by earlier collectors, so

hundreds of species were new to science,

and the information gathered about

plants and insects as a whole was tremen-

dous. Naturally, not all of the specimens

added to museums or the data already

published in basic descriptive papers

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

have yet been synthesized in final form

for biologists. In addition to collecting

museum specimens, which he sometimes

did on a part-time basis, he was asso-

ciated for several years with San Marcos

University in Lima, especially with the

Botanical Garden there. Also, for 7 years

he was employed by the Swiss firm,

CIBA, in the search for plants of medici-

nal value. Thus, we see that Woyt-

kowski’s life was one of solid achieve-

ment on the frontier of science in the

natural history studies of his adopted

country.

Though for years Woytkowski con-

templated writing a book about his work

in Peru, was encouraged by many

friends to do so, and took 3 chests of

records (in Spanish and English) when

he returned to Poland, he did not live to

sort out the material. Later, his niece,

Dr. M. Salomea Wielopolska, arranged

and translated much of the material into

Polish and assembled the manuscript of

this book which, together with other

information, is the basis for my brief

biographical account. She then donated

the Woytkowski records to the Polish

Academy of Sciences in Warsaw (3).

Felix Woytkowski was born May 20,

1892 at Grzymaloéw in eastern Galicia,

near the Zbrucz River which at that time

was the boundary between Russia and

Austria. In Poland of Pre-World War I,

the Woytkowski family was one of com-

fortable financial position and social

Standing. Felix’s father was a physician

with a large practice who _ habitually

treated those who were poor on a “‘gratis’’

basis, and Felix’s grandfather had a large

farm which included cultivated fruit

trees from abroad, a botanical garden

and heated greenhouses. In fact, the

family had owned several estates and

there was a tradition of pursuing agricul-

ture and horticulture on a scientific

basis. With this sort of background,

Felix began when 12 years old, together

with his brother Tadeuza, to collect

insects and plants. An experienced

botanist gave them guidance, and they

made a large herbarium collection from

local wooded hills which later was pre-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

Fig. 1.—Felix Woytkowski at about 35.

sented to the University of Lemberg

(Lwow). The family could afford visits

to other European countries, and the

boys grew up familiar with libraries

and museums, and they had an apprecia-

tion of cultural and scientific values.

Felix enjoyed music, painting, and

literature, and the latter had a deep

influence on him. This influence, as well

as his command of the English language,

is shown by sentiments later expressed

in various letters and notes relative to

his rich and varied experiences in Peru,

for instance a paragraph quoted by Good-

speed (4): ‘‘The Andean heights, their

utter wildness, their vast and _ silent

alpine plateaus, their sheer descents

into the Amazonian jungle, their moun-

tain folk and the malignant spirits which

for them haunt the high altitudes, create

something which ever beckons anew.

Within them there are glorious moments

to live; there the air is freer and strangely

inspiring; there one can learn some of the

207

Fig. 2.—Felix Woytkowski after returning to

Poland.

elsewhere forgotten lore of ancient

peoples; there plants and animals as well

as air, sky and thoughts differ from

anything we know here below. There we

learn to conquer fear and suffering and

satisfy our scientific curiosity in a vast

kingdom of alluring adventure.’’

After completing secondary school in

Lwow in 1911, Felix spent a year at

Liege, Belgium at the “Ecole des Hautes

Etudes de Sciences Commerciales et

Consulaires.’’ Later, he studied at Ox-

ford University, England, where he took

economics and political sciences pri-

marily, though he had a tutor to help

perfect his English. With the outbreak

of World War I, money from his parents

was discontinued and he secured work

in several grammar schools as a teacher

of chemistry, Latin, Greek and other

subjects. At Huddersfield he was a textile

worker for a while and he became in-

terested in the new ideas of Sir Sidney

Webb concerning trade-unionism.

In 1918 a Polish army was organized

in France by the Pole, General Joseph

Heller, and Felix went there and en-

listed as a volunteer, being assigned to

the General’s staff as an interpreter

with the rank of Second Lieutenant.

After the war he returned to Poland,

where he first worked as the secretary

of the Mayor of Warsaw. Later, in

Graudenz, he was the foreign corre-

spondent for the largest Polish foundry

208

and enamel works. In 1923 he turned to

agriculture and worked as an apprentice

on 2 large estates. The war and the

ensuing inflation created upset and im-

poverished conditions which, after he

married and had the welfare of a wife

and son to think of, led him to consider

going abroad, first to Canada. However,

he decided on Peru.

Felix and his family joined a group of

Polish emigrants who arrived in Lima

June 26, 1929, but he soon left the group

in favor of aGerman colony at Villa Rica,

Province of Tarma. Relating his experi-

ences to C. P. Alexander in 1944, he

wrote of soon finding it more difficult to

make a living in Peru than in Europe.

He also was attracted to the wooded

surroundings and opportunities for natu-

ral history studies, then largely neglected

in Peru. Woytkowski was a close friend

of Pedro Paprzycki, another Pole who

collected insects in Peru. After con-

tacting specialists in the U. S., he found

a ready market for specimens and for

many years some of the same ento-

mologists and botanists continued to

receive material from him. Dr. Alexan-

der, the veteran student of crane flies,

H. B. Hungerford (Hemiptera), J. D.

Hood (thrips), Leonora Gloyd (dragon-

flies), and F. M. Brown (butterflies)

were among the entomologists who

regularly received much useful material

from him. T. H. Goodspeed (tobacco

relatives and other plants), Charles

Schweinfurth (orchids), and J. F. Mac-

bride (Flora of Peru) were among the

botanists for whom he worked especially.

Through John D. Dwyer, a large collec-

tion of plants was acquired by the Mis-

sour! Botanical Garden, St. Louis,

Missouri (5).

The itineraries of collecting trips

presented in chart form on pp. 289-298

of the book are arranged by years and

show altitude, the type of terrain, also

the Province and Department of each

locality where collecting occurred. Six

folding maps held looseleaf inside the

back cover show collecting localities,

other place names and various routes

traveled. The charts also indicate the

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

chief periods of involvement at the

Botanical Garden and with CIBA.

Throughout Woytkowski’s book there

are frequent references to Callanga, a

Peruvian locality apparently first brought

to his attention by Professor Hungerford

who in 1929 had described an interesting

new species of water-strider, Velia

helenae, from there (6). A single female

specimen of it, labelled ‘‘Callanga,

Peru,’’ without data or collector’s name,

had been found in the Riksmuseum,

Stockholm, Sweden. Many insect speci-

mens similarly labeled occur in several

European and U. S. museums, and the

abundance of unnamed species among

them gave the impression of rich ende-

micity. Woytkowski has written that as

early as 1935 he thought of going to

Callanga to get more of the Velia as well

as other hoped-for rarities, but he had

difficulty in clarifying its exact location

and in accumulating adequate funds to

support the effort. Finally, after periods

of great enthusiasm for doing so, as well

as discouragement, he carried out ex-

plorations to Cuzco and nearby areas of

southeastern Peru in 1951—53, including

an early 1953 visit to Callanga, in

southern Madre de Dios. He described

going there, far down into a deep valley

surrounded by steep hillsides, but he did

not find Velia helenae and was much

disappointed (7). There was some un-

certainty whether the name Callanga

represented a village or a river of the

same name, and as a whole he felt

that his Callanga trip was a failure (8).

It is sad to report that in spite of Woyt-

kowski’s skill as a collector he often

was barely able by this occupation to

support his family and his collecting

trips, frequently away from home for

many weeks. During 1946-55, when I

purchased insect specimens from him, his

letters often told of the urgent need for

funds. On June 10, 1951 he wrote me of

working a year in northwestern Peru for

a petroleum company in order to finance

a trip to southern Peru, ‘‘toiling daily

within this vast corporation and living in

the company’s camp upon the barren

desert of the tropical Pacific coast, so

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

far north and so far from the Peruvian

capital Lima.’’ Later, near the end of his

Peruvian work when afflicted by failing

health, including angina pectoris , he was

forced to sell his camera and equipment

and was assisted by loyal friends in ob-

taining funds for the return to Poland.

He had been divorced earlier, his only

son George had died in 1952, and a

grandson and two granddaughters ap-

parently remained in Peru.

During Felix Woytkowski’s life, warm

appreciation for his work was expressed

by various scientists (4, 9).Yet, in his

final period of poor health and financial

difficulty he may have wondered if his

somewhat lonely life in Peru had been

worthwhile. For many naturalists whose

main work has been the collecting of

specimens in places far from their

original homes, life has brought relative

obscurity, a precarious livelihood, dan-

gers, sickness, and sometimes crushing

disappointment when large collections

were lost by shipwreck or deterioration

from weather. Of course, it is different

only in kind from the frustrations of

innumerable human lives. In the case of

Woytkowski, we have the published

record of a very talented and dedicated

naturalist, and he has left thousands of

well preserved and carefully documented

specimens which continue to enlarge the

scientific studies of numerous other

workers, improving the basic knowledge

of South America. He will not be for-

gotten.

References and Notes

1. Peru-moja ziemia niebiecana (Peru-my un-

promised land). 1974. by Felix Woytkowski.

Translated into Polish and arranged by

M. Salomea Wielopolska. 304 pp., 105

photos, 6 separate folded maps. Ossolineum

(publisher), Wroclaw. Polish distributor: ARS

Polona, Warsaw, Krakowskie Przedmiescie 7,

Poland. Available in U. S. from International

University Booksellers, 101 Fifth Ave., New

York, N. Y. 10003. Paperback, $16.25. (The

book may be translated into English.)

2. For generous assistance during the preparation

of this biographical review I am indebted to

numerous persons. George W. Byers and Peter

D. Ashlock (University of Kansas) advised me

about Woytkowski specimens obtained by

209

Dr. Hungerford. C. P. Alexander (Amherst,

Massachusetts) opened up a large amount of

information based on his long-term corre-

spondence and put me in touch with Maria

Salomea Wielopolska, who sent a copy of the

book and enthusiastically answered numerous

detailed questions. The Polish Academy of

Sciences kindly furnished photographs. Several

local friends and colleagues have been helpful,

particularly Eugene Jarosewich (Mineral Sci-

ences, U. S. National Museum of Natural

History) and my neighbors Frank and Gene

Gonet, who translated paragraphs of Polish for

me. John J. Wurdack (Botany, U.S.N.M.N.H.)

has been especially helpful with references to

Woytkowski’s botanical work. Finally, Gerardo

Lamas of Lima, Peru, a visiting entomologist,

gave me a clearer insight into Woytkowski’s

collecting localities.

. Dr. Wielopolska, now retired and occupied

with writing tasks, was for 25 years the Chief

Librarian at the Technical University in

Szczecin. She has always been interested in

natural history and early began the serious

study of forestry, which, however, was in-

terrupted by World War II, after which she

pursued a career in liberal arts and library

science.

. Goodspeed, T. H. Plant Hunters in the Andes

(2nd Ed.) 378 pp., Univ. of California Press

(1961).

. Dwyer, J. D. A preliminary report on Woyt-

kowski’s last Peruvian collection. Phytologia,

vol. 15: 458-461 (1968); La coleccion de

plantas peruanas de Felix Woytkowski en el

Missouri Botanical Garden (1958-1962). Ray-

mondiana, vol. 4: 5—71 (1971). (The second

paper is nearly identical to the first one

except that a large list of plants, some 2,000

species in number, is included).

. Hungerford, H. B. A new Velia from Peru

(Homoptera, Veliidae). Entomol. Tidskrift

(Stockholm), vol. 50: 146-147 (1929).

7. Additional Peruvian specimens of helenae

have since been reported from the Department

of Junin. Polhemus, J. T. A new Velia from

Peru, and the description of the male of Velia

helenae Hungerford. Proc. Entomol. Soc.

Washington, vol. 71: 55—S9 (1969).

. One of the folding maps accompanying the

book was prepared by Prof. Hungerford to

show the supposed location of Callanga, and

it probably was based on data sent to him

by Woytkowski. The map was sent to

Woytkowski with a letter dated March 31, 1953.

after the expedition was completed, but neither

of them was certain of the significance of

‘*Callanga.’’ From Gerardo Lamas of Lima I

have now learned that Callanga was a hacienda

which was visited much earlier by one or

more individual collectors, chiefly Gustav

Garlepp (1862-1907), a German who made

4 South American trips between 1883 and 1907,

when he died in Paraguay by a ‘“‘treacherous

murder.’’ Garlepp, sometimes aided by his

brother Otto, collected actively and specimens

were distributed widely, mainly through the

firm of Staudinger and Bang-Haas of Dresden.

He probably was in Callanga about 1890.

Accounts of the Garlepps were written by

Niethammer (Bonner Zoologische Beitrage,

vol. 4: 195-303, 1953) and Papavero (Essays

on the History of Neotropical Dipterology,

vol. 2: 293-295, 1973). Callanga was destroyed

by Indians in this century, perhaps about 1940,

according to Dr. Lamas’ information, and at

the time of Woytkowski’s visit remnants of

the single hacienda (farm) were all that

remained. It was located at about 12.59 S. Lat.,

71.13 W. Long., at an altitude of about

1500 m. Some collections from ‘‘Callanga”’

may have been taken at different elevations

in the neighborhood of the hacienda.

. Soukup, J. Felix Woytkowski, veinticinco

anos dedicados a biologia. Biota, vol. 1:

30-33, 1 fig. (1954); Felix Woytkowski

(1892-1966). Biota, vol. 6: 150-153, 1 fig.

(1966).

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

RESEARCH REPORTS

A New Species of Platycystites (Echinodermata:

Paracrinoidea) From the Middle Ordovician of Oklahoma

T. J. Frest, H. L. Strimple, and M. R. McGinnis

The first two authors are affiliated with the Department of Geology, University of

Iowa, Iowa City 52242; the last-named with the Department of Bacteriology &

Immunology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill 27514.

ABSTRACT

The paracrinoid Platycystites infundus, new species, from the Bromide Formation

(Middle Ordovician) of Oklahoma provides additional evidence that at least some

paracrinoids lay upon the substrate or partially embedded on it. The inferred mode of

life, based on stem attachment and thecal morphology, of the 3 species now ascribed to

Platycystites suggests that only 1 (P. faberi Miller) was held erect above the sea bottom

by its column.

The rare paracrinoid genus Platycys-

tites (Order Platycystitida Parsley and

Mintz, 1975) is presently known only

from southwest Virgina, northeast Ten-

nessee, and southern Oklahoma. Like

most other paracrinoids it is restricted

to rocks of Middle Ordovician (Black-

riverian) age. P. faberi, type species of

the genus, was inadequately described

and illustrated by Miller (1889), who also

presented incorrect occurrence data for

the species. No further species were

added to the genus until Bassler (1943)

proposed several new species (P. bromi-

densis, P. cristatus, P. fimbriatus, P.

levatus), all from the Bromide Formation

(?Chazyan-Blackriverian) of Oklahoma.

Another Bromide species (P. bassleri)

was added by Sinclair (1945).

Though the distinctness of the genera

now grouped in the Paracrinoidea had

long been recognized, the group was

not raised to class status until 1945

(Regnell, 1945). By far the most com-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

prehensive treatment of the paracrinoids

is that of Parsley and Mintz (1975). In

their paper they redescribed and reillus-

trated P. faberi and reduced all of the

Bromide species into synonymy with

P. cristatus Bassler. Apparently all of

the Bromide specimens studied by Bassler

and Parsley and Mintz came from the

lower echinoderm zone (informally desig-

nated the ‘‘Platycystites zone’’) of the

Mountain Lake Member, in which Platy-

cystites is prolific. The total thickness of

the beds through which P. cristatus

ranges is about 65 ft, but all are from the

lower part of the Mountain Lake (Parsley

and Mintz, 1975: 74). The single speci-

men described herein as Platycystites in-

fundus, n. sp., was collected by McGin-

nis from an exposure of the upper echino-

derm zone (of Fay and Graffham, 1969:

37-42) which occurs at the top of the

Mountain Lake, considerably above the

‘*Platycystites zone.’’ The echinoderm

fauna of this unit (informally termed the

211

Figs. 1-6.— Plate diagrams of Platycystites. 1, 2, Anterior and posterior views of P. cristatus (modified

from Parsley and Mintz, 1975, text-fig. 3); 3-6, anterior, posterior, left, and right views of holotype of

P. infundus. A-anterior plates; AB anterior basal; L, left plates; P, posterior plates; PB, posterior basal;

R, right plates; RB, right basal. Periproct black; positions of gonopore and hydropore indicated by

light lines.

212 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

‘‘Oklahomacystis zone’’) differs con-

siderably from that lower in the Mountain

Lake. The paracrinoid genera Okla-

homacystis and Sinclairocystis have not

been found outside the zone and appear

to be endemic to this unit. A single

specimen of Platycystites has been col-

lected from the Oklahomacystis zone at

a locality near Sulphur, Oklahoma; the

specimen lacks the arms and stem but

it is preserved as well as are most para-

crinoids. This part of the Bromide is

not well exposed and the source exposure

is no longer collectible: J. Sprinkle

(pers. comm., 1976) reports that around

45 specimens, possibly referable to P.

faberi, have been collected from this

zone in the western Arburckle Mts.

(Oklahoma). None of these apparently

are referable to either P. cristatus or

P. infundus, n. sp.; hence it is unlikely

that any additional specimens of P. in-

fundus will be discovered in the near

future. Despite its imperfections, the

specimen preserves most important mor-

phological features and is clearly a dis-

tinct species.

