Washington Academy of Sciences

Founded in 1898

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DELEGATES TO THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,

REPRESENTING THE LOCAL AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

mma meeleny Ol WASHINGION (os oc. ol bk sees ceed ae a Pe dine oie ome Sie dpuel ya be ele James F. Goff

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Pe onaae Ole AESOCIELY TON W ASMINSUOM 47%. 5): <a. a alan ss 20s celeieie Soe tena ew ayeaiedeoeem oer Donald R. Davis

MaMa eG © Mia ACA SOCICUY 16 icisiti-s aie gus die 4 pe Rares Sib e Sie oaierd Seale wie ew alare geo Ole deatede iets § T. Dale Stewart

Eee Ae MESO CIC Ol a VAS IMOTOT, Stef OES. SRR cplehGmak oaks wollen Se dees Delegate not appointed

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com ae Cams ViNtAry IEMPSINIEETS.. 2.24%. date abne © ces os bees wh ewe ebia va tiew aisle ee H. P. Demuth

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PR CMEAmOO CIE NOT IWICTAIS ts te okt had ci cn oR bea eels Hh a eee Riles Ook vale bad Charles G. Interrante

PrchiCaMy MSSOCIanOn Of Mental RESCArch: .. . ah 'sie co's 60.c eve 0 bels vie js oo tre ale aca sete oh wie Donald W. Turner

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SL SMSO TT INGER SKC CHETIN 8 Ba ee Peer an eae cr s Dick Duffey

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American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical

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RESEARCH REPORTS

Human Skeletal Remains From Site OGSE-80,

A Preceramic Site on the Sta. Elena Peninsula,

Coastal Ecuador

Douglas H. Ubelaker

Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institu-

tion, Washington, D.C. 20560

ABSTRACT

Recent excavations at a preceramic (6,000 B.C.) burial site on the coast of Ecuador discov-

ered 65 burial features containing at least 192 individuals. These burials included complete

articulated skeletons, as well as collections of non-articulated bones. Data are presented here

on the skeletal content of each feature, demographic structure of the population, estimated

living stature, artificial modifications of the skeleton, disease frequencies and morphological

affinities with other Ecuadorean samples. Comparison with data from other sites shows little

temporal change in living stature and in many skeletal measurements and observations. Tem-

poral increases are revealed in the frequencies of many diseases, especially periosteal lesions,

porotic hyperostosis, fractures, and dental disease, with related increases in mortality within

most age groups. It is suggested that many of these temporal trends may be related to in-

creased population density and to the increasing dependence on intensive agriculture.

Research in New World prehistoric skele-

tal biology increasingly calls for large, well

documented skeletal samples to examine

such important problems as the biological

effects of intensive agriculture, prehistoric

population relationships and evolution.

Numerous large samples are now available

for the early historic period and the recent

prehistoric periods. Samples dating prior

to 1,000 A.D. are much more uncommon

and those that. date from preceramic or

preagricultural periods are quite rare, and

are especially valuable in providing the

early “‘link”’ in studies of biological tem-

poral change.

Site 80, Vegas Complex, Sta. Elena Pen-

insula, coastal Ecuador has been identified

as ““preceramic”’ with radiocarbon dates

clustering at about 6,000 B.C. (Stothert,

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

1977). Recent excavations at this site by

Karen Stothert, sponsored by the Banco

Central of Ecuador, identified 65 burial

features concentrated within an approxi-

mately 200 square meter area. Analysis of

these features reveals that at least 192 indi-

viduals are present; consequently the sam-

ple represents perhaps the oldest large

human sample yet recovered in the New

World. Excavation history and procedure,

as well as preliminary interpretations of the

site are presented by Stothert (1977). More

detailed data are being assembled for a

final report to be published by the Banco

Central del Ecuador in Guayaquil. This re-

port presents only biological information

gleaned from analysis. ;

My involvement in this project began on

July 18, 1978 when I was invited by Sto-

thert and the Banco Central of Ecuador to

immediately travel to Ecuador to advise on

the further excavation and removal of the

skeletons and to begin analysis. Due to the

short notice of the invitation and previous

commitments, I limited my participation at

this time to about three weeks. With sup-

port from the Banco Central of Ecuador

and the Smithsonian Institution, I travelled

to Ecuador accompanied by my wife Mar-

uja and Smithsonian research assistant

Stephanie Damadio. During the 23 day pe-

riod, from July 23 to August 15, we worked

at the site and nearby laboratory, advising

on the excavation and removal of the mate-

rial, cleaning and restoring those skeletal

materials which had been removed at that

time, and taking initial data. After our de-

parture, all additional skeletal material was

sent to the Banco Central in Quito. It was

then processed and examined by Maruja

and me on two subsequent visits; De-

cember 20, 1978 to January 19, 1979 and

June, 1979" to July 21, 1979. These re-

search trips were also supported by the

Banco Central of Ecuador and the Smith-

sonian Institution.

All of the bones were dry brushed until

they were sufficiently clean to allow identi-

fication. Those that offered biological data

were washed (water only) and recon-

structed with an acetone soluble cement.

Most bones were extremely fragmentary,

which severely limited reconstruction and

data collection.

When processing and data collection

were complete, all material was placed in

labeled plastic bags and packed within la-

beled cardboard cartons. At this time, the

cartons are stored at the Banco Central in

Quito, awaiting further curatorial atten-

tion and improved permanent storage.

Note that some skeletal material was re-

moved from the site in 1971 and sent to the

Smithsonian Institution. Site provenience

was subsequently lost on this material, and

now it can not be related spatially to the

features reported here. For this reason data

from this small sample are not included in

the individual feature descriptions. Data

on pathology from this material are in-

cluded in the pathological section of this

report.

Skeletal Inventory of Burial Features

The following is a detailed listing of the

skeletal content of each burial feature.

Numbers of each skeletal part present are

only minimal determinations due to the

fragmentary condition of the material.

Whenever possible adult age estimates were

made from the morphology of the pubic

symphysis. When such observations were

not possible, ages were estimated from den-

tal attrition, cranial suture closure, and

joint surface degeneration. Subadult ages

were estimated from dental formation, uti-

lizing the formation standards of Ubelaker

(1978:112-113). When observations of den-

tal formation were not possible, ages were

estimated from long bone lengths or other

size data. Estimates of sex were not attemp-

ted for subadults, but were made for adults

whenever possible, using standard criteria.

All methods used for sex and age estima-

tion are summarized in Ubelaker (1978).

Due to the fragmentation of most bones

and considerable erosion on the periosteal

surface of most long bones, it was not pos-

sible to utilize the microscopic method of

estimating age at death.

The following description applies only to

those burial features which were removed

from the site for analysis. Complete infor-

mation on all features will be presented by

Stothert in a volume to be published in

Ecuador.

Feature I.—Large secondary burial.

Adult bones present consist of six left and

right humeri, six left and five right radu,

five left and right ulnae, seven left and five

right femora, four left and seven right ti-

biae, one left and four right fibulae, six left

and five right clavicles, 10 left and nine

right scapulae, six left and right temporals,

four maxillae, six mandibles, six left and

five right innominates, six first cervical ver-

tebrae, six second cervicals, 13 other cervi-

cals, 17 thoracic vertebrae, 17 lumbar ver-

tebrae, one sacrum, one left capitate, six

first metacarpals, four left and four right

second metacarpals, one left and one right

third metacarpal, 13 proximal hand pha-

langes, three middle hand phalanges, six

left and four right calcanei, eight left and

seven right tali, two left and one right cu-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

boid, one left and one right foot navicular,

two cuneiforms, two left and three right

first metatarsals, four left and two right

second metatarsals, three left and one right

third metatarsals, three left and one right

fourth metatarsals, three left and two right

fifth metatarsals, four first foot phalanges

and 36 ribs. The number of left scapulae

indicates that at least 10 adults are present.

Innominate morphology indicates that of

these, at least two females and four males

are present. Pubic symphysis morphology

suggests ages at death of about 40 years for

one male, and 35 years for two females.

Only the following subadult bones are

present: right radius, left ulna, left femur,

right temporal, and mandible. All bones

probably originate from one individual.

Dental formation data suggest an age at

death of about nine months.

Feature 2.—According to field observa-

tions, this feature consists of a single pri-

mary skeleton, flexed on its right side. De-

tailed examination of the skeletal remains

revealed that at least four adults and one

child are present. The four adults are indi-

cated by four right femora. Multiple adult

individuals are also indicated by two left

femora, two left and right tibiae, two

mandibles, two innominates, two patellae,

two left and three right tali and two adult

crania. Both crania are male with estimated

ages of 25 to 30 years and 35 to 45 years.

The subadult is represented by both

humeri, the left ulna, both tibiae, one fib-

ula, the right scapula, left ilium, right

ischium, left pubis, right calcaneus and six

vertebrae. Bone size suggests an age at

death of about five years.

Feature 3.—This feature consists of an

articulated adult and secondary, but tightly

packed child. Both skeletons were left in

situ for museum display. The secondary

child appears to be relatively complete, ex-

cept for the mandible. An isolated mandi-

ble was found nearby and removed for

analysis. The mandible is very fragmentary

with the following teeth present: right ca-

nine, left central incisor, left first molar and

left third molar. The third molar had not

reached the occlusal plane. The crown was

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

complete, but the root was “% formed. One

maxillary right central permanent incisor

was present, displaying slight occlusal

wear. The stage of formation of the third

molar suggests an age at death of about 15

years.

Feature 4.—Flexed primary skeleton.

The skeleton is generally complete, but

missing both humeri, both clavicles and

both scapulae. Long bone epiphyses are

not united, indicating the individual is sub-

adult. Dental formation data suggest an

age at death of about 12 years.

Feature 5.—Flexed primary skeleton.

Just the skull, mandible and rib fragments

are present. Cranial morphology suggests

female sex. Dental attrition data suggest an

age at death of 30-35 years.

Feature 6.—Flexed primary skeleton.

The skeleton is generally complete. Cranial

and innominate morphology suggest male

sex. The degree of dental attrition suggests

an age at death of 25-30 years.

Feature 7.—Secondary burial. Two indi-

viduals are present: an adult and an adoles-

cent. The adult is represented by both

humerl, right ulna, left femur, both tibiae,

both scapulae, both innominates, right pa-

tella, first cervical vertebra, second cervical

vertebra, two 3-7 cervicals, four thoracics,

three lumbars, sacrum, right hand navicu-

lar, both first metacarpals, six hand pha-

langes, four middle hand phalanges, one

distal hand phalanx, left calcaneus, both

tali, both cuboids, both naviculars, the first

and second cuneiformes, the right fourth

metatarsal, both proximal first foot pha-

langes, three 2-5 proximal foot phalanges

and most of the skull. Cranial and pelvic

morphology suggest male sex. Morphology

of the pubic symphysis suggests an age at

death of 40-45 years. An estimated maxi-

mum length of the right femur of 39.5 cm

suggests a maximum living stature of 153

cm. The subadult is represented only by a

right femur, the length of which suggests an

age at death of 15 to 18 years.

Feature 8.—This is a very fragmentary

skeleton found near the surface. Data are

not available on position. Fragments of the

following bones are present: right hume-

rus, ulna, femur, right scapula and clavicle.

No cranial fragments occur but the follow-

ing teeth are present: mandibular right

first, second and third molars, left canine, a

premolar, second and third molars; maxil-

lary right central incisor, one premolar,

both second molars and both third molars.

All teeth display slight occlusal wear, ex-

cept the mandibular first molar which

shows 50 percent dentin exposure. The ex-

tent of dental attrition generally suggests

an age at death of 25 to 30 years. The robus-

ticity of the femur suggests male sex. Some

fragments show slight charring, indicative

of exposure to fire.

Feature 9.—No bone preserved for

analysis.

Feature 10.—Field notes describe one

primary skeleton on its left side in flexed

position. A concentration of human bones

found 50 cm north of the skull of the pri-

mary skeleton is also included in this

feature.

All bones are very fragmentary. The fol-

lowing is an inventory of bones present:

one calvarium, two left humeri, one right

humerus, one left and one right radius, two

right ulnae (one large male?, one small fe-

male?), one left and one right femur, one

left tibia, fibula fragments, one left scapula,

one right maxilla, one left and one right

mandible segments, hand and foot bone

fragments and the following maxillary

teeth: right lateral incisor, canine, both

premolars, and all three molars; left canine,

first premolar and all three molars. one

molar of a second individual is present. The

extent of dental attrition on the molars

suggests an advanced age at death of 35 to

45 years. If field notes are correct, this

would be the age of the primary skeleton.

The other skeleton is adult, but no data are

available for age determination.

One male and one female are present in

this feature, as estimated from the compar-

ative sizes of the left humeri and right ul-

nae. One femoral head displayed a maxi-

mum diameter of 39 mm, suggesting female

sex. Since the skull is female also, it appears

that the primary skeleton is female and the

secondary deposit is male.

Feature 11.—Flexed primary skeleton.

This skeleton is fragmentary, but generally

complete. Innominate morphology sug-

gests female sex. The extent of dental attri-

tion suggests an age at death of 25 to 30

years. Maximum length of the right femur

is 412 mm suggesting a living stature of 154

cm. An isolated right fourth metacarpal

was found above the skull. This metacarpal

and the right fifth metacarpal show unus-

ual anterior curvature, and probably repre-

sent old healed fractures.

Feature 12.—Two primary skeletons.

These young adult complete skeletons were

not removed for analysis. Field examina-

tion revealed one is male and the other

female.

Feature 13.—Flexed primary skeleton

with secondary bone concentration. The

articulated skeleton consists of the gener-

ally complete remains of a child. Of the

major bones, only the left clavicle and left

scapula are not present. Dental develop-

ment suggests an age at death of about 11

years.

The secondary bone assemblage consists

of the generally complete skeleton of an

adult male. Of the major bones, only the

left tibia is missing. Morphology of the

pubic symphysis and the extent of vertebral

osteophytosis and joint metamorphosis sug-

gests an age at death of 40 to 45 years. A

right tibia length of 400 mm suggests a liv-

ing stature of 170 cm.

Feature 14.—Few isolated bones. No

bones available for analysis.

Feature 15.—Few bones protruding from

sidewall. No bones available for analysis.

Feature 16.—Flexed primary skeleton.

This skeleton is fragmentary, but generally

complete. Cranial morphology suggests

female sex. Dental attrition suggests an age

at death of greater than 40 years.

Feature 17.—Flexed primary skeleton.

Cranial morphology of this generally com-

plete skeleton suggests female sex. An age

at death of 40 to 50 years is suggested by the

stage of dental attrition and the union of

cranial sutures. Estimated length of the left

femur of 363 mm suggests a living stature

of 141 cm.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

Feature 18.—According to field notes,

this feature represents a single skeleton,

flexed onits right side. Fragments of nearly

all bones of a single skeleton are present.

All maxillary and mandibular teeth are

present as well.

Cranial morphology suggests male sex,

as does the robusticity of the long bones.

Attrition is advanced on most dental oc-

clusal surfaces. On the central incisors

through the first molars, dentin exposure 1s

100% of the crown surface. Dentin is ex-

posed on 50% of the second molars. The

vertebral bodies show no osteophytosis

and the sagittal and lambdoidal sutures are

open endocranially and ectocranially. Col-

lectively, these data suggest an age at death

of 35 to 40 years.

- Four long bones were sufficiently com-

plete for estimates of maximum length. The

estimates are as follows: right humerus, 279

mm; left humerus, 270 mm; right ulna, 243

mm; right radius, 220 mm. The combined

lengths of the right humerus and right ulna

(52.2 cm) suggest a maximum living stature

of about 159 cm, using Trotter and Gleser’s

formula for Mongoloid males (1958:120).

Feature 19.—Primary flexed skeleton.

Adult skeleton not available for analysis.

Feature 20.—Field notes and a photo-

graph indicate this feature consists of a sin-

gle complete flexed primary skeleton on its

right side. The material is very fragmentary

but generally represents most bones of one

adult. The skull was reconstructed and is

complete except for the face. All maxillary

teeth are present on the right side, but on

the left, only the premolars and molars are

present. The maxillary left canine and inci-

sors are missing post-mortem. All mandib-

ular teeth are present except the incisors,

missing post-mortem and the right third

molar, missing ante-mortem. Attrition is

advanced with 100% dentin exposure on all

teeth remaining, except the left maxillary

third molar which shows only slight wear.

The advanced attrition suggests an age at

death of greater than 40 years. This age is

also suggested by endocranial union of all

vault sutures and ectocranial union of all,

but part of the lambdoidal suture.

Cranial morphology suggests female sex.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

The only pathological conditions ob-

served were alveolar abscesses of the man-

dibular right first molar and the maxillary

right first molar. The abscesses probably

resulted from the excessive attrition of

those teeth.

An estimated maximum length of the

fibula of 316mm suggests a living stature of

about 154cm using the formula of Trotter

and Gleser for Mexican males (1958:120).

Feature 21.—Field observations record

this feature as a single, flexed primary skel-

eton, onits left side. Laboratory analysis of

the recovered bones reveals the extremely

fragmentary, but generally complete re-

mains of one adult. Teeth present are the

following: mandibular right incisors; all

left mandibular teeth; the maxillary right

first incisor and canine; and all left maxil-

lary teeth except the second premolar. The

extent of dental attrition indicates an age at

death of 35-40 years.

Male sex is suggested by cranial mor-

phology and a femoral head diameter of 46

mm.

Feature 22.—Secondary burial. The fol-

lowing bones of a young adult female are

present: right humerus, left radius, right

ulna, right femur, left clavicle, first cervical

vertebra, left fourth metacarpal, two prox-

imal hand phalanges, right hand navicular,

right second cuneiform, seven rib frag-

ments, the skull and mandible. Cranial

morphology suggests female sex. Lack of

suture closure and dental attrition suggests

an age at death of 20 to 30 years. An es-

timated length of the right femur of 350 mm

suggests a living stature of 140 cm, using

the formula of Genovés (1967:76).

Feature 23.—This feature represents a

primary flexed adult skeleton lying on its

left side. Most major bones of the skeleton

are present, but all are very fragmentary.

The only teeth present are the following:

maxillary left canine, both premolars and

the first molar; maxillary right canine and

first molar. All display advanced attrition

with 100% dentin exposure. The left second

premolar displays an apical abscess and a

carious lesion occurs on the left first

premolar.

The reconstructed calvarium displays

endocranial closure of all vault sutures, but

little ectocranial closure. These data and

the extent of dental attrition suggest an age

at death of 35 to 45 years.

Cranial morphology and the size of the

long bones suggest female sex.

An estimated length of a right tibia sug-

gests a maximum living stature of 150 cm,

using the formula of Genoves (1967:76) for

Mexican females.

Except for the caries and dental abcess

already mentioned, no pathological condi-

tions were noted.

Feature 24.—This feature is described in

field notes as a single primary skeleton

flexed on its right side. All post-cranial re-

mains were sent for radiocarbon analysis,

after examination. The remaining skull is

in poor condition but most of the skull, in-

cluding the face was reconstructed. All

teeth are present with no carious lesions.

Alveolar abscesses occur with the mandib-

ular right central and lateral incisors. Attri-

tion is advanced, with 100% dentin expo-

sure on all teeth from the central incisors

through the first molars. The second mo-

lars display 75% dentin exposure and the

third molars only 40%. The cranial vault

shows endocranial fusion of the sagittal

and lambdoidal sutures with partial ecto-

cranial fusion of the sagittal suture. Collec-

tively these data suggest an age at death of

40 to 45 years.

Cranial morphology suggests female sex.

An estimated right femur length of 413

mm suggests a living stature of about 154

CM. SUSIie mule TOnmMUlte. .Ol ) Gnoves

(1967:76).

Feature 25.—Large secondary burial con-

taining some articulated skeletal parts and

complete individuals. This feature number

was assigned to a large collection of mostly

disarticulated skeletal remains concen-

trated within an approximately 11 square

meter area. Ten additional feature num-

bers were assigned to articulated skeletons,

articulated parts of skeletons, or what ap-

peared to be distinct groups of disarticu-

lated bones. These features are 47, 49, 50,

54, 55, 56, 57, 58; 60, and 72 and are de=

scribed separately under those numbers.

Note also that since features 24, 39, 48, and

51 are located close to feature 25, some

mixing of bones with feature 25 may have

occurred.

Initially in the excavation, feature 25 was

considered to be one large feature. Later a

spatial division was detected within the fea-

ture and numbers 25a and 25b were as-

signed to the separated concentrations. In

this analysis all material labeled as 25 was

included in either 25a or 25b, as determined

by the grid numbers (location) of the bones

when they were removed. Analyses of these

two units are presented separately.

25a.—This section of feature 25 (not

including bones assigned to separate fea-

tures) contained at least 17 adults and 21

subadults. Adult bones present consist of

the following: 12 left and 13 right humeri,

14leftand 14right radii, 11 left and 13 right

ulnae, 10 left and 12 right femora, nine left

and 11 right tibiae, three left and three right

fibulae, 11 left and 14 right clavicles, nine

left and nine right scapulae, 17 left and 16

right temporals, seven left and six right

maxillae, 13 mandibles, one gladiolus, five

left and five right innominates, seven left

and eight right patellae, six first cervical

vertebrae, four second cervical vertebrae,

ten other cervical vertebrae, 30 thoracic

vertebrae, 11 lumbar vertebrae, one sa-

crum, seven left and twelve right hand na-

viculars, three left and five right lunates,

two pisiforms, two left and two right

greater multangulars, one left lesser mul-

tangular, four left and four right capitates,

three left and three right hamates, six left

and five right first metacarpals, seven left

and eight right second metacarpals, five left

and five right third metacarpals, three left

and four right fourth metacarpals, four left

and three right fifth metacarpals, 69 prox-

imal hand phalanges, 44 middle hand pha-

langes, 24 distal hand phalanges, two left

and two right calcanea, four left and three

right tali, two right cuboids, eight left and

seven right foot naviculars, one right first

cuneiform, two left and two right second

cuneiforms, three left and three right third

cuneiformes, eight left and eight right first

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

metatarsals, six left and six right second

metatarsals, four left and five right third

metatarsals, five left and six right fourth

metatarsals, eight left and five right fifth

metatarsals, 15 first proximal foot pha-

langes, 33 other proximal foot phalanges,

13 middle foot phalanges, eight distal first

foot phalanges, one other distal foot pha-

lanx, two coccygeal vertebrae and 37 ribs.

Of the 17 adults present, at least five are

males and five are females. Ages at death

for the males are estimated from dental at-

trition and cranial suture closure to be as

follows: 30-35, 30-40, 35-50, 40-45, and

40-50. By the same criteria, female esti-

mates are 20-30, 30-35, 40-45, 40-50, and

45-55. One skull of undetermined sex was

estimated to be between 30 and 35 years.

Stature estimates were possible for only

one male and two females. One male left

femur measured 420 mm which suggests a

living stature of about 159 cm (Genovés,

1967:76). Female femora lengths of 380

mm and 400 mm suggest living statures of

about 146 cm and 151 cm (Genovés,

1967:76).

Subadult remains from 25a consist of at

least 21 individuals represented by the fol-

lowing bones: two left and one right hume-

rus, three left and two right ulnae, two left

and three right femora, two left and three

right tibiae, one right clavicle, one left

scapula, 21 left and 16 right temporals, one

left and four right maxillae, five left and

five right mandibles, one right ilium, one

left ischium, one right pubis, one calca-

neus, three ribs, 37 carpal and tarsal bones,

and 43 vertebrae halves.

The following ages at death were as-

signed to the subadults based on observa-

tions of dental formation and temporal

morphology: 11 individuals between birth

and one year, five between one and two

years, one at three years, one at four years,

one at five years, one at seven years, and

One at nine years.

25b.—At least 18 adults and 19 sub-

adults are represented in this aspect of fea-

ture 25. Adult bones present are the follow-

ing: 16 left and 16 right humeri, eight left

and 10 right radii, seven left and 11 right

ulnae, 13 left and 10 right femora, 10 left

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

and 11 right tibiae, six fibulae, 13 left and

12 right clavicles, nine left and seven right

scapulae, 18 left and 17 right temporals,

three left and three right maxillae, 11 left

and 10 right mandibles, three left and three

right innominates, five left and six right pa-

tellae, two first cervical vertebrae, 10 sec-

ond cervical vertebrae, five other cervical

vertebrae, 13 thoracic vertebrae, 15 lumbar

vertebrae, one sacrum, one left and three

right hand naviculars, four left and two

right lunates, one left and two right greater

multangulars, one left and one right capi-

tate, one right hamate, three left and two

right first metacarpals, two left and three

right second metacarpals, one left and one

right third metacarpals, one left fourth

metacarpal, two left and four right fifth

metacarpals, 39 proximal hand phalanges,

23 middle hand phalanges, six distal hand

phalanges, five left and five right calcanea,

seven left and six right tali, one right cu-

boid, one left and one right navicular, three

right second cuneiforms, one left third cu-

neiform, five left and four right first meta-

tarsals, five left and two right second

metatarsals, five left and two right third

metatarsals, two left and one right fourth

metatarsals, six left and 10 right fifth

metatarsals, eight first proximal foot pha-

langes, 15 other proximal phalanges, six

middle foot phalanges, three distal first

foot phalanges and 26 ribs.

Cranial morphology indicates that at

least five males and seven females are pres-

ent. Dental attrition data suggest the fol-

lowing ages at death: seven between 20 and

30 years, three between 30 and 40 years and

one between 40 and 50 years. No stature es-

timates are possible.

Nineteen subadults are represented in

feature 25b by the following bones: three

left humeri, two left and two right femora,

one left tibia, 18 left and 19 right temporals,

one left and two right maxillae, one mandi-

ble, one left illum, one right ischium, one

rib, seven carpal and tarsal bones, and 11

vertebrae.

The following ages at death are indicated

by the morphology of temporals and long

bones: 11 between birth and one year, four

between one and two years, two between

two and three years, one about four years

and one between 13 and 16 years.

Feature 26.—Not a burial.

Feature 27.—According to field notes,

this feature consists of a ‘pile of human hip

bones.”’ Analysis of the recovered material

revealed the following adult bones: one left

and one right clavicle, one left and two

right innominates, and one left sacrum. All

three innominates are from males. One pair

of pubic bones is present. Analysis of the

morphology of the pubic symphysis, using

the system of McKern and Stewart (1957)

suggests an age at death of about 21 years.

Subadult remains consist of one left and

one right ilium. Estimated maximum di-

ameters of 105 mm suggest an age at death

of about 7.5 years, using the data of Mer-

chant and Ubelaker (1977). No determina-

tion of sex can be made reliably.

Feature 28.—Primary flexed skeleton.

Not available for analysis.

Feature 29.—This feature was found asa

secondary bone assemblage with no appar-

ent bone articulation. The following adult

bones are present probably from a single

individual: one left humerus, one left and

one right radius, one left and one right

ulna, one left and one right femur, one left

and one right tibia, one right clavicle, one

left and one right scapula, one mandible,

one left innominate, one first cervical ver-

tebra and fragments of other cervical ver-

tebrae, one left calcaneus, one left and one

right talus, one left first metatarsal, one

right fourth metatarsal, many rib frag-

ments, and many indistinguishable frag-

ments. No cranial fragments are present.

The following mandibular teeth are pre-

sent: the three right molars, the right sec-

ond premolar, right canine, right lateral in-

cisor, right central incisor. Enamel expo-

sure due to attrition is 100% on the incisors,

canine, premolar and first molar; 40% on

the second molar and slight on the third

molar. This suggests an age at death of

35-40 years.

Morphology of the innominate and a

maximum left femoral head diameter of 41

mm suggests female sex.

An estimated maximum length of the

tibia of 34.5 cm suggests a maximum living

stature of about 141 cm (Genoves, 1967:76).

No dental caries or other pathological

conditions were observed.

The bone assemblage also contained the

following subadult bones: one left and one

right humerus, one left radius, one left and

one right ulna, one left and one right femur,

one left and one right tibia, left and right

portions of a mandible and one left talus.

Mandibular teeth present are the follow-

ing: the left deciduous molars, one per-

manent right first molar, the permanent

right central and lateral incisors, one per-

manent second molar (crown complete;

root %) and one premolar (crown com-

plete, root 4). The stage of dental forma-

tion suggests an age at death of about eight

years.

Feature 30.—This feature consists of a

single adult primary skeleton, found on its

right side in flexed position. The skeleton is

fragmentary but generally complete.

Deep sciatic notches on the ilia, small

mastoid processes of the temporals and

other morphology suggests female sex.

Attrition is extreme on all teeth present,

with most of the crowns worn away. The

following mandibular teeth are present:

right canine, premolars and part of the first

molar; left canine, premolars and molars.

Missing ante-mortem are the right / of the

first molar, second molar and third molar;

left incisors and % of the first molar. Maxil-

lary teeth present are the following: left in-

cisors, canine, and first premolar; right first

and third molars. All left teeth not present

are missing ante-mortem. Right maxillary

teeth missing ante-mortem are the second

premolar and second molar. The advanced

attrition, cranial suture closure, and stage

three (Ubelaker, 1978:60) osteophytic lip-

ping on the cervical vertebrae suggest an

age at death of greater than 45 years.

Anestimated maximum length of the left

tibia of 30.5 cm suggests a maximum living

stature of 144 cm, using the formula of Ge-

noves (1967:76).

Except for the teeth missing ante-mor-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

tem, no other pathological conditions were

noted.

Feature 31.—Two isolated crania and

one adult first proximal foot phalanx com-

prise this feature. The adult skull is rela-

tively complete with the following maxil-

lary teeth present: right lateral incisor, first

premolar and second molar; left second

and third molars. The teeth display no car-

ies and no abscesses, but all have advanced

attrition with 100% dentin exposure. The

sagittal and lambdoidal sutures are closed

endocranially and ectocranially while the

coronal suture 1s open. The data on suture

closure and attrition suggest an age at

death of about 35-40 years.

Morphology of the adult skull suggests

female sex.

The subadult skull consists only of vault

fragments and one deciduous maxillary

first molar. The crown is complete on this

molar with no occlusal wear, suggesting an

age at death of 12 to 18 months.

Feature 32.—Field notes indicate this

feature contains one individual flexed on

its right side. Skeletal analysis revealed one

very fragmentary adult skeleton. The skull

and mandible were reconstructed and con-

tained the following teeth: maxillary right

central incisor, left canine, and first pre-

molar; mandibular right incisors, canine

and premolars. Missing ante-mortem were

the mandibular right molars; mandibular

left lateral incisor, canine, first premolar

and all three molars; maxillary right lateral

incisor and first molar; and maxillary left

second premolar and first molar. No caries

and no abscesses were observed.

Morphology of the cranium and long

bones suggests female sex.

An age at death of greater than 45 years

is suggested by complete endocranial clo-

sure of all vault sutures, ectocranial closure

of all vault sutures except part of the lamb-

doidal, and loss of nearly all tooth crowns

due to attrition.

Feature 33.—Flexed primary skeleton

with secondary burial.

The articulated skeleton is generally com-

plete except for the clavicles, right scapula,

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

skull and mandible. The large size of the

skeleton suggests male sex. Extensive os-

teophytosis on the vertebrae suggests an

age of 45 to 60 years.

The secondary skeleton is that of a

young adult female. The following bones

are present: both humeri, left radius, left

ulna, both femora, left scapula, the skull

and mandible, left patella, right calcaneus,

left talus, right first metatarsal, and both

fifth metatarsals. Some charring occurs on

most bones.

A subadult skull was found with the re-

mains of the articulated skeleton. No teeth

are present but the size suggests an age be-

tween seven and 12 years.

Feature 34.—Secondary burial. The large

secondary skeletal deposit was analyzed as

one unit. At least 24 individuals are pres-

ent: 18 adults and six subadults. The 18

adults are indicated by right humeri. Fre-

quency of other adult bones varied consid-

erably with 16 indicated by mandibles, 15

by temporals, 14 by femora, 14 by ulnae, 10

by tibiae, and only eight by radi. Mor-

phology of the crania and innominates

present suggests at least six males and six

females are present. Two fifth metacarpals

and two left radius fragments show red col-

oring. One long bone fragment shows evi-

dence of post-mortem burning.

At least six subadults are represented,

with temporals and mandibles occuring

with greatest frequency. Dental data sug-

gest the following ages: birth, 9 months, 3

years, 7 years, 8 years and 15 years.

Feature 35.—Flexed primary skeleton.

Some cranial fragments were mistakenly

sent to Florida with the faunal remains. All

remaining skeletal materials are those of a

single subadult skeleton. Bones present are

the following: left and right humeri, right

radius, left and right ulna, left femur, right

clavicle, 16 ribs, 14 neural arches of verte-

brae, one occipital fragment and one de-

ciduous right lateral incisor showing slight

wear. The incisor and an estimated maxi-

mum length of a left femur of 120 mm, sug-

gest an age at death of about 18 months.

Feature 36.—Flexed primary skeleton.

All bones present appear to belong to one

subadult skeleton. Bones present are the

following: both humeri, both radi, both

femora, both tibiae, both fibulae, both

maxillae and both sides of the mandible.

All mandibular teeth are present except the

third molars. Maxillary teeth present are

the following: left lateral incisor (peg-

shaped), canine, one premolar, first molar,

and third molar; right central incisor, lat-

eral incisor (peg-shaped) canine, one pre-

molar, first molar, second molar and third

molar. One deciduous maxillary second

molar is also present, with extreme occlusal

wear and nearly complete loss of roots. The

dental calcification data suggest an age at

death of 10 years. One maxillary canine

shows hypoplasia at base of crown. No

other pathological condition was noted.

Feature 37.—Flexed primary skeleton.

This generally complete skeleton repre-

sents an adult. Female sex is suggested by

innominate morphology. The extent of

dental attrition suggests an age at death be-

tween 40 and 60 years. The estimated

length of the left femur (39.4 cm) indicates

a living stature of 149 cm (Genovées,

1967:76). A red stain occurs on both inter-

nal and external surfaces of the skull.

Feature 38.—Flexed primary skeleton.

This skeleton is complete and relatively

well preserved. Female sex is indicated by

innominate morphology. Pubic symphysis

morphology, cranial suture closure and the

lack of joint arthritic change suggest an age

at death of between 40 and 50 years. Maxi-

mum lengths of the right humerus (30.6

cm) and left radius (23.7 cm) indicate a liv-

ing stature of about 165 cm using Trotter

and Gleser’s formulae for Mongoloids and

Mexicans.

Feature 39.—Flexed primary skeleton.

Two adults and one subadult are repre-

sented by skeletal remains labeled from this

feature. Most of the adult remains are from

an adult male. Extreme dental attrition

suggests an age at death between 45 and 65

years. The estimated right femur length of

43.4 cm suggests a living stature of about

162 cm.

The second adult 1s represented only bya

right ulna, right hand navicular, right cap1-

tate, right hamate, both tali, and a right

foot navicular. Estimates of sex, age and

stature cannot be made.

The subadult is represented only by one

thoracic vertebra and one deciduous maxil-

lary second molar with slight occlusal

wear. These bones suggest an age between

four and six years.

Feature 40.—No field notes available.

Most bones present are from one infant

skeleton. Several small adult bones are

present as well. Subadult bones are the fol-

lowing: both humeri, right femur, both ti-

biae, one fibula, right clavicle, both tem-

porals, both maxillae, fragments from both

sides of the mandible, five neural arches of

vertebrae and one carpal or tarsal.

Dental formation data suggest an age at

death of one year.

The following adult bones are present:

right capitate, one middle hand phalanx,

one mandibular molar with crown nearly

worn away, and Several cranial fragments.

Feature 41.—Flexed primary skeleton.

This complete skeleton consists of an adult

female (cranial morphology). Union of

cranial sutures and dental attrition suggest

an age at death of 30 to 40 years. Estimated

length of the right femur of 350 mm sug-

gests a living stature of 138 cm. Red color-

ing occurs on the skull and some long

bones.

Feature 42. —Secondary burial. This bur-

ial consists of the following bones of prob-

ably one adult: Left humerus, right ulna,

both femora, tibia fragments, both tem-

porals and four teeth. Small mastoid proc-

esses on the temporals suggest female sex.

Dental attrition indicates an age between

35 and 45 years.

Feature 43.—Secondary burial. This sec-

ondary bone concentration contains at

least one adult and one subadult. The adult

consists of both humeri, both radii, left

ulna, right femur, right tibia, both fibulae,

left clavicle, both scapulae, mandible, left

innominate, right patella, three thoracic

vertebrae, left hand navicular, left first and

second metatarsals, right calcaneus, left

cuboid, right navicular, left second cunei-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

form, right third cuneiform, right fifth

metatarsal and most of the cranial vault.

Cranial morphology suggests male sex.

Lack of union of cranial vault sutures indi-

cates an age between 20 and 30 years. An

estimated left fibula length of 34.5 cm sug-

gests a stature of 163 cm, using Trotter and

Gleser’s 1958 formulae for Mongoloids

and-Mexicans.

The subadult is represented only by two

thoracic vertebrae and one maxillary right

permanent canine. The extent of develop-

ment of the canine sugyests an age of about

SIX years.

Feature 44. Secondary burial. Only frag-

ments of an adult mandible and right in-

nominate are present. Morphology of both

bones suggests male sex. The extreme den-

tal attrition suggests an age at death of 40

to 60 years.

Feature 45.—Secondary burial. The fol-

lowing bones of a single adult male are

present: both scapulae, mandible, three

_ vertebrae, five hand and foot bones and

three ribs. An age of between 30 and 40 is

suggested by dental attrition.

Feature 46.—Flexed primary skeleton.

This skeleton is generally complete. In-

nominate morphology suggests male sex.

Dental attrition and cranial suture closure

suggests an age between 30 and 40 years.

Maximum length of the left femur (43.7

cm) suggests a living stature of about 163

cm (Genoves, 1967:76).

Feature 47.—Articulated bones of tho-

racic area and other disarticulated bones.

Two adults are represented by first cervical

vertebrae. The following additional adult

bones represent one adult: right humerus,

right radius, left ulna, right femur, right ti-

bia, left clavicle, right scapula, maxilla,

mandible, gladiolus, right innominate, left

patella, second cervical vertebra, four other

cervical vertebrae, nine thoracics, three

lumbars, 24 hand bones, 33 foot bones and

14 ribs. Age at death for one adult Is esti-

mated at 25-35 years. No estimates of sex

or additional age estimates are possible.

One subadult is represented by one tho-

racic vertebra, one mandible and 11 teeth.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

Dental formation suggests an age at death

of 1.5 years.

Feature 48.—Secondary burial. The fol-

lowing adult bones of probably one indi-

vidual are present: left temporal, right in-

nominate, and 15 hand and foot bones.

Innominate morphology suggests male sex.

Dental attrition suggests an age between 25

and 35 years.

Feature 49.—Flexed primary skeleton.

Only both temporals, mandible and several

long bone fragments are present. An esti-

mated tibia maximum length of 75 mm

suggests an age at death between birth and

six months.

Feature 50.—Flexed primary skeleton. A

nearly complete subadult skeleton is pres-

ent. Dental formation data suggest an age

at death of about eight years.

Feature 51.—Flexed primary skeleton.

This feature represents a mostly complete

skeleton with an estimated age at death of

about 15 years. An adult right radius is also

present. According to field notes a “‘finger

bone” was found above the skull. The bone

is a middle second, third, fourth or fifth

hand phalanx.

Feature 52.—Not a burial.

Feature 53.—Not a burial.

Feature 54.—Flexed primary skeleton.

The following bones of one subadult are

present: right humerus, left and right ra-

dius, left femur, both tibiae, right fibula,

right clavicle, both temporals, six ribs, five

carpals and tarsals and four vertebrae.

Dental formation data suggest an age at

death of about nine years.

Feature 55.—Partially articulated skel-

eton. The following bones of this 28 to 30

year old male are present: right ulna, right

femur, both tibiae, left fibula, both scapu-

lae, both innominates, right patella, three

lumbar vertebrae, right fourth metacarpal,

four proximal hand phalanges, left calca-

neus, left second metatarsal, right third me-

tatarsal, right fifth metatarsal, one prox-

imal first foot phalanx, and one middle

foot phalanx.

Feature 56.—Group of disarticulated

bones. At least three adults and one infant

are represented within this group. Adult

bones present include two left and two

right humeri, one left and one right radius,

one left and two right ulnae, one left and

one right tibia, one left and one right fibula,

one left and one right clavicle, two left and

one right scapula, one left temporal, three

mandibles, one left and one right innomi-

nate, three lumbar vertebrae, one sacrum,

nine hand and foot bones and 15 ribs. At

least one male and one female are present.

Dental attrition on two mandibles suggests

ages at death of 25 to 30 years and 28 to 33

years.

One right humerus length of 282 mm

(probably from a male) suggests a living

stature of about 159 cm, using the formulae

of Trotter and Gleser (1958:120) for Mon-

goloid males. Using the same formulae, the

estimated length of a probable female right

humerus (273 mm) suggests a living stature

of about 156 cm.

One infant right temporal is also present.

Feature 57.—Articulated thoracic area

of skeleton. The following bones of a 25 to

30 year old male are present: right hume-

rus, right radius, left ulna, left tibia, both

temporals, the mandible, two lumbar ver-

tebrae, one proximal and one middle hand

phalanx and three ribs.

Feature 58.—Secondary bone deposit.

The following bones of one 30 to 35 year

old male are present: both humeri, both ra-

dii, both ulnae, both tibiae, one fibula, left

clavicle, both scapulae, mandible, left in-

nominate, left hand navicular, three prox-

imal hand phalanges, one middle hand

phalanx, one third metatarsal, one prox-

imal first foot phalanx, one other proximal

foct phalanx, and eight ribs.

Feature 59.—Primary skeleton. Only the

following adult bones are present: one right

radius, two right scapulae, one left lunate,

one proximal hand phalanx, one distal

hand phalanx, one left and one right talus,

one left foot navicular and one middle foot

phalanx. Attrition on teeth present sug-

gests an age at death for one adult of 25 to

30 years.

Feature 60.—Possible articulated sub-

adult skeleton. One infant temporal and

the following adult bones are present: one

left and one right humerus, one left femur,

one left clavicle, one right scapula, one left

and one right temporal, one left and one

right maxilla and one mandible. Morphol-

ogy of the skull suggests female sex. An age

at death of 25 to 30 years 1s indicated by the

dental attrition.

Features 61, 62, 63, and 64.—Not burials:

Feature 65.—Secondary burial. At least

two individuals are represented by the fol-

lowing bones: left ulna, left femur, left and

right tibia, left and right scapula, left and

right temporal, left and right maxilla, a

mandible, left and right innominate, right

patella, 10 vertebrae, two left and one right

calcaneus, and four other foot bones. Most

bones are from an adolescent male, age 17

to 19 years. Epiphyses are not united on the

proximal and distal left femur, but union

does occur on the distal tibia.

The second individual is represented by

the left calcaneus and maxilla.

Slight wear on a third molar suggests an

age between 23 and 28 years.

Feature 66.—Secondary burial. The fol-

lowing bones of a single adult individual

are present: left humerus, right femur, both

tibiae, left scapula, both temporals, mandi-

ble, left fifth metacarpal, and left navicular.

Cranial morphology suggests female sex.

Dental attrition indicates an age at death

between 45 and 60 years.

Feature 67.—Flexed primary skeleton.

Innominate morphology indicates this

generally complete skeleton is female. Den-

tal attrition data suggest an age at death of

25 to 30 years.

Feature 68.—Flexed primary skeleton.

This generally complete skeleton is that of

a child of about eight years. No estimate of

sex can be made.

Feature 69.—Not a burial.

Features 70 and 71.—Not excavated.

Feature 72.—Flexed primary skeleton.

This fragmentary, but generally complete

skeleton is adult. The small size of all bones

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

suggests female sex. Dental attrition data

suggest an age at death of between 40 and

60 years.

Features 73, 74 and 75.—Not burials.

Feature 76.—Secondary burial. Two in-

dividuals are represented: one adult and

one child. The adult is represented by both

humerli, the left ulna, both femora, both

temporals, the mandible, and six vertebrae.

The small size of the bone suggests female

sex. Dental attrition data indicate an age at

death of between 35 and 45 years.

The subadult is represented only by the

left humerus, left femur, both temporals,

the mandible and other long bone frag-

ments. Dental development data indicate

an age at death of about three years.

Feature 77.—Flexed primary skeleton.

The incomplete skeleton of an adult female

is present. Leg bones are missing. Dental

attrition data indicate an age at death of be-

tween 40 and 60 years.

Bone Representation

The above described skeletal analysis of

61 burial features suggests that at least 192

individuals are represented. This tabula-

tion assumes that individual skeletons are

not represented in more than one feature.

In fact, there probably has been some mix-

ing, especially among those features asso-

ciated with 25a and 25b. The effect of such

possible comingling on bone counts is

offset by the fact that due to excessive

fragmentation, the individual bone counts

are minimal. The data show that primary

burials contained both sexes and all ages.

Secondary burials ranged from several

bones of single individuals to large com-

munal burials of as many as 38 persons

(feature 25a).

The pattern of bone representation within

the secondary burials is similar to that re-

ported for other large secondary burials

(Ubelaker, 1974; Ubelaker, in press). Among

adults, the temporal bone, particularly the

durable petrous portion, is present in great-

est frequency, followed by the largest long

bones and the mandible. For the most part,

these frequencies reflect the ability of the

bone to survive, rather than cultural selec-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

tion of bones to be buried, although the lat-

ter may also be a factor.

The subadult individual bone represen-

tation clearly reflects the effects of decom-

position and fragmentation. Among sub-

adult bones within feature 25 and 11

associated other features, 41 individuals

are represented by the petrous portion of

the temporal, while only seven are repre-

sented by other bones. Since the sample is

so effected by preservation factors, the ef-

fects of cultural selection on the types of

bones buried can not be detected.

Although numbers of specific bones have

been effected by preservation, it does not

appear that the sample Is greatly biased.

The sample contains both adults (122) and

subadults (70). Adult skeletons that can be

sexed show a relatively even representation

of males (55) and females (63). As expected,

ages of the subadult skeletons are mostly

less than three years.

Artificial Modifications of the Skeleton

No examples of cranial deformation were

found, although many skulls were so dam-

aged that observations on cranial shape

were not possible. At least 55 crania were

reconstructed to the extent that such ob-

servations were possible and none of these

show any evidence of deformation. This

supports Munizaga’s (1976) suggestion that

artificial deformation did not begin in

Ecuador until about 2000 B.c.

Examples of artificial dental modifica-

tion and metatarsophalangeal alterations

also were not found. The latter occurred

with relatively high frequencies in Ayalan

(coastal Ecuador) females (Ubelaker, 1979)

and probably reflects habitual kneeling

posture.

Living Stature

Estimates of living stature were made for

8 males and 14 females. When measure-

ments of the femur and tibia were availa-

ble, estimates were made using the formu-

lae of Genoves (1967). Trotter and Gleser’s

1958 formulae were employed when avail-

able measurements were from other long

bones. Male statures range from 153 cm to

170 cm and average 161 cm. This is slightly

taller than the 159 cm stature of the Late

Integration Period Ayalan urn and non-

urn features (Ubelaker, in press); but shorter

than that recently suggested for a Valdivia

sample from Real Alto (Klepinger, unpub-

lished manuscript). Female statures ranged

from 138 to 165 cm with a mean of 149 cm.

The mean is the same as that found in both

Ayalan samples and only one cm shorter

than that of Valdivia.

Measurements and Observations

Non-metric observations were recorded

on the crania and mandibles (Table 1)

using the same techniques as employed in

analyzing the Ayalan sample (Ubelaker, in

press). Females show higher frequencies of

frontal grooves, and supraorbital foram-

ina, while males have more wormian bones.

Other sex differences are not pronounced.

Interpopulation comparison is limited to

the Ayalan sample, since data are not

available for others. The Sta Elena sample

shows a greater frequency of squamoparie-

tal synostosis (9 percent) than found in the

Ayalan urn (2 percent) or non-urn (0 per-

cent) samples. The Ayalan urn sample

shows a higher frequency of frontal grooves,

infraorbital sutures, and wormian bones.

Other differences between the samples are

either negligible or are based on such small

sample sizes that comparison is meaning-

less. The usefullness of these observations

in assessing biological relationships within

Ecuador and neighboring areas must await

additional comparative data from other

samples and larger sample sizes.

Summary statistics on cranial and man-

dibular measurements are presented in

Table 2. As expected, most male measure-

ments and indices are larger than those of

females. Male and female mean cranial in-

dices are mesocranic, although they range

from dolichocranic to brachycranic in males

and even hyperbrachycranic in females.

The mean porion height index is well

within the high range for both males and

females.

Table 1.—Frequency of non-metric observations within the Sta. Elena sample.

Males Females Both Sexes

Percent Percent Percent

Observation n present n present n present

Mylohyoid bridge 10 0 24 0 81 2

Accessory mental foramen jl 0 27 0 66 0

Frontal groove 31 0 42 17 83 8

Supraorbital foramen 29 Si 39 41 88 30

Trochlear spur 9 0 17 0 26 0

Accessory optic canal 2 0 4 0 6 0

Infraorbital suture 0 0 a 0 4 0

Os Japonicum trace 0 0 2 0 2 0

Wormian bones 34 26 36 0 74 12

Parietal process of temporal squama 11 0 27 0 40 0

Squamoparietal synostosis a 4 40 13 65 9

Auditory exotoses 16 0 39 0 109 0

Pharyngeal fossa l 0 4 0 5 0

Paracondylar process 2 0 5 0 7 0

Intermediate condylar canal 2 0 3 0 5 0

Odonto-occipital articulation l 0 3 0 4 0

Hypoglossal canal divided | 2 0 D 0 4 0

Post condylar canal absent 2 0 4 0 6 0

Marginal foramen of tympanic plate 8 13 30 5 58 5

Tympanic plate dehiscence 10 20 Sy 16 85 24

Foramen in lateral pterygoid plate 0 0 4 0 4 0

Pterygobasal bridge 0 0 2 0 2 0

Foramen spinosum incomplete 0 0 2 0 2 0

Pterygospinous bridge 0 0 2 0 2 0

Maxillary third molar 9 78 10 100 3) 94

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

Table 2.—Summary statistics of Sta. Elena cranial and mandibular measurements and indices.

Measurement or Index n Mean

Auricular height 6 IDL

Porion to bregma 6 120.5

Length G “leks

Breadth 140.7

Basion—bregma 139.0

Basion—porion 32.0

Minimum frontal breadth 12 94.6

Upper facial height — —

Facial width — —_

Nasal height — =

Nasal breadth == =

Orbital height = —

Orbital breadth == =

Maxillo—alveolar length _ —

Maxillo—alveolar breadth — —

Palatal length _ —

Palatal breadth

Bicondylar breadth

Bigonial breadth

Height of ascending ramus

Minimum breadth ascending ramus

Height mandibular symphysis

Facial height

Cranial index

Mean porion height index

— —

on | ae oa |

More data are available for interpopula-

tion comparison using measurements than

with non-metric observations, however

small sample sizes and inconsistency in

techniques limit any resulting conclusions

regarding population affinities. Compari-

son (Table 3) is possible with the Real Alto

Valdivia III phase sample, dating about

2920 B.C. to 2770 B.c. (Klepinger, 1979 and

unpublished manuscript), Buena Vista,

Valdivia C sample dating about 1400 to

2000 B.c. (Munizaga, 1965), the Ayalan

non-urn sample (500 B.c.-A.D. 1155) and

the Ayalan urn sample (A.D. 730-A.D. 1600),

(Ubelaker, in press). Compared to these

samples, Sta. Elena males show larger

mean values for the mean porion height

index, auricular height, porion-bregma

height, cranial length, basion-bregma

height, basion-porion height, minimum

frontal breadth and bigonial breadth. Male

crania from Sta. Elena have the smallest

mean value in bicondylar breadth.

Sta. Elena females show the largest mean

values for cranial length, bigonial breadth,

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

Males

Females

SD: Range n Mean — 792): Range

547 112-128 17 fee2 6.2 100-127

6 PV =12 8» 6+ 113:2 6.9 94-124

8.6 171-202 26 8173.8 5.4 163-186

IP? 130-156 24 8 138.0 TOY ee 125=152

— -- 3 130.7 95 120-138

-— _— 3 38.0 6.1 34-45

5:5 84-104 20 89.8 4.6 83-95

— — 3 68.3 9.6 58-77

— — 5. 12934 3 125-133

— _ 2 46.0 57 42-50

— _ 4 eis 6.3 22-37

— — 4 B55 6.6 31-45

— — 5 38.2 1.6 36-40

— — >) So 3.3 48-57

— — 6 56.2 4.8 52-64

— -- 5 43.0 4.7 38-48

—_ — 6 38.5 1s) 37-41

— _ 5 117.4 4.] 112-120

— — 8 94.8 5.4 88-101

4.2 55-66 13 56.2 3.1 52-62

5.8 27-49 We) 30.2 po 26-35

Boi, 30-41 10 329 218 29-36

— — 2etut0720 [ehe3 99-115

3.8 69-84 23 79.0 4.6 71-86

D3 73-79 15 73.6 2.8 69-78

height of the mandibular ascending ramus,

and height of the mandibular symphysis.

Females from Sta. Elena show the smallest

mean values for the minimum breadth of

the mandibular ascending ramus, auricular

height; and porion-bregma height.

When the samples are arranged tempo-

rally, the data suggest a gradual increase in

cranial width and a decrease in cranial

length and height. This is especially appar-

ent in males, but also detectable in females.

Of course, confirmation of this trend must

await larger, better preserved samples from

other sites.

It is especially difficult to assess biologi-

cal relationships from such small and in-

complete samples. Mean values for only

four measurements or indices (cranial

length, cranial breadth, minimum frontal

breadth, and cranial index) are available

for all five of the coastal Ecuador samples

discussed here. Since complete sets of data

are not available for even these four varia-

bles, multivariate statistics are not applica-

ble. A crude assessment of biological affini-

Table 3.—Comparison of mean values of cranial and mandibular measurements and indices among five

skeletal samples from coastal Ecuador.

Ayalan Ayalan

Sta. Elena Real Alto Buena Vista Non-urn Urn

Measurement Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female

Auricular height | ae es A — — _ — 120 =120 121 walks

Porion to bregma 121 113 — — 120° 114 Ee 117s: 114

Length 182 e174 17 6r RSE OMS ES N72 Mh 65 1728 96s

Breadth 14] 138 140, 133), 145 "5146 143 +142 148 38143

Basion—bregma 189) eels [3450 a1D7 — — — — 131 130

Basion—porion 32 38 — — — — — — 16 17

Minimum frontal breadth 95 90 92 89 91 94 93 98 92 89

Upper facial height — 68 — — _— — — — 7 66

Facial width _— 129 — — — — — — 136°) 130

Nasal height — 46 — — — — — — a 49

Nasal breadth _ 28 —_ — _ — _ — 24 24

Orbital height — 36 — — — — — — 35 35

Orbital breadth — 38 —_ — — — — _ 39 40

Maxillo—aveolar length — 53 _— — — — a2 57 53 50

Maxillo—aveolar breadth — 56 — — — — — — 66 60

Palatal length — 43 — — — — — — 49 43

Palatal breadth — 39 —_ — _ — = — 40 39

Bicondylar breadth iSyarerl 7 1237 eles _— — 120.5 > LO 2 120

Bigonial breadth 108 95 95 83 _— ~~ 101 91 101 92

Height of ascending ramus 61 56 €0 52 _ _— 62 55 60 54

Minimum breadth of asc. ramus 33 30 — — —_ — 34 33 34 32

Height of mandibular sym. 35 33 33 32 — — 35 30 35 31

Facial height — 107 — _— — 160 — IZ 107

Cranial index Tt 79 81 id 80.7 84.8 87 85 86 87

Mean porion height index TF 74 — — TOM sg Tes) 75 1D 74 74

ties among these samples can be made

however, by calculating the percentage dif-

ference between the mean value of each

variable in the Sta. Elena sample and the

same variable for each of the other sam-

ples. For males, these differences total 12

for the Sta. Elena-Real Alto comparison;

14 for Sta. Elena-Buena Vista; 22 for Sta.

Elena-Ayalan, non-urns; and 25 for Sta.

Elena urns. The comparison of course does

not consider sample size and variability

around the mean, and thus is only a very

crude and possibly inexact measure of

sample relationships. The comparison does

tentatively suggest closest affinity with Real

Alto, followed closely by Buena Vista, and

then the two Ayalan samples. Since this or-

dering also approximates the known tem-

poral relationships, it may have meaning.

Females reveal the same pattern. Com-

parisons with the four other samples show

the following differences: Real Alto 9,

Buena Vista 19, Ayalan non-urns 20, and

Ayalan urns 20.

Demography

Accurate demographic reconstruction

from human skeletal remains is dependent

upon adequate sampling of the prehistoric

population described, and accurate age

determination. This sample appears to

contain individuals in all age categories

and both sexes, however subtle sampling

problems may exist, but remain undetected.

The population may not have buried all

types of individuals in the cemetery or in

the excavated part of the cemetery. Preser-

vation may have affected the proportions

of subadults present. Erosion and non-

professional excavation prior to 1971 may

also have produced undetected sources of

error. Age determination is accurate within

this sample until the age of about 40 years.

After that age, accuracy diminishes consid-

erably, especially since estimates from cor-

tical thin sections are not possible. Ages of

old adults were estimated to be between 50

and 60 years, although it is certainly possible

that some may be older.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

Table 4.—Life table, reconstructed from the Sta. Elena skeletal sample.

x Dx dx Ix

0-.9 28 iTS) 100

1.0-4.9 19 10 85

5.0-9.9 13 i! 75

10.0-14.9 5 D 68

15.0-19.9 5 2 66

20.0-24.9 5 2 64

25.0-29.9 36 19 62

30.0-34.9 15 8 43

35.0-39.9 19 10 35

40.0-44.9 21 1] DS

45.0-49.9 10 5 14

50.0-54.9 15 8 9

55.0-59.9 | ] |

With the above assumptions and limita-

tions in consideration, age and sex data for

this sample were compiled and arranged

for standard demographic analysis. The

data show that sex was estimated for 118 of

the 122 adults, with both sexes present in

nearly equal proportions (55 males and 63

females). Ages at death were estimated for

only 30 males and 29 females. Mean female

age at death (38 years) is slightly higher

than the male value (34 years).

A life table (Table 4) was reconstructed

using the methodology of Acsadi and

Nemeskéri (1970) and Ubelaker (1974,

1978). Estimated ages at death are avail-

able for all 70 individuals less than 20 years

at death, however ages at death were esti-

mated for only 75 of the 122 adults. To in-

sure that all adults are included in the life

table, the number of adults in each five year

age interval was multiplied by 1.63 and the

resulting percentages of adults in each

category were adjusted to equal 100. The

factor of 1.63 reflects the ratio of adults

with estimated ages to total adults in the

qx ex ax ox

. 150000 BS 2538 25

.117647 320 2445 29

.093333 358 2125 28

.029412 355 1767 26

.030303 525 1432 22

031250 315 1107 17

306452 263 792 13

. 186047 195 529 12

.285714 150 334 10

.440000 98 184 7

.357143 58 86 6

.888889 D5 28 3

1.000000 3 3 3

sample. The resulting life table shows a life

expectancy at birth of about 25 years, and

at one year of about 29 years. The table

suggests greater life expectancy at birth at

this site than found at either Real Alto

(Klepinger, 1979) or at Ayalan (Ubelaker,

in press). Table 5 also compares adult life

expectancy and longevity for these sam-

ples, with the adult life expectancy data

showing little variability. The longevity

data are difficult to interpret due to the dif-

ficulties in estimating age for adult skele-

tons with an age at death greater than 35

years.

Pathology

Skeletal evidence of disease in this sam-

ple is of three types; fractures resulting

from trauma, periosteal lesions on long

bone shafts, and dental disease (carious le-

sions, alveolar abscesses and antemortem

tooth loss).

Some pathological lesions may have been

overlooked due to the excessive fragmenta-

tion of the material. Consequently, the

Table 5.—Demographic comparison of the Sta. Elena, Real Alto, and Ayalan samples.

Sta. Elena

Statistic (7000 B.c.)

Life expectancy (birth) 25

Life expectancy (age 20) 17

Maximum longevity 60

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

Site and Approximate Date

Ayalan

Real Alto non-urn um

(2,500 B.c.) (A.D. 700) (A.D. 1200)

21 19 23

17 15 21

80 55 75

presented frequencies of lesions observed

may be minimal, and examples of certain

kinds of lesions may have gone unnoticed.

Trauma.—Skeletal evidence for trauma

in this sample is confined to 11 examples

from four features, all consisting of healed

fractures. The following list describes these

11 examples, in the numerical order of the

features they are associated with. All frac-

tures are well remodeled and occur on

adult bones.

Feature 11: midshaft of a right fourth

metacarpal.

Feature 11: midshaft of a right fifth

metacarpal.

Feature 25a: left clavicle, near the lat-

eral end.

Fig. 1. Comparison of right radius segment from feature 25a displaying pseudoarthrosis (non-union frac-

ture) with a modern normal right radius.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

Feature 25a: right clavicle, near the lat-

eral end.

Feature 25a: left ulna shaft; fracture oc-

curred about 80 mm from distal end (Fig. 1).

Feature 25a: right fifth metatarsal;

slightly misaligned.

Feature 25a: midshaft of proximal hand

phalanx.

Feature 25a: compression fracture of

left talus with considerable eburnation (in-

dicative of cartilage destruction and direct

bone contact) on the tibial articular surface.

Feature 25a: distal end of left humerus.

Extreme distal end of bone is not present,

but remodeling apparently involved most

of the distal articular surface.

Feature 25a: unhealed (pseudoarthro-

sis) fracture in midshaft of right radius

(Fig. 1). Only the distal segment (93 mm in

length) is present, but it displays evidence

of extensive remodeling and non-union of

the two segments. |

_ Feature 34: proximal third of radius

shaft.

Note that most fractures (9 of 11) involve

bones of the upper extremeties. Those in-

volving the radius and ulna are midshaft

fractures, rather than the Colles’ fractures

of the distal ends which were predomi-

nately found in the Ayalan samples (Ube-

laker, in press). This indicates that the frac-

tures more probably resulted from blows to

the arms rather than falls. The number of

fractures per adult individual is only .09.

This is substantially less than the Ayalan

figures of .13 (urn sample) and .18 (non-urn

sample).

Infectious disease.—Skeletal evidence of

infectious disease in this sample consists of

well remodeled deposits of periosteal bone

on nine long bone shafts. The bone loca-

tions of the lesions and the features they are

from are as follows: distal fibula shaft from

Feature 18; fibula midshaft, distal right ra-

dius shaft, and medial surface of a left third

metatarsal from feature 25a (Fig. 2); mid-

shaft area of two tibiae from Feature 25b;

midshaft of right tibia and lateral surface of

left metatarsal from feature 34; and the

anterior midshaft of a left tibia from Fea-

ture 56.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

Fig. 2. Lesion on medial surface of a left third

metatarsal from feature 25a.

Ten of the 11 examples are from bones of

the lower legs. This distribution is similar

to that found in the Ayalan sample, where

over 50 percent of 29 lesions present were

found on lower leg bones. However in the

Ayalan samples lesions occurred on the

femur,ulna and vertebrae in addition to the

ulna and lower leg bones.

The number of bones showing such le-

sions per each adult individual in the Sta.

Elena sample 1s .09. One of the Ayalan ex-

amples is from an urn sample subadult.

The remaining twenty-eight adult exam-

ples suggest that the number of bones with

lesions per each adult individual is .14 in

the urn sample and .041n the non-urn sam-

ple, with a combined sample ratio of .13.

Dental disease.—Data were collected on

three categories of dental disease: carious

lesions, alveolar abscesses and non-con-

genital ante-mortem tooth loss. Once again

these data are incomplete and subject to

varied interpretation. Most teeth were sepa-

rated from their mandibular or maxillary

origins prior to analysis, thus it was not

possible to discuss sex or age associations

or even to assess complete dental disease in

any one individual. Most of the maxillae

and many of the mandibles were missing or

incomplete, and those present frequently

could not be associated with other cranial

or post-cranial parts.

Table 6 summarizes data on the fre-

quency of dental caries. Fifty-five (three

Table 6.—Frequency of carious lesions in

permanent fully erupted teeth in the Sta.

Elena sample.

No. No. YX

Tooth Group Present Carious Carious

Maxillary

incisors 164 | <<l

canines 126 4 3

premolars 25) 6 2

molars 436 21 5

Mandibular

IncISOrs 124 0 0

canines 118 2 D)

premolars 246 l <I

molars 524 20 4

Total 1989 55 3

percent) of the 1,989 permanent teeth ex-

amined displayed some form of carious le-

sion. These lesions were evenly distributed

between the upper and lower teeth, but

were primarily concentrated in posterior

teeth. The distribution of carious lesions

within the mouth 1s nearly identical to that

found in both Ayalan samples, although

the overall frequency is much lower in Sta.

Elena (three percent vs. 11 percent in Aya-

lan urns and eight percent in Ayalan non-

urns). Note however, that the Sta. Elena

frequency is higher than that found in the

Buena Vista Valdivia sample (0 percent) or

a Machalilla sample (2.2 percent), both re-

ported by Turner (1978).

Only ten examples of active alveolar ab-

scesses were found, six in the maxilla and

four in the mandible. The maxillary ab-

scesses were associated with four first mo-

lars, one first premolar and one second

premolar. The four mandibular abscesses

were associated with one right central inci-

sor, one left central incisor, one left second

premolar, and one right first molar. All of

the abscesses were probably produced by

attrition exposing the pulp cavity of the

tooth. The percentage of teeth present

which display associated alveolar abscesses

is only one percent, compared to four per-

cent of Ayalan urn teeth and three percent

of Ayalan non-urn teeth.

At least 102 permanent teeth were miss-

ing antemortem. Twenty-one maxillary

teeth were missing: one incisor, six premo-

lars and 14 molars. Eighty-one mandibular

teeth were missing: eight incisors, one ca-

nine, eight premolars, and 64 molars. The

percentage of missing teeth in this sample is

six, where n (1661) is equal to the number

of teeth present (1559) and the number ab-

sent antemortem (102). This figure is sub-

stantially lower than the 15 percent and 13

percent documented for the Ayalan urn

and non-urn samples (Ubelaker, in press).

Hypoplasia.—Only seven permanent

teeth in this sample display enamel hypo-

plasia: one maxillary canine and one man-

dibular canine from features 25a and b, two

maxillary canines from feature 36 and one

maxillary incisor and two maxillary ca-

nines from material removed from the site

in 1971. The location of the defects suggests

they were formed at an age of about three

years. Note that in the Ayalan study, six

percent of the urn sample teeth and one

percent of the non-urn sample teeth have

hypoplastic defects, while less than one

percent of the Sta. Elena teeth have them.

No other examples of pathology were

noted in this sample. The absences of con-

genital disorders and porotic hyperostosis

are especially noteworthy, in comparison

with the Ayalan samples. Due to the frag-

mentary nature of much of this sample,

data could not be collected on joint surface

degeneration, lines of arrested growth in

long bones, and other areas of pathology

that would normally be of interest.

Summary

The above analysis is severely limited by

the extreme bone fragmentation and bone

surface erosion. The effect of this condition

is especially apparent in the bone inven-

tories of large secondary features, where

the largest and most durable bones occur

with greatest frequency.

In spite of this considerable limitation,

the data do provide an important, initial

look at the early skeletal biology on the

coast of Ecuador and after comparison

with later samples, allow for tenuous but il-

luminating suggestions of temporal trends

in prehistoric Ecuadorean biology. As ex-

pected, no cranial deformation and no ex-

amples of artificial dental modification

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

were found. The lack of metatarsophalan-

geal alterations in this sample probably in-

dicates that a difference in postural habits

existed between the Sta. Elena and Ayalan

samples. Much of the Ayalan sample, espe-

cially females, displayed modifications of

the foot bones which indicates habitual

kneeling posture, with hyperdorsiflexion of

the toes. Lack of these facets in the Sta.

Elena sample suggests that habitual resting

or work posture probably did not involve

hyperdorsiflexion of the toes.

Estimates of living stature show little

change through time. Statures estimated

for the Late Integration Ayalan sample,

Valdivia Real Alto sample and this prece-

ramic sample all are about 160 cm for

males and 150 cm for females.

Cranial and mandibular measurements,

observations and indices are presented

where possible, although the sophistication

of comparison is limited because of the

very small samples and incompleteness of

the data. Metric univariate comparison

with other coastal Ecuadorian samples, es-

pecially males, does suggest a temporal de-

crease in cranial length, cranial height,

frontal breadth and the mandibular bi-

gonial breadth. Cranial breadth and index

appear to increase through time. Although

cranial index is smaller than in the other

samples, the mean Sta. Elena values are

still classified within the mesocranic cate-

gory. Interpopulation comparison within

the Sta. Elena, Real Alto, Buena Vista and

Ayalan samples was possible for only four

measurements and indices which do not in-

clude any measure of height or any mea-

surements of the face or cranial base. In a

crude comparison of the means of these

four measurements, the Sta. Elena sample

shows a greater affinity for the Real Alto

and Buena Vista samples than to Ayalan.

This is expected since the Sta. Elena site is

closer temporally and geographically to

these sites than to Ayalan.

Demographic and pathological inferences

from the Sta. Elena sample generally match

with those expected from a pre-intensive-

agriculture population. Comparison with

the later samples generally reveals the

expected deleterious effects of intensive

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

agriculture on the population. Demographic

reconstruction shows greater life expectancy

at birth at Sta. Elena (25 years) than at any

of the later sites, for which such informa-

tion is available. Comparison with Ayalan

reveals a substantial temporal increase in

Skeletal indications of infectious disease,

fractures, and all aspects of dental disease.

The number of periosteal lesions for each

adult skeleton increased from .09 in the

Sta. Elena sample to .13 inan Ayalan com-

bined sample. The same ratio of fractures

increased from .09 to .18 in the Ayalan urn

sample. Caries frequency increased from

three percent of all teeth examined in the

Sta. Elena sample to about 11 percent in

the Ayalan urn sample. Similarly in the

same samples, frequencies of alveolar ab-

scesses increased from one percent to four

percent, antemortem tooth loss increased

from six percent to 15 percent and dental

hypoplasia increased from less than one

percent to six percent. No examples of po-

rotic hyperostosis were found, whereas in

Ayalan, the ratio of bones showing such

lesions to the total number of individuals in

the sample was .07 inthe urn sample and .08

in the non-urn sample. Munizaga (1965) also

found evidence for it on four of ten Buena

Vista crania. Numerous investigators have

suggested that porotic hyperostosis in the

New World probably results from vitamin

deficiency anemia brought about by exces-

sive dietary dependence upon maize. There-

fore it is not surprising that it is absent in

the Sta. Elena sample.

Due to the fragmentary condition of the

sample, inferences from the Sta. Elena skele-

tons must be regarded as tenuous. Collec-

tively however, in comparison with later

samples, they seem to document the nega-

tive effects of a reliance upon intensive

agriculture. The data suggest that effects of

agriculture in prehistoric Ecuador may

have been similar to those documented in

other parts of the New World.

Acknowledgments

I thank my wife Maruja and research assis-

tant Stephanie Damadio for their consid-

erable assistance in data collection, Victor

Krantz of the Smithsonian Division of

Photographic Services for preparing the

illustrations, Katherine J. Holland for typing

much of the final manuscript, Olaf Holm of

the Banco Central in Guayaquil for all of

his help in making project arrangements and

encouraging publication, Hernan Crespo

Torral of the Banco Central in Quito for his

considerable cooperation in _ providing

research facilities in Quito, and Karen

Stothert for the invitation to work on the

skeletal materials she excavated. Special

thanks are also due the families of Carlos

Heymann Alban, Jaime Andrade Heymann,

and Jaime Andrade Moscoso for all of their

help and cooperation while we worked in

Ecuador.

References Cited

Acsadi, Gy, and J. Nemeskeri. 1970. History of Human

Life Span and Mortality. Akademiai Kiado.

Budapest.

Genoves, Santiago. 1967. Proportionality of the Long

Bones and their Relation to Stature Among Meso-

americans. American Journal of Physical Anthropol-

ogy, Vol. 26, pp. 67-77.

Klepinger, Linda L. ——. Reporte Preliminar sobre

los Esqueletos del Sitio Formativo Temprano del

Real Alto, Ecuador. Submitted for publication at

the Museo Antropologico del Banco Central del

Ecuador, Guayaquil.

.1979. Paleodemography of the Valdivia III

Phase at Real Alto, Ecuador. American Antiquity,

vol. 44, no. 2, pp. 305-309.

Merchant, Virginia L., and Douglas H. Ubelaker. 1977.

Skeletal Growth of the Protohistoric Arikara.

American Journal of Physical Anthropology, Vol. 46,

No. 1, pp. 61-72.

Munizaga, Juan R. 1965. Skeletal Remains from sites

of Valdivia and Machalilla Phases. Appendix 2 in

Early Formative Period of Coastal Ecuador: The

Valdivia and Machalilla Phases by Betty J. Meggers,

Clifford Evans, and Emilio Estrada. Smithsonian

Contributions to Anthropology, Vol. 1, Smithsonian

Institution, Washington, D.C.

. 1976. Intentional Cranial Deformation in the

Pre-Columbian Populations of Ecuador. Ameri-

can Journal of Physical Anthropology, Vol. 45, pp.

687-694.

Stothert, Karen E. 1977. Proyecto Paleoindio, In-

forme Preliminar. Publicaciones del Museo Antro-

pologico del Banco Central. Guayaquil.

Trotter, Mildred, and Goldine C. Gleser. 1958. A Re-

evaluation of Estimation of Stature Based on Meas-

urements of Stature Taken During Life and of Long

Bones after Death. American Journal Of Physical

Anthropology, Vol. 16, pp. 79-123.

Turner, Christy G. II. 1978. Dental Caries and Early

Ecuadorian Agriculture. American Antiquity, vol.

43, no. 4, pp. 694-697.

Ubelaker, D. H. 1974. Reconstruction of Demo-

graphic Profiles from Ossuary Skeletal Samples:

A Case Study from the Tidewater Potomac. Smith-

sonian Contributions to Anthropology, No. 18.

Washington, D.C.

. 1978. Human Skeletal Remains, Excavation

Analysis, Interpretation. Aldine Publishing Co.,

Chicago.

.1979. Skeletal Evidence for Kneeling in Pre-

historic Ecuador. American Journal of Physical An-

thropology, Vol. 51, no. 4, pp. 679-685.

. In press. The Ayalan Cemetery, A Late Inte-

gration Period Burial Site on the South Coast of

Ecuador. Accepted for publication in Smithsonian

Contributions to Anthropology Series, Smithson-

ian Institution, Washington, D.C.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

Descriptions of new Tephritidae (Diptera) from Israel. II.

Amnon Freidberg’

Department of Zoology, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University,

Tel Aviv, Israel 69978

ABSTRACT

Euarestella pninae n. sp., Tephritis bimaculata n. sp., T. hurvitzin. sp. and T. jabeliae n. sp.

are described from Israel and nearby areas. T. hurvitzi ranges from Greece to Israel and Uzbek

5.0. .

The present paper is the latest in a series

of recent papers dealing with the taxonomy

of Israeli Tephritidae (Freidberg, 1974,

1979a, 1979b, 1980; Kugler and Freidberg,

1975). This series serves as a preliminary

study toward a comprehensive taxonomic

treatment of the Israeli fauna (Freidberg

and Kugler, in preparation). All the holo-

types and most paratypes are deposited in

the Department of Zoology, Tel Aviv Uni-

versity. Paratypes of the three Tephritis

species will also be deposited in the British

Museum (Natural History), London and

the National Museum of Natural History,

Washington, D.C.

Genus Euarestella Hendel

Euarestella Hendel 1927: 174. Type species, 7rypeta

megacephala Loew, by original designation.

In addition to the type species, megace-

phala, from Sicily, Hendel (1927) included

in Euarestella an Egyptian species, Eua-

resta iphionae Efflatoun. Hering (1937:

260) described Euarestella abyssinica from

Ethiopia, and Freidberg (1974: 56) de-

scribed Evarestella kugleri from Israel and

the Sinai.

The inclusion of the following new spe-

cies in Evarestella broadens the concept of

this already heterogeneous genus. The

genus, as now recognized, comprises three

‘This research was supported by the Fauna

Palaestina Committee, Israel Academy of Sciences

and Humanities.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

elements. The type species plus the new

species, E. pninae, are apparently closely

related and form one group. The second

group is made up of E. iphionae and E.

kugleri, which are even more similar to

each other than are the species of the first

group; however, they are not too closely

related to the type species and perhaps have

greater affinities to Goniurellia Hendel.

The third element is E. abyssinica by itself.

Although its wing pattern Is similar to that

of E. megacephala, its longer and angular

head and short lower squama detract from

its congeneric status with the other species

of the genus.

Euarestella pninae Freidberg, new species

(igo)

Head.-Length-height-width ratio 5.7:7.5:10.0.

Frons convex, 2.9 times as wide as eye, 7/; as long as

width at vertex, slightly narrower anteriorly; frontal

stripe bare or with few fine, yellowish, inconspicuous

hairs at anterior margin; lunule large; parafacial

almost linear; gena as wide as antenna; face slightly

concave; epistome slightly or moderately projecting:

antenna distinctly shorter than face, 3rd segment

about 1.6 times as long as wide, rounded at apex;

arista microscopically pubescent; proboscis capitate,

palp normal; 2 upper, 3 lower fronto-orbital bristles;

anterior lower fronto-orbital bristle about half as long

as the other 2 and usually paler, but not distinctly lan-

ceolate; ocellar bristle as long as anterior upper fronto-

orbital bristle; ocellar, inner vertical, anterior upper

fronto-orbital, lower fronto-orbital and genal bristles

acuminate and brownish, the others lanceolate and

whitish. Head yellowish to brownish, 3rd segment of

antenna, proboscis and apex of palp sometimes

brown; ““V” marking on upper occiput, ocellar spot

and slender part of arista dark brown to black; most

parts very lightly pollinose; pubescence yellowish.

Figs. 1-4: Left wings of Tephritidae: 1, Euarestella pninae Freidberg, n. sp.; 2, Tephritis bimaculata Freid-

berg, n. sp.; 3, T. jabeliae Freidberg, n. sp.; 4, T. Aurvitzi Freidberg, n. sp.

Thorax.—Mesonotum slightly wider than long; scu-

tellum triangular, short and rather convex; chaeto-

taxy complete; bristles acuminate, brownish; poste-

rior notopleural and pteropleural whitish; dorso-

centrals situated on, or somewhat anterior to, line of

anterior supra-alars. Only basal scutellar bristle pres-

ent; pubescence whitish, coarse; pollinosity gray, with

yellowish tinge, distinctly yellow on yellow parts:

ground color of mesonotum, except more or less

broad lateral margin, of scutellum, except margin and

apex, and of large spots on pleura black; occasionally

scutellum blackened only at extreme base, and only

sternopleuron and hypopleuron with black spots;

squamae white, with yellow margin; halter yellow.

Legs.—Normal in shape and bristling; yellow, with

whitish to brownish pubescence and bristles.

Wing (Fig. 1).—Stigma about twice as long as wide;

distance between crossveins slightly longer than r-m

crossvein; vein ry+s ending at wing apex, bare; cell CuP

with a small point; costal spine very small. Pattern:

almost uniform reticulation, more pronounced at

anterior half of wing; stigma brown except at base;

hyaline spots at anterior part of wing usually as wide

as cells; cell R; with 3 hyaline spots, cell R3 with 5-6

spots, cell BR with 2 spots in apical half, cell D with 3

spots, cell Rs with 2 large spots in basal half, then 3-4

smaller spots in 2 rows and a large apical spot, the

small spots sometimes united with each other or with

2nd basal spot; apical fork more or less developed; cell

M usually with 5 spots in 2 rows, cell CuA, with 6-8

spots in 2 rows, axillary lobe completely reticulate.

Abdomen.—Subshiny, with light gray pollinosity,

with whitish pubescence and brown bristles; terga

vary from almost entirely black with narrow yellow

posterior margin to mainly yellow with black spots at

anterior and lateral margins; 6th tergum of female

about as long as 5th. Genitalia: 9th tergum of male

elongate oval; each twisted rod with 2 posterior spic-

ules in addition to 2 inner prensisetae; phallotheca very

short; vesica very long; oviscape shiny brownish yel-

low, with dark brown to black base, dorsum about as

long as combined length of last 2 terga; pubescence

brownish, fine and sparse, sometimes whitish at base.

Size.—Length of wing: 2.6-3.7 mm; length of ovis-

cape (ventrally): 0.6-1.0 mm.

Material examined.—Holotype o, allo-

type 9 and 1c, 3Q Q@ paratypes, Israel,

Ein Feshkha, emerged on 27-28.III.1977

and 4-5.1V.1977 from Pulicaria undulata

(L.) Kostel (Compositae), collected on 15.

III.1977, M. Kaplan. Additional paratypes:

Israel, Dead Sea Area, Kallia, 8.III.1976

(2,9 9), 25-111.1975.(1 & ); 1311 AG Taga

30.11.1977, ex P. undulata, 9-10.1V.1977

(10,19), Ras Feshkha, 22.XI.1976(1¢),

Nahal Qidron, 13.1V.1978 (1c). Sinai

Mountains, Moon Valley, 30. VIII. 1970

(1). The larvae of this species apparently

feed in the stems of the host plant, as evi-

denced by puparia found in some stems.

Remarks.—Euarestella pninae is closely

related to E. megacephala, differing from it

by having 3 concolorous lower fronto-orbital

bristles, frontal stripe usually bare, veins

r4+5 and m parallel, the former vein bare,

6th tergum of female about as long as Sth,

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

and 9th tergum of male oneither side with 2

posterior spicules in addition to 2 prensisc-

tae. E. megacephala usually has 4 lower

fronto-orbital bristles, frontal stripe

abundantly pubescent anteriorly, veins r4+s

and m divergent toward apex of wing, the

former vein setulose along distal section,

6th tergum of female shorter than Sth, and

9th tergum of male only with | prensiseta

on either side and without spicules. In addi-

tion, E. pninae is a smaller species, with the

wing pattern more evenly reticulate and

with more hyaline spots than in E. mega-

cephala.

Etymology.—This species 1s named in

honor of my wife, Pnina.

Genus Tephritis Latreille

Tephritis Latreille 1804: 196. Type species,

Musca arnicae Linnaeus, designated by Cresson,

1914: 278.

The genus Tephritis contains about 100

species in the Palaearctic region alone. The

three new species added here are closely

related to other, known species, differing

from them mainly by characters of the wing

pattern. Within Tephritis, male genitalia

are rather uniform, therefore of little taxo-

nomic value. Female genitalia in this genus

might be of more importance for the sepa-

ration of species.

Tephritis bimaculata Freidberg, new species

(Big; 2)

This species is similar to 7. dioscurea

(Loew), differing as follows:

Stigma mostly black (Fig. 2), with base and apex

hyaline, but lacking an enclosed hyaline spot; two

large square hyaline spots in cell R,; almost equal in

size; two hyaline spots in apical half of cell BR closer

and larger, usually occupying entire width of cell; hya-

line spots within range of large black preapical spot

larger; as a consequence black spot on stigma and

preapical spot relatively smaller. In 7. dioscurea (see

Hendel, 1927, Taf. XIV, Fig. 8) stigma black, with an

enclosed hyaline spot; basal hyaline spot in cell R; dis-

tinctly larger than apical spot; hyaline spots in apical

half of cell BR more distant and smaller; hyaline spots

within large black preapical spot smaller; as a conse-

quence large black spots of wing relatively larger.

Size.—Length of wing: 2.6-3.7 mm; length of ovis-

cape (ventrally): 0.6-0.7 mm.

Material examined.—Holotype &, allotype

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

2, 1480. 249 9 paratypes, Mt. Her-

mon, 2000 m, 22.VI.1973, A. Freidberg.

Additional 70 paratypes from Mt. Her-

mon, 1300-2000 m, Har Dov, Golan

Heights (Kfar Nafech, Qusbiye, Merom

Golan), Upper Galilee (Ha’Tanur), Mt.

Carmel, Northern Negev (Mash’abei Sade,

Qzi’ot), Sinai (St. Katharina, Mt. Abbas,

Wadi Tlach, El Arba’in, Wadi Taiba,

Qzaima), collected from March through

September.

Etymology. —The specific epithet, bimacu-

lata, refers to the two distinct brown spots

on the wing.

Tephritis jabeliae Freidberg, new species

(Fig: 3)

This species is similar to T. nigricauda

(Loew), differing from it as follows:

Brown spots on wing narrower (Fig. 3), resulting in

more banded wing pattern; brown spots at apex of

veins ry+s and m together forming wide apical band,

enclosing small hyaline spot in apex of cell Rs, usually

narrower than half width of cell; brown spot on vein a;

not connected to spots in cel] CuA;; distance between

crossveins usually shorter than length of r-m cross-

vein; dorsum of oviscape slightly shorter than com-

bined length of terga 5+6. In T. nigricauda (see Hen-

del, 1927, Taf. XIV, Fig. 7) brown spots on wing wider

and pattern not appearing banded; hyaline spot in

apex of cell Rs large, wider than half width of cell;

brown spot on vein a; connected to basal spot in cell

CuA,; distance between crossveins usually at least as

long as r-m crossvein; dorsum of oviscape slightly

longer than combined length of terga 5+6.

Size. —Length of wing: 3.3-3.8 mm; length of ovis-

cape (ventrally): 0.6-0.8 mm.

Material examined.—Holotype o, allo-

type 9, 50 paratypes, Sinai Mountains,

Mt. Katharina, 2500 m, 13.VII.1974, F.

Kaplan and A. Freidberg. Additional 50

paratypes from Sinai Mountains (Mt.

Katharina, St. Katharina, Gabel [Mt.]

Mussa... Mts Abbas?’ Wadi, llach, “El

Arba’in), collected from May through Sep-

tember. The host plant is suspected to be

Pyrethrum santolinoides DC (Compositae).

T. jabeliae as well as Oxyna superflava

Freidberg (1974), which apparently feed on

the same host plant, may be endemic to the

Sinai Mts.

Etymology.—The name jabeliae refers to

the mountains (of southern Sinai) and to

the Bedouin tribe dwelling there.

Tephritis hurvitzi Freidberg, new species

(Fig. 4)

This species resembles 7. recurrens

Loew, differing as follows:

The part of the wing pattern behind vein ry.s, which

is less reticulate, having large hyaline spots and areas

more united with each other, and brown rays to hind

margin narrower and more distinct as rays: gray cloud

crossing middle of cell D narrower than hyaline mar-

gin between it and hind margin of wing, not reaching

wing margin and ending narrowly proximal to vein a);

first three hyaline indentations distal to gray cloud (2

across apex of cell D and | beyond dm-cu crossvein)

continuous, not crossed by brown bars. In T.

recurrens (see Hendel, 1927, Taf. XV, Fig. 5) gray

cloud crossing middle of cell D wider than hyaline

margin between it and hind margin of wing, reaching

hind margin at least beyond end of vein a; and extend-

ing proximally as far as longitudinal fold of axillary

lobe; first three hyaline indentations distal to gray

cloud usually broken by brown bars into rounded

hyaline spots.

Size.—Length of wing: 3.6-4.9 mm; length of ovis-

cape (ventrally): 1.1-1.4 mm.

Material examined.—Holotype @, allo-

type 2,190 o, 299 @ paratypes, Israel,

Mt. Hermon, 1600 m, 27.VI.1977, emerged

from stem galls on Tragopogon longirostris

Sch. Bip. (Compositae) on 2-8.VII.1977,

A. Freidberg. Additional 170 paratypes

from Mt. Hermon, 1100-2000 m, Golan

Heights (10 km S. Qunaitra, Kfar Nafech),

Upper Galilee (Ha’Tanur, Mt. Meron) and

Lower Galilee (Arbel), collected or reared

from March through October. The species

has also been reared from stem galls on

Scorzonera syriaca Boiss et Bl. (Composi-

tae). Additional paratypes were examined

from the following localities outside Israel:

Turkey, 25 m S. W. Konya, 14. VIII.1974

(19): -Pas. Cranston.

Cyprus, Mt. Trodos, 7.1X.1951 (40 oC,

» G9 ).28:.V1.1937(2.9 9), Pera Redi,.8-V 1.

1937 (1o°), Marvomoustakis.

Tran, N. W. Persia, Kazim, 19.VII.1919

(1%), Buxton.

US Sak... WZDek: .SiS Re «Chim,..Gand:

2000 m, 90 km NE Tashkent, 16. VIII.1968

Cogs 22 9). C. Sabrosky.

A female from Greece, Athens, 1.1V.1980,

Mathis & Freidberg, which shows some

intermediate characters between T. hurvitzi

and J. recurrens, is not included as a

paratype.

Etymology.—This species is named in

honor of Mr. E. Hurvitz of Kibbutz Dan,

Director of the Beit Ussishkin Regional

Museum, for his hospitality, assistance and

encouragement during a survey of Mt.

Hermon.

Acknowledgments

I am greatly indebted to R. H. Foote,

Systematic Entomology Laboratory,

USDA, and Wayne N. Mathis, Depart-

ment of Entomology, Smithsonian Institu-

tion, for guidance and help while preparing

the manuscript.

References Cited

Cresson, E. T. 1914. Some nomenclatural notes on the

dipterous family Trypetidae. Ent. News 25:

275-279. .

Freidberg, A. 1974. Descriptions of new Tephritidae

(Diptera) from Israel. I. J. Ent. Soc. Sth. Afr. 37 (1):

49-62.

. 1979a. The Afrotropical species assigned to

Terellia R. D. (Diptera; Tephritidae). J. Wash.

Acad. Sci. 69: 164-174.

. 1979b. On the taxonomy and biology of the

genus Myopites (Diptera: Tephritidae). Israel. J.

Ent. 13: 13=26:

. 1980. A revision of the genus Goniurellia

Hendel (Diptera: Tephritidae). J. Ent. Soc. Sth.

Afr. (in press).

Freidberg, A., and J. Kugler. Fauna Palaestina—

Diptera: Tephritidae (in preparation).

Hendel, F. 1927. Trypetidae. Fam. 49. In: Lindner E.

(ed.), Die Fliegen der palaearktischen Region. Vol.

5. Stuttgart. 221 pp.

Hering, M. 1937. Neue Bohrfliegen aus der Becker-

schen Sammlung. (Dipt.) Mitt. Zool. Mus. Berlin

22 (2): 244-264.

Kugler, J., and A. Freidberg. 1975. A list of the fruit-

flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) of Israel and nearby

areas, their host plants and distribution. Israel J.

Ent. 10: 51-72.

Latreille, P. A. 1804. Tableau méthodique des Insects

(pp. 129-200). In: Société de Naturalistes et d’Agri-

culteurs, Nouveau dictionnaire d’histoire naturelle,

etc. Vol. 24, (sect. 3): Tableaux méthodiques d’his-

toire naturelle, 238 pp., Paris.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

The Taxonomy and Nomenclature of Some Palaearctic

Tephritidae (Diptera)

Richard H. Foote and Amnon Freidberg

Systematic Entomology Laboratory, IIBITI, Agric. Res., Sci. and Educ. Admin., USDA, c/o

U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C. 20560; and Department of Zoology, George S.

Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Israel; respectively.

ABSTRACT

A new genus, Capitites, with Trypeta ramulosa Loew as type species, is described. Trypanea

dentiens Bezzi, also assigned to Capitites, isa new combination. Previous erroneous type desig-

nations of several authors and the present correct ones are pointed out for the genera Acinia,

Aciura, Petalophora, Dacus, Ensina, Orellia, Carpomya, Carpomyia, Oxyna, Platyparea, Teph-

ritis, Terellia, Trypeta, and Urophora and the correct designations for /cterica and Sinevra are

discussed. Pseudonoeeta is assigned as a new synonym of Carphotricha, Siticola of Katonaia,

Stephanaciura of Hypenidium, Squamensina of Orellia and Platyparella of Platyparea. Aciura

powelli is a new synonym of A. coryli (Rossi), and Stephanaciura bipartita Seguy and Hemilea

novakii Strobl are new synonyms of Hypenidium graecum l.oew. Type species are newly desig-

nated as follows: scorzonerae Robineau-Desvoidy for Ensina, trotteriana Bezzi for Oedaspis

(Melanoedaspis), villeneuvei Bezzi for Oedaspis (Dichoedaspis), and pyrethri Robineau-Des-

voidy for Oxyphora.

While clarifying the nomenclatural and

taxonomic status of some names in the

palaearctic Tephritidae, we noted a number

of genera that lacked valid type designa-

tions. Other genera in the past had been

given erroneous designations by various

authors including Rondani (1856, 1870a,

1870b, 1871a, 1871b), principally because

of their failure to cite an originally included

species in conformance with the provisions

of Article 69 of the International Code of

Zoological Nomenclature. In every case we

have pointed out or corrected these situa-

tions. Several previously unpublished or

little-recognized synonymies and new com-

binations of names are also given. One new

genus is described and discussed.

Genus Acinia Robineau-Desvoidy

Acinia Robineau-Desvoidy 1830: 775. Type species,

Acinia jaceae Robineau-Desvoidy 1830: 776, desig-

nated by Rondani 1871a: 4 (1871b: 4) (= cornicu-

lata (Zetterstedt)).

Rondani’s (1856: 113) designation of

corniculata is invalidated by his failure to

name an originally included species, but

the concept of the genus would have re-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

mained the same had his 1856 designation

been acceptable.

Genus Aciura Robineau-Desvoidy

Aciura Robineau-Desvoidy 1830: 773. Type species,

Aciura femoralis Robineau-Desvoidy 1830: 773,

designated by Rondani 1856: 113 (= coryli(Rossi)).

Rondani’s (1870a: 9; 1870b: 9) and

Hendel’s (1914: 86; 1927: 108) designations

of Musca coryli Rossi are invalid as the lat-

ter was not a name originally included by

Robineau-Desvoidy.

No specific differences could be found

between Aciura powelli Seguy (1930: 170)

and A. coryli (Rossi). Consequently, the

former name becomes a-junior synonym of

the latter (NEW SYNONYMY).

Genus Capitites, new genus

Type species, Trypeta ramulosa Loew 1944: 407, by

present designation.

Hendel (1927: 202) described Tephrito-

myia as a subgenus of Acanthiophilus Becker

1908: 136 and placed ramulosa in Acanthio-

philus s. str. Munro (1957: 1026) raised

Tephritomyia to a genus, refined the dis-

tinction between it and Acanthiophilus, and

described Pherothrinax, a third genus in the

‘““Acanthiophilus series.”

Capitites is distinguished from those

three genera by the following combination

of characters:

Anterior lower fronto-orbital bristle short, whitish,

and lanceolate; frons slightly hairy at anterior border;

proboscis spatulate; apical scutellar bristles more

than half as long as basals; wing with dark and well

defined, elongate, and radiate subapical spot, with

distinct apical fork; aedeagus with complex sclerotiza-

tion in basal part and rather voluminous vesica. The

proboscis in the other three genera 1s short and capi-

tate and the anterior lower fronto-orbital bristle is

dark and acuminate.

Apart from C. ramu/osa, a “‘Mediterra-

nean”’ species, Capitites also includes Try-

panea dentiens Bezzi (1924: 565) (NEW

COMBINATION) and possibly other Afro-

tropical species.

Genus Carphotricha Loew

Carphotricha Loew 1862a: 77. Type species, Trypeta

strigilata Loew 1855: 40, designated by Cresson

1914: 277.

Pseudonoeeta (subg. of Noeeta) Hering 1942: 4(NEW

SYNONYMY). Type species, Noeeta crepidis Her-

ing 1936: 62, by original designation.

In the absence of any current taxonomic

studies on this group of species, we accept

Hering’s concept of Pseudonoeeta, accord-

ing to which crepidis and Strigilata are con-

generic. Obviously, Hering was entirely

unaware of Cresson’s previous designation

of strigilata for Carphotricha.

Genus Carpomya A. Costa

Carpomya A. Costa 1854: 87. Type species, Carpomya

vesuviana A. Costa 1854: 87, by monotypy.

Carpomyia Rondani 1870a: 6 (1870b: 6) (unjustified

emendation). Type species, Carpomya vesuviana

A. Costa 1854: 87, aut.

By citing Costa’s paper under Carpo-

myia, Rondani (1870a: 22; 1870b: 22), ob-

viously considered his Carpomyia (1870a:

6, 22; 1870b: 6, 22) equivalent to Carpomya

A. Costa 1854. We consider this to be con-

crete evidence that, at least in 1870, his

Carpomyia was an emendation of Carpo-

mya A. Costa and that his designation

(Rondani 1870a: 6; 1870b: 6) of Trypeta

signata Meigen is invalidated by Costa’s

earlier monotypy. Although it might be

argued that when Rondani (1856: 111) ear-

lier used the name Carpomya, he erred in

attributing the name to himself rather than

to Costa, there is no truly objective evi-

dence that Carpomya Rondani 1856, with

arctii DeGeer as sole species, is anything

but a synonym of Orellia Robineau-

Desvoidy, especially since arctii is a gener-

ally accepted synonym of Orellia tussilagi-

nis (Fabricius) and was assigned by Rondani

himself (1870a: 7; 1870b, 7) to Trypeta

Meigen. See the synonymy for and discus-

sion of Orellia Robineau-Desvoidy.

Genus Ceratitis MacLeay

Ceratitis MacLeay 1829: 482. Type species, Ceratitis

citriperda MacLeay 1829: 482, by monotypy

= capitata Wiedemann).

Petalophora Macquart 1835: 454. Type species, Teph-

ritis capitata Wiedemann 1824: 55, by monotypy.

Rondani’s (1870a: 7; 1870b: 7) designa-

tion of hispanica de Breme as the type spe-

cies of Petalophora is invalidated by the

monotypy. The name Petalophora is a

widely accepted synonym of Ceratitis.

Genus Dacus Fabricius

Dacus Fabricius 1805: 272. Type species, Dacus ar-

matus Fabricius 1805: 273, designated by Hendel

1927: 24.

Rondani’s (1856: 114) and Hendel’s (1914:

74) designations of oleae Gmelin are in

error as not including an originally named

species.

Genus Ensina Robineau-Desvoidy

Ensina Robineau-Desvoidy 1830: 751. Type species,

Ensina scorzonerae Robineau-Desvoidy 1830: 753,

by present designation (= sonchi (Linnaeus)).

Under the generic name Ensina Robineau-

Desvoidy described six species—chrysan-

themi, herbarum, pratensis, linariae, doro-

nici, and scorzonerae—without indication

of a type species. Most taxonomists since

Rondani have recognized all six as being

conspecific with Musca sonchi Linneaeus,

but so far we have been unable to find a

type designation that conforms to the letter

of Article 69 of the Code. In several of the

designations we have seen, more than one

of the originally included species has been

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

cited, either specifically or by indirect asso-

ciation (for example, Rondani (1870a: 45;

1870b: 119). Hence, the action taken here 1s

merely in acknowledgment of the specific

provision of the Code. We have chosen

scorzonerae as the type because it is the

only originally included species associated

with sonchi by Robineau-Desvoidy (*‘C’est

peut-etre le veritable Musca Sonchi de

Fabricius.’’).

Genus Hypenidium Loew

Hypenidium Loew 1862b: 87. Type species, Hypeni-

dium graecum Loew 1862b: 88, by monotypy.

Stephanaciura Seguy 1930: 171(NEWSYNONYMY).

Type species, Stephanaciura bipartita Seguy 1930:

171, by original designation and monotypy (= grae-

cum Loew (NEW SYNONYMY)).

We compared the holotype of Stephana-

ciura bipartita Seguy from Morocco with

specimens from eastern Mediterranean

countries. They all compared well with

Loew’s original (1862b) description of

graecum. S. bipartita is therefore a syn-

onym of graecum, as is Hemilea novakii

Strobl (1893: 124) (NEW SYNONYMY).

Genus Icterica Loew

Icterica Loew, 1873: 287. Type species, Trypeta seriata

Loew 1862c: 84, designated by Coquillett 1910: 555.

Hendel’s (1927: 140) designation of wes-

termanni Meigen as the type species of this

genus Is in error. Careful taxonomic studies

are required to determine whether the pa-

laearctic species currently assigned to /cter-

ica are in fact congeneric with seriata

Loew.

Genus Katonaia Munro

Katonaia Munro 1935: 142. Type species, Katonaia

arushae Munro 1935: 142, by original designation

and monotypy.

Siticola Hering 1947:.1 (NEW SYNONYMY). Type

species, Siticola hemileopsis Hering 1947: 2, by orig-

inal designation and monotypy.

We studied specimens of the three known

species associated with these generic names—

arushae Munro from East Africa, hemi-

leopsis Hering from Crete, and aida Hering

from Israel (Siticola theodori Hering was

synonymized with the last-named species

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

by Kugler and Freidberg (1975: 55))—and

concluded that all three are congeneric.

Genus Oedaspis Loew

Subgenus Melanoedaspis Hendel

Oedaspis (Melanoedaspis) Hendel 1927: 83. Type spe-

cies, Oedaspis trotteriana Bezzi 1913b: 151, by pres-

ent designation.

Subgenus Dichoedaspis Hendel

Oedaspis (Dichoedaspis) Hendel 1927: 83. Type spe-

cies, Oedaspis villeneuvei Bezzi 1913b: 149, by pres-

ent designation.

Except for a reference to Melanoedaspis

by Munro (1952: 218), these two subgenera

have not been mentioned in the taxonomic

literature since their original description.

Further taxonomic studies will be required

to determine whether the genus merits

subdivision.

Genus Orellia Robineau-Desvoidy

Orellia Robineau-Desvoidy 1830: 765. Type species,

Orellia flavicans Robineau-Desvoidy 1830: 765, by

monotypy (= punctata (Schrank)).

Carpomya Rondani 1856: 111. Type species, Musca

arctii DeGeer 1776: 42, by original designation and

monotypy (= Orellia tussilaginis (Fabricius)).

Preoccupied by Carpomya A. Costa 1854: 87.

Squamensina Hering 1938: 405(NEW SYNONYMY).

Type species, Squamensina oasis Hering 1938: 405,

by original designation and monotypy.

The name Carpomya was first used by

A. Costa in 1854 to provide a genus for ve-

suviana, its newly described and only in-

cluded species. Two years later, Rondani

used the same name (as “‘Carpomya mihi’’)

for an entirely different generic concept

without any reference whatever to A. Cos-

ta’s publication. See our explanation for

the use by Rondani of the names Carpomya

and Carpomyia in the discussion of Carpo-

mya A. Costa elsewhere in this paper.

We studied the holotype of Squamensina

oasis Hering from Biskra, Algeria. It is

either the same as Orellia vectensis Collin

(1937: (2)) from England or O. pseudovirens

Hering (1940: 7) from Cyprus, or very close

to these species. In any case it 1s a typical

Orellia sensu Hendel (1927). The specimen

has only one upper fronto-orbital bristle,

an aberrant condition also suggested by a

second specimen from Tunisia, which 1s

identical to it in all essential characters but

has two upper fronto-orbital bristles as in

all other Orellia species.

Genus Oxyna Robineau-Desvoidy

Oxyna Robineau-Desvoidy 1830: 755. Type species,

Oxyna flavescens Robineau-Desvoidy 1830: 756,

designated by Hendel 1914: 96 (= flavipennis

(Loew)).

In transferring Oxyna flavescens Robineau-

Desvoidy (1830: 756) to Trypeta, Loew

(1844: 368) found it to be preoccupied by

flavescens Fabricius (1798: 565) and re-

named it flavipennis. Hendel (1914) was the

first to unambiguously use an originally in-

cluded name, and the designations for

Oxyna of parietina Linnaeus by Rondani

(1856: 110), of punctella Fallen by Rondani

(is70ar"S:1870b; 8), Foote (1965: 664:

1980: 39), and Hardy (1977: 126), and of

flavipennis Loew by Hendel (1927: 164)

are invalid in not citing the name of an orig-

inally included species.

Genus Oxyphora Robineau-Desvoidy

Oxyphora Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830: 757. Type spe-

cies, Oxyphora pyrethri Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830:

757, by present designation.

Oxyphora pyrethriand O. cardui were the

only species originally included in Oxy-

phora by Robineau-Desvoidy; we have been

unable to find any type designation what-

ever in the literature available to us. O. car-

dui was synonymized without question by

Loew in 1844 (p. 365) and 1862a (p. 80)

with westermanni Meigen, now recognized

as belonging to Icterica Loew (1873: 287)

(see discussion of that genus). Our choice

of pyrethri as the type species of Oxyphora

avoids the necessity of changing the generic

name /cterica but unfortunately it does not

clarify the status of Oxyphora zoologically,

as the Robineau-Desvoidy types are lost

and pyrethri is unrecognizable from

Robineau-Desvoidy’s description.

Genus Platyparea Loew

Platyparea Loew 1862a: 25. Type species, Musca dis-

coidea Fabricius 1787: 351, designated by Rondani

1870a: 9, 1870b: 9.

Platyparella Hendel 1914: 83 (NEW SYNONYMY).

Type species, Musca discoidea Fabricius 1787: 351,

by original designation and monotypy.

When Hendel described the genus Platy-

parella and subsequently discussed it in

1927 (p. 64), he was apparently unaware of

Rondani’s previous action with Platyparea,

in which Loew had originally placed poeci-

loptera Schrank 1776, caloptera Loew 1850,

and discoidea Fabricius. However, Rondani’s

action in 1870 fixed discoidea as the type of

Platyparea, and Hendel’s (1914: 84) desig-

nation of poeciloptera as the type species of

Platyparea is thus invalid.

Genus Sphenella Robineau-Desvoidy

Sphenella Robineau-Desvoidy 1830: 773. Type spe-

cies, Sphenella linariae Robineau-Desvoidy 1830:

774, by monotypy (= marginata Fallen).

Sinevra Lioy 1864: 1024. Type species, Tephritis mar-

ginata Fallen 1814: 165, designated by Hardy 1977:

130.

In his description of Sinevra, Lioy in-

cluded /inariae Robineau-Desvoidy, sep-

temmaculata Macquart, fasciata Meigen,

and marginata Fallen without an original

type designation. Of these four names,

Sphenella_ linariae Robineau-Desvoidy

(1830: 774) (not Ensina linariae Robineau-

Desvoidy 1830: 753) 1s a synonym of mar-

ginata Fallen, septemmaculata of inulae-

dyssentericae Blot, and fasciata appears

not to be associated with the Tephritidae in

any literature we have seen. The selection

of marginata by Hardy is to be accepted as

valid according to Article 69 (a) (111) of the

Code, although Hardy erred in stating the

genus to have been originally monotypic.

Genus Tephritis Latreille

Tephritis Latreille 1804: 196. Type species, Musca ar-

nicae Linnaeus 1758: 600, designated by Cresson

1914: 278.

The designations by Rondani (1856;

1870a: 8; 1870b: 8), Coquillett (1910: 613),

and Bezzi (1913a: 162) are invalid as they

do not cite an originally included name. See

Cresson’s (1914) discussion.

Genus Terellia Robineau-Desvoidy

Terellia Robineau-Desvoidy 1830: 758. Type species,

Terellia palpata Robineau-Desvoidy 1830: 758, by

designation of Cogan and Munro 1980 (= serratu-

/ae (Linnaeus)).

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

Rondani’s (1856: 114), Coquillett’s (1910:

613), and Hendel’s (1914: 92; 1927: 126) in-

dications of ‘‘serratulae”’ are invalidated by

failure to mention either of Robineau-Des-

voidy’s originally included species.

Genus Trypeta Meigen

Trypeta Meigen 1803: 277. Type species, Musca arte-

misiae Fabricius 1794: 351, designated by Coquil-

lett 1910: 618.

Rondani’s (1870a: 7; 1870b: 7) designa-

tion of Musca arctii DeGeer is invalid be-

cause it is not an originally included spe-

cies. Rondani considered Orellia to be

synonymous with Trypeta Meigen, as evi-

denced by his notes (1870a: 24; 1870b: 24).

Genus Urophora Robineau-Desvoidy

Urophora Robineau-Desvoidy 1830: 769. Type spe-

cies, Musca cardui Linnaeus 1758: 600, designated

by Westwood 1840: 149.

The designation by Westwood precedes

those of Rondani (1856: 110; 1870a: 6;

1870b: 6). Foote (1965: 658) and Hardy

(1977: 86) have incorrectly cited sonchi the

type species of Urophora.

Acknowledgments

The authors express their sincere grati-

tude to Curtis W. Sabrosky, Systematic

Entomology Laboratory, USDA, and

Wayne N. Mathis, Department of Ento-

mology, Smithsonian Institution, whose

guidance and generous help were indispen-

sable to the completion of this paper.

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.1952. Les Trypetides, Dipteres cecidogenes de

la serie Eutreta-Oedaspis a propos de deux nou-

velles especes malgaches. Mém. Inst. sci. Madagasce.

(SersE) le 217295. tesa is 2:

.1957. Ruwenzori Expedition 1934-35. Vol. 2.

No. 9. Trypetidac. British Museum. London, pp.

853-1054, 233 text figs.

_ Robineau-Desvoidy, J. B. 1830. Essai sur les My-

odaires. [Paris] Inst. de France, [Cl. des] Sci. Math.

et Phys., Acad. Roy. de Sci., Mem. presentes par

divers Savans [ser. 2], 2: 1-813.

Rondani, C. 1856. Dipterologiae Italicae prodromus.

Vol. 1: Genera Italica ordinis dipterorum ordina-

tim disposita et distincta et in familias et stirpes ag-

gregata. 228 pp. Parmae [= Parma].

Rondani, C. 1870a. Dipterologia Italicae prodromus.

Vol. 7, pars 4 (sect. 1): Genera Italica ordinis dip-

terorum, ordinatim disposita et distincta et in fami-

lias et stirpes aggregata. 59 pp. Parmae [= Parma].

.1870b. Ortalidinae Italicae collectae, distine-

tae et in ordinem dispositae. Diptcrologiae Italicae

prodromi Pars VII—Fasce. 4(sect. 1). Bol. Soc. ent.

Ital. 2: 5-34, 105-133.

.1871a. Dipterologiae Italicae prodromus. Vol.

7, Pars 4 (Sect. 2): Genera Italica ordinis diptero-

rum ordinatum disposita et distincta et in familias

et stirpes aggregata. 49 pp. Parmae [= Parma].

.1871b. Ortalidinae Italicae collectae, distinc-

tae et in ordinem dispositae. Dipterologiae Italicae

prodromi Pars VII—Fasc. 4. Bol. Soc. ent. Ital. 3:

3-24, 161-188.

Schrank, F. von P. 1776. Beitrage zur Naturgeschichte.

Augsburg. pp. 1-[140], 7 pls.

Séguy, E. 1930. Contribution a |’etude des Dipteres du

Maroc. Mem. Soc. Sci. nat. Phys. Maroc 24:

168-177, figs. 108-111.

Strobl, P. G. 1893. Beitrage zur Dipterenfauna des Os-

terreischen Littorale (Fortsetzung 3). Wien. ent.

Ztg. 12: 121-136.

Westwood, J. O. 1840. Order XIII. Diptera Aristotle

(Antliata Fabricius. Fialteriptera Clairv.) Jn Ais In-

troduction to the modern classification of insects.

Synopsis.of the genera of British insects, 158 pp.,

London.

Wiedemann, C. R. W. 1824. Munus rectoris in Acade-

mia Christiana Albertina aditurus analecta ento-

mologica ex Museo Regio Havniensi. 60 pp., | pl.

Kiliae [= Kiel].

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

Comparative Rates of Predation

on Northern and Southern Periwinkles

Sarah Ackroyd, Kurt Behrendt, John Bito, Linden Brown, Matthew Denckla,

Christopher Dudley, Susan Josephson, Adam Kibel, Stephen Laster, Jerry Maddox,

Charley Montroll, Michelle Przybylski, Jenni Segal, Stasia Speck, Adam Stracher, and

Debby Wheeler’

Children’s School of Science, Inc., Box 522, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543

Previous work has shown that predation

by crushing predators is often more intense

on tropical gastropods (snails) than on

their northern counterparts (Vermeij, 1976).

P. V. Hamilton (1976) has shown that Cal-

linectes sapidus \s an important predator on

the periwinkle Littorina irrorata. Being in-

terested in work done concerning the pre-

dation on temperate and tropical gastro-

pods, we took the opportunity to examine

specific cases. In this paper we discuss the

relative rates of predation on two popula-

tions of periwinkles, Littorina irrorata, from

a Florida saltmarsh, and Littorina littorea

from a Massachusetts salt marsh.

The class collected 240 Littorina littorea

from Little Sippiwisset Marsh, Woods

Hole, Mass., and 235 living L. irrorata were

sent from the marsh at Florida State Uni-

versity Marine Laboratory, Sopchoppy,

Florida. Groups of investigators measured

each shell using Vernier calipers, and

recorded repaired injuries on the body

whorl. Injuries were recognized as jagged,

irregular scars not easily confused with

growth lines. Any disagreements arising

about the number of injuries were resolved

by using a dissecting microscope.

The results of this experiment were as

follows: On the 235 shells of L. irrorata we

recorded 192 injuries. The 240 shells of L.

littorea had 96 injuries; that is, exactly a 2:1

ratio occurred. The Chi-square test showed

that the probability that this happened by

chance was < .005.

Bettina Dudley, teacher; Denise Mauzeraell and

Chris Cousins, assistants.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

After observing the preceding results, we

have formulated three hypotheses to

explain them; these are discussed in order

of highest to lowest probability. An exper-

iment which could be used to test these

hypotheses will be presented later.

Our first hypothesis is that the southern

predators are stronger than the northern

ones. A stronger Callinectes sapidus (blue

crab), forexample, would be more success-

ful in any given attack. This idea seems to

be in agreement with those of other

researchers (Vermeij, 1976).

A second hypothesis is that the northern

periwinkle, which is more spherical and

with a lower spire than the southern peri-

winkle, would be harder to grasp, and

would thus elude a greater number of

attacks. This hypothesis also agrees with

previous work (Zipser and Vermeij, 1978).

Our last hypothesis is that the number of

southern blue crabs or other predators

could be greater than the number of north-

ern ones, 1n our localities. This would allow

more frequent attacks on each individual

southern Littorina.

An experiment to help test these various

hypotheses would be to collect both species

of periwinkles, and both northern and

southern blue crabs, and to put them in

four separate tanks. The first would have a

northern crab and northern periwinkles,

the second a northern crab and southern

periwinkles, the third a southern crab and

northern periwinkles, and the fourth a

southern crab and southern periwinkles.

These would be observed for differences

and similarities in the rates of predation.

References Cited

Hamilton, P. V. 1976. Predation on Littorina irrorata

(Mollusca: Gastropoda) by Callinectes sapidus

(Crustacea: Portunidae). Biol. Bull, 150: 387-409.

Vermeij, G. J. 1976. Interoceanic differences in vulner-

ability of shelled prey to crab predation. Nature

260: 135-136.

Zipser, E., and G. J. Vermeij. 1978. Crushing behavior

of tropical and temperate crabs. J. Exp. Mar. Biol.

Ecol. 31: 155-172.

Six New North American Species of Melanagromyza

Hendel (Diptera, Agromyzidae)

George C. Steyskal

Cooperating Scientist, Systematic Entomology Laboratory, IBIT, Agric. Res., Sci. and Educ.

Admin., U.S.D.A., c/o U.S. National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C. 20560

ABSTRACT

The following new species are described: Melanagromyza hicksi (Ontario; host, Alcea rosea

L., Malvaceae), M. lomatii (Oregon; host, Lomatium nudicaule [Pursh] C. & R., Apiaceae),

M. panacis (Indiana; host, Panax quinquefolius L., Araliaceae), M. radicicola (Maryland; host,

presumably Urtica dioica L., Urticaceae), M. vernoniae (Maryland; host, Vernonia novebora-

censis [L.] Michx.), and M. vernoniana (Maryland; host, V. noveboracensis [L.] Michx.). The

latter two species were reared from the same plant in the same locality. Male postabdominal

characters of M. angelicae (Frost) are figured for the first time for comparison with those of

M. hicksi.

The descriptions here presented are part

of the author’s cooperation with Kenneth

A. Spencer in the preparation of a manual

of the Agromyzidae of the United States,

and the species are described here in order

to provide more complete description than

would be proper to the Manual.

As with most species of Melanagromyza,

the most distinctive characters are found in

the male postabdomen (terminalia). Rela-

tionships will be brought out in the keys to

be presented in the Manual, although the

closest apparent relatives of each species

are cited here. All species described herein

belong to the major group of North Ameri-

can Melanagromyza, with wing vein C ex-

tending to Mj+2 and with only 2 pairs of

dorsocentral bristles, both postsutural.

Melanagromyza hicksi Steyskal, new species

(Figs. 1-3)

?“Anthomyza” angelicae Frost, Hansberry, 1940: 199.

Melanagromyza sp. (Steykal), Spencer, 1969: 78.

Male. Length of wing 3.0 to 3.2 mm.

Head as in Fig. 2; front matt black, at level of hind-

most fronto-orbital bristle 0.43 to 0.46 of total head

width (= head 2.12 to 2.22 times as wide as front);

frontal orbits rather dull, sloping upward from eye

margin, somewhat broadened anteriorly, with 4 or 5

lower inclinate bristles and numerous, rather irregu-

larly disposed setulae, the lowermost proclinate; gena

0.18 of eye-height; antennae narrowly separated by

low median keel; arista finely pubescent, 0.57 mm

long; eye with sparse, short hairs in upper part.

Mesonotum metallic dark bluish black, shining lat-

erally, dull mesally with minute, rather dense rugulos-

ity; dorsocentral bristles 2, strong, anterior one

slightly posterad of level of supra-alar bristle; acrosti-

chal setulae in approximately 8 rows, a few extending

posteriorly to scutellar suture.

Wing as in Fig. 3; last section of vein M3+4 0.8 length

of penultimate section; squamae and fringes whitish;

halter with knob wholly black.

Foretibia without median bristle; midtibia with 2

median bristles, each shorter than tibial diameter.

Abdomen metallic greenish black; postabdomen as

in Fig. 1; aedeagus with rounded subbasal swelling on

anterior side, gap between U-shaped basiphallus and

distiphallic complex about 0.6 length of latter; epan-

drium (Fig. 1D) in profile with ventral margin moder-

ately but sharply offset at about 0.4 of distance from

anterior margin.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

VIEW @

Fig. 1. Melanagromyza hicksi Steyskal. A, hypandrium and aedeagus, with ventral view of distiphallic com-

plex; B, hypandrium, ventral view, C, sperm pump; D, epandrium, posterior (half) and profile view.

Female. Similar to male; front 0.42 to 0.44 of total

head width; length of wing 3.1 to 3.4 mm; abdomen

shining dark metallic bluish green; ovipositor sheath

equal in length to last dorsal preabdominal tergum.

Types.—Holotype (@), allotype, and 5 @

and 3 Q paratypes, Windsor, Ontario,

Canada, 5 May 1946 (Stanton D. Hicks),

reared from puparia found in pith near

base of hollyhock (Alcea rosea L.; Malva-

ceae); in U.S. National Museum of Natural

History.

Remarks.—This species is most closely

related to a species to be described in the

Manual by Spencer, but it 1s also related to

another species described at this time, M.

panacis. It is most decisively distinguished

from its relatives by details of the male post-

abdomen. It is likely that M. hicksi is the

species whose damage to hollyhock was

noted by Hansberry (1940) at Ithaca, New

York, as Anthomyza (sic) angelicae Frost.

The postabdomen of a topotypical para-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

Fig. 2. Melanagromyza hicksi Stryskal. Head in

profile and anterior views. Fig. 3. Melanagromyza

hicksi Steyskal. Right wing.

H (lah \

LEVIS

Fig. 4. Melanagromyza angelicae (Frost). A, aedeagus in profile, with details at right angle view; B, hypan-

drium, ventral view: C, sperm pump; D, posterior half (left) and profile (right) of epandrium.

type of Melanagromyza angelicae (Frost),

originally described in Agromyza, and from

Ithaca (S. A. Mills) as shown in detail in

Fig. 4, wherein many differences from cor-

responding features of Fig. | may be seen.

I am pleased to name the species for my

longtime friend Stanton D. Hicks, with

apologies for taking so long to describe it.

Melanagromyza lomatii Steyskal, new species

(Figs)

Male. Wing length 2.5 to 3.0 mm. Entire body and

appendages black, mesonotum and abdomen with

only slight bluish green metallic sheen.

Head with front at level of anterior ors 1.75 times as

wide as an eye (0.47 of total width of head), cheek

nearly half as high as eye; anterior front projecting

Fig. 5. Melanagromyza lomatii Steyskal. A, hypandrium and aedeagus, lateral view, with ventral view (b) of

distiphallic complex; B, hypandrium, ventral view; C, sperm pump; D, epandrium, posterior (half) and profile

views.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

well before eye; parafrontal stripes dull, bearing 2 ors,

4 or 5 strong ori, and 2 rows of numerous setulae,

mesal row proclinate; ocellar triangle lightly tomen-

tose, subshining, apex about 60°; lunule semicircular,

flat, grayish tomentose; faciai carina broad, moder-

ately raised, a little bent forward medially in profile;

eye conspicuously hirsute above; antennae small, 3rd

segment roundish, arista 0.45 mm long. apparently

bare.

Mesonotum subshining, with about 8 rows of

acrostichal setulae, several of which extend nearly to

scutellar sulcus, and with 2 pairs of strong dc bristles,

anterior pair at level of supra-alar bristles.

Wing very similar to that of M. hicksi (Fig. 3), 2.35

times as long as wide, distance between crossveins fa

and fp about 1.25 times length of tp; squamae hyaline,

marginal cord and fringe blackish; halter black.

Midtibia with 2 distinct medial bristles nearly as

long as tibial diameter; foretibia without medial

bristle.

Abdomen subshining; postabdomen as in Fig. 5,

aedeagus with deep sulcus on anterior side between

tumid basal half and apical half; basiphallic sclerite U-

shaped, gap between it and distiphallic complex equal

in length to latter; epandrium (Fig. 5D) 1n profile with

midventral prong preceded by strongly arcuate free

anterior margin and followed by sinuately sloping

ventral margin.

Female. Similar to male; eye bare; length of wing

_ 2.7 to 3.2 mm; abdomen with ovipositor sheath dor-

sally about as long as last preabdominal sclerite.

Types.—Holotype (@), allotype, and 8 4

and 6 Q paratypes, La Grande, Union

County, Oregon, 7 to 29 April 1964 (holo-

type, 22 April), reared from stems of bis-

quit root, Lomatium nudicaule (Pursh)

C. & R. (Jon Skovlin); in U.S. National

Museum of Natural History.

Remarks.—The fly is closely related to a

Californian species being described else-

where by Spencer; the host of that species is

not known.

The name /omatii is the genitive case of

the generic name of its host, Lomatium nu-

dicaule (Pursh) C. & R., of the family Apia-

ceae or Umbelliferae. The habit of M. /oma-

tii of boring in the upper half of the stem of

its host plant was described in an unpub-

lished report on file in the Portland, Oregon

office of the Forest Insect and Watershed

Management Research, Pacific Northwest

Forest and Range Experiment Station,

Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agri-

culture.

Melanagromyza panacis Steyskal, new species

(Fig. 6)

Male. Length of wing 2.4 to 2.8 mm.

Head with front matt black, at narrowest point 0.39

of total width of head; frontal orbit rather dull, paral-.

lel-sided, 0.08 mm wide, with hairs and conformation

similar to that of M. hicksi (Fig. 1), but more of lower

mesal hairs proclinate and with 3 or 4 inclinate bris-

tles; ocellar triangle with minute, sparse tomentum;

antennae narrowly separated by low median keel;

arista finely pubescent (preserved, but in contorted

condition, only in Wooster paratype); upper part of

eye with long, rather numerous hairs.

_ Fig. 6. Melanagromyza panacis Steyskal. A, hypandrium and aedeagus, lateral view, with ventral view of

distiphallic complex; B, hypandrium, ventral view; C, sperm pump, profile and efferent views; D, epandrium,

posterior (half) and profile views.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

Mesonotum virtually black, with only slight metal-

lic greenish tinge; subshining, with minute, rather

sparse rugulosity; 2 strong dorsocentral bristles, ante-

rior of which slightly posterad of supra-alar bristle;

acrostichal hairs in about 8 rows, a few extending al-

most to scutellar sulcus.

Wing similar to that of M. hicksi (Fig. 3), but only

2.0 to 2.15 times as long as wide; squamae and fringes

whitish; knob of halter wholly blackish.

Fore tibia with median bristles; midtibia with 2

such, each somewhat shorter than tibial diameter.

Abdomen shining, dark metallic greenish black;

postabdomen as in Fig. 6; aedeagus with small ante-

rior swelling near base, gap between U-shaped basi-

phallus and distiphallic complex 0.7 length of latter;

epandrium (Fig. 6D) in profile with ventral margin

sharply but very little offset.

Female. Similar to male; length of wing 2.7 to 2.9

mm; abdomen shining dark metallic green; ovipositor

sheath as long as last dorsal preabdominal sclerite.

Types.—Holotype, allotype, and 1 4 and

3 Q paratypes, Washington Co., Indiana,

April, 1966, boring in American ginseng

(Panax quinquefolius L.; Araliaceae); 1 @

paratype, Wooster, Wayne County, Ohio,

3 April 1933, in stem of ginseng (Houser);

in (U.S.) National Museum of Natural

History.

Remarks.—M. panacis is very similar to

M. inornata Spencer, differing in smaller

size and green abdomen; it also resembles

M. angelicae (Fig. 4) and M. hicksi (Fig. 1),

the male terminalia showing distinct differ-

ences. The male terminalia of M. inornata

was figured by Steyskal (1972: 3).

Melanagromyza radicicola Steyskal, new species

(Fig. 7)

Male. Length of wing 1.85 mm.

Head with front matt black, at narrowest point 0.37

of total width of head, at level of uppermost fronto-

orbital bristles 1.35 times width of one eye; frontal

orbit (Fig. 7D) dull, a little raised above eye, slightly

wider at level of upper infraorbital seta (0.035 mm),

and but little narrower posterad therefrom, but rap-

idly narrowing foreward to little more than half its

width in the upper part; frontal orbit with 3 upper

bristles (1 ifo and 2 sfo) equally spaced and | ifo nearly

as far anterad of the other ifo as the latter is from the

upper sfo, hairs short, scattered, erect or reclinate;

ocellar triangle subshining, with sparse minute to-

mentum; gena 0.17 of eye height, deepest near middle;

antennae separated by narrow flat strip not forminga

keel; 3rd antennal segment (Fig. 7C) nearly round in

profile, 0.12 mm broad, somewhat less in length;

arista 0.39 mm long, appearing bare at 40X magnifi-

cation, finely pubescent at 90X, evenly tapering from

slightly enlarged base; most of eye with sparse, short

hairs; ommatidia uniform in size; proboscis small,

well retracted.

Mesonotum blackish with slight greenish tinge; 2

strong dorsocentral bristles, anterior of which slightly

posterior to level of supra-alar bristle; acrostichal

hairs in about 8 rows, a few extending as far back as to

approach scutellar sulcus.

Fig. 7. Melanagromyza radicicola Steyskal. A, epandrium and cercus, sinistro-ventral view: B, aedeagus, lat-

eral view; C, left antenna, profile; D, left frontal orbit, oblique dorsal view.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

Wing 2.15X as long as wide; last section of vein

M3: 7/; as long as penultimate section: inner crossvein

at 0.61 to 0.65 of length of discal cell (beyond middle);

squamae pale yellowish, their fringe dark brown;

knob of halter black.

Fore tibia without evident medial bristle; middle

tibia with | posterior bristle almost as long as tibial

diameter.

Abdomen shining, dark metallic greenish black;

postabdomen as in Fig. 7; surstylus with lobe about as

wide as long, bearing 2 thickened setae on posterior

side and 3 digitate processes of decreasing length from

rear forward as well as 2 small protrusions, all at apex,

and several spicules on mesal surface; aedeagus (Fig.

7B) with long membranous apical extension ending in

a hook; sperm duct within apical part of aedeagus

ending in brownish infundibuliform orifice; cercus

with apical group of 3 closely-spaced, equal-sized

setae.

Female. Not known.

Types.—Holotype (@), Bethesda, Mont-

gomery County, Maryland, December,

1979, emerged indoors from root presumed

to be of nettle, Urtica dioica L., collected a

month previously. In U.S. National Mu-

seum of Natural History, with Spencer mi-

croslide no. 5089 attached to pin.

Remarks.—The closest relative of M. ra-

dicicola seems to be M. minimoides Spencer;

however, the structure of the epandrial

lobes or surstyli is quite characteristic and

does not ally M. radicicola with any other

North American species.

Two Species from Vernonia noveboracensis

In the course of the work by Donald M.

Anderson (1970) on the simultaneous asso-

ciation of weevils of the genus Smicronyx

(Curculionidae) with both dodder (Cuscuta

spp.; Convolvulaceae) and its host iron-

weed (Vernonia noveboracensis [L.] Michx.;

Asteraceae) 2 species of Melanagromyza

were found that had bored in the stems of

the Vernonia and had pupated in the lower

end of their tunnels. The 2 species were

twice found in the same host plant. They

are very similar in general appearance but

have a few distinctive characters, especially

in the male postabdomen, that can only be

specific.

Both species belong to a group of Mela-

nagromyza distinguished by the following

characters in addition to those common to

all the species treated in this paper, viz.,

wing vein C attaining M;+2 and dorsocen-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

tral bristles in only 2 pairs, both postsut-

ural: Squamae and fringe whitish; probos-

cis ordinary, short; ocellar triangle not bril-

liantly polished; eye of male with small

patch of pilosity near frontal orbit; meso-

notum and abdomen black, at least partly

greenish, bluish or aeneous metallic; fore-

tibia without well-developed medial bris-

tle; wing at least 2.22 but less than 3.00 mm

long; frons distinctly but not strongly pro-

jecting above eye; lower fronto-orbital

bristles (ifo) in 2 pairs, widely separated;

basiphallus U-shaped, close to distiphallic

complex.

This group includes the European spe-

cies M. aeneoventris (Fallén) and 2 Califor-

nian species in process of description by

Spencer.

Melanagromyza vernoniae Steyskal, new species

(Fig. 8)

Male. Length of wing 2.82 to 2.91 mm; width of

head 1.04 to 1.10 mm.

Front at level of anterior ocellus 0.43 to 0.46 mm

wide; gena deepest in middle, 0.21 of height of eye;

genal setae of approximately equal length.

Terminalia as in Fig. 8; epandrium in profile

strongly swollen anteriorly, with 3 transverse ridges;

ventral tip of epandrium rounded and bearing a few

short, stout posterior setae; distiphallic complex with

short apical arms and compact basal structures; ex-

tension of phallapodeme large, basally broad; sperm

pump with comparatively thick subbasal projection

on apodeme.