The addition of a third species to

Platycystites necessitates some reevalua-

tion of the functional morphology of the

genus. In particular the thecal shape

and position of the stem facet of P.

infundus, n. sp., support the contention

of Durham (in Parsley and Mintz, p. 69,

figure 6) that at least some species of

this genus were recumbent upon or partly

buried in the substrate with the stem

acting as an anchor or as a tether rather

than serving to elevate the theca above

the sea bottom as Parsley and Mintz

(op. cit.) envision it. Nevertheless, we

have used Parsley and Mintz’s descrip-

tive terminology and orientations which

are partly predicated on the assumption

that their reconstruction of the living

position of Platycystites is correct. The

system they employ facilitates homolo-

gous comparisons between the genus and

other paracrinoids, particularly within

the Platycystitida. It can be applied with

little modification to P. infundus. Its use

does not, however, imply acceptance of

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

their interpretation of the genus’ mode of

life.

Higher classification of many of the

poorly known fossil echinoderm classes

is currently in a state of flux. As regards

the Paracrinoidea we have followed the

taxonomy of Parsley and Mintz through

the ordinal and class levels but refrain

from assignment of the class to a sub-

phylum. Parsley and Mintz (1975: 5-7,

25—26) erected the subphylum Paracrino-

zoa, with the single class Paracrinoidea,

for this distinctive group of echinoderms

because, according to these authors, the

paracrinoids cannot be placed in either

the Crinozoa (Matsumoto, 1929) or

Blastozoa (Sprinkle, 1973). Briefly the

justification for this action is that the

Paracrinoidea “‘have characteristics that

fit into both subphyla mentioned above

and they also have traits which are

peculiar to their own subphylum, e.g.

internally opening transutural slits, left

lateral offset peristome relative to the

column, along with a pronounced plate

increase in the right lateral margin and

bilateral symmetry defined by the G

plane’ (op. cit., p. 26). While these

characters collectively discriminate the

Paracrinoidea from other echinoderm

classes, none of them individually are

unique to it. Some features of the para-

crinoid thecal plate pore system are

strikingly reminiscent of those of eocri-

noids; more detailed analysis of it is

required to establish its uniqueness,

particularly since one order of Para-

crinoidea (Platycystitida) totally lacks a

pore system. Bilateral symmetry defined

by the G plane is also developed in some

Rhombifera (e.g. Pseudocrinites; see

Paul, 1967 and Kesling, 1968 for dis-

cussion). Lateral offset of the peristome

also occurs in other groups; examples

include Columbocystis (uncertain affini-

ties) and the diploporid cystoid Allocy-

stites (Parsley, 1975: 356-357).

The validity of the subphylum Blasto-

zoa Sprinkle has recently been ques-

tioned by Breimer and Ubaghs (1974a),

and Breimer and Macurda (1972) and

Macurda (1973) have presented mor-

213

phologic data indicating the presence

of tube feet in the Blastoidea, contra

Sprinkle. Without attempting to evaluate

the merits of the various points raised

by these authors, it is fair to say that a

consensus has not yet emerged. The

basic data required to establish which

characters are of importance at the

highest levels of echinoderm taxonomy

are still largely lacking. While quite

recently major essentially solid taxonomic

contributions such as those of Parsley

and Mintz (1975) and Sprinkle (1973)

have greatly clarified the status of a

number of puzzling fossil echinoderms,

it seems reasonable to expect that the

current information explosion in the

study of primitive echinoderms will con-

tinue for some time. Consequently we

feel that large scale rearrangements of

the echinoderm clases and, particularly,

a proliferation of subphyla are prema-

ture. We follow Parsley and Mintz (1975)

and Breimer and Ubaghs (1974b) in re-

moving the Paracrinoidea from the

Crinozoa, but like the latter authors do

not place it in a subphylum. We admit

the strong possibility that the Para-

crinozoa of Parsley and Mintz may even-

tually prove fully acceptable to most

workers.

Systematic Description

Class PARACRINOIDEA

Regnell, 1945

Order PLATYCYSTITIDA

Parsley and Mintz, 1975

Diagnosis. —‘‘Paracrinoids without sutural

pores; arms epithecal, typically branched; thecal

plates generally smooth with pustulose prosopon”’

(Parsley and Mintz, 1975: 57).

Family PLATYCYSTITIDAE

Parsley and Mintz, 1975

Diagnosis. —Theca ovoid to amygdaloid in

shape with approximately 27 plates identifiable

in juveniles, plus a variable number of intercalates

along the right side (some are generally present).

Arms 2, transverse, primarily epithecal (adopted

from Parsley and Mintz, 1975: 58).

214

Genus PLATYCYSTITES Miller, 1889

1889. Platycystites Miller, North American Geol-

ogy and Paleontology, p. 272.

Platycystis Miller, Bather, in Lankester

(ed.) Treatise on Zoology. III, Echino-

derma, p. 51.

Platycystis Miller, Kirk, U. S. Nat. Mus.

Proc. 41: 19.

Platycystites Miller, Bather, Roy. Soc.

Edinburgh, Trans. 49 (pt. 2) (6): 371.

Anomalocystites Hall, Springer, in Zittel-

Eastman, Textbook of Paleontology,

vol, lps 150:

Platycystites Miller, Bassler, Amer. Jour.

Sci. 241: 669-697.

Platycystites Miller, Regnéll, Lunds Geol.

Min. Inst., Medd., No. 188, p. 39.

Platycystites Miller, Sinclair, Amer. Mid-

land Nat. 34(3): 707.

Platycystites Miller, Kesling, Treatise on

Invertebrate Paleontology Part 5. (Echino-

dermata 3) 1: 288.

1975. Platycystites Miller, Parsley and Mintz,

Bull. Amer. Pal. 68(288): 59.

1900.

19 e

Wise

SS:

1943.

1945.

1968.

Diagnosis. —Theca amygdaloidal, compressed

to broadly oval and inflated in cross section, with

27 to 29 identifiable plates; some species with

additional intercalates along right lateral margin;

maximum number of plates about 47. Peristome

usually only slightly offset to left, periproct on

posterior face near upper margin. Arms 2,

epithecal, extending varying distances along the

lateral margins (modified from Parsley and Mintz,

p. 59).

Type species.—FPlatycystites faberi

Miller, 1889.

Range.—Middle Ordovician (Black-

riverian); Bromide Formation, Okla-

homa; Ottosee-Benbolt, Virginia and

Tennessee.

Remarks.—Our generic diagnosis dif-

fers only slightly from that of Parsley

and Mintz; the main difference is that

we do not recognize the presence of

intercalates in the type species. Our

interpretation of thecal plating in P.

faberi will be presented in a forthcoming

paper. For convenience the theca is

oriented in the plate diagrams with the

periproct uppermost and the stem roughly

opposite the periproct defining a vertical

longitudinal axis. This orientation is not

identical, in the opinion of the authors,

to that of the whole animal in life position

except possibly in P. faberi. Thecal

plate nomenclature and face terminologies

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

Figs. 7-11.—Holotype of Platycystites infundus, n. sp.; 7-10, views of right, left, posterior, anterior

sides, all magnified x2.7 (9 and 10 are side views in presumed life orientation); 11, top view, centered on

peristome in presumed life orientation, x4.0.

are those of Parsley and Mintz as sum-

marized in their text-figure 3 (ibid, p. 60;

compare the explanation of our figs. 1—6)

except in minor details. The terms right

and left are defined relative to the

posterior face when the theca is viewed

in anterior-posterior profile as in fig. 2

and 4.

Platycystites infundus, n. sp.

Figures 3-11

Diagnosis.—Theca with about 33 plates, few

intercalates, not strongly inflated. Arm calluses

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

prominently developed, left arm nearly reaching

column. Theca strongly asymmetric, right side

flattened. Stem facet directed toward right.

Material. —One specimen, holotype SUI 39513,

from the ‘‘Oklahomacystis zone,’ top of the

Bromide Formation, Mountain Lake Member,

1.8 mi. Sulphur, Oklahoma.

Description. —Theca unevenly rounded in an-

terior-posterior profile; largest dimensions subequal,

length of holotype 22.0 mm; maximum width of

holotype 21.7 mm. Total number of thecal plates

about 33; few of these are intercalates (3 on

holotype). Theca flattened along right side, evenly

oval in outline when viewed along a plane normal

215

to axis through gonopore and hydropore and

center of right side (fig. 11). Stem facet elliptical,

not crenulate, narrow, width 2.1 x 2.0mm, oriented

parallel to proximal distal axis. Lumen small,

round, diameter 0.7 mm.

Basals 3, unequal; PB and AB large, equal in

area, developed on posterior and anterior faces

and left margin of theca. RB short, much smaller

in area than PB or AB, making up less than

one-third of column attachment facet. Left plates

3: L1 and L2 crossing thecal margin; L1 situated

immediately above PB and AB, hexagonal, crossed

transversely by left arm, developed more on an-

terior face; L2 above L1, 6-sided, arm callus

traversing the plate along its long axis, most of

plate area on posterior side. L3 to left of other left

plates, pentagonal, wholly on anterior face.

The 10 anterior plates plus the left plates make

up most of the anterior thecal face (figs. 3 and 9).

Subcentral on the anterior face is the large A2,

bordered by 8 plates. Immediately beneath A2 is

Al, a heptagonal plate that frequently is the

largest anterior thecal element in P. cristatus

(Parsley and Mintz, p. 62) but in this species is

considerably smaller than A2. A6 and A7, sub-

equal in area, border A2 on the left; A6 is nearly

equally 5-sided; A7 is irregularly hexagonal.

Most of the left anterior border is made up of

3 small plates (A10, All, A8—9) which do not

extend more than half way around the left side

of the theca. Al0 and All are small and un-

equally pentagonal; the single plate presumed to

represent A8 and AQ in P. cristatus (fig. 1) is

heptagonal and adjoins All and RB laterally

along the lower left anterior margin. Adoral to

A10 is R4, a small hexagonal element visible

on both sides of the theca and bisected by the

right arm seat which terminates on this plate

(figs. 6 and 7). No plate corresponding to R5 of

P. cristatus is present on the holotype of P.

infundus. R2, plus anteriors A3, A4, and AS fill

out the upper margin of the anterior face. These

plates are quite small in P. cristatus; they are

larger in area in this species, presumably because

of the more extensively protruded arm tracks.

A2 and A3 are pentagonal; their upper edges

terminate on the anterior face, as does that of

the small 4-sided A4. A5 is equally developed on

both faces; this plate forms the northwest quadrant

of the periproct border on the posterior face.

The periproct, located near the upper margin on

the posterior face, is surrounded by 4 plates,

each of which subtends an equal area of its border.

The right half of the periproct border is formed

by R3, which is bipartite; A5 and PS also con-

tribute to the periproct border. The periproct

opening itself is raised slightly and circular

(diameter 2.2 mm). A presumed hydropore is

located at the junction of PS, P6, and P7; the

opening itself cannot be seen, but it is likely

situated on the small raised triangular platform

visible where these 3 plates meet (figs. 4, 10). A

small round pore (gonopore), central on a raised

216

tubercle, occurs on P7. All plates along the upper

margin of the posterior face are elongated parallel

to the thecal margin. Between R3 and PB the

right posterior margin is made up of R4 and 3

small intercalates. Distal to P7 the left posterior

margin is defined by L2, L1, and PB. L2 passes

over onto the anterior face but is mostly posterior

in position. The central area of the face is occupied

by relatively few, large plates, i.e., PI—P5 and

P8-9. P1, the largest posterior plate, and P4 are

hexagonal; the pentagonal P2 and P3 are subordinate

in size to Pl and P8—9 in this species (compare

P. cristatus, fig. 2). The elongate irregular shape

of P8—9 is unusual; this plate may be abnormal

in this specimen and more usually 2 discrete

elements may be present as in P. cristatus.

Calluses for the epithecal arms are narrow

(average width 1.1 mm) but prominently extended

out from the theca throughout their length (figs.

9-11). The left arm extends around the theca

to about the midheight of PB before becoming

exothecal or terminating. The right arm callus

does not extend below R4. None of the arm

plates themselves are retained. The proximal part

of the left arm callus, and nearly all of the right

arm, is invaginated into the theca, forming a

trough. Proximal to the oral opening the troughs

appear to penetrate the bottom of the callus,

which is thus open to the interior. The thecal

plates, except in the areas making up the arm

calluses, are covered with a fine pustulose

prosopon. The column is unknown.

Derivation of name.—The specific

epithet refers to the presumed life

habit of the species (infundus, laid out

upon, spread on).

Remarks.—Platycystites infundus, Nn.

sp., differs from P. cristatus in a number

of ways as noted above; but given the

limited material on which P. infundus is

based and the small number of described

Platycystites species, the value of many

of the noted features of the holotype as

taxobases on the specific level is uncer-

tain. Only P. cristatus is known from a

reasonably large number of specimens

and has been described at length. A

definitive plate diagram of P. faberi,

together with detailed descriptions of

thecal plate identities and locations based

on a large series of specimens, would

facilitate platycystitid taxonomy but such

a series in unlikely to be available in

the near future. In their absence the fol-

lowing discussion is based primarily on

P. cristatus.

Some degree of variation in thecal plate

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

number has been noted by Parsley and

Mintz (ibid., p. 73) in P. cristatus; most

variable is the number of intercalates,

which can range between 2 and 17 in this

species. The other thecal plates are less

variable; their number is largely inde-

pendent of thecal size (height), they are

in more or less fixed position, and, though

their outline may vary, they are readily

identifiable from specimen to specimen

(ibid., p. 60). It is hence possible that

many of the deviations from P. cristatus

noted in the description of P. infundus

(e.g. bipartite R3, combined A8-—9 and

P8-—9, R5 missing or combined with

R4) may be significant at the specific

level. On the other hand, some of these

variations could also occur on an ab-

normal specimen, but when combined

with other noted differences they may

be utilized with more confidence. Pos-

sibly some of these features are related

to life habit. Paired small plates (i.e.,

Al10 and All, A8 and A9, P8 and P9 in

P. cristatus) may have originated through

bisection of what was originally a single

element. Replacement of a single plate

(normal condition for the population) by

2 elements in some individuals is known

in some Rhombifera: Paul (1966, 1968)

figures 2 examples of such arrangements

in Glansicystis baccata (Forbes). A

specimen of P. faberi in the University

of Iowa collection (SUI 39514) also has

combined A10—11 and A8—9 into single

plates. If P. faberi represents the more

primitive platycystitid form, then the

apparent increase in number of major

thecal elements in P. cristatus and

P. infundus may be both a phenotypic

and genotypic response to a changed life

habit (i.e. recumbent versus erect theca).

In the 3 known species of Platycystites

there is a direct correlation between the

number of thecal plates and the degree

of thecal inflation; the highly inflated

P. cristatus has the largest number

of regular and intercalate plates while

the compressed P. faberi has the least

of both. As might be expected P. infundus

has intermediate numbers of both plate

types.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

Many of the differences in plate pro-

portions between the 2 species may

similarly be interpreted as due to indi-

vidual variation rather than as valid

specific features. Some undoubtedly

result from unlike thecal outlines. Gross

shape varies somewhat from individual

to individual in P. cristatus but is a

useful taxobasis if used cautiously. The

holotype of P. infundus falls outside

the normal range of variation of P.

cristatus as regards thecal shape. Prob-

ably the greater area of the upper marginal

plates in P. infundus, which is related

to the degree of extension of the arm

tracks, is also not simply a feature of

this particular specimen. The flattening

of the right side of the holotype of P.

infundus is not due to distortion but

appears to be an original feature. We

believe that it served to stabilize a theca

which was recumbent on the sea bottom;

in fact the fossil specimen is stable at

rest in the position illustrated in figs. 9

and 10. The orientation of the stem facet,

which is diametrically opposite to that

of P. cristatus, (compare figs. 2 and 4)

is consistent with this interpretation.

Other points of difference between the

2 are likely of minor importance or

cannot be evaluated on the basis of

present material. P. infundus has a

coarser pustulate prosopon on the plate

surfaces than typical P. cristatus; but

similar specimens of the latter have been

observed. The small number of inter-

calates in P. infundus could be an artifact

of limited material; we believe, however,

that this feature is specific to the species.

With its flat right side and less expanded

theca (P. cristatus is greatly inflated in

this area) there is less need for extra

thecal elements.

Altogether we feel that there are

enough points of difference of signif-

icance to justify the separation of the

‘‘Oklahomacystis zone’? specimen from

Pcristatusat the specific Jevel.<in

spite of the lack of a large group of

similar specimens. In terms of gross

thecal morphology and plate arrange-

ment, P. infundus is closer to P. cristatus

217

than to P. faberi and has most likely

evolved from the former species.

Functional Morphology

Two current interpretations of the

life habit of Paracrinoidea (and Platycys-

tites) have the theca strongly canted to

the right, with the peristome uppermost

and the tips of the epithecal arms de-

fining a plane parallel to the substrate

surface. Parsley and Mintz (ibid, p. 22)

believed that the theca was raised off

the sea bottom by the stem, which would

have been relatively rigid. Conversely,

Durham would place the near horizontal

arm termination plane at the sediment-

water interface. In this model the theca

would be partly buried with the possibly

distally flexible stem serving as a sub-

surface anchor (ibid, p. 22, test-fig. 6).

A third possibility is that the paracrinoid

stems were ‘“‘runners’’ somewhat in the

manner of calceocrinids with the theca

lying on the substrate surface, peristome

uppermost, tethered by its stem. Parsley

and Mintz’s interpretation is most plausi-

ble for the majority of paracrinoids which

are not strongly asymmetric. For genera

like Platycystites we believe that Dur-

ham’s hypothesis is more plausible. The

addition of P. infundus to the genus

provides some additional information

on Platycystites mode of life.

In their discussion of Platycystites

Parsley and Mintz (ibid., p. 69) con-

sidered P. faberi and P. cristatus col-

lectively, as though both were func-

tionally and morphologically identical:

actually they have quite different morpho-

logical features. The restoration of

P. cristatus which they illustrate (ibid. ,

text-fig. 6), reflecting the opinion of J.