Types.—Holotype (@), Washington,

D.C., emerged indoors 19 December 1968

from puparium collected 18 October 1968;

1 @ paratype, same locality, emerged in-

doors 20 February 1970; 2 male paratypes,

same locality, emerged indoors 28 March

1970; all collected by D. M. Anderson from

stem of Vernonia noveboracensis (L.)

Michx. and deposited in U.S. National Mu-

seum of Natural History.

Remarks.—One female, Washington,

D.C., emerged 28 March 1970, is consid-

ered as possibly the female of M. vernoniae

on the basis of the depth of the gena, but it

is not designated a paratype.

Melanagromyza vernoniana Steyskal, new species

(Figure 9)

Male. Length of wing 2.28 to 2.52 mm; width of

head 0.93 to 0.96 mm.

Fig. 8. Melanagromyza vernoniae Steyskal. A, postabdomen in profile, with ventral view of aedeagus and

right angle view of phallapodemal extension; B, sperm pump.

Front at level of anterior ocellus 0.44 to 0.46 mm

wide; gena deepest in middle, 0.14 of height of eye;

genal setae with uppermost anterior seta (vibrissa)

about twice as long as preceding setae.

Terminalia as in Fig. 9; epandrium in profile little

swollen anteriorly, without ridges; ventral tip of

epandrium angulate, with a few short stout posterior

setae; distiphallic complex with long, arcuate apical

arms and flared basal structures; extension of phal-

lapodeme small, with slender apex; sperm pump with

comparatively slender subbasal projection on

apodeme.

Fig. 9. Melanagromyza vernoniana Steyskal. A, postabdomen in profile, with ventral view of aedeagus and

right angle view of phallapodemal extension; B, sperm pump: C, posterior end of putative puparium, profile

view.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

Types.—Holotype (@), Cropley (on Po-

tomac River 1.5 south of Great Falls),

Montgomery County, Maryland, emerged

indoors 11 February 1969 from puparium

collected 20 October 1968; 1 @ paratype,

Washington, D.C., emerged indoors 28

April 1970; both collected by D. M. Ander-

son from stem of Vernonia noveboracensis

(L.) Michx. and deposited in U.S. National

Museum of Natural History.

Remarks.—Five female specimens from

the same locality and host as the male spec-

imens are considered to be M. vernoniana

because of the genal depth, but are not des-

ignated paratypes. A puparium is preserved

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

with one of these females; it is pale tawny,

3.8 mm long by 1.3 mm in diameter, and

has the posterior end as in Fig. 9C. Each

stigmatophore has a circle of 16 pores.

References Cited

Anderson, D. M. 1970. Dodder weevils in simultane-

ous association with parasitic plants and their host.

Science (Wash., D.C.) 168: 132-133.

Hansberry, R. 1940. A new pest of hollyhock (An-

thomyza angelicae Frost). J. Econ. Entomol. 33:

199:

Spencer, K. A. 1969. The Agromyzidae of Canada and

Alaska. Entomol. Soc. Can., Mem. No. 64. 311 p.

Steyskal, G. C. 1972. New and little-known Agromy-

zidae from Michigan (Diptera: Acayptratae). Great

Lakes Entomol. 5: 1-10.

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

MEETING NOTES—BOARD OF MANAGERS

642nd Meeting—17 January 1980

The 642nd Meeting of the Board of

Managers of the Washington Academy of

Sciences was called to order by the Presi-

dent, Alfred Weissler at 7:30 P.M., at the

Gillette Research Institute.

Minutes of Last Meeting: Corrections to

muimutes:)) In! section) 5b, ichanges new

member’s name from Rosilind to Rosalind.

The minutes were accepted as corrected.

Announcements: Grover Sherlin has been

appointed chairman of an Ad Hoc Com-

mittee to prepare an information sheet for

the affiliates. The new 1979 organization

book was distributed. (Note: The Acousti-

cal Society of America was omitted from

the list of delegates.)

Report of the Secretary: There was no

report.

Report of the Treasurer: The Annual Re-

port was presented to the Board. Buras

suggested that the Board of Managers re-

quest that the Executive Committee con-

sider establishing a money market fund.

The suggestion was approved with no dis-

senting vote.

Executive Committee: There was no report.

Membership Committee: The following new

members have been elected: Mr. Lewis R.

Townsend; Dr. Charles R. Townsend; Ms.

Kay Test; and Dr. Barbara F. Howell. The

Chairman complained that the secretarial

service 1s so disorganized that it is hard to

keep control of the membership process.

Policy Planning Committee: Two tasks are

in progress—a book of SOP’s, and a long-

range planning document.

Ways and Means Committee: There has

been no further action since the last report. -

The mailing list is still in error. President

Townsend suggested that the Academy

should permit members in arrears to be-

come current by payment of current dues

for this year only. It was agreed. Members

will be notified.

Meetings Committee: O’Hare is planning

for 100 people at the 26 February, 1980

meeting at the Cosmos Club) hed

March, 1980 meeting will be held at George-

town University. The 15 May, 1980 meet-

ing will be held at the Cosmos Club.

Awards for Scientific Achievement: The six

scientific panels have begun to function.

Grants-in-Aid for Research: There was no

report.

Encouragement of Science Talent: There

has been an active and varied program

which has been quite successful. The Jun-

ior Academy has had division meetings;

Christmas meetings; and Junior Science

and Humanities Symposium. A represent-

ative of the Junior Academy will be in-

vited to attend future Board meetings.

Mrs. Shafrin was applauded by the Board

for her work.

Public Information Committee: There was

no report.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

Policy for Academy Publications (O’ Hare):

A report (filed under committee’s name)

was submitted which recommended to

Dirk: Derucher or Dr. J: Fishersin ‘that

order. President Townsend moved that rec-

ommendation of the committee be ac-

cepted. The motion was unanamously

approved.

Science, Engineering and Society (Abra-

ham): \t is possible to present topics on

AM/FM radio if we prepare tapes. At

present the committee is searching for

funding.

Nominating (Aldridge): There was no

report.

Auditing (Colwell): There was no report.

Report of the Editor: There was no report.

Report of the Joint Board on Science Educa-

tion: There has been no new action since the

last meeting of the Board.

Unfinished Business: There was no unfin-

ished business.

New Business: There was no new business.

The meeting was adjourned at 10:32 P.M.

Respectfully submitted,

dues (Goff, Secretary

643rd Meeting—21 February 1980

The 643rd Meeting of the Board of Man-

agers was called to order by the President

Alfred Weissler at 7:30 P.M. at the Gillette

Research Institute.

Minutes of Last Meeting: The Treasurer’s

report was accepted as corrected.

Announcements: Dr. Derucher was intro-

duced as the new editor. Dr. Foote was

thanked by the President for his long and

faithiul senyice.Dr, James;F. Schooley,

13700 Darnestown Rd, Gaithersburg, MD

20760, will be the delegate of the Philosoph-

ical Society of Washington. The National

Association of Academies of Science has re-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

quested papers. President-elect Townsend

will telephone E. Shafrin to see if there is

any possible response by the Jr. Academy.

Report of the Secretary: There was no

report.

Report of the Treasurer: The Treasurer’s

report was approved. It was suggested that

the entry At Your Service be changed to

Office Services.

Report of Standing Committees:

Executive: The committee met and con-

sidered the budget. A discussion of

money market fund was conducted in

concert with the board. The funds were

viewed unfavorably because it was felt

that capital would be mixed with cash.

Also there was concern that losses in-

curred on the sale of bonds would not be

offset by the increased interest. At Your

Service was instructed to send third dues

notices for the 1980’s dues. Delinquents

for ’79 would be sent this notice with the

advisory that they were to be given a one-

time chance to become current by pay-

ment of only the 1980 dues. At Your

Service was instructed to obtain

FASEB’s mailing list so that it could be

photo-copied. FASEB would then be

dismissed. At Your Service was in-

structed to report to the Board on its fi-

nancial actions such as dues, page

charges, and subscriptions. Specifically

it is desired to know what mailings there

have been, when they occurred, and

what were the results.

Membership (Buras): The committee re-

port was accepted. Mr. Jerome Robert

Vetter was accepted for membership.

Policy Planning (Honig): There was no

report.

Ways and Means (Stern): There was no

report.

Meetings (Vila): It was moved that the

Supervisors of the recipients of the

Awards for Scientific Achievement be

invited to attend the dinner at their own

expense at the 20 March meeting, Copley

Lounge, Georgetown University. The

motion was passed.

Awards for Scientific Achievement (Gray):

At Your Service was directed to send a

letter to the recipient, the nominator,

and the head of laboratory or institution.

Each letter was to be different as required.

Grants-In-Aid for Research (Long): There

was no report.

Encouragement of Science Talent (Shafrin):

There was no report.

Public Information (Parsons): There was no

report.

Policy for Academy Publications (O'Hare):

There was no report.

Science Engineering & Society (Abraham):

There was no report.

Auditing (Colwell): There was no report.

Tellers (Rader/Buras): 596 letters were sent

to members in good standing; 166 were re-

turned. This percentage 28% 1s comparable

to other organizations where numbers are

available. Some ballots may have been de-

layed because of improper address. It was

not felt to be necessary to redo the whole

ballotting process. The Board accepted the

results of the Tellers unanimously.

Report of the Editor: The September (79)

and December (79) issues are almost ready

for print.

Report of the Joint Board on Science Educa-

tion (Sherlin): The Directory of the Joint

Board of Science has been revised.

Unfinished Business: There was none.

New Business: There was none.

The next meeting of the Board will be

held at the Graduate University, no fee, on

Tuesday, March 18 at 7:30 P.M. The meet-

ing was adjourned at 10:28 P.M.

Respectfully submitted,

J. F. Goff, Secretary

644th Meeting—March 18, 1980

The 644th Meeting of the Board of Man-

agers was called to order at 7:30 P.M. at the

National Graduate University on March

18, 1980. President Alfred Weissler thanked

the University for its courtesy in having the

meeting. He also noted that the Washing-

ton Academy of Sciences had its headquar-

ters at the University and that there would

be a tour of inspection of this after the

meeting had adjourned.

Minutes of Last Meeting: Minutes of the

previous meeting were corrected as fol-

lows: On page 3, 6. d. the word resu/ts in the

final line of that paragraph should have

read, report. Under 8 it should have been

the Joint Board of Science and Engineering

Education. The following line also should

have had the words, Engineering Education,

inserted. In the final paragraph the word,

National, was to be inserted before Gradu-

ate University. On Attachment 3-2 under

Disbursements of the Proposed 1980

Budget, the words, Office Services, was to

substitute for At Your Service. On Attach-

ment 4, last paragraph, it was Mr. James

Glenn Moore, instead of Dr., and elected to

membership rather than fellowship. Dr. R.

Landman observed that Maryland With-

holding and IRS of $288.36 and $2,231.70

respectively had been paid by the WAS for

the former office, which was unusual for an

employer to do.

Announcements: The D.C. Institute of

Chemists had elected a delegate as an alter-

nate to Mr. Rechsigl, who is Dr. Edmund

M. Buras, Jr. Dr. Ruth Landman, the new

Delegate from the Anthropological Society

of Washington, was introduced. A March

18, 1980 letter from At Your Service indi-

cating their wishing to terminate their serv-

ices to WAS on June 15, 1980.

Report on Secretarial Services: In the ensu-

ing discussion of what to do about secretar-

ial services, it was proposed that action be

taken to set up services for the Academy.

Dr. J. Boek presented two plans to begin in

June 1980. One would be the normal serv-

ices, the other would encompass a cam-

paign for gaining new members of the

Academy. Since the meeting lacked a quo-

rum, it was decided that a vote would be

taken on this at the next meeting. It was

mentioned that it was not necessary to have

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

the computer service at FASEB. It was also

suggested that the minutes should be sent

out as soon as possible and that the Execu-

tive Committee consider these budgets right

away before the next Board meeting. When

it was suggested that experience of other

services be looked into, A. Weissler said he

was not enthusiastic about Courtesy Asso-

ciates because the Academy could not af-

ford to pay more than at present.

Report of the Secretary: There was no

report.

Report of the Treasurer: The Treasurer’s

Report from Dr. Rupp was accepted. The

National Academy of Sciences has asked

that WAS pay dues to it of 10¢ per member.

The Treasurer had written to them. Last

year the dues were $57.50. It was estimated

that dues-paying members for this would

be about $40.00. It was decided that this

should be sent to them and handled as a

routine expense of WAS. The NAS is a sub-

sidiary of AAAS.

Reports of Standing Committees:

Membership (Buras): Chairman E. Buras

absent.

Policy Planning (Honig): Chairman Dr.

J. Honig absent.

Ways and Means (Stern): Chairman K.

Stern absent.

Meetings (Vila): Chairman G. Vila ab-

sent. M. Townsend said the next WAS

meeting was April 17.

Science Talent Awards: Chairman E.

Shafrin reported by saying there was a

need to enlarge this committee. The

awards dinner was to be at Georgetown

University for 10 recipients and their

spouses. When Mrs. M. Townsend in-

quired about the possibility of having a

combined awards dinner with the Joint

Board on Science and Engineering Edu-

cation, Mrs. Shafrin said the logistics

would make that difficult, as there were

SO many awardees for both that the cere-

mony would be too lengthy. The Lam-

berton Award plaques were awarded to

Stefan Prosky and Gonzaga High

School. He will go to the International

Science Fair. He is the winner of the Jun-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

ior Academy of Sciences symposium and

will goto St. Paul. An award on behalf of

the WAS was given to Frank Lynn

Brevard, a 12th grader of Ballou School,

who had designed and built a hovercraft

after seeing one at the David Taylor

Model Basin.

The February meeting of the Junior

Academy of Sciences was at the D.C.

Mall in the Learning Center. Among the

places they visited were the Luminist

Exhibit at the National Gallery of Arts at

which two of the Academy explained this

to the others in the absence of a guide,

which greatly impressed a ring of adults

who surrounded the group to listen.

They also visited the Naturalist Center, a

place highly recommended, and visited

the Einstein Exhibit and atom smashers

at the Museum of History and Technol-

ogy. Their next meeting is on March 29

at the Washington Cathedral, for which

they are hoping to have an explanation

of its structure by a liturgical architect.

Dr. Shafrin expects to continue on the ~

Committee for another year but not as

its Chairman. She and Grover Sherlin

have personally contributed substantial

sums of their own money to the Junior

Academy of Sciences to keep it opera-

tive. On the third Monday in May (19th)

is the Awards Banquet for 40 high

schoolers who placed first in the science

fairs. This is at Georgetown University,

with 100-200 persons expected. Six mem-

bers of the Junior Academy were among

the 300 selected of 10,000 entries in the

United States. Among those in the local

top 40, one was a Junior Academy

member who won $500, another was not

of the Academy who won a $10,000

scholarship.

Public Information (Parsons): Dr. Par-

sons reported with a prefatory question

of whether behavioral sciences were rep-

resented at the science fairs. Dr. Shafren

said there was one quasi-related one in

which human traps were utilized for

animals, which the person had patented.

Dr. Parsons continued his report by stat-

ing that news releases for the Washing-

ton Academy of Sciences had been sent

to all newspapers in the area. Mrs. Town-

send said the Washington Star had hired

a new person, and that if there was space,

such notices would appear in columns

about people in the area.

Report of the Special Committees:

Auditing (Colwell): Washington Acad-

emy of Sciences records were examined

on March 11, 1980. Their report was

accepted.

Report of the Editor: In the absence of the

Journal Editor, Dr. Weissler said that the

September (1979) and December (1979)

issues were still underway.

Report of the Joint Board on Science Educa-

tion (Sherlin): Mrs. Townsend gave the re-

port in the absence of Mr. G. Sherlin. She

said it had met the previous evening.

Unfinished Business: It was mentioned that

At Your Service was sending third due

notices.

New Business: There was none.

The next meeting of the Board of Man-

agers is April 17 at 4:30 P.M. in Building 8,

Room 400 of the Goddard Space Center,

just prior to the monthly meeting. The

meeting was adjourned at 9:35 P.M.

Respectfully submitted,

Jean Boek, Secretary Pro-Tem

645th Meeting—17 April 1980

The 645th Meeting of the Board of Man-

agers of the Washington Academy of Sci-

ences was called to order by the President,

Alfred Weissler at 4:30 P.M., atthe NASA/

Goddard Space Flight Center.

Minutes of Last Meeting: The minutes of the

previous meeting were corrected as fol-

lows: In section 1, paragraph 1, line 11, the

Maryland withholding was withheld from

the secretaries salaries. In section 6f, para-

graph I, line 2, change Dr. Shafren to Mrs.

Shafrin. Line 3, change human traps to

humane traps. In section 10, paragraph 1,

line 1, change due notices to dues notices.

The minutes were accepted as corrected.

Announcements: Mr. Tony Nesky, Presi-

dent of the Jr. Academy of Sciences, dis-

cussed the purpose and condition of the Jr.

Academy. The Jr. Academy provides

access to facilities and personnel engaged

in science for young people. It does this by

tours and the publicizing of events. The Jr.

Academy was founded in 1952 and is spon-

sored by the Senior Academy. For many

years it was funded by Penn Central; but

since that corporation: foundered, the Jr.

Academy has been on hard times. The cur-

rent membership Is about 150 to 200 mem-

bers. The Jr. Academy plans to solicit

funds and would like help in sending let-

ters. It plans to send about 300 of them.

M. Townsend offered to supply help by

allowing the Jr. Academy the use of NASA

automatic typewriters.

Dr. Weissler read the letter from Science

80 in which our mailing list was requested.

It was moved that the Academy exchange

mailing lists with Science 80. The motion

passed with no dissent.

Report of the Secretary: The secretary de-

livered a letter from the AAAS to

G. Sherlin in which the AAAS brought to

our attention 2 student grant progams.

Report of the Treasurer: The treasurer’s

report was accepted subject to audit.

Report of Executive Committee: The Execu-

tive Committee considered a proposal by

the National Graduate University to supply

the secretarial services required by the

Academy. There was considerable discussion

over possible economies versus the merit

of a close association of the service with the

new secretary, Jean Boek. It was decided that

the matter should be considered in more de-

tail by an expanded Executive Committee

consisting of: Present Committee (A.

Weissler, M. Townsend, N. Rupp, J. Goff,

M. Aldridge, and J. Boek), next year’s com-

mittee (M. Townsend, L.S. Birks, J. Honig,

J. Boek) and the Chairman of the Policy Plan-

ning Committee (J. Honig) and Ways &

Means (K. Stern). The committee was ~

charged to recommend alternatives by ballot

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

to the Board of Managers at a meeting 2000

hrs. 29 April 1980 at Beeghly Hall, Room

#102, American University.

The Executive Committee will meet at

A. Weissler’s house, 2000 hrs., 23 April 1980.

New Business: Dr. Weissler reported that

Dr. Sawhill has been requested to speak at

the retiring president’s dinner. If he does

not accept the invitation, Dr. Weissler will

be forced to speak.

The meeting adjourned at 6:00 P.M.

Respectfully submitted,

ye Gop, secretary

646th Meeting—29 April 1980

The 646th Meeting of the Board of Man-

agers of the Washington Academy of Sci-

ences was called to order by the President,

Alfred Weissler at’8:01 P.M., at the American

University.

Minutes of Last Meeting: Corrections to

minutes of last meeting: Item 6: Dr. Weiss-

ler assured the Board of Managers that he

would speak without being forced.

The minutes were accepted as corrected.

Announcements: There were no announce-

ments.

Report of the Secretary: There was no report.

‘ Report of the Treasurer: The Treasurer’s

Report and comments were accepted. It

was assured that the Treasurer’s recom-

mendation to pay $1,000 to the Lancaster

Press be accepted. The motion was accepted

without dissent. It was assured that the Execu-

tive Committee be authorized to borrow

$5,000 if necessary to meet short-term

expenses of the Academy. The motion was

accepted without dissent.

Report of Standing Committees:

Executive Committee: The Executive Com-

mittee met to consider replacement of

At-Your-Service. R. Cook inquired of

the American Geophysical Union as to

the possibility that they would provide

Our secretarial services. They declined.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

J. O’Hare reported that the D.C. Psy-

chological Association declined also. The

National Graduate University submitted

a tentative contract. There were a number

of comments such as the service should

handle membership and fellow letters,

notices should be sent in a timely manner

(section III A-2) and so on. It was

pointed out that any such contract should

consider a statement to the effect that for

any matters not specifically defined, it

will be expected that they be handled in

accordance with standard and reason-

able accepted practice. As a result of

these discussions, the following motion

was passed unanimously: To authorize

Executive Committee to negotiate a one-

year contract with National Graduate

University for office services subject to

the following: Start date to be at end of

arrangement with At-Your-Service;

annual cost is to be $8,604 plus reimburse-

able expenses at cost, these expenses to

include printing and postage; and use

April 29, 1980 proposal as a basis subject

to better definition by Executive Com-

mittee and agreed to by National Grad-

uate University, including specific serv-

ices for the Washington Junior Academy

of Sciences.

Membership Committee (Buras): There

was no report.

Policy Planning Committee (Honig): There

was no report.

Ways and Means Committee (Stern): There

was no report.

Committee on Meetings (Vila): There was

no report.

Committee on Awards for Scientific Achieve-

ment (Gray): There was no report.

Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research

(Long): There was no report.

Committee on Encouragement of Scien-

tific Talent (Shafrin): Some forty may be

honored at the Westinghouse Science

Fair on Monday, 19 May 1980. It was

moved that the Academy underwrite

these awards in an amount not to exceed

$400. The motion was passed unanimously.

Committee on Public Information (Parsons):

There was no report.

Reports of the Special Committees: There

were no reports of the following Special

Committees: Auditing (Colwell), Bylaws

and Board Rules (Wood), Nominating

(Aldridge), Tellers (Rader), Science Engi-

neering and Society (Abraham), or Publi-

cations Policies (O’Hare).

Report of the Editor: The editor was absent.

Report of the Joint Board on Science Educa-

tion (Sherlin): M. Townsend announced

that she was appointing the following new

members to the Joint Board: Jo-Anne

Jackson, Edythe Durie, and L. Douglas

Ballard.

Unfinished Business: There was no addi-

tional unfinished business.

New Business: J. Wagner brought to the atten-

tion of the Board that Fidelity Cash & Reserve

has a fund which pays interest and which

can be used for checking. This information

was given to M. Townsend. C. Creveling

brought to the attention of the Board the

fact that the D.C. Government has an office

whose concern is Washington organizations

which it can subsidize. He also asked

whether the affiliates could be asked to

contribute to the Academy. J. Goff sug-

gested that all meetings should be joint

with an affiliate in order to promote the

sense of affiliation and reduce costs.

The next meeting will be held at the National

Graduate University on Wednesday, June 4,

1980. The meeting was adjourned at 9:47 P.M.

Respectfully submitted,

Jf. Goff, Secretary

647th Meeting—June 4, 1980

The 647th Meeting of the Board of Man-

agers of the Washington Academy of Sciences

was called to order by the President, Mrs.

Marjorie R. Townsend, at 7:30 P.M. in the

Orange Room of National Graduate Uni-

versity. The following were either present

or excused:

Officers:

Mrs. Marjorie R. Townsend (President)

Dr. Jean K. Boek (Secretary)

Mr. LaVerne S. Birks (Treasurer)

Dr. Alphonse Forziati (Past President,

Nominating Committee Chairman)

Dr. Florence Forziati(Past President, Audit

Committee Chairman)

Dr. John G. Honig (President Elect, Wash-

ington Operations Research Council)

Dr. Alfred Weissler (Past President)

Dr. Mary H. Aldridge (Past President)

Managers-at-large:

Dr. Conrad B. Link (Botanical Society of

Washington)

Mrs. Elaine G. Shatrin (Washington Junior

Academy of Sciences)

Dr. John J. O’Hare (District of Columbia

Psychological Association)

Dr. Jo-Anne A. Jackson (Chemical Society

of Washington)

Mr. Grover C. Sherlin (Membership Com-

mittee Chairman)

Committees:

Mr. Edward M. Buras, Jr. (Tellers

Chairman)

Delegates and Alternates:

Dr. Charles E. Townsend (Medical Society

of the District of Columbia)

Dr. Ronald W. Manderscheid (Society of

General Systems Research)

Mr. William C. Prinz (Geological Society

of Washington)

Dr. Lloyd G. Herman (American Society

for Microbiology)

Mr. David Lewis (American Ceramic

Society)

Dr. W. Ronald Heyer (Biological Society

of Washington)

Dr. A. D. Berneking (Institute of Food

Technologists)

Dr. Ruth H. Landman (Anthropological

Society of Washington)

Mr. Paul H. Oehser (Columbia Historical

Society)

Dr. Michael Chi (American Society of

Mechanical Engineers)

Dr. George J. Simonis (Optical Society of

America, National Capitol Section)

Excused:

Dr. H. McIlvaine Parsons (Human Factors

Society, Public Information Committee

Chairman)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

Dr. Richard K. Cook (Acoustical Society

of America)

The minutes of the April 29, 1980 meet-

ing were approved.

The President then read names of Chair-

man of the Standing Committees:

Executive—Mrs. Marjorie R. Townsend

Membership—Mr. Grover C. Sherlin

Policy Planning—Dr. John G. Honig

Bylaws and Standing Rules—Dr. John G.

Honig

Awards for Scientific Achievement—

Dr. Sherman Ross

Ways and Means—Dr. Richard K. Cook

Grants-in-Aid for Research—Mr. Grover

Encouragement of Science Talent—Mrs.

Marjorie R. Townsend

Public Information—Dr. H. Mcllvaine

Parsons

Academy Contingent on the Joint Board

on Science and Engineering Education—

Dr. Jo-Anne Jackson

Audit—Dr. Florence H. Forziati

Nominating—Dr. Alphonse F. Forziati

Science, Engineering, and Society—Dr.

George Abraham

Tellers—Mr. Edmund M. Buras, Jr.

Those in attendance at the meeting were

next introduced. For new delegates, the

purposes of the Academy and Board of

Managers were explicated.

The Secretary reported that with the

move of headquarters and operations to

National Graduate University, the new

phone number of the Washington Academy

of Sciences, the Joint Board on Science and

Engineering Education, and the Washing-

ton Junior Academy of Sciences 1s

703-347-3368.

The treasurer reported ona meeting with

the President of National Graduate Uni-

versity in which they discussed the change-

over of operations from At Your Service. It

was recommended to the Academy that it

adopt a system for its separate account in

which automatic records in the account

books are made as each check is written. It

was moved and seconded, and passed that

the $100-200 start-up cost of purchase of

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

this system be authorized and that the

Academy reimburse the University for the

costs of the checks and account books.

The Board of Managers also moved,

seconded and passed that the Academy

bank account be transferred from American

Security Bank, N. A. tothe United Virginia

Bank across the street from the University

which pays interest on its checking account.

It was further recommended by the Treas-

urer that consideration be given to putting

cash accumulations beyond that needed for

immediate checking account needs into a

high interest-bearing ready-asset account

at the brokerage firm of Thomas and

McKinnon. The question was asked if this

type of an account were insured by some

agency like FDIC. It was also suggested

that this matter be considered later if there

were any surplus.

The Treasurer said that the University

had also suggested a professional audit of

the books at this time. It was moved and

seconded that this be done. In the ensuing

discussion, however, it was pointed out

that because of the present state of the

books that the Audit Committee chaired

by Dr. Florence Forziati would have the

burden of that audit anyway, that it would

be very costly, and that the Board was satis-

fied that she and her committee would be able

to do the job needed at this time. The motion

was therefore defeated. Dr. Forziati indicated

that she would be glad to undertake this

task.

In the first report of the Standing Com-

mittees (as indicated on the Agenda appended

to the minutes as E-1) Mrs. Townsend said

that the Executive Committee had drafted

the organization directory and had a meet-

ing on May 21 in which substantial prog-

ress had been made on updating the

Academy mailing list. During the June 18

meeting, the new list would be checked

against the yellow cards. She also said that

a contract for office services from June 1,

1980, through May 31, 1981, had been

signed with National Graduate University.

At Your Service files with exception of the

account books and check book, had been

moved on May 31 tothe University at 1101

North Highland Street in Arlington by Mr.

Sherlin. At Your Service was using these to

finish the May 15 report tothe IRS. National

Graduate University had made available a

suite of rooms for the WAS, WJAS, and

JBSEE where archives and furniture of the

societies already had been placed.

Mr. Buras reported on nominations for

Fellow of Dr? George F. Peiper’ and’ Dr:

Peter F. Wiggens, whose qualifications had

already been sent to the Board. It was

moved, seconded, and passed that they be

accepted as Fellows after this second read-

ing. Mr. Buras also reported that two new

members have been accepted and welcomed:

Dr. Harold Berkson of the Naval Research

Laboratory and Mrs. Carolyn C. Block.

For the Membership Committee, Mr.

Sherlin said the seven or eight review com-

mittees according to scientific or engineer-

ing discipline would be reestablished for

Fellowship nominations and a report given

at the next Board meeting.

The Committee on Policy Planning under

chairmanship of Dr. Honig had gone through

long-range reports made through the years

by various Academy presidents with an eye

of how to increase activity of the society.

The Committee on Meetings said that

monthly meetings of the Academy should

be co-sponsored with affiliated societies.

The Core Program for the year appended

to these Minutes was used as a basis of deci-

sion of location of the meetings. Conversa-

zione on Thursday, November 20, would

be at National Graduate University, with

the format being four or five tables set with

wine and cheese, each headed by a well-

known person in a different discipline to

stimulate discussion. The Saturday, Decem-

ber 13, all-day meeting would be at God-

dard Space Flight Center, with a full pro-

gram of speakers, lunch, and use of the

papers for the March 1981 issue of the

Journal. Because this comes just before the

week-long meeting of the astrophysics con-

ference in Baltimore, notices of this would

be mailed to that group as well. Conference

registration would be $20-25, which includes

lunch and proceedings. The high cost of

previous conference proceedings was men-

tioned by Drs. Aldridge and Forziati. In

view of this, the tendency was to favor incor-

poration of the papers in the Academy

Journal, with perhaps extra copies in the

number being printed for non-members

who had attended. Cost of fliers for the

meeting would be borne, in part, by Goddard.

In consideration of location of the meet-

ings, Mrs. Sharin said if Dr. Finn would

serve as sponsor for the Awards Banquet,

we might consider having it at Georgetown

University, as it has been satisfactory before.

When Dr. O’ Hare asked if any other arrange-

ments had been made definite, Mrs. Townsend

indicated that dates and speakers had been

a first consideration. In the ensuing discus-

sion about having dinner prior to meetings,

Dr. Aldridge observed that attendance had

been poor for many years at dinner meet-

ings, except where there was co-sponsorship

with another member society. Attendance -

was felt to depend on speakers as well as

location. Dr. Simonis said the Optical Society

has attendance of 20-50 at certain restau-

rants where dinner was $10. Dr. Chi said

rotation of location for ASME meetings

had brought in new faces each time, but not

necessarily larger numbers. Attendance

reasonable in size was considered to be

50-100. Kenwood Country Club was fa-

vored because of good parking, easy-to-

reach location, and public transportation

for the early evening. Dr. O’Hare said he

would ask George Vila to reserve dates for

the meetings.

Activities of the Committee on Grants-

in-Aid for Research were reported by Mr. |

Sherlin. The Washington Academy of Sciences

had an escrow account of $900 from former

annual rebate from the American Associa-

tion for the Advancement of Science. Now

AAAS awards grants to groups within the

United States who apply for this.

The next meeting of the Washington

Junior Academy of Science was slated to be

Saturday A.M. June 14, 1980 at National

Graduate University. Mrs. Shafrin described

one of their recent meetings at the National

Presbyterian Church, attended by about

40, which featured take-offs on student

papers. The Church charged $40 for several

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

rooms and kitchen privileges. Balloting for

their new officers is proceeding.

In discussing the report of the Archivist,

Mr. Oehser said he was archivist for one

group and was willing to help find one for

WAS. Apparently WAS records were put

in the Smithsonian Tower. He will investi-

gate to learn what is there now.

The Joint Board will be meeting Monday,

June 9 at the Patent Office.

Under New Business, the President asked

each delegate to send information about

his or her society to WAS at 1101 N. High-

land Street in order to have it by the July

meeting. This reminder was to be especially

noted in the minutes (hence the underlin-

ing). It was also suggested that at least two

prestigious members of each society be

nominated for Fellowin WAS. Mr. Sherlin

said two pink Fellow forms were needed

for each. These, passed out. Members can

apply on the green forms by themselves.

Delegates who were not already Fellows

could be sponsored. Dr. Simonis said it

would be helpful to have a new brochure

about WAS, but the present one has not

been updated since this matter was dis-

cussed in the May 21 Executive Committee

meeting. Mr. Sherlin said his wife was be-

coming a member.

When the difference between the $25

dues for Fellow and $20 for Member was

noted, Dr. Alphonse Forziati said the orig-

inal intent had been to have members as a

Support group for the Fellows who were

the only ones permitted to vote and to hold

office. There was no student membership

because the WAS was for senior scientists

and the Junior Academy for those younger.

However, the hiatus existing for college-

age students was noted.

The suggestion was made to co-sponsor

the D.C. Forester’s meeting in September.

The President asked those present how

many had association newsletters, with

half of those present indicating they did.

This was prologue to the question of whether

the WAS should have an umbrella newslet-

ter. The American Chemical Society cur-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

rently provides a list of all meetings in the

city. Mrs. Shafrin said when the WAS Jour-

nal was issued 10 times a year, upcoming

meetings were listed, so that function was

fulfilled. It was noted that the Biological

Society was having their centennial in De-

cember which WAS might wish to recog-

nize. Dr. Landman suggested that WAS

ask each affiliate society for the name of its

newsletter and a list of members.

For the September 3 meeting of the

Board of Managers, it was suggested to

have a wine and cheese reception for the

officers of all affiliated societies. Dr. Chi

thought perhaps having the meeting first

followed by a social hour afterward was a

good idea. This underscored the impor-

tance of getting the list of members and offi-

cers from each society.

In a discussion of having an organiza-

tionalemblem, Mrs. Townsend passed around

samples of pins from other societies as ex-

amples. There would be a $35 set up cost

plus purchase of 1000 of these to be un-. |

derwritten by WAS, which would have to

be recovered "by =the” sale or =tnese LO

members. The idea of having a $10 initia-

tion fee to cover the cost of these, plus a cer-

tificate, was not received with much enthu-

slasm, as it was felt this might curtail

increase In membership. The motion was

made and seconded to offer a pin, plus a

certificate for the $10 fee. In the discussion,

Mrs. Shafrin said there was a Fellow certif-

icate already in existence on which names

could be placed, at a cost of about $2 each.

The observation was made that with dues

already high we would discourage new

membership, as all scientific associations

were becoming more expensive to belong

to. Dr. Simonis objected to having such a

large initiation fee. The motion was de-

feated.

Dr. Chi moved and Dr. Townsend sec-

onded the motion to have an emblem

available for sale for $5. This was amended

to delete the $5. Discussion then centered

on the design, with an indication that we al-

ready had one that was on the Journal. If

there were to be others, Dr. O’Hare felt the

members should approve of this. Dr. Al-

dridge said potential members or fellows

ask what the society was going to do for

them, and the extra expenses might inhibit

their joining. On the vote for the motion, 8

were in favor, 5 opposed: motion carried.

The motion to have the design approved by

members was appended to the motion, but

it was moved and seconded that the motion

for consideration of design be tabled.

In discussion of affiliation with addi-

tional scientific societies, it was suggested

that since the National Science Teacher’s

Association had headquarters in this area,

they should be asked to become an affiliate.

It was felt that because there were many as-

sociation headquarters in the area that the

Policy and Planning Committee should

pursue this systematically. Sigma X1 was

another group suggested to be asked to afil-

late, especially as there were five chapters

locally, according to Mr. Buras.

The AAAS had asked the Academy to

send news. The $25 page charge for an author

to publish in the journal was thought to

dampen interest of potential contributors.

There had been referee panels in different

disciplines for the journal which Dr. Forziati

was going to check on for future action.

The motion was then made, seconded

and passed that the meeting be adjourned

avy 10220°PoM:

Respectfully submitted,

Jean Boek, Secretary

APPENDIX A

From the Standing Rules, the regular order

of business shall be:

A. Approval of the minutes of the last

meeting.

B. Announcements, such as committee ap-

pointments.

Report of the Secretary.

» Keport of the, Preasurer.

Reports of standing committees as fol-

lows:

1. Executive Committee

te @

oe Ce

a. Draft organization directory.

b. Meeting held on May 21, 1980.

c. Contract for office services from

June 1, 1980, through May 31,

1981, signed with National Grad-

uate University.

d. Closeout of activity with At Your

Service effective May 31, 1980.

e. Move of files to 1101 N. High-

land Street.

f. Activity to reestablish mailing

list.

g. Committee chairmen appointed.

Committee on Membership

Committee on Policy Planning

Committee on Ways and Means

Committee on Meetings

Committee on Awards for Scientific

Achievement

7. Committee on Grants-in-aid for

Research

8. Committee on Encouragement of

Science Talent

9. Committee on Public Information

Reports on special committees.

el Sieh

. Report of the Editor.

. Report of the Archivist.

Report from the Joint Board on Science

and Engineering Education.

Unfinished business.

. New business.

1. Action for delegates

a. Obtain names, addresses, and

term of office for officers for

each affiliated society. Mail in-

formationto WAS office at 1101

N. Highland Street, Arlington,

VA 22201, or bring to next meet-

ing of the Board of Managers on

Thursday, July 17, 1980, at 7:30

P.M. .

b. Arrange for the nomination of

the two most prestigious mem-

bers of your society to fellowship

in the WAS.

c. Determine whether any society

meetings shoula be co-sponsored

by the WAS.

2. Possibility of wine and cheese recep-

tion for all Delegates and the Presi-

dents/Chairmen of each affiliated:

society at the September 3, 1980,

Board of Managers meeting.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

1oS)

. Membership emblems.

4. Consideration of initiation fee to in-

clude emblem and certificate of

membership.

5. Affiliation with additional scientific

societies.

L. Adjournment

648th Meeting—July 17, 1980

The 648th Meeting of the Washington

Academy of Sciences was called to order on

Thursday, July 17, 1980 at 7:30 by Presi-

dent-Elect, John G. Honig. The minutes of

the previous meeting were accepted as

written.

The Secretary asked for Board opinion

about having advertising in the WAS Jour-

nal, because the Smithsonian Institution

had called to ask about this. The matter

was referred to Dr. John O’Hare, Chair-

man of the Publications Committee. Since

the Editor was not present, 1t was reported

by Dr. Honig that Richard Foote, the pre-

vious editor, said that Dr. Kenneth N. De-

rucher had told him that he was waiting for

one or two more articles before the first,

1980 Journal could go to press. Dr. Honig

was not able to get any response from the

Editor from his phone calls. It was pointed

out that by having the journals late without

giving a six-week notification to subscrib-

ers and members the Academy ran the risk

of being cited for mail fraud, as another

professional society had been. A letter

from Mr. William H. Press, President of

the Columbia Historical Society received

on July 9, 1980 was read. It appealed for

contributions to restore the Christian Heu-

rich Mansion. It was decided to postpone

action on this until the Academy’s finances

would be completely audited. In response

to the request for the Board to act upon

1981 costs of library subscriptions for the

journal, it was moved, seconded and passed

that overseas library subscriptions would

be raised from $20 to $22 and domestic

subscriptions from $17 to $19 to meet the

anticipated 10 percent increase in printing

costs. The revision of the WAS flier was

mentioned and deferred to a later time.

A new set of WAS directories were given

to each person present. Dr. Parsons ex-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

pressed the pleasure of the board in having

these well-done in a timely fashion, credit

that belongs to the President, Mrs. Marjo-

rie Townsend and her husband, Dr. Charles

Townsend, Delegate from the Medical So-

ciety of the District of Columbia. They

were assisted in this work by Ms. Brenda

Cullen, Mrs. Townsend’s secretary.

The Treasurer said that from June 5 until

July 15, 1980, WAS had an income of

$1759 from its investments. During this

time it paid out $1354, leaving a balance of

$404.78 in the Virginia National Bank

account.

The report of the Audit Committee was

read by Dr. Forziati and written into the

minutes as Exhibit A. They said there was

$3,761.80 as of June 30 in the American Se-

curity Bank Account, which will be trans-

ferred to the Virginia National Bank ac-

count by the Treasurer during July. The

auditors’ suggestions for setting up the new

bookkeeping system by National Graduate

University for the Academy were found to

coincide with categories that had already

been set up by Mrs. Loreen McDaniel. The

Lancaster Press was requested to reflect

payment made to them of $1000 on the

June account. The Academy also has a sav-

ings account in the Chevy Chase Savings

and Loan of $267, as of September 26,

1979, which also will be transferred to the

Virginia National Bank. It was moved, sec-

onded and passed that all bills be paid ex-

cept those of the Lancaster Press which

currently exceed the amount in the ac-

counts, and for a report about the invest-

ment assets being made. It was also moved,

seconded and passed unanimously to ac-

cord the Forziatis a vote of thanks for the

excellent and painstaking work they had

done on the account books.

Mr. Buras reported that the WAS mail-

ing list was partially worked through by the

Executive working committee that had met

several times at Mrs. Townsend’s home to

mesh the sources of names: the 1977, 1978,

and 1979 Directories, the two 1980 print-

outs, and the active and inactive card files,

with the goal of having one current, com-

plete card file from which future mailings

could be made. Mrs. Donna Smith’s report

was noted that savings could be made in

mailing out the journals by having this

done by National Graduate University in-

stead of by the Lancaster Press.

The Committee on Policy Planning has

put together reports of former presidents.

Mr. Buras, Dr. Stern and Dr. Cook, as

members of the committee suggested that

four priorities be |) to increase member-

ship, 2) streamline management 3) have

more joint activities with other societies

and 4) put the Academy on a sound fiscal

basis. It was also suggested that as a result

of their July 3 meeting that three Vice Pres-

idents be added to the Academy elected of-

ficers: 1) Membership to oversee mailing

lists and promotion, 2) Programs and meet-

ing support, and 3) Communication, jour-

nals, prizes and awards. This would require

a change in the by-laws. It was also noted

that there is now no special policy about

new societies affiliating with WAS.

Dr. Cook, of Ways and Means asked to

have an increase in dues for 1980 on. Dis-

cussion of the motion made and seconded

to increase the dues included the observa-

tion that the Academy will not have a real-.

istic budget based on actual membership,

until the mailing list 1s completely cor-

rected. Also, it was suggested that the

Academy consider all financial problems

together, that with the journal very behind

schedule members were not getting what

many join for, and that until the mailing list

enabled the Academy to mail out dues no-

tices to all members, it was best to keep

them at the present rate of $20 for Members

and $25 for Fellows. The vote was 6 to 4 in

favor of tabling the motion in order that

advance notice about dues increase in the

future could be given to the Board as an

agenda item.

Mr. Sherlin reported that there was no

money for grants in aid from AAAS this

year. Dr. Weissler said under the new rules

that societies apply for these funds. It had

been decided last fall to apply and that at

present it was early enough to apply for this

year, as this was the first year that no

money was earmarked for WAS.

Dr. Parsons reporting on Public Infor-

mation showed the Board an article from

the July 4, 1980 LABSTRACTS Naval

Laboratory featuring the work that Mrs.

Elaine Shafrin had done for the Washing-

ton Junior Academy of Sciences.

Mr. Guy Hammer next reported on a

proposal that had been written by Dr.

George Abraham and himself as an activity

of the Awards for Scientific Achievement

Committee to apply to the National Science

Foundation Science for Citizen program,

as this was in line with WAS purpose. Dis-

cussion on the motion made and seconded

to accept the report and to offer WAS sup-

port for this led to examination of the gene-

sis of this and what next steps were. There

was a vote of four against and five in favor

of tabling the motion. However, Dr. Weiss-

ler said the Board thanked Mr. Hammer

and Dr. Abraham for writing this pro-

posal, and that it was well worth pushing

ahead on this. This document represents a

preliminary proposal which will be re-

viewed by NSF by September 15, so there

will be another chance at the September 3

‘meeting to discuss it again.

Names of officers for affiliated societies

are gradually being received for the Direc-

tory issue.

There being no other new business, the

meeting was adjourned.

Respectfully submitted,

Jean K. Boek, Secretary

The date of publication of Vol. 70, No. 1 is February 16, 1981.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 1, 1980

i i

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W317 Number 2

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ACADEMY ..SCIENCES

ISSN 0043-0439

Issued Quarterly

CONTENTS

Research Reports:

DOUGLAS H. UBELAKER: Prehistoric Human Remains from the Cotocollao

Site weichimcnia rrovince, EcuadOr .. sc. debs < ods Ysee ene wlalele © waren eee

RICHARD T. KORITZER and LUCILE E. ST. HOYME: Caries and Elemental

Composition of the Rhodesian Man Dentition.......2..... 4...--+- «seo.

F.C. THOMPSON and WAYNEN. MATHIS: Haliday’s Generic Names of Diptera

First Published in Curtis’ A Guide to British Insects (1837) ..............

DAVIDR. SMITH: Identification of the Acordulecera “Potato” Sawflies of Peru and

Bolivia, with Descriptions of These and Related Species from South America

UiigimicnHoptera- PeneiGae) os .ijoe ace os 5s ecncles esis oe cows Cole 6 wana aire ee

Academy Affairs:

PRU em te a en tS ie tcs ovate Sb ey Se OE Sane SEGRE eae ate humans kw at bie aera ae

Washington Academy of Sciences

Founded in 1898

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President

Marjorie R. Townsend

President-Elect

John G. Honig

Secretary

Jean K. Boek

Treasurer

Lavern S. Birks

Members at Large

Conrad B. Link

Elaine Shafrin

John J. O’Hare

Michael J. Pelezar, Jr.

Jo-Anne Jackson

Grover C. Sherlin

BOARD OF MANAGERS

All delegates of affiliated

Societies (see facing page)

EDITOR

Richard H. Foote, pro tem

ACADEMY OFFICE

1101 N. Highland St.

Arlington, Va. 22201

Telephone: (703) 527-4802

The Journal

This journal, the official organ of the Washington

Academy of Sciences, publishes historical articles,

critical reviews, and scholarly scientific articles;

proceedings of meetings of the Academy and its

Board of Managers; and other items of interest to

Academy members. The Journal appears four times

a year (March, June, September, and December)—

the September issue contains a directory of the

Academy membership.

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Members, fellows, and patrons in good standing

receive the Journal without charge. Subscriptions

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U.S. and Canada ... $19.00

Pore. a5... tere 22.00

Single Copy Price. . . t50

Single-copy price for Vol. 66, No. 1 (March, 1976)

is $7.50.

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Obtainable from the Academy office (address at

bottom of opposite column): Proceedings: Vols.

1-13 (1898-1910) Index: To Vols. 1-13 of the Pro-

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Published quarterly in March, June, September, and December of each year by the

Washington Academy of Sciences, 1101 N. Highland St., Arlington, Va. 22201. Sec- .

ond class postage paid at Arlington, Va. and additional mailing offices.

DELEGATES TO THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,

REPRESENTING THE LOCAL AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Biaasammicalesociety Of Washington . oi... cce css occ nese v0 cas eel elma eialeials oie'e 6 66 James F. Schooley

Panemoerical Society Of Washington 2.22.0... cc0sceccececiserdoccecensseessves Ruth H. Landman

ee MESOICLYT Ol, WASHINELOM 6 )..< 05 a cisicciee cs ee cove vole cis elase celiac ve reine eae eet William R. Heyer

MUN SRAIC LY. .Ol, NV ASTNINSLOMN <2) oa 6 <5 san c Sieveinre Sle vis ao bineieelele ese 6 bie ao oe dis ere eine ae Jo-Anne Jackson

Ememoiogical Society of Washington ......6..sccecccser ens encesemesebeaesionas Theodore J. Spilman

PP MECICOOTA PICA SOCIETY. 5 01s 5 s)e.c a ces as hao asia s,qnledee eel) d wales elnlel vie gf vide eb ete T. Dale Stewart

Pere Mea SOCICLV OL NVASHING(ON .i.0.00's aie «3,004 Biles belle hb ce se elle ce ede eeitlels oslame William C. Prinz

eemceuesoaciery:ol the Districtiof Columbia... . 0.02600 ..0. 2h). wa eens ales eee hae Charles E. Townsend

pena TMT SEOEICAIESORICLY™ 3 ovevs sicpa <a: 'sveal'e oo lace: ws: < Ge hives b ol ears ww Se Wee Riera le pie Oba ove eee Paul H. Oehser

BoE EAS OCICLY) OF Wi ASHINGtOM 5. o's enc cs 6 oak os ets osc abe dele eet ge be pens ew a duisias Conrad B. Link

PEMOUPATNETICATI F'OFESLCTS «6. cic ce cee ees ct eee ween eel IEEE sae Ae Caer aa tye Boyd W. Post

SeMiPROMES OCCU ONVEUNSINEETS: occ 0.03 cae ae des ccc oe eed ee alee aan ws ees George Abraham

imme ol Blecerical and Electronics Emgineers -.: ......5.2500e ce cs ebeceeeosecenes George Abraham

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J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980 57

RESEARCH REPORTS

Prehistoric Human Remains From The Cotocollao Site,

Pichincha Province, Ecuador

Douglas H. Ubelaker

Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian

Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560

ABSTRACT

Recent excavations by the Banco Central of Quito Ecuador at the Cotocollao site north of

Quito recovered 199 human skeletons dating from about 540 B.C. and four skeletons dating

from about 1100 B.C. Analysis reveals an estimated living stature of about 159 cm for males

and 148 cm for females, several examples of cranial deformation, an equal representation of

males and females, nearly a lack of infants younger than one year, comparatively low life ex-

pectancy and low frequencies of dental disease, infectious disease and examples of trauma.

These data, as well as skeletal measurements and non-metric observations, are compared with

those from coastal sites.

Large well-documented samples of pre-

historic human skeletons offer important

information regarding diet, demography,

disease, population affinities and cultural

practices that affect the skeleton. Such

samples are now emerging in Latin Amer-

ica as physical anthropologists become

more involved in excavation and archeolo-

gists increase awareness of the information

to be gained in cemetery excavation.

In Ecuador, large well-documented sam-

ples have resulted from excavations at Aya-

lan (500 B.C. to A.D. 1600), Guayas Prov-

ince (Ubelaker, 1981); Real Alto (2920 B.C.

to 2770 B.C.), Guayas Province (Klepinger,

1979 and unpublished manuscript); Site

OGSE-80, Sta. Elena Peninsula (6000 B.C.),

Guayas Province (Stothert, 1977 and Ube-

laker, 1980); and possibly Buena Vista

(Valdivia C, 2000 B.C. to 1400 B.C.),

Guayas Province (Munizaga, 1965). Pub-

lished analysis of some of this material

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

(Klepinger, 1979; Munizaga, 1965, 1976;

Ubelaker, 1980, 1981) documents the vari-

ety of information gleaned from analysis

and how it can be correlated with cultural

variables. This report adds to this growing

literature by presenting analysis of a new

prehistoric human skeletal sample from

Ecuador, that of the Cotocollao site (CO-1)

near Quito.

Cotocollao represents a large prehistoric

habitation site and associated cemetery lo-

cated in the Ecuadorian highlands in the

northwest suburbs of Quito. Recent inten-

sive excavation sponsored by the Banco

Central of Ecuador revealed a large ceme-

tery containing at least two components:

an early deposition of largely primary skel-

etons in clearly defined individual pits and

a more recent deposit of a large group of

skeletons, both primary and secondary

with no discernible pit outlines. According

to Project Director, Emil Petersen, (per-

sonal communication) radiocarbon dates

average 1100 B.C. for the early sample and

540 B.C. for the later. All remains are cov-

ered with a thick layer of pumice and vol-

canic ash, believed to date from about 500

B.C.

My participation in the project began in

August 1978, when my wife Maruja Andrade

de Ubelaker, research assistant, Stephanie

Damadio and I travelled to Ecuador at the

invitation of the Banco Central to study

skeletal materials from the Sta. Elena site

(Ubelaker, 1980) and from Cotocollao. At

the time of our arrival, all skeletal materials

from Cotocollao had been removed from

the site and were stored ina nearby labora-

tory. Some burials had been removed in-

tact within large blocks of earth while most

had been removed from the soil and were

stored in individual boxes. All of the mate-

rial was badly fragmented and some had

been coated with glue. Most of the burials

retained identification tags enabling corre-

lation with field observations, location

within the site, etc. During this initial visit,

we located, cleaned and recorded data on

human remains from 14 features and estab-

lished procedures for the continued proc-

essing of the remaining features.

In December, 1979, Maruja Andrade de

Ubelaker and I returned to Quito to con-

tinue the analysis. Following our August

visit, processing of the material had con-

tinued through the able efforts of Peace

Corps volunteer Petrova Ashby and oth-

ers under her supervision. We returned to

find that most of the material had been

cleaned, labeled and placed in sealed cloth

or plastic containers. With the continued

assistance of Petrova Ashby, we completed

data collection by January 1979.

The following presents detailed informa-

tion on the skeletal content of each feature,

as well as biological and cultural informa-

tion gleaned from the complete sample. In-

dividual bone counts and frequencies of

observations and measurement must be re-

garded as minimal due to the extreme

fragmentation and relatively poor preser-

vation. Criteria for determining sex and

age at death are summarized by Ubelaker

(1978). All stature calculations were made

utilizing the regression equations of Ge-

noves or Trotter and Gleser (also summa-

rized by Ubelaker, 1978). Note that data

presented here are confined to biological

information only. Information on burial

location, position, associated artifacts, dat-

ing, stratigraphy and general site interpre-

tations will be presented in a future publi-

cation planned by the Banco Central of

Ecuador.

Site and feature terminology used here

represents the system employed by Peter-

son (personal communication) in the exca-

vation. Site features 19 and 38 refer to two

large areas of the site that produced bur-

ials. Individual features and “‘tombs”’ within

these areas refer to specific interments or

groups of bones. According to Peterson’s

interpretation of the stratigraphy and radio-

carbon dates, all burial features from site

feature 38 and burial features 1 through

144 of site feature 19 represent the later

component of about 540 B.C. Burial fea-

tures 146 to 150 of site feature 19 represent

the earlier component (1100 B.C.).

Site Feature 19

Feature 1:—One adult. Bones present:

one left femur, one left clavicle, one left

scapula, nine teeth, and several metatarsal

fragments. Sex: unknown. Age: 25-35 years.

Feature 2:—Three adults and one sub-

adult. Three adults are represented by cra-

nia and right femora. Other bones present

include one left and one right humerus, one

radius, one ulna, one left femur, one right

tibia, one right patella. The skulls represent

one male, age 20-30 years, one of unknown

sex, age 25-35 years and one adult male of

unknown age. One left femur appears to be

female, thus the skull of unknown sex may

be female. A living stature of about 142 cm

is suggested by the femur. One subadult ©

mandible is also present. Dental formation

suggests an age of between 3 and 4 years.

Feature 3:—One complete adult skeleton.

Sex: male. Age: 25-35 years. Stature esti-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

mated from left humerus using Trotter and

Gleser’s data is 167 cm.

Feature 4:—One adult and one subadult.

Adult bones are the following: left radius,

one ulna, one femur, one left tibia, one fib-

ula, one right scapula, one first metacarpal

and fragments of a left maxilla. Noage and

sex estimate can be made.

The subadult is represented only by one

deciduous molar. Formation data suggest

an age of about one year.

Feature 5:—One adult and one subadult.

The adult consists only of femoral frag-

ments and the acromial process from a left

scapula. Resorption spaces in the femoral

cortex suggest an age at death between 40

and 60 years. Sex: undetermined.

Two thoracic vertebrae are also present

of a child between the ages of three and six

years.

Feature 6:—One adolescent represented

only by fragments from a left tibia, left

temporal, maxilla and mandible. Dental

formation suggests an age of about 15

years.

Feature 7:—Two adults and one sub-

adult. Bones present are one right ulna, two

left and two right tibiae, one left and one

right temporal, one left and one right max-

illa, one left calcaneus, one left talus, one

left navicular, one right second metatarsal

and teeth. One skull is fragmentary, but

complete. It is male, 35-40 years in age.

Extra teeth indicate the second adult may

be 30 to 40 years in age. One maxillary inci-

sor of a five year old child is also present.

Feature 8:—One young adult of undeter-

mined sex. Bones present are both humerii,

both femora, both tibiae, one fibula and

the right clavicle. Lack of visible resorption

spaces in the femoral cortex generally sug-

gests an age between 20 and 40 years. An

estimated right humerus length of 26.8 cm

suggests a living stature of about 152 cm.

Feature 9:—Only a few adult long bone

fragments. No estimate of sex and age.

Feature 10:—One young adult represented

by 10 thoracic vertebrae, two lumbar verte-

brae and 13 ribs. No estimate of sex or exact

age.

Feature 11:—One adult of undetermined

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

sex. Bones present are both humerii, one

ulna, both femora, both tibiae, mandible

and five thoracic vertebrae. An age of

25-35 is suggested by dental attrition.

Feature 12:—One adult. Bones present:

right radius, left femur, right tibia, right

scapula and teeth. Age: 20-25 years. Sex:

undetermined.

Feature 14:—One young adult and one

child. The adult is represented by the right

humerus, one radius, the right femur, left

temporal, one proximal hand phalanx and

two teeth, Age: 20-25 years. Sex: undeter-

mined.

The subadult is represented only by one

permanent first molar. Formation data

suggest an age of about three years.

Feature 15:—Three adults. Bones pres-

ent: one left humerus, one left and one right

radius, one ulna, one left and one right

femur, two left and three right tibiae, three

fibulae, one left and one right temporal,

two left and two right maxillae and two

cranial vaults. Both skulls are 25 to 30 year

old males. A left tibia length of 37.0 cm

suggests a living stature of 164 cm for one >

male.

Feature 16:—Two young adults. Frag-

ments of a humerus, femur, fibula, patella

and two mandibles are present. Both indi-

viduals are young adults, age 15-30 years.

No estimate of sex can be made.

Feature 17:—One young adult. Only

fragments of the skull, mandible, left hu-

merus, femur, tibia, fibula, right clavicle,

scapulae, one rib and three thoracic verte-

brae are present. Sex: female. Age: 25-30

years.

Feature 18:—One adult. Fragments of

the skull, mandible, femora, tibiae, clavi-

cles, 11 ribs and 10 vertebrae are present.

Sex: female. Age: 30-50 years.

Feature 19:—One adult. Bones present:

left, humerus, right radius, both femora,

left tibia, left scapula, right temporal and

mandible. Sex: female. Age: unknown.

Feature 21:—One adult and one sub-

adult. Bones present: both femora, both tib-

lae, right temporal, cranial fragments and

teeth. Sex: undetermined. Age: 20-35 years.

The subadult is represented only by one

maxillary first molar. Estimated age: four

years.

Feature 22:—One adult. Bones present:

fragments of few long bones and skull. Sex:

undetermined. Age: 23-30 years.

Feature 23:—One adult. Bones present:

right scapula, right calcaneus, fragments of

long bones, skull and teeth. Sex: undeter-

mined. Age: 30-40 years.

Feature 26 (also features 59, 70, 81):—Two

adults and one adolescent. Bones present:

one left and one right humerus, one left and

one right radius, one left and one right

ulna, two left and three right femora, one

left and one right tibia, one fibula, one left

and one right clavicle, one right temporal,

one right maxilla, one mandible, three verte-

brae, six ribs, one right calcaneus, one right

talus. Two individuals are adults of un-

known sex and age. One of the right femora

is from an adolescent, age 18-20 years.

Feature 27:—One adult. Bones present:

cranial vault, teeth and right humerus. Sex:

male. Age: 20-25 years.

Feature 28:—One adult. Bones present:

left humerus, left femur, left tibia, teeth,

and fragments from other long bones and

the skull. Sex: female. Age: 20-30 years.

Feature 29:—Two adults. Generally com-

plete skeleton with extra femora. Sex: fe-

male. Age: 30-40 years. Stature of com-

plete skeleton: 138 cm. The extra femora

are male, with stature estimated at 151 cm.

Feature 30:—One adult. Bones present:

both humerii, both femora, left tibia, mandi-

ble, right innominate, long bone and cra-

nial fragments. Sex: female. Age: 40-60

years.

Feature 31:—One adult. Only skull and

two long bone fragments are present. Sex:

female. Age: 40-60 years.

Feature 32:—One adult. Bones present:

both humerii, both femora, right tibia,

right scapula. Sex: male. Age: undetermined.

Feature 33:—One adult. Bones present:

right humerus, both femora, mandible skull

and long bone fragments. Sex: male. Age:

35-40 years.

Feature 34:—One adult. Bones present:

right humerus, left femur, both tibiae and

teeth. Sex: undetermined. Age: 25-35 years.

Feature 35 and 36:—Three adults. These

two numbers were assigned to the same

skeletal remains. Bones present: two left

and three right humeril, one right radius,

three left and three right femora, one left

and one right tibia, two left and two right

clavicles, one left and one right scapula,

one right temporal, three left and three

right maxillae, one mandible, two right in-

nominates, several ribs and six thoracic ver-

tebrae. Innominate morphology indicates

at least one male and one female are pres-

ent. Attrition data indicate that at least

one male skull is 25 to 30 years. The other

two skulls are aged at 35 to 60 years and 25

to 35 years. :

Feature 37:—One adult and one adoles-

cent. Most bones are from the nearly com-

plete skeleton of a 16-19 year old, of un-

determined sex. A right distal humerus is

larger than the other bones and probably

represents an adult of undetermined sex

and age.

Feature 38:—One adult. Bones present:

left humerus, both femora, both tibiae, the

fibulae, left temporal, both maxillae and

right hamate. Sex: male. Age: 25-35 years.

Feature 39:—Two adults. Bones present:

right humerus, two left and two right fem-

ora, one left and two right tibiae, one left

temporal, one left and one right maxilla,

two mandibles and 18 hand and foot bones.

The older individual is male, 25-35 years of

age, with a living stature of about 157 cm.

The younger individual is 18-21 years old

and of undetermined sex.

Feature 40:—One adult. Bones present:

right humerus, left femur, left fibula, right

clavicle, right scapula, five ribs and one

thoracic vertebra. Sex: female. Age: undeter-

mined.

Feature 41:—One adult. Bones present:

left femur, left fibula, both scapulae, left

mandible, left patella, several ribs and six

thoracic vertebrae. Sex: male. Age: 20-35

years.

Feature 42:—One adult. Bones present:

both femora, left tibia, cranial fragments.

Sex: undetermined. Age: undetermined.

Feature 43:—One adult. Bones present: ,

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

right femur, both tibiae, skull and mandi-

ble. Sex: female. Age: 40-60 years.

Feature 44:—One adult and one child.

Adult bones present: left humerus, both

ulnae, right femur, right clavicle, two ver-

tebrae and several ribs. Sex: undetermined.

Age: undetermined. The subadult is repre-

sented only by both femora, and the mandi-

ble. Age: 2 years.

Feature 46:—One adult and one adoles-

cent. Bones present: one left and one right

humerus, one right ulna, one left and two

right femora, two left tibiae, one fibula, one

right clavicle, one left and one right scap-

ula, nine vertebrae and 15 ribs. The adult is

of undetermined sex and age. The adoles-

cent is probably between 15 and 18 years.

Feature 48:—Two adults and one sub-

adult. Adult bones present: one left and

two right femora, one left tibiae, one rib,

and cranial fragments. Some cranial frag-

ments show non-union of coronal and sa-

gittal sutures, generally suggesting an age

at death of less than 40 years for at least one

adult. More exact age and sex determina-

tions cannot be made.

The subadult is represented only by a

right femur, about 175 mm in length. This

length suggests an age at death of about 2.5

years.

Feature 49:—One adult and one child.

Adult bones present: one right femur and

one right tibia. Sex: undetermined. Age:

undetermined.

The subadult is represented only by cra-

nial fragments. Thickness of the fragments

suggests an age less than five years.

Feature 50:—One adult. Bones present:

left radius, both tibiae, left clavicle, both

temporals. Sex: undetermined. Age: undeter-

mined.

Feature 51:—One adult. Only fragmen-

tary skull present. Sex: male. Age: 20-30

years.

Feature 52:—One adult. Bones present:

both femora, right clavicle, right scapula,

mandible and skull. Sex: undetermined.

Age: 20-30 years.

Feature 53:—Only one subadult skull

and mandible. Age: 13 years.

Feature 54 and 55:—Two fragmentary

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

skulls. Sex: undetermined. Age: both 25-35

years.

Feature 56:—One adult. Bones present:

right humerus, both radii, fibula. Sex: un-

determined. Age: undetermined.

Feature 58:—One adult. Bones present:

left scapula and mandible. Sex: undeter-

mined. Age: undetermined.

Feature 60:—One adult. Bones present:

right humerus, skull. Sex: female. Age:

20-30 years.

Feature 61:—Two adults. Bones present:

left radius, left ulna, left femur, two left and

two right tibiae, one fibula, one right clavi-

cle, one right scapula, two mandibles, one

right innominate, several ribs and verte-

brae, 14 hand bones, and two skulls. One

skeleton is male, age 45 years. The second

skeleton is female, age 35 to 40 years.

Feature 62:—One adult. Bones present:

one fifth metacarpal and one skull. Sex:

male. Age: 20-35 years.

Feature 63:—One adult. Bones present:

both femora, two cervical vertebrae, one

third metacarpal, the skull and mandible.

Sex: female. Age: 25-35 years.

Feature 64:—Three adults. Bones pres-

ent: one left humerus, one left femur, three

left and two right tibiae, one right clavicle,

one left scapula, and one skull. Sex: the

skull is female. Age: undetermined.

Feature 65:—One adult. Bones present:

few long bone fragments and skull. Sex:

undetermined. Age: undetermined.

Feature 66:—One adult. Bones present:

both humerii, right femur, both tibiae,

skull and mandible. Sex: male. Age: 35-40

years.

Feature 68:—One adult. Bones present:

right femur, left clavicle, left temporal,

mandible. Sex: undetermined. Age: 25-35

years.

Feature 69:—One adult. Bones present:

left radius, both femora and other long

bone fragments. Sex: undetermined. Age:

undetermined.

Feature 71:—Two adults. Bones present:

one left and two right humeri, one left ra-

dius, two left and one right femur, one left

and one right tibia, one left scapula, one

mandible, one left innominate, one left pa-

tella, 20 vertebrae, 10 hand and foot bones,

several ribs, and one skull. Sex: one female,

one undetermined. Age: one female, 35-60

years; other undetermined.

Feature 72:—One adult. Bones present:

one left humerus, few cranial and long

bone fragments. Sex: undetermined. Age:

18-25 years.

Feature 73:—One adult. Bones present:

skull and mandible. Sex: female. Age:

40-60 years.

Feature 74:—One child. Bones present:

left humerus, both tibiae, long bone and

cranial fragments. Age: 8 years.

Feature 75:—One adult. Bones present:

two cervical vertebrae, mandible and cra-

nial fragments. Sex: undetermined. Age:

20-35 years.

Feature 76:—One adult. Bones present:

both humeri, both femora, five hand and

foot bones and cranial fragments. Sex: un-

determined. Age: undetermined.

Feature 77:—Two adults. Bones present:

left femur, left and right tibiae, left and

right innominates, four lumbar vertebrae,

sacrum, and skull. The skull is of undeter-

mined sex, but between 35 and 60 years of

age. The post-cranial skeleton is female,

age 17 to 22 years.

Feature 78:—Two adults. Bones present:

left humerus, both tibiae, left clavicle, two

mandibles and one skull. One individual is

male, age 25-30 years. The second individ-

ual is female, age undetermined.

Feature 79:—One adult. Bones present:

left humerus, right radius, both femora, left

tibia, fibula, right patella, seven hand and

foot bones and the skull and mandible. Sex:

female. Age: 23-30 years.

Feature 80:—One adult. Bones present:

both femora, both tibiae, and fibula. Sex:

undetermined. Age: 25-30 years.

Feature 82:—One adult. Bones present:

left femur, left tibia, right scapula, mandi-

ble and cranial fragments. Sex: undeter-

mined. Age: undetermined.

Feature 84:—One adult, one subadult.

Adult bones present: left radius, both ul-

nae, right clavicle, four thoracic vertebrae,

left talus, six ribs. Sex: male. Age: 20-40

years. Stature: 162 cm, calculated from a

left radius length of 23.0 cm.

Subadult bones present consist of one

right clavicle and one right tibia. Lengths —

of these bones suggest an age of 1.5 years.

Feature 86:—One adult. Bones present:

few long bone fragments and nine teeth.

Sex: undetermined. Age: 10-15 years.

Feature 87:—One adult. Bones present:

right radius, both ulnae, right tibia, long

bone fragments and teeth. Sex: undeter-

mined. Age: 25-30 years.

Feature 88 and 89:—One adult. Bones

present: left humerus, left clavicle, right

scapula, both temporals, mandible, six

thoracic vertebrae, and eight ribs. Sex: fe-

male. Age: 35-40 years.

Feature 90:—One adult. Bones present:

both temporals, femoral fragments and

teeth. Sex: undetermined. Age: 20-25 years.

Feature 92:—One adult, one subadult.

Adult bones present: both humerii, left

ulna, right femur, right clavicle, mandible,

left innominate, six thoracic vertebrae, two

lumbar vertebrae, five ribs. Sex: male. Age:

35-40 years.

Subadult bones present: left humerus,

left femur, left tibia, left fibula, left scapula,

both temporals, both maxillae, mandible,

most ribs and vertebrae. Age: 2.5 years.

Feature 93:—One adult and one sub-

adult. Adult bones present: right clavicle,

right temporal, both maxillae, mandible

and teeth. Sex: male. Age: 40-60 years.

Only one left femur represents the sub-

adult. A length of 190 mm suggests an age

at death of 3.5 years.

Feature 94:—One adult. Bones present:

one mandible, skull and long bone frag-

ments. Sex: undetermined. Age: 30-40 years.

Feature 95:—One adult. Bones present:

left humerus, mandible, tibia fragments.

Sex: female. Age: 20-35 years.

Feature 96:—One adult. Bones present:

both humerii, radius, ulna, both femora,

both tibiae, fibula, both clavicles, left scap-

ula, mandible, right patella, eight hand and |

foot bones. Sex: male. Age: 35-60 years.

Stature: 168 cm, calculated from a right

femur length of 46.0 cm.

Feature 97:—One adult and one sub-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

adult. Adult bones present: all long bones,

left clavicle, right scapula, mandible, left

innominate, left patella, 10 vertebrae, sa-

crum, 18 foot bones and four ribs. Sex: fe-

male. Age: 35-45 years. Stature: 150 cm,

calculated from a left femur length of 39.5

cm.

The subadult is represented only by one

left humerus. Estimated length of 17.0 cm

suggests an age at death of about six years.

Feature 98:—One adult. Bones present:

both femora, both tibiae, both fibulae,

both innominates, and six foot bones. Sex:

male. Age: undetermined. Stature: 152 cm,

calculated from a right femur length of 39.0

cm.

Feature 100:—One adult. Bones present:

skull, mandible and four thoracic verte-

brae. Sex: male. Age: 30-40 years.

Feature 101:—One adult. Bones present:

left humerus, left radius, left ulna, right

scapula, two thoracic vertebrae. Sex: unde-

termined. Age: 17-20 years.

Feature 102:—One adult. Bones present:

right humerus, right ulna, left tibia, fibula,

both clavicles, right scapula, right maxilla,

and 10 ribs. Sex: female. Age: 25-35 years.

Feature 103:—One child. Bones present:

both femora and teeth. Age: 4 years.

Feature 104:—One adult. Bones present:

right temporal, teeth, cranial and long

bone fragments. Sex: undetermined. Age:

undetermined.

Feature 105:—One adult and one sub-

adult. Adult bones present: left scapula,

and teeth. Sex: undetermined. Age: 35-45

years.

The subadult is represented only by

teeth. Age: about 4 years.

Feature 106:—One adult. Bones present:

both humerii, left ulna, both femora, right

tibia, left clavicle, left scapula. Sex: male.

Age: 20-45 years.

Feature 107:—One adult. Articulated skel-

eton removed in situ within a block of soil.

Skeleton is generally complete. Sex: male.

Age: undetermined. Stature: 161 cm, calcu-

lated from a left femur length of 43.0 cm.

Feature 108:—One adolescent. Bones pres-

ent: one left innominate and long bone and

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

skull fragments covered with soil and glue.

Age: 13 years.

Feature 109:—One adult. Bones present:

both humeri, left radius, left femur, both

tibiae, skull, mandible, both innominates,

six thoracic vertebrae. Sex: female. Age:

30-40 years. Stature: 142 cm, calculated

from a right tibia length of 29.5 cm.

Features 110 and 135:—One adult and

one subadult. Adult bones present: both

humerii, left radius, left femur, left scapula,

both temporals, mandible. Sex: female.

Age: 40-60 years. Stature: 151 cm, calcu-

lated from a left humerus length of 26.5 cm.

The subadult is represented by teeth

only. Age: 10 years.

Feature 111:—One adult and one adoles-

cent. Adult bones present: left humerus,

left radius, left ulna, both femora, both tib-

iae, mandible, first cervical vertebra, one

proximal hand phalanx, one right talus and

skull. Sex: male. Age: 40-60 years. Stature:

159 cm, calculated from a right tibia length

of 34.5 cm.

The subadult is represented only by a —

right clavicle and one thoracic vertebra.

Age: 12-18 years.

Feature 112 and 121:—Two adults and

two subadults. Adult bones present: one

left and one right femur, two right tibia,

one fibula, one mandible and teeth. Sex

and Age: One adult is female, age 22-25

years. The other adult is of undetermined

sex and age.

Subadult bones present: one left and one

right temporal, one mandible and two

groups of teeth. Ages: 10 and 4.5 years.

Feature 113:—One adult and one sub-

adult. Adult bones present: cranial and

long bone fragments and two teeth. Sex:

undetermined. Age: 20-25 years.

The subadult is represented only by one

tooth. Age: 4.5 years.

Feature 114:—One adult and one adoles-

cent. Bones present: right temporal, man-

dible, proximal hand phalanx and two

groups of teeth. Sex: the older individual is

male, the younger undetermined. Age: 16-

20 years and 30-50 years.

Feature 115:—One adult. Bones present:

cranial fragments only. Sex: undetermined.

Age: 15-30 years.

Feature 116:—One adult. Bones present:

generally complete skeleton moved in situ

within block of soil. Sex: male. Age: 30-40

years. Stature: 161 cm, calculated from a

left tibia length of 35.5 cm.

Feature 117:—One adult and one sub-

adult. Adult bones present: both humeru,

left radius, both femora, right tibia, fibula,

right innominate, four thoracic vertebrae,

one right calcaneus, seven metatarsals, and

three ribs. Sex: male. Age: 20-40 years. Stat-

ure: 154 cm, calculated from a right tibia

length of 32.0 cm.

The subadult is represented by one max-

illary premolar. Age: 5 years.

Feature 1 18:—One subadult. Bones pres-

ent: both clavicles, left scapula, right tem-

poral, mandible, 11 ribs, 10 vertebrae and

teeth. Age: 4 years.

Feature 119:—One subadult. Bones pres-

ent: skull and teeth only. Age: 4.5 years.

Feature 120:—One adult. Bones present:

skull fragments. Sex: undetermined. Age:

35-45 years.

Feature 122:—One adult and one sub-

adult. Adult bones present: right humerus,

left ulna, left tibia, left scapula, right tem-

poral, both maxillae, left patella, innomi-

nate and teeth. Sex: female. Age: 35-60

years.

The subadult is represented by teeth

only. Age: about 4 years.

Feature 123:—One adult. Bones present:

right humerus, right ulna, both femora.

Sex: undetermined. Age: undetermined.

Feature 124:—One adult. Bones present:

Only adult-size long bone fragments. Sex:

undetermined. Age: undetermined.

Feature 125:—One adult. Bones present:

both femora and other long bone frag-

ments, and teeth. Sex: undetermined. Age:

undetermined.

Feature 126 and 127:—One adult and one

subadult. Adult bones present: one left

femur, one mandible, and skull. Sex: male.

Age: 25-35 years.

The subadult is represented only by one

tooth, age about 4 years.

Feature 128:—One adult. Bones present:

one skeleton generally complete, removed

intact within a large block of soil for mu-

seum display. Sex: female. Age: 35-40 years.

Stature: 167 cm, calculated from a right

tibia length of 38.8 cm.

Feature 129:—One adult. Bones present:

right radius, right ulna, right clavicle, right

scapula, two thoracic vertebrae, four hand

bones, skull and mandible. Sex: male. Age:

30-40 years. Stature: 158 cm, calculated

from a right ulna length of 23.5 cm.

Feature 130:—Two adults. Bones pres-

ent: both clavicles, both scapulae, six cervi-

cal vertebrae, one rib, skull and mandible.

Most represent a female age 35 to 45 years.

Extra teeth represent an adult of undeter-

mined sex, age 20 to 30 years.

Feature 131:—Two adults and two sub-

adults. Bones present: one left and one

right humerus, two left scapulae, two mandi-

bles, two thoracic vertebrae, one second

left metatarsal, 13 ribs and one skull. Sex:

one male, one undetermined. Age: the male

is 30-35 years. The other adult is of unde-

termined age.

The subadults are represented by one

right femur and 27 teeth. Ages are esti-

mated at 4.5 and 6.0 years.

Feature 132:—Two adults. Bones pres-

ent: left humerus, left femur, both tibiae

and two skulls. Sex: one male and one fe-

male. Age: both 20-30 years.

Feature 133:—One adult. Bones present:

right tibia, skull and mandible. Sex: unde-

termined. Age: 30-35 years.

Feature 134:—One adult. Bones present:

left femur, mandible and most of skull. Sex:

undetermined. Age: 23-30 years.

Feature 136:—Two adults. Bones pres-

ent: long bone fragments and teeth. Sex:

both undetermined. Age: 18-25 years.

Feature 137:—One adult, one subadult.

Adult bones present: left humerus, right

femur and cranial fragments. Sex: female.

Age: 20-30 years.

The subadult is represented only by one

permanent and three deciduous teeth. Age: |

3 years.

Feature 140:—One adult. Bones present:

both humerii, left ulna, left femur, right

scapula, skull and mandible. Sex: male..

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI, VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

Age: 30-35 years. Stature 149 cm, calcu-

lated from a left femur length of 37.5 cm.

Feature 141:—One adolescent. Bones pres-

ent: right humerus, ten thoracic vertebrae,

eight ribs, and cranial fragments. Sex: un-

determined. Age: 15-18 years.

Feature 142:—One adult. Bones present:

both tibae, skull and mandible. Sex: fe-

male. Age 40-60 years.

Feature 143:—Three adults. Bones pres-

ent: three left humerii, three right humerii,

one right radius, two left ulnae, one left

femur, one right femur, one left and one

right tibia, one fibula, and one left scapula,

one mandible, and two cervical vertebrae.

Sex: one male, two undetermined. Age: one

22-25 years, two undetermined.

Feature 144:—One adult, one subadult.

Adult bones present: right humerus, left

ulna, left scapula, mandible, two cervical

and four thoracic vertebrae, eight ribs, and

one skull. Sex: male. Age 25-30 years. Stat-

ure: 171 cm, calculated from a right hu-

merus length of 33.3 cm.

_ The subadult is represented only by cra-

nial fragments. Age: 5 to 15 years.

Feature 146 (tomb burial):—One adult.

Bones present: one generally complete skel-

eton removed intact within a block of soil.

Sex: male. Age: 30-40 years. Stature: 160

cm, calculated from a right femur length of

42.5 cm.

Feature 147 (tomb burial):—One adult.

Bones present: right ulna, both femora,

both tibiae, mandible and skull. Sex: male.

Age: 30-40 years.

Feature 149 (tomb burial):—One adult.

Bones present: teeth only. Sex: undeter-

mined. Age: 22-25 years.

Feature 150 (tomb burial):—One adult.

Bones present: teeth only. Sex: undeter-

mined. Age: 20-25 years.

Site Feature 38

Tomb I:—One adult. Bones present: left

tibia, left clavicle, right scapula, long bone

and cranial fragments. Sex: undetermined.

Age: 15-25 years.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

Tomb 3:—One adult. Bones present: left

femur and cranial fragments. Sex: female.

Age: 20-25 years.

Tomb 4:—Two adults. Bones present:

right femur, two left fibulae, parts of two

crania, and one right fifth metacarpal. Sex:

one male, one female. Age: female, 30-35

years; male, undetermined.

Tomb 6:—Two adults. Bones present:

both humerii, left radius, both femora,

both tibiae, one fibula, both clavicles, both

scapulae, one mandible, two left patellae

and one right patella, six thoracic verte-

brae, one hand phalanx, one right calca-

neus, two metatarsals and 10 ribs. Sex: one

male, one female. Age: one 30-35 years;

other, undetermined. Stature of the male:

160 cm, calculated from a right humerus

length of 29.5 cm.

Tomb 7:—One adult and two subadults.

Adult bones present: both patellae, left

femur and two thoracic vertebrae. Sex:

male. Age: 40-60 years.

Subadult bones present: both humeril,

both radii, both femora, both tibiae, both -

fibulae, both clavicles, both scapulae, both

temporals, mandible, both patellae, and

one metacarpal from one skeleton age 13

years. One deciduous mandibular second

molar is also present, representing a 7 to 10

year old child.

Tomb 8:—One adult. Bones present: right

humerus, left radius. Sex: female. Age:

35-45 years.

Tomb 9:—One adult. Bones present: one

mandible. Sex: undetermined. Age: 25-30

years.

Tomb 10:—Two adults. Bones present:

one right humerus, one right ulna, one left

femur, two left and one right tibiae, one

fibula, one right scapula, one left patella,

and most of one skull. Sex: one female and

probably one male. All remains but the

extra tibia are female. Age: 40-45 years;

male, undetermined.

Tomb 11]:—One adult. Bones present:

left humerus, right tibia, fibula, left clavi-

cle, left scapula, mandible, seven cervical

vertebrae, six hand phalanges, and two meta-

tarsals. Sex: female. Age: 25-30 years.

Tomb 12:—One adult. Bones present:

fragmentary skull. Sex: undetermined. Age:

35-40 years.

Tomb 15:—One adult. Bones present:

both humerii, left radius, both femora,

right tibia, fibula fragments, skull, mandi-

ble and three foot bones. Sex: male. Age:

40-50 years.

Tomb 16:—Two adults. Bones present:

two right humerii, one left and one right

tibia, two right clavicles, one left scapula,

two right scapulae, one mandible, one right

patella, four cervical vertebrae, ten tho-

racic vertebrae, and one skull. The skull is

female, age 20-25 years. Most long bones

are male, age 40-60 years. Stature is 154

cm, calculated from a left fibula length of

S1iSocm.

Tomb 18:—One adult. Bones present:

both humerii, right radius, both femora,

left tibia, right fibula, right clavicle, right

innominate, one vertebra, two foot bones

and the skull. Sex: female. Age: 45-60

years. 7

Tomb 20:—One adult. Bones present:

both humerii, both femora, both tibiae,

one mandible, and 12 foot bones. Sex: fe-

male. Age: 25-30 years. Stature: 148 cm,

calculated from a right femur length of

39.0:cm:

Tomb 22:—One adult. Bones present:

cranial fragments and one tooth. Sex: un-

determined. Age: 30-35 years.

Tomb 23:—One adult. Bones present:

left femur, left tibia, right navicular, left ta-

lus, left first metatarsal. Sex: female. Age:

undetermined.

The Total Sample

Note that each skeletal unit had been as-

signed at least one burial, tomb and/or fea-

ture number and during excavation some

units had been assigned multiple numbers.

Those numbers assigned to features in

which no bone survived are not discussed

here. This analysis assumes that each skele-

tal unit is of archeological/cultural signifi-

cance and that single individuals are not

represented in more than one burial unit.

Note, also that all counts are minimal due

to the fragmentary nature of the material.

The sample of human skeletons from the

late component consist of 199 individuals

from 137 burial units, an average of 1.5 in-

dividuals per unit. The earlier component

is represented only by four adults from four

tomb burials. Bone representation in both

components varies from relatively com-

plete skeletons to only a few bones or teeth.

The varied representation represents mostly

problems of preservation, but probably

also some cultural selection of the kinds of

bones buried. The large later sample con-

tains nearly equal numbers of adults esti-

mated to be males (42) and females (40), al-

though sex could not be determined for a

large number (73). Subadults appear to be

under-represented in both the later and ear-

lier samples since only 21 percent of the

later sample are less than 20 years of age

and no subadults are in the earlier sample.

Artificial Modifications of the Skeleton

Of the 27 crania from the later compo-

nent that were sufficiently complete to

allow observations of cranial deformation,

only five (19 percent) showed such evi-

dence. These five examples were all from

feature 19, originating from three adult

males, one adult female and one subadult.

Four of these represent occipital flattening.

The exception is a female skull from feature

132 that shows flattening above inion.

Many other crania in this sample are de-

formed, but probably due to ground pres-

sure, etc. rather than cultural practices

while the individuals were alive. The five

examples mentioned above may also have

been influenced by soil pressures, but the

appearance of the deformations indicates

that cultural factors were involved. No ex-

amples of deformation were detected in the

earlier sample.

Living Stature

Estimates of living stature were made for

17 males and seven females of the later

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

sample and only for one male of the early

sample. If tibiae or femora were available,

statures were calculated using formulae of

Genoves (1967), if not, those of Trotter and

Gleser (1958) were used. For the late sam-

ple, male statures average 159 cm and

range from 149 to 171 cm while female stat-

ures average 148 cm and range from 138 to

167 cm. The only male stature from the

early sample is estimated at 160 cm. These

mean values are nearly the same as those

reported for the coastal samples of Ayalan,

Real Alto and Sta. Elena (Ubelaker, 1980).

Measurements and Observations

Non-metric data were recorded on the

crania and mandibles (Table 1) using the

same techniques employed in the Ayalan

(Ubelaker, 1981) and Sta. Elena (Ubelaker,

1980) analyses. The small sample sizes and

incompleteness of the data limit interpreta-

tion, however, the data do suggest possible

sex differences in several traits, especially

supraorbital foramen, wormian bones, tym-

panic dehiscences. Most of these contrast

with the sex differences noted in the Sta.

Elena sample (Ubelaker, 1981). In the Sta.

Elena sample, males show greater frequen-

cies of wormian bones, marginal foramen

of the tympanic plate, tympanic plate de-

hiscence while females showed more su-

praorbital foramen. In the Cotocollao sam-

ple, the exact reverse is the case. Not only

do the frequencies vary but also the sex dis-

tribution of the frequencies. Comparison

of the combined sex frequencies reveals

that Cotocollao shows greater frequencies

than Sta. Elena of nearly all traits.

Table 2 summarizes measurements and

indices of the Cotocollao late sample. As

expected most male measurements are

greater than those of the females with bi-

condylar breadth and the cranial index

showing the greatest sexual dimorphism.

The male mean cranial index of 87 is equal

to males, of the non-urn component at

Ayalan, coastal Ecuador, (500 B.C. to

A.D. 1155) and females of the later Ayalan

urn component (A.D. 730 to A.D. 1600),

but larger than that found in all other Ecua-

dorian samples (Ubelaker, 1980). The fe-

male mean index of 75 is the smallest re-

ported for all of these sites, although the

sample size of cranial indices at Cotocollao

is SO small (2) that little significance can be

attached to these observations. Compared

to the other Ecuadorian samples, meas-

urements of males in the Cotocollao mate-

rial that are relatively large are cranial >

length, cranial breadth, minimum frontal

breadth, orbital breadth, and bicondylar

breadth. Values for the other measure-

ments and indices fall within the range of

those reported from the other sites. Over-

all, males show greatest similarity to the

Buena Vista and the Ayalan urn samples

while females are most similar to the Sta.

Elena and Real Alto samples. Clarification

Table 1.—Frequency of non-metric observations within the Cotocollao sample, later component.

Males Females Both sexes

Percent Percent Percent

Observation n. present n. present n. present

Mylohyoid bridge 17 12 11 27 28 18

Accessory mental foramen 18 0 18 0 36 0

Frontal groove 16 19 6 0 22 14

Supraorbital foramen ° 17, 65 9 Ze 26 50

Wormian bones 13 54 8 100 21 71

Parietal process of temporal squama 7 0 4 0 11 0

Squamoparietal synostosis 13 0 15 7 28 3

Auditory exostoses . 18 0 24 0 42 0

Marginal foramen of tympanic plate 10 0 lid 12 ay 7

Tympanic plate dehiscence 15 20 22 45 37 32

Maxillary third molar 10 100 3 100 13 100

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

Table 2.—Summary statistics of Cotocollao later component cranial and mandibular measurements and indices.

Males Females

Measurement or Index n. Mean S.D. Range n. Mean S.D. Range

Auricular height 3 118 8 110-125 2 MS 13 105-125

Porion to bregma 3 116 6 110-121 2 112 16 100-123

Length 4 181 4 178-187 3 182 7 174-187

Breadth 2 158 a1 150-166 4 140 6 134-149

Basion-bregma 131 0 0 — — — =—

Basion-porion ] 43 0 0 — — —_— —

Minimum frontal breadth 5 98 - 95-103 3 93 4 89-96

Upper facial height ] 70 0 0 1 67 0 0

Nasal height 1 51 0 0 1 49 0 0

Nasal breadth ] 28 0 0 ] Ds) 0 0

Orbital height 2 38 4 35-40 1 34 0 0

Orbital breadth 1 43 0 0 1 40 0 0

Maxillo-alveolar length 3 a2 6 46-58 4 50 =) 45-55

Maxillo-alveolar breadth 3 67 3 64-70 3 64 4 60-67

Palatal length 3 39 6 34-46 4 34 2 32-35

Palatal breadth 3 4] 6 34-46 3 40 39-41

Bicondylar breadth c) 127 9 118-136 2 107 i 99-115

Bigonial Breadth 4 110 10 100-119 2 98 8 92-103

Height of ascending ramus 8 61 4 53-65 5 53 3 47-56

Minimum breadth of ascending ramus__11 33 3 28-38 8 30 2 27-32

Height of mandibular symphysis 10 S5 eI 31-39 6 Si 2 28-32

Cranial index 2 87 9 80-93 3 75 2 74-77

of the relationships must await larger, bet-

ter preserved samples.

Demography

Accurate demographic reconstruction de-

pends mostly upon accurate sampling and

accurate estimation of sex and age of death.

Both factors present problems for demo-

graphic analysis of these samples. The early

component at Cotocallao is represented

only by four incomplete adult skeletons,

two males and two adults of undetermined

sex. Ages of both males were estimated at

between 30 and 40 years. The remaining

two ages were 20-25 years and 22-25 years.

The sample is too small to offer summary

data on demographic structure.

The later sample consists of 199 individ-

uals ranging in age from birth to greater

than 50 years. Forty-two males and 40 fe-

males were recognized, although sex could

not be determined for an additional 73

adults. Adult male ages at death averaged

35 years, while the female average value

was 34. The average adult age at death

(males and females combined) is also 34

years. Subadults are represented by nine

individuals between ages 15 and 19, eight

between 10 and 14, seven between 5 and 9,

19 between 2 and 4 and only one between

birth and one year. The low figure for the

youngest category may represent low mor-

tality, but more probably represents burial

practices that excluded the burial of young

infants in the cemetery or such excessive

decomposition and fragmentation of young

infant bones that they either were not pres-

ent in the final sample or were not recog-

nized. Demographic information is sum-

marized in the life table (Table 3), see

Ubelaker (1978) for methodology used in

calculation and for explanation of the

symbols. To insure complete adult repre-

sentation, the number and percent of indi-

viduals in each adult age interval was first

calculated using only those adults whose

ages were estimated. These figures were

then adjusted proportionately upward so —

that their total equalled the total number of

adults in the sample (155). The subadult

figures (intervals below 20 years) are not

adjusted. The life expectancy at birth figure

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

Table 3.—Life table, reconstructed from the later component, Cotocollao sample.

x Dx dx Ix

0- .9 1 1 100

1.0- 4.9 19 10 99

5.0- 9.9 7 4 90

10.0-14.9 8 4 86

15.0-19.9 9 5 82

20.0-—24.9 19 10 78

25.0-29.9 40 20 68

30.0-34.9 Bi] 19 48

35.0-39.9 22 1] 30

40.0-44.9 12 6 19

45.0-49.9 23 12 13

50.0-54.9 2 l |

(28) is probably too high, due to the appar-

ent loss of young infants from the sample.

The remaining figures are similar to other

data reported from prehistoric Ecuador

(Ubelaker, 1980). Life expectancy at age

one (27) is slightly lower than that derived

from the Sta. Elena sample (29), and the

Ayalan urn sample (29), but slightly higher

than the 26 recorded for the Ayalan non-

urn sample. Life expectancy at age 20 (14

years) is lower than that reported from Sta.

Elena (17 years), Real Alto (17 years)

Ayalan non-urns (15 years) and Ayalan

urns (21 years). To some extent, this may

reflect the difficulty in estimating adult age

at death in the Cotocollao sample.

Pathology

Evidence for disease in the Cotocollao

material all originates from the late sample

and consists of three types; periosteal bone

formation indicative of infectious disease,

trauma, and dental disease. Frequencies

are minimal since some lesions may have

been overlooked due to the poor condition

of the material.

Examples of infectious disease were found

on seven lower leg bones (5 tibiae, 2 fibu-

lae) of one male and four females from five

features.

Feature 39.—25 to 35 year old male. Well

remodeled periosteal bone formation with

cloaca occurs on the medial midshaft area

of a right tibia.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

qx ex Tx eax

.010 95 2824 28

.096 379 2729 224

.039 44] 2350 26

.047 442 1909 22

055 401 1487 18

9123 366 1087 14

294 291 721 1]

385 195 430 9

375 121 Jes) 8

324 78 114 6

.920 34 36 3

1.000 3 3 3

Feature 71.—35 to 60 year old female. A

slight periosteal swelling is located on the

medial midshaft area of a right tibia.

Feature 97.—35 to 45 year old female.

Extensive periosteal lesions occur on much

of the mid-shaft area of both fibulae and

the left tibia. The lesions are well remod-

eled and probably invaded the medullary

cavity.

Tomb 10.—40 to 45 year old female. Ac-

tive periosteal lesions occur on the medial -

distal one half of a left tibia shaft.

Tomb 11.—25 to 30 year old female. A

well remodeled periosteal lesion occurs on

the proximal midshaft area of a tibia.

The location of lesions on the lower leg

bones is most similar to that found in the

Sta. Elena sample (Ubelaker, 1980), where

10 of the 11 examples are from lower legs.

In the later Ayalan sample, lesions also oc-

curred on the femur, ulna and vertebrae.

The number of bones showing such lesions

per each adult individual in the Cotocollao

sample is .05 compared to .09 for Sta. Elena,

.04 for Ayalan non-urn, and .14 for Ayalan

urn.

Examples of trauma were found on only

four individuals from Cotocollao. A 20 to

30 year old male from Feature 132 dis-

played a well remodeled depressed fracture

of the right frontal. The fracture extends

from glabella to the mid supraorbital mar-

gin of the right orbit. A 22 to 25 year old

male from feature 143 displays a well re-

modeled fracture of a fibula. A 40 to 50

year old male from tomb 15 shows trau-

matic alteration of the distal end of the

proximal second foot phalanx. A female of

greater than 45 years from tomb 18 shows a

well remodeled fracture of the left tibia

midshaft and three small circular depressed

fractures (15 mm deep) on the upper right

frontal.

The depressed frontal fractures distin-

guish trauma at Cotocollao from that in

the Ayalan and Sta. Elena samples. Frac-

tures at Ayalan were mostly Colles frac-

tures of the distal radius and ulna while

those at Sta. Elena were mostly located in

the midshafts of the upper arm bones. The

Cotocollao fractures probably result from

blows to the head, rather than falls. The

number of fractures per adult individual is

only .03, compared to .09 at Sta. Elena, .13

in the Ayalan urn sample and .18 in the

non-urn sample.

Dental Disease

Permanent teeth in the Cotocollao sam-

ple number 1217, 60 from the early sample

and 1157 from the late sample. Those in the

early sample display no caries and no evi-

dence of hypoplasia.

Adult teeth in the late sample consist of

474 from males, 327 from females and 356

that could not be related to skeletons of de-

termined sex. Nineteen carious teeth were

found associated with four females, two

males and two skeletons of undetermined

sex (Table 4). Eighteen of the carious teeth

were molars (10 maxillary and 8 mandibu-

lar) and one was a mandibular right second

incisor. The 19 carious teeth represent a

frequency of only two percent, compared

to the three percent found at Sta. Elena,

eight percent in the Ayalan non-urn sample

and 11 percent in the Ayalan urn sample.

At least 87 permanent teeth had been lost

antemortem from the late sample. Twenty-

four of these were maxillary; six incisors,

four canines, seven premolars, and seven

molars. The remaining 63 were mandibu-

lar; 17 incisors, two canines, 12 premolars,

and 32 molars. The greater frequency of

missing teeth in the mandible reflects to a

Table 4.—Frequency of carious lesions in permanent

fully erupted teeth in the later component Cotocollao

sample.

No. No. %

Tooth Group Present Carious Carious

Maxillary

incisors 105 0 0

canines 70 0 0

premolars 170 0 0

molars 266 9 3

Mandibular

incisors sei! l l

canines 57 0 0

premolars 156 0 0

molars 259 9 3

Total 1184 19 2

considerable extent the greater frequency

of that bone in the sample. The overall per-

centage of missing teeth is seven, where n

(1244) is equal to the number of teeth pres-

ent (1157) and the number absent antemor-

tem (87). This figure is slightly higher than

that reported for Sta. Elena (60 percent),

but lower than Ayalan urn (15 percent) and

non-urn (13 percent) (Ubelaker, 1980).

Hypoplasia

Only three adult teeth show evidence of

hypoplasia. These consist of a maxillary

lateral incisor and maxillary right canine of

a 10 year old subadult from feature 110/135

and a maxillary lateral incisor of a four

year old from feature 122. Those of feature

110/135 formed at about five years, while

that from feature 122 formed at about four

years. The frequency of hypoplastic teeth is

similar to that of the Sta. Elena sample (less

than one percent) and less than the Ayalan

urn sample (six percent) and Ayalan non-

urn sample (one percent) (Ubelaker, 1980).

Just as in the Sta. Elena sample, no exam-

ples of congenital disorders, porotic hyper-

ostosis or other pathological conditions

were noted. Due to extreme bone fragmenta-

tion, data could not be collected on joint sur-

face degeneration, lines of arrested growth

in long bones and other types of data that

normally would be of interest.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

Summary

The fragmentary but relatively large sam-

ple of human skeletons recovered from ex-

cavations at Cotocollao, Ecuador provide

important new data to the emerging picture

of prehistoric Ecuadorian skeletal biology.

Analysis of the large (199 individuals) from

the later component (540 B.C.) reveals in-

formation on several biological variables

that add “‘highland”’ perspective to pre-

viously published data from the coast.

Analysis reveals that cranial deformation

occurs among all age and sex groups and

consists mostly of occipital flattening. Liv-

ing stature averaged 159 cm for males and

148 cm for females, values nearly identical

to those reported from coastal sites. Cra-

nial measurements and observations gen-

erally fall within the range of those pre-

viously reported from the coast, although

several male measurements are compara-

tively large. Demographic reconstruction

for the later component reveals a life expect-

ancy at age one year of 27 years, a figure

slightly lower than those previously re-

ported. Similarly the adult life expectancy

of 14 years is lower than at the coastal sites.

Three types of pathology were noted; peri-

osteal alterations, evidence of trauma and

dental disease. Infectious disease was con-

fined to the lower leg bones in contrast to

the coastal sites, where more of the skel-

eton was involved. Evidence of trauma

consists of fractures of the lower leg bones

and toes and depressed fractures of the

frontals. The depressed fractures of the

skull must have resulted from blows to the

head and have not been reported from the

coastal sites. The frequencies of bones with

evidence of infectious disease as well as

trauma are lower than any of the coastal

sites. |

The frequency of dental caries (two per-

cent) in the permanent dentition is lower

than that reported for Ayalan or for Sta.

Elena. This frequency is strikingly low con-

sidering the relatively late date of the sam-

ple. However, the frequency of teeth lost

antemortem is intermediate between Sta.

Elena and Ayalan. The frequency of hypo-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

plastic teeth, a partial indicator of child-

hood morbidity, is similar to that of Sta.

Elena and less than Ayalan.

All of this data is consistent with the sug-

gested date (540 B.C.) except the somewhat

low frequency of carious teeth. Clarifica-

tion of all variables and a definitive assess-

ment of population affinities must await

analysis of additional samples with hope-

fully superior bone preservation.

Acknowledgments .

I thank Petrova Ashby, Stephanie Dama-

dio and my wife Maruja for their assistance

in preparing the material for analysis and

in collecting data, Elizabeth Beard for typ-

ing the final manuscript, and Emil Peterson

and Hernan Crespo Torral of the Banco

Central in Quito for their invitation to

study the Cotocollao materials and for

providing the necessary facilities and sup-

port in Ecuador. Special thanks go to the

families of Jaime Andrade Moscoso and

Jaime Andrade Heymann for their many

faceted contributions to the project in

Ecuador.

References Cited

Genoves, Santiago. 1967. Proportionality of the Long

Bones and their Relation to Stature Among Meso-

Americans. American Journal of Physical Anthro-

pology, vol. 26: 67-77.

Klepinger, Linda L. In press. Reporte Preliminar sobre

los Esqueletos del Sitio Formativo Temprano del

Real Alto, Ecuador. Submitted for publication at

the Museo Antropologico del Banco Central del

Ecuador, Guayaquil.

. 1979. Paleodemography of the Valdivia III

Phase at Real Alto, Ecuador. American Antiquity,

vol. 44, No. 2, pp. 305-309.

Munizaga, Juan R. 1965. Skeletal Remains from Sites

of Valdivia and Machalilla Phases. Appendix 2 in

Early Formative Period of Coastal Ecuador: the

Valdivia and Machalilla Phases by Betty J. Meggers,

Clifford Evans, and Emilio Estrada. Smithsonian

Contributions to Anthropology, vol. 1, Smithsonian

Institution, Washington, D.C.

. 1976. Intentional Cranial Deformation in the

PreColumbian Populations of Ecuador. American

Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol. 45, pp.

687-694.

Stothert, Karen. 1977. Proyecto Paleoindio, Informe

Preliminar, Publicaciones del Museo Antropolog-

ico del Banco Central. Guayaquil.

Trotter, Mildred, and Goldine C. Gleser. 1958. A Re-

evaluation of Estimation of Stature Based on Meas-

urements of Stature Taken During Life and of Long

Bones After Death. American Journal of Physical

Anthropology, vol. 16: 79-123.

Ubelaker, Douglas H. 1978. Human Skeletal Remains,

Excavation, Analysis, Interpretation. Aldine Pub-

lishing Co., Chicago. Distributed by Taraxacum,

1227 30th St., N.W. Washington, D.C.

. 1980. Human Skeletal Remains from Site

OGSE-80, A Preceramic Site on the Sta. Elena Penin-

sula, Coastal Ecuador. Journal of the Washington

Academy of Sciences, vol. 70, no. 1, pp. 3-24.

. 1981. The Ayalan Cemetery, A Late Integra-

tion Period Burial Site on the South Coast of Ecua-

dor. Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology

Series, No. 29. Smithsonian Institution, Washing-

ton, D.C.

Caries and Elemental Composition of the Rhodesian Man

Dentition

Richard T. Koritzer, DDS, PhD, and Lucile E. St. Hoyme, PhD

Department of Fixed Prosthodontics, Georgetown University Dental School, Washington,

D.C. 20007, and Department of Anthropology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

20560, respectively.

ABSTRACT

The Rhodesian skull, BM(NH) 686, dated at around 100,000 B.P., has numerous carious

teeth. Neither molar of the maxillary fragment (BM(NH) 687) from the same site, is carious.

This study reports spectrographic analyses of enamel samples from these specimens, obtained

by washing with distilled water (Rhodesian I', C, RM'; maxilla M*, M’) and dilute acid

(Rhodesian LM', RM’).

The elements in acid etches of the carious LM' and caries-free RM’ are virtually identical in

concentration and rank. The elemental composition of the water wash of RM ' differs from the

acid etch of LM' in both concentration and rank, despite the fact that these two teeth formed

and erupted about the same time. The water washes of the 5 teeth show both marked similari-

ties and differences, suggesting that teeth ina single dentition may differ in caries susceptibil-

ity. Despite recovery from a lead-zinc mine, whether sampled by water or acid, neither speci-

men shows uniform or high concentrations of these elements.

The Rhodesian Man skull (BM(NH)

#686) was recovered in 1921 from a lead-

zinc mine site in present-day Zambia. The

location in which this specimen was found

had been the apex ofa cave later filled in by

natural forces. The rampant dental caries

has been reported (Koritzer and St. Hoyme,

1977).

This research was supported by a grant from the

M&M-Mars Co., and by the Smithsonian Institu-

tion Fluid Research Fund, grant no. FY78-

132142-00.

In a previous study of archeologicaliy

recovered Potomac Creek, Virginia, Indian

dental enamel inter-individual associations

of elemental concentrations determined

from water washings and caries were exam-

ined (Koritzer, 1977). Water washings and

acid etching of Rhodesian dental enamel

were analyzed using emission spectroscopy

in a similar way. Caries degree varied in the

Rhodesian dentition, as the central incisors

were caries-free, the canines moderately af-

fected, and the first molars severely dam-

aged. In this intra-individual study we have

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

)

looked at the relations of caries degree and

elemental concentrations.

A maxillary fragment (BM(NH) #687)

with several teeth was also found in the

former cave but unassociated with the

Rhodesian skull archeologically. The den-

tal enamel of this early representative,

though not contemporary with Rhodesian

Man, was also analyzed. The dentition ap-

peared, as far as could be seen, free of den-

tal disease.

Methods and Data

Emission spectroscopy was done in the

CAL laboratory of the Smithsonian Insti-

tution by Mr. Harold Westley with the kind

cooperation of Drs. Olin and Organ. Water

washings and acid etchings were collected

on the oroginal specimens stored at the

British Museum (Natural History) in Lon-

don. The raw data and rank orders are

presented in Table 1. A maximum of 23

elements was determined ranging from

over 31 toas little as .04 parts per million.

The central incisor, resistant to caries, was

also least water soluble. The acid etches

produced macro-quantities of calcium and

phosphorous which could not be used in

analysis as can be done with the parts-per-

million quantities of these elements found

in water washings. Interestingly cobalt and

nickel, found readily in water washes, were

absent in the acid etchings. On the other

hand, barium, berylium, mercury, manga-

nese, strontium, and titanium were found

by acid etching only.

In the acid etches, the left, first molar

Table 1.—Dental enamel trace elements (ppm & rank: 1 = lowest).

Rhodesian Man, BM(NH) 686

Rhodesian Man,

BM(NH) 687

Acid etch Water wash Water wash

Ppm Rank Ppm Rank Ppm Rank

Elemente -M'* 4M° LM’ M? 1’ Gan.* RM'** 1’ Can) RM' M?)' M? M? °M?

Al 9:70 ~. 102 by 17 .65 7 9 ms 160 630 S. a il

As ‘5 AS) 3 2 563 i 8 225°) ats 734 7 pe

Ba D2: 2.54 10 10

Be Yi .266 1 |

Ca 97015 oF 61 One ts 11 Tul eae La, She

Co .087 al 1 310 aS 24) 1S 4

Cr .998 .995 6 6 825 ul 11 3 240 26812 a}

Cu 28.4 29.8 18 18 .04 aS 7 Vi 6 3 6 030 2 2 ]

i 895 .932 8 5 a .087 2 l 0001 113 | 2

Fe 31.6 Sle 19 19 69 eo 10 15 170 .830 Os

Hg 496 .465 2 5)

K 1232 aS 9 9 1.24 2 13 6 .370 230 14 8

Mg 6.14 7.02 14 13 .464 | 7 3 230 a sy 5

Mn 1.15 821 i 8

Na 4.97 4.10 11 11 .065 322 8 7 4 14 ‘046 “Sah 4.14

Ni 398 4 6 Seon O52 352 5 9

Ed 1.14 LES 12 16 190: 4,, 2026 20 16

Pb 1.02 .992 5 if 2.4 45) 16 10 520 962) 15°" 10

Si 9.98 9.93 16 16 .085 2 8 6 .169 6

Sn 4.92 6.14 13 12 1.4 4 14 Roo SU ens 16 ks

Si 8.53 9.23 15 15

Ti 502 223 4 4

Zn 6.84 4.43 12 14 .086 SSR: 2 9 5 6 041 198 3 7

*Caries **Severe caries

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980 75

Rhodesian Skull Rhodesian Maxilla

BM (NH) 686 BM(NH)687

1 Be Be

(si) (Si)

2 As Hg

3 PO: F Cu

“ ti T) Co Co F F

5 F Pb F Cr Cu Cr

6 Cr Cr Cu Cu Mg Zn Co

i, Pb Mn Na Na Cu Na Mg

8 Mn F Si Zn Zn Ni Si

9 K K Zn Ni Si As Zn

10 Ba Ba Mg Al K

a nm —

=z Nz

G -2n.5

TK za

Oo p= | a | Q

Qo nn bP YP

x @ — wo

UV A

?) oO 4

x = @

PP B=usrzZ

” — lop

14 Zn Ca

15 Sr Sr p - Co. Mitre

16 Si Si K K Na

Lif Al Al Sn Na Pb Sn

18 Cu Cu Ca Fe Sn P

19 Fe Fe Ca Pb P Ca Ca

Fig. 1. Ranking of elemental concentrations (1 = least) in enamel samples from carious and non-carious

teeth of Rhodesian Man, BM(NH) 686, and maxillary fragment, BM(NH) 687, from lead-zinc mine, dated about

100,000 B.P. Tied rankings are indicated by boxes.

76 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

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(LM’') carious area is compared with a car-

les free surface of the right third molar

(M°). Rank orders are seen to be almost

identical with the exception of a slightly

higher fluoride level in the caries-free sur-

face:

Water washes of the caries-free central

incisor (I), the moderately carious canine

(can.) and the severely carious right, first

molar (RM_’) resulted in elemental values

with quite different rank orders. The fluo-

ride in this case was, however, almost the

same. Rank orders of chromium, iron, po-

tassium, sodium, lead, silicon, and tin were

markedly different between C and RM’.

The second (M’) and third (M’) molars

sampled from the maxillary fragment also

resulted in marked difference and some

similarity in rank orders. Arsenic, cobalt,

chromium, potassium, magnesium, sodi-

um, phosphorous, lead, and silicon were

most varied. Calcium, copper, fluoride,

and tin were most similar in rank order.

The elemental concentration rank orders

were graphed (Fig. 1) comparing various

Table 3.—Maxillary fragment ratios.

Ppm % Fe % Co

tooth combinations for water washes and

acid etches. Similarity of the acid etches is

obvious. Comparison of the contralateral

first molar water washes versus acid treat-

ments evidences marked difference and lit-

tle similarity. Comparison of RM’ and C

clearly separates these teeth. A limited

comparison using all elements found in the

I' is notable for a marked sodium variation.

The rank ordered graph of the maxillary

fragment separates the teeth side by side in

the same specimen subjected to identical

long-term conditions of interment and stor-

age. The moderately carious Rhodesian

Man canine compared to the maxillary

fragment M° and M°* emphasizes some

marked differences intra-individual for the

latter.

In Table 2, elemental values as percent-

ages of 6 selected elements are displayed

for Rhodesian Man. The canine/molar

percentages with sodium versus those for

potassium are clearly reciprocal. The calci-

um/magnesium percentages have, on the

other hand, the same directionality. Cal-

% Ca % Mg % Na %K

Element M? M? M? M? Me Me OOM Me ae M? M? M Mw

Al 160° .630 1.06 1.32 1.94 21 ‘444 3.71 144 24 29 | 1/86) meoeeeuee

As 157 .734°1.08 - 1.13 1.97 .18 4.53 3.19 146 .21 | 29 —ESOMmeene

Ca PAN34 * 4 35. AR” 060 ae : 32 1106 | 406: ee 50 5) eel

Co HOE, 130 54. 8 6 90) _ 929 17.73 74 1:15. .15 $860 eieomeines

Cr 240\ ©1126 <7 °° 6.59 ~1.29 05 2:96 18.57 96 1:27 <9 9.29 SRiSammee

Cu 030) (112 5.67 © 7.41 10.33 1.18 23.7% 20.89° 7167 1.36 853° 10.45 eieesemmennes

F Boks TBS oT 20.71 1.35 10.35 2.04 :

Fe 70 A830 ; 1.82 .16 418 2.829135 18 107 1.4 Seouicuere

K 370w (230° 46. 1 36k «83 58 gkOD 10/17a).62: 1166 | alee sop |

Me 230) 2152 739 5,AG@ Wh 1.35e | 287 37098 15.99 7.70 -~ 16 leon

Na 046 147 3.69 7 69741 1586 20 750), 4413 8.04 .20

Ni 052; 532 3.27 1.56 5.96 .25 13.67 4.4 <4.42 29 > 88 2290) 0e7uromee

P 520) #562 327 148 © .6 23. 137 4.16” .44 27 | 1009 208 eee :

Pb 190) 216 {89 38 1:63 0653.74 (08 121 proor® 224 54. E95 :

Si 169 4.91 78 13.85 9 6.92 1.36 .

Sn ‘S508 P73 ae § Spe. 56) 198 lag? “145" ao 90" Wigs!) Gen oT |

Sr :

Zn 041 1984.15 20.2 7.56.67 17.34 1182 5.61 77 112. SOT \QlQemeeee

78 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

cium magnitudes are greater than magne-

sium but calcium ratios for canine double -

those for M’. The similar magnesium rela-

tion is more than triple.

For iron there is a notable reverse of rela-

tion between canine and M' for aluminum

and fluoride. The cobalt relations for ca-

nine and M' are not remarkably different.

Table 3 gives ratios for the maxillary

fragment. Sodium and potassium are re-

ciprocal. Variation in the other ratios dis-

played clearly separate M’ and M’.

Discussion

Attempting to order such a large mass of

data ina reasonable space is difficult. Only

the most salient points can be considered.

The first and most obvious fact is that de-

terminations of this magnitude are obtain-

able at all from water-washings of enamel

surfaces. The second important observa-

tion is that some degree of order exists in

these values that patterns with caries.

Acid etching and water washing, clearly,

give two quite different.kinds of informa-

tion. While acid etches supply data for

enamel composition that may reflect the

ecology in which the enamel formed and

may differentiate populations (Koritzer,

1976; St. Hoyme and Koritzer, 1976), dif-

ferences correlating with caries are obliter-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

ated. Water washes, which simulate oral

environment more nearly than strong

acids, reveal differences in general and spe-

cific solubility that do seem to relate to car-

ies. This occurs inter-individually, asin the

Potomac Creek study, and intra-individu-

ally, as in this study.

The generally reciprocal nature of so-

dium and potassium ratios for the canine

and first molar of Rhodesian Man seems

too orderly to occur by chance alone. Sim-

ilarly the directional agreement of calcium

and magnesium is striking. Without at-

tempting to draw too much from the lim-

ited sample and data set, the behavior of

these mono- and di-valent cations with car-

ies degree arouses a high index of suspi-

cion. Further study of this matter seems

indicated.

References Cited

Koritzer, Richard T. and Lucile St. Hoyme. 1977. Den-

tal pathology of the Rhodesian Man. Journal of the

American Dental Association, vol. 99, pp. 642-643.

Koritzer, Richard T. 1976. Archeological inferences ~

developed from dental enamel trace element data.

PhD Dissertation, American University, 1976.

Koritzer, Richard T. 1977. Dental caries and enamel

trace elements in Potomac indians. Georgetown

Dental Journal vol. XLI, no. 2, pp. 35-40.

St. Hoyme, L. E., and R. T. Koritzer. 1976. Ecology of

dental disease. Amer. J. Phys. Anthrop., n.s., 45:

673-686.

Haliday’s Generic Names of Diptera First Published in Curtis’

A Guide to

F. C. Thompson and Wayne N. Mathis

. British Insects (1837).

Systematic Entomology Laboratory, SEA, USDA c/o U.S. National Museum, NHB-168,

Washington, D. C. 20560, and Department of Entomology, NHB-169,

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. 20560, respectively.

ABSTRACT

Seventeen generic names of mostly acalyptrate Diptera were first published in the adden-

dum of Curtis’ A Guide to . .

. British Insects. Considerable confusion has existed as to au-

thor, date, type-species and current status of these names, largely due to an oversight that

most of these names were first published in synonymy. We have re-examined each of the 17

names to determine its authorship, date, manner of type fixation, type-species and current

status. As a result we have discovered three new synonyms and the need for one new name:

Napomyza Haliday =Phytomyza Fallen (Napomyza of authors is Dinevra Lioy), Knutsonia

Verbeke =J/ione Haliday (J/ione has been treated as a junior synonym of E/giva of authors)

and Oecothea Haliday=Heleomyza Fallen (Oecothea of authors is without a name). Chione

communis Robineau-Desvoidy is designated the type-species of J/ione Haliday and Leria sub-

terranea Robineau-Desvoidy the type-species of Oecothea Haliday.

In Curtis’ A Guide to . . . British In-

sects (1837), 17 generic names of Diptera

were published for the first time as part of

an addendum. Most of these names figure

prominently in subsequent literature, and

some of them form the bases of familial

names. Despite their prominence and fre-

quent use, much confusion exists as to their

authorship, date of publication and manner

of type fixation as demonstrated by their

citations in recent catalogs and in such

basic references as Sherborn (1922), Neave

(1939) and Schulze et alia (1928-1954). Our

purpose is to review the pertinent portions

of Curtis’ publication, as well as other rele-

vant literature, and to clarify usage of these

names.

Haliday was an early Irish entomologist

(1807-1870) who specialized in the syste-

matics of Diptera and Hymenoptera. He

was a generous correspondent (Osten

Sacken 1978: 51-62, especially 56-57), and

consequently many of his names and ideas

appear first in the works of others. As a re-

sult, the treatment of these names has been

different: Some authors have treated these

names as Haliday’s and dated them from

their first appearance in the literature (e.g.,

Atissa Haliday in Curtis 1837 (Wirth 1965:

735)); others have dated them from their

first appearance but considered them as

those of the author in whose work they ap-

peared (e.g., Atissa Curtis 1837 (Cogan

1980c: 657)); and a few dated them from

their first appearance in Haliday’s own

works, regardless of their earlier appear-

ance in the work of others (e.g., Atissa Hal-

iday 1839 (Becker 1905: 191)). This varia-

tion is due to differences in various work-

ers’ diligence and interpretation of the rules

of nomenclature, which over the years have

also changed. Also, the preface of Curtis’

Guide has been overlooked, although it

contains information which bears directly

on questions of authorship, date and type

fixation.

The principal questions to be answered

are those of availability, the date and place

thereof, authorship and type-species. The

conditions that determine availability can.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

a an

N — - 7.

a a

be grouped into three categories—publica-

tion, identification’ and formation. A name

must be published (articles 8-9), must be

identified (articles 12-16), and must be

properly formed (article 11, sections b-c &

e-g). The Haliday names in Curtis were all

(except Camilla) first published as syn-

onyms, a fact previously overlooked. Cur-

tis in his preface stated: “‘It need scarely be

added that the generic and specific names

without numbers are considered as syn-

onyms. . .”’ (Curtis 1837: v-vi). Of the 17

dipteran names, only Camilla was given an

unique number. For example, Camilla is

numbered 1337° meaning that the name is

valid and should be inserted after number

1337, the number for Diastata Meigen (p.

272). Fucomyia has the number 1320, but

this number is the same as that of Coelopa

(p. 270) of which Curtis considered Fuco-

myia to beasynonym. As these names were

first published in synonymy, they come

under a special section of Article 11 (sec-

tion d) which states: ““A name first pub-

lished as a synonym is not thereby made

available unless prior to 1961 it has been

treated as an available name with its origi-

nal date and authorship, and either adopt-

ed as the name of a taxon or used as a Senior

homonym.” (I.C.Z.N. 1964: 11). The word-

ing is poor as two interpretations are possi-

ble. Strictly interpreted, the with clause can

be construed as part of the availability re-

quirement such that the name must have

been used with the particular date and au-

thor of its appearance in synonymy. A

broader interpretation would require only

that the name be used and thereafter be-

comes available “‘. . . with its original date

and authorship.” All of Haliday’s names

were first used within three years of their

appearance in Curtis’ Guide. These names

were used in one or more of three publica-

'Our use of the word “‘identification” here is

slightly different from the conventional one. A name

must have been accompanied by a diagnosis, descrip-

tion or indication that functions to “‘identify” the

concept that the name denotes. Hence, we used the

word “identification” forthe process by which a name

is tied to a concept, whereas the usual connotation of

“identification” is tying a concept to a name.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

tions. In two of the publications, 12 names

meet the strict interpretation of Article 11

(d), and all the names meet the broad inter-

pretation. In Haliday (1838), each name is

followed by ‘“‘C. Appl.,”’ this being an ex-

plicit reference to Curtis’ Guide. . . , Ap-

pendix [=Addenda] as is indicated both by

the title of Haliday’s paper (New British In-

sects indicated in Mr. Curtis’ Guide) and his

introduction. In Haliday (1839), each name

is followed by “Curtis, Guide, App.”

which is likewise an explicit reference to

Curtis. In Westwood (1840), the names are

followed by simply ‘“‘Hal.’’ While most of

these names are available from Haliday in

Curtis 1837 under any interpretation of Ar-

ticle 11 (d), we feel that the broad interpre-

tation is correct and therefore all the names

are available from there. In support of this

broad interpretation, we note that the pro-

posed wording for this article in the draft

version for a new edition of the Rules is in

conformity to it: ““A name first published

as a junior synonym is not thereby made

available unless prior to 1961 it has been’

treated as an available name and either

adopted as the name of a taxon or treated

as a senior homonym; such a name dates

from its first publication as a synonym.”

(EEZEANSIOTa AT:

Authorship is currently determined by

article 50 (‘‘The author (authors) of a scien-

tific name is (are) the person (persons) who

first publish(es) it [III] in a way that satis-

fies the criteria of availability [IV], unless it

is clear from the contents of the publication

that only one (or some) of the joint authors,

or some other person (or persons), is alone

responsible both for the name and the con-

ditions that make it available.” I.C.Z.N.

1964: 49). Again the wording is poor, as

two interpretations are possible. Strictly in-

terpreted, “‘the conditions” include all

those mentioned above (publication, iden-

tification and formation), but a broader in-

terpretation would include all except pub-

lication. Under a strict interpretation, all of

the Haliday names in Curtis should be at-

tributed to Curtis, but, under the broader

interpretation, they would be accredited to

Haliday. Curtis identified all these names

(except Napomyza) with “Hal.” and ac-

knowledged Haliday ““. . . for. . . kind

assistance in rendering this Guide more

complete than it otherwise could possibly

have been.” (Curtis 1837: vi). We feel that

these facts along with a broad interpreta-

tion of Article 50 make Haliday the author

of his names. This is also the opinion of the

majority of workers who have used these

names. We feel that our broad interpreta-

tion of the article is also correct as indi- ©

cated by subsequent proposals to modify

the Code (Sabrosky 1972a: 86, 1974: 206-

208; I.C.Z.N. 1977: 34) and the proposed

wording in the draft version which inserts

the words “other than publication”’ after

“‘conditions.’’ Unfortunately, the draft ver-

sion includes a new section of Article 50

(section g) to deal with the authorship of

names proposed in synonymy (Sabrosky

1972a; I.C.Z.N. 1977: 35). Under this new

section, which states that the author of this

kind of name “‘is the person who publishes

itas asynonym, even if he cited some other

Originator, and is not the person who sub-

sequently adopted it,” the author of the

Haliday names would be Curtis. However,

we feel that when and if this new section is

adopted, at that time an application should

be made to the International Commission

on Zoological Nomenclature requesting

the use of the plenary powers to validate

Haliday as the author of his names. The

case for such action could be based on

present usage.

The manner of type fixation for names

first proposed as synonyms is not covered

by the present Code, as when that Code

was prepared these names were not consid-

ered as available. Sabrosky (1972b) and

the draft version (1977: 48, Art. 67 (m))

suggest that the type-species (or originally

included species) of a genus-group name

first published as a synonym is the species

(or are the species) first directly associated

with the synonym. Curtis wrote in his pre-

face that “.. . although many of the

former [=synonyms] which intersect long

genera will most probably be eventually

adopted, and it may often happen that all

the species following such generic names

would not be considered by the Author

who proposed the name as belonging to his

group, but the one immediately following 1s

always atypical species. . .”’ (Curtis 1837:

vi). Immediately following nearly all of the

generic names are one to several species

names. From one point of view, the first

could be considered the type-species by

original designation as stated by Curtis.

However, Sabrosky and _ Blackwelder

(1956) have argued that Curtis’ statement

does not constitute a valid type designa-

tion. In their point of view, the manner of

type-fixation in these cases would be either

by subsequent designation, if more than

one species were listed, or by monotypy, if

only one species is listed. We have accepted

this latter viewpoint.

One final item from the preface relates to

the names—the numbers used to identify

species. For most previously described spe-

cies listed under a genus, Curtis endeav-

ored to use the same numbers as in his first

edition of the guide (1829-1831). As Curtis

stated (1837: v), “‘. . . but where the gen-

era have received great additions, as in

Tachina for instance, the numbers of

Meigen have been substituted, by which

means an easy reference may be made to his

valuable Work.”’’ We have noted, with the

appropriate species, where a Meigen num-

ber and name has been used in the original

citations.

One last point needs to be made about

Curtis’ Guide, that is, its correct date of

publication. Various dates, ranging from

1836 to 1838, have been assigned to this

work. An extreme example of this is found

in Neave and Sherborn where they cited all

three years for the various names found on

page 281. Curtis’ second edition of his

Guide was published as a whole in 1837,

~sometime after June, the date of the pre-

face.

For each of the generic names treated we

have used a standard format to enable

more direct comparison. Information of a

particular nature and other data of rele-

vance are included in the appropriate re-

marks sections. The names are considered

in alphabetical order. For the well-known |

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

references of Sherborn (1922-1923),

Schutze et alia (1928-1954) and Neave

(1939-1940), which are referred to in the

remarks section of each generic name, we

have not cited the year of publication nor

given the full title and pagination in the ref-

erence section to save space.

Genus Atissa Haliday

Atissa Haliday, in Curtis 1837: 281 [published in syn-

onymy; first made available by use in Haliday

1839:401, 404]. Type-species: Ephydra pygmaea

Haliday 1833 by monotypy.

Atissais a valid generic name in the fam-

ily Ephydridae and is the basis for the tribal

name Atissini. Most of the references we

consulted dated Atissa to 1837 (Sherborn;

Neave; Wirth 1965b, 1968; Cogan & Wirth

1977; Cogan 1980c) and credited author-

ship to Haliday, usually as Haliday in Cur-

tis. The exceptions are Becker (1905, 1926),

who dated the genus to 1839, and Cogan

(1980c), who attributed the genus to Curtis.

Genus Calliope Haliday

Calliope Haliday, in Curtis 1837: 280 [published in

synonymy; first made available by use in Westwood

1840:151]. Type-species: Lauxania scutellata Mei-

gen 1826 by monotypy.

Calliopum Strand 1928:48 (new name for Calliope

Haliday).

Calliope of Haliday is preoccupied

(Gould 1836). The valid name for this

group 1s Calliopum Strand 1928 in the fam-

ily Lauxaniidae. The references we con-

sulted consistently dated this genus as 1840

(Sherborn, Neave, Schulze et alia, Czerny

1932, Shewell 1965, and Miller 1980), but

authorship was credited to either Haliday,

usually as Haliday in Westwood (Sher-

born, Neave, Czerny and Miller, ibid.), or

to Westwood alone (Schulze et alia and

Shewell 1965).

Genus Camilla Haliday

Camilla Haliday in Curtis 1837: 281 (nomen nudum).

Camilla Haliday 1838:188 (as a subgenus of Diastata

Meigen 1830). Type-species: Drosophila glabra Fal-

lén 1823 by monotypy.

Although Camilla Haliday is a valid ge-

neric name and is the basis for the familial

_J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

name Camillidae, it neither dates to 1837

nor to Haliday in Curtis for authorship.

Camilla was the only new Haliday name in

Curtis’ Guide that was not published in

synonymy. Both the generic name and its

listed type-species, Camilla aerata Haliday,

as published in 1837, were nomina nuda.

Consequently the generic name dates to

Haliday 1838, when Haliday gave a diag-

nosis and included an available name in the

genus.

All of the references consulted cited Hal-

iday as author of Camilla but with varying

dates and sources. Sherborn, Neave, and

Schulze et alia cited Haliday in Curtis;

however Sherborn and Neave dated the

name to 1836, and Schulze et alia to 1837.

Becker (1905), Duda (1934), McAlpine

(1965) and Cogan (1980b) all date Camilla

to Haliday 1838.

Genus Canace Haliday

Canace Haliday, in Curtis 1837: 281 [published in

synonymy; first made available by use in Haliday

1839:411]. Type-species: Ephydra nasica Haliday—

1839 by subsequent monotypy (Haliday 1839:411).

Canace is a valid generic name and is the

basis for the familial name Canacidae. The

references we consulted all credited Canace

to Haliday, but dated it to either 1838

(Sherborn, Neave) or 1839 (Becker 1905,

1926; Wirth 1951, 1965a, 1975; Cogan

1980e; Mathis 1981).

Genus Cleora Haliday

Cleora Haliday, in Curtis 1837:282 [nomen nudum;

published in synonymy but not subsequently made

available by use].

Clusia Haliday 1838:188. Type-species: Heteromyza

flava Meigen 1830 by monotypy.

Cleora of Haliday is preoccupied (Curtis

1825). Haliday (1838:188) synonymized his

generic name Cleora under Clusia when he

validated the latter name. Sherborn, Neave

and Schulze et alia are the only references

to cite an author and date for this generic

name (as a nomen nudum). Sherborn and

Neave dated it to 1836, but Schulze et alia

as 1837.

Genus Fucomyia Haliday

Fucomyia Haliday, in Curtis 1837: 280 [published in

synonymy; first made available by use in Haliday

1838:186]. Type-species: Musca frigida Fabricius

1805 by subsequent designation (Westwood 1840:

144).

Fucomyia Haliday is a valid genus-group

name in the family Coelopidae. In Curtis,

Fucomyia was listed as a synonym of Coe-

lopa, sensu stricto; hence no typical species

was indicated (i.e., this name did not “‘in-

tersect”’ a large genus). Haliday (1838:186)

when he validated the name, included three

species (frigida Fabricius, simplex Haliday

and parvula Haliday). Westwood desig-

nated Musca frigida as the type. In Neave,

Sherborn, Schulze et alia, Becker (1905),

Hennig (1937), and Vockeroth (1965a), this

name is credited to Haliday, but with dif-

ferent dates and sources. Sherborn gave

Haliday in Westwood (1840); Neave—Hali-

day in Curtis 1837; Schulze et alia, Hennig

and Vockeroth-Haliday 1838; and Becker-

Haliday 1839.