Wyatt Durham on its living position, is

probably most nearly correct for this

species and for P. infundus, but it very

likely does not apply to P. faberi. The

situation in Platycystites might be more

complex than visualized by previous

authors.

P. faberi has a thin compressed pear-

Shaped theca with the peristome and

columnar attachment area forming a

218

vertical axis. Both the right and left

epithecal arms extend from the mouth to,

or nearly to, the column. The animal

was almost perfectly bilaterally sym-

metrical and was no doubt held above

the substrate on a column. No complete

specimens are known; hence it is not

possible to determine with certainty

whether or not the theca was canted by

a flexure of the proximal column as

Parsley and Mintz (ibid., text-fig. 1)

illustrate for Amygdalocystites florealis

and infer for most paracrinoids. We

believe that the horizontal plane defined

by the arm terminations reflects the

living orientation in all paracrinoids;

we suspect that the theca of P. faberi

was not canted and that the supporting

column continued from its junction with

the theca, unbent proximally and aligned

with the longitudinal axis of the theca.

Like the theca, the column of P. faberi

was probably usually upright and verti-

cal. In this position the periproct would

be offset slightly to the right of the

peristome while the peristome, gono-

pore, and hydropore would be upper-

most. The periproct would thus be at a

slightly lower level than the peristome

and associated thecal openings, thus

tending to remove anal wastes from its

vicinity. It is difficult to conceive of

any manner in which fouling of the

subvective appendages could be avoided

if the theca of P. faberi were in contact

with or partly buried in the substrate.

P. cristatus and P. infundus have modi-

fied the theca to a strongly asymmetric

shape. P. cristatus is greatly inflated on

the right side proximal to the column;

this area of the theca is broadly rounded.

The equivalent thecal surface in P.

infundus is flattened and the theca is not

as rounded in profile. As noted by

Durham (in Parsley and Mintz) the right

arm of P. cristatus is always short

and does not extend into the expanded

area proximal to the column which is

presumed to contact the sea floor; the

right arm track of P. infundus is similarly

limited. Conversely, in both species the

left arm, which would be above the sea

floor in Durham’s and our reconstruc-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

tion, extends nearly the full length of the

left side of the theca; in some specimens

it may even extend onto the column.

These features are shared with Amyg-

dalocystites florealis, which also may

have had the theca in contact with the

substrate. Possibly the same 2 modes of

living postulated for Platycystites had

their equivalents in Amygdalocystites:

most species, like A. florealis, have a

bend in the column proximal to the theca,

but the poorly known A. radiatus appears

to lack it (Parsley and Mintz, p. 51).

An undescribed species of Amygdalo-

cystites from the Dunleith (Middle

Ordovician) of northern Iowa, currently

being studied by T. W. Broadhead

(University of Iowa), has a proximally

unflexed column and 2 long equal

epithecal arms. Its thecal shape is similar

to that of P. faberi and its life habitus

was probably comparable. If the erect

life orientation suggested by Parsley

and Mintz were correct and universal

within these 2 genera we see no reason

why both arms in all species should not

be equal in length. It is probable, in our

opinion, that major differences in thecal

symmetry within a genus reflect differing

life habits, especially if modifications of

symmetry correlate with other morpho-

logical changes. A thecal morphology

and arm arrangement comparable to that

of P. faberi is present in other echino-

derm classes; at least | similarly-shaped

rhombiferan (Pseudocrinites) has 2 re-

cumbent ambulacra extending down the

theca onto the column. The Parsley and

Mintz model would, we feel, require

the column to be strong and relatively

rigid throughout its length; however

complete columns are exceedingly rare.

Not uncommonly specimens of A.

florealis and P. cristatus do retain the

proximal flexed, presumably ankylosed,

part of the column. This is more con-

sonant, in our opinion, with Durham’s

model or with a bottom-runner life habit.

Pronounced asymmetry of the theca

accompanied by a small column which

may be bent abruptly backward next to

the theca is not uncommon in other

paracrinoids. According to Hudson

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

(1905) the stem of Canadocystis emmonsi

‘“‘appears to have been short and used

perhaps for an anchor, but not for com-

plete support.’’ Hudson further suggests

that the ancestors of these paracrinoids

*“were once supported by the stem alone

and had their arms in a normal position,

but that descendants with weak stems

often found themselves let down to the

ocean floor and had to make shift to

live under adverse conditions. Increased

growth of the posterior side or de-

creased growth of the anterior plates

would have brought the arms again

uppermost to a form like that shown

here.’ Allowing for differences in termi-

nology and emphasis the theme of

Hudson’s observations is not far removed

from our conclusions herein.

Durham (in Parsley and Mintz) be-

lieved that there was a discernable

difference in prosopon below the sup-

posed termination plane in some speci-

mens of P. cristatus. We, like Parsley

and Mintz, have been unable to detect

this difference on the specimens we

have examined; but this does not in our

opinion weaken Durham’s argument in

any way. Other counterarguments ad-

vanced by Parsley and Mintz (p. 22)

also do not seem compelling. Preserved

columns of Amygdalocystites and Platy-

cystites with the cited morphological

features (proximal flexure and ankylosis)

are quite short, and it is not surprising

that they do not show a distal taper.

Comarocystites undoubtedly has a hold-

fast and relatively long straight column

and almost certainly was held erect; but

this genus does not show pronounced

thecal asymmetry or a differential expan-

sion of one side of the theca. Holdfasts

and lengthy stems have not been reported

for Platycystites or Amygdalocystites.

We do not believe that either Durham’s

model or that of Parsley and Mintz

apply to all paracrinoids. If the Para-

crinoidea is a valid taxon of class rank

it would be surprising if one mode of

living was adopted by all members;

considering the morphologic diversity of

the known paracrinoids this possibility

becomes vanishingly small. Investigation

219

of each paracrinoid genus individually

might yield more accurate information

about the class’ paleoecology than does

the attempt to apply a single over-

extended, albeit useful, model to the

class in toto.

Information about the length of the

entire column and the nature of the

adult attachment device, if any, in

Platycystites is lacking. It is worth

noting, however, that a possible future

find of a long column and holdfast in a

species like P. cristatus would not

necessarily invalidate Durham’s hypoth-

esis. The reconstruction in Parsley and

Mintz shows an abrupt stem termination,

but it is possible that the species was

attached when young and lost the stem

terminus as it approached maturity.

Alternatively it is also possible that the

theca merely lay on the surface of, rather

than partly embedded in, the substrate.

If such were the case the largely flexible

stem, doubled back under the theca,

would have served as a tether of a theca

which could adjust its living position in

a manner analogous to that suggested by

Kesling and Sigler (1969) for the Calceo-

crinidae: in this model the length of the

stem is irrelevant, and in fact calceocrinid

stems shorter than the crown or many

times its length have both been reported

(Brower, 1966). Like Parsley and Mintz

we postulate that many paracrinoids were

rheophilic; our model, or a modification

of Durham’s, would give the animal a

greater ability to adjust to a changing

current regimen than would that of

Parsley and Mintz. In either case the

streamlined bilaterally symmetrical theca

and concomitantly reduced subvective

system are supportive of a rheophilic

habit. Definitive evidence allowing the

elimination of one or the other major

alternative interpretations of living posi-

tion has not yet appeared.

Acknowledgments

This manuscript has benefited from

criticisms and suggestions by Thomas W.

Broadhead (University of Iowa). We

220

thank James Sprinkle (University of

Texas at Austin) for reviewing an earlier

draft.

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Nederl. Akademie van Wetenschappen Amster-

dam, Verh., Afdel. Natuurkunde, eerste reeks,

26(3), 390 p., illus.

Breimer, A., and G. Ubaghs. 1974a. A critical

comment on the classification of the pelmatozoan

echinoderms. I. Koninkl. Nederl. Akademie

van Wetenschappen Amsterdam, Proc., ser. B,

77(5): 398-407.

. 1974b. A critical comment on the classi-

fication of the pelmatozoan echinoderms. II.

Ibid. 77(5): 408-417.

Brower, J. C. 1966. Functional morphology of

Calceocrinidae with description of some new

species. Jour. Pal., 40(3): 613-634.

Fay, R. O., and A. A. Graffham. 1969. Bromide

Formation on Tulip Creek and in the Arbuckle

Mountains Region. Regional Geology of the

Arbuckle Mountains, Oklahoma. Oklahoma

Geol. Surv., Guide Book XVII: 37-39.

Hudson, G. H. 1905. Contributions to the fauna

of the Chazy Limestone on Valcour Island,

Lake Champlain. New York St. Museum, Bull.

80: 270—295, illus.

Kesling, R. V. 1968. Paracrinoids, in Moore, R. C.

(ed.) Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology,

Part S. Geol. Soc. Amer. & Univ. Kansas

Press: pp. 268-288, illus.

Kesling, R. V., and J. P. Sigler. 1969. Cunctocrinus ,

a new Middle Devonian calceocrinoid from

the Silica Shale of Ohio. Univ. Michigan Mus.

Pal., Contr., 22(24): 339-360, illus.

Kirk, E. 1911. The structure and relationships of

certain eleutherozoic Pelmatozoa. U. S. Nat.

Mus. Proc. 41, 137 p., illus.

Macurda, D. B., Jr. 1973. The stereomic micro-

structure of the blastoid endoskeleton. Univ.

Michigan Mus. Pal., Contr., 24(8): 69-83, illus.

Matsumoto, H. 1929. Outline of a classification of

Echinodermata. Sci. Repts. Tohoku Univ.

Sendai, 2nd ser. (Geol.) 13(2): 27-33.

Miller, S. A. 1889. North American palaeontology

for the use of amateurs, students, and scientists.

Cincinnati, Ohio, 664 p.

Parsley, R. L. 1975. Systematics and functional

morphology of Columbocystis, a Middle Ordovi-

cian ‘‘Cystidean’’ (Echinodermata) of uncertain

affinities. Bull. Amer. Pal., 67(287): 394-361,

illus.

Parsley, R. L., and L. W. Mintz. 1975. North

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

American Paracrinoidea: (Ordovician: Para-

crinozoa, new, Echinodermata). Bull. Amer. Pal.

68(288), 113 p., illus.

Paul, C. R. C. 1967. The British Silurian Cystoids.

British Mus. (Nat. Hist.), ser. A (geol.) 13:

297-356, illus.

-- 1968. Notes on cystoids. 2. An unusual

arrangement of thecal plates in Glansicystis

baccata (Forbes).Geol. Magazine, 105(4): 416-

417.

Regnell, G. 1945. Non-crinoid Pelmatozoa from

the Paleozoic of Sweden. Lunds Geol.-Min.

Inst., Medd. 108, 25S p., illus.

Sinclair, G. W. 1945. Some Ordovician echinoderms

from Oklahoma. Amer. Midland Nat., 34(3):

7077 low illus:

Springer, F. 1913. Cystoidea. In Zittel-Eastman,

Text-book of Paleontology, 1: 145-160, Mac-

millan, London.

Sprinkle, J. 1973. Morphology and Evolution of

Blastozoan Echinoderms. Harvard Univ., Mus.

Comp, Zools ‘Spee. Pub:, 283 p:

Evolutionary and Paleoecologic Significance

of Abnormal Platycystites cristatus Bassler

(Echinodermata: Paracrinoidea)

T. J. Frest and H. L. Strimple

Department of Geology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242

ABSTRACT

Two specimens of the common Bromide Formation (Middle Ordovician; Oklahoma)

paracrinoid Platycystites cristatus Bassler have 3 epithecal arms instead of the normal

2. Analysis of the location and mode of branching of these specimens supports the

suggestion of Parsley & Mintz (1975) that the paracrinoid ancestor had 2 epithecal arms.

One specimen also has a portion of a column embedded in its right side; the column

location and thecal shape indicate that the life position of the animal was with the theca

recumbent on the sea floor.

Three-Armed Platycystites cristatus

The rare fossil echinoderm class Para-

crinoidea (Regnéll, 1945) exhibits con-

siderable morphologic diversity despite

its restricted range and distribution

(Middle-Upper Ordovician, almost ex-

clusively North American) and the small

number of member taxa (9 genera) as

presently known. Only 2 species, Platy-

cySstites cristatus Bassler and Oklahoma-

cystis tribrachiatus (Bassler), are repre-

sented by large numbers of individuals.

The class recently has been monographed

comprehensively by Parsley & Mintz

(1975). While their work was primarily a

taxonomic treatment of North American

paracrinoids they also briefly present

some data bearing on the phylogeny of

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

the group (Parsley and Mintz, 1975:

11-15). Their tentative comments are

based on the assumption that the so-

called cystidean transverse arm pair is

more primitive than the triradiate con-

dition favored by some authors (Parsley

and Mintz, 1975: 12, footnote). More

particularly they infer that the primitive

subvective condition in paracrinoids was

also a primary transverse pair of epithecal

arms, and that the exothecal, more-than-

2-armed condition present in some genera

of both paracrinoid orders is more ad-

vanced. Those genera which have more

than 2 arms (e.g. Oklahomacystis) are

believed to have acquired the extra

subvective elements by branching of | or

both members of the primary pair

(Parsley and Mintz, 1975: 11).

221

The acquisition of an extra arm

probably is a solution to the problem

of increasing the proportion of subvective

area relative to the total thecal volume:

this would increase food gathering

capacity and hence make the species a

more effective competitor with other

echinoderms. Secondarily, an absolute

increase in surface area devoted to food

gathering could presumably support a

larger theca. Development of additional

arms could come about in two ways:

bifurcation of the primary pair distal to

the peristome or addition of wholly new

arms at the peristome. In the latter case

extra arms extending anteriorly are more

probable since the external and internal

water-vascular system, gonopore, and

anus frequently are all posterior in

position. The pentaradiate condition

would originate from utilization of both

alternatives; this would explain the

bipentaradiate (2-1-2) appearance of

the ambulacra of many echinoderms

(Sprinkle, 1973: 42-43).

The Paracrinoidea exhibit a range of

arm conditions demonstrating independ-

ent use of both mechanisms of arm

increase. Two-armed genera (Sinclairo-

cystis, Amygdalocystites, Platycystites ,

Canadocystis, and Malocystites) may

have the arms either transversely or

sigmoidally arranged; invariably they are

dominantly or completely epithecal.

The minority of genera with 3 or more

arms (Comarocystites , Oklahomacystis ,

Achradocystites, and Wellerocystis) are

evenly split between epithecal and exo-

thecal forms. Three of the 4 definitely

dichotomize 1 or both primary arms;

Achradocystites apparently bifurcates

the left arm, but so near to the peristome

that the branch can be regarded as an

independent third arm (Parsley & Mintz,

op. cit., p. 15). Oklahomacystis also

normally has 3 arms; the third results

from a division of the left primary near

the peristome.

Primacy in the Paracrinoidea of the

transverse pair over a triradiate con-

dition has not been conclusively estab-

lished, largely due to the limited strati-

graphic range and size of the class. How-

222

ever, the earliest paracrinoids, Chazyan

in age, do possess only 2 arms. Neither

Chazyan genus is likely to resemble

closely the paracrinoid ancestor; Malocy-

stites is ‘“‘morphologically the most

specialized genus the Paracrinoidea’’

(Parsley and Mintz, op. cit., p. 90) and

the thecal plates of Canadocystis , which

lack a sutural pore system, are probably

secondarily specialized (Parsley and

Mintz, op. cit., p. 57). In the absence

of a lengthy geologic record other lines

of evidence can be developed to recon-

struct the class phylogeny. Study of

morphological variants in large popula-

tions may be of use in this connection.

If the overall trend in the Paracrinoidea

was toward increased subvective effi-

ciency, occasional 3-armed variant indi-

viduals in characteristically 2-armed

species might be expected. The position

of the third arm could provide data

indicating either the biradiate or tri-

radiate condition as ancestral. In the

former case one would expect the addi-

tional arm to be anterior for the reasons

cited above, but constancy of either

position or point of origin is unlikely.

If the triradiate condition were primitive,

the third arm is not additional but re-

capitulates the ancestral condition. In

this case the third arm should also be

anterior in position but most likely would

originate at the peristome rather than as

a branch of one or the other transverse

arms, and laterally it should be equidis-

tant from both transverse members.

One 3-armed specimen of the usually

2-armed Sinclairocystis praedicta Bassler

was mentioned by Parsley and Mintz

(op. cit., p. 43, pl. 3, figse9>i0) aie

left arm of this specimen bifurcates near

the peristome and the anterior branch of

this arm is also divided near its end.

Three-armed Platycystites cristatus Bass-

ler have not been reported previously:

the 2 specimens described below are in

the collections of the Department of

Geology, University of Iowa (SUI).

SUI 39518 is a large (diameter 32 mm)

well-preserved specimen typical in all

respects except in the possession of an

extra arm (figs. 3-6). The third arm

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

Figs. 1-6.—Photographs of abnormal Platycystites cristatus. 1-2, basal and top views of SUI 39517

showing embedded stem and third arm, X2.7. 3-6, anterior, top, basal, and posterior views of SUI 39518,

showing thecal morphology and arm configuration, X2.7.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976 223

arises from a bifurcation of the right

primary near the peristome (fig. 4). Its

length is approximately equal to that

of the transverse right arm (17.8 mm).

Calluses for all 3 arms are well developed

and subequal in average width (fig. 3).

The lumen is prominent in the vicinity

of the peristome along the primary pair

but does not extend into the third arm

(fig. 4). From its origin immediately to

the right of the peristome the third arm

traverses AS and A2 before curving onto

A7, where it terminates. The point of

termination is abrupt and lies just above

the termination plane defined by the pri-

mary pair (fig. 7). A smaller specimen

(SUI 39517: diameter 16 mm) also has

a thecal plating arrangement within the

normal range of variation for the species.