Genus Halithea Haliday

Halithea Haliday, in Curtis 1837:279 [published in

synonymy; first made available by use in Haliday

1838:185]. Type-species: Scatophaga maritima Hal-

iday 1838 by subsequent monotypy (Haliday 1838:

185).

Fucellia Robineau-Desvoidy 1842:269. Type-species:

Fucellia arenaria Robineau-Desvoidy 1842 (=Sca-

tophaga maritima Haliday 1838) by original desig-

nation and monotypy.

Halithea of Haliday is preoccupied (Sa-

vigny 1817). The valid name for this group

is Fucellia Robineau-Desvoidy 1842 in the

family Anthomyiidae. In Neave, Sherborn,

Schulze et alia and Huckett (1965), this

name is credited to Haliday, but with dif-

ferent dates and sources. Sherborn and

Neave dated the genus as “1836,” in Curtis,

whereas Huckett dated it to Haliday 1838

(i.e., Haliday’s publication).

Genus Hecamede Haliday

Hecamede Haliday, in Curtis 1837: 281 [published in

synonymy; first made available by use in Haliday

1839:221, 224]. Type-species: Notiphila albicans

Meigen 1830 by monotypy.

Hecamede is a valid generic name in the

family Ephydridae. Use of this generic

name has been confused both with respect

to its date and author. Cogan (1980c) cred-

ited the generic name to Curtis, whereas

the other references cited Haliday, usually

as Haliday in Curtis (Becker 1905, 1926;

Sherborn; Neave; Wirth 1965b, 1968; Co-

gan and Wirth 1977). Cogan(1980c), Wirth

(1968), and Cogan and Wirth (1977) dated

the genus to 1837; Sherborn and Neave

dated it to 1838, and Wirth (1965b) and

Becker (1905, 1926) dated it to 1839.

Genus Hyadina Haliday

Hyadina Haliday, in Curtis 1837: 282 [published in

synonymy; first made available by use in Haliday

1839:404, 406]. Type-species: Notiphila guttata Fal-

len 1813 by subsequent designation (Westwood

1840:153).

Hyadina is a valid generic name in the

family Ephydridae and is the basis for the

tribal name Hyadinini. Sherborn and

Neave both dated Hyadina to 1837 and

credited it to Curtis. The other references

we consulted consistently attributed the

name to Haliday and dated it to 1839

(Becker 1905, 1926; Wirth 1965b, Cogan &

Wirth 1977; Cogan 1980c).

Genus Ilione Haliday

Ilione Haliday, in Curtis 1837:280 [published in syn-

onymy; first made available by use in Westwood

1840:146]. Type-species: Chione communis Robi-

neau-Desvoidy 1830 (=Musca albiseta Scopoli

1763) by present designation.

Tlione is a valid genus-group name in the

family Sciomyzidae. Neave and Steyskal

(1965a) listed J/ione as a nomen nudum of

Haliday in Curtis 1837. Sherborn, Becker

(1905) and Sack (1939) all credited the

name to Haliday but with some variation

as to date and source. Sherborn cited Hali-

day in Curtis 1837, Becker listed Haliday in

Westwood 1840, and Sack gave Haliday

without citing a source. Schulze et alia cred- _

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

ited the name to Curtis 1837 as a nomen

nudum.

Curtis (1837) included two species under

Ilione, Chione communis Robineau-Des-

voidy and C. sepedonidea Robineau-Des-

voidy. Westwood (1840) designated “‘J. lin-

eata Hal.’ as the type-species. The use of

‘‘Hal.”’ as the authority for /ineata has been

considered an error, as the species involved

is Tetanocera lineata Fallen 1820. West-

wood’s designation 1s invalid as /ineata was

not an originally included species. As we

have not found any other type designation

for Ilione, we here designate communis as

type. All of these species—the two origi-

nally included and /ineata—are now in-

cluded in the genus Knutsonia Verbeke

1964. Consequently, with the correction in

date and type-species, as indicated, /lione

becomes the senior synonym of Knutsonia

(new synonym).

Genus Ilythea Haliday

Ilythea Haliday, in Curtis 1837:281 [published in syn-

onymy; first made available by use in Haliday

1839:405, 408]. Type-species: Ephydra spilota Cur-

tis 1832 by subsequent monotypy (Haliday 1839:

408).

Ilytheais a valid generic name of the fam-

ily Ephydridae and is the basis of the tribal

name lIlytheini. Sherborn, Neave and

Schulze et alia gave authorship of I/ythea to

Curtis, usually as a nomen nudum, and

dated the name to 1837. The other refer-

ences we consulted credited the genus to

Haliday and dated it to 1839 (Becker 1905,

1926; Wirth 1965b, 1968; Cogan 1980c).

Genus Malacomyza Haliday

Malacomyza Haliday, in Curtis 1837:280 [published in

synonymy; first made available by use in Haliday

1838:186]. Type-species: Coelopa sciomyzina Hali-

day 1833 by subsequent monotypy (Haliday 1838:

186).

Malacomyia Haliday, in Westwood 1840:144, Type-

species: Coelopa sciomyzina Haliday 1833 by origi-

nal designation.

Malacomyza of Haliday is preoccupied

(Wesmael 1836). The valid name for this

group 1s Malacomyia Haliday in the family

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

Coelopidae. In Sherborn and Becker (1905:

21), this name is credited to Haliday, but

with different dates and sources. Neave and

Schulze et alia credited the name to Curtis.

In Westwood, this name appears as ““Mala-

comyia Hal.,’ a spelling which is not

preoccupied. The status of this spelling is in

question: is it an emendation, a new name

or a proposal? Hennig (1937:29) consid-

ered it as a new name. Other workers used

the spelling, accredited it to Haliday, but

did not indicate its status. The present

Code defines an emendation as an available

name (I.C.Z.N. 1964: 19, Art. 19) and as

‘‘Any demonstrably intentional change in

the original spelling.” (I.C.Z.N. 1964:37,

Art. 33). The Code does not clearly state

the availability requirements for a replace-

ment name, but one would expect a definite

reference to the name being replaced to be

one such requirement. The citation in West-

wood does not include a reference to the

original spelling, thus, it is clearly neither

an emendation nor a new name. We con-

sider it as a new proposal.

Genus Napomyza Haliday

Phytomyza Fallen 1810:21, 26. Type-species: Phyto-

myza flaveola Fallen 1810 by monotypy.

Napomyza Haliday, in Curtis 1837:282 [published in

synonymy; first made available by use in Westwood

1840:152]. Type-species: Phytomyza_ nigricornis

Macquart 1835 (=Phytomyza affinis Fallen 1823)

by monotypy.

This is an available genus-group name

and has been currently used at the generic

and subgeneric level in the family Agromy-

zidae. The year 1840 is consistently pub-

lished as the date of Napomyza in the refer-

ences we consulted, but authorship has

either been credited to Haliday (Sherborn,

Neave, Hendel 1932) or to Westwood

(Frick 1965, Spencer 1976, Cogan 1980a,

Schulze et alia).

Napomyza appears without an authority.

Most names in Curtis either have an au-

thority or reference number to Curtis’ Brit-

ish Entomology. The lack of an authority is

clearly a /apsus. The name is attributed to

Haliday by Westwood. This attribution by

Westwood as well as the large number of

other names in the addenda of Curtis leads

us to consider the author of Napomyza as

Haliday.

Curtis (1837) included only Phytomyza

nigricornis Macquart under Napomyza.

Westwood (1840) cited Phytomyza festiva

Meigen as the type-species of Napomyza, a

designation accepted by all subsequent

workers. Unfortunately, Westwood’s des-

ignation is invalid and the correct type-

species, affinis Fallen, is a species of Phy-

tomyza. Thus, Napomyza becomes a syno-

nym, and Dinevra Lioy 1864 (type-species

Phytomyza elegans Meigen 1830 (senior

synonym of festiva Meigen) is available for

Napomyza of authors.

Genus Oecothea Haliday

Heleomyza Fallen 1810:19. Type-species. Musca ser-

rata Linneaus 1758 by monotypy.

Oecothea Haliday, in Curtis 1837:280 [published in

synonymy; first made available by use in Haliday

1838:187]. Type-species: Leria subterranea Robi-

neau-Desvoidy 1830 by present designation.

Oecothea is a valid generic name in the

family Heleomyzidae, although it was fre-

quently listed as an emendation of Aeco-

thea (Gill 1965, 1968). Just the opposite,

however, is true—Aecothea, Haliday 1838,

is an unjustified emendation of Oecothea.

Considerable confusion also exists re-

garding the type-species of Oecothea. Cur-

tis (1837) included four species under Oeco-

thea: Helomyza [sic] pallescens Meigen

1830 (now Eccoptomera Loew), H. laeta

Meigen 1830:(now Tephrochlamys Fallén),

H. silvatica Meigen 1830 (now Eccoptomera

Loew) and Leria subterranea Robineau-

Desvoidy 1830 (now Heleomyza Fallén).

Haliday (1838), when he spelled this name

as Aecothea, probably a Japsus, included

only one British species, Helomyza [sic] fe-

nestralis Fallén 1820, and most subsequent

authors have listed that species as the type-

species. Westwood (1840) listed fenestralis

and “‘pallescens Mcq.”’ as the “‘type”’ as well

as using the correct spelling Oecothea. The

designation of fenestralis as type-species

cannot be valid, as it was not an originally

included species, and as no other species

has been designated, we have selected sub-

terranea, the fourth species Curtis included

under Oecothea. With the correction in the

type-species, as listed, Oecothea is the jun-

ior synonym of Heleomyza Fallén 1810

(new synonym), leaving Oecothea, usually

as Aecothea, of authors (Becker 1905:47;

Czerny 1927:31; Gill 1962:518; 965;aiie

1968:2) as an unnamed genus.

Sherborn and Neave credited Oecothea

to Curtis, whereas the other references we

consulted listed Haliday. Dates for the

genus varied from 1837 (Neave), to 1838

(Sherborn, Gill), to 1839 (Becker).

Genus Pelina Haliday

Pelina Haliday, in Curtis 1837:282 [published in syn-

onymy; first made available by use in Haliday

1839:404, 407]. Type-species: Notiphila aenea Fallen

by monotypy.

Pelina is a valid generic name in the fam-

ily Ephydridae. The name is generally cred-

ited to Haliday (Becker 1905, 1926, Wirth

1965b, Cogan 1980c). The Nomenclators

gave this as either ‘“‘Curtis (ex Haliday)”’

(Sherborn, Neave) or “Curtis (Haliday

MS)” (Schulze et alia). Dates varied from

1837 (Schulze et alia), to 1838 (Sherborn,

Neave) and 1839 (Becker, Wirth, Cogan,

ibid.).

Genus Tethina Haliday

Tethina Haliday, in Curtis 1837:293 [published in syn-

onymy; first made abailable by use in Haliday

1838:188]. Type-species: Opomyza illota Haliday

1838 by subsequent monotypy (Haliday 1838:188).

Tethnia, Haliday in Curtis 1837:281 (incorrect original

spelling by present revision).

Tethina is a valid generic name and is the

basis for the familial name Tethinidae. In

most of the references we examined Tethina

is dated to 1838 and credited to Haliday

(Sherborn, Neave, Vockeroth 1965b, Fos-

ter 1976, Steyskal and Sasakawa 1977,

Cogan 1980d). Becker (1905) and Czerny

(1928), however, dated the genus to 1839,

but listed Haliday as the author.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

Genus Thais Haliday

Tetanocera Dumeril 1800:439 (as ‘‘Tétanocere’’).

Type-species, Musca elata Fabricius (1.C.Z.N. des-

ignation, and validation of this generic name from

1800 is required).

Thais Haliday, in Curtis 1837:280 [published in syn-

onymy; first made available by use in Westwood

1840:146]. Type-species: Tetanocera silvatica Mei-

gen 1830 (as “‘15. silvatica’’) by monotypy.

Thais of Haliday is preoccupied (Bolten

1798, Fabricius 1807 and Huebner 1820).

The valid name for this group is Tetanocera

Dumeril 1800 in the family Sciomyzidae

(for details of the history of Tetanocera, the

reader is referred to Sabrosky 1952). Thais

is listed only in Sherborn, Neave and

Schulze et alia, where it is considered a

nomen nudum and as Haliday in Curtis.

Acknowledgments

We thank Drs. Donald M. Anderson,

Raymond J. Gagné, Paul R. Marsh and

Curtis W. Sabrosky of the Systematic En-

-tomology Laboratory, USDA, Washing-

ton; and Michael E. Faran, Walter Reed

Army Medical Center, Washington, for

their critical review of this manuscript.

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Identification of the Acordulecera ‘‘Potato’’ Sawflies of Peru and

Bolivia, with Descriptions of These and Related Species from

South America (Hymenoptera: Pergidae)

David R. Smith

Systematic Entomology Laboratory, IIBIIT, Agricultural Research, Sci. & Educ.

Admin. USDA. Mailing address: c/o U.S. National Museum of Natural History NHB 168,

Washington, D.C. 20560.

ABSTRACT

Sawflies damaging potato foliage in Peru and Bolivia and previously recorded as Acordu-

lecera sp. belong to three new species: A. ducra and A. willei from Peru and A. munroi from

Bolivia. These species belong to a definable group within Acordulecera that also includes A.

ruficeps (Konow), A. schrottk yi (Konow), and the following nine new species: A. chilensis from

Chile and Argentina; A. colombiana from Colombia; A. cretoa, A. nexa, A. porteri, and A. vik-

rea from Argentina; A. pyqua from Argentina and Bolivia; and A. karpa and A. schuhi from

Peru. A key is given to these 14 species, and each is described and illustrated.

Acordulecera is a large genus found only

in the Western Hemisphere from southeast-

ern Canada south to Tierra del Fuego. It is

an especially large and diverse genus in the

Neotropical Region and, as a whole, has

never been studied. From south of the United

States about 45 species have been described,

but this is less than half of the actual

number. Because the knowledge of the

genus is restricted to inadequate descrip-

tions of species published mostly before

1908, it is understandable that the sawflies

reported as damaging potato foliage in

Peru and Bolivia (Wille, 1943; Munro,

1954; Carrasco, 1967; Aréstegui, 1976) have

been identified only as ‘‘Acordulecera sp.”

During my investigations of Neotropical

Symphyta, I have had the opportunity to

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

study the types of all described species of

Acordulecera except for five described by

Enderlein from Santa Catarina, Brazil, the

types of which cannot be located and may

be lost. The Acordulecera from potato re-

ported by the four authors mentioned above

represent three new species, A. ducra, A.

willei, and A. munroi. Furthermore, these

taxa belong to a definable species group in

Acordulecera involving 14 species distrib-

uted mainly in the Andes from Colombia

south to northern Argentina, Paraguay,

and in southern Argentina and southern

Chile. Only two species in this group have

been described, A. ruficeps (Konow) (1899)

and A. schrottkyi (Konow) (1906); the

other 12 are new. All 14 are described here.

The group of species of Acordulecera

treated here are separated from other spe-

cies of the genus by the following combina-

tion of characters: (1) Head from above broad-

ened behind eyes, with eyes small and

removed from hindmargin of head (Figs. 1,

2); (2) distance between eyes below equal to

or greater than eye length (Fig. 2); (3) cly-

peus truncate; (4) antenna (Fig. 1) 6-seg-

mented, slender, its length subequal to or

slightly shorter than head width, with only

short hairs, shorter than width of the an-

tenna; and with third and fourth segments

about equal in length; (5) basal plates en-

tire, emarginated for less than half their

medial length and leaving a very small mem-

branous area; and (6) mesoscutellum with

strongly carinated margins, the margin usu-

ally produced into a thin flange and curved

up (Fig. 3). Other species of Acordulecera

commonly have large eyes that are very

close to the hindmargin of the head, and

the head in dorsal view narrows strongly

behind the eyes; distance between eyes

1. Legs mostly black, at least femora black

below commonly shorter than eye length;

clypeus emarginated in a few species; an-

tenna 6-segmented but of various lengths

and shapes, commonly much shorter than

head width (3 or less) with third segment

usually longer than fourth segment, some-

times with long hairs, longer than width of

antenna, and sometimes with several unusu-

ally long stiff hairs on apical segment; basal

plates emarginated at center for more than

half their medial length and commonly to

base, leaving a large membranous area;

and the margin of the mesoscutellum with

an indistinct carina or short flange, but not

strongly produced.

The following key will separate the spe-

cies of Acordulecera treated here.

Even though coloration is used in the

key, genitalia should always be checked

and compared with the figures to avoid mis-

identification due to color variation not

currently known.

Legs all yellowish or yellow orange or only apices of tibiae and tarsi black ..... 6

2. Head black with a reddish-brown spot on each side of postocellar area; lancet (Fig. 14)

with large spurettes; sheath (Fig. 6) with short scopae, shorter than central portion

GiSheathi tale UnkKROWM) 1. cin d.ciestt a pm am seem tes eins ape Said schuhi, new species

Head mostly reddish, sometimes with small black areas around ocelli and on

or above clypeus; spurettes of lancet, if present, small and slender; sheath

VA TIOUS a5) shansie ei as om sce nha) eee ai, bie os ca cer allel ae ie in oll nis os a

3. Sheath without lateral scopae (Fig. 5); lancet (Fig. 16) with small, slender spurettes

(male pnkiownh) tek. = mi dees cows cc cee wok ew ermine ess = karpa, new species

Sheath -with-distinct, laterally projecting ScOpde ~ ea. ~~. +. oe woe km em eee -

4. Tibiae and tarsi whitish; genitalia as in Fig. 23, harpe broader than long; Colombia

(emalemnknewnlodarnx’ 3422 eres. . . Ha beta wee eres colombiana, new species

Tibiae and tarsi brownish to black; harpe of male genitalia at least as long as broad; |

Pen co nosimer Areemiina: 9) ig 5 38. <i je sat <n ols eae! segs =) Fane, Siege © eae eee 5)

5. Sheath (Fig. 7) with scopae slightly shorter than central portion; male genitalia as in

Fig. 22, with valve tapering to a narrowly rounded apex; lancet (Fig. 19) with- :

GUE SPINFCHES i) iva ee shes ae es RE SG... «Reais Pe. a ee Pyqua, new species

Sheath with scopae much longer than central portion (as in Fig. 9); male

genitalia as in Fig. 24, with apex of valve broad (female lancet not

SMAMAIME Gs ca irece s.6 ate wae COR ete che: «Cee eT eee aecaties ruficeps (Konow) (in part)

6. Sheath without scopae, uniformly thick and blunt at apex in dorsal view (Fig. 10); lan-

cet without spurettes (Fig. 21) (male unknown) ............ chilensis, new species :

Sheath with laterally projectinigScopae,. . . «4 26% sts o,- 9 as eyes. es oe yi |

7. Thorax mostly black, posterior margin of pronotum, tegula, areas on mesonotum,

and/or spot on mesepisternum may be whitish, yellowish, or orange......... 8

Thorax mostly yellowish to orange, mesosternum and lower portion of mesepister-

num usually pale, if blackish as insome vikrea, the pronotum and tegulae all yellow

ORNS. o.uargtes antes Big iol D... oortinek tet VR eee 12

8. Sheath with scopae longer than central portion (Fig. 9); apex of hindtibia and hind-

tarsus blackish in female; male with orange spot on mesepisternum; male genitalia

as nie. 25: lancet sinilanto Big26 2... os. ce eee aires schrottkyi (Konow)

Sheath with scopae slightly shorter than central portion; mesepisternum of male

black; Jessmsuallyvallipaie 0 ee)e es... 4 es = RE eres eee eee 9

90 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

9. Head mostly reddish; male genitalia as in Fig. 25 ........ ruficeps (Konow) (in part)

Head mostly black, usually a reddish-brown spot on each side of postocellar area

Sie oc eee Ae ann 0 APRS POS aaa Br Mae AEA ARENA Lee, St A Gee ER el EERE 10

10. Male genitalia as in Fig. 28, with harpe as long as broad and apex of valve broad and

without concave area (female unknown) (abdomen black with central portion of

basal 3 or 4 terga yellow orange; reddish-brown area on postocellar area extends to

a MAP ROL CA CHENG). Line. as taalclate aia otis shaves crx Si hiotlecd ane «lau af willei, new species

Male genitalia as in Figs. 27, 29 with harpe curved or longer than broad and apex of

Vac WithcOncave area OF HALlOWly: TOUNGEGs..... os... 0 ass oo 0 cS ETE ol wise 9) i 1]

11. Lancet (Fig. 12) with large, triangular spurettes; male genitalia (Fig. 29) with harpe

curved and valve narrowly rounded at apex ................ munroi, new species

Lancet (Fig. 15) with small, slender spurettes; male genitalia (Fig. 27) with harpe

longer than broad and valve with concave area at apex ....... porteri, new species

12. Lancet without spurettes (Fig. 20); male genitalia as in Fig. 26; head and commonly

entire body orange, sometimes mesonotum and/or mesopleuron and mesoster

eM OIACK ATCA s/. oe sO els cic s aces Dae ae eine oa Soe aa vikrea, new species

Lancet with spurettes; male genitalia as in Figs. 30, 31, valve with lobe on ventroapical

margin or with two long dorsal lobes; usually some black on head, and mesopleuron

commonly yellow orange with upper half or upper margin contrastingly

RSME Re cer ai. Aes wie Chel mum Cem a ae ene a tne mere mE OR Boe ee a 13

13. Lancet (Fig. 13) with large, triangular spurettes, sometimes directed upwards; valve

of male genitalia (Fig. 31) with ventroapical lobe............. cretoa, new species

Lancet with small, slender spurettes; valve of male genitalia with two long dorsal

PORES? neta eee 2 eo awe Moeials SOME aya a a ola ath y bso, eae eet alain 6 eee a2 14

14. Underthorax all yellow or with only upper margin black; head largely black; lancet

(Fig. 18) with short spurettes; male genitalia as in Fig. 30 ...... ducra, new species

Underthorax with upper third to half of mesopleuron black, lower portion orange

yellow to white; head largely orange with ocellar and clypeal areas variously black;

lancet (Fig. 17) with long spurettes (male unknown) ........... nexa, new species

Acronyms for museums are given in the

acknowledgments.

The species names willei, munroi, schuhi,

and porteri are based on the collector of the

types of those species; the names chilensis

and colombiana are based on the country in

which the type-locality is found; and the

names ducra, cretoa, nexa, vikrea, pyqua,

and karpa are arbitrary combinations of

letters and are to be treated as nouns.

Acordulecera chilensis Smith, new species

Figs: 10,21

Female.—Length, 3.5-4.0 mm. Antenna black to

brownish. Head black, sometimes with postocellar

area dark orange; clypeus, labrum, base of mandible,

and palpi white; apex of mandible reddish brown.

Thorax black with pronotum, tegula, mesoscutellum,

and metanotum yellow orange; mesosternum and

lower ; or less of mesépisternum reddish; mesonotum

with prescutum and lateral lobes black or dark orange

with center of each lobe black; anterior margin of mes-

oscutellum sometimes black. Abdominal terga black

with central areas yellow orange, thus appearing

black with longitudinal pale stripe; sterna and sheath

yellow orange. Legs yellow orange, tarsi little darker.

Wings hyaline, veins brown, costa and stigma yellow-

ish. Length of antenna about 2 head width; 3rd seg-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

ment subequal in length to 4th segment. Postocellar

area slightly broader than long. Hindbasitarsus sub-

equal in length to following tarsal segments com-

bined. Sheath (Fig. 10) truncate in lateral view, in dor-

sal view uniformly thick and blunt at apex, without

scopae. Lancet (Fig. 21) without spurettes; each ser-

rula with very fine subbasal teeth.

Male.—Unknown.

Holotype.—Female, “‘Chile: Prov. Ma-

gallanes, Rio Las Minas, 10, 15 Jan. 1966,

Flint and Cekalovic’? (USNM Type No.

76682).

Paratypes.—CHILE: Same data as for

holotype (19); Prov. Magallanes, Chor.

Las Piedras, 11 Jan. 1966, Flint and Ceka-

lovic (19); Mt. Fenton, Pta Arenas, 9 Jan.

1952 (19); Puerto Eden, Isla Wellington,

49°S, 3.XII.1958, G. Kuschel (19). AR-

GENTINA: Bariloche, Rio Negro, Nov.

1926, R. and E. Shannon (29); Correntosa,

Rio Negro, Nov. 1926, R. and E. Shannon

(19). (USNM, BM)

Remarks.—The simple sheath, lacking

scopae, and simple lancet, lacking spurettes,

distinguish chilensis. The amount of black

on the mesonotum varies, but the mesoscu-

(\ u)

SS hh

Aso

“yi, 0 »!

oN 14

Fig. 1, head, dorsal view of Acordulecera ducra. Fig. 2, head, front view of A. ducra. Fig. 3, profile of mesono-

tum, scutellum at left, of A. pyqua. Figs. 4-11, female sheaths, lateral viewat left, dorsal view at right: 4, A. ducra;

5, A. karpa; 6, A. schuhi; 7, A. pyqua; 8, A. porteri; 9, A. schrottkyi; 10, A. chilensis; 11, A. munroi. Figs. 12-14,

female lancets: 12, A. munroi; 13, A. cretoa; 14, A. schuhi.

92 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

os, een sy ote Dede Lug 15

(

Lee ah

Figs. 15-21, female lancets: 15, Acordulecera porteri; 16, A. karpa; 17, A. nexa; 18, A. ducra; 19, A. pyqua; 20, A.

vikrea; 21, A. chilensis.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980 93

= te ee ee ee ee 7 te ee

PERT ePR

Figs. 22-31, male genitalia, harpe and parapenis, ventral view at left; penis valve at right with ventral margin

at left: 22, Acordulecera pyqua; 23, A. colombiana; 24, A. ruficeps; 25, A. schrottk yi; 26, A. vikrea; 27, A. porteri;

28, A. willei; 29, A. munroi; 30, A. ducra; 31, A. cretoa.

94 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

tellum is mostly yellow orange in all speci-

mens examined. This is the southernmost

species of Acordulecera and is the only spe-

cies I have seen from southern Argentina

and southern Chile.

Acordulecera colombiana Smith, new species

Fig. 23

Female.—Unknown.

Male.—Length, 4.0 mm. Antenna reddish, seg-

ments | and 2 black. Head dark reddish, ocellar area,

clypeus, and labrum black; palpi and base of mandi-

ble brownish, apex of mandible dark red brown.

Thorax black with posterior edge of pronotum brown-

ish. Abdomen black, basal 2 or 3 sterna and terga 2

and 3 yellowish. Legs black with apices of femora and

tibiae and tarsi whitish. Wings hyaline, veins brown,

costa and stigma yellowish. Length of antenna about

of head width; 3rd segment slightly longer than 4th

segment. Postocellar area longer than broad. Hindba-

sitarsus subequal in length to remaining tarsal seg-

ments combined. Genitalia as in Fig. 23; harpe

broader than long; apex of valve tapering to rounded

apex at ventroapical corner.

Holotype.—Male, ‘“‘Colombia: 11 mi. N.

Popayana, Cauca, 1830 m, III-5-1955,”

“E. I. Schlinger and E. S. Ross, collectors”

(CAS).

Paratypes.—COLOMBIA: Same data as

for holotype (2) (CAS).

Remarks.—Due to the largely black color-

ation of the thorax, abdomen, and legs,

reddish head, and structure of the genitalia,

this species may be confused with ruficeps

and pyqua. In colombiana the tibiae and

tarsi are white, not brownish to black as in

those species, and the genitalia differ (com-

pare Figs. 22-24). In the genitalia of colom-

biana, the harpe is broader than long and

the shape of the valve is slightly different.

Acordulecera cretoa Smith, new species

Biss. 13,31

Female.—Length, 5.0-5.5 mm. Antenna brownish.

Head yellow orange, blackish between antennae and

on ocellar area; sometimes black extending laterally

to eyes and sometimes black mark behind each eye ex-

tending downward on occipital margin. Thorax yel-

low orange with upper 3 of mesopleuron, metapleuron,

and prescutum and lateral lobes of mesonotum black,

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

sometimes only black mark on lobes of mesonotum.

Abdomen yellow orange with terga black, usually

longitudinal pale mark medially on dorsum; apical 2

or 3 sterna with black spots; sheath yellow orange.

Legs yellow orange with apical 2 or 3 tarsal segments

blackish. Wings very lightly uniformly infuscated

black; veins dark brown, costa and stigma yellowish.

Length of antenna about 2 head width; 3rd segment

subequal in length to 4th segment. Postocellar area as

long as broad. Hindbasitarsus subequal in length to

remaining tarsal segments combined. Sheath (as in

Fig. 8) with laterally projecting scopae which are

slightly shorter than central portion of sheath. Lancet

(Fig. 13) with large, triangular spurettes above serru-

lae 4-11, sometimes directed slightly upward; serrulae

at center pointed at apices, each with an equal

number, 5-7, of anterior and posterior subbasal teeth,

serrulae at apex longer on posterior side than on ante-

rior side.

Male.—Length, 4.5-5.5 mm. Coloration similar to ,

that of female except head mainly yellow orange with

ocellar area and marks extending part way to anten-

nae black; usually less black on prescutum and lateral

lobes of mesonotum. Genitalia as in Fig. 31; valve

with short ventroapical lobe.

Holotype.—Female, “‘Horco Molle, Tuc.,

Arg., VII.10.31.66, L. Stange leg.” (TUC).

Paratypes. -ARGENTINA: Same data

as for holotype, VIII-1-20 (19, 14),

VIII.30.31.66 (39), Jan. 23-Feb. 4, 66,

C.C. Porter (19), [X-17-30-68, C. C. Porter

(19), Mar. 25-Apr. 30, 66, C. C. Porter

(14), 2-15 Nov. 1967, C. C. Porter (19),

9.14-V-1966, L. Stange(19), March 7-13, 1966,

L. A. Stange (29, 2¢), Apr. 3-10, 1966,

L. A. Stange (14); nr. Horco Molle, I-5-66,

H. and M. Townes (1@); Tucuman, Tafi-

Quebrada Cainza, 19-XII-1950, R. Golbach

(19); 10 mi. N. Trancas, Tucuman, II-13-51,

Ross and Michelbacher (1@); Salta, Rio

Pescado, V-10-69, C. C. Porter (19); Jujuy,

29 Feb. 1920, Cornell University Expedit.

(24); Jujuy, Posta Lozano, III-21-23-69,

C. C. Porter (1@), same, X-29-XI-4-68

(19), same, III-28-31-1968 (14), same

X-27-XI-2-68 (29). (TUC, USNM, CU,

MCZ, HKT)

Remarks.—The lancet of cretoa with the

large spurettes resembles those of munroi

and schuhi, but those species are mostly

black, at least the head and thorax. The

coloration of cretoa resembles nexa in that

the thorax is mostly yellow orange with the

upper half or so of the mesopleuron black,

but nexa has rather long, slender spurettes

on the lancet. The male is distinctive in that

the valve (Fig. 31) has a rather long ven-

troapical lobe, not known in other species

treated here.

The amount of black on the mesonotum

varies, and the spurettes of the lancet are

sometimes directed upward.

Acordulecera ducra Smith, new species

Figs. 1, 2, 4, 18, 30

Acordulecera sp.: Carrasco, 1967: 64-65, Figs. 2, 3;

? Aréstegui, 1976: 97.

Female.—Length, 5.0-5.5 mm. Antenna black, Ist

segment brownish. Head black with orange spot on

each side of postocellar area; clypeus, labrum, base of

mandible, and palpi white; apex of mandible reddish

brown. Thorax yellow with upper margins of meso-

and metapleurae narrowly and mesonotum except

scutellum black. Abdomen yellow orange, usually

with Ist and 2nd terga black and black marks laterally

on terga 3 to apex. Legs yellow orange, tarsi blackish.

Wings hyaline; veins dark brown; costa and stigma

yellowish. Length of antenna subequal to head width;

3rd segment slightly longer than 4th segment. Posto-

cellar area about as long as broad. Hindbasitarsus

slightly shorter than length of remaining tarsal seg-

ments combined. Sheath (Fig. 4) with lateral scopae

which are shorter than central portion of sheath.

Lancet (Fig. 18) with small spurettes above serrulae

2-12; each serrula with 4-5 anterior and 5-7 posterior

fine subbasal teeth.

Male.—Length, 4.5-5.3 mm. Coloration similar to

that of female except mesonotum sometimes black an-

teriorly; abdomen yellow orange with black laterally

only on terga 1-3; and meso- and metapleurae with

less black dorsally, sometimes black absent. Genitalia

as in Fig. 30; harpe bent inward; valve with two long

dorsal lobes.

Holotype:—Female, “‘Peru: Cusco, 1974,

on potato, M. Delgado”’ (USNM Type No.

76684).

Paratypes.—PERU: Same data as for

holotype (29; 14): Cuzeo, F. Carrasco-Z.

(19, 16); Pisac, Cuzco, II-3-1968, A. Garcia

and C. Porter (49); Urubamba, Cuzco, II-

7-9-1968, A. Garcia and C. Porter (59, 5);

Cuzco, I-31-1968, A. Garcia and C. Porter...

(19, 14); Ollantaitambo, Cuzco, Feb. 28,

1947, alt. 9200 ft., J. C. Pallister, coll.

Donor Frank Johnson (19). (USNM, MCZ,

AMNH)

Remarks.—The color of ducra is similar

to that of cretoa and nexa in that the under-

thorax is yellow orange with the upper por-

tion of the mesopleuron black, however the

mesopleuron 1s at least half black in those

two species and only the upper margin, at

most, is black in ducra. Also, the spurettes

of the lancet are smaller than those of cre-

toa. The lancet resembles those of nexa,

porteri, and karpa, but the spurettes are

longer in nexa and the mesopleuron is

mostly black, porteri has the thorax mostly

black, and karpa has a simple sheath, lack-

ing scopae. The two lobes of the valve of

the genitalia of the male are not found in

other species in the group of Acordulecera

treated here.

This is the species reported by Carrasco

(1967) damaging potato foliage in the De-

partment of Cuzco. He gave a short ac-

count of its biology and described the dam-

age; the cocoons are illustrated. I have no

specimens to verify the report by Aréstegui

(1976) who recorded Acordulecera sp. feed-

ing on potato foliage in the Department of

Apurimac. Apurimac is adjacent to Cuzco,

however, and Aréstegui’s species may be

ducra.

Acordulecera karpa Smith, new species

Figs. 5, 16

Female.—Length, 5.2 mm. Antenna dark red, seg-

ments | and 2 black. Head dark reddish; ocellar and

most of central postocellar area, supraclypeal area,

clypeus, and labrum black; palpi dark brown; mandi-

ble white at base, reddish brown at apex. Thorax

black. Abdomen black, 2nd tergum and narrow pos-

terior margins of terga 3-5 whitish. Legs black with

apices of femora and inner surfaces of tibiae and tarsi

pale brown. Wings hyaline; veins brown, costa and

stigma more yellowish. Length of antenna slightly less

than head width; 3rd segment slightly longer than 4th

segment. Postocellar area longer than broad. Hindba-

sitarsus subequal in length to remaining tarsal seg-

ments combined. Sheath (Fig. 5) simple, without sco-

pae; in lateral view rounded at apex; in dorsal view

uniformly thick. Lancet with small spurettes above

serrulae 3-16; central serrulae each with 3 or 4 ante-

rior and 3 or 4 posterior subbasal teeth; apical serrulae.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

longer on posterior margin than on anterior margin

(Fig. 16).

Male.—Unknown.

Holotype.—Female, “‘Peru: 30 mi. NE

Huanucho, 2500 m, [X-17-54, E. I. Schlinger

and E. S. Ross collectors’? (CAS).

Remarks.—The red head and black tho-

rax, abdomen, and legs combined with the

simple sheath separate karpa from other

Acordulecera. With the small spurettes on

the lancet, it resembles those of nexa, cre-

toa, and ducra. Those three species, how-

ever, have large scopae on the sheath and

have considerable orange yellow colora-

tion on the legs and body.

Acordulecera munroi Smith, new species

migssb1, 42.929

Acordulecera sp.: Munro, 1954: 187.

Female.—Length, 4.5 mm. Antenna black. Head

black with dark orange spot on each side of postocel-

lar area; clypeus, labrum, base of mandible, and palpi

white; apex of mandible reddish brown. Thorax

black; pronotum except for lower lateral angles, teg-

ula, inner margin of each lateral lobe of mesonotum

narrowly, and mesoscutellum yellow orange. Abdo-

men yellow orange; usually most of Ist and 2nd terga

black and lateral margin of 3rd tergum to apical ter-

gum black; sheath black. Legs yellow orange, tarsi a

little darker. Wings hyaline; veins, costa, and stigma

dark brown; ventral margin of stigma pale brown.

Length of antenna very slightly less than head width;

3rd segment slightly longer than 4th segment. Posto-

cellar area as long as broad. Hindbasitarsus equal to

length of remaining tarsal segments combined. Sheath

(Fig. 11) with lateral projecting scopae which are

slightly shorter than inner portion. Lancet (Fig. 12)

with large, triangular spurette above serrulae 3-10;

each serrula with 3 or 4 anterior and 6 to 8 posterior

fine subbasal teeth; spinelike setae on annuli and near

dorsal margin.

Male.—Length. 4.0 mm. Color similar to that of

female except abdomen which is yellow with lateral

areas of terga black, thusa broad longitudinal, medial

pale stripe evident on length of abdomen; mesoscutel-

lum with anterior f or more black; and costa, stigma,

and veins of wings amber. Genitalia as in Fig. 29;

harpe bent; valve narrowly rounded at apex.

Holotype.—Female, “‘Sucre, Boliv., Feb.

25, 1954, potato, Munro, Nava” (USNM

Type No. 76683).

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

Paratypes.—BOLIVIA: Same data as

for holotype (19, 24); highlands, reared

from potato, 1965, C. Montellano (49).

(USNM)

Remarks.—Acordulecera munroi is dis-

tinguished by its mostly black head and

thorax with the pronotum, tegula, and meso-

scutellum yellow orange, its mostly yellow

orange abdomen and legs, and by the pres-

ence of large, triangular spurettes on the

lancet. The lancet resembles those of cretoa

and schuhi, but schuhi has mostly black

legs, and cretoa has the mesosternum and

lower part of the mesopleurae orange yel-

low and has more extensive pale coloration

on the head rather than only a small dark

orange spot on each side of the postocellar

area as In munroi.

Munro (1954) first reported this species

from Bolivia as “‘Acordulecera sp.”’: “Adults

of greenish, hymenopterous larvae which

cause spectacular damage to potato foliage

in south central Bolivia were identified. . .

as Acordulecerasp.. . .In February, Isaw

potato plants in several fields badly defo-

liated by this pest. . .”’ He stated that, ac-

cording to the identifier, these were the

same as Wille’s material from Peru (Wille,

1943), but they are different. See the de-

scription of willei and compare the genita-

lia in Figs. 28 and 29. The female of willei is

not known, but the male genitalia are

clearly different.

Acordulecera nexa Smith, new species

Fig. 17

Female.—Length, 5.5-6.0 mm. Antenna black. Head

dark orange to reddish; clypeus, labrum, base of

mandible, and palpi whitish; apex of mandible red-

dish brown; sometimes black areas between or just

above antennae. Thorax orange on dorsum, some-

times anterior margin of mesoscutellum blackish; cer-

vical sclerites, upper ; of mesopleuron, metapleuron, and

lateral angles of pronotum black; whitish streak on

lower margin of mesepisternum between black and

yellow orange mesosternum. Abdomen black with

basal sterna and center of basal 5 terga orange yellow.

Legs whitish, extreme apex of hindtibia and tarsi dark

brown. Wings subhyaline, veins and stigma brown.

Length of antenna about of head width, 3rd segment

longer than 4th segment. Postocellar area as long as

broad. Hindbasitarsus equal to length of remaining

tarsal segments combined. Sheath (as in Fig. 8) with

lateral scopae which are slightly shorter than central

portion. Lancet (Fig. 17) with rather long slender

spurettes above serrulae 2-12; serrulae longer on pos-

terior margin than on anterior margin, with 3 or 4an-

terior and 5 or 6 posterior subbasal teeth.

Male.—Unknown.

Holotype.—Female, ‘““Horco Molle, Tucu-

man, Argent., Mar. 25-Apr. 30, ‘66, C. C.

Porter’ (MCZ):

Paratypes.—ARGENTINA: same data

as for holotype (19); Horco Molle, Tucu-

man, IV-24-V-9-68, C. C. Porter (19);

Salta, 24 km O. Aguas Blancas, Cpto. Ja-

kulica, 29-VI-1973, C. Porter and E. De-

marest (19); Jujuy, Posta Lozano, X-27-

XI-68, C. C. Porter (19). (MCZ, TUC)

Remarks:—The most distinctive feature

of this species is the rather long, slender

spurettes of the lancet, longer than those on

the lancets of the related species porteri,

ducra, and karpa. In karpa the female sheath

is simple and the thorax, abdomen, and

legs are mostly black; in ducra the thorax

and abdomen are mostly orange yellow

with the black on the thorax, if any, limited

to only the upper margin; and in porteri,

the thorax is mostly black underneath and

there are more extensive black areas on the

head. The coloration, especially the black

upper half or more of the mesopleuron

contrasting with the orange yellow colora-

tion below it, resembles cretoa, but cretoa

usually has more black on the head and has

large, triangular spurettes on the lancet.

Acordulecera porteri Smith, new species

Figs. 8, 15, 27

Female.—Length, 5.0-5.5 mm. Antenna black. Head

black with reddish brown U-shaped mark from poste-

rior margin of postocellar area extending anterolater-

ally to inner margin of each eye, sometimes narrow

line on inner margin of each eye, and stripe on gena

from near top margin of eye increasing in width to

malar area and touching eye only on lower outer mar-

gin; clypeus, labrum, base of mandible, and palpi

white; apex of mandible reddish brown. Thorax black

with posterior margin of pronotum, tegula, and pos-

terior margin to posterior 5 of mesoscutellum yellow

orange. Abdomen black, sometimes yellowish areas

at center of basal sterna and on anterior margin of

basal terga. Legs orange yellow, apical tarsal seg-

ments infuscated blackish. Wings very lightly, uni-

formly infuscated blackish; veins dark brown, costa

and stigma pale brown with apex of costa nearly whit-

ish. Length of antenna slightly less than head width;

3rd segment subequal in length to 4th segment. Posto-

cellar area about as long as broad. Hindbasitarsus

equal to length of remaining tarsal segments com-

bined. Sheath (Fig. 8) with scopae which are slightly

shorter than inner portion. Lancet with small spurettes

above serrulae 3-13; serrulae longer on posterior

margin than on anterior margin, narrowly flattened at

apices, and each with 3 or 4 anterior and 6 or 7 poste-

rior fine subbasal teeth (Fig. 15).

Male.—Length, 4.5-5.5 mm. Color similar to that

of female but generally paler, antenna usually reddish

brown, reddish-brown areas on head usually broader,

mesoscutellum and pronotum sometimes almost en-

tirely reddish brown; lateral deflexed portions of lat-

eral lobes of mesonotum reddish brown, and abdo-

men mostly yellowish to yellow orange with apical 3

or 4 terga and sometimes apical 2 or 3 sterna black.

Genitalia as in Fig. 27; harpe longer than broad; valve

with apical margin concave.

Holotype.—Female, “Jujuy, Posta Lo-

zano, Argent., X-27-XI-2-68, C. C. Porter”’

(MCZ).

Paratypes. -ARGENTINA: Same data as

for holotype (29, 104), same except X-29-

XI-4-68 (19, 24); same except 26.X.1969

(19); Jujuy, I-14-66, H. and M. Townes (14);

Tucuman, Tafi del Valle, 12-14 Nov. 1967,

C. Porter, A. Garcia (1@), same, March

3-12, 66, C. C. Porter (14), same, I-5-66,

H. and M. Townes (19, 1), same I-4-66,

H. and M. Townes (14); Villa Nogues,

XII-24-65, H. and M. Townes (4¢@), same,

XII-26-65 (24); Tucuman, km 40 rutaa Tafi

del Valle, 20-X-1971, C. Porter, L. Stange

(24); Salta, Toldos, 2400 m, 19.21.11.1960,

R. Golbach (1¢); Trancas, Tacanas, II-

1953, coll. J. M. Arnau (14). (TUC, MCZ,

HKT, USNM)

Remarks.—The small spurettes on the

lancet resemble those of karpa, nexa, and

ducra, but karpa has a simple sheath,

mostly black thorax, abdomen, and legs,

and a reddish head, and nexa and ducra

each have a mostly yellow orange under-

thorax except for the upper half or upper

margin of the mesopleuron. The valve of

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

the male genitalia is distinctive in having

the apical margin concave and lacking a

rather long ventroapical lobe as is found in

ducra. The coloration of porteri, especially

the mostly black head and thorax, resem-

bles that of munroi, but munroi has large,

triangular spurettes on the lancet.

Acordulecera pyqua Smith, new species

Figs. 3, 7, 19, 22

Female.—Length, 5.5-6.0 mm. Antenna dark red-

dish, Ist and 2nd segments black. Head dark reddish,

sometimes posterior margin of clypeus, labrum, and

palpi black; mandible pale orange at base, reddish

brown at apex. Thorax black; posterior margin of

pronotum and tegula yellow orange. Abdomen black,

Ist and usually part of 2nd terga and 2-3 basal sterna

whitish to yellow orange. Legs black with tibiae and

tarsi, especially those of forelegs, paler brownish.

Wings subhyaline; veins dark brown, costa and

stigma pale brown. Length of antenna about $ of head

width; 3rd segment slightly longer than 4th segment.

Postocellar area longer than broad. Hindbasitarsus

equal to length of remaining tarsal segments com-

bined. Sheath (Fig. 7) with scopae which are shorter

than length of central portion. Lancet (Fig. 19) with-

out spurettes; serrulae shallow, pointed at apices, each

with about 5-6 anterior and 5-6 posterior fine sub-

basal teeth.

Male.—Length, 4.5-5.0 mm. Color similar to that

of female except foretibia and foretarsus more whitish

as are sometimes tibiae and tarsi of other legs; and

basal 1-4 segments of abdomen mostly whitish to yel-

low. Genitalia as in Fig. 22; harpe slightly longer than

broad; apex of valve narrowly rounded at apex.

Holotype.—Female, ““R. A. Tucuman,

Tafi-Lacavera, 28.XI.1951, coll. R. Gol-

bach” (TUC),.

Paratypes. -ARGENTINA: Same data as

for holotype (34); Tucuman, Dpto: Burru-

yaul, Rio Calera, 26-X-1971, col: Porter,

Fidalao (15¢); Tucuman, San Javier,

10.XII.1950, coll. R. Golbach (14); Horco

Molle, Tucuman, Mar. 25-Apr. 30, 1966,

C.C. Porter (2¢, 19); Tucuman, Tafi-Lac-

avera, 16-31 Oct. 1967, C. C. Porter (19);

Tucuman, X-19-72, G. E. Bohart (14); Ju-

juy, Alto La Vina, Mar. 13-20, 1966, C. C.

Porter (14); Jujuy, Posta Lozano, X-29-

XI-4-68, C. C. Porter (14); Jujuy, I-4-66,

H. and M. Townes (14); Salta, Rio Pes-

cado, ca. Oran, 22°53’S-64°27'0., 26-V-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

1970, col. C. Porter (19, 34), same, 27-V-

1970 (19); Villa Nogués, XII-23-65, H. and

M. Townes (14). BOLIVIA: Yungas (14).

(EUCGsUSNM, MCZ; USU,; HKT, LED)

Remarks.—This is a mostly black species

with a reddish head and is closest to rufi-

ceps, karpa, and colombiana. From both

karpa and ruficeps, pyqua can be separated

by the female lancet and sheath. In karpa,

the sheath is simple and the lancet has

spurettes above the serrulae; in ruficeps, the

scopae of the sheath are much longer than

the central portion of the sheath. The male

genitalia of colombiana, ruficeps, and pyqua

are very similar, but colombiana has the

harpe broader than long, and the shape of

the valve differs between pyqua and rufi-

ceps as shown in Figs. 22, 24.

Acordulecera ruficeps (Konow)

Fig. 24

Acorduleceros ruficeps Konow, 1899: 308 (Q, 3);

Konow, 1905: 32.

Acordulecera ruficeps: Smith, 1978: 179.

Female.—Length, 5.0 mm. Antenna yellow orange,

segments | and 2 black. Head dark reddish, area

around and below antennae more yellow orange as

are bases of mandible and palpi; apex of mandible

reddish brown. Thorax black, narrow posterior mar-

gin of pronotum brownish. Abdomen black; apical 2

or 3 segments more brownish. Legs with coxae black,

apices of coxae and trochanters whitish, remaining

parts of legs mostly dark brown on outer surfaces,

whitish on inner surfaces. Wings with yellowish tinge

to subhyaline; veinsand stigma yellow orange. Length

of antenna about? of head width; 3rd segment slightly

longer than 4th segment. Postocellar area longer than

broad. Hindbasitarsis subequal in length to remaining

tarsal segments combined. Sheath with posteriorly

projecting scopae, rounded in lateral view, and much

longer than central portion of sheath (as in Fig. 9).

Male.—Length, 4.5-5.0 mm. Similar in color to fe-

male but in general paler with posterior margin of

pronotum and tegula brownish, abdomen with basal

3-4 segments whitish and apical segments black, and

legs yellow orange with coxae except extreme apices,

sometimes part of femora, and apical tarsal segments

black. Genitalia as in Fig. 24; harpe round; apex of

valve rather blunt.

Types.—The type-series of ruficeps is at

Eberswalde; 34 and 19 labeled types were

sent to me; all are labeled ‘‘Callanga,

Cuczo, Peru,”’ the locality as stated by

Konow (1899). The female is hereby desig-

nated lectotype; the 3 males, paralecto-

types. The specimens have been labeled as

such.

Records.—PERU: Callanga, Cuczo (lec-

totype and paralectotypes); 50 mi. S. Tingo

Maria, Carpish Creek, XIJ-28-1954; E. side

Carpish Mts., 2800 m, 40 mi. SW Tingo

Maria, X-17-1954; Machu Picchu, XII-1-

65, XI-27-65.

Remarks.—The red head and mostly

black coloration of ruficeps resemble that

of pyqua, colombiana, and karpa. The fe-

male is separated from those of pyqua and

karpa by the sheath, which has the central

portion much shorter than the scopae and

not visible in lateral view; in karpa the

sheath is simple, and in pyqua the sheath

has the scopae shorter than the inner por-

tion and consequently the inner portion 1s

visible in lateral view. The male is sepa-

rated from those of pyqua and colombiana

by having paler legs (in some specimens the

legs are mostly entirely yellow orange) and

by the genitalia as compared in Figs. 22-24.

The harpe of the genitalia of ruficeps is as

long as broad and the apex of the valve is

not as narrow as in pyqua and colombiana.

The female lectotype is the only female I

have seen, and I did not examine the lancet

before returning it.

Acordulecera schuhi, Smith, new species

Figs. 6, 14

Female.—Length, 5.0 mm. Antenna dark brown.

Head black with a reddish brown spot on each side of

postocellar area; apical margin of clypeus, labrum,

base of mandible, and palpi white; apex of mandible

reddish brown. Thorax black, narrow posterior mar-

gin of pronotum whitish. Abdomen black, very nar-

row margin of each segment whitish. Legs mostly

black to dark brown with extreme apices of coxae,

trochanters, apical ; and inner surface of forefemur,

apical : of mid- and hindfemora, and most of inner

surfaces of tibiae and tarsi pale brown to whitish.

Wings hyaline, veins and stigma dark brown, costa

paler brown. Length of antennae slightly greater than

100

head width; 3rd segment subequal in length to 4th

segment. Postocellar area slightly longer than broad.

Hindbasitarsus subequal in length to remaining tarsal

segments combined. Sheath (Fig. 6) with scopae

which are shorter than inner portion. Lancet (Fig. 14)

short, with large triangular spurettes above serrulae

3-10; serrulae slightly flattened at apices, each with

about 7 or 8 anterior and posterior subbasal teeth ex-

cept apical serrulae, which are longer on posterior

margin than on anterior margin.

Male.—Unknown.

Holotype.—Female, ‘“‘Peru: Amazonas:

Molinopampa, 43 km E. Chachapoyas,

2300 m, July, 11): 1972, R. Te andi

Schuh” (AMNH).

Remarks. —The coloration, especially the

mostly black thorax, abdomen, and legs,

are similar to ruficeps, colombiana, pyqua,

and karpa; however, schuhi has a mostly

black head, not red as in these other spe-

cies. Also the lancet of schuhi has large tri-

angular spurettes which are either absent.

or small in the other species of which the

female is known. The scopae of the sheath

separate schuhi from ruficeps and karpa; in

ruficeps the central portion is shorter than

the scopae and in karpa the sheath is

simple.

The large spurettes of the lancet resem-

ble those of munroi and cretoa, but those

species have yellow-orange legs and usually

much more extensive yellow-orange color-

ation on the thorax and/or abdomen.

Acordulecera schrottkyi (Konow)

Figs, 9525

Acorduleceros schrottkyi Konow, 1906: 345-346 (Q).

Acordulecera schrottkyi: Smith, 1978: 179.

Female.—Length, 4.3 mm. Antenna black. Head

black with reddish brown spot on each side of posto-

cellar area; apical margin of clypeus, labrum, palpi,

and base of mandible white; apex of mandible reddish

brown. Thorax black with pronotum except for lower

lateral angles, tegula, and apical margin of mesoscu-

tellum yellow orange. Abdomen black with apical 3 of

2nd tergum and terga 3and 4 yellow orange. Legs with

coxae black, whitish at extreme apices, femora mostly

yellow orange with black mark at bases on inner sur-

faces, tibiae whitish on basal }, blackish on apical i,

and tarsi dark brown. Wings very lightly, uniformly

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

infuscated blackish to hyaline; veins and stigma dark

brown, posterior margin of stigma paler brown.

Length of antenna about 3 of head width; 3rd segment

longer than 4th segment. Postocellar area as long as

broad. Hindbasitarsus slightly shorter than length of

remaining tarsal segments combined. Sheath (Fig. 9)

with scopae longer than inner portion; rounded in lat-

eral view. Lancet (similar to Fig. 20) lacking spurettes;

annuli nearly straight and perpendicular to ventral

margin; annular hairs nearly as long as width of

segments.

Male.—Length, 3.5 mm. Antenna brownish. Head

coloras for female but clypeusall white. Thorax black

with pronotum, tegula, inner margins of mesoprescu-

tum, all mesoscutellum, and a large central area on

mesepisternum orange. Abdomen black with yellow

orange laterally. Legs yellow orange with black spot

at base of each coxa and extreme apices of tibiae and

apical | or 2 tarsal segments black. Wings with slight

yellow tinge, veins brown, costa and stigma yellowish.

Genitalia as in Fig. 25; harpe broader than long; valve

rounded at apex, with short spine on dorsal margin.

Type.—Konow (1906) described the fe-

male; after the description he described a

male from the same locality that he thought

might be the male of schrottkyi, but he was

- not certain. A male and female were sent to

me from Eberswalde; both are labeled

types and both are labeled ‘“‘Villa Encarnac.,

Paraguay.’ Konowstated “‘Paraguay (Villa

Encarnacion)” in the original description.

The female must be the holotype of schrott-

kyi; the male agrees with the description of

the male by Konow, and I treat it as the

male above, but I do not regard it as part of

the type-series.

Records.—PARAGUAY: Villa Encarna-

cion (type and male described above).

-Remarks.—The black head, underthorax,

and abdomen resemble the color of munroi,

willei, and porteri, but the females of mun-

roi and porteri have small or large spurettes

on the lancet and each has the inner portion

of the sheath slightly longer than the sco-

pae. The male genitalia also differ as shown

in the illustrations. Although the lancet of

schrottkyi lacks spurettes as in pyqua and

vikrea, the heads of those species are red-

dish to orange, and the sheaths of those

species have the scopae shorter than the

central portion.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

Acordulecera vikrea Smith, new species

Figs. 20, 26

Female.—Length, 4.5-5.5 mm. Entirely yellow or-

ange or with some or all of following brownish to

black: postocellar area, anterior margin of pronotum,

all or part of mesonotum, underthorax, apical 2 or 3

terga, outer surface of hindtibia, and tarsi; interme-

diate colorations and variations of these extremes ex-

ist. Clypeus, labrum, base of mandible, and palpi

whitish; apex of mandible reddish brown. Wings with

yellowish tinge to subhyaline; veins brown, costa and

stigma yellowish. Length of antenna about ? of head

width; 3rd segment slightly longer than 4th segment.

Postocellar area slightly longer than broad. Hindbasi-

tarsus subequal in length to remaining tarsal segments

combined. Sheath (as in Fig. 8) with scopae slightly

shorter than inner portion. Lancet (Fig. 20) without

spurettes; serrulae pointed at apices, each with about

5-7 anterior and posterior fine subbasal teeth except

those at apex, which are longer on posterior margin

than on anterior margin.

Male.—Length, 4.5-5.0 mm. Coloration similar to

and as variable as that for female. Genitalia as in Fig.

26; harpe broader than long; valve broad at apex.

Holotype.—Female, “‘Argentina, Tucu-

man, Depto. Tafi, Quebrado Cainzo, 19-

XII-1950, R. Golbach” (TUC).

Paratypes.—ARGENTINA: Same data

as for holotype (149, 64); Tucuman, Parque

Aconquija, 22-1-1971 (14); Tucuman, Tafi

Lacavera, 28.XI.1951, R. Golbach (19,

14); Tucuman, Alrededores Ciudad, I.1956.,

col. R. Golbach (14); Tucuman, S. M. de

Tucuman, Mayo 1977, Trampa Moericke,

col. P. Fidalgo (19); Tucuman, Dpto Bur-

rayacu, Rio Calaza, 26-X-1971, Porter-

Fidalgo (1¢); Tucuman, Horco Molle, IV-

9-30-1968, C. C. Porter (19); same, Jan.

23-Feb. 4, 66 (49, 54), same 16-31 Oct.

1967 (24), same, Mar. 25-Apr. 30, 66 (49,

104), same, Jan. 15-19, 1966, L. A. Stange

(14), same, Mar. 7-13, 1966, L. A. Stange

(19); Horco Molle, nr. Tucuman, I-18-66,

H. and M. Townes (19); Salta, 24 km O.

Aguas Blancas, Cpto. Jakulica, 29-VI-1973,

C. Porter and E. Demarest (19, 14); Salta,

Oran, Abra Grande, I V-18-V-5-69, C. Por-

ter (19); Jujuy, Posta Lozano, X-27-XI-2-

68, C. C. Porter (1¢); Jujuy, 1-14-66, H.

and M. Townes (1@), same, I-15-66 (2@),

same, I-8-66(24), same I-13-66(19). (TUC,

USNM, HKT, MCZ)

101

Remarks.—Most specimens are entirely

yellow orange, but some in the same series

have the underthorax brownish to black

and have other blackish markings in var-

ious combinations as given in the descrip-

tion. The head is always yellow orange to

Orange with at most the postocellar area

blackish. This species is distinguished by

this coloration, by the lack of spurettes on

the lancet, by the sheath which has the sco-

pae slightly shorter than the inner portion,

and by the male genitalia. Both schrottkyi

and pyqua have no spurettes on the lancet,

but those species are mostly black except

for the reddish head in pyqua, and schrott-

kyi has the scopae of the sheath much

longer than the central portion.

Acordulecera willei Smith, new species

Fig. 28

Acordulecera sp.: Wille, 1943: 325.

Female.—Unknown.

Male.—Length, 4.0-4.5 mm. Antennal segments |

and 2 reddish brown (flagellum in all specimens miss-

ing). Head black with broad stripe on posterior margin

of postocellar area extending on each side anterolat-

erally to each eye, clypeus, labrum, base of mandible,

and palpi reddish brown; apex of mandible dark red

brown. Thorax black with pronotum except laterally,

tegula, spot on each anterolateral corner of mesopre-

scutum, spot on posterolaterial corner of each lateral

lobe of mesonotum, broad posterior margin of meso-

scutellum, and metanotum yellow orange. Abdomen

black with terga 1-3 and part of 4 dorsally yellow

orange. Legs yellow orange with apical tarsal seg-

ments darker. Wings subhyaline, veins and stigma

yellow orange. Postocellar area slightly broader than

long. Apical hindtarsal segments missing in all speci-

mens. Genitalia as in Fig. 28; harpe as long as broad;

valve with apex rounded and with lobe on dorsal

margin.

Holotype.—Male, “‘No. 19-38, Huaras

[Department of Ancash, Peru], 3.II.1938,”’

“S. P. Vallejos and J. E. Wille coll’ (USNM

Type No. 76685).

Paratypes.—PERU: each labeled “‘No.

19-38,” though locality data probably same

as holotype (34). One paratype with whit-

ish, papery cocoon attached to portion of a

leaf. (USNM)

102

Remarks.—Though only the male is

known, this species is separated by the

mostly black coloration of the head, thorax,

and abdomen, and by the genitalia. The

coloration is similar to that of males of por-

teri and munroi, but porteri has the abdo-

men mostly orange with only the apical

terga blackish and the valve of the genitalia

is concave at its apex and lacks a dorsal

lobe, and munroi has most of the sterna of

the abdomen yellow orange and the harpe

of the genitalia is strongly bent.

This is the species reported by Wille

(1943) as defoliating potato in the Depart-

ment of Ancash. He gave a very brief de-

scription of the larva and described its

damage.

Acknowledgment

I thank the following for allowing my

study of specimens and type-material from

their respective institutions: Paul H. Arnaud,

Jr., California Academy of Sciences, San

Francisco (CAS); M. Favreau, American

Museum of Natural History, New York,

New York (AMNH); W. J. Hanson, Utah

State University, Logan (USU); R. de Jong,

Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire, Lei-

den, Netherlands (LEI); G. Morge, Institut

fur Pflanzenschutzforschung der Akade-

mie der Landwirtschaftswissenschaften der

D.D.R., Eberswalde, East Germany (EBER);

L. L. Pechuman, Cornell University, Ithaca,

New York (CU); John Quinlan, British

Museum (Natural History), London (BM);

M. K. Thayer, Museum of Comparative

Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge,

Massachusetts (MCZ); H. K. Townes, Amer-

ican Entomological Institute, Ann Arbor,

Michigan (HKT); and A. Willink, Instituto

Miguel Lillo, Universidad Nacional de Tucu-

man, Tucuman, Argentina (TUC). Other

material is in the U.S. National Museum of

Natural History, Washington, D.C. (USMN).

References Cited

Aréstegui, P. A. 1976. Plagas de la papa en Andahuaylas-

Apurimac. Rev. Peru. Entomol. 19: 97-98.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

Carrasco Z., F. 1967. Algunas plagas registradas en Munro, J. A. 1954. Outbreaks and new records, Bo-

Cusco. Rev. Peru. Entomol. 10: 62-66. livia. FAO Plant Prot. Bull. 2(12): 187.

Smith, D. R. 1978. Suborder Symphyta (Xyelidae, Pa-

Konow, F. W. 1899. Neue Tenthredinidae aus Suda- rarchexyelidae, Parapamphiliidae, Xyelydidae, Kara-

merika. Entomol. Nachr. 25: 307-316. tavitidae, Gigasiricidae, Sepulcidae, Pseudosirici-

dae, Anaxyelidae, Siricidae, Xiphydriidae, Parorys-

sidae, Xyelotomidae, Blasticotomidae, Pergidae).

In van der Vecht, J., and R. D. Shenefelt, eds., Hy-

menopterorum Catalogus, pars 14, 193 pp. Dr. W.

Junk B. V., The Hague, The Netherlands.

. 1905. Hymenoptera, Fam. Tenthredinidae.

In Wytsman, P., ed., Genera Insectorum, fasc. 29,

176 pp., Bruxelles.

1906. Neue stidamerikanische Lophyrini Wille T., J. E. 1943. Entomologia Agricola del Peru.

(Hym.). Z. system. Hym. Dipt. 6: 337-347. Ministério de Agricultura, Lima, Peru. 468 pp.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980 103

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Dr. Thomas B. Malone

Essex Corporation

333°N; Pairtax St

Alexandria, VA 22314

In recognition of his contributions to the

field of experimental psychology and in

particular his efforts in human factors

engineering.

Sponsor: John O’Hare. Endorser: H. Mcll-

_ vaine Parsons.

Dr. Robert William Swezey

Science Applications, Inc.

8400 Westpart Drive

McLean, VA 22102

In recognition of his contributions to ap-

plied psychology, particularly in the area of

evaluation research methodology, criterion-

referenced measurement, and human fac-

tors applications.

Sponsor: John O’ Hare. Endorser: H. Mcll-

vaine Parsons.

Science Education

Dr. Charles E. Townsend

4740 Bradley Blvd.

Chevy Chase, MD 20015

In recognition of his continuing contribu-

tions to medical education through the res-

idency training program at Columbia Hos-

pital for Women and, especially, for his

organization and continuing direction of

the Family Planning Clinic at the Colum-

bia Hospital for Women.

Sponsor: Marjorie Townsend. Endorsers:

Jean Boek, Grover Sherlin.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

Dr. Robert Flanders Clarke

Mental Health Study Center

2340 University Boulevard East

Adelphi, MD 20783

In recognition of his pioneering work in the

administration of scientific information. In

establishing the science information center

of the National Clearinghouse for Smoking

and Health, bringing real time significance

to the national knowledge of smoking and

its impact on health; and for bringing scien-

tific information studies to drug informa-

tion application in the Food and Drug

Administration, as well as helping federal

health scientists and researchers with their

information needs over 17 years.

Sponsor: Ronald W. Manderscheid.

Dr. Jo-Anne Alice Jackson

National Bureau of Standards Bldg. 223

Room A329

Washington, D.C. 20234

In recognition of creative instrumental ad-

vance significant to speciation of trace or-

ganometals diagnostic of materials biodegra-

dation.

Sponsor: Marjorie Townsend. Endorsers:

Mary H. Aldridge, Edmund M. Buras, Jr.

Mrs. Betty Jane Long

Lord Baltimore Jr. High

8700 Allentown Road

Oxon Hill, MD 20022

In recognition of her contributions to science

and math education at the secondary school

level by participating and by providing

leadership (25yr) in programs sponsored

by the Joint Board on Science and Engi-

neering Education.

Sponsor: Grover C. Sherlin. Endorsers:

Ralph I. Cole, Guy Hammer II.

The date of publication of Vol. 70, No. 2 is April 27, 1981.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 2, 1980

109

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W317 VOLUME 70

N Number 3

irnal of the September, 1980

~ WASHINGTON

ACADEMY .. SCIENCES

ISSN 0043-0439

Issued Quarterly

at Arlington, Va.

CONTENTS

Directory Issue, 1980

muildated Societies and Society Officers . 2...) .. 52s cede es oes

ewiplabetical List of Members: 2022.42 <2 cp mace ae eee eee oes

Washington Academy of Sciences

Founded in 1898

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE The Journal

President

Marjorie R. Townsend

President-Elect

John G. Honig

Secretary

Jean K. Boek

Treasurer

Lavern S. Birks

Members at Large

Conrad B. Link

Elaine Shafrin

John J. O’Hare

Michael J. Pelezar, Jr.

Jo-Anne Jackson

Grover C. Sherlin

BOARD OF MANAGERS

All delegates of affiliated

Societies (see facing page)

EDITOR

Richard H. Foote, pro tem

ACADEMY OFFICE

1101 N. Highland St.

Arlington, Va. 22201

Telephone: (703) 527-4802

This journal, the official organ of the Washington

Academy of Sciences, publishes historical articles,

critical reviews, and scholarly scientific articles;

proceedings of meetings of the Academy and its

Board of Managers; and other items of interest to

Academy members. The Journal appears four times

a year (March, June, September, and December)—

the September issue contains a directory of the

Academy membership.

Subscription Rates

Members, fellows, and patrons in good standing

receive the Journal without charge. Subscriptions

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Single Copy Price... 7.50

Single-copy price for Vol. 66, No. 1 (March, 1976)

is $7.50.

Back Issues

Obtainable from the Academy office (address at

bottom of opposite column): Proceedings: Vols.

1-13 (1898-1910) Index: To Vols. 1-13 of the Pro-

ceedings and Vols. 1-40 of the Journal Journal:

Back issues, volumes, and sets (Vols. 1-62, 1911-

1972) and all current issues.

Claims for Missing Numbers

Claims will not be allowed if received more than 60

days after date of mailing plus time normally re-

quired for postal delivery and claim. No claims will

be allowed because of failure to notify the Academy

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Change of Address

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Academy office. Such notification should show :

both old and new addresses and zip number.

Published quarterly in March, June, September, and December of each year by the

Washington Academy of Sciences, 1101 N. Highland St., Arlington, Va. 22201. Sec- —

ond class postage paid at Arlington, Va. and additional mailing offices.

DELEGATES TO THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,

REPRESENTING THE LOCAL AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

DEEMiCcal Society Of Washington's 3. ch {teres oo til Pan ee « Delete erie bs alte dp.siene James F. Schooley

Peeetorica) Society Of Washington 2)... 5.2. 6...\e sis ck acs sete ee ce ve seni aivlacie melee ena Ruth H. Landman

PERE SORICE NON WASHINGTON 5) 74). 0 seals aha 2 Se Jal SUBIR UIS 4 ru owl oo je, aerdy ale'a es setae clas William R. Heyer

Chemical Society of Nplashiieen yee Oo) hE re oie os Sateen Sea ye cml ate ete dal te hie ds: « Barbara Howell

PME ePicde SOGICLy Of Washington .. 5.0... ORNS Wales bc ceseinieuh soni o wes aie aie oe evew is Donald R. Davis

SPREE OUT AP MICA SOCIELY. | 5) « 4 as, 3s sh ofShQalecn ai 0:5 daw 'olyerre elapse ails dyslievepalbes me =< i's, > ik: syahe T. Dale Stewart

emaMEENE LE SOCICEN OL WVASHIMICEON, «4:5: fyro/ar's: fay /Liaynpa lo 0 « ailarm prin ay b/d iid & elaye Piafel's <pile d)elasalian pc William C. Prinz

Rieteseciety of, the, istrictiof Columbia./¢,.)) 6... So ee Pee eV, ee Os James E. Boland

DERM AM EP IS(GOTICAl SOGIELY, (055 c,2 ea. sitvereo 7616 m4 og Wie lale obese ea volesafelel eng lala) a elope whe yak elabe .eelaiteiial als Paul H. Oehser

Penameal society Of Washington ....00 000i ese eee ceee ene we eee HO SUNS ta ALOR BO Oi Conrad B. Link

eI IME RICA OTESUCTS o.oo. 10 5iinj cits, #0, Ge, « «ie o> opel eyayed eee elala odie ae aha eo a.ewun oe oe 8 Boyd W. Post

er MEN OCICUN OL) ETIOIMECELSY fs steven ’s wali Ais >, sles edn Sk. docm ela teAe ibel MG Slain alae suet George Abraham

Piemeeeron ie icctmedl and Electronics Engineers 0.5.06 cee ea ce ee ee tee ene elses George Abraham

Pmanearmocicty Of Mechanical, ENGINEELS .,. : . << + «so se + «phe act /a.cejguuepe ye + 8 sjayt je a ote ss ot ale es Michael Chi

PauuMnEaolopical SOcicty Of WaShiMgStON ..........00cccce sceneries asececcasecscces Robert S. Isenstein

MES GCICY TON MICTODIOIOBY, os). ss «, «sis» = a0:5 #00 apes S auecbarnsyulelile Siaiand) aircnph® eyey Frank M. Hetrick

Peciem Ou menicany Military EMPINEers y 5 ci! 2. SEE) BA oO Delain ic a eine o AN H. P. Demuth

PCO MCICVIOI Civil ENPIMEETS: ... . 3). > +s <a als sjeke «% ae Qelesye bee me we eee ones ahaa Algis A. Lukas

NOciceiy tor Experimental Biology and Medicine -...... 2.0.00. csc nn ese ecncewensasic Cyrus R. Creveling

EMR SOCICLY MON, MICHAIS Tita it es cd SR. Ao alee oe iele ORM Cbs che eee Charles G. Interrante

PeMioucanMASsOcIAion Of Mental RESEarch . . ..s.. 00.0.6 0/5, 6.5 «4s eee due ea lsle o auale nie sles ea es W. V. Loebenstein

Pincwicaniiastitute of Aeronautics and Astronautics .....).. .c¢esdideded sos ole ns ceeue ss Richard P. Hallion

American MAeteOrOracIeAlnS Oley: vee SS s Pee OR ese SRR A. James Wagner

Pa MICRSOGIELY Ol WiaASMINPLOM ..2 5 wie coc. ye.c nw tine oye ia oye aioe mie ino cain aap aes oe mpsleerdis Jack R. Plimmer

ALP TEL Mil SOC CIRO ANG SCE IE i etn ne TY 0 UPR oer a oa Richard K. Cook

ies MMM OC HCAS OCICL YN Vora ek Sais bie ls(e nck apace doc sa enrol gelelelelae la sje ielave me ew eke C. Bornscheuer

PoE ien CHO OC MCCHMOLOSISES).. .. «|. 2 ois eis sc sie sb aed aie Siwie's oho. S e eyalbeldi ns) eid le c.elalev aye gaa A. D. Berneking

Pee AL ATC SOCICUY®. Hes rs Oe faces PELE. aac paca in dbl wee ce bne ee we Edwin R. Fuller, Jr.

Eee METBIC AIP SOCIOL 05 5 5508 ic. a: de + mss 00,0 apeid wo deel clave SE oR RR te a Lael eee a, ee David R. Flinn

Pe ene COTLMIStOnY Ol SCIENCe COMUD ol. o/s le anapnrerela sienals oie 4 16,0 alg aicrs 6» eovelb.de wjaleg Deborah J. Warner

Percent ASsSMeiation Of Physics Teachers .. 0.03 died & caine SO iemerde eG see cuales es Peggy A. Dixon

Brineamnoctery Of AimeniGds fois o ete. Secs det GPRS hl i coins Gorges. Simonis

PaiemeaneOcicry OL Plant PMYSIOIOGISES .\... . seas scwis pone cece teases sweet veeee ces Walter Shropshire

Ps mMetanwoperations: Research, COUNCHI j. 2.44 \0 add ss ssid me ea a8 ole We suey cae oe 2c es oe Jay Mandelbaum

Per ES OCIELY Ol “AINETIGA 2). 3/052 1. Male oR Satelatneience Mad JEG ed Meta lclncoleialeis Sabib'd \wihl'ahs Jewel B. Barlow

American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical

PUM UuCHLe IIaIES AAO TTCONS Ye ac5 615-5 5, dae sue wk Siar seaeess se iste en oo kyaieia thal haa eas Garrett R. Hyde

aie NRO A MICO) VAStEONOIMETS . 46 5/5. sis)'s dvs. 4 is ales’ slnnaia ea oie eialmnnuls deg kia auclagiaten visas Benson J. Simon

Pa C TNA ICAlASSOCHALI ON Ol “ATICTICA 50-3! aie ece ope celle Sha: aheabeehe « wigeleyoliatewcouereieh aes cia\e oo a aismaceee Howard Penn

D.C. Institute of Chemists PUSRE ALIEN. c ES CIURERTER ONS RES rae tres ERR Bs Utrecht aS drwieye due voile’ Fred Ordway

Pee ESE OPICANCNSSOCIANON S. cae cule cee eee tts ok eke dae e cee bs suhaeeceweasans John O’Hare

Mae oWasmingron haint Lechmical Group, . sj. ols kecbeie-s a/axarerank ie mle Mies) oce.t 08 «6 es spark wae Paul G. Campbell

Pee aa Ey COnAtMOLozical SOIety iris). Marsan . 3nd oe AER AOUR a ke eae ee Howard E. Waterworth

BMEIcEN TO Crenerdi ystems RESCATEN s,s Via de ek care ee cc bee k ccke las ceca se Ronald W. Manderscheid

MeMIMeRI PIAL ACECMIN SO GION 2/30 5265 0-80, as cra che ie lalh Adee’ «egal aS < mis wn spbl ate lidmye Rte wale so Feels H. Mcllvaine Parsons

Petia BEI SIETICS YSGRICLY, 2:0) \che oie MR aT as tne lee Ris ALSTOM ac Ls cee vole Cade Irwin M. Alperin

Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the representative societies.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 3, 1980 111

THE DIRECTORY OF THE ACADEMY FOR 1980

Foreword

The present, 55th issue of the Academy’s directory asked to update the data concerning address. In cases

is again this year issued as part of the September in which cards were not received, the address appears

number of the Journal. As in previous years, the al- _—_as it was used during 1980, and the remaining data

phabetical listing is based ona postcard questionnaire | were taken from the directory for 1979. Corrections

sent to the Academy membership. Members were _ should becalled to the attention of the Academy office.

Code for Affiliated Societies, and Society Officers

1 The Philosophical Society of Washington (1898)

President:

Ist Vice-President:

2nd Vice President:

Recording

Secretary:

Corresponding

Secretary:

Treasurer:

Delegate:

James F. Goff (1980), 3405 34th Pl. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016

Donald H. Tsai (1980), 10400 Lloyd Road, Potomac, MD 20854

A. Fred Spilhaus, 10900 Picasso Lane, Potomac, MD 20854

Dirse Sallet (1979-1980), 12440 Old Flechertown Rd., Bowie, MD 20715

Paul A. Willis (1980-1981), 2824 West George Mason Dr., Falls Church,

VA 22042

L. Douglas Ballard (1980), 7823 Mineral Springs Dr., Gaithersburg, MD

20760

Mr. James F. Schooley, Chief, Temperature Div., Natl. Bureau of Standards,

D.C. 20234

2 Anthropological Society of Washington (1898)

President:

President-elect:

Secretary:

Treasurer:

Delegate:

Dr. Michael Kenny, Dept. Anthro., CU, D.C. 20064

Dr. William Fitzhugh, Dept. Anthro., U.S. Nat. Mus., Smithsonian

Institution, D.C. 20560

DrJohn L. Landgraf, 2423 Eye St. N.W., D:C. 20037

Dr. Beatrice Hackett, D.C. Communities Humanities Council, 1341 G St.

N.W., D.C. 20006

Dr. Ruth H. Landman, Professor & Chairman, Dept. of Anthropology,

American Univ., D.C. 20016

3 Biological Society of Washington (1898)

112

President:

Vice-President:

Secretary:

Treasurer:

Delegate:

Richard Banks, Bird & Mammal Labs., Fish and Wildlife Div., U.S. Dept.

of Interior, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560

Raymond B. Manning, Dept. of Invertebrate Zoology, Nat. Mus. Nat.

Hist., Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 30560

Michael’ A. Bogan, Bird & Mammal Labs., Fish and Wildlife Div., U.S.

Dept. of Interior, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560

David L. Pawson, Dept. of Invertebrate Zoology, Nat. Mus. Nat. Hist.,

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560

W. Ronald Heyer, Dept. of Vertebrate Zoology, Nat. Mus. Nat. Hist.,

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 3, 1980

4 Chemical Society of Washington (1898)

President: Dr. Walter Benson, FDA, HFD 420, 200 C St. S.W., Washington, D.C.

20204

President-elect: Dr. George Mushrush, Chem. Dept. George Mason Univ., 4400 University

Dr., Fairfax, VA 22030

Secretary: Dr. Jo-Anne Jackson, Natl. Bureau of Stds., Bg. 223, Rm. A329,

Washington, D.C. 20234

Delegate: Dr. Barbara Howell, Natl. Bureau of Stds., Bg. 222, Rm. A367, Washington,

D.C. 20234 :

5 Entomological Society of Washington (1898)

President: Donald R. Davis, Dept. of Entomology, NHB 105, Smithsonian Institution,

Washington, D.C. 20560

Vice-President: T. J. Spilman, Dept. of Entomology, NHB 169, Smithsonian Institution,

Washington, D.C. 20560

Secretary: Wayne N. Mathis, Dept. of Entomology, NHB 169, Smithsonian Institution,

Washington, D.C. 20560

Delegate: Donald R. Davis, see above

6 National Geographic Society (1898)

President: Gilbert M. Grosvernor, 1145 17th St. N.W. Washington, D.C. 20036

Chairman: Dr. Melvin M. Payne, 1145 17th St. N.W. Washington, D.C. 20036

Secretary: Dr. Edwin W. Snider, 1145 17th St. N.W. Washington, D.C. 20036

Delegate: Dr. Dale Stewart, 1145 17th St. N.W. Washington, D.C. 20036

7 Geological Society of Washington (1898)

President: Francis R. Boyd, Jr., Carnegie Institution of Washington, Geophysical Lab.,

2801 Upton St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008

Vice-President: J. Thomas Dutro, U.S. Geological Survey, Branch of Paleontology and

Stratigraphy, U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C. 20560

Secretary: William E. Davies, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA 22092, Mail Stop

973

Delegate: Not appointed

8 Medical Society of the District of Columbia (1898)

President: Dr. Dort

President-elect: Dr. Lewis H. Biben

Secretary: Mr. Frank T. Forraraccio

Delegate: Dr. James E. Boland, Dr. Raymond Scalettar

9 Columbia Historical Society (1899)

President: William H. Press, 1646 32nd St. N.W. Washington, D.C. 20007

Vice-Presidents: Francis C. Rosenberger, 6809 Melrose Dr. McLean, VA 22101

John N. Pearce, 122 11th St., SE, Washington, D.C. 20003

Secretary: Marcellina Hummer, 2006 Columbia Rd. NW, Washington, D.C. 20009

Treasurer: William L. Ellis, 1307 New Hampshire Ave. N.W. Washington, D.C. 20036

Delegate: Mr. Paul H. Oehser, 9012 Old Dominion Dr., McLean, VA 22102

10 Botanical Society of Washington (1902)

President: Kittie Parker, Dept. of Botany, George Wash. Univ., 2029 G. St. N.W.

Washington, D.C. 20052

Vice-President: Ted R. Bradley, Dept. of Biology, George Mason Univ., Fairfax, VA 22030

Secretary: Antoinette Frederick, Dept. of Botany, Howard Univ., Washington, D.C.

20059

Treasurer: Deborah Bell, Dept. of Botany, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

20560

Delegate: Conrad B. Link, Dept. of Horticulture, Univ. of Maryland, College Park,

MD 20742

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 3, 1980 113

16 American Society for Microbiology, Washington Branch (1923)

17 Society of American Military Engineers, Washington Post (1927)

114

Society of American Foresters, Washington Section (1904)

President:

Vice-President:

Second

Vice-President:

Washington Society of Engineers (1907)

President:

Vice-President:

Secretary:

Delegate:

Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers, Washington Section (1912)

Chairman:

Vice-Chairman:

Secretary:

Delegate:

American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Washington Section (1923)

President:

Vice-President:

Secretary:

Treasurer:

Delegate:

Helminthological Society of Washington (1923)

President:

Vice-President:

Secretary-

Treasurer:

Delegate:

President:

Vice-President:

Secretary:

Treasurer:

Councilor:

President:

Vice-President:

Secretary:

Delegate:

Stephen H. Spurr

Thomas B. Borden

John C. Barber

Gerald S. McKenna, 9520 Bulls Run Parkway, Chevy Chase, Maryland

20034

Michael W. Werth, 14 Grafton Street, Chevy Chase, Maryland 20034

Charles E. Remington, 2005 Columbia Pike Arlington, Virginia 22204

Dr. George Abraham, 3107 Westover Drive, SE Washington, D.C. 20020

Dr. Sajjad H. Durrani, 1753 Lafayette Drive, Olney, Maryland, 20832

Dr. Gideon Kantor, 1702 Kenilworth Avenue, Garrett Park, Maryland,

20766

James C. Arnold, Jr., Rural Electrification Administration, USDA, 14th

and Independence Ave., Washington, D.C.

Dr. George Abraham, 3107 Westover Drive, S.E., Washington, D.C., 20020

Mark Au, P.E., 8800 Fox Hills Trail, Potomac, MD 20854

John Fairbanks, P.E., 4717 Jasmine Drive, Rockville, MD 20853

Thomas C. Tang, P.E., 8350 Greensboro Drive, Unit No. 1-524, McLean,

HOV AN22102

Jawahar L. Chandary, 11813 Randy Lane, Laurel, MD 20811

Dr. Michael Chi, 2721 N. 24th Street, Arlington, VA 22207

J. Ralph Lichtenfels, Animal Parasitology Institute, Bldg 1080’ BARC-East,

USDA, Beltsville, MD 20705

Nancy D. Pacheco, Department of Immunoparasitology, Naval Medical

Research Institute, Bethesda, MD 20014

Sherman S. Hendrix, Chairman, Department of Biology, Gettysburg Col-

lege, Gettysburg, PA 17325

Robert S. Isenstein, Food Safety and Quality Service, USDA, Building

318C, Beltsville, MD 20705

George G. Royal, Jr. (PhD), Dept. of Microbiology Howard University,

College of Medicine, Washington, D.C. 20001

Thomas B. Elliot (PhD), 126 Moore Ave. S.W. Vienna, VA 22180

Robert G. Loon, PhD, FDA, Extramural Research Coordination Staff, Rm

— 6504 (HFF-9), 200 C St., S.W. Washington, D.C. 20204

Elizabeth Von Kaenel, Microbiological Associates, Inc., 5221 River Road,

Bethesda, Maryland 20016

Frank M. Hetrick, PhD, Dept. of Microbiology, University of Maryland,

College Park, MD 20742

Col. Edwin P. Geesey, DAEN-FEZ-B, Washington, D.C. 20314

R.Adm. H. R. Lippold, NOAA, Washington, D.C. 20233

William I. Jacob, DAEN-FER-P, Washington, D.C. 20314

Hal P. Demuth, 4025 Pine Brook Rd., Alexandria, VA 22310

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 3, 1980

18 American Society of Civil Engineers, National Capital Section (1942)

President: David Harland, c/o De Leuw, Cather & Co., 1201 Connecticut Ave., Suite _

500, Washington, D.C. 20036

Vice-President: Neal Fitzsimons, 10408 Montgomery Ave., Kensington, MD 20795

Secretary: Chris Collver, 12615 Sayler’s Creek Lane, Herndon, VA 22070

Treasurer: Charles Smith, 9792 Oleander Ave., Vienna, VA 22180

Delegate: Algis A. Lukas, Lukas, Henningson, Duram & Richardson, 5454 Wisconsin

Ave., Chevy Chase, MD

19 Society for Experimental Biology & Medicine, D.C. Section (1952)

President: Elise A. Brown, USDA, Washington, D.C. 20750

Vice-President: Ariel Hollinshead, G. W. Univ., Warwick Cancer Clinic, Washington, D.C.

20052

Recording Jocelyn Stewart, Food & Drug Adm., Rockville, MD 20204

Secretary:

Corresponding William Von Arsdel, Food & Drug Adm., Bureau of Drugs, Rockville, MD

Secretary: 20204

Treasurer: Margaret Davison, Dept. of Defense, Defense Fuel Supplies, Washing-

ton, D.C.

President Emeritus: Arthur Wykes, Natl. Library of Medicine, Bethesda, MD 20014

Delegate: Dr. Cyrus R. Creveling, Laboratory of Bio-organic Chemistry, NIAMDD,

NIH, Bethesda, MD 20205

20 American Society for Metals, Washington Chapter (1953)

Chairperson: Anna C: Fraker, B-264, Materials Building 223, National Bureau of Standards,

Washington, D.C. 20234

Vice-Chairperson: Joseph R. Crisci, David W. Taylor Naval Ship R&D Center, Code 282,

Annapolis, MD 21402

Secretary: Henry Hahn, Artech Corp., 2901 Telestar Court, Falls Church, VA 22042

Treasurer: James R. Ward, VSE Comp., 2550 Huntington Avenue, Alexandria, VA

22303

Delegate: Dr. Charles G. Interrante, B120 Materials Bldg. (562), Natl. Bureau of Stds.,

Washington, D.C. 20234

21 American Association for Dental Research, Washington Section (1953)

President: John D. Termine, Natl. Institute of Dental Research, Bethesda, MD 20014

Vice-President: William R. Cotton, Naval Medical Research Institute, Bethesda, MD 20014

Secretary: Stanley Vermilyea, Walter Reed Army Inst. of Res:, Washington, D.C.

20012

Delegate: William V. Loebenstein, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.

20234

22 American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, National Capital Section (1953)

Chairman: George J. Vila, General Dynamics, 1745 Jefferson Davis Highway, Suite

1000, Arlington, VA 22202

Vice-Chairman: Dr. Richard Hallion, Smithsonian Institution, National Air & Space Mu-

seum, 7th & Independence Ave., Washington, D.C. 20560

Secretary: Dr. Frederick L. Schuyler, Department of Energy, MS C-448 Washington,

D.C. 20560

Delegate: Dr. Richard Hallion, Smithsonian Institution, National Air & Space Mu-

seum, 7th & Independence Ave., Washington, D.C. 20560

23 American Meteorological Society, D.C. Chapter (1954)

Chairman: Harold A. Bedient, 645 Walnut Ave., Rosehaven, MD 20831

Vice-Chairman: Dale A. Lowry, Techniques Development Lab., Gramax Bldg., Room 802,

Silver Spring, MD 20910

Corresponding Gary Ellrod, Satellite Field Ser. Station, 5139 Stop G, WWB, Camp

Secretary: Springs, MD

Delegate: A. James Wagner, Climate Analysis Center W351, NMC, NWS, NOAA,

Room 604, WWB, 5200 Auth Road, Washington, D.C. 20233

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 3, 1980 115

24 Insecticide Society of Washington (1959)

Chairman: W. Hollis, National Agricultural Chemicals Assoc., 1155 15th St. N.W.,

Suite 514, Washington, D.C. 20005

Chairman-elect: D. H. Hayes USDA, SEA, AR, BARC, AEQI, Livestock Insects Lab.,

Office of Pesticides Programs, Beltsville, MD 20705

Secretary: J. O. Nelson, University of Maryland, Dept. of Entomology, College Park,

MD 20742

Delegate: J. R. Plimmer, 11078 Berrypick Lane, Columbia, MD 21044

25 Acoustical Society of America (1959)

Chairman: Edith L. Corliss, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234

Vice-Chairman: James M. Pickett, Gallaudet College, 7th and Florida Aves. N.E., Washing-

ton, D.C. 20002

Secretary: William K. Blake, The David W. Taylor Naval Ship RND Center,

Bethesda, MD 20084

Delegate: Dr. Richard K. Cook, 8517 Milford Ave., Silver Spring, MD 20910

26 American Nuclear Society, Washington Section (1960)

Chairman: R. W. Durante, 1801 K St. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20006

Secretary: Clyde Jupiter, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington, D.C.

20555

Treasurer: C. Bornscheuer, 1850 K St. N.W., Suite 220, Washington, D.C. 20006

27 Institute of Food Technologists, Washington Section (1961)

Chairman: Dr. Prince G. Harrill, FDA, 200 C St. S.W., Washington, D.C. 20204

Chairman-elect: Dr. Allen W. Matthys, National Food Processors Association, 1133 20th

St. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036

Treasurer: Mrs. Catherine R. Calvert, Bureau of Foods (HFF414), FDA, 200 C St. S.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20204

Secretary: Dr. Richard A. Hagen, National Food Processors Association, 1133 20th

St. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036

Delegate: Dr. A. D. Berneking, Director, Division of Food Technology, Bureau of

Foods, FDA, 200 C St. S.W., Washington, D.C. 20204

28 American Ceramic Society, Baltimore-Washington Section (1962)

Chairman: Subatra Banerjee, General Refractories Research Center, P.O. Box 1673,

Baltimore, MD 21203

Chairman-elect: Ed Fuller, Fracture & Deformation Division, National Bureau of Standards,

Washington, D.C. 20234

Vice-Chairman: Merrill Wood, General Refractories Research Center, P.O. Box 1673,

Baltimore, MD 21203

Secretary/

Treasurer: Connie Moynihan, Catholic University of America, Chemical Engineering

Dept., Washington, D.C. 20064

29 Electrochemical Society, National Capital Section (1963)

Chairman: David R. Flinn, Bureau of Mines, College Park Research Center, College

Park, MD 20740

Vice-Chairman: John R. Ambrose, National Bureau of Standards, Bldg. 223, Rm. B254,

Washington, D.C. 20234

Secretary: George Marinenko, National Bureau of Standards, Bldg. 222, Rm. A217,

Washington, D.C. 20234

Delegate: David R. Flinn, see above

30 Washington History of Science Club (1965)

Chairman: Richard G. Hewlett, Atomic Energy Comm.

Vice-Chairman: Deborah Warner, Smithsonian Institution

Secretary: Dean C. Allard

Delegate: None appointed

116 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 3, 1980

31 American Association of Physics Teachers, Chesapeake Section (1965)

President: Morton Rubin, University of Maryland, Baltimore County

Vice-President: Eugenie V. Mielczarek, George Mason Univ., 4400 University Dr., Fairfax,

VA 22030

Secretary: Roberta Stoney, Langley High School

Delegate: Peggy A. Dixon, Montgomery College, Takoma Park Campus

32 Optical Society of America, National Capitol Section (1966)

President: Robert L. Denningham, Naval Research Lab.

Ist Vice-President: William R. Graver, Riverside Research Institute

2nd Vice-President: Louis Sica, Jr., Naval Research Laboratory

Secretary: Eugene A. Margerum, U.S. Army Engineer Topographic Lab.

Treasurer: Sandford W. Hinkal, Goddard Space Flight Center

Delegate: Dr. George J. Simonis, 13609 Russett Terrace, Rockville, MD 20853

33 American Society of Plant Physiologists, Washington Section (1966)

Chairman: Dr. Charles R. Cleland, Smithsonian Radiation Laboratory, 12441 Parklawn

Drive, Rockville, MD 20852

Vice-Chairman: Dr. William VanDerWoude, Seed Research Laboratory B-006, USDA,

ARC-W, Beltsville, MD 20705

Secretary/

Treasurer: Dr. Gerald Deitzer, Smithsonian Radiation Biology, 12441 Parklawn Drive,

Rockville, MD 20852

Delegate: Dr. W. Shropshire, Jr., Smithsonian Radiation Biology Laboratory, 12441

Parklawn Drive, Rockville, MD 20852

34 Washington Operations Research/Management Science Council (1966)

President: Gary Sorrell, Management Consulting & Research, Inc., Falls Church, VA

President-elect: Eloise Brooks, Federal Aviation Administration, Washington, D.C.

Secretary: Mary J. Hutzler, Department of Energy, Washington, D.C.

Treasurer: Jay Mandelbaum, Federal Railroad Administration, Washington, D.C.

35 Instrument Society of America, Washington Section (1967)

President: Francis C. Quinn

President-elect: John I. Peterson

Secretary: Frank L. Carou

Delegate: None appointed

36 American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical & Petroleum Engineers (1968)

Chairman: L. Michael Kaas, Bureau of Mines, 2401 E. St. N.W., Washington, D.C.

20241

Vice-Chairman: Ronald A. Munson, Bureau of Mines, 2401 E. St. N.W., Washington, D.C.

20241

Secretary/

Treasurer: Daniel R. Walton, 12536 Arnsley Court, Herndon, VA 22070

Delegate: Dr. Garrett R. Hyde, Bureau of Mines, 2401 E. St. N.W., Washington,

D.C. 20241

37 National Capital Astronomers (1969)

President: Mary Ellen Simon, 8704 Royal Ridge Lane, Laurel, MD 20811

Vice-President: Wolfgang Schubert, 7906 Gosport Lane, Springfield, VA 22151

Secretary: Sharon Edmonds, 11322 Cherry Hill Road, Beltsville, MD 20705

Delegate: Benson J. Simon, 8704 Royal Ridge Lane, Laurel, MD 20811

38 Mathematical Association of America, Maryland, D.C., and Virginia Section (1971)

Chairman: John Smith, George Washington Univ., Dept. of Mathematics, Fairfax, VA

Vice-Chairman for

Membership: Howard Penn, Dept. of Mathematics, George Washington Univ., Fairfax,

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 3, 1980 117

118

The District of Columbia Institute of Chemists (1973)

President: Carolyn E. Damon, 3100 S. Manchester St., Aprt. #540, Falls Church, VA

22044

President-elect: Winston R. Demonsabert, 604 Cobblestone Court, Silver Spring, MD 20904

Secretary-Treasurer: James E. Whitney, 7700 Lakecrest Dr., Greenbelt, MD 20770

Councilor: Fred Ordway, Artech Corporation, 2901 Telstar Court, Falls Church, VA

22042

The D.C. Psychological Association (1975)

President: Alfred M. Wellner, Council for the Natl. Regis., Health Serv., Prov. in

Psych., 1200 17th Street N.W., Suite 106, Washington, D.C. 20036

President-elect: Barbara Hammer, 5225 Connecticut Ave. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015

Secretary: Jane F. Allen, 9001 Congressional Parkway, Potomac, MD 20850

Delegate: Dr. John J. O’Hare, 301 G Streets S.W. #824, Washington, D.C. 20024

The Washington Paint Technical Group (1976)

President: Robert F. Brady, Jr., GSA

Vice-President: Mildred A. Post, National Bureau of Standards, Bldg. 226, Rm. B-348,

Washington, D.C. 20234

Secretary: William Allanach, International Paint, Harve de Grace, MD

Delegate: Paul G. Campbell, National Bureau of Standards, B-348, Br., Washington,

D.C. 20234

American Phytopathological Society, Potomac Division (1977)

President: Lawrence H. Perdy, Plant Pathology, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Florida

32611

Executive

Vice-President: | Raymond Tarleton, 3340 Pilot Knob Road, St. Paul, MN 55121

Vice-President: J. Arty Browning, Dept. of Plant Pathology, Seed and Weed Science, lowa

State Univ., Ames, IA 50011

Secretary: Daryl A. Slack, Dept. of Plant Pathology, Univ. of Arkansas, Fayetteville,

AK 72701

Treasurer: Edgar L. Kendricks, Agricultural Research, SEA-USDA, PO Box 53326,

New Orleans, LA 70153

Delegate: Dr. Howard E. Waterworth, USDA, Plant Introduction Station, Glenn

Dale, MD 20769

Society for General Systems Research, Metropolitan Washington Chapter (1977)

Chairman: Ronald W. Manderscheid, PhD, 6 Monument Court, Rockville, MD 20850

(home) 301-762-3388 (office) 301-436-6274

Secretary: Helen Griffin Tibbitts, 4105 Montpelier Road, Rockville, MD 20852 (home)

301-871-6853

Delegate: Ronald W. Manderscheid, PhD, 6 Monument Court, Rockville, MD 20850

(home) 301-762-3388 (office) 301-436-6274

Human Factors Society, Potomac Chapter (1977)

President: E. Ralph Dusek

President-elect: Ted Post

Secretary: Stephen C. Merriman

Treasurer: Thomas M. Granda

Delegate: Dr. H. Mcilvaine Parsons, Human Resources Research Organ., 300 N.

Washington Street, Alexandria, VA 22314

American Fisheries Society, Potomac Chapter (1978)

President: Norville S. Prosser, Sport Fishing Institute, 608 13th St., N.W., Suite 801,

Washington, D.C. 20005

President-elect: Richard H. Schaefer, National Marine Fisheries Service, 3300 Whitehaven |

Drive, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20235

Secretary: Stephanie D. Story, Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, 825 N. Capitol

St., N.E., Washington, D.C. 20426

Treasurer: Donald J. Leedy, 2825 Yeonas Drive, Vienna, VA 22180

Delegate: Irwin M. Alperin, Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission, 1717

Massachusetts Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20036

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 3, 1980

Alphabetical List of Members

M = Member; F = Fellow; E = Emeritus member; L = Life Member or Fellow.

ABDULNUR, SUHEIL F. (Dr), Chemistry Dept.,

American Univ., Washington, D.C. 20016 (F)

ABELSON, PHILIP H. (Dr), Editor, AAAS, 1550

Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C.

20005 (F)

ABRAHAM, GEORGE (Dr), 3107 Westover Dr.,

S.E., Washington, D.C. 20020 (F)

ACHTER, M. R., 417 5th St., S.E., Washington,

D.C. 20003 (F)

ADAMS, ALAYNE A. (Dr), 8436 Rushing Creek

Ct., Springfield, Va. 22135 (F)

ADAMS, CAROLINE L. (Dr), 242 North Granada

St., Arlington, Va. 22203 (E)

ADLER, VICTOR E., 8540 Pineway Ct., Laurel,

Md. 20810 (F)

AFFRONTI, LEWIS (Dr), Dept. of Micro., GWU,

Sch. of Med., 2300 Eye St., N.W., Washington,

D.C. 20037 (F)

' AHEARN, ARTHUR J. (Dr), 9621 E. Bexhill Dr.,

Box 294, Kensington, Md. 20795 (E)

AKERS, ROBERT P., Ph.D., 9912 Silverbrook Dr.,

Rockville, Md. 20850 (E)

ALBUS, JAMES S., 4515 Saul Rd., Kensington,

Md. 20795 (F)

ALDRICH, JOHN W. (Dr), 6324 Lakeview Dr.,

Falls Church, Va. 22041 (F)

ALDRIDGE, MARY H. (Dr), 2930 45th St., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20016 (F)

ALEXANDER, ALLEN L. (Dr), 4216 Sleepy Hollow

Rd., Annandale, Va. 22003 (E)

ALEXANDER, BENJAMIN H. (Dr), Pres., Chicago

State Univ., 95th St. at King Dr., Chicago, Ill.

60628 (F)

ALLEN, ANTON M. (Dr), 11718 Lakeway Dr.,

Manassas, Va. 22110 (F)

ALLEN, J. FRANCES, 7507 23rd Ave., Hyattes-

ville, Md. 20783 (F)

ANDERSON, JOHN D. (Dr), Dept. of Aerospace

Engrg., Univ. of Maryland, College Park, Md.

20742 (F)

ANDERSON, MYRON S. (Dr), 1433 Manchester

La., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20011 (E)

ANDERSON, WENDELLL. (Mr), RR 4, Box 4172,

La Plata, Md. 20646 (F)

ANDREWS, JOHN S. (Dr), 10314 Naglee Rd.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20903 (E)

ANDRUS, EDWARD D. (Mr), 1600 Rhode Island

Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036 (M)

APOSTOLOU, GEORGIA L. (Mrs), 1001 Rock-

ville Pike, #424, Rockville, Md. 20852 (M)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 3, 1980

APSTEIN, MAURICE (Dr), 4611 Maple Ave.,

Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F)

ARGAUER, ROBERT J. (Dr), 4208 Everett St.,

Kensington, Md. 20795 (F)

ARMSTRONG, GEORGE T. (Dr), 1401 Dale Dr.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F)

ARONSON, C. J., 3401 Oberon St., Kensington,

Md. 20795 (E)

ARSEM, COLLINS (Mr), 10821 Admirals Way,

Potomac, Md. 20854 (M)

ARVESON, PAULT. (Mr), Code 1926, Naval Ship

R&D Ctr., Bethesda, Md. 20084 (M)

ASCIONE, RICHARD (Dr), National Cancer Insti-

tute, Nat'l Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Md.

20014 (M)

ASLAKSON, CARLI., 5707 Wilson La., Bethesda,

Md. 20014 (E)

ASTIN, ALLEN V., 5008 Battery La., Bethesda,

Md. 20014 (E)

AXILROD, BENJAMIN M., 9915 Marquette Dr.,

Bethesda, Md. 20034 (E)

BAILEY, R. CLIFTON (Dr), 6507 Divine St.,

McLean, Va. 22101 (M)

BAKER, ARTHUR A. (Dr), 5201 Westwood Dr.,

Washington, D.C. 20016 (E)

BAKER, LOUIS C.W. (Dr), Dept. of Chemistry,

Georgetown Univ., Washington, D.C. 20057

(F)

BALLARD, LOWELL D. (Mr), 7823 Mineral Spring

Rd., Gaithersburg, Md. 22170 (F)

BARBOUR, LARRY L. (Mr), 19309 Poinsetta Ct.,

Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (M)

BARBROW, LOUIS E. (Mr), National Bureau of

Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F)

BARGER, GERALD L. (Dr), Route 4, Box 165AC,

Columbia, Mo. 65201 (F)

BAUER, SIEGFRIED J. (Dr), NASA/Goddard

Space Flight Ctr., Code 600, Greenbelt, Md.

20771 (F)

BAUMANN, ROBERT C., NASA/Goddard Space

Flight Ctr., Code 400.3, Greenbelt, Md. 20771

(F)

BEACH, LOUIS A. (Dr), 1200 Waynewood Bivd.,

Alexandria, Va. 22308 (F)

BECKER, EDWIN D. (Dr), Inst. Arthritis & Metab.

Disea., Bldg. 2, Rm. 122, Nat’l Inst. Hea., Be-

thesda, Md. 20014 (F)

BECKETT, CHARLES W., 5624 Madison St.,

Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F)

BECKMANN, ROBERT B. (Dr), Prof., Chem.

119

Engin., Univ. of Md., College Park, Md. 20742

(F)

BEIJ, K. HILDING, 69 Morningside Dr., Laconia,

N.H. 03246 (L)

BEKKEDAHL, NORMAN, 405 N. Ocean Bivd.,

#1001, Pompano Beach, Fla. 33062 (E)

BELSHEIM, ROBERT, 2475 Virginia Ave., N.W.,

#514, Washington, D.C. 20037 (F)

BENDER, MAURICE (Dr), 16518 N.E. 2nd PI.,

Bellevue, Wa. 98008 (E)

BENESCH, WILLIAM (Dr), Inst. for Molecular

Physics, Univ. of Maryland, College Park, Md.

20742 (F)

BENJAMIN, C. R. (Dr), OLCD-10A, Dept. of

Agriculture, Rm. 6552—South Bldg., Washing-

ton, D.C. 20250 (F)

BENNETT, JOHN A. (Mr), 7405 Denton Rad.,

Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F)

BENNETT, MARTIN TOSCAN, Suite 802, 4660

Kenmore Ave., Alexandria, Va. 22304 (F)

BENNETT, WILLARD H. (Dr), Dept. of Physics,

NCSU, Box 5342, Raleigh, N.C. 27607 (E)

BENSON, WILLIAM (Dr), 636 Massachusetts

Ave., N.E., Washington, D.C. 20002 (M)

BERENDZEN, DR. RICHARD, President, The

American Univ., 3300 Nebraska Ave., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20016 (F)

BERGER, ROBERT E. (Dr), 10313 Twinedew PI.,

Columbia, Md. 21044 (F)

BERGER, STEVEN B., 8350 Greensboro Drive,

McLean, Va. 22102 (M)

BERGMANN, OTTO, Dept. of Physics, George

Washington Univ., Washington, D.C. 20052

(F)

BERMAN, ALAN (Dr), 9304 Maybrook PI.,

Alexandria, Va. 22309 (F)

BERNETT, MARIANNE K., Code 6170, Naval

Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (M)

BERNSTEIN, BERNARD, 7420 Westlake Terr.

#608, Bethesda, Md. 20034 (M)

BERNTON, HARRY S. (Dr), 4000 Cathedral Ave.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (E)

BESTUL, ALDEN B. (Dr), 9400 Overlea Dr.,

Rockville, Md. 20850 (F)

BICKLEY, WILLIAM E. (Dr), 6516 Fortieth Avenue,

University Park, Md. 20840 (F)

BIRD, H. R., Animal Science Bldg., Univ. of Wis-

consin, Madison, Wi. 53706 (F)

BIRKS, L. S., 11908 Ledgerock Ct., Potomac, Md.

20854 (F)

BISHOP, WILLIAM P. (Dr), NASA Headquarters,

Code EB-8, Washington, D.C. 20546 (F)

BLANK, CHARLESA. (Dr), P.O. Box 149, Fairfax,

Va. 22030 (M)

BLOCK, STANLEY (Dr), National Bureau of

Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F)

BLONG, CLAIR K. (Dr), Ph.D., 10603 Tenbrook

Dr., Silver Spring, Md. 20901 (M)

BLUNT, ROBERT F.,5411 Moorland La.,Bethesda,

Md. 20014 (F)

BOEK, JEAN K. (Dr), National Graduate Univ.,

1101 N. Highland St., Arlington, Va. 22201 (F)

120

BOGLE, ROBERT W. (Dr), 1438 Mariposa, Boul-

der, Co. 80302 (F)

BONDELID, ROLLON O. (Dr), 4929 Casimir

Street, Annandale, Va. 22003 (F)

BORIS, J. P., 3516 Duff Dr., Falls Church, Va.

22041 (F)

BOTBOL, J. M. (Dr), C/O General Delivery,

North Falmouth, Ma. 02556 (F)

BOWLES, R. E. (Dr), 2105 Sondra Ct., Silver

Spring, Md. 20904 (F)

BOWMEN, THOMAS E (Dr), Dept. of Invert

Zoology, Smith. Instit. NHB Mail Stop, Wash-

ington, D.C. 20560 (F)

BOZEMAN, F. MARILYN, Div. of Virol Food &

Drug A, 8800 Rockville Pike, Rockville, Md.

20205 (E)

BRADY, ROBERT F., Jr., Ph.D., 706 Hope Lane,

Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (E)

BRANCATO, E. L. (Dr), 7370 Hallmark Rd.,

Clarksville, Md. 21029 (E)

BRANDEWIE, DONALD F (Mr), 6811 Field Mas-

ter Dr., Springfield, Va., 2153 (F)

BRAUER, G. M. (Dr), Dental Res. & Med. Mate.

~ A12, Polymer-Nat’l Bur. of Stand., Washing-

ton, D.C. 20234 (F)

BREGER, IRVING A. (Dr), 212 Hillsboro Dr.,.

Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F)

BREIT, GREGORY (Dr), 73 Allenhurst Rd., Buf-

falo, N.Y. 14214 (E)

BRENNER, ABNER (Dr), 7204 Pomander La.,

Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F)

BREUER, MIKLOS M. (Dr), 3420 McKinley Street,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015 (F)

BRICKWEDDE, F. G. (Dr), 104 Davey Lab., Dept.

of Phys., Pennsylvania State Univ., University

Park, Pa. 16802 (F)

BRIER, GLENN W., 1729 N. Harrison St., Arling-

ton, Va. 22205 (F)

BROADHURST, MARTIN G. (Dr), B322, Bldg.

224, Nat’l. Bureau of Standards, Washington,

D.C. 20234 (F)

BROMBACHER, W. G. (Dr), 17 Pine Run Com-

munity, Doylestown, Pa. 18901 (E)

BROWN, ELISE A. B., 6811 Nesbitt Pl., McLean,

Va. 22101 (F)

BROWN, THOMAS McP. (Dr), 2465 Army-Navy

Dr., Arlington, Va. 22206 (F)

BRUCK, STEPHEN D. (Dr), 1113 Pipestem PI.,

Rockville, Md. 20854 (F)

BRYAN, MILTON M., 3322 N. Glebe Road, Arling-

ton, Va. 22207 (M)

BURAS, EDMUND M., Jr., Gillette Res. Inst.,

1413 Research Blvd., Rockville, Md. 20850 (F)

BURGERS, J. M. (Dr), 3450 Toledo Terr., #517,

Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (F)

BURK, DEAN (Dr), 4719 44th St., Washington,

D.C. 200016 (E)

BURNETT, H. C. (Mr), Metal Science & Stds.

Div., Nat'l. Bureau of Standards, Washington,

D.C. 20234 (F)

BUTTERMORE, DONALD, Yorktown High School,

5201 N. 28th St., Arlington, Va. 22207 (F)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 3, 1980

CAHNMAN, HUGO N., 162 Pond Dr., Washing-

ton Township, New Jersey 07675 (M)

CALDWELL, FRANK R., 4821 47th St., N.W., Wash-

ington, D.C. 20016 (E)

CALDWELL, JOSEPH M., 2732 N. Kensington

St., Arlington, Va. 22207 (F)

CAMPAGNONE, ALFRED F., 9321 Warfield Rd.,

Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F)

CAMPBELL, LOWELL E., 10100 Riggs Rd., Adel-

phi, Md. 20783 (F)

CAMPBELL, PAUL G. (Dr), 3106 Kingtree St.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F)

CANNON, E. W. (Dr), 18023-134th Ave., Sun City

West, Az. 85355 (F)

CANTELO, WILLIAM W. (Dr), 11702 Wayneridge

St., Fulton, Md. 20759 (F)

CAREY, RICHARD (Mr), 8402 Quintana St., New

Carrollton, Md. 20784 (M)

CARNS, HARRY R., Bldg. 001, Beltsville Agri.

Res. Ctr., Beltsville, Md. 20705 (M)

CARROLL, WILLIAM R. (Dr), 4802 Broad Brook

Dr., Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F)

CARTER HUGH (Dr), 2039 New Hampshire.Ave.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20009 (E)

CASH, EDITH K., 505 Clubhouse Rd., Bingham-

ton, N.Y. 13903 (E)

CASSEL, JAMES M. (Dr), 12205 Sunnyview Dr.,

Germantown, Md. 20767 (F)

CHAPLIN, HARVEY R., Jr., 1561 Forest Villa

Lane, McLean, Va. 22101 (F)

CHAPLINE, W.R., 4225 43rd St., N.W., Washing-

ton, D.C. 20016 (E)

CHAPMAN, ROBERT D (Dr), NASA/Goddard

Space Flight Ctr., Code 680, Greenbelt, Md.

ZOT7 A (F)

CHEEK, CONRAD H., Code 8330, Naval Res.

Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (F)

CHEZEM, CURTIS G. (Dr), 46 Centre St., P.O.

Box 396, Nantucket, Ma. 02554 (F)

CHOPER, JORDAN J. (Mr), 121 Northway, Green-

belt, Md. 20770 (M)

CHRISTIANSEN, MERYLN. (Dr), Chairman,

Plant. Phys. Inst. USDA, AR, Beltsville, Md.

20705 (F)

CHURCH, LLOYD E. (Dr), 8218 Wisconsin Ave.,

Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F)

CLAIRE, CHARLES N. (Mr), 4403 14th St., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20011 (F)

CLARK, GEORGE E., Jr., (Mr), 4022 N. Stafford

St., Arlington, Va. 22207 (F)

CLARKE, ROBERT F. (Dr), 2710 Elsmore Street,

Fairfax, Va. 22031 (F)

CLAYTON, FRED W. (Dr), 19116 Rhodes Way,

Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (M)

CLEMENT, J. REID, Jr., 3410 Waltham St., Suit-

land, Md. 20023 (F)

CLEVEN, GALE W. (Dr), Box 138, Babson Park,

Rly 33827 ((F)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 3, 1980

CLINE, THOMAS L. (Dr), NASA/Goddard Space

Flight Ctr. Code 661, Greenbelt, Md. 20771 (F)

COATES, JOSEPH F., J. F. Coates, Inc., 3738

Kanawha St., N.W., Wash., D.C. 20015 (F)

COLE, KENNETH S. (Dr), 2404 Loring St., San

Diego, Ca. 92109 (E)

COLE, RALPH I., 3431 Blair Rd., Falls Church,

Va. 22041 (F)

COLWELL, RITA R. (Dr), Dept. of Microbiology,

UOM, College Park, Md. 20742 (F)

COMPTON, W. DALE, Ford Motor Co., P.O. Box

1603, Dearborn, Mi. 48121 (F)

CONNORS, PHILIP I., Central New England Col-

lege, 768 Main St., Worcester, Ma. 01608 (F)

COOK, RICHARD K (Dr), 8517 Milford Ave.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F)

COOPER, KENNETH W (Dr), 4497 Picacho Drive,

Riverside, Ca. 92507 (E)

CORLISS, EDITHL. R. (Mrs), 2955 Albemarle St.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (F)

COSTRELL, LOUIS, Chief 535.02, Nat’] Bureau

of Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F)

COTTERILL, CARL H., U.S. Bureau of Mines,

2401 E. St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20241 (F)

COYLE, THOMAS D. (Dr), Nat’! Bureau of Stand-

ards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F)

CRAFTON, PAUL A., P.O. Box 454, Rockville,

Md. 20850 (F)

CRAGOE, CARL S., 6206 Singleton PI., Bethesda,

Md. 20034 (E)

CREITZ, E. CARROLL, 10145 Cedar La., Ken-

sington, Md. 20795 (E)

CREVELING, CYRUS R., (Dr), 4516 Amherst

Lane, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F)

CROSSETTE, GEORGE, 4217 Glenrose St.,

Kensington, Md. 20795 (M)

CULBERT, DOROTHY K., 812A St., S.E., Wash-

ington, D.C. 20003 (M)

CULLINAN, FRANK P., 4402 Beechwood Rad.,

Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (E)

CULVER, WILLIAM H. (Dr), Optelecom Inc.,

2841 Chesapeake St., N.W., Washington, D.C.

20008 (M)

CURRAN, HAROLD R. (Dr), 3431 N. Randolph

St., Arlington, Va. 22207 (E)

CURRIE, CHARLES L., Wheeling Coll., Wheel-

ing, W. Va. 26003 (F)

CURTISS, LEON F., 1690 Bayshore Dr., Engle-

wood, FI. 33533 (E)

CURTIS, ROGER W. (Dr), 6308 Valley Rd., Be-

thesda, Md. 20034 (E)

CUTHILL, JOHN R. (Dr), 12700 River Rd., Po-

tomac, Md. 20854 (F)

CUTKOSKY, ROBERT DALE, 19150 Roman Way,

Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F)

DARRACOTT, HALVOR T., 3325 Mansfield Rd.,

Falls Church, Va. 22041 (F)

121

DAVIS, CHARLES M., Jr., (Dr), 8485 Portland PI.,

McLean, Va. 22102 (M)

DAVIS, MARION MACLEAN, (Dr), Apt. 100, Cross-

lands, Kennett Square, Pa. 19348

DAVIS, R. F. (Dr), Chairman, Dept. of Dairy Sci.,

Univ. of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742 (F)

DAVISSON, JAMES W. (Dr), 400 Cedar Ridge

Dr., S.E., Washington, D.C. 20021 (E)

DAWSON, ROY C., Ph.D., 7002 Chansory Lane,

Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (E)

DAWSON, VICTOR C. D., 9406 Curran Rd.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20901 (F)

DEAL, GEORGE E. (Dr), 6245 Park Rd., McLean,

Va. 22101 (F) .

DEBERRY, MARIAMB., 3608 17th St., N.E., Wash-

ington, D.C. 20018 (M)

DEDRICK, R.L. (Dr), Bldg. 13, Rm. 3W13, Nat’l.

Inst. of Health, Bethesda, Md. 20205 (F)

DELANEY, WAYNE R., The Wyoming Apts. 602,

2022 Columbia Rd., N.W., Washington, D.C.

20009 (M)

DEMUTH, HAL P., 4025 Pinebrook Rd., Alexan-

dria, Va. 22310 (F)

DENNIS, BERNARD K., 915 Country Club Dr.,

Vienna, Va. 22180 (F)

DERKSEN, WILLARD L. (Mr), 7034 Basswood

Rd., Frederick, Md. 21701 (M) .

DESLATTES, RICHARD D., Jr., 610 Aster Blvd.,

Rockville, Md. 20850 (F)

DEVIN, CHARLES, Jr., (Dr), 629 Blossom Dr.,

Rockville, Md. 20850 (M)

DEVOE, JAMES R., 17708 Parkridge Dr., Gai-

thersburg, Md. 20760 (F)

DEWIT, ROLAND, Metallurgy Div., Nat'l Bureau

of Stards., Washington, D.C. 20234 (F)

DICKSON, GEORGE, 52 Orchard Way North,

Rockville, Md. 20854 (F)

DIMARZIO, E. A., 14205 Parkvale Rd., Rockville,

Md. 20853 (F) :

DIMOCK, DAVID A., 204 Nolesworth Terr., Mt.

Airy, Md. 21771 (E)

DIXON, PEGGY A. (Dr), 9011 Eton Road, Silver

Spring, Md. 20901 (F)

DOCTOR, NORMAN, 3814 Littleton St., Whea-

ton, Md. 20906 (F)

DOFT, FLOYD S. (Dr), 6416 Garnet Dr., Ken-

wood, Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (E)

DONALDSON, JOHANNA B. (Mrs), 3020 North

Edison St., Arlington, Va. 22207 (F)

DONNERT, HERMANN J. (Dr), RFD Box 101,

Terra Heights, Manhattan, Ks. 66502 (F)

DOUGLAS, CHARLES A. (Dr), 7315 Delfield St.,

Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F) |

DOUGLAS, THOMAS B. (Dr), 3031 Sedgwick

St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (F)

DRAEGER, R. HAROLD (Dr), 1201 N. 4th St.,

Tucson, Az. 85705 (E)

DRECHSLER, CHARLES (Dr), 6915 Oakridge

Rd., University Park, Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (E)

DUBEY, SATYA D., Ph.D., 7712 Groton Rd., Be-

thesda, Md. 20034 (E)

122

DUERKSEN, J. A., 3134 Monroe St., N.E., Wash-

ington, D.C. 20018 (E)

DUFFEY, DICK (Dr), Nuclear Engrg., Univ. of

Md., College Park, Md. 20742 (F)

DUNCOMBE, RAYNOR L. (Dr), 1804 Vance Cir-

cle, Austin, Tx. 78701 (F)

DUNKUM, WILLIAM W. (Dr), C/O T. C. Williams

H. S., 3330 King St., Alexandria, Va. 22302 (F)

DUPONT, JOHN ELEUTHERE, P.O. Box 358,

Newton Square, Pa. 19073 (M)

EDDY, BERNICE E. (Dr), 6722 Selkirk Ct., Be-

thesda, Md. 20034 (E)

EISENBERG, PHILLIP (Mr), Hydronautics, Inc.,

7210 Pindell School Road, Laurel, Maryland

20810 (M)

EISENHART, CHURCHILL (Dr), Met B-268, Nat’l.

Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.

20234 (F)

EL-BISI, HAMED (Dr), 135 Forest Rd., Millis, Ma.

02054 (M)

ELLINGER, GEORGE A., 739 Kelly Dr., York, Pa.

17404 (E)

ELLIOTT, F.E. (Dr), 7507 Grange Hall Dr., Oxon

Hill, Md. 20022 (E)

EMERSON, K. C. (Dr), 506 Boulder Dr., Saribel,

Flea 957 (5)

ENNIS, W. B., Jr., Agriculture Res. Ctr., Univ. of

Florida, 3205 S.W. 70th Ave., Fort Lauderdale,

Fl. 33314 (F)

EWERS, JOHN C., 4432 26th Rd., N, Arlington,

Va. 22207 (F)

FARMER, III, ROBERT F. (Dr), 706 W. Montgom-

ery Avenue, Rockville Md. 20850

FARROW, RICHARD PAUL (Mr), 2911 North-

wood Dr., Alameda, Ca. 94501 (F)

FATTAH, JERRY (Mr), 3451 S. Wakefield St., Ar-

lington, Va. 22206 (M)

FAULKNER, JOSEPH A. (Mr), 1007 Sligo Creek

Pky., Takoma Park, Md. 20012 (F)

FAUST, GEORGE T., P.O. Box 411, Basking

Ridge, N.J. 07920 (E)

FAUST, WILLIAM R. (Dr), 5907 Walnut St., Tem-

ple Hill, Md. 20031 (F)

FEARN, JAMES (Dr), 4446 Alabama Ave., S.E.,

Washington, D.C. 20019 (F)

FELSHER, MURRAY (Dr), Pres., Assoc. Tech.

Consultant, P.O. Box 20, Germantown, Md. —

20767 (M)

FERRELL, RICHARD A (Dr), Dept. of Physics,

Univ. of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742 (F)

FIFE, EARL H. (Mr), Box 122, Royal Oak, Md.

21662 (E) :

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 3, 1980

FILIPESCU, NICOLAE (Dr), 5020 Little Falls Rd.,

Arlington, Va. 22207 (F)

FINN, EDWARD J. (Dr), 4211 Oakridge La.,

Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F)

FISHER, JOELL. (Dr), 4033 Oiley Lane, Fairfax,

Va. 22030 (M)

FISHMAN, PETER H. (Dr), 3333 Univ. Blvd. West,

Kensington, Md. 20795 (F)

FLETCHER, DONALD G.. (Mr), Nat'l. Bureau of

Standards, Rm. A102, Bldg. 231 (IND), Wash-

ington, D.C. 20234 (M)

FLINN, DAVID R. (Dr), 8104 Bernard Dr., Fort

Washington, Md. 20022 (F)

FLORIN, ROLAND E. (Dr), Polymer Stab. & Stnd.

Section, Bldg. 318, Poly. Nat’l. Bureau Stnd.,

Washington, D.C. 20234 (F)

FLYNN, DANIEL R., 15 Dellcastle Ct., Gaithers-

burg, Md. 20760 (F)

FLYNN, JOSEPH H., 5309

Washington, D.C. 20016 (F)

FOCKLER, HERBERT H., 10710 Lorain Ave.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20901 (M)

FONER, S. N. (Dr), Applied Physics Lab., The

Johns Hopkins Univ., 11100 Johns Hopkins

Rd., Laurel, Md. 20810 (F)

FOOTE, RICHARD H. (Dr), 8807 Victoria Rd.,

Springfield, Va. 22151 (F)

FORZIATI, ALPHONSE’ F. (Dr), 15525 Prince

Frederick Way, Silver Spring, Md. 20906 (F)

FORZIATI, FLORENCE H. (Dr), 15525 Prince

Frederick Way, Silver Spring, Md. 20906 (F)

FOSTER, AUREL O., 4613 Drexel Rd., College

Park, Md. 20740 (E)

FOURNIER, ROBERT O. (Dr), 108 Paloma Rad.,

Partola Valley, Ca. 94025 (F)

FOWLER, EUGENE (Mr), Inter. Atomic Energy

Agency, Karntner Ring 11, A-1011, Vienna,

Austria (M)

FOWLER, WALTER B. (Mr), Code 683, Goddard

Space Flight Ctr., Greenbelt, Md. 20771 (M)

FOX, DAVID W. (Dr), The Johns Hopkins Univ.,

Applied Physics Lab., 11100 Johns Hopkins

Rd., Laurel Md. 20810 (F)

FOX, WILLIAM B. (Dr), 1813 Edgehill Dr., Alex-

andria, Va. 22307 (F)

FRANZ, GERALD (Dr), Box 695, Bayview, Id.

83803 (F)

FREDERIKSE, H. P. R., 9625 Dewmar La., Ken-

sington, Md. 20795 (F)

FREEMAN, ANDREW F., 5012N. 33rd St., Arling-

ton, Va. 22207 (E)

FRENKIEL, FRANCOIS N. (Dr), Code 1802.2,

Naval Ship Res. & Dev. Ctr., Bethesda, Md.

20084 (F)

FRIEBELE, E. JOSEPH (Dr), Naval Research

Lab., Code 6570, Washington, D.C. 20375 (F)

FRIEDMAN, MOSHE (Dr), 4511 Yuma St., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20016 (F)

FRIESS, S. L. (Dr), 6522 Lone Oak Court, Be-

thesda, Maryland 20034 (F)

FRUSH, HARRIET L. (Dr), 4912 New Hampshire

Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20011 (F)

Iroquois Rd.,

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 3, 1980

FULLMER, IRVIN H., Lakeview Terr., P.O. Box

100, Altoona, Fl. 32702 (E)

FURUKAWA, GEORGE T. (Dr), Nat’l. Bureau of

Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F)

GAGE, WILLIAM, (Dr), 2146 Florida Ave., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20008 (F)

GALLER, SIDNEY, 6242 Woodcrest Ave., Balti-

more, Md. 21209 (E)

GALTSOFF, PAUL S. (Dr), P.O. Box 684, Fal-

mouth, Ma. 02540 (E)

GANT, JAMES Q, ur., (Dr), 4349 Klingle St., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20016 (M)

GARDNER, MAJORIE H. (Dr), 4242 East West

Hwy., #301, Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F)

GARVIN, DAVID (Dr), 18700 Walker’s Choice

Rd., #519, Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F)

GAUNAURD, GUILLERMO C. (Dr), 4807 Macon

Rd., Rockville, Md. 20852 (F)

GHAFFARI, ABOLGHASSEN (Dr), 5420 Golds-

boro Rd., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F)

GHOSE, RABINDRA N. (Dr), 8167 Mulholland

Terr., Los Angeles Hill, Ca. 90046 (F)

GIACCHETI, ATHOS (Dr), Dept. of Sci. Affairs,

OAS, 1889 F Street, N.W., Washington, D.C.

20006 (M)

GIBSON, JOHN E., Box 96, Gibson, N.C. 28343 (E)

GINTHER, ROBERT J. (Mr), Code 5585, U.S.