Thecal shape in this specimen is some-

what distorted from the norm by the

presence of part of an echinoderm column

embedded in its right side (figs. 1, 8).

A third arm results from a bifurcation

of the left member of the primary pair

on the anterior face. As in SUI 39518

the extra arm does not extend below the

termination plane defined by the primary

arms and is short, but well developed.

The point where arm division occurs in

this specimen is also near the peristome.

An extension of the lumen into the

third arm is present but is narrower and

shorter than those in the other two arms

(fig. 2). Beginning on A4 the anomalous

arm intersects A3 and extends across

L3 nearly to the A1l-L3 junction before

terminating (fig. 7).

Despite the small number of three-

armed P. cristatus some reasonable

inferences about the phylogenetic signif-

icance of the extra arm can be made.

Both hypotheses (i.e biradiate vs. tri-

radiate class radical) suggest that the

third arm should be developed on the

anterior face; this is the case for both

P. cristatus and S. praedicta. Most of

the evidence, however, is more in accord

with Parsley and Mintz’ hypothesized

biradiate ancestor than with a triradiate

one. The position of the extra arm is not

fixed, it arises from a division of either

224

member of the primary pair rather than

from the peristome border, and it is not

equidistant from the other arms. A well-

developed lumen is not present; this is

more consonant with the position that

the third arm is additional, rather than

a retained archaic feature. We concur

with the suggestion of Parsley and Mintz

that the need for a greater amount of

subvective surface area leads to the

acquisition of more than 2 arms in many

paracrinoids. The paleoecology of P.

cristatus 1s also supportive of this inter-

pretation. Like Durham (in Parsley and

Mintz, op. cit.) we believe that at least

some species of Platycystites had the

theca in contact with the substrate (Frest

et al., 1976). P. faberi Miller, which

most likely was elevated above the sea

bottom by its column, has both transverse

arms nearly or exactly equal in length

and extending nearly to, or even onto,

the column. If the subvective system’s

area is closely related to arm length,

P. faberi would have been more effi-

cient in food gathering than P. cristatus

due to its longer arms relative to thecal

volume. The right arm of both P. crista-

tus and P. infundus is much shorter

than the left. These 2 species are also

more inflated in cross section than the

laterally compressed P. faberi. We have

suggested elsewhere (Frest et al., op.

cit.) that thecal asymmetry and broader

thecas in some paracrinoids are adapta-

tions to arecumbent habit (with peristome

uppermost) and that shortening of the

right arm in such forms is a mechanism

to avoid fouling of the arm by sediment.

The 2 genera in which 3-armed specimens

have been reported both display this

plexus of features. The advantages of a

recumbent habit, especially less com-

petition from other echinoderms, may

have outweighed the disadvantages of a

reduction subvective area; but it is

probable, in our opinion, that the addi-

tion of a third arm was in part com-

pensatory for the length loss suffered by

the right arm in adaptation to a spe-

cialized environment. The recumbent

habitus of some species may have en-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

Figs. 7-9.—Plate diagrams of Platycystites cristatus. 7, composite showing positions of thecal

plates and paths of epithecal arms (black). 8, right view of SUI 39517, showing thecal plate configuration

and embedded column. 9, right view of typical specimen of P. cristatus, showing usual thecal plate

pattern.

couraged arm incrementation over and

above the general trend in the Para-

crinoidea and other classes.

If the case presented herein for a

primitive biradiate condition in the

Paracrinoidea is far from conclusive, it

is nonetheless suggestive. Demonstra-

tion of the phylogenetic antiquity of the

‘“‘cystidean’’ transverse arm pair in at

least 1 primitive echinoderm class (or

subphylum, according to Parsley and

Mintz) is strongly supportive of Ubaghs’

postulated bilaterally symmetrical motile

Precambrian ancestor for the Echino-

dermata (Ubaghs, 1968: S47) and further

Suggests that the primitive bilateral

condition may have been maintained un-

altered in some echinoderm classes,

which would not have passed through a

triradiate stage, as hypothesized by

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

Caster (in Ubaghs and Caster, 1968;

1971). Both views assume an originally

bilateral motile primordial form gave rise

to all subsequent classes monophyletically

some time before the beginning of the

Paleozoic, but they diverge strongly on

the origins and universality of the

radially symmetrical strategy adopted

by most later echinoderms.

Thus far most attention in attempts to

resolve this problem has been focused

on the ‘‘carpoid’’ classes (Subphylum

Homalozoa), whose apparent bilateral

symmetry, or asymmetry, has long been

recognized. Ubaghs (op. cit., 1969)

believes that the primordial bilateral

symmetry persists in the Homalozoa

while Caster has argued that the carpoids

are ‘‘bilateralized derivatives of a hypo-

thetical tri-radiate (presumably sessile)

225

ancestor’ (Caster, 1971: 919). Most

echinoderm classes have yet to be as

thoroughly examined. Some classes un-

doubtedly do exhibit primitive triradiate

symmetry (e.g. Edrioasteroidea: Bell,

1976).

Sprinkle (op. cit., p. 42—43) has specu-

lated that the change to a triradiate con-

dition in the echinoderms was brought

about by the development of a means of

attachment and a plated subvective sys-

tem early in the phylum’s history. These

2 developments would also, according to

Sprinkle, engender a modification of the

subvective system toward radial sym-

metry, primarily as a response to the

acquisition of a filter-feeding habit.

Since the most fundamental adaptation

was related to feeding, the subvective

system would probably be the first to

adopt the new pattern of symmetry.

While this reasoning is plausible for

most echinoderm groups it may not be

applicable to all. Some paracrinoids (e.g.

Comarocystites) were certainly attached

to the bottom by a column and a stem

facet, as contrasted with a holdfast

(sensu Sprinkle, 1969: see also Sprinkle,

1973: 36-40), is present in all known

species; but both Parsley and Mintz and

we have presented evidence for the per-

sistence in the Paracrinoidea of a bi-

laterally symmetrical transversely ar-

ranged subvective system in animals

which had thoroughly adopted them-

selves to an attached, filter-feeding habit.

If, as we suspect, the sessile Para-

crinoidea are fundamentally bilaterally

symmetrical and have not passed through —

a radially symmetrical stage, it becomes

more plausible that the triradiate stage

is lacking in the ancestry of the Homalo-

zoa as well. The existence of both

sessile and motile non-radiate echino-

derm classes indicates that the primordial

condition may be more persistent than

formerly believed, and perhaps is more

widespread than currently accepted.

Studies of symmetry patterns and devia-

tions from them are lacking for most

echinoderm classes, so that the func-

tional and phylogenetic significance of

226

both patterns cannot yet be adequately

evaluated.

Paleoecology of Platycystites cristatus

Available evidence concerning the

life-habits of Platycystites has recently

been reviewed by Frest et al., (op. cit.),

who argue for a recumbent habit for

P. cristatus and P. infundus but an erect

habit for P. faberi. A single abnormal

specimen of P. cristatus with an em-

bedded echinoderm column provides

additional evidence for a recumbent habit

in this species. This specimen (SUI

39517) is also triradiate, as described

above. The column fragment is embedded

along the right side of the theca (figs. 1, 8)

extending from RB onto the intercalate

proximal to RB. The shape of the theca

has been distorted somewhat in this area,

presumably a response of the living ani-

mal to the column, but the plate con-

figuration of the specimen is within the

normal limits of variation in P. cristatus;

a plate diagram of the equivalent area

on a normal specimen (SUI 39516)

is included for comparison (fig. 9).

Several features of the specimen indicate

that the stem became lodged in the

theca during life. The column does not

lie on the plates’ surface, but is incised

partly into the theca. During growth it

has been laterally encroached upon and

partly overgrown by the surrounding

plates; the diameter at the best exposed

end is greater than the exposed width of

the column measured normal to its long

axis. The involved plates are well-

preserved, floor the groove underneath

the stem as well as making up its walls,

are clearly not fractured or broken, and

appear to have been thickened proximal

to the stem by secretion of secondary

stereom. Plates of Platycystites are

typically very thin and, one would sup-

pose, not very resistant to deformation

after death or during the fossilization

process. The column itself is not as well

preserved, and its identity cannot be

established with certainty from its mor-

phology as now known. Its position,

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

nearly astride a line passing from the

stem facet to the base of the right arm

and upward to the peristome, may be

taken to indicate that the column is that

of the animal in which it is now em-

bedded, but several lines of evidence

militate against this conclusion. The stem

portion is not precisely aligned as would

be expected; an irregular flexure of the

stem proximal to the facet would be re-

quired to connect the retained portion to

the stem facet. The end most distant from

the stem facet terminates in the theca and

is poorly exposed. Proceeding from the

stem facet, the embedded fragment be-

comes more deeply ‘‘buried.’’ Platy-

cystites cristatus columnals are generally

much narrower than those of the em-

bedded specimen (fig. 1). All 3 current

interpretations of Platycystites’ living

position presuppose that at least the

proximal part of the stem is functional

throughout life; hence it should be as

well-preserved as the adjacent, much

thinner, thecal plates. We believe that the

stem is a foreign object and not that of

Platycystites; the alternative cannot,

however, be categorically rejected on

present evidence.

Review of the previously suggested

paleoecologic interpretations in relation

to this specimen allows a choice to be

made among them regardless of the

specific identity of the stem. Were the

theca held erect (Parsley and Mintz

model) a foreign object is unlikely to

have become lodged in the theca’s right

side, which would be the exposed “‘bot-

tom’’ (Parsley and Mintz, text-fig. 1),

i.e. lowermost, but still considerably

above the sediment-water interface. If

the stem belongs to the specimen, the

theca could not have been erect through-

out its life span; one end appears to

terminate in the theca. Even if the

column did not terminate in such a man-

ner, embedment would considerably im-

pair the ability of the theca to adjust its

position in this model and the animal

would effectively have been fixed in a

single position. Fixation of this part of

the animal’s stem would not greatly

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

impede its operation if it functioned as

an anchor (Durham model) or as a tether

(our model). If the stem belongs to the

theca and does normally terminate near

the point exhibited by this specimen,

function as an anchor is most probable

among the three models. However

Parsley and Mintz (op. cit., pl. 8, figs.

1-3) do illustrate 1 specimen with a

longer column. Alternatively it is possi-

ble that the stem became non-functional

as the animal matured and the unattached

negatively bouyant adult theca lay on or

partly buried in the substrate, with the

peristome uppermost. Assuming that the

stem is a foreign object, the tether model

becomes most likely true. A theca buried

in a soft substrate is less likely to en-

counter or be damaged by a hard object

than is a theca in contact with the

substrate surface and perhaps capable

of being moved over it by currents; but

the point is not particularly telling.

Overall inferences based on this speci-

men are supportive of either the anchor

or tether hypotheses, but weigh heavily

against the assumption of an erect habit

in P. cristatus.

James Sprinkle (pers. comm., 1976)

has suggested that the deposition of

secondary stereom could indicate

secondary repair of damage to an

originally erect theca that has been

‘tipped over and injured . . . hanging

on for dear life.’’ While it is difficult

to imagine how an accident with the

observed results could happen to an erect

theca, the possibility cannot be disre-

garded totally. Minimally, however, it

suggests to us that a paracrinoid could

survive recumbent on the sea bottom

for a lengthy period of time—sufficient

to allow extensive secondary secretion

of stereom. Since the thecal shape has

been influenced and there is no sign of

plate fracturing around the embedded

column we suspect that the column may

have been encountered early in the ani-

mal’s growth and did not greatly impede

later growth or cause the animal’s

demise.

227

References Cited

Bell, B. N. 1976. A study of North American

Edrioasteroidea, N. Y. State Mus. Sci. Service,

Mem. 21, 447 p.

Caster, K. E. 1971. Review of Les Echinodermes

Carpoides de l’Ordovicien Inferieur de la Mon-

tagne Noire (France), by G. Ubaghs, Jour.

Pal., 45: 919-920.

Frest, T. J., H. L. Strimple, and M. R. McGinnis.

1976. A new species of Platycystites (Echino-

dermata: Paracrinoidea) from the Middle Ordo-

vician of Oklahoma. Washington Acad. Sci.

Jour., 66: 211—220.

Parsley, R. L., and L. W. Mintz. 1975. North

American Paracrinoidea: (Ordovician: Para-

crinozoa, new, Echinodermata). Bull. Amer.

Pal., 68 (288), 115 p.

Regnell, G. 1945. Non-crinoid Pelmatozoa from

the Paleozoic of Sweden. Lunds Geol.-Min.

Inst., Medd., 108, 255 p.

Sprinkle, J. 1969. The early evolution of crinozoan

and blastozoan echinoderms (abst.). Geol. Soc.

Amer., Spec. Pap., 121: 287-288.

1973. Morphology and Evolution of

Blastozoan Echinoderms. Harvard Univ., Mus.

Comp. Zool., Spec. Pub., 283 p.

Ubaghs, G. 1968. General characters of Echino-

dermata. In Moore, R. C. (ed), Treatise on

Invertebrate Paleontology, Part 5, Echino-

dermata I (1), Geol. Soc. Amer. and Univ. of

Kansas Press: p. S4—SS9.

. 1969. Les Echinodermes Carpoides de

VOrdovicien Inferieur de la Montagne Noire

(France). Cahiers de Paleontologie, 112 p.

jand K. E. Caster. 1968. Homalozoa. In

Moore, R. C. (ed.), Treatise on Invertebrate

Paleontology, Part S, Echinodermata 1 (2),

Geol. Soc. Amer. and Univ. of Kansas Press:

p. S495—S634.

Web-spinning eriophyid mites!

L. C. Knorr, H. C. Phatak, and H. H. Keifer

Project Manager, UNDP/FAO Plant Protection Service, clo UNDP, GPO Box 618,

Bangkok 5, Thailand; Virologist, Danish International Development Agency,

clo Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, P. O.

Box 10, Bangkhen, Bangkok 9, Thailand; and Collaborator, USDA Agricultural

Research Service, c/o California Department of Agriculture, Sacramento, CA 95814,

U.S.A., respectively.

ABSTRACT

The literature contains no mention of spinning among the Eriophyoidea; neither do

anatomical studies suggest the presence of spinneretlike organs in this group of

microscopic 4-legged mites.

Large colonies of an eriophyid mite, newly described as Aculops knorri Keifer,

were encountered under weblike coatings on leaves of Lepisanthes (= Erioglossum)

rubiginosa (Roxb.) Leenth. Attempts were made to determine whether the coatings

are a host response to mite feeding or whether they consist of silklike strands

emanating from the mite itself. Serological indications are that the strands, 0.3-0.6 uw

wide, are proteinaceous in nature and are antigenically closely related to the mite.

As far as known, these findings constitute the first report of spinning among the

Eriophyoidea.

Although web spinning is common

among many spiders and spider mites,

it has not been recorded to occur among

1 Contribution No. 1 of UNDP/FAO Plant Pro-

tection Project THA 74/019.

228

eriophyid mites. Neither have spinneret-

like structures been detected in anatomi-

cal studies of these microscopic worm-

like mites (Keifer, 1976).

Recently a report from the Sudan

(Hassan and Keifer, in press) described

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

a coating on mango leaves infested with

the eriophyid Cisaberoptus kenyae Kei-

fer. Incidentally, the same coating and

mites are also found on mango in Thai-

land and the Indonesian island of Bali

(Knorr, unpublished information). The

- coating is characterized as weblike, but

the Sudanese report does not undertake

to show that the covering is spun by the

eriophyid.

The following account offers evidence

that such webbing is not only associated

with, but is the silklike product of, an

eriophyid mite. This would thus con-

stitute the first report of spinning among

the Eriophyoidea.

On 16 April 1975, the first author en-

countered a sapindaceous fruit tree,

Lepisanthes (= Erioglossum) rubiginosa

(Roxb.) Leenth., at Bangkhen, Thailand

with leaves exhibiting weblike patches

(Plate II, figs. 1, 2, 3). Similar patches

were later found in foliage of the same

host at Hua Hin, 170 km to the south.

A mango tree adjacent to the Bangkhen

tree showed no webbing, although

branches were intertwined with those

of the web-bearing Lepisanthes.

Under the patches, but seldom outside

of them, were large numbers of active

eriophyids (Plate III, fig. 1), subse-

quently identified by Keifer (1976) as a

new species, Aculops knorri. The only

unusual feature found to distinguish the

mite from others in this ‘‘wastebasket’’

genus was a thickening of the legs with

most of the increased size on the femora

(Plate I). No structures were seen that

might suggest web-spinning organs.

Web Morphology

The weblike patches occur almost

invariably on the adaxial surfaces of

Lepisanthes leaflets. Patches are at first

dull grayish white, resembling powdery

mildew. In later stages, the webbing

_ becomes shiny. The earliest visible trace

of webbing approximates the size of a

small pinhead; the largest expanse covers

nearly the entire leaflet (Plate II, fig. 2).

Elongate patches commonly border the

Main and lateral veins (Plate II, fig. 1).

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

~ a EEE i

WGP I

BEE aise

c a>

PLATE I: Aculops knorri Keifer, a web-

spinning eriophyid mite. Length of female from

anterior end of frontal shield lobe to end of

terminal lobes, 128-148 wp.

Incipient, pinhead-sized._ webs are often

disposed without relation to veins.

Webbing occurs throughout the canopy

of this 25-ft tree with approximately 5%

of the leaves affected.

Under 40x magnification and reflected

light, the patches seem to be amorphous

films although a suggestion of linearity

appears at higher magnifications. With

1000 magnification provided by a

scanning electron microscope, the films

are clearly disclosed to be made up of

fine criss-crossing filaments measuring

0.3 to 0.6 w in breadth (Plate III, figs. 4,

5). Adjacent to this tangle of loose

filaments, there is a consolidation of

threads to produce what appears to be a

woven or polymerized fabric (Plate III,

fear)

Between the patches and the leaf

surface, the stereomicroscope at 40x

reveals the presence of pale reddish-

brown adults, water-white nymphs, and

eggs of a homogenous population of

eriophyid mites that are disposed uni-

formly beneath the webbing (Plate III,

fig. 1). The occasional patch encountered

on the underside of leaves contains the

same mites, but even in old abaxial

patches mites remain water-white in

color. Mites are not particularly con-

centrated at, or aligned with, the periph-

eries of the patches. A young colony

0.5 mm in diameter generally contains

4 live mites. Larger concentrations of

mites under the upper-surface webs can

be made out with the naked eye as

reddish-brown dots. Peak infestations

and web formation occur from April to

the beginning of the monsoon rains in

229

PLATE II: Figs. 1-4: 1. Entire leaf of Lepisanthes rubiginosa with eriophyid webbing. 2. Leaflet

magnified. 3. Close-up of webbing. 4. Serological agar double-diffusion test for web antigens. Central

well (S) in agar charged with antiweb rabbit serum; peripheral wells charged with: A and B, mite

bodies in SDS-saline; C, D, and E, mite webbing in SDS-saline; F and H, host leaf scrapings in SDS-

saline; and G, purified host leaf proteins in SDS-saline. Note opaque, white precipitation bands

opposite all excepting the last 3 peripheral wells. The bands opposite B and C have fused (arrow)

without spur formation.

230 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

PLATE III: Figs. 1-5: 1. Increased magnification showing eriophyids underneath webbing (black

arrow). Note reweaving of tear in original web (white arrow). 2. Webbing removed to show eriophyids

in contact with leaf surface. 3. A scotch-tape water mount of eriophyids from Fig. 2. 4 and 5. Scanning

electron micrographs of eriophyid and unconsolidated strands. In Fig. 5, note woven or polymerized

strands (arrow) that form the fabric of the webbing. (SEMs courtesy of the Danish Technological In-

stitute, Laboratory for Scanning-Electronmicroscopy, Copenhagen).

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976 231

June. New leaves that flush after the

start of the rainy season are apparently

free of webbing, even after 1 month.

Though no systematic counts were

made, there does not appear to be pre-

mature drop of affected leaves, nor do

leaflets heavily coated with patches show

any differences in growth when com-

pared with adjacent uncoated leaflets.

Under old patches, particularly alongside

midribs and lateral veins, there is a

slight russeting or necrosis of host

epidermal tissues.

Web Composition

In the absence of any information in

the literature that eriophyids spin, the

weblike patches were first thought to

represent a host response to feeding of

the mites. A second possibility con-

sidered was that the Aculops mites on

leaves of L. rubiginosa might inhabit

webs spun by other mites, but whereas

periodic observations over a year’s time

revealed the presence of Brevipalpus

phoenicis , Hemicheyletia sp. near bakeri,

Cunaxa sp., and Phytoseius spp., ‘‘none

of these mites could cause the spinning

associated with A. knorri’’ (E. W. Baker,

in correspondence). Furthermore, at no

time thoughout the year were webs found

that were unoccupied by the spinning

eriophyid. Two other eriophyids were

found (Acarhis lepisanthis Keifer and

Hyboderus roseus Keifer), but neither of

these new species occurred on the upper

sides of Lepisanthes leaves and neither

was associated with webbing (Keifer,

1975). Consideration was also given to the

possibility that the webbing might consist

of waxy filaments, since it is known that

certain eriophyids extrude wax.

A serological approach was taken to

determine whether the webbing was a

host artifact, a waxy secretion of the

eriophyid, or a mite-secreted silk similar

to the scleroproteinaceous filaments that

make up the webs of spiders.

Serological Methods and Materials

Production of web immunogen. — Host

leaves with apparently fresh webs and no

232

other contaminants were collected on

various occasions. They were washed

with slow-running tap water to remove

dust and debris, blotted gently with

filter paper, and stored in a moist

chamber until use the same day. Leaves

infested with spider mites were rejected.

Leaflets with typical webs were exam-

ined under alow power stereomicroscope,

and webs containing the fewest possible

eriophyids were carefully teased free of

adhering mites with a slightly blunted

stainless-steel needle cleaned in 90%

ethanol between use. In addition to ex-

cluding mites, care was also taken not to

scratch the leaf surface so as to prevent

contamination with host proteins. Several

hours of work were required to obtain suf-

ficiently concentrated web suspensions.

The mite-free webbing was placed in a

small volume of sterile distilled water.

Although desirable, a photometric deter-

mination of web concentration was not

made. The suspension was then poured

into dialysis tubing, gently squeezed to

break up the webbing, and dialized over-

night against normal saline (0.85% NaCl

in distilled water) in a refrigerator for the

removal of any toxic substances. Dialysis

was carried out for only the first injection

into rabbits.

Production of antiweb serum.—A 2-

year-old rabbit, weighing about 2.5 kg and

reared under laboratory conditions, was

used. Normal serum was collected a week

before the first injection. The animal re-

ceived 3.0 ml of the web suspension by

the intravenous route on 31 October, 1975.

It was followed by three injections of 2.0,

2.3, and 1.5 ml suspensions respectively,

on 4, 5 and 6 November. Four more intra-

venous injections of 1.2, 2.2, 2.0, and 2.0

ml were given to the same animal on 10,

12, 13, and 14 November, respectively.

Thus, 16.2 ml of web suspension were

injected in 8 instalments within 15 days.

The animal was bled 4 days after the last

injection and a 20 ml sample of blood was

collected. The blood was allowed to clot

for 2 hours at room temperature followed

by refrigeration overnight. The clot was

broken with a glass rod, the serum de-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

canted and then centrifuged for 15 min

at 3000 rpm to remove corpuscular matter.

Sodium azide was added to the antiweb

serum as a preservative at final concen-

tration of 0.03% and the serum stored

at about — 15°C.

Serological tests.—A gel of 0.8%

Ionagar No. 2 (Colab, USA) containing

0.5% sodium dodecyl sulphate-SDS

(Sigma, USA) was made in normal saline

solution by autoclaving at 120°C, 15 psi

pressure, for 10 min. Sterile petri dishes

(100 mm diameter) were poured with 10 ml

hot agar containing 0.02% sodium azide,

which was allowed to solidify. Using a

flame-sterilised cork borer (No. 2, 4 mm),

test patterns were cut in agar in the form

of 6 or 8 peripheral wells around a slightly

larger (S mm) central well cut with No. 1

cork borer. Distance between closest

edges of the central and the peripheral

wells was 5—7 mm. Agar plugs were re-

moved with a pipette connected to a

vacuum line. Generally, 3 sets of 7 or 9

wells each were produced in 100-mm

petri dishes. Undiluted antiweb serum

was placed in the central well while

peripheral wells were charged with (1)

pure web suspension in saline, with or

withoutl, 2, or 3% SDS, (2) eriophyid

mite bodies in saline, with or without

SDS, (3) scrapings from the upper sur-

face of host leaves in saline, with or

without SDS. Controls were of normal

saline and SDS at the 3 concentrations,

and normal serum against all above treat-

ments. After charging the wells, the petri

dishes were maintained in a humid

chamber at room temperature up to

several days and observed daily in

transmitted, oblique lighting.

Results.—Positive reactions in the

form of characteristic white, opaque pre-

cipitation bands were observed within

48 hr between the antiserum-containing

central well and the peripheral wells

carrying web suspension with SDS, as

well as those charged with mite bodies

with SDS, but not the wells containing

host scrapings with or without SDS, even

after several days of incubation (Plate IJ,

fig. 4). Also, there were no reactions

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

with any controls. Precipitation bands

were absent when normal serum was

tested against any of the treatments—

web, mite, or host scrapings. The extent

of positive reactions of the antiweb

serum with webs and mite bodies was

comparable.

Discussion

Since utmost precaution had been

taken to avoid contamination of the web

preparations used for immunization, the

positive serological reaction of mite

bodies with antiweb serum indicates

relationship between the web and the

mite. Also, the immunogenicity of the

web is evident. The similarity of the

positive reaction of the web and the mite

bodies suggests that the latter share all

or nearly all antigen species with the

former. Absence of reaction with host

scrapings at the same time indicates

lack of any such relationship between

the web and the host leaf.

An alternate hypothesis was that the

webbing might consist of mite-secreted

wax. On the basis of serological evi-

dence, this now appears untenable since

waxes are not known to be immunogenic.

In order to confirm nonexistence of a

host relationship, it was considered

advisable to repeat the test with con-

centrated proteins from the host foliage.

The work was conducted following the

method of Shepard (1972). Young as well

as mature green leaves of L. rubiginosa

were collected free from mite infestation

and macerated in a Waring blender with

ice-cold 0.5 M borate buffer, pH 8.2,

containing 1% sodium sulfite and 0.01 M

magnesium acetate at the rate of 3 ml

buffer/g of foliage. The macerate was

filtered through a layer of cheesecloth

and shaken with cold chloroform (1:1 by

volume) for 30 min. The preparation was

centrifuged at 10,000 g for 10 min and

the aqueous phase recentrifuged at

80,000 g for 90 min. After discarding

the supernatant, the pellets were sus-

pended overnight in 1/30th the original

volume of 0.05 M Tris buffered-saline,

pH 7.2, containing 0.01 M magnesium

233

acetate. The protein preparation ob-

tained by this method was tested, with

and without dilution and SDS, against

the antiweb serum, but there was no

reaction.

It appeared that soluble protein species

are either lacking or are in too low con-

centrations to be detected by the gel dif-

fusion test, in web suspension as well as

in mite-body suspensions. Perhaps that

is why there was no reaction when SDS

was not used. There have been reports

on the use of SDS for degrading filamen-

tous plant virus particles for easier dif-

fusion in agar gel (Gooding and Bing,

1970; Purcifull et al., 1973, 1975). In the

present work, 3% SDS tended to produce

nonspecific turbidity in agar, and sub-

sequently only 1% SDS was used for

degrading presumably large molecules of

web proteins as well as mite-body pro-

teins into diffusable antigens.

The similarity in the extent of positive

reaction of web suspension and mite-

body suspension against antiweb serum is

not surprising if we accept that the mite

produced the webs. In that case the web

antiserum would be expected to have

antibodies against antigen species com-

mon to the web and the mite. On the

other hand, an antimite serum would

have given different qualitative as well

aS quantitative responses against the

mite and the web. Reciprocal testing

with antisera against mite-body proteins

and against normal host proteins would

have been desirable but has--not been

done. Nevertheless, there is a strong

indication that the eriophyid mite on

L. rubiginosa is involved in the produc-

tion of proteinaceous webs associated

with it.

Ultimate proof that the mite actually

234

spins must come from direct observation.

Efforts to demonstrate this have so far

not succeeded owing to the difficulty of

visualizing in situ the emanation of

strands only % uw wide. Neither have

attempts yet succeeded in transferring

mites to clean leaf surfaces in order to

observe web construction. There is, how-

ever, evidence of reconstruction in Plate

III, fig. 1, where tears in the original web

have been rewoven. Repair takes place

only when the mites are present.

The function of the webbing may con-

ceivably be to afford protection to the

spinning eriophyids. Though several

species of predaceous mites were found

in conjunction with the webbing, no

predation of Aculops mites happened to

be observed. Protection is more likely

against the washing effects of rains. The

anchoring function seems borne out by

the virtual non-establishment of webs on

leaves emerging after onset of the mon-

soon rains.

References Cited

Gooding, G. V., Jr., and W. W. Bing. 1970.

Serological identification of potato virus Y and

tobacco etch virus using immunodiffusion plates

containing sodium dodecyl sulfate. Phyto-

pathology 60: 1293 (Abstr.).

Keifer, H. H. 1975. Eriophyid Studies C-11.

California Dept. Agric., Bur. Entom., 24 pp.

. 1976. Eriophyid Studies C-12. California

Dept. Agric., Bur. Entom., 24 pp.

Purcifull, D. E., E. Hiebert, and J. G. McDonald.

1973. Immunochemical specificity of cytoplasmic

inclusions induced by viruses in the potato Y

group. Virology 55: 275-279.

Purcifull, D. E., T. A. Zitter, and E. Hiebert. 1975.

Morphology, host range, and serological relation-

ships of pepper mottle virus. Phytopathology

65: 559-562.

Shepard, J. F. 1972. Gel-diffusion methods for

the serological detection of potato viruses X, S,

and M. Montana Agric. Exp. Sta. Bulletin 662,

72 pp.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

Notes on Tadpoles as Prey for Naiads and Turtles

W. Ronald Heyer and Miriam H. Muedeking

Amphibians and Reptiles, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. 20560

Although there is a large literature on

predator-prey interaction theory, there

are still some specific interactions for

which there is little or no information.

Naiads and turtles are known predators

on tadpoles, but nothing is known con-

cerning feeding rates involved. In order

to gather some basic information on these

specific interactions, we ran some simple,

straightforward experiments while on

Barro Colorado Island, Canal Zone, in

July 1975.

Naiad-Tadpole Experiments

The purpose of the experiments was

to determine the maximum feeding rate

of naiads, using tadpoles as prey. All

experimental animals, plants and water

came from a cement pond in the living

compound built by A. S. Rand for his

studies on Physalaemus pustulosus.

Holding and experimental containers

were square or round plastic containers

approximately 9 cm across, filled with

pond water 4 cm deep. Large naiads

(Family Libellulidae, Orthemis sp. prob.

ferruginea) were isolated for 1 or 2 days

prior to introducing them to the prey.

Each experimental tray had | naiad, some

water weed (Hydrella), and a super-

abundance of prey, either 30 or SO indi-

viduals, depending on prey type. Three

types of prey were used: 30 small

Agalychnis callidryas tadpoles, 50 small

Physalaemus pustulosus tadpoles, or 30

large Physalaemus pustulosus tadpoles.

Experiments were run from 22-%4 to

26-%hr. Other projects did not allow

exact 24-hr experimental runs in all

cases. All tadpole larvae were well

within the size range on which the naiads

could feed. At the end of each experi-

ment, the naiad and remaining prey were

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

preserved together in a vial containing

10% formalin. Five replicates of small

Agalychnis, 10 replicates of small Phy-

salaemus, and 12 replicates of large

Physalaemus were run. In one of the

small Agalychnis runs, several tadpoles

died in handling; the results of this

particular run are not included in the

analyses.

In the laboratory, the following data

were taken from specimens in each

experimental vial: 1) the number of

tadpoles left after the experiment; 2) the

volume of the tadpoles left after the

experiment, 3) the volume of the naiad.

Volumes were determined by formalin

displacement in a 10-ml graduated cylin-

der. Excess surface moisture was re-

moved by paper towelling before volume

determination. From these data, the

following were determined: 1) the num-

ber of tadpoles consumed during the

experiment (initial number minus number

left), 2) the volume of tadpoles eaten per

predator adjusted to 24 h. The assump-

tion used in determing this last value

is that the sizes of the tadpoles consumed

were the same as the sizes of the tadpoles

left in each experiment. As post-hatch-

ling Agalychnia and large premeta-

morphic Physalaemus were used, the

size variances in experiments using these

prey were not great. The greatest size

variance was in the experiments run with

small Physalaemus as prey.

The data were analyzed using the

UCLA Biomedical 10V program (Dixon,

1974), general linear hypothesis without

and with a covariate, testing numbers

of prey and volumes of prey consumed

separately.

The results of the analysis testing kinds

of prey based on numbers of prey eaten

are presented in Table 1. There is a signif-

235

TABLE 1.—Analysis of number of prey types eaten with no covariate. Pl = Agal-

ychnis, P2 = Small Physalaemus, P3 = Large Physalaemus. SS = sums of squares,

DF = degrees of freedom, MS = mean squares, * = significant at the 5% level,

** — significant at the 1% level.

Source SS DF

Prey 221.86145 D,

Pil = ew 31.77779 1

IP = 15) SSA 1

PD = 13 221.79206 1

Error $17.94317 28

icant difference in the number eaten

among the 3 prey types and the difference

is between the number of small Physalae-

mus VS. large Physalaemus eaten.

The results of the analysis testing kinds

of prey based on volumes of prey eaten

are presented in Table 2. There are no

significant differences among the volumes

eaten of the 3 prey types.

Large naiads were purposely chosen to

minimize the variation in the experiments

due to predator differences. Predator-

prey size relationships are very important,

however (e.g. Heyer et al., 1975), so

the data were tested to see if the results

were affected by differences in sizes

among the predators. To test, volume of

predator was used as the size factor and

included as a covariate with the data as

analyzed in Tables 1 and 2. The results

with the covariate added are presented in

Tables 3 and 4. The results are exactly

the same as in Tables 1 and 2; size dif-

ferences among the predators used had

no effect on the experiments.

The average number of Agalychnis

consumed per naiad over 24 h is 5.7 with

an average volume of 0.038 ml/tadpole.

The average number of small Physalae-

mus consumed per naiad over 24h is

9.0 with an average volume of 0.027 ml/

tadpole. The average number of large

Physalaemus consumed per naiad over

24h is 2.63 with an average volume of

0.109 ml/tadpole. An individual naiad

consumed 0.77 of its volume in prey

tadpoles per 24-h on the average.

Turtle-Tadpole Experiment

A single 49.5-mm-carapace-length ju-

venile turtle, Chrysemys scripta, was

236

MS F

110.93072 4.92604*

ala) 1.41114

Pe S74 1eZS2on

221.79206 9.84900**

22.51926

found in Rand’s pond. After isolating

the turtle for 24h, it was placed in a

plastic container of the same size as used

in the naiad experiments, without water

weed, and with 30 large Physalaemus.