Naval Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 20390 (F)

GIST, LEWIS A. (Dr), Sci. Manpower Improve-

ment, Nat'l. Sci. Foundation, Washington,

D.C. 20550 (F)

GLASER, HAROLD (Dr), NASA Headquarters,

Code ST-5, Washington, D.C. 20546 (F)

GLASGOW, AGUSTUSR., Jr., (Dr), 4116 Hamil-

ton St., Hyattsville, Md. 20781 (E)

GLUCKSTERN, ROBERT L. (Dr), Chancellor,

Univ. of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742

(F)

GODFREY, THEODORE B. (Mr), 7508 Old Ches-

ter Rd., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (E)

GOFF, JAMES F. (Dr), 3405 34th Pl., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20016 (F)

GOLDBERG, MICHAEL, 5823 Potomac Ave.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (F)

GOLDBERG, ROBERT N. (Dr), 11257-B Skilift

Ct., Columbia, Md. 21044 (F)

GOLDSMITH, HERBERT (Dr), 238 Congres-

sional La., Rockville, Md. 20852 (M)

GOLDSTEIN, SETHR. (Dr), Nat’l. Inst. of Health,

Bidg. 13, Rm. 3W13, Bethesda, Md. 20205 (F)

GOLUMBIC, CALVIN, 6000 Highboro Dr., Be-

thesda, Md. 20034 (F)

GONET, FRANK (Dr), 4007 N. Woodstock St., Ar-

lington, Va. 22207 (E)

GOODE, ROBERT J., Assoc. Supt., Material

Science & Tech. Division, Code 6301, Naval

Research Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (F)

123

GORDON, RUTHE. (Dr), Waksman Inst. of Micro-

biology, Rutgers Univ., P.O. Box 759, Piscat-

away, N.J. 08854 (F)

GRAMANN, RICHARD H., 1613 Rosemont Ct.,

McLean, Va. 22101 (F)

GRAY, IRVING (Dr), Dept. of Biology, Rm. 406,

Reiss Science Bldg., Georgetown University,

Washington, D.C. 20057 (F)

GREENOUGH, M.L. (Mr), Greenough Data Ass.,

616 Aster Blvd., Rockville, Md. 20850 (F)

GREENSPAN, MARTIN (Mr), 12 Granville Dr.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F)

GREER, SANDRA (Dr), 11402 Stonewood Lane,

Rockville, Md. 20852 (F)

GRISAMORE, NELSON T. (Prof), Nat'l. Academy

of Sciences, 2101 Constitution Ave., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20418 (F)

GROSS, ROSALIND L., Ph.D., 6802 Queens

Chapel Rd., University Park, Md. 20782 (M)

GROSSLING, BERNARDO F. (Dr), 10903 Am-

herst Ave., #241, Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F)

GUILD, PHILIP W. (Dr), 3609 Raymond St.,

Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (M)

HACSKAYLO, EDWARD, Agri. Res. Ctr.-West,

USDA, Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F)

HADARY, DORIS E. (Dr), 9216 Le Velle Dr.,

Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F)

HAENNI, EDWARD O. (Dr), 7907 Glenbrook Rd.,

Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F)

HAGAN, LUCY B. (Dr), 6212 Redwing Road, Be-

thesda, Md. 20034 (F)

HAINES, KENNETH A. (Mr), 3542 N. Delaware

St., Arlington, Va. 22207 (F)

HALL, E. RAYMOND (Dr), Museum of Nat’l. His-

tory, Univ. of Kansas, Lawrence, Ks. 66045 (E)

HALL, STANLEY A. (Mr), 9109 North Branch Dr.,

Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F)

HALL, WAYNE C. (Dr), 557 Lindley Dr., Law-

rence, Ks. 66044 (E)

HALLER, WOLFGANG (Dr), Nat'l. Bureau of

Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F)

HAMBLETON, EDSON J.,5140 Worthington Dr.,

Washington, D.C. 20016 (E)

HAMER, WALTER J. (Dr), 3028 Dogwood St.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015 (E)

HAMMER, GUY S., II (Mr), 8902 Ewing Dr., Be-

thesda, Md. 20034 (F)

HAND, CADET H., Jr., (Prof), Bodega Marine

Lab., Bodega Bay, Ca. 94923 (F)

HANEL, RUDOLF A. (Dr), NASA/Goddard Space

Flight Ctr., Code 690, Greenbelt, Md. 20771 (F)

HANIG, JOSEPH P. (Dr), 822 Eden Court, Alex-

andria, Va. 22308 (F)

HANSEN, LOUIS S. (Dr), School of Dentistry,

San Francisco Med. Ctr., University of Cali-

fornia, San Francisco, Calif. 94143 (F)

124

HANSEN, MORRIS H., Westat Research Inc.,

1650 Research Blvd., Rockville, Md. 20850 (F)

HARMISON, LOWELL T. (Dr), 2307-Rosedown

Drive, Reston, Va. 22091 (F)

HARR, JAMES W. (Mr), 9503 Nordic Dr., Lan-

ham, Md. 20801 (M)

HARRINGTON, FRANCIS D. (Dr), 4600 Ocean

Beach Blvd., #204, Cocoa Beach, FI. 32931 (F)

HARRINGTON, MARSHALL C. (Dr), 4545 Con-

necticut Ave., N.W., #334, Washington, D.C.

20008 (E)

HARRIS, FOREST K. (Dr), Nat'l. Bureau of Stand-

ards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F)

HARRIS, MILTON (Dr), 3300 Whitehaven St.,

Suite 500, Washington, D.C. 20007 (F)

HARRISON, W.N. (Mr), 3734 Windom PI., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20016 (F)

HARTLEY, JANET W. (Dr), Nat’l. Inst. of Allergy

D., Nat'l. Instit. of Health, Bethesda, Md.

20014 (F)

HARTMANN, GREGORY K. (Dr), 10701 Keswick

St., Garrett Park, Md. 20766 (E)

~HARTZLER, MARY P. (Ms), 3326 Hartwell Ct.,

Falls Church, Va. 22042 (M)

HASKINS, C. P. (Dr), 2100 M St., N.W., Suite 600,

Washington, D.C. 20037 (E)

HASS, GEORG H. (Dr), 7728 Lee Ave., Alexan-

dria, Va. 22308 (F) .

HAUPTMAN, HERBERT (Dr), Med. Foundation

of Buffalo, 73 High St., Buffalo, N.Y. 14203 (F)

HAYDEN, GEORGE A., 1312 Juniper St., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20012 (F)

HAYES, PATRICK (Dr), 950 25th St., N.W., #707,

Washington, D.C. 20037 (F)

HEADLEY, ANNE R. (Ms), 2500 Virginia Ave.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037 (F)

HEIFFER, M. H. (Dr), Whitehall Apt. 701, 4977

Battery La., Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F)

HEINRICH, KURT F. (Dr), 804 Blossom Dr.,

Woodley Gardens, Rockville, Md. 20850 (F)

HEINS, CONRAD P. (Dr), Civil Engin. Dept.,

Univ. of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742 (F)

HENDERSON, E. P. (Dr), Div. of Meteorites, U.S.

Nat'l. Museum, Washington, D.C. 20560 (E)

HENDRICKSON, WAYNE A. (Dr), Lab. for the

Struc. of Matter, Nav. Res. Lab-Code 6030,

Washington, D.C. 20375 (F)

HENNEBERRY, THOMAS J. (Dr), 1409 E. North

Share Dr., Temple, Ariz. 85282 (F) __

HENRY, WARREN D. (Dr), P.O. Box 761, Howard

University, Washington, D.C. 20059 (F)

HENVIS, BERTHA W. (Mrs), Code 5277, Naval

Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (M)

HERMACH, FRANCIS L. (Dr), 2415 Eccleston

St., Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F)

HERBERMAN, RONALD B., 8528 Atwell Rd., Po-

tomac, Md. 20854 (E)

HERMAN, ROBERT (Dr), 8434 Antero Dr., Aus-

tin; ix 78 7594(F)

HERSCHMAN, HARRY K., 4701 Willard Ave.,

Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (E) :

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 3, 1980

HERSEY, JOHN B. (Dr), 923 Harriman St., Great

Falls, Va. 22066 (M)

HESS, WALTER C. (Dr), 3607 Chesapeake St.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (E)

HEWSTON, ELIZABETH M. (Ms), Felicity Cove,

Shady Side, Md. 20867 (F)

HEYDEN, FRANCIS, P.O. Box 1231, Manila, Philip-

pines 2800 (E)

HEYER, W.R. (Dr), Amphibian & Rept. Nat. Hist.

Bld., Smithsonian Institution, Washington,

D.C. 20560 (F)

HIATT, CASPER W., Ph.D., Univ. Texas, Health

Science Ctr., 7703 Floyd Curl Dr., San Anto-

nio, Texas 78284 (F)

HICKLEY, THOMAS J. (Mr), 626 Binnacle Dr.,

Naples, Fl. 33940 (F)

HOLMGREN, HARRY D. (Dr), 3044-3 R St., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20007 (F)

HILDEBRAND, EARL M. (Dr), 11092 Timberlane

Dr, sun City, Az. 85351 (E)

HILL, FREEMAN K. (Dr), 12408 Hall’s Shop Rd.,

Fulton, Md. 20759 (F)

HILLABRANT, WALTER (Dr), 1927 38th Street,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007 (ML)

HILSENRATH, JOSEPH (Mr), 9603 Brunett Ave.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20901 (F) :

HILTON, JAMES L., Ph.D., Agr. Res. Ctr. (W),

USDA, ARS, Beltsville, Md. 20705 (E)

HOBBS, ROBERT B. (Dr), 7715 Old Chester Rd.,

Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F)

HOFFMAN, C. H. (Dr), 6906 40th Ave., University

Park, Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (E)

HOGAN, ROBERT (Dr), Dept. of Psychology,

The Johns Hopkins Univ., Baltimore, Md.

21218 (F)

HOGE, HAROLD J. (Dr), 5 Rice Spring La., Way-

land, Ma. 01778 (F)

HOLLIES, NORMAN PR. S., Gillette Research

Inst., 1413 Research Blvd., Rockville, Md.

20850 (F)

HOLMGREN, HARRY D. (Dr), 3044-3 R St., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20007 (F)

HOLSHOUSER, WILLIAM L., Route 1, Box 26,

Banner Elk, N.C. 28604 (F)

HONIG, JOHN C. (Dr), Off. Dept., Chief of Staff,

Dev. & Acquis.-Arm., The Pent., Washington,

D.C. 20310 (F)

HOOD, KENNETH J. (Dr), 2000 Huntington Ave.,

#1118, Alexandria, Va. 22303 (M)

HOPP, THEODORE H. (Mr), 2800 Powder Mill

Rd., Adelphi, Md. 20783 (M)

HOPP, HENRY (Dr), 6604 Michaels Dr., Bethesda,

Md. 20034 (E)

HOPPS, HOPE E. (Mrs), 1762 Overlook Dr.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20903 (F)

HORNSTEIN, IRWIN (Dr), 5920 Byrn Mawr Rd.,

College Park, Md. 20740 (F)

HOROWITZ, E. (Dr), Johns Hopkins Univ., Ctr.

for Materials Research, Maryland Hall, Balti-

more, Md. 21218 (F)

HORTON, BILLY M., 14250 Larchmere Blvd.,

Shaker Heights, Oh. 44120 (F)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 3, 1980

HOWELL, BARBARA F. (Dr), 13405 Accent Way,

Germantown, Md. 20767 (M)

HOWARD, JAMES H. (Dr), 3822 Albemarle St.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (F)

HUANG, KUN-YEN, 1445 Laurel Hill Rd., Vienna,

Va. 22180 (F)

HUBBARD, DONALD (Dr), 4807 Chevy Chase

Dr., Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F)

HUDSON, COLIN M., Ph.D., Prod., Plan Dept.,

Deere & Co., John Deere Rd., Moline, III.

61265 (E)

HUGH, RUDOLPH, Ph.D., GWU, Sch. of Med.,

Dept. of Microb., 2300 Eye St., N.W., Washing-

ton; D!G: 20037 (Ee)

HUNTER, RICHARD S. (Mr), Hunter Assoc. Lab.

Inc., P.O. Box 2637, Reston, Va. 22090 (F)

HUNTER, WILLIAM R., U.S. Naval Res. Lab., Wash-

ington, D.C. 20390 (F)

HURDLE, BURTON G. (Mr), 6222 Berkeley Rd.,

Alexandria, Va. 22307 (F)

HURITT, WOODLAND (Dr), USDA-SEA, P.O.

Box 1209, Frederick, Md. 21701 (M)

HUTTON, GEORGE L. (Mr), 809 Avondale Dr.,

West Lafayette, Ind. 47906 (F)

IRVING, GEORGE W. (Dr), 4836 Langdrum La.,

Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F)

IRWIN, GEORGE R. (Dr), 7306 Edmonston Rad.,

College Park, Md. 20740 (F)

ISBELL, H.S. (Dr), 4704 Blagden Ave., N.W., Wash-

ington, D.C. 20011 (F)

ISENSTEIN, ROBERT S. (Dr), FSQ5, Bldg. 318-C,

Barc-East, USDA, Beltsville, Md. 20705 (M)

JACKSON, JO-ANNE (Dr), 4412 Independence

St., Rockville, Md. 20853 (M)

JACKSON, PATRICIA (Mrs), Plant Stress, Bldg.

001, Rm. 207, Agriculture Res. Ctr. (West),

Beltsville, Md. 20705 (M)

JACOBS, WOODROW C. (Dr), 6309 Bradley

Blvd., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (E)

JACOBSON, MARTIN (Mr), U.S. Dept. of Agri-

culture, Agric. Res. Ctr.-East, Beltsville, Md.

20705 (F)

JACOX, Marilyn E. (Dr), Nat'l. Bureau of Stnds.,

Wahington, D.C. 20234 (F)

JAMES, MAURICET., Dept, Emtomology, Wash-

ington State Univ., Pullman, Wa. 99163 (E)

JANI, LORRAINE L., P.O. Box 898, Lutz, FI.

33549 (E)

JAROSEWICH, EUGENE (Mr), 10th & Constitu-

tion Ave., Smithsi. Instit., Washington, D.C.

20560 (M)

125

JEN, C. K. (Dr), Applied Physics Lab., Johns

Hopkins Rd., Laurel, Md. 20810 (E)

JENSEN, ARTHUR S. (Dr), Westinghouse Def. &

Elec. Ctr., Box 1521, Baltimore, Md. 21203 (F)

JESSUP. R.S., 7001 W. Greenvale Pkwy., Chevy

Chase, Md. 20015 (F)

JOHANNESEN. ROLF B. (Dr), Nat’l Bureau of

Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F)

JOHNSON, CHARLES R. (Dr), Inst. for Physical

Sci. & Tech., Univ. of Maryland, College Park,

Md. 20742 (F)

JOHNSON, DANIEL P., Rt. 1, Box 156, Bonita,

at is1i223° (E)

JOHNSON, EDGAR M. (Dr), U.S. Army Rech.

Inst. for Behav. & Social Sci., (Ari)-5001

Eisenhow Avenue, Alexandria, Va. 22333 (F)

JOHNSON, KEITH C. (Mr), 4422 Davenport St.,

N.W., Washington, D.C.:20016 (F)

JOHNSON, PHYLLIS T. (Dr), Nat’l. Mar. Fisher-

ies Service, Oxford Lab., Oxford, Md. 21654 (F)

JONES, CORYL LARUE (Dr), 3044-37th St.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007 (F)

JONES, HENRY A. (Dr), P.O. Box 49, Cave

Creek, Az. 85331 (E)

JONES, HOWARD S. (Dr), 6200 Sligo Mill Rd.,

N.E., Washington, D.C. 20011 (F)

JONG, SHUNG-CHANG (Dr), Amer. Type Cult.

Collection, 12301 Parklawn Dr., Rockville,

Md. 20852 (F)

JORDAN, GARY BLAKE, 1012 Olmo Ct., San

Jose, Ca. 95129 (M)

KABLER, MILTON N. (Dr), 3109 Cunningham

Dr., Alexandria, Va. 22309 (F)

KAISER, HANS R. (Dr), 433 Southwest Dr., Silver

Spring, Md. 20901 (M)

KAPETANAKOS, CHRISTOS A. (Dr), Naval Re-

search Lab.—Code 4761, Washington, D.C.

20375 (M)

KARR, PHILIP R. (Dr), 5507 Celle De Arboles,

Torrance, Ca. 90505 (E)

KARRER, ANNIE MAY (Dr), Port Republic, Md.

20676 (E)

KAUFMAN, H. P. (Lt. Col.), Box 1135, #461, Fed-

haven, Fla. 33854 (F)

KEARNEY, PHILIP C. (Dr), 8416 Shears Ct., Lau-

rel, Md. 20810 (F)

KEBABIAN, JOHN (Dr), 609 Muriel St., Rock-

ville, Md. 20852 (F)

KEELER, ROGER NOMS, P.O. Box 637, Diablo,

Ca. 94528 (F)

KEGELES, GERSON (Dr), 6-Oakwood Drive,

Stafford Springs, Ct. 06076 (F)

KEISER, BERNHARD E. (Dr), 2046 Carrhill Road,

Vienna, Va. 22180 (F)

KERST, STEPHEN (Dr), 701 Devonshire Rd., Ta-

koma Park, Md. 20012 (F)

KESSLER, KARL G. (Dr), Bldg. 164 Physics, Na-

126

tional Bureau Standards, Washington, D.C.

20234 (F)

KEULEGAN, GARBIS H. (Dr), 215 Buena Vista

Dr., Vicksburg, Ms. 39180 (F)

KLEBANOFF, PHILIP S., Fluid Engineering Div.,

Nat’l. Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.

20234 (F)

KLINGSBERG, CYRUS (Dr), Adams House, #1010,

118 Monroe St., Rockville, Md. 20850 (F)

KNOBLOCK, EDWARD C. (Col), 7767 Dollyhyde

Rd., Mt. Airy, Md. 21771 (F)

KNOWLTON, KATHRYN (Dr), 2122 Massachu-

setts Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (F)

KNOX, ARTHUR S., 2006 Columbia Rd., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20009 (M)

KNUTSON, LLOYD V. (Dr), Room 1, Bldg. 003,.

Beltsville Agric. Res. Center, Beltsville, Md.

20705 (F)

KROP, STEPHEN (Dr), 7908 Birmam Wood Drive,

McLean, Va. 22102 (F)

KRUGER, JEROME (Dr), B254, Materials Bldg.,

National Bureau of Standards, Washington,

D.C. 20234 (F)

KUSHNER, LAWRENCE (Dr), Mitre Corp., 1820

Dolley Madison Blvd., McLean, Va. 22102 (F)

LAKI, KOLOMAN (Dr), Bldg. 4, Nat’l. Insts. of

Health, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F)

LANDSBERG, H. E. (Dr), 5116 Yorkville Rd.,

Temple Hills, Md. 20031 (F)

LANDMAN, RUTH (Dr), Dept. of Anth., American

University, Washington, D.C. 20016 (F)

LANG, MARTHA E. C., 3133 Connecticut Ave.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (F)

LANGFORD, GEORGE S. (Dr), 4606 Hartwick

Rd., College Park, Md. 20740 (E)

LAPHAM, EVAN G., 2242 S.E. 28th St., Cape

Coral, Fl. 33904 (E)

LAWSON, ROGER H. (Dr), 4912 Ridgeview La.,

Bowie, Md. 20715 (F)

LEACHMAN, ROBERT B., 929 6th St., S.W., Wash-

ington, D.C. 20024 (F)

LE CLERG, ERWIN L. (Dr), 14620 Deerhurst

Terr., Silver Spring, Md. 20906 (E)

LEE, RICHARD H. (Dr), RD 2, Box 143E, Lewes,

De. 19958 (E)

LEIBOWITZ, JACK R., 12608 Davan Dr., Silver

Spring, Md. 20904 (E)

LEIBOWITZ, LAWRENCE M. (Dr), 9704 Gals-

worth Court, Fairfax, Va. 22032 (F)

LEINER, ALAN L., 580 Arastradero Rd., #804,

Palo Alto, Ca. 94306 (E)

LEJINS, PETER P. (Dr), Univ. of Maryland, 7114

Eversfield Drive, College Heights Estates, Md.

20782 (F)

LENTZ, PAUL L. (Dr), 5 Orange Ct., Greenbelt,

Md. 20770 (F) :

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 3, 1980

LESSOFF, HOWARD (Mr), Code 6820, Naval

Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (F)

LEVY, SAMUEL, 2279 Preisman Dr., Schnectady,

N.Y. 12309 (E)

LEIBLEIN, JULIUS (Dr), 1621 E. Jefferson St.,

Rockville, Md. 20852 (E)

LIEBERMAN, JOHN (Mr), 3925 Ledrich Blvd.,

Fairfax, Va. 22031 (F)

LIN, MING-CHANG (Dr), 8897 McNair Drive,

Alexandria, Va. 22309 (F)

LINDQUIST, ARTHUR W., Rt. 1, Box 36, Linds-

borg, Ka. 67450 (E)

LINDSEY, IRVING (Mr), 202 E. Alexandria Ave.,

Alexandria, Va. 22301 (E)

LING, LEE, 1608 Belvoir Dr., Los Altos, Ca. 94022

(E)

LINK, CONRAD B. (Dr), Dept. of Horticulture,

Univ. of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742

(F)

LIST, ROBERT J. (Mr), 1123 Hammond Pkwy.,

Alexandria, Va. 22302 (E)

LOCKARD, J. DAVID (Dr), Botany Dept., Univ. of

Md., College Park, Md. 20740 (F)

LOEBENSTEIN, WILLIAM V. (Dr), 8501 Sundale

Dr., Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (E)

LONG, B. J. (Mrs), 416 Riverbend Rd., Oxon Hill,

Md. 20022 (F)

LORING, BLAKE M. (Dr), Rt.2, Box 137, Laconia,

N.H. 03246 (F)

LUSTIG, ERNEST (Dr), Ges-Bistechnal Forsch,

Mascheroder Weg 1, D-3300, Braunschweig,

Germany (F)

LYNCH, THOMAS J. (Dr), NASA/Goddard Space

Flight Ctr., Code 930, Greenbelt, Md. 20771

(F)

LYONS, JOHN W. (Dr), Rt. 4, Box 261, Mt. Airy,

Md. 21771 (F)

MADDEN, JEREMIAH J., NASA/Goddard Space

Flight Ctr., Code 403, Greenbelt, Md. 20771

(F)

MAENGWYN-DAVIES, G.D. (Dr), 15205 Totten-

ham Terr., Silver Spring, Md. 20906 (E)

MAGIN, GEORGEB., Jr., General Delivery, Bak-

erton, W.Va. 25410 (F)

MAHAN, A. I. (Dr), 1128 Spotswood Dr., Silver

Springs, Md. 20904 (E)

MAIENTHAL, MILLARD (Dr), 10116 Bevern La.,

Potomac, Md. 20854 (F)

MALONE, THOMAS B. (Dr), 6633 Kennedy Lane,

Falls Church, Va. 22042 (F)

MANDEL, JOHN (Dr), B356, Chemical Bldg.,

Nat'l. Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.

20234 (F)

MANDERSCHEID, R. W. (Dr), 6 Monument Ct.,

Rockville, Md. 20850 (F)

MANNING, JOHN R. (Dr), Metal Science & Stds.

Div., Nat'l. Bureau of Stds., Washington, D.C.

20234 (F)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 3, 1980

MARCELLO, JOSEPH M. (Dr), 3624 Marlborough

Way, College Park, Md. 20742 (F)

MARCUS MARVIN (Dr), Dept. of Mathematics,

Univ. of Ca., Santa Barbara, Ca. 93106 (F)

MARTIN, JOHNH., Ph.D., 124.N.W. 7th St., #303,

Corvallis Or. 97330 (E)

MARTIN, P. E., EDWARD J. (Dr), 7721 Dew

Wood Drive, Derwood, Md. 20855 (F)

MARTIN, ROBERT H., 2257 N. Nottingham St.,

Arlington, Va. 22205 (E)

MARTON, L., Editorial Office, 4515 LinneanAve.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (E)

MARVIN, ROBERT S. (Dr), 11700 Stony Creek

Rd., Potomac, Md. 20854 (E)

MARYOTT, ARTHUR ALLEN (Dr), 4404 Maple

Ave., Bethesda, Md. 20014 (E)

MASON, HENRY LEA (Dr), 7008 Meadow Lane,

Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F)

MASSEY, JOET., 10111 Parkwood Dr., Bethesda,

Md. 20014 (F)

MATLACK, MARION (Dr), 2700 N. 25th St., Ar-

lington, Va. 22207 (E)

MAY, DONALD G., Jr.,5931 Oakdale Rd., McLean,

Va. 22101 (F)

MAY, IRVING, U.S. Geological Survey, 917 Brent-

wood Ln., Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F)

MAYOR, JOHN R., Asst. Provost for Research of

Human & Community, Univ. of Md., College

Park, Md. 20742 (F)

MC BRIDE, GORDON W., 3323 Stuyvessant PI.,

N.W., Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (E)

MC CULLOUGH, JAMES M. (Dr), 6209 Apache

St., Springfield, Va. 22150 (M)

MC CULLOUGH, N. B. (Dr), Dept. of Microbiol-

ogy & Public Health, Michigan St. University,

East Lansing, Mich. 48823 (F)

MC ELROY, JOHN (Dr), 1794 Stonegate Avenue,

Crofton, Md. 21114 (F)

MC KENZIE, LAWSON M. (Mr), 606 Madison

Bldg., 1111 Arlington Blvd., Arlington, Va.

22209 (F)

MC NESBY, JAMES R., Dept. of Chemistry/Univ.

Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742 (E)

MC PHEE, HIGH C. (Dr), 3450 Toledo Terr.,

#425, Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (E)

MC PHERSON, ARCHIBALD T., 403 Russell Ave.,

Apt. 804, Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (L)

MC WRIGHT, C. G. (Dr), 7409 Estaban PI., Spring-

field, Va. 22151 (M)

MEADE, BUFORD K. (Mr), 5516 Bradley Blvd.,

Alexandria, Va. 22311 (F)

MEARS, FLORENCE M. (Dr), 8004 Hampden _La.,

Bethesda, Md. 20014 (E)

MEARS, THOMAS W. (Mr), 2809 Hathaway Terr.,

Wheaton, Md. 20906 (F)

MEBS, RUSSELL W. (Dr), 6620 32nd St., N., Ar-

lington, Va. 22213 (F)

MELMED, ALLAN J. (Dr), 732 Tiffany Ct., Gai-

thersburg, Md. 20760 (F)

MENDELSOHN, MARK B. (Dr), Clinical Psy-

chology, 2606 Viking Drive, Herndon, Va.

22070 (F)

127

MENIS, OSCAR, Analytical Chem. Div., Nat’l.

Bureau of Stds., Washington, D.C. 20234 (E)

MENZER, ROBERT E. (Dr), 7203 Wells Pky.,

Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (F)

MERRIAM, CARROLL F. (Mr), Prospect Harbor,

Box 25B, Maine 04669 (F)

MESSINA, CARLA G. (Mrs), 9800 Marquette Dr.,

Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F)

MEYERSON, MELVIN R., 611 Goldsborough Dr.,

Rockville, Md. 20850 (F)

MICHAELIS, ROBERT E., Nat’l. Bureau of Stds.,

Chemistry Bidg., Rm. B314, Washington, D.C.

20234 (F)

MIDDLETON, H.E. (Dr), 3600 Grove Ave., Rich-

mond, Va. 23221 (E)

MILLAR, DAVID B. (Dr), NMRI, NNMC, Stop 36,

Phys. Biochemistry Div., Washington, D.C.

20014 (F)

MILLER, CARL F., P.O. Box 127 Gretna, Va.

24557 (E)

MILLER, J. CHARLES (Dr), 312 S. Wetherly Dr.,

#302, Los Angeles, Ca. 90048 (E)

MILLER, PAUL R. (Dr), 207 S. Pebble Beach

Blvd., Sun City Ctr., Fl. 33570 (E)

MILLER, ROBERT W. (Mrs), 11632 Deborah Dr.,

Potomac, Md. 20854 (E)

MILLER, ROMAN R. (Mr), 1232 Pinecrest Circle,

Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F)

MITCHELL, J. MURRAY (Dr), 1106 Dogwood

Dr., McLean, Va. 22101 (F)

MITTLEMAN, DON (Dr), 80 Parkwood Ln., Ober-

lin, OH 44074 (F)

MIZELL, LOUIS R. (Mr), 108 Sharon La., Green-

law, N.Y. 11740 (F)

MOLINO, JOHN A. (Dr), Sound Building, Nat’.

Bureau of Stds., Washington, D.C. 20234 (M)

MOLLARI, MARIO (Prof), 4527 45th St., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20016 (E)

MOORE, GEORGE A. (Dr), 1108 Agnew Dr.,

Rockville, Md. 20851 (E)

MOORE, J. GLEN, Science Policy Res. Div.,

Congressional Research Serv., Library of Con-

gress, Washington, D.C. 20540 (M)

MORRIS, J. A. (Dr), 23-E Ridge Rd., Greenbelt,

Md. 20770 (M)

MORRIS, JOSEPH BURTON, Dept. of Chemis-

try, Howard Univ., Washington, D.C. 20001

(F)

MORRIS, KELSO B. (Dr), 1448 Leegate Rad.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20012 (F)

MORRIS, MRS. MARLENE C(OOK), Nat’l. Bu-

reau of Standards, A22!, Mat. Bldg., Washing-

ton, D.C. 20234 (F)

MORRISS, DONALD J., 102 Baldwin Ct., Pt.

Charlotte, Fl. 33950 (E)

MOSTOFI, F. K. (Dr), Armed Forces Inst. of Pa-

thology, Washington, D.C. 20306 (F)

MOUNTAIN, RAYMOND D. (Dr), B216, Physics

Bldg., National Bureau of Stand., Washing-

ton, D.C. 20234 (F)

MUEHLHAUSE, C. O., Ph.D., 9105 Seven Locks

Rd., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (E)

128

MUESEBECK CARL F. W., 715 No. Ell Road,

Camano Island, Washington 98292 (E)

MULLIGAN, JAMES H., Jr., (Dr), 12121 Sky La.,

Santa Ana, Calif. 92705 (F)

MUMMA, MICHAEL J. (Dr), NASA/Goddard Space

Flight Ctr., Code 693, Greenbelt, Md. 20771

(F)

MURDAY, JAMES (Dr), 7116 Red Horse Tavern

Rd., Springfield, Va. 22153 (F)

MURDOCH, WALLACE P. (Dr), RD 2, Gettys-

puroyPanl/s25: (5)

MURRAY, THOMAS H. (Dr). 2915 27th St., N., Ar-

lington, Va. 22207

MURRAY, WILLIAM §S,, 1281 Bartonshire Way,

Potomac Woods, Rockville, Md. 20854 (F)

MYERS, RALPH D. (Dr), 4611 Guilford Rd., Col-

lege Park, Md. 20740 (F)

MYERS, RONALD R., 221 Vernon Rd., Morris-

ville, Pa. 10967 (E)

NAESER, CHARLES R., 6654 Van Winkle Dr.,

Falls Church, Va. 22044 (E)

NAIDEN, EULAINE, 6107 Roseland Dr., Rock-

ville, Md. 20852 (M)

NAMIAS, JEROME, 2251 Sverdrup Hall, Scripps

Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, Calif.

92093 (F)

NAUGLE, JOHN E., 7211 Rollingwood Drive,

Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (E)

NEALE, JOSEPH H. (Dr), Georgetown Univ./Dept.

of Biology, 406 Reiss Science Bldg., 37th & O

Streets, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20057 (F)

NELSON, R.H.512 Albright Dr., Bethany Village,

Mechanicsburg, Pa. 17055 (F)

NEPOMUCENE, ST. JOHN, Sr., Villa Julie, Val-

ley Rd., Stevenson, Md. 21153 (E)

NEUENDORFFER, J. A. (Dr), 911 Allison St.,

Alexandria, Va. 22302 (E)

NEUPERT, WERNER M. (Dr), NASA/Goddard

Space Flight Ctr., Code 682, Greenbelt, Md.

20771 (F)

NEUSCHEL, SHERMAN K. (Mr), 7501 Democ-

racy Blvd., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F)

NEWMAN, MORRIS (Dr), Dept. of Math./U. of

Calif., Santa Barbara, Calif. 93106 (F)

NICKERSON, DOROTHY (Miss), 4800 Fillmore

Ave., #450, Alexandria, Va. 22311 (E)

NOFFSINGER, TERRELL La., 9623 Sutherland

Rd., Silver Spring, Md. 20901 (F)

NORRIS, KARL H. (Mr), 11204 Montgomery Rd.,

Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F)

OBERLE, E. MARILYN, 2801 Quebec St., N.W.,

Apt. 6, Washington, D.C. 20008 (M) :

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 3, 1980

O’CONNOR, JAMES V., 10108 Haywood Cir.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (M)

OEHSER, PAUL H. (Mr), 9012 Old Dominion Dr.,

McLean, Va. 22101 (E)

ORDWAY, FRED D., Jr., (Dr), 5205 Elsmere Ave.,

Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F)

O’HARE, JOHN (Dr), 301 G. St., S.W., #824,

Washington, D.C. 20024 (F)

O’HARN, ELIZABETH M. (Dr), 633 G. St., S.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20024 (F)

OKABE, HIDEO, Room 268, Physics, Natl. Bu-

reau of Stds., Washington, D.C. 20234 (F)

O’KEEFE, JOHN A. (Dr), Natl. Aeronautics &

Space Adm., Code 681, Greenbelt, Md. 20771

(F)

OLIPHANT, MALCOLM W. (Dr), 1606 Ulupii St.,

Kaelua, Hawaii 96734 (F)

OSER, HANS J. (Dr), 8810 Quiet Stream Ct., Po-

tomac, Md. 20854 (F)

OTA, HAJIME F. (Mr), 5708 64th Ave., E. River-

dale, Md. 20840 (F)

OWENS, JAMES P. (Mr), 14528 Bauer Dr., Rock-

ville, Md. 20853 (F)

PAPADOPOULOS, K. (Dr), 6346 32nd St., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20015 (F)

PARKER, ROBERT L. (Dr), Metal Science & Stds.

Div., Natl. Bureau of Stnds., Washington, D.C.

20234 (F)

PARMAN, GEORGE K. (Mr), 8054 Fairfax Rd.,

Alexandria, Va. 22308 (F)

PARSONS, H. MC ILVAINE, Human Resource

Res. Org., 300 N. Washington St., Alexandria,

Va. 22314 (F)

PARRY-HILL, JEAN (Ms), 3803 Military Rd.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015 (M)

PATRICK, ROBERT L. (Dr), 6 Don Mills Court,

Rockville, Md. 20850 (F)

PELCZAR, MICHAEL J. (Dr), 4318 Clagett Pine-

way, University Park, Md. 20782 (F)

PELLERIN, CHARLES J., Jr., (Dr), NASA Head-

quarters, Code SM-8, Washington, D.C. 20546

(F)

PERROS, THEODORE (Dr), Dept. of Chemistry,

George Washington Univ., Washington, D.C.

20006 (F)

PHAIR, GEORGE (Dr), 14700 River Rd., Po-

tomac, Md. 20854 (F)

PIEPER, GEORGE F(RANCIS) (Dr), Code 600,

NASA, Goddard Space Flight Center, Green-

belt, Md. 20771 (F)

PIKL, JOSEF, 211 Dickinson Rd., Glassboro, N.J.

08028 (E)

PITTMEN, MARGARET (Miss), 3133 Connecti-

cut Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (E)

PLAIT, ALAN O. (Mr), 5402 Yorkshire St., Kings

Park, Springfield, Va. 22151 (F)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 3, 1980

POLACHEK, HARRY (Dr), 11801 Rockville Pike,

Rockville, Md. 20852 (E)

POLLACK, FLORA G. (Mrs), Room 329/Bio-

science Bldg., Beltsville Agri. Res. Ctr., W.,

Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F)

PONNAMPERUMA, CYRIL (Dr), Lab. of Chem.

Evolution, U. of Md., Dept. of Chem., College

Park, Md. 20742 (F)

POOS, FRED W. (Dr), 5100 Fillmore Ave., Alex-

andria, Va. 22311 (F)

POWERS, KENDALL G. (Dr), 6311 Alcott Rd.,

Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F)

PRESLEY, JOHN T. (Dr), 3811 Courtney Circle,

Bryan, Tx. 77801 (E)

PRESTON, MALCOLM ‘S. (Dr), 10 Kilkea Ct., Bal-

timore, Md. 21236 (M)

PRINZ, DIANNE K. (Dr), Code 4141.2, Naval Res.

Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (M)

PRO, MAYNARD J. (Mr), 7904 Falstaff Rd., McLean,

Va. 22101 (F)

PRYOR, C. NICHOLAS (Dr), Bleak House, Atlan-

tic Ave., Newport, R.1. 02840 (F)

PUGH, MARION STIRLING, Little Fedders Green,

Round Hill, Va. 22141 (M)

PURCELL, ROBERT H. (Dr), 17517 White Grounds

Rd., Boyds, Md. 20720 (F)

PYKE, THOMAS N., Jr., (Mr), Technology Bldg.,

A231, Natl. Bureau of Standards, Washing-

ton, D.C. 20234 (F)

QUIROZ, RODERICK S. (Mr), 4520 Yuma Street,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (F)

RABINOW, JACOB, 6920 Selkirk Dr., Bethesda,

Md. 20034 (F)

RADER, CHARLES A. (Mr), Gillette Res. Inst.,

1413 Research Blvd., Rockville, Md. 20850 (F)

RADO, GEORGE T. (Dr), 818 Carrie Ct., McLean,

Va. 22101 (F)

RAINWATER, H. IVAN (Dr), 2805 Liberty PI.,

Bowie, Md. 20715 (E)

RAMIREZ-FRANKLIN, LOUISE, 2501 N. Florida

St., Arlington, Va. 22207 (E)

RAMS, EDWIN M. (Mr), 12112 Lerner Place,

Bowie, Md. 20715 (M)

RAMSAY, MAYNARD (Mr), 3806 Viser Ct.,

Bowie, Md. 20715 (F)

RANEY, WILLIAM P. (Dr), Asst. Assoc. Admin.

for Space & Terrestrail Appl., 600 Independ-

ence Ave., S.W., Washington, D.C. 20546 (M)

RANGO, ALBERT (Dr), NASA/Goddard Space

Flight Ctr., Code 924, Greenbelt, Md. 20771

(F)

129

RAUSCH, ROBERT (Dr), Development of Animal

Med., SB-42, School of Med./U. of Wash.,

Seattle. Wash. 98195 (F)

RAVITSKY, CHARLES, 1505 Drexel St., Takoma

Park, Md. 20012 (E)

RAY, JOSEPH W. (Dr), Battelle Memorial Insti-

tute, 2030 M Street, N.W., Washington, D.C.

20036 (F)

READING, O. S. (Capt), 6 N. Howells Point Rd.,

Bellport Suffolk City, N.Y. 11713 (E)

RECHICIGL, MILOSLAV, JR., (Dr), 1703 Mark

La., Rockville, Md. 20852 (F)

REED, WILLIAM D., 4740 Connecticut Ave., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20008 (F)

REHDER, HARALD A. (Dr), 5620 Ogden Rd., Be-

thesda, Md. 20016 (F)

REINER, ALVIN (Mr), 11243 Bybee St., Silver

Spring, Md. 20902 (M)

REINHART, FRANK W., 9918 Sutherland Rd.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20901 (F)

REINHART, FRED M. (Dr), 210 Grand Ave., Apt.

1, Ojai, Calif. 93023 (M)

REMMERS, GENE M. (Mr), 7322 Craftown, Rd.,

Fairfax Station, Va. 22039 (M)

REYNOLDS, ORR E. (Dr), American Physiologi-

cal Soc., 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Md.

20014 (F)

RHODES, IDA, (Mrs), 6676 Georgia Ave., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20012 (E)

RHYNE, JAMES J. 63 Brassie Ct., Gaithersburg,

Md. 20760 (F)

RICE, FREDERICK A. (Dr), 8005 Carita Ct., Be-

thesda, Md. 20034 (F)

RIOCH, DAVID MC K. (Dr), 2429 Linden La.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F)

RITT, P.E., General Telephone & Electr., 40 Syl-

van Rd., Waltham, Mass. 02154 (F)

RIVLIN, RONALD S. (Dr), Center for Appl. of

Math., Lehigh Univ., 203 E. Packer Ave., Beth-

lehem, Pa. 18015 (F)

ROBBINS, MARY L. (Dr), Tatsuno House, A23,

2-1-8 Ogikubo, Suginami-Ku, Tokyo, 167,

Japan (E)

ROBERTS, ELLIOT B., 4500 Wetherill Rd.,

Washington, D.C. 20016 (E)

ROBERTS, RICHARD C. (Dr), 5170 Phantom Ct.,

Columbia, Md. 21044 (F)

ROBERTSON, A. F. (Mr), 4228 Butterworth PI.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (F)

ROBERTSON, RANDAL M., 1404 Highland Cir-

cle S, Blacksburg, Va. 24060 (E)

ROCK, GEORGE D. (Mr), The Kennedy Warren,

3133 Connecticut Ave., N.W., Washington,

D.C. 20008 (E)

RODNEY, WILLIAM S. (Dr), 8112 Whites Ford

Way, Rockville, Md. 20854 (F)

RODRIGUEZ, RAUL, 254 Tous Soto Baldrich,

Hato Rey, P.R. 00198 (F)

ROLLER, PAUL S., 1440 N St., N.W., Apt. 1011,

Washington, D.C. 20005 (E)

ROSADO, JOHN A., 10519 Edgemont Dr., Adel-

phi, Md. 20783 (F)

130

ROSCHER, NINA (Dr), 10400 Hunter Ridge Dr.,

Oakton, Va. 22124 (F)

ROSE, WILLIAM K. (Dr), 10916 Picasso Ln., Po-

tomac, Md. 20854 (F)

ROSENBLATT, DAVID (Prof), 2939 Van Ness St.,

N.W., #702, Washington, D.C. 20008 (F)

ROSENBLATT, JOAN R. (Dr), 2939 Van Ness St.,

N.W., #702, Washington, D.C. 20008 (F)

ROSENTHAL, JENNY E. (Dr), 7124 Strathmore

St., Falls Church, Va. 22042 (F)

ROSENTHAL, SANFORD M. (Dr), Bldg. 4, Rm.

122, Natl. Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Md.

20205 (E)

ROSS, FRANKLIN (Mr), 2816 North Dinwiddie

St., Arlington, Va. 22207 (F)

ROSS, SHERMAN (Dr), 19715 Greenside Ter-

race, Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F)

ROSSINI, FREDERICK D. (Dr), 2131 N-E. 58

Court, Fort Lauderdale, Fla. 33308 (E)

ROTH, FRANK L., 200 E. 22nd, #33, Roswell,

N.M. 88201 (E)

ROTKIN, ISRAEL, 11504 Regnid Dr., Wheaton,

Md. 20902 (E)

RUBIN, MORTON J. (Mr), World Meteorological

Org., Casa Postale #5, CH-1211, Geneva 20,

Switzerland (F)

RUPP, N. W. (Dr), Rm. A157, Bldg. 224, Natl. Bu-

reau of Stnds., Washington, D.C. 20234 (F)

RUSSELL, LOUISE M. (Miss), Bldg. 004/Agr.

Res. Ctr., West, USDA, Beltsville, Md. 20705

(F)

RYERSON, KNOWLES A. 15 Arlmonte Dr.,

Berkeley, Calif. 940707 (E)

SAENZ, ALBERT W. (Dr), Radiation Tech. Div.,

Naval Res. Lab., Code 6603S, Washington,

D.C. 20375 (F)

SAGER, MARTHA C. (Dr), Briarcliff Rd., Arnold,

Md. 21012 (F)

SAILER, R. |., Ph.D., 3847 S.W. 6th PI., Gaines-

ville, Fla. 32607 (F)

SALISBURY, LLOYD L. (Mr), 10138 Crestwood

Rd., Kensington, Md. 20795 (M)

SALLET, DIRSE W. (Dr), 12440 Old Fletchertown

Rd., Bowie, Md. 20715 (M)

SALOMONSON, VINCENT V. (Dr), NASA/God-

dard Space Flight Ctr., Code 920, Greenbelt,

Md. 20771 (F)

SANDERSON, JOHN A., Ph.D., 303 High St.,

Alexandria, Va. 22203 (E)

SARMIENTO, RAFAEL, Lagos, Nigeria, Box 20,

Grand Central P. O., New York, N.Y. 10017 (F)

SASMOR, ROBERT M. (Dr), 4408 N. 20th Rd., Ar-

lington, Va. 22207 (F)

SAVILLE, THORNDIKE, Jr., (Mr), 5601 AlbiaRd.,

Washington, D.C. 20016 (F)

SAYLOR, CHARLES P., 10001 Riggs Rd., Adel-

phi, Md. 20783 (F) l

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 3, 1980

SCHALK, JAMES M. (Dr), 2875 Savannah Hwy.,

Charleston, S.C. 29407 (F)

SCHECHTER, MILTON S., 10909 Hannes Ct.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20906 (E)

SCHINDLER, ALBERET |. (Dr), Code 6000, U.S.

Naval Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (F)

SCHLAIN, DAVID (Dr), P.O. Box 348, College

Park, Md. 20740 (F)

SCHMIDT, CLAUDE H., 1827 N. 3rd St., Fargo,

N.D. 58102 (F)

SCHNEIDER, SIDNEY, 239 N. Granada St., Ar-

lington, Va. 22203 (E)

SCHNEPFE, MARIAN M. (Dr), Potomac Towers

Apts. #640, 2001 North Adams St., Arlington,

Va. 22201 (E)

SCHOOLEY, JAMES F. (Dr), 13700 Darnestown

Rd., Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F)

SCHUBAUER, G. B., 5609 Gloster Rd., Washing-

ton, D.C. 20016 (F)

SCHULMAN, FRED (Dr), 11115 Markwood Dr.,

Silver Spring, Md. 20906 (F)

SCHULMAN, JAMES H. 5628 Massachusetts

Ave., Bethesda, Md. 20016 (F)

SCHWARTZ, ANTHONY M. (Dr), 2260 Glenmore

Terr., Rockville, Md. 20850 (F)

SCHWARTZ, MANUEL (Dr), 321-322 Medical

Arts Bldg., Baltimore, Md. 21201 (M)

SCOTT, DAVID B. (Dr) (DDS), 15C-1, 2 North

Dr., Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F)

SCRIBNER, BOURDON F., 123 Peppercorn PI.,

Edgewater, Md. 21037 (E)

SEABORG, GLENN T. (Dr), Lawrence Berkeley

Lab., Univ. of California, Berkeley, Calif. 94720

(F)

SEEGER, RAYMOND J. (Dr), 4507 Wetherill Rd.,

Washington, D.C. 20016 (E)

SEITZ, FREDERICK (Dr), Rockefeller Univ.

New York, N.Y. 10021 (F)

SHAFRIN, ELAINE E. G. (Mrs), 800 4th St., S.W.,

#N-702, Washington, D.C. 20024 (F)

SHAPIRA, NORMAN, 86 Oakwood Dr., Dunkirk,

Md. 20754 (M)

SHAPIRO, GUSTAVE, 3704 Munsey St., Silver

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SHELTON, EMMA (Dr), Amer. Soc. for Cell Biol-

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20034 (F)

SHEPARD, HAROLD H., 2701 S. June St., Arling-

ton, Va. 22202 (E)

SHERESHEFSKY, LEON J., 9023 Jones

Mill Rd., Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (E)

SHERLIN, GROVER C. (Mr), 4024 Hamil-

ton St., Hyattsville, Md. 20781 (F)

SHIER, DOUGLAS (Dr), Dept. of Mathe-

matical Sci., Clemson Univ., Clemson, S.C.

29631 (F)

SHMUKLER, LEON (Dr), Academy House,

1420 Locust St., Phila., Pa. 19102 (M)

SHNEIDEROV, ANATOL J. (Prof), 35 Temercal

Terrace, San Francisco, Calif. 94118 (M)

SHOTLAND, EDWIN (Dr), 418 E. Indian Spring

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J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 3, 1980

SHROPSHIRE, W., Jr., (Dr), Radiation Bio. Lab.,

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SHUBIN, LESTER D., Prog. Mgr. for Standards,

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SIEGLER, EDOUARD HORACE, 201 Tulip Ave.,

Takoma Park, Md. 20012 (E)

SILVER, DAVID M. (Dr), Applied Physics Lab.,

Johns Hopkins Rd., Laurel, Md. 20810 (M)

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Univ. Circle, Cheveland, Ohio 44105 (F)

SIMMONS, LANSING G., 3800 N. Fairfax Dr.,

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SITTERLY, CHARLOTTE M. (Mrs), 3711 Brandy-

wine St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (E)

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Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (E)

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SLEEMAN, KENNETH H. (Dr), Div. of Biochem.

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SLOCUM, GLENN G., 4204 Dresden St., Ken-

sington, Md. 20795 (E)

SMETANICK, RONALD J., 4273 Charley Forest

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SMILEY, ROBERT L. (Mr), 1444 Primrose Rd.,

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20012 (M)

SMITH, BLANCHARD DRAKE (Mr), 2509 Rye-.

gate La., Alexandria, Va. 22308 (F)

SMITH, ELSKE V. P. (Dr), 5005 Westpath Ter-

race, Bethesda, Md. 20016 (F)

SMITH, FLOYD F., 9022 Fairview Rd., Silver

Spring, Md. 20910 (E)

SMITH, FRANCIS A. (Dr), 1023 55th Ave., S., St.

Petersburg, Fla. 33705 (E)

SMITH, JACK C. (Dr), 3708 Manor Rad., #3, Chevy

Chase, Md. 20015 (F)

SMITH, MARCIA S., 4828 South 29th, S.E., Ar-

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SMITH, ROBERT C., Jr., (Mr), C/O Versar Inc.,

6621 Electronic Drive, Springfield, Va. 22151

(F)

SNAVELY, BENJAMIN L., Ph.D., 360 Blossom

H.77 Drive, Lancaster, Pa. 17601 (F)

SNAY, HANS GUENTHER (Dr), 17613 Treelawn

Dr., Ashton, Md. 20702 (E)

SNYDER, HERBERT (Dr), RFD 1 A-1, Box 7,

Cobden, III. 62920 (M)

SOKOLOVE, FRANK L. (Mr), 3015 Graham Rd.,

Falls Church, Va. 22042 (M)

SOLOMON, EDWIN M., 1881 Oak Bark Court,

Clearwater, Fla. 33515 (M)

SOMMER, HELMUT (Dr), 9502 Hollins Ct., Be-

thesda, Md. 20034 (F)

SOMMERS, IRA |. (Dr), 1511 Woodacre Dr.,

McLean, Va. 22101 (M)

SORROWS, HOWARD EARLE (Dr), 8820

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SPECHT, HEINZ (Dr), 311 Oakridge Dr., Sche-

nectady, N.Y. 12306 (E)

131

SPALDING, DONALD H., Ph.D., 17500 S.W.,

89th Ct., Miami, Fla. 33157 (E)

SPENCER, LEWIS V. (Dr), Box 3206, Gaithers-

burg, Md. 20760 (F)

SPERLING SPREDERIGKICD EH) ) idOrria-

ler Lane, Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (E)

SPIES, JOSEPH R. (Dr), 507 N. Monroe St., Ar-

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SPRAGUE, G. F., Ph.D., Dept. Agronomy, Univ.

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STAIR, RALPH, 3713 Galeray Dr., Tallahasee,

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STRAUSS, HENRY E. (Dr), 8005 Wash-

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STEGUN, IRENE A. (Ms), Natl. Bureau of Stand-

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(F)

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STEINER, ROBERT F., Ph.D., 2609 Turf Valley

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STEPHENS, ROBERT, E:,,4301 S9th: St. NeW:

Washington, D.C. 20016 (E)

STERN, KURT H. (Dr), Naval Res. Lab., Code

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STEVENS, RUSSELL B-.; (Dr), Div.,of Biol: Sci.,

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STEVENSON, JOHN A., 3256 Brandy Ct., Falls

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STEWART, DALE T. (Dr) Md, 1191 Crest La.,

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STIEF, LOUIS J. (Dr), Code 691, NASA Goddard

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STIEHLER, ROBERT D. (Dr), 3234 Quesada St.,

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STILL, JOSEPH W. (Dr), 1408 Edgecliff La., Pas-

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STIMSON, H. F. (Dr), 2920 Brandywine St., N.W.,

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STOETZEL, MANYA B. (Dr), 2600 Millvale Ave.,

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STRAUSS, SIMON W. (Dr), 4506 Cedill PI., Camp

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STRIMPLE, HARRELLL. (Mr), Dept. of Geology,

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STUART, NEIL W. (Dr), 1341 Chilton Dr., Silver

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SUTHERLAND, DOUGLAS (Dr), 125 Lakeside

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132

SYNDER, HERBERT H. (Dr). RFD-1, A-1, Box 7,

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TALBERT, PRESTON T., Dept. of Chemistry,

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TALBOTT, LEO F. (Dr), RD #4, Bethelehem, Pa.

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TASAKI, ICHIJI (Dr) M.D., Lab. of Neurobiology,

Natl. Inst. of Health, Bethesda, Md. 20205 (F)

TATE, DOUGLAS R., 11415 Farmland Dr., Rock-

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TAYLOR, ALBERT L., 2620 S.W., 14th Dr., Gai-

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TAYLOR, B.N. (Dr), Natl. Bureau of Standards,

Bldg. 220, Rm. B258, Washington, D.C. 20234

(F)

TAYLOR, HARRY A., NASA/Goddard Space Flight

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TAYLOR, JOHN K. (Dr), Chem. Bldg., Rm. A-

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TAYLOR, LAURISTON S., 7407 Denton Rd., Be-

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TCHEN, CHAN-MOU, City College of New York,

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TEAL, GORDON KIDD (Dr), 5222 Park La., Dal-

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TEITLER, S. (Dr), Code 1450, Naval Res. Lab.,

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TERMAN, MAURICE J., U.S. Geog. Survey, Natl.

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TEST, KAY, 14621 Brock Hall Drive, Upper Marl-

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THEUS, RICHARD B., 4825 Cypress Dr., Lake

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THOM, GARY (Dr), Dept. of Chemistry, Ameri-

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THOMPSON, CHRISTIAN F., 4255 S. 35th St.,

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THURMAN-SWARTZWELDER, E. B., Hide-a-way,

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TILDEN, EVELYN) B.. (Dr); Box®48ye2naa

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TODD, MARGARET RUTH, P.O. Box 687, Vine-

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TOWNSEND, LEWIS R., 1112 Oakdale Dr., Hyatts-

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TOWNSEND, MARJORIE R., 3529 Tilden St.,

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J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 3, 1980

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VAN DERSAL, WILLIAM R. (Dr), 6 South Ken-

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VAN DER ZWET, T. (Dr), Appalachian Fruit

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VAN TUYL, ANDREW H. (Dr), 1000 W. Nolcrest

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VEITCH, FLETCHER P., Jr., Box 513 Lexington

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VETTER, JEROME R. (Mr), Applied Physics

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VIGUE, KENNETH J. (Mr), P.O. Box 174, Lisbon,

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VINCENT, ROBERT C. (Dr), Dept. of Chemistry,

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20052 (F)

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J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 3, 1980

WACHTMAN, J. B., Jr., B-306, Materials Bidg.,

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20234 (F)

WAGNER, A. JAMES, 7007 Beverly Lane, Spring-

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WALKER, E. H. (Dr), Friends House, 17330 Quaker

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WALTHER, CARL H. (Dr), 1337 27th St., N.W.,

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WALTON, WILLIAM W., Sr., (Dr), 1705 Edge-

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WEBER; ROBERTS: (Dr), P!@2 Box'56301 E.

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WEIHE, WERNER, K. (Dr), 2103 Basset St., Alex-

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WEINTRAUB, ROBERT L. (Dr), 305 Fleming

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WEIR, CHARLES E. (Mr), Rt. 3, Box 260-B, San

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WEISSLER, PEARL, 5510 Uppingham St., Chevy

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WENSCH, GLEN W. (Dr), 2207 Noel Dr., Cham-

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WEST, WILLIAM L. (Prof), Dept. of Pharmacol-

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20001 (M)

WHEERY, EDGAR T., 5515 Wissahickon

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WHITE, HOWARD J., Jr., (Dr), 8028 Park Over-

look Dr., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F)

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1317 Number 4

YH rnal of the December, 1980

wASHINGTON

ACADEMY .- SCIENCES

ISSN 0043-0439

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CONTENTS

Research Reports

SIMON W. STRAUSS: The Integrals { sec x dx and f csc x dx Revisited .... 137

RICHARD E. WHITE: Review of Vrilletta, With Two New Species and a Key

(Coleoptera: ANODIIdAC)) <5. a0 osc; 5,2 geo wie tava) US tecay en ue taeeeio mn oO more eu 144

OLIVER S. FLINT, JR.: Studies of Neotropical Caddisflies, X XIX: The Genus

Polycentropus (Lrichoptera: Psychomyiidae))........ Seceees oon 2 Stel 148

E. McC. CALLAN: Nesting Behavior and Prey of Argogorytes Ashmead

(rigmenoptera: SPAcCiGac).< :..d...075 Fem site ayers Aesie x weave ale Be sae eleuatedenaloue

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J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980 135

RESEARCH REPORTS

The Integrals { sec x dx and J csc x dx Revisited

Simon W. Strauss

Directorate of Science, Director of Science and Technology, HQ Air Force Systems

Command, Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland 20334

ABSTRACT

This paper summarizes techniques used to evaluate the indefinite trigonometric integrals

Jsec x dx and f csc x dx, and describes an alternative procedure which takes advantage of the

Euler identities.

_ Essentially all serious mathematics prob-

lems that arise in the physical sciences re-

quire integration.” The integral is in fact a

basic tool for solving a great many prob-

lems of the sciences and is one of the central

ideas of mathematics. One of the important

types of integrals studied in an elementary

calculus course is that involving trigono-

metric functions. These functions are ex-

tremely important in the study of periodic

phenomena.” Additionally, the integration

of certain algebraic expressions (quadratic

irrationalities in the integrand) may often

be simplified by introducing trigonometric

substitution based on elementary trigono-

memiendentities, 9 Vee

The present paper is concerned with 2 of

the 6 basic indefinite trigonometric inte-

grals, { sec x dx and f csc x dx, whose solu-

tions may be expressed in the form”

J sec xdx = In|sec x + tan x| + C

Gec xian. x,-.0. or .< 0),.,, Cl)

and

J csc xdx = —In|csc x + cot x} + C

(csex 4 Come 0: -.oryy <0), (2)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

respectively, where C is an integration con-

stant. These solutions may also be ex-

pressed in other equivalent forms (see, for

example, references 2, 3, 8, 28, 40).

To help put the above integrals in proper

perspective, the following observations

are made relative to the evaluation of the

integrals of the 6 basic trigonometric func-

tions (sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x, sec x, and

csc x): The formulas for differentiation of

sin x and cos x, derived in the study of

differential calculus, can be immediately

reformulated as formulas of integration.”

The integrals for tan x and cot x can be

readily solved by expressing the integrands

in terms of sin x and cos x. What makes the

integrals { sec xdx and f csc xdx different,

and hence interesting and challenging, is

that when their evaluation is first attempted

in an elementary calculus course, it be-

comes clear that these quantities are not the

end products of differentiating any simple

functions the student has yet encountered

(see Hellman in reference 20, page 158). It

turns out that the evaluation of each of

these 2 integrals involves a more subtle ap-

proach than that used for the other 4 basic

137

trigonometric integrals.*° As correctly ob-

served by Thomas,” the integral [sec xdx is

hard to evaluate unless one has seen the

trick of converting this integral into one of

a perfect differential. In this connection,

Moise’ states ‘‘by an ingenious and rather

obscure device, we find { sec xdx—”. The

remarks of Thomas and Moise are also ap-

plicable to { csc xdx.

A perusal of a relatively large number of

mathematics books (mostly calculus text-

books) which discuss the integrals [ sec xdx

and | csc xdx'* °*’ further indicates that

when the evaluation of these integrals 1s

first attempted, it is accomplished by re-

sorting to a “‘trick solution’’. As the student

progresses in the study of integral calculus,

other techniques for deriving equations (1)

and (2) (or for obtaining equivalent solu-

tions) are usually presented. For some stu-

dents, however, the “‘trick solution”’ is

either the only one to which they are ex-

posed or is the only one which they asso-

ciate with these integrals. The objectives of

the present paper are to (a) provide a sum-

mary of techniques used to evaluate the in-

definite trigonometric integrals J sec xdx

and [{ csc xdx, and (b) describe an alterna-

tive procedure which takes advantage of

the Euler identities’ coupled with elemen-

tary properties of complex numbers. The

substance of the present paper should be of

particular interest to the undergraduate

student encountering for the first time tri-

gonometric integrals in general and equa-

tions (1) and (2) in particular.

Summary of Existing Methods of Solution

I. { sec x dx

A. The following trick (or minor var-

iants of it) is usually used to evaluate this

integral when it is first encountered in the

study of elementary calculus” '” ' 7) 73 2°

28, 31, 32, 35-39, 41, 43, 44-46,

f sec xdx = [se (ext tans) 4, (3)

sec xX + tan x

138

=/* (u = sec x + tan x) (4)

= Injul + C (5)

= In|sec x + tan x| + C. (6)

The trick employed was, of course, to multi-

ply and divide the integrand by sec x + tan x.

A possible rationale for this approach is the

following: Although we do not have a trig-

onometric function whose derivative is

sec x, there are trigonometric functions

whose derivative contains sec x. Thus

—— (sec x) = tan x sec x (7)

and,

(tan x) = sec? 8

ae an X) = Sec’ x. (8)

Neither of these relations alone enables us

to evaluate [ sec xdx. The existence of these

relations does, however, suggest that some

combination of (7) and (8) might be worth-

while to pursue. The simplest combina-

tions are, of course, sum and difference.

Adding (7) and (8), we obtain

=== (Seo* S> tainx)

= sec’ x + sec x tan x (9)

= sec x (sec x + tan x). (10)

From (10), it follows that

ape (In/sec x + tan x|)=secx (11)

J sec xdx = In|sec x + tan x| + C. (12)

Equation (12) could also have been ob-

tained by subtracting (8) from (7) and pro-

ceeding as above. From equation (10), it be-

comes quite apparent how one might deduce >

the trick used in equation (3). It should be

noted that the integration of [ sec xdx could

have been accomplished by multiplying and

dividing the integrand by sec x — tan x (in-

stead of by sec x + tan x).

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

B. (40, 42, 44, for example)

d d

[secxax = f= [25 (13)

cos X eps; X

d jeu i

Se | 1C

Zk ei SZ

(z=sin x). (14)

Replacing z by sin x and simplifying, yields

the right hand side of equation (6). If we

now replace cos x by its equivalent sine

function, sin [(a/2) + (x)], in [ (dx/cos x)

and then express sin [(7/2) + (x)] as 2 sin

[(m/4) + (x/2)] cos [(7/4) + (x/2)], the

following alternative solution is readily

obtainable*’:

sec xdx = In

C. In a variant to the approach used in

equation (13), the substitution of z = sin x

(see, for example, reference (6)) is applied

to the integral { (dx/cos x)(=f sec xdx).

_ The steps in the solution are:

{2 =| dz =f dz

cos Xx cos* x 1 — sin’ x

=| dz

1—2z’’

which appears in equation (14), and from

which the solution is readily obtainable.

t (z +Al+c (15)

anj — = 5

(16)

D. (see Hellman in (20)).

Hellman starts with the easily derivable

trigonometric identity

cos X

at = SSS ey

sec X — tan x eran (17)

It follows that

[sec xdx ;

=| tan xdx +f Ae dx (18)

t + sin x

"si

= eee (+ C (19)

cos X

= Inl|sec x + tan’x| + C. (20)

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

E. Use of the half angle formula tan

(x/2) = z (8, 12, 22, 24, 28, 33, 44, for ex-

ample). This substitution enables the trans-

formation of the integral of any rational func-

tion of the trigonometric functions sin x

and cos x into an integral of a rational func-

tion of x. Applying this substitution to the

integral { sec xdx [= { (dx/cos x)], we ob-

tain, after simplification,

[sec xdx = 2 : ; (21)

[SZ

]

= ese ers

if 27

1 + tan (x/2)

— Wiig I le

ia Ue)

By replacing tan (x/2) in (22) by its trigo-

nometric ratio [sin (x/2)/cos (x/2)] and

simplifying the result (see, for example,

Morrill (33)), equations (19) and (20) are

readily obtained. The right hand side of

equation (22) can be transformed into

equation (15) (see, for example, references —

(28) and (44)) by observing that | = tan

[(a/4)] and using the trigonometric identity

tan m + tan p

t + p) = "ee, 45,

sa a 1 — tan m tan p a

We obtain

sec xdx

ih tan (7/4) + tan (x/2) +O (24)

1 — tan (7/4) tan (x/2)

In|t (24:5). (25)

= In|tan{— + = :

ty nae

F. A variant of E(4).

| dx =| dx

cos X cos’ (x/2) — sin? (x/2)

sec’ (x/2) dx

SS |) Sse pig

[. — tan’ (x/2) Kp)

d[tan (x/2)]

= oe aT

iF — tan’ (x/2) i“?

139

1 + tan (x/2)

VC.

= tan(x72)

= " (28)

which is the same as equation (22). For

those familiar with hyperbolic functions,

equation (21) can be integrated to give,

after replacing z by tan (x/2),

{sec xdx = 2 tanh’! [tan (x/2)] + C, (29)

which is another acceptable solution (see

reference (4)). Equation (29) can easily be

shown to be equivalent to equation (28)

(see, for example, reference (33) in which

the relationship between the inverse hyper-

bolic tangent and its logarithmic equiva-

lent is discussed).

G. Evaluation of f sec xdx derived from

the solution of [ csc xdx* ” ” '° which may

be expressed as (see B. below for details)

dx x

[ ese X ax(=/ =i tan(*)

sin x 2

C30)

If we replace x by [(7/2) + (x)] in the inte-

grals in (30), we get

| dx | dx =| d

sin [(7/2) + (x)] me Cos x ica

TT X

ee eel

ail +3)|+ at

which 1s the same as equation (15).

H. Two rather interesting substitutions

(see Viertel in reference (1) for details)

which have been used to facilitate the inte-

gration of { sec xdx are tan x = sinh 6 and

tan x = isin 9. These substitutions lead to

the form of the solution given in equation

(6).

Il. f ese x dx

A. Probably the most common approach

used is similar to that shown in section

TAC 28, 31, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 45, 46 In the present

case the integrand is multiplied and divided

by cse x + cot.x (or by, csc xX = /cot, x):

Either of these substitutions readily ena-

bles the integration to be completed, and

140

the result is equation (2). A possible ratio-

nale for the use of this approach would be

very similar to that presented in section IA.

We would start with the observations that

d/dx (csc x) = —csc x cot x; d/dx (cot x)

= —csc’ x, and then proceed as we did in

B. Use of a simple trigonometric iden-

tity 2,7,10,17,19,30,42

[ese xdx

=| dx

sin Xx

=f, sin (x/2) cos (x/2) 22)

* sec’ (x/2) d (x/2)

=} tan (x/2) oe

pasafs GU ofan eens A

=f (u == wan(®) (34)

=In tan(*]| “io! (35)

C. Use of the half angle formula tan

(x/2) — 7. 8, 9, 12, 16, 26, 27, 28, 29, 44 The ap-

proach is similar to that described in IE and

yields

[ese xdx

ffs (fae

sin X Z 2

ni — 4

D. Evaluation of { csc xdx froma knowl-

edge of the solution of { sec xdx.” ”

| csc xdx

=In (37)

=| sed == :) dx (38)

“abel ad

= n |SEC 7 X

4 tan( 2 a : + CA Ga

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

= Inicse met -cotex|| AG. (40)

E. Starting with an easily derivable trig-

onometric identity (Hellman in reference

(20)). The steps in the solution are:

sin X

Ese cobs tate (41)

[ese xdx

= | cot xdx + | i Hal (42)

l= cos x

sin x

= oo (43)

= —In|csc x + cot x| + C. (44)

F. The substitution of cot x = sinh 6 has

been used to evaluate } csc xdx (see Viertel

in reference (1)) for details. This integral

has also been evaluated by using the substi-

tution cot x = 1sin (see reference (21) for

details), or z = cos x° (approach is similar

to that in IC).

Application of the Euler Identities

Integration of the hyperbolic functions

sech x and csch x may be readily accom-

plished by replacing each of these two func-

tions by their real exponential equivalents.”

This suggests that the integration of the trig-

onometric functions sec x and csc x should

be facilitated by expressing these quantities

in terms of their complex exponential equiv-

alents. The Euler identities,’ which may be

expressed as e'*) = cos x + isin x (where

1= /-1) enables us to accomplish the ap-

propriate transformation. Although the

complex exponential function has been

used to evaluate such quantities as { sin”

xdx ((24), for example) or fe® cos xdx

((34), for example), standard calculus text-

books do not use such an approach to eval-

uate } sec xdx and [ csc xdx. We shall take

advantage of the Euler identities coupled

with elementary properties of complex

numbers to evaluate these two trigonomet-

ric integrals.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

Applying the Euler identities tof sec xdx,

gives, after simplification,

| Bes oiee ae Re -2 | |

(m =e"), (45)

where Re indicates that we desire the real

part of the solution. Since 1 + m* may be

expressed as the product (m + 1)(m — 1),

we can apply the method of partial frac-

tions to obtain

-2{

=| atl om, (46)

nit m4

iL Ab lng (47)

—j

where C + iK isacomplex integration con-

stant. We now replace m in (47) by cos x +

1 sin x, multiply and divide the resulting

fraction in the logarithmic term by the con- |

jugate of the denominator, simplify, and

obtain

1+m

1 COS X :

= Ins CHAK. (48)

‘sin x

Keeping in mind that the logarithm of a

product is equal to the sum of the loga-

rithms of the factors of the product, and, as

indicated in equation (45), we desire only

the real part of the solution, we obtain

= DS eet 4

J sec xdx Re| xi | ie =| (49)

= a (50)

1 = Sin x

= Inljsec x + tan xj + C, (51)

which is equation (1). Equation (51) was

obtained from equation (50) by multiply-

ing and dividing the fraction of the loga-

rithmic term by | + sin x, and simplifying

the result.

141

The evaluation of { csc xdx can be ac-

complished in a manner similar to that

shown above for [ sec xdx. Let us, however,

use a variant of this approach to evaluate

{csc xdx. We shall transform the integrand

to the complex exponential form, and then

reduce it to a readily integrable trigono-

metric form before performing the actual

integration. The steps in the solution are:

: Xd

i csc xdx = 2 | See gn SD)

Casptrdl

e a

a | > SILK FCO, x (53)

(ha cos 2x) isin: Rcd

We now multiply the numerator and de-

nominator of the fraction on the right hand

side of (53) by the conjugate of the denomi-

nator, simplify, and obtain

sin xdx

[ese xdx = oe

f= cos ox

(54)

a -[_—— (n = cos x) (56)

=> nl —|+ . (57)

Replacing n by cos x and then multiplying

and dividing the resulting fraction of the

logarithmic term by | — cos x, gives, after

simplification

| csc xdx

1 —

ee —— 1c (58)

sin Xx

= In|csc x — cot x| + C (59)

= —In\ese xP cot xi; (60)

which is equation (2).

142

Concluding Remarks

As indicated in the introductory remarks,

one of the two objectives of the present

paper was to provide a summary of tech-

niques used to evaluate the indefinite trig-

onometric integrals { sec xdx and{ csc xdx.

Although the summary presented is fairly

extensive, it is not (nor was it intended to

be) exhaustive in coverage. Those individ-

uals who are familiar with trigonometric

identities and are adept in their manipula-

tion will, no doubt, be able to come up with

other suitable identities as starting points

for the evaluation of these two integrals.

Starting, for example, with the trigonomet-

ric identity csc x =cot (x/2)— cot x,

the integral { csc xdx = | cot (x/2) dx —

J cot xdx can readily be shown to yield

equation (35) as the solution. Some stu-

dents might even find it an interesting chal-

lenge to search for and/or derive other trig-

onometric identities (as well as techniques)

which could be used to facilitate the evalua-

tion of f sec xdx, { csc xdx and more com-

plicated integrals.

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143

Review of Vrilletta, With Two New Species and a Key

(Coleoptera: Anobiidae)

Richard E. White

Systematic Entomology Laboratory, IIBIIT, Agricultural Research, Sci. & Educ. Admin.,

USDA. Mailing address: c/o U.S. National Museum of Natural History NHB 168, Washing-

ton, D. C. 20560

ABSTRACT

Two newspecies of Vrilletta are described from California: bicolor and pectinicornis. Notes

are given for distinguishing these from closely related species, illustrations are included, anda

key to the 10 North American species of Vrilletta is presented. Two species names are of uncer-

tain status, and their probable status is discussed.

Recently I have tried to assign all names

for species of Vrilletta and thereby settle

the disposition of apparently undescribed

species held from collections sent to me.

Descriptions by Maurice Pic of two North

American species that evidently belong in

Vrilletta have complicated my work.

In March of 1977 I visited the Museum

National d’Histoire Naturelle in Paris to

study the Pic types of American Anobiidae

species. Unfortunately, some of the types

had been loaned 13 years previously and

were never returned. Two that I did not see

were of Vrilletta fulvolineata (Pic) and V.

nigra Pic, so I cannot now assign these

names with certainty. However, rather than

abandon my work because of this problem,

it would better serve advancement of our

knowledge to present my data and provi-

sionally assign Pic’s names.

Following is a diagnosis of the genus

Vrilletta: antennal segments 4 through 8

strongly serrate to pectinate, length of last

3 segments combined almost as great as to

greater than that of all preceding segments.

Elytral striae distinct throughout, usually

finely, strongly impressed, but sometimes

punctate; intervals convex. Outer face of

front and middle tibiae concave. Body

length 3.5-8.4 mm.

Vrilletta bicolor, new species

Figs. 4, 5, 6, 8

144

General.—Body elongate-robust, 2.3 times as long

as wide; elytral sides subparallel in basal 3/5. Elytra

orange brown, suture and often lateral margins nar-

rowly dark brown to black; scutellum black; prono-

tum mostly orange or red brown, at base brown to

nearly black; head and ventral surface black, antenna

dark brown to black; femora mostly dark brown, re-

mainder of legs mostly red-brown. Pubescence very

short, fine, not obscuring surface, dull white.

Head.—Front weakly, longitudinally carinate at

middle, nearly evenly convex side to side, weakly con-

vex front to back; surface minutely punctate-granu-

late. Eyes small, separated by about 5 times frontal

width of an eye, not varying in sexes. Antenna of male

(Fig. 4) nearly 1/2 as long as body, that of female (Fig.

5) nearly 1/3 as long as body; 2nd antennal segment of

male a little wider than long, 3rd segment about 1.5

times as wide as long, segments 4-8 each 3 to 4 times as

wide as long, ramus of 9th segment 2 times as long as

segment, ramus of 10th segment nearly 2 times as long

as segment, | 1th segment arcuate and about 7 times as

long as wide. Last segment of maxillary palpus subtri-

angular, about 2 times as long as wide, widest before

middle; last segment of labial palpus subtriangular,

about 2 times as long as wide, widest at middle.

Dorsal surface.—Pronotal disk and sides nearly

evenly convex, but at extreme side shallowly concave;

lateral margin produced, complete, and explanate,

most produced at hind angle; surface throughout

minutely granulate and obscurely punctate. Scutel-

lum width about equal to length, apex broadly

rounded. Elytra with distinct, complete, impressed

striae, most striae with distinct punctures; surface

throughout with minute, dense punctures, usually

transversely aligned, causing a finely rugose appear-

ance; intervals moderately convex, more es

convex apically; elytral apex truncate.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

Ventral surface.—Outer face of anterior tibia con-

cave nearly throughout; outer face of middle tibia

concave apically; outer face of hind tibia weekly flat-

tened. Metasternal surface finely, densely punctate

and granulate, granules most distinct near base. Ab-

dominal surface finely, densely punctate.

Length.—7.2-7.7 mm.

The male holotype (in CASC) bears the

data: Fairfax, Marin Co., California,

4/24/49; D. Giuliani Collector; Derham

Giuliani Collection, Calif. Acad. Sci., Ac-

cession 1967. One female paraytpe (in

CASC) bears essentially the same data ex-

cept for the date 4/15/50. Two female par-

atypes (in USNM) bear the data—11074a’

Hopk. US; Apr. 24/15, Reared; Harvey BT

Colr; Ashland, Oregon; Alnus rhom-

bifolia.

The species name refers to the body

color: the ventral surface and head are black

and the dorsal surface is mostly orange or

red-brown. Typically, species of Vrilletta

exhibit much variation in color, but these 4

specimens are almost identical to one an-

other in this regard.

__ Vrilletta bicolor is most similar to V. con-

vexa LeConte, but they differ in characters

of color, antennae, and male genitalia. No

members of convexa match the color of bi-

color (see above). The color of convexa var-

ies from black throughout to black or dark

brown nearly throughout and with elytra

orange-brown except for darkened mar-

gins, to brown or red-brown nearly

throughout. Antennal segments 9 and 10 of

both sexes of bicolor (Figs. 4, 5) are more

strongly serrate than these segments of

convexa (Figs. 2, 3). The male genitalia of

bicolor (Fig. 8) has the palp-like object of a

lateral lobe widest near the base, while that

of convexa (Fig. 9) has the palp-like object

of a lateral lobe widest apically. Finally,

there are differences in the shapes of the

median lobes and their internal processes.

In bicolor, the median lobe is narrower

than in convexa, and the internal processes

are much stouter than those of convexa.

Vrilletta pectinicornis, new species

Fig. «1

General.—Body elongate-robust, 2.3-2.4 times as

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

long as wide, elytral sides subparallel in basal 3/5.

Body and appendages mostly black, following parts

brownish: apex of last antennal segment, apex of tib-

lae, tarsi. Pubescence fine, short, appressed, not ob-

scuring surface, dull white.

Head.—Front nearly evenly convex side to side,

weakly convex front to back; surface finely punctate-

granulate. Eyes small, separated by 4.5 times frontal

width of an eye. Antenna of female (Fig. 1) about 1/3

as long as body, 2nd segment a little wider than long,

3rd segment as wide as long, 4th segmenta little wider

than long, 5th segment about 1.5 times as wide as

long, segment 6 and 7 each a little over 2 times as wide

as long, segment 8 nearly 4 times as wide as long, 9th

segment nearly 3 times as wide as long, 10th segment

over 2 times as wide as long, 11th segment about 4

times as long as wide, weakly arcuate, widest before

apex. Last segment of maxillary palpus subtriangular,

widest before middle, 2 times as long as wide; last

segment of labial palpus subtriangular, widest at mid-

dle, 2 times as long as wide.

Dorsal surface.—Pronotal disk unevenly convex,

sides nearly evenly convex, but shallowly depressed

above anterior angle; lateral margin produced, com-

plete, explanate, most produced at hind angle; disk

finely punctate-granulate, surface at side with ob-

scurely dual granulation. Scrutellum about as wide as

long, apex broadly rounded. Elytra with more or less

distinct, impressed striae, generally vague on disk,

striae at sides with weak punctures; intervals convex;

surface minutely, transversely rugose; apex narrowly

truncate.

Ventral surface.—Outer face of anterior tibia con-

cave nearly throughout, outer face of middle tibia

concave apically, outer face of hind tibia weakly flat-

tened. Metasternal surface finely, densely punctate,

punctures dual, small punctures denser than larger,

rimmed punctures. Abdominal surface sculpture of

fine, dense punctures.

Length.—7.7-8.0 mm.

The female holoytpe (USNM No. 76536)

bears the data: Glenwood Rd., Santa Cruz

Co., California, 12-III-1966, reared from

tanbark oak, W. H. Tyson, Collector. The

single paratype (also a female in USNM)

bears the data: Ben Lomond, 4.10.1930,

L. W. Saylor Collector. This is a California

locality.

Vrilletta pectinicornis (the name refers to

the antenna) differs from the other two

species of Vrilletta with pectinate or sub-

pectinate antennae (i.e., bicolor White and

convexa LeConte) in that each ramus of

segments 9 and 101s 2-3 times as long as its

segment, whereas in bicolor and convexa a

145

8 R.White

Figs. 1-5, Vrilletta antennae: 1, V. pectinicornis, female; 2, V. convexa, female; 3, V. convexa, male; 4, V. bico-

lor, male; 5, V. bicolor, female; 6, V. bicolor, male holotype. Figs. 7-9, male genitalia: 7, V. decorata; 8, V. bicolor;

9, V. convexa.

ramus is never more than 2 times as long as

its segment, usually much less. Typically in

species of Vrilletta, the serration or pecti-

nation of an antenna is more developed in

the male than in the female. If that is also

the case in this species, then the male an-

tenna of pectinicornis will be even more de-

veloped than is the male antenna of bicolor.

Pic species of Vrilletta

I have tried to assign the names Vrilletta

fulvolineata (Pic), 1903 and V. nigra Pic,

1905. Due to the brevity and superficiality

of most of Pic’s descriptions, they usually

provide little useful data for assigning

names. However, meaningful characters in

these two descriptions allow some conclu-

sions to be drawn.

The length of V. nigra (7 mm) and refer-

ence to convex elytral intervals make it

likely that Pic did havea species of Vrilletta

before him. He described the antenna as

146

greatly pectinate starting from the 3rd

segment. This narrows the possibilities

among known species of Vrilletta to only

convexa LeConte, pectinicornis White, and

bicolor White. The color given for nigra—

black with tibiae and tarsi reddish—imme-

diately excludes bicolor. The distributions

of convexa and pectinicornis place them

near the locality of Mariposa, California,

which is given for nigra. The antennal form

described for nigra does not agree with the

female antenna of convexa nor the female

(and only specimen) of pectinicornis; how-

ever, it does agree with the male antenna of

convexa, and it is possible that it also con-

forms with the male antenna of pectinicor-

nis. A single male of the color-variable con-

vexa in the USNM series of 12 specimens

agrees with the color given for nigra. Also,

the color of nigra agrees well with that of the

female of pectinicornis. Pic, in his descrip-

tion for nigra, compared his species with

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

convexa and presented a character that he

believed separated them (‘‘Voisin de V.

convexa Lec., distinct de cette espece (2) par

la structure des antennes, notamment par

la forme triangulaire du 2” article’’). I

doubt that there is any value to this charac-

ter, but, of course, it is possible that the two

are actually distinct. For the present I will

regard nigra as possibly synonymic with

either convexa or pectinicornis.

The Pic description of fulvolineata allows

probable assignment (see below) of this

name to the same species that VanDyke

described (1918) as V. decorata. If decorata

is synonymized with fulvolineata, that

change should come only after examina-

tion of Pic’s type so his name can be as-

signed with certainty.

The length given for fulvolineata (7 mm)

is a little large for decorata; the 72 speci-

mens in the USNM series of decorata range

in length from 5.2-6.9 mm. The meaningful

color characters for fulvolineata presented

by Pic follow: he described the underside of

the body as black, the upper part as dark in

the middle of the prothorax and on the ely-

tra, the periphery of these parts as reddish,

and the legs and antennae as obscurely

reddish. Pic also stated that each elytron

had basally 3 light longitudinal lines, the

first being the longest. Certain individuals

of the highly color variable decorata agree

well with these characters, and comparison

of the other species of Vrilletta with the

characters shows that none of these does

agree. As is mentioned by VanDyke, 1918,

p. 8, decorata is the most common species

of the genus. The meaning of the locality

data given by Pic for his fulvolineata

**?’Amerique Sle”’ is obscure. However, in

his catalog of Anobiidae (Pic, 1912, p. 46),

he gave the locality as ““U.S. America’’. I

have illustrated the male genitalia of deco-

rata (Fig. 7).

Key to species of Vrilletta

I Antenna with segments 9 and 10 strongly, acutely produced in both sexes (Figs.

NO) eee REM rea tile a aa Satie eis lace. 0 « "Ean tetem etetands 5 oie rattle wanepa ok as aot 2

Antenna with segments 9 and 10 not strongly produced ................... 4

2(1). Female with ramus of 9th antennal segment 3 times as long as segment, ramus of

10th segment over 2 times as long as segment (Fig. 1); body black nearly

PIFOUSMOUT Hes, 2k PRs soa ks

a nterde Wet eee snot ones: totais pectinicornis, n. sp.

Antennal rami not as elongated as above; body usually with orange-brown or red-

LDICOM Mg) 3 4 ane ry oe ee oe

eS POC a De SEN 3

3(2). Antenna more strongly pectinate (Figs. 4, 5, 6); dorsal surface orange-brown to

red-brown with base of pronotum dark and elytral margins usually black; ven-

tralisumface and head black to ‘dark brown, =. fou) ¢ 14). «2 eaten © oie bicolor, n. sp.

Antenna less strongly pectinate (Figs. 2, 3); color never exactly as above

i Tell te Ba A ATOM convexa LeConte

4(1). Pubescence dense, whitish, largely concealing surface, somewhat reflective,

changing sim) direction! .. 27 s.ieae.- »--

Ee PO La ae ee californica Fisher

Pubescence never, exactly as above, always Jess.Gense: s.2.6. <n s tapers «oe oie 3)

5(4). Occurring in Pennsylvania, Quebec, and Ontario ................ laurentina Fall

Ocenmnnsron- PACiIC COASL %. .oiie a isos ei cneriare sive ewes ls Wielsuse asuste ae = aie 6

6(5). Basal 2/3 of pronotum orange to orange brown and apex more or less distinctly

darker; elytra clearly darker than base of pronotum, elytron usually with an

orange spot before middle.........

etd aoe Roope Seni Re ORG ale murrayi LeConte

Eronoral and elyiral! color never exactlytas aDOVE. +. .)c ieee as see ws = swe oa = 7

7(6). Elytra bicolored, primarily dark but with orange to orange-brown spots or stripes

Me Den eer Senet eee Ie Ee ohooh eer Te Ne Pet es cae cates s cee hle eee 8

Elytra not bicolored, of same color throughout, or primarily light .......... 9

8(7). Elytron before middle with orange markings less extensive, only on interval 7,

sometimes also on 6, or 5and 6....

SB lh itn ethic eso ah ot ite ee blaisdelli Fall

Elytral markings much more extensive than above............ decorata VanDyke

9(7)._ Pronotum with dense, dual punctation (large, rimmed punctures and small dot-

like punctures) and fine granules; dorsal surface with feeble luster; discal inver-

Vals not ionicebly;conwexie sf 8s. .

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

irae ren isle Gia ha: sab pend “ot plumbea Fall

147

Pronotum granulate and with fine punctation, with few to no large punctures;

dorsal surface with moderate luster; discal intervals more or less clearly convex

eoeereeeee eee ee ee ee eee mem meee ee we

Checklist of species of Vrilletta

Vrilletta LeConte, 1874, p. 64

Pseudoxyletinus Pic, 1903, p. 182.

bicolor White

- blaisdelli Fall, 1905, p. 194

californica Fisher, 1939, p. 175

convexa LeConte, 1874, p. 65

decorata VanDyke, 1918, p. 7

expansa LeConte, 1874, p. 64

laurentina Fall, 1905, p. 195

murrayi LeConte, 1874, p. 64

pectinicornis White

plumbea Fall, 1905, p. 196

Uncertain status

fulvolineata (Pic), 1903,

p. 182 (probably decorata)

nigra Pic, 1905, p. 171 (possibly

convexa or pectinicornis)

Acknowledgments

I thank David H. Kavanaugh, California

Academy of Sciences (CASC), for loan of

specimens, and William H. Tyson for the

«abide Sete Oe) SU ee expansa LeConte

donation of aspecimen. The initials USNM

refer to the United States National Mu-

seum of Natural History, Washington,

D.C.

Literature Cited

Fall, H. C. 1905. Revision of the Ptinidae of Boreal

America. Trans. Am. Entomol. Soc. 31: 97-296.

Fisher, W.S. 1939. A newspecies of Vrilletta from Cal-

ifornia (Coleoptera: Anobiidae). Proc. Entomol.

Soc. Wash. 41(5): 174-175.

LeConte, J. L. 1874. Descriptions of new Coleoptera

chiefly from the Pacific slope of North America.

Trans. Am. Entomol. Soc. 5: 43-72.

Pic, M. 1903. Diagnoses generiques et specifiques de

divers Coléopteres exotiques. L’Echange, Rev.

Linn. 19(228): 182-183.

. 1905. Captures diverses, noms nouveaux, et

diagnoses (Coléopteres). L’Echange, Rev. Linn.

21(250): 169-171.

. 1912. Anobiidae. Jn Coleopterorum Cata-

logus, W. Junk, Berlin. 10(48): 1-92.

VanDyke, E. C. 1918. Some new beetles in the families

Cantharidae (Lampyridae), Ptinidae, and Scara-

baeidae, from western North America, with notes

upon others. Bull. Brooklyn Entomol. Soc. 13(11):

1-15.

Studies of Neotropical Caddisflies, XXIX:

The Genus Polycentropus (Trichoptera: Psychomyiidae)

Oliver S. Flint, Jr.

Department of Entomology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560

ABSTRACT

Fifteen new species of the genus Polycentropus are described and the male genitalia figured.

The holotypes are from Belize (1 species), Ecuador (2), El Salvador (1), Guatemala (1), Mexico

(6), Panama (3), and Venezuela (1).

Collections made in recent years in Mex-

ico, Central America, and northern South

America have revealed an unexpected spe-

cific diversity in the genus Polycentropus.

148

Yet, although the genus 1s often taken at

light, it is rarely abundant and most species

are encountered very infrequently. Within

the area in consideration only three species"

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

(P. altmani Yam., P. guatemalensis Flint,

and P. picana Ross) have been collected at

more than three localities. As a conse-

quence most species, including the major-

ity of those herein described, are known

from a single collection, often from only

one specimen, or a very few collections

generally from nearby localities.

The species here described fall into two

major groups, the insularis and gertschi

groups. A third, the arizonensis group, also

occurs in Mexico, but no undescribed spe-

cies of this group are at hand.

Acknowledgments

I express my gratitude to those who have

collected and donated this material to the

National Collection: Dr. Joaquin Bueno

Soria, Universidad Nacional Autonoma

de Mexico, Mexico City (UNAM); Dr.

Hindrik Wolda, Smithsonian Tropical Re-

search Institute, Balboa, Panama, through

Dr. Vincent Resh and Mr. Eric McElravy,

University of California, Berkeley (UC-B);

_Dr. Yale Sedman, Western Illinois Univer-

sity, Macomb; Mr. Stephen R. Steinhauser,

Sarasota, Florida; and especially to my co-

workers at the National Museum of Natu-

ral History, Terry L. Erwin, Gary F. Hevel,

John B. Heppner, and Paul J. Spangler

who have collected so much of this and

other valuable material over the years.

The insularis group

In addition to P. insularis Bks. (known

from Grenada and Dominica), I also place

P. altmani Yam. (Costa Rica, Nicaragua,

Panama, Ecuador, Venezuela), P. biappen-

diculatus Flint (Surinam), and P. surina-

mensis Flint in the group. The form of the

cercus is very characteristic: a long dorso-

mesal process first directed anteriad then

curving mesad and posteriad, and a dorso-

lateral lobe which usually bears a small

mesal lobe. The aedeagus bears apically a

ventromesal liplike lobe and the claspers

usually are formed of an erect, dorsolateral

lobe basally and a more elongate apical

lobe. The new species P. cuspidatus 1s

clearly a member of the group. The known

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

distribution of this group is from Nicara-

gua south to Ecuador, east across northern

South America to Surinam, and north into

the Lesser Antilles to Dominica.

Polycentropus cuspidatus, new species

Figures 1-4

The species is closely related to P. alt-

mani Yam., but is easily distinguished by

the bifid dorsolateral lobe of the cercus,

and the shorter, narrower lobes of the

claspers which are of nearly equal size.

Adult.—Length of forewing, 6 mm. Color brown;

antennae, legs and body ventrally, stramineous; fore-

wing brown, densely maculate with golden hairs.

Forewing with R> present (hindwings completely

cleared and venation invisible). Male genitalia: Ninth

segment with anterior margin evenly rounded; poste-

rior margin cut-away dorsally. Tenth tergum mem-

branous. Cercus with dorsolateral lobe elongate, pos-

terior margin bifid; mesal lobe elongate, small; dorso-

mesal process very long, slender, directed first basad

then curving apicad. Clasper with an elongate, nar-

row, dorsolateral lobe and a ventromesal pointed

lobe. Aedeagus with a small apicoventral lip; inter-

nally with a pair of curved apicodorsal spines and a

broad, flat ventral plate whose apex is bilobed in dor- —

sal aspect, and a lightly sclerotized tubular structure.

Material.—Holotype, male: Ecuador,

Prov. Pastaza, 16kms. west of Puyo, 3 Feb

1976, Spangler, et. al, at blacklight.

USNM Type 76857.

The gertschi group

This is an extremely large group of spe-

cies found from the southwestern United

States south throughout Mexico and Cen-

tral America at least as far as Ecuador and

east to Venezuela. The characteristics of

the group are rather difficult to define

without finding some species that violates

some part of the definition; the following is

therefore a general statement. The clasper

has a thin, erect dorsolateral lobe that joins

a thicker ventromesal region which is de-

limited by a sharp mesal shelf or carina that

bears one or two sharp toothlike projec-

tions. The cercus is typically composed of

three parts: a slender rodlike dorsomesal

lobe, a broader usually elongate or quad-

rate dorsolateral lobe (densely setate), and

a ventral and slightly more mesal lobe usu-

149

=~ 4

ey —~_-.

Figs. 1-12. Polycentropus cuspidatus: |, male genitalia, lateral; 2, ninth sternum and claspers, ventral; 3, cerci,

dorsal; 4, aedeagus, lateral. P. azulus: 5, male genitalia, lateral; 6, ninth sternum and claspers, ventral; 7, cerci,

dorsal; 8, aedeagus, lateral. P. mayanus: 9, male genitalia, lateral; 10, ninth sternum and claspers, ventral; 11,

cerci, dorsal; 12, aedeagus, lateral.

150 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

ally broadly joined to the dorsolateral lobe.

These three lobes are very variable in

shape, manner of union, and often one will

be reduced or lost. The aedeagus has an api-

cal, liplike projection.

Polycentropus azulus, new species

Figures 5-8

P. dentoides Yam., P. mayanus n.sp. and

this one form a very closely knit assem-

blage of species. There are rather small dif-

ferences in the shape of the lobes of the

cerci between the three, but the shape of the

clasper is more distinctive. The large apico-

mesal and small basomesal teeth are dis-

tinctive in azulus as is the shape and posi-

tion of the dorsolateral lobe.

Adult.—Length of forewing, 4.5 mm. Color pale

brown in alcohol. Fore and hindwing with R2 present;

hindwing lacking crossvein between R;3 and Ry. Male

genitalia: Ninth segment with anterior margin nearly

vertical; hind margin slightly produced at midlength.

Tenth tergum membranous. Cercus with a broad dor-

solateral lobe, bearing a small ventral lobe; with a

short, tubular dorsomesal lobe. Clasper with a thin,

_rounded, dorsolateral lobe; mesoventral shelf with a

small basal tooth and a large apical tooth. Aedeagus

with a recurved apicoventral lip; apically with a pair

of lateral plates; internally with a single long spine and

an indistinct tubular structure.

Material.—Holotype, male: Mexico,

Edo. Chiapas, Agua Azul, 1 May 1978, H.

Brailovsky. USNM Type 76858.

Polycentropus mayanus, new species

Figures 9-12

As stated under azulus n.sp., this species

and P. dentoides are closely related. The

shape of the clasper, especially the large,

rounded dorsolateral lobe, and mesal shelf

ending in an apical tooth, is distinctive.

Adult.—Length of forewing, 5-7 mm. Color dark

brown; antennae, legs and body ventrally stramine-

ous; forewing covered with dark brown hairs with

numerous interspersed flecks of golden hair. Fore and

hindwings with R2; hindwing lacking crossvein be-

tween R; and Ry. Male genitalia: Ninth segment with

anterior margin slightly oblique, posterior margin

produced posteriad. Tenth tergum membranous. Cer-

cus with a spinelike dorsomesal lobe, curved mesad;

lateral lobe rounded, grading into a poorly differen-

tiated ventromesal lobe. Clasper rounded, higher than

long; mesal shelf well developed, ending in a well de-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

veloped apical tooth. Aedeagus produced into a long,

slender, pointed apicoventral lip; apex with thin lat-

eral plates; internally with a basal tubular structure,

and a single long spine.

Material.—Holotype, male: Mexico,

Edo. Chiapas, Rio Chacamax, Palenque, 6

Dec 1975, C.M. & O.S. Flint, Jr., USNM

Type 76859. Paratypes: Same data, 19.

Polycentropus lingulatus, new species

Figures 13-16

Polycentropus undescribed sp. ‘“*B’’: McElravy, et al.,

in press, Table 1.

This species is closest to P. digitus Yam.

with which it shares the well developed ven-

tromesal lobe of the cercus. However, the

clasper of Jingulatus which is shorter and

higher in outline and the mesal shelf which

ends in a tooth is distinctive.

Adult.—Length of forewing, 5.5 mm. Color in alco-

hol, brown. Fore and hindwings with R2 present;

hindwing lacking crossvein between R3 and Ry. Male

genitalia: Ninth segment with anterior margin slightly

oblique, posterior margin produced posteriad. Tenth

tergum membranous. Cercus with a spinelike dorso-

mesal lobe whose apex bears 2 spiniform setae; lateral

lobe simple, platelike, apex rounded; with a mesoven-

tral plate developed into a small apicoventral point,

with a vertical posterior margin extending as far pos-

teriad as lateral lobe. Clasper with a large, rounded,

dorsolateral lobe; mesal shelf produced into a sharp

apical tooth. Aedeagus produced into a long, slender

apical lip; apex with thin, lateral plates; internally

with a basal tubular structure and six small spines.

Material.—Holotype, male: Panama,

Prov. Chiriqui, Fortuna, 24-30 Nov. 76, H.

Wolda (OTU #32). USNM Type 76860.

Paratypes: Same, but taken between 24

Nov 1976 and 3 Jan 1978, 424. (USNM,

UC-B).

Polycentropus veracruzensis, new species

Figures 17-21

This species is yet another member of the

gertschi group, closely related to P. picana

Ross. From the latter, and all other known

species of the group it is easily recognized

by the claspers which are longer than high,

bear a small apicomesal lobe, and a pair of

basal teeth which are united for their basal

halves.

151

152

J. WASH. ACAD.

SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

Adult.—Length of forewing, 6-7.5 mm. Color dark

brown, antennae, legs and body ventrally stramine-

ous; forewing covered with dark brown hairs with

numerous interspersed flecks of golden hair. Fore and

hindwings with R2 present; hindwing lacking cross-

vein between R; and Ry. Male genitalia: Ninth seg-

ment with anterior margin oblique, posterior margin

sinuate. Tenth tergum membranous. Cercus with dor-

somesal lobe elongate, spinelike, apex curved ventrad

and mesad; lateral lobe small and barely developed,

mesoventral lobe twice as long as lateral lobe and

apicodorsal and ventral angles developed into short

points. Clasper longer than high; mesal shelf poorly

developed, with a short rounded apical tooth, and

more basad a pair of teeth which are united basally.

Aedeagus produced into a long, pointed ventral lip;

apex with thin, lightly sclerotized lateral plates; inter-

nally with a basal tubular structure and 2 small groups

of 2 or 4 short spines each.

Material.—Holotype, male: Mexico,

Edo. Veracruz, near Huatusco, 25-26 July

1965, Flint & Ortiz. USNM Type 76861.

Paratypes: Same data, 19; Metlac, near

Fortin de las Flores, 30 June 1976, J. Bueno,

14 (UNAM). Las Minas, (near Perote), 3

Jan 1978, J. Bueno, 14 (UNAM); same,

but 9 Sept 1977, 44 (USNM, UNAM).

Polycentropus hamiferus, new species

Figures 22-25

Although clearly a member of the gert-

schi group, this species does not seem to

have any close relatives. The dorsomesal

lobe of the cercus which is short, broad,

and hooked apically, together with the very

long lip of the aedeagus, are distinctive.

Adult.—Length of forewing, 9 mm. Color brown;

antennae, legs and body ventrally, stramineous; fore-

wing dark brown with numerous flecks of golden hair.

Fore and hindwings with R2 present; hindwing lack-

ing crossvein between R3 and Ry. Male genitalia:

Ninth segment with anterior and posterior margins

nearly vertical. Tenth tergum lightly sclerotized and

setate dorsally. Cercus with an elongate, clavate dor-

solateral lobe, an elongate, apically rounded ventro-

mesal lobe, and a short dorsomesal lobe ending in an

upturned hook. Clasper with a thin, rounded dorso-

lateral lobe, and a strong mesal shelf bearing an apical

tooth, blunt in ventral aspect. Aedeagus produced

into a long, attenuate apicoventral lip; apicolateral

plates weakly developed; internally with a complex,

lightly sclerotized, basal structure roughly tubular in

outline.

Material.—Holotype, male: El Salvador

[Dept. Santa Ana] north of Metapan

[Cerro Miramundo], 2300 m., 17 May

1969, S. Steinhauser. USNM Type 76862.

Paratype: Same, but 23 Jan 1971, 19.

Polycentropus meridiensis, new species

Figures 26-29

This species appears to be related to P.

connatus Flint, also known from Vene-

zuela. The shape of the clasper is virtually

identical in the two, but the cerci are quite

different. In connatus the dorsomesal lobe

is united to the dorsolateral lobe, but in me-

ridiensis it is, as usual, loosely associated to

ile

Adult.—Length of forewing, 9-10 mm. Color

brown, antennae, legs and body ventrally stramine-

ous; forewing dark brown, with many flecks of golden

hairs. Fore and hindwings with R2 present; hindwing ~

lacking crossvein between R;3 and Ry. Male genitalia:

Ninth segment with anterior margin slightly oblique,

posterior margin vertical. Tenth tergum membra-

nous. Cercus with an elongate, clavate, dorsolateral

lobe, produced ventrally into a strongly sclerotized

lobe whose posterior margin bears a small lobe; with

a free dorsomesal, slightly curved, pointed process.

Clasper with a thin, apicodorsal lobe, mesal shelf with

a strong spine basally, and ending in another spine

projecting from posterior margin. Aedeagus with an

elongate apicoventral lip; internally with a lightly

sclerotized tubular structure ending in a darkened api-

cal structure.

Material.—Holotype, male: Venezuela,

Edo. Merida, 4 km. south of Santo Do-

mingo, 19-23 Feb 1976, C.M. & O:S. Flint,

Jr. USNM Type 76863. Paratypes: Same

data, 3¢. Rio Santo Domingo, 5 km.

northwest of Santo Domingo, 19 Feb 1976,

C.M. &O.S: Flint, -Jr., 34. Mucuy Fish

Hatchery, 7 km. east of Tabay, 6600 ft.,

10-13 Feb 1978, J. B. Heppner, 34 19.

Figs. 13-25. Polycentropus lingulatus: 13, male genitalia, lateral; 14, cerci, dorsal; 15, ninth sternum and

claspers, ventral; 16, aedeagus, lateral. P. veracruzensis: 17, male genitalia, lateral; 18, ninth sternum and

claspers, ventral; 19, clasper, posterior; 20, aedeagus, lateral; 21 cerci, dorsal. P. hamiferus: 22, male genitalia,

lateral; 23, ninth sternum and claspers, ventral; 24, cerci, dorsal; 25, aedeagus, lateral.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

153

Figs. 26-33. Polycentropus meridiensis: 26, ninth sternum and claspers, ventral; 27, male genitalia, lateral; 28,

cerci, dorsal; 29, aedeagus, lateral. P. exsertus: 30, male genitalia, lateral; 31, aedeagus, lateral; 32, ninth sternum

and claspers, ventral; 33, cerci, dorsal.

154 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

Polycentropus exsertus, new species

Figures 30-33

This is a very distinctive species, readily

distinguished from its congeners by the

exserted dorsomesal lobes of the cerci and

the very narrow claspers.

Adult.—Length of forewing, 7 mm. Color brown;

body ventrally and basal halves of legs, stramineous;

forewing dark brown with scattered spots of golden

hairs. Fore and hindwings with R:2 present; hindwing

lacking crossvein between R3 and Ry. Male genitalia:

Ninth segment with anterior margin evenly rounded;

posterior margin irregularly oblique. Tenth tergum

with dorsal surface weakly sclerotized. Cercus with a

platelike lateral lobe, and a long dorsal process dis-

tinctly angled in dorsal aspect. Clasper short, with a

thin, narrow, rounded dorsolateral lobe; mesal shelf

short with a distinct spine. Aedeagus with a short

apicoventral lip; lightly sclerotized eversible plates api-

cally; internally with a lightly sclerotized tubular

structure.

Material.—Holotype, male: Ecudador,

Prov. Pastaza, 16kms. west of Puyo, 3 Feb

1976, Spangler, et al., at blacklight. USNM

Type 76864. Paratypes: Same data, 14 59.

Polycentropus zanclus, new species

Figures 34-37

This species and the following, P. bellus,

are closely related, and easily recognized by

the apparent loss of the dorsomesal lobe of

the cercus, and great elongation of the

clasper. The long, slender ventromesal

lobe, and the short dorsolateral lobe are

distinctive in zanclus.

Adult.—Length of forewing, 8 mm. Color brown,

legs and body ventrally, stramineous; forewings dark

brown, spotted with goldenhairs. Fore and hindwings

with R> present; hindwing lacking crossvein between

R3; and Ry. Male genitalia: Ninth segment with an-

terior margin broadly rounded, posterior margin

slightly produced. Tenth tergum membranous. Cer-

cus with a small dorsolateral lobe, broadly united toa

long slender, sicklelike apicoventral lobe; dorsomes-

ally with a small, rounded lobe. Clasper with a nar-

row, erect, thin basodorsal lobe, and a long, slender

apical lobe; mesal shelf short, produced into a baso-

dorsal hook. Aedeagus with apicoventral lip trifid,

with short pointed submesal lobes and a longer, de-

curved mesal lobe; lateral plates apically; internally

with a basodorsal, lightly sclerotized, roughly tubular

structure, and 10 short ventral spines.

Material.—Holotype, male: Guatemala,

[Dept. Quiche], El Quiche, 7.3 km. south of

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

Chichicastenago (15° 54’ N, 91° 07’ W),

2400 m., 28 May 1973, Erwin & Hevel.

USNM Type 76865. Paratype: Same data,

12.

Polycentropus bellus, new species

Figures 38-41

This species and P. zanclus forma closely

related pair of species. They are easily dis-

tinguished by the shape of the claspers and

especially the cerci, which in bellus appar-

ently consist of a long lobe, ending ina ven-

tral tooth.

Adult.—Length of forewing, 8 mm. Color in alco-

hol, brown. Fore and hindwings with R2; hindwing

lacking crossvein between R; and Ry. Male genitalia:

Ninth segment with anterior margin produced ven-

trally; posterior margin nearly vertical. Tenth tergum

membranous. Cercus with dorsolateral and latero-

ventral lobes broadly joined, elongate, ending in a de-

curved hook; dorsomesal lobe lacking. Clasper witha

narrow, erect, thin basodorsal lobe, and a long,

slender apical lobe with a strong subbasal tooth. Ae-

deagus with apicoventral lip trifid, submesal lobes

short and pointed, mesal lobe long and decurved; lat-

eral plates apically; internally with a basodorsal,

elongate, lightly sclerotized tubular structure, and 12

short ventral spines.

Material.—Holotype, male: Mexico,

Edo. Chiapas, Santa Elena, Rio Santo

Domingo (39 km. east of Lagunas Monte-

bello), 9 Apr 1979, Barrera. USNM Type

76866. Paratype: Same, but 6 Apr 1979, J.

Bueno S., 1@ (UNAM).

Polycentropus fortunus, new species

Figures 42-45

Polycentropus undescribed sp. “*A’’: McEI-

ravy, et al., Table 1.

This and the following new species, P.

acanthogaster, appear to be slightly related.

In both species the cercus is reduced to only

two lobes, in fortunus there are clearly the

dosomesal and lateral lobes. In addition

the elongate, rather triangular outline of

the clasper in this species is distinctive.

Adult.—Length of forewing, 6 mm. Color in alco-

hol, brown. Fore and hindwings with R2 present;

hindwing lacking crossvein between R; and Ry. Male

genitalia: Ninth segment with anterior margin nearly

vertical, posterior margin produced posteriad. Tenth

tergum membranous. Cercus with an elongate spine-

155

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

156

like dorsomesal lobe whose apex is sharply curved

ventrad and mesad; lateral lobe simple, platelike, apex

rounded. Clasper with a broad, slightly produced dor-

solateral margin; mesal shelf narrow, ending in a

sharp spine at itsapex, with a basomesal pad of spine-

like setae. Aedeagus produced into a long, slender

apicoventral lip; thin, lateral plates apically; inter-

nally with a basal tubular structure surmounting a

single spine.

Material.—Holotype, male: Panama,

Prov. Chiriqui, Fortuna, 10-16 Nov 1976,

H. Wolda (OTU #7). USNM Type 76867.

Paratypes: Same, but taken between 10

Nov 1976 to 13 Dec 1977, 394 (USNM,

UC-B).

Polycentropus acanthogaster, new species

Figures 46-49

Polycentropus undescribed sp. ‘‘C’’: McElravy, et al.,

in press, Table 1.

Although the clasper and aedeagus of

this species are absolutely typical of the

gertschi group, the cercus is quite different.

Both this species and the preceeding have

two-parted cerci, but in acanthogaster it is

not clear which lobe is present in addition

to the lateral one. The position is that of the

ventromesal lobe, but the shape is more

typical of the dorsomesal lobe. Although

this species lacks the small, dorsomesal,

digitate process of the cercus of the follow-

ing species, the ventral lobe of acanthogas-

ter may represent a further development of

the ventral process of bonus.

Adult.—Length of forewing, 5 mm. Specimen com-

pletely cleared, in alcohol. Fore and hindwings with

R2 present; hindwing lacking crossvein between R;

and Rg. Male genitalia: Ninth segment with anterior

margin strongly rounded ventrally, posterior margin

vertical. Tenth tergum membranous. Cercus lacking

dorsomesal lobe; lateral lobe simple, platelike, apex

oblique; with a strong spinelike process from ventro-

mesal margin, sharply curved dorsad. Clasper with a

thin, dorsolateral lobe, and a strong mesal shelf bear-

ing a sharp tooth. Aedeagus produced into a short

apicoventral lip ending ina pair of short lateral lobes

and a short, pale, mesal process; apex with thin lateral

plates; internally with a pair of slender spines attached

to an irregular base.

Material.—Holotype, male: Panama,

Prov. Chiriqui, Fortuna, 1-7 June 1977, H.

Wolda (OTU #55). USNM Type 76868.

Paratypes: Same, but 17-23 Nov 1976, 1¢;

same, but 5-11 June 1977, 14; same, but

4-10 May 1977, 14; same, but 18-24 May

1977, 16; same; but 5-11 Oct 1977, 16

(USNM, UC-B).

Polycentropus bonus, new species’

Figures 50-53

Belonging to the gertschi group this spe-

cies is related to P. acanthogaster, clarus

and alatus. With acanthogaster it shares the

general structure and shape of the claspers,

and with clarus and alatus the possession of

a lightly sclerotized, process-bearing struc-

ture from the inner face of the cercus and

strongly sclerotized ventral support for the

aedeagus. It differs from each species in the

precise shape of claspers, cerci, and

aedeagus.

Adult.—Length of forewing, 5-5.5 mm. Specimen

in alcohol, brown. Fore and hindwings with R:2 pres-

ent; hindwing lacking crossvein between R;3 and Rg.

Male genitalia: Ninth segment with anterior and pos-

terior margins slightly expanded ventrad. Tenth ter-

gum membranous. Cercus with a thin, lateral lobe,

about as long as broad; ventrobasally giving rise toa

long, curved spinelike process; inner face developed

into a slender sclerotized area bearing a slender dig-

itate lobe near the midline. A platelike sclerite sur-

rounding aedeagus laterally and ventrally. Clasper

with a thin, rounded dorsolateral lobe; mesal shelf

bearing a blunt tooth at midlength. Aedeagus pro-

duced intoa short, pointed, mesoventral lip; thin, lat-

eral plates apically; internally with a tubular lightly

sclerotized structure (paratype also contains a cluster

of 9 short spines).

Material.—Holotype, male: Belize, Cayo

Dist., Rio Privassion, Blancaneaux Lodge,

9-11 July 1973, Y. Sedman. USNM Type

76869. Paratypes: Same data, 19. Mexico,

Edo. Chiapas, Bonampak, 3 May 1978, E.

Barrera, 1¢@ (UNAM).

Figs. 34-41. Polycentropus zanclus: 34, male genitalia, lateral; 35, ninth sternum and claspers, ventral; 36

cerci, dorsal; 37, aedeagus, lateral. P. bellus: 38, cerci, dorsal; 39, aedeagus, lateral; 40, male genitalia, lateral; 41,

ninth sternum and claspers, ventral.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

157

Figs. 42-53. Polycentropus fortunus: 42, male genitalia, lateral; 43, cerci, dorsal; 44, ninth sternum and

claspers, ventral; 45, aedeagus, lateral. P. acanthogaster: 46, male genitalia, lateral; 47, aedeagus, lateral; 48,

ninth sternum and claspers, ventral; 49, cerci, dorsal. P. bonus: 50, male genitalia, lateral; 51, cerci, dorsal; 52,

ninth sternum and claspers, ventral; 53, aedeagus, lateral.

158 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

Figs. 54-61. Polycentropus clarus: 54, male genitalia, lateral; 55, aedeagus, lateral; 56, ninth sternum and

claspers, ventral; 57, male genitalia, less aedeagus, posterior. P. a/atus: 58, ninth sternum and claspers, ventral;

59, cerci, dorsal; 60, male genitalia, lateral; 61, aedeagus, lateral.

Polycentropus clarus, new species

Figures 54-57

Although this species lacks most of the

distinctive characters of the gertschi group,

it is placed in the group because it seems to

represent an extreme development of some

of the tendencies apparent in P. bonus

which is more clearly a member of the

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

group. The shapes of the clasper and cercus

are unique in Clarus.

Adult.—Length of forewing, 6.5 mm. Color in alco-

hol, brown, appearing speckled with paler marks.

Fore and hindwings with R2 present; hindwing lack-

ing crossvein between R; and Ry. Male genitalia:

Ninth segment with anterior and posterior margins

nearly vertical. Tenth tergum membranous. Cercus

with a rounded outer lobe, and a platelike mesal lobe

bearing a slender process at midlength and a longer,

159

stouter process ventrally, a flattened sclerite between

cercus and clasper. Clasper trianguloid in lateral as-

pect, with dark, erect dorsomesal and broader dorso-

lateral points. Aedeagus produced into a long, slender

apicoventral lip; thin lateral plates apically; internally

with a pointed, tubular structure, and 3 small spines.

Material.—Holotype, male: Mexico, Edo.

Veracruz, Arroyo Claro, Sierra Sta. Marta,

Los Tuxtlas, 18 Dec 1976, J. Bueno S.

USNM Type 76870.

Polycentropus alatus, new species

Figures 58-61

This species apparently is related to the

preceeding two species on the basis of the

presence of a small digitate lobe borne

from the inner face of the cercus. However,

the shape of ventromesal lobe of the cercus

and the clasper is distinctive.

Adult.—Length of forewing, 5.5 mm. Color inalco-

hol brown. Fore and hindwings with R)2 present;

hindwing lacking crossvein between R; and Ry. Male

genitalia: Ninth segment with anterior and posterior

margins slightly expanded ventrad. Tenth tergum

membranous. Cercus, with dorsolateral lobe small,

rounded apically, united to a long, declivious ventral

lobe which ends in a short hook; dorsomesally with a

lightly sclerotized area bearing a slender digitate lobe

near midline. Clasper with a thin, erect lateral lobe

ending in a spinelike process; mesal shelf unorna-

mented. Aedeagus with a apicoventral lip produced

into a slender process; thin lateral plates apically; in-

ternally with a single large spine and a complex of

lightly sclerotized ill-defined structures.

Material.—Holotype, male: Mexico,

Edo. Chiapas, Colon (Lagartero), (30 km.

northeast of Ciudad Cuauhtemoc), 8 Apr

1979, J. Bueno. USNM Type 76871. Para-

types: Same data 7¢ 19 (USNM, UNAM).

References Cited

McElravy, Eric P., Vincent H. Resh, Henk Wolda, and

. Oliver S. Flint, Jr. Diversity of adult Trichoptera in

a ‘‘non-seasonal”’ tropical environment. Proc. 3rd

Int. Symp. on Trichoptera. In press.

Nesting Behavior and Prey of Argogorytes Ashmead

(Hymenoptera: Sphecidae)

E. McC. Callan

13 Gellibrand Street, Campbell, Canberra, A.C.T. 2601, Australia

ABSTRACT

The nesting behavior and prey of 4 species of Argogorytes, a primitive gorytine genus in the

sphecid subfamily Nyssoninae, are reviewed. The wasps nest in the ground and dig relatively

shallow, multicellular nests, provisioning the cells with 3 to 30 homopterous prey. The Pa-

laearctic A. mystaceus and A. fargeii prey on nymphs of the genus Aphrophora (Aphrophori-

dae). A. carbonarius, endemic to New Zealand, preys on nymphs of the genus Carystoterpa

(Aphrophoridae). The European A. hispanicus preys on adults of the genus Hysteropterum

(Issidae). The nesting behavior of Argogorytes is discussed and compared with that of related

gorytine genera.

The genus Argogorytes was established

by Ashmead (1899) for those gorytine

wasps with a broad head, well developed

epicnemium (prepectus), strong oblique

groove on the mesopleuron, and other fea-

tures. Bohart & Menke (1976) gave a full

160

generic diagnosis and considered subge-

neric divisions to be unjustified. Argogo-

rytes is undoubtedly one of the most primi-

tive gorytine genera and is nearly world-

wide in distribution, being absent only

from the Afrotropical (Ethiopian) region. -

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

Nothing significant is known of the biol-

ogy of the 2 North American or 4 Austral-

lan species, nor of most of the 18 other

members of the genus. Both sexes of the

Australian A. rufomixtus (Turner) have

been reared from cocoons dug out of a

sandy bank near Brisbane, Queensland,

but the prey is unknown. However, some

information on the nesting behavior and

prey of 4 species of Argogorytes is now

available. Three Palaearctic species have

been studied in Europe and Japan, and

meager observations made on | species in

New Zealand.

The three European species are readily

separable by keys given by Beaumont

(1964), and Lomholdt (1976) re-described

the 2 better known species that reach Scan-

dinavia. Benno (1977) discussed these 2

species in the Netherlands with special ref-

erence to ecological preferences and the

host associations of their cleptoparasites.

Argogorytes mystaceus mystaceus (Linnaeus)

Originally described in Sphex, the nomi-

nate subspecies is the best known and most

widely distributed Argogorytes, ranging

through the Palaearctic region. Bohart &

Menke (1976) gave a full synonymy. It is a

common wasp in Europe and occurs also in

North Africa, but no recent observations

have been found on its nesting habits.

Shuckard (1837) was probably one of the

first to note that it was common in Britain

on Umbelliferae in June and July, and to

report capturing it with prey, the nymph of

Aphrophora sp., entering a sandbank.

Hamm & Richards (1930) referred to

earlier work on its biology, recording

nymphs of the spittlebug (froghopper)

Aphrophora spumaria (Linnaeus) (Aphro-

phoridae) as prey, and Nysson spinosus (J.

Forster) as a cleptoparasite. The female

wasp was reported to fly to the nest carry-

ing the prey by her mid-legs after extracting

it from the spittle-mass. According to one

account, the wasp inserted her legs and

sting into the froth, and according to

another she plunged her head in to effect

capture of the prey.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

Evans & Eberhard (1970) mentioned

pseudocopulation of males with the flow-

ers of the orchid Ophrys insectifera (Lin-

naeus) whereby the latter are pollinated.

Lomholdt (1976) also referred to this and

the classic experiments of Kullenberg

(1961) in Sweden on the subject.

Argogorytes mystaceus grandis (Gussakovskij)

This subspecies was described from Us-

suri district, Eastern Siberia, U.S.S.R. by

Gussakovskij (1933) and occurs also in

Japan and Korea. Tsuneki (1965) observed

its nesting behavior near Lake Suganuma

in the Nikko region of Honshu, Japan. The

burrows of the nests were 8-12cm in length

and 4—4.5 mm across. In a unicellular nest

the cell was at a vertical depth of 7 cm and

in a bicellular nest cells were 2.5 and 3.7 cm

deep, the cells lying horizontally and meas-

uring 17 mm by 10 mm.

Tsuneki reported that the burrows were

closed with sand in the absence of the wasp,

and noted that the prey-laden wasp opened

the closed entrance with the fore legs with-

out relinquishing the prey. When the wasp

entered the nest the prey was left in the en-

trance of the burrow, being visible from

outside, and then disappeared down the

burrow. Presumably the wasp turned

around within the nest, because the prey

was dragged down the burrow from inside.

The wasp was observed to capture Aphro-

phora spp. (Aphrophoridae) carried venter

to venter and head to head, but it was not

explicitly stated whether the prey com-

prised nymphs or adults. A completed cell

contained 4 prey placed in the cell head in-

wards and venter uppermost. The egg meas-

ured 2.8 mm by 1.0 mm and was laid on

the prey lying innermost in the cell. It was

attached by the caudal end to one of the

hind coxae of the prey and the cephalic end

reached the fore coxa.

Argogorytes fargeii (Shuckard)

This Palaearctic species is widespread

but is less widely distributed than A. mysta-

ceus and not as well known. Shuckard

(1837), who described it in Gorytes, noted

161

that it was not uncommon in July on Um-

belliferae in the London area and stated

that he captured a female carrying the

nymph of Aphrophora spumaria (Aphro-

phoridae). No recent observations seem to

have been published on its nesting be-

havior.

Hamm & Richards (1930) summarized

the observations of Adlerz (1906) in south-

ern Sweden, who reported that the prey of

this species (as campestris Mueller) com-

prised spittlebug nymphs of the genus

Aphrophora. Adlerz stated that the wasp

plunged legs and sting into the spittlemass

to remove the prey, which was carried in

flight by the midlegs to the nest. Burrows

penetrated 10 cm vertically and the same

distance horizontally into bare slopes of

clay or gravel and were always left open.

Nests were multicellular with 6-9 cells. In

one nest 19-27 prey were found in each cell,

but in a unicellular nest the cell contained

30 prey. In all cells the prey lay with heads

pointing inwards, but neither egg nor larva

was found.

Malyshev (1968) made some interesting

comments on the absence of the egg in this

and other instances, suggesting that it

might be insecurely attached to the prey

and fall off or be destroyed by the larva of

an inquiline miltogrammine fly.

Nysson spinosus (see under A. mystaceus)

has been recorded as a cleptoparasite of A.

fargeii, but Benno (1977) has shown in the

Netherlands that N. spinosus is restricted to

A. mystaceus and N. interruptus Fabricius is

a cleptoparasite of A. fargeii.

Argogorytes hispanicus (Mercet)

This species is known only from south-

ern and central Europe. It was described in

Gorytes from near Madrid by Mercet (1906)

and has since been found in various other

parts of Spain. Beaumont (1945) first re-

corded A. hispanicus from Switzerland,

where it occurs in the Alps up to 1,800 m,

and it has apparently been found in south-

ern France. It is a little known species, and

Beaumont suggested that it has probably

been confused with its congeners and may

range more widely.

162

The nesting behavior and prey of A. his-

panicus were unknown until Janvier (1974)'

studied a colony nesting at Malaga in

southern Spain. Janvier reported colonies

containing several tens of individuals, de-

scribed digging, provisioning and nest struc-

ture, Oviposition, structural features of the

larva and its development, and cocoon

formation. A nest with 6 cells and the ma-

ture larva with relevant structures were fig-

ured. The nest had burrows 10-20 cm long,

and were multicellular with 5-7 cells, 15

mm long and 8-9 mm wide. The incubation

period of the egg was said to be 4-5 days

and the larval feeding period took a week.

The ovoid cocoon was 11-12 mm long and

5 mm wide.

Janvier found that on hot days female

wasps were active from 9000 to 2000 hours,

alternating nesting activities with visits to

the flowers of Umbelliferae to feed and

with basking in the sun. No observations

were made on males. Females explored

vegetation for prey, which, when captured

successfully, was taken to a nearby shrub

and stung. In returning to the nest the wasp

flew heavily with the prey held by the mid-

legs and landed a short distance from the -

entrance. Without releasing the prey, the

wasp walked to the next, and, supported by

the hind legs, used the fore legs to enlarge

the entrance and took the prey down the

burrow to the cell. The wasp returned re-

peatedly to the nest to deposit additional

prey in the cell, the entrance being evi-

dently left open during provisioning.

In excavating a nest, Janvier located a

cell at the end of a burrow 14cm long and

within it found 8 paralyzed prey with the

heads directed inwards. All the prey were

Hysteropterum reticulatum (Herrich-

Schaeffer). Hysteropterum is a widespread

Holarctic genus with numerous species and

belongs to the homopterous family Issidae.

H. reticulatum is a well-known central and

southern European species ranging from

Germany to Sicily and Spain. One of the

' Janvier’s paper was published in 1974 and is cor-

rectly cited by Bohart & Menke (1976), but appeared

in Graellsia, 27, 1971 and this year is given in Zoologi-

cal Record, Insecta, Part E, Hymenoptera, 110(13): 21.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

first prey placed in the cell bore a minute

larva. A second cell in the same nest con-

tained 4 prey, the first one deposited having

an egg attached to the upper mesopleuron.

The egg was whitish, 2mm long, somewhat

curved, with the cephalic end directed to-

wards the neck of the prey.

Janvier emphasized that the first prey

placed in the cell was used for oviposition,

stating that the wasp positions the prey on

its side with the fore wings slightly apart to

facilitate applying the egg lengthwise along

the upper mesopleuron. After oviposition

the wasp captures further prey, 6 to 10

journeys over several days being required

to complete provisioning. The fully stored

cell is closed with loose sand and an inner

closure of the cell burrow made before the

wasp digs the next cell. It was concluded

that it required 4 or 5 weeks for a wasp to

construct and provision the 5-7 cells in its

nest with 40 to 50 adults of H. reticulatum.

Wasps were said to spend the night in their

burrows.

Argogorytes carbonarius (F. Smith)

This is the type species of the genus as des-

ignated by Ashmead (1899), and a series of

the generotype was studied by Bohart &

Menke (1976). A carbonarius is endemic to

New Zealand and I recently discussed what

is known of its biology (Callan, 1979).

Gourlay (1930) was apparently the first to

report this species (as Gorytes) preying on

nymphs of the spittlebug Carystoterpa fin-

gens (Walker) (Aphrophoridae). The prey

was recorded as Philaenus trimaculatus

White. Gourlay (1964) gave a brief account

of the wasp provisioning its nest in the soil

of garden beds at Nelson with late nymphal

spittlebugs. Although he noted the source

of the prey on young shoots of Meyer

lemon trees, it was not stated how the

nymphs were extracted from the frothy

spittlemass surrounding them. The name

of the prey was given by Gourlay in this

paper as Carystoterpa trimaculata (Butler),

which is a synonym of C. fingens.

The Aphrophoridae are represented by 2

species only in New Zealand and both be-

long to endemic genera. C. fingens was

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

originally described in the genus Ptyelus

and is a highly variable species. It is the

more abundant and widely distributed of

the 2 New Zealand aphrophorids and is

found on various shrubs.

Gourlay did not record the length of the

burrow of the wasp nor the number of cells

constructed, mentioning only that up to 3

spittlebug nymphs were placed “‘in each

burrow.” Adult females of C. fingens vary

in length from 7-9 mm, and the relatively

large size of the late nymphs accounts no

doubt for the small number of prey stored.

Gourlay stated that on one of the prey “‘a

single egg is deposited longitudinally be-

tween the rudimentary wings and the legs.”’

He did not record whether the nest en-

trance was closed or left open in the ab-

sence of the wasp. In view of the fragmen-

tary nature of these observations, it would

be interesting to learn more of the nesting

behavior of this New Zealand species.

Discussion

1. Species of Argogorytes nest in small

colonies in the ground, usually in bare, flat,

sandy soil, but also on slopes of clay or

gravel, in sandbanks and in garden beds.

2. Adults of A. mystaceus, A. fargeii and

A. hispanicus are reported to visit flowers of

Umbelliferae.

3. Little is known of the behavior of

male gorytine wasps, and no observations

seem to have been made on the males of

Argogorytes, except for those of A. mysta-

ceus, which are remarkable in being at-

tracted to and pollinating orchids.

4. Most Gorytini apparently spend the

night on vegetation, but a few are thought

to sleep in their burrows. Females of A. his-

panicus are said to spend the night in their

nests. Janvier (1928) reported that both

sexes of Clitemnestra in Chile spend the

night in the burrows.

5. Argogorytes females dig relatively

shallow, multicellular nests with the fore

legs, which have no tarsal comb or pecten.

Burrows are reported to be 8-20 cm in

length and 2.5-10 cm in vertical depth with

163

up to 9 cells measuring about 15-17 mm by

8-10 mm.

6. The nest entrance is closed in A. mys-

taceus but left open in A. fargeii in the ab-

sence of the female. In A. hispanicus the fe-

male on arrival with prey is said to enlarge

the entrance, so it is presumably left at least

partly open. Janvier (1974) used the verb

‘““ensanchar”’ in his account of nesting in

this species, and would surely have used

“abrir” had the nest been closed. Most gor-

ytine wasps close the nest entrance, but a

few species, such as Clitemnestra in Chile

(Janvier, 1928) and in Australia (Evans &

Matthews, 1971), Dienoplus in Britain

(Bristowe, 1948), and a species of Hopli-

soides in Argentina (Evans & Matthews,

1973), are reported to leave it open.

7. In provisioning the nest, the prey is

carried in flight by the female Argogorytes,

using the legs to clasp it tightly venter to

venter and head foremost. Several days are

said to be required to complete mass provi-

sioning a cell in A. hispanicus and the incu-

bation period of the egg is 4-5 days, which

is reminiscent of Clitemnestra. In Argogo-

rytes the number of prey ranges from 3-30,

placed in the cell with the head in and ven-

ter uppermost.

8. The prey in A. mystaceus, A. fargeii

and A. carbonarius comprises nymphs of

the family Aphrophoridae in the genera

Aphrophora and Carystoterpa. In A. hispan-

icus the prey comprises adults of the fam-

ily Issidae in the genus Hysteropterum.

Both prey families are Homoptera Auche-

norhyncha but pertain to different super-

families—Aphrophoridae to Cercopoidea

and Issidae to Fulgoroidea. Argogorytes

was formerly thought to be exceptional in

specializing on nymphal Aphrophoridae

until the discovery of adult Issidae used as

prey by the genus. Most gorytine wasps

provision their nests with one or several

homopterous families; Ochleroptera is re-

ported to prey on 5 families and Sagenista

preys on 6 families (Callan, 1977). By con-

trast, some Hoplisoides prey on numerous

species of the single family Membracidae,

and Evans & Matthews (1971) reported

Austrogorytes in Australia preying on 7

164

species of one endemic family Eurymeli-

dae. Pseudoplisus seems to be one of the few

gorytine genera exhibiting a high degree of

prey specificity, storing its nests exclusively

with adult Aphrophoridae, one species of

wasp restricting itself to a single species of

prey. In South Africa numerous prey re-

cords from widely disparate areas indicate

that P. natalensis (F. Smith) preys only on

Ptyelus grossus (Fabricius), and P. ranosa-

hae (Arnold) in Malagasy apparently preys

only on Pryelus goudoti (Bennett) (Callan,

unpublished observations).

9. In most gorytine wasps, the egg is laid

on the last prey deposited in the cell, being

attached longitudinally on the ventral side

of the thorax alongside the coxae (Evans,

1966). The egg is reported to be laid on the

first prey placed in the cell in A. mystaceus

and A. hispanicus, in the former species at-

tached to the outside of one of the hind

coxae and in the latter to the mesopleuron

of the thorax. In A. carbonarius the egg is

said to be laid between the wing-buds and

the legs. In Clitemnestra in Chile the first

prey is also reported to bear the egg, which

is apparently attached to one of the midlegs

(Janvier, 1928), and in Dienoplus in

U.S.S.R. the egg is also evidently on the

first prey deposited in the cell (Malyshev,

1968).

10. Cocoons in Argogorytes, as in re-

lated genera, are hard and ovoid, more

pointed posteriorly, incorporating sand

grains in the walls, but without mural

pores. In A. hispanicus cocoons are re-

ported to be 11 to 12 mm long and 5 mm

wide.

References Cited

Adlerz, G., 1906. Lefnadsforhallanden och instinkter

inom familjerna Pompilidae och Sphegidae. Hand.

K. Svenska Vetensk. Akad. 42: 1-48.

Ashmead, W. H., 1899. Classification of the entomo-

philous wasps or the superfamily Sphegoidea. Can.

Ent. 31: 322-330.

Beaumont, J. de, 1945. Notes sur les Sphecidae de la

Suisse. Mitt. Schweiz. ent. Ges. 19: 467-481.