After 26-*%4 h, all of the tadpoles had been

killed and at least partially consumed.

The water was turbid. After isolating the

turtle for 24 h, it was placed in the bottom

of a plastic Chlorox bottle from which the

top half had been cut off. The bottle was

15 cm in diameter and water was placed

4 cm deep. Some Hydrella was added

along with 30 large Physalaemus. We

were interested in knowing if giving the

prey a better opportunity to hide from —

the predator would make a difference in

the results. After 26.5 h, only 1 tadpole

was left alive. The water was clear. The

turtle was isolated for another 24 h. The

experimental setup was the same as the

previous run except 100 large Physalae-

mus were added. After 27 h, 1 Physalae-

mus was left alive. The water was rela-

tively clear. The turtle was isolated for

48 h. The next experiment differed only

in adding 200 large Physalaemus. After

25-44 h, 71 Physalaemus were alive, but

the water was dark brown as in the first

run. As turtles are largely visual feeders,

TABLE 2.—Analysis of volume of prey types

eaten with no covariate. See Table 1 for explanation

of abbreviations.

Source SS DF MS F

Prey 0.08021 D. 0.04011 0.63027

Riese? 0.07498 1 0.07498 1.17833

Ei— P83 0.06235 1 0.06235 0.97984

[PD 128} 0.00173 1 0.00173 0.02726

Error 1.46360 23 0.06363

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

TABLE 3.—Analysis of number of prey types eaten with naiad volume as a covari-

ate. See Table 1 for explanation of abbreviations.

Source SS

Prey 211.99865

Ei 2 32.594 13

Pie P3 29.91784

Pa —P3 211.99650

Covariate 2.35026

Error $15.59291

the limits of the experimental design had

been reached.

Discussion

A model has been proposed recently

which attributed a limiting factor of tad-

pole diversity to fish predation (Heyer

et al., 1975). The same authors com-

mented that other vertebrate predators

may also control tadpole diversity through

completely eliminating tadpole popula-

tions in given ponds. Such invertebrate

predators as dragonfly larvae were con-

sidered not to be able to eliminate tadpole

populations, although tadpole popula-

tions could be markedly reduced. The

critical aspect is elimination, not reduc-

tion of tadpole populations.

Although Rand’s pond from which all

experimental animals were taken is

artificial, the assemblage of species in it

probably is not. For purposes of discus-

sion, then, only the species populations

in this pond will be examined. There are

two aspects to eliminating tadpole popu-

lations; eliminating the tadpoles from a

single clutch of eggs and eliminating the

total tadpole population, which would

result from 1 or more clutches of eggs.

The average of 16 Agalychnis egg clutches

TABLE 4.—Analysis of volume of prey types

eaten with naiad volume as a covariate. See Table 1

for explanation of abbreviations.

Source SS DF MS F

Prey 0.08164 y 0.04082 0.63759

mie= P2 0.08159 1 0.08159 1.27454

P= P3 0.03877 1 0.03877 0.60558

Er? = P3 0.01371 1 0.01371 0.21413

Covariate 0.05517 1 0.05517 0.86185

Error 1.40843 2D 0.06402

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

MS F

M, 105 .99932 4.52292*

l 32.594 13 S907)

1 29.91784 1.27657

l 211.99650 9.04575**

1 2.35026 0.10028

2 23.43604

counted was 53.4; of 3 Physalaemus

nests counted, 216.7.

The turtle, Chrysemys scripta, could

possibly eliminate the tadpoles from a

clutch of Agalychnis eggs in about 0.5

day, and the tadpoles of a Physalaemus

clutch in somewhat more than 1 day. By

remaining in a pond for a few days,

Chrysemys scripta could theoretically

eliminate the tadpole population from the

pond, assuming moderate anuran repro-

ductive output. Whether turtles remove

entire tadpole populations in nature

remains to be determined, however.

There is at least one reason to believe

that turtles would not eliminate tadpoles.

Turtles are mobile feeders; as the tadpole

population is reduced, the energy spent

in capture becomes greater. There is

likely a point where the energy expendi-

ture per capture becomes so great that

the turtle switches to another prey, if

available. The experimental evidence

presented here suggests that turtles can

be effective tadpole predators, even if

turtles do not completely eliminate tad-

pole populations.

If the average consumption rates of the

large naiads are used together with aver-

age clutch size, it takes A) 9.4 large

naiad days to consume the small tadpoles

from a single Agalychnis clutch; B) 24.1

large naiad days to consume the tadpoles

from a single Physalaemus clutch if the

tadpoles are consumed when small; C)

82.4 large naiad days to consume the

tadpoles from a single Physalaemus

clutch if the tadpoles are consumed when

large. These are probably maximal rates,

as the experiments were designed to

saturate the predators with prey.

From these data, it would appear that

237

a small population of large naiads could

eliminate Agalychnis tadpoles from a

pond. The experiments did not take

habitat differences into account, how-

ever. The experimental trays were small

enough that the naiad could sample tad-

poles from the entire water volume, as

there was enough Hydrella in the trays

to allow this. In the pond from which

the experimental animals were taken,

the naiads were either sitting camouflaged

on the cement edge or in Hydrella mats.

The Agalychnis were in the open water;

the Physalaemus appeared to be every-

where. Thus, the naiads and Agalychnis

tadpoles were effectively spatially iso-

lated. Another factor contributing to the

likelihood that naiads would not eliminate

Agalychnis tadpoles from ponds relates

to size. Agalychnis hatchlings are large

and the tadpoles become much larger than

Physalaemus tadpoles. Large Agalychnis

tadpoles are too large for the size naiads

used in the experiments to feed upon

(also see Heyer et al., 1975). Thus, in

nature, we would not expect naiads to

regularly eliminate Agalychnis tadpoles

from ponds.

The Physalaemus larvae are always

within the size range of prey items for

the size of naiad used in the experiments,

and the tadpoles and naiads occur in the

same pond habitats. The ingestion rates

suggest that the Physalaemus tadpoles

would not be eliminated by naiads, how-

ever. The duration of the Physalaemus

larval stage probably does not exceed 30

days and small Physalaemus larvae

would grow to large larvae within 2 to 3

weeks. In terms of a clutch, then, even

with maximum naiad predation, some lar-

vae would avoid predation and become

large larvae; once the Physalaemus \ar-

vae are large, the rate of predation falls

markedly, such that some larvae would

make it through to metamorphosis.

The naiad evidence presented here,

while not conclusive, is consistent with

the hypothesis that under usual condi-

tions, naiads will reduce—not eliminate

—tadpole populations. This was cer-

tainly true in the pond from which the

experimental animals were taken. There

238

was a noticeably present naiad popula-

tion, many Agalychnis tadpoles and an

abundance of Physalaemus tadpoles.

Assuming that naiads were consuming

tadpoles in the pond, the tadpoles were

not eliminated; many made it through to

metamorphosis during the time we ob-

served the pond.

Under unusual conditions, when the

numbers of naiads per volume water is

greater than usual, and pond microhabitat

differences disappear, the data presented

here suggest that naiads could eliminate

tadpole populations. Such conditions

can occur when temporary ponds dry up

as have been reported from field situa-

tions (Heyer, 1973).

Another important factor to consider

is the nutritive value of tadpoles. Tad-

poles are feeding machines, and an un-

usually large part of the volume of a

tadpole is gut. The gut contents, usually

algae and diatoms, are not digestible by

many tadpole predators, so the total food

value of a tadpole to its predator is

effectively much less than of a similar

sized fish, for example (R. T. Lovell, |

pers. comm.). Thus, particularly for |

vertebrate predators, tadpoles may be

consumed only when they are very

abundant relative to other prey items.

The avoidance of tadpoles as prey

might involve a tast preference as the

gut contents of the tadpole may be

distasteful.

One aspect of the experiments invites

speculation. The results indicate that

naiads feed until they are full, irrespective

of the number of prey items it takes to

fill them. It would be interesting to know

the relative energy costs of naiads catch-

ing 9 small Physalaemus vs. 3 large

Physalaemus per day. There are two

energy costs to a naiad in consuming

prey: 1) the cost of discharing the catch-

ing apparatus and trapping the prey (fixed

energy cost due to the mechanism in-

volved), 2) the cost of manipulating the

struggling prey back into the mouth to

be eaten (variable cost). If the latter |

energy cost is the same for small and

large Physalaemus, then a naiad would |

clearly benefit energywise by concen-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

trating on larger prey items. If large

struggling tadpoles take much more

energy to manipulate into the mouth than

small tadpoles, then a naiad would benefit

in an energy budget by concentrating on

smaller prey items. To our knowledge,

the relative energy budgets involved

in prey capture by naiads are unknown.

Acknowledgments

Oliver S. Flint and George R. Zug,

Smithsonian Institution, carefully read

the manuscript. Dr. Flint also identified

the naiads. Charles D. Roberts, Smith-

sonian Institution, provided statistical

analyses and interpretations of the data.

Susan Arnold took the laboratory data

and prepared the data for statistical

analysis. George Folkerts, Auburn Uni-

versity, discussed some of the results

with us and told us of the work of R. T.

Lovell. Laura and Elena Heyer assisted

with the experiments. Financial support

from the Environmental Sciences Pro-

gram, Smithsonian Institution, made the

study possible.

References Cited

Dixon, W. J. [ed.]. 1974. BMD Biomedical Com-

puter Programs. Univ. California Press, Berkeley.

773 pp.

Heyer, W. R. 1973. Ecological interactions of frog

larvae at a seasonal tropical location in Thailand.

J. Herpetology 7: 337-361.

,» R. W. McDiarmid, and D. L. Weigmann.

1975. Tadpoles, predation and pond habitats in

the tropics. Biotropica 7: 100-111.

Notched Teeth from the Texas Panhandle

P. Willey and D. H. Ubelaker

Department of Anthropology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 37916;

and Department of Anthropology, Smithsonian Institution,

Washington, D. C. 20560, respectively.

ABSTRACT

Mutilated human teeth from prehistoric North America have previously been

reported from relatively late prehistoric sites in areas of well-known Mesoamerican

influence. Recently 2 examples of probably filed teeth have been found in sites from

the Texas Panhandle, an area not known for Mesoamerican influence. In addition, the

skeletons could be considerably older than those previously reported, perhaps from

the Archaic period.

The presence in prehistoric Meso-

america of a wide-spread custom of tooth

mutilation involving various types of

notches and grooves has been known for

a long time and now is well documented

(Romero, 1970). However, not until

1944, when a series of 4 articles began

appearing in this Journal, was clear

evidence presented that the custom had

made its way into prehistoric America

north of Mexico. Although there was

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

an early mention of the finding of notched

teeth at Sikyatki Pueblo, Arizona (Saville

1913: 378, footnote 1), Campbell (1944)

was the first to describe the teeth in full.

The same year Stewart and Titterington

reported 1 labially grooved and several

occlusally notched teeth from Cahokia

and vicinity in Illinois. Additional exam-

ples were described later from Macon,

Georgia (Stewart and Titterington, 1946:

259—260), the Dickson Mound in Illinois

239

OKLAHOMA

NEW MEXICO

Gun Sight

ter *

Fig. 1.—Texas Panhandle showing the locations

of the Taylor Ranch Site and Gun Sight Shelter.

(Stewart and Titterington, 1946: 260-

261), the Rees Site near Cahokia, Illinois

(Holder and Stewart, 1958: 349-356),

and from Cahokia itself (Holder and

Stewart, 1958: 356). Stewart summarized

all these finds in his book (1973: 193),

noting that they all came from archeologi-

cal contexts, suggesting a late prehistoric

time period and substantial Mesoameri-

can influence.

As one might expect, the highly visible

anterior teeth are those most often modi-

fied. Among the specimens described in

the publications mentioned, the central

incisors are most common, the lateral

incisors next most common, and the

canines least common (actually only 1

has been reported). The mutilations thus

far reported are of the simplest of forms:

1 or more V-shaped notches filed into

the occlusal surface and/or a transverse

labial groove. The labial groove is easily

confused with defective enamel resulting

from hypoplasia.

Recently 2 Indian skeletons with

notched teeth were recovered through

the careful excavation of 2 different

burials in the Texas Panhandle, an area

with no other evidence of direct Meso-

american influence. In addition, both

discovery sites possibly date from the

Archaic Period, which, if confirmed,

240

would add considerably to the known

antiquity of the custom in North America.

Our purpose here is to present the

provenience, description, and implica-

tions of the new finds.

Taylor Ranch Burial

The Taylor Ranch Burial (Panhandle-

Plains Historical Museum Site A-1063;

Burial 1) was found about Christmas 1972

by the ranch-owner, Walter Taylor, 6 air

mi southwest of Quitaque, Texas (Fig.

1). Taylor and his daughter partially

excavated the burial in July 1973 and

then notified Dr. Jack T. Hughes, De-

partment of Geology and Anthropology,

West Texas State University, Canyon,

and Mr. Billy R. Harrison, Panhandle-

Plains Historical Museum. On July 27,

1973, Hughes and Harrison (Hughes’

field notes for that date filed with the

Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum)

were given the bones already removed

(left arm, leg, innominate, and scapula),

were guided to the burial location, and

were allowed to expose and remove the

rest of the burial. The bones were re-

moved in clumps which included the

dirt matrix and were transferred to West

Texas State University, where in No-

vember of 1974 they were processed by

a field archeology class under the direc-

tion of the first author. It was then that

the notched incisors were discovered by

Mr. Billy Pat Newman, a student in the

class. The skull and mandible were

shipped to the second author for inspec-

tion but were later returned and are now

housed in the Panhandle-Plains Historical

Museum.

According to Hughes (field notes),

the burial was exposed in the side of

a deep sinkhole (Fig. 2) in a colluvial

bench of North Pole Creek. The sinkhole

occurred where the colluvial bench

joined a bedrock cliff at the neck of a

long narrow meander, and in all proba-

bility the 40-yard-long sinkhole was

caused by underground drainage across

the neck of land. The bench consisted

of a compact light pink sand colluvium

which, as indicated by the sinkhole’s

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

profile, was at least 24.5 ft thick. The

skeleton was exposed in a vertical side

of the sink 12.5 ft from the bottom of

the hole, 12 ft from the top, and al-

though the pit was not clearly delineated,

the skeleton was most likely buried from

a surface 2.5 ft above the bottom of the

grave. Above the pit bottom 1.9 ft were

two large sandstone slabs, the most com-

mon rock in the area (Fig. 3), and at 2.5 ft

a smaller sandstone rock seemingly in-

dicated the surface from which the grave

was dug. The surface was vaguely

marked there and elsewhere in the

exposure by a line of differential erosion.

Both below and above the old surface,

the colluvium was massive, suggesting

rapid accumulation both before and after

the formation of the old, weathered

surface. However, this rapidly accumu-

lated colluvium does not rule out con-

siderable antiquity of the burial. Hughes

(personal communication) believes the

burial is probably Archaic, although this

Fig. 2.—Partially excavated Taylor Ranch

Burial in side of sinkhole. The skeleton is

approximately 12 ft from the top and 12 ft from the

bottom of the sink. View is to the southwest.

Photograph courtesy of Jack T. Hughes.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

Fig. 3.—Taylor Ranch Burial. Note the 2 large

sandstone slabs above the skeleton and above them

a line of differential erosion which apparently

indicates the surface from which the grave was

dug. View is south. Photograph courtesy of

Jack T. Hughes.

antiquity is difficult to prove due to the

lack of associated artifacts.

The skeleton was apparently placed in

a small oval-shaped, shallow pit, meas-

uring 2.25 ft east-west, at least 1.25 ft

north-south, and as noted above, probably

2.5 ft deep. The individual was lying

on its back, legs tightly flexed upward

and to the left, arms semi-flexed with the

hands near the pelvic region, head to the

west but facing southeast (Fig. 4). In

addition to the 3 sandstone rocks men-

tioned above, 5 burned sandstone cobbles

were on top of the chest and pelvis, a

Tecovas jasper flake was south (right) of

the pelvis, and several small shells

(Succinea?) and scattered charcoal flecks

occurred throughout the pit-fill. The

sandstone cobbles were likely intention-

ally interred with the person; the flake,

Shells, and charcoal may have been there

fortuitously. Other than the depth below

ground level, the burial is like many

other Indian interments from the area.

The bones of the Taylor Ranch Burial

are in a fair state of preservation; most

of the bone shafts are intact, but the

ends are commonly missing and none—

even those reconstructed—is complete.

241

Fig. 4.—Close-up of the Taylor Ranch Burial in situ. The skeleton is lying on its back, leg flexed

upward and to the left, head to the west but facing southeast. View is to the south. Photograph courtesy

of Jack T. Hughes.

All bones are stained pink, typical of

the effects of extended contact with the

red Triassic or Permian soils or soils

derived from either of these. Isolated

charcoal stains occur on 2 cervical

vertebrae, the greater trochanter of the

left femur, and the left fifth metatarsal.

Rather than being the marks of in situ

burning, the charcoal stains appear to

represent sites of contact with small char-

coal pieces in the soil since the marks

are small, homogeneously colored, and

do not penetrate to the interior can-

cellous bone.

The skull was recovered intact but

came apart during cleaning. It was

easily repaired with minimum warpage.

In addition to the skull and mandible,

most of the other major bones are

represented including parts of all major

limb bones (except the left humerus)

as well as many bones of the hands, feet,

chest, and pelvis. There are no indica-

tions that more than | person is present.

The skeletal remains suggest a female.

The pubic region, sciatic notch, femur

242

head diameter, and the general lack of

robusticity all support this identification.

There can also be little doubt con-

cerning the race of the individual. The

shovel-shaped incisors and flat face sug-

gest that the person was Mongoloid.

These morphological observations coupled

with inferences made from the archeo-

logic and geologic contexts indicate the

person was American Indian.

Age was estimated from the degree of

epiphyseal union, suture closure, pubic

symphysis change, and tooth wear. All

of the criteria indicate a person in the

16 to 22 yr age range with the exception

of Gilbert and McKern’s method for

female pubic symphysis aging, which

suggested a greater range but include the

years mentioned above. This last method

is most appropriate for aging older

females.

All teeth are present except the left

maxillary third molar and both mandibu-

lar third molars which appear to be con-

genitally missing. All teeth display some

crown loss due to attrition, especially the

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

first molars. Notches occur in the center

of the labial incisal edge of the mandibular

and maxillary central incisors (Figs. 5,

6). The notches are V-shaped, located

centrally in the maxillary incisors and

slightly right of center in the mandibular

incisors. In all cases the borders of the

notches are clear-cut and sharply defined.

The notches on the mandibular teeth are

slightly closer together than on the

maxillary teeth. Thus with the mandible

and maxilla in occlusion, the notches

do not exactly match. Also the paired

notches themselves do not correspond

in size. Both maxillary notches are

much wider than those of the mandible.

Originally the notches may have been

more apparent since the incisor crowns

have been reduced at least 1 millimeter

by attrition.

Burial From The Gun Sight Shelter

The Gun Sight Shelter, (Panhandle-

Plains Historical Museum Site A-1203),

located near Vega, Texas (Fig. 1), was

excavated by Mr. Billy Ray Thompson

of Amarillo, Texas. He is affiliated with

the Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum

in Canyon, Texas, and performed most

of the work with volunteer amateur

archeologists during the spring and

summer of 1974. The artifacts he col-

lected have been processed, and a report

is being prepared which will describe

the burial and its context more fully.

However, preliminary information indi-

cates that the shelter contains mostly

Archaic and NeolIndian cultural remains

and was inhabited between 1500 B.C. and

1400 A.D.

The skeletal parts were badly disturbed

by burrowing animals, with most of the

bones badly fragmented, but nearly all

major bones are present. From initial

impressions, the individual appears to be

an adult male.

Teeth present include from the mandi-

ble: incisors (4), right canine (1), right

premolars (2), and right molars (3); from

the maxilla: a central incisor (1), lateral

incisors (2), left canine (1), premolars (2),

and both first molars (2), for a total of

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

Fig. 5.—Front view of the Taylor Ranch skull

and mandible showing the notched teeth. The

skull is not oriented in the Frankfort Plane.

18 teeth. Notches occur on the mandibu-

lar central incisors and right lateral in-

cisor (Fig. 7). The left central incisor

has the most pronounced notch, which is

V-shaped and extends from the labial

margin of the occlusal surface lingually

four-fifths of the diameter of the crown;

the notch is deepest on the labial aspect

from where it tapers lingually. The altera-

tion on each of the other 2 mandibular

incisors consists of little more than a

slight groove in the middle of the labial

half of the occlusal surface.Similarly, a

slight indentation occurs on the left

labial edge of the occlusal surface of

what may be a left lateral maxillary

incisor.

All of the teeth display extensive

crown reduction due to attrition. In

particular the mandibular teeth display-

ing the grooves have no crowns remain-

ing whatsoever, which is not uncommon

in middle-aged adult Indians from the

region. The grooves occur in the

secondary dentine and root stumps.

Another sort of alteration occurs on

243

Fig. 6.—Close-up of the notched teeth of the Taylor Ranch Burial. Note that only 1 set of notches

can match when held in a single position and that the maxillary notches are wider than those of the

mandible.

the right first maxillary molar, which

has an interproximal groove on the

buccal-distal corner at the junction of

the crown and root.

As in the case of the Taylor Ranch

specimen, the mandible and teeth of the

Gun Sight Shelter specimen were shipped

to the second author and subsequently

returned to the Panhandle-Plains Histori-

cal Museum.

Discussion

As mentioned before, there have been

less than a dozen mutilated or possibly

mutilated teeth reported from North

244

America. These teeth come from archeo-

logical contexts suggesting late time

periods and areas of considerable Meso-

american influence—late Puebloan from

Arizona and Mississippian from Illinois

and Georgia. The tooth modifications re-

ported fall into 2 categories: namely,

labial grooves and occlusal notches.

Putting aside the question of the labial

grooves and their possibly hypoplastic

origins, the notched teeth can be divided

into those with single notching and those

with multiple. The Texas examples, of

course, fall in the former category and

are most similar to those from the Sikyatki

Site in Arizona, which, perhaps signif-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

Fig. 7.—Gun Sight Shelter mandibular fragment with 3 notched teeth: namely, right

lateral and both central incisors. The mandible has been oriented to emphasize the notches.

icantly, is the geographically closest of

the sites with reported mutilations.

There are essentially 2 methods by

which the notched teeth from the Texas

Panhandle could have been produced.

One way is by purposeful filing pre-

sumably to alter the tooth form in a

culturally prescribed manner. The other

way is by accident. In this latter process,

the teeth may have been used as tools,

perhaps as a vise, to modify other objects

that in turn altered the teeth themselves.

The notched teeth from the Texas

Panhandle appear to result from inten-

‘tional mutilation rather than the use of

teeth as tools. In the case of the Taylor

Ranch Burial, the sharp, clear-cut borders

of the notches as well as the lack of

_ juxtaposition between the mandibular

- and maxillary notches argue for mutila-

tion. Although the Gun Sight Shelter

notches are rounded and more groove-

like than those of the Taylor Ranch

Burial, these modifications can be ex-

of what was formerly a much larger notch

before attrition destroyed the crown.

Mike the) notched teeth irom the

Sikyatki Site, the Texas examples are

much less elaborate than most examples

reported by Romero (1970) from Mexico

or even the few reported examples from

the eastern U. S. Some of the other U. S.

examples involve mutiple notches accom-

panied by labial grooves. Of course, the

Texas examples once may have been

more elaborate, before attrition de-

stroyed most of the crowns.

The Texas examples appear to expand

both the documented geographical and

temporal ranges of notching in the

United States. The geographical occur-

rence is somewhat surprising, since the

Texas Panhandle lacks other evidence

of significant direct Mesoamerican con-

tact, although Southwestern influences

may be present. The temporal extension

is even more surprising, since all other

examples of notching in the United

_ plained by marked attrition. The notches

_ probably represent the most apical aspect

States occur relatively late. The eastern

examples are all from Mississippian sites,

__ J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976 245

dating no earlier than A.D. 700 and

probably much later. The Arizona speci-

men dates very late, possibly into the

historic period. As stated earlier, the

Texas examples may be considerably

earlier, possibly even Archaic. This new

evidence suggests that the practice of

notching in prehistoric North America

may have had a considerably greater

geographical and temporal range than

previously suspected.

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank Billy R. Harrison,

Jack T. Hughes, and Billy Ray Thomp-

son for making their unpublished data

available; Jack T. Hughes and David

Hughes for the field photographs of the

Taylor Ranch Burial; Waldo R. Wedel

and T. D. Stewart for encouraging our

efforts; Stella Willey for the map and

paste-up work; and Becky Tarwater for

typing one of the manuscript drafts.

References Cited

Campbell, T. D. 1944. The dental condition of a

skull from the Sikyatki Site, Arizona. J. Wash.

Acad. Sci. 34(10): 321-322.

Holder, Preston, and T. D. Stewart. 1958. A

complete find of filed teeth from the Cahokia

Mounds in Illinois. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 48(11):

349-357.

Romero, Javier. 1970. Dental mutilation,trephina-

tion and cranial deformation. In T. D. Stewart

(ed.), Handbook of Middle American Indians:

Vol. 9 Physical Anthropology, pp. 50-67.

University of Texas Press, Austin.

Saville, Marshall H. 1913. Precolumbian decoration

of the teeth in Ecuador with some account of

the occurrence of the custom in other parts

of North and South America. Amer. Anthropol.

15: 377-394.

Stewart T. D. 1946. More filed teeth from the

United States. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 36(8):

259-261.

. 1973. The People of America. Scribner’s

Sons, 261 pp.

Stewart, T. D., and P. F. Titterington. 1944.

Filed Indian teeth from Illinois. J. Wash.

Acad. Sci. 34(10): 317-321.

ANNOUNCEMENT

WASHINGTON OPERATIONS RESEARCH COUNCIL

Wednesday, Jan. 19, 1977

‘*Planning and Evaluation in the Consumer

Product Safety Commission.’’ Joann Langston, Consumer Product

Safety Comm.

Wednesday, Feb. 9, 1977

Wednesday, March 9, 1977

‘*Social Science Directions in the Current

Administration.’ Arthur Spindler.

‘‘Analysis of the Paperwork Flow in the

Government.’’ Warren Buhler, Staff Director, President’s Commission

to Reduce the Flow of Paperwork.

April 18-19, 1977 Annual Symposium. ‘‘Natural Resources Policy.”’

Wednesday, May 11, 1977 Annual Banquet.

All meetings will be held at the Center for Naval Analyses, 7th floor

auditorium, 1401 Wilson Blvd., Arlington (Rosslyn) at 8:00 p.m.

246

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

BOARD OF MANAGERS MEETING NOTES

February 25, 1976

The 630th Meeting was called to order

at 8:10 p.m. by President Abraham in

the Conference Room of the Lee Build-

ing at FASEB. He introduced the officers

for 1975-76: Dr. Florence H. Forziati,

President-elect; Dr. Alfred Weissler,

Secretary; and Dr. Richard H. Foote,

Treasurer.

Treasurer.—Dr. Foote presented the

Treasurer's report for 1975, which

showed that income was about $6000

greater than expenditures. Although the

investment income was lower than in

1974, the value of capital assets at

year-end was $59,934.15, a substantial

increase from $43,810.85 in 1974. The

1975 report was accepted on a motion

by Dr. Robbins, seconded by Dr.

Weissler. Treasurer Foote also presented

the proposed budget for 1976, which esti-

mates income at $34,319 and expendi-

tures at $33,815. The budget was ap-

proved unanimously, on a motion by

Dr. Morris, seconded by Dr. Rowen.

Investments.—The possibility of in-

creasing the Academy’s investment in-

come was discussed in a presentation by

Mr. George Mitchell of the Washington

office of Moseley, Hallgarten and Esta-

brook, Inc. Mr. Mitchell noted that our

current return is less than 4% on our

investments in stock mutual funds; this

could be more than doubled by switching

into a capital bond fund. After a general

discussion on the need for balancing cur-

rent income against capital appreciation

prospects, President Abraham appointed

an ad hoc Committee, with Dr. Foote as

chairman, to consider the matter further.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

Divisional Structure. —President

Abraham pointed out the need to activate

the new divisional structure of the

Academy by having the appropriate

society delegates meet to elect a chair-

man for each Division. In order to ac-

complish this, he appointed the following

temporary chairmen: Dr. James F. Goff

for Physical Sciences and Mathematics,

Dr. Mary Louise Robbins for Life

Sciences, and Grover C. Sherlin for

Engineering.

Journal.—Dr. Foote reported that it

has finally become unavoidable to levy a

page charge of $25, which is modest as

compared with other journals. Sym-

posium IV will be published as the March

1976 issue of the Journal.

Policy Planning.—Dr. Alphonse

Forziati presented a written committee

report, and discussed one of the items

relating to a change of the Academy’s

name to ‘‘Washington Academy of Sci-

ences and Engineering.’’ The Board ex-

pressed favorable sentiment towards

such a change, by a straw vote of 9 to 4.

The Bylaws committee will be asked to

prepare the necessary amendments to

charter and Bylaws, which will then be

submitted to the Academy membership

for a vote.

Meetings. —Dr. Goff reported that the

average attendance at the montly meet-

ings this year has been 64. He attributed

this success to the selection of a good

variety of topics.

Public Information. Dr. Rowen ex-

pressed the hope that the new Divisions

247

will help in publicizing the meetings and

other activities of the Academy. He

also reported on recent discussions

of the societal interactions with science

and engineering, which were held by

the Science, Engineering, and Society

Committee.

Grants-in-Aid. An announcement was

made of the availability of approximately

$639 to aid student projects in mathe-

matics and science. It was also noted that

the JBSEE is preparing a new list of

ideas for student science projects.

Membership. Dr. Florence Forziati

presented 4 nominees for fellowship: Dr.

S. H. Durrani, Dr. Lloyd Knutson, Dr.

K. G. Powers, and Dr. Rogert H. Law-

son. All 4, plus Dr. William K. Blake who

is the new delegate of the D. C. Chapter

of the Acoustical Society of America,

were unanimously approved as Fellows.

Scientific Achievement.—Dr. Kelso

B. Morris thanked Ms. Ostaggi and the

panel chairpersons for their labors in

selecting the 1975 Scientific Achievement

Award winners: Biological Sciences,

Wayne A. Hendrickson, NRL; Engineer-

ing Sciences, Gerard V. Trunk, NRL;

Behavioral Sciences, Julius E. Uhlaner,

US Army Res. Inst.; Mathematics,

Charles R. Johnson, Univ. of Md.; Physi-

cal Sciences, William K. Rose; Teaching

of Science, Peggy Dixon, Montgomery

College; Lamberton Award for Teaching

of High School Science, Edythe G.

Durie. The report was approved on a

motion by Dr. Alphonse Forziati,

seconded by Dr. Robbins. (See JWAS,

Vol. 66, No. 2, pp. 152=—156. ==Ba))

Tellers. —Mr. Buras reported the re-

sults of the recent election for 1976—77

officers, as follows: Richard H. Foote,

President-elect; Nelson W. Rupp, Secre-

tary; Mary H. Aldridge, Treasurer; Rita

R. Colwell and Grover C. Sherlin,

Managers-at-Large.

In addition, the change in bylaws and

the affiliation of the Washington Paint

Technical Group were approved by a

large majority. Mr. Buras recommended

that future ballots use a simple plurality

system, and also only one side of the

paper because some members fail to turn

it over. The report was approved unani-

mously, upon a motion by Dr. Franz,

and seconded by Dr. Robbins.

New Business.—Photographs of past

presidents of the Academy should be

preserved for the future, Dr. Robbins

suggested. It was decided at least to main-

tain a file of such photographs, with con-

sideration later on a public display.

Dr. Wagner advocated a greater ex-

change of meeting notices among the

Academy’s affiliated societies.

Dr. Argauer noted that the Insecticide

Society of Washington had recently held

its 300th meeting, and suggested that

brief historical accounts of the affiliated

societies are suitable for publication in

the Journal of the Academy.

The meeting was adjourned at 10:35

p.m.—Alfred Weissler, Secretary.

NEW FELLOWS

Paul G. Campbell, National Bureau of

Standards, Sup. Res. Chemist, in recog-

nition of his contributions to organic

chemistry and in particular to his publi-

cations on the photo-oxidation of asphalt

and organic coatings. Sponsors: Florence

H. Forziati, Alphonse F. Forziati.

Shung-Chang Jong, Head, Mycology

Dept., American Type Culture Collec-

248

tion, Rockville, Md., in recognition of his

outstanding work in mycology. Spon-

sors: Rita R. Colwell, Richard H. Foote.

Robert B. Leachman, Special As-

sistant, Nuclear Regulatory Commission,

Wash., D. C., in recognition of his con-

tribution to physics, and in particular

his researches in nuclear fission and

heavy-ion physics, and on safegards

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

ee EEE

against misuse of nuclear materials.

Sponsors: George Abraham, Florence

H. Forziati.

Howard Lessoff, Branch Head, Naval

Res. Lab., in recognition of his activities

in solid state materials including magnetic

memory materials, basic spin wave

spectra interpretation and fundamental

understanding of electronic materials.

Sponsors: George Abraham, Emanuel

Brancato.

Cyril Ponnamperuma, Professor of

Chemistry; Director, Lab. of Chemical

Evolution, Univ. of Md., in recognition

of his extensive research on the chem-

istry of the origins of life. Sponsors:

James F. Goff, Bradley F. Bennett.

Harrell Leroy Strimple, Curator & Re-

search Investigator, Geology Dept.,

Univ. of Iowa, in recognition of his con-

tributions to invertebrate paleontology,

chiefly the Crinoidea. Sponsors: Flor-

ence H. Forziati, Alphonse F. Forziati.

John D. Walker, Microbial Ecologist,

Environmental Technology Ctr., Balti-

more, Md., in recognition of his outstand-

ing scientific work in microbial ecology.

Sponsors: R. R. Colwell, Richard H.

Foote.

Marvin H. White, Advisory Engineer,

Westinghouse Electric Corp., Baltimore,

Md., in recognition of pioneering contri-

butions to the theory and experimental

development of charge coupled electron

devices and imaging sensors. Sponsors:

Arthur S. Jensen, George Abraham.

Sanford C. Adler, President, Manage-

ment Factors Organization, McLean,

VA., in recognition of his contribution to

operations research, and in particular the

application of governmental resources in

the solution of problems relating to health

and safety. Sponsors: Jean K. Boek,

Joan R. Rosenblatt.

George E. Deal, NBS Operations Re-

search analyst, in recognition of his

contributions to the field of operations

research and of his research, leadership,

practice, and teaching in the area of

management. Sponsors: John W. Rowen,

James E. Fearn, Grover C. Sherlin.

SCIENTISTS IN THE NEWS

Contributions in this section of your Journal are earnestly solicited.

They should be typed double-spaced and sent to the Editor three

months preceeding the issue for which they are intended.

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

J. J. Diamond, Chief, Law Enforce-

ment Standards Laboratory, NBS, has

received the Department of Commerce

Silver Medal Award for valuable contri-

butions to the Nation’s law enforcement

officials by developing law enforcement

equipment standards. He is a 1937

graduate of Brooklyn College, Brooklyn,

NY.