, 1964. Insecta Helvetica. 3. Hymenoptera:

Sphecidae. Soc. ent. Suisse, Lausanne.

Benno, P., 1977. De verspreiding van Argogorytes en

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

hun respektievelijke koekoekwespen (Nysson) in

Nederland (Hymenoptera: Sphecidae: Nyssoninae).

Ent. Ber., Amst. 37: 153-156.

Bohart, R. M., and Menke, A. S., 1976. Sphecid wasps

of the world: a generic revision. Univ. California

Press, Berkeley.

Bristowe, W. S., 1948. Notes on the habits and prey of

twenty species of British hunting wasps. Proc. Linn.

Soc. Lond. 160: 12-37.

Callan, E. McC., 1977. Observations on the nesting

behavior and prey of gorytine wasps in Trinidad

(Hymenoptera: Sphecidae). Psyche 83: 324-335.

, 1979. The Sphecidae (Hymenoptera) of New

Zealand. N. Z. Ent. 7: 30-41.

Evans, H. E., 1966. The comparative ethology and evo-

lution of the sand wasps. Harvard Univ. Press, Cam-

bridge, Mass.

, and Eberhard, M. J. W., 1970. The wasps.

Univ. Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.

, and Matthews, R. W., 1971. Nesting behavior

and larval stages of some Australian nyssonine

sand wasps (Hymenoptera: Sphecidae). Aust. J.

Zool. 19: 293-310.

, 1973. Observations on the nesting behavior of

South American sand wasps (Hymenoptera). Bio-

tropica 6: 130-134.

Gourlay, E. S., 1930. Preliminary host-list of the en-

tomophagous insects in New Zealand. Bull. N. Z.

Dep. scient. ind. Res. 22: 1-13.

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, 1964. Notes on New Zealand insects and re-

cords of introduced species. N. Z. Ent. 3: 45-51.

Gussakovskij, V., 1933. Verzeichnis der von Herrn Dr.

R. Malaise im Ussuri und Kamtschatka gesam-

melten aculeaten Hymenopteren. Ark. Zool. 24A

(10): 1-6.

Hamm, A. H., and Richards, O. W., 1930. Biology of

British fossorial wasps. Trans. R. ent. Soc. Lond.

78: 95-131.

Janvier, H., 1928. Recherches biologiques sur les pré-

dateurs du Chili. Ann. Sci. nat., Zool. (10) 11:

67-207.

, 1974. Una colonia de Argogorytes hispanicus

(Merc., 1906) en Malaga. Graellsia 27: 67-77.

Kullenberg, B., 1961. Studies in Ophrys pollination.

Zool. Bidrag, 34: 1-340.

Lomholdt, O., 1976. The Sphecidae (Hymenoptera) of

Fennoscandia and Denmark. Fauna Entomologica

Scandinavica. 4. Scandinavian Science Press,

Klampenborg.

Mercet, R. G., 1906. Los Gorytes y Stizus de Espana.

Mem. Soc. Esp. Hist. nat. 4: 111-158.

Malyshey, S. I., 1968. Hymenoptera and the phases of

their evolution (English trans.). London: Methuen.

Shuckard, W. E., 1837. Essay on the indigenous fossor-

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Tsuneki, K., 1965. Nesting biology of Argogorytes

mystaceus grandis Gussakovskij (Hymenoptera,

Sphecidae). Life Study (Fukui) 9: 41-42.

165

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

BOARD OF MANAGERS MEETING NOTES

649th Meeting—September 3, 1980

The 649th meeting of the Board of Man-

agers of the Washington Academy of Sciences

was called to order at 7:30 PM on Wednes-

day, September 3, 1980 by President Mar-

jorie R. Townsend. The meeting followed a

reception that had been arranged by the

Board for delegates and presidents of affili-

ated societies. After corrections were sug-

gested and made, the minutes of the pre-

vious meeting were approved.

In considering the minutes of the pre-

vious meeting, Dr. Honig and Dr. Alfred

Weissler reaffirmed that there was not an

automatic annual grant from the American

Association for the Advancement of Science

as there had been in the past, but rather

that it was necessary for each society to ap-

ply for these for particular purposes each

year. Dr. Richard Cook added that it was

up to the Board of Managers to apply on

the basis of its decision of what had to be

done. Mr. Grover Sherlin had said during

the previous meeting that we had not ap-

plied for the money this year.

The Secretary reported that Mrs. Donna

E. Smith had worked virtually full time

during most of the summer uncovering and

answering correspondence dating back through

the last two years about nonreceipt of the

Journal and other matters to bring affairs

of the Academy up to date. Mrs. Loreen

McDaniel had also spent time setting up

the Washington Academy of Sciences’ ac-

counts and setting up the Washington Jun-

ior Academy of Sciences’ accounts to get

those bills paid, and working with Drs.

Florence and Alphonse Forziati as they

166

spent days in their auditing of income and

expenditures.

The Academy had been sent the Records

of the Columbia Historical Society, the Fif-

tieth Volume for 1980. The Secretary indi-

cated she would write the Society a letter of

thanks from the Academy.

The resignation of Dr. Kenneth N. Derucher

as Journal Editor was accepted.

In discussion of potential affiliation of

the Academy, it was mentioned that there

were 20 Sigma Xi chapters in the Washing-

ton area. Although the Academy Board is

composed of representatives both of local

and national associations, Dr. Honig men-

tioned that so far no association with more

than one local chapter has applied or been

invited for affiliation.

The Treasurer’s report was presented.

Dr. Al Forziati said the audit was continu-

ing. Dr. Ronald W. Manderscheid moved,

and it was seconded and passed, that the

Treasurer’s report be accepted.

Dr. Honig passed around to the Board

an interim report of the Policy Planning

Committee, entitled a “Progress Report of

the Long Range Planning Committee.”

Participants in this have been Mr. E. M.

Buras, Jr., Dr. R. K. Cook and Dr. K.

Stern. Top priorities stemming from their

June 11, 1980 meeting were: 1) to increase

membership; 2) to streamline the manage-

ment process; 3) to have more joint activi-

ties and meetings; and 4) to put the Academy ~

on a sound financial basis. Lowest priori-

ties were to raise prestige and public stature

of the Academy and to present prizes and

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

awards. Recommendations from the July

3, 1980 meeting were: 1) to reactive the

Membership Promotions Committee sepa-

rate from the current Membership Com-

mittee to disseminate membership forma-

tion and actively seek out potential new

members; 2) to have a new, updated bro-

chure to attract new members; 3) to look at

potential sources of new members includ-

ing local universities, governmental institu-

tions, foreign scientific missions and at-

taches, and affiliated societies; 4) listing

committee chairman in the Journal so

readers can contact them; 5) encourage-

ment of more joint activities; election of

three new vice presidents: a. Membership,

b. Programs, encompassing meetings, sympo-

sia and the Joint Board, and c. Communi-

cations for oversight of the Journal, en-

couragement of Science Talent, awards for

Scientific Achievement, grants in aid, and

public information. The three elected vice

presidents would become members of the

Executive Committee. Dr. Honig concluded

with the statement that additional meetings

of the Committee will be held this fall.

Dr. Cook, Chairman of the Ways and

Means Committee, said the issue of raising

fellow dues from $25 to $30, tabled since

the last meeting, could now be discussed.

The motion to raise them was moved by

Dr. Cook and seconded by Mr. James

Wagner. In the ensuing discussion, Dr.

Cook said this took inflation into account.

Dr. Honig said it had been tabled the last

time because we did not have a budget, nor

will we have one until we know the size of

the dues-paying membership. Dr. Ruth

Landman pointed out that AAAS dues

were only $40 which included 52 issues of

SCIENCE. After the question, the motion

was defeated. Dues for 1981 will remain $20

for members, $25 for fellows.

Mr. Verne Birks pointed out that the

Journal was both expensive and, at this

juncture, not of the highest caliber. It was

also pointed out, whereas it formerly had

come out 11 or 12timesa year, it now was a

quarterly. Dr. Honig said we were still pay-

ing old bills of the Academy in the painful

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

process of changing the business manage-

ment and office support, and that we no

longer were paying for a full-time office

manager or rent to save expenses. Dr.

Cook added that the Ways and Means

Committee was seeking ideas for more

sources of income.

In reporting on the Committee on Meet-

ings, Mrs. Townsend said that Dr. Richard

P. Hallion had arranged the October and

January monthly meetings of WAS to be

co-sponsored with the Society of Biology

and Medicine. The October 16 meeting was

being co-sponsored by the Association of

Plant Physiologists. The meetings list had

also been sent to the Capitol chemists asso-

ciation. The Uhuru Memorial Symposium

on December 13 follows a week-long meet-

ing of the Tenth Annual Meeting of the

Texas Astrophysics Association in Balti-

more to be attended by an estimated 1200

from the United States and 600 from over-

seas, including a Chinese delegation.

Registration for the Uhuru meeting was

to be $20 before December, $25 after that.

This included lunch and the Proceedings.

Name badges, mailing of proceedings to

participants, and brochure expenses were

being underwritten by the Goddard Space

Flight Center. Dr. John Naugle, recently

retired as Chief Scientist of NASA, would

be guest editor, and page charges would

not be asked of contributors.

Mrs. Townsend then reported on the En-

couragement of Science Talent Committee,

indicating that the president of WAS had

been away much of the summer.

Dr. H. McIlvaine Parsons, reporting for

the Public Information Committee, said

announcements of WAS programs for the

year had been sent to 21 newsletters of affili-

ated societies. One notice appeared in the

July 18, 1980 Labstracts, cited information

provided by Mr. Birks (Naval Research

Laboratory, Washington, D.C., Vol. XX,

No. 29, P. 4.) Mr. James Wagner included

an invitation to all WAS Board members to

all meetings of the American Meteorologi-

cal Society, D.C. Chapter.

Dr. Florence Forziati, reporting for the

167

Audit Committee for the WAS, said they

had gone back to 1977. Mrs. Elaine Sha-

frin, who had paid all expenses of the

WJAS from July 1977 to April 15, 1980,

was going to be reimbursed for this $1767.86,

leaving $218 in the WJAS account. Dr. For-

ziati were thanked by Mrs. Townsend for

their careful attention to a very difficult

undertaking.

The report of the Bylaws and Standing

Rules Committee will be discussed at the

next meeting of the Board.

Dr. Alfred Weissler reported for the In-

terdisciplinary Cooperation Committee. Dis-

cussion of the Journal noted that although

nothing had been published as yet, Dr. Richard

Foote was taking over as Editor pro-tem

for the next four issues, with his former

compensation, and was intending to send

the material to the printers on September 8.

Dr. Weissler said Mrs. Donna Smith was

preparing the committee lists. Names of of-

ficers of affiliated societies had been re-

ceived and were being filed.

For the Science, Engineering and Society

Committee, it was noted that Dr. Abraham

had lost his wife the week before and that

the Secretary had sent him an expression of

sympathy from the Academy. Discussion

then centered on the National Science

Foundation proposal which NSF had indi-

cated could not be funded in its present

form. Dr. John O’Hare had written to Dr.

George Abraham and Mr. Guy Hammer

about the proposal, suggesting that it be

conceptually and methodologically tight-

ened. In essence, Dr. O’Hare said that the

proposal work plan was vague and loose,

an inadequate response to the problem.

There were no fresh concepts, precision, or

specifics about methods to be used, but

these things could be corrected. Mr. Hammer

said he appreciated the excellent sugges-

tions of Dr. O’Hare, and indicated that the

proposal could be resubmitted. It was also

noted that before the WAS could com-

pletely endorse a project, it had to have suf-

ficient details of its content and budget,

which should include some overhead for

the Academy, such as the 10% received by

the American Association of Medical Instru-

168

mentation which had supported a pro-

posal. Development of support for the Acad-

emy could take cognizance of the many

retired persons in the area, as the Joint

Board had. It was further mentioned that

the Joint Board had had a NSF grant in

1967 for science teacher educational pro-

grams which Mr. Grover Sherlin and Dr.

Jean Boek had largely administered. Al-

though the proposed project did not indi-

cate how it would have been monitored,

this should be done by the WAS Treasurer.

Mr. Hammer said for the preliminary pro-

posal NSF had specified that the entire proj-

ect had to be described in five pages and

that the comments were very valid. Because

various Board members stated that there

was not enough time to get enough members

of the Academy involved in this project for

the September 30, 1980 proposal deadline,

that consideration might be given to get-

ting ready for the next one. Dr. James

Schooley proposed that encouragement be

given to this and other proposals that were

in accord with the WAS bylaws, which in-

dicate that this organization is dedicated to

the diffusion of scientific knowledge. Since

this proposal was designed to involve popu-

lations not ordinarily reached by scientists,

it seemed congruent with the WAS pur-

pose. The problem for most learned socie-

ties, he added, was the inability to gain a

great deal of public support. His comments

were endorsed by Mr. Buras. |

Dr. Schooley went on to move that WAS

lend its support to the generation of a pro-

posal along the lines embodied in the pro-

posal that was sent out with the last WAS

minutes. This was seconded by Mr. Buras.

In the discussion it was asked by Dr. Honig

if the proposal had been rewritten. Mr.

Hammer replied that he was waiting to see

if he had WAS encouragement to do so.

Dr. Schooley indicated that if his motion

succeeded that a committee could be depu-

tized to assist with this. Dr. Landman said

that as a departmental chairman at her

university, signing a proposal was doneasa

responsible member of the faculty who en-

dorsed the content and purpose of this. Mr.

Hammer said under the NSF Guide for .

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

Science and Citizen Planning Studies the

next proposal deadline was January 15, fol-

lowed by a March 15 final proposal dead-

line. Dr. Honig said that if the Board be-

came involved with a proposal it would

place its confidence in Mr. Hammer and

Dr. Abraham who would provide over-

sight. Before the Board did so, however,

Mrs. Townsend stated that it should have

sufficient details of content of the proposed

project. It was further pointed out that the

final proposal should incorporate sugges-

tions of Dr. O’Hare. At the question, the

vote by raised hands was seven for and nine

against the motion.

In reporting for the Ad Hoc Journal

Committee, Dr. O’Hare noted that com-

mittee’s tenure ended in October 1980.

There had been a problem of collecting fac-

tual data on which the committee could

act. During the years the Journal had

changed in frequency of issuance, price of

editorship. In January of 1960, Chester

Page had been editor and he had had a

Managing Editor, a Board of Associate Ed-

itors, and an Editorial Review Board com-

posed of a consultant from every affiliated

society. When Dr. Foote became editor in

1970, none of this had been continued.

There had been no control during the past

decade on the number of pages printed

each year. The Ad Hoc Committee’s plan,

therefore, was to come up with a rational

plan for managing the Journal by the next

meeting of the Board for its consideration.

In light of Dr. Derucher’s resignation as ed-

itor, Dr. O’Hare said they wondered if Dr.

Joel Fisher were still amenable to becom-

ing editor. Dr. Alphonse Forziati said he

would but with his new post at the State

Department he could not do this at present

since he would be going overseas. How-

ever, he was willing to do what he could

even now.

Dr. JoAnne Jackson reported for the

Joint Board on Science and Engineering

Education that there were three new mem-

bers. Re-publishing the Blue Book now

would be much easier than when Mr. Sher-

lin had to do it from the beginning each

year, since now the data had been put ona

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

floppy-disk. Their present theme: Energy—

Key to the Future.

Revision of the WAS flier was discussed,

with Dr. Honig saying it no longer was re-

sponsibility of the Committee on Policy

Planning. Mrs. Townsend has identified

100 staffers of NASA as potential Academy

members to whom she Is writing an invita-

tion letter. She asked for volunteers to

work on an ad hoc membership committee

for working on the flier. Mr. Birks said we

had to be discreet about who was being

nominated for fellow. Others of the Board

agreed, but indicated that personal knowl-

edge of anominee by a WAS fellow had vir-

tually always been the best guide.

For Old Business, Mrs. Townsend said

for this year’s meeting she had tried to vary

the night of the week to accommodate

those who had to teach or had other com-

mitments on specific evenings.

The meeting was adjourned at 9:30 P.M.

Respectfully submitted,

Jean K. Boek, Ph.D., Secretary

650th Meeting—October 30, 1980

The 650th meeting of the Board of Manag-

ers of the Washington Academy of Scien-

ces was called to order at 7:35 P.M. on

Thursday, October 30, 1980, by President

Marjorie R. Townsend. After corrections

were suggested and adopted, the minutes of

the previous meeting were approved.

As the first item on the Agenda provided

by the President, there was note of the new

delegate from the Geological Society of

Washington, Dr. James V. O’Connor, Physi-

cal Scientist, U.S. Geological Survey, Na-

tional Center, Mail Stop 109, Reston, Vir-

ginia 22092. Another new delegate for the

American Association for Dental Research

is Captain W. R. Cotton, Director, Casu-

alty Care Research Program, Naval Medi-

cal Institute, National Naval Medical Cen-

ter, Bethesda, Maryland 20012. The former

delegate had been Dr. Donald W. Turner.

169

Mr. Grover Sherlin for the Membership

Committee reported that five persons have

been appointed to each of ten panels for

evaluating applicants for Fellow in the

Washington Academy of Sciences in 1) Agri-

cultural Sciences, 2) Behavioral Sciences,

3) Biological Sciences, 4) Chemistry, 5)

Earth and Space Sciences, 6) Engineering,

7) Mathematics, 8) Medical Sciences, 9)

Physics, and 10) Science Education. On

each panel there are five positions labeled

A to E. The full term for each member Is six

years. In setting these panels up, however,

the terms are staggered in order that only

one or two members have to be reap-

pointed during any one year.

The first reading or evaluation of quali-

fications of Dr. Charles Townsend was

done by the Board. It was moved, seconded

and unanimously passed that he be ap-

proved. Article II, Section 7 of the Bylaws

stipulates that:

An individual of unquestioned eminence

may be recommended by vote of the

Committee on Membership Promotion

for immediate election to fellowship by

the Board of Managers, without the ne-

cessity for compliance with the provi-

sions of Sections 4 and 5.

It was moved, seconded and passed un-

animously that Mr. A. Thomas as Director

of the Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA)

and Dr. John H. McElroy as Deputy Di-

rector of Goddard be elected as Fellows of

the Academy. For other nominees, three

out of five panel recommendations are nec-

essary in addition to the two readings by

the Board of Managers.

The report of the Policy Planning Com-

mittee presented by Dr. John Honig is Ex-

hibit A. In addition to these suggested

changes to the Bylaws, it was noted that

delegates to the Academy for affiliated so-

cieties Should be members or elected to Fel-

low, if they are qualified, as they had been

before 1966. It was also emphasized that

more business could be handled by the Ex-

ecutive Committee than is presently done.

The proposed changes will again be dis-

cussed during the December 4 meeting.

170

Dr. Richard Cook, Chairman of the

Ways and Means Standing Committee,

said he had no report at this time.

Mrs. Townsend in reporting for the

Committee on Meetings said the Philoso-

phical Society was mailing out notices for

the November 21 meeting at the Cosmos

Club at which Dr. Donald Chalkley would

be speaking on “‘Fetal Medicine: Research

Imperatives, Ethical Risks.’ For the De-

cember 13 Uhuru Memorial Symposium,

the Goddard Space Flight Center will open

the auditorium and cafeteria. Registration

before December | 1s $20, after that date

$25 to pay for the lunch and other inciden-

tals. In addition to the 58 registrations al-

ready, received,..50 are expectedmio, come

from NASA staff members. The brochure

will be mailed to all members in early No-

vember. Exhibit B shows the program for

the rest of the year, as well as details of the

Symposium. This had earlier been sent to ~

all members (except for locations of the

meetings) with their dues notices.

The Washington Junior Academy of

Sciences will meet in one of the main floor

lecture rooms in the Old Dominion Build-

ing of National Graduate University on

Saturday, November 22. Mr. Paul Young

of the WJAS Executive Committee is ar-

ranging this.

Dr. H. McIlvaine Parsons in reporting

for the Public Information Committee said

that the IEEE journal will carry a notice of

the January 14 meeting, which is in the Of-

ficers Club and Research Laboratory Audi-

torium of the Bethesda Naval Medical Re-

search Center. The Medical Society of

Washington, D.C. declined to co-sponsor a

meeting because it does not have a continu-

ing education program.

Dr. Florence Forziati, Chairman of the

special committee on audit, gave the fol-

lowing report: The Committee completed

IRS Form 990, Return of Organization Ex-

empt form Income Tax, which was due

May 15, 1980 but had not been done by the

secretarial service previously employed.

The form was mailed to the IRS with a cov-

ering letter explaining the circumstances

that led to the delay and requesting that the _

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

return be accepted without penalty. (The

penalty is figured at $10 per day from May

15 to the date received by IRS, amounting

to $1,200 in our case.) The Committee is

gladto report that IRS has accepted the re-

turn without penalty.

The Nominating Committee consisted of

five past WAS presidents: Dr. Mary Ald-

ridge, Dr. Florence Forziati, Mr. Grover

Sherlin, Dr. Alfred Weissler, and Dr. Al

Forziati. The final ballot, including write-

in nominations from Fellows, will be mailed

before December 15, 1980.

The Ad Hoc Journal Committee report

was presented to the Board. Discussion

also centered on nomination of Dr. Irving

Gray, Professor of Biology of Georgetown

University and Dr. Joseph H. Neale, As-

sistant Professor of Biology at George-

town. Their full curriculum vitae were

given to each Board member present and

are on file in the Academy office. Both have

impressive research records. It was moved

and seconded that they be appointed as Co-

Editors by the President for an indefinite

period beginning January 1, 1981, and that

this appointment be reviewed annually.

After a discussion, the motion was with-

drawn. Instead, the Board recommended

to the President that she appoint Dr. Gray

as Editor and Dr. Neale as Co-Editor. This

was accepted.

Mr. Sherlin in reporting for the Joint

Board on Science and Engineering Educa-

tion said that they had had two meetings

this year and that revisions were being

made for the blue directory, detailing proj-

ects and programs, and school liaison and

administrative officers for public, Catholic,

and independent schools in the District of

Columbia, Prince George’s County, Alex-

andria, Falls Church, Fairfax, and Prince

William County in Virginia (public schools

only).

A letter has been drafted to be sent to all

affiliated societies of the WAS indicating

purpose of the Joint Board and asking fora

contribution.

Dr. Jean Boek reported that bids are

being received for printing the revised

WAS flier.

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

In accordance with item 7(b) of the

Standing Rules of the Board of Managers,

the request for affiliation by the Associa-

tion for Science, Technology and Innova-

tion was considered by the Committee on

Policy Planning. After its report to the

Board, it was moved, seconded and passed

with one dissenting vote that the Fellows of

the Academy have an opportunity to ap-

prove or disapprove affiliation of the asso-

ciation on the December, 1980, ballot.

The meeting adjourned at 9:40 P.M... fol-

lowed by an Executive Committee meeting.

Respectfully submitted,

Jean K. Boek, Ph.D., Secretary

Exhibit A

Proposed Changes to the By-Laws

Article IV. Section 1.

Change to read:

. a President, a President-Elect, three Vice

Presidents, a Secretary . . . Article IV. Insert new

Section 3 (between Section 2 and old Section 3.)

New Section 3.

The three elected vice-presidents shall coordinate

groups of committees in selected areas as follows:

Vice President for Membership

Membership Committee

Membership Promotion Committee

Vice President for Programs

Meetings Committee

Symposium Committee

Joint Board of Science and Engineering

Junior Academy of Sciences

Vice President for Communications

Public Information

Encouragement for Scientific Talent

Awards for Scientific Achievement

Grants-in-Aid

Journal Policy Committee

Journal Editor

Committee chairmen shall report directly to their re-

spective vice-presidents who shall coordinate their

committee activities and represent them on the Execu-

tive Committee. Committee chairmen will continue to

submit individual reports to the Board as required.

Renumber remaining sections.

171

Article IV. Section 9.

Change to read:

. . . President-Elect, of each Vice President, of

Secretary and of Treasurer, . .

Article V. Section 3.

Change to read:

The Board of Managers shall formulate Academy

policy and transact all business of the Academy... .

shall be twelve of its members.

Article VI. Section 1. COMMITTEES

The Executive Committee, consisting of three Presi-

dents, President-Elect, the three elected Vice-Presi-

dents, Secretary, Treasurer, and two members ap-

pointed annually by the President from the membership

of the Board, shall be responsible for conducting the

Academy’s business, guided by policies developed by

the Board of Managers.

As part of these duties the Executive Committee

shall have general supervision of Academy finances,

approve the selection of a depository for the current

funds, and direct the investment of the permanent

funds. At the beginning of the year it shall present to

the Board of Managers an itemized statement of re-

ceipts and expenditures of the preceding year and a

budget based on the estimated receipts and disburse-

ments of the coming year, with such recommenda-

tions as may seem desirable. It shall be charged with

the duty of considering all activities of the Academy

which may tend to maintain and promotion relations

with the affiliated societies, and with any other busi-

ness which may be assigned to it by the Board.

Exhibit B

Program Remaining for 1980-1981

Thursday, February 19, 1981—‘‘Prospects for Solar

Energy in the 80’s,” Dr. Peter Varadi, Kenwood

Country Club

Thursday, March 19, 1981—Awards Banquet, George-

town University Cafeteria

Thursday, April 16, 1981—‘*‘Human Performance with-

in Modern Technology,” Dr. Richard W. Pew,

Kenwood Country Club

Thursday, May 21, 1981—‘‘Space Systems for the

80’s,’’ Marjorie R. Townsend, Kenwood Country

Club

651st Meeting—December 4, 1980

The 65 Ist meeting of the Board of Man-

agers of the Academy was called to order at

7:30 P.M. on Thursday, December 4, 1980

by President Marjorie R. Townsend. After

172

corrections were offered, the motion was

made, seconded, and carried to approve

the minutes.

In reporting on the Academy’s office

management, the Secretary said that the

costs for staff time to write letters in re-

sponse to complaints about the tardiness of

the JOURNAL, to straighten out and keep

updated the mailing lists for the JOUR-

NAL, WAS members, WJAS and Joint

Board, to answer requests for information

from the JOURNAL and records, to get

the files in order and to maintain them, to

answer other correspondence, to type and

send out minutes, to make arrangement for

monthly dinner meetings, and to serve the

membership and other committees greatly

exceed the monthly amount that the Wash-

ington Academy of Sciences was able to

pay to National Graduate University. The

total cost for staff salary and wage work of

the Academy from June to the end of No- —

vember, 1980, was $6,916, whereas reim-

bursement by the Academy was $4,302,

which meant that the University had sub-

sidized Academy activities in the amount

of $2,613 for this period. On an annual ba-

sis, the subsidy would be expected to be

$5,226. The non-recurring items of this

total amounted to $1,630 for setting up the

mailing list after the Executive Committee

had worked for some 75 person hours at

Mrs. Townsend’s home, and answering

correspondence from the United States and

abroad about the non-appearance of the

JOURNAL. However, this amount was

more than matched by the work contrib-

uted to the Academy by the President this

year in arranging the December 13 Uhuru

Symposium, and in compiling, printing

and putting out and keeping current the

Directory of the Board of Managers. Mrs.

Townsend further has taken full responsi-

bility for having her own letters typed and

sent to elected fellows and members, as well

as to more than 100 prospective members

of WAS. The Secretary also pointed out

that 1980 was the first year in a long time in

which the Academy did not have to borrow

money to maintain cash flow during the

summer, thereby saving the Academy in- _

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

terest costs. Further economies in the cur-

rent management were brought about by

transferring the mailing lists to labels that

could be xeroxed instead of continuing the

expensive computorized lists, and by the

office arranging to send out the Journal to

save another $200 that the printer would

have charged. Also, this year the Academy

has not had to pay for its office and meeting

room space.

The Treasurer has been working with

Mrs. Loreen McDaniel at National Gradu-

ate University to summarize income and

disbursements, assets and liabilities of the

Academy as the basis for next year’s budget.

At present there is enough in the bank ac-

count to pay publication of the 1980 JOUR-

NAL.

Mrs. Townsend noted that Dr. Paul

Oehser had given a fine talk the previous

evening to the Biological Society of Washing-

ton.

Mr. Grover Sherlin in reporting for

the Committee on Membership said the

first reading for nominated fellows had

been done in the previous meeting. The

persons had also been listed in the minutes

that had been sent to all members of the

Board. It was moved and seconded that

persons who had first been presented dur-

ing the October 4, 1980 Board meeting be

elected as fellows. These included Mr.

Jeremiah J. Madden, Dr. Thomas J. Lynch,

Mr. Robert C. Baumann, Dr. Siegfried J.

Bauer, Dr. Robert D. Chapman, Dr. Har-

old Glaser, Dr. Thomas L. Cline, Mr.

Harry A. Taylor, Dr. William P. Bishop,

Dr. Michael J. Mumma, Dr. Charles J. Pel-

lerin, Jr., Dr. Werner M. Neupert, Dr.

Rudolf A. Hanel, Dr. Albert Rango, Dr.

Vincent V. Salomonson, Dr. Charles E.

Townsend, Dr. Lowell Thomas Harmison,

Dr. Bernhard Edward Keiser, Dr. Law-

rence Martin Leibowtiz, Dr. Edward James

Martin, Dr. Joseph W. Ray, Dr. Vera R.

Usdin, Mr. Roderick Sotelo Quiroz, Dr.

Coryl LaRue Jones, Dr. Thomas B. Ma-

lone, Dr. Robert William Swezey, Dr. Rob-

ert Flanders Clarke, Dr. Jo-Anne Alice

Jackson, Mrs. Betty Jane Long, Dr. Miklos

M. Breuer, Dr. Robert Franklin Farmer,

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

III, Dr. Stephen Krop, and Dr. Lucy B.

Hagan. The first reading was then done for

Dr. Dudley G. McConnell, Mr. Robert O.

Aller, Mr. John J. Quann, and Mr. Gilbert

Ousley, Sr. Upon election to the Academy,

each has been receiving a letter from Mrs.

Townsend. Then Mrs. Donna Smith in the

office has been adding their names to the

mailing list and card file and billing them

for 1981 dues.

Dr. Richard Cook in reporting for the

Ways and Means Committee recommended

that the Academy reestablish a Committee

on Membership Promotion.

For the Committee on Meetings, Mrs.

Townsend said that 167 were presently regis-

tered for the Uhuru Memorial Symposium,

with 18 being from abroad. A total of 95

checks have been received. The countries

represented are Switzerland, Australia, Ire-

land, United Kingdom, Italy, Japan, India,

Holland, Germany, Sweden, Israel, Hong

Kong, China (Peking), Turkey, Philippine

Islands, Canada, Belgium and Austria.

Uhuru is the Swahili word for freedom. -

Speakers have been requested to arrive

with their manuscripts in ahead of time in

order that the Proceedings can be pub-

lished in the March, 1981, Journal of the

Academy.

In discussing the January 17 monthly

meeting notices sent to all members to-

gether with their ballots, it was suggested

that signs be posted on the Bethesda Naval

Medical Center Grounds for location of

the lecture.

Announcements for the Awards Com-

mittee have been mailed out.

The new Chairman for the Encourage-

ment of Science Talent is Dr. Jerry Baruch.

The November 22 meeting of the Washing-

ton Junior Academy of Sciences at Na-

tional Graduate University had been well

attended.

The Nominating Committee Chairman

showed the sample ballot to the Board

which, together with an envelop to be

signed, was in the mail to all members.

When each is received, Mrs. Donna Smith

then checks to see if dues have been paid,

checks off their name on an alphabetical

173

listing of members, takes the ballot out of

the envelop and places it in the ballot box

for the tellers to count.

No one was present who planned to at-

tend the American Association for the Ad-

vancement of Science meeting in Toronto

on January 3, 1981.

Dr. John O’Hare passed out copies of

the report of the Ad Hoc Committee on

Policies for Academy Publications (Exhibit

A). In discussing this, he suggested that the

Sigma Xi format be used in the future for

having more broadly focused review arti-

cles, with a total of 128 pages for the year.

The usefulness of the Directory issue was

reaffirmed, but the recommendation was

that it be made a fifth issue in a less expen-

sive format. The additional cost even of a

xeroxed list was mentioned, as well as the

fact that this type of issuance would not be

included in the bound library copies of the

Journals. It was moved and seconded that

the directory of members and fellows be a

separate publication in addition to the four

issues of the Journal published each year

and that this not be the responsibility of the

Editor of the Journal. This was defeated by

a vote of 6 to 4. Dr. Joseph Neale, as Co-

Editor then suggested that the Directory be

published every alternate year in September,

but Dr. O’Hare felt that this should be an

annual issue in view of addresses and other

changes that occur.

The 128 pages per annum were based on

a multiple of 32. The 1979 total had been

188 pages, with the Directory being 29

pages. There appeared to be no estimations

from printers on the cost per page. How-

ever, it was suggested on the basis of this

amount that bids be obtained from various

printers. Bids already received by Mrs.

Smith were given to Dr. Neale. Mr. Sherlin

said in the past the Journal had had its own

Treasurer and its separate budget. Neale

said he preferred that system, as that would

permit them to know what funds were

available to work with. Mr. O’Hare sug-

gested not having more than 157 pages a

year. Mrs. Townsend asked the Editors to

come to the next Board meeting with a

proposal. Dr. Al Forziati thought that past

174

costs could be one guide. Dr. Ronald Man-

derscheid observed that in view of the rapid

advances in technology we should investi-

gate how the quality of the Journal could be

maintained with even lower costs than at

present, such as having the authors respon-

sible for typing the manuscript in a certain

pattern that could be directly photographed.

Dr. Neale said there should be no page

charges to authors unless an author had

funds for this ina research or other budget.

The motion was made and seconded that

page charges to authors not be mandatory

but rather requested of an author only on

the basis of ability to pay. In the ensuing

discussion, Dr. Neale said that they would

like to be in a position of being able to so-

licit manuscripts from authors without add-

ing the stipulation of their paying $25 per

page. The motion was carried.

In reviewing the eighth point of the re-

port about format, Dr. Manderscheid thought

the Psychological Bulletin might be exam-

ined as anexample. There might also be an

occasional monograph or special issues on

a specific topic. It was moved by Dr.

O’Hare and seconded by Richard Cook

that papers from the WAS sponsored sym-

posia be published in a separate mono-

graph. In the discussion, Mr. Sherlin said

these symposia had been very important to

the Academy Journal and that he was con-

fident that the new editors could get the

manuscript from the December 13 sympo-

sium to have the issue out on time. Dr.

Manderscheid reflected that special issues

may be more viable than the Journal itself.

Dr. O’Hare noted, however, that in the

past these issues had been left over. Mrs.

Townsend said that for the December 13

Uhuru Symposium on the Past, Present .

and Future of X-ray Astronomy that we

would know exactly how many attended

and therefore how many to print. The addi-

tional costs of a special issue were also con-

sidered. The motion was defeated.

For Point 10 of the Ad Hoc Committee’s

report, organization of the editorial staff, it

was noted that although the WAS Journal

editor for the previous decade had been

alone in this job, in the past there had been

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

many associate editors to obtain and screen

manuscripts. The appointment of a manag-

ing editor was strongly recommended by

Dr. O’Hare for handling advertising, print-

ing bids, bill payment and the like. Mrs.

Townsend stated that after hearing these

discussions, the present editors should tell

the Board how they wished to operate. The

motion to create a managing editor was

tabled. Mrs. Townsend on behalf of the

Board thanked the Ad Hoc Committee for

a job well done.

In discussion of the publication schedule

of the 1980 Journal, Dr. Al Forziati indi-

cated that Dr. Richard Foote had accepted

responsibility for getting them out. Dr.

Neale thought they were to be out by De-

cember, 1980.

The status of revision of flier is that only

one bid had been received from the 10 print-

ers to whom the flier had been sent for a

price estimation.

Under new business, Mrs. Townsend re-

ported ona suggested by Dr. Lloyd Church,

Chairman of the Board of the Great Oaks

Center. He is anxious to sponsor a sympo-

sium on a problem faced by mental institu-

tions of every state of sexual relations in

homes for the mentally retarded. Since this

was an issue that could not be handled by

governmental units, he thought it would at-

tract people from around the nation. Mrs.

Townsend had talked with Dr. Mander-

scheid and another person about the Acad-

emy sponsoring the symposium. Dr. O’ Hare

suggested consulting the Psychological As-

sociation and then Academy affiliates such

as the Washington Psychiatric Society which

might consider being co-sponsors. Mr. Sher-

lin counted at least five societies that might

be interested in co-sponsoring a conference

of this type. Mr. Cook thought there might

be professional societies specifically inter-

ested in this topic in addition to this that

might be involved. Dr. O’ Hare volunteered

to contact the clinical psychologists about

this in order to get informed people in-

volved in this.

The last item of new business was con-

sideration of Academy membership of dele-

gates to the Board of Managers from affili-

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980

ated societies. Before 1966 the bylaws had

stipulated that delegates were to be fellows.

Dr. Jean Boek stated that if a delegate were

not a member or fellow there would not nec-

essarily be any commitment to the Academy.

Dr. Al Forziati asked if it were not strange

that people would be allowed to vote on the

fate of an organization without having

even the commitment to it of being a

member. The point to be made was that sit-

ting as delegates to the Board should havea

connection to it that would commit them to

the organization. The meeting adjourned

at! 9:55PM

Respectfully submitted,

Jean K. Boek, Ph.D. Secretary

Exhibit A

4 December 1980

lo: Marjorie R. Townsend

President, WAS

Ad hoc Committee on Policies for

Academy Publications

W. M. Benson

LaS: Birks

R. R. Colwell

J. H. Howard, Jr.

J. J. O'Hare (Chair)

From:

Subj: Summary of recommendations

1. Continuance. No arguments were advanced to

discontinue the publication of the Journal of the Wash-

ington Academy of Sciences whose first issue appeared

in July 1911. A Proceedings of the WAS made its first

appearance in 1899 and a Directory was published in

1889; both of these, of course, have been discontinued.

2. Content. It is recommended that the Journal struc-

ture revert to the practices in effect prior to 1970, i.e.

publication of primary research reports should not be

encouraged. Instead, a preference should be given to

articles that review or trace the development of impor-

tant scientific events and that no more than one such

paper appear in each issue. The remainder of the publi-

cation should reflect Academy news, events, person-

alities and local activities of interest to members.

3. Directory. It is recommended that the Directory

be a separate publication that is not the responsibility

of the Editor of the Journal. This publication should

appear annually around 15 September.

4. Schedule. It is recommended that a quarterly

publication schedule be followed: 15 March; 15 June;

15 September; and 15 December.

175

5. Page allocation. The number of pages should be

costed out for the year in conjunction with the budget

of the Treasurer; the allocation should be voted upon

each year by the Board of Managers. Asa first approxi-

mation it is recommended that the Journal be allo-

cated 128 pages per annum.

6. Press run. The press run should be costed out for

the year in conjunction with the budget of the Treas-

urer; the total will be determined by the number of

members predicted for the year, the subscription list,

and an over-run that should not exceed 5% of the run

for that issue, for later sales.

7. Page charges. Charges shall not be mandatory but

requested on the ability to pay. Exceptions may be

made when there is an excessive use of figures, tables,

and photos; and that would a judgment of the Editor.

8. Format. It is recommended that the division of the

Journal into three sections be continued: feature arti-

cles, research reports, and Academy news. Indexing of

each volume ceased in 1960 and need not be resumed.

9. Other publications. The publication of papers that

are givenat WAS sponsored symposia should appear

aS a separate monograph, with its own editor, and

costed out separately, with a publication date deter-

mined by the symposium organizers. The Journal

should not be expected to be the natural outlet for

such events.

10. Organization of editorial staff. The Editor of the

Journal would be expected to recruit an editorial staff

to consist of up to 6 Associate Editors from diverse

fields represented by the affiliated societies, and up to

11 members of an Editorial Board to act as reviewers

and solicitors of articles for the Journal.

11. Management of publications. It is recommended

that the Editor of the Journal be charged exclusively

with the selection, editing, and transmittal of the copy

to the printer; the imposition of the task of manage-

ment and administration shall be assigned to a Man-

aging Editor to oversee production of the Journal and

any other WAS publications. The Managing Editor

shall assume responsibility for these functions: re-

cruitment of editors, recommendations for honoraria,

set prices and subscription rates, prepare publication

manuals, submission of annual report, submission of

annual budget, determination of press run per issue,

negotiate publication contracts, accept advertising

copy and set advertising rates, assume responsibility

for copyrighting, assume responsibility for reprint

permission, processing of subscription lists, and assist

in the production of each issue.

12. Implementation. It is recommended that these

changes be put into effect as soon as possible.

It is further recommended that the Ad hoc Committee

on Policies for Academy Publications be discharged

with the receipt of this report.

Respectfully submitted,

John J. O’Hare, Chair

The date of publication of Vol. 70, No. 4 is May 14, 1981.

176

J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 70, NO. 4, 1980 |

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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Instructions to Contributors

General

Type manuscripts on white bond paper

either 8% by I1 or 8 by 10% inches. Double

space all lines, including those in abstracts,

tables, legends, quoted matter, acknowledg-

ments, and references cited. Number pages

consecutively. Place your name and com-

plete address in the upper right hand corner

of the title page.

Title, Author, and Affiliation

Page | of your manuscript should contain

only this information and your name and

address. Choose a concise but complete and

meaningful title. In research papers con-

cerning biological subjects, include an indi-

cation of the order and family of the taxa

discussed. Academic degrees will not nor-

mally be included unless the author so

specifies. If possible, combine your affilia-

tion and mailing address (including Zip) so

that readers can write to you directly.

Abstract

Type on a separate sheet at the end of the

manuscript. Make the abstract intelligible

without reference to the text of the paper.

Write an informative digest of the significant

content and conclusions, not a mere descrip-

tion. Generally, the abstract should not ex-

ceed 3% of the text.

Footnotes

Use footnotes as sparingly as possible.

Number text footnotes consecutively with

Arabic numerals and type them on a sepa-

rate sheet of paper at the end of the manu-

script. Type table footnotes, if any, below

each pertinent table on the same page.

Illustrations and Legends

The quality of all original illustrations

must be high enough to facilitate good offset

reproduction. They should have ample mar-

gins and be drawn on heavy stock or

fastened to stiff cardboard to prevent bend-

ing. They should be proportioned to column

(1 x 3) or page (2 x 3) type-dimensions,

leaving space for legend material. Photo-

graphs should have a glossy finish. They re-

produce best when the contrast is fairly

high. Identify each illustration with number

and author in light pencil marks on the

reverse side. Submit all illustrations sepa-

rately — please do not glue or clip them to

the pages of the manuscript.

Do not type or write legends directly on

the illustrations. Type legends on a separate

sheet or sheets at the end of the manuscript.

Indicate where you want illustrations to

appear in the printed paper by writing the

figure numbers lightly in the text margins,

and be sure that each figure is properly re-

ferenced in the text itself. Original “art” will

be returned only at the author’s request and

expense.

Tables

Include tables only when the same infor-

mation cannot be presented economically in

the text, or when a table presents the data in_

a more meaningful way. Consider preparing

extremely complicated tabular matter in a

form suitable for direct reproduction as an

illustration. In such cases, the use of the

typewriter is not recommended.

References to Literature

Limit references within the text and in

synonymies to author and year (and page if

needed). In a ‘Reference Cited” section, list

alphabetically by senior author only those

papers you have included in the text. Like-

wise, be sure all the text references are

listed. Type the “References Cited” section

on a separate sheet after the last page of

text. Abbreviations should follow the USA

Standard for Periodical Title Abbreviations,

Z39.5-1963.

Submission of Manuscripts

Send completed manuscripts and sup-

porting material to the Academy office (see

address inside front cover) in care of the

Editor. Authors will be requested to read

Xerox “proofs” and invited to submit re-

print orders prior to publication.

Reprints - Prices for reprints may be obtained on request.

Washington Academy of Sciences 2nd Class Postage Paid

1101 N. Highland St. at Arlington, Va.

Arlington, Va. 22201 -¢ and additional mailing offices.

Return Requested with Form 3579

| p VOLUME 71

| Number 1

| NH of the March, 1981

WwasHINGTON

ACADEMY ., SCIENCES

ISSN 0043-0439

Issued Quarterly

at Washington, D.C.

“EMM ALTSOUN)

Lf.

of the

UHURU MEMORIAL

SYMPOSIUM

The Past, Present

and Future of

X-RAY ASTRONOMY

HELD AT

Goddard Space Flight Center

Greenbelt, Maryland USA

December 13, 1980

PART I THE PAST

Washington Academy of Sciences

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President

Marjorie R. Townsend

President-Elect

John G. Honig

Secretary

Jean K. Boek

Treasurer

Lavern S. Birks

Members at Large

Conrad B. Link

Elaine Shafrin

John J. O’Hare

Michael J. Pelezar, Jr.

Jo-Anne Jackson

Grover C. Sherlin

BOARD OF MANAGERS

All delegates of affiliated

Societies (see page ii)

EDITORS

Irving Gray

Joseph H. Neale

ACADEMY OFFICE

1101 N. Highland St.

Arlington, Va. 22201

Telephone: (703) 527-4802

Founded in 1898

The Journal

This journal, the official organ of the Washington

Academy of Sciences, publishes historical articles, critical

reviews, and scholarly scientific articles; proceedings of

meetings of the Academy and its Board of Managers; and

other items of interest to Academy members. The Journal

appears four times a year (March, June, September, and

December)—the September issue contains a directory of

the Academy membership.

Subscription Rates

Members, fellows, and patrons in good standing receive

the Journal without charge. Subscriptions are available on

a calendar year basis only, payable in advance. Payment

must be made in U.S. currency at the following rates:

U.S. and Canada....:. $19.00

FORGIEA e iitanenoyeci ac oamuere 22.00

Single Copy Price ..... 7.50

UHURU Symposium—2 issues)... 2a $15.00

Delivery by: Ain.-0 2.00

Single-copy price for Vol. 66, No. 1 (March, 1976) is $7.50.

Back Issues

Obtainable from the Academy office (address at bottom

of opposite column): Proceedings: Vols. 1-13 (1898-1910)

Index: To Vols. 1-13 of the Proceedings and Vols. 1-40 of

the Journal Journal: Back issues, volumes, and sets (Vols.

1-62, 1911-1972) and all current issues.

Claims for Missing Numbers

Claims will not be allowed if received more than 60 days

after date of mailing plus time normally required for

postal delivery and claim. No claims will be allowed

because of failure to notify the Academy of a change in

address.

Change of Address

Address changes should be sent promptly to the Academy

office. Such notification should show both old and new

addresses and zip number.

Published quarterly in March, June, September, and December of each year by the Washington

Academy of Sciences, 1101 N. Highland St., Arlington, Va. 22201. Second class postage paid at

Arlington, Va. and additional mailing offices.

UHURU

Part I

CONTENTS

RIARIORIE Rs LOWNSEND: Introduction «.0:.0¢.0stere a erstatete ore SPEER SD PIE OPE

The Past

RICCARDO GIACCONI: 1962-1972 (Up Throu

GEORGE W. CLARK: X-Ray Astronomy From

ELIHU A. BOLDT: The High Energy Astronom

Folge GUE ILU/] e108) ani a ea iu ere ti ge eee en

WEMOINORtOMI PAO eas s saa e snes oe

ysObsenvatory ,HEAO=1o0 4 22.022 oS a

HARVEY TANANBAUM: X-Ray Astronomy with the Einstein Observatory................

UHURU

The Future

Part II

’ MARTIN C. WEISSKOPF: The Advanced X-Ray Astrophysics Facility ................000-

KRENNETHCA.. POUNDS: Large Area Modular Array of Reflectors ........... .deic ss cece aes

STEPHEN S. HOLT: X-Ray Timing Explorer..

STUART BOWYER and ROGER F. MALINA:

GIUSEPPE VAIANA: Coronal Explorer ......

The Extreme Wliraviolet Explorer: 2.2...

KENNETH A. POUNDS: The European Program in X-Ray Astronomy...............0.005

JOACHIM TRUMPER: The Roentgen Satellite

MINORU ODA: Strategy of X-Ray Astronomy 1

ANDREW C. FABIAN: X-Rays and Cosmology

DM EN OBNIN. Bos cy Nec eae ene ee ee ee ee

eeoeeeoee eee ee eo ee ee eo ee eee eh OOO HO He ee

ill

sel

104

114

125

129

DELEGATES TO THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,

REPRESENTING THE LOCAL AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Philosophical Society got Washington 252.2 5. «0k ttc eee eee. Sabato, Cet Aneel Aero James F. Schooley

Anthropological Society of Washington, Fae... Ue ee bee ce oe oe oreinie os ee Gree cle Ruth H. Landman

Biolopicall Society of Waslinetoml. 2 o/s ose aise swiss fal eigues site ove ete sicdeoeiene eeuacli coi ever clcoars William Ronald Heyer

Chemical’ Secicty of Washington. 02.5.0 .\.5 ae Soe ee Aes vow cetera cites. shemales Male late Jo-Anne Jackson

Entonrologicaly Society Of W aslting@tOm: csc 52/41. sacs eiie ve a torn = cee Sle someones Theodore J. Spilman

NationalyGeopraphicall Society, sires ose.) cases ne Egle Peeeeeges | lege. cee ee eles T. Dale Stewart

Geological Society of Washington 5.22) :55 \jo5.0 sie. s, 0,0 osegrenel a lee aed. eee ere ee ae te James V. O’Connor

Medicalssociety of the District of Columbia’: 3. c «sate ere se eet eee Charles E. Townsend

ColmmbiaVEistOniCal SOCIELY” c:.:s.0 <a ale da eb is 4 Gs meeitatial SUG eee eT ee aL net a Oona mee tel et ene Paul H. Oehser

Botanical Society of Washington ..........-.44..5.-.- DRY Bb RAR A OR GN seit ha ae Conrad B. Link

SoctetwiotvAmerican FOrestersy, iss smwrge apa 'a.a quer Peery. ieecauerenosouer st ebsiialane fe) Slatenenn greccley eee ee ee Boyd W. Post

Washington: Society iof Engineers thi. .cpepadorri)- bpp cme cee Soe eee ee George Abraham

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American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical

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Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the representative societies.

INTRODUCTION

MARJORIE R. TOWNSEND

President

Washington Academy of Sciences

(1980-1981)

The Uhuru Memorial Symposium on December 13, 1980, meant far more to me than an

important opportunity to review the state of the art in X-ray astronomy. It was the culmi-

nation of my 21 years at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center and an outstanding

chance to see again so many of the friends I madeas Project Manager of the series of Small

Astronomy Satellites (SAS) that have contributed significantly to high-energy astronomy.

In reviewing scenes of the San Marco Range, from which all three SAS spacecraft were

launched for the United States by the Italian Government, memories of equatorial Africa

came flooding back, including the reason for the nickname, ‘‘Uhuru’’. SAS-1 was

launched in 1970 on Kenya’s Independence Day, December 12th. It seemed to me to be

appropriate that the United States recognize that fact in some way. Therefore, with ap-

provals from all of the necessary government entities and the blessing of Riccardo Giac-

coni, the Principal Investigator, SAS-1’s name became “‘Uhuru’’, the Swahili word for

*““Freedom’’. The freedom extended beyond that of Kenya to the satellite itself. For the

proportional counters on board, whose purpose was to detect X-rays, the equatorial orbit

meant freedom from the background noise from charged particles to which they would

have been exposed in a standard 28° orbit.

I would like to dedicate these Proceedings of the Uhuru Memorial Symposium (if any-

thing survived cremation upon reentering the atmosphere, it was buried at sea) to all of

the dedicated scientists, engineers and technicians who made Uhuru possible by conceiv-

ing of it, funding it, building it, operating it and last, but not least, keeping its memory

ever alive by continuing to analyze and use the data which it returned.

lil

1962-1972 (Up Through UHURU)

Riccardo Giacconi

Harvard/Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics

Cambridge, MA. USA 02138

Marjorie Townsend and John Naugle

have brought us together today on the

happy occasion of the 10th Anniversary of

the launch of UHURU. It isan opportunity

for us to meet old friends, to remember the

not-so-remote beginnings of X-ray astron-

omy, to rejoice in its accomplishments to

date, and to contemplate with hope its fu-

ture potential. Iam most grateful to the or-

ganizers and to our hosts here at Goddard

Space Flight Center for making this meet-

ing possible.

Extrasolar X-ray astronomy is less than

20 years old. Yet to discuss adequately its

development in the first ten years and the

wealth of discoveries it has brought about

is an almost impossible task in the space of

half an hour. In choosing the material to

discuss today, I found myself forced to

leave out large and important areas of re-

search and the contributions of many scien-

tists, for which I apologize in advance.

Furthermore, since I believe that X-ray as-

tronomy did not start in a vacuum, I felt it

incumbent upon me, as the first speaker at

this meeting, to at least mention some of

the events that preceded the discovery of

the first extrasolar X-ray source in 1962.'

Reflecting upon the course of events, I

think we can recognize at least two major

factors that led to the development of X-

ray astronomy: one is the interest 1n 1ono-

spheric phenomena and their causes, and

the suggestion by Edward O. Hulburt’ and

Lars Vegard’ in 1938 that solar X-ray radi-

ation might be the cause of the ionization in

the E region. This, in turn, led to the series

of post-war experiments by the Naval Re-

search Laboratory (NRL) group which es-

tablished the existence of X-ray emission

from the Sun. Starting in 1948, Herb

Friedman‘ and his collaborators at NRL

studied solar X-ray emission over an entire

solar cycle by means of rocket experiments

carrying ever more sophisticated instru-

ments. The thin window counters devel-

oped by the NRL group for this work fur-

nished the technical basis for their own

work in UV astronomy and the starting

point for other groups interested in X-ray

astronomy.

After the formation of the National

Aeronautics and Space Administration

(NASA) in July 1958, Jim Kupperian left

the NRL group to become head of the As-

tronomy Branch of Goddard Space Flight

Center (GSFC) in early 1959.” Kupperian

had become quite interested in the possible

detection of X-ray sources in the night sky

after obtaining some suggestive indication

of non-solar X-ray flux in a 1957 rocket

flight. In his new position he was able to in-

terest Savedoff* of Cornell (June 1959) and

Fisher’ of Lockheed (December 1960) in

initiating programs of detector develop-

ment and rocket flights to search for ex-

trasolar X-ray sources.

The second major factor which led to the

development of X-ray astronomy was the

early interest of the National Academy of

Sciences’ Space Science Board (formed in

June 1958) in surveying the sky in all spec-

tral ranges. In an interim report of the

Space Science Board’s Committee on Phys-

ics of Fields and Particles in Space, J. A.

Simpson, the Chairman, suggested gamma-

and X-ray mapping of the sky.* Lawrence

Aller, a member of the Committee on Opti-

cal and Radio Astronomy, pointed out the

fact that interstellar absorption would be a

severe handicap for stellar observations at

energies greater than 13.6 eV (the ioniza-

tion potential of hydrogen), but that many

stars and nebulas would become observa-

ble at \ < 20A.’ Similarly, Leo Goldberg”

in the summary report of the same Com-

mittee, advocated the development of X-

ray instrumentation in view of its potential

benefits to astronomy.

Above and beyond sharing in this gen-

eral recognition of the potential of X-ray

astronomy, B. Rossi, also a member of the

Space Science Board, provided the imme-

diate stimulus to the work of my group at

American Science & Engineering, Inc.,

(AS&E), which eventually led to the detec-

tion of Sco X-1 in 1962. He not only pro-

vided the initial impetus for this research,

R. GIACCONI, G. W.

RICCARDO GIACCONI

but by his presence in Cambridge, his con-

tinued interest and enthusiasm in high

energy astrophysics, contributed greatly to

create the climate of intellectual fervor and

discussion in which further advances took

place.

When we first attempted to review the

status of knowledge in late 1959, and pre-

dict expected fluxes, we obtained the esti-

mates shown in Table 1. It was evident that

' detectors at least 50 times more sensitive

than those available at the time had to be

developed in order to detect such small

fluxes. We then embarked on two parallel

efforts: one directed to the long-range de-

velopment of imaging telescopes which

came to fruition in the late 1960’s,"’ the

other directed to the development of an

improved non-imaging detector for imme-

diate use in rocket scanning experiments.

CLARK AND B. B. ROSSI

ASE-TN-49 15 JANUARY 1960

SUN < 20A

SUN AT 8 LIGHT YEARS < 20A

SIRIUS IF Ly~ Lopy < 20A

FLARE STARS < 20A

PECULIAR A STARS < 20A

CRAB NEBULA ~ 258

MOON < 23A

MOON ~ 20A

SCO X-1 2-8A

CORONAL EMISSION ~ 10 cy-2 s-l

CORONAL EMISSION 2.5x1074 cM72 st

i j-Dgeal

NO CONVECTIVE ZONE 0.25 (4 * S

SUNLIKE FLARES ?

B «107 GAUSS

LARGE B

PARTICLE ACCELERATION

SYNCHROTRON

E- > 1013 eV in Bel0-" GAUSS

LIFETIMES?

FLUORESCENCE 0.4 cM-2s71

IMPACT FROM SOLAR WIND

ELECTRONS

0-1.6x10° cn-2 sul

¢,=0- 10% cr2 st

? 28+ 1.2 CM-2s—t

Table 1.—Abstracted from ASE document ASE-TN-49, ‘“‘A Brief Review of Experimental and Theoretical Prog-

ress in X-ray Astronomy”, R. Giacconi, G. W. Clark and B. B. Rossi, 15 January 1960.

1962-1972 (UP THROUGH UHURU) 3

450

Counter # 3 Moon } Magnetic field vector

2 7.0 mg/cm2 Mica

= 350 ; - 2 Oo 9°

re) Counter # 2 e) 2

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u 290 mg/cm@ Mica ;

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iN E S W fe

Fig. 1. Azimuthal distributions of recorded counts from Geiger counters flown during June 1962.

It was by use of this new detector system,

approximately 100 times more sensitive

_ than any previously flown, that in June

1962 we discovered the existence of a

strong extrasolar source, Sco X-1 (Figures

1 and 2). The most surprising aspect of this

flight was not the hoped-for detection of an

X-ray star, but the discovery of a new class

of celestial objects, whose existence was

unsuspected and whose X-ray emission

was orders of magnitude greater than that

expected from any previously known stel-

lar object. If Sco X-1 had the same Lx/Lopt

ratio as the Sun, it should appear in visible

light brighter than the Moon!

It was later found that in fact most of the

energy loss in Sco X-1 and similar systems

occurs by X-ray emission with Lx/Lop: ~

10°, whereas in the Sun L,/Lop ~ 10°,

where Lx and Lop: are the absolute X-ray

and optical luminosities. Also, the absolute

luminosity of Sco X-1 in X-rays was some

10° times greater than that of the Sun at all

wavelengths making it one of the brightest

stars in the galaxy. Sco X-1 was so strong

that it could be seen directly in the teleme-

try strip charts (Figure 3).

The April 1963 rocket flight by NRL”

and the flights of my group at AS&E in Oc-

tober 1962 and June 1963” not only pro-

vided confirmation of this finding, but re-

vealed the existence of additional sources.

Furthermore, the NRL flight demonstrated

that Sco X-1 had finite sizes (10°) and was

not coincident with the galactic center. It

also confirmed the finding of the June 1962

flight of a diffuse isotropic X-ray back-

ground of mysterious origin.

LOCATION OF SOURCE

JUNE 1962

a CYGNUS

ay I$ JUNE 1962

TRACE OF oi:

GT AXIS w

20° ROTATION

90 catactic et}

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GALACTIC CENTER @~< a SCORPIUS

DECLINATION ( DEGREES )

a SOURCE POSITION

HORIZON

S 60° S

24 22 20 18 16 if

RIGHT ASCENSION

Fig. 2. Location of the Sco X-1 source.

RICCARDO GIACCONI

Fig. 3. Photograph of the strip chart record of the June 1962 flight. The upper two traces are housekeeping

and a star sensor output. The third trace is the output of a photoelectric cell showing the maximum of light when

coming to the point of closest approach to the Moon. The bottom 3 traces show the output of the 3 Geiger

counters which were flown. One of the counters is in discharge;

The upper

the other two are working properly

one has a thicker mica window than the lower one. Each step corresponds to the detection of one photon. Sev-

eral steps occurring one near the other indicate higher counting rates at that position in the spin. The detection of

Sco X

1 can be seen.

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and location of Sco X-1 in 1966 by H.

Gursky and M. Oda and their colleagues at

adopted by most groups.

MIT and AS&E” groups, led to its iden-

3. The extension of X-ray observations

of Crab Nebula to the 50 keV range, ac-

1962-1972 (UP THROUGH UHURU) 5

LUNAR OCCULTATION OF CRAB NEBULA

Bowyer etal (1964)

30 SEC

#350 SEC

230 SEC

22°OI' —

5" 32™308

150 SEC

53220" Suse allOls

Fig. 4. Position of Moon with respect to the Crab Nebula during the 1964 rocket experiment is indicated by

the dashed lines.

tification with a faint blue 13th M star by

Ichimura’? and Sandage™ (Figure 5). The

old nova-like spectrum of the object gave

the first experimental clue to the under-

standing of galactic X-ray sources other

than supernovas. The determination of the

optically thick nature of the source by the

IR measurement of Garmire and his col-

leagues placed several constraints on the

nature of the source.”

7. The measurement of the location and

spectra of Cyg X-1, Cyg X-2, Cyg X-3 by

Giacconi et al.”° led to the identification of

Cyg X-2 by Sandage and his colleagues,”’

and to the recognition of the spectral pecul-

larities of Cyg X-2 and Cyg X-3.

8. The discovery of pulsed X-ray emis-

sion from the pulsar NP 0532 by Friedman

and his colleagues at NRL,” and by H.

Bradt and his colleagues at MIT” in the

spring of 1969, was made within a few

weeks of each other.

Although many important experiments

have been omitted in this brief summary,

even these few examples indicate the pace

of discovery by rocket and balloon experi-

ments in the 1964-1969 period. A catalog

of X-ray sources which was current in Sep-

tember 1969, shows several dozen sources,

six of which are identified (Figure 6). They

included the Crab, Tycho, and Cas A su-

pernova remnants; one certainly identified

extragalactic object, M87, and two identi-

fied with blue, faint, starlike optical coun-

terparts Sco X-1 and Cyg X-2 (and possibly

GX 3 + 1 and Cen XR-2).

6 RICCARDO GIACCONI

PORTION OF SKY CONTAINING ScoX-1

SSS

Fig. 5. Photograph of the region containing the

new X-ray position of Sco X-1, reproduced from the

Palomar Sky Survey prints. The two equally probable

X-ray positions are marked by crosses surrounded by

a rectangle of 1 by 2 arc min. The object described in

the text is marked with an arrow. The identifications

of other stars for which photoelectric photometry ex-

ists are also marked.

The discovery by Hewish and Bell in

1967°° of a neutron star in the Crab Nebula

solved the long-standing problem of the

energy source of the short-lived high energy

electrons producing the visible light and X-

ray continuum in the Nebula by synchro-

tron emission. The energy comes from the

conversion of rotational energy of the pul-

sar in particle acceleration. Interaction of

the expanding shell of supernovas and the

interstellar medium was proposed to ex-

plain the emission from other supernova

remnants. The source of the energy and

the process of X-ray production for Sco

X-1 like sources (and, as it later turned

out, most of the remaining galactic X-ray

sources), however, remained a mystery.

Early suggestions by Matsuoka and

Hayakawa in 1964°' that mass accretion in

a binary system could produce the ob-

served X-ray by shock heating of the gas,

lay dormant because of lack of any obser-

vational support. Black-body emission

from the million-degree surface of a neu-

tron star could be excluded on observa-

tional grounds. The identification in 1966

of Sco X-1 with an object resembling old

novas which were known to consist of bi-

nary stellar systems, rekindled interest in

the mass exchange binary model which was

re-proposed by Shklovsky”” and by Bur-

bidge and Prendergast’ in 1968. Again, no

observational evidence could be found to

support this model, since most old novas

were not detected as X-ray emitters and al-

ternate models based on emission from

pulsars with or without coccoons were in-

troduced by many theorists.

It remained for UHURU to solve this

important question. UHURU was the first

of a series of satellite experiments which

revolutionized X-ray astronomy in the

1970’s.** It had been conceived and pro-

posed to NASA in September 1963” as

part of a long-range plan of rocket and sat-

ellite X-ray astronomy research by the

AS&E group when only three extrasolar

X-ray sources were known: Sco X-1, Crab,

and the Diffuse Background. Scientific

objectives of the X-ray Explorer, shown

in Table 2, have been abstracted from a

more detailed proposal for an “X-ray Ex-

plorer to Survey Galactic and Extragalac-

tic Sources”, submitted in April 1964.

After some delay, the program started in

earnest in late 1966 as the first in the series

of Small Astronomy Satellites so capably

managed by Marjorie Townsend. Since

several descriptions of the UHURU com-

plement of instruments and its operations

exist in the literature, I do not believe it nec-

essary to repeat the details. I would, how-

ever, like to acknowledge the extraordinary

scientific and technical contributions of H.

Tananbaum and E. Kellogg to all phases of

the program; of J. Waters to the design and

construction of the experiment, and of H.

Gursky, E. Schreier, S. Murray, C. Jones

and W. Forman to the data analysis.

Launched from the San Marco Platform

off the coast of Kenya on their Independ-

1962-1972 (UP THROUGH UHURU) 7

DISTRIBUTION OF X-RAY SOURCES

IN GALACTIC COORDINATES

NORTH GALACTIC POLE

M87 ==

WAS 5 =

SSS a =

SOUTH GALACTIC POLE

1969.3

Fig. 6. The distribution of X-ray sources on a galactic coordinate system (from ‘‘Properties of Individual

X-ray Sources” by R. Giacconi, in Non-Solar X- and Gama-ray Astronomy’’, Proceedings of the IAU; (ed. L.

Gratton), D. Reidel Pub. Co., Dordrecht, Holland, 1970, p. 108).

ence Day (UHURU), December 12, 1970,

UHURU was a remarkably simple, rela-

tively low-cost and long-lived satellite (Fig-

ure 7). It met or exceeded all of our expecta-

tions with regard to all-sky surveys, detect-

ing some 339 discrete sources in its 2-1/4

year life span (Figure 8). Its major scientific

achievements came, however, from unfore-

seen discoveries. I will mention only two:

(a) the discovery that most galactic X-ray

sources were mass exchange binaries con-

taining a collapsed star (neutron star or

black hole), primarily through the work of

H. Tananbaum, E. Schrier and myself, and

(b) the discovery of diffused X-ray emis-

sion from high temperature intergalactic

gas in clusters of galaxies primarily through

the work of H. Gursky, E. Kellogg and W.

Forman.

The first finding solved a long-standing

riddle of X-ray astronomy and provided

the intellectual framework to understand

many of the subsequent discoveries in ga-

lactic X-ray astronomy.

The second was the discovery of matter

in a form detectable only to X-ray observa-

tions. Although the intercluster gas is ex-

tremely thin, it fills such huge volumes that

its total mass equals that in the visible gal-

axies. The study of the temperature and

distribution of this gas gives us a powerful

new tool with which to probe the evolution

of clusters, the largest aggregate of matter

in the known universe.

To expand on the first point, UHURU

observations revealed the existence of rapid

intensity fluctuations in some of the galac-

tic sources. While several rocket and bal-

loon flights had established that some vari-

ability existed in galactic sources, the long-

term monitoring capabilities of a satellite

instrument permitted us to study this phe-

nomenon in detail over long terms (months)

and with time resolutions of order of 0.1 sec-

8 RICCARDO GIACCONI

SCIENTIFIC OBJECTIVES OF X-RAY EXPLORER

(From ASE-578 Aprit 8, 1964)

ALL SKY SURVEY

POSITIONS TO 0,1° FOR KNOWN SOURCES

STRUCTURE

NEW SOURCES

ANISOTROPY OF BACKGROUND

SPECTRAL COMPOSITION

CORRELATION WITH OPTICAL AND RADIO

TEMPORAL VARIATIONS OVER MONTHS

Table 2.—Scientific Objectives of X-ray Explorer,

abstracted from ASE document ASE-578, April 8, 1964

**A Proposal for an X-ray Explorer to Survey Galactic

and Extragalactic Sources.”

onds. Use of this capability led us to the

discovery of the first regularly pulsing X-

ray sources, Cen X-3 and Her X-1, and of

the erratically flickering behavior of Cyg

X-1. As soon as we discovered pulsations in

Cen X-3 (Figure 9), we slowed down the

spacecraft spin to examine the source in

greater detail. We found that regular pulsa-

tions persisted with a period of 4.8 seconds

(Figure 10). As we continued to monitor

the source, we observed gradual changes in

the period of pulsation as well as changes

in the total intensity (Figure 11).*° The

changes in period were regularly occurring

according to a sinusoidal law whose period

coincided with the periodic waxing and

waning of the intensity (Figure 12). We

concluded that we were observing a pulsat-

ing X-ray source in orbit about an occult-

ing companion whose frequency was

Doppler shifted by its motion about the

companion (Figure 13).*’

But how were the X-rays produced?

Could they be due to a pulsar mechanism?

Long-term monitoring of the period re-

vealed (Figure 14) that it was decreasing

rather than increasing in time, thus the star

was acquiring rather than losing energy.

The only plausible explanation was that the

energy was released by the infall of material

in the deep potential well of a compact ob-

ject. The pulsations were due to the prefer-

- ential accretion of material at the poles ofa

highly magnetized star (Figure 15). Al-

though in principle white dwarfs or neu-

tron stars could be candidates for the regu-

larly pulsating X-ray emitting objects,

subsequent studies of the response of the

accreting object to variable accretion

torques led us to the conclusion that the

compact objects in Her X-1 and Cen X-3

were neutron stars.” Following identifica-

tion of their optical counterparts, the X-ray

Doppler measurement and radial velocity

measurements in the visible led to the first

independent mass determination for neu-

tron stars. Thus was solved the riddle of the

energy source for galactic X-ray sources!

Most of them, including the mysterious Sco

X-1, appear to be variations on this basic

model.

There is one variation which UHURU

also discovered which is of particular inter-

est. Irefer, of course, to the detection of the

first black hole candidate, Cyg X-1. Ina

mass accreting binary system a black hole

can provide the deep potential well for ac-

ceierating material and heating it to high

temperatures. Its emission cannot, how-

ever, be regularly pulsed since no asymme-

tries are allowed outside the black hole ho-

rizon. The discovery of erratic pulsations

from Cyg X-1°"*° (Figure 16) and the better

positional accuracy available through

UHURU" and rocket measurements by

the MIT” group (Figure 17) spurred new

efforts to identify the optical and radio

counterparts of this source. Braes and Mi-

ley,’ and Hjellming and Wade™ soon there-

after (1971) discovered a radio counter-

part. It is the precise radio location which

then led to the identification by Webster

and Murdin*® in 1972, and by Bolton

1962-1972 (UP THROUGH UHURU) 9

(1972)*° of Cyg X-1 with the 5.6 day spec-

troscopic binary system HDE 226868, con-

sisting of a massive 9th magnitude Bo su-

pergiant of more than 20 M 9 and unseen

companion of several solar masses. The X-

ray transitions in Cyg X-1 observed by

UHURU to coincide with radio transition

established this identification beyond

doubt (Figure 18).*’ The rocket experi-

ments by Rappaport and others at MIT,”

and by Holt and others at GSECE, con-

firmed the rapid variability of the X-ray

source first discovered by UHURU and

compelled us to consider source regions of

10° cm or less. The mass determination of

the X-ray emitting secondary star by Bol-

ton’ and by Kristian and Brucato”' yielded

a mass of more than 5 Mo.

Theoretical computations by Ruffini”

and Hartle’’ determined that under the

most general assumptions masses of neu-

tron stars could not exceed 5 M 9. Astar of

Fig. 7. An artist’s concept of the UHURU spacecraft.

10’ cm radius and Mass >5 Mo would

therefore collapse indefinitely and become

the black hole predicted by general relativ-

ity. It is for this reason that we have con-

cluded that Cyg X-1 is the best existing

candidate for a black hole.

In the years since they were discovered,

X-ray binary systems have become a verit-

able astrophysical laboratory whose use

enables us to test the laws of matter at den-

sities unachievable in the laboratory and to

study the effects of general relativity under

conditions in which they become of major

significance. X-ray observations of extra-

galactic sources which UHURU initiated in

earnest, have become one of the most pow-

erful tools for astronomical investigation

of the most distant objects known in the

universe. VHURU wasa happy child. I feel

both privileged and grateful to have been

allowed the opportunity to bring it into the

world.

10 RICCARDO GIACCONI

Fig. 8. ““The Fourth UHURU Catalog of X-ray Sources’”’, W. Forman, C. Jones, L. Cominsky, P. Julien, S.

Murray, G. Peters, H. Tananbaum and R. Giacconi, Astrophys. J. 38, No. 4 (Suppl. Series), 1978.

CEN X-3

pene APRIL 9, 1971

Oo. ul

COUNTS /.096 SEC

hit aRINS Sines BACKGROUND— —

31048 31053 31058

TIME. (SECONDS)

Fig. 9. Cen X-3 April 9, 1971

1962-1972 (UP THROUGH UHURU)

5 _

COUNTS /.096 SEC

fe) 40 80 120 60 200 240 280 320 360 400 440 480 520 560 600 640 680 720 760 800 840 880 920 960 1000

BINS

Fig. 10. Cen X-3 May 7, 1971

DEC 18.0 DEC 19.0 DEC 20.0 DEC 21.0 DEC 22.0

JUNE 28.0 JUNE 29,0 JUNE 30.0

COUNTS / SECONDS

MAY 5.0 MAY 6.0 MAY 7.0 MAY 8.0 MAY 9.0 MAY 10.0 MAY 11,0

APRIL 7.0 APRIL 8.0 APRIL 9,0 APRIL 10.0 APRIL 11.0 APRIL 12.0

JAN 6.0 JAN 7.0 JAN 8.0 JAN 9.0 JAN 10.0 JAN 11.0 JAN 12,0

Fig. 11. Cen X-3 Changes in period of pulsation/total intensity

12 RICCARDO GIACCONI

Ataoth in ae

ee At=at+b sine (t-to) 4

T* = 4,8422 sec , ®

a = 0.000198 + 0.000001 - Ss

60 i .

b = 39.7466 sec + 0.0362 sec ° XQ

T = 2.08707 pay + 0.00025 pay ° Se F

A t (SECONDS)

= Un Le cost (t-to)

To = 4.842398 + 0.000001 sec

A = 0.006717 + 0.000005 sec

T (SECONDS)

250

INTENSITY (COUNTS/SEC)

MAY 5 MAY 6 MAY 7 MAY 8

Fig. 12. Intensity observed from Cen X-3

1962-1972 (UP THROUGH UHURU) 13

X-RAY BINARY SYSTEM

TOTAL ORBITAL PERIOD (2.08712 DAYS) !

CENTER OF

HIGH STATE

PRIMARY STAR

ROCHE LOBE

ORBIT OF

PULSATING

X-RAY SOURCE

TOTAL ECLIPSE

(0.488 DAYS)

TRANSITION REGION

(0.035 DAYS)

PULSATING

X-RAY SOURCE

X-RAY ABSORPTION

DEPENDENT ON PATH

THROUGH ROCHE LOBE

TO OBSERVER

Fig. 13. Schematic representation of occulting binary X-ray system.

@ UHURU

& ARIEL 5

=:-2 8x10 *(yeor)! 4

PULSE PERIOD (seconds)

1971 1972 1973 1974 T 1975

Fig. 14. The long-term behavior of the pulsation

period of Cen X-3 (from G. Fabbiano and E. Schreier,

Astrophys. J. 214, 235, 1977).

X-RAY EMISSION

“REG a)

_ ALFVEN

«<5 SURFACE “"2__

—— — a

_, ROTATING .., 4

‘2__NEUTRON /7--

STAR

YA’) ACCRETION

SS STELLAR

DISK SND

\\ ,-CRITICAL ,

_-S SURFACE 2--7

Fig. 15. Schematic representation of the rotating

neutron star model for pulsating X-ray stars. Both

accretion disk and stellar wind cases are shown (from

X-ray Astronomy (eds. R. Giacconi and H. Gursky),

D. Reidel Pub. Co., Dordrecht; The Netherlands,

1974

a ea aS a a oa

7 7 . ae 7 ta

2 ee,

$ F

N {3}

—

ss)

{30}

i a e

rey

= =

Sua

£0

Sits

s 83 a}

gS =

: ~ P Se o

Zz 8 oes es

| fe) . 3s >

5 : E Se 0

[o) (oe) (oe) =>)

| < 3s 8 ee ees: 2% °

cz) 4 £0 8

= oO oO —

le) ——= o a6 s

a = LY eS

= - gees <

| < a fo} i

S = ee | >

O Z 3A, i

= 2 QS ~*

a eS

— ~ do G

=_—

a. 2 als :

O QD

: ot e

= ss mo

a 3 Se

€

a One

=e : ae

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= © >

== 2D

tw ox

=e —='¢

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ae os

fo) re

ee g ee ee a ie eae ane

s) QNO23S/ SLNNOD lo)

1962-1972 (UP THROUGH UHURU) 15

CYGNUS X-1

X-ray Counts per Second (2-6 keV)

Se eae & as. 6 so Bs

r=)

Radio Flux Units

(S 2695)

550 650 750 850 950 1050 115G

Day of 1970

Fig. 18. Cygnus X-1. Sixteen months of observation; X-ray data for 2-6 keV energy band plotted vs. day of

1970. Radio data shown at bottom of figure (from X-ray Astronomy (eds. R. Giacconi and H. Gursky), D. Reidel

Pub. Co., Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1974)

References Cited tronomy”, in Berkner, Science in Space, pp.

373-376.

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4. H. Friedman, S. W. Lichtman and E. T. Byram. 13

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(North-Holland Pub. Co.)

X-Ray Astronomy From Uhuru to HEAO-1

George W. Clark

Department of Physics and Center for Space Research

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Cambridge, MA. USA 02139

Introduction

Seven satellites with X-ray detectors op-

erated during various portions of the seven

years between the launches of Uhuru and

HEAO-1. Six were operating at the same

time for several months in 1975 and 1976.

Throughout the decade of the 70’s many

balloon and rocket experiments were also

carried out. These missions, building on

the foundation laid by Uhuru, extended the

range of spectral measurements to higher

and lower energies. Some achieved higher

spectral resolution with improved detec-

tors and multichannel analysis of the sizes

of pulses from proportional detectors. Mod-

ulation collimators were used to measure

positions with uncertainty areas 30 times

smaller than Uhuru. Some satellites had

three axis stabalization which facilitated

long-term pointed-mode observations of

variable sources.

The hundreds of galactic and extragalac-

tic X-ray sources accessible for study with

the instruments on these missions consist

of a wide variety of stars, supernova rem-

nants, the interstellar medium, active ga-

lactic nuclei of various types, and clusters

of galaxies. I will try to convey a sense of

the progress made toward understanding

their X-ray phenomena by focussing on a

few key questions in the legacy of Uhuru.

References to the work of the many scien-

tists responsible for this progress can be

found in the review articles cited.

1. Are X-ray pulsars neutron stars or white

dwarfs?

The discovery and detailed study with

Uhuru of pulsations and eclipses in several

of the bright X-ray stars confirmed the hy-

pothesis, put forward by a number of the-

orists in the 1960’s, that these objects are

close binary systems in which matter, drawn

from a nuclear burning star, falls onto the

surface of a compact companion in the

form of a white dwarf or neutron star. In

this process, the gravitational energy of the

falling matter is converted into heat and

radiated as X-rays. With the discovery of

regular pulsations in Cen X-3 and Her X-1

it became clear that if the compact star has

a strong dipole magnetic field, the flow of

hot and highly ionized matter is channeled

into narrow accretion columns at the mag-

netic poles, and that the X-rays are emitted

anisotropically from the polar regions. If

the dipole is not aligned with the rotation

axis, then rotation of the compact star, like

the rotation of a coastal beacon, causes

pulsations in the flux of radiation recorded

by a distant observer.

The observable phenomena of pulsating

X-ray binaries offer opportunities for meas-

urements which can, under favorable cir-

cumstances, yield precise determinations

of the orbital elements of the binary system

and significant limits on the masses and

sizes of its stars. Most important of these

favorable circumstances is the identifica-

18 GEORGE W. CLARK

tion of the optical counterpart of the X-ray

binary and the presence of measurable lines

in the optical spectrum of the nuclear burn-

ing star. Then measurements of the Doppler

effect of orbital motion on the period of the

X-ray pulsations and on the wavelengths of

the optical features can be analyzed, as ina

“double-line” binary, to obtain the two

masses within a factor that depends only on

the inclination of the orvit to the line of

sight. Limits on the inclination can be

derived from the observed duration of the

eclipse of the X-ray pulsar by the optical

companion. The latter’s size is known from

the requirement that it must nearly fill its

critical potential lobe in order for its outer

layer to flow over to the pulsar. And fi-

nally, measurements of the spectrum and

magnitude of the optical counterpart and,

if possible, of nearby stellar associates can

provide an estimate of the distance which

permits one to derive the absolute X-ray

luminosity from the measured X-ray flux.

According to the accretion model, in-

coming material spirals inward in an accre-

tion disc to the radius where it is captured

by the magnetic field of the pulsar and

forced to corotate with the pulsar. In this

process, the accretion flow exerts a torque

on the pulsar which accelerates the rotation

at a rate that depends on the rate of accre-

tion and the moment of inertia of the pul-

sar. The luminosity also depends on the

rate of accretion. Thus, a relation exists be-

tween the luminosity of an X-ray pulsar

and the rate at which its period decreases,

and this relation depends on the pulsar’s

moment of inertia.

With these concepts and consequences

of the accretion model of X-ray pulsars in

mind, what do the observations tell us

about the nature of pulsars themselves?

Are they white dwarfs or neutron stars?

After Uhuru, more than a dozen new bi-

nary pulsars were discovered by Ariel-V,

SAS-3, OSO-8 and an NRL (Naval Re-

search Laboratory) rocket, thereby adding

much to the variety of systems and circum-

stances available for study. Long-term

pointed-mode observations yielded ex-

tremely precise measurements of Doppler

variations of the pulsar periods. Precise po-

sition determinations led to identification

and detiled study of the optical counter-

parts. By the time of HEAO-1 a good un-

derstanding of the nature of X-ray pulsars

had been achieved.

The periods of the known pulsars range

from nearly 15 minutes down to 0.71 sec-

onds. This shortest period, discovered in an

NRL rocket observation, is of special inter-

est because it places a lower limit on the

mean density of the X-ray star which ex-

ceeds that of the densest possible white

dwarf. An elementary calculation shows

that matter riding on the equator of a spin-

ning sphere will be restrained by gravity

from flying off only if the mean density of

the sphere is greater than (11860/P)*gcm~

where Pis the period of rotation in seconds.

Putting P = 0.71 seconds, one finds the

density is greater than 2.8 X 10° gcm’’,a

result that proves SMC X-1 is denser thana

white dwarf and 1s therefore a neutron star.

Detailed analysis of several well-

measured X-ray pulsers (see Rappaport

and Joss, 1981) yielded a set of results in

which the lowest lower limit on the pulsar

mass is approximately 0.3 Mo (Mo = one

solar mass), the highest upper limit 3 Mo,

and all the limits are consistent with a sin-

gle mass in a narrow range about 1.4 Mo,

the Chandrasekhar upper limit on the mass

of a degenerate dwarf. Since the masses of

known white dwarfs in wide binary systems

are generally less than 1.0 Mo, the facts that

some of the lower limits on masses of X-ray

pulsars are greater than 1.0 Mo and all meas-

urements are consistent with 1.4 Mo sup-

port the idea that the X-ray pulsars are not

white dwarfs but are neutron stars formed

by the collapse of overweight degenerate

stellar cores.

The X-ray luminosity of a typical X-ray

binary is highly variable, ranging from a

“‘saturated”’ value corresponding to an ac-

cretion rate limited by radiation pressure,

to zero when the supply of accretion mate-

rial is interrupted by some change in the bi- .

nary system. Whena pulsar is ““ON” its pe-

X-RAY ASTRONOMY FROM UHURU TO HEAO-1 19

riod generally decreases, evidently due to

torques exerted on the pulsar by the accre-

tion flow. The rates of decrease are remark-

ably large—in some cases the characteristic

spin up times are of the order of only

hundreds or thousands of years. Clearly, to

avoid a spin-up catastrophe, one must as-

sume that pulsars spin down during their

“OFF” periods due to braking torques

caused by interaction of their magnetic

fields with plasma in the binary system. In

any event, a comparison of the spin up

rates during “ON” periods with the ac-

cretion torques derived from the observed

X-ray luminosities shows that the moments

of inertia of X-ray pulsars are much less

than those of white dwarfs and are, in fact,

consistent with the values calculated for a

sphere of mass 1.4 Mo and radius 7 km,

which implies a mean density of about

2 X 10° g cm”. These are the specifica-

tions of a neutron star.

The estimate of accretion torque from

the luminosity of a given pulsar depends on

the value assumed for the strength of the

magnetic dipole since it determines the dis-

tance at which the accretion flow is cap-

tured and, consequently, the specific angu-

lar momentum of the accreted material at

the moment of capture. On rather general

grounds it was assumed that compression

of the magnetic field of the precursor star

during its collapse into a neutron star

would lead to surface fields of the order of

10’? gauss. Direct evidence for the existence

of sucha field in Her X-1 was discovered in

a MPI (Max Planck Institute) balloon ob-

servation which detected a spectral feature

in the X-ray spectrum at about 60 keV at-

tributed to cyclotron resonance of elec-

trons in a field of 6 X 10’ gauss.

Thus, it became clear in the period be-

tween Uhuru and HEAO-1 that X-ray pul-

sars are strongly magnetized neutron stars.

The fact that their companions are gener-

ally massive, short-lived nuclear burning

stars has led to the conclusion, now well

supported by computer modeling, that

they are formed in the evolution of massive

primordial close binaries.

2. What is the Nature of the Population II

X-Ray Stars?

The Uhuru sky survey, as represented in

the famous 3U Catalogue, provided evi-

dence for the division of high luminosity

X-ray stars into two classes, one asso-

ciated with young stars in the spiral arms

(Population I), and consisting mostly of the

massive binaries with magnetic neutron

stars that pulse, and, in some cases, eclipse

as described above, and another class asso-

ciated with old stars in the central regions

or “‘bulge”’ of the galaxy (Population II).

The survey of positions, spectra and varia-

bility carried out with the OSO-7 satellite,

launched one year after Uhuru, provided

additional evidence for such a distinction.

The “‘bulge’’ X-ray sources, are in re-

gions where no stars have formed for bil-

lions of years. With certain notable excep-

tions, these X-ray stars, though variable,

do not pulse or eclipse, and they have softer

spectra than the binary X-ray pulsars. Of

special significance in the recognition of

this distinct class of Population II objects

was the discovery of X-ray stars in globular

clusters—three by Uhuru, two by OSO-7

and several more by Ariel-V, SAS-3, and

most recently by the Einstein Observatory.

The globular clusters were formed over 10

billion years ago, and no star formation has

apparently taken place in them since then.

They therefore contain only the remnants

of very ancient stars. The visible remnants

are Slowly evolving nuclear burning dwarfs

and red giants with masses up to about 0.8

Mo. Undoubtedly, there are faint remnants

in the form of degenerate dwarfs whose

progenitors were stars with masses in the

range from about 0.8 Mo to 4 Mo which

completed their nuclear burning phases

during the past 99 percent of the cluster

age. And finally, there are probably some

remnants in the form of neutron stars, and

possibly black holes, that were produced

within the first few millions of years of the

cluster life in supernova explosions of stars

with masses greater than about 4 Mo. Some

of these may have escaped being ejected by

20 GEORGE W. CLARK

the explosions from the shallow gravita-

tional wells of their clusters, and thereafter

settled into the cluster cores. It is from

these various remnants or their combina-

tions that the globular cluster X-ray stars

probably formed, The similarity of their

X-ray phenomena to those of the Popula-

tion II X-ray stars found outside globular

clusters leads one to suspect that they are

similar in nature.

A vital clue to the nature of the Popula-

tion II X-ray stars was provided by the dis-

covery in observations by ANS in 1975 of

X-ray bursts from the X-ray star 3U1820-30

in the globular cluster NGC6624. Within a

few months Vela-SA, SAS-3, Ariel-V and

OSO-8 had discovered similar X-ray bursts

from about three dozen other Population

II X-ray stars both inside and outside of

globular clusters. In addition, with accu-

rate positions obtained by SAS-3, the opti-

cal counterparts of several bursters outside

of globular clusters were identified and

studied. The X-ray bursters turned out to be

typical Population II X-ray stars with high

(greater than 10°° ergs sec'') persistent

X-ray luminosities, soft spectra, and high

variability without pulses or eclipses. Their

optical counterparts are faint blue objects

whose optical radiation is caused mostly by

X-ray heating of material in their accretion

discs or in the outer envelopes of dwarf

nuclear-burning companions.

The bursts themselves are a remarkable

phenomenon (see Lewin and Joss, 1981).

In a typical burst of so called type I, the

X-ray luminosity rises in less than 1 second

to a peak luminosity of about 2 X 10° erg

s ' (the approximate luminosity at which

radiation pressure balances the gravita-

tional attraction on material above the sur-

face of a 1.4 Mo star) and then decays over

10 to 100 seconds. A typical burster pro-

duces one burst every few hours during

burst-active periods, and ceases bursting if

its persistent luminosity exceeds a certain

critical value.

Soon after their discovery, two ideas as

to the cause of bursts were put forward.

One was that they are the result of instabili-

ties in the accretion flow onto a neutron

star or black hole. The other was that they

are thermal radiation from the surface of a

neutron star which has been suddenly

heated to X-ray incandescence by a ther-

monuclear flash burning of accreted mate-

rial drawn from a close binary companion.

Strong evidence in favor of the thermonu-

clear flash model was soon found ina meas-

urement of variations in the spectrum of

a burst by OSO-8, and then in extensive

studies of burst characteristics by SAS-3.

The luminosity and spectra of bursts were

found to vary during the decay phase like

that of an optically thick radiator cooling

from a temperature of 30 million degrees

and with an area equal to that of a neutron

star. Also, the ratio of persistent X-ray flux

to average burst flux of typical bursters was

found to be approximately equal to the ratio

of gravitational energy to thermonuclear

energy of material accreted by a neutron

star.

Discovery and detailed study with SAS-3

of one remarkable and unique object, the

Rapid Burster, yielded decisive confirma-

tion of the thermonuclear flash model of

X-ray bursts. Located at the center of a

highly obscured and previously unknown

globular cluster, the Rapid Burster turns

‘“‘on” every few months for a period of sev-

eral weeks during which it emits a machine-

gun fire of X-ray bursts that recur at inter-

vals that are sometimes as short as 20

seconds, and have spectra that show no ev-

idence of cooling during the decay phase.

The observed upper limit on the flux of per-

sistent emission between bursts is much less

than 100 times the average burst flux. Thus

the rapid bursts are clearly of a different

kind and were dubbed type II. Then it was

discovered that in the midst of the crowd of

type II bursts an occasional type I occurs,

and that the mean flux in type II’s is about

100 times that in type I’s. Suddenly it was

clear that the Rapid Burster does it both ©

ways, making type II bursts by instabilities

in the accretion flow, and type I bursts by

thermonuclear flash burning of the ac-

creted material.

Theoretical calculations of thermonu-

clear flashes on the surfaces of non-

X-RAY ASTRONOMY FROM UHURU TO HEAO-1 21

magnetic neutron stars predict X-ray bursts

with temporal and spectral characteristics

that match well those observed in type II

bursts. Thus, it seems that the Population

II X-ray stars that burst are weakly or non-

magnetic neutron stars with low-mass

companions. The calculations show that if

the accretion rate is too high or the mag-

netic field too strong, then thermonuclear

burning is continuous, and bursting ceases.

This result is consistent with the fact that

most of the brightest Population II X-ray

stars don’t burst. Pulsars apparently never

burst because the high magnetic fields and

high temperatures in their polar regions

cause continuous thermonuclear burning

of the accreted material.

The persistent emissions of bursters and

of non-bursting, non-pulsing Population II

X-ray stars are similar in the softness of

their spectra, in the absence of periodicities

in their variations, and in the characteris-

tics of their optical counterparts which are

faint blue stars with spectral features at-

tributed to the effects of X-ray heating. In

view of these similarities it is now generally

believed that all non-pulsing Population II

X-ray stars are of a similar nature, namely,

weakly or non-magnetic neutron stars

with low-mass companions in close, mass-

transfer binary systems. The weakness of

the magnetic field also allows the accretion

disc to extend inward to near the neutron

star’s surface so that it casts a deep X-ray

shadow in the equatorial plane of the sys-

tem, thereby preventing the observation of

X-ray eclipses.

Finally, a word about the origins of Popu-

lation II X-ray stars. Their relatively fre-

quent occurrence in the cores of centrally

condensed globular clusters is evidence in

favor of the idea that they are formed

through capture of nuclear burning com-

panions by old neutron stars lurking in

those regions of very high star density.

Population II X-ray stars outside of globu-

lar clusters may be formed by evolution of

close binary systems with white dwarfs that

accrete matter until they exceed the Chan-

drasekhar limit and collapse into neutron

stars. In either case the resulting X-ray

stars are very long-lived systems that may

last billions of years as their neutron stars

gradually swallow the substance of their

companions. Their very low production

rate multiplied by their very long life equals

the hundred or so objects we see, a number

quite comparable to the much higher pro-

duction rate of the Population I X-ray stars

multiplied by their much shorter life.

3. Are There Lower Luminosity X-Ray Stars?

The frequency distribution of the maxi-

mum luminosities of the X-ray stars in the

Uhuru survey exhibited a broad peak in the

range from 10°° to 10° erg s '. This fact

found a natural explanation in the frame-

work of the standard model of binary

X-ray stars described previously. The upper

luminosity limit is set by the effect of radia-

tion pressure on limiting the accretion

flow. For spherically symmetric accretion,

this limit is 1.7 X 10°* erg s' fora 1.4 Mo

star. Actual accretion flows are radiation

limited at generally lower values. As for the

lower limit, accretion onto a neutron star is

an enormously efficient source of heat

energy, yielding about 0.3 c’ per unit mass

of accreted material. A very low accretion

rate, amounting to only 10 ’ Mo per year, is

sufficient to generate a typical “‘saturated”’

luminosity of 1.7 X 10°” ergs s '. Thus, the

luminosities of X-ray binaries are easily

driven to their limits by modest rates of

mass transfer, which accounts for the clus-

tering of maximum luminosities in the 10°°

to 10°* ergs ' range. UHURU was sensitive

enough to detect such sources anywhere in

the galaxy. It could also, of course, detect

weaker sources nearby. However, for lack

of identifications of possible nearby weak

X-ray stars it was not posssible to deter-

mine whether there exists a class of X-ray

stars with peak luminosities between that

of the sun and the lower limit of the neu-

tron stars in mass-transfer binaries.

Then, a Lockheed rocket observation

detected soft X-rays from Capella, a wide

non-degenerate binary and the first of what

22 GEORGE W. CLARK

has since come to be recognized as the

class of RS CVn-type coronal X-ray emit-

ters. An MIT rocket observation detected

soft X-rays from the cataclysmic variable

SS Cygni, a white dwarf in a close binary.

SAS-3 detected HZ43, an isolated hot

white dwarf; AM Her, a magnetic white

dwarf in a close binary; Algol, a non-

degenerate eclipsing binary of which one

component is a coronal X-ray emitter; the

Orion Trapezium, a cluster of young mas-

sive stars; and Gamma Cas, a Be star.

All these lower luminosity sources had

peak values in the range from 10°’ to 10°°

erg s ', substantially less than the peak lu-

minosities of neutron stars in mass ex-

change binaries. The trail was thereby

blazed to the promised land where X-ray

observations were to play a vital role in

general stellar astronomy.

4. What is the Nature of the Diffuse X-Ray

Emission from Clusters of Galaxies?

Two entirely different interpretations of

the diffuse X-ray emission from clusters of

galaxies were put forward shortly after the

phenomenon was discovered by Uhuru.

One was that it is X-rays produced by in-

verse Compton scattering of microwave

photons by high energy electrons. The

other was that it is thermal emission of hot

intergalactic gas. If the latter is correct,

then the question arises as to whether the

gas is primordial material left behind when

the galaxies of the cluster condensed and

formed stars, or is material that has been

processed in stars in galaxies and then

swept out of the galaxies to form an intra-

cluster medium trapped in the gravitational

potential well of the cluster. Clearly, the

answer to this question has profound impli-

cations for our understanding of the origin

and evolution of clusters and galaxies.

The decisive discovery was made with

Ariel-V which revealed the presence of iron

K-line emission in the X-ray spectrum of

the Perseus cluster. OSO-8 confirmed this

result and also found K-line emission in the

spectra of the Virgo and Coma clusters.

The abundances of iron relative to hydro-

gen implied by the data were close to those

found in the sun and other objects com-

posed of material that has been processed

in stars and ejected by supernovae. The

conclusion was clear that the diffuse emis-

sion from clusters of galaxies is thermal

bremstrahlung of hot matter that has been

processed in stars in galaxies and subse-

quently swept out, apparently by the ram

pressure exerted by the intergalactic gas it-

self on the processed gas in galaxies as the

galaxies move in their orbits through the

cluster (see Culhane, 1979).

5. What are the Unidentified High Galactic

Latitude Sources?

An NRL rocket observation before

Uhuru detected X-ray emissions from the

giant elliptical galaxy M87, and the Seyfert

galaxy NGC1275. The multiple-lobed radio

galaxy Cen A and the quasar 3C273 were

detected in Berkeley rocket observations,

also just before the launch of UHURU. The

X-ray luminosities of these extragalactic

sources exceeded by far the combined lu-

minosities of the X-ray stars in their asso-

ciated galaxies. It then seemed likely that

this small set of extragalactic sources was

the tip of an iceberg of distant extragalactic

X-ray sources of great luminosity that

would be detectable with more sensitive

instruments.

Uhuru observations confirmed and ex-

tended these results with the discovery of

diffuse X-ray emission from galaxy clusters

and from several additional identified

Seyfert galaxies. OSO-7, launched ten

months after Uhuru, discovered variability

on a time scale of days in Cen A, proving

thereby that the emission comes from an —

active compact source in the nucleus of the

galaxy. Many faint sources were found at

high galactic latitude in the surveys of

Uhuru and OSO-7, but only a few were

identified with known optical or radio ob-

jects on account of large uncertainties in

X-RAY ASTRONOMY FROM UHURU TO HEAO-1 23

their positions. Thus, a key question con-

fronting the observers preparing to use the

facilities of the next generation of X-ray

satellites was the nature of the

““UHGLS”’—the unidentified high galactic

latitude sources.

Ariel-V carried out an extensive survey

at high galactic latitudes with improved

positional accuracy and demonstrated that

many of these sources are the active nuclei

of Seyfert galaxies. SAS-3 measured the

positions of galactic and extragalactic

‘sources to within uncertainties of 20 arc sec-

onds and thereby facilitated the identifica-

tion of numerous extragalactic objects.

Among these were additional clusters and

active galactic nuclei including Cd galaxies,

Seyfert nuclei, BL Lac objects and two ad-

ditional quasars. Thus, by the time that

HEAO-1 was launched, it appeared likely

that most, and perhaps all, of the ““UHGLS”

in the Uhuru and subsequent sky surveys

are active nuclei of galaxies or clusters of

galaxies (see Wilson, 1979).

6. What is the Nature of the Unresolved

X-Ray Background?

Above | keV there exists a highly iso-

tropic, apparently diffuse X-ray back-

ground noted and measured in the 1962

rocket survey that discovered the first

X-ray star, Sco X-1. At each stage of re-

finement in X-ray surveys some portion of

the previously unresolved “‘background”’

has been analyzed into three components—

newly resolved discrete sources, an unre-

solved component attributable to distant

objects of a kind and spatial density de-

duced from detailed study of resolved ob-

jects, and an unrésolved component of un-

known nature that may be emission from

faint discrete objects or a diffuse extraga-

lactic medium.

The identifications of many of the

““UHGLS” with specific active galactic nu-

clei and galaxy clusters at known distances

and the discovery of additional X-ray emit-

ting QSO’s permitted a further refinement

of this background analysis with the result

that it was possible to account for about

one-third of the unresolved and highly uni-

form background above | keV in terms of

distant members of the classes of known

extragalactic sources.

Below | keV, the X-ray background rises

rapidly in intensity with decreasing energy

and becomes highly anisotropic. Rocket

surveys with large-area gas-flow detectors

proved to be the most effective means for

exploring the origins of this radiation which

was below the threshold of the Uhuru

counters. A scan of the small Magellanic

cloud in a Wisconsin rocket observation

showed no evidence of a shadow in the soft

X-ray background due to absorption by the

diffuse matter in the SMC of soft X-rays

from sources beyond the SMC. This result

demonstrated that some, or possibly all, of

the soft X-ray backgrond originates in

front of the SMC, presumably in our own

galaxy. Maps made from various rocket

surveys show correlations between soft

X-ray intensity contours and radio inten-

sity contours that lead to the conclusion

that the soft X-ray background is emission

from a hot component of the interstellar

medium, probably the product of old super-

nova remnants that have expanded and

merged into a network of plasma clouds

with temperatures of the order of 10° de-

grees Kelvin (see Kraushaar, 1979).

Conclusion

The period from Uhuru to HEAO-1 was

the heyday of exploratory satellite X-ray

observations which consolidated and ex-

tended the great leap forward achieved by

Uhuru. An invigorating spirit of competi-

tion and cooperation was felt in the scien-

tific groups responsible for the various mis-

sions. Many of the observers had a kind of

hands on experience with their instruments

in Earth orbit that may never be known

again. It was indeed an exciting and re-

warding time for X-ray astronomers.

References

J. L. Culhane. 1979. Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A,

366, 403.

W. H. G. Lewin and P. C. Joss. Space Science Reviews

(in press).

W. L. Kraushaar. 1979. in X-Ray Astronomy, ed. W. A.

Baity and L. E. Peterson (Proceedings of COSPAR

Symposium, Pergamon Press).

S. S. Rappaport and P. C. Joss. 1981. in X-Ray Astron-

omy, ed. R. Giacconi and (Dodrecht: D. Reidel

Publishing Company).

A.S. Wilson. 1979. Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 366,

461.

The High Energy Astronomy

Observatory: HEAO-1

Elihu Boldt

Laboratory for High Energy Astrophysics

NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center

Greenbelt, Maryland 20771

The HEAO-1I mission, launched seven

years after Uhuru, is really a direct out-

growth of that original all-sky X-ray sur-

vey, and is based upon the same principals,

greatly expanded. As I mentioned to

the HEAO-1 project scientist (Frank

McDonald) at the beginning of its devel-

opment, HEAO-1 could be viewed as the

dinosaur of X-ray astronomy, but the kind

of mission that is vital for the proper evolu-

tion of the field. lam now convinced that it

was a critical mission and I hope this will be

evident from what follows.

First, let’s examine how the Uhuru

scheme was applied to HEAO-]; this is

shown in Table 1. As I view it, the Uhuru

scheme is one that emphasizes an all-sky

survey using mechanical collimation. Such

an all-sky scheme establishes classes of

sources by detecting the brightest members

and is generally more efficient in this re-

spect than surveys concentrated over small

regions. These sources are then character-

ized further by non-dispersive spectros-

copy and timing measurements. Hence, we

use the headings “‘All-Sky Survey’’, ““Non-

dispersive Spectroscopy”, ““Timing”’ and

‘““Mechanical Collimation”’ (see Table 1).

For Uhuru the all-sky survey was carried

out with a detector area of about 0.08 m’,

where the scan mode was one of great cir-

cles. As applied to HEAO-1 the great-circle

scans were such that the corresponding

spin-axis always pointed to the sun whereby

a rather uniform all-sky scan was relent-

lessly carried out in six months and then

repeated. This relatively rapid sort of all-

sky survey was nevertheless carried out

with high effective exposure because of the

large detector area involved, an order of

magnitude more than Uhuru. By non-

dispersive spectroscopy we mean measur-

ing the energy of each photon individually

via the photo-electric effect. For Uhuru

this was done for the 2-20 keV band by

using argon gas proportional counters.

For HEAO-1 the bandwidth was vastly ex-

panded to cover 0.1 keV to about 10 MeV.

This called for several different kinds of gas

proportional counters and scintillators,

each optimized for a special portion of the

overall band. Spectroscopy was now em-

phasized. Rather than 8 pulse-height ana-

lyzer channels for the entire band, the

experiments were designed to provide an

order of magnitude better resolution by ~

THE HIGH ENERGY ASTRONOMY OBSERVATORY: HEAO-1 5

Table

]

UHURU SCHEME

ALL-SKY NON-DISPERSIVE TIMING MECHANICAL

SURVEY SPECTROSCOPY COLLIMATION

SCAN EFFECTIVE PHA

MODE AREA CHANNELS

UHURU GREAT 0.08 m2 {2 KeV-20 KeV INTENSITY CELLULAR

—_ 7 © CIRCLES COLLIMATORS

HEAO-1 SIX- 1.1 m2 0.1 KeV - 64/DECADE SPECTRUM e MULTIPLE FIELDS

saat 10 MeV e MODULATION

using 64 PHA channels for each decade in

energy. Timing measurements were no

longer restricted to intensity variations for

a few colors. The pioneering measurments

with Uhuru of pulsations from sources

such as Her X-1 and chaotic variability of

other objects such as Cyg X-1 could now be

extended to spectroscopy. For pulsars we

call this “‘pulse-phase spectroscopy”’.’ The

mechanical collimation for Uhuru involved

a cellular structure optimized for isolating

individual sources of emission. The same

sort of principal was applied to the large

area survey modules of HEAO-1. In addi-

tion, however, multiple fields of view were

incorporated into other modules which

were optimized for measurements of the

surface brightness of the X-ray background

and large-scale features. Finally, modula-

tion collimators were incorporated into

some modules covering the Uhuru band so

that the HEAO-1 mission could be used to

locate sources to a precision of about half

an arc minute and thereby provide oppor-

tunities for optically identifying a substan-

tial number of objects. All-sky coverage

along with simultaneous spectroscopy at

energies extending from well below the

Uhuru band to well above have made this

identification aspect of the HEAO-1 pro-

gram particularly powerful and unique in

providing essential links to the rest of

astronomy.

COLLIMATOR

The various institutions directly involved

with HEAO-] are listed in Table 2. Project

management was handled at Marshall Space

Flight Center. The project scientist is at

Goddard. The responsibilities for the prin-

cipal investigations are summarized in Ta-

ble 2. The modules devoted to the large

area sky survey and microsecond timing

are associated with NRL. Non-dispersive

spectroscopy and surface brightness meas-

urements were carried out with modules

especially developed for the minimization

of extraneous background and its quantita-

tive evaluation. These were divided into

three bands. The soft X-ray modules were

handled by CalTech, JPL and Berkeley,

mid-band modules by Goddard and hard

X-ray scintillators by MIT and UCSD. The

modulation collimator portion of HEAO-1!

was shared by the Smithsonian at Harvard

and MIT. Several other institutions are

also involved, mainly in connection with

guest investigators. The HEAO-1! mission

was carried out with a great degree of coor-

dination among the various experiments

and the investigators associated with them.

This applied not only to initial planning

and operations but to data analysis, inter-

pretation of results and their joint publi-

cation.

Figure | gives some idea of the size of

HEAO-1. This photograph was taken at

TRW during the integration of the large

26 ELIHU BOLDT

Table 2

HEAO - 1

PROJECT MANAGEMENT: MARSHALL SPACE FLIGHT CENTER — F. SPEER

PROJECT SCIENTIST: F. MCDONALD — GODDARD SPACE FLIGHT CENTER

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATIONS

(LARGE AREA (1.1m2) SKY SURVEY (0.5 - 20 KeV)

O NAVAL RESEARCH LABORATORY — H. FRIEDMAN

(CNON-DISPERSIVE SPECTROSCOPY

(SURFACE BRIGHTNESS OF LARGE-SCALE FEATURES AND ISOTROPIC BACKGROUND

& SOFT X-RAYS (0.1 - 3 KeV):

O CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY — G. GARMIRE

O JET PROPULSION LABORATORY — G. RIEGLER

O UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA (BERKELEY) — S. BOWYER

A MEDIUM BAND (2 - 60 KeV):

O GODDARD SPACE FLIGHT CENTER — E. BOLDT

A HARD X-RAYS (.01 - 10 MeV):

O MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY — W. LEWIN

O UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA (SAN DIEGO) — L. PETERSON

CO MODULATION COLLIMATOR IDENTIFICATION OF SOURCES (1.5 - 13 KeV):

O CENTER FOR ASTROPHYSICS (HARVARD) — D. SCHWARTZ (H. GURSKY)

O MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY — H. BRADT

area NRL sky survey modules, shown here

with protective covers. The other modules

devoted to non-dispersive spectroscopy,

surface brightness and modulation collim-

ator studies are on the opposite side. The

large solar panels are along the left side of

the observatory.

Now to some of the results being ob-

tained from the analysis of HEAO-1! data.

First of all, let’s address integral properties

of the X-ray sky, something that this

broad-band all-sky mission could do par-

ticularly well. Considering a band of ener-

gies that overlaps significantly with Uhuru

but is generally higher than energies exam-

ined with the Einstein Observatory, we can

construct a map of surface brightness in

which some gross aspects of the Uhuru sky

become quite evident. This was done by

DeAnn Iwan from the all-sky data base as-

sociated with one of the Goddard modules;

the resulting map is shown in Figure 2.

The all-sky map exhibited here (Figure

2) is an equal area projection of the celestial

sphere in galactic coordinates. The longi-

tude is zero at the center and increases to

the left. Since the map 1s in galactic coordi-

nates, the equator and center of the galaxy

are quite evident. The data were obtained

froma Goddard module called High Energy

Detector #1 (HED-1). The counts recorded

were simply assigned to 3° X 3° pixels.

This was done with all sources included.

The resulting intensities for the pixels are

color coded. Those intensities within 3% of

a constant sky background are blue. Inten-

sities lower than this are shown as black,

higher are shown as red. Within each color

code, the lines per pixel provide a vernier

on the numerical intensity. This particular

map saturates at a surface brightness about

40% above that of the diffuse background.

In terms of source intensity it is equivalent

to the brightest isolated galaxy, which is

Cen A. A few clusters of galaxies exceed

this saturation limit; many galactic sources

do, of course. For the present discussion,

the main thing to notice is that most of this

map is blue, indicating that the associated

cosmic background 1s a well-defined domi-

nant aspect of the X-ray sky in the Uhuru

band and somewhat higher. We now know >

quite precisely what there is in toto that

needs to be explained. It turns out that

spectroscopy has become an important

part of this picture, and we will come back

to the cosmic X-ray background in this

context later on.

By lowering the photon threshold energy

by an order of magnitude to below 1/4 keV

we enter a source regime now studied with

the imaging devices of the Einstein Obser-

vatory. Gordon Garmire and the Caltech

group have done this using HEAO-1! data

from the soft X-ray modules and thereby

constructed a similar surface brightness

map to the one shown, but corresponding

to much lower energies. Here again the

X-ray sky is dominated by a background,

but this time it’s a highly anisotropic one

associated with large-scale galactic effects.

In general these are related to diffuse emis-

sion by extensive interstellar plasmas at

temperatures of a few million degrees.

In order to examine possible structure in

galactic emission in the Uhuru band (both

resolved and unresolved) we have made

another map concentrating on latitudes

within 45° of the plane and using 1° X 1°

pixels. This was done by Frank Marshall

from the data base associated with God-

dard’s medium energy module (MED) and

is shown in Figure 3. The gradations in

color-coded intensity are described by the

THE HIGH ENERGY ASTRONOMY OBSERVATORY: HEAO-1

Fig. 1. The HEAO-1 payload as photographed at TRW during integration of the NRL sky-survey modules.

strip at the bottom; high intensities satu-

rate at red. Here again the counts recorded

were simply assigned to the appropriate

pixels and the resulting intensities color

coded as indicated. A point source appears

in several pixels because no attempt was

made to remove collimator response. Source

confusion is evident, especially towards the

galactic center but several bright Uhuru

sources are easily identified. The three

brightest sources in the longitude band

70°-90° are Cygnus X1, X3 and X2. We

28 ELIHU BOLDT

HEAO | A-2 HEDI,2-60 keV,(6+3)X3 FOV

. a BSS =

_2Beet 258 rT ist

ge E thal: Ee zt

Ze Boe Bee Ser og

gifretPE-<e b-ct te aati

E ; 3 . 4 hha

Z Pe ae. 2 2 & 2s

¥ Pe ¢ be i shes

rf z Bee &

taj ae sas FOES pt} - i

2 ot - =a - eas

> ;

Ps ae 5 ¥

<I f c if é é AL : 5 ai

a & i a - ES :

o Fe 55 pis EE =a

re) E: :

< . .

aS ep

GALACTIC LONGITUDE

Fig. 2. The surface brightness of the entire X-ray sky (in 3° X 3° pixels) as obtained with the combined 3° X 3°

and 6° X 3° collimator sections of a GSFC high energy detector (HED-1) over the band 2-60 keV. The map is

presented in galactic coordinates. Intensity gradations are color-coded in the order black, blue and red (highest).

note the concentration of sources towards

the center and the relative absence of re-

solved sources in the interarm region at

longtitudes near 60° adjacent to the Cygnus

sources. There is also some galactic emis-

sion that can not be attributed to specific

sources and which, at this level, we call un-

resolved. One such component has a scale

height of about 200 pc and 1s, for example,

related to the greenish haze exhibited in the

interarm region at | ~ 60°. Diana Worrall

et al.” have modelled this further and find

that the entire galactic emission from this

thin unresolved disk is about a tenth of that

from all bright galactic sources already de-

tected. There is also a general enhancement

at higher galactic latitudes and this can be

seen here by the increased blueness within

~20° of the plane. DeAnn Iwan et al. * have

modelled this and conclude that the scale

height involved is about 3 kpc. The total

luminosity is comparable to that of the thin

disk. At this stage it appears that unre-

solved stellar emission from low luminosity

X-ray sources at effective temperatures

corresponding to several keV could domi-

nate at least one of these two components,

but more studies are needed.

One effective way to investigate low lu-

minosity source populations within our

galaxy is to examine objects detected at

high galactic latitudes. This minimizes source

confusion and, for galactic sources, max-

imizes apparent intensities. As a matter of

fact the unidentified high latitude Uhuru

sources constitute one of the major chal-

lenges of X-ray astronomy to be addressed

by HEAO-1. The total number of Uhuru

sources at high galactic latitudes is about a

hundred. However, many of these are asso-

THE HIGH ENERGY ASTRONOMY OBSERVATORY: HEAO-1 29

pp a dap

bel Eg.

sh ae put ae

.— tet,

3S es, Boats

Fig. 3. The surface brightness of the X-ray sky (in 1° X 1° pixels) associated with the Milky Way as obtained

from the | 1/2° X 3° collimator portion of Goddard’s Medium Energy detector (MED) over the band 1.5—20

keV. The mapis presented in galactic coordinates. Intensity gradations, indicated by the strip at the bottom, are

color coded in the order white, blue to red (highest). Galactic coordinates are restricted to |b| < 45°, |I| < 128°.

ciated with special non-stellar objects such

as clusters of galaxies and active galaxies.

About two-thirds of them were identified

as extragalactic based on data from Uhuru

and subsequent missions. However, the

other high-latitude sources remained mainly

for HEAO-1, which has now established

the major classes of objects involved. These

previously unidentified sources were al-

ways particularly fascinating and prompted

early speculation that they were a new class

of extragalactic objects. The HEAO-1 data

base can be used to establish those high lat-

itude sources that exceeded | Uhuru flux

unit during the time they were observed

within the all-sky scan. Excluding sources

identified with non-stellar objects we are

left with 21 objects. Of these, 14 are now

identified with stellar objects within our

galaxy. A galactic plot of these 14 high lati-

tude Uhuru sources identified as stellar is

shown in Figure 4. Three of the 14 stellar

X-ray sources plotted (Figure 4) were iden-

tified prior to HEAO-1; they are Sco X-1,

Her X-1 and AM Her. Sco X-1 is of course

the first and brightest X-ray star in the sky.

It’s a low mass binary with a period

of ~ 0.8 days established from optical ob-

servations alone. The X-ray source is a de-

generate star (either a neutron star or white

dwarf). Richard Rothschild ef a/.,* have

used HEAO-1 scintillator observations to

determine that a 5 ke V thermal bremsstrah-

lung spectrum provides a good fit to the

high energy data up to at least 70 keV al-

though Peter Serlemitsos and Jean Swank”

are investigating a possible low tempera-

ture component in this and similar sources.

Her X-1 1s also associated with a low mass

binary and is one of the major triumphs of

30 ELIHU BOLDT

BRIGHT (>!UHURU FLUX UNIT) STELLAR SOURCES OBSERVED WITH HEAO-!

IDENTIFIED WITHIN GALAXY AT Ibi > 20°

+90°

Galactic Latitude (b)

ro)

™N

180

Galactic Longitude

Fig. 4. Bright (> 1 Uhuru flux unit) stellar X-ray sources observed with HEAO-] identified within the galaxy

at |b| > 20°. Positions are plotted in galactic coordinates. Source numbers indicated are identified as follows:

1) 2A1052 + 60 (BD61 + 1211) 2) 2A1704 + 24 3) 2A1249 — 28 (EX Hya) 4) H 0751 + 22 (U Gem)

5) H 0123 + 070 6) H 2252 — 035 7) H 2215 — 08 (Wolf 1561) 8) 2A0235 — 52 9) JAQ3 ieee

10) 2A0526 — 32 11) 4U0336 + 01 (HR 1099).

Uhuru. Studies of the X-ray pulsar in-

volved with this system have been remark-

ably fruitful indicating a neutron star

X-ray source with a normal companion of

about 2 solar masses. Balloon observations

by Trumper ef al.° suggesting cyclotron

spectral structure have been elaborated

upon by Duane Gruber ef al.’ using the

HEAO-] scintillator data.

AM Her was first detected as a soft X-ray

source by Hearn et al.,° with SAS-3 and is

now known as a hard X-ray source as well

from OSO-8’ and HEAO-1'° (see Figure 5).

This low mass binary has a 3.1 hour period

and involves a magnetic white dwarf phase-

locked with a dwarf M star companion.

Another such system is number 9 (2A0311-

22). The HEAO modulation collimator lo-

cation of this Ariel 5 source by Griffiths et

al.,'" matched well with optical studies that

found an 81 minute binary system similar

to AM Her. Using HEAO-! proportional

counter data White’* has found this period

in the X-ray source as well. Number 6 is a

HEAO-1I source (H2252-035) that precipi-

tated the optical discovery'® of a white

dwarf binary with some particularly inter-

esting properties. The binary period here is

3.6 hours but in this situation the magne-

tized white dwarf is not yet phase locked

and appears as an X-ray pulsar’ with a pe-

riod of 14 minutes. Number 3 (2A1249-28)

was identified with the dwarf nova EX

Hydra by France Cordova and Guenter

Riegler’’ based on HEAO-1! soft X-ray

data and firmly established as such by the

modulation collimator'° at higher energies.

In this case the binary period is 98 minutes

and the white dwarf does not have a strong

magnetic field. Number 4 (HO751 + 22) is

an example of impulsive accretion onto a

white dwarf. This source is identified with

the dwarf nova U Geminorum and was

discovered by Keith Mason et al. .’ with the

HEAO-! soft X-ray detectors during out-

burst of the source. A survey by France

Cordoval et al.,'* of 20 dwarf novae in out-

burst yielded positive detections only for

UGem and SS Cygni. The HEAO-1! dis-

covery of quasi-coherent pulsations’ for

SS Cygni and for U Gem is probably a di-

rect measure of the Keplerian periods at the _

surface of these accreting white dwarfs.

Number 10 (2A0526-32) is a cataclysmic

AM HERCULIS

HEAO — |

March — April, 1978

ENO: (EO! |

+ A2 MED

HED |

HED 3

+ 4 LED |

LED 2

lo!

[ >)

Sn 3

== (0)

==)

pes

ieee

Eevee. =

Zang)

(=>)

0.1 |.0 lO l00 1000

ENERGY (keV)

Fig. 5. Composite spectrum for AM Herculis obtained by combining data from several different modules, as

indicated. The two distinct components (soft and hard) are evident as is the iron K line emission in the 6-7 keV

band.

32 ELIHU BOLDT

variable discovered in the optical” as a di-

rect consequence of the HEAO-1! modula-

tion collimator location’’ of this Ariel 5

source. For all of these sources the X-ray

luminosity involved is on the order of 10°

ergs, several orders of magnitude lower

than the X-ray luminosities associated with

known X-ray binaries involving neutron

stars.

Low mass binaries where the X-ray

source is a white dwarf appear to ac-

count for a substantial fraction of our

high-latitude Uhuru sources. What else 1s

there? Number 7 (H2215-08) is associated

with a flare star (Wolf 1561).°7 Number 1

(2A 1052 + 60), number 5 (H0123 + 070)

and number 11 (4U0336 + 01) are stars

with very active coronae associated with

the type RS CVn. Numbers | and 5 are new

RS CVn systems ** * arising from the iden-

tification of sources located with the modu-

lation collimator. Phil Charles et al.,*’ ob-

served number | during a large flare of soft

X-rays amounting to more than 10°’ erg

within about 2 days. However, displaying

these RS CVn systems Is just scratching the

surface. With the HEAO-1 soft X-ray data

Frederick Walter and colleagues”” spear-

headed this work and found that most RS

CVn systems within ~100 pc are strong

X-ray emitters, at least by solar standards.

In particular, HEAO-1 data have been used

to discover 15 RS CVn objects with X-ray

luminosities on the order of 10° erg s” at

temperatures on the order of 10’ degrees.

The thermal spectra measured with HEAO-1

for Capella exhibits iron line emission’ in-

dicating that, at least for some of these ob-

jects, the abundances involved in the emit-

ting plasma could be close to solar. The

relatively high temperature of these stellar

coronae suggests that the magnetic loop

confinement model of Rosner ef al.,”* de-

veloped to explain observations of the solar

corona over active regions is operative here

as well. However, the luminosity 1s rela-

tively high for these sources indicating that

RS CVn stars involve active regions over a

large fraction of their surface. These RS

CVn systems are the most luminous non-

degenerate late type stellar X-ray sources

known. This pioneering work based on

HEAO-1! showed that these systems are a

natural place to test theories and models of

late type stellar coronae, and such studies

are now well along.

In addition to studies of stellar galactic

sources, HEAO-1 also was used for the

study of supernova remnants and their ef-

fects on the interstellar medium. To exhibit

this we examine the Cygnus region. Figure

6 displays a map constructed by Frederick

Walter and Webster Cash based on soft

X-ray data in the 1/4 keV band. The field

here is ~20° in diameter. Black pixels indi-

cate that data were excluded because of

some problem or because of overflow. The

intensity increases from blue to yellow. The

galactic plane is along a diagonal from the

upper left to the bottom right. The obvious

enhancement near the bottom ts the Cyg-

nus Loop, an old supernova remnant mea-

sured by Steve Kahn et al,” to be a

3 X 10°°K thermal source with oxygen K

and iron L lines. The weaker source to the

right was identified by Mason et al.,*° with

G65.2 + 5.7, another old supernova rem-

nant exhibiting a thermal spectrum with

line structure similar to that of the Cygnus

Loop. Altogether there was a dozen new

soft X-ray sources discovered*' which are

associated with supernova remnants. Since

this picture is based on 1/4 keV data we are

restricted to sources within a few hundred

parsecs. In fact we are looking in the direc-

tion of the Great Rift of Cygnus, a large re-

gion of dust and gas extending along much

of the diagonal representing the galactic

plane. Sources within the galactic disk at

distances greater than a kpc or so would be

highly obscured, even at harder X-ray en-

ergies. Now what happens if we construct a

similar map, but with data at somewhat

more penetrating X-ray energies 21/2 keV?

This is displayed in Figure 7.

Except for the Great Rift of Cygnus, the

map exhibited in Figure 7 is lit up with

X-rays. This giant X-ray ring of Cygnus as

analyzed by Webster Cash et al.,** was one

of the most spectacular objects discovered |

with HEAO-1. Subtending almost 20° it is

intermediate in size between the North

THE HIGH ENERGY ASTRONOMY OBSERVATORY: HEAO-1 33

Fig. 6. An intensity map of the Cygnus region in the 1/4 keV soft X-ray band. Color represents the average

counting rate while the collimator of the low energy detector (LED of HEAO-1! A2) was centered on the 0.5°

pixel. Black indicates rejected data (e.g. due to saturation, contamination, loss). The color code for accepted

data goes from blue (lowest) to yellow (highest).

Polar Spur and large supernova remnants.

Without the full sky coverage of HEAO-1

this could not have been mapped. The ra-

diating electrons of the 2 X 10° K plasma

associated with this structure have an en-

ergy content exceeding 10°” erg. Cash pos-

tulates that ‘“‘superbubbles”’ such as this are

commonplace, the result of the large num-

ber of supernovae associated with the early

evolutionary stages of large O-B associa-

tions. Such objects may encompass about a

tenth of the galactic disk and play a major

role in the energetics of the interstellar

medium.

Now let’s increase our effective thresh-

old energy to about | keV so as to lessen

our efficiency for detecting the softer radia-

tion from a 2 X 10° K plasma such as the

Cygnus Superbubble. The map obtained

for this same region with this somewhat

higher threshold is shown in Figure 8. As

expected, the superbubble has essentially

disappeared. The Cygnus Loop at the bot-

tom is still visible because it is a brighter

source. The source up to the left of the

Cygnus Loop is Cyg X-2. The bright source

to the right is Cyg X-1, which has been ex-

tensively studied with HEAO-I over a

broad spectral-temporal domain. Based on

data from the NRL models and the modu-

lation collimator a source similar to Cyg X-1

has been identified;** it is GX339-04. The

source immediately up towards the left of

Cyg X-1, indicated by the small greenish

patch, is Cygnus X-3, one of the brightest

sources in the Uhuru band. However, it 1s

estimated to be at a distance of 10 kpc

within the galactic disk and is therefore

34 ELIHU BOLDT

Fig. 7. Anintensity map of the Cygnus region in the 1/2 keV X-ray band, constructed exactly as for Figure 6.

barely visible at the 1 keV band effective for

this map. If we were to increase our thresh-

old and bandwidth beyond several keV,

Cyg X-3 would appear very bright on this

map and the Cygnus Loop would disap-

pear. Quite generally, the temperatures as-

sociated with the X-ray emission by super-

nova remnants are less than about 10’ K.

However, the kinetic temperatures of ex-

pansion associated with young remnants

such as Cas A and Tycho are greater than

about 10° K. Using HEAO-! data for these

sources Pravdo and Smith” have deter-

mined that, although most of the X-ray

emission is associated with cooler electrons

not yet in equilibrium with the much hotter

ions, there is significant emission up to 25

keV indicating the presence of a substantial

electron-ion component that is at tempera-

ture equilibrium in the expanding shell of

such young remnants.

In taking this updated tour of the Uhuru

sky we must eventually leave our galaxy.

And in doing this it’s most appropriate that

we first consider the emission from clusters

of galaxies since it was with Uhuru that

they were established as a major new class

of strong X-ray sources. Subsequent ob-

servations with Ariel 5 and OSO-8 showed

the importance of iron K line emission for

these objects, pointing to an extensive

thermal plasma as the main source of

X-radiation. The Perseus cluster is the

brightest extragalactic source; it’s spectrum

in the Uhuru band is shown in Figure 9.

This spectrum is that characteristic of a

thermal plasma at about 80 million degrees

and shows how well one can do with multi-

channel analysis. The X-ray luminosity of

this source is about a million times that of

our galaxy. In addition to the fact that this

GSFC measurement has such fine statistics

THE HIGH ENERGY ASTRONOMY OBSERVATORY: HEAO-1 35

Fig. 8. An intensity map of the Cygnus region in the | keV X-ray band, constructed exactly as for Figure 6.

and provides such a good thermal fit, we

have here finally found direct evidence for

a higher energy transition to the K electron

Shell of iron ina cluster source. These lines

correspond to both Ka and K transitions.

L shell iron lines were detected from Virgo

by Susan Lea et al.*° There are now 18 clus-

ter spectra from HEAO-1 exhibiting clear

iron K line emission.”° Two-thirds of these

have been well fit with an isothermal model

and may be used to determine iron abun-

dance in the emitting plasma. As pointed

out by Richard Mushotzky,’° a remarkable

outcome of these determinations 1s that all

these clusters have the same abundance of

iron and that it’s half solar. The luminosity

function for these clusters has now been de-

termined with HEAO-1! data in three dif-

ferent ways that converge to the same

answer. John McKee et al.,’’ have used as

their basis an optically complete sample of

Abell clusters of distance class up through

4. Mel Ulmer et al.,** have considered a

more restricted angular region of the sky

but include all Abell clusters up through

distance class 6. Giuseppi Piccinotti et al.,””

have considered an X-ray complete sample

of X-ray sources exceeding | Uhuru flux

unit to search for clusters used in their

sample. A useful way to express these three

results is to give the corresponding cluster

contribution to the cosmic X-ray back-

ground in the Uhuru band. The value 4%

matches well with all three determinations

and is considerably less than some of the

much earlier estimates from previous ex-

periments.

In addition to the sort of rich clusters

identified with Uhuru, the HEAO-1 modu-

lation collimator data have been used by

Dan Schwartz et al.,*° to exhibit that poor

clusters can also be strong thermal X-ray

36 ELIHU BOLDT

o PERSEUS CLUSTER

PHOTONS / CM--SEC-keV

HEAO-A2

<) 10

ENERGY (keV)

Fig. 9. Incident thermal spectrum (kT = 6.8 keV) for the Perseus cluster as inferred from data obtained with

argon(MED)and xenon(HED) proportional counters. Prominent lines in the 5-10 keV band correspond to Ka

and K@ transitions in iron ions having only K shell electrons.

sources. Comparing data from the God-

dard modules with modulation collimator

results, Joe Schwartz et al.,*’ have identi-

fied several clusters with condensed cores,

cD clusters.

As far as important classes of new

sources established with HEAO-1, the ex-

tragalactic counterpart of RS CVn stars

within our galaxy would have to be the so-

called BL Lac type objects, comparable in

luminosity to the most powerful cluster |

X-ray sources. Four such objects are exhib-

THE HIGH ENERGY ASTRONOMY OBSERVATORY: HEAO-1

Fig. 10. HEAO-1 modulation collimator locations of four X-ray emitting BL Lac type objects, viza) MKN421

b) PKS 0548 — 322c)2A1219 + 305d) PKS 2155 — 304. Portions of previous X-ray locations are also shown.

ited in Figure 10. These four optical fields

were used to locate the indicated BL Lac

type objects with the modulation collima-

tor in terms of various larger X-ray posi-

tion limits. The objects at the top (a:

MKN421 and b: PKS 0548-322) are of par-

ticular interest because they are in elliptical

galaxies with measured redshift. The Ariel

5 source in the lower left (c:2A1219 + 305)

was the first BL Lac type object to be found

as a result of its X-ray detection; this sug-

gested association was established as cor-

rect by the HEAO-1! modulation collima-

tor.'° Soft X-ray detection by Prahlad

Agrawal and Guenter Riegler* along with

modulation collimator location’? led to the

identification of PKS2155-304 with the

HEAO-1 object in the lower right (d:

H2155-304).