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY

Howard S. Jones, Jr. has been given

a Meritorious Civilian Service Award

for his productive microwave antenna re-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

search. This second highest civilian

award was presented to him for his im-

portant technical accomplishments and

major improvements in a variety of

Army weapon antennas for radar re-

lated systems.

Dr. Jones is the Chief of the Micro-

wave Branch 150, at the US Army Harry

Diamond Laboratories (HDL) Adelphi,

MD. He is recognized nationally and

internationally as an expert in the micro-

wave field specializing in microwave

devices and antenna arrays. His educa-

tional background includes B.S. and

D. Sc. degrees from Va. Union Uni-

versity, Richmond, VA, certificate in

249

Howard S. Jones, Jr.

Engineering, Howard University,

M.S.E.E. Buchnell University, Lewis-

burg, PA, plus other graduate work in

Math, Physics and Engineering. He also

completed the residential Executive

Education program at the Federal Execu-

tive Institute, Charlottesville, VA.

In 1972 he was the recipient of the

Secretary of the Army’s Research and

Study Fellowship award, and the inven-

tor of the year (HDL) award, cited for

his numerous contributions that have

advanced the antenna state-of-the-art

while providing solutions to critical

antenna problem areas of modern

weapon systems. He has also received

several other awards and citations dur-

ing his career, among which is included

the Army Research and Development

Achievement Award in 1975.

Early this year Dr. Jones was named

to the Thirty-Ninth Edition of Who’s

Who in America for his microwave con-

tributions that have bettered contem-

porary society.

He has served as a technical Consul-

tant to government agencies and private

industry, and was an assistant professor

at Howard University’s School of En-

250

gineering for several years. Other ac-

complishments include more than 30

technical reports, numerous oral presen-

tations and publications in the Scientific

Literature. He has received 24 US

patents relating to microwave antennas,

devices and design techniques.

Dr. Jones holds FELLOW status in the

Institute of Electrical and Electronic

Engineers (IEEE), American Associa-

tion for the Advancement of Science

(AAAS), and the Washington Academy

of Sciences (WAS). He is a member of

the Antenna and Propagation Society,

the Microwave Theory and Techniques

Society, and a registered professional

engineer in the District of Columbia.

IEEE

F. L. Hermach of the Electricity Divi-

sion has received the 1976 Morris E.

Leeds Awards of the IEEE for outstand-

ing contributions to the field of electrical

measurements. The award, consisting of

a certificate and $1,000., was presented

on June 28, 1976 at the Conference. on

Precision Electromagnetic Measure-

ments in Boulder, Colorado.

The award, one of the most prestigious

in its field, was given in recognition

of Mr. Hermach’s research and develop-

ment of extremely accurate ac-dc trans-

fer standards and for his outstanding

services on standards committees. All ac

voltage and current measurements de-

pend on these transfer standards or

comparators, which relate the ac quantity

to the basic dc standards at NBS. In his

37 years at the Bureau Mr. Hermach has

developed and verified new forms of

comparators, with greatly increased ac-

curacy and range. He has also repre-

sented NBS on major standards-writing

committees on electrical measurements

and on hazards from electricity.

SOCIETY OF COSMETIC CHEMISTS

Alfred Weissler of Chevy Chase, Md.

has been installed as president of the

Mid-Atlantic chapter of the Society of

Cosmetic Chemists for 1977. He has

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

served previously as president of the

Chemical Society of Washington and

president of the Washington chapter of

the Acoustical Society of America.

NAVAL RESEARCH LABORATORY

Jerome Karle, Chief Scientist of the

Laboratory for Structure of Matter at the

Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) here,

has been elected a member of the Na-

tional Academy of Sciences (NAS) and

also was named recipient of the 1976

Captain Dexter Conrad Award for Scien-

tific Achievement . . . both within one

week.

Dr. Karle is the fourth NRL member to

be elected to the NAS, considered one

of the highest honors that can be ac-

corded to an American scientist or

engineer. The other NRL members are:

Drs. Herbert Friedman, Richard Tousey,

and Samuel Collins.

NAS elected Dr. Karle and 74 other

new members to the society last month

in recognition of their distinguished and

continuing achievements in original re-

search. Their names were announced at

the business session of the 133rd annual

meeting of NAS April 27.

The Academy, a private organization

established in 1863 by a Congressional

Act of Incorporation signed by President

Lincoln, serves as official advisor to the

federal government, upon request, in any

matter of science or technology.

The Captain Robert Dexter Conrad

Award for Scientific Achievement is con-

sidered the highest recognition the De-

partment of the Navy can bestow on any

of its scientists engaged in research and

development for the Department.

The Chief of Naval Research, Rear

Admiral R. K. Geiger, in a letter to Dr.

Karle concerning the award, said *‘ Your

distinguished contributions in the study

of the structure of matter in vapor,

crystalline and amorphous states fully

merit this recognition. Your pioneering

efforts have advanced the scientific pres-

tige of the Navy and the Nation.”’

Dr. Karle received the Navy’s Dis-

tinguished Civilian Service Award, the

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

Dr. Jerome Karle

highest Navy award available to civilian

employees, in 1968 for his ‘‘pioneering

advances, both theoretical and experi-

mental, and for his leadership in the

fields of the structure analysis of matter

by electron, x-ray, and neutron diffrac-

tion.’’ His work made it possible to study

the structures of a large variety of ma-

terials of interest to the Navy.

For the past 34 years, including almost

32 at NRL, Dr. Karle has conducted theo-

retical and experimental research in elec-

tron diffraction, x-ray diffraction, and

neutron diffraction as they pertain to

structural analysis of matter. With these

three distinct but related methods, scien-

tists delve into the infinitesimal world of

molecules and crystals in search of inter-

atomic distances and atomic arrange-

ments. This knowledge contributes to

fundamental progress in science in such

fields as organic and biological chemistry,

geology,and solid state physics.

An occasional collaborator in Dr.

Karle’s work is his wife, Dr. Isabella

Karle, also a noted scientist, recently

251

honored with the Garvan Medal of the

American Chemical Society and an

honorary Doctor of Science degree from

the University of Michigan. They have

collaborated on identifying the chemical

nature and solving the three-dimensional

structures of a number of highly active

substances of interest to physiology and

medicine.

A native of New York City, Dr. Karle

holds degrees from City College of New

York (BS—1937), Harvard University

(MA— 1938), and the University of

Michigan (MS and PhD— 1944). Before

joining the NRL staff in 1944, he had been

associated with the Manhattan Project

and had done contract work for NRL at

the University of Michigan, where he also

taught.

In 1968, Dr. Karle was named to the

Chair of Science for the Structure of

Matter at NRL, which was created in

recognition of his distinguished scientific

service. In 1970 he and his wife shared

the Hillebrand Award of the Chemical

Society of Washington.

252

Dr. Karle has authored or coauthored

over 150 manuscripts for technical

journals. He is a Fellow of the American

Physical Society and the Washington

Academy of Sciences. His membership in

professional societies includes the

American Mathematical Society, Amer-

ican Chemical Society, American Asso-

ciation for the Advancement of Science,

American Crystallographic Association,

and the Philosophical Society of Wash-

ington. He is a past-president of the

American Crystallographic Association

and is currently a consultant to the Na-

tional Science Foundation. He is also a

member of the American Heritage

Society and the National Society of

Literature and the Arts.

The Karles live in Falls Church, VA.

They have three daughters, Madeleine,

Jean, and Louise. Madeleine is a geology

major at Virginia Polytechnic Institute

and State University, and Jean, Louise

and Louise’s husband, Jonathan Hanson,

all have earned PhD degrees in chemis-

try.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 66, NO. 4, 1976

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

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References to Literature

Limit references within the text and in

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02.73

D2w23

VOLUME 67

Number 1

| J Our nal of the MARCH, 1977

WASHINGTON

ACADEMY .-.SCIENCES

Issued Quarterly

at Washington, D.C.

CONTENTS

Features:

DAVID M. SMITH: The Scientific Basis for Timber Harvesting Practices . 3

ELAINE G. SHAFRIN, et al.: Washington Junior Academy of Sciences—

ShiistinaswCOnVenmlOnm 1976) iia. once ee loess cece cee webs ee wees 12

Review:

MAY INSCOE: Chemical Communication in Insects .................05. 16

Research Reports:

JOHN M. HACKNEY and EDWARD M. BARROWS: Biological Notes on

Stenodynerus microstictus (Hymenoptera: Eumenidae) .............. 34

EDSON J. HAMBLETON: A Review of Pseudorhizoecus Green, With a

Description of a Related New Genus (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) ... 38

ROBERT D. GORDON and O. L. CARTWRIGHT: Four New Species of

Aegialia (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) From California and Nevada Sand

IDUANES 5 co bo 6 Hels casi Oo FIGARO) OUI NES CoCin at sania tar 42

Academy Affairs:

he IPSIIOWYS ua 6 ga ob Sih tea eS REDE nS, ler Suen a en a oe 49

RePOmeoleme lens OmmMiltee . . 5 vances ccc ca eee se behea se cece ee ee bw eles ee 49

SEEMS. UMS Sa ee a eae 50

Obituary

Derik: G., RD oo oko ee ee ee 51

a menees, Ammouncements ...............0.. foc cece cee eee eee eee eee D5?

Washington Academy of Sciences

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President

Florence H. Forziati

President-Elect

Richard H. Foote

Secretary

Nelson W. Rupp

a .

Treasurer

Mary H. Aldridge

Members at Large

a a

Founded in 1898

The Journal

This journal, the official organ of the Washington Aca-

demy of Sciences, publishes historical articles, critical

reviews, and scholarly scientific articles; proceedings

of meetings of the Academy and its Board of Mana-

gers; and other items of interest to Academy members.

The Journal appears four times a year (March, June,

September, and December)—the September issue

contains a directory of the Academy membership.

Subscription Rates

Members, fellows, and patrons in good standing re-

ceive the Journal without charge. Subscriptions are ~

available on a calendar year basis only, payable in ad- —

vance. Payment must be made in U.S. currency at the

following rates:

George Abraham U.S. and Canada....... $15.00

. Foreign ....354.-ee 16.50

Grover C. Sherlin Single Copy Price ...... 5.00 |

Single-copy price for Vol. 66, No. 1 (March, 1976) |

BOARD OF MANAGERS is $15.00.

All delegates of affiliated Back Issues

Societies (see facing page) Obtainable from the Academy office (address at bot-

tom of opposite column): Proceedings: Vols. 1-13

(1898-1910) Index: To Vols. 1-13 of the Proceedings

EDITOR and Vols. 1-40 of the Journal Journal: Back issues,

volumes, and sets (Vols. 1-62, 1911-1972) and all cur- |

Richard H. Foote rent issues.

Claims for Missing Numbers

ae nN Claims will not be allowed if received more than 60 |

days after date of mailing plus time normally required |

Elizabeth Ostaggi for postal delivery and claim. No claims will be al- |

lowed because of failure to notify the Academy of a |

change in address.

ACADEMY OFFICE

Change of Address

Address changes should be sent promptly to the Aca-

demy office. Such notification should show both old |

and new addresses and zip number.

9650 Rockville Pike (Bethesda)

Washington, D.C. 20014

Telephone (301) 530-1402

Published quarterly in March, June, September, and December of each year by the

Washington Academy of Sciences, 9650 Rockville Pike, Washington, D.C. Second class

postage paid at Washington, D.C. and additional mailing offices.

DELEGATES TO THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,

REPRESENTING THE LOCAL AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Peep nied; SOCIeLy (Of WASMINGLOM 5. oe ei ots ste Sdlo.6 Sis Abi S 4 Os doa abla Se ooo owas James F. Goff

Peeepelnnicall Socicty of Washington ...).5.55..6se.cdve vedas bei wec bats ews snes Jean K. Boek

MRR SO CICIV Ol VV ASIMNOLONE 6.2) as fants Oh) So Sx nara Sai ds esis ab ods bea ell ooee euc eboe Inactive

ie eee USO GCICEV Ol VV ASMINOTON) | 2. hor. s hae dene s 22 Fas vie boa Sosee ease eee scene Mary H. Aldridge

EemnaiGeieal Society Of WaSRINGION . 2 66. os bk oe sce seen dc see deeeetuewsas Maynard Ramsay

TEM MC OETADIICTSOCICLY fo.2 ote ieae folie Fess oR bee eek ks ot SS Ska swe aled ee oe T. Dale Stewart

Preeresesoctcty Of Washington ©... 22.5. cece occas sb e ceviche wacbeaenves Marian M. Schnepfe

memesinsacicty of the Distrct.of Columbia... . 2.25.2 6. oo he ec we cn wed enevcbewveecece Inactive

NEMA mEL IST OIC TIE SOCICEY F205 Seitiinhnn sraicheinie Mia ec wiere sik aS aie bGja wales Bd ae cd ale oye’ c Paul H. Oehser

TSO INOl VV ASMINOTOM 2.2 25) fees 2 cairo sos eae eb eles ole dune Qe ienele we Conrad B. Link

TEIN UP AUT SpTORT ATS 1e) Oy ee eter ee ee Thomas B. Glazebrook

Sem CMEOOCIClY Ol ENPIMNEENS 5. 2.5 6 bbe. e Sic cs cece nce eee cue b cu ed aeaeeand George Abraham

Bemncion electrical and Electronics Engineers ........7....5..0..00cbeeecseccces George Abraham

PaemeaneSOcieLy.o1 Mechanical EMPINCEDS 2.025666 ese og eae hee cee ee dens ee sence’ Michael Chi

Pani oricdl SOCIcty Of WaSnINS{ON 2... 6c. nce cde bee bese s essen euens Robert S. Isenstein

ee ie ESE ICHN AIO Ie WAICTODIO! OY. ico2.. ors 6 < 0.c 6 6 aus aleye a0 0ieie, 4 Gaol 4 ona m8 sla ees cue sda oes Michael Pelzcar

aeecmavaickican Miltary ENSineers . 62)... ce. eld ca elec be Da bae new aceeectaaws H.P. Demuth

American Society of Civil Engineers NED ere UN at Mie WiC ets hee Bi oc wen Shou Shan Fan

Pamemnerme xpenmental Biology arid Medicine . 2.6 ..... 0-205 ec cece see cette ete ee Donald Flick

(9 SESE EEE DCC WSU? LOIRE 1 SNS SO ee re Pe ere ee Glen W. Wensch

imemational Association of Dental Research ...:...5....0.00ccc ccc eceeeece William V. Loebenstein

mmerican Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics ........0. 0.2.2 e cece cee eeees Franklin Ross

Eee tee IE OTOOPICA eSOCICLY: 6.) lo. oe Dee ic sec were he oUt BW ode Denese e's A. James Wagner

ee ee SORICINCOl WASHINPION 2525-50 2622 bce eth bene e tie Gace wees e en neees Robert J. Argauer

Bn MCIC I OU ATICIICA:.. 20s bp bese dee ka 6 aba Oe od nas cael tis ecew owe e’ Delegate not appointed

eae ane AOICN Slee SOE ICEY rani igi le cis oleraie asic cue bere saree eebisl wee fake hte Pow as se ee ee et Dick Duffey

Meee TO TOO NeCCHNOLOPISIS) 7.0 <5. f5ciie. sisi ee ble ba ae cysce a Oe yh Acneew oe naeeed es William Sulzbacher

ae ne AAPM AANA NC SONCTE UN oes a 2 ace tee WRN eh Pictiniy 5 5s Se asta “acacia Sis ous, & BG nis wae mnie Inactive

p RPPORRS RIES! SOSTE AG ee ens enn ana eee ae eee ea Delegate not appointed

Sener lS OINAOl SCICNICE CIUD, 2 oie cis cicin cid avehe 0.0 cya d ya wesadin ys s Dd deem Hb edaree seeds ae Inactive

Pemetcanv Association of Physics Teachers . 2... 22.2 62. sedans sdb awe dees cineca es Bernard B. Watson

Se MSM EICTU AOI AIINCRICAN 460. it, es 2a a ere aco hcGls SS ae pa oa oS awe vi0d Sais oles Ronald W. Waynant

mee ane SOcicty OL Plant PHYSIOlOPISES «6... pce esc ae eee ce ee he be eee ee bee Walter Shropshire

Pe emrPen OHEEANONS KESCArCh COUNECI! 22.2... bs ce ee ee eek eb ee eee eae ee ee John G. Honig

| EIDE EET: (SOC EIINO ETISALAT a Inactive

American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical

PPC PROM CHI MEEIMCITICCES errr: 15 er ee ee nia, ee AS oes Pee ackis's See Mavala oat 9 Carl H. Cotterill

TEES ADIL USELOMOMICNS. G2 10s sec aie ageocye Oi) «ate don cs cig Pe dass eels ca eee wba ee ore Benson J. Simon

PCat AlASSOCIOtON OL AMEIGCA ~ jek. 65 6c ce csw ee adie nsdn cee eeweereebenwaces Patrick Hayes

LESS O(GLYSTIIS AIS ne eee Miloslav Recheigl, Jr.

MPPELSY CHOIOCICAl ASSOCIATION ©4204 65). 2c epoca wee coe se ose eeelne oS DE ee ee ele Pt eee John O’ Hare

Pee asincton Lame Hechnical Groups. 2225.05. oe eed ewes ens o enalens Paul G. Campbell

SmEmean Ee nViopatholopical SOCICLY ;..... 2.002002 5 sees eats erences eee dee dee eens To be appointed

Bete stor General Systems Research... 6 esc lee beeen se een e ence eee Ronald W. Manderscheid

SP AMEI A ORS E SOCIO eats he Wie ies dose a bd Ws Wes aa lase Denis Sk oS WG SMa me lelw iat aa ls To be appointed

Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the representative societies.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 67, NO. 1, 1977 1