The spectrum of PKS2155-304 obtained

by the JPL and Goddard groups is dis-

played in Figure 11: 1t shows the: steep

power-law component that seems to be

present to varying degrees in all the BL Lac

spectra observed. For this object, ~90% of

the luminosity resides below 2 keV. The

contribution of such objects to the cosmic

X-ray background would necessarily be

most evident in soft X-rays, such as now

readily resolved with the Einstein Observa-

tory. If the redshift of this is as high as esti-

mated by Charles ef al.,** then its X-ray

luminosity alone exceeds 10*° ergs s '. And

it is a highly variable source, as shown in

Figure 12; the intensities plotted here were

observed by Snyder et al.,*° with the NRL

modules from scan data obtained over the

course of a week. Variations over time

scales as short as 6 hours are evident. By

considering this temporal variability in

conjunction with the overall spectral be-

havior from the radio to hard X-rays, Meg

38 ELIHU BOLDT

HEAO -A2

+ LOW-ENERGY DETECTOR

} MEDIUM-ENERGY DETECTOR

POWER LAW

SLOPE a = -2.44

FLUX phatont/er-=ackey)

H 2156-304

ENERGY (keV)

Fig. 11. The X-ray spectrum for the BL Lac type ob-

ject PKS 2155-304 as inferred from data obtained with

a low energy detector (LED results from JPL indi-

cated by crosses) and a medium energy detector

(MED results from GSFC indicated by diamonds).

Urry and Richard Mushotzky*° conclude

that a synchrotron model provides a good

io° cts CM“ Ss”

description, but only if there is significant

beaming of the radiating electrons.

Apart from BL Lac type objects and pos-

sibly quasars, where our spectral knowl-

edge is still meager, active galaxies exhibit

spectra that are surprisingly uniform. First

of all, we consider the spectrum of the

brightest X-ray galaxy, Centaurus A (see

Figure 13). This spectrum was compiled by

William Baity et al.,*’ from both scintilla-

tor and proportional counter data. Cen A

is bright mainly because it is relatively

nearby; it is less luminous than most of the

active galaxies identified. The spectrum is

clearly non-thermal. Below a few keV, it

shows the pronounced effect of absorption

by a large amount of matter. At higher en-

ergies, though, a power-law of number

index = 1.6-1.7 provides a good fit up to

a few hundred keV. In addition to the spec-

trum for Cen A, HEAO-1 has provided

broad-band spectra for 18 Seyfert galaxies.

While all have power-law spectra similar to

Cen A, most fail to exhibit the sort of low-

energy absorption indicated here; none of

the highest luminosity Seyferts show any

self-absorption. The broad-band spectrum

for a typical Seyfert (NGC 5548) is shown

in Figure 14. Here again, we have com-

bined gas proportional counter data with

scintillator data to obtain a broad-band

spectrum.** A single power-law fit with a

number index I‘ ~ 1.7 is obviously valid

PKS 2155-304

- LIGHT CURVE

i With

J.D.-2443143.5

Fig. 12. Light curve obtained*’ from single scan observations with the NRL modules in the 0.5-20 keV energy.

range. Each observation lasts 10 seconds. High background and earth occulted data have been excluded. The

abscissa is day of 1977.

THE HIGH ENERGY ASTRONOMY OBSERVATORY: HEAO-1 39

CEN A (NGC 5128)

January and July 1978

{> Cl

FLUX (Photons/cm? -sec- keV}

10°6

lo-!

10° 10!

¢ HEAO A-2

+ HEAO A-4

10° 10° 107

ENERGY (keV)

Fig. 13. The X-ray spectrum for Cen A as inferred from data obtained with a xenon proportional counter

(HEAO A-2 experiment) and alkali halide scintillators(HEAO A~4 experiment), using the model of a power-law

spectrum at the source absorbed by surrounding non-ionized matter exhibiting iron K absorption and fluores-

cence. Data obtained in July 1978 were renormalized*’ (by a factor of 1.45) to the data obtained in January 1978.

The statistical errors associated with the A2 data below 30 keV are smaller than the dots indicated.

over more than a decade. A thermal spec-

trum is definitely ruled out for this source

as well as for several other Seyferts.

The power-law spectral indices for the 18

Seyferts discussed here are displayed in

Figure 15. The dots correspond to Seyferts

with broad optical emission lines, the

crosses show those with narrow lines. The

coordinates here are luminosity (L) and the

energy spectral index a offset by one unit

from the photon number index I’. Since

most objects fall within the vertical dashed

lines, regardless of luminosity or type, we

conclude that one can define an effective

40 ELIHU BOLDT

sea hot

NGC 5548

HEAO -|

PHOTONS / cm2s keV

+ GSFC

+ UCSD / MIT

| 10 100 1000

ENERGY (keV)

Fig. 14. Incident power-law spectrum inferred” for

NGC 5548 by combining data from xenon gas coun-

ters (GSFC) and scintillators (UCSD/MIT).

typical spectrum for a Seyfert galaxy and

that this spectrum is a power-law with

a ~ 0.7.

Can power-law sources such as the Sey-

ferts discussed here make much of a contri-

bution to the cosmic X-ray background?

To examine this we have tried power-law

fits to the observed background spectrum,

and two such are shown in Figure 16. We

have here plotted the ratio (R) of the ob-

served flux to that predicted by the model

considered as a function of energy. The

bottom graph shows the fit for = 1.7 as-

sociated with Seyfert galaxies. It’s clearly

unacceptable. The top graph for ' = 1.4

exhibits that the fit is fairly decent at the

lowest energies and then falls away expo-

nentially with a characteristic energy of

~40 keV. This is the sort of behavior ex-

pected for an optically thin thermal spec-

trum with kT ~40 keV. Hence, we tried fit-

ting the data with thermal models, and the

results’ are shown in Figure 17. Here again

we have plotted the ratio (R) of the ob-

served flux to that predicted by the model

considered. As shown, we tried three dif-

ferent temperatures. The correct tempera-

ture is about a half-billion degrees, corre-

sponding to kT = 40 keV. Up to about 20

keV the statistical errors are smaller than

the size of the symbols used and deviations

from unity for the best fit are generally less

than ~1%. As recently pointed out by Gian-

franco De Zotti,’ we can conclude that the

portion of the X-ray background spectrum

represented here is known much better

than the spectrum of the 2.7 K cosmic mi-

crowave background. If one tries to fit this

X-ray background spectrum with two com-

ponents, one thermal and the other a

power-law suitable for Seyferts, the non-

thermal component can not exceed a third

of the total.

We now know that the portion of the

X-ray background associated with galaxies

in the present epoch is dominated by Sey-

ferts. The luminosity function for the pres-

ent epoch is well fixed’ with HEAO-1. If we

SEYFERT GALAXIES (HEAO-I A2)

LUMINOSITY = L

SPECTRAL INDEX: a= T-|

e=-BROAD LINES

X=NARROW LINES

EO Gate

Ay (25 Wr.) eecre? 28) eRe ae

Fig. 15. Seyfert galaxies measured with HEAO-1

A2 xenon gas counters (GSFC) are plotted as regards

luminosity (Log L) and inferred energy spectral index

(a = I — 1). Separate symbols are used to designate ~

their optical emission lines as broad or narrow. Verti-

cal dashed lines define a + 0.1.

THE HIGH ENERGY ASTRONOMY OBSERVATORY: HEAO-1 41

DIFFUSE BACKGROUND

@ HED! Ml

O HED 3 MI

POWER LAW MODEL

HEAO-A2

lO 100

ENERGY (keV)

Fig. 16. The ratio (R) as a function of X-ray energy of the counts observed’’ for the X-ray background to that

predicted by convolving with the detector response function power-law spectra (characterized by T = 1.4,

I = 1.7). Different symbols are used to represent the first layer of the MED and both layers of HED 1 and HED

3. Statistical errors are shown when larger than the size of the symbols.

assume that the X-ray source populations

during all epochs since galaxy formation

are similar to the present one, we can make

a good estimate of their total contribution

to the cosmic X-ray background. As shown

in Figure 18, the total Seyfert contribution

falls far short of the X-ray background in

the region below ~50 keV. However,

there’s HEAO-1 scintillation data’’ for the

background at higher energies, and the ex-

trapolation of the Seyfert contribution ex-

hibited here indicates that at energies much

above 100 keV Seyferts in fact dominate

the background. Most of this Seyfert back-

ground comes from objects with z<.5.

The number of these relatively nearby

sources visible above the deep survey limit

for the Einstein Observatory” should be at

least 5 deg’ and therefore a substantial

fraction of the total number of sources

detected.

Where is the rest of the background com-

ing from? DeZotti, Cavaliere, and col-

leagues” are examing HEAO-] data within

the context of a model based on evolving

non-thermal spectra which, in toto, mimic

a thermal spectrum. Darryl Leiter and I are

considering the thermal component as

basic and examining possible evolutionary

tracks for active galaxies whereby they

switch from thermal emitters at an early

epoch to non-thermal at later epochs.”* If

42 ELIHU BOLDT

DIFFUSE BACKGROUND

THERMAL BREMSSTRAHLUNG MODEL

HED | MI

HED 3 MI

HED | M2

HED 3 M2

R MED MI

HEAO-A2 29 keV

re) a

gasete®

@0. 60 a O bss Soest 2s eS A

40 keV

By | seracmsen enamine 4 eee

| lO [ele

ENERGY (keV)

Fig. 17. The ratio (R) as a function of X-ray energy of the counts observed” for the X-ray background to that

predicted by convolving with the detector response function thermal bremsstrahlung incident spectra (charac-

terized by kT = 25, 40, 60 keV). Different symbols are used to represent the first layer of the medium energy

detector (MED) and both layers of the high energy detectors(HED | and HED 3). Statistical errors are shown

when larger than the size of the symbols.

THE HIGH ENERGY ASTRONOMY OBSERVATORY: HEAO-1 43

HEAO-| EXTRAGALACTIC X-RAY SKY

TOTAL FLUX

Seyfert

Galaxies

SSA

Surface Brightness (cm s'' ster')

ro)

10 100

Photon Energy (KeV)

Fig. 18. Surface brightness of the extragalactic

X-ray sky as a function of photon energy. The curve

indicating total flux is the best-fit thermal spectrum

(kT = 40 keV) for the background measured*’ with

the GSFC instrument. The power-law represents the

composite flux from Seyfert galaxies for z < 1, based

on the luminosity function’? determined with HEAO-

1 A2 and assuming no evolution. The dashed line is an

extrapolation of this power law to higher energies for

comparison with HEAO-| scintillator data (UCSD)

on the background.”!

such schemes fail, we will have to look fora

new origin, possibly involving diffuse emis-

sion from the intergalactic medium.*”°””°

In preparing this presentation I bene-

fitted from the cooperation of many of

my HEAO-1! associates, particularly Stu

Bowyer, Webster Cash, Gordon Garmire,

Walter Lewin, Rich Mushotzky, Rick

Rothschild, Dan Schwartz, and Nick White.

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X-ray Astronomy” (edited by W. Baity and L.

Peterson), Pergamon Press, Oxford and New

York, p. 449.

X-Ray Astronomy with the Einstein Observatory

Harvey Tananbaum

Harvard/Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics

Cambridge, MA. USA 02139

Introduction

The Einstein Observatory (HEAO-B be-

fore its launch) represents a major depar-

ture in observing technique by virtue of its

use of focussing X-ray optics. Figure 1 isa

schematic representation showing the glanc-

ing or grazing incidence nature of the two

reflections that use total external reflection

of photons at angles less than the critical

angle to produce a high quality X-ray im-

age. The major benefit beyond direct imag-

ing or picture-taking is that the signal is fo-

cussed onto a very small detector area

thereby reducing background. As a result,

the Einstein imaging detectors are approx-

imately 1000 times more sensitive than

Uhuru for detecting faint X-ray sources.

To increase the total collecting area four

nearly cylindrical mirrors are nested one

inside another. The observatory makes use

of two imaging instruments and two spec-

trometers, which can be interchanged at

the telescope focus. The experiment was

developed by a scientific consortium in-

volving our group at the Harvard-Smith- _

X-RAY ASTRONOMY WITH THE EINSTEIN OBSERVATORY 45

PARABOLOID

SURFACES

HYPERBOLOID

SURFACES

xX RAYS

X RAYS

Fig. 1. Inan X-ray telescope the rays are reflected first from a paraboloidal surface and then froma hyperbo-

loidal one. The Einstein Observatory telescope has four nested surfaces of each type.

sonian Center for Astrophysics and the

X-ray groups at Goddard Space Flight Cen-

ter, MIT, and Columbia. R. Giacconi is the

Principal Investigator, and Principal Scien-

tists include E. Boldt, S. Holt, G. Clark, R.

Novick, H. Gursky and H. Tananbaum.

Much of the experiment was built by AS&E

and the spacecraft was developed by TRW,

all under the direction of Marshall Space

Flight Center. Flight operations are carried

out by a joint NASA, TRW, SAO team at

Goddard Space Flight Center.

Figure 2 shows the payload just before

its launch with an Atlas-Centaur rocket on

November 13, 1978. The satellite operated

very well until late August of 1980 when

hardware failure left only 2 gyros working

which threatened to end operations. In De-

cember 1980 one. gyro was restarted suc-

cessfully. We now expect to carry out 4 or 5

more months of science observations be-

fore the small amount of remaining RCS

propellant is expended. One measure of the

overall interest in X-ray astronomy is the

fact that more than 400 Guest Observers

have used the Observatory in its first two

years accounting for approximately 2000

of the 5000 total targets observed.

1. Observations of Galactic Sources

One of the earliest discoveries with the

Observatory was the pervasiveness of

X-ray emission from stars. Figure 3 is an

Imaging Proportional Counter (IPC) X-ray

image of the field containing n-Carinae,

the variable star which erupted so spectacu-

larly in the 1800’s. 7-Car is detected in

X-rays as the central source in this picture

(Seward et al., 1979). Several additional

sources are also seen and identified with

massive, hot O stars. Observations of O

and B stars (early type stars) show X-ray

luminosities ranging from 10°' to 10° ergs

s' (Seward et al., 1979, Harnden et al.,

1979). .

Figure 4 shows a High Resolution Im-

ager (HRI) image used to resolve our stellar

neighbors a-Centauri A and B. Following

models describing the X-ray emission

from the solar corona we would have ex-

pected the more massive and hotter sun-

like G2 star to be a much stronger X-ray

source than its companion K 1]-star. In this

X-ray image, however, the K1 star is al-

most twice as bright. X-ray luminosities

ranging from 10°° to 10°’ ergs ' have now

SOL MEE | GQ GR |

AEG

Fig. 2. The payload just before its launch with an Atlas-Centaur Rocket on November 13, 1978.

X-RAY ASTRONOMY WITH THE EINSTEIN OBSERVATORY 47

Fig. 3. Picture of the Eta Carinae region taken with the IPC.

been detected from later-type stars (F, G,

K, and M), indicating that these stars all

possess a hot corona (Vaiana et al., 1981).

This situation is summarized in Figure 5

taken from the paper by Vaiana et al.

(1981). The figure shows the median X-ray

luminosity and with the heavy dots the rel-

atively large range of stellar X-ray luminos-

ity observed as a function of spectral type

from Oto M. The top panel shows data ob-

tained for main sequence stars and the bot-

tom for giants and supergiants. The data

show that the X-ray luminosity of a star

cannot be determined ina simple way from

its surface temperature or surface gravity.

The dotted and dashed lines show the co-

ronal X-ray emission that might have been

predicted from acoustical heating models

based on solar observations. The hotter

stars (O and B) are expected to radiate

energy rather easily and therefore be un-

likely candidates to develop the vigorous

convection zones required to acoustically

heat a corona. Lower mass (K and M) stars

should have too little energy generated in

their core to produce the turbulence re-

quired to heat a corona to X-ray tempera-

ture. It seems likely that new models pres-

ently being developed to explain the

observed X-ray emission from all stars will

involve magnetic fields to channel energy

to the corona and to confine hot plasma.

Surface turbulence and stellar rotation also

will play key roles in stressing and modulat-

ing surface magnetic fields, thereby affect-

ing the intensity of the X-ray emission.

The upper half of Figure 6 is a 10-hour

HRI exposure obtained by Gorenstein,

Seward, and Tucker (1981), for the rem-

nant of the supernova observed by Tycho

Brahe in 1572. The visible light curve was

typical of a Type 1 supernova. The appear-

48 HARVEY TANANBAUM

ALPHA CEN

1168

SEC

HR I

“AM ARC-SEC: -

Fig. 4. High-resolution X-ray photograph of nearby binary star system, Alpha Centauri. The brighter X-ray

source corresponds to the K star and the other X-ray source to the G star, contrary to theoretical expectations

for the relative X-ray emission from these two different classes of stars.

ance of the remnant in X-rays is an almost

circular shell with diameter 8 arc minutes.

It shows limb brightening varying from a

maximum in the northwest to a minimum

in the southeast. In many but not all de-

tails, the X-ray image of the shell is quite

similar to the high resolution radio map of

Duin and Strom (1975), shown in the lower

half of Figure 6.

The X-ray shell can be resolved in the

HRI picture and has a thickness which av-

erages 30 percent of the radius. The struc-

ture suggests we are seeing ejected material

expanding into the interstellar medium,

X-RAY ASTRONOMY WITH THE EINSTEIN OBSERVATORY

@ :max/min observed Ly for (a)

34 known luminosity class

gas: median Ly, for pointed sample only(n>3)

EEE 6

- e

30 e hel ® e

\ Ce ies @ oO

\ TASS 5

\ ae c a

28 \ “ e i teeetenemeeeeeeeel

\ I ‘Ve mens

Pgs: \ ® N

'w \ i ‘ e

26 \ \

2 1 i \

o 10 bi 1

= \ H 1

=< \ f i]

al |

53, (b)

ams 7 @

mE 7 e

+ e

30 PI ht

b/ EEE 4

e e'

28 . A

O05 BO AO FO GO KO MO

Fig. 5. Variation in X-ray luminosity L, vs. spec-

tral type (a) main sequence, (b) giants and super-

giants. Circles indicate the maximum and minimum

value of L, found for each subclass in this optically

well-classified sample. Horizontal bars indicate the

median value of L, for each subset containing more

than three stars of a given spectral type. The number

of stars which entered into the median computation is

also indicated. For comparison, we also plot as

dashed and dotted curves, several theoretical predic-

tions of X-ray emission levels.

possibly immersed in a blast wave. Asym-

metries are probably due to density varia-

tions in the interstellar medium. The ob-

servations can be used to estimate the

electron density in the shell, the thermal

energy in hot gas, and the total mass of the

Shell (3-6 M .). In spite of the presence of

patches or knots of X-ray emission within

the shell, there is no evidence fora pulsar or

hot neutron star remnant from the explo-

sion.

Figure 7 shows the spectrum obtained

by Becker et al., (1980), summing 5 Solid

State Spectrometer observations covering

Tycho. Counts/sec-keV are plotted versus

energy as horizontal dashes with measure-

ment error bars shown, and the continuous

histogram represents the best fit model

spectrum. The two strongest emission lines

at 1.85 and 2.45 keV correspond to transi-

tions in helium-like silicon and sulfur. The

lower dashed curve represents the emission

from allz <= 10 elements. Other lines due to

argon and calcium are readily apparent,

and emissions from magnesium and iron

are also required to fit the data. Abundance

fits show Si, S and Ar are clearly over-

abundant relative to Mg, Fe, and low z

elements, by factors of 10 to 100 compared

to solar abundances. One model of a type 1

supernova by Arnett (1979), shows that the

light curves could result from the explosion

of a low mass helium star. Such an event

would eject ~0.3 Mo of iron. Mixing 0.3

M 9 of iron with 3 M oof swept up material

in Tycho would lead to an iron overabun-

dance of ~60 relative to low z elements.

PREBES % BIRR

ELRETELH BESRRIATORY

00"23"125 002778" 00°22" 242 o0"27" 008

Fig. 6. Top—HRI picture of Tycho SNR.

Bottom—Tycho SNR—6cm radio map from Duin

and Strom (1975).

50 HARVEY TANANBAUM

| TYCHO X-RAY SPECTRUM

COUNTS / SEC - keV

EINSTEIN S.S.S.

lO TWO-TEMPERATURE

COLLISIONAL EQUILIBRIUM

MODEL

OS ats

l.0

2.0

ENERGY (keV)

Fig. 7. Pulse height spectrum of Tycho’s SNR as observed by the SSS on the Einstein Observatory. Superim-

posed upon the data is the best fit two-temperature collisional equilibrium model. The lower trace is the esti-

mated underlying X-ray continuum. (Courtesy of Becker et al/., 1980.)

The SSS X-ray data do not support sucha

model, particularly if instabilities remove

any stratification of the ejected elements

after a few hundred years. This still leaves

open the question of the nature of the pro-

genitors of type 1 supernovae such as Ty-

cho. Successful models will have to account

for the X-ray observed overabundance of

Si, S, and Ar.

Figure 8 is an HRI picture of a much

older supernova remnant—Puppis A. This

picture obtained by Petre, Winkler, and

Kriss (1980), is a composite of 11 separate

exposures covering the entire supernova

remnant. All of the sharp edges are real;

many of the features correlate well with

radio observations of the remnant shell.

The complex internal structure has little

correlation with radio or optical features,

except for one X-ray bright spot just be-

hind the eastern shock front, which coin-

cides with faint optical filaments from

which intense Fe XIV 5303 A coronal

lines have been observed. The data suggest

that this bright X-ray emission results from

a collision between the supernova remnant

blast wave and a cloud in the interstellar

medium. With a distance of 1 kpc for Pup-

pis A, such a cloud would have a diameter

of ~1 pc, electron density of ~17, and mass

of ~1 M_.:

Winkler et al. (1980), have reported a

high resolution spectrum of Puppis A from

the Einstein Focal Plane Crystal Spectrome-

ter (FPCS). The data were obtained with a

3’ X 30’ aperture centered on the X-ray .

bright northeast portion of the remnant.

Figure 9 shows the counting rate spectrum

X-RAY ASTRONOMY WITH THE EINSTEIN OBSERVATORY 5]

Fig. 8. HRI picture of Puppis A. (Courtesy of Petre, Winkler, and Kriss 1980.)

from 490 to 680 eV with lines seen from

N VII, O VII, O VIII, and O VII again. A

detailed analysis of the oxygen lines indi-

cates that the O VIII population is

~1.5 + 0.5 times O VII and that electron

collisions are the dominant excitation mech-

anism in the plasma. Figure 10 shows the

counting rate spectrum from 700 to 1100

eV, with lines from Fe XVII, O VIII, Ne

IX, and Ne X, among others. The most

prominent lines seen in these figures are

those of hydrogen and helium-like ions of

oxygen and neon. The observations of

these lines require a range of temperatures

from ~2 to5 X 10°°K. The data show Ne

lines comparable in strength to O lines.

After the data have been corrected for in-

terstellar absorption, the Ne to O strength

exceeds solar by a factor of about 2. Also

the Fe XVII lines are relatively weaker than

oxygen lines by a factor of 5 compared to

the solar corona.

For a distance of 1 kpc one can deter-

mine an oxygen mass of at least 2M jin the

entire Puppis A remnant. This suggests a

Type II supernova from a 25 Mo star,

which would have ejected 3-4 M of oxy-

gen, and produced the observed overabun-

dance of neon (primarily through carbon

burning in the presupernova star).

2. Observations of Normal Galaxies

A composite of 3 IPC images obtained

by Van Speybroeck et al., (1981), for our

twin galaxy, M31 or Andromeda,is shown

in Figure 11. The picture shows a number

of bright sources that follow the spiral arm

structure of the galaxy as well asa region of

HARVEY TANANBAUM

EINSTEIN OBSERVATORY Mo. CRYSTAL’ SPEC TROMEEs

WAVELENGTH (A)

10 250 245 22.0 722) 5) 19.5 19.0 18.5

PUPPIS A eee

| Ly @

% 6

ro)

a 0 VIE

m 15° - 1s2p,s

e 4 | 1 IR ow

oO 15°- {s3p

N WI |

Lya

hoe er ee met +

640

490 500 560 570 580 650 660 670 680

ENERGY (eV)

Fig. 9. X-ray spectrum (500-700 eV) of the Puppis A SNR as observed by the Einstein FPCS, using the RAP

crystal. Heavy lines along the energy axis indicate regions with no exposure. Background levels are indicated by

the dashed lines. (Courtesy of Winkler et a/., 1980.)

EINSTEIN OBSERVATORY : MILT. CRYSTAL SPECTROMETER

WAVELENGTH (A)

17 4 l

25 16 I5 l 3 12

Ue Ss /s\

Fe XVII

Ne nS 2p°-2p°4d

is —1s2ps

20 FI I] IR

Nex

Ly a

Fe XWIL

2 15 2p°- 2p3d

fe)

wu Ne Ix

~ O wr {s*-1s 3p

é Fe XWIT | |

Z Sir sce lyB Lyy WLys |

a 10 2pu= epros

5 |

Pay eres cra Se aa ne a ETT DESDE Re AS De DEMO™ ERIN PNT TUT ial |

700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050 1106

ENERGY (eV)

Fig. 10. X-ray spectrum (700-1100 eV) of Puppis A as observed by the Einstein FPCS. Data from 14 scans

with the TAP crystal are combined. The dashed line indicates the background level. (Courtesy of Winkler et al.,

1980.)

X-RAY ASTRONOMY WITH THE EINSTEIN OBSERVATORY 53

Fig. 11. A composite of 3 IPC images for our twin galaxy—M31 or Andromeda.

extended emission in the center of the gal-

axy. A part of the central region is shown as

an expanded HRI picture in Figure 12. The

extended region is resolved into a large

number of point sources. Two HRI expo-

sures, taken approximately 6 months apart

are shown. A number of sources are seen to

be highly variable. In particular, the source

identified with the nucleus of M31 and ra-

diating at~10*° ergs | inthe January 1979

image is at least 10 times fainter in the sec-

ond picture. In a third observation, not

shown, the source reappeared with a lu-

minosity of ~5 X 10°’ erg s'. At maxi-

mum observed brightness the nucleus of

M31 is ~10° times brighter than our own

Galactic nucleus, but it still accounts for no

more than 5 percent of the total 0.5-4.5

keV luminosity of M31. Overall, 88 sources

have been observed by Van Speybroeck et

al. (1981), in M31 above a threshold of

~4 X 10°° ergs ', most of which are prob-

ably binary systems with accreting com-

pact stars. Figure 13 shows a histogram of

the overall luminosity distribution for these

88 sources, a histogram for a subset of 16

sources identified with globular clusters in

M31, a histogram for 53 others more than

2’ from the nucleus, and a histogram for 19

within 2’ of the nucleus. Since the M31

sources are all at approximately the same

distance from the Earth, it is possible to

construct distributions such as these to

search for differences in distribution means

and widths which might be due to differ-

ences in stellar populations, for example.

For similar sources in our own Galaxy,

significant uncertainties in distances make

such calculations difficult if not impossi-

ble. The mean luminosities suggest that the

globular cluster X-ray sources and the ga-

lactic center X-ray sources in M31 may be

54 HARVEY TANANBAUM

twice as luminous as the outer (spiral-arm)

sources. These more luminous sources may

contain low mass binary systems accreting

via Roche lobe overflow, while the spiral

arm sources may be mostly high mass bi-

naries powered by stellar wind mass trans-

fer. It is noteworthy that the 19 sources

within 2’ or 400 pc of the nucleus of M31

account for ~1/3 of the X-ray emission

from this galaxy while this region contains

only about 1 1/2 percent of the mass of

M31. No such similar concentration is ob-

served for our own Galactic center.

To explore questions such as these,

groups at both Columbia and CfA are car-

rying out surveys of “normal’’ galaxies.

Helfand and Long (1980 and private com-

munication), have detected over 150

sources from the Large Magellanic Cloud

of which as many as 25 may be supernova

Fig. 12. Expanded HRI picture showing a part of the central region of M31.

remnants. For individual galaxies, a wide

range of nuclear X-ray emissions has been

observed. In one case, Elvis et al. (1980),

have reported an X-ray luminosity on the

order of 10** erg s from the nucleus of

NGC 4156, an otherwise undistinguished

looking spiral galaxy. As we shall see next,

the nuclear emission and the emission from

supernova remnants and mass transfer bi-

naries are only part of the picture when we

examine galaxies in clusters.

3. Observations of Clusters of Galaxies

Figure 14 shows an updated version of

the IPC X-ray contours obtained by For-_

man et al. (1979), superimposed on an opti- —

cal photograph containing the galaxies

X-RAY ASTRONOMY WITH THE EINSTEIN OBSERVATORY

M3Il POINT SOURCE

LUMINOSITY DISTRIBUTION,

JAN., 1980

88 POINT SOURCES

L =3.59x 10°"

16 GLOBULAR CLUSTERS

L = 5.25 x 10°”

53 SOURCES, R>2'

Bs,

L= 2.67 x1037

19 SOURCES, R<2'-

MEAN L=4.76xl0~

-I

LUMINOSITY 0.5, 4.5 KeV(ergs S_ )

Fig. 13. Histogram of the overall luminosity dis-

tribution for 88 objects observed in M31 above a thresh-

old of 4 X 10°° ergs".

M86 and M84 in the Virgo cluster. Note the

asymmetric very extended plume associ-

ated with M86 in the center of the picture

and the extended emission associated with

M84 as well. HRI data provide no evidence

for a point source associated with either of

these galaxies. The total 0.5-3 keV X-ray

luminosity of M86 is ~2 X 10*' ergs s’;

that of M84 is ~3 X 10° ergs ’. Interpre-

tation of these results involves understand-

ing the environment around the galaxies.

This is indicated schematically in Figure 15

which shows M84 being a well-bound mem-

ber of the cluster core (on the basis of its

radial velocity), while M86 based on its ra-

dial velocity of 1500 km s ' relative to the

cluster is likely to be in an eccentric orbit

bound to the cluster, but not to the cluster

core. A thermal origin for the X-ray emis-

sion from M86 requires a gas mass of sev-

eral X 10’ M 6, which may be comparable

to that lost by stars within M86 during the

time of 5 X 10° years while M86 is away

from the core. The extended trailing plume

suggests that M86 has recently moved well

into the cluster core and has had much of

its gas stripped by ram pressure. Calcula-

tions by Fabian, Schwarz, and Forman

(1980), suggest that a massive dark halo

with at least 10 times the mass of the lumi-

nous galaxy would be required to gravita-

tionally bind the halo gas until ram pres-

sure stripping occurs. Alternatively the gas

may be pressure confined by the hot, tenu-

ous cluster medium. In contrast, M84 proba-

bly spends most of its time moving at a rela-

tively high velocity in the denser cluster

core regions with the consequence that all

but its inner regions remain ram pressure

stripped of gas.

This figure also shows M87 as a large,

Static galaxy near the center of the cluster

core. Such a galaxy can retain all of its gas

and must eventually be subject to cooling

which can initiate pressure-driven accre-

tion flows. The IPC contours for M87 ob-

tained and analyzed by Fabricant, Lecar,

and Gorenstein (1980), are shown in Figure

16. The approximate spherical symmetry

of this extended bright X-ray source is ap-

parent. The 0.2-3.0 keV X-ray luminosity

of M87 is ~1.6 X 10% erg sec ' or almost

100 times that of M86. Analysis of the IPC

spectral data indicates a gas temperature

which is approximately constant between

radii of 6and 20 arc minutes, but which de-

creases in the innermost 6 arc minutes.

Beyond 20 arc minutes the gas temperature

probably begins to increase. Because the

X-ray emitting gas responds to the gravita-

tional potential of M87, these X-ray obser-

vations can be used to measure the radial

mass distribution of M87. Fabricant,

Gorenstein, and Lecar (1980), assumed

hydrostatic equilibrium with gas pressure

balancing gravitational forces and then de-

termined the overall halo mass distribution

from the gas density and temperature pro-

files measured by the X-ray observations.

Figure 17 shows the radial dependence of

the mass density for the visible galaxy mat-

ter in the central 5 arc minutes, for the

56 HARVEY TANANBAUM

Fig. 14. IPC X-ray contours superimposed on an optical photograph (from the Kitt Peak 4m telescope) con-

taining the galaxies M86 and M§84 in the Virgo Cluster.

VIRGO CLUSTER

BOUNDARY OF

kT > IO keV CLUSTER CORE

M84

GAS ASSOCIATED WITH M87

kT = 2.5 keV

TO EARTH

Fig. 15. Virgo Schematic which shows M84 being

a well bound member of the cluster core, while M86

based on its radial velocity of 1500 kmS ' relative to

the cluster is likely to be in an eccentric orbit bound to

the cluster, but not to the cluster core.

12°55/

12°50°

DECLINATION

(e)

297 johogs™ johogm = ph az 5m

RIGHT ASCENSION

Fig. 16. A0.7 to 3.0 keV contour plot of M87. The

data have been smoothed with a 2 arcminute (FWHM)

gaussian weighting function. The contour levels are

separated by a factor of 1.5 in surface brightness.

log, OF DENSITIES IN GRAMS cm~>

X-RAY ASTRONOMY WITH THE EINSTEIN OBSERVATORY 57

-20

-2\

VISIBLE MATTER

ie)

(o)]

Le)

X-RAY EMITTING GAS

5 fe) 15 20 25

RADIAL DISTANCE (arcmin)

‘Fig. 17. The approximate density profiles of the

halo, X-ray emitting gas, and visible matter in M87.

X-ray emitting gas from 5 to 25 are min-

utes, and for the massive, dark halo re-

quired to establish hydrostatic equili-

brium. Allowing for a positive temperature

gradient beyond 20 arc minutes and ex-

tending the calculation over the 50 arc

minutes for which the source is observed

results in a halo mass between 1.7 and

4.x 10° Mo. This is more than 10 times

the mass actually detected in hot gas or in

the visible light galaxy. Note that this mas-

sive dark halo is not really a missing mass

but rather it is the light accompanying the

matter that is missing. Neutrinos with non-

zero mass might be one way of explaining

observations such as these.

A further example of the study of gal-

axies in clusters is seen in Figure 18 which is

an HRI image obtained by Jones et al.

(1981), for the cluster A1367. An earlier

IPC picture had shown a very extended, ir-

regular, clumped X-ray emission, and this

58 HARVEY TANANBAUM

HRI exposure of the central cluster region

confirms that result. X-ray contours shown

in this figure start with 30 upward devia-

tions and increase inward. At least 10

sources are detected above the 3a level; of

these, 7 are near bright galaxies and 3 are

not. These sources are typically extended

with diameter of order | arc minute (or ~40

kpc at the distance of A1367). The ex-

tended sources each have an X-ray lumi-

nosity of a few times 10*' ergs’, and their

total emission is about 5 percent of the clus-

ter X-ray luminosity. The sizes and lumi-

nosities are comparable to those observed

for M86 in the Virgo cluster as discussed

earlier. For the gas responsible for the ex-

tended X-ray emission associated with these

entese on

micksncsrs Tay, Ty bh Ua Gales ceeuke ina

galaxies the relative importance of pressure

confinement by hot cluster gas and gravita-

tional binding by dark galactic halos is not

yet known. We hope to advance our under-

standing in this area by observing a number

of such clusters to develop more data on

galaxies at various cluster locations with a

range of relative velocities. HRI observa-

tions will be required to distinguish be-

tween point nuclear sources and extended

X-ray halos.

Jones et al. (1981), have also used the

X-ray images of clusters to compare obser-

vations with theoretical models of cluster

dynamics such as those computed by

Peebles (1970), by Aarseth (1969), and by

White (1976), among others. Figure 19 is

see ee

antbnee

Fig. 19. The projected distribution of particles in the model cluster at four times: (a) t = 0,(b)t = 1.4 X 10°

years, (c) t= 6.8 X 10° years, and (d) t = 18.7 X 10° years. (Courtesy of White and the Royal Astronomical

Society, 1976.)

X-RAY ASTRONOMY WITH THE EINSTEIN OBSERVATORY 59

taken from a numerical calculation made

by White (1976). The galaxies—each repre-

sented by a dot—first separate out from the

general Hubble expansion as shown in the

upper left and form into groups as shown in

the lower left. The groups merge into a few

large groups as seen in the upper right, and

finally a relaxed cluster, dominated by the

overall cluster gravitational potential, is

shown in the lower right. The vertical bar at

the left of each panel indicates a scale of

about | Mpc. This evolutionary scenario is

based on hierarchical clustering in which

relaxation occurs first on the smallest mass

scales due to the largest overdensities. De-

velopments on larger scales can then be

modelled by N-body gravitational inter-

actions.

Clusters such as A1367 and Virgo would

probably correspond to a stage suchas that

shown in the lower left where the overall

cluster potential is poorly developed and

substantial gas is still associated with indi-

vidual galaxies. The presence of a massive

central galaxy such as M87 probably means

that the Virgo evolution will not follow the

rest of the scenario, since White’s calcula-

tions do not allow for galactic cannibalism

or for tidal disruption of massive galactic

halos. On the other hand, as shown in Fig-

ure 20, Forman et al. (1981), have discov-

ered 4 clusters which appear very similar

to the double cluster stage predicted by

White’s simulations. Observed subcluster

separations and core radii are in good

agreement with the model calculations.

X-ray observations are particularly use-

ful for generating cluster classification

schemes since the hot X-ray emitting gas

provides a sensitive map of the cluster mass

distribution. Figure 21 (Jones et al., 1981)

summarizes progress to date in this area.

Clusters are divided into two groups—

those with dominant centrally located gal-

axies characterized by centrally peaked

X-ray surface brightness distributions

(shown to the right) and those with no

strong central X-ray concentration shown

to the left. These clusters without strong

central X-ray concentration evolve along

the scenario described by White and

others. A relatively early stage is typified

by A1367 with broad emissions clumped

around galaxies. An intermediate stage is

typified by SC0627-54 whose double X-ray

Structure is indicated in the middle panel

on the left. A final, relaxed stage is indi-

cated by the IPC contours for A2256. Al-

though we do not yet have statistically

complete samples, the data indicate that

the large majority of the non centrally

peaked X-ray dominant clusters are in the

A 1367 stage, with about 10 percent in the

double cluster stage, and another 10 per-

cent in the relaxed A2256 or Coma stage. If

selection biases are not a problem, these

percentages can be used to calculate the

amount of time clusters spend in various

stages of evolution.

Clusters with peaking due to dominant

central X-ray galaxies evolve somewhat

differently. The upper right shows the cen-

trally peaked IPC contours for A262, an

unevolved cluster similar to Virgo with

M87. A2199 may represent an intermediate

stage of evolution and A85 a still more

evolved state with both having smoother,

more symmetrical X-ray distributions than

A262 and Virgo. The primary observable

difference between the second and third

stage may be an increase in the temperature

of the X-ray emitting gas.

Table 1 is organized in parallel with the

contours seen in Figure 21. The data show

how parameters other than the X-ray struc-

ture change as the clusters evolve. Relevant

parameters include the X-ray gas tempera-

ture, galaxy velocity dispersion, and prob-

ably X-ray luminosity which increase as the

cluster potential becomes dominant. X-ray

observations by Henry et al. (1979), and

Perrenod and Henry (1980), for clusters

over a range of redshifts support this pic-

ture. Optical data also show that the frac-

tion of spiral galaxies decreases with time

presumably due to the stripping of the gas

by the cluster medium.

4. Observations of Active Galaxies and

Quasars

An updated picture of the HRI exposure

for the radio galaxy Centaurus A obtained

60 HARVEY TANANBAUM

—

Fig. 20. The X-ray iso-intensity contours are shown superposed on the Palomar Sky Survey Prints (A98,

A115, A1750) and on the European Southern Observatory Print (SC0627-54). The X-ray contours have been

generated by deconvolving the image data with a Weiner filter, which smooths on a scale comparable to the

detector’s resolution. The contour levels are given below as the number of counts in each 64 X 64 square

arcsecond bin: SC0627-54— 12.0, 21.4, 30.2, 39.1, 48.5,57.3 A98—5.2, 7.0, 8.8, 10.8, 12.6 A115—5.3, 7.7,

10.5, 13.3, 16.1, 18.9, 22.1, 27.3 A1750—3.9, 6.8, 9.6, 12.6, 15.5. The background levels in the fields in the

same units are 2.0, 1.1, 5.5, and 0.6 respectively.

by Schreier et al. (1979), is shown in Figure

22. The image shows the point source asso-

ciated with the nucleus of the galaxy NGC

5128 and a jet-like structure extending sev-

eral arc minutes from the nucleus towards

one ofa pair of inner radio lobes associated

with this source. This jet coincides in part

with an inner optical jet observed by Du-

four and van den Bergh (1978). Both ther-

mal and synchrotron models have been

used to explain the X-ray emission from the

jet. Radio observations recently made at

the VLA should allow us to choose between

the two mechanisms. It is likely that this jet

is capable of transporting the energy

needed to replenish the inner radio lobe.

Figure 23 is an SSS spectrum of the Sey-

fert galaxy NGC 4151 obtained by Holt et

al. (1980). The crosses indicate the ob-

served counts s ' keV ' versus energy from

X-RAY ASTRONOMY WITH THE EINSTEIN OBSERVATORY Ge

$C0627-54

Fig. 21. Six contours showing non XD and XD cluster evolution.

0.5to 4.5 keV. The existence of a significant

number of counts below 2 keV is very sur-

prising in view of higher energy measure-

ments of alow energy cutoff of order 3 keV

for this source. IPC and HRI data indicate

that the low energy excess is in fact coming

from NGC 4151. The top panel shows a

smooth curve fit to the data above 2 keV

with a solar abundance column density of

Nu ~5 X 10°° H-atoms cm”. The middle

panel shows a fit above 1.5 keV including

an overabundance of silicon relative to oxy-

gen of a factor of 4. Neither of these models

fits the low energy data satisfactorily. A

reasonable fit is shown in the bottom panel

where a power law of energy index 0.55 is

used (as for the top 2 panels) together with

an absorbing column with solar abun-

dances and Nu ~6 X 10” cm” covering

94 percent of the source. This non-uniform

HARVEY TANANBAUM

Cr rr ee! OOOO OO SSeS

YES UONORI] [eIIdg MOT

NSO 8.9 sey) Ael-X 10H S8V

uoI}IeI

pT [elids 3}e1psuiisjuy-MoT WIZ uonNoely [e1idg MoT

OIl + €¢8 uolsisdsiq, ANS0]9A YSIH OS + PLZI uolsiadsiq A1s0ja~ Yysty

winij9ads AYA SL Sey Ael-xX 10H 9S7ZV

A216 < 81 Ael-X JusuodWoD-om] 661ZV ainjonyyg AeI-X aIqnoq +6-1790DS

%Sv uolpel{ [elds ysipy %Ov uonoely jeds ysiy

eeeedeyy uoIsiadsiq A}D0[2A MOT d9S/WY SL + 69 uoisiodsiq AWID0][2A MOT

AXe]BQ 2[/SuIg punoly uUOIssIWgA SaIXe[eH puNoIY UOIssIMIq

A?1 80 +177 sey Ael-KX 00D = Z9ZV INOTO sleet SiC sen) Avl-K [00D LOETV

SWALSAS (dX) LNVNINOd AVUY-X SWHIISAS dX NON

es SD CS eS

"UOIBIYISSL[D J9}sNIQ—'T qe

X-RAY ASTRONOMY WITH THE EINSTEIN OBSERVATORY

| ARC MIN

Fig. 22. An HRI exposure of the radio galaxy, Centaurus A.

leaky absorber results in an acceptable fit

to all of the data. These data suggest that

the absorption arises in the relatively cold

clouds responsible for the broad optical

line emission. If the cloud dimensions are

small compared to the X-ray source region,

for example if 2 clouds typically cover 5

percent of the source area, then statistical

fluctuations could leave an uncovered frac-

tion of the order observed.

Extensive surveys of quasars have been

carried out at CFA (cf. Tananbaum et al.,

1979, and Zamoraniet al., 1981) and at Co-

lumbia (cf. Ku, Helfand, and Lucy 1980).

We find that quasars as a class are lumi-

nous X-ray emitters with some objects ra-

diating more than 10°’ ergs s '. Data also

show that radio-emitting quasars on the

average are more luminous X-ray emitters

than radio quiet quasars. The ratios of

64 HARVEY TANANBAUM

NGC 4151 EINSTEIN SSS

COUNTS s'! kev”!

6 BU Ws Ke L6.. 2425 4

ENERGY (keV)

Fig. 23. NGC4151 SSS Spectrum. Raw(background-

subtracted) pulse height spectrum from SSS exposure

to NGC 4151 fitted with 3 trial spectra, each of which

have the same power-law index a = 0.55 with a best-

fit normalization of .024 + .002 cm’s ‘keV’. a)

Data above 2 keV fit with a solar abundance column

density of Nu = 4.9 X 10° H-atoms cm”. b) Data

above 1.5 keV fit with a uniform column density of

Nu = 3.9 X 10” H-atoms cm” with an overabun-

dance of silicon (relative to solar oxygen) of a factor of

4. c) Data above 500 eV fit with a solar abundance

column density of Nu = 6.1 X 10”? H-atoms cm”

over .94 of the source. (Courtesy of Holt et a/., 1980.)

X-ray to optical emission and optical source

counts have been used to estimate the con-

tribution of quasars to the extragalactic,

diffuse X-ray background with interesting

implications. This situation is illustrated in

Figure 24. Here we show the number of op-

tically observed quasars per square degree

brighter than blue magnitude m gas a func-

tion of magnitude. The solid line represents

a power law of slope 2.16 fit to these optical

source counts from 15.5 to 21.4 magnitude.

Combining these data with our X-ray ob-

servations, Zamorani et al. (1981), con-

cluded that quasars brighter than 2172

would produce 100 percent of the extraga-

lactic diffuse X-ray background at 2 keV.

At the same time, such quasars should ac-

count for ~65% of the diffuse background

via discrete sources above the limit of the

Einstein deep surveys. However, as we

shall see, actual discrete source detections

account for approximately 30 percent of

the background at the Einstein limit. To

overcome this problem, Zamorani et al.,

concluded that the optical source counts

must flatten above 20th magnitude. Re-

cently Bonoli etal. (1979), have determined

that a significant fraction (~2/3) of the ul-

traviolet excess objects in the Braccesi

samples at 20" are in fact slightly extended

and therefore not quasars. Also, Kron

(1980), has obtained data which may be

used to set a limit on the number of very

faint quasars at 23"'5. Asa result the dotted

line shown in Figure 24 better represents

the quasar number counts. This flattening

of the source counts agrees with that re-

quired by our X-ray data and in combina-

tion with the redshift distributions indi-

cates that luminosity evolution rather than

density evolution better describes the qua-

DENSITY EVOLUTION

p(z)=plo)(1+z)®

LUMINOSITY EVOLUTION

L(z)=L(o) EXP [em |

I+z

SEYFERT GALAXIES WITH

UVX EXCESS

GREEN AND SCHMIDT SAMPLE

SAMPLE 13"+36°(37.2 sq.deg.)

SA 57 (22.1 sq. deg.)

QUASARS PER SQUARE DEGREE

PHL AND LB

SAMPLE 13"+36(1.72 sq. deg.)

SA 57 (0.042 sq. deg.)

KRON SAMPLE (0.036 sq. deg.)

Fig. 24. Optical number counts versus blue mag-

nitude for quasars.

gems

$ige aOR

Fig. 25. Top—An HRI image obtained during Einstein deep X-ray survey of field in Eridanus. Three

sources—two quasars and one star—are visible in the X-ray data. Bottom—Forty-eight inch Schmidt plate

showing the visible light photograph corresponding to the X-ray exposure of the top figure. The optical coun-

terparts of the three X-ray sources are indicated.

66 HARVEY TANANBAUM

sar luminosity function. This suggests that

the typical quasar at redshift 2 is approxi-

mately 100 times more luminous than the

same quasar at redshift zero.

5. The X-Ray Background

This revised set of optical source counts

indicates that quasars brighter than 22”

can account for about 60 percent of the

X-ray background. Seyfert galaxies and

clusters may account for another 20 per-

cent leaving about 20 percent for new cate-

gories of sources such as young galaxies or

for a small diffuse component at our ob-

serving energy of 2 keV. Direct studies of

the source counts are typified by the HRI

deep survey in Eridanus obtained by Giac-

coni et al. (1979), as shown in the top half of

Figure 25. Three sources are clearly seen in

this HRI exposure and are indicated by the

hatch marks. The bottom half of Figure 25

shows the optical counterparts for these

sources. The eastern most and brightest

corresponds to a 13th magnitude G-star.

The northern most is a 198, z = 0.5 qua-

sar and the western most is a 1778, z = 2

quasar. This result is somewhat typical in

that approximately 1/3 of the deep survey

sources are identified as stars and elimi-

nated from further studies of the extraga-

lactic background. Of the remaining

sources the most frequently identified to

date are previously uncatalogued QSO’s.

Figure 26 provided by Giacconi, Mur-

ray, and Maccacaro (1980), shows the

number of X-ray sources brighter than a

given intensity S as a function of S. Uhuru

and Ariel V data are indicated as is an ex-

trapolated 3/2 power law expected for non-

evolving sources in a Euclidean universe.

Only 5 sigma source detections are used to

determine these Einstein deep survey and

medium survey data points. Note that the

Einstein deep surveys reach a factor of al-

most 1000 beyond Uhuru and Ariel V. For

the 15 deep survey sources seen above So, 7

are identified—4 with previously unknown

quasars and 3 with faint galaxies of which 2

are also radio sources. Most of the 8 un-

log N-logS

1-3 keV

\ | 1

U MINOR] ‘\ EINSTEIN OBSERVATORY

Ty ——DRACO/ ERI

DEEP SURVEY

a=1.63 0.4

N(>S) sr7!

-15 Zi cg a = =

G ED io? il? rll ig?

S(erg cm s7!, 1-3 keV)

Fig. 26. The number of X-ray sources brighter

than a given intensity S as a function of S.

identified sources have optical counterparts

fainter than 19” and spectrographic obser-

vations of candidates are still required. Our

quasar X-ray results and the optical source

counts suggest that many of these unidenti-

fied sources will be 20 and 21” quasars.

The present data are not yet of sufficient

statistical precision to test whether the in-

termediate survey source counts turn Over

due to effects of cosmological expansion

and whether the deep survey source counts

steepen again due to the contribution of a

rapidly evolving population such as the

quasars. Of course, ultimately, the source

counts must turn over to avoid exceeding

the background, but, when and how this

will happen and how much, if any, diffuse

background will remain will require AXAF

for an answer.

Acknowledgments

I thank Christine Jones, William For-

man, Riccardo Giacconl, Stephen Murray,

Leon Van Speybroeck, Paul Gorenstein,

Frederick Seward, Daniel Fabricant, Ethan

Schreier, Eric Feigelson, Giuseppe Vaiana,

Gianni Zamorani, The Astrophysical Jour-

X-RAY ASTRONOMY WITH THE EINSTEIN OBSERVATORY 67

nal, and the Netherlands Foundation for

Radio Astronomy for permission to use

various figures. I am appreciative of the

many discussions I have had with my col-

leagues at CfA. This work was supported

by NASA Contract NAS8-30751.

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Giacconi, R., Bechtold, J., Branduardi, G., Forman,

W., Henry, J. P., Jones, C., Kellogg, E., van der

Laan, H., Liller, W., Marshall, H., Murray, S. S.,

Pye, J., Schreier, E., Sargent, W. L. W., Seward, F.

and Tananbaum, H. 1979. Ap. J. (Letters), 234, LI.

Giacconi, R., Murray, S. S. and Maccacaro, T. 1980.

Private communication.

Gorenstein, P., Seward, F. and Tucker, W. 1981. Man-

uscript in preparation.

Harnden, F. R., Jr., Branduardi, G., Elvis, M., Goren-

stein, P., Grindlay, J., Pye, J. P., Rosner, R., Topka,

K. and Vaiana, G. S. 1979. Ap. J. (Letters), 234, L51.

Helfand, D. J. and Long, K. S. 1980. ‘Observations of

Supernova Remnants in the Large Magellanic

Cloud with the Einstein Observatory,’ X-Ray As-

tronomy, R. Giacconi and G. Setti (eds.) Reidel-

Dordrecht. p. 47-59.

Henry, J. P., Branduardi, G., Briel, U., Fabricant, D.,

Feigelson, E., Murray, S., Soltan, A. and Tanan-

baum, H. 1979. Ap. J. (Letters), 234, L1S.

Holt, S. S., Mushotzky, R. F., Becker, R. H., Boldt, E.

A., Serlemitsos, P. J., Szymkowiak, A. E. and White,

IN, E:19802 Ap. J. (Letters); 247; 13°

Jones, C., Giacconi, R., Bechtold, J. and Forman, W.

1981. Manuscript in preparation.

Kron, R. G. 1980. In Two Dimensional Photometry

(ESO Workshop) edited by P. O. Lindblad and H.

van der Laan, Geneva.

Ku, W. H.-M., Helfand, D. J. and Lucy, L. B. 1980. Na-

ture, 288, 323.

Peebles, P. J. E. 1970. Ap. J., 75, 13.

Perrenod, S. C. and Henry, J. P. 1980. Submitted to

Ap. J. (Letters).

Petre, R., Winkler, P. F. and Kriss, G. A. 1980. “‘Ab-

stract” Bulletin of the American Astronomical So-

ciety, 12, 542.

Schreier, E. J., Feigelson, E., Delvaille, J., Giacconi,

R., Grindlay, J., Schwartz, D. A. and Fabian, A. C.

1979. Ap. J. (Letters), 234, L39.

Seward, F. D., Forman, W. R., Giacconi, R., Griffiths,

R. E., Harnden, F. R., Jr., Jones, C. and Pye, J. P.

1979. Ap. J. (Letters), 234, LSS.

Tananbaum H., Avni, Y., Branduardi, G., Elvis, M.,

Fabbiano, G., Feigelson, E., Giacconi, R., Henry, J.

P., Pye, J. P., Soltan, A. and Zamorani, G. 1979. Ap.

J. (Letters), 234, L9.

Vaiana, G. S., Cassinelli, J. P., Fabbiano, G., Giacconi,

R., Golub, L., Gorenstein, P., Haisch, B. M., Harn-

den, F. R., Jr., Johnson, H. M., Linsky, J. L., Max-

son, C. W., Mewe, R., Rosner, R., Seward, F., Topka,

K. and Zwaan, C. 1981. Ap. J., 245, 163.

Van Speybroeck, L. et al. 1981. Manuscript in prepara-

tion.

White, S. D. M. 1976. MNRAS, 177, 717.

Winkler, P. F., Canizares, Clark, G. W., Markert, T.

H., Schnopper, H. and Kalata, K. 1980. Submitted to

Ap. J.

Zamorani, G., Henry, J. P., Maccacaro, T., Tanan-

baum, H., Soltan, A., Avni, Y., Liebert, J., Stocke, J.,

Strittmatter, P. A.. Weymann, R. J., Smith, M. G.

and Condon, J. J. 1981. Ap. J., 245, 357.

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PROCEEDINGS

of the

UHURU MEMORIAL

SYMPOSIUM

The Past, Present

and Future of

X-RAY ASTRONOMY

HELD AT

Goddard Space Flight Center

Greenbelt, Maryland USA

December 13, 1980

PART II

THE FUTURE

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UHURU Part II

CONTENTS

The Future

MARTIN C. WEISSKOPF: The Advanced X-Ray Astrophysics Facility ....

KENNETH A. POUNDS: Large Area Modular Array of Reflectors........

SeeEPMEIN Ss. HOLE: X-Ray Timing Explorers... 3.00.00 +02 50.000 create

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STUART BOWYER and ROGER F. MALINA: The Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer ..........

fis E eV ALANA: Coronal Explorer: 21.4 1. 23 sisecceseletie a 6s © 0.0 ste apa nous

KENNETH A. POUNDS: The European Program in X-Ray Astronomy....

JOACHIM TRUMPER: The Roentgen Satellite ............cc cece eee eee

MINORU ODA: Strategy of X-Ray Astronomy in Japan ...............--

ANDREW C. FABIAN: X-Rays and Cosmology .............2eeeeeeeees

UHURU Part I

hiPROORLE R. TOWNSEND: Introduction .. . . «<3 2.0%4'0sis sloels o's, 8 « alele

The Past

RICCARDO GIACCONI: 1962-1972 (Up Through UHURU).............

GEORGE W. CLARK: X-Ray Astronomy From UHURU to HEAO-1.....

ELIHU A. BOLDT: The High Energy Astronomy Observatory: HEAO-1...

HARVEY TANANBAUM: X-Ray Astronomy with the Einstein Observatory

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eecececeeees ee ee eeee

104

114

125

129

ill -

DELEGATES TO THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,

REPRESENTING THE LOCAL AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Philosophical: Society: of) Washimeton :.c.202)6 25, Pos hes w aris ie tas a ee el stele ovat etek ota ebeianet et oke een: James F. Schooley

Anthropological’Socicty:of Washington, ... a5. 5 Si. bc scie bettie «ale « sueiainiere wheralaege Ruth H. Landman

Biological Society’ Of Washinpton. 22s. a cis aje'es & «alesse sn ao iaiaiete wuielelalaforerete © cease William Ronald Heyer

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American Society of Civil Empincers).. .). 65 .)0vi)u'« 000) « > « diaadenetereieie tele aie ene, See Algis A. Lukas

Societysfor Experimental Biology and Medicine’... v2.07 sese seo ee eet ee eee Cyrus R. Creveling

Amiericair Society Tor Mietals: aie. s:cieis ocak gatetee s Mates Sete ee OM a «cle Wihere wie heer eicans Charles G. Interrante

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American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics............ cece cece cece ec eees Richard P. Hallion

American. Meteorological SOCICtY so. is. ais 5. wis ace wi acorn.g the etal take ol etererebeealch alia meee A. James Wagner

Insceticide Society: of, Washington. ..... 5.4 <\c\.5.s'c <a a witerers oti cided etatetete's ote let tasters arate Jack R. Plimmer

Acoustical’Society of, America «a. «<a ls SeeaahT.. eRe ere evactaieie so enone ene Richard K. Cook

American*Nuclear Society’ s...5 5300. 3. ee ATE ee oe Ss ales ore et ee Dick Duffey

Institute of FOOdPechniGlopists:. ..c....5 5 acs «ces cscs 5 Rees teen eime rere es. cere everuny crores A. D. Berneking

AMerican: Ceramic SOCIClY ia-a css! s e's s oie 6 27a alee © alle wai alii a eibeelgo to leumeteeMeaduasteteee ele, nace Edwin R. Fuller, Jr.

Electrochemical Society ...02.65 so ose dis wiele.s ae wisi nese @ 9 Senet Sea a tee oie tere teen Alayne A. Adams

pyashineton Eistonviol, Science CID 6 occ oe kiois bed de Men tes Corel ereelnnettia ote esestene Deborah J. Warner

American: Association. of Physics. Teachers: < ..5's/s <2 50/414. 0g cash oie a steele cea a eek ene Peggy A. Dixon

OpticaltSochkewHoleAimieniGa Peas Ser... o5:s isd A aiato abe lellew ote SaPeiia aus » seoue: © alatebnre era a oer Nee George J. Simonis

American Society of Plant: Physiologists 3... 50s. «2s 2 «af eenapsye saute she omekokatols <P Walter Shropshire, Jr.

Washington Operations Research Council............2eeeceeecees Kan euedonone con. as John G. Honig

Insthuiment: Society Of America 5 .< «0% 0 cis sc) seals «a 0's. getels! slakeipeues cuchs meme eens auerely eee Jewel B. Barlow

American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical

ANGE CtFOLSUMMEMEINEETS: oc. 6.156 o's) So 5 ing we lel digs 0 dv ale yetetate plies « aisle ere soars ioe eine Garrett R. Hyde

National) CapitalWAStronomens:. © «shed. < aca ove’ bate his are lace 6 arotees sles os seekeuel eetoeucaie ete aie Benson J. Simon

Mathematics Association’ of AmeriCa:. . . .i.cies:d os\e 2 + o's/aSuene d wilecalsiera aus) spy ciel aiel ee sere ster Patrick Hayes

DiCoMinscituter Ohi He mmsts pbsseie ccs ds ost ols AG, lb eunlere dco Sch chocoualoreesbene ee aleraererenaleteaae Miloslav Racheigl, Jr.

DiC. EsycholopicalwAssocrati@n yc o)o..22:6.4 .2e/6 e's es ai ote Gl tleie aie paola oveleh ovehereeleieaenele Ecce sca rere amenene H. N. Reynolds

The: WashingtonsPame Technical(Group . . : 4). 6c «2% se! ssl @ ciara ee genes eis aeons es Paul G. Campbell

American Phytopathological-Society c's): 64.4. 2% cs Geise Meare ceueiee wae amieneia Howard E. Waterworth

Society for ‘General Systems Research)... 2! so nse cierto nb « Cleve haw evel ws iele mieten Ronald W. Manderscheid

Human“B actors SSOCIGty: (3% 2k a) avoreleN Wie televise eiaae ee PO calc MIME SAG Ore. ei ateie mRMCNOME ate Gn sites Stanley Deutsch

AMeFican FISHEnies*SOCIECY! o5)<oih2 ae Siok es Bees seth ane ee are gs aie) no witte ao eta mceere eran ohelereter Irwin M. Alperin —

Association for Science, Technology and Innovation ............ eee ec eee csc ec ececteees Ralph I. Cole

Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the representative societies.

The Advanced X-Ray

Astrophysics Facility

Martin C. Weisskopf

Space Sciences Laboratory NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center

Huntsville, Alabama USA 35812

Introduction

The HEAO-2/Einstein Observatory em-

ployed for the first time in satellite X-ray

astronomy, the technology of imaging op-

tics in the direct study of galactic and ex-

tragalactic X-ray sources. The increase in

sensitivity (a factor of 1000 for the detec-

tion of point sources) over UHURU only

hints at the tremendous advance in obser-

vational capability that focussing optics

has provided to X-ray astronomy. The re-

sults presented by Dr. Tananbaum else-

where in these proceedings have clearly

demonstrated the importance and signifi-

cance of imaging X-ray optics and the field

of X-ray astronomy. It is because of the

success of the HEAO-2/Einstein, both tech-

nical and scientific, that the next major

program, the Advanced X-Ray Astrophys-

ics Facility (AXAF), is readily identified

and well defined. In what follows I will

briefly summarize the planned capability

of this observatory and indicate some of

the astrophysical problems that AXAF will

be well suited to address.

1. The Observatory

The AXAF will be an X-ray observatory

built around a large-area, high-resolution,

grazing incidence X-ray telescope. Designed

to operate in space for 10 to 15 years, the

AXAF will be operated as a major national

facility with the majority of the observing

time set aside for guest investigators. An

artist’s conception of the AXAF in orbit is

shown in Figure 1, and the major elements

of the AXAF are identified in Figure 2.

Also shown in Figure | is the Space Shuttle

which will be used to place the AXAF in

orbit and revisit the observatory at approx-

imately 3-year intervals for the purpose of

refurbishing and/or replacing instruments.

The long lifetime of AXAF will provide

us with a facility not only capable of per-

forming the observations now known to be

necessary because of previous investiga-

tions and the questions raised by them, but

also to follow up, in coordinated observing

programs, those new discoveries which

AXAF will surely make.

The heart of the AXAF is an X-ray tele-

scope made up of six nested Wolter type I

paraboloid-hyperboloid pairs ranging in

diameter from 0.6 to 1.2 meters. The geo-

metric collecting area will be 1700 cm’, and

the focal length will be 10 meters. The

energy response will extend to well above 8

keV. The telescope will have angular reso-

lution of better than 0.5 arc-second on axis

and independent of energy, and a signifi-

cant (but energy dependent) fraction of the

reflected flux within the central core.

The baseline design of the AXAF has

evolved from an interaction between the

scientific requirements and engineering

70 MARTIN C. WEISSKOPF

constraints. It has been enhanced as a re-

sult of the experience gained in the design,

fabrication, assembly, test and performance

of the HEAO-2/Einstein telescope. The

AXAF telescope parameters are summa-

rized in Table 1, where they are also com-

pared to those of the Einstein Observatory.

There are several important differences be-

tween the two telescopes, and these are

only partially apparent from the factor

four increase in geometric area and the fac-

tor eight goal for the improvement in angu-

lar resolution listed in the table.

Certainly the larger geometric collecting

area will make the AXAF far more efficient

than the Einstein telescope over the energy

bandwidth that the two observatories have

in common. Furthermore, the range of

grazing angles permitted by the AXAF de-

sign allows the response of the telescope to

extend to energies well beyond 7 keV. The

Fig. 1. An artist’s conception of the AXAF in orbit.

total (on-axis) effective collecting areas are

compared in Figure 3. The extension of X-

ray imaging to the energies shown in the

figure will have important consequences.

This response includes the complex of lines

due to highly ionized iron and permits such

studies as the iron line spectroscopy of

nearby supernova remnants and also the

direct measurement of redshifts from clus-

ters of galaxies where we know, from_

UHURU and its successors, that emission

from highly ionized iron exists. Of equal

significance, however, are not the observa-

tions in this new wavelength range we can

now point to, but the fact that we will have

available to us a new region of the spectrum

for imaging studies. Both UHURU and es-

pecially the HEAO-2/Einstein have dem-

onstrated the importance of increasing the

wavelength sensitivity, and one can only

speculate now as to what surprises await us.

THE ADVANCED X-RAY ASTROPHYSICS FACILITY

lements of the AXAF

he major e

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Table 1—A Compa

AXAF

-2/Einstei

HEAO

Irs

6 Nested Pa

1rs

4 Nested Pa

of Elements

)

Angle (°)

)

Angle (°

(m)

Area (cm?

iameter

ing

Focal Length (m)

ric

Outer D

Geomet

Inner Graz

Outer Graz

ing

Resolution (arc-sec)

Field of View (°)

72 MARTIN C. WEISSKOPF

ENCIRCLED ENERGY OR INTEGRATED POINT SPREAD FUNCTION

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

RADIUS, (arcsec)

Fig. 3. The AXAF and Einstein on-axis effective

areas as a function of energy.

alignment establish the rapidly rising por-

tions of the response curves shown in Fig-

ure 4, whereas the amount of scatter from

the reflecting surfaces limits the efficiency

and the ability to resolve low contrast fea-

tures. Figure 5 demonstrates the antici-

pated AXAF performance as a function of

energy for resolution elements of 1 and 20

arc-second diameters. The significant im-

provement of the AXAF imaging quality

over that achieved by the HEAO-2/Einstein

is based, for the most part, on a modest ex-

tension of the Einstein tolerances and a

much better understanding of the contribu-

tions to X-ray scatter that have taken place

in the years since the HEAO-2/Einstein

was fabricated.

Before I discuss the types of instruments

one might expect to see aboard the AXAF,

it is important to note that the AXAF’s im-

proved angular resolution and low scatter

are absolutely necessary to attack a large

number of astrophysical problems which

simply cannot be done at the Einstein level

of performance. These include, for exam-

ple, the “weighing”? of X-ray sources in

globular clusters where even a three solar

mass binary system could be expected to be

no more than 1 arc-second from the center

of a typical centrally condensed cluster.

Both low scatter and high angular resolu-

tion are musts for the search for, and study

of, low contrast features such as jets near

nuclei of active galaxies.

2. Instrumentation

The instrumentation for the AXAF will

be selected through a series of Announce-

ments of Opportunity (AO), and the AO

for the first instrument complement is cur-

rently scheduled to be released in 1981. Ta-

bles 2 and 3 list a number of instruments

that have been identified by the members of

the AXAF Science Working Group. This

group, whose members are listed in Table

4, was established in 1977 to advise NASA

on the scientific requirements for AXAF

and the possible instrumentation that might

be flown. I won’t dwell on these instru-

ments except to point out that, first, the

longer focal length and, thus, the increased

plate scale have resulted in an immediate ~

ENCIRCLED ENERGY OR INTEGRATED POINT SPREAD FUNCTION

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

RADIUS, (arcsec)

Fig. 4. The fraction of flux within a resolution

element of radius R as a function of R at 2.5 keV.

THE ADVANCED X-RAY ASTROPHYSICS FACILITY 73

20 arcsec

diameter pixel

ENCIRCLED ENERGY

1 arcsec

diameter pixel

ENERGY IN KeV

Fig. 5. The fraction of reflected flux within resolu-

tion elements of 1 and 20 arc-seconds diameter as a

function of energy.

improvement in the angular resolution of

even the HEAO generation of imaging de-

tectors by a factor of three. Second, more

recent developments in instrumentation

technology offer the exciting prospect of

performing spatially resolved, high quan-

tum efficiency, reasonable energy resolu-

tion spectroscopy. Indeed, detailed spec-

Table 2—Imaging X-Ray Detectors.

troscopic studies with AXAF will en-

compass a wide range of objectives, and

instruments, such as those listed in Tables 2

and 3, will be well suited to accomplish

these studies. For example, with an objec-

tive grating and a high resolution imaging

detector in the focal plane, the spectra of

faint compact sources could be obtained

with an energy resolution (E/AE) of order

100 and, thanks to improvements in grat-

ing technology and the AXAF’s collecting

area, effective areas a factor of a hundred

or more over the equivalent HEAO-2/Ein-

stein instrument are possible.

3. Potential Investigations

Figure 6 shows the potential sensitivity

of AXAF for the detection of point sources

as compared to the HEAO-2/Einstein per-

formance with the High Resolution Imager

(HRI) and the Imaging Proportional

Counter (IPC) in the focal plane. The

AXAF sensitivity is based on the use of a

high-resolution imaging detector with the

efficiency of a charge-coupled solid state

detector. The sensitivity shown in Figure 6

is placed in perspective in Table 5, which

lists the minimum detectable luminosity as

Size Spatial Quantum E/AE

Detector (Field of View) Resolution Efficiency @1 keV @6 keV

Charge >25 mm X 25 mm 15-25 um high 5 30

Coupled Device (28 X 8 arc min) (0.3-0.5

arc sec)

Negative >25 mm diameter 15 wm high 5 1

Electron Affinity (28 arc min) (0.3 arc sec)

Detector

Microchannel =85 mm diameter 15 um low none

Plate (230 arc min) (0.3 arc sec)

Imaging Propor- 180 mm X 180 mm <0.5 mm high 2 5

tional Counter (12x 1°) (<10 arc sec)

Gas Scintillating 180 mm X 180 mm <0.5 mm high 10 12

Imaging Propor-

tional Counter

Cha T°)

(<10 arc sec)

74 MARTIN C. WEISSKOPF

Table 3—X-Ray Spectrometers and Polarimeters.

Energy Range Energy Resolution

Instrument (keV) (E/AE) Location

Filter Wheel 0.1-8 3 in front of

detector

Transmission Grating 0.1-4 100-200 behind mirrors

Solid State Detector 0.4-8 15-50 in focal plane

Objective Crystal 0.5-8 500-10,000 in front of

mirrors

Focal Plane Crystal 0.5-8 500-3,000 | in focal plane

Focal Plane Concave 0.1-1 500 in focal plane

Grating Spectrometer

Gas Scintillation 0.1-8 10-15 in focal plane

Proportional Counter

Bragg Crystal Polarimeter ZG De N/A in focal plane

Table 4—Members of the AXAF Science Working Group.

Professor Riccardo Giacconi—Harvard University—Chairman

Dr. Martin C. Weisskopf—Marshall Space Flight Center—Vice Chairman

Dr. Elihu Boldt—Goddard Space Flight Center

Professor Stuart Bowyer—University of California, Berkeley

Professor George Clark—Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Professor Arthur Davidson—Johns Hopkins University

Professor Gordon Garmire—California Institute of Technology

Professor William Kraushaar—University of Wisconsin

Professor Robert Novick—Columbia University

Dr. Albert Opp—NASA Headquarters—ex officio

Professor Minoru Oda—Tokyo University, Japan

Professor Kenneth Pounds—University of Leicester, United Kingdom

Dr. Seth Shulman—Naval Research Laboratory

Dr. Harvey Tananbaum—Harvard/Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics

Dr. Joachim Truemper, Max-Planck Institute, Germany

Professor Arthur Walker—Stanford University

Table 5—Minimum Detectable Luminosities for 10° Seconds of Observation.

Linear-Dimension

Luminosity-Distance Object Lmin (ergs/s) (per arc-second)

150 pe star 10°’ 50 Au

0.7 Mpc point 2107 3.5 pe

source in

M31

19 Mpc point 10°’ 100 pc

source in

Virgo Cluster

300 Mpc normal spiral 3x 10” 1.5 Kpce

galaxy

1000 Mpc active galaxy 3pxel0r) 5 Kpce

in Hydra

2 X 10° Mpc quasar 10*° 1 Mpc

THE ADVANCED X-RAY ASTROPHYSICS FACILITY 75

EXPONENTIAL SOURCE SPECTRUIA

E, = 0.3, KT =4 KeV

EINSTEIN/HEAO—2

SS HRI (12” x 12”)

IPC (3° x 3’)

MINIMUM DETECTABLE POINT SOURCE STRENGTH — UHURU cts"!

103 104 10° 106

OBSERVING TIME — SECONDS

Fig. 6. The sensitivity of the AXAF for the detec-

tion of point sources as a function of observing time as

compared to the Einstein Observatory. The calcula-

tion is based on a moderately efficient charge-coupled

imaging detector in the focal plane.

a function of the luminosity-distance for

several characteristic distances and objects.

The usefulness of this sensitivity is indi-

cated in Table 6, which lists the known lu-

minosity of several categories of X-ray

SOUICES.

Such sensitivity clearly opens the door

for many avenues of research. Consider,

for example, the study of normal stars.

Based on the (unexpected) Einstein results,

we now know that stars throughout the H-

R diagram will lie well within AXAF’s ob-

Table 6—Examples of Known X-Ray Luminosities.

Object

Sun

Cen X-3

Milky Way

M87

3C273

servational capability. By the end of its

mission, the HEAO-2/Einstein will have

observed only approximately 500 stars and,

of these, probably less than half of the ob-

servations will have obtained even low res-

olution spectra with the IPC. Thus, only

Statistically limited spectral classifications

will be completed, and one will be re-

stricted, for the most part, to relatively

crude correlation studies with optical data.

Taking the one-hundred-fold increase in

the sensitivity of AXAF into account, all of

the more than 6000 stars in principle ac-

cessible to the Einstein (but not observed)

could be studied in a relatively short time.

The total number of stars accessible to

AXAF is, of course, vastly larger, and the

available volume of space for sampling will

increase by a factor of a thousand.

The promise of AXAF is perhaps more

colorfully illustrated in Figure 7, which

shows the HEAO-2/Einstein images of

M31. The AXAF would add a third image,

further resolving the galactic nucleus and,

in clarity, would be to the HRI image

shown, as the HRI image is to the IPC im-

age. Furthermore, with the AXAF the

study of discrete sources in normal galaxies

will be extended to objects with much lower

luminosity than was possible with the

HEAO-2/Einstein. Sources as weak as 5 X

10°“ ergs/s could be detected in Andromeda,

and the coronae of O and B stars would be

visible in the Magellanic Clouds. The study

of individual high-luminosity (10°’ ergs/s)

sources, now only possible for M31, will be

extended to galaxies at distances up to 20

Mpc. Thus, all 2500 galaxies in the Virgo

Cluster will be amenable to the type of ob-

servation illustrated in Figure 7. With such

data one will be able to study the spatial

Luminosity (ergs/s)

Cy Cal

2 i107"

5X 10°

3x 10°

Sox 10"

76 MARTIN C. WEISSKOPF

Fig. 7. Optical and X-ray picture of M31 (Andromeda). IPC observation (upper right). HRI observation

(lower right).

and luminosity distributions with an angu-

lar resolution which can distinguish be-

tween bulge, disc and nuclear components

and can correlate these distributions to

galaxy properties: morphology, metallic-

ity, etc. Insofar as the integrated emission

of galaxies is concerned, the sensitivity of

AXAF will increase the sample from ap-

proximately 1 normal galaxy/1° field to as

many as 1000/1° field. Among other things,

these observations can be used to deter-

mine whether high-luminosity activity in

the galactic nucleus is confined to a small

fraction of all galaxies or whether all galax-

les spend a small fraction of their life in a

highly active state. Clearly such observa-

tions can also shed some light on the rela-

tionship between normal and active gal-

axies.

_ Another area of research in which the

AXAF is prepared to provide unique and

significant advances is in the study of clus-

ters of galaxies. This follows directly from

the existence of the hot intra-cluster gas

first detected by UHURU; the importance

of this gas has been emphasized by many of

the results presented earlier today. X-ray

imaging with the HEAO-2/Einstein has

begun the detailed study of cluster mor-

phology, soimportant since the gas is invis-

ible at longer wavelengths. Yet, these ob-

servations are sensitive only to the cooler

gas because of a limited energy response.

Furthermore, detailed mapping and spec-

troscopy with the HEAO-2/Einstein are

limited by the spatial sensitivity. With the

AXAF, spectrally resolved high-resolution

maps of a statistically significant sample of

clusters will be possible. Based on a 6-

month observing program and an assumed

THE ADVANCED X-RAY ASTROPHYSICS FACILITY 77

density of 10° cluster sources/ Mpc’ (Lx =

10** ergs/s), 800 sources could be detected

in a survey of one hundred square degrees.

Moreover, the AXAF should allow for: (1)

the detection of the integrated emission

from clusters at redshifts up to one and

possibly as large as four, depending on

their epoch of formation and early evolu-

tion; (2) the detection and spatial resolu-

tion for clusters as distant as Z = 1 to 3;

and (3) the detailed mapping and spectro-

scopy, including X-ray measurements of

the redshift for Z as large as 0.5 to 1. Obser-

vations such as these will allow for the de-

tailed study of the formation and evolution

of the clusters, the origin and heating

mechanisms of the intra-cluster medium

and the matter content, with emphasis on

the hot gas. X-ray observations of clusters

with the AXAF should also provide the

basis for at least two tests of cosmological

models: the first through the differential

number counts of X-ray clusters at large

redshifts and the second (described in more

detail by Dr. Fabian elsewhere in these

proceedings) combining X-ray and micro-

wave measurements to determine the deac-

celeration parameter in an almost assump-

tion-independent way.

Conclusions

I have only touched upon the capabilities

of the AXAF and some of the types of stud-

ies which could be carried out with this ob-

servatory. A far more detailed description

of the AXAF, its scientific objectives and

its potential for accomplishing these objec-

tives may be found in the report of the

AXAF Science Working Group (NASA

TM-78285, May 1980).

In conclusion, I believe it is adamantly

clear from the results we have heard today

that X-ray astronomy has come of age. The

tremendous success of the last X-ray as-

tronomy mission, the HEAO-2/Einstein, is

underscored by the far greater number of

astrophysical questions which now con-

front us, as opposed to what we knew be-

fore that mission began. An essential point

in charting the future course of our field is

that AXAF is not only necessary to per-

form the required observational tasks to

answer these questions, but that AXAF

alone has the capability to carry out the

majority of the major research goals before

us. With the AXAF, X-ray astronomy will

be able to take its place, along with radio

and optical astronomy, as one of the major

probes of the Universe.

Large Area Modular Array

Of Reflectors (LAMAR)

K. A. Pounds

X-ray Astronomy Group, Department of Physics,

University of Leicester, Leicester, England.

LAMAR

Introduction

The central role to be played by imaging

optics in the future development of X-ray

astronomy has recently been re-empha-

sized by the outstanding results of the Ein-

stein Observatory. In considering the major

thrust in X-ray telescope development over

the next decade an analogy with optical as-

tronomy is apparent. The established re-

quirement of complementary instruments

of extreme resolution (e.g. the Space Tele-

scope) and large collecting area (multi-mir-

ror telescope, new large 10 m design, etc.)

finds a parallel in X-ray stronomy, where

again a facility of large photon collection

capability will be needed to complement

AXAF. While AXAF will provide an ex-

tremely high point source sensitivity and

sub-arc sec angular resolution for the de-

tection, location and imaging of faint

sources, asecond ‘World Class’ facility will

be necessary in many photon-limited situa-

tions, such as imaging extended objects of

low surface brightness, spectroscopy and

time-variability studies. Also, the potential

of a very deep, all-sky survey is obvious

from the outstanding success of Uhuru and

Ariel-5 and the primary importance in

other wavebands of, for example, the

Palomar Schmidt and Cambridge 3C radio

surveys. Gorenstein (1973) first proposed

to NASA a mission to tackle these objec-

tives; this was named the Large Area Modu-

lar Array of Reflectors (LAMAR) and I in-

tend in this short review to take a further

look at the need for and possible progress

towards the realisation of sucha LAMAR.

It seems clear that the dominant criteria for

realising LAMAR relate to the ability to

construct and pay for the very large area of

mirrors required. In this regard, a modular

approach and moderate angular resolution

are likely to be key factors.

1. Elements of a LAMAR

The essential requirements of a LAMAR

are that it provides a large photon collection

area, combined with ‘adequate’ angular res-

olution. Considerations of the positional

accuracy needed to identify sources de-

tected by such a sensitive instrument and of

the effects of source confusion lead to an

angular resolution requirement which, in

turn, makes the use of imaging optics es-

sential to LAMAR. :

The initial LAMAR concept (Figure 1)

envisaged a spacecraft launched by Shuttle

with the following major parameters:—

effective photon collec-

tion area (at .28 keV) ~2 X 10* cm’

angular resolution —~20' are See

field of view ~2 deg’ |

energy range ~0.15-6 keV

The photon collection area is thus ~50 X

Einstein and ~15 X AXAF, but with a

specified angular resolution that is sub-

stantially less stringent. It is useful to re-

LARGE AREA MODULAR ARRAY OF REFLECTORS 79

Fig. 1. Conceptual drawing of a LAMAR facility for long term orbital observations (from Gorenstein, 1979,

SPIE, 184, 63).

examine these parameters in the light of ac-

tual results from the Einstein Observatory.

2. Sky Survey

One important task for LAMAR will be

to carry out a very deep all-sky survey.

Uhuru and Ariel-5 covered the whole sky

(at 2-10 keV) to a limit of ~1.5 X 10°

Crab and HEAO-1 is likely to improve on

this by a factor ~3. The Einstein medium

and deep surveys will reach 10° — 10°

Crab, but will cover less than one percent

of the celestial sphere. The German ROSAT

should extend the all-sky cover to ~10~

Crab (at E < 2 keV).

A 12-months uniform sky survey by the

above LAMAR payload would give a mean

exposure time ~3 X 10’(sec) X 0.6 (cover-

age) X 5 X 10° (ster) = 1000 sec. Making

reasonable assumptions for the effective

area versus energy response for a combina-

tion of LAMAR optics and conventional

IPC detectors, the count rate from a source

of strength 1 mCrab is estimated to be ~75

sec . Neglecting background,* this gives a

limiting source detection (10 cts) in 10° sec

Gi Sue 1. x 10" Crab.

* Assuming 50 telescope modules are used to give

the prescribed LAMAR, the 50 focal plane IPC’s will

yield a particle background rate of ~3 X 10°°ctssec '

per 20” X 20” pixel in the 0.15-6 keV band. The esti-

mated cosmic X-ray background rate is comparable.

Hence, ~10° sec is also about the upper limit for a

photon-limited exposure.

80 KENNETH A. POUNDS

Extrapolating the Uhuru/Ariel-5 source

count relation to this level predicts a total

of ~10° sources, the integrated flux of

which would be equivalent to the observed

X-ray sky background (out of the galactic

plane). Indications from the Einstein deep

survey work are that many of these sources

will be distant QSO’s, whilst a probable de-

crease in the slope of the source count func-

tion at small S may give an actual yield (for

LAMAR) of ~10’ sources. Even so, this

represents an average of 250 sources deg ~

and—with a minimum requirement of 40

pixels per source—sets an upper limit of

~30 arc sec to a pixel, i.e., to the necessary

angular resolution of LAMAR.

On the separate question of source iden-

tification, the Einstein Observatory expe-

rience may be the most directly relevant. In

the Einstein DRACO and ERIDANUS

deep field surveys (Giacconi et al., 1979),

43 objects were detected down to a level

~10° Crab. Position accuracies varied

from ~5 arc sec(HRI) to ~1 arc min (IPC).

For all 16 sources located to ~1 arc min

only, multiple candidates were found. At

the other extreme, 3 sources determined to

~5 — 10 arcsec had ‘empty fields’, i.e., no

optical counterpart brighter than Mg ~ 23

in the error boxes. Only for the 21 sources

located by the HRI, with uncertainties in

the range ~5 — 20 arc sec, were likely or

near-certain identifications possible. Since

the LAMAR survey will reach a depth

~10X lower than the Einstein deep fields, it

is clear that many sources may not be read-

ily identified at a typical LAMAR posi-

tional accuracy of, say, 10 arc sec.

From the above general considerations it

follows that the nominal 20 arc sec resolu-

tion is only barely adequate in the survey

mode fora LAMAR ofthe prescribed aper-

ture. Improved resolution will clearly be

most valuable if it can be achieved within

the real confines of cost and mass produc-

tion of the X-ray optics. This point may be

made again by taking another Einstein ex-

ample. Figure 2 shows the IPC field around

the bright Seyfert I galaxy NGC 4151. In

all, 8 sources were detected in this 2.7 X 10°

sec exposure, including 3 within ~5 arc min

of the bright nucleus of NGC 4151 itself.

These are believed to be entirely separate

objects, being identified with a field galaxy

(No. 7), a distant QSO (No. 8) and (proba-

bly) an intermediate-distance active galaxy

(No. 5). Ina LAMAR survey, such a field

would be detected ~5 times further away,

i.e. with 4 sources within ~1 arc min.

3. Use of LAMAR in individual source

observations

As noted in the introduction, the large

photon ‘throughput’ of LAMAR makes it

especially powerful in the study of time var-

lability, in the imaging of diffuse X-ray

sources and in X-ray spectroscopy. These

aspects are briefly examined in this section.

The angular resolution requirement will

generally be less severe here.

Time variability Variability has long

been a key feature in the properties of X-

ray sources. Perhaps the outstanding dis-

covery of Uhuru—and one of the most im-

portant results of space science to date—

was the powerful X-ray binaries. These are

now known to dominate the X-ray emis-

sion of the Galaxy and provide, in practice

and potentially, unique information on

stellar evolution, on mass transfer and ra-

diation in extreme gravity and magnetic

fields, and on the properties and structure

of white dwarf and neutron stars, black

holes, etc. LAMAR will have the sensitivity

and resolution to extend such studies to ex-

ternal galaxies. For example, asource of Lx

~10°** erg sec’ in M31 would yield ~300

cts/10° sec in LAMAR. An observation

over several days could establish accurate

pulse periods, orbital characteristics, etc.

for many such sources in a LAMAR field.

Of still greater scientific potential would be

the LAMAR study of extragalactic varia-

bility. Figure 3 shows a recent Ariel-5 de-

tection of a sharp increase in the X-ray lu-

minosity of the bright QSO 3C 273. This

event, a doubling of the X-ray emission in

<0.5 day, reveals directly the small scale of

the emitting region and implies a remarka-

bly high efficiency of mass-to-radiation

LARGE AREA MODULAR ARRAY OF REFLECTORS 81

Fig. 2. Einstein Observatory field near the Seyfert galaxy NGC 4151.

conversion (210%), which in turn is

strongly suggestive of a massive black hole

as the ultimate source of power in 3C 273

(Pounds, 1980). Evidence has accumulated

over the past 2-3 years that such short-term

variability is a common feature of X-ray

active galaxies (Marshall et a/., 1981) and

LAMAR offers the exciting prospect of ex-

amining this possibility for a wide range of

active galaxies out to quite high red shifts.

In this application the large photon collec-

tion area, low background per pixel and

angular resolution sufficient to separate

individual faint sources are all crucial. For

example, a source a thousand times fainter

than 3C 273 (i.e. 3C 273 at Z ~2-4) would

give a signal count of ~0.5 ct sec in

LAMAR. With an overall particle and X-

ray background of ~6 X 10’ pixel’'sec ‘a

20% increase in flux would readily be de-

tected in 1000 secs.

Diffuse objects Implicit in the estimate that

the X-ray background is comparable to the

particle-induced background in a 20 X 20

(arc sec)’ pixel is the ability to study spatial

features in this background. Recent studies

on a quite crude spatial scale (tens of deg’)

have shown a galactic enhancement of sev-

eral percent at E > 2 keV (Ariel-5, War-

wick et al., 1980; Uhuru, Protheroe et al.,

1980), together with a marginal effect com-

patible with the Compton-Getting enhance-

ment of the microwave background (Smoot

et al., 1977). LAMAR may, of course, re-

solve most of the galactic component as in-

dividual stellar sources, but a diffuse part

must exist at some level. Observations

below ~1 keV (Sanders et al., 1977) have

also indicated the great potential of a de-

tailed study of the softer X-ray background

structure, containing information on the

hot component of the interstellar medium.

82 KENNETH A. POUNDS

1979 August

25 30

SSI count /s

10 15

1979 September

20 25

MJD - 44 100

Fig. 3. Ariel-5 X-ray light curve of the quasar 3C 273 showing a rapid increase in the (2-10 keV) luminosity.

1 SSI count/s = 2.5 milliCrabs.

As just one example, a map of the X-ray

background could be produced by LAMAR

on an arc min angular scale, comparable to

current 21 cm radio maps, at ~8% contrast

level with 10° sec exposure per field. In 1

year 10% of the sky could be sampled at

this exposure.

Individual diffuse sources, such as su-

pernova remnants and galaxy clusters, may

have an X-ray surface brightness 10 to 100

times greater than the average X-ray back-

ground; clearly these objects are very well

suited to detailed study by LAMAR. For

example, a cluster such as A 1367 (see Ein-

stein X-ray image in paper by Dr. Tanan-

baum) would be imaged by LAMAR with

an effective surface brightness ~50 times

that recorded with the Einstein IPC. The

detail on the spatial distribution of the hot

gas in this and many fainter clusters would

be extremely important in studying such

questions as the source of the gas, the heat-

ing process and even the evolution of clus-

ters of galaxies.

Spectroscopy Thespectroscopic capability

of LAMAR will depend critically on the

type of detectors employed. If these are

conventional IPC’s, which are well matched

to the spatial resolution, bandwidth and

high efficiency requirements of LAMAR,

the spectra obtained will benefit directly

from the high photon rates (again this will

be very beneficial in the study of extended

objects of low surface brightness), but the

spectral resolution will be limited to the

typical E/AE ~3-10 intrinsic to the gas

proportional counter. The use of CCD’s, if

then available with adequate area and low

noise, could offer spectral resolutions 1-2

orders of magnitude better, allowing well-

resolved X-ray spectra to be obtained, with

all the wide benefits that spectroscopy has

provided in optical astronomy.

4. Summary and current status

At present LAMAR is not an approved

mission. However, NASA is currently sup-

porting two separate design studies in

which groups led by Gorenstein (CFA) and

Catura (Lockheed) are evaluating LAMAR

modules for flight on Shuttle/Spacelab

~1985. Although they have interesting

scientific possibilities, these studies are

principally aimed at establishing the feasi-

bility of building the sort of LAMAR facil-

ity discussed in this paper. Weighing its

great scientific potential against the major

task involved in producing such a free-flier

LAMAR, it seems clear that a long-term,

coordinated (and probably international)

effort should be organized as soon as prac-

ticable if this potential is to begin to be real-

ized much before the end of the second post-

Uhuru decade.

References

1. Gorenstein, P. (1973). Paper presented to the Na-

tional Academy of Sciences Working Group on

High Energy Astronomy, Woods Hole, Mass.

. Marshall, N., Warwick, R. S. and Pounds, K. A.

(1981) Mon. Not. R. astr. Soc. 194, 987.

. Pounds, K. A. (1980) ‘“‘Variability in Stars and

Galaxies” Proc. of Fifth European Regional meet-

ing in Astronomy. Published by Inst. d’ Astrophys,

Liege, Belgium.

. Protheroe, R. J., Wolfendale, A. W. and Wdowc-

zyk, J. (1980) Mon. Not. R. astr. Soc. 192, 445.

. Sanders, W. T., Kraushaar, W. L., Nousek, J. A.

and Fried, P. M. (1977) Ap. J. 217, L87.

. Smoot, G. F., Gorenstein, M. V.and Muller, R. A.

(1977) Phys. Rev. Lett. 39, 898.

. Warwick, R.S., Pye, J. P.and Fabian, A. C. (1980)

Mon. Not. R. astr. Soc. 190, 243.

X-Ray Timing Explorer (XTE)

Stephen S. Holt

Laboratory for High Energy Astrophysics Goddard Space Flight Center*

I am sure that most of this audience was

aware, even before hearing the excellent re-

views this morning, that the large fraction

of the brightest X-ray sources in the sky are

binary stellar systems in our own galaxy

which contain neutron stars. Their spatial

distribution alone allowed us to guess,

without knowing what they were, that they

were at average distances of several kpc, so

that their luminosities had to be within an

order-of-magnitude-or-so of 10°’ erg s.

Most of the real progress that we made in

understanding their fundamental nature,

however, came out of what might be termed

“timing”? measurements. The discovery,

from UHURU, of at least two reproducible

variability timescales from sources like Cen

* Present address: NASA, Washington, DC. USA

20546

X-3 and Her X-1 turned out to be what

might very appropriately be called the Ro-

setta Stone.

We now know that the pulsing periodici-

ties on timescales of seconds are the rota-

tion periods of neutron stars, and the peri-

odicities on timescales of days are eclipsing

effects at the rotation periods of the whole

binary systems. Timing measurements al-

lowed us to see the two effects separately,

but the additional timing analyses which

revealed that the pulsing was Doppler

shifted at precisely the eclipse period virtu-

ally forced the realization that we were see-

ing the first detected examples of neutron

stars in binary systems. Just as important

were the longer-term timing measurements

which demonstrated the secular speed-up

of the pulsars, since these ultimately recon-

ciled the energy source with the conversion

84 STEPHEN S. HOLT

of gravitational energy—very different than

either the nuclear energy source in stars or

the kinetic energy source for contemporary

X-ray production in conventional SNR’s.

Once we had the basic model laid out,

other aspects of the timing measurements

were readily interpretable: system eccen-

tricities from departures from purely sinu-

soidal Doppler curves, for example, and

mass limits on the stellar components.

Some aspects of the timing measurements

were less obviously interpretable, however,

especially when we were able to combine

timing with a modest spectroscopic capa-

bility in an attempt to investigate X-ray

production and X-ray transport mecha-

nisms in the sources.

Figure | exhibits some rudimentary ex-

amples of this “‘pulse phase spectroscopy.”

In the lower left are the pulse profiles of the

three best-studied pulsars, where the shaded

regions indicate those portions of the light

curve where the X-ray spectrum is hardest:

the presumption is that transport out of the

source will tend to soften the emergent

spectrum, so that the shaded parts proba-

bly represent our least obscured view of the

primarily-produced X-radiation. In the

upper left is one of the more pedestrian

cases: in all three colors, the pulse profile

looks about the same. The 7-second pulsar,

on the right, is at the other extreme: the

pulse phase seems to change by 180° be-

tween | and 5 keV, and then change by 180°

again above 14 keV. If we slice the pulse

into 10 phase intervals and look at the spec-

tra of the individual slices, we can get a dif-

ferent perspective. Spectrum 8 looks like an

‘average’ pulsar spectrum: flat power law

with a cutoff; while spectrum 3 looks like it

might be the same with the addition of a

broad, possibly cyclotron, feature near 20

keV.

It is important to appreciate that the

sources from which we can presently meas-

ure regular periodicities like these consti-

tute a small fraction of those which we

think contain neutron stars. But all galactic

X-ray binaries, including those which we

presently believe to contain black holes or

white dwarfs instead of neutron stars, ex-

hibit irregular temporal variations, on a

variety of timescales.

Figure 2 illustrates some rather pro-

nounced examples of this irregular varia-

bility. In each of these three cases, the panel

on the right represents a small portion of

-the panel of the left with the temporal scale

expanded. The first two exhibit our best ga-

lactic black hole candidate, Cyg X-1, on

two very different timescales. The obvious

variability in the 20 ms accumulations in

data from a rocket flight indicate, when

this flare is expanded to .64 ms resolution,

that there might be variability all the way

down to the submillisecond timescale which

should be characteristic of the innermost

Keplerian orbit around the candidate black

hole. The data in the middle pair represent

weekly averages for the source intensity -

over almost five years, and the source

sometimes jumps to about three times its

usual output and maintains that level for

weeks or even months at a time. The half-

day averages on the right for the first of

these increases indicate that the change of

state takes place in a time much less than

one day.

Finally, the traces on the bottom are

from a source which has been named the

Rapid Burster. Because the amplitude of

these bursts depends on the time between

bursts, we think that this kind of behavior

reflects some sort of a regulating mecha-

nism in the mass accretion process in this

source. The annotated peculiar-looking

longer decay-time burst probably has a dif-

ferent origin; we think that it represents

some sort of a thermonuclear flash on the

surface of the neutron star. It is this latter

kind of burst, and not the rapid bursting,

which is typical of all the other X-ray burst

sources.

In order to further pursue the study of

temporal variations from X-ray sources,

we require not only more exposure, but

more of each of the two parameters, area

and time, which multiply together to give

exposure. We require more time on sources

in order to investigate longer timescale ef-

X-RAY TIMING EXPLORER 85

QAO 1653-40 HEAQ-A2

4UI626-67 HEAO-A2

1.4

if 0.7-1.9 keV

Lid

= 1.0 =

Lod J

= 06 x

= =

lJ |2 2-20 keV

2 2

= a

; _

= le bn. er 14-30 keV

= or

0.8

0.4 3

00 05 00 05 00 0.0 05 0.005 00

PULSE PHASE PULSE PHASE

-| 4UI626-67 HEAO-A2

HERCULES X-1

1.2 SEC

0S0-8A

SSS

——

> -

"g eae | = [0

= HARDENING ©

Xa HEAO-A2 HED3 a |

S “1 Se 10 F © SPECTRUM 3

re ~— + SPECTRUM 8

S w

= 2 4

S 2 10

lo”

| l0 100

PULSE PHASE ENERGY (keV)

Fig. 1. Examples of pulse-phase spectroscopy. The top two examples are data folded at the pulse periods in

three energy windows, with representative errors indicated. The shaded areas in the lower left are those phases of

the pulse where the spectra are harder than the phase-averaged spectra. In the lower right, the spectra for two out

of ten phase intervals for 4U 1626-67 are displayed explicitly.

86 STEPHEN S. HOLT

oOo

_—

Si 320 325

SECONDS AFTER LAUNCH

'§

0720. 680. 940. +~+1200°~»~«1460

DAY OF 1974.

6000

MXB 1730-335

4800

i>)

2 2400

—>

1200

70000

69000 69500

SECONDS

70500

COUNTS /.64 SEC

318.531

318.491

SECONDS AFTER LAUNCH

sec |

3-6 keV PHOTONS cm”

468 476 476 480 484 488

DAY OF 1974

400

MXB 1730-335

320

~ 240

E160 .

S |

80 ah sally \ \ Wa: ine

70050 70100 70150 70200

SECONDS

Fig. 2. Examples of non-periodic variability. The top two traces are for Cyg X-1 on short timescales, with the

trace on the right an expanded view of the time interval indicated by an arrow on the left. The middle two traces

are similar views of Cyg X-1 on much longer timescales. The bottom two traces are for the Rapid Burster, MXB

1730-335.

fects, including gradients in shorter-time-

scale variability, and more area to allow the

detailed investigation of shorter samples,

particularly with regard to non-periodic or

non-reproducible variability.

The collective realization of the whole

community that the mother lode of tem-

poral X-ray astronomy was not going to be

tapped by approved NASA missions led to

a number of proposals for timing experi-

ments in response to NASA AO 6 & 7

about six years ago. Several received cate-

gory 1 endorsement, including one from

our group at Goddard and SAO, from MIT

and from NRL. All of us were put together

on a study mission named ATREX which,

unfortunately, never got off the drawing

board, but it did serve as the first real dem-

onstration of community enthusiasm which

eventually was transferred to its second

coming as XTE.

In the intervening time, the justification —

for such a mission has only been height-

ened by new experimental and theoretical

results. Interestingly, the increased sensi-

tivity of later missions, especially HEAO-2,

detected very different kinds of X-ray sour-

ces: much weaker, more traditional stellar

systems, and much more powerful and

more distant active galactic nuclei. But

both of these newer classes of X-ray emit-

ters also exhibit temporal variability, so

that their systematic study affords even

more possibilities for fruitful timing

research.

Two years ago, David Pines and Fred

Lamb organized a Workshop, with both

theoreticians and experimenters participat-

ing, devoted to the definition of an Ex-

plorer-class X-ray timing mission. The Pro-

ceedings stressed the maturation of the

theory over the last few years, particularly

in regard to the use of timing measure-

ments to probe the physics laboratory

available in the interiors of neutron stars.

Briefly, the consensus recommendation of

the Workshop for instrumentation was for

some sort of a large area pointed propor-

tional counter array, with the possible pro-

vision of some X-ray peripheral vision for

it. At the same time, our colleagues outside

the US were considering X-ray timing mis-

sions of their own. One scenario for a col-

laborative mission which has received some

publicity is with the Dutch; their primary

interest is the detailed study of bursters

with a wide-angle X-ray camera system,

and a NASA AO issued last summer noted

the possibility of such a collaborative

arrangement.

The observational and scientific objec-

tives listed in the NASA AO represent a

straightforward tabulation of the applica-

tion of timing measurements to all varieties

of X-ray sources. Responses to this AO are

presently under evaluation, so that a de-

tailed characterization of the payload is not

possible at this time. The only certainty is

that the AO requirements will be satisfied.

This means that the selected instrument or

instruments will be true to the spirit of the

observational requirements, and also means

that the participation of the whole scien-

tific community will be guaranteed by a

guest investigator program that will get the

major fraction of the observing time.

The Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer

Stuart Bowyer and Roger F. Malina

Space Sciences Laboratory and Department of Astronomy

University of California Berkeley, California USA 94720

Introduction

The extreme ultraviolet (EUV) spectral

region from 100-912 A is one of the last

bands of the spectrum to be explored. Since

the discovery of the first EUV star in 1975,

rapid developments in this field have oc-

curred even though no dedicated orbiting

experiments have been launched. New

sources have been reported from the Soviet

Soyuz spacecraft (Sagdeev, 1979) and by an

experiment on the Voyager mission (Hol-

berg et al., 1980a). The first spectroscopic

observations have been carried out from

sounding rockets (Malina, 1979) and from

Voyager (Holberg et al., 1980b). Within the

next few years several new sounding rocket

payloads developed in both Europe and the

88 STUART BOWYER AND ROGER F. MALINA

USA will be launched both as searches for

new sources and for high resolution EUV

spectroscopy. Detailed studies have been

carried out or are now underway for EUV

all sky satellite surveys by ESA, NASA, the

Netherlands and the United Kingdom.

Limited searches in the hard EUV short-

ward of 200 A will be carried out by ESA’s

EXOSAT observatory in 1982. This initial

exploration phase of EUV astronomy will

end with the launch of NASA’s Extreme

Ultraviolet Explorer in 1985. This mission

will carry out the first systematic all sky

EUV survey in three spectral bandpasses

covering the whole EUV, with sensitivities

10-100 times greater than existing measure-

ments.

1. Astrophysical Interest of EUV Obser-

vations of Extra-Solar Objects

Dupree (1981) has recently reviewed the

various areas of astrophysical interest that

are already known to be best elucidated

through EUV data. It now seems clear that

many astronomical objects radiate strongly

in the EUV and that they will be visible at

earth. Early attempts to look for EUV

sources were hampered by two principal

considerations. Firstly, instrumental diffi-

culties were severe because large grazing

incidence optics and efficient photon-

counting detectors are necessary to obtain

sufficient sensitivity. These difficulties were

surmounted in the instrumentation flown

on the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (Bowyer

et al., 1977) and have been further im-

proved with the realization of full imaging

(cf. Lampton et al., 1977; Malina et al.,

1980). Secondly, the pre-existing theoreti-

cal pessimism about the high opacity of the

local interstellar medium (ISM) diverted

experimenters’ interest. This pessimism

proved to be overstated.

The Interstellar Medium

It is now known primarily from direct

UV spectroscopic measurements of nearby

Stars that column densities can be quite

low, in some view directions as low as .005

cm’ (Anderson and Weiler, 1978). For dis-

tances within 100 pc of the sun, the column

densities of hydrogen range from a few

times 10'’ cm” to 107° cm ”, with variations

of an order of magnitude for view direc-

tions separated by only tens of degrees

(Cash et al., 1979a; Dupree, 1981). The

EUV horizon for this range of column den-

sities varies from tens of parsecs to several

hundred parsecs at the shorter wavelengths

(cf. Cruddaceetal., 1974). This will permit

extragalactic observations in selected areas

at 100 A; this concept was implausible only

five years ago. The local ISM is however

highly clumpy, so that it is relatively diffi-

cult to predict accurately the opacity to in-

dividual proposed EUV sources. One of the

primary goals of an all sky survey is thus to

catalog comprehensively the observable

EUV sources so that pointed follow on

missions can be carried out efficiently. In

turn such a catalog will provide a detailed

mapping of the local ISM, a subject of in-

terest in itself.

Follow on spectroscopic missions will

have a further profound impact on our un-

derstanding of the ISM. Moderate resolu-

tion spectroscopy (AA ~ 5 A) of bright

continuum EUV sources will measure the

neutral helium and singly ionized helium

column densities from observations of the

absorption jumps at 504 A and 228 A. For

example the jump at 228 A has already

been measured in HZ43 (Malina, 1979)

with coarse resolution and is attributed

primarily to photospheric absorption.

Higher resolution will allow both the pres-

sure broadened photospheric and narrow

interstellar components to be measured

simultaneously. High resolution(AA S .1 A)

spectroscopy will measure transitions from

neutral at 584 A and 304 A giving for the

first time a direct measure of the total he-

lium abundance (Dupree, 1981). Observa- —

tions of higher temperature species will

complement those obtained in the ultravi-

olet and permit the study of the hot com-

ponent of the ISM as well as local shocks.

such as that expected at the interface with

the solar wind (Raymond, 1980).

THE EXTREME ULTRAVIOLET EXPLORER 89

Sources

The first type of EUV source to be disco-

vered was the hot white dwarf HZ43

(Lampton et al. 1976). To date two others

Feige 24 (Margon et al., 1976) and G191-

B2B (Holberg et al., 1980a) have been re-

ported. A preliminary report attributes ob-

served 500 A flux to Feige 4 (Sagdeev et al.,

1979). Observations of individual white

dwarfs will continue to be of interest for

studies of the atmospheric structure and

physics of element separation in high grav-

ity atmospheres. However the complete

survey to be provided by EUVE will be es-

sential to:unravel the evolutionary history

and cooling rates of these objects.

A second class of strong EUV emitters

consists of stellar chromospheres and co-

ronae. The first member of this class to be

detected in the EUV was Proxima Centauri

(Haisch et al., 1977). Observations from

IUE, HEAO-1 and the Einstein Observa-

tory reveal that hot chromospheres and

coronae are acommon feature of almost all

stellar types. In addition, the solar UV lu-

minosity is not typical with many common

classes such as the RS CVn stars being

much more luminous. Since the EUV con-

tains atomic and ionic lines indicative of

plasmas with energies from 1 to 3000 eV

(Dupree, 1981; Stern eta/., 1978), EUV ob-

servations allow critical plasma parameters

to be measured simultaneously over a wide

energy range. The sensitivity of EUV ob-

servations to the physical processes in-

volved has been repeatedly demonstrated

in solar observations such as those carried

out on the Solar Maximum Mission. In

spite of the accumulated X-ray and UV

data, current understanding of the heating

and energy transport in solar and stellar

chromospheres is rudimentary. EUV ob-

servations will extend our perspective and

identify the determinants of coronal struc-

tures (Dupree, 1981).

Several other classes of objects are ex-

pected to be strong EUV sources (Paresce,

1977). SS Cygni, a member of the class of

cataclysmic variables, was detected in the

EUV (Margon et al., 1978) and HEAO-1

has shown that a number of these are soft

X-ray sources (Cordova et al., 1981). Theo-

retical studies (e.g. Kylafis and Lamb,

1979) predict that a major component of

the emission lies in the EUV and that only

the high and low energy tails are being ob-

served in the UV and X-ray. The EUV flux

has expected contributions from cyclotron

cooling of the shock heated accretion flow,

radiation from the accretion disk and from

the heated stellar photosphere. An intrigu-

ing possibility is an observable contribu-

tion from steady nuclear burning on the

white dwarf (Weast et al., 1979).

Other potential classes of EUV sources

include accreting neutron stars and hot

subdwarfs. Several sources of diffuse inter-

stellar emission have also been suggested.

The exploration of other regions of the

spectrum encourage the speculation that

new serendipitous sources of EUV emis-

sion will be uncovered during an unbiased

all sky survey.

2. Investigative Approach

The spacecraft concept, as originally

proposed (Bowyer et al., 1975) is that of a

simple free-flying spin-stabilized satellite

comparable in concept to that used for the

Uhuru X-ray all sky survey. The mission

concept is being designed in detail by the

Jet Propulsion Laboratory (McLaughlin et

al., 1980).

The spacecraft will be spun-up to several

rpm after being launched from the Shuttle

and will be placed in a 500 Km orbit. The

design altitude has been selected in consid-

eration of detector background, residual

atmospheric absorption, and satellite life-

time due to orbital decay. Once in its final

orbit the spacecraft will be oriented so that

the orbital geometry is as shown in Figure

1. The spin-vector will be pointed along the

Earth/Sun line, thus insuring that the solar

panels always face the sun and providing a

simple thermal control geometry. Three

telescopes are arranged with their viewing

direction perpendicular to the Sun-Earth

line and sweep out great circles in the sky

with each spacecraft revolution. As the

90 STUART BOWYER AND ROGER F. MALINA

EUVE SATELLITE ORBIT GEOMETRY

l ee

ODED) > eee anna @)

i Rapa 2 cad VB

Fig. 1. The EUV Explorer orbit geometry. The sa-

tellite spin axis is pointed at the sun. The three tele-

scopes pointed normal to the Sun-Earth line carry out

an all sky survey in six months. The fourth, pointed

along the anti-sun line, will make.a deep survey along

the ecliptic.

earth moves around the sun in its yearly

orbit, this circle will gradually move

through the sky, covering the entire celes-

tial sphere in six months. Three different

fixed EUV filters will be used to provide

sky maps with 0.1° pixels in each of the

three different colors. Since the EUV back-

ground radiation is many orders of magni-

tude larger in daytime than at night, data is

only taken at night. this dictates an orbit

with large nightime residence; such orbits

are easily provided by the Shuttle.

At night the primary diffuse background

is at 304 A, the result of sunlight res-

onantly scattered from singly ionized he-

lium trapped in the Earth’s plasmasphere

(Paresce et al., 1974a) and at 584 A, the re-

sult of sunlight resonantly scattered from

neutral helium in the local interstellar me-

dium (Paresce et al., 1974b). In the anti-so-

lar direction, however, the HelII 304A

background is almost completely absent

(Paresce et al., 1981). Hence a telescope

pointed along the anti-sun vector will have

far more sensitivity for point sources. Such

an alignment is presented naturally in the

adopted geometry by pointing a fourth tel-

escope along the spacecraft spin axis. Al-

though this telescope will scan only a small

part of the sky in the ecliptic plane, the

lower background and longer observing

times will allow a higher sensitivity to be

achieved and will provide a valuable in-

sight into the types of sources which might

be discovered in a higher sensitivity follow

up mission. For example, if no new classes

of sources were discovered in this represent-

ative sample and if effectively the EUV ho-

rizon has been reached in the less sensitive

all sky survey, then it would be fairly

argued that a follow up higher sensitivity

all sky search would be of less importance

than detailed studies of the sources found

in the first survey.

To achieve maximum sensitivity for point

sources, measures must be taken to reduce

the remaining nighttime background. In

addition, every care must be taken to ex-

clude the geocoronal Lyman alpha line at

1216 A. One approach would have been to

use a high altitude orbit as proposed by

ESA (ESA Report, 1979). The cheaper ap-

proach which has been adopted is to use

thin film filters which will, in addition,

provide spectral information on sources.

The complete EUV band can be divided

into specific bandpasses through the use of

thin metallic and plastic filters. The specific

choice of filters will be made based on

scientific usefulness, space-qualified filter

materials, as well as the available space-

craft telemetry rate. The survey sensitivity

is a direct function of this telemetry rate

since it dictates the amount of acceptable

geocoronal background leakage through

non-ideal filters. In principle, one could

employ a single telescope with a wheel with

numerous filters in front of a single focal

plane detector as is being used on ESA’s

EXOSAT detector. A major problem, how-

ever, 1S ensuring a reliable free-turning

wheel which provides a mechanical barrier

to all forms of charged particles. As a con-

sequence, we have opted to employ three

separate telescopes each with a fixed differ-

ent EUV filter. A magnetic broom is used

to reject higher energy particles which are

transmitted by the filters. A wide bandpass

filter will be used for the higher sensitivity

spin-asis telescope. This multiple telescope

design provides a great deal of inherent re-

dundancy ensuring that single point fail-

ures will not completely disable the mission.

THE EXTREME ULTRAVIOLET EXPLORER 91

3. Status of EUVE Development

EUVE science instrumentation has

reached a high level of maturity with the

completion of a full-scale engineering model

of the telescope. A schematic of this tele-

scope is provided in Figure 2 (Bowyer et al.,

1981a) and a picture of the mirror with its

metering structure is shown in Figure 3.

This instrument is currently undergoing

full environmental testing to verify the

configuration.

The primary result of the development

program is that no major instrumentation

changes have resulted; each of the four

Fig. 2. Schematic of one of the EUVE telescopes.

The grazing incidence optics brings the EUV image to

a focus on the detector located inside the vacuum

enclosure.

Fig. 3. Prototype optics and center tube being in-

stalled in calibration tank.

EUVE telescopes is essentially identical to

those originally proposed for AO 6/7

(Bowyer et al., 1975). All fabrication pro-

cesses and vendors have now been identi-

fied for critical components. As was ex-

pected, no new technology will be required. -

The development study has resulted in sev-

eral improvements in instrumentation, dis-

cussed below, which will increase the relia-

bility and sensitivity of the telescopes as

well as ensure the rapid development of

flight instrumentation.

Optics

The instrument includes a 40cm diame-

ter grazing incidence optic. The types of

optics which could be used for this mission,

the theoretical rationale for the final choice

and practical fabrication details have been

examined and discussed in detail (see Mal-

ina et al., 1980). An intensive study of

possible new surface equations concluded

that the originally proposed Wolter-

Schwarzschild designs are best suited to the

EUVE goals (Cash et al., 1979b). A proto-

type mirror has been fabricated. Detailed

testing has verified that it meets the design

specifications. The fabrication process con-

sists of diamond-turning a forged alumi-

num blank to obtain a mirror figure accu-

rate to +10 micrometers. The diamond-

turning has been carried out at Lawrence

Livermore Laboratories (Byran et al., 1973).

92 STUART BOWYER AND ROGER F. MALINA

Based on the success of this prototype, the

flight instruments will be figured in a sim-

ilar way. Following figuring, the mirror is

plated with .15 mil of nickel and lapped to

achieve a low-scatter surface. This lapping

is rapid and inexpensive since it involves no

refiguring.

Several materials have been considered

for the final mirror surface (Malina et al.,

1978). Nickel has been found to be prefera-

ble at the shorter wavelengths while gold

enhances the reflectivity at the longer ones.

One thousand angstroms of gold has been

electroplated onto the existing proto-optic.

The optic is equipped with strip heaters

which will be used to warm the mirrors dur-

ing an initial spacecraft outgassing period

to minimize condensation of volatiles.

Detectors

As originally proposed, the detectors

will be large microchannel plate (MCP) ar-

rays used ina chevron configuration. This

type of detector was flown on a Berkeley

airglow spectrometer on the P78-1 mission

(Bowyer et al., 1981b) and is similar to

those used in the High Resolution Imager

on the Einstein Observatory. The devel-

opment program has consisted of the fabri-

cation of a prototype detector, while, in par-

allel, a lifetesting study of MCP’s has led to

final specification of the MCP’s and selec-

tion of vendors. The MCP is coupled to a

two-dimensional imaging anode. As part

of this study, two types of anodes have been

fully developed. The first of these is the rani-

con (Lampton and Paresce, 1974) where

the MCP’s are proximity coupled to a two

dimensional resistive anode. In operation

the electron cloud from a detected MCP

event is intercepted by the anode; the

charge drains off the anode into four am-

plifiers connected to each of the four

corners. The x and y position of each event

is then determined by the relative charge

on each of the amplifiers. Anodes with a

variety of geometries have been fabri-

cated in house and with commercial ven-

dors. The associated electronics consists of

four low noise charge amplifiers developed

for the HEAO A-2 cosmic X-ray experi-

ment and pulse position analysis circuits.

The system can be view real-time ona CRT

screen or fed directly into a computer.

One disadvantage of the ranicon is that

the use of uniform square or rectangular

resistors leads to inherent image distortion.

Although this distortion is fixed for a given

anode geometry and can be removed in

subsequent post processing, this is an ex-

pensive and time consuming step. An im-

proved version of the resistive anode which

reduces this problem has been developed

by us (Lampton and Carlson, 1979) and is

based on rectifying the equipotential sur-

faces by controlled resistive termination of

the edges of the anode.

An alternative to the distortionless anode

discussed above has been developed in our

laboratory and has now been qualified for

flight. (Martin et al., 1981). In this anode

the position encoding is carried out by

charge division of charges collected by a

series of wedge-and-strip conductors. This

system has the advantage of requiring only

three amplifiers, is inherently distortionless

and can be fabricated by standard circuit

board techniques. There is no thermal

noise associated with resistive elements,

allowing rapid charge collection to be car-

ried out with high resolution. For the

EUVE application, with a low count rate

and modest pixel requirement, the choice

between the resistive anode and the wedge-

and-strip will be made on the basis of relia-

bility, availability of vendors, overall per-

formance and cost.

Filters

A full development program of the flight

complement of filters is underway. Se-

lected filters have been drawn from com-

mercially available and space qualified

materials used in various solar, atmos-

pheric and celestial experiments. In addi-

tion, a restricted number of new filter com-

binations which offer substantially in-

creased sensitivity have been studied. Proto-

type filter holders have been designed, built

and qualified. The three filters for flight are

expected to be:

THE EXTREME ULTRAVIOLET EXPLORER 93

1. Parylene: Parylene N is a plastic ma-

terial which is vacuum deposited like a me-

tal. Its thickness has been optimized using a

computer modelling of the EUV back-

ground. The effective bandpass is in the

hard EUV which is excellent in the study of

sources in the transition region between

soft X-rays and the EUV. This is the band-

pass with the largest visibility through the

ISM. The turn-on wavelength is determined

by the design of the optics.

2. Aluminum: Aluminum has been the

workhorse of EUV astronomy; it is sensi-

tive from 180 to 600 A, yet opaque to the

ultraviolet. When used in combination

with a thin layer of carbon, the 304A

throughput can be reduced thereby increas-

ing the overall signal to noise.

3. Tin: Tin has an excellent window

from 500-750 A. Its largest drawback is

the presence in the center of the bandpass

of the strong 585 A background line.

The most striking failing of the filter

complement described above is the lack of

a filter to cover the 350-500 A band with

high sensitivity. This central region of the

EUV has great scientific potential because

it is at a sufficiently short wavelength to

allow reasonable visibility through the ISM.

A study of potential new filter materials

has resulted in the selection of antimony

and titanium as useful materials. An opti-

mized sandwich combination of these has

been developed which excludes both the

304 A and 584A lines and provides a

strong filter which is resistant to degrada-

tion. Several of these filters have been fab-

ricated are are being qualified.

A plot of the overall effective area of the

telescopes with the filters discussed above

is shown in Figure 4. The exact effective

area will be determined by the final calibra-

tion of the engineering model, together

with the filter thicknesses optimized for the

telemetry rate.

Mechanical Elements

In addition to the optical elements of the

instrument, engineering units of all electro-

- mechanical components have been devel-

oped. The front aperture is protected by a

AL/C

0.1 Sn

oe \ \

200 400 600 800

WAVELENGTH (A)

EFFECTIVE AREA (CM?)

Fig. 4. Effective area of scanning telescopes with

several possible thin film bandpasses. The deepsurvey

telescope uses an aluminum filter optimized to view

down the earth’s shadow cone.

two segment dust cover which will be kept

closed during the initial outgassing period

and allows the optics cavity to be kept

purged during all ground operations. The

detector and filters are housed in an evacu-

ated box with a motorized door. This box

allows the detectors to be operated during

all ground operations, ensures the calibra-

tion stability of the filters and photocathode

and eliminates accoustic loads on the

fragile detector elements during launch.

Finally, a sun shutter has been developed

which covers the detector in case of loss of

spacecraft pointing and exposure to solar

flux. This shutter will also be used for car-

rying out measurements of the internal

background of the detector. Figure 5 shows

the assembled focal plane assembly.

Mission Sensitivity

We can compute the overall sensitivity of

the telescope with a fair assurance of accu-

racy. For this computation we have as-

sumed 5000 seconds of exposure time to

each point on the sky. This exposure would

be achieved in an average sky location ina

one-year mission in which 40% of each

orbit was useful for EUV data collection.

Due to the motion of the spacecraft spin

plane, the exposure coverage is not entirely

uniform; the exposure would be somewhat

less than 5000 seconds in the ecliptic plane

94 STUART BOWYER AND ROGER F. MALINA

\ \

Fig. 5. Focal plane assembly including vacuum

enclosure, vacuum box door and sun shutter.

and substantially greater at the ecliptic

poles. The spin axis directed telescope

would accumulate about 50,000 seconds on

field points near the ecliptic plane.

These fluxes have been plotted in Figure

6 as functions of wavelength or photon

energy. There the curve marked “all-sky

scan”’ spans the three EUV bands defined

by filters of Sb, Al-C, and Pa; the curve

marked ‘‘deep survey”’ is the spin axis tele-

scope. It is clear that the proposed instru-

ment’s all-sky sensitivity is between 100

and 3000 times greater than would be re-

quired to detect HZ43.

The nominal sensitivity of the Berkeley

Apollo-Soyuz instrument also has been

lev 10 100 kev

Fries. 5 Sk Bl Sea learn =

OA0-3

——— ae

23 TD-1A

24 aN

LOG Fy

ALL SKY

SCAN

- a

Sie AQ-A2

DEEP SURVEY

ee ee

10,000 1000 100 lO A

Fig. 6. Overall sensitivity of the EUV Explorer all

sky survey compared with various other missions.

sketched in Figure 6. The sensitivities of the

three scanning telescopes range from over

ten to over one hundred times that of the

Apollo-Soyuz instrument. The spin axis

telescope will survey about 7% of the sky

with about one thousand times the sensitiv-

ity of the Apollo-Soyuz instrument.

It is also of interest to compare the base-

line configuration’s minimum detectable

fluxes with measurements which are car-

ried out in contiguous portions of the spec-

trum. In the ultraviolet band (1000-3000 A)

the Princeton Experiment Package on board

OAO-3 is indicated as is that of the TD-1A

satellite. The IVE sensitivity is comparable

to that of the long wavelength EUVE

bandpass.

In the soft X-ray band (10-100 A), the

HEAO-1 spacecraft has furnished high

sensitivity sky survey data. The corre-

sponding minimum detectable flux is shown

in Figure 6; it is comparable to the min-

imum detectable flux values for the EUVE

survey.

The largest ground-based optical obser-

vatories can reach objects as faint as

my = 22 to 23. It is remarkable that the

proposed EUV survey will reach compara-

ble flux levels of the order 10°* to 10”

erg/cm’> sec A. Consequently, the pro-

posed EUV observatory is comparable

with the National Geographic/Palomar

Sky Survey.

4. Future Prospects

The first priority in EUV Astronomy is

the completion of the all sky survey to be

performed by the EUVE. The systematic

catalog resulting from this survey will pro-

vide the necessary data for targeting and

designing follow on missions. In addition,

the study of the collective parameters of the

various types of emission processes in-

volved. The direct comparison is the cru-

cial role that the Uhuru satellite is playing

in X-ray astronomy.

The next important step is spectroscopy

of individual sources. The Berkeley group

THE EXTREME ULTRAVIOLET EXPLORER 95

has reported spectroscopic observations of

the white dwarf HZ43 with 15 A resolution

from 170 to 500 A (Malina, 1979; Bowyer,

1979); this observation resulted in a posi-

tive detection of the 228 A absorption edge

of HelII. Additional spectroscopic observa-

tions longward of 500 A with 5 A resolu-

tion have been made by the Voyager space-

craft of the hot white dwarfs HZ43 and

G191-B2B (Holberg et al., 1980a, 1980b).

Several other spectroscopic instruments

have been built or are under development

for sounding rocket experiments. Dr. G.

Garmire of Penn State has recently

launched a transmission grating EUV spec-

trometer to observe shortward of 200 A. A

large (1m class) normal incidence mirror

and spectrometer for high resolution ob-

servation longward of 500 A is under de-

velopment by Dr. M. Grewing and co-

workers at the University of Tubingen. For

high resolution observations shortward of

500 A, a large grazing incidence instru-

ment is being built by P. Sanford and L.

Culhane of University College London to-

gether with Dr. A. C. Brinkman of Utrecht.

Proposals for carrying out EUV spectro-

scopy have included using the proposed

solar GRIST instrument for stellar EUV

observations (ESA Report, 1978), and ex-

tending the range of a proposed Far Ultra-

violet Explorer (FUSE) through the EUV.

Other EUVE follow up missions have

also been proposed including deep survey

work, polarization studies and timing stud-

ies. For example, Dr. S. Rappaport of MIT

in collaboration with Dr. K. Pounds of the

University of Leicester is currently ready-

ing for launch a sounding rocket for deep

survey work in the EUV band. Such exper-

iments would be well suited to limited

sortie missions by the Space Shuttle or

Spacelab. |

Acknowledgments

The work described here has been carried

out under NASA grant NAS5-24445. We

acknowledge the essential contributions of

Dr. M. Lampton, Dr. F. Paresce, D. Finley

and G. Penegor of U. C. Berkeley. We also

acknowledge the contributions of a large

number of individuals at Johns Hopkins

Applied Physics Laboratory, Goddard

Space Flight Center and the Jet Propulsion

Laboratory.

References

Anderson, R. C. and Weiler, E. J. 1978. Ap. J. 224, 143.

Bowyer, S. 1979. ‘““EUV Observations of Hot White

Dwarfs”, [AU Colloquium #53, Rochester, NY.

Bowyer, S. et al. 1975. ‘‘Proposal to NASA fora Cos-

mic Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer’, UCBSSL

592/76.

Bowyer, S., Margon, B., Lampton, M., Paresce, F. and

Stern, R. 1977. Apollo-Soyuz Test Project Sum-

mary Science Report, NASA SP-412, Vol. 1, pp.

49-70.

Bowyer, S., Malina, R. F., Lampton, M., Finley, D.,

Paresce, F. and Penegor, G. 198la. SPIE 279, in

press.

Bowyer, S., Kimble, R., Paresce, F., Lampton, M. and

Penegor, G. 1981b. Applied Optics, in press.

Bryan, J. B., Donaldson, R. R., McClure, E. R., Whe-

lan, H. R. and Clouser, R. W. 1973. SPIE, August

1973:

Cash, W., Bowyer, S. and Lampton, M. 1979a. Astron.

Astroph. 80, 67.

Cash, W., Shealey, D. L. and Underwood, J. H. 1979b.

Proc. Soc. Phot. Opt. Instr. Eng. 184.

Cordova, F. A., Mason, K. O. and Nelson, J. E. 1981.

Ap. J. 245, in press.

Cruddace, R., Paresce, F., Bowyer S. and Lampton, M.

1974. Ap. J. 187, 497.

Dupree, A. K. 1981. Center for Astrophysics Preprint

Series, No. 1452.

ESA Report DP/PS(78)11, Paris. 1978. ‘‘Grazing In-

cidence Solar Telescope GRIST; A Report on the

Phase A Study”.

ESA. 1979. ‘Extreme Ultraviolet/X-ray Sky Survey

Mission, Phase A Study’’.

Haisch, B. M., Linsky, J. L., Lampton, M., Paresce, F.,

Margon, B. and Stern, R. 1977. Ap. J. (Letters) 213,

L119.

Holberg, J. B., Forrester, W. T. and Broadfoot, A. L.

1980a. B.A.A.S. 12, 872.

Holberg, J. B., Sandel, B. R., Forrester, W. T., Broad-

foot, A. L., Shipman, H. L. and Barry, J. C. 1980b.

Ap. J. (Letters) 242, L119.

Kylafis, N. D. and Lamb, D. Q. 1979. Ap. J. (Letters)

228, L105.

Lampton, M. and Paresce, F. 1974. Rev. Sci. Instr. 45,

1098.

Lampton, M., Margon, B., Paresce, F., Stern, R. and

Bowyer, S. 1976. Ap. J. 203, L71.

Lampton, M., Cash, W., Malina, R. F. and Bowyer, S.

1977. Proc. SPIE 106, 93.

Lampton, M. and Carlson, C. W. 1979. Rev. Sci. Instr.

50(9), 1093.

Malina, R. F. and Cash, W. 1978. Applied Optics 17,

3309.

Malina, R. F. 1979. ‘‘Stellar Extreme Ultraviolet Spec-

troscopy’, Ph.D. Thesis, University of California

at Berkeley.

Malina, R. F., Bowyer, S., Finley, D. and Cash, W.

1980. Optical Engineering 19, 211.

Margon, B., Lampton, M., Bowyer, S., Stern, R. and

Paresce, F. 1976. Ap. J. (Letters) 210, L79.

Margon, B. Szkody, P., Bowyer, S., Lampton, M. and

Paresce, F. 1978. Ap. J. 224, 167.

Martin, C., Jelinsky, P., Lampton, M., Malina, R. F.

and Anger, H. O. 1981. Rev. Sci. Instr., in press.

McLaughlin et al. 1980. JPL Report 715-98, ““Extreme

Ultraviolet Explorer: JPL Study Team Report”.

Paresce, F., Bowyer, C. S. and Kumar, S. 1974a. J.

Geophys. Res. 79, 1, 174.

Paresce, F., Bowyer, S. and Kumar, S. 1974b. Ap. J.

187, 633.

Paresce, F. 1977. Earth and Extraterrestrial Sciences 3,

S10

Paresce, F., Fahr, H. and Lay, G. 1981. J. Geophys.

Res. In press.

Raymond, J. C. 1980. Private Communication to A.

K. Dupree.

Sagdeev, R., Kurt, V. and Bertaux, J. 1979. [AU Circ.

3261.

Stern, R., Wang, E. and Bowyer, S. 1978. Ap. J. Suppl.

37, 195.

Weast, G. J., Durisen, R. H., Inamura, J. N., Kylafis,

N. D. and Lamb, D. 1979. In White Dwarfs and Var-

iable Degenerate Stars, IAU Colloq. No. 53 (ed. H.

M. Van Horn and V. Werdemann), U. of Roches-

ter, p. 140.

Stellar Coronal Explorer

G. S. Vaiana

Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Cambridge, MA. USA 02138

and Istituto e Osservatorio Astronomico di Palermo, Italy

I. Overview: The Present Status of Stellar

X-ray Astronomy

This is an opportune time to examine the

status of stellar X-ray astronomy. The end

of the Einstein stellar surveys is in sight,

and we are now in a position to evaluate

their overall content. It is already clear that

what one means by galactic X-ray astron-

omy has dramatically changed asa result of

the Einstein surveys. No longer is galactic

X-ray astronomy a study of relatively un-

usual and rare objects; instead, its purview

has expanded to include virtually all astro-

nomical objects commonly studied by our

optical, radio, or infrared astronomy col-

eagues.

In the following, I would like to briefly

recap the major results of the Einstein stel-

lar surveys, with an eye towards what now

seem to be the crucial unanswered ques-

tions and then sketch for you the outlines

of an explorer-class instrument, called

STCO-EX by us, which we believe will

allow stellar astronomers access to the nec-

essary observations. The key hallmarks of

STCO-EX are an emphasis upon spectros-

copy in the 6-200 Arange, and dedication

in its observing schedule. One should be

aware, of course, that AXAF will have far

superior sensitivity and spectral resolution;

but because of its power, one expects that

stellar dedicated time will be optionally used

to exploit its unique capabilities, such as

very deep probing and very high-resolution

spectroscopy.

Let me begin by showing you what kinds

of stellar objects have now been seen as X-

ray sources. Figure | shows an H-R dia-

gram of stars observed as X-ray sources by

CORONAL EXPLORER

Super-Giants

0388 AD FO GB KO MO M8

Giants

0388 AB FH GB KQ MO M8

Main Sequence

0330 AB FH GH KB MO M8

ry ha 0.90 0.66 1.29 1.80 eet,

0 =

ae = x

as 4 * i -4

_ z

C an

i, om :

ps a* x r

E eC =" .* :

85) og i *

> Sux

ii.

gies : « x g

= *

= a me

O * =

63) % ERE

= =

14 14

* = * |

20 ' 20

-9.60 9.90 9.68 1.29 1.82 2.40

B-V

Fig. 1. H-R diagram for stars observed in the CfA Stellar Survey. (From Vaiana et a/. 1981; see also Harnden

et al. 1980 and Ku and Chanan 1979).

Einstein. Note that one sees the entire main

sequence, much of the giant branch, and

the supergiant branch up to roughly spec-

tral type G. Thus, not only are solar-type

stars X-ray emitters, but so are early-type

stars, well-evolved stars and very young,

pre-main sequence Stars.

Looking at the overall behavior of X-ray

emission throughout the H-R diagram, it

appears that essentially all stars emit in the

98 GUISEPPE VAIANA

range of 107° to 10°? erg s ': and that there is

no discernible difference in X-ray luminos-

ity behavior between stars of similar spec-

tral type but different luminosity class.

What difference there does exist appears to

be tied to spectral type, but only in a gross

sense. That is, there is a distinct difference

in behavior between early-type and late-

type stars, but relatively little difference

within these two very general categories.

What general conclusions can we draw

from these data? It is evident that X-ray

emission is a common (in fact, universal)

stellar attribute; its presence points to the

existence of non-thermal processes in the

outer atmospheres of essentially all stars,

and serves as an essential diagnostic for

these processes. For example, comparison

with published coronal heating models for

late-type stars has led to negative results,

and in the case of acoustic heating, I believe

it is fair to say that Einstein data, in con-

junction with recent OSO-8 solar observa-

tions, exclude such heating as a viable cor-

onal heating process in late-type stars.

What does stellar X-ray emission corre-

late with? Recent studies by Ayres and

Linsky (1980), Walter and Bowyer (1981)

and by Pallavicini et al. (1981) show that

for late-type stars, there is considerable

correlation between X-ray emission and

stellar rotation rate (Figure 2), a correla-

tion consistent with the Ca II rotation rate

correlation found many years ago by

Skumanich. Our group has also examined

the variation of X-ray emission levels with

age and we do in fact discern a general de-

crease of emission levels as late-type stars

evolve, from the T Tauri stage through

main-sequence life. This work is still in

progress.

If one attempts to correlate X-ray emis-

sion levels with the presence (or absence) of

stellar winds, a perhaps surprising result

emerges. Early-type and very young (e.g. T

Tauri) stars, which are known to have large

mass loss rates and associated with ex-

tremely fast winds (of order 2000 km/sec),

are powerful stellar X-ray emitters (Figure

3). In contrast, late-type giants and super-

Ly=1027 (vsin i)?

LOG L, (erg s!)

Oo IVtV

D ill+il

Empty circles: So GO-M5

Filled circles: Sp F7-F8

LOG V sini (kms!)

Fig. 2. Scatter diagram of X-ray luminosities vs.

projected rotational velocities for stars of spectral

type F7-M5; different symbols indicate different lu-

minosity class. (From Pallavicini et a/. 1981).

giants, which also can have large mass loss

rates (but associated with relatively low

terminal velocities) are weak sources com-

parable to the low-mass loss late-type,

main-sequence stars. In the first case, it ap-

pears that X-ray emission may occur be-

cause of the presence of mass loss; in the

C¥G OB2

13066.SEC HRI. .

(20. 1 2 ARO-MINs H—4

Fig. 3. High Resolution Imager observation of the

Cygnus OB2 association, showing the power of the

HRI in resolving and detecting stellar X-ray sources.

_II. The Future: New Directions for Stellar

CORONAL EXPLORER

latter case, it has been argued that X-ray

emission occurs in spite of mass loss.

To summarize, Einstein will soon have

completed the exploratory or discovery

phase of stellar X-ray astronomy. Briefly

put, all stars are X-ray sources; why they

are sources remains unknown.

In the course of this discovery program,

Einstein has managed to awaken great in-

terest in X-ray astronomy throughout the

stellar astronomy community. The Ein-

stein guest observer catalog reads like a

Who’s Who in stellar astronomy and in-

cludes over 110 separate observing pro-

grams; we find UV, optical, radio and IR

stellar observers, as well as theorists, all

now appearing in the guise of X-ray as-

tronomers. Clearly, X-ray astronomy has

joined the main stream of stellar astron-

omy, and has become one of its powerful

observational tools. :

Now, why should stellar astronomers

look towards the X-ray domain? First, and

most obviously, the non-thermal processes

which led to a hot circumstellar or coronal

stellar envelope produce material which

dominantly emits at soft X-ray wave-

lengths; in order to observe coronae, one

might as well look at them in the appropri-

ate wavelength region. Second, for many

kinds of stars (particularly the early-type

and very young stars), one can use X-ray

emission as a probe of a much cooler am-

bient gas by means of soft X-ray absorp-

tion studies. Such studies have in fact been

attempted with Einstein using the IPC,

OGS and S’. Third, one can show that of

all the possible diagnostics of non-thermal

stellar emission, the greatest dynamic range

is found at X-ray wavelengths and, further-

more, present instrumentation gives suffi-

cient sensitivity to study very large, volume-

limited, samples of stars.

X-ray Astronomy

What then ought to be our next goals in

stellar X-ray astronomy? Now that we

know X-ray emission is common, we seek

to understand its origins; and the hallowed

way of dealing with this problem is to look

towards spectroscopy. We want to carry

out emission measure analyses for coronae

of late-type stars, similar to work in the

solar area; such studies require sufficient

spectral resolution that temperature-sensi-

tive line ratios can be used as detailed coro-

nal thermometers. I have already menti-

oned studies of X-ray absorption by cold

plasma, as for example by cool wind mate-

rial in early-type stars; here we can investi-

gate the ionization structure of the cold

phase by its absorption effects. Given ob-

servations which can yield estimates of

coronal temperatures and emission mea-

sures, one can then carry out correlative

studies: how do coronal properties vary

with luminosity class (effective gravity), ro-

tation rate, spectral type, age? Spectrally

resolved observations also allow access to

abundance analysis. One can then study

the differences between coronal and pho-

tospheric abundances (as observed in the

solar case) throughout the H-R diagram

and in particular study the effects of stellar

age and spectral type on such differences.

Spectroscopic studies are, of course, not

the only type of work that is now of inter-

est. Einstein observations such as that of

Prox Cen (Haisch et al. 1980; Figure 4)

have already given a hint of the usefulness

of coordinated studies of transients in var-

ious wavelength regimes; such studies rep-

resent a valuable future research direction.

Another example is the observation of ac-

tivity-generated flux modulation on rota-

tional or larger time scales. Such studies

were first carried out by Wilson and co-

workers, who used Ca II emission and its

modulation as a tracer of stellar surface ac-

tivity. The large dynamic range of stellar

X-ray emission suggests that similar stud-

ies of, for example, rotational modulation

of stellar X-ray emission, may provide a

powerful tool of stellar rotation rates for

slowly rotating late-type stars. Such studies

would not be hampered by difficulties such

as variable visibility as a function of spec-

tral type.

100 GUISEPPE VAIANA

ALPHA CEN

1166 SEC HRI

24 .ARC-SECs-—4

Fig. 4. (Right) A solar-like flare was observed on Prox Cen using the Einstein Imaging Proportional Counter

(Haisch et al. 1980). The peak temperature of ~2 X 10’ K and X-ray luminosity of ~7 X 10’’ ergs’ are com-

parable to those observed in solar flares in the same passband. (Left) The solar-type stars Alpha Cen A/B are

both resolved as X-ray sources by the Einstein HRI (From Golub et al. 1981).

III. A Stellar Coronal Explorer

We have used these fairly ambitious ob-

serving goals to define the requirements of

a simple, cost-effective dedicated X-ray in-

strument capable of carrying out such stud-

ies. In the space remaining, I present the re-

sults of our analysis and our suggestions

for future stellar X-ray instrumentation.

1. Instrument Description: STCO-EX

First, the demands of temperature and

abundance analysis call for wavelength

resolution of order A/AA ~ 50-200. A

study of the plasma emissivity function

shows that essentially all strong lines from

plasmas at temperatures above ~ 10° K fall

short of 200 A; we thus require wide spec-

tral coverage, ranging from 6 to 200 A.

Second, because high spectral resolution

is obtained at the expense of sensitivity, one

needs long exposure times; and therefore it

is important that spectroscopic studies not

PROX CEN

985 SEC IPC

STEADY

2 ARC-MIN: -F—-

be faced by constant competition with low

(if any) resolution short exposure observa-

tions characteristic of, for example, detec-

tion surveys. This lesson, gained from Ein-

stein experience, implies an observatory

dedicated to spectroscopic studies. Dedica-

tion is also crucial for coordinated observa-

tions with ground-based or other instru-

ments; again, as Einstein has shown, the

ready possibility for observing flexibility is

essential for carrying out such studies suc-

cessfully.

Finally, one may ask for the optimal

spectroscopic technique. The goal is highest

efficiency for a given resolution. In the re-

solution range just discussed, we believe

that transmission grating technology now

provides the optimal solution. First, as has

been shown in actual flight by the Max

Planck group, one can achieve high trans-

mission efficiencies even at high disper-

sions. Second, transmission gratings allow

one to obtain simultaneous dispersed spec-

CORONAL EXPLORER 101

tra for several point sources in the field-of-

view; and as stars are effectively X-ray

point sources, transmission gratings can be

very effectively used in fields such as the

Hyades, Orion, etc.

Figure 5 shows the arrangement of the

major system components of the STCO-

EX spectroscopic telescope. These include

a nested pair of grazing incidence mirrors,

followed immediately by a movable coma-

corrected transmission grating. In the focal

plane there is a translation stage, on which

are mounted the focal plane instruments.

For the baseline design these include a

High Resolution Imager of the HEAO-2

type and an optional Position-Sensitive

Proportional Counter.

The effective area of the STCO-EX mir-

rors as a function of wavelength is shown in

Figure 6. The two curves show the results

to be expected with either gold or nickel

coatings and they show the relative benefits

of both. We are also looking into the feasi-

bility of mixed coatings which would pro-

vide the best qualities of both; this will be

one of our early phase B studies.

If we now look more closely at the tele-

scope resolving power as a function of

wavelength, we see that the quantity \/AA

is at least 50 at short wavelengths and

reaches a broad maximum of about 200

near 50 A for the 2000 line grating and near

110 A for the 1000 line grating (Figure 7).

We thus have excellent spectral capability

75cm

THERMAL

BAFFLE

MIRROR ASSEMBLY

CURVED

MOVABLE ~

TRANSMISSION

GRATING

iain Le

700}- ——— NICKEL

GOLD

Ni L EDGES]

300;— Y i

EFFECTIVE AREA (cm?)

200} | =

° 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0) 100

WAVELENGTH (A)

Fig. 6. Effective area of the STCOEX mirrors

(2-mirror configuration); combined Ni/Au coatings

could provide an ideal combination of both surfaces’

beneficial properties.

over most of the instrument’s full spectral

range, with the implied scientific advan-

tages already discussed earlier.

A summary description of this instru-

ment is provided in Table 1.

2. Scientific Program of STCO-EX

What sorts of things can be done with

this instrument? To appreciate its power,

I’ve chosen a particularly well-studied star,

Capella (Cash et al. 1978; Haisch & Linsky

1976). The low-resolution IPC spectrum

shows Capella to be fairly unexceptional;

with this resolution, one can only attempta

single-temperature fit. Capella has also

been extensively observed by the Einstein

Objective Grating Spectrometer (OGS);

HRI WITH

FILTER

INSTRUMENT

TRANSPORT

PSPC

(IN OFF-AXIS

POSITION)

Fig. 5. Schematic outline of the major STCOEX system components. The HRI is of the type used by Einstein

_and the design allows for the addition of both an inner and an outer mirror.

102 GUISEPPE VAIANA

_——_ 1000 Ip/mm_

HRI

2000 Ip/mm

HRI

2000 Ip/mm

PSPC

RESOLVING POWER \/A

1000 !Ip/mm

SPC :

P ————

——

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Lite) 120

WAVELENGTH (A)

Fig. 7. Effective resolving power of the STCOEX

using either a 1000 1p/mm or 2000 Ip/mm grating

and an HRI.

the total system efficiency is not high, so

that the spectrum is fairly noisy.

A substantial improvement in sensitivity

is provided by the Einstein Solid State

Spectrometer (S°); this spectrum is of suffi-

cient quality that a two-temperature com-

ponent model can be fit; and in fact Holt et

al. 1981 have shown that such a fit gives a

significantly better account of Capella’s

spectrum than the aforementioned single-

temperature models. Their derived best-

Table 1.—Instrument Summary

fit temperatures are T =6 X 10°K and

T, =4.60X< 107 K.

How does the performance of the pro-

posed instrument, using a 2000 lpm grat-

ing, compare? Figure 8 shows the calcu-

lated Capella spectrum due only to the

low-temperature component for an expo-

sure time of 10° seconds. This calculation

takes into account the telescope effective

area and resolution, the measured trans-

mission efficiency of gratings presently

available, and the efficiency of presently

available HRI detectors. It is interesting to

note that wavelength resolution at high en-

ergies (A S 30 A) is limited primarily by

the telescope resolution, rather than by the

grating; for example, below 25 A, one re-

quires better than 1” spatial resolution to

attain the wavelength resolution of a 2000

1 pm grating at a typical 32”/ A dispersion.

Note also that if one wishes to do spectros-

copy at wavelengths longer than ~ 100 A,

it is convenient to use a 1000 1pm grating,

rather than the one shown previously.

Table 2 summarizes the kinds of studies

one can conduct at this sensitivity and reso-

lution. Finally, we mention the number of

stars which can actually be observed at this

OPTICAL SYSTEM: Wolter Type I Grazing-Incidence

MIRROR APERTURES

COLLECTING AREA

SEGMENT LENGTH

GRAZING ANGLE

SPATIAL RESOLUTION

FOCAL PLANE DETECTORS:

High Resolution Imager-(HRI)

PIXEL SIZE

FIELD OF VIEW

65, 75 cm

550 cm? at 44 A

50 cm

4 arcseconds

15 um (1.4 arcsec)

38 arcmin

Position-Sensitive Proportional Counter—(PSPC)

SPATIAL RESOLUTION

ENERGY RESOLUTION

FIELD OF VIEW

TRANSMISSION GRATINGS:

GRATING PERIODS

DISPERSION

SPECTRAL RESOLUTION

SPECTRAL RANGE

0.2-0.5 mm.

50% at 1 keV.

1000 Ilp/mm

2000 Ip/mm ;

16 arcsec/ A 0.2 mm/ A

32 arcsec/ A = 0.4 mm/A

200 at 44 A

6-200 A with HRI

6-100 A with PSPC

CORONAL EXPLORER

STCO-EX - 2808 |Iines/mm groting - 3808 Angstroms Be + 508 Angstroms Corbon

Log(T) = 6.88 , Bin size = 8.26

= Log(EM) = 59.0, Dist. (pc) = 18.0 Exposure time = 10 sec.

6.04

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“).00 18.88 30.96 45.68 68.88 75.88 98.88 185.88 126.66 135.88 158.88

Wovelength, Angstroms

165.88

168.08

195.68

Fig. 8. Calculated observed spectrum for Capella using the STCOEX transmission grating and taking into

account the mirror, filter and detector responses. We have taken the conservative assumption of a grating

transmission equal to that now available and already proven in existing instruments.

Table 2.—Stellar X-Ray Spectroscopy from STCO-EX.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONAL OBJECTIVES:

1. Plasma parameter determination of hot plasma associated with stars throughout the

H-R diagram: temperature, density, abundances.

2. Correlation studies of—

a) Plasma temperature and spectral type, luminosity class, rotation rate, age, mass loss

rate.

b) Variability of high and low temperature components with luminosity and param-

eters of “underlying” star.

SCIENTIFIC OBJECTIVES:

1. To understand the dependence of coronal plasma parameters on the parameters of the

“‘underlying”’ star as a test for theories of coronal formation.

2. To understand the relation between coronal formation, mass loss and stellar

despinning.

3. To understand the elemental abundance contribution of stellar mass loss to the ISM.

4. To obtain the spectral dependence of the stellar contribution to the soft x-ray

background.

sensitivity and resolution. Assuming a point

source line sensitivity of ~ Loo" erg scm”,

well within STCO-EX’s capability, the weak-

est solar-type stars can be seen out to ~5

pc, so that the volume (rather than flux)

limited sample would contain ~60 stars.

The total number of stars which are acces-

sible for spectroscopic studies is, of course,

far larger, in fact is in excess of 1000 stars;

this sample will be biased towards the

brighter sources. Thus STCOEX would,

for example, be able to carry out spectro-

scopic observations of the Hyades at expo-

sure times of 3 X 10° sec.

References

Ayres, T. and J. L. Linsky. 1980. Ap. J. 241, 279.

Cash, W., S. Bowyer, P. A. Charles, M. Lampton, G.

Garmire and G. Riegler. 1978. Ap. J. (Letters) 223,

Ll.

Golub, L., F. R. Harnden, Jr., R. Pallavicini, R. Rosner

and G. S. Vaiana. 1981. Ap. J. (in press).

Haisch, B. M. and J. L. Linsky. 1976. Ap. J. (Letters)

205, L39.

Haisch, B. M., J. L. Linsky, F. R. Harnden, Jr., R.

Rosner, F. Seward and G. S. Vaiana. 1980. Ap. J.

(Letters) 242, L99.

Harden, F. R. Jr., G. Branduardi, M. Elvis, P. Goren-

stein, J. Grindlay, J. P. Pye, R. Rosner, K. Topka and

G. S. Vaiana. 1979. Ap. J. (Letters) 234, L51.

Holt, S.S., N. E. White, R. H. Becker, E. A. Boldt, R.

F. Mushotzky, P. J. Serlemitsos and B. W. Smith.

1979. Ap. J. (Letters) 234, L65.

Ku, W. H.-M. and G. A. Chanan. 1979. Ap. J. (Letters)

234, LS9.

Pallavicini, R., L. Golub, R. Rosner, G. S. Vaiana, T.

Ayres, and J. L. Linsky. 1981. Ap. J. (in press).

Vaiana, G. S. et al. 1981. Ap. J. (in press).

Walter, F. M. and S. Bowyer. 1981. Ap. J. (Letters) (in

press).

The European Programme in X-Ray Astronomy

K. A. Pounds

X-ray Astronomy Group, Department of Physics, University of Leicester,

Leicester, England.

Introduction

An active interest in the study of non-

solar sources of X-rays by scientists in sev-

eral European countries dates back to the

early sixties. In late 1961—before the dis-

covery of Sco X-l—a proposal was made

to NASA by the University College Lon-

don and Leicester University groups, to fly

a Set of small non-imaging X-ray telescopes

on OAO-C (later to become the Coperni-

cus satellite). Several rocket-borne pay-

loads were successfully flown from 1967

onwards by the two British groups, mainly

in Australia, and by scientists from Utrecht

and Leiden. In 1968/9 plans were agreed,

in collaboration with NASA, to build the

British Ariel-5 and Dutch ANS satellites,

104

the former being entirely devoted to X-ray

astronomy and the latter being a joint

X-ray and UV astronomy payload. Refer-

ence to the successful outcome of Coperni-

cus, Ariel-5 and ANS may be found in the

accompanying paper by Professor Clark.

Now, in 1980, X-ray astronomy remains a

major interest in Britain and Holland,

while an impressive programme has been

developed in Germany (ref. paper by Pro-

fessor Trtiimper) and strong scientific inter-

est exists elsewhere, particularly in Italy.

At present, the British Ariel-6 satellite

is the only operational X-ray astronomy

mission from Europe. In addition to a

large cosmic ray experiment, Ariel-6 car-

ries X-ray detectors from UCL and Leices-

ter which cover the energy bands 0.15-1.5

THE EUROPEAN PROGRAMME IN X-RAY ASTRONOMY 105

keV and 1.5-50 keV respectively. Despite

an unusual number of spacecraft problems,

both experiments are functioning correctly

and have so far provided timing and spec-

tral data on a variety of galactic and extra-

galactic sources. Many of these results will

be published over the next few months, and

I intend to spend my limited time describ-

ing the next mission in X-ray astronomy

from Europe—indeed the first from the

European Space Agency (ESA)—namely,

EXOSAT. This mission, approved in 1974,

evolved from the HELOS proposal to fly

an X-ray detector ina highly eccentric orbit

to observe the lunar occultation of specific

X-ray sources. This evolution has seen a

substantial development of the payload

which now will emphasize the non-

occultation observations, while retaining

the choice of orbit and occultation

capability. }

1. EXOSAT. Spacecraft and payload

Figure 1 shows an artist’s impression of

EXOSAT and Figure 2 an exploded view of

the spacecraft and payload elements. Evi-

dent are the rotatable solar array, antennae

and the X-ray instruments. The main fea-

tures of the spacecraft are a precise 3-axis

attitude control system and a hydrazine

thruster for orbital adjustment to optimise

occultation observations. The principal char-

acteristics of the spacecraft systems are out-

lined in Table 1.

The experiment payload is designed to

be effective in both occultation and ‘offset

pointing’ observations. The Medium Energy

Detector Array (MEDA) is a set of eight

proportional counters with ~1800 cm?

post-collimator area. The detectors are

mounted in four pairs, each quadrant being

adjustable in relative alignment to give a

flat-topped field of view (for occultation

observations) or independent off-source

background measurement at any time. The

latter facility is considered particularly de-

sirable in view of the high and variable par-

ticle rates that will be encountered in parts

of the chosen orbit. Since the MEDA sensi-

tivity for observing faint sources, particu-

larly in positioning them from an occulta-

tion detection, is strongly dependent on the

background count rates, both 5-sided anti-

coincidence and rise-time discrimination

have been included in the detector design.

Each detector is of multi-anode construc-

tion with a front cell filled with Ar/CO,

and separated by a Be window from a rear

Xe/CO> cell. These cells respond respec-

tively over the energy bands 1.5-15 keV

and 6-60 keV. Field collimators of 45 X 45

arc min (square, FWHM) in front of each

detector are made from specially moulded

microchannel plate arrays, with the inner

surfaces etched to remove reflection effects.

The Low Energy Imaging Telescope

(LEIT) is in fact two identical Wolter I type

reflecting telescopes, each having two nested

sets of paraboloid-hyperboloid mirrors.

The basic parameters of each telescope are

listed in Table 2. A severe payload weight

restriction led to development of light-

weight mirrors and those for EXOSAT are

made of Be and weigh only 7 kg per tele-

scope. The technique of manufacture is by

replication in which a polished master sur-

face is gold coated and transferred onto the

Be substrate via an adhesive epoxy layer.

This method has been described earlier

(De Korte, 1979) and X-ray tests on the

EXOSAT qualification model have given

encouraging results. Further tests to be

carried out early in 1981 at the PANTER

X-ray facility in Germany will determine

the performance of the flight mirrors. The

results are not expected to differ substan-

tially from those given in Table 2 and used

in Figures 10-12, which are based on the

earlier QM data.

The Gas Scintillation proportional Coun-

ter (GSPC) is included in the EXOSAT

payload to provide an improved spectros-

copic capability for bright sources. Al-

though the GSPC has an effective, post-

collimator area of only ~165 cm’ it has

approximately a factor of two better energy

resolution than the MEDA. Measured

values include 11% (FWHM) at 6 keV and

3.5% at 60 keV.

The GSPC has an identical 45 X 45 arc

min(FWHM) field collimator to the MEDA

and has a sensitive bandwidth of 2-80 keV.

KENNETH A. POUNDS

Fig. 1. Artist’s impression of EXOSAT in its orbital configuration.

THE EUROPEAN PROGRAMME IN X-RAY ASTRONOMY 107

GAS SUPPLY FOR

FOCAL PLANE DETECTORS FF Ge

Pa &

LOW ENERGY IMAGING

HEEESCOPES (1*2)

GRATING

FOCAL PLANE

DETECTORS

(STAR TRACKER )

WOLTER I X-RAY OPTICS

GAS SUPPLY FOR

FOCAL PLANE DETECTORS

EXPERIMENT ELECTRONICS

taney, rnd» BOXES, MARKED.

GAS SCINTILLATION

PROPORTIONAL COUNTER

ofc MEDIUM ENERGY

@ PROPORTIONAL COUNTER

ARRAY

et ge*.

WF Oe ota es.

{HYDRAZINE TANK )

( PROPANE TANKS )

—

(S-BAND ANTENNAIE) )

Fig. 2. Exploded view of EXOSAT showing carbon fibre/aluminium honeycomb structure and main pay-

load and spacecraft elements.

2. EXOSAT performance capabilities

2.1 Occultation mode. The chosen orbit

allows EXOSAT to observe lunar occulta-

tions over ~20 percent of the celestial

sphere, including the galactic centre region.

The occultation mode is shown schemat-

ically in Figure 3. Prior to an occultation

observation, the hydrazine thruster is used

with the spacecraft near perigee to optimise

the lunar latitude of the subsequent X-ray

source passage; the case of 45 degrees is

shown in the figure.

Because of its larger photon collection

area the MEDA will be the most useful in-

strument in occultation observations. For

a point source flux of S (1-15 keV) anda

corresponding background count rate of B,

108 KENNETH A. POUNDS

Table 1.—The EXOSAT spacecraft

@ 380 kg space craft due for launch in 1982 with an Ariane (or Delta) launcher.

@ Orbit perpendicular to ecliptic plane with apogee 2 X 10° km, perigee 500 km and pe-

riod 4.125 days (99 hours).

@ S-band telemetry with 8 kb/s data rate in direct contact with Villafranca ground sta-

tion (up to 80 hours per orbit).

@ 3-axis attitude control, using propane gas, sun sensors, and gyro reference with star

tracker up-dating:

gyro drift

star tracker

limit cycle +5 arc sec

Slew rates 42 deg/hr (and X2, X4, X8). Propane gas (13 kg) adequate for up to 2 X 10° targets.

0.0005 deg/hr (used in occultations)

~2 arc sec (40 arc sec on Moon)

@ Orbit control with hydrazine thruster. Adequate for up to 90 occultations.

@ On board computer (OBC) serves spacecraft and payload.

Table 2.—Basic parameters of each imaging telescope.

90 cm?

109 cm

Geometric area

Focal length

Field of view

On-axis resolution

2 deg (FWHM)

~5 arc sec (FWHM)

~10 arc sec (HEW)

@ Average grazing angles of the inner (1.5 deg) and outer (1.8 deg) mirror shells yield an

upper energy cut-off ~2 keV.

@ Each focal plane contains:

a position sensitive proportional counter giving (FWHM) resolution ~45 arc sec

at 1.5 keV and ~180 arc sec at 0.28 keV.

a channel multiplier array giving (FWHM) resolution ~10 arc sec, independent

of energy.

a filter wheel with 4 filters and 1 open position provide observing bands between

—().04 — 2:keV.

@® A transmission grating (500 or 1000 lines/mm) may be swung behind the mirrors for

spectroscopy of strong sources.

@ A fixed UV filter is available to determine possible contamination at A = 1100 A.

the position determination of the source in

eclipse by the moon is determined (at 5

sigma) by the relation

St? >5(S + 2B)”

where t is the interval taken to detect the

source eclipse. Since for observations near

apogee the moon’s relative velocity is ~0.5

arc sec/sec the positional accuracy @ is

given by

12:5,(S 7.283)

g= Ya Ear ay arc sec

0:93 (335.7 fh 42))

A= aie ENT RT

arc sec

where the source has a Crab-like spectrum

and a 2-6 keV flux of f milliCrabs. Figure 4

shows the resulting occultation perform-

ance for a predicted value of B ~ 200,

cts/sec, based on Apollo and COS-B meas-

ured particle rates and the ~99% rejection

efficiency of the EXOSAT prototype de-

tectors.

2.2 Offset pointing mode. In this mode

all three detector arrays will view a source

or source field continuously for up to 80

hours. Alternatively, rapid slewing can fa-

cilitate observation of many separate sour-

ces ina single EXOSAT orbit (up to an av- .

erage of 10 per orbit for a 2.5 year mission

duration).

THE EUROPEAN PROGRAMME IN X-RAY ASTRONOMY 109

X RAY Pp

SOURCE QINTING

Seen

Lay

77 DIRECTION |

(OF OCCULTATION \

PATH \ e

ENTRANCE silbpia

: aN \ \

Be \ 4

A \\ \ 4) EQUATOR

“| \ i

\ > NY s S J

\ oy <r ALTERNATIVE

\ \TRACE OF

vee \X RAY SOURCE

\rownr ‘ LUNAR ORBIT

\ Se

peeb) ss O

EFFECTIVE OCCULTATION

TRACE OF X RAY SOURCE

EARTH ORBIT

Fig. 3. Schematic of the lunar occultation observing mode for EXOSAT.

MEDIUM ENERGY EXPERIME'.”

COLLIMATOR FIELD OF VIEW =45°!2700") FWHM

10?

3A0338-17

3A04390*05

£U0531-CS

SPACECRAFT PLUS

LUNAR UNCERTAINTIES

POSITIONAL ERROR 6 (arc seconds)

ee; 109 1! 102

SOURCE STRENGTH (2-6keV) mili crabs

Fig. 4. Source location accuracy determined by

the MEDA from observation of lunar occultation.

It is likely the MEDA will be mainly em-

ployed in the measurement of spectra and

variability of known sources, although the

somewhat lower confusion limit than

Uhuru, Ariel-5 and HEAO-1 will allow

useful search or survey studies of selected

optical, IR and radio objects. Figures 5 and

6 indicate the predicted MEDA sensitivi-

ties for source detection and variability

measurement in the two main energy bands.

It is clear that the available sensitivity,

combined with the long uninterrupted view-

ing capability of EXOSAT, offers a power-

ful facility for the study of all types of

galactic and extragalactic X-ray source

brighter than a few tenths of a mCrab.

The MEDA is also valuable in the meas-

urement of of X-ray lines and edges, having

a factor-of-two greater sensitivity for their

detection compared with the GSPC. This

factor arises simply from the tenfold larger

area of the MEDA, partly counter-

balanced by the factor-of-two inferior spec-

110 KENNETH A. POUNDS

5-50 keV

1-15 keV

So SENSITIVITY (MILI CRABS)

CONFUSION

LIMIT

107

10 104

INTEGRATION TIME (seconds)

102 103

Fig. 5. MEDA source detection sensitivity versus integration time.

f = 1000 MILLICRABS

SOURCE

f=1 MILLICRAB

SOURCE 5

5-50 keV

100

TIME TO DETECT CHANGE AT 50, seconds

| 1 10 J 1 10

FRACTIONAL CHANGE IN SOURCE INTENSITY (AS/S=g)

Fig. 6. MEDA sensitivity for determining source variability, as a function of source strength.

THE EUROPEAN PROGRAMME IN X-RAY ASTRONOMY 111

tral resolution. For example, the minimum

detectable line strength of iron emission at

~6 keV can be written as:

| I. + 0.0092 \"

I, = 0.29 ph cm” sec’!

where I, is the local continuum intensity

(ph cm™ sec’ keV‘) and t the exposure

(sec).

Predicted values of I. are plotted against

a range of continuum intensities in Figure

7. Also shown are previously reported

values for several well known X-ray sour-

ces. Acomparison with the GSPC sensitiv-

ity for iron line detection may be made by

reference to Figure 8. The great value of the

GSPC is, of course, in its better resolution

which is of direct benefit for all but the faint-

est detectable sources. Figure 9 illustrates

the point in comparable simulations of a

bright source spectrum, with iron line,

measured with both the MEDA and GSPC.

The angular resolution versus energy

and for off-axis rays for the LEIT are

shown in Figures 10 and 11. In essence the

Her X-1 (HIGH STATE)

eCASA Cir X-1 (HIGH STATE)

®cir X-1 (LOW STATE)

®.u 1626-67

NGC5S48 e CAME E

Tycho @ er X-1 (LOW STATE)

@ Abell 2589

®@SN1006

MINIMUM DETECTABLE Fe XKY LINE STRENGTH (Ph.cm 2s”)

10% 103 102 ae

CONTINUUM AT 6.7keV Ic (Ph.cm@s”! kev-))

Fig. 7. MEDA sensitivity for iron-K line detec-

tion, as a function of continuum intensity.

LINE STRENGTH I, (Phem@ s”')

MINIMUM DETECTABLE S XVI

CONTINUUM AT 26 keV Ic (Phcm 57! kev-!)

Fig. 8. GSPC sensitivity for iron-K line detection,

as a function of continuum intensity.

scientific potential of the LEIT in the off-

set pointing mode can perhaps best be em-

phasized by noting its comparable per-

formance to the highly successful Einstein

Observatory (see chapter by Dr Tanan-

baum). Figure 12 shows the point source

sensitivities of the EXOSAT and Einstein

moderate resolution (PSD and IPC) and

high resolution (CMA and HRI) image

detectors. The two missions are seen to

be similar in sensitivity for the assumed

input spectrum (4 keV thermal bremsstrah-

lung, with hydrogen column density

Nu = 4.2 X 10°°cm’”’). It should be noted,

however, that the somewhat different en-

ergy responses of the two optical systems

give the Einstein Observatory a strong ad-

vantage for hotter, harder or more cut-off

spectra, whilst EXOSAT becomes the more

sensitive for cooler or softer spectra than

that used in deriving Figure 12. On the

above basis, it may be anticipated that the

strongest potential of the LEIT will lie in

the detection of soft stellar sources, cooler

material in clusters or galactic nebulae and

112

18°°«6

18*e5

COUNTS/BIN

10*<4

1B9=4

COUNTS/BIN

1Be<«3

2. 4. 6. 6. 18. le. 14

ENERGY CKEV)

Fig. 9. Comparison of a spectral simulation of the

bright galactic X-ray source Cygnus X-3 using (a) the

MEDA and (b) the GSPC.

active galaxies without a strong intrinsic

low energy cut-off.

The transmission gratings on EXOSAT

have higher efficiencies than those on Ein-

stein and are expected to be more effective,

particularly for the study of the softer

X-ray sources. Nevertheless, the relatively

small effective area of the mirror grating

combination (Figure 13) will restrict their

use to the brightest sources.

3. EXOSAT mission operations

The present schedule for EXOSAT has a

January 1982 launch date, but this now

KENNETH A. POUNDS

TELESCOPE + PSO (FWHM)

T T T

st)

+e)

[e)

va)

WwW

lag

jo)

tian

ro}

TELESCOPE*+CMA (FWHM)

ENERGY (keV)

Fig. 10. On-axis resolution of the LEIT versus

photon energy. For the PSD the detector resolution

dominates while the mirror properties are dominant

when the CMA is being used; note the effect of mirror

scattering on the half energy width above ~0.7 keV.

seems likely to be delayed ~6 months.

Preparations for mission operations are

proceeding in two areas. First, ESA have

established a Comittee for Observing Pro-

gramme Selection (COPS) and the A/O

inviting observing proposals for the first six

months of full operation will be issued in

the Spring. This first announcement will be

restricted to ESA member states, but there-

after it is intended to invite proposals

worldwide. A detailed description of

EXOSAT, its payload, in-orbit calibration

data (when available) and a listing of pre-

vious and currently approved observing

programmes will be issued with each A/O

(at 6 or 9 monthly intervals to the end of the

mission). Secondly, work is in hand at _

ESOC in Darmstadt, W. Germany, to pre-

pare mission operations and data reduc-

THE EUROPEAN PROGRAMME IN X-RAY ASTRONOMY 113

tion software. A preliminary analysis of

data will also be available in near real-time

(observers will generally be advised to at-

tend at ESOC during their observations, in

the pattern now successfully established for

the IVE mission) and a final observations

tape (FOT) containing all scientific data,

up-to-date calibrations and necessary house-

keeping data approximately 5 weeks later.

Details of these arrangements will also be

issued by ESA at the time of the observing

proposal A/O. On behalf of my fellow Eu-

ropean X-ray astronomers, I can say that

we look forward to EXOSAT marking the

successful entry of Europe as a whole into

this exciting field and to fruitful participa-

tion by our colleagues in the United States,

Japan and elsewhere, many of whom are

joining with us now in celebrating the pio-

neering success of Uhuru a decade ago.

RESOLUTION FWHM (arc sec)

free ss 2 eS ear |

10 100

OFF-AXIS ANGLE (arc min)

Reference

Fig. 11. Off-axis resolution of the LEIT at 0.28

keV and 1.5 keV. de Korte, P. A. J. (1979) S.P.LE. 184, 189.

10! 107

EXOSAT PSD / EINSTEIN IPC

(8)

a0 1072

pes

10° 10°

10° 10° 107.10" 10° 10°

Time (sec) Time (sec)

Fig. 12. Comparison of the EXOSAT and Einstein Observatory point source sensitivities as a function of

integration time and for an assumed thermal bremsstrahlung input spectrum with kT = 4 keV and

Nu = 4.2 X 10° cm™. 1 Uhuru (cts/s) = 1.1 milliCrab.

CMA + PARYLENE FILTER WITH SOO LINE GRATING

——— CMA* PARYLENE - ALUMINIUM FILTER WITH SOO LINE GRATING

WwW

WAVELENGTH 2 (A)

Fig. 13. Effective area of LEIT mirror and transmission grating combination versus photon energy.

The Rontgen Satellite

Joachim Trimper

Max-Planck-Institut fur Physik und Astrophysik Institut fur

Extraterrestrische Physik 8046 Garching, West-Germany

Introduction

X-ray astronomy is rather young in

Germany—actually we began thinking

about a research programme in this field

only just before the launch of the Uhuru

satellite.

As a first step we initiated in 1971 a bal-

loon programme in hard X-ray astronomy

(E = 20 keV) which is an ongoing collabo-

rative effort of the Astronomisches Institut

Tubingen and MPI Garching. Numerous

results on compact galactic and extragalac-

tic active X-ray sources have been ob-

tained during ten successful balloon flights

launched during the period 1973-1980,

from Palestine and Alice Springs, using

pointed instruments of increasing size and

complexity. A highlight of this programme

was the discovery of features in the spec-

trum of the mass accreting neutron star

Her X-1 which are interpreted in terms of

electron cyclotron resonance effects. This

provided for the first time a direct determi-

114

THE ROENTGEN SATELLITE 115

nation of the magnetic field strength at the

surface of a neutron star (1).

In 1980 we had the first flight of a new

balloon payload combining the sensitivity

of a very large Phoswich detector (2400

cm’) with the spectral resolution of a

cooled Germanium spectrometer (114cm’).

We hope to fly this powerful instrument

several times over the next few years.

Another project in which we are in-

volved since its beginnings in the late

1960’s, is EXOSAT which has been de-

scribed by K. Pounds at this meeting (2). In

EXOSAT we are collaborating with the

University of Leicester and the University

of Tubingen on the large area proportional

counters. In addition, we will take part in

the flight qualification of the 27 cm imag-

ing telescopes to be carried out in our long

beam X-ray test facility in Munich.

By far our largest effort in X-ray astron-

omy, however, is devoted to a project

called ROSAT (Rontgen Satellite, formerly

ROBISAT) and its description will form

the main subject of this talk.

1. Prehistory of the ROSAT project

With the realization of the enormous

scientific potential of imaging X-ray as-

tronomy, we started a telescope develop-

ment program around 1974/75. The first

step was to build large paraboloidal concen-

trators with low background focal plane

detectors and Ross filters. A very large pay-

load (1200 cm? mirror area) was flown in

1977 on one of the first Aries flights in

order to perform spectral studies of the su-

pernova remnants Vela and Puppis A (3).

As the next step we turned our attention

to truly imaging systems. Several Wolter

type I mirror systems of 32 cm aperture

were built for us by Carl Zeiss (4), while

MPI Garching, developed the correspond-

ing imaging proportional counters. The

first rocket flight of this “32 cm telescope”’

from Woomera in early 1979 was success-

ful and yielded spectrally resolved images

of the supernova remnants Puppis A and

Crab Nebula.

Figure 1 shows the image of Puppis A

having 1.2 arcmin resolution in which the

photons are tagged by colour according to

their energy. In general the measured bright

ness distribution agrees well with that of

the Einstein HRI images of Puppis A which

have better angular, but no spectral resolu-

tion. A detailed analysis of our Puppis A

picture reveals spectral variations across

the supernova remnant (5).

A second rocket flight with an improved

version of the imaging proportional counter

is scheduled for summer 1981, and there

may beathird one in 1982/83 as part of the

ROSAT instrument development program.

2. The ROSAT project

Up to the mid 1970’s we were involved in

two X-ray telescope satellite projects stud-

ied by European and US-European collab-

because of their complexity and costs. We

therefore thought of a rather simple, but

nevertheless very powerful instrument which

could be realized at comparatively low

costs. The result is ROSAT which, in its

baseline version, consists of a big X-ray

mirror system and imaging proportional

counters (IPC) in the focal plane. In its

simplicity, it actually can be considered as a

translation of Uhuru into the X-ray tele-

scope era (collimator — mirror, propor-

tional counter — IPC).

The main objective of ROSAT will be to

perform the first all sky survey with an im-

aging telescope, providing a gain in sensi-

tivity of about a thousand times that of

Uhuru. Since both the Einstein and EXO-

SAT telescopes are pointing onto selected

sources and “‘see”’ only a few percent of the

whole sky, ROSAT will provide an enor-

mous amount of information from regions

which have not been explored with the sen-

sitivity of X-ray telescopes. After comple-

tion of the sky survey which will take fully

half a year, ROSAT will be used for de-

tailed follow-up studies of individual

sources. In this mode it will provide a gain

116

PUPPIS A

MPI ROCKET FLIGHT

(1950) .

oH 2a

RIGHT ASCENSION

oH Jor

JOACHIM TRUMPER

2/22/79

4 10M

(1950)

Fig. 1. Image of Puppis A, taken with the MPI 32 cm telescope during a rocket flight on Feb. 22, 1979 from

Woomera.

in sensitivity by a factor of about three

compared to the Einstein IPC observations.

3. The ROSAT spacecraft and payload (base-

line concept)

ROSAT is a three-axis stabilized space-

craft to be launched by the shuttle into a

56° inclination orbit at 430 km height. Fig-

ure 2 shows the satellite configuration

which is dominated by the large cylindrical

tube housing the telescope. The mechanical

structure around it supports a fixed solar

array and the other spacecraft subsystems.

Furthermore it has the task to fix the tele-

scope in a transverse position during shut-

tle launch. The three-axis stabilization is

achieved by momentum wheels which are

desaturated by magnetic torquers. On

board data storage will be on magnetic

tapes with data dump to Weilheim, the

German satellite ground station located

near Munich. The design life time of the sat-

ellite is 1.5 years, while the lifetime of the

orbit and of the instrument consumables

(counter gas) will be 2.5 years. The first

part of the mission will be devoted to the all-

sky survey which is achieved by aslowscan

of the telescope over the sky. With a pro-

gression of ~1° ecliptical longitude per day

and a telescope field of view of 2°, every

source in the sky will be visible for at least 2

days (~32 orbits). The complete sky survey

will take 6 months. In this mode the in-

strument will be oriented perpendicular to

the solar direction looking away from the

earth all the time (spin period equal to the

orbital period). ,

Later in the mission observations of par-

ticular sources can be made in the pointing

117

THE ROENTGEN SATELLITE

—-=c8 m

Seeaar.

es es ED VI)

wy,

Heo apes

me |

rot

iil

INNnhiy

Ty al

TT i

a i

HTT

Fig. 2. The ROSAT spacecraft configuration according to the Phase B concept proposed by Dornier System

118 JOACHIM TRUMPER

mode for durations up to ~40 minutes (half

an orbit). In this mode the off-sun angle

restriction will be relaxed to +15° in order

to provide more flexibility for the observa-

tional program.

The X-ray telescope is shown in Figure 3.

It consists of a fourfold nested Wolter type

I mirror system with 80 cm aperture and

240 cm focal length which is optimized with

respect to survey sensitivity and on-axis

collecting area at ~1 keV. A carousel in the

focal plane assembly carries three imaging

proportional counters, which are almost

identical apart from differences in window

thickness. Each counter has its own filter

wheel with four positions. We have sum-

marized in Table | a few key data of the

telescope.

4. ROSAT scientific objectives

The main scientific objective of ROSAT

will be to perform the first X-ray sky survey

with an imaging telescope. Compared with

the “‘counter surveys’? of Uhuru and

HEAO-1 the increase in sensitivity will be

enormous, namely, by a factor of ~1000

and 100 respectively (c.f. Table 2). These

figures have been calculated for a uniform

coverage during a 6 month period. The an-

gular resolution of the survey will be <1

arcmin which is good enough to avoid

source confusion and to enable the identifi-

cation of many sources.

Using the log N- log S distributions ob-

tained by earlier missions, in particular by

the Einstein observatory (6) one can esti-

mate that the total number of sources to be

discovered will be a few hundred thou-

sands. It is evident from the Einstein obser-

vations that the ROSAT sky survey will

comprise almost all astronomical objects,

from nearby “‘normal stars” to the very dis-

tant quasars at the edge of the known uni-

verse. Figures 4, 5, and 6 illustrate the sen-

sitivity of the ROSAT sky survey with

respect to observations of galactic, extraga-

lactic and cosmological realm.

Since it is not possible to discuss all the

various scientific objectives here in detail,

we wish to stress a few general points:

— results of the ROSAT sky survey will

become standard astronomical tools

like the Palomar and ESO optical sur-

veys and the 3C/4C catalogues of radio

astronomy.

— obviously the scope of this mission is

complementary to other telescope mis-

sions like Einstein, EXOSAT and

AXAF which point onto selected ob-

jects. An unbiased sky survey has the

TELESCOPE CONFIGURATION

TELESCOPE-DOOR

WITH CLOSING MECHANISM

(y-

THERMAL PRECOLLIMATOR

STAR SENSOR

OPTICAL BENCH

Fig. 3. Cross section of the ROSAT telescope tube housing the fourfold nestled 80 cm Wolter typeI mirror

system and the focal plane turret containing three imaging proportional counters with filter wheels.

THE ROENTGEN SATELLITE 119

Table 1

Mirror system

mirror material Zerodur, gold coated

aperture of outermost mirror 83 cm

innermost mirror 47 cm

geometrical collecting area 1200 cm?

focal length 240 cm

mean grazing angle DF

on-axis resolution 5” (half power circle)

Imaging proportional counters

size 8 cm X 8cm

gas filling argon/xenon/methan

background reduction 5 side anticoincidences

and pulse shape dicrimi-

nation

energy resolution at 1 keV 50% FWHM

Telescope

field of view Ly ORD

effective collecting area at 1 keV 420 cm?

at 0.28 keV 470 cm?

on axis angular resolution at 1 keV ~20 arcsec (FWHM)

at 0.28 keV ~1 arcmin (FWHM)

Table 2

Comparison with survey performance of previous experiments:

Point source sensitivity Energy range

Experiment (erg/cm’s) (keV)

Uhuru 2x10" 2-6

HEAO A-1 5 X10 0.5-2

HEAO A-2 8x 10°" 0.5-3

Einstein Observatory* Icio" 0.5-4

deep surveys

ROSAT 6 X 10°" 0.5-2

2X10" 0.1-3

*The Einstein deep surveys cover in total a few square degrees.

potential to discover unexpected, rare

and unusual objects.

— another aspect is that studies of classes

of objects can be made on the basis of

large unbiased samples, e.g. Lx/Lop: dis-

tributions for various types of stars,

galaxies and quasars.

— in particular the results of the ROSAT

survey may provide a valuable guide for

the AXAF mission which aims at de-

tailed studies of selected objects.

The pointed observations planned for the

later part of the mission can be considered

as a follow up to the Einstein IPC observa-

tions, with some improvements in angular

resolution (1’ —~ 20”) and spectral resolu-

tion (AE/E ~ 0.5 FWHMat | keV). Owing

to the large collecting area of the ROSAT

telescope the sensitivity for a given obser-

vation time will be about three times that of

Einstein.

These features allow a large number of

interesting scientific problems to be tackled

which relate to almost all fields of astron-

omy. In total there may be ~10’ pointings

of ~2000 sec duration, in which a wide

scientific community can participate by

120

—>

—

“0

CAPELLA

10°"

> o ALGOL

“E 107" °ALGOL

10°

10-8

to°**

0.1 0.3 1.0 3.0 10

E [Kev]

Fig. 4. Energy spectra of a few selected, galactic

X-ray sources compared with the detectability limit of

ROSAT for a uniform, all-sky survey of half a year.

10°?

> PERSEUS

nr 40710

fc 3C 273.

wr) -11

< 10

40712

10-8

107"

0.1 0.3 1.0 3.0 10

E [Kev]

Fig. 5. Energy spectra of a few selected extragalac-

tic X-ray sources compared with the detectability

limit of ROSAT fora uniform, all-sky survey of half a

year.

JOACHIM TRUMPER

—

(<>)

energy band~’)

1049

-1

L, (erg. sec

1073

10-2 1071 10° 10'

Fig. 6. Luminosity vs redshift diagram for Seyfert

type I galaxies (@) and quasars (O). Data on Seyferts

are from pre-Einstein-observatory experiments; data

on quasars are from the Einstein observatory (qo = 0,

AE = 0.5-4.5 keV). The dashed line indicates the de-

tectability limit of Uhuru. The dashed-dotted line and

the solid lines indicate the detectability of the ROSAT

all-sky survey for cosmological deceleration parame-

ters qo = 0.05 and 0.5, respectively.

means of a guest investigator program. It is

clear that the results of the sky survey

would provide very important guidance for

the ROSAT pointed observations. There-

fore it is planned to generate a raw version

of the sky survey maps in almost real time.

In summary, there is a large amount of

new and excellent science which can be

done with ROSAT both in the survey and

the pointing mode. In the following we list

a number of scientific objectives:

Galactic Astronomy

— study of coronal emission from stars of

all spectral types

— measurement of X-ray luminosity func-

tions of stars of all spectral types on the

basis of complete samples

— study of correlations of Lx with Lop,

magnetic fields and rotational periods

for stars

THE ROENTGEN SATELLITE 121

— detection of X-ray time variability of

flare stars

— study of outbursts of dwarf novae

— detection of thermal emission from iso-

lated neutron stars

— study of soft X-ray emission from hot

white dwarfs

— detection of X-ray emission from bi-

nary systems containing accreting white

dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes

— mapping of extended sources like su-

pernova remnants and galactic loops

— study of the large scale distribution of

the diffuse galactic X-ray emission

— study of bright X-ray sources in nearby

galaxies

Extragalactic Astronomy

— study in detail of various populations of

extragalactic sources: i.e. Seyfert Type

1 and Type 2 galaxies, BL Lacertae ob-

jects, quasars, cluster of galaxies, young

galaxies, radio galaxies

— measurement of luminosity function of

above listed sources on the basis of

large samples

— study of evolutionary effects back to

z = 1 onboth population and luminos-

ity functions

— unbiased search for ultra-high luminos-

ity sources e.g. quasars or new classes of

objects out to z S 10. These are most

likely to be found in all-sky survey!

— morphological study of extended sources

on a few arcmin scale. How and when

do clusters form? Clusters of typically

500 kpc linear size can be detected as ex-

tended sources out toz< 0.3.

— search of the entire sky for supercluster

formation. Do they provide the missing

mass in order to close the universe?

5. Possible foreign participation

The baseline mission described above

has been designed in such a way that it can

be carried out as a national German proj-

ect. However, as the satellite will be

launched by the space shuttle, it is natural

to consider a collaboration with NASA.

Two possibilities have been discussed in

this context, which differ not only in their

scientific potential but also in their techni-

cal and financial implications.

1. The easiest possibility would be to leave

ROSAT as described above and to con-

sider participation of US scientists in

the pointed mode observations.

2. Amore involved participation would be

the addition of a NASA high resolution

instrument (HRI) in the focal plane,

which would replace one of the three

MPI imaging proportional counters

thereby improving the angular resolu-

tion from 20 arcsec to better than 10

arcsec. This has no impact on the mirror

system, since the design goal is 5 arcsec,

anyway. But, it requires improved ver-

sions of the optical trackers, as well as

additional complexity of the focal plane

assembly.

In both versions it may be useful to

change the orbital inclination from 56° to

28° and to use NASA facilities instead of

the ones at Weilheim for telemetry. The

technical and cost implications of a NASA

participation are studied as options in our

present phase B1 in order to provide the

basis for further discussions and program

decisions to be made after the completion

of phase BI in summer 1981.

Another possibility of foreign participa-

tion is the addition of a comparatively

small, autonomous free standing instru-

ment to the ROSAT spacecraft. A corre-

sponding Announcement of Flight Oppor-

tunity was released by the Bundesminister

fur Forschung und Technologie within

ESA in late 1979. This led to a very interest-

ing proposal for a wide field soft X-ray cam-

era, made by the University of Leicester

through SRC, which is presently being stud-

ied in Phase B. Looking parallel to the

main telescope this instrument would ex-

tend the useful energy range considerably

beyond the low energy limit of ROSAT.

122 JOACHIM TRUMPER

6. Possible evolution of the program—

ROSAT 2

Being a shuttle launched satellite ROSAT

may be retrieved by the shuttle and brought

back to earth for refurbishment and re-

launch. A particularly interesting possibil-

ity is to add a high efficiency transmission

grating behind the telescope in order to

perform soft X-ray spectroscopy in a sec-

ond mission.

During the last two years, free standing

gold transmission gratings with 1000 and

2000 lines/mm have been developed in

Germany with a performance very close to

the theoretical optimum (7). A transmis-

sion grating behind the ROSAT 80cm tele-

scope would be curved in order to avoid

coma aberrations as shown in Figure 7.

Table 3 summarizes the performance to be

achieved with different combinations of

gratings and focal plane instruments.

¥oS

—-

FOCAL PLANE

DETECTOR

The main aim of ROSAT 2 would be to

perform detailed spectroscopic studies of

objects discovered by the ROSAT sky sur-

vey. A rich field would be furnished by the

spectroscopy of stellar coronae. The Ein-

stein photometric observations have shown

that stellar coronal X-ray emission is a

rather abundant phenomenon for stars of

all spectral types (8, 9). Detailed spectro-

scopic studies with ROSAT 2 would yield

invaluable plasma diagnostic information

on these objects and enable corona tem-

peratures and element abundances to be de-

termined. This is illustrated in Figure 8

which shows the count rate spectrum calcu-

lated for a 10° sec observation of a thermal

source of 5.1 X 10° K and an intensity

which corresponds to ¢ Puppis. Such spec-

trum contains a large number of detectable

lines, predominantly from highly ionized |

states of oxygen and iron (10). A more de-

tailed discussion of such a mission is given

| \\Vs

TRANSMISSI ORG

GRATING

TELESCOPE

Fig. 7. Mounting arrangement for the grating facets to provide a coma-free system, a scanning electron mi- _

crophotograph of a 1000 1/mm grating element is shown in the upper left and the dimensions of an individual

facet are shown in the upper right.

THE ROENTGEN SATELLITE 123

Table 3.—Performance of ROSAT 2 Transmission grating spectroscopy

focal instrument

effective area HRI IPC

~S'cm* ~50 cm’

1000 1/mm grating f ‘

wavelength range 8-200 A | B=807A, +.

Ad (FWHM) 0.2 Aat 12 A 15Aat12A

0.4Aat 80A 5 Aat80A

1.3 A at 200 A

2000 1/mm grating é :

wavelength range 8-100 A 8=80 Ax

AX (FWHM) 0.1 Aat 12A 0.8 Aat12A

0.4A at 80A 2.5 Aat80A

by G. Vaiana in his talk on “Stellar X-ray

Coronal Explorer’ at this meeting (11).

This project would actually be very similar

to what is envisaged for ROSAT 2. Finally

we note that a mission devoted to soft X-

ray stellar spectroscopy would be largely

complementary to AXAF which is opti-

mized for high energies (up to 7 keV) and

will concentrate on extragalactic and cos-

mological objects.

7. Present status and time schedule

At present, a team of 23 scientists, engi-

neers and technicians is working at MPI on

the development of the ROSAT focal plane

bei Tie eee) MINES K

Q@ 10% a

= z

= 2 >

OC i000 = " ROSAT + Grating

SS lo be 10001/mm

O | HR|

0) | i

y 1G0 |

- !

mS mans Oy" eS a ae

ae ie. ‘a

+ a 1

=) |

oe I

AX =0.2A Rook

a: 20 40 100 120 140

60 80

Wavelength [A]

Fig. 8. Count rate spectrum expected for a 10° sec observation of a thermal source of 5.1 X 10° K and the

intensity of £ Puppis. The channel plate background is indicated by a dashed line.

124 JOACHIM TRUMPER

instruments and various aspects of the mis-

sion, including preparations for the science

data analysis. A 130 m long beam X-ray

test facility has been built by MPI in

Munich-Neuried whose major task is to

support the ROSAT mirror development

and qualification program and to make the

X-ray calibrations of the flight telescope

(12). Figure 9 shows a view of this facility

which has been in operation since the fall of

1980.

At the Carl Zeiss Company the machines

for figuring and polishing of the large mir-

ror Shells as well as instruments for measur-

ing the surface figure and microroughness

Fig. 9. View of the 130 m X-ray test facility of MPI

Garching (top). The big vacuum chamber of the facil-

ity will take up the ROSAT telescopes for X-ray test-

ing (bottom).

have been constructed. The mounting table

to be used for the assembly of the mirror

system is in the design phase. It is hoped

that the first paraboloidal—hyperboloidal

shell of the 80 cm telescope can be exposed

to X-rays in our long beam facility early in

1982.

The current phase B1 study performed

by Dornier System with Messerschmidt-

Bolkow-Blohm and Car! Zeiss as subcon-

tractors will end in the summer of 1981.

The present schedule foresees a launch of

ROSAT in 1986. A mission duration of 2 to

2.5 years would indicate a possible launch

date of ROSAT 2 in the early 1990's.

Acknowledgment

This project is a joint effort of the

Deutsche Versuchsanstalt fur Luft- und

Raumfahrt, Dornier Systems, Messer-

schmitt-Bolkow-Blohm, Carl Zeiss—

Oberkochen und MPI Garching. The Proj-

ect management is conducted by a team of

DFVLR-BPT under Dr. Pfeiffer on behalf

of BMFT. The author is indebted to many

people for useful discussions.

References

1. J. Trumper et al., Ann. New York Acad. Sci. 302,

538.1977. J. Trumper et al., Ap. J. 219, L105. 1978.

1978.

2. K. Pounds. this conference.

3. W. Burkert et al., to be published.

4. B. Aschenbach, H. Brauninger, J. Trumper. SPIE

184, 12. 1979.

5. E. Pfeffermann et al., to be published.

6. S. Murray et al, HEAO/AAS meeting on X-ray

astronomy, Cambridge, USA, Jan., 1980.

7. P. Predehl et al., Applied Optics 19, 190. 1980. H.

Brauninger et al., Applied Optics 18, 3502. 1979.

8. G. Vaiana et al., Ap. J. April, 1980.

9. K. S. Long, R. L. White. Ap. J. 239, L65. 1980.

10. P. Predehl. private communication.

11. G. Vaiana. this conference.

12. B. Aschenbach, H. Brauninger, K. H. Stephan and

J. Trumper. SPIE 184, 234. 1979.

Strategy of X-Ray

Astronomy in Japan

Minoru Oda

Institute of Space and Aeronautical Science, University of Tokyo,

Komaba, Tokyo, Japan

Japan’s space program for the forthcom-

ing 10 years will be briefly described. Here I

will remain in rather technical and even su-

perficial description, and not discuss much

about physics assuming that physics ration-

ale of each project in the program is almost

obvious to today’s audiences.

First, Figure 1 shows the Japanese 10-

year plan or calendar of space science in

general. The backbone of space science ac-

tivities in Japan is the ‘‘small”’ satellite with

the pace of approximately one per year.

The square in the figure indicates the satel-

lite: the upstairs shows the mission and the

downstairs indicates the rocket. The defini-

tion of “‘small’’? may be somewhat mislead-

ing: the satellite which we can launch by

ourselves with the solid propellant launcher

HEXOS-C)

STP-Plasma

| ASTRO-C. C

M35 UI-3| UL-3

M- Satellite

Solar Physics

Astronomy

Test Satellite Spectr

Galactic eS

~ 800cm?

~—73°

Large Satellite

International

collaboration

Onss-4 |

developed in the university is called

“‘small.’’ Thus, the size of the spacecraft is

not fixed. As our in-house rocket technol-

ogy develops, it has grown from several 10

kg in weight to ~200 kg and will grow to

approximately 700 kg in 10 years. In addi-

tion to this series of the small satellite, we

hope to have one large satellite per, say, 5

years.

Unlike the US, before the details of the

spacecraft are defined and proposed, the

schedule of each discipline being given the

chance of the spacecraft is discussed and

determined. Therefore we know when we

will have the spacecraft before it is designed

in detail. For example, we know that we

will conduct the Comet Halley mission

whose objectives are not yet finally defined.

Ex0S-Series

--, PLANET-B

ASTRO-Series

MS- ie

Timing” od Se 1

galaxies; Galactic

52 5000cm2 :

( OPEN-J |

~1°

FOLLOW-ON

IRTS

SPACELAB EXPERIMENTS

(IR, CR, EO etc)

—_

1. Ten year program of Japan’s space science.

125

126

The mission definition will be continually

revised, reviewing the development of the

rocketry. However, whether the observa-

tional programs on this spacecraft will be

sufficiently funded or not is the different

story.

Now, as for X-ray astronomy, currently

we have ““HAKUCHO?” satellite in opera-

tion for almost 2 years and we hope to have

it for at least another year. Following

‘““HAKUCHO,” two more X-ray satellites

are scheduled in 1980’s. We will have

ASTRO-B in 1983 and then we are going to

have another X-ray satellite which has been

approved by the Space Activities Commis-

sion but not yet by the Ministry of Finance.

Around 1990 or a little later the X-ray

community will be given a chance of launch-

ing a large satellite.

I will not come into the details but

quickly go through specifications and guide-

lines of these satellites. In Table I, specifi-

cations of ““HAKUCHO” are indicated.

Most emphasized objectives are wide field

of view watch and observations of X-ray

burst sources, pulsars and other variable

sources. Crude descriptions of three band

detectors are presented. Proportional

counters of wide field of view with modula-

tion collimators watch a pointed region of

the sky for bursts and other bright X-ray

sources: locations of the objects are deter-

mined to the accuracy of ~0.5°. A propor-

MINORU ODA

(5rpm )

SPIN AXIS

(40cm? 0,54 pitch)

SFX-v2 VSaV2

cxc-1 (69cm, 27 pitch )

FNC-1

FMC.

Fig. 2. Configuration of X-ray counters and as-

pect sensors of ““HAKUCHO”’: SAS abbreviates the

sun aspect sensor and HOS is the horizon sensor.

tional counter equipped with a fine modu-

lation collimator is capable of determining

the location to ~0.05°. Figure 2 shows the

configuration of various counters. Obser-

vational results will not be given here but

presented at the Workshop of the Tenth

Texas Symposium.

Next, Table II indicates ASTRO-B which

is due for launch in February 1983. Note

that the weight is twice that of HAKU-

CHO. Emphasis is placed on the array of

the scintillation proportional counter (gas

scintillation counter) of reasonably large

Table 1.—‘“HAKUCHO”: Feb 1979 — > Dec 1981: 96 Kg.

1 ~ 30 keV pc

Wide FOV burst CMC-1, 2 ~70cm* X 2 with Spin-axis sensitive to

obs. FMC-2 ~40cm* X 1 RMC pointing 0.1 Crab burst

FMC-1 ~80cm? X 1 Scanning location to

Pulsars, other SFXV ~30cm? X 2 ~0.5/~0.05°

variables

Transients 0.1 ~ 2.5 KeV Time

(1.5 um pp VSX-P 80cm? X 2 Pointing 0.01/0.1/0.75 sec

Wide band window) VSX-V 80cm’ X 2 Scanning as Z5 sec

Spectr of

strong

sources

Sottransients 10 ~ 100 KeV

sc HDX 55cm? Pointing eal

real time 5.461 kbps

storage 6.5 Mb

STRATEGY OF X-RAY ASTRONOMY IN JAPAN

Table I1.—“‘ASTRO-B”’: Feb 1983: ~210 Kg, 0.137 rpm (X1/2, 4).

127

Temporal-Spectral large area

study of Galactic SPC

sources: 100cm? X (8-10)

Pulsar, burster, 2-60 KeV

bulge source,

other variables

WideFOV watch:

burst & other

Spin-axis

pointing

FOV (3° dia FWHM)

AE ~ 10% at 6 KeV

At ~ 0.5/0.06/0.016 sec

0.01 Crab source

per 1000 sec

0.001 Crab source

per day

Transient Source Monitor (TSM)

a) One dimensional Hadamard-Transform Telescope:

transients LP =30)KevV <30° from Z-axis

IPC 146cm’ X 2 10 o for 1 Crab burst

10 o for 0.1 Crab source

for 10 min. obs

b) Scanning slats collimator counter:

hes ONKe Vi <60° from Z-axis

PC: 100cm? X 2 ~0.1 Crab source per

5.5 sec obs

1 KeV range XFC

diffuse source one dimensional 0.2° X 5° FOV

reflective collector. X 8 cell

20cm’? X 2

f= 585mm

area provided by 10 counters of ~100 cm’

each. Objectives are to study the time vari-

ability of X-ray spectra of some selected

sources with a better energy resolution

compared to the conventional proportional

counter.

In addition, we plan a wide field of view

watch for burst sources and other transient

sources. For this purpose we have two in-

struments: one is the one-dimensional

Hadamard-transform (or coded mask) tel-

escope with the imaging proportional

counter and the other is the scanning slats

collimator counter. With all these instru-

ments together, the sky within < 60° from

the direction of the spinning axis of the

spacecraft will be scanned.

Further we have an additional instru-

ment that is the one-dimensional reflective

collector of two of 20 cm’ area each. This is

to exercise the technology of the reflective

mirror and to study the spatial structure of

diffuse sources over the S keVrange. The

flight unit is being manufactured and will

be assembled for the first time by the end of

this fiscal year; i.e. April, 1981.

real time 8.192 kbps

storage 19.66 Mb

So much for the X-ray astronomy satel-

lite in operation and in preparation. Next,

as for ASTRO-C, again note that the

weight will be increased. Launch date will

be February, 1986, if the program will be

hopefully approved by the Ministry of Fi-

nance in time. The concept of this mission

is rather crude at the moment. Besides,

technological constraints are not yet clear:

e.g. the trade-off between the pointing ac-

curacy of the spacecraft and the necessary

weight for the aspect control has not been

completely studied.

At present the basic idea is as indicated

in Table III. The objectives are the high

sensitivity observation of compact extraga-

lactic sources and galactic sources. Particu-

larly, the time variability of the nuclei of

the extragalactic sources or long term mon-

itoring of the sources will be emphasized.

With a tentatively planned area of the pro-

portional counters, ~5000 cm’, the sensi-

tivities may be calculated in a straightfor-

ward way as indicated.

In addition, again we feel that monitor-

ing transient sources will be important.

128 MINORU ODA

Table III.—“‘ASTRO-C”’: FEB 1986 (?): ~400 Kg approved by Space Activities Commission, not yet by M. O.

Finance.

Y-axis pointing OA?

High Sensitivity observations >5,000cm’P.C.

F.0.V. ~ Paxde

Compact extraga. sources

7 min. 1 UFU detection

long term monitor or in = 100 sec.

X/opt 1 UFU variation

Galactic sources For 100 UFU source

transients 1% var. ~100 sec.

pulsars 10% var. o~ isee:

aperiodic 100% var. ~ 10 msec.

Transient Source Monitor

(Status monitor of X-ray sky)

2100 UFU source survey

However, we are not yet sure whether we

shall just watch for occurrence of the tran-

sient sources as the candidate object of the

variability study or stress physical signifi-

cance of the long term watch of some

number of selected objects. Still, there is

space for revision of the concept.

Finally, I come to the subject of a large

X-ray satellite vaguely planned for around

1990. Original concept was produced as

early as 1975. It was then a multi-purpose

complex for X-ray and perhaps gamma ray

observations. It was considered to be large,

from our standard of that time, and hoped

to be launched in mid-1980’s. We hoped

this would be included in the space pro-

grams under the US-Japanese collabora-

tion which had been under discussion be-

several times/day?

Hadamard telescope

or pin-hole camera

tween NASA and the Space Activities

Commission of Japan. However, the great

success of the “Einstein,” our own expe-

riences with ‘““HAKUCHO” and also dis-

cussions in an international symposium on

the future prospect of Japanese X-ray as-

tronomy held in the Summer of 1979

strongly affected our plan. Then, the value

of the focussing mirror telescope in 1990

and on, even if it would be much smaller

than AXAF, became more and more rec-

ognized. So the original concept evolved to

the ASTRO-C in mid-1980’s and the large

satellite which is to be postponed to ~1990.

At the moment the guideline of the CXGT

is the mirror telescope. Everything is vague

but we still hope this to be under the US-

Japan cooperation.

X-Rays and Cosmology

A. C. Fabian

Institute of Astronomy, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 OHA, U.K.

Introduction

Many cosmological tests have been de-

vised to discriminate between the various

cosmological models proposed over the

past 60 years. These tests have almost ex-

clusively made use of optical and radio ob-

servations. At the present time, the hot Big

Bang model appears to be in excellent

agreement with these observations,

although it is still uncertain whether the

Universe is open or closed.

X-ray observations may be applied to ex-

isting tests (number counts, angular diame-

ter—redshift etc.) and may even be of ad-

vantage owing to greater and more uniform

sky-coverage and perhaps to ease of dis-

criminating galactic objects. Cosmic evolu-

tion of the sources is again likely to domi-

nate the uncertainties. In order to predict

how many sources there should be at a

given redshift above a given flux level ina

given waveband requires a theoretical model

not only of the Universe, but of the source

spectra and of their evolution with time. It

may prove to be fortunate that most distant

X-ray sources observed above a few keV

are unlikely to show much in the way of line

features. The form of source evolution is

still unknown, but if, as appears to be the

case in many galactic nuclei, the major

energy loss is in X-rays, then it might be

hoped that it is relatively simple.

The X-ray waveband also reveals a back-

ground radiation that is fairly well deter-

mined. The origin of this background is a

matter for debate but is likely to lie withina

redshift of about 3. If even a small part of it

is due to hot intergalactic gas, then that

may be the major matter constituent of the

Universe and thus of qo and will be only de-

tectable by X-rays. Whatever its origin, the

isotropy of the background limits the lump-

iness of the Universe on scales for which the

X-ray sources are similarly clumped. In-

deed current measurements from the Uhuru

and Ariel 5 satellites provide the best limit

on the lumpiness of the Universe on the

scales of 100-1000 Mpc (Rees 1980).

1. Measurements of Ho and qo from X-rays

The Hubble constant Ho is currently un-

certain to within a factor of two (50-100

kms ' Mpc’) and its rate of change—the

deceleration parameter, qo—may lie any-

where between SO and 20.5. One way to

constrain Hp Is to use a ‘standard candle.’

Such a device may emerge from X-ray ob-

servations of the luminosity function of bi-

nary X-ray sources (Margon & Ostriker

1973). The lack of sources brighter than

10°’ ergs ' is possibly due to the Eddington |

limit, and is likely to be independent of dis-

tance. The actual shape of the luminosity

function may vary with the Hubble type of

the underlying galaxy, but it seems reason-

able to suppose that X-ray distance mea-

surements relying on fits to this function

within the Virgo cluster will be possible

with AXAF and LAMAR. Measurements

of L to better than a factor of 4 will make

this approach competitive with existing

methods (at least at the present time).

Variability of the X-ray emission from

active galactic nuclei, and quasars, may

provide a method for greater distances.

Electron scattering in matter being con-

verted to energy with an efficiency of 0.1 70.1

constrains the emergent luminosity varia-

129

130 ANDREW C. FABIAN

tion AL to occur on a timescale At such

that

AL'S. 2.10" yon At eres”

(Cavallo & Rees 1978, Fabian 1979). An ef-

ficiency of 0.1 is unlikely to be exceeded un-

less relativistic expansion or some special

geometry is involved. A measurement of a

variation in the flux of 10° '° AS-1o erg cm”

s'ona timescale 100 At s thus constrains

the distance to the source to be less than 42

AS-10'/? At>"”* Mpc. This approach has been

applied to the 100s variations in NGC 6814

observed by the A-2 experiment on HEAO-1

by Tennant et a/. (1981). The measured

redshift of that galaxy is ~1400 km s',

which then implies that Ho must be greater

than 50kms | Mpc ’. Variations in quasars

at a redshift of ~2, on timescales of days,

can be used to limit H,-2, and thus qo. (The

distance limit derived is then the ‘luminos-

ity distance’ divided by 1+ z.) This

method will, of course, require the applica-

tion of a statistical sample and can be used

at any waveband if the scattering cross-sec-

tion is appropriately modified.

A particularly interesting method for ob-

taining Ho and qo from X-ray observations

of clusters of galaxies has been suggested

by Silk & White (1978), Gunn (1978), Cav-

aliere et al. (1979), Birkenshaw (1979) and

Boynton & Murray (1978). The X-ray flux

due to thermal bremsstrahlung from a spher-

ical cloud of gas subtending an angle of 20

at a distance D is

So= ic, af T.!7 De:

where n,. and T, are the electron density and

temperature of the gas and C, is a constant.

Compton scattering of microwave back-

ground photons in the gas produces a de-

crease in the measured temperatures of the

microwave background in that direction,

longward of the blackbody peak (Sunyaev

& Zel’dovich 1972)

—— = Cn T.DO™

where Cy is another constant. (The hard X-

ray background could be used here if detec-

tors were enormously more sensitive.) This

combines to give D entirely in measurable

quantities,

|. —

C30 (47)?

fl se Gu

and thus gives Ho with the measured value

of z for the cluster. Just two clusters at dif-

ferent distances give qo. This method gen-

eralizes to any form of spherical distribu-

tion but requires accurate knowledge of the

X-ray profile. Unfortunately, the reported

microwave dips may not be due to Comp-

tonization in the observed gas. White &

Silk (1980) formally derive a value of only

1.5kms ‘Mpc ' for A576, and the error is

at present ~t50 km s° Mpc. Gas

temperatures are in general too low to pro-

duce a measurable microwave dip, and

most clusters are not spherically symmetric.

2. The Isotropy of the X-ray Background

The X-ray background in the 2-10 keV

range Is very isotropic. The observed small-

scale fluctuations (~3°-10°) are completely

explained as due to unresolved sources of

the type already detected (Fabian 1975,

Schwartz, Murray & Gursky 1976, Pye &

Warwick 1979), and any residual fluction

must be less than about | percent (Fabian

& Rees 1978, Schwartz 1980). This gives us

a powerful constraint on the lumpiness of

matter in the Universe on scales of 100-1000

Mpc (Fabian, Warwick & Pye 1980, Rees

1980). If the Universe is perturbed by a rip-

ple of amplitude 6p/p on a scale, then any

anisotropy is dominated by the nearest

lump, which will be ~£ away. Then

7M)

where £y is a Hubble radius, and f is the

fraction of the background due to sources

similarly perturbed. If most of the back-

ground is due to quasars, say, at redshifts

~2, then we again get another limit, which

is diluted by the number of cells within our

beam. Constraints produced in this way are

shown in Figure 1. A more complete de-

X-RAYS AND COSMOLOGY 131

M Mg

1 Q”

Microwave velocity

1 percent X-ray

fluctuation limits

H, = 920km s' Mpc"

1 10

with evolution

no evolution

Poke

Small scale

Microwave

l Mpc

Fig. l(a). Matter fluctuations (6p/p) at the current epoch on various length scales, for (=2q0) = 1. The

covariance function line and X-ray limits assume that the galaxy and X-ray source distributions follow the un-

derlying mass distribution. The small-scale microwave limit is for AT/T < 6.10 “ (see Partridge 1980) due to

gravitational perturbations at the epoch of the last-scattering surface (Sachs & Wolfe 1967).

scription of the derivation of this figure is

given in my Texas talk (Fabian 1981).

The X-ray background does show large-

scale anisotropies due to our galaxy (War-

wick, Pye & Fabian 1979, Schwartz 1980,

Boldt 1980), and significant (but small)

large-scale effects remain when a first-

order galactic fit is removed from the Ariel-

5 data. These could well be reflecting the

complex structure of the galactic emission,

but it is possible that they indicate very

large scale motions in the Universe (Fabian

& Warwick 1979). The comparison of

large-scale X-ray and microwave anisotro-

pies then leads to a measure of qo (War-

wick, Pye & Fabian 1980).

The X-ray background offers us the only

means yet of sampling the total emission in

the Universe out to redshifts of ~3. With

future X-ray studies it should be possible to

132

ANDREW C. FABIAN

MM,

: 5.10'

&) Einstein QSOs

no evolution

X ray limits

1 10

“~~ with evolution

Bio’

Small scale

Microwave

10° 10

l Mpc

Fig. 1(b). As 1(a), but for O = 0.1.

define the structure of the Universe on

scales of ~50 Mpc to 2000 Mpc and

beyond.

Acknowledgments

I thank Martin Rees and Bob Schommer

for discussion. The financial support of the

Radcliffe Trust is gratefully acknowledged.

References

Birkenshaw, M. 1979. Mon. Not. R. astr. Soc., 187,

847.

Boldt, E. A. 1980. GSFC Preprint, 80659.

Boynton, P. & Murray, S. S. 1978. HEAO-B proposal.

Cavaliere, A., Danese, L. & De Zotti, G. 1979. Astr.

astrophys., 75, 322.

Cavallo, G. & Rees, M. J. 1978. Mon. Not. R. astr.

Soc., 184, 359.

Fabian, A. C. 1975. Mon. Not. R. astr. Soc., 172, 149.

Fabian, A. C. 1979. Proc. Roy. Soc., 366, 449.

Fabian, A. C. 1981. Proc. Tenth Texas Symp., N.Y.

Acad. Sci. in press.

Fabian, A. C. & Rees, M. J. 1978. Mon. Not. R. astr.

Soc., 185, 109.

Fabian, A. C. & Warwick, R. S. 1979. Nature, 280, 39.

Fabian, A. C., Warwick, R. S. & Pye, J. P. 1980. Phys-

ica Scripta, 21, 650.

X-RAYS AND COSMOLOGY 133

Gunn, J. E. 1978. in Observational Cosmology, ed.

Maeder et al., Geneva Observatory.

Margon, B. & Ostriker, J. 1973. Astrophys. J., 186, 91.

Partridge, R. B. 1980. Physica Scripta, 21, 624.

Pye, J. P. & Warwick, R. S. 1979. Mon. Not. R. astr.

Soc., 187, 905.

Rees, M. J. 1980.inI.A.U. Symp. 92, ed. Abell & Peeb-

les, Reidel.

Sachs, R. K. & Wolfe, A. M. 1967. Astrophys. J., 147,

a3:

Schwartz, D. A. 1980. Physica Scripta, 21, 644.

Schwartz, D. A., Murray, S.S. & Gursky, H. 1976. As-

trophys. J., 204, 315.

Silk, J. & White, S. D. M. 1978. Astrophys. J. Lett.

226, L103.

Sunyaey, R. A. & Zel’dovich, Ya.B. 1972. Comm. As-

trophys. Space Sci., 4, 173.

Tennant, A. et al. 1981. GSFC Preprint.

Warwick, R. S., Pye, J. P. & Fabian, A. C., 1980. Mon.

Not. R. astr. Soc., 190, 243.

White, S. D. M. & Silk, J. 1980. Astrophys. J., 241,

864.

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ACADEMY .-SCIENCES

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CONTENTS

Articles:

BEIZABE TH WEISBURGER: A Sea of Carcinogens :....00%...%. e220 meee

BERNARD TALBOT: Recombinant DNA and the NIH Guidelines..........

ALFRED D. STEINBERG: On Immortality

KENNETH L. MOSSMAN: Radiation Risk: A Problem in Assessment and

Re BAe PALM ater eas eta ne) Syray oh: Sa ich mpeg NG Ae ANNIE Sd Rea nike fs ste tone

JAMES F. GOFF: Thermoelectricity: The New Transport Phenomenon.......

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

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A Sea of Carcinogens

Elizabeth K. Weisburger’

National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland 20205

ABSTRACT

The human race is exposed to carcinogens of varying potencies by both occupational and

environmental means. Exposure to occupational carcinogens can be controlled through regu-

latory agencies. Individuals have a responsibility to themselves to decrease their exposure to

known carcinogenic factors that are involved in lifestyle.

Statements have been made that man is

living in a sea of carcinogens or untested

chemicals that may be carcinogens.’ ° Cer-

tain groups claim that this has been so for

ages; others attribute this “‘sea’’ to modern

technology. Certainly, tumors—probably

osteosarcomas—have been identified in

the bones of dinosaurs that existed long

before man as such appeared on earth.

Furthermore, examination of Egyptian and

Peruvian mummies from about 3000 years

ago, has revealed the presences of various

types of cancer, some of which are still preva-

lent in those parts of the world. Writings of

ancient physicians and Egyptian papyruses

all comment on diseases which obviously

were cancers.” Thus, cancer in man is not a

recent phenomemon at all.

Cancer, however, is difficult to define

since it can be any of many diseases, charac-

terized by uncontrolled growth of cells.

Tumors are also divided into benign and

maligant types, with widely differing charac-

teristics. Thus, the cells in benign tumors

have normal chromosomes, divide rarely

and maintain relatively normal function.

'Based on the Hillebrand Award Address before

the Chemical Society of Washington, March 12, 1981.

135

Cells from malignant tumors show abnor-

mal chromosomes, divide frequently and

often do not function normally.” As an ex-

ample, in a benign tumor of the thyroid in-

duced by feeding 2,4-diaminoanisole in a

rat there is a sharp demarcation between

tumor and normal tissue. However, in a

malignant tumor such as that induced in

the stomach of a rat by 1,2-dibromoethane

or 1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane, the

tumor actively invades the adjacent cell

layers. This example illustrates the diffi-

culty of controlling and removing malig-

nant tumors.

Even occupational cancer in man is nota

recent development. In 1531 Paracelsus

described a disease, now recognized as lung

cancer, among the silver and cobalt miners

of Germany. In 1700, Ramazzini wrote on

cancer as a consequence of one’s occupa-

tion—especially breast cancer in nuns.

However, the most widely known correla-

tion was that made in 1775 by P. Pott be-

tween development of cancer of the

scrotum in chimney sweeps due to expo-

sure to soot. English chimney sweeps gen-

erally were young boys who were exposed

all day and night to soot, since they slept in

their clothes and bathing was unfashiona-

136 ELIZABETH K. WEISBURGER

ble. Thus, it is not surprising that cancer

developed after 10-20 years of exposure.

The disease was relatively uncommon on Conti-

nental Europe where bathing and pro-

tective clothing were required.

Many new industries developed in Eu-

rope in the late 1800’s, largely as a result of

dyestuff manufacture. Eventually it was

realized that some of the products made or

used were carcinogenic for workers. Ex-

amples were benzidine and 2-naphthylamine

in the dyestuff industry and shale oil in ma-

chine operations.’ Within the last 10 years,

it was discovered that vinyl chloride led to

an unusual type of liver tumor. Inthe USA

alone, 78 billion Ibs. of vinyl chloride have

been produced since 1952; over 6 billion

Ibs. in 1979. Thus far, at least 84 cases of

liver tumors have been noted in exposed

U.S. workers.*”.

Epidemiologic or retrospective studies

on various groups of people have led to the

conclusion that certain compounds are

carcinogenic in humans. These include

polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, con-

CANCER DEATH RATES FOR MALES, UNITED STATES

RATE PER 100,000 MALE POPULATION

tt)

1930 1935 1940 1945 1950 1965 1960 1965 1970 1975

YEAR

Fig. 1. Time trends in cancer mortality rates for

U.S. males.

CANCER DEATH RATES FOR FEMALES, UNITED STATES

RATE PER 100,000 FEMALE POPULATION

1930 1935 1940 1945 1950 1965 1960 1965 1970 81975

Fig. 2. Time trends in cancer mortality rates for

U.S. females.

tained in soots, tars and the like, some

aromatic amines, alkylating agents, nickel

carbonyl, asbestos, radioactive elements,

diethylstilbestrol, and others. '°

Epidemiologic studies are complicated

by the fact that cancer rates differ with the

years and for various organs. Furthermore,

one of the greatest risks from cancer is old

age. Since infectious diseases such as tuber-

culosis, small pox, cholera, etc., have

largely been eliminated, people live longer

and have a greater probability of develop-

ing cancer. For U.S. males, stomach cancer

is decreasing, probably as a result of better

diet, but lung cancer is increasing rapidly

(Figure 1). Similarly, in U.S. females,

stomach cancer is decreasing; breast cancer

remains almost constant; but lung cancer is

beginning to increase (Figure 2). Further-

more, cancer rates differ from country to

country. Despite the high lung cancer rate

in the U.S.A., several other countries (1.e.,

Scotland, England and Wales, France) all

have higher rates than does the U.S.A.

With respect to stomach cancer, Japan has

A SEA OF CARCINOGENS 137

the lead, followed by Chile, while the rate

in the U.S.A. is among the lowest."

The problem is what can we do about

preventing cancer?

One approach—that taken by the govern-

ment or the country as a whole, is not to

allow the indiscriminate use of carcino-

genic chemicals, to regulate the exposure,

and to require testing of new products or

chemicals before introduction into the

marketplace. Government is moving in this

direction with the Toxic Substances Con-

trol Act. However, throughout the ages,

new compounds and processes have been

introduced without regard for some of

their consequences. An early example was

that of Prometheus, who according to

Greek mythology, stole fire from the gods

and gave it to man. Without fire or energy,

technological development would be nil.

But asa result of fire or pyrolytic processes,

benzo[a]pyrene and related polycyclic

aromatic hydrocarbons are formed. These

compounds occur in soots, highly roasted

food, charcoal broiled steaks, some crude

oils, and around highways, airports, facto-

ries, in relatively higher concentrations.

But benzo[a]pyrene is also present in forest

soils, made by some algae in culture,’ ex-

pelled by volcanoes, and it even occurs in

the deeper soil layers in permafrost regions,

as in Siberia. '* Thus, it isan environmental

carcinogen to which everyone has some

exposure.

Of course, if the government or industry

are to know what is a carcinogen, then new

compounds must be tested to determine

whether they can induce tumors in animals.

The National Toxicology Program, which

evolved largely from the National Cancer

Institute Bioassay Program, is charged

with coordinating such efforts. The testing

of any one compound is a long and expen-

sive process. Compounds are tested by any

of several routes, usually in rats and mice,

but hamsters are also useful. Application

may be by cutaneous, oral, injection, im-

plantation and respiratory routes.

The initial phase of a bioassay includes

acute toxicity tests, then repeated dose stud-

ies, then subchronic tests and finally a two-

year chronic study in 2 species, with at least

50 males and 50 females of each species at

each of several dose levels.’°

The process requires teams of analytical

chemists (to determine stability, purity,

identify impurities, uniformity of mixing,

etc), veterinarians, animal husbandry ex-

perts, histologists, pathologists, statisti-

cians, data handling and computer experts.

Furthermore, many factors can influence

the outcome of a bioassay in animals. These

include species, strain, sex, age, diet, pres-

ence of enzyme inducers in the diet, such as

traces of pesticides or vegetable material,

and the spontaneous incidence in the type

of animal.”

The code of good laboratory practice, in-

itiated by FDA, to increase confidence in

results of tests on new drugs, also enters.

Thus, tests of a new compound can well

cost $500,000-$750,000, and last for 3-5.

years.

One may well ask are there no cheaper

and shorter tests. Much effort has gone into

this area lately. One of the more widely

publicized is the so-called Ames test in se-

lected strains of the bacterium Salmonella

typhimurium.'’° These bacteria have been

developed to be especially sensitive (i.e.,

loss of their polysaccharide coats, the abil-

ity to repair themselves). But the test is very

simple—a histidine requiring mutant is

grown in presence of a trace of histidine

plus the test compound. If the test com-

pound mutates the bacteria to a form that

doesn’t require histidine, then the bacteria

will grow and form colonies. To ensure that

the test compounds will be activated or me-

tabolized to their active forms, a fraction

from mammalian liver (usually rat) called

S-9 is often added.

Results are read in 24 to 48 hours. The

premise is that acompound which can mu-

tate bacteria, that is, cause a heritable

change in their DNA, would mutate DNA

of mammals and probably cause cancer.

Thus the test is really a prescreen. In fact,

138 ELIZABETH K. WEISBURGER

EPA under the Toxic Substances Control

Act now asks that eight assorted short term

tests be done on new compounds. Three

tests to detect gene mutations are required:

either in bacteria, eukaryotic microorgan-

isms, insects (fruit flies), mammalian so-

matic cells in culture, or the mouse specific

locus test. Three tests to determine chromo-

somal aberrations can be selected from: cy-

togenetic tests in animals, insects (fruit

flies), dominant lethal effects in rodents, or

heritable translocation tests in rodents. At

least 2 tests to detect DNA damage are re-

quired: DNA repair in bacteria, unsched-

uled DNA repair synthesis in mammalian

cells; mitotic recombination in yeast and

sister-chromatid exchange in mammalian

cells.'°

Why not use such tests entirely? There

are discrepancies with the Ames tests. Ina

series of aromatic diamines, the Ames test

showed too many false positives. Again the

Ames test is negative for other compounds,

some of which are animal and possibly even

human carcinogens, procarbazine for ex-

ample. Certain types of compounds, such

as nitrosamines are not detected readily by

the Ames tests.’’

Other peculiar results have come from

these types of studies since the cells are iso-

lated, without aid from the detoxication

and immunological resources of whole

organisms. Vitamin C, and vitamin pills,

for example, have caused chromosomal

aberrations in Chinese hamster ovary cells,

one of the generally accepted short term

tests.'* Thus, one cannot rely entirely on

short term tests. The need for animal tests

of very important new compounds will

continue, although the short term methods

will furnish some information on their

mode of action and give valuable clues as to

their degree of suspicion.

What else can be done about reducing

the exposure to carcinogens? Individual ef-

forts are needed and probably are more

important overall than governmental at-

tempts to reduce occupational exposure.

This is especially important to chemists—

note that they are at higher risk for de-

veloping certain types of cancer. A study by

Li and associates’ reported American

male chemists had a higher than expected

risk of death due to malignant neoplasms,

including those of the pancreas and lym-

phatic and hematopoietic systems. Similar

data have now been reported for Swedish

and British chemist. Thus, one should use

chemicals wisely and in a safe fashion,

either in the laboratory, in industry, in

hobbies, or other situations.

One can decrease or cut out exposure to

other factors which are carcinogenic. One

of the most important is smoking, a habit

popularized in Europe by Sir Walter

Raleigh, which led to the extensive cultiva-

tion of tobacco, an important crop in

nearby Maryland.

The American Cancer Society estimates

there will be 325,000 premature deaths in

1981 from smoking, about 120,000 from

heart disease; about 105,000 from lung

cancer, some from throat, bladder and

pancreas cancer, the rest from emphysema,

bronchitis, etc.” In view of the many com-

pounds in tobacco smoke, this is not sur-

prising. These include the toxins: CO, NH,

nitrogen oxides, HCN, aldehydes, dialkyl-

nitrosamines, hydrazine, and vinyl chloride.

The particulate phase of tobacco smoke

contains various nitrosamines, 7'’Po, nickel

compounds, cadmium compounds as well

aS numerous carcinogenic polycyclic aro-

matic hydrocarbons and analogs such as

dibenzoacridines.*’ Even unburned tobacco

contains carcinogenic nitrosamines, most

derived from the nicotine.*” Furthermore,

use of tobacco along with alcohol increases

the risk of certain types of tumors, especially

of the throat. Smoking and exposure to as-

bestos increases the risk 90-fold.

Another important component is sun-

light—where it is estimated that 10% of

cancers in males and females result from

overexposure to this natural factor. Some

sunlight is needed to allow our bodies to

make vitamin D, but an excess is harmful.

Radiation—from cosmic, x-rays, OF

A SEA OF CARCINOGENS 139

other sources, is only a small component.

However, living at high elevations or flying

in jet airplanes does increase risk. Uranium

miners are a class at greater risk of develop-

ing lung tumors because of the radon gas

inhaled. Smoking likewise increases the ef-

fect over that of uranium mining alone.”

The variety of possible carcinogens to

which people are exposed through diet is

amazing. People eat mushrooms such as

the false morel, a delicious but expensive

item, which contain hydrazines. Among

spices and flavorings, the tarragon plant

contains estragole which led to liver tu-

mors in young male mice. Safrole, a minute

component of many spices, but an appreci-

able component of sassafras root is also car-

cinogenic in rats and mice.~* *° However,

occasional use of spices is probably not

harmful, but overabuse might be. In

Hawaii certain seaweeds are used as flavor-

ings; these contain various halogenated

compounds, many related to toxic or car-

cinogenic substances.”’ Cooking, especially

broiling or frying, yields traces of com-

pounds in the dark portions of the cooked

meat or fish, which are very mutagenic and

transform cells in culture.**’? There are

traces of benzene in foods such as eggs,

cooked fish or meat, vegetables, the aroma

of fruits, dairy products.*’ Benzene was

even a minor component of the 228 flavor

constituents of baked potatoes.”!

Exposure also occurs in herb teas and

home remedies: comfrey used in teas; colts-

foot used as a vegetable and to make cough

syrup; tansy ragwort, a contaminant of

grain, milk, honey and also a herbal medi-

cine. All these contain pyrrolizidine alka-

loids similar to retrorsine which was car-

cinogenic in rats.”

One could eat moldy peanuts and be ex-

posed to aflatoxin, the most potent liver

carcinogen known, from Aspergillus flavus.

The fiddleheads or croziers of bracken

fern, are also eaten as a vegetable in Can-

ada, Japan and parts of the U.S.A. This

plant is carcinogenic to rats, mice and cat-

tle.*? Ethyl carbamate may be formed from

ethanol and carbamyl phosphate during

fermentation processes.’ Nitrosamines

may be formed endogenously from nitrite

and amines.”

Thus, people are indeed exposed to

many carcinogens, of which only some

prominent examples have been mentioned.”°

Some of these compounds are used indus-

trially where all efforts should be made to

limit exposure. Some carcinogenic factors

are inevitable—cosmic radiation, for ex-

ample, about which we can do little in a

reasonable fashion. As individuals we can

do something about others—avoid or cut

down exposure, live a moderate lifestyle,

eat varied but adequate diets, lower in red

meat and fats, but including certain vegeta-

bles and fruits which contain protective

factors.’ Remember that man and woman

have evolved over a long time and have de-

veloped many defenses against toxic

substances, including carcinogens. Human

cells in culture have much higher capacity

to repair damage to DNA than cells from

other mammals. It helps too, to have

chosen good ancestors. Let your motto be:

Ask not only what the government can do

to prevent cancer, but ask also what one

can do individually to decrease the proba-

bility of becoming a cancer patient.

Acknowledgments

SRI furnished data on vinyl chloride

production. Ms. F. M. Williams provided

capable secretarial assistance.

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Recombinant DNA and the NIH Guidelines

Bernard Talbot

National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20205

ABSTRACT

Recombinant DNA is a technique of major importance in basic biomedical research and

increasingly in industrial applications. The National Institutes of Health Guidelines for

Research Involving Recombinant DNA Molecules are a widely accepted, evolving set of safety

standards.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) exists within

all cells and determines hereditary charac-

teristics. Chromosomes contain genes and

genes are made up of DNA.

Recombinant DNA is a technique that

allows a piece of DNA from one organism

to be joined to a piece of DNA from

another organism in a test tube, after which

the DNA is inserted back into a living

cell.’? That is, this technique allows the

transfer of genes from cells of one species to

cells of another species.

By introducing a particular piece of

DNA into a bacterium, and then growing

up the bacterial cells, one can produce large

amounts of the desired DNA segments for

study. This had been, and continues to be,

widely used, in thousands of laboratories

throughout the world, to produce DNA

which is then analyzed to determine the

precise structure of specific genes.* This

* Anentire recent issue (Volume 209, Number 4463,

September 19, 1980) of the journal Science is devoted

to recombinant DNA experiments.

141

has led to a major finding about the organi-

zation of DNA in eukaryotic cells, namely

the existence of “intervening,” or “intron,”

sequences.” ° Much new information is aris-

ing from recombinant DNA experiments,

some of which may be important in ulti-

mately understanding why a cancer cell is

different from a normal cell.

If the inserted recombinant DNA in the

cell is transcribed into messenger RNA and

then translated into protein, a whole new

range of possibilities opens up. Major suc-

cesses have been reported in the past years

leading to the production by bacteria of

mammalian proteins such as somatostatin, °

insulin,”® growth hormone,’ and inter-

feron.'”'' Techniques are being perfected

to increase the yields of bacterial production

of such proteins. Theoretically, any protein

can be made in bacteria; recombinant DNA

promises to yield scarce biological products

such as biologically active peptides'* and

hormones,’’ and viral antigens to use as

vaccines” '° in huge amounts, at a much

lower cost than they are today.

142 BERNARD TALBOT

Outside the pharmaceutical industry, many

other uses are being explored.” Among

these are:

Chemical production—inserting genes

into bacteria so that they can synthesize or-

ganic chemicals, such as ethylene oxide

used in making plastics, or ethylene glycol.

Energy production—inserting genes into

bacteria to enable them to convert plants or

sewage into methane, methanol, ethanol,

hydrogen, or other compounds that can be

burned as fuels.

Metal-extracting bacteria—inserting genes

into bacteria so that the bacteria can eat

away impurities, allowing the extraction of

desired metals from ores.

All these uses of recombinant DNA in-

volve inserting recombinant DNA into mi-

croorganisms. Another class of uses, just

beginning to be explored, involves the in-

sertion of recombinant DNA into higher

organisms. There have already been nu-

merous instances of recombinant DNA

being added to, and expressing protein

products in, the cells of higher organisms in

tissue culture. A future goal would be the

insertion of nitrogen fixation genes into

agriculturally important plants, eliminat-

ing the need for fertilizers. Ultimately, it

should be possible to alter the genetic con-

stitution of higher animals and man to cure

inherited disorders.

There are already many benefits of re-

combinant DNA research and they will

surely grow in the coming years. The risks

remain hypothetical. Recombinant DNA

experiments have now been performed for

over 8 years, with millions of recombinant

* Recent articles describing industrial uses of micro-

organisms into which recombinant DNA has been in-

serted include: a cover story in Time, March 9, 1981,

“Shaping Life in the Lab’’; a cover story in Newsweek,

March 17, 1980, ‘““DNA’s New Miracles’’; a cover

story in Life, May 1980, ‘“‘Weaving New Life in the

Lab’’; Science, May 16, 1980, ‘“‘Cloning Gold Rush

Turns Basic Biology into Big Business”; Chemical

Week, October 8, 1980, “‘Biotechnology: Research

That Could Remake Industries’; Fortune, June 16,

1980, ““DNA Can Build Companies, Too” and the

New York Times Magazine, February 17, 1980, ‘“‘On

the Brink of Altering Life.”

DNA clones produced in thousands of labo-

ratories throughout the world, and to date,

no actual hazard has been demonstrated.

However, because of concern about possi-

ble dangers of recombinant DNA mole-

cules, scientists working in this field spear-

headed discussions of safety.

Both the promise and possible hazards

of recombinant DNA experiments were

discussed at a 1973 Gordon Conference.

Those present voted that a letter be sent to

the National Academy of Sciences, and be

published suggesting that the Academy

“consider this problem and recommend

specific actions or guidelines.”’”’

In response, the Academy formed a dis-

tinguished committee which proposed™®

‘First, and most important, that until the

potential hazards of such recombinant DNA

molecules have been better evaluated or

until adequate methods are developed for

preventing their spread, scientists through-

out the world join with the members of this

committee in voluntarily deferring [cer-

tain] experiments.’’ (This request was

widely hailed in the press as a historical oc-

currence of scientists calling for a volun-

tary ““moratorium”’ on certain experiments

while questions of public safety were further

evaluated.)

Second, the committee called for the

National Institutes of Health (NIH) to

establish an Advisory Committee for“. . .

devising guidelines to be followed by investi-

gators working with potentially hazardous

recombinant DNA molecules.”

Third, the committee called for an inter-

national conference. This was held in Febru-

ary 1975 at the Asilomar Conference Cen-

ter.” There were 150 attendees from 15

countries (plus many members of the press,

who gave the meeting wide coverage). The

final report of the Conference recom-

mended proceeding with most recombi-

nant DNA experiments using appropriate

‘“‘ohysical containment” and “biological

containment.” ””

» Two books describing the Asilomar Conference

are: The Ultimate Experiment by Nicholas Wade,

Walker and Company, 1977; and Biohazard by Mi-

chael Rogers, Alfred A. Knopf, 1977.

RECOMBINANT DNA AND THE NIH GUIDELINES

The NIH Recombinant DNA Advisory

Committee (RAC) was formed in response

to the request in the 1974 Berg et a/. letter.

The first RAC meeting* was held the day

after the Asilomar Conference. After a

series of meetings, the RAC, in December

1975, adopted its proposed Guidelines for

Recombinant DNA Research. When NIH

Director Donald Fredrickson received these

proposed Guidelines from the RAC, he

called a meeting of his Director’s Advisory

Committee in February 1976, to which he

invited many distinguished scientific and

public representatives. (The full transcript

of this February 1976 meeting, and all letters

received on the proposed Guidelines, form

the bulk of Volume One of what is now a

five-volume massive public record of the

history of the NIH Guidelines.)” Following

changes based on the suggestions received

at the February 1976 meeting and after-

wards, the original NIH Guidelines were

made final and released in June 1976.

The original 1976 NIH Guidelines* in-

cluded a list of prohibited experiments. The

Guidelines then described in great detail

four sets of special practices, equipment,

and laboratory installations that defined

four levels of physical containment, called

Pl, P2, P3, and P4. Pl corresponds to the

microbiology diagnostic laboratories exist-

ing in all hospitals where infectious micro-

organisms isolated from patients are grown

and analyzed. P2 adds more practices and

equipment—most important, the use of bio-

“Minutes of all RAC meetings are available from

the Office of Recombinant DNA Activities, Building

31, Room 4A52, National Institutes of Health, Be-

thesda, Maryland.

» The volumes in this series may be purchased from

the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government

Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402, or viewed

in some 600 public libraries of the GPO depository

system. The GPO stock number of Volume 1 is 017-

040-00398-6; Volume 2, 017-040-00422-2 and (sup-

plement: Environmental Impact Statement) 017-040-

004 13-3; Volume 3, 017-040-00429-0 and (appendices)

017-040-00430-3; Volume 4, 017-040-00443-5 and

(appendices) 017-040-00442-7; and Volume 5, 017-

040-00470-2.

“Federal Register, July 7, 1976, Volume 41, pp.

27902-27943.

143

logical safety cabinets for certain opera-

tions. P3 adds still more special practices,

equipment, and laboratory installations—

most important, the entire laboratory is

operated with an inward air flow, like a

giant hood. P4 laboratories have many

special engineering features. All experi-

ments are confined to Class III air-tight bio-

logical safety cabinets, working through

glove ports. An entire set of secondary bar-

riers exist.

P1 and P4 are levels of physical contain-

ment. A major advance coming out of the

Asilomar Conference was the concept of

biological containment. Biological contain-

ment is defined as the use of organisms with

limited ability to survive outside of the labor-

atory. Most recombinant DNA experi-

ments at present are being done with the

harmless bacterium Escherichia coli strain

K-12. Its use, together with certain speci-

fied plasmid or bacteriophage vectors, con-

stitutes what is called the EK 1 level of bio-

logical containment. By further modifying

E. coli K-12 to render the bacteria much

less likely to survive, were they to escape

from the laboratory (for example, by mak-

ing them dependent for survival on certain

nutrients which are supplied in the labora-

tory, but which do not occur in significant

concentrations in nature, and by making

the modified bacteria sensitive to sunlight

and to bile acids), and by requiring data on

the survivability to be submitted to NIH,

and approved by the RAC, one finally ar-

rived at what were called the EK2 and EK3

levels of biological containment.

The Guidelines, having defined four lev-

els of physical containment—P1, P2, P3

and P4—and three levels of biological con-

tainment—EK1, EK2, and EK3—went on

to specify a specific level of physical con-

tainment and of biological containment for

each of many different kinds of experi-

ments.

Finally, the Guidelines discussed the roles

and responsibilities of the scientist, his uni-

versity, its institutional biosafety commit-

tee, and the NIH.

In July 1976, Senators Javits and

Kennedy wrote to President Ford urging

144

that “every possible measure be explored

for assuring that the NIH Guidelines are

adhered to in all sectors of the research

community.” In his reply to the two Sena-

tors, President Ford described the creation

of the Federal Interagency Advisory Com-

mittee on Recombinant DNA Research.

This Committee has met periodically since

1976." It consists of members from all Fed-

eral agencies which either fund or might reg-

ulate recombinant DNA research. In 1977,

it recommended new national legislation to

extend the NIH Guidelines by law to pri-

vate industry.

In the first session of the 95th Congress,

which lasted through 1977, many different

bills on the topic of recombinant DNA

were introduced. Extensive hearings were

held. Over 100 witnesses appeared before

the Senate Subcommittee on Health and

Scientific Research” (Edward Kennedy,

Chairman): the Senate Subcommittee on

Science, Technology and Space (Adlai

Stevenson, Chairman); the House Subcom-

mittee on Health and Environment® (Paul

Rogers, Chairman); and the House Sub-

committee on Science, Research and Tech-

nology® (Ray Thornton, Chairman).

There was great disagreement on a number

of provisions of the proposed recombinant

DNA bills, and none ever reached the floor

of the full House or Senate for a vote. There

is, therefore, no national law making the

NIH Guidelines mandatory for private

industry.

In the absence of national legislation, a

number of states and localities have acted.

In Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1976, the

City Council called for a six-month mora-

torium on all P3 and P4 research by Har-

vard University and the Massachusetts In-

stitute of Technology while an appointed

* Minutes of all meetings of the Federal Interagency

Advisory Committee on Recombinant DNA Research

are available from the Committee Executive Secre-

tary, Building 1, Room 137, National Institutes of

Health, Bethesda, Maryland, 20205.

’Hearing held on April 6, 1977.

“Hearings held on November 2, 8, and 10, 1977.

4 Hearings held on March 15, 16, and 17, 1977.

° Hearings held on March 29, 30, 31; April 27, 28;

May 3, 4, 5, 25, 26; and September 7 and 8, 1977.

BERNARD TALBOT

Cambridge Experimental Review Board

studied the situation. The Board consisted

of a former Cambridge mayor and owner

of a heating oil business, a community

worker, a hospital nurse, an engineer, a

practicing physician, a social worker, anda

professor of urban policy. None of the

members knew anything about recombi-

nant DNA before they were appointed;

they heard over 75 hours of testimony, and

finally issued their report recommending

that recombinant DNA research be al-

lowed in Cambridge, basically under the

NIH Guidelines with a few added restric-

tions. This was adopted by the Cambridge

City Council in February 1977. Other local

jurisdictions which have made the NIH

Guidelines mandatory are: Princeton, New

Jersey; Amherst, Massachusetts; Waltham,

Massachusetts; Berkeley, California; and

Emeryville, California. Two states have

enacted such legislation—New York and

Maryland.

Internationally, guidelines either identi-

cal, or similar, to the NIH Guidelines have

been adopted in many countries. The na-

tional committees monitoring this research

communicate regularly with each other,

freely exchanging information on their

rules.

Two and a half years elapsed between the

issuance of the original NIH Guidelines in

June 1976 and the issuance of revised Guide-

lines in December 1978. Many steps were

involved in the revision. First, the RAC

worked during the spring of 1977, at a

number of meetings, to produce draft revi-

sions. A workshop held in Falmouth, Massa-

chusetts, in June 1977, led to a consensus

of experts that E. coli K-12 is a harmless or-

ganism and cannot be converted into a

pathogen by the insertion of recombinant

DNA. Revised Guidelines as proposed by

the RAC were published in the Federal Regis-

ter in September 1977® and sent out widely

for public comment. At the NIH Director’s

‘The procedings of the Falmouth Workshop were

published (1978) in the Journal of Infectious Diseases -

137: 613-714.

® Federal Register, September 27, 1977, Volume 42,

pp. 49596-49609.

RECOMBINANT DNA AND THE NIH GUIDELINES 145

Advisory Committee meeting in December

1977, many witnesses spoke about their

views of the proposed revisions.* Addi-

tional scientific meetings were held, focus-

ing especially on the risks of recombinant

DNA experiments involving viruses’ and

plant pathogens.° Then, after much further

analysis, a new set of proposed revised

Guidelines was Published in July 1978.

This document,’ which amounted to 136

pages in the Federal Register, actually con-

sisted of three parts: the new proposed

Guidelines; a ““Decision Document”’ ex-

plaining in great detail the proposed changes

and the reasons for them, as well as why

certain suggested changes were not adopted;

and an Environmental Impact Assessment.

It was mailed to over 2,500 individuals who

had communicated their interest in this issue

to NIH, with a 60-day period allowed for

public comment; 170 responses were re-

ceived. In addition, a public hearing was

held in September 1978, chaired by the

General Counsel of the Department of

Health, Education, and Welfare.°

After careful analysis of all comments

received, final revised Guidelines were

issued on December 22, 1978, accompa-

nied by anew Decision Document and En-

vironmental Impact Assessment.’ Some of

the major changes in the new December

1978 Guidelines, as compared with the

original 1976 Guidelines, were:

* The transcript of the December 15-16, 1977, meet-

ing of the NIH Director’s Advisory Committee ap-

pears in Volume 3 of the documents cited in footnote

b, P. 3 of this manuscript.

The report of the US—EMBO Workshop to As-

sess Risks for Recombinant DNA Experiments In-

volving the Genomes of Animal, Plant and Insect

Viruses appears in the Federal Register, March 31,

1978, Volume 43, pp. 13748-13755, and again July 28,

1978, Volume 43, pp. 33159-33167.

“The report of the Workshop on Risk Assessment of

Agricultural Pathogens appears in the Federal Regis-

ter, July 28, 1978, Volume 43, pp. 33174-33178.

4 Federal Register, July 28, 1978, Volume 43, pp.

33042-33178.

* The transcript of the September 15, 1978, hearing

appears in Volume 4 of the documents cited in foot-

note b, p. 3 of this manuscript.

‘ Federal Register, December 22, 1978, Volume 43,

pp. 60080-60131.

1. In general, experiments were assigned

lower levels of required containment.

2. Certain classes of experiments deemed

of the lowest potential hazard were

exempted entirely from the Guidelines.

3. Increased representation was mandated

on local institutional biosafety com-

mittees and on the RAC.

4. Built into the Guidelines were pro-

cedures to change them in the future.

The RAC was originally a 14-member

committee, composed entirely of scientists.

At the RAC’s own suggestion, two laymen

were added to the Committee in 1976, a

professor of government and a bioethicist.

At the time of the Guidelines revision in

December 1978, the RAC was expanded to

25 voting members, at least six of whom

were required to “‘be persons knowledge-

able in applicable law, standards of profes-

sional conduct and practice, public atti-

tudes, the environment, public health,

occupational health, or related fields.”

Also, scientists representing many different

backgrounds were added as members, and

all relevant Federal agencies were given

nonvoting membership. There are cur-

rently 15 agencies so represented. Since.

July 1980, the Chairman of the RAC has

been Ray Thornton, former Congressman

and currently President of Arkansas State

University.

Another change in the 1978 Guidelines,

as compared with the 1976 Guidelines, was

the requirement that local institutional bio-

safety committees, which oversee the

work at each institution, must contain at

least two members, at least 20% of their

membership, who are not affiliated with

the institution and who represent the inter-

est of the surrounding community with re-

spect to health and protection of the

environment.

Perhaps the major change in the De-

cember 1978 Guidelines compared with the

original 1976 Guidelines was that a process

was built into the Guidelines for further incre-

mentally changing them. Anyone wishing

to suggest a Guideline revision may submit

such to NIH. It is published in the Federal

146 BERNARD TALBOT

days prior to a regular quarterly meeting of

the RAC. The suggested revision, together

with all written comments received, is then

considered by the RAC at its open meeting;

members of the public wishing to speak on

the subject are given an opportunity. Fol-

lowing the discussion, the RAC votes on

whether to recommend the Guideline revi-

sion. After the meeting, the Director, NIH,

promulgates in the Federal Register his

final decision on the RAC recommenda-

tions. In this fashion, the Guidelines have

been incrementally modified essentially

every three months since December 1978.*

The original 1976 NIH Guidelines said

nothing about the private sector. They

dealt only with those receiving Federal

funds for recombinant DNA research. In

the absence of legislation mandating indus-

try compliance with the Guidelines, NIH

recently provided a means for voluntary

industry compliance. Part VI, entitled “*Vol-

untary Compliance,” was formally added

to the NIH Guidelines on January 29,

1980.* It encourages voluntary compliance

by the private sector and specifies how NIH

will protect proprietary information volun-

tarily submitted.

Private companies may voluntarily submit

information about the membership of their

Institutional Biosafety Committees to NIH,

which will verify that they meet the require-

ments of the NIH Guidelines. They may

cation of the Guidelines, and receive NIH

certification of new host-vector systems.

The Guidelines state that all recombi-

nant DNA experiments over 10 liters in vol-

ume require prior approval by the Direc-

tor, NIH. A number of proposals to exceed

10 liters have been submitted voluntarily to

NIH by industry, have been recommended

“Federal Register, April 11, 1979, Volume 44, pp.

21730-21736; July 20, 1979, Volume 44, pp. 42914-

42917; January 17, 1980, Volume 45, pp. 3552-3556;

January 29, 1980, Volume 45, pp. 6718-6749; April

14, 1980, Volume 45, pp. 25366-25370; July 29, 1980,

Volume 45, pp. 50524-50531; November 21, 1980, Vol-

ume 45, pp. 77372-77409; March 12, 1981, Volume

46, pp. 16452-16457.

for approval by the RAC after careful re-

view, and finally have been approved by

NIH. These proposals include large-scale

production of human insulin, growth hor-

mone, somatostatin, and interferon.

Recombinant DNA techniques are a

major advance, used widely in biomedical

research, and increasingly in industrial ap-

plications. The benefits are coming out of

thousands of laboratories throughout the

world; scientific data along a number of

lines indicate that the potential hazards

were initially overestimated. The NIH

Guidelines for Recombinant DNA Re-

search provide widely accepted safety

standards for the work, continously evolv-

ing, based on the input of scientists and

laymen.

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On Immortality

Alfred D. Steinberg, M.D.

Medical Director, USPHS, Senior Investigator, Arthritis and Rheumatism

Branch, National Institute of Arthritis, Metabolism, and Digestive Disease,

National Institutes of Health, Bldg. 10, Room 8D19,

Bethesda, Maryland 20205

ABSTRACT

This essay discusses the question of immortality—both biological and ex-

trabiological—and concludes that immortality is relative.

“It can be proved by The Law, The Prophets, and The Writings that a man

is led along the road he wishes to follow.”

With a gasp of air and a loud scream we

are ushered into the world carrying the

burden of all of the hopes and unfulfilled

dreams of our parents, our ancestors, the

147

Talmud

whole human race. With luck we shall be

educated, taught about the good things in

life. We learn to work hard to get a good

job, live an exemplary life, and contribute

148 ALFRED D. STEINBERG

in asmall or larger way to the betterment of

mankind. Our failures and unfinished busi-

ness will be passed on to our children, and

in turn to theirs.

We appear on the earthly scene for only a

brief moment in the whole of eternity. Most

people are content to work, eat, rest, enjoy

a few pleasurable moments, and, perhaps,

do their small share to improve the lot of

their fellow humans. A few people are

driven by some unpredictable force to de-

vote a larger share of their earthly goods

(time, of course, being the most important)

to altruistic activities. They derive ade-

quate payment in emotional satisfaction

from these virtuous actions. All of the

people so far discussed take a back seat to

another group which is the major subject of

this essay: those people who desire and ac-

tively seek immortality. We will pass

quickly over those who actually wish to live

forever to those who desire to be remem-

bered as a means of attaining immortality.

Upon reflection, it appears to me that

immortality is relative. Thus, for human

tribes without a written history, immortal-

ity might represent remembrances of sev-

eral generations, or at most, until the last

member of the tribe is seduced by the prog-

ress of “‘civilization’’, and becomes assimi-

lated, thereby leaving in the dim reaches of

his memory the immortality of the greats of

his tribe. When this last Mohican dies, the

“immortals” of his tribe die with him, their

memory erased as quickly as the tracks in

the desert are forever removed by the dust

storm that obliterates all traces of previous

happenings.

In a “civilized” society, we have famous

warriors, politicians, philosophers, noble-

men, artists, athletes, scientists, and busi-

nessmen. Many of the famous hope that

they will be remembered forever. Some

may be expected by historians to live on,

even if the famous themselves did not have

such expectations. Moreover, many people

who ultimately achieve fame that lasts

more than several generations may not

have been motivated by the desire for fame.

Many will have done science because they

were curious, or painted to satisfy some

psychological drive. Others will have hun-

gered for power or glory. (Ironically many

of the people who have achieved recogni-

tion by later generations were ignored by

their own.) Nevertheless, due to my inabil-

ity to dissect motives, all of these people

will be considered together.

A few great artists (writers, sculptors),

scientists, philosophers and politicians who

lived 2,500 years ago in ancient Greece are

still remembered. Egyptian, Jewish and

Chinese history go back even further. Al-

though most of the casts of characters do

not represent household names, some have

lived on in our writings, and some in our

memories. One could go back further and

cite a skeleton (usually a part thereof) from

one or three million years ago, carefully

studied and preserved in a museum, as an

example of long-term remembrance; how-

ever, without the deeds or thoughts, the es-

sence of the owner’s personality, there is lit-

tle to recommend it as an example of

immortality.

What are our chances of immortality? As

I mentioned earlier, immortality appears to

be relative. It is relative at least two ways:

(1) the length of time one is remembered;

(2) the number (or percentage) of people

alive at a given time who remember. I will

concentrate on the first, but the second will

be lurking as an unstated corollary. Short-

term immortality in athletics is possible for

superstars. Babe Ruth, Ty Cobb, Lou

Gerigh, and Cy Young are living legends

for American baseball fans. That very few

Chinese, Indonesians, or Russians know of

them appears irrelevant in the center of

North America where the names of soccer

stars of South America of the same period,

or the best cricket players of Great Britain,

would summon up not the slightest cord of

recognition. Over longer periods of time,

athletics appears to be a limited vehicle for

attaining immortality. The olympic medal

winner’s names will be preserved, but

without biographical recollections, this

seems an empty feat. Artists may fare

-somewhat better; hundreds of millions of

people know of Leonardo da Vinci (more

than all of the people alive when he painted).

ON IMMORTALITY 149

However, some of the most popular and

famous painters of 17th, 18th, and 19th

century France are virtually unknown to-

day. They and Bruce Jenner (no offense in-

tended) will have a limited hold upon

human memories.

Writers (novelists, poets, playwrights,

essayists and philosophers) have done a lit-

tle better, probably because of the ease of

reproduction of their work. Nevertheless,

most college graduates would have diffi-

culty naming five writers of the seventeenth

century. And that is only three hundred

years ago, less than an instant in the five bil-

lion years of the Earth’s history between

the seventeenth century and the time the

sun will cease to support life on earth.

Leaders of countries have achieved rela-

tive immortality of many generations be-

cause school children are forced to learn

their names. However, when the list gets

very long, only the names are remem-

bered (and those only by the diligent).

Thus, the kings and queens of England,

presidents of the United States, and leaders

of the Communist Party in the U.S.S.R.

will, with a few exceptions, become names

in a list like the names in the telephone di-

rectory. Future Americans will remember

some details about Washington, Jefferson

(well they should), and Jackson; but, what

did Tyler do? What kind of person was

Polk? With the passage of time, history

books will devote less and less space to each

until they remain only names. Will Hard-

ing be remembered 500 years from now?

5,000? 50,000? Microstorage systems may

preserve biographies in library vaults:

however, if unread, they constitute a shal-

low form of immortality.

How about antisocial behavior? Hijack-

ing planes, holding hostages, murders (or

political assasinations), and other forms of

antisocial behavior rarely lead to immor-

tality. An occasional act will confer upon

the criminal decades or even centuries of

immortality (e.g., John Wilkes Booth,

Benedict Arnold). The longest-lived anti-

social characters are those who have plot-

ted against a race, religion or nationality.

These people are remembered best when

used in special stories or holidays, usually

to stir group unity. Thus, Hayman, who

plotted against the Jews 3,000 years ago,

and was outwitted by Esther, is remem-

bered in the Jewish story of the holiday of

Purim.

Perhaps the best way to be remembered

is to be the figurehead of a religion. Budda,

Mohammed, and Jesus Christ are well re-

membered. Roger Smith is somewhat less

well known as are Martin Luther and Abra-

ham who have not been assigned divine

attributes. Although many religions (or

sects) have been studied in the last 500

years, very few of their leaders are known

world-wide. Thus, in religion, as in art, one

has to be a superstar to achieve widespread

recognition and relatively long-lived im-

mortality.

Let us now turn toa greater scale of time:

Can anyone be remembered forever? As-

suming continued “‘civilization”’ and “‘prog-

ress’, extrabiological information transfer

should remain at least as good as it is today,

and it probably will improve considerably.

Thus, Hamlet should be available 500 mil-

lion years from now. That represents a pe-

riod of time one million times as great as

the period between the present and the

time Shakespeare wrote. In that long pe-

riod of time, many great writers may come

along; Shakespeare may go out of fashion;

life may become so different that his plays

may appear irrelevant. Nevertheless, let us

assume that Shakespeare will always be

deemed a great writer by all civilizations. Is

there a limit to his relatively long immortal-

ity? With regard to our solar system, the

limit is imposed by the sun which gives us

the energy by which to live. Without life,

Shakespeare’s words would die like the rest

of the millions of words printed and dis-

carded every day. It is likely that humans

will manage to colonize another solar system

before the sun burns out. (Alternatively, we

could transmit the information to another

civilization.) They could take Shakespeare

along for another ten billion years, giving

him a total survival of fifteen billion years.

Thus, Shakespeare’s warmth could outlive

that of our solar system by billions of years.

150 ALFRED D. STEINBERG

However, approximately fifteen billion years

from now, even Shakespeare’s immortality

would be in jeopardy. At that time the con-

tinuation of life in the universe we know

will be tenuous. Two possibilities for the

end of life are currently in vogue. The first,

presently considered likely, points to an

ever-expanding universe. All cosmic bodies

will continue to drift farther and farther

apart; eventually all stars will lose their life-

giving warmth, and all planets will cease to

support life. Artificial support systems ul-

timately will run out of adequate raw mate-

rials as a temperature close to absolute zero

pervades the universe. Moreover, with in-

creasing distances between cosmic bodies,

especially in the absence of stellar power,

inhabitants of one world would find it in-

creasingly difficult to travel to other cosmic

bodies, and eventually, all life in the uni-

verse would cease. At that time, despite the

likely preservation of records never again

to be deciphered, no one would be remem-

bered by anyone—no one would be immor-

tal. The second possibility for the universe

(currently considered less likely than the

first) is that it is oscillating, expanding now,

but scheduled to reverse its course some

day. After that, heavenly bodies will speed

toward a central point in the universe.

When they all meet there, some fifteen bil-

lion years hence, all matter will be con-

verted into energy. All people, all records,

all living things, all thought will be de-

stroyed. No one will be immortal.

Thus, immortality appears to be relative.

In biological life we must all die; similarly,

in extrabiological life we must also die.

When the last thinking being dies, there

will be no more recollections of the names,

thoughts, or deeds of anything. No person

will be remembered forever.

Alas, immortality appears to be relative

with regard to duration. Most people are

remembered by their children or grand-

children. Most are not remembered by

their great-great grandchildren (or their

contemporaries’ great-great grandchildren).

Very few people indeed are remembered

for ten generations (150 to 400 years). Will

anyone remember Mickey Mantle or Willie

Mays 1,000 years from now? Will Gerald

Ford bea household word in 100,000 years?

Who will remember the author of the Gettys-

burg Address a million years into the fu-

ture? Napoleon, Constantine, William the

Conqueror, Julius Caesar, Hitler, Chou En

Lai, and other major political figures who

influenced the course of our culture will be-

long to primitive fables 10,000,000 years

from now, remembered only by computer

storage devices. Perhaps Michaelangelo’s

David (albeit in replica) will last 10,000,000

years. The works of Bach, Beethoven,

Homer and Sophocles have a chance of

being remembered 100,000,000 years from

now. That is about as immortal as most of

us can conceive, and is only a factor of

about 150 from the upper limit of immor-

tality anyway, so let’s be gracious and give

them the full 15,000,000,000 years. By con-

trast, itis a bit humbling to realize that this

essay will probably not outlast its author.

Similarly, it is humbling to realize that as

the inventions of the past become obsolete,

their creators no longer occupy a promi-

nent place in our minds. The memory of Eli

Whitney has been fading during the period

of my life; Marconi and A.G. Bell will meet

similar fates someday. Will the memory of

Thomas Edison last 10,000 years? Scien-

tists, especially if a constant is named after

them, will probably be remembered longer

than will inventors. Avagadro, at least in

name, if not in personality, appears des-

tined for relatively long human memory.

Outstanding scientists who established new

fields, such as Darwin, or who established

important theoretical principles, such as

Newton and Einstein, will live on. How-

ever, with the passage of time, Volta and

Ampere may fade as personalities, as will

the discoverers of planets and subatomic

particles.

Explorers have been remembered well in

the past few hundred years; however, it

seems unlikely that ten thousand years

from now Magellan and Columbus will be

deemed very courageous. Even having a

place named after yourself is no guarantee

of even 100 years of prominence. Street

names, airports (Idelwild), towns, and even

ON IMMORTALITY

countries are subject to name changes fora

variety of reasons. Over longer periods of

time. continents will shift enough to make

irrelevant explorations, cities, and bays,

and other geographical features we hold so

dear. How many people living today can

name, let alone describe, the seven wonders

of the ancient world (2,000-4,000 years

later). Will they have any meaning in

100,000 years?

I have emphasized works of writing and

music and art as candidates for relatively

long immortality. Will the poems of Robert

Frost lose all meaning in urban societies

10,000 years into the future? Will Donatel-

li’s sculptures seem distasteful? I hope not.

What better way will there be to help a

young person embark upon a career in po-

litics or the social sciences 10,000 years

from now than by engaging him in a thor-

ough analysis of Plato’s Republic?

Many years in the future, society may

become intellectually more sophisticated,

or may achieve a more widespread appreci-

ation of relatively unpopular fields such as

mathematics and philosophy. People who

have remained relatively unknown, except

to a few specialists in the field, may become

uniformly acknowledged. Thus, in addi-

tion to Archimedes, Descartes, Pythagor-

ous and Euclid, such mathematicians as

Georg Cantor, Bernhard Bolzano, John

Napir, Fermat, Gauss, Euler, Reimann,

Bolyai and Lobachevsky may be better

known a thousand years from now than

they are today.

Now that the argument has been pre-

sented, it seems appropriate to return to

those people who paint or write or do

science not so much for the vanity of

recognition by society, or peer approval,

but rather as an attempt to leave one’s

stamp on the world; to leave something be-

hind; to achieve relative immortality. Such

activity may be motivated by a desire to

trick nature, and avoid the death dictated

by our biology, through the extremely effi-

cient extrabiological information system the

human race has evolved. This possibility is

strengthened by the realization that biolog-

ical information transfer is capricious at

151

best. Having children is an uncertain

avenue to immortality. Genes are subject

to dilution and change. Offspring may not

chose to reproduce. A Hitler or Amin may

decide that your family does not deserve its

small niche in the world. Finally, the future

may bring human reproduction to the level

of bovine reproduction as practiced at the

end of the Twentieth Century. This prac-

tice consists of using sperm from the “‘best

bulls” to artificially inseminate promising

cows. Leaving aside other aspects of sucha

practice for humans, it would leave most

people without a chance for genetic immor-

tality of even the most limited sort. Total in

vitro reproduction would further reduce

genetic immortality for most people, and

genetic manipulation would essentially

eliminate it altogether. Thus, many people

instinctively, if not conciously, have recog-

nized that immortality may be on safer

ground elsewhere; that achievements may

lead to immortality through extrabiologi-

cal information transfer. However, it ap-

pears that such immortality is relative, only

a few people living today will be remem-

bered 500 years from now. Perhaps none

will be remembered 500,000 years from

now. Moreover, it could be argued that

there is so much to be discovered and writ-

ten and composed and painted that our

current “immortals” may be replaced. This

would put an even greater restriction upon

achieving long-term immortality. However,

it is easier to point to the discoverer of ele-

ments in general, or to the discoverer of the

first element, than to the discoverers of the

next one hundred and fifty elements. Sim-

ilarly, the first discoverers of a subatomic

particle will probably be remembered bet-

ter than the discoverer of the thirteenth. In

a sense, as time goes on, it may become

harder and harder to achieve long lasting

fame or relatively long immortality. Thus,

the earlier one lives in the history of a civili-

zation, the better the chance of achieving

relatively long-lasting immortality. This is

especially true if one considers the propor-

tionate increase in population, and in edu-

cated population, that has occurred during

recorded human history to the present.

Mark Twain recognized this aspect of the

human condition when he remarked that

Adam (the first man) was lucky because he

knew that when he said a good thought no

one had ever said it before. Therefore, we

are lucky relative to the billions of people

who are destined to follow us, since we

have a better chance of achieving relatively

long-lived immortality than they. It could

also be argued that we also have the advan-

tage, over those who lived long ago, of liv-

ing in an age of efficient extrabiological in-

formation storage and transfer. Moreover,

we have the opportunity to enjoy the labors

of Tschaikovsky, Mozart, Picasso, Neruda,

Poe, and Rodin in those spare moments

that we set aside as rest periods in our pur-

suit of relatively long immortality.

Radiation Risk: A Problem in Assessment and Perception

Kenneth L. Mossman, PH.D.

Department of Radiation Medicine, Georgetown University Medical Center,

Washington, D.C. 20007

Introduction

Ever since the beginning of time, life on

earth has evolved in a sea of radiations

from naturally occurring radioactive mate-

rials on the earth and from cosmic rays

from outer space. Since the beginning of

this century, man-made radiations such

as X-rays from medical X-ray equipment

and radionuclides from nuclear power

plants have provided additional radiation

exposures above and beyond that which

is received naturally. There is no question

that these man-made radiations have

provided and will continue to provide

tremendous benefits for society. For in-

stance, X-rays and radioactive materials

have revolutionized diagnostic medicine;

nuclear power plants now provide nearly

10% of the electric power in the United

States.”

The widespread uses of radiations are

not without hazards. Depending on dose,

radiations can be lethal, cause cancer and

developmental anomalies, and induce mu-

tations which may be passed on to our

descendants. Of considerable concern to

152

society is the balance of these hazards

against the potential benefits. How much

risk is society willing to accept at the

price of a given amount of benefit? What

is excessive radiation exposure? Are there

safe dose limits for radiation exposure?

The magnitude of risk that society is will-

ing to accept depends on numerous fac-

tors including the size of the population

exposed, the magnitude and nature of

other risks that the population is also

subjected to, and economic and political

factors. Assessment of benefits by society

must also include consideration of similar

factors. In the most fundamental case, it

is desirable to adjust benefits and risks so

that the benefits to risks ratio is greater

than one. However, in most situations, ben-

efits and risks are interrelated in a complex

fashion such that the best that can be done

is to maximize the ratio of the sum ofall the

benefits to the sum of all the risks. Such a

task is much easier said than done. Maxi-

mizing the benefit/risk ratio for one individ-

ual or group of individuals may reduce the —

ratio for another segment of the population.

As a simple example, radiation workers in _.

RADIATION RISK: A PROBLEM IN ASSESSMENT AND PERCEPTION 153

a nuclear power plant may greatly benefit

from the small radiation exposures that are

usually received at work and the radioac-

tive materials leaked into the environment

because they have well-paying, secure jobs.

On the other hand, people living near the

power plant may contend that they get no

benefit from the radiation exposures re-

ceived from the plant. Thus, the people

subject to the risks are not always the ones

realizing the benefits.

In this paper I consider the complex

problem of assessment and perception of

radiation risk, particularly with regard to

nuclear power. Assessment and perception

are two components of the overall deter-

mination of risk acceptability. For tech-

nologies such as nuclear power, which per-

vade major segments of our society and

economy, determining the acceptability of

risk is an issue of national concern.”

Risk Assessment

Assessment of radiation risk involves (a)

identification of radioactive materials and

radiations, (b) determination of the dose

and dose distribution within the affected

population and, (c) prediction of the health

effects. Identification of the radionuclides

and radiations is usually a straightforward

procedure. For instance, in nuclear power

plants, knowledge of the various radio-

chemical processes and some samples of

contaminated material for analysis of the

radionuclide content are usually all that is

needed.’ The problem of measuring the

dose to the population is considerably

more complex and requires knowledge

about the quantity and quality of radia-

tions emitted, pathways of exposure (e.g.,

air transport), metabolic pathways of rad-

ionuclide contamination, etc. Complex

mathematical models of the behavior of

radionuclides in the atmosphere and bio-

sphere are usually used to assist in predict-

ing dose.°

The major problems in risk assessment

are the quantification of radiation risk and

prediction of health effects. Quantification

of radiation risks is not precisely known at

low doses of radiation. Risk estimates must

be extrapolated from the well-known ef-

fects at high doses that have been obtained

from studies of the Japanese survivors of

the atomic bombings, studies of radiother-

apy patients and other sources.’ The pre-

vailing view among radiation scientists has

been that the risk is directly proportional to

the radiation dose, even at low doses and

that any dose, no matter how small, poten-

tially may be damaging (linear, no thresh-

old model). Some scientists postulate a

threshold dose below which the risk is zero,

while others contend that the risks are

disproportionately lower or higher than

expected from the linear, no threshold

model. Distinguishing among these models

is made difficult by the fact that the effects

predicted by each theory are small, and in-

sufficient data have been collected or can

expect to be collected at low doses making

it almost impossible to verify which model

is correct. This is illustrated in Figure 1, in

which the mortality ratio (ratio of observed

to expected mortality rates) for leukemia in

Japanese atom bomb victims has been

plotted against the radiation dose. In part

(A) of the figure, the data points with 80%

confidence limits have been redrawn from

Jablon and Kato.’ In part (B), Ihave drawn

by eye three possible models that may be

fitted to these data. The data do not allow

distinction between a straight line or curvi-

linear relation or between the occurrence of

a threshold or nonthreshold at low doses.

For radiation protection purposes and

setting exposure standards the linear, no

threshold model has frequently been adopted

to evaluate radiation risk at low doses of

radiation. Other models such as the quad-

ratic and linear quadratic have also been

used to predict risk.**’ Table 1 lists risk es-

timates for the major low dose radiation ef-

fects. For cancer, the estimation of risk is

facilitated by the fact that the number of

deaths provides a rough measure of the im-

154 KENNETH L.

1950-1970)

Mortality Ratio (leukemia deaths,

Radiation Dose (cGy)

Fig. 1. Leukemia in Japanese atom bomb victims

versus radiation dose. The mortality ratio (80% con-

fidence intervals) for leukemia (ratio of observed to

expected leukemia deaths) from 1950-1970 has been

plotted against the radiation dose (in centigray). Part

(A), redrawn from Jablon and Kato (5). In part (B),

the same data points with three possible models to

predict effect of low doses—linear, no threshold (-),

linear threshold (--) and curvilinear (. . . .).

pact of the disease. However, for genetic

and teratogenic effects, no single index can

be used since these effects may be described

by a great range of conditions. For usual

medical radiation exposure and population

exposures from nuclear power plant emis-

sions, health risks are minimal. In diagnos-

tic X-ray, whole body doses <0.1 cGy (rad)

are commonly delivered for many proce-

dures’ resulting in radiation-induced can-

cer death or genetic effect risks <10°. For

nuclear power, radiation releases to the en-

vironment are typically orders of magni-

MOSSMAN

tude less than this. At Three Mile Island,

the accident resulted in an average whole

body dose of about 0.001 cGy to the 2 mil-

lion people within a 50-mile radius of the

accident site.* Consequently, the risk for

radiation induced cancer for this popula-

tion would be about 10°’. Under normal

conditions from nuclear reactor operations,

radiation exposures and risks would be

even less than this.

The question of risk at low doses of ra-

diation is a highly controversial issue.

Risk estimation usually involves signifi-

cant judgmental inputs. There may be

substantial disagreements over risk esti-

mates, the methods used to calculate es-

timates, and the competency, integrity

and motivation of the experts providi.y

the estimates.” Some of these problems

are illustrated in the recent controversy

over the latest report of the National

Academy of Sciences Advisory Commit-

tee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing

Radiation (BIER III) which was recently

published but had a long and troubled

history because of the inability of the

Committee members themselves to reach

a consensus.” '!

Risk Perception

At present there are no criteria for de-

termining what levels of risk may be ac-

ceptable. Risks of the order of 10° per

lifetime may be considered insignificant,

whereas risks greater than 10° per year

are probably unacceptable.'* The radia-

tion risks as discussed in the preceding

section probably lie between these ex-

tremes. However, quantitation of risk is

not the only determinant of acceptability.

How the risk is perceived by the public is

also a critical factor.

Perceptions of the severity of risk by or-

dinary people are usually different from the

actual, measured hazard. Paul Slovic of

Decision Research conducted a survey

RADIATION RISK: A PROBLEM IN ASSESSMENT AND PERCEPTION 155

Table 1—Radiation Risks at Low Doses.

Effect

Carcinogenic:

Lifetime cancer mortality from

radiation exposure (e.g.,

X-ray) including leukemia,

breast cancer, thyroid cancer,

etc.

Mutagenic:

Autosomal recessive

autosomal dominant

multifactorial disorders

chromosome aberrations

Teratogenic:

Serious malformations and

cancer induction in prenatal

exposure

* 1 centigray (1 cGy) = 1 rad

among various groups to determine how

risks are perceived.’ Individuals from the

League of Women Voters, college students,

and a professional group were asked to

rank 30 activities in order of most hazard-

ous to least hazardous. As shown in Figure

2 the perceived ranking bears no relation to

the actual hazards ranking of the activities.

The solid line in the figure represents the

position of points if perceived and actual

ranks correlated perfectly. Points above

this line suggest that activities are perceived

to be less hazardous than they really are.

Points below the line would suggest that ac-

tivities are perceived as more hazardous

than they really are. Of interest is a compar-

ison of the two radiation technologies—

medical X-rays and nuclear power. Nu-

clear power was perceived as far more

hazardous than actual hazard measure-

ments would suggest; medical X-rays were

perceived as less hazardous.’* In order to

identify factors which may influence per-

ception of risk, Slovic and co-workers sur-

veyed the same people as above and found

that the charcteristics listed in Table 2

strongly determined how risks were per-

ceived. The risk profile for nuclear power

indicated high risk scores for nearly all

characteristics. Risks were seen to be invol-

Risk Estimate Reference

10° per cGy* 4,6

10 * per cGy* 4,6

10* — 10° per cGy* 4,7

e swimming

vaccinations

epower

2 __home mowers

appliances

e football

sklinge

mountain

climbing

ebicycles

e railroads

eantibodies

*fcod

coloring

electric

ne ehunting

@ X-rays

commercial

aviation

private

aviation

spray

econstruction cans

e food

preservatives

Perceived Rank

flre

10 °

fighting e contraceptives

ealcohol

epesticides

nuclear

power

10 20 30

Actual Rank

Fig. 2. Lack of correlation between actual and per-

ceived risks. A college student group was asked to

rank 30 activities from most to least risky. The abs-

cissa is the actual ranking; the ordinate is the ranking

by the group. The solid line represents the position of

points if there were perfect correlation. Points above

the line were perceived as less hazardous than they

really are; points below the line were perceived as

more hazardous. The scatter of points in the plot ob-

viously shows the lack of correlation between per-

ceived and actual risks. Data from reference 13.

156 KENNETH L. MOSSMAN

Table 2—Risk Profiles for Nuclear Power and Medical X ray.*

Characteristic of Risk

Voluntariness

involuntary

Catastrophic

Dread Factor dreaded risks

Security of consequence of accident

Consequences likely to be fatal

Knowledge about risks not known by

Risk public

Immediacy about effects are delayed

effects

Control over risk

over risks

Novelty of risk

* Source, Reference 14.

untary, unknown to those exposed or to

science, uncontrollable, unfamiliar, poten-

tially castastrophic, severe and dreaded.

On the other hand, medical X-rays were

judged to have much lower risks and con-

sequently a much less spectacular risk pro-

file.'* The public’s difficulty in assessing

risks may also stem from an inability to

grasp the likelihood of an event occurring

although the consequences of an event

(such as lung cancer from cigarette smok-

ing) may be fully comprehended.” Most

people may normally assess risk by using

an “availability heuristic” ’ which suggests

that the assessment of probability of an

event occurring depends on the extent to

which the event is remembered.’° As an ex-

ample, one may assess the risk of a car ac-

cident by recalling such events among ac-

quaintances. Other heuristics may also be

employed in making judgments under un-

certainity."°

Problems in public perception present an

obstacle to the acceptance of various tech-

nologies such as nuclear power. The per-

ception problem may be resolved by a bet-

ter understanding of risk profiles'* and of

‘“‘heuristics and of the biases to which they

lead’’’’ and by improving quantitation of

risk estimations and using comparative

risk methodology.'”

Nuclear Power

risks are viewed as highly

catastrophic—can kill

many people at once

people have no control

risks are new and novel

Diagnostic X Ray

risks may be voluntary or

involuntary

non-catastrophic—may

kill people one at a time

reasonable calm about risks

consequence of accident

may or may not be fatal

risks not known by public

effects are delayed

people have no control

over risks

risks are familiar

Summary

Society is becoming increasingly well-in-

formed about technology associated risks. '®

Evaluation of risk may be defined as a two-

stage process: the first stage is the scientific

determination of the risk; the second stage

is the much more complex issue of risk as-

sessment which involves exploration of so-

cietal values and subjective estimation of

probability. In this paper, we have dis-

cussed some of the problems of risk estima-

tion and risk perception in radiation tech-

nologies. Only a few of the many issues and

problems have been addressed. The ulti-

mate acceptability of a particular technol-

ogy risk will depend on refinement of risk

estimations and the development and im-

plementation of methods to improve risk

perception.

References Cited

1. Nuclear Energy Policy Study Group (1977) Nu-

clear Power Issues and Choices. Ballinger Pub-

lishing Company, Cambridge, Mass.

2. Starr, C. and C. Whipple. 1980. Risks and risk

decisions. Science 208: 1114-1119.

3. Crawford, D. and R. Leggett. 1980. Assessing the

risk of exposure to radioactivity. American Scien-

tist 68: 524-536.

4. United Nations Scientific Committee on the Ef--

fects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) (1977)

Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation. United

Nations, New York.

. Jablon, S. and S. Kato. 1972. Studies of the mor-

tality of A-bomb survivors. 5. Radiation dose and

mortality, 1950-1970. Radiation Research, 50:

649-698.

. Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing

Radiations, National Research Council (1980)

The Effects on Populations of Exposure to Low

Levels of Ionizing Radiations: 1980, Washington,

D.C., National Academy Press. (BEIR III Report).

. Mole, R. 1979. Radiation effects on prenatal de-

velopment and their radiological significance.

British Journal Radiology 52: 89-101.

. Fabrikant, J. 1981. Health effects of the nuclear

accident at Three Mile Island. Health Physics 40:

151-161.

. Fabrikant, J. 1980. The BEIR III controversy.

Radiation Research 84: 361-368.

10. Radford, E. 1980. Human health effects of low

doses of ionizing radiation; the BEIR III contro-

versy. Radiation Research 84: 369-394.

. Rossi, H. 1980. Comments on the somatic effects

section of the BEIR III report. Radiation Re-

search 84: 395-406.

. Sinclair, W. 1981. Effects of low-level radiation

and comparative risk. Radiology 138: 1-9.

. Howard, N. and S. Antilla. 1979. What price

safety? The zero risk debate. Dun’s Review 114:

48-57.

. Slovic, P. 1980. Images of disaster: perception and

acceptance of risks from nuclear power. In: Per-

ceptions of Risks, Proceedings of the Fifteenth

Annual Meeting, National Council on Radiation

Protection and Measurements (NCRP), Washing-

toniD:C.JNCRP:

. Tversky, A. and D. Kahneman. 1974. Judgement

under uncertainity: Heuristics and biases. Science

185: 1124-1131.

. Comar, C. 1979. Risk: A pragmatic de minimis

approach. Science 203: 319.

Thermoelectricity: The New Transport Phenomenon

James F. Goff

Address of the Retiring President of The Philosophical Society of Washington,

January 9, 1981

ABSTRACT

In which the Author pursues TRUTH in diverse ways and places and finally glimpses it

dimly shortly before he expires.

I. Introduction

Thermoelectricity is an enigma. It was

one of the great discoveries of the early

Nineteenth Century, one that in the context

of the time would have been of Nobel qual-

ity; yet, 160 years later there is still no

Handbuch der Physik article on the sub-

ject. Monographs have begun to appear

only within the last fifteen years and se-

rious use, other than thermocouples, has

begun only in the last twenty or so years.

It is a simple measurement involving

thermal and electrical parameters that can

157

be made easily during the course of other

transport measurements by the addition of

a switch. It requires neither thermal equi-

librium nor steady state conditions, but

only sensitivity and precision, and not any

great experimental complexity.

Nonetheless, the results usually are start-

ling. The theory is simple and very easily

understood, but the data almost never are

in agreement with it. When the physical

situation is well understood, theory and

experiment are quite compatible; and so

the inference is that some component of the

physical situation is being ignored in the

158 JAMES F. GOFF

application of the theory. I shall argue and

adduce evidence that the complexity of the

distribution of states in solids is not being

taken into account.

To begin, the discovery of thermoelec-

tricity will be placed in its historical con-

text. This discovery will then be considered

from a modern point-of-view so that its

fundamental nature can be appreciated.

Theory and experiment will be discussed to

illustrate their disagreement in such a way

that the source of these differences will be

indicated. There will be some discussion of

the problem of utilizing the phenomenon

for practical devices. Finally, there will be

some comment and summary of problems

and direction of research needed.

II. Historical Perspective

Solids have two great uses: they serve as

structures, and they transport energy. The

first use makes life possible; but if it were

not for the second, our civilization would

not exist.

In the absence of a magnetic field, the

transport of energy and charge is defined

completely by three transport coefficients:

k, the thermal conductivity; o, the electrical

conductivity; and S, the Seebeck coeffi-

cient. Heat and thermal conduction were

discovered in prehistoric times, and the

first application was probably the cooking

pot. The discovery of electricity occurred in

ancient times and is attributed to Thales or

**someone associated with him”’ about 600

BC.' Probably one of his graduate stu-

dents. Thermoelectricity was discovered

about 1822 by Thomas Johann Seebeck.’

Seebeck was born in Tallinn, Estonia in

1770. As a young man he studied medicine

at Berlin and Gottingen and received his

M.D. in 1802. He considered himself a nat-

ural philosopher. His field of interest was

optics, and he shared the Paris Academy of

Science’s annual prize in 1816 for work on

polarization in stressed glasses.

By 1820 he had become interested in

magnetism, the mystery of the age, which

Fig. 1. Seebeck’s ring of dissimilar metals which

was used to demonstrate thermomagnetism.

was beginning to captivate our own Joseph

Henry about the same time. His work in-

volving the flow of current through the

electrochemical series led him to observe

irregularities at the junctions which he at-

tributed to temperature. Reasoning from

these observations, he was led to construct

a ring as shown in Figure | of the most

opposite metals, bisimuth and antimony.

When he heated one junction, he observed

a deflection on a nearby compass, and so

decided that he had discovered thermo-

magnetism. He persisted in this belief for

the rest of his life.

Today we would say that he had set upa

thermoelectric current as a result of a dif-

ference of temperature between the junc-

tions of two dissimilar metals. The current

in turn, of course, causes a magnetic field

which deflects the compass.

THERMOELECTRICITY: THE NEW TRANSPORT PHENOMENON 159

III. The Modern View

In modern terms we would say that the

energy flux U and the current flux J are lin-

ear functions of the electric field € and the

temperature gradient VT:

U = Lree + LrrVT

J = Lere + LerVT.

(la)

(1b)

The Lj are the so-called macroscopic trans-

port coefficients. It will be seen when we

come to the discussion of the applications

of thermoelectricity that these are the fun-

damental quantities; however, one gener-

ally discusses the microscopic coefficients

instead.

The microscopic coefficients are related

to the Li; for specific conditions imposed on

Eq. (1):

J =oe (VT =0) (2a)

U=kxVT (J =0) (2b)

e =SVT (J =0) (2c)

U=TIlJ (VT =0) (2d)

where the microscopic coefficients are the

electrical conductivity o, the thermal con-

ductivity x, the thermoelectric power (See-

beck coefficient) S, and the Peltier coeffi-

cient II. Thus,

o = Ler (3a)

LreL

K = ~ (Le - | (3b)

LEE

Ler

a 3c

is (3c)

Ltr

ee 3d

tee (3d)

so that the microscopic coefficients com-

pletely define the macroscopic ones, and

Seebeck’s discovery is fundamentally nec-

essary.

It was shown by Lord Kelvin that in the

absence of a magnetic field, II and S are

simply related (the Kelvin relation):

sS=— (4)

where T is the temperature in degrees Kel-

vin. As a consequence, II is an extremely

important quantity theoretically and con-

ceptually. As can be seen from the defini-

tions (Eqs. (2c) and (2d)), II is an isother-

mal quantity while S is not. Further, II is

the energy flow per unit current; and con-

sequently, by Eq. (4) S is the entropy flow

per unit current. It is usually simpler theo-

retically to work with isothermal condi-

tions than with temperature gradients, and

it is easier to conceive of energy fluxes than

of entropy ones.

IV. Thermolectric Power

Phenomenologically, the Seebeck effect

is very simple. Consider the ring shown in

Figure | to be split apart so that one of its

metallic elements is a bar as shown in Fig-

ure 2. Further, suppose this bar is a positive

semiconductor so that the current is carried

by positive charges. Now, if one end of the

bar is heated, those charges diffuse to the

Fig. 2. One element of Seebeck’s ring which serves

to illustrate phenomenologically the thermoelectric

effects.

160 JAMES F. GOFF

cold end of the bar and set up an electric

field ¢ which opposes the diffusion. Thus,

the Seebeck coefficient is

E lim

. VI WAR 0 Al ob eee

where V is the potential difference, which is

chosen so that diffusion by positive charges

gives a positive S and diffusion by negative

charges gives a negative S.

Now the potential difference V is mea-

sured by wires attached to each end of the

bar. Clearly such wires are just the other

metallic element of Seebeck’s ring. If those

wires are connected to a potentiometer so

that the circuit is open, then the measured >

S is called the thermoelectric power. If

the wires are connected to an ammeter,

then one can measure the thermoelectric

current. Thus, the thermoelectric element

shown in Figure 2 1s like an electric cell.

The study of the thermoelectric power is

the study of the mechanisms in the solid

that produce a thermal potential differ-

ence. The study of thermoelectricity is the

study of the internal mechanisms that af-

fect the thermoelectric cell under load

conditions.

There are two further points to be de-

rived from Figure 2. First, S or the ther-

moelectric power is a bulk phenomenon

that occurs in the bulk of the solid and not

at the junctions as is often presumed.

Second, S is always measured relative to

another metal. The obtaining of S for a sin-

gle metal, the so-called absolute thermoe-

lectric power, is complicated and beyond

this paper. Extensive work has obtained

the absolute S for Pb which can be used asa

reference metal to obtain the absolute

values of S for other metals.’

Typical values of S for various classes of

solids are as follows: noble metals (1-2

uV/K); transition metals (10-20 wU/K);

semiconductors (100-1000 uwV/K).

Now, according to equations (2d) and

(4), the thermoelectric power S is related to

the flow of energy per unit current in the

solid. The carrier of this energy has not

been specified. Until about thirty years

ago, it was assumed that the only carrier of

energy was the electron system. However,

Frederikse showed that significant energy

was also carried by the crystal lattice.“

A solid can be considered as composed

of two systems as shown in Figure 3: an

itinerant electron system and a phonon sys-

tem (the quantized vibrations of the atomic

lattice). Under an applied field e, the elec-

ELECTRON SYSTEM

PHONON SYSTEM

Fig. 3. The interaction of the electron and phonon systems.

THERMOELECTRICITY: THE NEW TRANSPORT PHENOMENON 161

tron system flows and drags the phonon

system with it. Thus,

1 U fe Uelectron = Ushonon

J J

=II.+ TI, (6)

and by Eq. (4),

Si Set oe (7)

These components are called the diffu-

sion and the phonon drag components,

respectively.

The interaction of these two systems is

somewhat complicated and depends upon

whether the solid contains a few or many

MODES OF LOW q

BOUNDARY ae i

SCATTERING LEAK

UMKLAPP, IMPURITY &

BOUNDARY SCATTERING LEAK

itinerant electrons; that is, whether it is a

semiconductor or a metal, respectively.

Herring first treated the problem quantita-

tively from the point-of-view of a semicon-

ductor.” Figure 4a shows Herring’s phe-

nomenological description of his model.

The essential element of model is that the

electrons of the electron system are de-

scribed by wave numbers k = 1/A and the

phonons of the phonon system by wave

number q = I/A where dX is the wave-

length, respectively. The electron-phonon

interaction occurs for k = q; that is, for

approximately equal wavelengths. As a

consequence, whenever the number of itin-

erant electrons is less than 25% of the

ELECTRONIC SYSTEM

—~—N - PROCESS

SCATTERING LEAK

MODES OF HIGH gq

Fig. 4a. Herring’s hydraulic model of phonon drag (5).

162 JAMES F. GOFF

flow <kT

boundary,

electron

scattering leaks

process leak = =| fo =e

point imperfection, | by _ashial

Umklapp process fiw > kT

leaks

Fig. 4b. Goff's cloud model of phonon drag (5).

THERMOELECTRICITY: THE NEW TRANSPORT PHENOMENON 163

number of atoms they cannot interact with

the whole phonon system, but only with the

lower energy, longer wavelength ones.°

Since in a semiconductor the ratio of

itinerant electrons to atoms is less than ap-

proximately 10'*/107? = 10°” the electron

system interacts with the long wavelength,

low q portion of the phonon system; it is

necessary to divide the phonon system

dichotomously into phonons that interact

with the electrons and those which do not.

Therefore, from the point of view of the II

approach, Herring depicts the electron sys-

tem as a faucet which feeds crystal momen-

tum into the low q portion of the phonon

system.

These low q phonons dissipate this mo-

mentum in two ways: directly by interac-

tions with crystaline boundaries, or indi-

rectly by phonon-phonon interactions (N-

process leak) which transfer it to modes of

high q where it is dissipated by several

other mechanisms such as non-momentum

conserving phonon interactions (Umklapp),

impurity interactions, or boundary interac-

tions. The efficiency of these interactions

varies. Boundary interactions are ineffi-

cient, while the efficiency of N-processes is

low but increases with temperature and

wavenumber. Thus, momentum is trapped

in the low g phonon system until the dissi-

pation rate of the N-process leak comes

into equilibrium with the input from the

electron system.

Figure 5 shows data for Sb-doped (N-

type, electron conducting) Ge with carrier

concentrations ranging from2 X 10'°cm™

(Sb172) to 1 X 10° cm™® (As222/Sb30).’

The behavior of these data with tempera-

ture and carrier concentration can be un-

derstood on the basis of the Herring model.

Consider first one of the lower carrier con-

centration samples.

As the temperature Is raised, the phonon

system is excited and S, increases with the

lattice heat capacity C, (The whole matter

is complicated in this case because at

temperatures on the order of SOK the elec-

trons begin to drop into impurity states.

10'

—S (m V/K)

G O Sb 222

fa-* @ As 226

A S,, (theory)

1 10 100

T (K)

Fig. 5. Thermoelectric power for N-type Ge.

This decrease in the effective electron con-

centration should cause the S, to appear to

increases less fast than Cg). Simultaneously,

the N-process leak begins to transfer mo-

mentum to the high q phonons with in-

creasing effectiveness. When the effective-

ness of this process becomes great enough

to overcome the input from the faucet, S,

begins to decrease, as is seen.

As the carrier concentration is increased,

the electron system interacts with higher q

modes which have more effective N-pro-

cesses. Thus, one would expect S, to de-

crease as is seen (Note: in addition there are

other considerations beyond the scope of

this paper).

Figure 4b shows the same interaction

from the point-of-view of the S approach.*

The temperature gradient is portrayed asa

storm cloud that rains crystal momentum

into the phonon system. As temperature 1s

increased, the rain front moves to the right

and fills the buckets whose size increases as

the phonon energy increases (or momen-

tum since w/q = vg, the phonon velocity).

The momentum from the lower q buckets is

fed into the electron system that picks up

164 JAMES F. GOFF

an extra drift which is seen as a contribu-

tion to S.

In the above discussion of phonon drag,

the phonon system has been discussed in

more detail than the electric one. Up to this

point, it has been implicitly assumed that

the simple description of the thermoelectric

effect given by Figure 2 is adequate; how-

ever, it is not at all sufficient in order to

quantitatively formulate Se.

As is well known, electrons are fermions

which occupy quantum mechanical states

in k space. As such, only two electrons can

occupy each state (Akx, Aky, Akz). These

states are filled from the origin k = 0 so

that in the beginning they fill a sphere,

called the Fermi sphere, such as shown in

Figure 6. Under the effect of an electric

field €, this sphere moves a distance Ak =

(dk/dt)r where 7 is the relaxation time of

the scattering process that tries to return

the electron system to its original position.

The conductivity o of a conductor is just a

measure of how far the Fermi sphere can

move before scattering processes set up a

steady state position.

There are three factors that affect the

magnitude and temperature dependence of

S.-i scattering processes, shape of the Fermi

surface, and the distribution of electronic

states above and below the surface. Al-

though most attempts to explain the pecu-

liar behavior of S, have evoked scattering

processes, they have not been successful

(see for example reference 9), and it is the

purpose of the following portion of this

paper to adduce that Fermi surface shape

and the distribution of states about it are of

more importance.

If one treats the problem in the standard

Table 1

Carrier Degeneracy

Sample Impurity Concentration Temperature

Sb222 Sb bt XO, perm y. 75K

AS226 As 8.8 X 10'’cm” 75K

way, he obtains what will be called the clas-

sical formula’®

(ka

and ¢ is the Fermi energy, fo is the equi-

librium Fermi function, E is the energy of

the carriers in state k as measured from the

bottom of the energy band, and o (E) is

their conductivity. The important point to

notice is that K;/Ko is a normalized energy.

Thus, Seis related to the difference between

the carrier energy and the Fermi energy. Se

is the difference of two large numbers and

SO involves a balance of contributions.

This equation was applied in the case of

degenerate Ge (samples Sb 222 and As 226)

in Figure 5 (see reference 7). The value of €

was determined by measurements of the

Hall coefficient on the same samples while

the ratio of K;/Ko was taken from theory.”

The agreement between theory and exper-

iment was considered quite good, the cri-

terion being that temperature dependences

are considered more significant than mag-

nitudes in solid state transport theory.

From this agreement it was apparent that

the theory gives good agreement with exper-

iment whenever the physical situation 1s

understood.

Semiconductors have low degeneracy

temperatures; that is, the temperature Tp

where kTp = ¢. Metals are much more de-

generate with Tp on the order of 50,000K

for the noble metals, although transition

metals may be on the order of 1000K in

some cases. Mott showed that in the case of

very simple form:

r kT @ (

ig ees ae In o(E)} E=C (9)

Thus, the Mott formula considers the ex-

treme case wherein only the derivatives of.

THERMOELECTRICITY: THE NEW TRANSPORT PHENOMENON 165

SCATTERING

PERTURBATION

Fig. 6. The perturbation of a Fermi sphere by an electric field.

scattering processes and state distribution

at the Fermisurface(E = 2) are important.

In that extreme, S & T.

Figure 7 shows data for Cuand Cu3Au. ”

The Cu3Au gold system undergoes an order-

ing transformation at T = 663K which

greatly affects S. To begin, S(Cu)T in no

part of the measured temperature range.

Additionally, it is positive over most of the

temperature range even though Cu has a

negative Hall coefficient and thus elec-

tronic conduction. It is interesting therefore

that S(Cu3Au/disorder), which should bea

metal very similar to Cu, shows features

that resemble S(Cu), such as a low temper-

ature negative value and a higher tempera-

ture positive one. Further, S(Cu3Au/par-

tial order) is negative.

The significance of the ordering experi-

ment arises from the effect of ordering on

the Fermi surface. The Fermi surface of Cu,

shown in Figure 8, is not quite spherical but

Cu (Kropshot & Blatt)

0.5

1.5

Fig. 7. Cu and Cu3An thermoelectric power for

two states of order S.

166 JAMES F. GOFF

Fig. 8. The Fermi surface of Cu.

rather consists of three features: a spherical

body, necks in the [111] directions, and

slight mounds on the belly of the spherical

portion in the (110) direction.'* Cu3Au/

disordered has a similar surface with some

modification of the dimensions of the necks

and mounds. The effect of ordering is to

create a basis for the crystal lattice that

causes portions of this surface to disap-

pear. Clearly, such changes have a great ef-

fect on S. This experiment suggests that S is

made up of contributions of different por-

tions of the Fermi surface, some of which

are positive and some of which are negative.

Figure 9 gives another example of data

for areal metal system, the transition metal

alloy CrFe.'* These data are very enigmatic

in that the low temperature portion vary as

T, as the Mott equation requires for ex-

treme degeneracy, but at about 30K the

data become almost temperature independ-

ent as would be expected for zero degener-

acy. At still higher temperatures, the data

show a decrease. This decrease occurs at a

temperature where both Cr and Fe show

decreases.

The purpose of these two examples is to

show that Eq. (9) does not explain the data

in any satisfying way. Usually, o({) is de-

S (uV/K)

10 50 100 500 1000

T(K)

Fig. 9. The thermoelectric power of CrFe shown

compared with that of Fe. Below 300K, data are

shown for three samples which differ stoichiometri-

cally by 1%. The data above 300K were measured by

Lucke and Cox (private communication) for the same

samples but by a different apparatus. Representative

data for Fe is shown for comparison.

fined in an ad hoc manner to explain the ac-

tual S(T)’s observed. It would seem to be a

sounder approach to consider the effect of

the actual finite degeneracies found in me-

tals. After all, Eq. (8) does give good

agreement with the data while Eq. (9) es-

sentially never does.

It is customary to state that all conduc-

tion processes of the sphere shown in Fig-

ure 6 occur within +2kT of the surface.

However, if one calculates the integrals in-

volved as a function of the limits of integra-

tion, he finds that, depending on the order

of the integral, the energy spread for three

figure accuracy may be £10kT or some-

what more.’ At 1000K, such energy spreads

are several electron volts, a significant por-

tion of the energies available for conduc-

tion processes.

Figure 10 shows the paramagnetic Cr

surface which consists of a large and a

small pocket of positive carriers and a sim-

ilar pair of negative ones.'®’’ This surface

should resemble those of Mo and W which

are in the same chemical group VIB. In-

deed, Vedernikov and Burkov have pointed

out that S for these elements is similar ex- —

cept at low temperatures where Cr is anti-

ferromagnetic.’

One would expect that the distribution

of states about this Fermi surface would be

THERMOELECTRICITY: THE NEW TRANSPORT PHENOMENON 167

Fig. 10. The Cr Fermi surface.

unusual and indeed calculations shown in

Figure 11 are quite different from the more

usual distributions which vary as E”’.? In

order to treat such cases, integral formula-

tions of Eq. (8) must be used. Klemens re-

formulated Eq. (8) in a moments form

where the Fermi energy is taken as the fidu-

cial zero:

(10a)

N(E)/N(O)

Cr: 3d’ 4s? (SNOW & WABER)

Cr: HEAT CAPACITY

(GOFF)

E(eV)

Fig. 11. The distribution of states which were de-

rived experimentally from the analysis of the high

temperature conductivities of Cr shown compared

with the theoretical values of Snow and Waber.

where

Mee = [ee soe (10b)

€

The current concern is to understand the

implications of Eq. (10). For example it

should be noted that M; is an odd integral

while Mois even. Since it is unlikely that the

distributions of states about all the pieces

of the Fermi surface shown in Figure 10

have the same symmetry, it is possible that

the different pieces give different contribu-

tions to the numerator and the denomina-

tor. For example the electrical conductivity

o = Mo. It has been possible to analyze’

the conductivity data to obtain the experi-

mental distribution of states shown in Fig-

ure 11. However, such a model contains no

S whatsoever. Similar analysis of the con-

ductivities of Fe have yielded values of S

which are quite encouraging.”

V. Thermoelectricity

As was pointed out in Section IV, the

thermoelectric element shown in Figure 2 is

similar to an electric cell. The study of the

thermoelectric power is the study of the in-

ternal mechanisms that produce a thermal

potential difference for an open circuit; the

study of thermoelectricity is the study of

the internal mechanisms that affect the be-

havior of this cell under closed circuit

conditions.

In practice, these thermoelectric elements

are connected in couples as shown in Fig-

ure 12. The two elements are selected to be

as nearly alike as possible but with opposite

signs of the thermoelectric power. Such

couples can be run in either direction; that

is, they can be used to generate a current

from heat or they can be driven by acurrent

to refrigerate.

The advantages of such devices are three-

fold: simplicity (no moving parts), reliabil-

ity (mean time before failure approaches

thirty years), reversibility (power genera-

tion or cooling with the same device). They

also, of course, use low grade energy such

168 JAMES F. GOFF

Fig. 12. Thermoelectric module used to construct thermoelectric devices.

as heat rather than light. Thus, in the

sphere of solar energy, the solar collectors

could be used dirty and could be ballasted

to smooth out the effects of cloud shadows.

The behavior of a thermoelectric ele-

ment is described by the Figure-of-merit Z

where

S’oT

Kel SKi/ Ke +11)

S’oT

7 Rae tatd

Ke + DG; tl)

where all the quantites have been defined.

Kels the thermal conductivity for electronic

conduction and «jis the sum of all other

thermal conduction mechanisms such as

the lattice kg, infrared radiation x;y, and any

other loss mechanisms. Since the Xj 1s

considered as a parasitic loss, it has been

collected into a degradation term (XKj/ke + 1).

It should be noted that the principal driv-

ing term

SG aeiSi

ies tumneglh ia

where L is the Lorenz number.

Z1 is unitless.. Eq. (11) swith Eq. (3)

shows that there is quite a bit of redun-

dancy in Eq. (11) that makes it difficult to

conceptualize. If Eqs. (3) and (4) were

combined, then

= line (13a)

(

——— (13b)

k = — (Lrrt oTS?). (13c)

Substitution of these equations into Eq.

(11) yields a non-redundant formulation

]

~ LrtLes

Lér

The value of ZT is a simple ratio of the ma-

croscopic coefficients. Eq. (14) can be ex-

pressed in terms of moment integrals:”°

p(e?T =«Kj/M2 + 1)—- 1

ZT (14)

shal

(15a)

where

Dp = MoM2/M; (15b)

and the M’s have been defined by Eq. (10b).

These equations have been applied to a

PbTe three band model shown in Figure 13

to calculate the value of ZT shown, com-

pared with the data in Figures 14 and 14b.

The agreement is within 20% and is sensi-

tive enough to band parameters that some

experimental quandaries can be resolved.

VI. Conclusions

It has been argued that the thermoelec-

tric effects: thermoelectric power and ther-

moelectricity are just now being under-

stood—some 150 or so years after their

discovery. It appears that the thermoelec-

THERMOELECTRICITY: THE NEW TRANSPORT PHENOMENON 169

CONDUCTION BAND

(LIGHT MASS)

CONDUCTION BAND

(LIGHT MASS)

e—

ee oe

PRIMARY VALENCE eT ae Seu aes

e—

BAND (LIGHT MASS)

fee

SECONDARY PRIMARY VALENCE ~~

VALENCE BAND BAND (HEAVY MASS)

(HEAVY MASS)

SECONDARY

VALENCE BAND

(LIGHT MASS)

TEMPERATURE T, (LOW) TEMPERATURE T, (HIGH)

Fig. 13. The three band model of PbTe used to analyze the figure-of-merit.

tric power depends strongly on the distri-

bution of states in the Brillouin zone and

their distribution about the Fermi surface.

These distributions appear to be of more

import than scattering processes, although

scattering is undoubtedly a consideration.

In order to take such distributions into ac-

count, it is necessary to use integral forms

6 x 1019 cm‘3

7x 1019 cm-3

1.0

0.5

1000 1200

400 600 800

T(K)

(a)

rather than the more usual Mott expression

for a derivative form.

It would help markedly in these analyses

if the theoretical calculations of the density

of states; that is, the distributions of states

about the Fermi surface, were computed

for the principal directions of the Brillouin

zone so that the individual contributions

7x 1019 em-3

| INDICATES

MAXIMUM IN Z

(b)

Fig. 14a. The figure-of-merit of N-type Pbte. 14b. The calculated figure-of-merit of N-type PbTe.

170

JAMES F. GOFF

of the various carrier pockets could be

analyzed.

Finally the author would like to ac-

knowledge the following coworkers over

the many years: N. Pearlman, M. Cole, A.

Verbalis, M. Mitchell, J. Lowney, P. Hsi-

ung, and P. Klemens.

References Cited

. T.C. Martin and S. L. Cotes. The Story of Electric-

ity, New York: M. M. Marcy, 1919 p. 9.

. T. J. Seebeck. Berlin, K. Akad der Wissenshaften,

Abhandlugen (1822-1823) 265-373.

. R. B. Roberts. Phil. Mag. 36, 91 (1977).

. H.R. R. Frederikse. Phys. Rev. 92, 248 (1954).

. C. Herring. Phys. Rev. 96, 1163 (1954).

. A. H. Wilson. The Theory of Metals Cambridge:

University Press, 1954 p. 262.

. J. F. Goff and N. Pearlman. Phys. Rev. A 1402151

(1965).

. J. F. Goff. Thesis, Purdue University 1962 Uni-

versity Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan.

. F. J. Blatt, P. A. Schroeder, C. L. Foiles, and D.

Greig. Thermoelectric Power of Metals New York:

Plenum Press, 1976.

N. F. Mott and H. Jones. The Theory of the Proper-

ties of Metals and Alloys New York: Dover Publi-

cations, 1958 p. 308.

V. A. Johnson and K. Lark-Horowitz. Phys Rev.

92 226 (1953). :

. J.F. Goff, J. J. Rhyne, and P. G. Klemens. Interna-

tional Conference on Phonon Scattering in Sol-

ids, Paris (3-6 July 1972) p. 199.

. A. B. Pippard. Trans. Phil. Soc. A 250 325 (1957).

. J. F. Goff. Unpublished work.

. J. F. Goff. Phys. Rev. B 1 1351 (1970).

. W.M. Lomer. Proc. Phys. Soc. (London) 80, 489

(1962).

. L. F. Mattheiss. Phys. Rev. 139 A 1893 (1965).

. M. V. Vedernikov and A. T. Burkov. ‘“‘Present State

of Experimental Knowledge on Thermopower of

Metals at High Temperatures—A bove 77K”? Ther-

moelectricity in Metallic Conductors edited by F.

J. Blatt and P. A. Schroeder, New York: Plenum

Press. 1978t pr 7:

. E. C. Snow and J. T. Waber. Acta Metall. 17 623

(1969).

. P. G. Klemens. In Thermal Conductivity Vol 1

edited by R. P. Tye, New York: Academic Press,

1969 p. 1.

. J. F. Goff. Phys, Rev. B 4 1121 (1971).

. J. F. Goff. AIP Conf. Proc. 5 1280 (1972).

. J. F. Goff and J. R. Lowney. Trans. Amer. Nucl.

Soc. 23 121 (1976).

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CONTENTS

Articles:

LAWRENCE D. GROUSE: An Editor’s Guide to Rejection Letters .........

ROBERT C. PETERSEN: Decriminalization of Marijuana—A Brief Overview

oliResearcn-Relevant Policy Issues... 3.64.6 sessed es 2S el ee se eke

NINA MATHENY ROSCHER and PHILLIP L. AMMONS: Early Women

SOmCINts SHOUT IIe INIT CGASE: i s1265a cle ciaim erase vow. charm Sox g Sate Sa eee ie einyore ius

SHERMAN ROSS: The Scientific Awards of the Academy: 1981 ............

W. DROST-HANSEN: Gradient Device for the Study of Temperature Effects

on Biological Systemis .......4%.. See ebeLe Saas eae ORTON AIRS @ wee ase a 187

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An Editor’s Guide to Rejection Letters

Lawrence D. Grouse, M.D., Ph.D.

Senior Editor, Journal of the American Medical Association,

535 North Dearborn, Chicago, Illinois 60610

My detractors have accused me of be-

coming an editor as the only means of giv-

ing out more letters of rejection than I was

receiving when I was engaged in full-time

research. The same individuals also believe

that I take sadistic pleasure in sending out

letters of rejection for scientific manu-

scripts.I can assure you that this is not usu-

ally the case. Often, rejections provoke an

instant or two of remorse, although by far

the most common emotion is one of relief.

It feels good to see another bad, bulky

manuscript leave my desk.

No one likes to send a letter of rejection,

but, matters of scientific and literary merit

aside, skyrocketing publishing costs make

it increasingly difficult to publish half-

baked articles purely out of pity. Greater

than 80% of the manuscripts submitted to

our journal must be rejected. Thus, there

must be a certain amount of unpleasant-

ness as eager authors receive their letters of

rejection.

I attempt to be diplomatic. I try not to re-

ject a manuscript within one minute of its

being placed on my desk, although some-

times this is impossible. I try to soften the

pain produced by a cruel or sarcastic re-

viewer’s critique. I will sometimes inform

the author when I am interested in one of

the less bad aspects of the manuscript and

encourage him not to leave science right

away, but to try again. It is a mistake for an

editor to include bits of advice or homely

171

philosophy into a rejection letter. The au-

thor does not want to hear that a revised

manuscript might be more appropriately

sent to the Balkan Journal of Poultry Science.

He may not appreciate the editor’s assess-

ment, “‘It appears that the reviewer had not

had any red meat to eat on the day that he

reviewed your manuscript.”

Rejection letters may have no redeeming

value to authors, but good scientific re-

views can prove valuable. Unfortunately, it

is not sufficient to send a referee’s savage

comments and let the authors guess that

their manuscript has been rejected; the let-

ter of rejection must be included.

My favorite letter from an author who

received a rejection contains the following

passage:

“On February 3, 1981, I received the no-

tice that my manuscript had been rejected.

I can’t say that I was terribly happy about

it, but after reviewing both your letter and

the comments made by your consultants it

became painfully obvious that you had

made the correct decision. As written, it

really was a piece of garbage that had more

scientific holes than a piece of Swiss cheese.

God, the damned thing seemed so good as I

was writing it! So much for objectivity.”

If his original scientific communication

had contained ideas as true and important

as these, I not only would have accepted the

manuscript, I would have nominated him

for the Nobel Prize.

Decriminalization of Marijuana—A Brief Overview of

Research-Relevant Policy Issues

Robert C. Petersen, Ph.D.

Division of Research, National Institute on Drug Abuse,

Rockville, Maryland 20857

Having been involved with the mari-

juana issue virtually from the inception of

NIDA’s high priority research effort in

1967, I feel a little like an usher in a theater

with a long-run play. The actors may

change, but the plot is strangely familiar!

I’m pleased to have the opportunity to pro-

vide an overview of research-relevant pol-

icy issues concerning the decriminalization

of marijuana. Since the problem of devel-

oping a rational approach toward mari-

juana goes considerably beyond the legal

issue of decriminalization, I hope I may be

forgiven for encouraging all of us to think

about the larger question of researchable

issues around social control of marijuana

use. The law is, after all, but one small part.

In essence we are asking the question,

just how can weas researchers provide guid-

ance—a data base—for the development of

more rational approaches to drug policy?

Just how do we minimize the social and in-

dividual costs of drug abuse while at the

same time minimizing the injury to the in-

dividual and society resulting from what-

ever legal strictures are employed? Perhaps

we should acknowledge at the outset that,

while we may be able to develop more ra-

tional approaches, we probably cannot be,

nor need we be, altogether consistent. To

expect society to handle such diverse drugs

as alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana with

utter consistency is to ignore important dif-

172

ferences in their patterns of use and social

acceptance. It is easy to outlaw a substance

without a long tradition of acceptance.

Conversely, it is very difficult to outlaw one

well-embedded in our social mores. As the

Volstead Act demonstrated, eliminating

the availability of alcohol in our country

was impossible, despite the many pious

declarations against it. But in a Moham-

medan country such a law may be both ac-

ceptable and effective. The legal dictum,

**Prevalency of a crime is no excuse for le-

galizing it,’ cannot be successfully fol-

lowed when sufficiently large numbers in-

sist on ignoring the law and on “committing”

the crime.

Superficially, the problem of assessing

the impact of decriminalizing marijuana

seems simple. You locate two adjacent

geographical areas with similar demogra-

phic characteristics, in one of which the law

has been changed, and compare rates and

patterns of use following the change. But

the apparently simple is often in reality

quite complex. In States with draconian

penalties, district attorneys may be under-

standably reluctant to press for conviction

because the penalties are so obviously dis-

proportionate to the crime. And, if the dis-

trict attorneys and courts are reluctant to

exact these penalties, the police may be

equally reluctant to make arrests. When

marijuana use becomes widespread among

DECRIMINALIZATION OF MARIJUANA 173

the sons and daughters of the “‘establish-

ment,” including those involved in law en-

forcement and the courts, an added dimen-

sion of reluctance to exact harsh penalties

is introduced. Even when the law is applied

impartially and consistently, which is proba-

bly rare, its deterrent value is dependent on

the user’s subjective assessment of the prob-

abilities of getting caught and being suc-

cessfully prosecuted. It’s probably safe to

say that the largest increases in marijuana

use occurred at a time when the legal penal-

ties for personal possession were hardly le-

nient and certainly far harsher than they

are today.

When Oregon decriminalized marijuana

in 1973, becoming the first State to do so,

several studies were conducted to deter-

mine what, if any, were the consequences of

the legal change. Attempts were made

there, and later elsewhere, to assess the

number of arrests and convictions and

costs to the taxpayer related to enforce-

ment, as well as to assess the reported levels

and patterns of use before and after enact-

ment of the new law. There are, of course,

other, less tangible aspects of decriminali-

zation that are less readily assessed. These

might include increased respect for the law

and for law enforcement efforts, greater

trust of the ‘‘establishment,” decreased

fear and suspicion of the authorities, and

reduced incentive to use that may be based

on defying what is seen as irrational authority.

Even when studies of use and decriminal-

ization are conducted with punctilious care,

their interpretation is fraught with diffi-

culty. The viewer-with-alarm may take

quite a different view from the sanguine.

For example, in Oregon, research indicated

no substantial change in the two years sub-

sequent to enactment of decriminalization.

However, between 1975 and 1976 the number

of those who had ever used jumped by 20

percent (from 20 to 24 percent) and current

users increased by 50 percent (from 8 to 12

percent).’ One interpretation of this is that

the legal change was perceived as indicat-

ing marijuana was safer than earlier sup-

posed, and that use was therefore less of a

source of health concern to the user. An in-

dication of this is that the percentage of

nonusers who described “‘possible health

dangers’ as the basis for their nonuse

dropped dramatically from 28 percent in

1975 to 7 percent in 1976.’ Indeed, it is the

belief that decriminalization is very likely

to be so interpreted that has led some

decriminalization advocates to abandon

that position, although they still do not be-

lieve severe penalties for use or possession

are justified on other grounds.’

With respect to criminal justice costs,

what evidence there is strongly supports

the belief that decriminalization substan-

tially decreases the costs to the taxpayer of

arrests, trial procedures, incarceration, proba-

tion and the like.” But there are other prob-

lems to complicate this apparently optimis-

tic picture.

In California, which decriminalized ma-

rijuana as of January 1, 1976, there was a

marked increase in the number of arrests

for driving under the influence of a drug in

the 6 months following decriminalization

as compared with a like period a year ear-

lier. The number of adults (over 18) ar-

rested under those circumstances went up

by nearly 50 percent and the number of

juveniles by over 70 percent.’ While such

an increase may not reflect a simple cause

and effect relationship to the legal change,

it does indicate the possibility that legal

change may have unexpected consequences

apart from simply increased marijuana use.

While it is, of course, possible that the in-

crease noted may have resulted from a shift

in law enforcement emphasis, one more

parsimonious explanation is that faced

with less severe penalties, more drivers

were willing to drive stoned than previously.

Such an explanation has been adduced to

explain the much higher rates of driving

while intoxicated in the United States as

compared to Scandinavian countries, where

the penalties are much more severe.

In looking at the possible effects of de-

criminalization, it is also important to real-

ize that the law may not have an equally de-

terrent effect on all segments of the society.

In California, for example, a study done

prior to decriminalization as well as subse-

174 ROBERT C. PETERSEN

quent to it found an increase in the number

of those who had ever used marijuana and

who currently used it nearly a year after

passage of the law. However, among adults

between 30 and 39 years old and between

40 and 49 years old, the increases noted

were much larger than in the 18- to 29-year-

old group. Current use increased by about

30 percent among the young adult group,

but it tripled in the 30- to 39-year-old group

(from 5 to 16 percent), and quadrupled in

the 40- to 49-year-old group (from | to 4

-percent).> Thus, the deterrent effect of

criminal penalties may well be greater on

older, more established members: of the

community who presumably have more to

lose by potential arrest. While overall

changes in adult patterns of use were inter-

preted as having been little affected by de-

criminalization, this may not be true of all

segments of the population.

When one turns to the perception of the

effects legal change is believed to have had,

marked differences of opinion are to be

found among various segments of the pop-

ulation. For example, Blachly sent a ques-

tionnaire to 186 persons in the police-judi-

cial-parole system 2 years after Oregon

changed its law. He sent a similar question-

naire to 157 educators who headed the col-

leges and universities in the State, as well as

to principals of all high schools with more

than 500 students. While nearly nine out of

ten (86 percent) of the police felt that mari-

juana problems had increased, only one in

four (24 percent) judges noted a similar in-

crease. Nearly half the educators felt that

the numbers of students who had school

problems involving marijuana use had in-

creased since the legal change, although the

number having other drug-related prob-

lems was believed to have decreased.* While

this study hardly “‘proves”’ that changes in

the law do, in fact, alter behavior, it does

demonstrate how different the view of a

problem can be, depending on one’s priori-

ties and vantage point.

Overall, then, depending on one’s selec-

tion of data, one can make use of what re-

search has been done to “‘prove”’: (1) that

decriminalization has had little or no effect

on patterns and extent of marijuana use, (2)

that marijuana use has significantly in-

creased among some segments of the popu-

lation as a result of or coincidentally with

decriminalization, (3) that the social prob-

lem caused by marijuana abuse, at least as

reflected in law enforcement costs, has de-

creased following legal change, or (4) that

the public health costs of marijuana may

have markedly increased as a result of de-

criminalization, if drug-related erratic driv-

ing is taken into account. Iam reminded of

the story of the Rabbi who, in counseling a —

couple with diametrically opposed views of

their marital difficulties, told each, ““You’re

right.”> When confronted by his assistant

who said such contradictory views could

not possibly both be right, he again replied,

“You're right!”’

Perhaps the hardiest perennial in the

Garden of Marijuana Beliefs is that our

problems of public policy would be solved

if only our scientific data were adequate to

define the parameters of risk. As one medi-

cal editorial writer nearly a decade ago put

it, “Since the warning signals that mari-

juana use can be harmful are numerous,

widespread, and apparently increasing, it

would seem to be sound social policy to

discourage its use by all reasonable meth-

ods until or unless future research proves

it has no deleterious effects.” Whatever

one may feel about the soundness of the au-

thor’s general observation, a moment’s re-

flection makes it clear that research can

never ‘“‘prove”’ that marijuana, or any other

drug, for that matter, has no deleterious ef-

fects. Conversely, ‘“‘proving,” or at least

providing evidence, that marijuana has de-

leterious effects on health, however hor-

rendous, does not in itself automatically

adduce a sound legal or social policy. Like

such other recreational substances as alco-

hol and tobacco, marijuana’s health risks

are likely to vary with amounts taken, the

susceptibility of the user, and the circum-

stances of use. At one extreme, it is unlikely

that the one-joint-per-month recreational

user who is otherwise in good health is

likely to suffer serious adverse consequen-

ces of use. At the other, it is unlikely that

eee

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a 2 ee

= awe Sabla

DECRIMINALIZATION OF MARIJUANA 17S

the user who is characteristically mari-

juana-intoxicated is likely to escape conse-

quences, perhaps combining some of the

unhappy health implications of both alco-

hol and tobacco use. As with alcohol and

tobacco, we are faced with the question of

how users collectively reckon the cost-ben-

efit ratio in their personal decision to use

and at what level.

Having said this much, is anything pos-

sible? Can the researcher, in fact, make a

_ meaningful contribution? Is drug policy re-

search feasible? I believe it is, but not inthe

sense that one can do a piece of research

from which improved policy automatically

flows. As my brief examples and the others

that will be discussed in greater detail later

illustrate, research on the outcomes of legal

change is fraught with difficulty. There is

also the very real possibility that it is not

the legal change per se that is most signifi-

cant, but rather a whole set of other varia-

bles that may interact with it or completely

overshadow its importance. Realistically,

the law, in combination with many other

factors, such as law enforcement policy,

drug availability, age of the user, and self-

perceived benefits or risks, has a complex

effect on use patterns. These may range

from virtually no effect on some conse-

quences to a profound effect on others.

Depending on what is measured or valued,

it can be argued that the effects of a change

in drug policy are desirable or undesirable.

Moreover, the perceived implications of

legal change may alter markedly over time.

For example, at some point in the future,

when the parameters of risk associated

with marijuana use are better defined, de-

criminalization may say no more about

marijuana’s safety than does the legal avail-

ability of cigarettes. At present, we are con-

fronted with a kind of cultural lag in which

some of the important changes in the mari-

juana use picture have not yet become

common knowledge. It is probably safe to

say that the public and even legislators are

not generally aware of the marked increase

in the frequency of use of a much more po-

tent material at a much earlier age. For this

much younger group, the law may be far

less relevant than parental attitudes and

school policies.

If we are not to overinterpret the influ-

ence of the law itself, it is important that we

also adequately assess enforcement policy

prior to and after legal change. If the law

simply codifies what has already been in-

formal law enforcement and judicial cus-

tom, its effect may be very modest indeed.

Or, if the typical user, for whatever reason,

feels that legal consequences are unlikely to

ensue, his or her behavior is not likely to be

markedly affected—regardless of the law’s

severity. It is doubtful, for example, that

the laws concerning fornication which ex-

isted in many States until comparatively

recently inhibited most individual’s sexual

behavior.

Unfortunately for our attempts at drug

policy research, we are confronted not with

a Stable drug scene, but with an ever-chang-

ing one. Our American experience has

largely been confined to the use of relatively

small amounts of low potency materials

used by the healthiest segment of the popu-

lation on an occasional, rather than on a

chronic, basis. Like the Alcoholic Beverage

Control laws, the effects of the law are

likely to profoundly interact with emerging

social custom, the ways in which recrea-

tional drug use is “regulated” by user and

group attitudes. The shift to younger age

use already may have resulted in a stiffen-

ing of attitudes toward marijuana use that

might not have occurred had use continued

to be largely restricted to young adults. The

emergence of a paraphernalia industry and

the backlash that has resulted in conse-

quence also may have important unfore-

seen consequences for general acceptance

of marijuana use. If the possible increase in

numbers driving while high is shown to be

inversely correlated with the severity of

marijuana possession penalties, this too

may alter markedly the public attitudes

toward use and toward drug legislation.

To the extent that drug laws are even

partially successful in reducing drug supply

or markedly increasing price, harsher pen-

alties for selling also may alter use patterns

in ways that are not altogether predictable.

176 ROBERT C. PETERSEN

There has been very little, if any, research

exploring the economics of the illicit drug

marketplace as they affect consumption

patterns. From what is known about alco-

hol consumption, such relationships may

prove to be complex.

Another aspect of the drug scene that in-

trigues me personally is the impact of

changing economic conditions, or more

generally, the influence of a psychology of

scarcity or of a less permissive orientation.

The influence of the youth culture, that

strange product of a bumper crop of child-

ren from post-World War II era, has now

peaked and is in decline. With the greying

of America, one might well expect a con-

siderably more conservative approach to

drug use with or without changes in the

law. There is some evidence that as people

go on to adult life, taking on more tradi-

tional vocational and marital responsibili-

ties and roles, use of illicit drugs, including

marijuana, drops.° If economic conditions,

worsen, not only may there be less discre-

tionary income available for drugs, there

also may be a greater need to work harder

in ways inimical to drug use; for goals that

have previously been taken for granted.

By now you may have begun to suspect

that “‘drug policy research,” even if we con-

fine ourselves to the issue of decriminaliza-

tion, is, by my lights at least, anything but

simple. We are increasingly aware, for ex-

ample, that our earlier ways of looking at

marijuana consumption in terms of fre-

quency of use rather than at the quantity

and quality consumed were misleadingly

simplistic. It is also evident that the circum-

stances and pattern of consumption, as

with alcohol, are important. In the absence

of simple, reliable means of measuring mari-

juana intoxication in a manner analogous

to alcohol consumption and of correlating

it with performance, the legal picture is still

further complicated.

Let me briefly summarize my baker’s

dozen of what are important researchable

issues around marijuana policy for me:

1. What, in fact, is the interpretation of

decriminalization by the general public

10.

and by various subsamples of it? Is

the belief that such a move signifies

marijuana is a “safe” drug warranted?

How are legal penalties perceived by

user groups? Under what circum-

stances do users see them as deter-

ring them from use?

What is the relationship of legal pen-

alties to the willingness to take such

risks as driving while high, using

marijuana in the work place, or oth-

erwise jeopardizing oneself and oth-

ers’ safety?

How do changes in legal penalties

affect other aspects of drug use, such

as the amounts of marijuana used,

degree of acceptance of use, and the

circumstances of use?

To what extent do the law and law

enforcement policy affect the behav-

ior of what may be the most vulner-

able segment of the population—

younger users?

. To what extent do changes in the

marijuana law affect public attitudes

toward the use of other illicit drugs?

Is the present upsurge in cocaine and

PCP use related to marijuana laws?

. How do changes in the laws govern-

ing possession impact on the seller

and the general acceptance of illicit

drug traffic?

. How do changes in the law affect the

behavior of those charged with law

enforcement? Does a reduction in

penalties result in an increased re-

luctance to enforce the law? Does it

result in a greater tolerance for drug

selling on the part of law enforce-

ment personnel?

. What has been the impact of the

court decisions in Alaska, which |

went considerably beyond simple

decriminalization?

To what extent is decriminalization

perceived as a way Station en route.

to ultimate legalization of marijuana

use?

11. What other social forces, group norms,

and emerging social customs around

marijuana use serve to moderate or

to control use?

12. Does a reduction in penalties signifi-

cantly alter the attitudes and behav-

ior of educators and others in ways

that encourage greater youthful use?

13. How does a change in law affect the

way in which the convicted user

views himself or herself, and what is

its impact on his or her future behavior?

This brief review has explored the prom-

ise and the problems of doing policy-rele-

vant research. If the problems are formida-

ble, so too is the promise of the researcher

making a difference, helping the policy-

maker to develop a more rational, more

workable approach to limiting the social

and individual disruption related to mari-

juana use.

This article is based upon a paper pre-

sented at a technical review held by the Na-

tional Institute on Drug Abuse on March

20-21, 1980, at Rockville, Maryland.

References Cited

1. Center for Policy Research and Analysis. Mari-

Juana: A Study of State Policies and Penalties. Re-

port of the National Governors’ Conference, Vol-

ume 2, Findings and Analysis. Washington D.C.,

March 19775.

2. Center for Policy Research and Analysis. Mari-

Juana: A Study of State Policies and Penalties. Re-

port of the National Governors’ Conference, Vol-

ume 1, Executive Summary. Washington D.C.,

March 1977a.

3. California State Office of Narcotics and Drug

Abuse. A First Report of the Impact of California’s

New Marijuana Law (SB95). Sacramento, De-

cember 1976.

4. Blachly, P. H. 1976. Effects of decriminalization of

marijuana in Oregon. In: Dornbush, R. L., Freed-

man, A. M., and Fink, M., eds. Chronic Cannabis

Use, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences,

Volume 282. New York: New York Academy of

Sciences, pp. 405-415.

5. Farnsworth, D. L. 1971. Legalization of mari-

huana: Pros and cons. American Journal of Psychia-

try, 128(2): 110.

6. O’Donnell, J. A., Voss, H. L., Clayton, R. R., Slatin,

G. T. and Room, R. G. W. Young Men and Drugs—A

Nationwide Survey, National Institute on Drug

Abuse Research Monograph 5. DHEW Pub. No.

(ADM) 76-311. Washington, D.C.: Superintend-

ent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Of-

fice, 1976.

Early Women Chemists of the Northeast’

Nina Matheny Roscher and Phillip L. Ammons

Department of Chemistry The American University Washington, D.C. 20016

ABSTRACT

Few women chemists in the early part of the twentieth century followed what would be

considered traditional courses in chemistry or biochemistry. The lives and careers of women

from the Northeast who followed different pathways to success are discussed.

The women from Mt. Holyoke are considered, including Emma Perry Carr, Mary Lura

Sherrill, and Lucy Pickett who formed one of the early research groups in order to achieve

success and recognition for their work. Other women who followed a variety of routes in-

cluded Pauline Beery Mack at Penn State, Mary Petermann at Sloan Kettering, Mary Caldwell

at Columbia, and Helen Dyer at NIH. Katherine B. Blodgett, the first woman to get a Ph.D. in

Physics at Cambridge and whose lifetime was spent working on physical chemical problems at

General Electric is also discussed.

Contributions and accomplishments of several other women chemists from the Northeast,

who were also recipients of the Garvan Medal, are discussed.

177

178 NINA MATHENY ROSCHER AND PHILLIP L. AMMONS

In the early part of this century, chemis-

try was basically a man’s discipline. It was

not a field in which women were expected

or allowed to excel. A few very talented

women, however, struggled to become suc-

cessful chemists and biochemists, and won.

Their advances have opened the way for

the aspiring women chemists of today.

These women, coming from different back-

grounds, discovered very different routes

to success and recognition. Although tal-

ented women were working nationwide,

some of the greatest advances were made in

the Northeast.

One of the most successful of the early

research groups was that formed by the

women of Mt. Holyoke, including Emma

Perry Carr, Mary Lura Sherrill, and Lucy

W. Pickett.

Emma Perry Carr received most of her

undergraduate and graduate instruction at

the University of Chicago and graduated in

1905 with a B.S. in Chemistry. She earned

her Ph.D five years later and immediately

began a long teaching career at Mt. Ho-

lyoke College, including 33 years as chair-

man of the Chemistry Department. During

these years, her emphasis on group re-

search gained for her department, as well as

herself, a reputation of excellence among

women’s schools.”

Her research was concentrated in the

field of physical chemistry. The research

that earned for her in 1937 the first Garvan

Medal ever awarded was her study of the

electronic spectra of aliphatic hydrocar-

bons through the use of absorption studies

in the far ultraviolet. After her first work

appeared in 1929, she gained the support of

the National Research Council and the

Rockefeller Foundation. The research group

that she put together, utilizing the work of

other professors and a long progression of

students, became one of the best models of

this type of group research. Even more sig-

nificant is the fact that it was achieved at an

institution concentrating on undergradu-

ate study. The work of the Mt. Holyoke re-

search group contributed to a better theo-

retical basis of the energy relationships

involved in ethylenic unsaturation. Her

advances were later applied by petroleum

chemists.’

Dr. Carr received many honors for her

work, including four honorary degrees.

The Northeastern Section of the American

Chemical Society recognized her exemplary

teaching career with the James Flack Nor-

ris Award in 1957. She was an active

member of Phi Beta Kappa, Sigma Xi, an

honorary member of Sigma Delta Epsilon

and lota Sigma Pi, and many other profes-

sional organizations. She was also a dele-

gate to the International Chemical Union

in 1925, 1926, and 1936. Dr. Carr remained

active in Mt. Holyoke’s program long after

her retirement. She died in 1972 at the age

of 92.?

Mary Lura Sherrill was a colleague of

Dr. Carr at Mt. Holyoke and in the re-

search group there. She received her B.A.

and M.A. at Randolph-Macon Women’s

College in 1909 and immediately began

teaching there. In 1918, she went to the

Woman’s College of the University of

North Carolina and in 1920, she became a

chemist at the Edgewood Arsenal for the

Chemical Warfare Service. Finally, in 1921,

she embarked on her long teaching career

at Mt. Holyoke College where she remained

for 34 years. She participated in the group

research which studied ultraviolet absorp-

tion spectra of unsaturated hydrocarbons.

This work required a high standard of

sample purity. The accuracy of her work

was later upheld by spectra prepared by the

American Petroleum Institute.’

World War II was Mary Lura Sherrill’s

next opportunity to gain recognition for

her work. Supported by the Office of

Research and Development, she and her

students initiated research on new antima-

larial drugs. The synthesis of aminobenzo-

thiazole derivatives became more impor-

tant in the 1970’s during research aimed at

Asia. This type of group research which in-

volved faculty colleagues, and especially

students, was typical of Mary Lura Sher-

rill’s career. Among her many honors were.

the James Flack Norris Award for out-

standing achievement in the teaching of

EARLY WOMEN CHEMISTS OF THE NORTHEAST 179

Chemistry, awarded by the Northeastern

Section of the American Chemical Society

in 1957, and the Garvan Medal, awarded

by the ACS in 1947. She died in 1968 at the

age of 80.°

Lucy W. Pickett was the third member of

the Mt. Holyoke research group. She re-

ceived her A.B. and M.A. from Mt. Ho-

lyoke College in 1925 and 1927 and re-

ceived her doctorate from the University of

Illinois in 1930. She immediately began

teaching at Mt. Holyoke where she re-

mained until 1968 when she was designated

an emeritus professor. She served six years

as chairman of the Chemistry Department.’

Dr. Pickett worked with Dr. Carr and

Dr. Sherrill on vacuum ultraviolet tech-

niques of analyzing simple organic com-

pounds, a process that has become impor-

tant in the petroleum industry. Dr. Pickett

received the Garvan Medal for her work on

far ultraviolet spectroscopy in 1957.4

The Mt. Holyoke research proved that

group research was a very eificient use of

the scarce resources of time and money. By

working together, these women were able

to gain recognition for their research and

advances, as well as continue and further

their teaching careers. Together they made

Mt. Holyoke an outstanding research insti-

tution in Chemistry.

Pauline Beery Mack gained recognition

for her outstanding work in the field of nu-

trition. She received her undergraduate

training at Missouri State University where

she also received her first research expe-

rience. She then went on to get a master’s at

Columbia University in 1919 and her doc-

torate in 1932 at Pennsylvania State Uni-

versity where she began her career in edu-

cation. During her first 15 years, she taught

elementary chemistry courses for home

economics majors. Her goal was a re-

search/teaching position in physical chem-

istry but because she was a woman, most

universities would not even consider that.

In this period, her reputation for teaching

excellence grew.”

Dr. Mack’s main research centered on

the calcium chemistry of bone. In 1927, she

began research that she would continue for

23 years on a method of measuring the den-

sity of calcium in the bone structure of liv-

ing subjects through the use of x-rays. She

then used this process to study the reten-

tion of calcium in the human body and in

other animals. In 1940, Dr. Mack was

made the first director of the newly formed

Ellen H. Richards Institute, a departmental

research group named for the first woman

graduate in chemistry from the Massachu-

~ setts Institute of Technology. This institute

studied the chemistry of nutrition, textiles,

and household materials. The Pennsylva-

nia Mass Studies in Human Nutrition,

begun in 1935 and supported by the state of

Pennsylvania since 1936, is said to be the

longest running research project in nutrition.”

Pauline Beery Mack became Dean of the

College of Household Arts and Sciences of

the Texas State College for Women in 1952

and Director of its Nelda C. Stark Research

Foundation in 1966. She was a member of

many professional societies, including Iota

Sigma Pi, in which she served as National

President; the American Chemical Society,

from which she received the Garvan Medal

in 1950; and Phi Beta Kappa Associates.

She also received the “Silver Snoopy” from

the American Astronauts in 1970. She died

in 1974.°

Mary Locke Petermann received recog-

nition as the first woman member of the

Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Re-

search. She received her undergraduate

training at Smith College, graduating in

1929. Her doctoral degree was earned at

the University of Wisconsin in 1939, where

she then became the first woman chemist

on the staff of the University of Wisconsin.

During World War II, under the auspices

of the National Defense Research Coun-

cil’s Committee on Medical Research, she

researched the properties of human serum

albumin and discovered methods of purify-

ing it for use as a substitute for blood. She

also found a method for the purification of

immunoglobulins which is now a treatment

for mumps. In 1945, Dr. Petermann began

work at Sloan-Kettering in New York in

nucleoprotein research. She became the

first to isolate, characterize, and measure

180 NINA MATHENY ROSCHER AND PHILLIP L. AMMONS

the ribosome. For a short time, they were

even called ‘“‘Petermann particles” before

they were formally named. Using ultracen-

trifugal analysis and electrophoretic analy-

sis, she showed that the ribosomes of nor-

mal and abnormal mammalian tissues dif-

fered insome ways.’ In 1966, Dr. Petermann

became a full Professor of Biochemistry at

Sloan-Kettering Institute Graduate School

of Medical Sciences at Cornell University

where she worked until her retirement in

1973.°

Dr. Petermann received the Garvan Medal

in 1966 for her work in cellular chemistry.

She also received the Alfred P. Sloan

Award in Cancer Research in 1964 for her

work linking ribosomes to cancer. In 1974,

Dr. Petermann formed the Memorial Sloan-

Kettering Organization for Professional

Women. She died in 1975 at the age of 67.°

Mary Letitia Caldwell has been recog-

nized for her work in carbohydrate enzy-

mology. She received her A.B. from West-

ern College for Women in 1913 and her

A.M. and Ph.D. from Columbia University

in 1919 and 1921 respectively. She began a

teaching career at Columbia in 1922 that

continued until her death in 1972.’

Dr. Caldwell began her research on malt

amylase in 1918—research that was to take

her a lifetime. She used group research, in-

cluding the work of many graduate stu-

dents, which was paid for by foundation

and industrial grants. Enzymology has

been changed radically by her research.

Many of her techniques are now standard

practice in universities and industry. She

studied the properties and reactions of

highly purified amylases, becoming the

first to prepare crystalline pancreatic amy-

lase. The research group also showed that

amylases were proteins, and identified what

triggered their activity. Finally, they dem-

onstrated that all alpha-amylases do not

have the same action mechanism. Mary

Caldwell received the Garvan Medal in

1960 for her outstanding contributions in

the field of enzymology.’

In reality, Dr. Caldwell had two careers.

One was her research; the other was her

dedication to the administrative duties of

the Chemistry Department at Columbia.

She served for over thirty years as an ad-

viser in charge of assigning teaching assist-

ants and guiding graduate admissions and

research. At the same time, Dr. Caldwell

served as secretary of the department and

as a financial adviser to graduate students.®

Katherine Burr Blodgett earned her B.S.

from Bryn Mawr in 1917 and her M.S. from

the University of Chicago in 1918. In 1926,

she became the first woman to receive a

Ph.D. in Physics from Cambridge. She

began her research career as the first woman

at General Electric research laboratories in

1918. She got this position with the help of

friends in GE and the labor shortage

caused by World War I. She assisted Dr.

Irving Langmuir in his work on monomo-

lecular films. This group research, includ-

ing several other prominent chemists at

GE, resulted in the production of “‘invisi-

ble”’ glass in 1938, a product now standard

in all cameras and optical equipment.’ Suc-

cessive one-molecule thick layers of trans-

parent soap are applied to a lens in order to

cut down on reflection. She then devised a

method and a gauge to measure the thick-

ness to one microinch of films based on

color comparisons. Other research included

the improvement of tungsten filaments in

electric lights, ridding airplane wings of ice,

and developing a new smoke screen during

the second World War.’”

Katherine Blodgett received the Ameri-

can Association of University Women

Achievement Award in 1945 and the Gar-

van Medal in 1951 for her work with mo-

nomolecular films. She died at the age of 81

in 1979."° |

Gertrude B. Elion made advances in Bio-

chemistry and Pharmacology. She received

her A.B. at Hunter College in 1937 and her

M.S. at New York University. After a few

years of shifting from company to com-

pany in menial jobs, she found her place at

the Burroughs Wellcome Research Labor-

atories in New York in 1944. The wartime

manpower shortage was the boost that she

needed to land a good research job.

At Burroughs Wellcome, she synthe-

sized Allopurinol (Zyloprim) which re-

duces the formation of uric acid. This drug

is effective against gout and other diseases.

EARLY WOMEN CHEMISTS OF THE NORTHEAST 181

Azathioprine (Imuran), another of her

drugs, is an immunosuppressant used in

organ transplants. In fact, it was utilized in

the first human heart transplant. She also

synthesized 6-mercaptopurine which is used

to treat children with leukemia. She was the

recipient of the Garvan Medal in 1968 for

her advances in pharmacology and chemo-

therapy."

Sarah Ratner received her A.B. and

M.A. at Cornell University in 1924 and

1927 and her Ph.D. at Columbia University

in 1937. She began teaching at Long Island

College of Medicine in 1926. In 1930, she

moved to Columbia University’s College of

Physicians and Surgeons. She went to New

York University’s College of Medicine in

1946 where she was appointed adjunct as-

sociate professor of biochemistry in 1954.

That same year, she joined the Public

Health Research Institute of New York

City.’

Dr. Ratner’s research in the area of

amino acids metabolism has gained recog-

nition for her as well as her colleagues. Her

first work studied the reaction of cysteine

and formaldehyde. Later she applied iso-

topes to research in amino acid metabo-

lism. In 1945, she initiated research in the

utilization of enzymes in this process. This

was a great step toward the eventual dis-

covery of the mechanism of urea synthesis.

As part of this research, she helped to study

a children’s mental deficiency associated

with one of these enzymes.”

Dr. Ratner received the Carl Neuberg

Medal of the Society of European Chemists

in 1959. She was also the recipient of the

Garvan Medal in 1961 for her research on

the effect of enzymes on protein production.”

Gertrude Erika Perlmann received her

D.Sc. in chemistry and physics from the

German University of Prague in 1936. In

1939, she came to the United States, joined

the staff at Harvard Medical School, and in

1945 became a naturalized citizen. She

joined the Rockefeller Institute in New

York that same year where she remained

until her death in 1974 at the age of 62."°

She used electrophoresis in several re-

search projects on proteins. She was the

first to link phosphate with the stabiliza-

tion of protein structures, showing that the

phosphate group in pepsin forms a diester

in the polypeptide chain, creating a loop.

She then thoroughly researched the struc-

ture of pepsin. She described its atomic ar-

rangement, its use in digestion, and the

structure and properties of pepsinogen

when it is activated.’*

She authored many publications on pro-

tein and enzyme chemistry. Dr. Perlmann

received the Garvan Medal in 1965 for

these studies on protein structures.“

Mary Engle Pennington was one of the

first chemists to study the structures and

reactions of perishable foods. She received

her Ph.D. at the University of Pennsylvania

in 1895. In 1898, she began teaching at

Women’s Medical College, specializing in

bacteriology. She was consulted by doctors

nationwide, and by the city of Philadel-

phia, on the care of perishable foods, in-

cluding the refrigeration of milk. In 1908,

Dr. Pennington helped to implement the

Federal Food and Drug Act by setting up

and directing a laboratory for the Depart-

ment of Agriculture. This installation re-

searched methods of ascertaining the qual-

ity of such perishables as eggs, poultry, and

fish. This work led to many improvements

in the food storage and transportation in-

dustries. Dr. Pennington was a U.S. dele-

gate to the first three meetings of the Inter-

national Congress of Refrigeration.’

In 1919, she became the manager of the

research and development division of the

American Balsa Company in New York.

Finally, in 1923, she established her own

office in New York City as a private consul-

tant on the bacteriology of perishables. She

maintained this office until her death in

1952. During World War II, she was called

in by the War Shipping Administration. As

Director of the Household Refrigeration

Bureau of the National Association of Ice

Industries, she did research on frozen foods.”

Mary Pennington was a member of nu-

merous professional societies and the au-

thor of many publications. She was the re-

cipient of the Garvan Medal in 1940.°

Helen M. Dyer has made startling ad-

vances in the field of cancer causation and

nutrition. She earned her B.A. from Goucher

182 NINA MATHENY ROSCHER AND PHILLIP L. AMMONS

College in 1917 and her M.S. and Ph.D.

from George Washington University in

1929 and 1935 respectively. Her first teach-

ing experience was at the Mt. Holyoke Col-

lege in 1919 and 1920 where she taught

physiology. She then returned to Washing-

ton, D.C. and went to work at the Hygienic

Laboratory in its department of Chemo-

therapy under Dr. Carl Voegtlin. After a

few years, she left the laboratory to study at

George Washington University where she

began to teach in 1930. In 1942, she re-

joined Dr. Voegtlin, then at the National

Cancer Institute where she helped with the

establishment of its chemotherapy pro-

gram.”

Her research work has laid the ground-

work for other research projects. She

showed the relationship between vitamin

Be and N-2-fluroenylacitamide in the pro-

duction of abnormal tryptophan metabo-

lites. This research led to various studies

into the carcinogenic effects of this reac-

tion. In 1938, Dr. Dyer made a break-

through in biochemistry by synthesizing

the ethyl analog of methionine expecting to

find a methionine dietary substitute. In-

stead, she found that the analog is ex-

tremely toxic. This discovery added a new

field in medical research and pharmacol-

ogy. In 1949, Dr. Dyer collected and re-

duced a tremendous amount of literature

into an index of tumor chemotherapy.

More recently she has shown that there is

an inverse relationship between the level of

serum glutamic-oxalacetic transaminase

(GOT) and the growth rate of liver tumors.”

The result of Dr. Helen Dyer’s research

has been over sixty publications. Today she

is working as a consultant in the Washing-

ton D.C. area. She is a fellow of the AAAS,

and a member of the ACS, Sigma X1, Iota

Sigma Pi, and other professional societies. :

The lives and careers of these women

have inspired other talented women to

enter a field that was once closed to them.

Although their careers were very different,

some similarities are apparent in their dif-

ferent paths to recognition. First, the influ-

ence of the two world wars on the supply of

talented men and on the supply of good re-

search jobs seems to have been a crucial

factor in many of these women’s “first

break”’ and added new opportunities for

others who already had distinguished them-

selves in chemistry. Among these women

were Mary Petermann, Katherine Blod-

gett, Gertrude Elion, Gertrude Perlmann,

and Mary Pennington. Another similarity

is the use of group research. The women of

Mt. Holyoke College are perhaps the best

but not the only example.

References Cited

1. Presented in part at the 182nd American Chemi-

cal Society National Meeting, New York, N.Y.,

August 1981.

2. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 16, no. 9,

1938.

3. American Chemists and Chemical Engineers,

Wyndham D. Miles, ed., The American Chemical

Society, Washington, D.C., 1976.

4. Chemical and Engineering News, 35, no. 17, 1957.

5. Chemical and Engineering News, 28, no. 13, 1950.

6. Mendendez-Botet, Private Communication, Oc-

tober 1977.

7. Chemical and Engineering News, 44, no. 12, 1966.

8. Chemical and Engineering News, 38, no. 16, 1960.

9. Chemical and Engineering News, 29, no. 15, 1951.

10. New York Times, October 3, 1979, p. 24.

11. Chemical and Engineering News, 46, no. 3, 1968.

12. Chemical and Engineering News, 39, no. 14, 1961.

13. A History of Iota Sigma Pi, Stockton, Sister Mary

Rose, ed., Iota Sigma Pi, Indianapolis, Indiana,

1980.

14. Chemical and Engineering News, 43, no. 15, 1965.

15. Chemical and Engineering News, 40, no. 12, 1962.

The Scientific Awards of the Academy: 1981

Sherman Ross

General Chairman

The Annual Awards Dinner meeting of

the Academy for 1981 was held on March

15 at Georgetown University. Four awards

were made for significant contributions to

research, and two awards for science teach-

ing. This program was started in 1939 to

recognize young scientists for “. . . note-

worthy discovery, accomplishment, or pub-

lication in the Biological, Physical, and

Engineering Sciences.”’ An award for Out-

standing Teaching was added in 1955 (re-

named in 1979 as the Leo Schubert Award),

and in Mathematics in 1959. In 1975 the

award for the Behavioral Sciences and the

Berenice G. Lambert award for Teaching

of High School Science were made.

Behavioral Sciences

Dr. Frank R. Yekovich is Assistant Pro-

fessor of Educational/Psychology, School

of Education, The Catholic University of

America. He was born in Colorado, and

received the bachelor’s degree from the

University of Colorado. His graduate study

was at Arizona State University (M.A.

1975, Ph.D. 1977). He served in 1978-79 as

research psychologist with the U. S. Army

Research Institute, and in 1977-78 as a re-

search scientist with the Seville Research

Corporation.

Dr. Yekovich’s research deals broadly

with language comprehension and memory

for written text. Unlike the traditional

wordlist research of the 1960s, he has stud-

ied how people acquire and remember

complex written materials (both sentence

and prose memory). Dr. Yekovich’s pro-

jects have spanned both basic and applied

research. His work on feedback procedures

in programmed text has attempted to iso-

late the learner and the text variables re-

sponsible for influencing the acquisition

and retention of classroom materials. He

has started identifying the linguistic factors

(i.e., the structural characteristics) that de-

fine the semantic representation of text. By

identifying and manipulating these rules,

psychologists have been able to trace what

and how people learn from written texts.

This work has relevance for developing

theories about text structure and human

memory. In addition, the research provides

a base for investigating why “‘poor”’ read-

ers are poor, and what can be done to make

-them better readers.

183

Dr. Yekovich currently is engaged in

four research efforts. The first deals with

deriving a hypothetical framework for rep-

resenting knowledge of expository text

materials. The second is a project aimed at

characterizing the linguistic differences be-

tween certain types of oral and written dis-

course, and then measuring the effects of

these differences on learning and retention.

The third project investigates similarities

and differences in the knowledge structures

that hearing and deaf people use to process

and remember simple stories. Finally, he is

doing pilot work on how previously ac-

quired knowledge becomes activated and

used during the comprehension of text

materials.

Engineering Sciences

Dr. Robert M. Williams is Technical

Manager of the X-Wing Program, David

Taylor Naval Ship Research & Develop-

ment Center. He was born in Washington

D.C. and received a bachelor’s degree in

Engineering Mechanics from the Virginia

Polytechnic Institute. With some post

graduate study at the University of Mary-

184 SHERMAN ROSS

land, he completed his research leading to

the Ph.D. in Aerospace Engineering at the

University of Southampton (England) in

1977.

Dr. Williams began his DINSRDC ca-

reer as a co-op student in 1963. As a junior

engineer in 1967, he examined the feasibil-

ity of an idea for a V/STOL aircraft em-

ploying a single 2-bladed rotor, that could

be stopped in flight and stowed along the

top of the fuselage on a sparetime basis.

On his recommendations, and with his

technical participation, a highly successful

circulation control airfoil research program

was carried out at DINSRDC in 1968-

1970. In the ensuing years, Mr. Williams

contributed substantially to the technical

development of helicopter applications of

circulation control. At the same time, he

provided the creative spark and technical

rationale for a number of new projects in-

volving circulation control applications.

These included applications to fixed wing

high lift systems, Surface Effect Ship lift

fans, submarine control surfaces and ma-

rine propellers.

In an informal competition at DINSRDC

in 1975 for development of a V/STOL Re-

motely Piloted Vehicle concept, Dr. Will-

lams submitted a stopped-rotor vehicle

concept, which he called an ““X-Wing”’ ve-

hicle. The X-Wing derived its name from

the appearance of the wing when stopped

with two blades swept forward by 45 de-

grees and two swept aft. In the fixed wing

mode, the vehicle would have the potential

for flight up to transonic speeds. In the ro-

tary wing mode, it would provide helicop-

ter-like capabilities from small ships. Dr.

Williams’ analyses of the potential of the

X-Wing were so appealing that a prelimi-

nary design of a manned X-Wing aircraft

was started. After six months, a full scale

flight demonstration air-craft was started

under his technical management. In 1979 a

full scale wind tunnel test at NASA Ames

confirmed that the rotor could be stopped

and restarted without loss of lift, and with-

out significant vibration at the high for-

ward speeds at which rotary to fixed wing

conversion is planned. All other aspects of

these critical tests either met or exceeded

expectations. The X-Wing aircraft appears

to be the compelling choice to meet the

Navy’s evolving small-ship VTOL re-

quirements. It promises triple the range at

triple the speed in comparison to helicop-

ters, and superior compatibility with small

ships with respect to space requirements,

environmental considerations and reliabil-

ity/maintainability considerations. It could

well prove to be the most significant con-

tribution to Navy sea control capability in

decades.

Mathematics & Computer Sciences

Dr. James A. Yorke is Professor, Insti-

tute for Physical Science and Technology,

and the Department of Mathematics at the

University of Maryland, College Park. He

received the A.B. degree from Columbia

University (1963), and a Ph.D. from the

University of Maryland (1966). Dr. Yorke

served as Assistant Professor (1967-69), as

Research Associate Professor at the Uni-

versity of Maryland. He was a Guggenheim

Fellow in 1980-81.

Dr. Yorke’s mathematical achievements

incorporate an intuition in topology,

geometry and dynamics with a striving for

applied results. His recent efforts toward

‘“‘applied topology’’, and his striking ideas

have reached and influenced a broad au-

dience, including both biological and phys-

ical scientists. The common element

throughout his work is the application of

the methods of global analysis.

Topologists have long used global me-

thods for proving that systems of equations

possess certain properties. Dr. Yorke’s

principal contribution has been to convert

these global methods into a numerical feas-

ible form. His paper: “‘Period Three Im-

plies Chaos” has become well known in

Ecology and Physics. He has investigated

“chaotic” phenomena, which behave chaoti-

cally for some time period, exhibit a half

life, and finally decay to a more regular

behavior. |

Dr. Yorke developed a proof that there is

a gradually attracting stationary solution

THE SCIENTIFIC AWARDS OF THE ACADEMY: 1981 185

to certain types of equations. He was then

able to examine how these stationary solu-

tions vary as various control procedures

and strategies are applied. He has been in-

volved with the modeling of gonorrhea in

the U.S. He also has produced an analysis

of measles outbreaks in the U.S., and indi-

cated how measles might be eradicated.

Physical Sciences

Dr. Daniel T. Pierce, National Bureau of

Standards was born in Los Angeles, Cali-

fornia. He completed his undergraduate

work at Stanford, received an M.S. at Wes-

leyan College, and his doctorate from Stan-

ford—all in Physics. He served as a Peace

Corps lecturer in Nepal and briefly as a

physicist in Thailand. He was a research as-

sistant at Wesleyan and at Stanford, where

he also served as a Research Associate. He

spent three years as a physicist at the Swiss

Federal Institute of Technology (E.T.H.)

in Zurich, before taking on his current

work at the Bureau. He has been awarded

the Department of Commerce Silver Medal,

and was the Co-Winner of Industrial Re-

search Magazine’s IR-100 award, as well as

the E. A. Condon Award of the N.B.S. Dr.

Pierce was an active worker on the first

measurements of the magnetization of the

surface layer of nickel using a polarized

electron beam. Of crucial importance to

the success of this experiment was a method

of scattering low energy electrons from

magnetic materials that are at their satura-

tion magnetization. Dr. Pierce developed

an elegant way of capturing the stray flux

that not only permits electron scattering,

but is now being used in spin polarized

photomission. Dr. Pierce’s work on pho-

toemission with W. E. Spicer at Stanford

University was the basis for his early repu-

tation. His later work on electron spin po-

larization phenomena has gained him sub-

stantial recognition. Electron scattering

experiments are used widely to investigate

the physics of atoms, molecules and mate-

rials. Although two parameters are avail-

able in such experiments (momentum and

spin polarization of the scattered beam),

only the momentum variable usually is

used. This is due to the cumbersome and

inefficient nature of the devices used to

produce and detect the spin polarization in

free electron beams. While at the E.T.H.,

Dr. Pierce began a program of improving

spin polarization measurement, and apply-

ing the more efficient techniques to prob-

lems of fundamental importance.

His work at E.T.H. concentrated on the

study of surfaces through the measurement

of the polarization (the degree of alignment

of electron spins in a preferred direction) of

electrons ejected from both magnetic and

nonmagnetic materials. The electrons were

photoemitted from a clean surface, and

their spin polarization analyzed by high

energy Mott detection. Dr. Pierce brought

his expertise in photoemission and the abil-

ity to make complex experimental systems

work.

At E.T.H., Dr. Pierce showed that it was

possible to obtain polarized electrons from

a semiconductor (GaAs) by treating it to

obtain a negative electron affinity and il-

luminating it with circularly polarized light.

This proved to be a major breakthrough

because of the high efficiency of the pro-

cess. At the National Bureau of Standards

he worked on the development of a practi-

cal source of polarized electrons based on

photoemission. Dr. Pierce made major

contributions to the development in the

area of the surface physics of the negative

electron affinity system and the photoemis-

sion process. This device produces, in most

cases, as intense a beam of polarized elec-

trons as the unpolarized beam it replaces. It

provides a typical improvement of three

orders of magnitude in available polarized

electron current. The first application of

this new technology demonstrated the use-

fulness of polarization measurements in

surface structure determinations. Next came

the start of a study of surface magnetism.

The Leo Schubert Award for Teaching of

Science

Dr. George W. Gokel, Associate Profes-

sor of Chemistry, University of Maryland,

186 SHERMAN ROSS

College Park, was born in New York City,

and did his undergraduate work in Chemis-

try at Tulane University. In 1971 he re-

ceived a Ph.D. from the University of

Southern California, and then spent two

postdoctoral years at UCLA. From 1974-78

he was an Assistant Professor of Chemistry

at the Pennsylvania State University. He

came to the University of Maryland in

1978.

Dr. Gokel’s work has been in the fields

of synthetic and physical organic chemis-

try. His studies have been characterized by

a concentration on fundamentally new and

broadly important phenomena. His inves-

tigations of the synthesis, chemistry, and

catalytic behavior of the class of macro-

cyclic organic substances known as “‘Crown

Ethers” have provided fundamental knowl-

edge to this remarkably interesting and

scientifically important area. The signifi-

cance of his contributions are demonstrated

by the large number of invited lectures he

has delivered before national and interna-

tional audiences. More recent experimental

studies carried out in Professor Gokel’s lab-

oratory have been targeted at the develop-

ment of new synthetic methodology. In a

very brief time period, this adventure has

produced results which have advanced the

fundamental knowledge of synthetic or-

ganic chemistry. His use of sulfur contain-

ing heterocyclic compounds in sequences

to prepare biochemically and industrially

important substances serves to exemplify

this point. His contributions have been not

only through his research activities and his

teaching responsibilities, but include books

and chapters in books, which summarize

major accomplishments from his studies

and those of his colleagues. He has co-au-

thored a textbook on experimental tech-

niques in organic chemistry for the under-

graduate level. His brief career in chemical

research and education has been extremely

productive and influential.

The Berenice G. Lamberton Award for

Teaching of High School Science

Dr. Maria Penny is a member of the

Science faculty at Walter Johnson High

School, Bethesda, Maryland. She was born

in Madrid, Spain, and did her undergradu-

ate work at New York University, and

elected to Phi Beta Kappa. Her master’s

degree was from the Case- Western Reserve

University, and she received a Ph.D. from

the University of Maryland. After teaching

in Florida for one year, she spent 1970-78

in the Howard County (Wilde Lake) school

system. She has been at Walter Johnson

since 1978 teaching Physics, Algebra, and

Spanish.

She is an excellent teacher, hardworking,

compassionate, friendly and knowledgea-

ble. She is dedicated to her students, has

developed new approaches, new methods

and new courses in Physics. Her efforts and

her contributions are exceptional, and have

been recognized by the Distinguished Serv-

ice Award of the American Association of

Physics Teachers.

Acknowledgements

The contributions of the chairmen of the

various panels and their colleagues, who

carried out the difficult task of making the

selections, are acknowledged with sincere

thanks. The chairmen were:

Dr. John J. O’Hare —Behavioral Sciences

Dr. Kun-Yen Huang —Biological Sciences

Dr. John D. Anderson, Jr. —Engineering Sciences

Dr. Joan Rosenblatt —Mathematical &

Computer Sciences

—Physical Sciences

—Teaching of Science*

Dr. Mary H. Aldridge

Dr. Joseph B. Morris

*Leo Schubert and Berenice G. Lamberton Awards

Thanks are due to the nominators and to

the sponsors of all the candidates. The aid

of Dr. Jean Boek, Secretary of the Acad-

emy, and Mrs. Donna Smith of the Central

Office was timely and effective in the com-

pletion of the competition. On behalf of the

Academy we commend the individuals,

whose work is honored, and we wish them

continued productive careers.

Gradient Device for the Study of

Temperature Effects on Biological Systems’

W. Drost-Hansen

Laboratory for Water Research, Department of Chemistry, University of

Miami, Coral Gables, Florida 33124

Introduction

Need for Closely Spaced Measurements

Over a period of about two decades in

the early part of this century a fundamental

change in attitude occurred regarding experi-

mental work in the natural sciences. Pro-

found insight was being made possible with

the advance of atomic and molecular theor-

ies. The scope of possible research was ex-

panded almost beyond imagination. Vast

new areas of science became accessible and

to advance over such a broad front dictated

a philosophy of experimentation which did

not permit each phenomenon to be subject

to intense, detailed study. The “‘romance of

the next digit’ faded. As an example, in

studies of thermal properties of matter it

became possible at this time to extend mea-

surements from very close to the absolute

zero to very high temperatures and few re-

searchers saw the need to measure, for in-

stance, surface tension of water at one de-

gree intervals. This attitude persisted and

by the middle of the century the introduc-

tion of computers dealt the final blow to

**closely spaced measurements”’: it seemed

more appropriate to make measurements

with the highest possible precision at a

smaller number of points and let the com-

puter provide best fit to the data for inter-

polation- and extrapolation-purposes.

Unfortunately, it is not always realized

that failure to make measurements at closely

spaced intervals of the independent varia-

ble tacitly implies that the dependent vari-

' Contribution #28 LWR

187

able is a relatively slowly varying, continu-

ous, monotone function of the independent

variable. This (unstated) assumption is fre-

quently fully justified. However, it remains

nonetheless an assumption and at least in

studies where water at interfaces (vicinal

water) is involved, the assumption of a

simple dependency on temperature of the

parameters observed is not obeyed.

In this paper is described a device—

based on maintaining a thermal gradient in

a metal block—which facilitates making

measurements at closely spaced tempera-

ture intervals. In addition, some of the

types of results obtained with a “‘gradient

incubator” in our laboratory will be dis-

cussed. The studies range from measure-

ments of physicochemical properties of

relatively well-defined, simple systems to

the study of complex biochemical and phy-

siological processes.

A Classical Example: Viscosity

In 1936, Magat’ proposed that unex-

pected, relatively abrupt changes occur in

the properties of water (and aqueous solu-

tions) around 40 to 50°C. Among the prop-

erties reported to be “unusual” was the vis-

cosity (of pure water) and also surface

tension.’ On this basis, Magat inferred that

a change occurs in the structure of water in

this temperature range. A number of au-

thors expanded on this notion, including

the late J. D. Bernal in whose laboratories

measurements of the viscosity of pure

water were carried out at closely spaced

temperature intervals. Many papers, some

quite controversial, were published on this

188 W. DROST-HANSEN

(kca’ gmoe)

APPARENT OE’,

0 10 20 30

OE’= A+BI+CT*+DI ‘+ET*

o-t0O7

40 50 60 70 80

TEMP °C

Fig. 1. Energy of activation for viscous flow of bulk water. (Korson, Millero, Drost-Hansen; 6)

subject and reviews of the state of affairs by

the mid sixties were presented by the pres-

ent author.’ Because of the highly con-

troversial nature of the phenomenon we

decided to carry out detailed measurements

of the viscosity of water using the highest

precision attainable at closely spaced inter-

vals. The results® clearly demonstrated that

no unusual temperature effects existed in

the viscosity data for bulk water. Yet

enough reliable measurements had been

reported by a large number of authors of

anomalous properties of water to warrant a

detailed search for the origin of these

anomalies. The result of this effort was the

suggestion’ that bulk water does not exhibit

any anomalous changes with temperature

but that the properties of vicinal water (1.e.,

water at interfaces, particularly near solid

surfaces) indeed undergoes abrupt changes

as a function of temperature at various

temperature intervals. In many of the sys-

tems studied, the effects of vicinal water

were superimposed on the primary (bulk)

quantity being measured, thus accounting

for persistent but variable and poorly re-

producible anomalous effects. In the case

of viscosity measurements this was demon-

strated particularly well by the results ob-

tained by Peschel and Adifinger.® Figure 1

shows the entirely “‘normal”’ temperature

dependence of the apparent energy of acti-

vation for bulk water,° while Figure 2

shows the unusual viscosity of vicinal water

as reported by Peschel and Adlfinger. Note

that closely spaced measurements were

made in both our own measurements and

in those of Peschel and Adlfinger.

In connection with closely spaced mea-

surements of viscosity, it is also of interest

to note the study by Plotze, er al.” on the

viscosity of kaolin suspensions. Their re-

sults are shown in Figure 3. Again, an

anomaly is observed—in this case as a

THERMAL GRADIENT INCUBATOR

5 36

-20

log,

Fig. 2. Arrhenius plot of viscosity of water be-

tween two quartz plates. Distance between plates:

(bottom to top) 900, 700, 500 and 300 A. (Peschel and

Adlfinger, 8)

function of concentration. Whether or not

the anomaly reflects effects of vicinal water

(such as overlap of “hydration hulls” of the

clay platelets) is not of primary importance

here. Suffice it to point out that this anom-

aly is so “sharp” that it was observed only

by virtue of the very closely spaced meas-

urements carried out.

Thermal Gradient Devices

Historical Note

One of the first uses of a thermal gradient

device appears to have been reported by

Herter (see reference 10, pages 148-149).

His gradient block consisted of a massive

metal bar, heated in one end (by a Bunsen

burner) and cooled at the other end, appar-

ently with no automatic control device but

relying on manual regulation. While the in-

strument was lacking in sophistication,

Herter nonetheless deserves credit for the

first use of such a gradient approach in eco-

logical laboratory studies (thermotaxis of

insects).

The use of gradient devices—especially

for the study of ecological effects of chemi-

cals on aquatic organisms—goes back more

than 60 years, to Shelford and Allee.'' A

review of early work can be found in a

paper by Hoglund” from 1951 who intro-

duced an improved design of a chemical

gradient device, referred to asa “‘fluviarium”’.

189

0.86 (X10 Poise

0.84

0.82

0.70

108)

jos

ass

QS56

0.00 0.005 0.01 g/cm?

—+f¢

Fig. 3. Apparent viscosity of dilute kaolin suspen-

sions, at three different temperatures: A) 30°C; B)

40°C; C) 50°C. (Plotze et al., 9)

In the same decade, at least three thermal

gradient devices were constructed. Scott

and Jones at Scripps Institution of Ocea-

nography (in California) in 1958 described

a temperature gradient incubator in a rela-

tively inaccessible ONR report.’’ Halldal

and French, “ also in 1958, described an in-

geneous “cross gradient culture chamber”

in which (continuous) gradients of temper-

ature and light intensity were maintained.

The device was used for the study of growth

of algae. Finally, Oppenheimer and Drost-

Hansen’°—somewhat earlier but unaware

at the time of the previous work by Her-

ter—constructed a “‘polythermostat”’, orig-

inally intended primarily for bacterial growth

experiments. It is this device which will be

Ppa)

190 W. DROST-HANSEN

COOLING UNIT

VOLTAGE

COILS

HEATER

VOLTAGE

INSULATING

BT MATERIAL

POLY -THERMOSTAT

Fig. 4. Polythermostat (Temperature Gradient Incubator); schematic. See text for details.

discussed in the present paper. However,

attention is called as well to a number of

papers by other authors in which poly-

thermostats have also been described.’®

Instrument Design

Oppenheimer and Drost-Hansen first

constructed the thermal gradient device for

bacteriological studies in 1956.'° The prin-

ciple used is simple. In general, tempera-

ture gradient bars (and gradient plates) de-

pend on the high heat conductivity of a

suitable metal block, insulated on the sides

and maintained at fixed constant tempera-

tures at opposite ends (or sides). Figure 4

shows schematically the principle usually

employed in the construction of tempera-

ture gradient bars. A is the heat conducting

metal block, usually aluminum (the heat

conductivity of aluminum being very high).

The gradient bar is provided with wells

(usually two rows arranged symmetrically)

to accommodate culture tubes or test tubes.

C and D are, respectively, a heating element

and a heat exchanger, such as cooling coils.

The entire assembly is covered on all sides

(except possibly for the top, or “‘working

side’) with suitable insulation material

such as polystyrene foam (or other mate-

rials; for instance, Bakelite, for working at

higher temperatures).

The temperatures at each end are main-

tained constant by the use of two tem-

perature controllers such as mercury

on/off switches, platinum resistance sen-

sors, thermistors or (in earlier versions) bi-

metalic contacts. The cooling is usually

provided by circulating a cold liquid

either from an external constant-tempera-

ture cooling unit or from a built-in refrig-

eration unit (in some commercial mod-

els). For certain operations where very

low temperatures are not required, cold

tap water may suffice to maintain a fixed

(low) temperature.

Temperature linearity and fluctuations

sensitivity of the thermoregulators at the

hot and cold ends and by any spurious heat

transfer to or from the surroundings (due

to imperfect insulation). In our own expe-.

rience the gradient is usually quite linear;

however, for other reasons (to be discussed

below), the actual gradient 1s normally de-

THERMAL GRADIENT INCUBATOR 191

termined from a calibration run prior to (or

simultaneously with) actual experimentation.

In many applications, particularly those

involving sample containers other than test

tubes or culture tubes (which are com-

pletely contained within the sample wells)

it is necessary to perform a calibration. In

our Own experiments we have usually also

maintained two or three wells without

samples to spot-check for temperature con-

stancy during individual experiments.

Using L-shaped tubes or Thunberg tubes a

significant amount of the tube extends

beyond the thermally conducting, tempera-

ture regulated, part of the aluminum bar.

In these cases, a measurement of the actual

temperature of the tube is necessary as the

final temperature is somewhat different

from the calculated temperature (due to the

gradient itself) as it is influenced by the am-

bient temperature (say, within +1 to

3°C); the constancy of the tubes is

satisfactory.

The overall temperature constancy is de-

termined primarily by the temperature regu-

lation at the ends of the bar. The tempera-

ture fluctuations depend critically on the

relative locations of the temperature sen-

sors with respect to the heaters and cooling

coils. The tendency is for the temperatures

at the extremes—in Figure 4, well number 1

and to a lesser extent number 2, and well

number 30 (and number 29)—to vary within

some tenths (to one) degree. For the major-

ity of the wells (say, numbers 3-28), the

temperature variations are usually within

0.2 degrees, or better. For special applica-

tions, greater temperature constancies may

be required. In those cases it is necessary to

use highly sensitive thermo-regulators (such

as mercury-in-glass metastatic on/off con-

trollers, sensitive to 0.005°C or better). It is

possible to bring the temperature varia-

tions of the major part of the bar to £0.02

(to 0.05°C). For most purposes this ap-

pears to be sufficient.

Sample Containers

A variety of sample containers have been

described in the literature and various

types have been developed in our laboratory.

Ordinary test tubes, usually stoppered

with cork or rubber stoppers, have fre-

quently been employed and have proven

highly versatile. In work with bacterial cul-

tures, standard screw cap culture tubes

have been used. Available commercially

are also various types of “‘L-shaped”’ tubes.

Some slightly curved “L-shaped” tubes

have been used in the author’s laboratory,

but are primarily useful only for specialty

applications. The use of culture flasks in

thermal gradient devices have been de-

scribed by Miller and co-workers.

Commercial temperature gradient incu-

bators are available with provisions for cul-

ture trays (made of stainless steel) or long

glass tubes which can be filled with the in-

noculated medium. In principle, such tubes

may be monitored either visually or by

passing through a spectrophotometer with

a suitably modified sample holder design.

The use of sample trays is particularly em-

ployed in temperature gradient plates; for

instance, for determination of seed germi-

nation or growth plants.

For bacterial growth experiments as well

as for some enzyme reactions, the classical

Thunberg tubes have been employed in our

laboratory. Using such tubes it is obviously

possible to study the growth of anerobic

organisms. However, one experimental dif-

ficulty is frequently encountered; namely

evaporation of the medium and condensa-

tion of the liquid in the part of the tube not

contained within the temperature con-

trolled portion of the gradient bar.

Agitation of Samples

In the original version of the tempera-

ture gradient device, constructed by Op-

penheimer and Drost-Hansen, the samples

were contained in vertical wells in the

bar. To agitate the contents of the tubes

the entire unit was mounted on a sieve-

shaker. While this approach offered some

agitation in the tubes, it was noted that in

some cases standing waves resulted with

‘“‘nodes”’ with no or little agitation com-

pared to the tubes in other wells. (A com-

192 W. DROST-HANSEN

mercial model was available some years

ago with a built-in eccentric motor also

serving to shake the entire bar with its aux-

iliary instrumentation).

In two currently available models of the

gradient device the samples are contained

in horizontal wells in the gradient bar. In

this case the same samples can be left at rest

or tilted at a certain angle. The samples can

also be tilted with a variable period around

a horizontal axis through the length of the

aluminum bar. In this case effective agita-

tion is obtained; the amplitude and fre-

quency of the rocking motion may be ad-

justed by changing the point of attachment

of the bar to an eccentric wheel-and-cam

arrangement.

Temperature Ranges

One of the commercially available mod-

els (manufactured by Scientific Industries,

Inc., of Bohemia, New York) is designed

for use over a relatively wide temperature

range. Thus, the temperature of the cold

end may be selected in the range between

—5° and about 20°, while the temperature

at the hot end may be set between approx-

imately room temperature and 105°C. The

model employs a total of two horizontal

rows of 30 wells each. The access to the two

sets of 30 samples are from opposite sides

of the gradient bar. At operations (of the

low end) below the dew-point in the labora-

tory, ice tends to form on the exposed fil-

ling part for the circulating coolant liquid;

however, this does not seem to affect the

operation of the instrument significantly.

The instrument is highly versatile and one

such unit has been operating nearly con-

tinuously in the author’s laboratory for

three years.

Applications

Physico-chemical Systems

Sedimentation Studies

Using a polythermostat in which the

samples are contained in vertical test tubes,

2 40 20

Fig. 5. Sediment height in 10% kaolin suspension

(after 20 min.) as function of temperature. (Drost-

Hansen, 17)

rates of sedimentation and compaction of

dispersed solids have been measured. So

far measurements have been made primar-

ily on kaolin and on suspensions of poly-

styrene spheres (of uniform diameter, pro-

duced by Dow Chemical Co.).

2.0

hel #—

Fig. 6. Sediment height in 10% kaolin suspension ~

(after 7 hours) as function of temperature. (Drost-

Hansen, 17)

THERMAL GRADIENT INCUBATOR 193

/O0

200 300 * [53]

PIs.

TATE TLE Vee

Fig. 7. “Sedimentation isotherms” of 8% kaolin as function of time for various temperatures.

(approx. temperatures, for well #6; 10; 14; 20, and 25 are, respectively, 36; 40.5; 45; 53 and 60°C)

The study of the sedimentation of kaolin

has been made by simply measuring the

height of the sediment in each test tube with

a ruler. Two typical sets of data are shown

in Figures 5 and 6. In the first of these illus-

trations is shown the sediment height 20

minutes after the samples had been thor-

oughly agitated; in the second illustration,

after seven hours of sedimentation. Note in

Figure 5 (a) the decrease in sediment vol-

ume with increasing temperature, and (b)

the anomaly around 45°C (confer Figure 2

in which an anomaly exists in the viscosity

of vicinal water at this temperature). For

comments on these data and implications

of vicinal water for colloidal stability, see

194 W. DROST-HANSEN

(17). The process of sedimentation and

compaction of natural kaolin appear to be

more complex than originally expected.

Figure 7 shows some “‘sedimentation iso-

therms”’ (all conveniently obtained simul-

taneously in a single run). The data are

somewhat unexpected, no doubt due in

part to notably different rates of actual sed-

imentation and subsequent compaction.

An analysis of the data in terms of the indi-

vidual contributions is not possible with-

out additional information, but the results

of the experiment suggest that further

study may be highly worthwhile and such

work is in progress in our laboratory.

Ion Distribution

In 1975 Wiggins'® in New Zealand re-

ported on measurements of the distribu-

tion of sodium and potassium ions from

equimolar sodium-potassium salt solutions

in contact with a highly porous quartz gel.

Wiggins’ results are shown in Figure 8. The

po Ne

sey

V \

sulpkates

17/99

yy iodides

K. 2 15h / \

a 7 so

A SAAT

ie f i. /\ chlorides

Nin

15+ y ; ;

/ Win OA

13 iad ta

0 10 20 3830 40 50 60

temperature °C

Fig. 8. Potassium/sodium ion distribution in sil-

ica pores (from equimolar mixture of Na’ and K’*) as

function of temperature. Top to bottom: sulfates; io-

dides; chlorides. (Wiggins, 18)

partition coefficient, K, is defined by the

equations:

= Ki _ [Na’}

[K"]. [Na‘].

where[ J;and[ J]. are, respectively, the

ion concentrations inside and outside the

pores of the gel. Hence,

Nat

IN K* ANa*

The values for K were calculated for potas-

sium and sodium sulfate, iodide, and chlo-

ride. As can be seen from Figure 8, potas-

slum ions tend to exclude sodium ions, the

value of K ranging from 1.3 to 1.7. The dis-

tribution is seen to be highly nonlinear with

sharp peaks near 15, 30 and 45°. These —

temperatures are in excellent agreement

with the temperatures at which the present

author has demonstrated that the structure

of interfacial (vicinal) water undergoes

some type of change, most likely a higher-

order phase transition. (Note also the re-

sults are essentially independent of the na-

ture of the anion present).

In view of the significance of the results

obtained by Wiggins, Hurtado and the

present author have repeated such experi-

ments on a similar type porous media

(Davison gel, #950) using a temperature

gradient device (Scientific Industries, Inc.,

Model 675). Because of the availability of

the gradient incubator it was possible for us

to make measurements at more closely

spaced intervals than had been possible for

Wiggins. The results obtained agree quan-

titatively with the results obtained by Wig-

gins. (These data are discussed in a recent

volume.’’)

Enzyme Kinetics

The polythermostat is uniquely well

suited to measurements of the effects of

temperature on rates of reaction, especially

enzyme reactions. This is particularly true

for reactions which can be followed spec- .

trophotometrically: the sample tube is trans-

ferred directly from the gradient device to

THERMAL GRADIENT INCUBATOR 195

the spectrophotometer. As each reading can

usually be made in a matter of a minute or

so, nearly simultaneous measurements are

possible, and variability due to need for dif-

ferent stock solutions (which may “age”’

from one day to another) is eliminated. Be-

sides the use of screw-cap culture tubes (or

L-shaped tubes) Thunberg tubes can be used

in gradient devices with vertical sample

wells. Using such techniques we have made

a preliminary investigation of the effects of

temperature on the alkaline phosphatase

reaction.”

Other Studies

Polythermostats have been used in the

author’s laboratory for measurements of

the effects of temperature on: (a) solubility

(and mutual solubility of partially immis-

cible liquids); (b) partition of organic sol-

utes between aqueous phase and an immis-

cible, organic liquid; and (c) equilibrium

constants.

Biological Systems

Germination Studies

Polythermostats have been used in the

present author’s laboratory for the study of

effects of temperature on rates (and extent)

of germination.

Figure 9 shows the percent germination

of turnip seeds as a function of time (in

hours) measured at 19.9°. Similar germina-

tion curves were obtained in experiments at

each of the 30 available, different tempera-

tures (wherever germination occurred). In

Figure 9 the maximum germination rate

(a) is defined as the maximum slope (indi-

cated by the dotted line). This parameter is

similar to the intrinsic germination rate,

determined by the logistics equation gener-

ally used in population studies. Other mea-

sures of the rate of germination used are the

reciprocal of the time to reach either 16%

or 50% germination.

Figures 10 and 11 show the log germina-

tion rates, respectively, for the 16 and 50%

GERMINATION VS.

TIME T=19.9°C

Ye GERMINATION

/@—— SLOPE = ALPHA

TIME IN HOURS

Fig. 9. Percent germination of turnip seeds as

function of time. (Etzler and Drost-Hansen, 29)

germination plotted vs. reciprocal absolute

temperature (in a standard type Arrhenius

graph). As seen from Figures 10 and 11, it

appears that changes in slope occur near 15

and 30°C. For a discussion of the kinetic in-

terpretation of these data, see the paper by

Etzler and Drost-Hansen.”’ Finally, Figure

12 shows the maximum rate of germination

(a, defined above) in an Arrhenius plot. A

notable anomaly occurs near 30°C—again

one of the temperatures at which vicinal

water appears to undergo a marked change

in structure.

In a separate series of experiments we

have determined the effects of H2O re-

placement by D2O on the temperature de-

pendence of the germination rate.”' As the

available polythermostats all have provi-

sions for two samples at each of 30 different

temperatures, one set of samples can be

used as “‘control”’ (in this case, germination

in pure H2O) while the other set of wells

was used for measurement of germination

in the presence of D2O. A total of three dif-

ferent D2O concentrations were investi-

gated; 33, 67 and 98 mole-percent.

Figure 13 shows the amount of germina-

tion after 14 hours, for 67 mole-percent

D.0O. At low temperatures D2O notably in-

196 W. DROST-HANSEN

LOG I/TIME TO 16%

GERMINATION VS. I/T

LOG |/Tis

320 330 340 350 360

\/T x 10° °K'

Fig. 10. Log germination rate for 16% germination of turnip seeds as function of reciprocal, abso-

lute temperature. (Etzler and Drost-Hansen, 29)

LOG I/TIME TO 50%

GERMINATION VS. I/T

LOG I/Tso

320 330 340 350 360

I/T x10°°K'!

Fig. 11. Log germination rate for 50% germination of turnip seeds as function of reciprocal, abso-

lute temperature. (Etzler and Drost-Hansen, 29)

THERMAL GRADIENT INCUBATOR 197

LOG MAXIMUM GROWTH RATE

VS. I/T

LOG ALPHA

1/Tx 10°°K!

Fig. 12. Log maximum germination rate of turnip

seeds as function of reciprocal, absolute temperature.

(Etzler and Drost-Hansen, 29)

hibits the germination (reduces the rate of

germination). However, at higher tempera-

tures the effect of D2O replacement disap-

pears; in fact, it appears that D2O may ac-

tually increase the rate of germination. We

define an inhibition coefficient, I, as

I= 1

_ (% germinated in H2O-D20) at time t

(% germinated in H2O) at time t

For zero percent germination in an H20-

D.2O mixture (when some germination has

occurred in pure water), I is one. If no effect

due to D2O is observed (i.e., identical

amounts of germination), I is zero. If the

percent of seeds germinated in D2O exceeds

the percent germinated in H2O, I is nega-

tive and corresponds to a relative enhance-

ment of germination. Figure 14 shows a

graph of I as a function of temperature.

Nearly complete inhibition is observed

below ~26°C, but above this temperature

the inhibition due to D2O decreases and at

higher temperatures in a rather narrow

range around 35 to 37°C) it appears that

germination is actually facilitated by D2O,

however, this enhancement is not statisti-

cally significant.

Algal Studies

Thorhaug, working in the author’s la-

boratory a number of years ago, used a

Turnip seeds. germination time:|4 hours

Do (67%)

% germination

30 Well no.

3311 t°C

Fig. 13. Percent germination of turnip seeds in 67

mole-percent D2O as function of temperature after 14

hours. (Bee Drost-Hansen and W. Drost-Hansen,

unpublished)

Turnip seeds; germination time:

14 hours

1.0

0.5

Inhibition Coefficient I

0.0

4 t°C

185 258 300 348

Fig. 14. Inhibition coefficient, I, (of germination)

of turnip seeds as function of temperature. (Bee

Drost-Hansen and W. Drost-Hansen, unpublished)

198 W. DROST-HANSEN

% ALIVE

TEMPERATURE (°C )

Fig. 15. Percent survival of Valonia macrophysa

after 3 days exposure. (Thorhaug, 22)

polythermostat to determine the effects of

temperature on several species of algae,

particularly Valonia.

In a series of experiments, Thorhaug”

subjected three species of Valonia to temper-

atures ranging from 10°C to about 40°C.

This study was undertaken in connection

with our research on the possible existence

of sharp upper thermal limits. The results

of exposures of this alga to a wide range of

temperatures, are shown in Figures 15, 16

and 17. The abruptness of the onset of irre-

versible plasmolysis is striking, both at the

upper and lower ends of the temperature

ranges (22; see also 23 and particularly 24).

Thermal Limits for Some Marine Organisms

Thorhaug™ has reported data on the

survival of a number of marine organisms

IRREVERS/BLE 4 PLASMOLYS/S

100

O 28 30 2

TEMPERATURE (°C )

Fig. 16. Percent survival of Valonia utricularis

after 3 days exposure. (Thorhaug, 22)

%® ALIVE

is” 20. «25 ~°~«30 a5 Ce

TEMPERATURE (°C )

Fig. 17. Percent survival of Valonia ventricosa after

3 days of exposure. (Thorhaug, 22)

exposed to thermal stresses. A total of 27

different species and life stages were stud-

ied. Some of Thorhaug’s results are shown

in Figures 18, 19 and 20. In all cases shown,

abrupt changes in survival occur near —

I5 = 1°C and near 30 + 2°C. The results

are in excellent agreement with expecta-

tions based on the temperatures of changes

in vicinal water structure.’

Microbink Growth Studies. Clostridium

The first use of the Oppenheimer/Drost-

Hansen Polythermostat was to study the

effects of temperature on the growth of a

sulfate-reducing bacterium, probably a

clostridium. '° Notable growth optima were

recorded at 12, 25 and 38°C with pro-

nounced minima at 16, 31 and 45°C. These

results were, however, obtained using an

100 e@e2e000800808 8 0

1Omn 25 30 AO

TEMPERATURE (°C )

Fig. 18. Percent survival of Penicillus capitatus

after 8 to 10 days exposure. (Thorhaug, 22)

THERMAL GRADIENT INCUBATOR 199

% ALIVE

DivtOfo .20) 25

30 35 40 45 50

TEMPERATURE °C

Fig. 19. Percent survival of Menippe mercenaria

after 24 hours exposure. (Thorhaug, 22)

extremely simple approach (amounts of

growth estimated only visually). For this

reason, Schmidt and Drost-Hansen repeated

the study more carefully and again ob-

served growth opinion near 24 and 40°C

with a broad, somewhat asymmetric min-

imum near 31-33°C.”* Schmidt and Drost-

Hansen also measured the growth ofa stain

of E. coli, a strain of Aerobacter and Serra-

tia marcesence. Again, multiple growth op-

tima and minima were discovered espe-

cially where the organisms were grown on

minimal media.

Multiple Growth Optima

In the original publication’® Oppenhei-

mer and Drost-Hansen proposed that the

multiple growth optima might reveal the

operation of two (or more) different meta-

bolic pathways, for instance, above or

below 31°C, somehow imposed by more or

less abrupt changes in water structure. This

% ALIVE

70 1 20 25 30 35 40 45

TEMPERATURE °C

OFS

Fig. 20. Percent survival of Periclimenes sp. after

168 hours exposure. (Thorhaug, 22)

idea was also discussed by Drost-Hansen,”°

but little progress was made at the time;

this was, in part, due to the mistaken no-

tion that bulk water structure underwent

structural changes near the observed tran-

sition temperatures. First by 1968 did it be-

come obvious’ that bulk water does not

change, but the structure of vicinal water

does. More recently the problem has been

taken up again by Etzler and Drost-Hansen;

the results of these studies have appeared

recently.”?*°

In passing, it should be noted that many

other authors have reported multiple op-

tima for growth and other biological proc-

esses. (Some of the pertinent papers are

listed in 24). Only one other example of

multiple growth optima will be mentioned

briefly here. Etzler and Drost-Hansen*®

studied the growth of a green photosyn-

thesizing thermophilic alga, Cyanidium

caldarium. A typical growth curve is shown

in Figure 21. No less than three optima

have been observed (repeatedly) in these

experiments. The optima occur near 28, 37

and 48°C, with the growth minima near 32

and 43°C—again in excellent agreement

with the temperatures at which the thermal

transitions are observed in vicinal water

(near 14 to 16°; 29 to 32°; 44 to 46°C).

Summary and Discussion

Through measurements at closely spaced

temperature intervals anomalous proper-

ties have been observed in a large number

of aqueous interfacial systems, ranging

from dispersed clays and highly porous sil-

ica gels to living (cellular) systems. A con-

venient device is described for studies at

closely spaced temperatures. The anoma-

lous effects observed are explained (in part)

in terms of structural changes in vicinal (in-

terfacial) water.

Acknowledgment

The author wishes to express his grati-

tude to the Environmental Protection

TEE OL OG gree

Fig. 21. Growth (as measured by optical density)

of Cyanidium caldarium (a green, thermophilic alga)

as function of temperature. (Etzler and Drost-Hansen,

30)

Agency (EPA) for its extended support of

his research on aqueous systems. Thanks

are also due to Scientific Industries, Inc.

(Bohemia, New York) for donating a com-

mercial model of its Temperature Gradient

Incubator. Dr. James Clegg has greatly

helped the author on innumerable occa-

sions through advice, discussions and en-

couragement. Dr. Robert Cunnion con-

ducted the enzyme experiments; Mrs. B.

Drost-Hansen assisted with some of the

germination studies, and Dr. Frank Etzler

has contributed significantly through his

work on seed germination and algal growth

studies. My sincere thanks to all of these

investigators.

References Cited

1. Magat, M. J. de Physique, 6, 179 (1935).

2. Timmermans, F. and Bodson, H. Compt. rendus,

204, 1804 (1937).

3. Drost-Hansen, W. and Neill, H. W. Phys. Rev.,

100, 1800 (1955).

4. Drost-Hansen, W. New York Acad. Sci. Annals,

125, Art. 2, 471 (1965).

ihe

18.

19?

20.

ane

23e

24.

W. DROST-HANSEN

. Drost-Hansen, W. Industrial and Engineering

Chemistry, Part I—March issue, pp. 38-44; Part

I]—April issue, pp. 18-37; 1965.

. Korson, L., Drost-Hansen, W. and Millero, F. J.

Phys. Chem., 73, 34 (1969).

. Drost-Hansen, W. Chem. Phys. Lett., 2, 647

(1969).

. Peschel, G. and Adlfinger, K. H. Naturwissen-

schaften, 56, 558 (1969).

. Plotze, Huckert and Plotze. Naturwissenschaf-

ten, 45, 36 (1958).

. Precht, H., Christophersen, J. and Hensel, H.

‘““Temperature and Leben,” Springer Verlag, Ber-

lin, 1955.

. Shelford, V. E. and Allee, W. C. J. Exp. Zool., 14,

207 (1913).

. Hoglund, L. B. Oikos, 3, 247 (1951).

. Scott, H. and Jones. Annual Progress Report;

Marine Microbiology; 1958, O.N.R.

. Halldal, P. and French, C. S. Plant Physiol., 33,

249 (1958).

. Oppenheimer, C. H. and Drost-Hansen, W. J. Bac-

teriology, 80, 21 (1960).

. Cannefax, G. J. Bacteriology, 83, 708 (1962).

Landman, O., Bausum, H. and Matney, T. J. Bac-

teriology, 83, 463 (1962).

Elliot, R. P. J. Bacteriology, 85, 889 (1964).

Morita, R. and Haight, R. Limnol. & Oceanog., 9

(1), 103 (1964).

Sieburth, J. Pro. Symposium on Expt’l. Marine

Ecology, 2, 11 (1964).

Dimmick, R. App. Microbiology, 13, 846 (1965).

Nakae, T. Bacteriology, 91, 1730 (1966).

Palumbo, S., Berry, J. and Witter, L. Applied Mi-

crobiology, 15, 114 (1967).

Okami, Y. and Sasaki, Y. Applied Microbiology,

15, 1252 (1967).

Fox, D. J. C. and Thompson, P. A. J. Expt’! Bo-

tany, 22, 741 (1971).

Nakae, T. J. Dairy Science, 54, 1780 (1971).

Matches, J. R. and Liston, J. Can. J. Microbiol-

ogy, 19, 1161 (1973).

Labourian, L. G. Rev. Brasil, Biol., 37, 295 (1977).

Drost-Hansen, W. J. Colloid & Interface Sci., 58

(2), 251 (1977).

Wiggins, P. M. Clinical and Exp. Pharmacology,

Deli t (4975):

Hurtado, R. and Drost-Hansen, W. “Cell-Asso-

ciated Water,’’ ed. W. Drost-Hansen and J. S.

Clegg, Academic Press, N.Y., 1979.

Cunnion, R. E. and Drost-Hansen, W. 1974; un-

published enzyme kinetic studies.

Drost-Hansen, B. and Drost-Hansen, W. Unpub-

lished seed germination studies.

Drost-Hansen, W. and Thorhaug, A. “Biologically

Allowable Thermal Pollution Limits,” EPA re-

port—660/3-74-003, May 1974.

Drost-Hansen, W. Chesapeake Science, 10, 281

(1969).

Drost-Hansen, W. ‘Chemistry of the Cell Inter-

face, B,”’ ed. H. D. Brown, Academic Press, N.Y.,

Chapter 6, 1971.

25.

26.

Zi.

THERMAL GRADIENT INCUBATOR

Drost-Hansen, W. Naturwissenschaften, 43, 512

(1956).

Drost-Hansen, W. New York Acad. Sci. Annals,

125, Art. 2, 471 (1965).

Drost-Hansen, W. “Structure and Functional As-

pects of Interfacial (vicinal) Water as Related to

Membranes and Cellular Systems,’ Paper pre-

sented at C.N.R.S. meeting “Participation |’ener-

getique de l’eau solvant aux interactions speci-

fique dans les systems biologiques,’’ Roscoff,

28.

29.

30.

201

France, June 1975. Published in Collog. Interna-

tionaux du C.N.R.S., #246, pp. 177-186.

Schmidt, M. G. and Drost-Hansen, W. “Multiple

temperature optima for the growth of E. coli.,”

Abstract, ACS Meeting, Chicago, Sept. 1961.

Etzler, F. M. and Drost-Hansen, W. in ‘“‘Colloid

and Interface Science”’ Vol. ITI, p. 517-531, ed. M.

Kerker; Academic Press, 1976.

Etzler, F. M. and Drost-Hansen, W. in “‘Cell-As-

sociated Water,” ed. by W. Drost-Hansen and J.

S. Clegg, Academic Press, 1979.

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